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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

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WlWia.3

Sciences, ^rts # Letters.

VOL. VIII _ 1888-1891.

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF LAW.

COUNCIL

(Term expires December, 1893.)

President,

GEO. W. PECKHAM, Milwaukee.
Vice-Presidents,

ROLLIN D. SALISBURY. Madison.
A. H. TOLMAN, Ripon.
FREDERICK B. POWER, Madison.

Secretary,

WM. H. HOBBS, Madison.
Treasurer,

SAMUEL D. HASTINGS, Madison.

<5

ft

CONTENTS.

Page.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics, by Humphrey J. Des¬
mond . 1

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recognized in
Lesquereux and James’s Manual of the Mosses of North America,

by Charles R. Barnes . „ . 11

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval Between the

Glacial Epochs, by T. C. Chamberlin . 82

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of Embryo In¬
sects (with Plates I-III), by Wm, M. Wheeler . 87

Some New Theories of the Greek Id-Perfect, by Chas. E. Bennett. . Ill
On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline Rocks of

Maryland (with Plate IV), by Wm. H. Hobbs . 156

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae, by Chas. H. Chandler. 161
Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recognized in
Lesquereux and James’s Manual of the Mosses of North America

— Additions and Corrections, by Charles R. Barnes . . . 163

The Science of the English Language in the Light of the Gothic, by

G. H. Balg . 167

Aristotle’s Physics (Physike Akroensis) Reviewed by John J. Elmen-

dorf . 169

The Defective Classes, by A. O. Wright . . . 176

Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Montana (with

Plate V), by G. E. Culver . 187

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha County,

South Dakota, by G. E. Culver and Wm. H. Hobbs . 206

On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake, by C. Dwight Marsh. . 211
Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake (with Plate VI),

by C. Dwight Marsh . 214

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region (with Plate

VII), by C. R. Van Hise . 219

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem, by G. C. Comstock. 229
On the Correllation of Moraines with Raised Beaches of Lake Erie

(with Plate VIII), by Frank Leverett . 233

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achgemenides

(with Plates IX and X) Translated by H. C. Tolman . 241

The Effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribution of Mag¬
netism (with Plate XI), by H. B. Loomis . 273

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Page.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin by Kate A. Everest . 288

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy Builders, by S. D.

Peet (with Plate XII) . 299

The Limonene Group of Terpenes, by Edward Kremers . 300

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpi6ro<i nddx0Dy in its Relation to

the Text of Euripides, by P. L. Van Cleef . 363

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin, by Edward
A. Birge (with Plate XIII) . 379

PROCEEDINGS.

Report of the Secretary —

Ninteenth Regular Meeting, 1888 . 403

Twentieth Regular Meeting, 1889 . . . 406

Twenty-first Regular Meeting, 1890 . 409

Twenty-second Regular Meeting, 1891 . 412

Report of Treasurer . 417

Report of Librarian . 420

List of Officers and Members of the Academy . . 423

In Memoriam —

Roland Duer Irving, by T. C. Chamberlin . . 433

William Francis Allen, by J. D. Butler . 439

Lucius Heritage, by H. D. Maxson . 442

Henry Doty Maxson, by J. W. Stearns . . 445

Authors’ Index . 447

APPENDIX.

List of Corresponding Societies, Institutions, etc . iii

Charter . xi

Constitution and By-Laws . xiii

List of Papers in Volumes I to VIII, Inclusive, of the Transactions
of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters . xx

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I-III. Appendages of the First Abdominal

Segment of Embryo Insects . opposite page 140

Plate IV. Passage of Gabbro-Diorite into Horn¬
blende Gneiss at Ilchester, Md . opposite page 160

Plate V. Map of a Region in Northwestern Mon¬
tana . opposite page 187

Plate VI. Map and Profiles of Green Lake . opposite page 218

Plate VII. Sections from Ore Deposits of the Lake

Superior Region . opposite page 228

Plate VIII. Map of the Western Erie Basin and

Adjacent Territory . opposite page 235

Plate IX. The Behist an Mountain . opposite page 242

Plate X. The Tomb of Darius . opposite page 261

Plate XI. Diagram Showing Effect of Temperature

in the Distribution of Magnetism .... opposite page 288

Plate XII. Effigy Mounds in Wisconsin . opposite page 300

Plate XIII. Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis. opposite page 398

Portrait of Roland Duer Irving . opposite page 433

Portrait of William Francis Allen . opposite page 439

a

THE SECTIONAL FEATURE IN AMERICAN POLITICS.

By HUMPHREY J. DESMOND.

4'

It is not always easy to determine the main threads of political history?
but in the' century of American Presidents, ending with the month of
April, 1889, one intermittent and ever recurring question has been that of
sectionalism. And the question waits among the perplexities of the new
century.

There are grounds for regarding it as thus far the controlling fact
in American politics. It was an overshadowing issue long before the
slavery agitation was launched, and it continues a problem of to-day, long
after slavery has ceased, and the irrepressible conflict has been fought out.
All the larger events of the constitutional epoch carry a significance to the
fact of sectionalism, gain an interest and importance from their relation
to that fact, and may be grouped along its length as off-shoots from th&
main stem.

The theory which regards the constitution as a “ compact between the
states” may have been true in a formal way, and on that account plausible
among the doctrinaires; the essential condition, however, was not a union
of states, but a treaty of alliance between two great sections having oppo¬
site civilizations and diverse interests. And it is this condition, and not a .
theory, that confronts us in our survey of the first century in American
politics.

The theory figured on both sides of Mason's and Dixon’s line — the Hart¬
ford Convention being no less extreme a manifestation of states’ rights-
than the episode of nullification. But the condition never fluctuated nor-
lost its consistency or purpose. It continued from the first to

“ Divert and crack, rend and deracinate
The unity and married* calm of states.”

New issues were sought from time to time, but they were merely tempo*-
rarv aberrations. There was the trivial controversy, which for many days,,
went on in the convention of 1787, between the larger and the smaller
states. Even then, the greater question was waiting. The absurd fear of
the smaller states that a closer union would result in their absorption by the
larger commonwealths being allayed, Madison admonished his colleagues
that the ^states were divided into different interests, “not by their differ¬
ence in size, but by other circumstances; the most material of which
resulted partly from climate, but principally from the effect of their hav~

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ing or not having slaves. It did not lay between the large and small states.
It lay bet’ween north and south.”

Having satisfied the smaller states with equality in the senate, the con¬
vention proceeded to its vital act of compromise, by establishing equilib¬
rium between the sections — equalizing their strength in congress and in
the electoral college.

No explanation has ever been offered as to how the particular fraction,
was selected in determining what weight the number of slaves should
have in the apportionment of representation. The motion came from a
New England member. Many years afterward, the question was put to
Madison in a Virginian assemblage, but he preserved silence. It remains
among the curious mysteries of that historic convention which have never
been cleared up. A plausible explanation is furnished in a pamphlet en¬
titled, “ The Lost Principle,” published at Richmond on the eve of the
Civil war.1 The anonymous writer argues that “f ” was chosen in order
to preserve the equilibrium of the sections; that the South would never
have consented to it on any other plea. If the negro at the south were
counted as a whole man and not as three- fifths of a man, the slave-holding
states would possess a clear majority in the first electoral college.

The balance became apparent in the census of 1790. The population of
the northern states was found to be 1,977,000; that of the southern states,
1,952,000. The admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee established
a perfect balance in the senate — eight slave-holding states and eight free
states, making up the union at the beginning of the century.

Federalism and Anti-Federalism proved a transitory issue — the great
fact of sectionalism asserting itself with a dominant earnestness, after
Hamilton had broken with Madison; and after the pregnant controversy
of the Secretary of State with the Secretary of the Treasury, across the
council boards of Washington’s first cabinet. It had cropped out even in
the selection of that cabinet; it came forth aroused at Hamilton’s fiscal
proposals; it manifested itself in southern objection to the admission of
Vermont, and in northern objection to the admission of Kentucky. By
the end of Washington’s term, the lines were fully and sharply drawn;
much to the distaste and displeasure of the father of his country, too. In
his farewell address, he expresses serious concern that “ground should
have been furnished for characterizing parties by geographical discrimi¬
nations,” regarding it as a serious disturbance to the union. Such dis¬
criminations appeared in a marked degree when the task of choosing his
successor was reached. New England gave her solid vote to John Adams.
The South cast six sevenths of her vote for Thomas Jefferson. Down to
1840, the same sectional proceeding was rehearsed in every presidential
contest.

1 The Lost Principle, by Barbarrossa. Richmond, 1860. The author is supposed to be
JRobert Scott, of Virginia.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

3

II.

It would be merely repeating familiar history to describe the frequent
sectional clashes that ensued down to the eve of secession. Both north and
south were thoroughly alive to the sectional bearing of every important
question. Nobody doubts the statesmanship of the Louisiana purchase;
yet that broad and praiseworthy stroke of patriotism was bitterly misliked
at the time 1 and the hostility came wholly from New England, jealous of
the chance for increased prestige which this new territory gave the south.
The Hartford Convention of 1812, was the culmination of New England’s
anti-national feeling; open threats to “ cut the connection” with the major
part of the union and secret plottings to invite Canadian and British alliance
are evidences of the rampant disunionism there prevalent. The South and
the West never forgot the disloyalty of New England, during the war of
1812; and we see the force of reproach which that record had, in Haynes’
debate with Webster, twenty years later. That famous debate, and the
strained relation smoothed by the Missouri compromise in 1820, indicated
how irrepressible a fact sectionalism had become.

Up to 1850, we have the phenomenon in our political history, which has
been spoken of as “ the twin birth of states.” Every additional free state
was followed by the admission of a slave state in order “ to preserve the
balance.” The sectional leaders began looking anxiously to the future,
and as the contest grew in intensity, the south bitterly chided itself for ac¬
quiescing in the ordinance of 1787, which forbade slavery in the northwest
territory, and in the Missouri compromise of 1820, which shut out slavery
north of the thirty-sixth parallel. The annexation of Texas and the Mexi¬
can war were distinctively southern measures, planned by the soured states¬
manship of Calhoun, to redress the balance and gi^e the south new room
for more state-making. The northern Democracy came into the party con¬
vention of 1844, with a candidate and a platform adverse to the Texas
policy of the south; but the south had its way. And at the same time, with
the deliberate connivance of Calhoun, the United States receded from its
position in the Oregon dispute with England. The forty-ninth parallel was
accepted as our north-most boundary instead of 54° 40' ; territory sufficient
to carve out three northern states was needlessly surrendered to Great
Britain in order to propitiate southern sectionalism. At the end Calhoun
was badly deceived in the results expected from the Mexican war. These
results eventually strengthened the free states, and gave them their final
preponderance in the United States senate. The admission of California
in 1850, placed the north one state in the lead for the first time since the
d ays of Washington. The southern leaders began to perceive that the

1 “Twenty Years of Congress,” by James G. Blaine, ch. 1, p. 14.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

equilibrium of the sections was to be an impossibility in the future, and
the plan of secession was broached as the ultimate sequel 1

Webster, in his “ 7th of March speech,” alleges that up to 1859, three-
fourths of the places of honor under the United States government were
held by southerners. Alexander Stevens, in his famous appeal against
secession in 1860, drew the attention of his countrymen to the fact that
since the beginning of the government the South had eighteen out of the
twenty-nine justices of the Supreme court; sixty years of southern presi¬
dents to twenty-four of northern presidents; twenty- three out of thirty-
five speakers of the House of Representatives; and eighty-six out of one
hundred and forty foreign ministers. The South, as represented in the
Senate, was thoroughly alert and determined to reject any appointees un¬
favorable to southern interests, or tainted with free soil convictions. Mr.
Stevens challenged his fellow southerners to answer whether they could re¬
ceive better treatment under any other government than they had under the
Union, and whether they could compensate themselves for the loss of an
advantageous partnership in any greater degree of influence and patronage*

III.

The South went out of the Union in 1860 not to preserve slavery, but in
the disappointment of sectional defeat. It was not the institution of
slavery that was threatened, but its extension as an element in the increase
of the southern system. Even upon the threshold of his administration,
Abraham Lincoln wanted the south to understand that the national gov¬
ernment did not propose to interfere with slavery where that condition
was established; but he stood for the policy, that slavery was an evil which
should be isolated and not extended. When Lincoln declared that the na¬
tion could not go on existing, half slave and half free, his meaning was
against the strife of slave sectionalism and free soil sectionalism, competing
for the new states, and maintaining an equilibrium of liberty and servitude.
Secession was the southern alternative to sectional-equilibrium-destroyed .
As soon as the south lost an equal share in the political partnership, she
made up her mind to go out. Her proportional importance might be re¬
spected, and slavery might be let alone. But when fate had ordained that
proportion to be less than an equal one, the traditional political self-esteem
of the south rebelled.

1 Mr. Calhoun, in his speech of March 4, 1850, argues that the union was endangered by
reason of a widespread discontent among the people of the southern section due to a feel¬
ing that “ they cannot remain as things now are consistently with honor and safety in
the Union-”; and the “great and primary cause of this belief is in the fact that the equi¬
librium ■ between the two sections in the government as it stood when the constitution was-
ratified and the government put in action has been destroyed.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

5

What had destroyed the sectional equilibrium and made all the strenuous
effort, the political finesse and the brilliant strokes of southern statesmen
nugatory and impotent ? The answer is: emigration.1 Next to the fact of
sectionalism, I conceive the phenomenon of nineteenth century emigra¬
tion to America to be the most notable circumstance in our later history.
It was greater numerically, than the vast barbarian migration that over¬
turned the Roman empire. To my mind, it has wrought in the nation
other important results besides the transformation of the sectional ques¬
tion, but if none other, that alone would have been enough. The belated
colonization of America by Ireland and Germany gave the north her nu¬
merical preponderance in the census; enlarged her relative strength in the
House of Representatives; filled the places in the east of the army of
young men going west and then followed, in renewed waves of immigra¬
tion, the western pioneers. Know-nothingism arose like the specter of the
alarmed slave master — the ghost of selfish occupancy whether vested in
human chattels or in the chattel of social, political and industrial machin¬
ery — but the hope of creating a sectarian instead of a sectional line of demar¬
cation failed. This clever expedient of the southern Whigs was futile to
withhold the inevitable end of the equilibrium. And when the task of
crushing the rebellion was upon the nation, the foreign born soldier was
also thrown into the scale against the South; thousands of naturalized cit¬
izens were drafted into a school of patriotism which made them irre¬
proachably American, and thousands of the descendants of an earlier
emigration, typified in generals like Sheridan and Rosecrans, were also
important elements in the victory of the north. Had this emigration gone
to the. South it would undoubtedly have counted in a different solution of
the problem. Historians would not be able to trace a direct connection be¬
tween the potato rot in Ireland and the Emancipation Proclamation. The
three or four million emigrants who destroyed the sectional equilibrium
were tools in the hands of Providence. Yet there was nothing accidental
in the fact that their weight was cast with the North and against the
South. It could not have been otherwise.

John C. Calhoun, in his last great speech in the senate, delivered in the
year of his death, 1850, sought to explain the waning strength of the South
by deploring the fact that slavery was shut out of the territory north of the
Ohio river and north of the 36th parallel. He also bewailed the influence
of the existing revenue system which he conceived to result in attracting
the emigrant population to the North and robbing the South of her capi¬
tal. Under other conditions he thought that the South would have re-

1 The growth in the tide of immigration will appear from the following figures:

Immigrants, 1789 to 1820 (estimated) . 250,000

“ 1821 to 1830 143,439

“ 1831 to 1840 599,125

“ 1841 to 1850 1,713,251

“ 1851 to 1860 2,598,214

Sixty per cent, of the immigration up to 1860 was Irish.

6

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

ceivecl her share of the emigration, and the census of 1850 would show a
population in the slave states equal to that in the free states. Now the
truth of the matter is that without the tariff, and with the fullest reign of
squatter sovereignty, the result would not have been different. The
North was destined to obtain the bulk of emigration in any event. The
natural repulsion and antipathy between free labor and slave labor settled
the question in advance. Slavery would have starved free labor out of the
South, even had it sought entrance there. The peculiar civilization of the
South gave the North all the advantages of development. Had southern
leadership at the start been of the style of Jefferson Davis and Robert.
Toombs, rather than of the temperament and range of Madison and Jeffer¬
son, the lead which the South gained and held for sixty years could never
have been. The natural growth of the country was against her equili¬
brium; but the traditions of a lofty statemanship kept her in the ascend¬
ant. It might have been foretold at the treaty establishing equilibrium of
the sections in 1787 that unless emigration was to be shut out, as ^well as
the importation of slaves, after 1807, the South was doomed to numerical
inferiority.1 Otherwise it was starting a nation with all the conditions of
enlargement and progress, with healthy life currents and virile institutions
in a race for the ascendancy with a nation already palsied by servitude and
mortgaged in half its energies to an effete civilization. The ship which
caught in its sails every breeze from over the Atlantic was bound, even
against odds, to outstrip the slaver becalmed in a dead sea.

IV.

A table of the sectional electoral vote in the leading Presidential contests
since 1790, will show that; the war has had no effect on the animus of the sec¬
tions. New England and the South are still at opposite poles. But a table
of the apportionment of the electoral vote under the several censuses since
1790, will illustrate important changes. Classing Delaware as a southern
rather than a middle state, our table indicates that the South cast nearly
one half of the vote of the electoral college at the beginning. She casts
thirty-eight per cent, of the electoral votes under the census of 1880. The
New England section had twenty-eight per cent, of the electoral vote in
1790; to-day she has less than ten per cent, of it. The middle section con¬
sisting of New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey has declined much less
than New England, and rather less than the South; while the West which
cast a little more than one-fifth of the electoral vote when Abraham
Lincoln was a candidate, now casts a third of the whole vote, and bids fair
to cast almost half the vote which shall elect a president in 1924.

1 Draper (American Civil War, 1-446), puts this opinion in the mouth of the slaveholder;
“ The mistake with us has been that it was not made felony to bring in an Irishman when
it was made piracy to bring in an African.”

Electoral A pportionment by Sections from 1790 to 1890, with Percentages.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

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In both tables Delaware is classed as a Southern State,

•8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The admission of four new states to the Union will further tend to over¬
throw the old sectionalism. Dakota, with an area larger than any other
political division except Texas, with a rapidly growing population, and
with sufficient fertility to support three million people, has properly been
divided into two states. Washington and Montana having passed the re¬
quirements respecting population, have come in as growing and influential
states.

The effect of these new additions to the Union, so far as the historic sec¬
tions are concerned, may be estimated as follows: In the electoral college —
the southern system of states will have 156 votes; the northern system will
have 270 votes.

In the Senate sixteen southern states will be represented by thirty-two
seats; twenty-six states of the northern system will have fifty-two seats.

In the House of Representatives, the South will be entitled to some 120
congressmen; the North will be entitled to over 220 congressmen.

The most insurmountable political ascendancy is, of course, more prob¬
able in the United States Senate that elsewhere. Sectionalism throughout
our entire political history has nowhere been better preserved. While the.
country has been broken up irrespective of Mason and Dixon’s line in the
House of Representatives, and while great states of the North have shifted
their political allegiance with a reassuring spontaneity at Presidential elec¬
tions, the Senate has always continued in a large sense a mirror of deep
rooted geographical differences. With a brief and uncertain interval of
doubt it has now been uninterrupted possession of the preponderant party
of one section for nearly thirty years, and unless new and unforeseen events
or issues arise, it bids fair to continue that political ascendancy for many
years longer.

V.

The growth of the West has established a counter-balance to southern
sectionalism, and the overthrow of slavery has tended to remove the es¬
sential difference between northern and southern civilization . Though
the bitterness of the struggle for equilibrium has survived the war, there
has been a growing recognition of the transformed condition of the prob¬
lem. Bellicose politics have gone out, shirted in ridicule; ridicule which is
the right medicine for all earnestness that outlives its purpose. And the
imaginary danger from a solid South is apt to yield to some considerations:

1. It is perceived that the south is solid to-day rather for domestic than
for national reasons; it is not a sectional caucus solidified for the purpose
of gaining some contention against the other sections as it figured in ante¬
bellum days. It is rather a domestic problem which makes the South solid.
The white man has grappled with the black bear; and he has no choice
about letting go. The South is solid to save herself and not to domineer-
over the nation.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

9

2. Sectionalism of a sort we must always have. We cannot escape it.
'Sectionalism which arrays the nation into two hostile camps and main¬
tains an equilibrium of political power at the price of propagating slavery
ds deplorable; but that kind of sectionalism is fortunately destroyed; its
causes blotted out; its chance of recurrence satisfactorily removed by the
growth of the west, and the story of emigration. Sectionalism, which
does not divide the nation into two geographical camps or into hostile
civilization; but which may split it up into three or more congeries of
states at issue on matters which do not go so deep as the long standing feud
between Cavalier and Puritan is tolerable. And it is inevitable.

The sectionalism which makes the South solid to-day, or which may
make its solidity a condition in the future, is to be looked upon as of this
milder character. The west may furnish us, in the years to come, the
most conspicuous phase of such sectionalism.

In fact, the issue of the late Presidential contest was said to aim at cre¬
ating “a new sectionalism” — one that might cleave the country from
north to south, and array the states into manufacturing and agricultural
belts. A brief epoch of that kind of sectionalism might be wholesome in
getting the nation away from its old partisan moorings, and casting over¬
board the effigies of a conflict that was well ended, if it had been ended
quickly.

The questicn of Canadian annexation is a matter somewhat related to
our sectional question. Following our system of government, an independ¬
ent Canada would be a lesser United States speaking the same language,
cherishing similar institutions and one with us in race and religion. Such
a neighbor would be a powerful magnet of disintegration should the New
England and Middle States, for instance, disagree with the South and West
on any important issue, and be hopelessly out-voted in Congress. The
commercial interests of these sections might draw them into an alliance
with the Canadian Republic, ending in the setting up of a new confederacy.
This, of course, is rather problematical, but it is often the unexpected that
happens. Either we must annex Canada, or Canada will disintegrate us.
And it may be a serious question whether it is not better to take her while
she is young and tractable, rather than wait until antipathies in political
feelings are too far generated to make union easy and agreeable.

It remains to be said that if, for the sake of a perfect Union, we would
wish to have as little sectional feud in the future, as possible, we must be
observant of the strict letter of the constitution and learn to admire it as
warmly for the restraints it imposes on Federal power as for the functions
it grants.1

1 Prof. Bryce (Am. Commonwealths, II., 693) believes that “the United States are no
more likely to dissolve than if they were a unified republic like France or a unified mon¬
archy like Italy.'” He notes “the growing strength of the centripetal and unifying
orces ” — in which there is no little danger.

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

A federal government attempting to do a great many things in a great
many directions is sure to arouse warring interests and clashing influences.
And in a country which reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific and
touches the tropics, and stretches out to the land of the midnight sun, all
such interests and influences are more or less geographical and sectional.

ARTIFICIAL KEYS

TO THE

GENERA AND SPECIES OF MOSSES

RECOGNIZED IN LESQUEREUX AND JAMES’S MANUAL OF THE MOSSES

OF NORTH AMERICA;

By CHARLES R. BARNES,

Professor of Botany in the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the summer of 1886 I published a key to the genera of mosses recog¬
nized in the Manual of Lesquereux and James. From the demand which
has exhausted a large edition of that key, I have felt that the object of its
publication was reasonably attained, that it really was helpful to students
of mosses. Although much misgiving was felt as to its accuracy a con¬
siderable use of it has revealed but one serious omission, and neither time
nor its users have indicated to the author how it could be materially im¬
proved. It is therefore reprinted here with the few alterations which have
seemed desirable.

But since there are no keys to the species even of the largest genera in the
Manual, the novice, deserted after reaching the genus, is left almost as much
bewildered as if he had not been led so far. I have therefore been induced
to prepare keys to the species of all the genera.

The only plea for such work is its anticipated usefulness. I hope that it
will stimulate some to undertake the study and collection of mosses who
have heretofore been deterred by their helplessness in the determination of
them without more expensive aids than the amateur usually possesses. An
earnest student equipped with patience, some skill in dissection, a compound
microscope and the Manual, ought to be able with the additional assistance
of these keys to determine the names of most of the mosses which he can col¬
lect. Those which remain uncertain he can refer to those who possess the
illustrations and exsiccati which are often indispensable for identification. I
shall be disappointed if these keys do not encourage more to enter upon the
study of this exceedingly interesting group of plants, which, with the
Hepaticas, are more neglected than any of which we now have accessible
descriptions .

In constructing these keys, I have thought it wise to make few changes
in the nomenclature or in the rank of species. Of many in the Manual
neither the present names nor the autonomy can be maintained. The
changes I have made are, with one exception (Dicranum fuscescens), con¬
fined to the two genera which have been revised since the appearance of
the Manual in 1884, viz., Sphagnum, by M. Jules Cardot, of Stenay, France,
and Fissidens, by the author. M. Cardot is now engaged in a revision of
Fontinalis and Dichelyma, and I regret that his results have not yet been
published, that they might be included in the present keys.

I have included in the keys all the new species known to me which have
been published since the issue of the Manual and before 1890, when the
relation of these could be ascertained from the descriptions and figures.

Introductory.

13

(It is worth nothing that a considerable number of new species are about to
be published in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club and in the Botan¬
ical Gazette.) Two genera, Eucladium and Merceya, 1 have been indicated
as new to North America. The former has been included in the key to
genera. The relationship of the latter is so problematical that I have been
compelled to omit it.

The number in bold-face type following the name of a genus in the key to
genera refers to the page of this publication where the key to its species
may be found. The other number, in ordinary type, is that of the page in
the Manual where it is described. When there is only the latter the genus
contains but one species. The number following the species (in the keys to
species) is the same as it bears in the Manual.

It will be found in a number of cases that the keys contradict characters
assigned in the Manual. I have not knowingly permitted such contradiction
without having good reasons therefor, so that they must be considered as
corrections, and not accidental. There may be mistakes among them; it is
highly probable that there are some elsewhere. I should be glad to receive
notice of errors or omissions from any who detect them.

My thanks are due to Mrs. Elizabeth Gr. Britton, for kind assistance in
several points.

Charles R. Barnes.

University of Wisconsin, February 8, 1890.

1 Merceya latifolia Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 94.

14

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ANALYTIC KEY

TO THE

GENERA OE MOSSES.

Order I.— Sphagnaceae.

Oapsule dehiscing by a deciduous operculum, peristome
none, leaves composed of large hyaline cells, with
intervening rows of small chlorophyllose ones.

Genus single . Sphagnum, 12. 24.

Order II. — Andreseacese.

Capsule dehiscing by four (rarely six) longitudinal slits.

Genus single . Andre sea, 25. 20.

Order III.— Archidiacese.

Capsule bursting irregularly, spores few and very large.

Genus single . Archidium, 49. 28.

Order IV.— Bryacese.

Capsule bursting irregularly (spores numerous) or gen¬
erally dehiscing by a deciduous operculum, in the
latter case usually furnished with a peristome.

Leaves not sphagnoid.

Genera numerous as follows:

I. CLEISTOCARPI. — Capsule without a deciduous operculum.

A. Green protonema persistent.

Leaves ecostate. t

Capsule colorless . Micromitrium, 37. 26*

Capsule colored . Epliemerum, 37. 26.

Leaves costate ... . Epliemerum, 37. 26.

Analytic Key to the Gmera of Mosses.

15

B. Green protonema not persistent.

Margins of leaves flat or incurved.

Leaves lance-obovate to broad-ovate, not abruptly

pointed . Pliyscomitrella, 89.

Leaves linear- lanceolate to subulate or abruptly pointed.

Calyptra mitrate . Brueliia, 45. 2 7.

Calyptra cucullate ..... Pleuridium, 48. 27.

[Astomum may be sought here.]

Margins of leaves more or less revolute.

Capsule spherical .... Spliserangium, 40. 27.

Capsule short-pointed.

Calyptra mitrate .... Microbryum, 45.

Calyptra cucullate . Pliascum, 41. 27.

II. STEGOCARPI. — Capsule with a deciduous operculum.

A. Acrocarpi. — Flowers and fruit terminating the stem , either the
main shoot or a branch.

1 . Mouth of the capsule naked.

* Leaf -cells isodiametric , at least above the middle of the leaf, often
obscure.

Lid imperfectly formed, persistent .... Astomum, 51. 29.
Lid perfect, deciduous.

Capsule immersed.

Leaves lamellose . Pharomitrium, 100.

Leaves not lamellose, ciliate .... Hedwigia, 152.
Leaves with a hyaline hair-point . . . Grimmia, 184. 43.

Capsule exserted, ribbed when dry.

Calyptra cucullate.

Pedicel very short, strongly twisted to the left when

dry .... . . Amphoridium, 158. 46.

Pedicel long, twisted to the right when dry . Braunia, 153.
Calyptra campanulate mitrate, plicate, usually

hairy . • Macromitrium, 178. 50.

Calyptra long clavate-campanulate, not plicate nor

hairy . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Capsule exserted, not ribbed when dry.

Lid conic, beaked.

Pedicel short . Calymperes, 184. 50.

Pedicel long . Gymnostomum, 52. 29.

Lid conic, beakless, or conic-subulate . . . Pottia, 100. 37.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Lid convex or flatfish, beaked.

Plants large (2 cm. +), leaves distichous . . Eustichia, 94.

Plants large, leaves pluriseriate, papillose.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, margins plane . Auoectangium, 54.
Leaves ovate-lanceolate, margins reflexed, hyaline

at base . Barbula, 115. 31L

Leaves lingulate-lanceolate, margins revolute,
three-fourths hyaline .... Desmatodon, 110. 38,

Plants small, leaves broader, hair-pointed or cus¬
pidate or serrate, not papillose .... Pottia, 100. 37.

Plants small or minute, leaves lance-subulate . Anodus, 96.

Lid long-clavate . . Encalypta, 180. 50..

* * Leaf -cells plainly elongated , distinct.

Lid small, convex or short-conic, capsule microstome.

Leaves vertically inserted , Scliistostega, 188.

Leaves subulate, dentate .... Bartramia, 203. 53..
Leaves broad, entire, calyptra enclosing cap¬
sule . Pyramidula, 196.

Lid large (rarely small), capsule macrostome.

Capsule splitting at the middle . . . Aphanorliegma, 196.

Capsule dehiscing regularly above the middle, not
covered by calyptra .... Physcomitrium, 196. 52..

2. Mouth of the capsule furnished with a peristome.

* Peristome single.

Teeth articulate.

Teeth eight.

Leaves thick, coriaceous .... Octoblepharum, 91.

[Ortliotriclium and Ptycliomitrium (§ Notarisia) may be sought here.]

^ Teeth sixteen, calyptra mitrate.

9

= Calyptra plicate.

Teeth cribrose, purple ...... Coscinodon, 154. 46.

Teeth filiform, trifid . Ptycliomitrium, 156. 46.

Teeth approximate or connate in pairs.

Lanceolate to subulate, papillose . . . Ptycliomitrium, 156. 46.

Triangular-lanceolate, articles quadrate.

Basal leaf -cells linear, chlorophvllose . . . Ulota, 160. 46.

Basal leaf-cells hexagono-rectangular, hyaline Ortliotriclium, 164. 47..
Teeth short, pale, fragile .... Macromitrium, 178. 50..

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

17

= = Calyptra not plicate.

Aquatic, floating.

Leaves distichous . Conomitrium, 89. 34.

Leaves pluriseriate . Ciuclidotus, 134.

Terrestrial.

Very small, gregarious.

Teeth broad, erose-truncate, hyaline . . Bracliyodus, 98.

Teeth linear-lanceolate, deeply bifid . Campylostelium, 99.
Larger, above 1 cm. in height.

Leaf -cells small, quadrate or punctate, obscure.

Beak long-clavate . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Beak long or short, not clavate.

Teeth lanceolate, flat, subentire or crib-
rose or 2 — 3-fid to the middle . Grimmia, 134. 43.

Teeth linear-lanceolate, 2 — 3-fid to below
the middle, or cleft to the base into

filiform segments . . . Rliacomitrium, 147. 45.

Leaf-cells large, very distinct, pedicel with a
prominent apophysis.

Apophysis smaller than the capsule.

Leaves entire, obtuse .

Leaves serrate, acute or acuminate
Apophysis exceeding the capsule

-j-f- -e -e- Teeth sixteen , calyptra cucullate.

— Leaves distichous.

Leaves subulate .

Leaves broader, with a prominent vertical wing

= == Leaves pluriseriate.

17 Capsule unsymmetric, cernuous- inclined or arcuate.

Teeth filiform-bifid from a membranous base . Desmatodon, 110. 38.
Teeth irregularly lacerate or bifid to the middle or below.

Leaf cells not enlarged at the basal angles, roundish
or quadrate above.

Lid long-beaked, leaves serrulate, peristome equal¬
ing half the capsule .... Dichodontium, 61. 30.
Lid long-beaked, leaves crenulate or denticulate,

peristome shorter . Cynodontimn, 59. 30.

Lid short-beaked . Oreoweisia, 58.

Leaf-cells not enlarged at the basal angles, oblong

above, rectangular at base . . . Dicranella, 64. 30.

2— A. & L.

Dissodon, 189. 51.
Tayloria, 190. 51.
Splaclmum, 193. 51.

Distichium, 93. 36.
Eissidens, 81. 34.

18

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaf-cells enlarged- quadrate at the basal angles, linear

at base .

Leaf -cells of two kinds, in two or three layers
Teeth bifid to near the base.

Lid conic, leaves subulate ....

Lid conic, leaves lanceolate
Lid aristate, neck very long ....

Teeth not cleft, short, irregular
Teeth not cleft, cohering by their tips .

Teeth not cleft, perforate.

Neck long, exceeding the capsule
Neck inconspicuous, plants small
Neck inconspicuous, plants large
Teeth not cleft nor perforate.

Lid with a short thick oblique beak
Lid with a short slender oblique beak

[Mieliclilioferia and Funaria may be sought here.]

Dicranum, 67. 31.
Leucobryum, 90. 36.

Trichodon, 92. 36.
Ceraiodon, 92. 36.
Tremajodon, 62. 30.
Catoscopium, 211.
Conostomum, 207.

Trematodon, 62. 30.
Discelium, 188.
Oreoweisia, 58.

Oreoweisia, 58.
CyiiodontiiSn, 59. 30.

U N Capsule symmetric , pendulous on a flexuous pedicel.

Teeth bifid to the middle . Cainpylopus, 77. 33.

Teeth bifid to the base, free .... Dicranodontium, 77.

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Connivent and slightly twisted . . . Desmatodon, 110. 38.

Erect, not twisted . Trichostommn, 108. 38-

Teeth entire, short, plants minute . ■ . . Seligeria, 96. 36.

If N N Capside symmetric , erect.

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Lid short, conic or beaked .... Desmatodon, 110. 38.
Lid elongated, conic . Tricliostomum, 1C8. 38.

[Barbula may be sought here.]

Teeth deeply bifid or cleft to the base, free.

Leaf-cells small, not enlarged at the angles, oblong

above . Dicranella, 64. 30.

Leaf -cells small, not enlarged at the angles, roundish

or quadrate above . Cynodontium, 59. 30.

Leaf-cells small, enlarged- quadrate at the angles . Dicranum, 67. 31.

Leaf-cells large, distinct .... Angstroemia, 68.
Teeth cribrose, perforate or slightly cleft.

Leaf-cells enlarged-quadrate at the angles.

Capsule broad-pyriform . Blindia, 98.

Capsule oval to sub-cylindric . . . Dicranoweisia, 57. 29.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

19

Leaf-cells not enlarged at the angles.

Teeth large, mostly cribrose.

Pedicel little exceeding the often

leaves .

Pedicel long, leaves hair-pointed
Pedicel long, leaves not hair-pointed.

Leaves serrate just above sheathing base
Leaves entire or crenulate above
Teeth small, often truncate or rudimentary.
Leaf margins involute above .

Leaf -margins revolute or plane.

Leaves densely papillose in the upper part
Leaves not papillose ....
Teeth entire.

Capsule with a long, thick apophysis
Capsule oval to subcylindric.

Not ribbed when dry.

Teeth short, leaves entire, narrow
Teeth short, leaves serrate, broad
Teeth linear-filiform, connate at base
Teeth narrowly lanceolate, free

Ribbed when dry .

Capsule short-pyriform, turbinate when dry.

Teeth blunt . .

Teeth acute . .

Capsule pyriform, not turbinate when dry.
Plants gregarious or subcespitose
Plants in deep, compact tufts
Capsule ovate-globose, lid obliquely long-beaked
Capsule globose, lid beakless, small .

hair-pointed

Grimmia, 134. 43.
Desmatodon, 110. 38.

. Eucladiuin. 1
Didymodon, 104. 37.

Weisia, 55. 29.

%

Didymodon, 104. 37.
. Pottia, 100. 37.

Tetraplodon, 191. 51.

Weisia, 55.
Syrrhopodon, 185.

Didymodon, 104.
Dicranoweisia, 57.
Rhabdoweisia, 58.

Seligeria, 96.
Blimlia, 98.

Entostliodon, 199.
Mieliclihoferia, 214.
Drummondia, 160.
Bartramia, 203.

29.

50.

37.

29.

29.

36.

52.

53.

-j — s- e- — i- -s — t- Teeth thirty-two.

Teeth cancellate . Barb ill a, 115. 39.

Teeth filiform or linear, almost terete, arising from a long
or short basilar membrane.

Short, slightly, if at all, twisted.

Leaves subulate or lance-subulate from a broader

base . Leptotriclmm, 105. 37-

Leaves broader, lid elongated-conic . . Trichostomum, 108. 38.

[Barbula rigidula will be sought here.]

Leaves broader, lid short-conic or short-beaked Desmatodon, 110. 38-
Long, twisted to the left . Barbula, 115. 39..

1 E. verticillatum, Br. and Sch,: Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiv, (1889), 99.

no

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Teeth flat, not from a distinct basilar membrane.

Cells of capsule linear-oblong . . . Dicranodoiitium, 77.

Cells of capsule irregularly polygonal . . Didyinodon, 104. 87.

Teeth not articulate.

Teeth four , solid.

Capsule linear-oblong, stems long, conspicuous . . Tetraphis, 186. 51.

Capsule ovate, stems very short .... Tetrodontium, 187.

Teeth thirty -two or sixty -four.

Calyptra cucullate, capsule symmetric or nearly so.

. Leaves undulate- crisped when dry, lamellae few (2 — 8),

straight ........ Atriclmm, 255. 60.

Leaves sub-tubulose at apex, lamellae undulate or

numerous . * Olig'otriclmm, 258. 61.

Calyptra cucullate, capsule unsymmetric, arcuate in¬
curved . Psilopilum, 259.

Calyptra mitrate, densely hairy.

Capsule not angular, teeth 32 .... Pogonatum, 260. 61.

Capsule 4 — 6 angled, teeth 64 ... Polytrichum, 263. 61.

* Peristome double.

Capsule symmetric, erect.

Teeth almost none, imperfect or rudimentary . MacromitriuMi, 178. 50.

Teeth perfect, linear, revolute, capsule smooth . Schlotheimia, 179.

Teeth linear or filiform, dark red or purple, capsule ribbed

and twisted . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Teeth broadly or narrowly triangular-lanceolate, pale, cap¬
sule ribbed, not twisted.

Leaf -cells at base linear, chlorophyllose . . . Ulota, 160. 46.

Leaf- cells at base hexagono-rectangular, hyaline Orthotrichum, 164. 47.

Teeth linear, contracted at articulations, capsule smooth,

cylindric . Leptothec'a, 251.

Capsule unsymmetric, inclined or oblique or pendulous.

Inner peristome a plaited cone.

Pedicel thick, red, densely verrucose . . . Buxbaiilnia, 267.

Pedicel very short, almost none .... Diphyscium, 266.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

21

-*-+ Inner peristome a membrane , carinate or cut into sixteen seg¬
ments; these sometimes separated by cilia.

= Cilia very short , rudimentary or none.

Membrane entire, 16-carinate. .... Cinclidimn, 249. 60.
Membrane latticed or cleft to the base into filiform, appen-
diculate segments.

Pedicel none or very short, leaves ecostate . Fontinalis, 268. 62.
Pedicel distinct, sometimes long, leaves costate . Dichelyma, 272. 63.
Membrane not cleft to the base.

Segments entire or interruptedly cleft along the middle line.

Shorter than the teeth or rudimentary . . Funaria, 200. 52.

Equaling the teeth in length.

Leaves squarrose -recurved from the middle . Paludella, 213.
Leaves not squarrose.

Pedicel long.

Leaf -cells narrowly rhombic- hexagonal, tending
to linear, leaves narrow .... Webcra, 215. 53.
Leaf-cells and leaf broader .... Brynm, 223. 55.
Pedicel short, neck long ..... Zieria, 240. 58..
Far exceeding the teeth in length.

Pedicel long, leaf-cells large, pellucid . Amblyodon, 211.
Pedicel long, leaf-cells small, rectangular, chloro-

phyllose . . Meesia, 212. 53.

Pedicel short, neck long . Zieria, 240. 58.

Segments bifid, divisions divaricate.

Leaves lanceolate to subulate, large . . . Bartramia, 203. 53.

Leaves lanceolate or broader, smaller . . Philonotis, 208. 53b

Segments filiform, united by fours at their tips . Tiiiimia, 254. 60.

= = Cilia present.

Appendiculate.

Leaves lance-subulate, cells linear . . -. Leptobryum, 215.

Leaves broader, cells rhombic-hexagonal . . . Brynm, 223. 55..

Inappendiculate.

Capsule not ribbed when dry.

Leaves lanceolate, glossy, cells narrowly rhombic-
hexagonal, inclining to linear .... Webera, 215. 53..
Leaves ample, soft, oblong, ovate to obovate or
broader, cells round-hexagonal .... Milium, 241. 58..
Leaves narrowly lanceolate, rigid . . Rliizogonium, 250.

Capsule ribbed when dry.

Oblong or elongated pyriform . . . Aulacomniiim, 252. 60.

Sub-globose . Philonotis, 208. 53

22

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Pleurocarpi. Flowers and fruit lateral , in the axils of leaves.
[Fontinalis and Dichelyma may.be sought here.]

1 . Peristome single ( rarely none), teeth eight or sixteen.

[Species belonging to genera under “ B * ” infra may he sought here.]

Leaves distichous, with broad vertical wing . . Fissidens, 81. 34-.

Leaves pluriseriate.

Entire.

Ecostate, abruptly long -acuminate, cells quadrate
except in costal region, distinct . . Habrodon, 296.

Ecostate, cells linear or rhombic, obscure . . Leucodon, 287. 05.

Costate, short acuminate . . . Clasinatodon, 297.

Costate, obtuse, teeth 8, red .... Cryphaea, 275. 63.

Serrate, capsule emergent . Leptodon, 278, 04.

Serrate to ciliate-dentate, capsule long-pedicelled . Fabronia, 294. 05.

2. Peristome double , the inner often imperfect.

* Segments none or short, or obscured by adhering to teeth.

Leaves papillose.

Entire, ovate to ovate-lanceolate.

Teeth ciliate-papillose . Leskea, 301. 06,

Teeth not papillose . Anomodon, 304. 00.

Entire or cristate -serrate, obovate or spatulate Pterigynaiidriini, 288.

Spinulose -dentate to fimbriate (rarely entire) deltoid or

round-ovate . Thelia, 298. 06.

Serrate, broadly ovate . Pterogonium, 289. 65.

Leaves not papillose.

Capsule straight.

Segments bifid or adherent to the teeth.

Plants small (1-2 cm.), capsules about 2 mm. Pylaisaea, 308. 07.

Plants large (4-6 cm.), capsules about 4 mm. Cylindrothecium, 310. 07.
Segments not bifid nor adherent.

Leaves ecostate or obscurely bicostate . . Neekera, 281. 64.

Leaves costate . Antitrichia, 290. 05.

Capsule curved or arcuate .... Homalotliecium, 309. 07.

* * Segments not distinctly keeled, narrow.

*■«— Leaves costate.

Cells roundish to oval-rhombic.

Papillose [except in Leskea pulvinata].

Stem and branch-leaves similar . . . Leskea, 301. 06.

Stem-leaves much smaller than branch-leaves Anoiiiodon, 304. 06.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

Not papillose.

Annulus large, compound . Crypheea, 275.

Annulus none, leaf-cells minute, obscure . Neckera, 281.

Annulus none, leaf-cells large, distinct Anacamptodon, 296.

Cells linear or vermicular.

Annulus none . Neckera, 281.

Annulus present . Antitrichia, 290.

[Cylindrotliecium, with leaves obscurely costate, may be sought here.]
Leaves ecostate.

Annulus none . Neckera, 281.

Annulus present.

Leaf -cells quadrate at basal angles . . Cylindrotliecium, 310.

Leaf-cells not quadrate at basal angles . . Orthotliecium, 315.

* * * Segments distinctly keeled , often broad.

Capsule symmetric , erect.

[Species of Hypnum with erect or sub-erect capsules will be sought here.]
Leaves papillose.

Plants large, branches erect, dendroid .... Alsia, 279.
Plants long, pendent from trees, branches filiform Meteorium, 286.
Plants small, branches erect, julaceous . . Myurella, 300.

Leaves not papillose.

Leaves costate or ecostate, complanate, pseudo-dis¬
tichous . Homalia, 285.

Leaves ecostate, annulus large (none in Cyl. Drummondii).

Cells quadrate at basal angles.

Teeth hyaline margined .... Platygyriiim, 307.
Teeth not hyaline margined . . Cylindrotliecium, 310.

Cells not quadrate at basal angles . . Orthotliecium, 315.

Leaves ecostate, annulus small, narrow . . . Pylaissea, 308.

Leaves costate, plants dendroid .... Climacium, 313.

— *— Capsule unsymmetric, often arcuate.

Leaf-cells large, calyptra mitrate.

Leaves mucronate or acute or acuminate . . Hookeria, 292.

Leaves obtuse . Pterigophyllum, 298.

Leaf-cells small, calyptra cucullate .... Hypnum, 316.

[Climacium Ruthenicum will be sought here.]

63.

64.

64.

65.

64.

67.

68.

64.

65.

66.

65.

67.

68.

67.

68.

65.

68.

24

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

ANALYTIC KEYS

TO THE

SPECIES OE MOSSES.

SPHAGNUM,1 * p. 12.

I. Branches dimorphous , some divergent , some pendent; hyaline cells with

fibrils.

A. Chlorophyllose cells near one face of leaf, triangular, triangular-
elliptical or trapezoidal in transverse section.

1. Chlorophyllose cells on the ventral face of leaf; hyaline cells most

convex on the dorsal face.

a. Branch leaves minutely fringed all around . S. Fortoricense, 22.

I). Branch leaves not fringed.

Walls of hyaline cells adjoining chlorophyllose cells fur¬
nished with a fringe of rudimentary fibrils . . S. Austini, 21.

Walls of hyaline cells adjoining chlorophyllose cells thickly

papillose . S. papillosum, 20*

Walls smooth.

Cortical cells of stem fibrillose.

Chlorophyllose cells narrowly triangular or triangular

elliptical . S. cyniMfolium, 19*

Chlorophyllose cells very large, equilateral- triangular . S. affine
Cortical cells porose, not fibrillose.

Stem leaves broadest at base . S. acutifolium, 1.

[S. Wulfianum may be sought here.]

Stem leaves broadest in the middle .... S. molle, IS.

Stem leaves broadest at apex . S. fhnbriatum, 4.

Stem leaves of almost equal breadth throughout S. Grirgensohnii,3 3.

1 See Cardot: Revision des Sphaignes de l’Am^x’ique du Nord, in Bull. Soe. roy. de hot. d©

Belgique, XXVI.

3 Renauld & Cardot: Rev. Bryol. 1885, p. 44. See also Cardot: Sphaignes d’Europe in
Bull. Soc. roy. de hot. de Belgique, XXV, p. 51, pi. .3, fig. 9 and 10 and pi. 3, fig. 5.

8 S. strictum Lindb.

I

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

2. Chlorophyllose cells on dorsal face of leaf; hyaline cells most convex

on ventral face.

a. Cortex of stem distinct.

Stem leaves very broad above and strongly fimbriate
Stem leaves broadest below.

Branch leaves with narrow border

Branch leaves with broad border ....

Branch leaves not bordered .

S. Lindbergii, 7-

S. tenelliun, 18.
S. cuspidatum, 5.
S. Garberi, 14.

b. Cortex of two layers of small cells , indistinct ,

or wanting . S. intermedium, 6.

B. Chlorophyllose cells exposed on both faces or included , elliptic in

transverse section.

1. Free on both faces.

Cortex consisting of one layer of ceils.

Branch leaves ovate-acuminate . . . . S. subsecundum, 15.

Branch leaves round ovate . S. cyclopliyllum, 23.

Cortex of more than one layer of cells.

Stem leaves large, rounded and fimbriate at apex, with
narrow border below.

Branch leaves large, strongly squarrose . . S. squarrosum, 8.

Branch leaves smaller, slightly squarrose at tips . . $. teres, 9.

Stem leaves small, with broad border below . . S. laricinum, 16.

[S. Wulfianum may be sought here.]

2. Included.

Branches in fascicles of 7 — 12 . S. Wulfianum, 10.

Branches in fascicles of 3 — 5.

Cortex of 2 or 3 layers, with few small pores or none . S. rigidum, 11.
Cortex of 4 or 5 layers, pores numerous . . S. medium, Limpr.1.

II. Branches uniform, solitary or in pairs; hyaline cells fibrillose; cortical
cells usually in one layer, without pores.

Stem and branch leaves alike, broadly obtuse, entire or

erose at apex . S. Pylsesii, 26.

Stem leaves oblong or obovate, branch leaves narrow,

linear oblong . S. Fitzgeraldi, 25.

1 Cardot: 1. c., p. 5.

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

III. Branches uniform , all arcuate-divergent; hyaline cells without fibrils ,
those of the branch leaves with one or two central rows of jpores.

Hyaline cells of branch leaves with 5 — 10 pores in one row,

S. niacropliyllum, 27.

Hyaline cells of branch leaves with 40 — 60 pores in two

rows . S. Floridanum.1

Of the species enumerated the following are reduced by M. Cardot:

SS. medium, papillosum, Austini and affine are sub-species of S. cyrabi-
folium; S. laricinum of S. subsecundum; S. squarrosum of S. teres; S.
Girgensohnii of S. acutifolium. and S. cuspidatum of S. intermedium.

S. rubellum Wils. becomes a variety of S. acutifolium; S. Muelleri
Schimp. is a synonym of S. molle; S. Mendocinum S. & L. of S. cuspi¬
datum; S. sedoides Brid. of S. Pylsesii.

S. cyclophyllum is believed to be an immature state of S. subsecundum,
but is retained in the Key.

ANDREiEA, p. 25.

Costa 0.

Leaves incurved, minute, rotund- obtuse, deeply bi-ventri-

cose . A. parvifolia.*

Leaves spreading or secund, acuminate, not ventricose A. petrophila, 1.
Costate.

Costa vanishing below apex . • . . . A. rupestris, 2.

Costa excurrent . A. crassineryium, 3.

MICROMITRIUM, p. 37.

Spores 63 n diameter, leaves serrate . . . M. megalosporum, 1.
Spores 25 n diameter, nearly smooth, leaves serrate above M. Austini, 2.
Spores a little smaller, papillose, leaves nearly entire . M. synoicum, 3.

EPHEMERUM, p. 37.

Leaves not costate . E. serratum, 1.

Leaves costate.

Costa ending below or at apex . E. coliserens, 6,

1 Cardot: 1. c., p. 22.
a Muller: Flora 1887. 219.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

27

Costa excurrent.

Seta short, capsule acutely beaked. . . E. stenophyllum, 7.

Seta 0, capsule blunt pointed.

Leaves gradually long -acuminate, slightly and irreg¬
ularly serrate at apex E. crassinervium, 2.

Leaves with a long hyaline spinulose arista . E. spinulosum, 3.
Leaves papillose both sides . . . E. papillosum, 4.

Leaves long-spinulose on both sides E. liystrix, 5.

SPH JER ANG-IUM, p. 40.

Leaves papillose on both faces S. Schimperianuih, 4.

Leaves smooth or papillose on back.

Margins reflexed, plants triquetrous S. triquetrum, 3.

Margins almost plane, plants round or tetragonal.

Lower leaves ecostate . S. rufescens, 2.

Lower leaves costate . S. muticum, 1.

PHASOUM, p. 41.

Capsule sub-globose, apiculate.

Leaf margins plane or incurved, denticulate . P. Caruiolicum, 1.
Leaf margins reflexed, quite entire ... P. cuspidatum, 2.
Capsule ovate- or oblong-lanceolate ... - P. bryoides, 3.

PLEURIDIUM, p. 43.

Inflorescence paroicous.

Costa reaching the obscurely serrate apex . . P. subulatum, 1.

Costa excurrent into a smooth awl-shaped point . P. Ravenelii, 2.
Inflorescence autoicous.

Upper leaves long subulate.

Entire except at apex . P. alteruifolium, 3.

Serrulate from middle upward .... P. Boland eri, 5.
Upper leaves abruptly short pointed . . . . P. Sullivantii, 4.

BRUCHIA, p. 45. 1

I. Collum 0.

Seta very short . B. palustris, 1.

Seta exceeding capsule . B. Beyrichiana, 5.

[B. brevicollis may be sought here.]

1 This key must be quite imperfect, since the figures are so few, descriptions so imper¬
fect and specimens so inaccessible that it is impossible to ascertain the characters in many
’ instances.

28

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

II. Collum present.

A. Equalling sporangium.

Spores papillose . B. Bolanderi, 4.

Spores pitted . B. brevifolia, 12.

B. Shorter than sporangium.

1. Calyptra papillose.

Leaves denticulate at apex . B. Ravenelii, 13.

Leaves denticulate all around . B. Hampeana, 14.

2. Calyptra smooth.

a. Leaves papillose B. Donnellii, 9.

1). Leaves smooth (subpapillose in B. Sullivantii.)

• i. Costa not filling the narrowed point.

Synoicous . B. flexnosa, 2.

Monoicous . B. Sullivantii, 3.

ii. Costa broad above, filling point.

Capsule immersed . B. brevipes, 11.

Capsule exserted.

Leaves appressed . B. Hallii, 8.

Leaves spreading.

Seta straight.

Collum more than ■§■ spore case .... B. Texana, 10.
Collum less than \ spore case B. brevicollis, 6.

Seta geniculate at middle . B. curviseta, 7.

ARCHIDIUM, p. 49.

Autoicous.

Costa reaching to point of leaf

. . A. Oliioense, 1.

Costa often long excurrent ....

A. Hallii, 5.

Paroicous.

Leaves serrulate .

A. tenerrimum, 2.

Leaves quite entire.

Cells oval or rhombic .

A. Ravenelii, 3.

Cells quadrangular or quadrate .

A. longifolium, 4.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

29

ASTOMUM, p. 51.

Capsules often clustered (2-3), oblong-oval . . A. Ludoyicianuin, 2.

Capsules solitary.

Orange, subglobose, leaves crispate when dry . A. Sullivantii, 3.

Orange, oval, leaves not crispate ... A. nitiduliun, yar. 4.

Brown, shining, ovoid, leaves not crispate . . A. nitiduliun, 4.

Brown, globose, leaves crispate .... A. crispuin, 1.

GYMNOSTOMUM, p. 52.

Lid long remaining attached to columella, capsule thick-
walled, with 6-8 rows of transversely elongated cells
at the mouth . G. curvirostre, 3.

Lid falling early, capsule thin-walled, with 3-4 rows of transversely elon¬
gated cells at mouth.

Plants 1-2 mm. high, lid conic . G. tenue, 4.

Plants 5-10 mm. high, lid subulate, costa 24 — 35 /t wide

at base with 2 guides 1 . G. calcareum, 1.

Plants 1-7 cm. high, costa 70 ju wide at base, with 4-6

guides 1 . . . G. rupestre, 2.

. WBISIA, p. 55.

Inflorescence autoicous.

Teeth more or less perfect or none, capsule wrinkled

lengthwise when dry . W. yiridula, 1.

Inflorescence dioicous.

Teeth large, lacunose and bifid, capsule 8-sulcate . W. longiseta, 2.
Teeth truncate, capsule not sulcate .... TV. Wolfli, 3.

DIOR ANO WBISIA, p. 57.

Leaf cells at base thick- walled, linear (1 : 6-10) . . D. crispula, 1.

Leaf cells at base thin-walled, rectangular (1:2-3) . . D. cirrhata, 2.

RHABDOWEISIA, p. 58.

Leaves minutely denticulate or entire; teeth filiform,

smooth, fugacious . It. fugax, 1.

Leaves coarsely dentate; teeth linear, obliquely crossed-

striate . It. denticulata, 2.

1 See explanation under Dicranum, p. 31.

30

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

CYNODONTIUM, p. 59.

Annulus very narrow and persistent or 0.

Leaf cells conical- to spinous-mamillose.

Teeth not papillose, seta straight .... C. Scliisti, L
Teeth papillose, seta often arcuate when moist . C. gracilescens, 2*
Leaf cells not mamillose, papillose over partitions . . C. virens, 4,.

Annulus distinct, revoluble . C. polycarpum, 3.

DICHODONTIUM, p. 61.

Costa vanishing below apex, seta yellow. . . . D. pellucidum, L.

Costa percurrent, seta red . D. Canadense, 2.

TREMATODON, p. 62.

Collum equalling or somewhat exceeding the oval-oblong

sporangium . T. ambiguum, L

Collum greatly exceeding the cylindric sporangium . T. longicollis, 2.

DICRANELLA, p. 64.

I. Cells of the exothecium rectangular-quadrate; seta red ; costa usually •

broad and indistinct below.

A. Leaves not sheathing, erect-spreading.

Costa percurrent or excurrent.

Annulus 0, peristome papillose.

Capsule cernuous, curved ....

Capsule erect, symmetric ....

Annulus present, peristome not papillose
Costa ceasing within the apex, annulus large, simple

. D. varia, 6.
D. rufescens, 7.
D. parvula. !
D. debilis, 8.

B . Leaves , from a sheathing base, squarrose.

Broad, obtuse . D. squarrosa, 4.

Abruptly subulate.

Capsule striate, substrumose, leaf apex entire , D. Grrevilleana, 2.
Capsule not Striate nor strumose, leaf apex serrulate . D. Sclireberi, 3.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 91.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

31

II. Cells of the exothecium prosenchymatous; seta often yellow; costa nar¬
row and well defined below.

A. Seta red.

Leaves, from a sheathing base, squarrose . . . . D. crispa, 1 .

Leaves not sheathing nor squarrose.

Mostly erect, capsule cernuous . D. subulata, 9.

Secund, capsule erect . D. curvata, 11.

B. Seta yelloivish.

Capsule symmetric, erect
Capsule cernuous.

Strumose .

Not strumose .

DICRANUM, p. 67.

In this genus the structure of the costa is of diagnostic value. It is either
composed of similar cells ( homogeneous ), or composed of large parenchyma
cells and small sclerenchyma cells ( stereides ). The large parenchyma
cells (“ Deuter ” of Lorentz1 2: here translated guides) form a row (seldom
double) in the middle of the costa, touching each other tangentially. They
are comparatively large, but little thickened and either empty or starch¬
bearing.3

I. Monoicous, stems radieulose only at base; costa long excurrent , homo¬
geneous.

Capsule erect, not strumose.

Striate and furrowed when dry . . . D. hyperboreuin Mull.4

Neither striate nor furrowed when dry . . . D. fulyellum, 1.

Capsule cernuous, strumose.

Leaf cells not papillose, capsule oblong-cylindric . D. Starkei, 2 .
Leaf cells with papillae over the partitions, capsules short ovate.

Leaves falcate-secund . D. falcatum, 3.

Leaves spreading . D. Blyttii, 4„

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888) 197. pi. XIII.

2 Pringsh. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., vi. 374.

3 Cf. Limpricht: Die Laubmoose, p. 23.

4 Barnes: MSS.; var. papillosum, Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. x iv. (1889). 91.

D. Fitzgeraldi.3

B. cerviculata, 5.
D. lieteromalla, iO.

32

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

II. Dioicous, stems sub-radiculose above , costa flat , equalling or broader

than the 2 — 4 -stratose lamina whose superficial cells are without
chlorophyll , capsule erect , regular.

Costa not furrowed at back, smooth . . . . D. albicans, 11.

Costa furrowed and toothed at back . . . D. longifolium, 10.

III. Dioicous, stems radiculose {often densely), costa with median guides.

A. Capsule cernuous, more or less arcuate.

1 . Leaf cells pitted.

a. Costa not reaching the apex, leaves transversely undulate.

Leaf cells above elongated, smooth.

Costa serrate on back, not lamellose.

Capsules solitary (rarely 2), annulus 0 . . D. palustre, 19.

Capsules clustered, annulus large, simple . D. Druminondii, 22.
Costa with serrate lamellae.

Capsules clustered, perichaetial leaves differentiated D. undulatum, 23.
Capsules solitary (?), perichaetial leaves like others I). dipteroneuron. 1
Leaf cells above isodiametric, irregular.

Smooth at back . D. Schraderi, 20.

Papillose at back . D. spurium, 21.

b. Costa per current or excurrent , leaves not undulate.

[D. palustre may be sought here.]

Guides in two rows . D. niajus, 18.

Guides in one row.

Perichaetial leaves abruptly subulate . . . D. scoparium, 17.

Perichaetial leaves gradually subulate . . . .3). Howellii.2

2. Leaf cells not pitted or faintly so.
a. Capsules cernuous, curved.
i. Leaves quite entire, subulate.

Points very brittle and mostly broken . . . 1). fragilifolium, 16.

Points not broken ........ B. elongatum, 12.

ii. Leaves entire, upper obtuse . D. Groenlandicum, Brid.3
Lower cells rectangular (1:2-3) .... D. Miquelonense.4

1 Muller: Flora, 1887. 221.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889) 93, pi. XII.

3S.yn. D. tenuinerve, Zett. — Renauld & Cardot: FI. Miq. 42 (1888); Bot. Gaz. xiv.
<1889) 99.

* Renauld & Cardot: FI. Miq. 42 (1888); Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889) 93, pi. XII.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

33.

iii. Leaves serrulate.

Upper cells very irregular.

Weakly papillose over partitions, capsule not striped,

D. congestum, Brid.1 13.

Not papillose, capsule striped.

Inner perichaetial leaves obliquely truncate to a short

serrate subula . B. Mulilenbeckii, 14.

Inner perichaetial leaves narrowed to thong- shaped

point . B. rhabdocarpum, 15.

Inner perichaetial leaves rounded with a short subula,

B. s abide to rum. 2

Upper cells regular, quadratic . B. fuscescens,3 13.

b. Capsule erect , symmetric.

Costa without stereides . B. strictum, 5.

Costa with two stereide bands.

Lamina above of two layers.

Margin and costa serrulate . B. fidvum, 9.

Entire, apex usually broken . B. yiride, 7.

Lamina throughout of one layer.

Upper cells rectangular and mamillose . . B. montanum, 6.

Upper cells less regular, not mamilloie . . . B. flagellare, 8.

D. leioneuron and D. stenodictyon of Kindberg, Ottawa Nat. ii (1889) 155-
and Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 92, are species of uncertain relations.

I have not seen authentic specimens, and the descriptions are too meager
to enable me to form any judgment.

OAMPYLOPUS, p. 77. 4

I. Costa smooth at back.

A. Auricles none.

[C. gracilicaulis may belong here.]

Upper leaves with hyaline points . C. Henrici. 5 6

Upper leaves without hyaline points . C. Leanus, 4.

1 D. fuscescens of Manual.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889) 91, pi. XII.

3 This is var. longirostre and var. angustifolium of Manual.

4 The genus is greatly in need of revision, with a view to discovering differential struc¬
tural characters of the leaves. The few figures and meager descriptions render the key un -

certain in many points.

6 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiii (1888) 197, pi. XIV.

3 - A. & L.

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Auricles present.

No lamina except small colored auricles

. . . C. Hallii, 5.

Lamina distinct.

Perichsetial leaves concolorous.

Auricles brown.

Deeply concave ....

C. liexuosus, 1.

Plane, decurrent ...

C. Tallulensis, 2.

Auricles whitish, large.

Leaves serrulate at apex

C. subleucogaster, 7.

Leaves spinulose serrate at apex . . . . C. Donnellii, 8.

Auricles dirty red . C. angustiretis, 11.

Perichsetial leaves with hyaline points (may include 8

and 11 above) . C. gracilicaulis, 10.

II. Costa scabrous or lamellose at back.

'Leaves with pellucid hair points . C. introflexus, 3.

Leaves not hair pointed.

Alar cells round, lamina 0 . C. frigidus, 6.

No auricles . C. Tirginicus, 9.

FISSIDEMS, p. 81 {incl. Conomitrium, p. 89. J)

I. (EUFISSIDENS.) Plants terrestrial or submersed but not floating;

leaves soft , of one layer of cells.

A. Fruit terminal.

1. Monoicous, male flowers axillary.

Leaf-cells small, densely chlorophyllose, in distinct rows F. limbatus, 5.
Leaf-cells larger, not densely chlorophyllose, nor in dis¬
tinct rows . F. bryoides, 2.

:2. Dioicous or monoicous with the male flowers terminal on a rooting
branch at the base of the female stem.

a. Leaf-cells 14-2 times as long as icide, large , distinct.

Plants less than 1 mm. high, leaves two or three pairs F. Closteri, 1.
Plants 2-4 mm. high, wholly hyaline, leaves 3-5 pairs F. hyalinus, 9.

1 See Barnes: Bot. Gaz. xii (1887) 1.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

35

b. Leaf- cells almost or quite isodiametric, often obscure.

Leaves with a narrow border, at least on vaginant lamina.

Marginal leaf-cells not papillose . F. incurvus, 3.

Marginal leaf-cells papillose.

Costa percurrent . F. Ravenelii, 13.

Costa ceasing below apex . F. Garberi, 15.

Leaves without a border.

Acute, cells densely chlorophyllose, obscurely papillose F. Donnellii, 14.
Obtuse, cells pellucid, operculum conic . . F. obtusifolius, 17.

Apiculate, operculum with acicular beak . . F. osmxmdoides, 18.

Leaves with a thick reddish border. Plants submersed,

rigid . . F. rufulus, 8.1

B Fruit lateral.

1. Leaves without a border.

Obtuse, entire, plants 2-5 cm. high, fruit sub-terminal F. polypodioides, 23.
Rounded at apex, irregularly serrate, 1-2 cm. high, fruit

sub-basal . F. sub-basilaris, 22.

Mucronate, regularly serrulate, fruit basal or sub-basal F. taxifolius, 20.

2. Leaves bordered by several rows of paler, often incrassate, cells.

Capsule cernuous, leaf-cells minute F. Floridanus, 7.

Capsule erect or inclined, flowers dioicous, leaf-cells ob¬
scure . F. decipiens, 19.

Capsule erect or inclined, flowers monoicous, leaf-cells dis¬
tinct . F. adiantoides, 21.

II. (PACHYFISSIDENS.) Leaves rigid, composed of more than one

layer of cells, opaque.

Plants growing in water or very wet places . . F. grandifrons, 24.

III. (OCTODICERAS.)2 Plants aquatic, filiform, floating.

Plants large, much branched, pedicel shorter than the

capsule . F. Julianas, C. 1.

Plants small, little branched, pedicel longer than the cap¬
sule . F. Hallianus, C. 2.

1 F. ventricosus, Lesq.

2 Conomitrium of Manual.

36

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

In the Revision of N. A. species of Fissidens,1 FF. inconstans, exiguus
and minutulus were reduced to F. incur vus, the two latter forming varie¬
ties. FF. bryoides var. csespitans, crassipes, Hallii and Texanus are rel¬
egated to the list of doubtful species.

Two species have recently been named by Renauld and Cardot 2 as oc¬
curring in the U. S., FF. Bambergeri Schimp. and viridulus Wahl. The
first of these I regard as a form of F. incur vus; the second is possibly a
sub-species of the same. It may be known by its thin- walled capsule, with
the peristome inserted below the mouth. Neither are worthy of a distinct
place in the key.

LEUCOBRYUM, p. 90.

Capsule apparently lateral (by innovations), leaves erect-

spreading, oblong lanceolate . L. vulgare,3 lc

Capsule exactly terminal, leaves squarrose, very short and

very broad . . L. sediforme, 2.

CERATODON, p. 92.

Stems 2-8 (sterile often 10) cm. long, teeth articulate for f

length . C. purpureus, 1.

Stems 5 mm. long, teeth articulate to middle . . . C. minor, 2 .

TRICHODON, p. 92.

Cells of leaf base linear, above rectangular . . . T. cylindricus, 1.

Cells of leaf base rectangular (1:2-4), above quadrate . T. flexifolius.4

DISTICHITJM, p. 93.

Capsule erect, spores 17-20 ji . 1). capillaceum, 1.

Capsule cernuous, spores 80-44 ju . inclination, 2.

SELIG-ERIA, p. 96.

Seta straight when moist.

Leaves sharp pointed, cells above rectangular, spores

10-14 ju .

Leaves blunt -pointed, cells above quadratic, spores
14-18 jl .

1 See Bai’nes: Bot. Gaz. xii ("1887) 1.

2 Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99.

3 L. minus cannot be separated. L. vulgare varies from 3 to 20 cm. in height and good
fruit can be found in the same tuft from December to August.

* Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz , xiv, (1889) 94, pi. XIII.

8. pusilla, 1.
S. calearea, 2.

37

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

■» i

Leaves mostly blunt -pointed, cells rectangular, spores

24-82 n . S. tristicha, 4,

Seta arcuate when moist ....... S. recurvata, 3.

PGTTIA, p. 100.

I. Peristome 0 or rudimentary.

Costa with 2-4 lamellae above ..... P. cavifolia, 1.
Costa not lamellate.

Leaf -margins more or less re volute .

Lid conic obtuse, spores echinate .... P. minutula, 2.
Lid rostellate, spores papillose.

Calyptra smooth . . . , . . . P. truncata, 3.

Calyptra scabrous . P. Wilsoni, 4.

Leaf-margins plane or involute.

Lid abruptly rostrate, leaves sharply serrate above . P. Heimii, 5.
Lid conic, leaves distantly denticulate above . . P. riparia, 6.

Lid conic- subulate, leaves slightly crenulate above . P. Barb ill a, 7.

II. Peristome distinct.

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, margins revolute . . . P. Starkeana, 8.

Leaves rounded or round-spatutate, margins plane . P. latifolia, 9.

DIDYMODON, p. 104.

Leaf cells throughout quadratic . I), lurid US, 2.

Leaf cells below rectangular.

Leaf base reddish, margins above revolute D. rubcllus, 1.

Leaf base hyaline, margins plane . . . . D. cylindrieus, 8.

LEPTOTRICHTJM, p. 105.

Dioicous.

Leaves slightly twisted.

Stem leaves spreading, perichaetial leaves hardly

sheathing . L. tortile, 1.

Stem leaves imbricate, perichaetial leaves long sheath¬
ing . L. vaginalis, 2.

Leaves not twisted.

Plants short (1-2 cm.), not radiculose . . . L. Iiomomallum, 8,

Plants long (to 10 cm.) densely radiculose . . L. flexicaule, 4.

38

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Monoicous.

Plants short (5 mm.)

Teeth cylindric, nodose-articulate, leaves spreading . L. pallidum, 5_
Teeth flattened, linear, trabeculate, perforate, leaves

secund . L. Schimperi, 6.

Plants longer (2-3 cm.), glaucous . . . L. glaucescens, 7.

TRICHQSTOMTJM, p. 108.

I. Lamina composed of one layer of cells, papillose.

Margin reflexed or undulate, entire.

Annulus 0 . T. tophaeeum, 1,

Annulus large, compound . T. pyriforme, 2.

Margin plane or incurved.

Costa reaching apex or excurrent; serrate above.

Base of leaf yellowish, with thick walled rectangular

cells . T. crispulmn, 3.

Base of leaf hyaline.

Abruptly mucronate or obtuse, with long papillae T. flavo-Yirens, 4.
Gradually acuminate, papillae low . . T. liitidiim, Sch.1

Costa ceasing far below apex; entire . . . T. Coloradense.2

II. Lamina of two layers, upper surface mamillose, lower smooth.

Peristome not twisted, seta arcuate or variously bent . T. flexipes, 5*
Peristone twisted, seta subflexuous T. anomalum, 6,

DESMATODON, p. 110.

I. Capsule erect or nearly so.

A. Leaves without a hyaline or thickened border.

1. Not papillose , 1). systilius, 2 .

2. Papillose.

a. Costa excurrent into a hair.

Capsule oblong (1: 2 or 1: 3 excl. lid), 16 teeth divided nearly or quite to base.
Plants of mountainous regions; calyptra reaching base

of capsule ........ D. latifolius, 1.

Plants of lowlands; calyptra reaching half way to base

of capsule . B .Guepini, 10,

1 Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Oaz. xiv (1889), 99.

9 Appendix, p. 413

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

30

Capsule cylindric (1:5-6); teeth divided half way or entire.

[D. obliquus may be sought here.]

Dioicous . D. plintliobius, 6.

Monoicous . 1). Neo-Mcxicauus, 7.

b. Costa vanishing at apex or forming a short point.

Leaves hyaline f of their length .... 1). obtusifolius, 9.

Leaves hyaline only at base.

Margins revolhte.

Capsule long cylindric, leaves crenulate . . I). arenaceus, 3.

Capsule elliptic, leaves entire . D. nervosus, 8..

Margins indexed above . 1). Garberi, 4.

B. Leaves with a pellucid border. . . D. Porteri, 5.

II. Capsule nodding or pendent.

Leaves with a thickened border below.

Seta straight, capsule nodding or horizontal
Seta reflexed, capsule pendent
Leaves without a border .

1). ceriums, 11.
I). Laureri, 13.
I). obliquus, 12..

BARBULA, p. 115.

I. Leaves icith jointed dichotomous filaments on the costa.

Costa broad (4 leaf) flattened, leaves thick, rigid . . § I. Aloidellse.

Costa narrow, round, leaves thin, broad . . . §11. Chlorouotae.

II. Leaves not filamentose.

Teeth from a low membrane, scarcely projecting from the
mouth [excl. B. brevipes].

Plants small.

Leaf cells distinct . § III. Cuueifolise-

Leaf cells small.

Periclisetial leaves little different from the foliage,

§ IY. XJnguiculatse.

Pericheetial leaves long sheathing or convolute . § Y. Convolute.

Plants robust [excl. B. ccespitosa ].

Leaves entire; stems radiculose .... § YI. Tortuosse.

Leaves serrate, stems not radiculose ... § YII. Squarrosse.

Teeth from a high tesselated membrane . , § YIII. Syntricliia?.

40

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

§ I. Aloidellse.

Synoicous . B. brevirostris, 1.

Dioicons.

Annulus broad, revoluble, calyptra reaching the middle

of the capsule . B. rigida, 2.

Annulus small, persistent, calyptra barely covering the

lid . B. ambigua, 3.

§ II. Chloronotse.

Leaves with hair points.

Tip of leaf hyaline . B. meinbranifolia, 4.

Tip of leaf concolorous.

Hair smooth, leaves acute or somewhat obtuse . B. chloronotos, 5.
Hair serrate, leaves rounded obtuse .... B. Henrici.1
Leaves without hair points . B. Maimise.2

§ III. Cuneifolise.

Leaves bordered by 2-4 rows of thickened cells . . B. margiuata, 8.

Leaves bordered by 1 row of round yellowish cells with

prominent papillae, aristate B. Yahliana, 7.

Leaves with a broad yellowish border, not pointed B. Egelingi Schliep.2
Leaves without a border.

Costa excurrent into a hoary hair B. nmraiis, 12.

Costa forming a short point or ceasing below apex.

Leaf cells smooth . B. cimeifolia, 6.

Leaf cells papillose [incl. B. amplexa f\

Peristome membrane long . B. brevities, 11.

Peristome membrane short.

Inner perichaetial leaves short B. Bolanderi, 9.

Inner perichaetial leaves long-sheathing, abruptly

reflexed . B. amplexa, 10.

§ IV. Unguiculatse.

[B. csespitosa may be sought here.]

I. Peristome 0. . B. rubiginosa, 28

\Rau: Bull. Washb. Coll. Lab. i (1886), 172.

2 Muller: Flora 1887, 222.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 41

II. Peristome present.

A. Teeth straight or scarcely twisted.

Nodose, separate . B. rigidula, 22.

Cancellate ........ B. cancellata, 19.

B. Teeth plainly twisted.

1. Leaves blunt or mucronate by the excurrent costa.

Leaves short, ovate, the very apex obtuse.

Capsule cylindric, calyptra reaching middle . B. bracliyphylla, 20.
Capsule ovate, calyptra reaching base B. purpurea, 21.

Leaves longer, narrower, sharp pointed.

Cells at base rectangular and pellucid.

Capsule oblong-elliptic to sub-cylindric, sub-incurved,

B. unguiculata, 13.

Capsule oblong, small, erect . B. Jooriaua, 14.

Cells at base quadrate, chlorophyllose B. Cruegeri, 18.

2. Leaves gradually pointed.

a. Leaves not papillose [inch B. artocarpaf\

Annulus none . . . . . . . . B. gracilis, 31.

Annulus large, simple, persistent .... B. artocarpa, 30.

h. Leaves papillose.

i. Cells at base roundish , quadrate or short- rectangular.
Annulus 0.

Costa 70 p wide at base and tapering gradually . B. fallax, 15.
Costa 50 p wide, of equal breadth to middle , B. recurvifolia, 17.
Annulus pale, compound . B. elata, 27.

ii. Cells at base rectangidar , often elongated.

[B. fallax may be sought here.]

Leaves erect-incurved, imbricate when dry.

Cells above 5-7 p diameter . B. viuealis, 23.

Cells twice as large . B. yiresceus, 25.

Leaves squarrose-spreading orrellexed, twisted when dry.

Pericheetial leaves open, sheathing only at base, revolute

on edges . B. subfallax, 16.

Perichsetial leaves half sheathing.

Annulus simple, narrow, persistent . . . B. semitorta, 29 l.

1 In Lesq. & James’ Manual, p. 126, In note under B. semitorta. read “ Comparable to
B. vinealis ” instead of B. brachyphylla. See Pacif. B. R. Rept., iv, 186.

42

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Annulus double or triple.
Cells 5-7 ii in diameter
Cells twice as large

j B. cylindrica, 2'6.
I B. flexifolia, 24.

B. yirescens, 25.

Nos. 23, 24, 25, 26, with possibly 29, are doubtless forms of one species,
so that the key will probably break down here.

§ V. Convolute©.

Leaves involute on margin.

Aristulate by excurrent costa . B. agraria , 34.

Acute or submucronate ...... B. Donnellii, 36.

Leaves plane on margin or recurved.

Capsule costate when dry . B. Rani, 35.

Capsule smooth.

Leaves acute, costa percurrent . . . . B. convoluta, 32.

Leaves with hyaline point . B. Closteri, 33.

§ VI. Tortuosee.

Leaves long linear, acute, abruptly mucronate . . B. csespitosa, 37.

Leaves very long acuminate, cuspidate.

Twisted crispate when dry, above of one layer of cells B. tortnosa, 38.
Not crispate, brittle, two layers of cells above . . B. fragilis, 39.

§ VII. Squarrosae.

Includes but one species . B. sqnarrosa, 40.

§ VIII. Syntrichiee.

[B. bi*evipes may be sought here.]

I. Leaves with a border of thickened cells.

Marginal cells elongated . . . . . . . B. subulata, 41.

Marginal cells roundish . B. lampila, 44.

. II. Leaves not bordered.

Cells smooth .

Cells papillose.

Monoicous.

Costa percurrent ....

Costa excurrent into a long (mostly
hair .

B. mncronifolia, 43.

\ B. inermis, 42.

I B. subulata var. mutica, 41.

smooth) hyaline

B. lseyipila, 44.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 45

Polygamous, costa excurrent into a hyaline spinulose hair B. Muelleri, 48.
Dioicous.

Costa pereurrent or ceasing below apex . . . B. latifolia, 45.

Costa short-excurrent, clothed above with gemmae B. papillosa, 47.
Costa naked, excurrent into a hyaline, spinulose hair.

Hair red at base, upper leaves acute . . B. megalocarpa.1

Hair white throughout, upper leaves rounded or
emarginate ........ B. ruralis, 46.

GRIMMIA, p. 134.

Seta shorter than the capsule.

Straight, capsule symmetric.

Lid falling with columella . § I. Schistidium.

Lid persistent on columella . §11. Scouleria.

Crooked, capsule ventricose ... § III. Gasterogrimmia.

Seta longer than capsule.

Arcuate . § IT. Eugrimmia.

Straight . § Y. Guenibelia.

§ I. Schistidium.

Leaves with hyaline points (excl. vars. of 1 and 3)

Pericheetial leaves obtuse, in lower £ cells large . G. platyphylla, 4.
Perichaetial leaves hair pointed.

Capsule oblong . G. ambigua, 2.

Capsule ovate -globose.

In small dense cushions, soft, lurid green . G. conferta, 1.

In lax cushions, coarse, fuscescent G. apocarpa, 3.

Leaves muticous.

Margins plane.

Coarsely dentate at apex . G. Agassizii, 5.

Entire at apex . G. liiaritiina, 6.

Margins recurved or revolute . . . • | G* apocarpa | vars*

§ II. Soouleria.

Includes but one species . * G. Scouleri, 7.

§ III. Gasterogrimmia.

Peristome 0, lamina bistratose near apex .... G. anodon, 8.
Peristome present, lamina unistratose throughout . G. plagiopoda, 9.

J Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib , xvi (1889), 92.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

§ IV. Eugrimmia.

•Capsule costate when dry.

Leaves homomallous-falcate when dry . . . G. hamulosa, 12.

Leaves spirally twisted on stem when dry

G. torquata, 18.

Leaves incurved-cirrhate when dry G. contorta, 11.

Leaves imbricate or slightly twisted when dry.

Hair point rough, capsule obscurely costate . G. Mulilenbeckii, 14.
Hair point smooth, capsule strongly costate.

Laxly pulvinate-cespitose, dioicous , . G. trichophylla, 16.

Densely pulvinate, monoicous . . . . G. pulyinata, 10.

Capsule not cos bate (or obscurely) when dry.

Leaves falcate-reflexed when moist G. Watsoni,15.

Leaves not reflexed.

Margins plane, capsule elliptic, collum 0 . . G. Olneyi, 17.

[G. Mulilenbeckii may be sought here].

Margins reflexed.

Capsule subpyriform, collum distinct, leaves not

gemmiferous

G. Californica, 18.

Capsule oval-oblong, upper leaves gemmiferous G. Hartmani, Sch.1

A sterile species, Gvimmia arcuatifolia, probably belonging to this section
has been described by Kindberg in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 93.
It resembles G. Watsoni in the reflexed leaves.

Lamina above 2-4-stratose.

Calyptra cucullate.

Leaves hair pointed ...... G. cominutata, 25.

Leaves not hair pointed, rather blunt . . . G. imicolor, 28.

Calyptra mitrate.

Leaf margins plane . . G. leucophsea, 22.

Leaf margins recurved.

Walls of basal cells sinuate . . . G. Pennsylvania, 22.

Walls of basal cells smooth . G. ovata, 21.

Only the margin 2 — 4-stratose.

Leaves muticous or hyaline, apiculate . . G. Coloradensis, 20.

Leaves hair pointed.

Annulus 0.

Calyptra mitrate, covering whole capsule . G. calyptrata, 23.
Calyptra cucullate . G. montana, 26.

1 Mrs. E. G. Britton, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889) , 340.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

45

Annulus present .

Cells of leaf base elongated (1:4 to 1: 8) . . G. Donniana, 19.

Cells of leaf base short (1: 2) . . . . G. alpestris, 27.

Grimmia Mannioe , apparently of this section, is described by Muller ( Flora
1887, 228), from California. Mrs. E. G. Britton is of opinion that it is only
G. alpestris Schleich.

RHACOMITRIUM, p. 147.

I. Branches fastigiate.

Leaves with a short hyaline point R. Slide ticum, 5.

Leaves muticous.

N

Costa with 2-4 lamellse at back . R. patens, 1.

Costa not lamellose.

Leaves with large quadrate cells at the basal angles,

decurrent . R. depression, 8.

Leaves not auricled nor decurrent.

Obtuse.

Perichsetial leaves costate, seta long . R. aciculare, 2.

Pericheetial leaves ecostate, seta short . . R. Nevii, 4.

Acute . R. Macounii, \

II. Branches fasciculate.

A. Leaves muticous.

Cells elongated above. . R. fascicnlare, 7.

Cells quadratic above . R. variuin, 8.1 2

[R. canescens may be sought here.]

B. Leaves with a hyaline point.

Cells linear throughout lamina . . . . R. niicrocarpum, 9.

Cells quadratic above.

Strongly papillose both sides . R. canescens, 11.

Smooth (except at the point).

Hyaline point denticulate .... R. heterostickuni, 6.
[R. canescens var. lntescens and R. varium may be sought here.]

Hyaline point strongly erose-serrate and papillose R. laniiginosuni, 10..

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889), 93.

2 R. Oreganum Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 198, pi. XV, is this species
( [fide J. Cardot in litt.'), which seems to be R. canescens , var. lutescens L. and J. ; fide
Mrs. E. G. Britton in lift.

46

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

COSCXNGDON, p. 154.

Costa not entering the hyaline point which is less than the
leaf in length.

Dioicous, leaves oblong lanceolate . . . . C. puTvinatus, 1.

Autoicous, leaves obovate . C„ Rani, 3.

Costa forming a rough hyaline point twice as long as the

leaf . C. Wriglitii, 2.

PT Y CHOMITRXTJM, p. 156.

Plants large (3 cm. + ), leaves acuminate, sharply dentate P. Gardner!, 1.
Plants small (1 cm. — ), leaves not acuminate, nearly or
quite entire.

Collum 0.

Teeth subulate (1:10), entire . P. incurvum, 2.

Teeth lanceolate (1:4), bi- or trifid . . . P„ Drummondii, 3.

Collum equalling one-third sporangium P. pygmseum, 4.

AMPHORIDIUM, p. 158.

Leaf margins plane, entire ..... A. Lapponicilin, 1.
Leaf margins recurved or re volute.

Leaves remote, recurved -spreading, serrate . A. Sulliyantii, 4.
Leaves close.

Costa excurrent, seta arcuate . . . .A. Califormcim, 3.

Costa vanishing below apex.

Entire . A. Mongeotii, 2.

Serrulate . A. csespitosmn, 5.

TJLOTA, p. 160.

I. Leaves rigid , not crispate when dry.

[U. Drummondii may be sought here.]

Costa percurrent . U. Hutcliinsise, 9.

Costa ceasing below apex . U. Barclayi, 10.

II. Leaves crispate ivhen dry.

Upper leaves tipped with gemmae

U. pliyllantha, 8.

-'V ' ■' •

' '

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 47

Upper leaves not bearing gemmae.

Dry capsule costate only at narrow mouth . . U. Ludwigii, 2.

Dry capsule costate its whole length.

Stems creeping, leaves slightly crispate, peristome

simple . U. Druininondii, 1.

Stems not creeping, leaves strongly crispate, peristome
double.

Mouth of capsule contracted .... U. Brucliii, 4,

Mouth of capsule not contracted.

Tufts brown, on rocks . U. curvifolia, 8.

Tufts green, on trees.

Capsule contracted below the mouth U. crispjL 5.

Capsule not contracted below the mouth . U. crispnla, 7.

XJ. Americana of Mitten (no. 6), is allied to the last two species, and I
am unable to see wherein it differs in any features which can be used in
a key.

ORTHOTRICHUM, p. 164.

I. Leaves obtuse.

Margins plane, stomata superficial ....(). obtusifoliuni, 81.
Margins revolute.

Peristome simple, on rocks . 0. Jamesiamnn, 82.

Peristome double, in water . 0. rivulare, 30.

II. Leaves with hyaline points.

Plants large (7-8 cm.) . 0. Pringlei, b

Plants smaller (about 1 cm.).

Teeth equidistant, cilia of 1 row of cells . . 0. diapliamim, 28.

Teeth bigeminate, cilia of 2 rows of cells ... 0. camim, 29.

III. Leaves acute , without hyaline points, margins revolute or recurved.

A. Stomata superficial.

1. Peristome simple.

[OO. Texanum and rupestre may be sought here.]

Capsule wholly exserted, smooth when dry.

Defluent into seta . 0. laevigatum, 2.

Abrupt at base . 0. Douglasii, 6.

1 Miiller: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., xiii (1886), 120. But July 18, 1888, he writes: “Mein O.
Pringlei ist forma longifolia crispata papillosa von 0. Lyellii,xmd anderer mal O. papillosum
und 0. Pacificum Hampe ” ! — fide Mrs. E. G. Britton.

p&fp uy AAA -aKSpAA ™ C |uy- ' tf.-d'! j ,

48

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Capsule immersed or emergent.

Leaves densely papillose . 0. Sturmii, 4,

Leaves almost smooth . . . . . . 0. bullatum, b

2. Peristome double.

[OO. laevigatum and Sturmii, may be sought here.]

a. Capsule entirely smooth.

Immersed, papillae simple . 0. leiocarpum, 25,

Exserted, papillae bifurcate . 0. Kingianum, 15,

b. Capsule strongly costate.

Leaves beset with clavate gemmae . 0. Lyellii, 83.

Leaves not gemmiferous.

Teeth erect when dry, cilia 16 . . . 0. Texanum, 5,

Teeth reflexed when dry ( O. brachytrichum ?), cilia 8.

Capsule (inch collum) subcylindric.

Leaves acute, papillae simple or bifurcate, salient . 0. affine, 10,

Leaves apiculate, minutely papillose . . 0. brachytriclmin, 18.

Capsule obovate . 0. sordidum, 14,

c. Capsule ribbed only near mouth.

Peristome opaque, very papillose, reflexed when dry 0. speciosuni, 12,
Peristome opaque, transversely lineolate, reflexed when

dry . 0. Bolanderi, 8.^

Peristome not opaque, erect when dry, papillae more or

less obliterated or reduced to sinuous lines . . 0. rupestre, 7,

B. Stomata immersed.

s. I

1. Peristome simple.

Capsule smooth when dry . 0. Douglasii, 6.&

Capsule faintly costate, bands (8, rarely 16) cinnamon -red 0. anomalum, 1.
Capsule 16-costate, bands (16, rarely 8) yellow . . 0. cupulatum, 3.

Capsule 8-costate . 0. Texanum, 5.i * 3

[O. Hallii may be sought here.]

i Muller: Flora , 1887, 223.

3 This sp. is O. rupestre , var. vulgare, forma densior according to Venturi in Husn. Muse .
Gall. 156.

3 This species is repeated here because the character of the stomata is unknown to me.

49

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

2. Peristome double.

a. Capsule smooth when dry.

Cilia wider than teeth . 0. exiguuin, 24.

Cilia narrow.

Capsule gradually narrowed to seta .... 0. pallens, 26.

Capsule abruptly contracted to seta ... 0. psilocarpum, 23

H j

b. Capsule costate when dry.

i. Abruptly contracted to seta , collum not evident.

Leaves with simple papillae.

Capsule exserted, teeth papillose , . . . 0. consiiuile, 21.

Capsule subimmersed, teeth with oblique sinuous lines . 0. Hallii, 13.

Leaves rough with very long forked papillae ... 0. Watsoni, 9.

ii. Gradually narrowed to seta with evident collum.

* Capsule exserted.

[O. tenellum may be sought here.]

Cilia 8, calyptra hairy . 0. cylindricarpum, 22.

Cilia 16, calyptra naked . 0. pulcliellum, 27.

* * Capsule immersed or nearly.

Leaves with salient furcate papillae.

Teeth papillose below, paler above, with longitudinal or

sinuous lines, rarely perforate .... 0. al pest re, 11. -

Teeth papillose throughout, often perforate along
median line.

Neck of capsule shriveling into a cup which receives the
seta, capsule contracted below mouth ... 0. fallax, 17.

Neck of capsule not becoming cupped, capsule not con¬
tracted below mouth . 0. pumilum, Sw.1-

Leaves with simple, often weak papillae.

Capsule emergent, subcylindric (long cyl. when dry),

little contracted below the mouth ... 0. tenellum, 20.

Capsule immersed, obovate, contracted below mouth.

Neck shrivelling into a cup, which receives the seta . 0. fallax, 17.

Neck not becoming cupped .... 0. strangulatum, 19.

Capsule immersed, not contracted.

Capsule straw-colored, teeth dirty -reddish . . 0. Oliioense, 16.

Capsule with yellow (not orange) bands, teeth orange,
yellow or pale . 0. pumilum Sw.1

1 Venturi: Husn. Muse. Gall. 179, pi. 49.

4 — A. & L.

<50

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

MACROMITRXUM, p. 178.

Capsule plicate at mouth and base only
Capsule costate its whole length.

Lid conic, blunt, peristome 0.

Lid subulate, peristome present
Capsule smooth .

M. Sullivantii, 1.

M. Fitzgeraldi, 2.
M. rliabdocarpuin, 8.
M. mucronifolium, 4.

ENOALYPTA, p. 180.

I. Capsule spirally striate and sulcate when dry.

Capsule twisted to the right when dry, leaves with hya¬
line hair points, teeth glabrous E. Selwyni, 7.

-Capsule twisted to the left when dry.

Leaves acute or apiculate, teeth papillose, with a median

line . E. procera, 6.

Leaves muticous. usually obtuse, teeth filiform, nodose,

minutely papillose . E. streptocarpa, 8.

II. Capsule vertically striate and sulcate when dry , or smooth.

Distinctly striate . E. rhabdocarpa, 3.

Smooth or faintly striolate.

Calyptra entire at base, peristome 0 or fugacious.

Calyptra smooth at apex . E. coiiinmtata, 1.

Calyptra scabrous at apex ..... E. vulgaris, 2.
Calyptra fringed at base, peristome present.

Leaves apiculate-acuminate . E. ciliata, 4.

Leaves muticous _ . E. Macounii, 5.

OALYMPERES, p. 184.

Leaves oblong or broad- ovate.

Upper leaves very obtuse, often filamentose at apex . C. Richardi, 1.
Upper leaves acute, often filamentose in middle . C. disciforme, 2.
Leaves narrowly panduriform, obtuse or retuse . C. (2) crispum, 3.

SYRRHOFODON, p. 185.

1 Leaf margins bilamellate upwards . . . . S. Floridanus, 1.

ILeaf margins single throughout . S. Texanus, 2.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

51

TETRAPHIS, p. 186.

Pedicel straight . T. pellucida, 1.

Pedicel geniculate at middle . T. geniculata, 2.

DISSODON, p. 189.

Seta short (5 mm.), thick, capsule erect, chestnut brown,

D. Horuscliuchii, 1.

Seta longer (1.5 cm.), plants 1-2 cm. high, capsule often

inclined, orange . D. Froelicliianus, 2.

Seta longer (3-4 cm.), plants 4-12 cm., capsule erect,

orange . D. splaclmoides, 3.

TAYLORIA, p. 190.

Teeth i length of sporangium, strap-like, reflexed, sinuous
and twisted when dry, upper half of leaf serrate,

T. splaclmoides, 2.

Teeth much shorter, linear, recurved, upper third of leaf

serrate . T. serrata, 1.

TETRAPLODON, p. 191.

Leaves sharply serrate, narrowed to filiform point . T. angustatus, 1.

Leaves distantly incised-serrate, gradually acuminate . T. australis, 3.

Leaves entire, more or less abruptly filiform-apiculate.

Costa sub-excurrent, empty sporangium constricted in

middle . T. innioides, 2.

Costa ceasing below point, empty sporangium not con¬
stricted in middle . T. urceolatus, 4.

SPLACHNUM, p. 193.

Apophysis ovate or subglobose.

About the size of the sporangium.

Costa excurrent, apophysis red . . . . S. sphsericum, 2.

Costa ceasing below apex, apophysis at first green then

brown . S. Wonnskioldii, 1.

Greatly exceeding the sporangium ... S. vasculosum, 3.
Apophysis pyriform, exceeding the sporangium . S. ampullaceum, 4.
Apophysis campanulate.

Purple . . S. rubruin, 5.

Yellow . S. luteum, 6.

52

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

PHY SOOMITRIUM, p. 196.

Capsule immersed . P. immersum, 1,

Capsule exserted.

Leaves entire or nearly so.

Seta short, little exceeding leaves P. Hookeri, 4.

Seta much longer (5-10 mm.)

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, colium distinct . P. acuminatum, 5.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, colium 0 P. turhinatum, 6.

Leaves serrate, cells at mouth of capsule transversely
elongate.

5-7 rows . P. pygmseum, 2.

12-15 rows [P. megalocarpum ? ]

Leaves more or less acuminate, distinctly yellow-

bordered . P. megalocarpum. 1

Leaves acute, not bordered . P. pyriforme, 2.

ENTOSTHODON, p. 199.

Leaves acute, capsule short-pyriform.

Costa percurrent, teeth dark red, striolate . . E. Drummondii, L

Leaves acuminate, capsule long-pyriform.

Costa reaching middle, teeth whitish, granulose . E. Bolanderi, 2.
Costa subpercurrent, teeth red, nodose, papillose . E.^Templetoni, 3.

PUN ARIA, p. 200.

Annulus 0.

Leaves entire or nearly.

Capsule arcuate, leaves acuminate

Costa excurrent . .

F. Americana, 1.

Costa vanishing .

F. Mediterrauea, 2.

Capsule erect, leaves acute ....

. F. Californica, 5.

Leaves sharply serrate.

Short-pointed, lid convex, mamillate

. F. serrata, 4.

Long acuminate, lid short conic

F. calcarea, 3.

Annulus large, revoluble.

Capsule irregularly plicate and furrowed.

Leaves with involute margins . . . .

F. convoluta, 6.

Leaves with plane margins ....

F. fllvicans, 7.

Capsule distinctly striate-costate.

Leaves short-acuminate, lid large, spores 12-17 fi

F. liygrometriea, 8.

Leaves long acuminate, lid small, spores 24-28 ju

F. microstoma, 9.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889,) 94.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

53

BARTRAMIA, p. 203.

Capsule erect, peristome 0 or simple.

Leaves reflexed on margin below, capsule rugose when

dry . B. Menziesii, 1.

Leaves plane, capsule plicate -furrowed . . . B. subulata, 2.

Leaves plane, capsule ribbed . B. stricta, 3,

Capsule curved, lid oblique, peristome double.

Seta short (— capsule), fruit pseudo -lateral . . B. Halleriana, 7.

Seta exceeding stems.

Leaves smooth . B. (Ederiana, 5.

Leaves papillose only on upper surface . . . B. radicalis, 8.

Leaves papillose on both surfaces.

Base white, margin plane; synoicous . . B. itliyphylla, 4.

Base not white, margin revolute; autoicous . B. pomiformis, 6 .

PHILONOTIS, p. 208.

Leaf cells quadrate . P. Macounii, 2.

Leaf cells rectangular to linear.

Plants short (1-3 cm.).

Costa thick, rusty, leaves erect-spreading, capsule hor¬
izontal . P. Mulilenbeckii, 1.

Costa canaliculate, leaves closely appressed, capsule
oblique . P. Mohriana, 5.

Plants usually long (3-15 cm.).

Mouth of capsule writh 8 rows of transversely elon¬
gated cells . P. fontana, 3.

Mouth of capsule with 4 rows . P. calcarea, 4.

MEESIA, p. 212.

Leaves entire, margins reflexed or re volute.

Synoicous, costa very thick Q- leaf base) . . . M. uliginosa, 1.

Autoicous, costa narrow (-£• leaf base) . . . M. Alfcertinii, 3.

Leaves entire, margins plane . M. longiseta, 2.

Leaves serrate . . M. tristiclia, 4.

WEBER A, p. 215.

I. Leaves with a reddish border , distinct to apex

W. Tozeri, 17.

54

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

II. Leaves not bordered, or indistinctly.

A. Annulus present.

1. Segments and cilia of endostome imperfect , often only

a laciniate membrane . W. camptotracliela.1

2. Segments of endostome not widely open along the keel, cilia 0 or short

(excl. W. longicolla).

Inflorescence autoicous . W. acuminata, 1.

Inflorescence synoicous or dioicous.

Costa very broad, of leaf base .... W. Cardoti, Ren.2

Costa narrow.

Plants less than 1 cm., seta 5-8 mm., capsule wide -

mouthed when dry . W. nudieaulis, 11.

Plants small, seta longer, mouth of capsule constricted

when dry . . * . W. Bolanderi, 12.

Plants 2 cm. or more, seta 2-3 cm . W. cruda, 7.

Inflorescence paroicous.

[W. nudieaulis may be sought here.]

Neck shorter than sporangium, cilia 0 . . . W. polyniorpha, 2.

Neck equaling sporangium, cilia more or less developed.

Cilia i (or less) height of teeth W. elongata, 8.

Cilia equaling teeth . W. longicolla, 4.

3. Segments of endostome split and gaping along keel, cilia well devel¬
oped.

Inflorescence paroicous.

Capsule pendent, touching seta, not contracted under

mouth . W. cueullata, 6.

Capsule horizontal or pendent, not touching seta, con¬
tracted below mouth . W. nutans, 5.

Inflorescence dioicous.

Upper leaves lance-linear (1:8-10).

Plants loosely cespitose, in wet soil, 1 cm. high, seta
1-2 cm . W. Lescuriana, 14.

Plants solitary or gregarious, sphagnicolous, 8-6 cm. ,
seta 3-4cm . W. sphagnicola, 8.

Uppermost leaves lanceolate (1 : 4-6).

Costa reaching apex . W. annotina, 9.

Costa vanishing . W. coinnmtata, 13.

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiii. (1888), 199, pi. XVI.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 95, pi. XIII.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

55-

B. Annulus 0.

Leaves nearly entire, cilia very short W. Drummondii, 10,

Leaves nearly entire, cilia 3 . W. Bigelovii, 19,

Leaves sharply serrate.

Stem red, leaves glaucous-green W. albicans, 18,

Stem and leaves green.

Teeth red . IV. carnea, 15.

Teeth yellow . W. pulchella, 16,

BRYUM, p. 223.

Upper leaf cells rhombic to hexagonal.

Plants not from stolons.

Cilia 0, or inappendiculate . § I. Cladodimn.

Cilia 2-4, appendiculate . § II, Eubryum.

Plants from stolons . §111. Bliodobryuin*

Upper leaf cells linear (1: 10-15) branches julaceous § IV. Anomobryum,,

§ I. Oladodium.

A. Autoicous.

Leaves broad (1 : 2), costa vanishing . . . B. calophyllum, 10.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate.

Cilia long, smooth . B. Brownii, 3.

Cilia 0, or rudimentary.

Capsule symmetric, pyriform, collum about sporangium.

Leaves faintly bordered, slightly revolute . . B. Warneuin, 6,

Leaves very distinctly bordered, broadly revolute B. Biddlecomiae, 7.
Capsule usually unsymmetric, elongate, collum = spo¬
rangium . B. ulig*inosum, 11,.

B. Synoicous, or heteroicous.

Costa long excurrent.

Endostome attached to peristome.

Spores verruculose . B. arcticum, 1.

Spores smooth, about 30 ju . B. pendulum, 4.

Spores smooth, scarcely 20 ju . B. augustirete, b

Endostome free1 2 . B. inclinatum, 5.

Costa short excurrent, or per current.

Leaves not bordered . B. Knowltoni, 3,

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 94.

2 B. stenotriclium, Muller ( Flora 1887, 219), will be sought here and I am unable to dis¬
cover from the description alone any essential difference between it and B. inclinatum.

3 Barnes: Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889), 44.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaves bordered.

Teeth very short (scarcely 200//), articles 10-12 . B. Labradorense, l.
Teeth much longer, articles about 20.

Costa excurrent, leaves reddish, margin scarcely

revolute . B. purpurascens, 2.

Costa vanishing or barely excurrent, margin strong¬
ly revolute . B. lacustre, 8.

[B, flexuosiun may be sought here.]

C. Dioieous.

Endostome adherent to peristome, cilia 0 . B. flexuosiun, 9.

Endostome free, cilia single . . . . B. Californicum, 34.

§ II. Eubryum.

A. Synoicous.

Costa not excurrent . B. Or eg' aim m, 18.

Costa excurrent into a smooth point.

Margins recurved ....... B. torquescens, 16.

Margins plane . . B. microstegium B. & S. 2.

Costa excurrent into a serrate point.

Leaves short pointed, decurrent

With a broad border ....... B. Milium, 14.

Without a border . B. lonchocaulon, 15.

Leaves long-cuspidate, not decurrent.

Not bordered, entire ..... B. intermedium, 12.
Not bordered, serrate at apex .... B, provinciate, 17.
Bordered . . B. cirrhatum, 13.

B. Autoicous.

Capsule horizontal or nodding, leaf margins revolute . B. pallescens, 19.
Capsule pendulous, leaf margins plane . . . B. subrotundum, 20.

C. Dioieous .

1. Costa not excurrent, or when excurrent forming a short point only.

a. Leaves obtuse.

Distant, broadly ovate or oblong, rounded . . B. cyclophyllum, 35.

Imbricate, narrower.

Dull olive green, margins strongly revolute .' B. Muhlenbeckii, 26.
Yellowish-green or purplish, tips of branches crimsoned.

Cells polygonal, thick-walled . . . . B. miniatum, 27.

Cells rhombic, subquadrate below . . . . B. Atwater iae, 28.

1 Philibert: Revue Bry., 1887, 55.

^Renauld and. Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

57

1). Leaves pointed , costa percurrent or excurrent.
i. Capsule short (1:2) abrupt at base . . . B. atropiirpureuni, 22.

ii. Capsule longer (1:8 + ) tapering at base.

* Blood red to dark purple.

Plant short (5-15 mm.) in small lax yellowish-green

tufts . B. erytlirocarpujn, 21.

Plants longer (3-5 cm.) in large compact shining red or
purplish tufts ........ B. alpiniun, 25.

* * Yelloivish-brown.

Slightly incurved.

Constricted below mouth ...... B. meesioides h

Not constricted . . . . v . . • . B. pallens, 30 .

Symmetric.

Strongly constricted below mouth.

Stems about 1 cm. high . B. turbinatum, 39.

Stems 4 — 10 cm. high. ..... B. Schleiclieri, 40.

Slightly constricted below mouth.

Leaf margins plane . B. Sawyeri1 2 3.

Leaf margin revolute.

Quite entire . B. acutiusciilum *.

Serrate at apex ..... B. pseudotriqiietruin, 38.

c. Leaves pointed, costa vanishing.

Leaves closely appressed, imbricate ... B. argenteum, 29.

Leaves sjireading, imbricate . B. capillare, 31.

Leaves spreading, distant . B. Duvalii, 37.

2. Costa excurrent, leaves long -cuspidate.
a. Capsule short (1:2 or less.)

Constricted between sporangium and collum . . B. versicolor, 24.

Not constricted between sporangium and collum . B. coronatum, 23.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 95.

3 Renauld and Car dot: Bot. Gaz., xiv (1889), 95.

3 Muller: Flora , 1887, 220.

58

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

b. Capsule longer (1:3 -{-)

i. Collum long (4 sporangium or more).

Leaves strongly twisted when dry, abruptly pointed . B. capillare, 31.
Leaves erect and straight when dry.

Collum equalling sporangium . . .. B. obconicnm, 33.

Collum one-half the sporangium.

Capsule constricted below the mouth . . B. csespiticium, 30.

Capsule not constricted .... B. Yaacoiiyeriense, b

ii. Collum short (£ sporangium or less). . B. occidental, 32.

§ III. Rhodobryum.

Costa percurrent or vanishing, margins re volute below,

collum short . B. roseum, 41.

Costa excurrent, margins revolute f to |, collum ^sporang¬
ium, curved . B. Ontariense b

§ IV. Anomobryum.

Costa sub-excurrent . . . . . . B. concinnatum, 42.

Costa vanishing below apex . B. bill latum 3.

Bryumhydrophyllum Kindberg 1 2 is a species t£ closely allied to B. pseudo¬
triquetrum,” but so imperfectly known (neither flowers nor capsule hav¬
ing been found), and so briefly characterized that I am unable to assign
it to any place in the key.

ZIERIA, p. 240.

Costa vanishing, collum twice sporangium . . . Z. julacea, 1.

Costa excurrent, collum — sporangium ... Z. demissa, 2.

MNITJM, p. 241.

I. Leaves serrate.

A. Teeth of leaves single.

Stems dendroid . M. Menziesii, 21.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889), 95.

2 Kindberg: Ottawa Nat. ii (1889), 155 and i. c., p. 96.

8 Muller: Flora 1887, 221.

59

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

Stems simple or branched, not dendroid.

Basilar branches stoloniform.

Leaves acuminate, serrate to middle, lid convex or

mamillate, membrane of endostome lacunose M. cuspidatirm, 1.
Leaves acuminate, serrate to base.

Lid apiculate . M. medium, 4.

Lid mammiform ....... M. affine, 7*-

Leaves rounded at apex, mucronate, lid rostrate . M. rostratum, 6.
Basilar branches erect, or stems simple.

Capsule warty-papillose at base •. . . . M. yenustum, 3.

Capsule smooth at base.

Perichaetial leaves entire . M. Nevii, 2.

Perichaetial leaves toothed.

Leaves nearly entire, not decurrent M. affine, var. rugicum, 7.
Leaves serrate to base, long decurrent . . M. insigne, 8..

Leaves serrate above, entire below.

Border distinct, yellowish brown . . M. Drummondii, 5.

Border 0 or faint ..... M. stellare, 16.

B. Teeth of leaves in pairs.

Costa vanishing just below apex ..... M. liornum, 9.
Costa percurrent.

Capsules solitary.

Synoicous . jffi. serratum, 10.

Dioicous.

Leaf-cells small, about 15 ju 1 . . M. orthorrhynehum, 11.

Leaf-cells larger (20-30 p ?) 2 . . . M. lycopodioides, 12.

Leaf-cells very large (50-60 p ?) 3 ... M. umbratile, 13.

Capsules clustered.

Dioicous, leaves strongly crispate, capsule horizontal or

inclined . M. spinosum, 14.

Synoicous, leaves not crispate, capsule pendent M. spinulosum, 15.

II. Leaves entire.

Upper leaf-cells with long diameters oblique to costa.

Leaves bordered .

Costate to apex, dioicous, capsule oblong . M. pnnctatum, 18.
Costa vanishing, synoicous, capsule subglobose M. subglobosum, 19.

1 Fide Husnot: Muse. Gall. 255,

2 “ Cellules un peu plus grandes,” Husnot: op. cit., 256. M. riparium Mitt. (M. lyco*
podioides Bry. Eu., sec. Mitten; M. serratum var. riparium, sec. Husnot, l. c.) has cells
half as large as M. umbratile Mitt., fide Mitten: Jour. Linn. Soc. viii (1865), 30.

8 Cells four times as large as M. orthorrhynehum, fide Mitten, l. c.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

%

a

Leaves not bordered, costa vanishing, dioicous, capsule

ovate-oblong . M. cinclidioides, 17.

Upper leaf-cells isodiametric, costa vanishing M. hyin enopkylloides, 20.

CINCLIDIUM, p. 249.

Leaf margin of 4-5 rows of cells, laminal cells irregularly

disposed . C. stygium, 1.

Leaf margin of 2 rows of red cells, laminal cells in rows

oblique to costa . C. siihrotundum, 2.

AULACOMNIUM, p. 25 2.

Leaves coarsely serrate to middle, autoicous . A. heterostichum, 5.
Leaves serrulate near apex, acute or acuminate, dioicous.

Stem leaves long acuminate, very roughly papillose A. papillosum, 4.
Stem leaves acute.

Stems commonly prolonged and gemmiferous, male

flowers terminal, gemmiform . . A. aiidrogynmn, 1.

Stems not commonly gemmiferous, male flowers dis¬
coid . A. palnstre, 2.

Leaves entire, obtuse . . A. turgiduin, 3.

[The leaves of A. palustre are entire when young, but soon become erose crenulate.]

TIMMIA, p. 254.

Capsule irregularly plicate when dry, segments appendicu-

late . T. Megapolitana, 1.

Capsule costate at mouth when dry, segments not ap-

pendiculate . T. Austriaca, 2.

ATRICHUM, p. 255.

Costa lamellose on upper side only.

Lamellae 2-6, entire, lamina with teeth on surface. 1
Lamellae 4-6 cells high.

Leaves acute, serrate for f length
Leaves bluntish, serrate above middle only.
Teeth double, aculeate ....

Teeth single, short .

Lamellae 9-13 cells high .

Lamellae 4-8, serrate .

Lamellae 1-3, 1-3 cells high, lamina smooth

A. undulatum, 1.

A. augiistatum, 2.
A. xaiithopelma, 4.
A. Selwyni, 3.
. A. Lescurii, 5.
A. crispum, 6.

Costa lamellose on both sides, lamina with longitudinal

rows of teeth on back

A. parallelum, 7.

1 Excluding A. xanthopelma?

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

61

OLIGOTRICHUM, p. 258.

Lamina and costa lamellose on both surfaces ... 0. aligerum, 1.

Costa only lamellose on upper surface .... 0. Lyallii, 2 .

s

POGONATUM, p. 260.

I. Plants simple, mostly short, leaves straight when dry.

[P. alpinum var. simplex will be sought here.]

Lamellae with marginal cells smooth.

Leaves entire . P. h r acliy pliy Hum, 2.

Leaves serrate . P. brevicaule, 1.

Lamellae with marginal cells papillose.

Teeth of leaves very long, often reflexed, marginal cells

of lamellae subquadrate . P. dentatum, 4.

Teeth moderate, 2 rows of marginal cells of lamellae

transversely rectangular . P. capillare, 3.

II. Plants large (4-15 cm.), leaves tivisted when dry.

Leaves very long (1.5-2 cm.) short sheathing, lamellae

afbout 60 . . P. Macounii.1

Leaves less than 1 cm., short sheathing, lamellae about

30 (?)2, strongly contorted when dry . . . P. contortum, 5.

Leaves and lamellae as in 5 (?) subcrispate, abruptly

pointed . P. atroyirens, 6.

III. Plants usually robust (4-15 cm.), rarely small, often much branched

above, leaves straight when dry.

Capsule papillose, marginal cells of lamellae round in sec¬
tion . P. urnigerum, 7.

Capsule smooth, marginal cells of lamellae ovate in section P. alpinum, 8.

POLYTRICHUM, p. 263.

Leaves entire, margins inflexed.

Obtuse at apex . P. sexangulare,3 Florke.

1 Kindberg: Polytriehum (Pogonatum) Macounii: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889), 96.

2 As shown in Sull. Icon. Muse. Suppl., pi. 42, ff. 5, 6.

3 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi. (1889), 96; Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Qaz., xiv..
(1889) 99.

<62

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Aristate at apex.

Awn colored, short.

Leaves spreading when moist, subrecurved . P. juniperinum, 4.
Leaves erect-open, strict . P. strictum, 5.

Awn hyaline, long . P. piliferum, 3.

Leaves serrate.

Marginal cells of lamellae like rest, oval, higher than >
broad in section. *

Capsule ovate, obscurely angled, lid rostrate . . P. gracile, 1.

Capsule oblong, 4-6 angled, lid acutely conic . P. formosnm, 2.
Marginal cells of lamellae enlarged, broader than high

(3: 1) . P. Ohioense.1 2

Marginal cells of lamellae semilunar, with two promi¬
nent papillae at corners . P. commune, 6.

FONTINALIS, p. 268.

I. Perichcetial leaves abruptly pointed, entire/1

Leaves decurrent, teeth not lacunose . . . F. Neo-Mexicana, 3.

Leaves not decurrent, teeth lacunose . . . F. Dalecarlica, 4.

II. Perichcetial leaves rounded- obtuse, entire or lacerate.

A. Leaves of branches unlike stem leaves F. Howellii.3 4

B. Leaves homomorphous /

1. Leaf -cells long-linear (1: 10 +).

Alar cells very large.

Leaves acute . F. Sullivantii, 8.

Leaves with very apex blunt or denticulate . . . F. flaccida.5

1 Renauld & Cardot: Revue BryoL 1885, 11; also Bot. Gaz., xiii, (1888), 199, pi. XVII.

2 The fruit of F. Californica and F. flaccida has not yet been found. The latter will
possibly fall here. Muller has also described imperfectly a sterile species, F. maritima ,
from Neah Bay, Wash. It is distinguished at once, he says, by the rigid branches and
-deeply carinate-canaliculate leaves. Having seen neither specimens nor figures I am un¬
able to place it properly in the key.

3 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 200, pi. XVIII.

4 In F. biformis the summer leaves are unlike the vernal, so that specimens collected
just as the vernal are falling might deceive.

5 Renauld & Cardot: 1. c., p. 201, pi. XIX.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

63

Alar cells moderately enlarged.

Capsule ovate to oblong.

Leaves crowded ....... F. Delamarei.1

Leaves loose or scattered.

Perichsetial leaves lacerate . . . . F. kypnoides, 11.

Perichsetial leaves entire, undulate at tip . . F. Lescurii, 7.

Capsule cylindrical.

1 : 4, endostome perfect . . F. disticlia, ,10.

1: 5.5, endostome imperfect . F. filiformis, 9.

2. Leaf -cells rhombic-hexagonal (1: 6 or less.)

Plants shining with golden or coppery luster.

Stems robust, little branched . F. antipyretica var. gigantea, la.
Stems soft, much branched ..... F. Californica, 2.
Plants dull, yellowish to dirty green.

Leaves with one edge reflexed near base . . F. antipyretica, 1.

Leaves with margin plane.

Female flowers abundant, in most leaf axils . F. Novae-Anglise, 6.
Female flowers rare, at base of stems F. biformis, 5.

DICHELYMA, p. 272.

Costa percurrent or vanishing.

Capsule exceeding perichsetium ....
Capsule not exceeding perichsetium.

Seta longer than capsule ....

Seta shorter than capsule ....

[Capsule unknown] .

Costa excurrent.2

Endostome a cancellate cone.

Seta about 1 cm. long, capsule oval
Seta 2 — 2.5 cm. long, capsule cylindric
Endostome of appendiculate cilia, united only
tips . . . . :

D. falcatiun, 1.

D. pallescens, 4.
. D. subulatum, 5.
1). Swartzii, 7.

D. uncinatmn, 2.
D. cylindricarpum, 6.
at the

I). capillaceum, 3.

CRYPHiEA, p. 275.

Costa percurrent or excurrent.

Perichsetial leaves costate . C. nervosa, 3.

Perichsetial leaves ecostate . C. inundata, 5.

c Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 96, pi. XIV.

2 Here belongs a sterile species, D. longinerve of Kindberg (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi
(1889), 97, which has the basal cells of leaves “ numerous, in 4-6 rows, subquadrate, the alar
greater, pellucid.'1 He is not sure whether it is a Dichelyma or a Hypnum (§ Harpidium) !
In which case it would better have been left undescribed!

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Costa vanishing near middle.

Costa of perichaetial leaves excurrent into a thick point C. glomerata, 1,
Costa of perichaetial leaves vanishing in or below apex . C. pendula, 2.
Costa of perichaetial leaves vanishing far below apex . C. Ravenelii, 4.

LEPTODON, p. 278.

Leaves ecostate. *

Leaf cells not pitted, capsule 2 mm. long . . L. triclioinitrion, 1.

Leaf cells pitted, capsule 1 mm. long . . . L. Floridanus, la.

Leaves costate.

Leaf cells round-oval, capsule exserted, oblong-oval . L. Ohioensis, 2.
Leaf cells narrowly rhomboidal, capsule immersed, sub-
globose . Lo nitidus, 8.

ALSIA, p. 279.

Annulus 0.

Costa vanishing at middle (smooth?), margins reflexed A, Californica, 1.
Costa vanishing near apex, dentate on back, margins

plane . A. longipes, 8..

Annulus compound, revoluble, leaves papillose at back . A. abietina, 2.

NECKERA, p. 281.

Leaves very obtuse

Plants slender (shoots 2 mm. wide), leaves loosely im¬
bricate, rounded, concave . N. distich a, L

Plants robust (shoots 4 mm. wide), leaves densely im¬
bricate, truncate, not concave . N. undulata, 2.

Leaves rounded, abruptly apiculate.

Revolute at base on one side, capsule immersed . N. Menziesii, 3.

Not revolute, capsule exserted . N. complanata, 7.

Leaves acute or acuminate.

Ecostate or nearly so.

Capsule immersed or half exserted.

Shoots obtuse . N. pennata, 4.

Shoots attenuate to apex.

Segments rudimentary, capsule immersed . N. oligocarpa, 5.
Segments as long as teeth, capsule 4 exserted . N. Douglasii, 6.
Capsule exserted ........ N. puinila, 8.

Costate to the middle or beyond.

Margins broadly revolute . . . . , N. Floridana, 9.

Margins not re volute.

Alar cells fawn-color, costa thin, percurrent . N. Liidoyicise, 10.
Alar cells opaque, costa vanishing . . . N. cymbifolia, 11.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

65

HOMALIA, p. 285.

Costa vanishing above middle, leaves serrulate.

Leaves oblong, subfalcate, apiculate . . H. tricliomanoides, 1.

Leaves Ungulate, subfalcate, apiculate ... H. Jamesii, 2.
Costa sometimes hardly perceptible, leaves obovate, ob¬
tuse, serrulate . H. obtusata, 3.

Costa double, very short, or none, leaves entire . . H. gracilis, 4.

METEORIUM, p. 286.

Leaves serrulate . M. pendulum, 1.

Leaves minutely crenulate . M. nigrescens, 2.

LEUOODON, p. 287.

Capsule exserted.

Leaves entire, open-erect, lid exactly conic . . L. sciuroides, 1.

Leaves serrulate at apex, squarrose, lid obliquely ros¬
trate . L. julaceus, 2.

Capsule surpassed by perichsetial leaves, leaves secund L. bracliypus, 3.

PTEROGONIUM, p. 289.

Leaves broadly oblong-ovate or -obovate, acute, smooth . P. gracile, 1.
Leaves broadly deltoid-ovate, narrowly acuminate, papil¬
lose . . . P. brachypterum, 2.

*

ANTITRICHIA, p. 290.

Capsule oval (1:2— -2.5), leaf cells fusiform . . A. eurtipendula, 1.

Capsule cylindric (1 : 6), leaf cells oval . . . A. Californica, 2.

HOOKERIA, p. 292.

Leaves bicostate to middle (not papillose ?)

Leaves bicostate to apex, papillose
Leaves ecostate, entire (not papillose?) .

H. varians, 1.
H. cruceana, 2.
H. Sullivantii, 3.

FABRONIA, p. 294.

Leaves ciliate-dentate.

Peristome of 16 teeth, costa 0 or very short F. pusilla, 1

Peristome 0, leaves costate to middle . . F. gynmostoma, 2.

Peristome of 8 geminate teeth, leaves costate nearly to

middle . F. octoblepharis, 3.

5 — A. & L.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaves serrate to subentire.

Sharply serrate, teeth orange, spores about 11 fi . F. Wriglitii, 4 „
Obscurely serrate, teeth brown, spores about 17 ju F. Ravenelii, 5.

Obscurely serrate, teeth with prominent articulations on

back . F. Donnellii, 6.

THELXA, p. 298.

Papillae of leaves simple.

Horn shaped, curved . T. hirtella, 1.

Globose . T. robusta, 3.

Papillae 2 — 4-furcate.

Usually bi- furcate, teeth 1: 17 — 20 .... T„ asprella, 2.

Usually 4-furcate, teeth 1:12 . T. Lescurii, 4.

MYURELLA, p. 300.

Leaves serrulate, obtuse (rarely short apiculate) . . M. julacea, 1.

Leaves serrulate, abruptly apiculate-acuminate . . M. apiculata, 2.

Leaves spinulose-dentate, abruptly long acuminate . M. Carey ana, 8.

LESKEA, p. 302.

I. Costa reaching to or beyond the middle.

Percurrent . L. nervosa, 3.

jNot percurrent.

Leaves entire.

Endostome divided into segments.

Cleft between articulations, leaves bluntish . . L. obscura, 2.

Not cleft, leaves acute . L. polycarpa, 1.

Endostome a short undivided membrane . . . L. Austini, 6.

Leaves crenulate . L. tristis, 5.

II. Costa very short or none.

Leaf cells linear-oblong . L. denticulata, 4 „

Leaf cells rhombic.

Leaves op. primary stems acute ..... L. pulvinata, 7.
Leaves of primary stems long acuminate L. Wollei, 8.

Leaf cells round oval ....... L. nigrescens b

AUOMODON, p. 304.

Leaves not papillose . A. Toccose, 6,

1 Kindberg: Ottawa Nat. ii (1889), 155, and Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib xvi (1889), 97.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

67

Leaves papillose.

Base with large fimbriate-papillose auricles.

Margins reflexed near apex, replicate below middle A. Californicus, 7.
Margins not at all reflexed ..... A. apiculatus, 4.
Base not auricnlate.

Leaves filiform-acuminate . A. rostratus, 1.

Leaves obtuse or apiculate.

Branches attenuate . A. atteimatiis, 2.

Branches not attenuate.

Leaves open-erect, teeth nodose ... A. obtusifolius, 3.
Leaves secund, teeth not nodose ... A. viticulosus, 5.

PYLAISiEA, p. 308.

Segments free, sj)lit below, leaves quite entire.

Plants glossy green . P. poly an til a, b

Plants pale yellowish green ..... P. heteroinalla, 2.
Segments free, split throughout, leaves serrulate at apex,

P. subdenticulata, 3,

Segments ^-adherent to teeth, spores 19 — 20 u.

Leaves long-acuminate, margin not recurved . . P. intricata, 4.

Leaves short-acuminate, one or both edges recurved . P. Selwyni,b
Segments wholly adherent, spores 28 n . . . . P. yelutina, 5.

HOMALOTHECIUM,1 2 p. 309.

Costa short, simple or forking, vanishing below middle.

Teeth red, operculum rostrate . . . . H. subcapillatum, b.

Teeth yellow, operculum short apiculate . . . H. corticolum,3.

Costa narrow, vanishing in point H. pseudosericeum, 2~

CYLINDROTHECIUM, p. 310.

Capsules clustered (3 or 4) . C. Floridaniim, 4..

Capsules solitary.

Plants densely pinnately branched, leaves muticous C. concinnuni, 8.
Plants loosely pinnately branched, leaves pointed.

Gradually narrowly acuminate C. breyisetum, 3.

1Kindberg: Ottawa Naturalist ii (1889), 156.

2 Renauld & Cai’dot refer Hypnuvi Nevadense (30) to tais genus. Bot. Gaz. xiii (1888) 202.

3 Kindberg: 1. c.

68

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Acute or abruptly acuminate-apiculate.

Almost entire, only alar cells quadrate or rectangular.

Leaves acuminate-apiculate, teeth with 14 — 17
articulations, capsule 1: 3.5 — 4 . . €. cladorrliizans, 1.

Leaves abruptly short apiculate, teeth with 6 — 8
articulations, capsule 1: 5 — 5.5 . . . C. seductrix, 2.

Leaves not apiculate, teeth with 22 — 26 articula¬
tions, capsule 1: 2.5— 3 .... C. coinpressmn, 5.

Distinctly serrulate, all basal cells rectangular.

Annulus 0, teeth obliquely striolate . €. Drimimondii, 6.

Annulus large, teeth vertically striolate . C. Sulliyantii, 7.

CLIMACIUM, p. 313.

»

Capsule straight, lid rostrate.

Ovate-oblong (1: 2.5— 3), leaves slightly decurrent and

hollowed at basal angles . €. dendroides, 1.

Cylindric (1:5 — 6), leaves long decurrent and broadly

auriculate . €. Ainericaimin, 2.

Capsule arcuate, lid conic . C. Rutlieiiicimi, 3.

ORTHQTHECIUM, p. 315.

Leaves lanceolate, long and narrowly acuminate . . 0. rufescens, 1.

Leaves exactly ovate, apex flexuous, not plicate . . 0. rubelluni, 2.

Leaves lanceolate to ovate lanceolate, plicate, not acumi¬
nate . 0. cliryseum, 3.

HYPNUM, p. 316. 1

I. Leaves spreading.

A. Leaf cells short (1 : 3 or less.)

1. Leaves papillose.

*

a. Par apliy Ilia present.

i. Costa obsolete . H. dimorplmm, 4.

1 Nos. 2, 17, 18, 92, 93, 91, 114, 193, 194 and 195, are not included in this key. No. 2 is not
North American, the locality cited by Schimper being York (Eng.), not New York. (Cf.
A. Gepp in Jour. Bot. xxvii (1889), 152). The remainder are characterized by Lesquereux
and James as of uncertain relationship or insufficiently known. No. 30 has been declared
Tby Renauld and Cardot (Bot. Gaz. xiii (1889), 202), to be a Homalothecium, but is still
given a place in this key.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

69

ii. Costa strong.

* Capsule oval or oblong, operculum convex-conic.

Leaves entire . . H. atroyirens, 1.

Leaves serrulate at apex . H. radicosum, 3.

* * Capsule cylindric, or if oval- oblong then operculum long-rostrate

(excl. H. gracile.)

Plants small (to 5 cm.) delicate, creeping, 1 — 2 -pinnate.

+-e- Costa of stem-leaves wide (-| leaf-base.)

Stems papillose . H. pygmgeum, 7.

Stems radiculose-tomentose . H. miimtulum, 6.

-e-e- ■*-*• Costa of stem-leaves half as ivide.

Stem-leaves with long pellucid point, cilia 0 . H. erectum, 9.

Stem-leaves short acuminate, cilia 2 . H. scituni, 8.

Stem-leaves long acuminate, cilia 3 H. gracile, 10.

Stem-leaves long acuminate, cilia 1 H. calyptratum, 11.

-t - *— Plants large (to 10 cm.), creeping, 2—3 -pinnate, forming extensive

flat mats.

Perichaetial leaves long ciliate below.

Apical cells of branch-leaves not papillose, ovate, pro¬
jecting . H. tamariscinuin, 12.

Apical cells of branch-leaves oblong, with 2 — 3 papillae H. delicatulum, 14.
Pericheetial leaves not ciliate, apical cells of branch leaves
round . . H. recognitum, 13.

-» - « - *— Plants large (to 10 cm.), erect, 1-pinnate, in ivide tufts.

Capsule narrowly cylindric (1 : 5— 6) .... H. aMetiuum, 15.
Capsule oblong-cylindric (1:3) . H. Blandovii, 16.

b. Paraphyllia 0.

Seta smooth.

Plants in large mats, leaves serrulate at apex, costate

to middle . H. Brewerianum, 66

Plants minute, leaves serrulate all round, costate to

apex . H. leuconeurum, 19.

Seta rough.

Stem leaves with hyaline piliferous point . H. raimilosum, 21.

Stem leaves not hyaline pointed.

Perichastial leaves costate H. Whippieanum, 20.

Perichaetial leaves ecostate.

Bright green, leaves open, loosely imbricate . H. laxifolium, 23.
Dirty or yellowish green, leaves sub-falcate secund,
closely imbricate . H. crispifolium, 22.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

2. Leaves not papillose .
a. Shortly bicostate.

Stem-leaves filiform-pointed . H. procurrens, 5.

Stem-leaves not filiform-pointed.

Obscurely denticulate at apex ... H. leucocladulum, 25.
Distinctly denticulate all around H. compressulum, 26.

1). XJnicostate or ecostate.

i. Paraphyllia numerous, eiliate H. pahulosiim, 24.

ii. Paraphyllia 0.

■x- Leaves coarsely serrate, plants dendroid.

Branch leaves apparently 2-ranked, complanate . H. Bigelovii, 97.
Branch leaves equally spreading.

Perichaetial leaves reflexed, dioicous.

Cilia of endostome equalling teeth H. Leiherg’ii h

Cilia short . H. neckeroides, 96.

Perichaetial leaves erect, heteroicous . . H. Allegiianiense, 95.

* * Leaves entire, plants creeping.

Ecostate or with obscure traces of a nerve.

Cilia 0.

Capsule constricted under mouth when dry
Capsule not constricted
Cilia 1 — 2.

Plants minute, filiform.

Leaves ovate, long acuminate
Leaves long-lanceolate . . . .

Plants large, in wide flat mats

H. subtile, 117.
H. Sprucei, 116.

H. conferyoides, 118.
H. inimitissiinum, 115.
H. adnatum, 124.

Costate.

-8-*- Leaves bordered with 4 — 5 rows of linear cells H. Lescurii, 126.

-i — s- -e-e- Leaves not bordered.

= Plants in compact tufts 2—3 cm. deep . . H. compaction, 125.

= == Plants in loose mats or tufts.

Tf Costate to apex.

Leaves acuminate.

Basal cells much enlarged . . . . H. irriguum, 122.

1 Britton: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 111.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

11

Basal cells not enlarged.

Annulus triple ....... H. radicale, 120.

Annulus simple . H. oigliocladon, 121.

Leaves not acuminate . H. iiuviatile, 123.

Costa ceasing above the middle.

Cells alike throughout.

Inner perichgetial leaves with a short (i length) point.

Capsule long cylindric, arcuate, annulus triple . H, serpens, 119.
Capsule oblong, oblique, annulus simple . H. KocMi Br. & Sch.1
Inner perichgetial leaves subuliform-acuminate, cells

vermicular . H. porpliyrrhizum Lindb.1

Cells enlarged, rectangular at basal angles.

Cilia appendiculate, equalling segments . . H. riparium, 127.

Cilia rugulose, shorter than segments H. vacillans, 128.

B. Leaf cells elongated (1:5 or more).

[Amblystegium spp. especially 127, 128 may be sought here.]

1. Leaves costate half way or more.

a. Seta rough.

i. Leaves deeply plicate lengthwise.

[Bracliytliecium spp. may be sought here.]

Plants regularly pinnate.

Seta scarcely equalling capsule H. Nuttallii, 29.

Seta longer than capsule.

Perichgetial leaves coarsely sinuate-dentate, cilia 0

H. Nevadense, 2 30.

Perichgetial leaves entire or serrulate.

Stems erect, stout (to 15 cm.) . . . . H. megaptilum, 34.

Stems prostrate.

Leaves with recurved, spinulose teeth . H. liamatidens, 3.
Leaves serrulate.

Capsule oblong .... H. pinnatifidum, 31.

Capsule long cylindric .... H„ Amesioe, 4.

Plants irregularly branched.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate (1:3) cilia 3, long as segments H. seneum, 28.
Leaves long-lanceolate (1:5) cilia 1 or 2, long or short H. lutescens, 27.

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz ., xiv (1889), 99.

2 Hovialothecium Nevadense Ren. & Card.: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 202.

3 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 97.

4 Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 202, pi. XX.

72

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

ii. Leaves not deeply plicate.

[Homalothecium pseudo-sericeum may be sought here.]

* Lid convex-conic to long-conic (rostellate in 59).

Leaf-cells not abruptly enlarged at base , upper usually distinct ,

elongated rhombic.

-*-8- Seta smooth above , rough below, capsule suberect.

Capsule 1: 1.5, cilia 2, equalling teeth . . . H. Hillebrandi, 46,

Capsule 1:2.5, cilia solitary, short, or none . . H. Fendleri, 47.

✓

-j-e- -< — b Seta smooth below, rough above, capside cernuous or arcuate.

Perichsetial leaves short-acuminate H. pliunosum, 58.

Perichgetial leaves abruptly long filiform-acuminate H. campestre, 54.

-j — a- -2—8- -j — e- Seta rough throughout.

— Cells of based angles scarcely different.

Leaves scarcely or abruptly acuminate, dioicous.

Leaves very short acuminate, glossy, not decurrent H. rivnlare, 56.
Leaves short acuminate, broadly and long decurrent,

H. latifolinm, Lindb.*

Leaves longer acuminate, not glossy, decurrent . H. Novse-Anglise, 55.
Leaves gradually acuminate, autoicous.

Slender, leaves lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, capsule
* constricted under mouth when dry . . H. Telutiiiuin, 45.

Stout, leaves ovate, capsule not constricted . H. rutabulnm, 52.

— — Cells of basal angles distinctly quadratic.

Leaves long acuminate, costa entering point . . H. reflexion, 50.

Leaves acuminate, costa not reaching point.

Seta long (4 cm. +) . H. asperrinrnm, 53.

Seta shorter (2 cm. — ).

Segments split between articulations . . H. cedipodium, 51.

Segments split their whole length 1 2

Seta arcuate above . H. Bolanderi, 48.

Seta abruptly bent at base of capsule . . H. Starkii, 49.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. (1888) 51.

2 According to Austin Bot. Gaz., iv (1879), 162, the pedicel of H. biventrosum (40) is
©bsoletely scabrous, and it might therefore be sought here.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

7$

Leaf -cells abruptly enlarged at base , indistinct, linear -vermicular.

Costa percurrent . H. populeum, 57-

Costa vanishing.

Seta purplish, rough throughout.

Capsule suberect, stem-leaves gradually acuminate H. ceespitosuin, 59.
Capsule abruptly horizontal, leaves abruptly short

acuminate with points recurved . . H. illecebrum, 61.

Seta reddish and rough above, yellowish and smooth

below . H. Californicnm, 60.

* * Lid (more or less long ) rostrate.

Leaves obtuse . H. obtusifolium, 169.

Leaves acute or acuminate.

-?-*• Cilia solitary or geminate at base.

Pericheetial leaves erect, serrulate . . . . H. curvisetmn, 91.

Perichaetial leaves recurved, entire . . . . H. lentum, 69.

-n- Cilia 2 — 3.

Leaves with filiform points.

Stems short, with erect fasciculate branches, stoloni-

ferous . H. Yauclieri, 73 a.

Stems long, prostrate, irregularly branched, not radicu-

lose . H. piliferum, 74-

Leaf -points not filiform.

Leaves serrulate all around.

Decurrent, excavate at basal angles.

Perichaetial leaves spreading H. Stokesii, 78.

Perichaetial leaves reflexed H. Oreganum, 79.

Not decurrent nor excavate.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, segments

split . . . H. Sullivantii, 76.

Leaves broad-ovate, acute, segments perforate H. pradongum, 75-
Leaves entire at base.

Lid not half as long as capsuie H. colpophylluin, 73-

Lid nearly as long as capsule . H. Ilians, 77

b. Seta smooth.

[Homalothecium pseudo-sericeum may be sought here.]

i. Lid (more or less long) rostrate.

Leaves apparently 2-ranked; plants of dry woods . H. serrulatum, 89-

'74

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Leaves spreading every way.

Ovate, acute, rarely slender-pointed; in water . H. rusciforme, 90.
Deltoid, with long slender points.

Points twisted, plants golden yellow ... H, Boscii, 72.
Points straight.

Spreading, branchlets attenuate H. strigosum, 70.

Appressed, branchlets short, julaceous . H. diversifolium, 71.

ii. Lid convex to conic.

* Leaves acute or acuminate, serrulate.

Primary branches erect, dendroid to fasciculate, capsule symmetric , sub¬
erect or inclined.

•*— e- Leaves papillose on bach.

In compact tufts, dark green, branchlets not attenuate

II. Brewerianimi, 66.

In loose tufts, branchlets attenuate, stoloniferous.

Cilia solitary, margin of stem leaves reflexed . H. spiculiferum, 64.
Cilia 2 — 3, margin of stem leaves not reflexed . H. stoloniferum, 63.

+-*• Leaves smooth.

Capsule cylindrical, cilia solitary, £ segments . H. aggregating, 67.
Capsule oval- oblong, cilia 2 — 3.

Perichsetial leaves serrate .... H. myosuroides, 62.

Perichsetial leaves entire . H. aeuticuspis, 65.

Primary branching irregular or pinnate, capsule unsymmet-
tric , subarcuate, horizontal (excl. 36 and 44).

Capsule symmetric, erect.

Synoicous, small (branches 1 cm. long) . . . H. Utaliense, 44.

Dioicous, large (branches 3 — 4 cm.) . . H„ acuminatum, 36.

Capsule unsymmetric, inclined.

In loose tufts, plants stout or long. *

Leaves narrowed from lower third to apex, usually
whitish or yellowish.

Capsule short (1; 1.5), monoicous, leaves straight
when dry . H. salebrosum, 37.

Capsule short (1:1.5— 2), dioicous, leaves twisted-
flexuous when dry . H. Tliedenii, 41.

Capsule longer (1:3), dioicous, leaves straight when

dry . H. laeturn, 35.

Leaves narrowed from base to apex, bright green,

H. acutum, 38.

monoicous

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

75

In loose tufts, plants small, bright green, dioicous H. birentrosum, 40 K
In dense hemispherical bright green tufts, monoicous H. collinum, 43.

* *• Leaves acute or acuminate, entire.

Capsule strongly constricted under mouth when dry.

Leaves widest just at base, tapering equally.

Deeply plicate, cells obscure . H. nitens, 33.

Concave, smooth, cells plain . . . . H. polygamum, 132.

Leaves widest above base, long-acuminate . H. clirysopliylluni, 130.
Leaves widest above base, not acuminate H. palustre, 165.

Capsule slightly or not constricted.

Plants reddish-brown below, orange above H. badium, 183.

Plants whitish-, yellowish- or bright green.

Cilia 0, basal cells quadrate, numerous H. Domicilii, 42.

Cilia 2.

Monoicous, leaves open . H. salebrosum, 37.

Dioicous, leaves appressed-imbricate ... II. albicans, 39.
Cilia solitary.

Alar cells loosely quadrate, thin . . . H. oxycladon, 53a.

Alar cells round- quadrate, obscure. . . . H. apocladum, 68.

* * * Leaves obtuse {sometimes apiculate in 175) entire.

Cells not enlarged at basal angles.

Leaves open . H. arcticum, 168.

Leaves closely imbricate ; . H. trifarium, 181.

Cells enlarged at basal angles.

Costa subpereurrent.

Monoicous, sparingly branched, alar cells gradually

enlarged . H. cordifolium, 173.

Dioicous, profusely branched.

5 — 10 cm. long, variegated or dark purple, stolons

green . H. sarmentosnm, 175.

15 — 30 cm. long, bright- to yellowish green . II. giganteum, 174.
Costa reaching middle.

Branches irregularly pinnate, leaves spreading . H. Richardsoni, 177.
Branches few, leaves imbricate . . . H. strainineum, 180.

1 The sterile H. (Brachytheciura) Fitzgeraldi, Muller ( Flora , 1887, 224), is related to this
species and distinguished from it “by its parallel julaceous-terete branches and larger,
broader and less acuminate leaves.'’1

76

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

2. Costa very short or none or double.
a. Alar cells abruptly enlarged ( often inflated and colored). 1
i. Operculum long subidate rostrate.

Capsule horizontal, strongly constricted under mouth when

dry, leaves quite entire . H. demissum, 80.

Capsule suberect, slightly constricted, leaves serrulate at

apex . H. microcarpam, 84.

Capsule inclined, wide mouthed, leaves spinulose-dentate

at apex . H. laxepatulum, 86.

ii. Operculum short rostrate.

Leaves roundish elliptical, subacute or apiculate . H. Novse-Cesariae, 81.
Leaves filiform acuminate.

Cilia 2, annulus 0, capsule oblong (1:2 — 2.5) . . H. recuryans, 82.

Cilia 0, annulus 0, capsule cylindric (1: 3.5) . H. cylindricarpiiin, 83.

Cilia 1, annulus simple, large, capsule oblong . . H. Jamesii, 85.

Leaves acute or stoutly acuminate.

Entire . H. Haldanianiini, 163.

Sharply serrate . H. nemorosttin, 164.

ill. Operculum convex or conic.

Leaves falcate.

[H. palustre, var. liamulosum may be sought here.]

Scarcely costate, alar cells orange . . . H. eugyrium, 171.

Costa reaching middle, alar cells hyaline . . H. ocliraceum, 172.

Leaves not falcate.

Abruptly filiform apiculate, entire, alar cells not con¬
spicuous . H. trichophorum, 100.

Gradually filiform acuminate, alar cells orange.

Acute or short apiculate, alar cells few, large . H. palustre, 165.
Plants slender, 2 — 3 cm. long.

Branches erect, leaves serrate . . H. Miihlenbeckii, 111.

Branches intricate, leaves nearly entire . H. Fitzgeraldi, 112.
Plants stout, 7 — 10 cm. long, leaves quite entire H. stellatum, 131.
Obtuse, entire, alar cells hyaline . . . H. cuspidatum, 176.

1 In 81 so few as to be easily overlooked.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

77

b. Alar cells scarcely different or quadrate, not abruptly enlarged.

1. Leaves thin, glossy, open; plants mostly small, prostrate or with as¬
cending branches.

* Leaves complanate.

Lid rostrate.

Leaves transversely undulate, serrulate at apex . H. imdulatiun, 110.
Leaves not undulate, quite entire H. sylvatieuin, 109.

Leaves not undulate, serrulate to base.

Bicostate, annulus large ..... H. geopliiliun, 87.
Uni- or ecostate, annulus 0 . H. deplanatum, 88.

Lid convex or conic.

Uapsule pendent . H. elegans, 105.

■Capsule suberect, inclined or horizontal.

Sulcate and constricted below mouth when dry . H. turfaceum, 104.
Smooth when dry.

Autoicous, plants growing on rotten wood.

Annulus 0 . H. mica us, 103.

Annulus large, triple .... H. demticnlatum, 106.
Dioicous, plants growing on stones or the ground.

Leaves quite entire, capsule obovate, campanulate

when dry . H Muelleriaimm, 107.

Leaves serrulate, capsule subcylindric . H. Sullivantlse, 108.

* * Leaves equally spreading.

Capsule suberect, smooth ivhen dry.

Dioicous, cilia 0, costa obsolete.

Inner perichaetial leaves ovate lanceolate . . H. latebricola, 98.

Inner perichaetial abruptly acuminate . . H. Passaicense, 99.

Autoicous, cilia 2 — 3, costa double.

Thick, ascending to middle . H. geiiiiniiin, 102.

Thin, reaching half way to middle . H. deiiticulatiim, var. 106.

Capside inclined , sulcate ivhen dry . EL pseiiclo-Silesiacnni, 113.
Capside inclined or horizontal, often arcuate, smooth ivhen clry.

Leaves squarrose, abruptly long acuminate . H. Mspidulum, 129.

Leaves loosely imbricate, obtuse or acute, alar cells orange.

Nearly as broad as long, obtuse or apiculate . . H. molle, 166.

Nearly twice as dong as broad, acute, point often half

twisted . IL alpestre, 167.

Leaves falcate, gradually acute .... H. montanum, 170.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ii. Leaves firm, plants very large, mostly 1-2-pinnate, erect or ascending „.

■* Paraphyllia 0.

Leaves obtuse or abruptly apiculate.

Capsule smooth when dry.

Leaves obtuse.

Olive or grayish green, 1 — 2- pinnate, leaves open H. Selireberi, 178.
Dirty green to dark brown, almost simple, leaves

closely appressed . H. trifarium, 181.

Leaves abruptly apiculate, plants pale green . H. pur tun, L.1.
Capsule plicate when dry, plants dark green to reddish

brown . H. scorpioides, 184.

Capsule unknown; plants dark yellow and greenish, branches

julaceous, few, fastigiate, leaves short apiculate H. turgescens, 182.
Leaves long acuminate.

Sulcate.

Apex blunt . H. Flemmingii, 191.

Apex very sharp.

Ecostate, leaf cells all alike . H. loreum, 192.

Bicostate, leaf cells enlarged at base . . H. triquetrum, 190.

Not sulcate . It. squarrosum, 189.

* * Paraphyllia, present.

Leaves with long double costa, leaves deeply sulcate H. umbra turn, 186.
Leaves obscurely bicostate.

Obtuse . H. Alaskan um, 179.

Acute or apiculate or long acuminate.

Paraphyllia pinnate, branches densely 2 — 8 pinnate H. splendens, 185..
Paraphyllia minute, branching irregularly pinnate H. brevirostre, 188.
Leaves unicostate to middle, coarsely serrate . . H. Oakesii, 187.

\

II. Leaves secund.

[Rapliidostegium spp. and Brachytliecium Tliedenii may be sought here.]

A. Costa single, reaching to the middle or beyond.

1. Cells short, minute . H. crispifolium, 22..

2. Cells elongated.
a. Seta rough.

Leaves serrulate . . H. Yelutinum, 45.

Leaves entire . H. pluiuosum, var. 58.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. 57.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

79

It). Seta smooth.

i. Leaves transversely rugose and longitudinally plicate.

Plants slender H. adimcum yar. gracilescens, 133.

Plants very stout.

Leaves serrate at apex, alar cells quadrate . . H. rugosum, 144.

Leaves subserrate at apex, alar cells scarcely different,

H. rolnistimi, 145..

ii. Leaves not rugose , often plicate.

Alar cells much enlarged or differently colored.
Paraphyllia abundant {rarely feiv).

Leaves plicate . H. commutatum, 143.

Leaves not plicate . H. filicinum, 142.

-i — *— Paraphyllia 0.

Annulus 0.

Autoicous, leaves quite entire . H. palustre, 165.

Autoicous, leaves denticulate . H. fluitans, 136.

Dioicous, leaves entire above, serrulate below H. exannulatum, 137.

Annulus large.

Autoicous, leaves plicate, teeth orange at base, yellowish

above . H. uncinatum,1 135.

Dioicous, leaves sulcate, teeth orange with a broad hya¬
line border . H. ochraceum, 172..

Dioicous, leaves striate, teeth brown or dark orange, not
bordered.

Alar cells pellucid . H. adimcmn, 133.

Alar cells orange . H. Sendtneri, 134.

* * Alar cells small or scarcely different.

Leaves serrate . H. Thedenii, 41.

Leaves quite entire.

&

Plants very large and stout (15 — 20 cm.), leaves costate to
near apex.

Regularly pinnate H. adimcum yar. liamatum, 133.

Irregularly and dichotomously branched . H. lycopodioides,' 140.
Plants much smaller, leaves obscurely bicostate . H. Watson i, 141.
Plants much smaller, leaves costate to above middle.

Autoicous, purplish-red, red-brown or nearly black H. revolvens, 138.
Dioicous, dirty green or yellow H. vermcosum, 139.

1 Hyp. symmetricum Ren. et Card. QBot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99, pi. xv), is a sub-species of
H. uncinatum, from which it is distinguished by the “ narrower, erect and quite symmetric
capsules, sometimes clustered by two in same perichsetium.”

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Costa double, short, or none.

1. Alar cells enlarged, hyaline or colored.

a. Lid conic, often apiculate, capsule oval to oblong (1 : 1 — 2.5).
i. Alar cells pellucid, not conspicuously colored.

* Capside co state and arcuate when dry.

Alar cells short, yellow, thick walled H. curYifolimn, 159.

Alar cells inflated, hyaline, thin- walled . . H. arcuatnm,1 Lindb.

* * Capside not costate ivhen dry.

Vaginule short (1: 2) covered with longer hairs . H„ molluscum, 147.
Vaginule longer (1:3+)

Plants shining yellow, leaves subserrulate . H. depressulmn, 151.
Plants bright- to pale green, leaves quite entire.

Lid sharply apiculate, orange, capsule incurved when

dry . . . H. calliclirouin, 154

Lid not apiculate, capsule strongly arcuate when dry H. pratense, 161.

ii. Alar cells orange.

Leaves quite entire . H. Bamberger!, 162.

Leaves serrulate.

Ecostate . . H. circinale, 152.

Obsoletely bicostate . H. Sequoieti, 153.

b. Lid rostrate, capside cylindric (1: 3.5 +).

Leaves laterally compressed both sides, alar cells orange H. Bambergeri, 162.
Leaves not laterally compressed.

Pericliaetial leaves bicostate to middle, plicate . . H. reptile, 148.

Perichaetial leaves shortly bicostate, plicate . H. ciipressiforme, 158.
Perichaetial leaves ecostate, plicate, cilia solitary, ap-

pendiculate . . H. imponens, 155.

Perichaetial leaves ecostate, not plicate, cilia 2, inappen-

diculate . . H. subiinponens, 156.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. 55.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

81

2. Alar cells not distinct, often quadrate.

a. Plants very stout (5—6 mm. thick) f leaves transversely

rugose . . H. robustuin, 145,

}). Plants much more slender (2 mm. or less thick), leaves not rugose.

H. geminum, 102,

H. plicatile, 157.
H. Yaucheri, Lesq.1
H. pulchelluin, 101.

Costae 2, thick, reaching the middle .

Ecostate or shortly bicostate.

Irregularly branched.

Leaf margins reflexed, shortly bicostate
Leaf margins plane, shortly bicostate
Leaf margins plane, ecostate ....

Regularly pinnate.

Plants very large (to 15 cm.), capsule arcuate, stem

leaves plicate . H. Crista-castrensis, 146.

Plants smaller (usually less than 5 cm.), capsule not
arcuate nor stem leaves plicate.

Pericheetial leaves plicate.

Leaves quite entire . H. complexiim, 160.

Leaves serrulate at apex.

Inner perichsetial leaves costate . . . H. fertile, 149.

Inner perichsetial leaves ecostate . . H. Iiamulosum, 150.

Perichsetial leaves not plicate H. subimponens, 156..

1 Renault! & Carclot: Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889) 100.

6— A. & L.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

SOME ADDITIONAL EVIDENCES BEARING ON THE
INTERVAL BETWEEN THE GLACIAL EPOCHS.

By PRESIDENT T. C. CHAMBERLIN.*

'Evidences bearing upon the interval between the glacial epochs may be
drawn from various parts of the glaciated field and from the various
phenomena connected with glaciation. It is not, however, my purpose to
make any approach to an exhaustive review of these evidences, or even to
touch upon the arguments that may be drawn from all the several sources.
I desire simply to bring to your attention certain specific evidences that
have an important bearing upon the length of the main interglacial inter¬
val and that lend themselves more readily to intellectual estimation than
others. The evidences that are especially additional to previous knowl¬
edge are drawn from the lower Mississippi Valley, but, in connection writh
these, I shall briefly refer to evidences drawn from other valleys that fall
into marked harmony with these.

In the lower Mississippi Valley, the sub-stratum consists of Tertiary de¬
posits. Upon these there is a thin stratum of gravel and sand, known
heretofore quite widely as the Orange Sands, although that term seems to
have been applied to different formations. This stratum has been very
considerably misunderstood. It does not contain, so far as critical investi¬
gation shows, any material that may be regarded as glacial, although I
think in some of the earlier reports Archean pebbles were cited as an indi¬
cation that these gravels were contemporaneous with the glacial deposits
of the north. They have been critically examined during the summer by
my colleague, Professor Salisbury, and during the entire season’s search he
has not found a single pebble that is referable to a glacial origin. Some
years since I examined the same formation with like result. Professor
Call has also examined some of these deposits with a similar result. The
pebbles are chiefly of chert and were derived from the chert-bearing lime¬
stones, largely Carboniferous, but reaching as far down as the Lower Mag¬
nesian limestone. They are, therefore, non-glacial. This is a matter of
some importance as these sands and gravels have been correlated with the
glacial deposits not only but referred to the Champlain epoch. They are
very far removed from the Champlain deposits in time. That correlation
is one of the great errors of Quaternary geology. They are certainly pre-

* The facts relative to the Lower Mississippi region are drawn largely from the observa¬
tions of my associate, Prof. R. D. Salisbury.

The Interval Between the Glacial Epochs. 83

glacial in the sense that they were not contemporaneous with the glacial
incursion at its earliest maximum. They may have been contemporaneous
with the very earliest stages of glaciation before the ice reached the Mis¬
sissippi Valley and was able to mingle its deposits with those of valley.

Now these gravels occupy a wide area stretching across the basin of the
lower Mississippi from some distance back in Tennessee, Kentucky and
Mississippi to the high lands upon the Arkansas side, appearing in Crow-
, ley’s ridge that bisects the present bottoms of the Mississippi. The gravel
stratum undoubtedly was originally horizontal, but it now undulates more
or less conformably with the surface. The explanation of this, it seems
to me, is found in the gradual creep of the soft material of the hills as they
were slowly carved out by erosion. The brows of the hills in some cases
have obviously crept down on the slopes, for on the summit we find the
gravels compact and firm and the constituent pebbles lying with their
maximum diameters in a horizontal position while the stratum has level
upper and lower bounding planes. On the slopes of the hills however the
gravel beds are more or less broken up, and the pebbles have been dis¬
turbed and displaced and tumbled into various attitudes, such as we
might naturally expect under the hypotheses of a creeping movement on
the slope. It seems impossible to suppose that this stratum of gravel was
originally deposited in the undulatory form in which it is now found. It
might be supposed that the silt which overlies this gravel bed was depos¬
ited as a mantle over an undulatory surface, but gravel does not lend it¬
self to such a method of distribution.

This overlying mantle, which now claims attention, consists of fine silt
and embraces the loess deposits of the lower Mississippi. It spreads out
broadly over the gravel stratum and extends somewhat beyond it, es¬
pecially on the east. This stratum is in places differentiated into two
parts and separated by a soil-like horizon. This differentiation is not com¬
mon to the entire valley. This silt mantle may be traced almost in un¬
broken continuity northward to the border of the glacial drift, whence it
spreads itself over the drift, reaching up on it some hundreds of miles to
the northward. In this northern stretch the silt mantle is correlated with
n second episode of the earlier glacial epoch. It graduates down into a
stratum of boulder clay that overlies a bed of vegetable material, which in
turn overlies another till. Both of these tills I have been accustomed to
correlate with the earlier glacial epoch. I do not wish, however, to raise
differences of opinion on that point here. It is unimportant to the main
conclusions which we desire to reach.

Besides this continuity there is a further reason for regarding these silt
deposits as contemporaneous with the ice invasions. They are made up in
part of glacial particles; that is, particles derived from the mechanical
abrasion of a glacier. These particles consist of decomposable silicates,
dolomites and limestones, and were rasped from rocks of these varieties
lying further north. Such decomposable particles do not abound in resid¬
uary clays but are abundant constituents of glacial clays.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It seems necessary to suppose that this mantle of loess and loess-like silt
was originally deposited as a horizontal stratum across the entire Missis¬
sippi bottoms. At the present time it undulates over the hills. At first
thought it would seem that the depositing waters might have been deep
and the silt laid down as an undulatory mantle; but it would seem neces¬
sary to extend the same hypothesis to the deposition of the gravels where
its application is manifestly excluded by the nature of the deposit. I feel
sure from observation in certain cases that full investigation will show
that this seeming mantling is the result of the gradual degradation of the
hills, accompanied by creep of the pliant and plastic material. This phe¬
nomenon of creep has a wide expression entirely independent of the area
uncer consideration; but upon that I cannot dwell.

During the first glacial episode the altitude and slope of the lower Mis¬
sissippi basin was so low as to permit the deposit of this silt on the bluffs
which are now 200 feet more or less above the present Mississippi bottoms.
Before the second glacial epoch, according to the division I make, there
was an elevation sufficient to permit the erosion of the great trench of the
lower Mississippi by the predecessor of the present river. This erosion
amounts in round numbers to a. trench about 300 feet in depth and about
sixty miles in width. Some of the bluffs that are crowned by these silts
are 200 or 250 feet in height, and Professor Call’s recent investigations
show 80 to 100 feet of silt in the bottom. It is, therefore, I think, safe to
say that in round numbers there was an erosion during the interval be¬
tween the two epochs of the magnitude named and reaching from Cairo
south to the gulf with corresponding erosion trenches along the upper
branches. This great erosion represents the interval between the forma¬
tion of the silts of the earlier glacial epoch and the filling in of the valley
deposits of the later glacial epoch, which now demand our attention. If
we go back on the glaciated area to the moraines which mark the limit of
the later glacial incursions, we shall find, starting from the outer side of
these moraines, valley streams of gravel formed contemporaneously with
these ice incursions. Tracing these gravel streams along their courses, we
find that they run down into the channels cut in the inter glacial interval,
and partially fill them. On the upper Mississippi, on the Chippewa, on
the Wisconsin and on other tributary rivers, we find gravel trains heading
on the outer edge of the outer moraine of the later epoch. Passing down
through the interglacial trenches, these are found represented in the lower
Mississippi valley, as I think we may safely say from recently gathered
evidence, as deposits in the Mississippi bottoms, overlaid of course by
the more recent deposits. The work of the earlier glacial epoch in the
lower Mississippi I conceive to be the deposit of the loess and loess-like
silt, that of the interglacial epoch to be the erosion of the great trench in
which the Mississippi bottoms now lie, and that of the later glacial epoch
to be the partially filling of this trench. The trenching is the measure of
the interglacial interval, or at least is a partial measure of it.

The Interval Between the Glacial Epochs.

85

If we pass to the upper Ohio and Allegheny valleys we find phenomena
that fall into close correspondence with the foregoing. There are high
shoulders and terraces at various points which bear upon themselves gla¬
cial river gravels. One of the most decisive is found in the vicinity of
Parkers, and has been described by Mr. Chance and others. Here an old
channel runs back from the present course, and curving around a group
of hills, returns, forming an “ox bow.” In this old channel glacial river
gravels are found, showing that it was occupied contemporaneously with
some stage of the glacial period. This abandoned channel is about 200
feet above the present Alleghany river. Mr. Chance tells us there is about
fifty feet of drift in the present valley bottom. So between this upper river bed
and the bottom of the present rock channel there is evidence of an erosion
of 250 feet, 200 of which, m round numbers, are cut through Carboniferous
strata. Similar and corroborative facts show themselves along the course
of the river above and below and along the Monongohela and the upper
Ohio. If we trace the old channel of the Alleghany northward by means of
remnant shoulders and terraces we find that it lies considerably above the
altitude of the terminal moraines of the later epoch; and also much above
the gravel trains that head on the outer side of these moraines and run
down through the trench above indicated. It therefore becomes a neces¬
sary inference that the trench was cut before the moraines were pushed
across it and before the moraine derived gravels could be carried down
into it. The trench therefore represents the interval between the earlier
and the later glacial epochs. I have placed in manuscript elsewhere the
fuller facts upon which these brief statements rest, and they will appear in
print in time.

If we pass over the Susquehanna valley we find like phenomena. These
have been brought out by Mr. McGee and others and I need only to refer
to them because of their connection with that which I have already pre¬
sented. Here we find old benches covered with rounded pebbles — some
of which are glaciated — reaching to a similar height of about 250 feet
above the present Susquehanna river. There are glaciated pebbles at high¬
er altitudes, but I have taken the more moderate figure because it is a safe
one. Near Sunburg glaciated stones were found by Professor Salisbury
about six hundred feet above the present river. Below these high terraces
and in the valley excavated out of the plain from which they were de¬
rived, we find a lower terrace 60 or 70 feet in height of newer and dis¬
tinguished aspect. Above Berwick this lower terrace connects itself
definitely with the terminal moraine which there crosses the river. The
terrace rises rapidly as it joins this moraine, as is the habit of moraine¬
headed terraces, and reaches an altitude of 100 to 150 feet as it merges into
the moraine. But it is still much below the old terraces from which it is
sharply distinguished by its freshness and youth and by its constituent
material.

86

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It appears therefore that at this point a deep trench was cut in the flood-
plain of which the old terraces are the remnants before the formation of
the later moraine and of the valley deposits that sprang from it.

If we pass over to the Delaware valley we find analagous facts which
are more familiar through the writings of several geologists. Many years
ago Professor Lewis called attention to the earlier and later deposits of that
region, though he did not give them the interpretation I shall place upon
them here, which coincides essentially with that of McGee. As we follow
up the valley toward Belvidere where the moraine crosses the Delaware,
we find old terraces reaching up to about 240 or 250 feet upon which are
rounded pebbles and glaciated stones, indicating an origin in the earlier
stage of glaciation. Cutting through these old plains and the rock below
we find the deep trench in which the later deposits have been placed.
These later gravel deposits, originating with the moraine at a height of
somewhat above 150 feet, rapidly decline to about 85 feet a few miles above
Lewisburg, opposite a point where the older terrace rises to about 250
feet. The measure of the interval here is some 250 to 800 feet of rock
cutting.

It would appear therefore that while there are local variations, there is a
general correspondence between the amount of erosive work done by the
lower Mississippi, by the upper Ohio and Alleghaney, by the Susquehanna
and by the Delaware rivers respectively. The facts indicate that the alti¬
tude of the continent was low in the closing stages of the earlier glacial
epoch ; became higher in the interglacial interval, and after sufficient time
elapsed for these great erosions to take place, the glacial waters of the
later epoch poured their valley deposits down the trenches formed in the
interval. The cutting of these trenches rudely measures the length of this
interval or at least the length of the actively erosive part of it.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

87

ON THE APPENDAGES OF THE FIRST ABDOMINAL
SEGMENT OF EMBRYO INSECTS.

By WM. M. WHEELER.

Much of what is contained in the following paper was presented to the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters at its annual meeting in
December, 1888. Graber's summary [’88], embodying as it does all that
was known of the curious organs on the basal abdominal segment of em¬
bryo insects up to 1888, would seem to render superfluous a second general
contribution at so early a date. Nevertheless I have been led to undertake
the task for several reasons: First, several brief articles have appeared
since the publication of Grabev's comprehensive paper; secondly, I have
myself made some observations which fill a few of the gaps neces¬
sarily left in the German investigator’s resume, and thirdly, as I take a
very different standpoint in regard to the interpretation of the problematic
appendages, I feel in duty bound to reproduce all the facts from which my
conclusions are drawn.

This paper does not purport to be a final monograph on the subject — -
such a task can be undertaken only when the embryos of many more in¬
sects have been carefully studied — but a resume of facts and theories up
to the close of 1889. After giving an account of my own investigations in
the first part, I shall in the second portion pass to an account of the work,
of other observers, and in the last part consider the theories which have
been advanced in regard to the original function of the problematic organs.
The descriptions of the organs in Blatta and Periplaneta and the whole of
the theoretical portion are essentially the same as when presented to the
Academy in December, 1888.

For the sake of avoiding repea, ted circumlocution I shall call the appen¬
dages of the first abdominal segment pleuropodia — a name both sugges¬
tive of their origin from foot-like organs and their tendency, when
fully developed, to take up a position on the pleural wall of the embryo.
Should the theory advanced in the latter part of the paper prove to be cor¬
rect, I would suggest that the term adenopodium be substituted for
pleuropodium.

I shall not treat of the abortive and very transient appendages which
appear on some or all of the abdominal segments, since the interested
reader will find a complete resume of our fragmentary knowledge of these
structures in Grctber's paper [’88]. Nor do I propose to enter into the con¬
troversy as to whether the ancestral insects were homopod or heteropod„.

88

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

because I believe, in contradiction to Graber, that there is nothing in the
structure or evolution of the pleuropodia which throws any light whatever
on the mooted question.

These organs may be turned to quite as good account by the advocates of
homopody as by those who accept Graber' s views. Supposing the Diptera
were the only order of insects of which we had any knowledge, should we
be justified in asserting that the halteres which now function as sense
organs according to LeucJcart and Lee, had never functioned as true wings ?
Certainly not. No entomologist doubts that the immediate ancestors of
the Diptera were true insects and that they were provided with two pairs
of perfect wings. It seems to me that the advocates of homopody may
logically maintain that the pleuropodia present a strictly analogous case.
These organs originate as appendages homologous with the thoracic legs
though they subsequently differentiate into organs of problematic though
certainly not ambulatory function. Why might not the pleuropodia have
been true ambulatory appendages in ancestral forms no more remote from
the living or even Palaeozoic Ortlioptera than some four-winged insects are
from the Diptera ? *

PART FIRST.

Blatta ( Pliyllodromia ) cjermanica. L.

(Plate I, Figs. 1-9.)

The appendages of the embryo Blatta begin to appear on the tenth day
from the formation of the polar globules. The antennae and the three pairs
of thoracic limbs are the first to rise from the ectoderm of the hammer¬
shaped embryo. By the eleventh day the three pairs of oral and several

* A similar argument may be advanced in the case of the hamulate halteres of the male
Coccidce. Of deeper interest in this connection, however, are two facts recorded by
Schioedte (De Metamorphosi Eleutheratorum Observationes, Kopenhagen, 1861-1883) con¬
cerning larval Scarabceidce and Lucanidce. In the larvae of most species belonging to
these families the metathoracic legs are as long as or a little longer than the meso- and
pro thoracic pairs. The larval Geotrypes stercorarius, L., however, has the hind legs re¬
duced to only half the length of the anterior pairs. (Plate XVI, Fig. 1.) In the larval
Passalus cornutus , Fabr. the hind legs are so far reduced as to be represented by a pair
of small rudiments only. “ Pedes tertii paris valde deminuti Geotrypoe, Passalo, completi
Geotrypce, femoribus, tibiis, ungulis carentes Passalo." It is interesting to note that the
rudiments in Passalus, as shown in Schioedtes1 Figure (Plate XVIII, Fig. 12) are placed very
near and somewhat pleurad to the bases of the median legs. The position thus assumed
by the atrophied hind legs in respect of the median pair is exactly the same as that
assumed in insect embryos by the pleuropodia in respect of the hind or metathoracic pair.
The possibly unique, and certainly anomalous reduction of the hind legs in the larval
Geotrypes and Passalus is well suited to show what striking changes may occur in the
appendages within the limits of a single suborder of insects. This reduction, which is a
purely larval character, since the imagines have hind legs of the usual size and structure,
has very probably taken place within comparatively recent times.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

89

pairs of rudimentary appendages on the abdominal segments have become
visible. All the appendages are merely glove- finger-shaped outgrowths of
the ectoderm into each of which extends a similar evagination of the un¬
derlying mesodermic somite. [Fig. 2.] Of the abdominal appendages all
‘except the first pair soon disappear entirely. They are nipple shaped ele¬
vations which are brought down to the general surface of the abdominal
ectoderm by the tension resulting from the lateral an 5 longitudinal growth
of the embryo. The first pair of abdominal appendages in embryos twelve
days old [Fig. 2 ap.], is twice as long as any of the succeeding evanes¬
cent appendages, and about half as long as the metatlioracic legs.

Had I figured the whole of the sagittal section, of which Fig. 2 repre¬
sents only a small portion, it would be seen that the three pairs of thoracic
appendages are of equal length, and together with the antennae, the
longest and most prominent appendages of the embryo. The abdominal
pair is longer than the mandibles in this stage, but only about two-
thirds as long as either the first or second maxillae. Like the antennae, oral
and ambulatory appendages, they are directed obliquely outward and back¬
ward. The evanescent abdominal appendages, on the other hand, are
directed forward.

The further differentiation of the antennae, mandibles, maxillae and feet
is brought about by a very rapid proliferation of the constituent ectodermic
cells, by a somewhat less rapid proliferation of the cells of the mesodermic
somites of the appendages to form muscles, and by constrictions of the sur¬
face to form the joints of the adult insect. The differentiation of the first
abdominal appendage is brought about in quite a different manner,
namely, by the modification of the individual ectodermic cells of which its
outer layer consists.

The appendage ceases to grow much in length after the tvvefth day and
its cells no longer divide. I have never seen a nucleus in any phase of
either karvokinesis or karyostenosis, notwithstanding I have examined many
sections in all stages of development. Hence the number of cells which
constitute the appendage on the twelfth day remains constant till the or¬
gan disappears. The cells which form all but its basal portion increase
enormously in size, assuming the shape of long prisms more or less attenu¬
ated in -some portion of their length. They grow inward and push the me¬
sodermic cells which at first grew forward into the appendage, back into
the body of the embryo, The cyptoplasm of these large cells consists of
finely and evenly granular protoplasm in which there are one or two spheri¬
cal or oval vacuoles at the peripheral ends. [Fig. 3, 4, u.] In surface
views the cells are polygonal. The contour of the inner ends is indistinct
in embryos fourteen days old.

Not only does the cytoplasm of each of the formerly small ectodermic
cells increase thus enormously, but also the nuclei, which assume a
centrifugal position in the fanshaped sections of the appendage. Owing to
their number the nuclei are forced to arrange themselves in several rows.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

[Fig. 3.] The karyochylema of these nuclei is colorless and shows no granu¬
lation. Through it are spread what under a low power appear to be dis¬
tinct but isolated masses of chromatin.

Under a power of about 900 diameters the prismatic cells exhibit more
of their true structure. The protoplasmic reticulum of the cytoplasm is
indistinctly seen, most of its exceedingly delicate threads running parallel
with the long diameter of the cells and presenting the appearance of fine
striation. The parallel arrangement in this direction may be due to
the tension of the protoplasm during the rapid centripetal growth of the
cells. The nodes of the cytoplasmic reticulum are what appear as fine
granules under a low power. The vacuoles are colorless and are probably
only drop-like accumulations of cytochylema. In the nucleus the karyo-
chylema is perfectly colorless and through it runs a net-work of chromatin
which appears to have thickened nodes. A nucleolus, which stains but very
slightly, usually occupies a central position. By focussing the distribution
of the chromatic reticulum is distinctly seen to be peripheral and not sus¬
pended in the karyochylema. When only the equatorial plane of the nu¬
cleus is in focus the thick masses of chromatin are seen to be closely applied
to the wall of the nucleus — only a few of them running out into the limpid
karyochylema. The thin strands of chromatin connecting the irregular
masses probably also run along the inner face of the nuculear wall. Fig. 5
represents five nuclei drawn with the focus on their equatorial planes. In
the interior of the karyochylema the nuceoli stand out distinctly as bodies
which stain much less deeply than the mass of chromatin.

The nuclei retain their characteristic structure apparently without the
slightest alteration till the complete dissolution of the appendage on
about the twenty-seventh day of development. When at that time the
nuclei cease to stain, the chromatin [probably now of modified mole¬
cular structure] is still visible in glistening masses distributed as formerly.
The nucleolus, too, is still seen as a less refractive body of greater dimensions
than any of the irregular chromatin masses.

The cells of the lower part of tlie appendage in embryos fourteen days
old [Fig. 3], do not differ in form from the ectoderm cells in general.
They lengthen somewhat and clasp the inner ends of the large prismatic
cells which form the great mass of the now nearly solid pleuropodium.
These smaller ectoderm cells thus form a broad tubular peduncle, the lumen
of which is in free communication with the body cavity of the embryo.

The next changes which may be 'noticed in the appendages [in embryos
about nineteen days old] are superficial and easily described. The tubular
peduncle increases in length with a resulting decrease in the breadth of its
lumen. At the same time the portion of the segment to which the append¬
age is attached is carried upward and comes to lie somewhat dorsad to
what will be the coxa of the metathoracic leg. While this movement is
taking place a constriction appears [Fig. 6 cn.] dividing the bulbous mass
of large prismatic cells into two segments. This constriction is merely su-

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Inserts.

91

perficial and does not divide the cells transversely. The nuclei are seen to
have moved back from the periphery of the appendage and to lie, several
rows deep in the basal half of the apical, and in the apical half of the
basal metameres into which the organ has been constricted. The contour
of the inner ends of the prismatic cells has become more distinct and the
cavity into which the lumen of the peduncle opens has become larger.
The peripheral ends of the prismatic cells are full of oval vacuoles of about
equal size, placed side by side. They occupy the whole surface of the apic¬
al metamere. [Fig. 6 v.~\ Perhaps these vacuoles, as also tliose described
in a preceding stage, may be caused by the action of reagents, though the
regularity of their occurrence and the lack of vacuoles in other tissues of
embryo Blatter killed and prepared according to a method described in a
former paper [’89c], seems to preclude the belief that they are artefacts. Be
this as it may, their presence wrnuld seem to indicate that the cytoplasm of
the outer ends of the prismatic cells is of a different, perhaps more sensi¬
tive, structure than that in the remaining portions of the cells.

The appendage has now reached the highest point of its development and
henceforth slowly advances towards dissolution. By the twentieth day
[Fig. 7] it has become more or less irregular in outline. The peduncle \pd\
has increased in length and tenuity; the cavity [ci?.] has become irregular
owing to the basal edges of the prismatic cells becoming ragged, and the
constriction is disappearing. In the appendage figured it is still seen as a
deep indentation on one side [cn.]; on the other side no traces of it are visi¬
ble. The shape assumed by the organ is now no longer constant in any
two individuals. The vacuoles have either entirely disappeared as in Fig. 7,
or they are much elongated and usually found between the prismatic cells.
Where the lateral wTalls of the cells have disappeared their former position
is often marked by these elongate vacuoles. From being intracellular as
in Figs. 3 and 6, the vacuoles thus become intercellular just before disap¬
pearing.

On about the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day the cuticle covers the
whole surface of the embryo. No cuticle, however, forms on the surface of
the pleuropodium, the elongate peduncle of which is constricted off by the
developing chitinous secretion. When embryos of this age are kept for
hours or even days in hsematoxylin or borax carmine and then washed, it is
found that in perfect specimens none of the staining fluid has penetrated
the cuticule; the embryo is still yellowish white, with a brilliant violet or
red spot, visible to the naked eye just behind the base of the metathoracic
leg on either side of the body. This is the pleuropodium, the only portion
of the embryo which has been stained by such protracted immersion.

Examination with higher powers shows that the pleuropodium has now
become very irregular in outline. [Fig. 8.] The old boundaries between the
prismatic cells have disappeared. The apical part of the appendage, still
somewhat bulbous in shape, is a syncytium through which the nuclei ap¬
pear to be migrating toward the opening of what was formerly the pe-

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

duncle but which has now broken down into a mass of cells of more or less
irregular outline [Fig. 8 n.]. This mass of cells is augmented by the nuclei
which are continually leaving the bulbous mass of protoplasm, and which,
before they leave it, surround themselves with an irregular body of cyto¬
plasm cut from the large mass of protoplasm. This process continues while
the whole mass of cells takes on various forms. Finally it spreads out
between the posteriorly directed metathoracic leg and the ventral face of
the abdomen. Fig. 9 shows a section through the remains of the pleuro-
podium of an embryo twenty-six days old. The nuclei fail to stain more
deeply than the protoplasm. The mass pi seems to be the remains of the
bulbous portion marked pi in Fig. 8. In embryos a few hours older no
traces of the organ are to be found. Its remains probably become indis¬
tinguishable from the granular plasmatic secretion which is found in coag¬
ulated masses about the legs and mouth-parts of the embryo. This granular
plasma was originally the limpid fluid that filled the cavity of the amnion.

It will be seen from my description that the origin, development and dis¬
solution of the pleuropodia is comprised within the space of fifteen days —
from the twelfth t'o the twenty -seventh day of the whole period of de¬
velopment, which requires about a month. Within these fifteen days falls
the peculiar phenomenon of revolution, which begins on the fifteenth and
is concluded on the seventeenth day. Fig. 1 illustrates the lateral view of
an embryo during revolution. [Sixteen days old.] The appendage [ap.]
has reached its maximum size and already shows the constriction which
is most marked a few days later. The amnion and serosa have ruptured
and are passing back over the large mass of yolk. The serosa, s, with its
large flat nuclei is contracting away from the ventral and posterior por¬
tions of the yolk. The amnion, a, with its much smaller nuclei still covers
the ventro-lateral faces of the egg in continuity with the edge of the dorsad
growing body-wall.

For a more complete account of the revolution of the embryo I would
refer the reader to a former paper [’89c].

Periplaneta orient alls . L.

(Plate II, Fig. 10.)

So great has been the difficulty encountered in removing the large eggs
of this Blattid from the thick- walled ootheca in which they are deposited,
that I have succeeded in securing only a few advanced embryos.

As would be expected from the close systematic affinities of the insects,
the pear-shaped pleuropodia are similar to those of Blatta , though they are
somewhat more truncated at their ends and attached by much shorter and
broader peduncles than in the species dealt with above. Fig. 10 represents
a longitudinal section through one of these appendages as it appears in a
cross section through the middle of the first abdominal segment. The

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

93

greater portion of the body is still filled with yolk [not seen in the
figure], while a portion of the mesoderm has been converted into connective
tissue, ms. The pleuropodium is undergoing degeneration. We have seen
that in Blatta the nuclei of the huge cells so characteristic of the organ are
at first distal in position, but that they gradually wander back towards the
body during the breaking down of the appendage (Fig. 8). A like migra¬
tion of nuclei seems to occur in Periplaneta, though I cannot affirm this
with certainty as I have seen only pleuropodia in the stage figured. Cer¬
tain it is, however, that many of the nuclei lie in the proximal ends of the
cells. The shape of cells so closely applied to one another as those under
consideration must be determined to some extent by the position of
their large nuclei. Now in Fig. 10, the broad ends of the cells are
directed towards the body, while the narrow ends converge at a point [i t]
in the distal end of the appendage. This is probably not the original arrange¬
ment, which would be like that seen in Blatta [Fig. 3]. In order to reach
the condition of the advanced pleuropodial cells of Periplaneta , from the
condition seen in Blatta in a younger stage, wTe have only to suppose that
most of the nuclei migrate to the proximal ends of their respective cells
and push before them a quantity of protoplasm; in this way the cells would
become rounded off at what were originally their pointed ends, and taper
to thread like points at what were before their broad distal ends. At a? two
such cells are seen in the act of loosening themselves from the main mass
and are apparently about to pass into the body cavity through the broad
lumen of the peduncle. The cells with more deeply stained nuclei at y,
agreeing with the cells of the ectoderm, ecd, and contrasting with the
large pleuropodial cells, seem to belong to the common ectoderm; they at
first, perhaps, form the walls of the peduncle but subsequently pass up into
the appendage. This supposition is rendered more probable by their per¬
ipheral position. The ends of the large cells are frequently filled with and
separated from one another by vacuoles, some of which are very large and
conspicuous. The protoplasmic reticulum in the neighborhood of these
vacuoles has the striated appearance described above for Blatta. At the
distal end of the pleuropodium the protoplasm is less compact and in many
of my sections, like the one figured, spreads out in an irregular granular
mass which leaves the appendage and probably joins the amniotic coagulum.
If my interpretation of the few stages which I have seen is correct, the
pleuropodia of Periplaneta disappear partly by absorption into the body of
the embryo and partly by the dissolution of their outer portions be¬
tween the body walls and the egg-envelopes. In the section figured the
cuticle [ct] is formed on the pleural and ventral walls of the abdomen,
but is not continued over the surface of the pleuropodium.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts arid Letters.

Mantis Carolina , L.

(Plate II, Fig. 11.)

Mr. T. H. Morgan has kindly sent me some of the embryos of this inter¬
esting insect. All the specimens examined were in a stage just preceding
the rupture of the embryonic envelopes, hence almost corresponding with
the Blatta embryo figured (Fig. 1). The pleuropodia are distinctly visible
in surface view as a pair of narrowly pyriform evaginations, partly covered
by the metathoracic legs with which they are liomostichous. Their tips are
directed laterally, while the ends of the metathoracic appendages converge
towards the median ventral line. Each pleuropodium is very much shorter
and narrower than the legs or any of the cephalic appendages. A section [Fig.
11] shows that the organ is a solid body, perhaps best described as a narrow,
pear-shaped sack, whose thickened walls are made up of a single layer of
cells and whose cavity has been reduced so as to be represented by a line.
The cells forming the appendage have the form of curved pyramids; their
broad bases form the outer surface and their gradually tapering apices
converge from all sides towards the central line representing the obliter¬
ated cavity. These cells differ only in shape from those of the ectoderm of
the body walls and other appendages: the size and reactions of the nuclei
together with the quantities of cytoplasm surrounding them are essentially
the same in the elements of both the body walls and pleuropodia. In the
pleural wall [ecd] the nuclei are arranged in about three irregular rows;
just at the insertion of the pleuropodium, however, there is only one row,
a fact indicating that the appendage, which was very probably hollow in a
preceding stage, had its lumen shut off from the body cavity by the in¬
trusion of a layer of ectoderm cells at x. Not having studied more ad¬
vanced embryos, I am unable to state anything in regard to the manner in
which the pleuropodia degenerate. The fact that these organs are small
and solid and that their component cells differ in no way from the ecto¬
dermic elements of the body walls and other appendages, is sufficient proof
that the pleuropodia of Mantis are mere rudiments.

In Mantis Carolina there are distinct appendages on at least the second,
third and fourth abdominal segments, but none of these in my embryos
had developed beyond the mammillate stage. Graber [’88] has observed
on the second abdominal segment of an European Mantis a pair of append¬
ages shaped very much like the pleuropodia on the basal segment. As
these do not occur in all embryos of the European species, and as the embryos
of the American species examined by me, were all taken from a single
capsule and hence deposited by a single female, I cannot feel certain that
this second pair of pleuropodia is always or even normally absent.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

95

Xiphidium ensiferum. Scud.

(Plate 2, Fig. 12, 13, 14.)

The ontogeny of this interesting insect presents a remarkable and ap¬
parently isolated retention of many annelid traits. Among other peculari-
ties there is developed in an early stage a large and rounded preoral disk
between the procephalic lobes, making the head of the embryo resemble a
clover leaf. This preoral disk is soon completely constricted off from the
body of the embryo proper, and, moving forward a short distance, gives
rise to two cellular envelopes. The movements of the embryo in relation to
the yolk also differ markedly from anything heretofore described in insect
development. As I shall devote a special paper to a description of
the development of the Xiphidium embryo, I will here confine my
attention to the pleuropodia which are quite as prominently developed as
in other Orthoptera.

The embryo when first formed on the convex surface of the curved
elongate- oval egg, resembles very closely the Blatta embryo which I have
figured in a corresponding stage [’89c, Plate XVII, Fig. 45]. The appendages
of the first abdominal segment arise as in Blatta , but as soon as the differen¬
tiation of their component cells sets in, a great difference between the
Blattid and Locustid pleuropodia becomes apparent. Each of the modified
appendages becomes bulbous and constricted into a peduncle at its base;
the contour, however, is not evenly rounded but somewhat angular. The
distal end of the sack terminates in a point. Sections show that the
cavity of the organ is very large [Fig. 12, cv.] while the cells forming the
walls are consequently reduced to short and broad prisms. Their cytoplasm,
though still distinctly granular, is paler than that of the ectoderm cells of
the thoracic appendages and body walls. The nuclei, too, stain much less
deeply than the much smaller nuclei of the remaining ectoderm, presum¬
ably because the quantity of cvtochylema is relatively much greater, while
the amount of chromatin in the modified and unmodified ectoderm re¬
mains approximately constant. At first the large cavity of the pleuropodium
communicates with the body cavity by means of a canal through the
peduncle; later this communication seems to be completely cut off by the
disappearance of the lumen.

While the cells of the pleuropodia are differentiating to reach the
stage figured [Fig. 12] and described, the embryo passes through the
yolk backwards and emerges tail first on the concave surface of the egg.
Here it grows considerably and then during revolution passes around the
posterior pole of the egg and again makes its appearance on the convex
surface of the yolk. During the time that the embryo is going through
these peculiar maneuvers, the pleuropodia reach their maximum size and
advance towards the pleurae. Henceforth they diminish in size while their
peduncles become thinner. The oldest embryos examined had their eyes

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

pigmented and were ready to escape from their envelopes. When the chorion
was removed, the serosa and first cuticle were found covering the embryo,,
the hypodermis of which had already secreted a second chitinous layer.
The shrunken but still conspicuous pleuropodia were attached to the
pleurae laterad and close to the insertion of the saltatorial leg. A
dark brown granular substance was collected in large masses over the head
of the embryo, in the spaces betweeen the legs and the envelopes and on
the surface of the pleuropodia, both of which were easily torn from the
body and left adhering to the serosa and first cuticle. To these membranes
also adhered much of the granular dark brown secretion. When I at¬
tempted to stain embryos still in possession of their pleuropodia, I made
the same observation as on Blatta embryos of the corresponding stage:
the pleuropodia were colored but the chitinous covering of the remainder
of the body prevented the stain from entering the subjacent tissues. Sec¬
tions through the first abdominal segment of embryos in this advanced
stage [Figs. 13 and 14] show that the peduncle of each pleuropodium is
much attenuated and inserted on the cuticle at the bottom of a rather deep
pit in the pleural hypodermis [eccl.]. The appendage is therefore cut off
from the living tissues of the body and, being very loosely attached, is
easily shed by the embryo during the movements preparatory to hatching.
A section through the broad portion of the organ in the present stage [Fig.
14] when compared with a section of the organ in its prime [Fig. 12] shows
the extent of dissolution. The cell boundaries, faint but still perceptible
in Fig, 12, have now disappeared and the organ has become a syncytium.
Those portions of the cytoplasm which border the central cavity [ cv. ] are
filled with numerous vacuoles of different sizes. The nuclei have lost their
regular arrangement, and in many cases also their evenly oval contours;
their cytoplasm stains more deeply and their chromation is aggregated to
form larger masses. The granular secretion [s] surrounding the organ and
filling such spaces as are left between the embryo and its envelopes stains
deeply in haematoxylin and seems to be a later formation than the homo¬
geneous secretion indicated at as in Fig. 12, between the amnion and body
of the younger embryo. The abundance of this granular substance cling¬
ing to the walls of the shrunken pleuropodia and heaped about the legs in
the immediate vicinity would seem to indicate that it is to be regarded as
a secretion of the pleuropodia or of one of the embryonic envelopes and
not as the decomposed amniotic secretion.

Cicada septemdecim. Fabr.

(Plate 3, E’igs. 19 ancl 20.)

Most entomologists are familiar with the small ova deposited by this
noxious Homopteron in short parallel rows in the twigs of our native trees.
The eggs are translucent, so that the stages of embryos killed in Carnoy’s
fluid heated to 70° C., which renders the yolk transparent and the embryo

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

9?

opaque white, may be readily recognized before sectioning. It is difficult
to remove the chorion without seriously damaging the egg, so that sections
are best stained on the slide. The development is very much like that of
Aphis as described by Will. [’&§.] This need not surprise us when we
stop to consider the close relationship of the Phytophthora and Homoptera.

In the earliest stage examined the embryo was found in the middle of
the yolk, with the thoracic appendages just making their appearance, and
the thin amnion so closely applied to the ventral plate as to be difficult of
detection in some sections. The embryo is quite straight, exhibiting little
of the pronounced curvature of the Aphis embryo.

In a later sta;e when the thoracic and cephalic appendages are well
established, no appendages are to be observed on the abdominal segments,
sections through which show that the ventral surface is very flat, without
even the bulgings that have frequently been mistaken for rudimental ap¬
pendages. In a cross section through the middle of the first abdominal
segment [Fig. 20] there is seen at the points corresponding with the places
of evagination of the metathoracic appendages of the preceding segment,
a pair of ectodermic thickenings [ ap ]. The cells of these thickenings as
shown by the curvature of their nuclei are aggregated somewhat like the
segments of an orange. The long axes of all the ectoderm cells are in this
stage directed dorso-ventrally. I have for the sake of emphasis repre¬
sented the thickenings, which for reasons given below, I believe to be true
homologues of the evaginated pleuropodia of other insect embryos, as
paler than the cells of the surrounding ectoderm, though in reality no such
differentiation has as yet set in. In the section figured a slight depression
marks the convergence of the outer ends of the pleuropodial cells.

During the revolution of the embryo the pleuropodium reaches its full
size and presents in section the appearance of Fig. 19 ap. It is easy to see
how this organ originates from an orange shaped cluster of cells like that
just described. The ectodermic elements increase greatly in length and
assume the form of curved pyramids with their tapering apices attaining
the surface of the body and their broadened nuclear ends projecting into
the body cavity. The outer and attenuated ends of the cells are uniformly
hyaline and stain very faintly in borax carmine. The cytoplasm of the
inner ends is granular like that of the remaining ectoderm, [ecd.] The
nuclei of the pleuropodium seem not to differ in their finer structure from
the nuclei of the general ectoderm. They are frequently triangular or vi¬
olin-shaped both in the pleuropodium and in the undifferentiated ectoderm.
The only difference is one of position: the nuclei of the body wall lie at right
angles to their former position. A granular mass, the amniotic secretion,
fills the space between the body walls and the egg membranes [ ch .] In one
place, however, this mass is replaced by one of a different nature, a glairy,
homogeneous and vacuolated substance [s] of irregular though rounded
outline, firmly attached to the attenuated tips of the pleuropodial cells.
This homogeneous mass, which stains pink in borax carmine, is often more
7— A. & L.

98

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

globular than as represented in the figure, and is often separated from the
granular amniotic secretion by a clearly defined space, proving that one or
both of the secretions contract under the influence of the reagents em¬
ployed. From the constancy of its occurrence and the manner of its adhe¬
rence to the outer surface of the pleuropodium, I do not hesitate to regard
the homogeneous mass as a secretion of the pyramidal cells. It seems
to consist of an albuminoid substance; the vacuoles which it contains may
be artefacts. Not having examined it in fresh embryos, I was unable to
learn anything more concerning its physical or chemical nature.

A somewhat more advanced embryo was examined in surface view after
'staining with Ehrlich’s haematoxvlin. The presence of the pleuropodium
xvas distincly indicated on each pleura of the first abdominal segment near
the insertion of the metatlioracic leg, by a clear circular area surrounded
by a dark ring. The clear area I take to be the cluster of hyaline cell-tips;
the appearance of a dark circle is probably due to the ectoderm cells seen
in section at o o together with the nucleated ends of the subjacent pleuro-
podial cells. .

In Cicada embryos nearly ready to hatch the pleuropodia are not to be
found. The pyramidal cells grow pale and irregular, finally fall asunder
and are probably absorbed. The ectoderm cells at o o grow over the small
area formerly occupied by the hyaline cell-tips to complete the pleural wall.

Although the pleuropodia of Cicada, being invaginated thickenings of the
ectoderm, differ considerably from the evaginated pleuropodia of the
Orthoptera, I believe that I am justified in regarding both forms as homo-
logues. The facts which make for this homology are the following:

1. The pleuropodia of Cicada are of purely ectodermic origin.

2. They appear only on the first abdominal segment.

8. They are at first homostichous with the thoracic and cephalic ap¬
pendages.

4. Their cytological structure closely resembles that of some evaginate
pleuropodia; the shapes of the component cells with reference to the sur¬
face of the body being merely reversed. Compare the pleuropodia of
Mantis Carolina. [Fig. 11.]

5. Their greatest development is attained during the revolution of the
embryo.

6. They move away from the median ventral line of the embryo and
take the same position on the pleurae as the evaginated pleuropodia of the
Orthoptera and Coleoptera.

7. They atrophy and disappear before the embryo hatches.

/

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 99
Zaitlia fluminea, Say. *

[Plate 3 Figs. 17 and 18.]

Of this form I have examined only embryos in the stages immediately
preceding, during, and after revolution. Just before revolution the embryo
lies on one face of the yolk with its amnion and serosa in contact and not
separated by a layer of the vitellus as in most of the Hemiptera whose on¬
togenies have been studied. Hence Zaitlia would seem to resemble the
Orthoptera and Coleoptera in its manner of embryo formation. The stages
which I have studied show only the fully developed pleuropodia; I can,
therefore, assert nothing in regard to the process whereby these organs
originate and disappear, although their resemblance when fully formed to
the pleuropodia of Cicada renders it highly probable that the beginning
and end of their development are no less similar to those observed in the
Homopteron.

In Fig. 17 I have represented half a cross-section through the first
abdominable segment of an embryo during revolution. The ectoderm
[eccZ] of the dorsal surface in the neighborhood of the heart [c6] is much
thinner than the ectoderm laterad to the large ganglion [pZ]. In one place
near the large pleural fold filled with adipose cells [acZJ the ectoderm is
greatly thickened to form a bulbous organ which is to be regarded as a
pleuropodium. The cells composing it are greatly elongated, being
three or four times as long as the thickest ectoderm cells of the ventral
body wall. It is also seen that a great number of cells take part in the
formation of the Zaitlia pleuropodium while but very few go to make up the
same organ in Cicada. In the water-bug the rounded inner face of
the pleuropodium projects as far as the yolk and presents at irregular in¬
tervals a few flattened mesodermic elements [cn]. The inner ends of the
long cells are coarsely granular, their outer ends uniformly hyaline.
Their nuclei are but little larger than the nuclei of the body walls. The
delicate hyaline cell-tips converge to form a flat surface which is covered

* The eggs of this species were given me by Dr. W . Patten as the eggs of an aquatic
Hemipteron, which from his description I took to be a Nepa, and mentioned it as such in
my preliminary notes (’89a ’89&). The species, however, can be no other than our com¬
mon Zaitha fluminea , Say, for I now remember Dr. Patten telling me that he found the
eggs attached to the hemielytra of the female. This habit, according to Uhler (article
Hemiptera , Standard Natural History Vol. II, p 258, 1884) is shared, so far as their habits
have been observed, by all the species of this exclusively American genus. The female
Nepa attaches her eggs to aquatic plants. The chorion of the egg is smooth and unorna¬
mented in Zaitha , while the egg of Nepa has at one end seven hair-like radiating pro¬
cesses, which, according to E. v. Ferrari , make the egg resemble the seed of Carduus
benedictus. (Die Hemiptcren-Gattung Nepa , Latr (sens, natur.) Annalen d. K. K. naturhist.
Hofmuseums. Bd. Ill, No. 2. Wien 1888.)

I hasten to correct my mistake, as the species of Nepa and Zaitha are not only gener-
ically distinct, but belong to different families: the former to the Nepidoe , the latter to the
Belostomatidce.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

by a broad pencil of refractive threads [s] which is to be regarded as the
secretion of the pleuropodial cells. In Fig. 18 three of these curious cells
are represented as they appear under a magnification of about 900 diam¬
eters. The inner ends which stain deeply in borax carmine contain a num¬
ber of very coarse granules among which are interspersed a multitude of
finer ones; the granules diminish in number beyond the oval nuclei and
have completely disappeared in the gradually tapering outer ends of the
cells [Z], These ends are not affected by the stain. Each cell-tip is capped
by a refractive thread, which nearly or quite equals the cell in length and
may often be split into two or three branches. Usually the line which
separates the cell-tips from the threads which cap them, is distinctly
marked as in Fig. 17 and at z in Fig. 18. I have, however, found num¬
erous cases where no such line could be detected, the hyaline cell-tips pass¬
ing without interruption into the long refractive threads. The minute
structure of the nuclei resembles that of the pleuropodial nuclei of Blatta .
Through the faintly stainable caryochylema runs a chromatic reticultim,
the nodes of which are irregular and much thickened. The nucleolus has
little affinity for staining fluids and is probably to be relegated to Carnoy’s.
class of “ nucleoles plasmatiques.”

Sialis infumata, Newm.

This Neuropteron oviposits on the leaves of plants overhanging the
water. The eggs are arranged in regular rows, with their stem-shaped
micropyles directed upwards. The embryos are so small that it is diffi¬
cult to obtain good surface views; still I have been able to satisfy myself
that the first abdominaJ segment, at about the time of revolution, presents
a pair of conical evaginated pleuropodia, which lie somewhat outside of
the line of the thoracic legs. In my sections I could detect neither a dif¬
ferentiation of the cells nor diverticula of the body-cavity extending
into these appendages. The apparent solidity of the organ may have been
due to the thickness and the plane of my sections.

PART SECOND.

Gryllotalpa vulgaris. L.

The pleuropodia of the mole-cricket were observed as early as 1844 by
Batlrike [’44] who described them as mushroom-shaped bodies. Many
years later, Korotneff [’85] in his account of the general embryology
of Gryllotalpa figured and described the same organs more at length.
According to this author they arise as button-shaped prominences, not in
line with the other appendages but laterad to them. Their outline in sec¬
tion resembles that of a mushroom and they are seen to consist of succu-

0

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 101

lent [saftigen] cells. Later, when the back of the embryo has closed over,
these appendages atrophy [“ gehen zu Grunde”]. They fall off and disap¬
pear completely. [“ Sie fallen spurlos ab”].

It may be doubted, judging from observations on other Orthoptera,
whether the pleuropodia arise laterad to the other appendages. Probably
the earliest stages in their formation escaped Korotneff. His last observa¬
tion, viz. : that the pleuropodia fall off, is quite definite, and, if based on
observation, precludes their possible disappearance by absorption.

Oecanthus niveus, Serville.

The second insect in which pleuropodia were described was Oecanthus
niveus. Ayers [’84] while pursuing the general ontogeny of this Gryllid
was evidently impressed with the interest attaching to these organs; hence
the more complete account which I reproduce in full:

“ The respiratory function of the embryo is first indicated at the time of
revolution by the appearance of paired lateral outgrowths of the ectoderm
from the pleural region of the first abdominal segment. These gills or
respiratory organs come to lie just behind, but dorsad of the base of the
third thoracic appendage. In outline they are broadly oval or kidnev-
shaped and are united to the body by a short peduncle springing from the
center of that face of the disc which is in contact with the body of the
embryo. These folds are cellular structures and at different periods are
solid or hollow. The cells of the folds early lose their ectodermic charac¬
ters and become somewhat larger than those of the adjacent body wall.
In the fresh condition they appear enucleate and coarsely granular, but
upon treatment with osmic or acetic acid a nucleus is distinctly visible.
In surface view there is to be seen a clear central area which indicates the
position of the internal cavities of the gill. These cavities are continuous
with the body cavity and probably serve as channels through which the
vascular fluid circulates They vary in shape and relative proportions.
The relations of these appendages to the body is best seen in sections. The
outgrowing flap is here seen to project over an invagination immediately
below it and in some instances to become apposed so closely to the body
wall as to convert the open pocket into a closed canal. In its middle part,
where the fold fuses with the body, its cells are separable into two irregular
layers which correspond to the two primitive plates of the fold, but they
fuse completely, or become widely separated, in the free portion of the
pad. These appendages reach their greatest degree of development soon
after the revolution of the embryo, and then gradually atrophy, entirely
disappearing before the complete closure of the body walls. In sections of
the gill organ before its atrophy [or absorption] one finds both distinct
canals and lacunar spaces, which radiate from the point of connection of
the pad with the body, and these together with the arrangement of the
cells give the radiate structure characteristic of the fresh gill. The canals

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

are generally circular in section and pursue irregular courses throughout
the cell substance, while the spaces are developed by the separation of ad¬
jacent cell walls and are irregular in outline and occur at varying distances
from each other. The gill pad is essentially a single layered sac, with a
much constricted neck, evaginated from the pleural region of the abdomen.
The protruding organ is flattened against the body of the embryo and by
this means the cells are rendered spindle-shaped. The nucleus of each cell
lies in that part of its cell which is farthest from the constriction of the
organ. The cell wall gradually tapers to a point and ends near the neck.
The cells are bent in various ways depending upon the relations of their
nuclei to the wall of the pad.”

Ayers seems not to have recognized the identity of the abdominal ap¬
pendages and what he calls the “ gill-pads.” On plate 18 he figures [Figs.
8, 19, 20, 23, ab. p.] the first pair of abdominal appendages as digitiform
and arising in a line with the thoracic and remaining abdominal appenda¬
ges. In Fig. 20 these organs are seen with tips directed outward, while
the ends of the thoracic appendages converge. Concerning the abdominal
appendages he writes:

“ Soon after the mesoderm has extended into the hollow appendages,
there appear successively a varying number of abdominal protuberances
exactly similar to the maxillary and thoracic appendages in their earliest
stage of growth. Of these only two pairs ever reach any considerable de¬
gree of development, they are the first and the last abdominal. The for¬
mer grows to the length of the mature mandibles and then atrophies. It
varies in shape from a finger-like process [pi. 18, fig. 17] to a lobed out¬
growth, and in the later stages is covered by the last thoracic appendage.”

The last sentences imply that the organ undergoes dissolution in situ and
this is further sustained by Fig. 22, where what would seem -to be the ir¬
regular remains of the appendages are seen through the translucent rneta-
thoracic legs. Evidently Ayers lost sight of the appendages after they
had been covered by the last thoracic legs and when they passed out from
under these and made their appearance as enlarged and peculiarly modified
organs high up on the pleural wall, they were regarded as organs having
no relation to the abdominal appendages. Ayers no longer letters the ap¬
pendages withab. p., but with a new reference, A, and, what is more con¬
clusive, says that the pleuropodium “ is essentially a single-lavered sao
with a much constricted neck, evaginated from the pleural region of the
abdomen.”

The section of the “ gill” described and figured by Ayers [Figs. 13 and
14, pi. 22] “before its atrophy [or absorption]” shows the cells after the
setting in of degeneration. The figures are in every way comparable
to the figure which I have given of Periplaneta (see above, page 92, also
fig. 19, Plate II). Fig. 14 shows the dorsal wall of the embryo covered
over and the heart completed, a stage in which the pleuropodia have
passed beyond their maximum development which is attained just before

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

103

or during revolution. The canals and spaces alluded to in Ayers’ descrip¬
tion are exactly like those seen in Periplaneta in the corresponding stage,
and must not be regarded as delicate ramifications of the body cavity but
as irregular spaces produced by the falling asunder of the columnar cells.
They are probably identical with the intercellular vacuoles seen in the de¬
generating pleuropodia of Blatta and Periplaneta. Had Ayers passed
sections through the pleuropodia of Oecanthus before the setting in of
dissolution, his description would have been different and very probably
like what I have given for Xipliidium.

Stenobothrus.

Graber briefly described the pleuropodia of this Acridian in his paper on
polypody [’88]. In a more recent article [’89] he gives a fuller description
which I reproduce:

“ Each of the pleuropodia of Stenobothrus at the time of its greatest de¬
velopment lies on the pleural wall of the first abdominal segment about
where, in later life, the tympanal apparatus is situated. It is a flat¬
tened biscuit-shaped body about 1 mm. in diameter. While the remainder
of the body wall remains destitute of pigment till the insect hatches, the
pleuropodia acquire a brownish hue. Of the same color also is a finely
granular coagulum partly glued to the skin in the immediate neighbor¬
hood of the pleuropodia and the legs. In sections the organs present a wide
cavity which opens by means of a short and rather broad passage into the
body cavity. In some sections a few cells, probably interpretable as blood
corpuscles, are to be found in the cavity; in other sections these cells are ab¬
sent. The large cells of the outer wall, which in this insect also are enorm¬
ously developed, are especially interesting, as they are so filled with yellowish
granules that the whole outer wall of the sack presents the appearance of
a brownish yellow plate. These granules are visible even in Canada
balsam preparations. Closer observation shows that the above mentioned
coagulum in the vicinity of the pleuropodia and legs contains yellow
granules very similar to those contained in the cells and thus justifies the
conclusion that this coagulum, at least in part, is secreted by the pleuro-
podial cells, the outer surfaces of which are not covered by a chitinous
cuticle.”

Blatta germanica, L.

Patten was the first investigator to describe the pleuropodia of Blatta
germanica [’84], His observations are summed up in the following words:

“ At first a number of abdominal appendages are developed which, how¬
ever, quickly disappear again with the exception of the first pair, which
further develops into pear-shaped structures attached to the abdomen by a
stem that increases in length and finally changes into a very fine duct
leading into a small cavity in the expanded distal extremity, which owes

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

its size to the development of extremely high ectoderm cells. No mesodern
enters into the construction of the peculiar organ which in the later stages
of development disappears entirely.”

Cholodkovsky s paper [’89] which in respect of the pleuropodia of
Blatia adds but little to Patten's description, appeared several months after
my account of these organs was written. After describing the origin of
the different appendages, the Russian observer passes to a more detailed
description of the first abdominal pair.

“ While the ectoderm cells keep increasing in length in the first abdom¬
inal appendages, those of its constricted basal portion, on the contrary,
become somewhat shorter. As a consequence of these changes the abdom¬
inal appendage assumes the shape of a pear attached to the body by means
of a slender stem only. The greater portion of such an appendage consists
of very long and narrow, almost fusiform ectoderm cells, which with their
broadening distal ends form the surface of the appendage, while their
proximal ends narrow towards the peduncle. The cells are very closely ap¬
plied to one another, and there is no cavity in this portion of the modified
appendage, though there is a narrow canal in the axis of the peduncle
leading into the body cavity. Somewhat nearer its distal than proximal
end each long ectoderm cell contains a large oval nucleus. Focussing on
the surface of the widened portion of the pear-shaped body one observes
that it is divided into facets; each facet has slightly raised edges and a
central depression, and belongs to an ectoderm cell. During later develop¬
ment before the hatching of the embryo these appendages disappear by a
process unknown to me.”

This description is in the main correct. It is true that the outlines of
the pleuropodial cells are polygonal in surface view, but I have never seen
anything like the facets with raised edges and depressed centers described by
Cholodkovsky and depicted in his Fig. 15 This appearance is probably due
to Cholodkovsky' s method of preparing Blatta embryos by protracted im¬
mersion in Perenyi’s fluid, a method which is in all probability responsible
for the marked distortion of some of his other figures.

Mantis.

To Grdber we owe the only account of abdominal appendages in Mantis
embryos published heretofore. In his general work on insects [‘77] he
figures the anterior portion of a young Mantis embryo, in which the
pleuropodia are seen as a pair of digitiform processes, directed and shaped
like the thoracic legs, which they are far from equalling either in length or
breadth. In his later paper ['88] Graber figures another embryo Mantis in
which is seen a pair of what might be called secondary pleuropodia on the
second abdominal segment. This second pair, wliich is absent in some em¬
bryos is somewhat smaller, though in other respects exactly like the first
pair. Further stages in the development of these organs are not described.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 105

It is probable that they soon disappear without ever becoming bulbous,
since a tendency thus to differentiate is distinctly manifest in other Orthop-
teran embryos that have reached the age of the Mantis embryos figured by
Graber.

Neophylax concinnus.

An isolated observation on pleuropodia in the Phryganeidae is embodied in
one of Patten’s figures of a Neophylax embryo [’84, plate 36 A, Fig 11.]
Patten notes the fact in the text [page 578] that three pairs of abdominal
appendages are developed cn the basal segments, but says nothing about a
differentiation of the most anterior pair. The figure referred to, however,
shows that the conical abdominal appendages of the first abdominal seg¬
ment are considerably larger than those of the two succeeding segments.
Dr. Patten has, at my request, kindly taken the trouble to re-examine his
sections, and informs me that the cells of the pleuropodia differ in struct¬
ure from the unmodified ectoderm cells of the other appendages and the
body wall of the embryo.

Acilius.

At my request, Dr. Patten has very kindly sent me the following de¬
scription of the pleuropodia of this Dytiscid:

As in other forms so in Acilius , the pleuropodia arise on the first abdom¬
inal segment of the young embryo, as a pair of ectodermic evaginations,
homostichous with the thoracic legs. Later, the distal end of each bul¬
bous appendage, consisting of large columnar cells, is invaginated in the
form of a cup. The nuclei are situated in the inner ends of the cells, each
of which secretes at its tip a short refractive thread, which, with those of
the neighboring cells goes to form over the invaginated area a thick,
striated, cuticula-like layer. Dr. Patten remarks that this form of secre¬
tion may be compared with the pleuropodial secretion of Zaitha, the only
difference being that the individual threads secreted are so short as to form
together a continuous sheet, instead of a penicillate bundle.

These peculiar appendages, which of all described species most closely
resemble the pleuropodia of Meloe, do not fall off during their period of
degeneration, but are pushed into the yolk and absorbed.

Hydrophilus piceus , L.

The pleuropodia of this form were first observed by Kowalevsky [71.]
They are distinctly seen in his Fig. 12, as digitiform processes, shorter than
the metathoracic legs. Nothing is said of their differentiation. In the
figure of an older embryo they are represented as a pair of smaller protuber¬
ances inserted on the pleurae near the bases of the metathoracic legs.

Heider [’89] in the first part of his beautiful monograph, figures the
pleuropodia of Hydrophilus in several places, [Figs. 2 and 3 in the text;

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Fig. 9, plate 2, Figs. 10a, 10b, 11 and 12, plate 3] not as digitiform, but as
small bulbous organs with spherical contour, developed from a pair of
small mammillar prominences. At the time of the rupture of the embry¬
onic envelopes, they are but little larger than the terminal metameres of
the metathoracic legs and show but little tendency as yet to move apart
from the places where they arose in line with the metathoracic and re¬
maining abdominal appendages. In sections of the last stages described
by Heider, the beginning of a differentiation of the cells may be observed
but the pleuropodia do not attain their greatest differentiation till a later
stage of development. Heider reserves further description for the second
part of his monograph.

Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.

In the cockchafer the pleuropodia attain a much greater size than in any
other insect heretofore studied. We are indebted to Graber for an ex¬
cellent description of these remarkable organs. [’88.]

The pleuropodia are first seen in embryos twelve days old, and do not
reach their maximum size till the twenty-second day. They are large flat¬
tened sacks attached by peduncles and, when fully developed, are much
longer than the thoracic legs and about three times as broad. Graber
thus describes the minute structure of the full-grown pleuropodium:

“In respect of histological structure, a feeble magnification shows that
the condition of the abdominal appendages differs decidedly in many, if
not in all, particulars from that of the legs. This is especially true of the
outer, or ectodermic layer. For, while this layer in the legs, like that of
the body wall and all the other appendages * * * * consists

of relatively narrow cells with relatively very small [0,006 mm] nuclei and
only sporadically inserted larger cells with large nuclei, nearly all the cells
in the abdominal appendages, and more especially those forming the outer
walls of these pocket-shaped organs, are of considerable size and are pro¬
vided with nuclei more than twice as large as those of the remaining ecto¬
derm, since they measure about 0,014 mm. Considering that, at the time
when the organ was formed, the ectoderm nuclei were 0,008 mm in diame¬
ter, it follows that during the course of further development, the nuclei of
the ordinary ectoderm become somewhat smaller, while those of the ecto¬
derm of the abdominal appendages undergo a considerable increase in size.
This increase is most pronounced in the outer wall of the appendage; a por¬
tion of the inner wall, as well as the short cervical portion, or peduncle,
formed by constriction, having typical [i. e., small] ectodermelements.”
Within the cavity of the sacks “are found numerous cells of the same
structure as those which occur in the body cavity and likewise in all the
appendages. I regard it as an open question whether these elements, origi¬
nating as they do from an evagination of the mesoderm, become wholly

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. ”107

dissociated and are ultimately to be regarded as blood cells, or whether
they, in part at least, unite to form a loose tissue [lockeres Gewebe.] ”

Graber has also observed the atrophy of the pleuropodia of Melolontha.
Degeneration begins about eight days after the pleuropodia attain their
maximum size. “ In the embryo thirty days old, with the dorsum closed
over and the cephalic and anal ends already strongly flexed towards each
other, the organ has diminished in size, not only when compared with the
legs, but absolutely. More striking, however, is the reduction of the ab¬
dominal appendages in the thirty-four day old embryo, which in conse¬
quence of its great increase in length, is already completely coiled up and
has attained to maturity. Here the appendages in question, are nothing
but minute scales, hardly as long as a segment, and half concealed in the
aforementioned eoagulum. They separate from the body with the slight¬
est touch. Probably they are pushed off while the insect is leaving its en¬
velopes, perhaps in consequence of rubbing against the same. In the
hatched larva only the healed [verloethete] cicatrice of the peduncle is to
be found.”

Meloe proscarabceus. L.

After treating of the formation of the germ -layers of this Coleopteron
in a former paper, Nusbaum devotes a more recent article [’89] to a de¬
scription of the very interesting pleuropodia. I quote his description in
extenso:

“ The appendages of the first abdominal segment have up to the eighth
day of development the form of roundish cylindrical sacks and consist,
like the thoracic legs, of a single layer of cylindrical ectoderm cells sur¬
rounding a cavity in which may be seen a few loose mesoderm cells. On
the eighth day of development each of these appendages differentiates into
two parts: one basal and cylindrical, and one distal, which is spherical and
somewhat pointed at the pole [outer end]. In the basal part the cavity
persists as before, together with the loose mesoderm cells; in the spherical
portion, however, the cavity disappears and is replaced by large and much
lengthened cylindrical cells. These large cells arise by a kind of invagin¬
ation of a portion of the ectodermic layer at the pole of the appendage.
The cells of the invaginated portion grow very rapidly and soon take on
the appearance of very large and characteristic elements, so loosely juxta-
posited that narrow clear slits may be observed here and there between
them. The edges of the invagination approach one another till there re¬
mains only a small aperture leading into a roundish cavity closed on all
sides. On the tenth day of development the segmentation of the thoracic
legs may be seen very distinctly; in each leg three to four parts, or seg¬
ments may be distinguished, which are marked off by constrictions on the
outer surface of the ectoderm. It is interesting to note, that the append¬
ages of the first abdominal segment seem also to undergo a kind of con¬
striction, so that I cannot concur in Graber'’ s statement that “ the abdominal

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

appendages are always unsegmented.” For, in the above mentioned stage of
development a distinct constriction of the ectoderm may be observed between
the basal and distal portions; hence I believe that we are justified in regarding
as segments the two parts of the appendage thus distinctly separated. On
the twelfth day of development — sometimes even before — the plasma of
the invaginated cells, whose roundish oval nuclei lie near the basal ends,
acquire a very distinctly and finely fibrillar structure, resembling that of
the epithelium of many excretory glands. In the above described cavity is
collected a homogeneous, sticky secretion, which gradually swells out of
the aperture in considerable quantity. It is easy to detect delicate threads
of this secretion running from the large cells surrounding to the mass of
the secretion filling the cavity. The structure of these glandular ap¬
pendages reminds me somewhat of the glandular temporary appendages
[‘ dorsal organ ’] which I have described in My sis; I hasten, however, to
state expressly that I do not wish to maintain any homology between these
organs.”

Interesting as is the account just quoted, Nusbaum goes on to describe a
still more interesting condition. He says: “ I have further convinced
myseif that the remaining stub -shaped abdominal appendages of Meloe are
of a glandular nature. At the tip of each of these appendages there is also
formed an invagination, which is. however, much shallower than in the
appendages of the first abdominal segment, so that it does not form a
cavity. The invaginated cells are closely juxtaposited, long and cylin¬
drical but not as large as those of the first abdominal appendages. They
likewise secrete a sticky substance, though in less quantity than the afore
mentioned organs of the first segment. Back of these invaginated cells
lies a cavity communicating with the body cavity and filled with loose
mesoderm cells.” The further fate of these organs was not traced by
Nusbaum. “ The roundish terminal joint of the appendages of the first
abdominal segment is very probably thrown off, while the basal portion
together with the stub-shaped appendages of the other abdominal segments
gradually grow shorter, flatten out and finally disapjiear entirely.”

Before passing to a brief resume of the results recorded in the preceding
portions of my paper, I insert a table of the insects, which have been studied
with reference to abdominal appendages. In this list are included a few
forms, in which no pleuropodia have been described. I am well aware that
negative conclusions in regard to details merely read between the lines of
works on the general ontogeny of a species are of very little value, but in the
cases to which I allude, the probability of such prominent organs
as the pleuropodia being overlooked by investigators who have care¬
fully studied insect embryos by means of sections is so small, that
I do not hesitate to record their omissions as negative results.
Most of the forms enumerated as having no pleuropodia were examined
by Graber and myself with the express purpose of observing whether these
organs were present.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Inserts. 109

ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

Family Gryllid^e.

Oecanthus niveus, Serville.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbous with reniform outline.
[Ayers ’84.]

Gryllotalpa vulgaris, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbiform.

[Rathke (Ai), Korotneff 85), Graber (’88).]

Family Locustid.e.

Xiphidium ensiferum, Scud.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbiform, subreniform [Wheeler],

Family Acridiid^e.

Stenobothrus.

pleuropodia evaginate bulbiform, with yellow granular
secretion. [Graber ( ’88,) ( ’89) ].

Family Mantidje.

Mantis (European).

pleuropodia evaginate digitiform; occasionally a pair
on the second abdominal segment [secondary pleu¬
ropodia] [Graber (’77), (’88)].

Mantis Carolina, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, elongate pyriform [Wheeler].

Family Blattid^e.

Blatta germanica, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, broadly pyriform.

[Patten (’84,) Cholodkovsky, (’89,) Wheeler.]
Periplaneta orientalis, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, pyriform [Wheeler].

ORDER HEMIPTERA.

Family Aphidid^e.

No pleuropodia described for any of the following species:—
Aphis pelargonii. [Will (’88).]

“ saliceti. [Will (’88).]

“ rosce, L. [Will (’88).]

Family Cicadid^e.

Cicada septemdecim. L.

pleuropodia invaginate, solid, bulbiform, with glairy,
vacuolate secretion. [Wheeler (’89a, and ’89b)].

Family Belostomatid^e.

Zaitha flummea, Say.

pleuropodia invaginate, solid, bulbiform, with penicillate
secretion. [Wheeler (’89a and ’89b), ].

110

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ORDER COLEOPTERA.

Family Hydrophilid^e.

Hydrophilus piceus, L,

pleuropodia evaginate, digitiform.

[. Kowalevsky (’71), Heider (' 89)].

Family Dytiscidje.

Acilius.

pleuropodia evaginate, calyculate, with a thick, striated,
cuticula like secretion. (Patten.)

Family Scarab^id^.

Melolontha vulgaris , Fabr.

pleuropodia evaginate, very large, flattened, bag-shaped
[Graber (’88)].

Family Meloidje,

Meloe pr oscar abceus, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, calyculate, with sticky homogen¬
eous secretion. [ Nusbaum ( ’89).]

Family Chrysomelhle.

Lina tremulce, Gmel.

no pleuropodia [Graber] .

Doryphora 10-lineata, Say.

no pleuropodia [Wheeler ’89].

ORDER NEUROPTERA.

Family Sialhle.

Sialis infumata, Newm.

pleuropodia evaginate, conical (Wheeler).

ORDER TRICHOPTERA.

Family Phryganeidje. *

Neophylax concinnus.

pleuropodia evaginate, conical [Patten ( ’84)].

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.

Family Bombycid,e.

No pleuropodia have been observed in the following: —
Gastropacha quercifolia , L. [Graber ’88.]

Bombyx mori , L. [Tichomiroff ( ’82)].

Orgyia leucostigma, A. and S. [ Wheeler.]

Telea polyphemus , Cram. [Wheeler.]
Callosamiapromethea , Drury. [Wheeler.]

Platysamia cecropia, L. (Wheeler.]

Hyper chiria io , Fabr. [Wheeler J

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects .

Ill

ORDER DIPTERA.

No pleuropodia have been observed in the following: —

Family Chironomid^e.

Chironomus. [Weismann, ("63).]

Family Tabanid.e.

Tabanus at rat as, Fabr.? (Wheeler.)

Family Muscid^

Musca [ Weismann ( ’63), Voeltzkow (’89)].

ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

Family Apid.e.

Apis mellifica, L.

No pleuropodia [Buetschli (’70), Grassi (’84).]

The facts accruing from a study of the pleuropodia in the above enumer¬
ated forms, representing some of the families of most of the natural orders
of insects, may be briefly summarized as follows:

1. The pleuropodia were at one time organs of considerable functional
importance to the primitive Hexapoda. This is proved both by the size which
they attain in several cases [ Melolontha , Blatta, etc.] and by the variety of
structure which they exhibit in different species, sometimes even of the
same natural order [ Hydrophilus , Melolontha, Meloe.] The latter fact
would indicate that the organs had occurred very generally among ancient
insects and had undergone the modification to which the struggle for ex¬
istence subjects organs of very general occurrence and important function.

2. Pleuropodia seem to be of constant occurrence in insects of some
orders [Orthoptera, Trichoptera (?)], in other orders these organs are as
constantly wanting [Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera], while in still other groups
[Coleoptera, Hemiptera] they are well developed in some forms and entirely
lacking in others.

3. The pleuropodia are always derived from the ectoderm.

4. They arise as appendages serially homologous with the appendages of
the thorax and abdomen.

5. The pleuropodia described up to date belong to one of two types —
they are either formed by evagination or invagination. Those of the latter
type are subspherical and solid; those of the evaginate type appear under
two forms: the bulbous and the calyculate, the latter being distinguished
from the former by having the apical area invaginated. [ Acilius , Meloe. ]
The evaginate bulbous form undergoes some modification in different
species. Thus we may distinguish as its varieties the mushroom-shaped
[ Gryllotalpa ], thereniform [Oecanthus], the broadly pyriform [Blatta], and
the elongate pyriform pleuropodium [ Mantis Carolina]. All these varieties

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

are pedunculate. Undeveloped pleuropodia do not become bulbiform,
since they never pass beyond the conical or digitiform phases common to
all incipient insect appendages. \Neophylax .]

6. The cells composing the pleuropodia in all cases except where these
organs remain rudimentary or digitiform, deviate considerably in their
structure from the ectoderm cells of the body wall and the other append¬
ages. The cells and nuclei increase in size and usually become more
succulent.

7. In most pleuropodia of the evaginate type there is a larger or smaller
cavity, communicating by means of a narrow duct through the peduncle
with the body cavity [ Blatta , etc.]. In the calyculate forms there is a
second cavity, distinct from the first, opening in the opposite direction, on
the outside of the body.

8. No tracheae, nerves or muscles have been observed to enter into the
formation of the pleuropodia. A few mesoderm cells, probably blood-
corpuscles or fragments of mesenchymatous tissue, have been observed in
the cavities of some evaginate pleuropodia.

9. In some species the pleuropodia produce a secretion from the ends of
their enlarged cells. This secretion may be a glairy albuminoid substance
[ Cicada , Meloe,] a granular mass [Stenobotkrus], a bundle of threads
[, Zaitha ], or a thick, striated, cuticula-like mass ( Acilius ).

10. In some evaginate pleuropodia there appears a constriction, proba¬
bly homologous with some one of the constrictions which separate the tho¬
racic and maxillary appendages into metameres.

11. In some cases, at least, no chitinous cuticle is formed over the sur¬
face of the pleuropodial cells. [ Blatta , Stenobothrus .]

12. The pleuropodia attain their greatest size during the revolution of
the embryo. Soon after the yolk has been enclosed by the body walls and
the heart has formed, the appendages of the first abdominal segment begin
to degenerate.

13. The degeneration of an evaginate pleuropodium does not in all cases
result in a reabsorption into the body of the embryo, but in a falling assun-
der of its large cells and their subsequent dissolution outside the insect’s
body.

14. The pleuropodia in all their forms and stages are characterized by a
certain incompleteness, which, together with the brevity of their existence
even during embryonic life, stamps them as mere rudiments of what were
probably in remote ages much larger and more complex organs.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

If 3

PART THIRD.

The question as to the original function of the pleuropodia must needs
have suggested itself to all investigators who have met with these conspic¬
uous organs in insect embryos. Naturally enough, each investigator has
sought an answer in the particular insect studied, in most cases never sus¬
pecting that so simple an organ as a pleuropodium could have undergone
much modification and have assumed in forms unknown to him a structure
calculated to render his narrowly based theoretical conclusions untenable.
In view of the ectodermic origin of the pleuropodia, they may be said to
have had one of three functions: they were either respiratory organs, sense
organs or glands. Hence, owing to the fact that limited observation has
precluded any general survey of the pleuropodia throughout the whole
Hexapod group, different investigators have advocated one or the other of
these functions, each being guided to his particular view by the special in¬
sect to which he devoted his attention. Thus Graber has become an advo¬
cate of the gill hypothesis from his observations on Melolontha , a form in
which the pleuropodia are in many ways singularly specialized; Cholodkov -
sky, perhaps impressed by what he supposed to be a facetted surface on the
pleuropodia of Blatta — in reality a phenomenon due to his use of reagents
— believes the pleuropodia to be sense organs; while Nusbaum has been
most naturally led to regard the modified appendages as glandular organs
by his observations on Meloe.

1 shall proceed to a consideration of the three theories advocated up to
date, briefly examining into the reasons which have influenced their ad¬
herents, and finally settling on the gland theory as to me the most probable.
With this last theory none of the observed facts are in contradiction — •
while as much cannot be said of the gill and sense organ hypotheses.

A. The Gill Hypothesis.

Ratlike, the first to find pleuropodia, was also the first to assign to them
a function [’44]. Their peripheral position, the delicacy of their surfaces,
their close adherence to the egg-membrane, which he thought due perhaps
to some sticky substance, and the further fact that they contained cavities
filled with what was very probably blood, made Rathke believe that he was
dealing with respiratory organs. He supposed, moreover, that these organs
functioned during embryonic life. The embryos of Gryllotalpa, he says,
require a great deal of air, on which account they are deposited in spacious
subterranean chambers. When simply buried in the earth, the eggs decay.

Ayers followed Rathke in his interpretation of the problematic append¬
ages. [’84], Of late Graber [’88] though dealing with these organs at
8— A. & L.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

greater length, and possessing more facts than his predecessors, has adopted
their theoretical views without modification. His latest contribution, how¬
ever, seems to show a tendency to depart from the standpoint held in his
paper on polypody, a change of opinion attributable to his study of Steno -
bothrus.

The facts which have led to the assumption of the gill hypothesis are the
following:

1. The position of the pleuropodia on the pleurae near the insertion of
the metathoracic legs could not fail to suggest the respiratory organs of the
Crustacea.

2. In some insect embryos the pleuropodia are shaped like lamellar gills.
This is notably the case in Melolontha , the pleuropodia of which are so gill¬
like that Graber figures an Isopod side by side with the insect embryo for
the sake of comparison.

3. Blood has been observed to circulate in and out of the pleuropodia.

That these facts are not sufficient to sustain the hypothesis, is shown by

the following consideration:

The pleuropodia of Melolontha certainly resemble the gills of certain
Isopoda, but it is almost equally certain that the appendages of the
cock chafer have departed from the original type of pleuropodium which
is best seen in the Orthoptera [ Blatta , Stenobothrus]. As these organs
were present after hatching, in ancestral forms, it follows that in the pre¬
cursors of Melolontha , they might have been balloon-shaped after the ani¬
mal’s escape from the egg. Such large, sack -shaped organs must necessarily
become much flattened while they are confined to the narrow space be¬
tween the body-wall of the embryo and the egg envelopes.

The cell-layer forming the walls of the pleuropodia in all cases where
these organs are not rudimental, is considerably.thicker than the ectoderm
of the appendages and body walls. Now, as a gill in ultimate analysis
is merely a thin layer of cells separating the blood from the air, it becomes
very difficult to understand why the comparatively thin layer of ectoderm
cells forming the walls of the thoracic and cephalic appendages and the in¬
tegument in general should not constitute a much more efficient respiratory
organ than the thick-walled pleuropodia.

Blood has been seen to circulate in and out of the pleuropodia, but it also
circulates in and out of the legs, mandibles, anal stylets, etc., in the same
manner.

The bulbous shape of the pleuropodia iri the majority of forms is unlike
that of any known insect gills. The tracheal gills seen in the larval Ephe-
meridse, Odonata, etc., are foliaceous or filamentous; while the protrusile,
anal gills of such forms as the larval Eristalis are tubular.

Lastly, appendages shaped like the pleuropodia of Meloe, Acilius,Zaitha
and Cicada, could not have had a respiratory function. The hypothesis is
therefore insufficient to cover all the facts and must be either restricted to
a few doubtful cases or abandoned altogetner.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

115

B. The Sense-organ Hypothesis.

Patten [’84] and Cholodkovsky [’89] are the only investigators, who have
maintained that the pleuropodia of embryo insects may have functioned as
sense organs. The following facts make for the probability of this supposi¬
tion:

1. The pleuropodia are composed of peculiarly modified ectoderm
cells.

2. They roughly resemble such sensory structures as the Arthropod
eye.

3. Paired sense-organs are known to occur on the abdominal segments
of many Arthropods. Cases in point are the curious Euphausia with its
pairs of eye-like sense-organs and many Orthoptera that have sensory ana
stylets.

4. In Acilius , as Dr. Patten informs me, the small rods secreted by the
pleuropodial cells are comparable to the retinal rods in the larval eye of
the same insect. That the secretion in Cicada and Meloe flows together
into one glairy mass, instead of forming bodies of like and definite shape
capping the ends of the individual cells. may be due to the fact, that the
organs are now merely rudimental structures. Dr. Patten tells me
that the large lateral sense-organs of the embryo Limulus polyphemus
produce a glairy secretion very similar to what I have described in Cicada
[’89 a and b].

5. The pleuropodia are similar in shape and manner of development to
the halteres of the Di tera and the pectinate appendages on the second
abdominal segment of Scorpions, both of which modified appendages, as
we have good evidence for believing, are functional sense-organs.

These facts are weighty. It seems to me, however, that the supposition
that the pleuropodia are sense-organs, is untenable, for the reason that no
investigator has yet observed even a trace of nervous tissue in connection
with the pleuropodial cells. In sense-organs as large as the pleuropodia we
should certainly expect to find a well- developed neural element, since in
the case of much smaller and more insignificant sense-organs it is not dif¬
ficult to detect the nervous connection. Granting that the pleuropodia are
rudimental structures, it remains none the less improbable that a nervous
connection, which in so large an organ must have been prominently devel¬
oped at one time, could have disappeared so completely while the sensory
cells themselves underwent comparatively little diminution in size. The
pleuropodia are, moreover, most conveniently located for innervation from
the large ganglion of the first abdominal segment or from one of its main
branches.

It is, of course, possible, that in some or all forms the organs under con¬
sideration may have had a sensory function; but the facts accumulated up
to the present, do not permit us to assign to the cells any other than a
secretory function.

116

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

C. The Gland Hypothesis.

Besides Patten, who claimed that the pleuropodia might be glands [’84]
no one till very recently has considered this view. In the July number of
the American Naturalist [’89a] I advocated this view in a brief note.* In
one of the August numbers of the “ Biologisches Centralblatt ” [’89] Graber
published his remarks on the pleuropodia of Stenobothrus, attributing to
these organs a glandular function. In one of the September numbers of
the “ Zoologischer Anzeiger” [’89b] a preliminary account of my observa¬
tions on the pleuropodia of Zaitha and Cicada was published. In one of
the October numbers of the “ Biologisches Centralblatt” appeared J. Nus-
baum?s description of the pleuropodia of Meloe [’89]. Nusbaum regards
these organs as glandular, but terminates his paper in a confusion of
ideas as evinced by the following remark: “ Die druesige Natur der
Bauchanhgenge bei den genannten Insekten [Meloe, Stenobothrus ] [die oline
Zweifel aucli bei anderen gefunden werden wird] spriclit dafuer, dass wil¬
es hier walirscheinlich mit rudimentaeren Organen, die nicht bloss zur
gewoehnliclien Gangfunktion bei den Insektenvorfahren, sondern vielleicht
auch noch zur Atmungsfunktion dienten, zu thun haben.”

I fail to comprehend how the glandular nature of the pleuropodia can in
any way suggest that they may have functioned simultaneously as ambu¬
latory and respiratory organs.

The following are my reasons for assigning a glandular function to the
pleuropodia:

1. The entire ectoderm of Arthropods, excepting its nervous derivatives,
is essentially a glandular layer, one of its prime functions being the secre¬
tion of the chitinous armour so characteristic of these animals. This
function is retained by the ectoderm cells, even when they are pushed into
the body as in the case of the tracheae, tentorium, oesophagus and rectum.
Looking at the compound Arthropod eye from Watase's standpoint [’89]
as a cluster of ectodermic invaginations we have a case where ectodermic
cells still retain their chitin-secreting habits though pushed below the sur¬
face of the general integument and covered by superjacent cells.

2. The pleuropodial cells closely resemble other simple ductless glands
in insects, such as the wax-glands of the Aphididae and the stinging
glands of some Lepidopterous larvae. In the embryo and young larvae of
the Bombycid Hyperchiria io, I have observed the formation of the huge
branching spines, which arranged in several parallel rows, repel the insects
enemies with their stinging secretion. The immensely enlarged ectoderm
cells which secrete the poison in the lacunae of the spines, have very
glandular cytoplasm and large nuclei, thus resembling the pleuropodial cells
of Blatta.

3. The pleuropodial cells in several insect embryos produce a secretion,
the character of which differs considerably in different forms.

* This number of the Naturalist did not appear till Nov. 18th, 1889.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 117

4. In some insects at least [ Blatta , Periplcineta, Xiphidium, Stenoboth-
rus\ the chitinous cuticle does not cover the pleuropodia, even after invest¬
ing the body of the embryo. On the supposition that we are dealing with duct¬
less glandular organs, the reason for this is obvious. The secretions of cutan¬
eous glands cannot penetrate a thick and unmodified layer of cliitin, so we
find gland cells covered with a cuticle the [chemical ?] structure of which
departs from that of ordinary chitin „ This cuticle is also thinner than that
secreted by the unmodified liypodermis cells ol the general integument.
A good example of such attenuation and modification in the molecular
structure of the cuticle covering ductless cutaneous glands is furnished by
the collophore of Anurida maritima described below. Now the first cuti¬
cle shed by the embryo in the egg must be regarded as the attenuated rudi¬
ment of what was formerly a much thicker cuticle shed by the insect in
some post embryonic stage of existence. Supposing that the cuticle origin¬
ally covered the pleuropodia of such an ancient insect had been more
delicate than that covering the remainder of the body, it would cease to be
secreted in the embryos of existing insects because reduced to such exces¬
sive tenuity. There is still another possibility which might account for our
not finding a chitinous cuticle on the pleurododia: the secretion of these
organs may itself be some chemical modification of the chitin, which cov¬
ered the appendages before the peculiar differentiation of their cells set in.

5. The lack of any apparent innervation to the pleuropodia, though
adducible as a fact against the sensory nature of the organs, is just what
we should expect on the supposition that they are glandular. The difficul¬
ties encountered by histologists in tracing the innervation of glands is well
known.

6. The manner in which some pleuropodia degenerate suggests what is
known to take place in many glands that indicate their relation to epithel¬
ial structures by secreting their own broken-down cells. The milk glands
of the mammalia and other cases will suggest themselves to the reader.

7. The structure of the pleuropodia described up to the present, though
considerably diversified, is in all cases consistent with a glandular func¬
tion.

Having reached the conclusion that the pleuropodia functioned as glands
in ancestral insects, I have probably made the utmost use of the few facts at
my disposal. The word ‘ ‘ gland,” however, is so indefinite, since the special
functions of glands are so numerous, that, stopping at this point, the hypo¬
thesis is still very vague. For the sake of giving it clearer outlines, I will
elaborate still further, though aware of the dangers I incur in descending
to particulars.

What then was the special glandular function of the pleuropodia in primi¬
tive insects? In seeking an answer to this difficult question we are pursuing
the most logical course when we muster the different classes of glands ob¬
served in air-breathing Arthropods, and select for special consideration the
class that presents the greatest variation in structure and the widest dis-

118

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

tribution. On making this review we find in the first rank the odoriferous
glands. These function either as means of defense or as aphrodisiacs, or
probably in many species as both. The great importance of copulation and
protection from enemies readily explains why the odoriferous glands should
play soprepollent a role in the lives of Arthropods and even higher animals.
I will give a brief though by no means exhaustive list of forms possessing
odoriferous glands, for the sake of showing the wide distribution of these
organs among the different groups of air-breathing Arthropods and the
variety of their structure and secretions.

According to Marx [’86] the Pedipalp Thelyphonus emits a secretion
which smells like acetic acid. The Myriopod Fontaria gracilis secretes
from its series of repugnatory glands a fluid which contains free hydro¬
cyanic acid [Claus, ’8?]. I have frequently seen our common Julus [Spirobo-
lus ] marginatus, when irritated emit from its repugnatory glands a brown
liquid with a pungent odor not unlike bromine, though this element very
probably does not enter into its chemical composition.

Among the Orthoptera numerous cases might be adduced. Minchin [’88]
lately discovered in Feriplaneta orientalis a new gland, which “ consists of
two pouch-like invaginations lying close on each side of the middle line,
between the fifth and sixth terga of the dorsal surface of the abdomen.”
These pouches “ are lined by a continuation of the chitinous cuticle, which
forms within the pouches numerous stiff, branched, finely pointed hairs,
beneath which, i. e., on the side towards the body cavity, are numerous
glandular epithelial cells.” Minchin's supposition that these organs are
odoriforous glands has been proved to be correct by Haase [’89J. “ Drueckt
man naemlicli das Abdomen einer Kueclienschabe derart, dass die Leibes-
hoehlenfluessigkeit nach hinten gedraengt wird, so treten zwischen dem
5 und 6. ITinterleibessegment vor den harten Eueckenplatten des letzteren
zwei kleine, durch das eindringende Blut gelblich durclisclieinende Saeck-
chen hervor und verbreiten sofort ganz intensiv den bekannten Schaben-
gestank. Dass dieser seine Quelle in den beiden Stinkdruesen hat, wird
durch vorsichtige Ausloesung der letzteren leicht nachgewiesen.” Similar
eversible stink-glands have been observed in the Blattid Corydia by Gers-
taecker [’61] and Haase [*89].

An American Phasmid, Anisomorpha buprestoides, has well developed
repugnatory glands, which have been alluded to by Say (’59, Yol. I,
p. 84) and other writers. I quote from Maynard ('89) who has published
the latest account: “ The devil’s horses, as they are called by the negroes,
were in pairs, the females being evidently about to deposit their eggs. I
usually found them lying quietly in a fold of the saw-palmetto, with the
legs close to the body and the antennae together and pointing straight for¬
ward while the comparatively diminutive male, which is never more than
a third as large as the female lay close beside his mate, always clinging to
her whenever she moved and was thus carried by her. Both were very
sluggish, not moving until actually touched, then the female raised herself

Thd First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

119

slowiy on her hind legs and straightway there emerged two streams of a
vaporous fluid from the upper angle of the thorax near the neck. These
streams were directed forward, but at a slight angle outwardly and up¬
ward, that is when the insect was resting on a horizontal surface. When
the matter discharged first leaves the orifice from which it is expelled, it is
a milky fluid, but as it is apparently as volatile as ether, it almost instantly
assumes the form of vapor and is projected at least six inches. This fluid
has a most peculiar pungent or peppery odor and although the moisture
from it dries away very quickly from any object with which it comes in
contact, the odor is retained for a long time. The fluid when thrown
against the hand has no perceptible effect on the skin, but I have been told
repeatedly by the negroes that the effect upon the eyes is very painful.”

Odoriferous organs are well developed in the Hemiptera . Everybody is
familiar with the secretions emitted from the metathoracic pear-shaped
glands, the duct of which opens by means of the osteoles between the hind
legs.

The Neuropteran lace-wings ( Chrysopa ) are characterized by a powerful
and very unpleasant odor.

Passing to the Coleoptera, many Carabidse, that produce from their anal
glands secretions containing formic and butyric acid might be mentioned.
Every collector of our native Coleoptera must have noticed the very
powerful secretion produced by our common Chlaenius sericeus when
captured. The bombardier-beetles [Brachynus], are well known for their
habit of emitting clouds of pungent secretion accompanied by decrepita¬
tion. Loman [ ’87] has recently asserted that the gaseus secretion of the
anal glands of the Paussid Cerapterus 4- maculatus contains free iodine.
Among Cerambycids the European Aromia moschata has a powerful musky
odor and the allied Callichroma plicatum, emits a strong honey-like smell
according to the statement of my friend Mr. F. Rauterberg, who has col¬
lected numbers of these beautiful insects in Texas. The members of the
genus Meloe exude oily drops of cantliaradin from the joints of their legs
when disturbed. The Coccinelloe have a similar habit of exuding a deep
yellow liquid. The Tenebrionidae are usually supplied with some un¬
pleasant secretion.

Odoriferous glands occurs both in larval and imaginal Lepidoptera.
Fritz Mueller has studied the scent glands [Duftflecken] on the wings of
numerous South American Lepidoptera (’86 a — e). The forked protrusile
gland of Papilio larvae and the pungent odor which it diffuses is well known.
Its structure has been described by Klemensiewicz [ ’82]. One of our com¬
mon species of Pieris has redolent wings. According to Maynard [ ’89]

- the exquisite little Bombvcid Utetheisa bella “ exudes an orange colored
fluid from its thorax that has an unpleasant odor.” According to Packard
the larva of Lochmoeus tessella, Pack, when disturbed sends out from each
side of the body a shower, or spray of clear liquid. “ The opening of the
gland is in the lower anterior part of the prothoracic segment”. Poulton

120

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

[ ’86] has described the formic acid secretion ejected from the prothorax of
Dicranitra vinula. According to the same observer Dicranuro, fur cat a
everts from the same region of the prothorax a gland “ consisting of six
diverging processes of a light green color, divided into two groups of three
each.” He also mentions an eversible gland in the prothorax of the
larvae of Melitaea artemis and Catocala species.

Peculiar scent organs, resembling those of the larval Papilio and con¬
sisting of a pair of tentaculiform processes, eversible from between the
seventh and eighth ventral segments of the male imagines, have been des¬
cribed by Smith (’86) for the Bombycids Leucarctia acrcea and Pyrrharctia
Isabella. These processes, which are orange colored and fully half an inch
long in Leucarctia, but whitish and somewhat shorter in Pyrrharctia are
covered with hairs, blackish in the former and snow white in the latter
species. “In both species an intense odor, somewhat like the smell of
laudanum, is apparent when first the tentacles are exposed; and there is
no reasonable doubt but that they are odor-glands, though exactly what
purpose they serve is not so clear.” Smith says that a Mr. Morgan has
described these organs in L. acrcea and similar structures in Agrotis plecta
and Euplexia lucipara; and that similar organs have been described for
Aletia xylina by Riley.

Among the Diptera prominent cases are rare. Coenomyia ferruginea
emits an odor which reminds me of the juice of a certain species of
Hypericum, and which has often enabled me to detect the presence of the
insect in the woods when several feet distant. The odor is retained in
dried insects that have preserved for years in collections. The species of
Gastrophilus have a sharp, disagreeable smell, powerful in some species,
faint, but still perceptible in others. ( Leunis ’86, vol. II. p. 419.)

Among the Hymenoptera the formic acid secretions of the ants are well
known. The catapillar-like larvae of the species of Cimbex, both Eu¬
ropean and American, when irritated secrete a pungent green liquid from
pores arranged along the sides of the body.

The cases cited are but a few of the many that will occur to every field
entomologist. The histological structure of the glands, so different in
different forms, has not been considered, as it would lead me beyond the
confines of my subject. On a priori grounds we should expect to find that
structures so useful to their possessors as the odorifferous glands are to in¬
sects, have been profoundly modified by the action of natural selection.
Their wide occurrence in insects of all orders shows, moreover, that they
have been in use for a great length of time. The Archentoma probably
lived in damp places like those inhabited by the living species of Peripatus,
Myriopoda , Thysanura and Blattidae and, being of a harmless nature like
their modern descendants, might have made considerable use of large
odoriferous glands on the pleurae.

If I am correct in my supposition that the pleuropodia functured in the
Archentoma as odoriferous organs, they must be regarded as much less per-

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 121

feet structures than their modern equivalents, such as, for instance, the anal
glands of the Carabidae and the analogous metathoracic organs of the
Hemiptera.

Of the three types of pleuropodia, which I have distinguished, the evag-
inate bulbiform, calyculate, and invaginate, each had its advantages and
disadvantages, as a secretory organ. The evaginate bulbiform pleuro-
podium presents extensive~secreting surface but from its prominence and
necessarily delicate covering it would be readily injured. Situated on
the abdomen in the median ventral line, or in line with the metathoracic
legs such organs would, if prominent, be rubbed against the ground or inter¬
fere with the movements of the hind legs. This is probably why the pleu¬
ropodia move towards the pleurae and project from points outside of and
near the insertion of the metathoracic legs. This position is also most ad¬
vantageous for repugnatory organs.

The calyculate type, being a transition from the bulbiform to the invag¬
inate types, has the tips of the secreting cells protected. The secretion
may accumulate in the cavity of the organ and be expelled to more advan¬
tage when the animal is irritated. The projection of the organ beyond the
general surface of the body, however, renders it subject to the same injur¬
ies as organs of the bulbiform evaginate type.

The advantages and disadvantages of the pleuropodia of the invaginate
type are obvious. The glandular cells are efficiently projected, but in
Zaitha and Cicada the secreting surface of the cells is much reduced.
Were these glands hollow we should have much more efficient organs, re¬
sembling the stinkglands of Julus. It is probable that such hollow invag-
inated pleuropodia will yet be discovered in some insect embryos. (Hemip¬
tera?)

In the best examples of modern odoriferous glands, like the anal glands
of the Carabidae, where all the delicate secreting cells are protected by
being pushed into the body cavity, their being tubular or racemose greatly
increases the amount of secreting surface, while the presence of a reservoir
renders it easy for the insect to dispose of a great amount of its malodor¬
ous secretion at a moment’s notice. Forms like the larval Papilio with its
eversible prothoracic gland have all the advantages possessed by the bulbi¬
form pleuropodia with none of the disadvantages, since the delicate organ
can be drawn back into the integment out of the reach of injury.

The little inefficiencies exhibited by all the pleuropodia as odoriferous
glands when compared with the more perfect of their modern analogues,
probably explain why the latter have usurped their places. The pleuro¬
podia would, on this supposition, furnish an excellent example of a set of
organs that have gone down in the struggle for existence and have been re¬
placed by organs of more perfect structure though of the same general
function.

It is interesting in this connection to cast a glance at Scudder’s tables il¬
lustrating the sequence and relative importance of the different orders of

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

insects during geological time, [’86, p. 110 to 113]. Scudder's group of
Palaeodictyoptera extends from the Silurian to the Trias, culminating in
the Carboniferous and Permian. This group comprises the generalized pre¬
cursors of the more modern Ortlioptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and Coleop-
tera. It seems not unlikely that some or all of these ancient forms may have
possessed pleuropodia throughout life, and that specimens may yet be
found perfect enough to show these organs in the adult. The Orthoptera,
Neuroptera and Coleoptera proper appear in the Trias,* while the .Hemip¬
tera are comparatively well represented in the Lias. Now these more ancient
orders, constituting the division Heterometabola (of Packard), are just the
ones, as will be seen from a glance at my table, wdiose embryos pos¬
sess pleuropodia. The Diptera, and Hvmenoptera, occurring in the Lias,
and the Lepidoptera, appearing in the Oolite, have to all appearances kept
increasing in number and variety up to the present time. In the embryos
of insects of these orders, comprising the Metabola of Packard, no pleuro¬
podia have been observed up to date.

D. Homologues of the Pleuropodia in the Lower Tracheata.

A consideration of the pleuropodia of insects embryos would be incom¬
plete without a search for their homologues among the lower Tracheata,
where there are numerous forms with abdominal appendages more or less
clearly developed. Organs of more or less interest in connection with the
pleuropodia of insects occur in scorpions, Solifugae, spider embryos, Sym-
phyla and Thysanura. These cases I will consider in order.

Cholodkovsky [’89] has called attention to the “combs” of scorpions in
connection with the pleuropodia of Blatta. These organs, according to all
accounts, develop as a pair of appendages on the second abdominal seg¬
ment and function throughout postembryonic life as sense organs. They
cannot be regarded as the homologues of the pleuropodia, since there is
no ground for maintaining a homology between the second abdominal
segment of the Arthrogastera and the first abdominal segment of the
Hexapoda.

Another case of a somewhat similar nature has been made known by
Croneberg [’87] in Galeodes araneoides . In the just hatched embryo of
this Solpugid, there is a pair of flat wing shaped appendages about 0.5 mm
long on the cephalotliorax intercalated between the first and second pairs
of legs. Their insertions are more pleural than those of the ambulatory
appendages. Like the pleuropodia of insects, they are pedunculated sacks
consisting of a single layer of ectoderm cells and contain neither tracheae,
muscles nor nerves No traces of these peculiar organs are to be found in
the adult Galeodes. It seems to me very doubtful whether these organs

* Since the publication of Scudder’s work alluded to, undoubted remains of Coleop¬
tera have been found in the Coal Measures of Silisia.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 123

are to be regarded as modified cephalothoracic appendages and not rather
as outgrowths of the pleural wall out of line with the legs. The isolated,
fact, though interesting, can be of little service, till reinforced by more ob¬
servations. Of course no homology can be maintained between these wing-
lik'e organs and the pleuropodia of insect embryos.

In spider embryos the knob-sliaped appendages on the four basal ab¬
dominal segments are very distinctly defined. They have been described
by Balfour [‘80], Locy [’86], Bruce [’87] and Morin [’87]. There can be no
doubt, from the manner in which they arise, that these knob shaped ap¬
pendages are the serial homologues of the cephalothoracic appendages, but
so vague is our knowledge of the segmental homologies between the
Arachnida and Hexapoda, that it is impossible to say which of the four
pairs of appendages corresponds to the pleuropodia.

Bruce [’87], maintains that in spiders “ probably two abdominal append¬
ages are in vagin ated t.o form each lung-book.” According to Morin [’87] the
first pair of knob-sliaped appendages become the covers of the lungs which in-
vaginate at their bases; the second pair disappear completely, while the third
and fourth pairs form the spinnerets, the ectoderm on the summit of each
of the four protuberances invaginating to form the spinning glands. Bar¬
ring the question of homology, the observations on the pleuropodia of
Cicada and Zaitha, given in the first part of this paper, make it easy to see
how an appendage might invaginate to form a lung-book, as maintained
by Bruce.

As soon as we reach the Sympliyla and Thysanura, we no longer en¬
counter any difficulty in settling on the true homologue of the first abdomi¬
nal segment of insects.

The remarkable synthetic form, Scolopendrella, has twelve pairs of legs.
Ryder [’81], Packard [’81] and Haase [’87], agree that the first three pairs
are to be regarded as the homologues of the three pairs of legs of the in-
secta and that the three segments to which they belong, are to be regarded
as the homologues of the pro-, meso-and metathoracic segments respectively.
If this view be correct, and there is certainly nothing to militate against it,
then we may regard the fourth postcephalic segment of Scolopendrella
as the homologue of the first abdominal segment of insects. This being the
case, the two ambulatory legs attached to this segment in the Symphyla
are the homologues of the pleuropodia of embryo Hexapods.

From the Symphyla, we pass to the Thysanura , a group comprising sev¬
eral forms of interest in connection with the pleuropodia of embryo insects.
Appendages are known to occur on the basal abdominal segment in
Campodea , Machilis and allied species, and in the Collembola . Through¬
out the Thysanuran group the basal abdominal segment is doubtless to be
regarded as truly homologous with the first abdominal segment of the
higher, or winged Hexapod r (Pterygogenea). Hence, a pair of appendages
arising on this segment in the Thysanura as ectodermic evaginations, with
mesodermic cores, in line with and at approximately the same time as the

124

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

thoracic appendages, is to be considered as truly homologous with the
pleuropodia of embryo insects.

It has long been known that species of Campodea bear on the first ab¬
dominal segment a pair of two-jointed appendages homostichous with the
meta-thoracic legs. No such appendages appear on any of the other ab¬
dominal segments; a fact which would seem to indicate that they either
still subserve some particular function or are the rudiments of once func¬
tional organs differentiated from a pair of probably ambulatory append¬
ages. As I have been unable to obtain sx^ecimens of Campodea for study,
and can find no record in the literature to which I have access of any ob¬
servations made from sections of this pair of curious appendages, I cannot
decide which of these conjectures is the more probable. Be this, however,
as it may, Campodea is to be regarded as a form, which, so far as its append¬
ages are concerned, remains throughout life in a stage corresponding with
the Orthopteran or Coleopteran embryo just after revolution.

The second to seventh abdominal segments of Campodea present each a
pair of small unsegmented styliform appendages. These contrast in size
and shape with the pair of appendages on the basal segment. In Japyx
the differentiated basal abdominal appendages of Campodea are replaced
by styliform appendages, pairs of which also occur on the second to seventh
segments. In Nicoletia and Machilis styliform appendages occur on the
second to ninth abdominal segments. Machilis also presents similar pro¬
cesses on the coxal insertions of the meso-and metathoracic legs. The
number of these style-like organs varies in different species of Lepismina.
In Lepisma saccharina such appendages occur only on the eighth and ninth
abdominal segments. Oudemanus [’89] has found them on the seventh to
ninth abdominal segments of Thermophila furnorum.

These paired styliform processes are not regarded by Haase as homo¬
logous with the true abdominal appendages of the Symphyla and Myrio-
poda, but as homologous with the coxal spurs of the lower Tracheata.
He consequently maintains that the real appendages to which they be¬
longed have disappeared on all the abdominal segments of Machilis and
its allies and on all except the first abdominal segment of Campodea.
Haase supports this view with the following facts. In their structure the
styliform appendages resemble very closely the spines and spurs so com¬
mon on the body and legs of the Tracheata. They are unsegmented and
unlike true appendages contain no muscular core. They correspond in
structure, and in their method of insertion with the coxal spurs of Myrio-
pods, Scolopendrella , Thysanura and certain Blattce [notably South Amer¬
ican Blaberidae]. Haase, who seems to have given very careful attention
to this subject, is very probably correct in his conclusions in regard to
these styliform appendages, or “ pseudozampe,” as they are called by
Grassi; still the proof cannot be regarded as complete till their early de¬
velopment has been studied.

Though the appendages under consideration contain no muscular tissue

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

125

when fully developed, it is, of course, possible that they may have contained
evaginations of the mesodermic somites during the first stages of their
development. We have a case in point in the pleuropodia of insect em¬
bryos. In the younger stages, as I have shown in Blatta, each of the two
mesodermic somites of the first abdominal segment sends a papillar
process into an evaginating pleuropodium in exactly the same manner as
the mesodermic somites of the thorax send processes into the legs. Subse¬
quently, when the pleuropodia have become distinctly differentiated, the
mesodermic elements, which in the thoracic appendages persist and are
converted into muscles, are pushed back into the body cavity. Using
Haase's criterion and considering only the mature appendages, we should
not be justified in regarding the pleuropodia as true appendages.

The evidence in regard to the origin of the styliform append¬
ages, which Haase has failed to give us, is at least in part supplied by
Oudemanns [’87.] The Dutch investigator observed that of the three
pairs of styliform processes occurring on the 7th, 8th and 9th abdominal
segments in both sexes of Thermopliila furnorum, only one pair, and that
the hindmost, was to be found in the youngest specimens examined. Next
in order of time appears the pair on the eighth and finally the pair on the
seventh abdominal segment. This manner of making their appearance, as
Oudemanns suggests, is strong evidence against their being true append¬
ages. It may also be noted in this connection that the styliform append¬
ages even in those forms that possess many pairs are longest on the pos¬
terior segments and gradually diminish in length anteriorily. This is
contrary to what we expect in true appendages; for these in insect em¬
bryos usually decrease in distinctness and prominence in the opposite
direction.

In the Collembola a peculiar organ, called by Packard the collophore,
occurs in the median ventral line of the first abdominal segment. This
organ is thus described by Lubbock (’73, p. 68):

“Underneath the anterior abdominal segment is the ventral tube, or
sucker. In Podura, Lipura, and the allied genera, this organ is a simple
tubercle, divided into two halves by a central slit; in other genera, as, for
instance, in Orchesella and Tomocerus, the tubercle is enlarged, and be¬
comes a tube divided at the free end into two lobes. In the Smynthuridae
and Papiriidae the organ receives a still further and very remarkable de¬
velopment; from the end of the tube the animal can project two long, del¬
icate tubes, provided at their extremity with numerous glands.”

Lubbock makes the following remarks on the function of the collophore:

“ No one, indeed, who has watched the habits of the Collembola, can
doubt its function. If a Smynthurus is laid on its back — a position from
which it has some difficulty in recovering its feet — and if, while it is in
this attitude, a piece of glass is brought within its reach, the animal will
endeavor to seize it with the feet, but at the same time it will project one
or both of the ventral tentacles and apply it, or them, firmly to the glass,

126

Wisconsin Academy of Scieaces , Arts and Letters.

emitting at the same time a drop of fluid, which, no doubt, gives a better
hold. In the parallel case of the Poduridae , M. 1’ Abbe Bourlet supposes
that the ventral tube act as follows: “1° qu’ il sert a ces insectes a se rnain-
tenir sur les surfaces perpendiculaires en y faisant le vide; 2° que leliquide
excrete par lui sert a humecter la queue et la rainure; 3° qu’ il supplee ala
faiblessedes pattes dans les chutes qui suivent les sauts.” I am, therefore,
disposed to agree with him in so far as he denies that the adhesive power
depends altogether on the viscous fluid; but, on the other hand, I cannot
attach much importance to his two latter suggestions. De Geer well un¬
derstood the use of this curious organ. Be says: ‘ • Quand la Podure [un¬
der which name he includes the present genus Smynthurus ] marchait con-
tre les parois du poudrier, il lui arrivait souvent de glisser; c’ etait comme
si les pieds lui manquaient, de fagon qu’ elle etait sur le point de tomber;
dans F instant meme, les deux filets parurent et furent lances avec rapidite
hors de leur etui, s’ attachant dans le moment ail verre par la matiere
gluante dont ils sont enduits, en sorte qu’ alorsla Podure se trouvait comme
suspendue a ces deux filets.” Nicolet gives a similar explanation of their
function, and, like De Geer, attributes the adhesiveness to the glutinous
matter which they secrete.”

The question has presented itself to me: Is not the collophore developed
from a pair of true appendages united in the median ventral line, though seri¬
ally corresponding with the thoracic legs and hence truly homologous with
the pleuropodia of insect embryos? Although I have been unable to give
the subject the careful study which it deserves, I believe that I have un¬
earthed a few facts calculated to answer the question in the affirmative.

The only embryological observations made up to date on the origin of the
collophore are recorded in Byder's brief account of the development of
Anurida maritima [’86]. His figures [Figs. (5, 9 and 10, plate 15] show
clearly that the collophore consists of a pair of true appendages applied to
each other in the median ventral line, even if he had not expressly stated
that during the earlier stages the limbs, antennae, collophore, etc., had the
form of mere blunt, paired papillae, or of blunt, clavate, tentacle-like
paired outgrowths from the lateral surfaces of the ventral plate or elong¬
ated germinal area.”

I can supplement this embryological evidence by a few observations on
the collophore of Anurida maritima. This maritime species was found
in great numbers clinging to the under surfaces of stones between
tides at Woods Holl, Mass. Its collophore is less complicated than that of
our common inland forms, and therefore better calculated to give a cor¬
rect idea of the fundamental pattern underlying its structure. Specimens
were killed by being placed for a minute in Carnoy’s fluid heated almost
to boiling and were then preserved in 80 per cent, alcohol.

The collophore is quite prominent in surface view (Fig. 16 c.) appearing
as a heart-shaped tubercle on the middle of the ventral face of the basal
abdominal segment. The lateral edges are raised to form distinct rims,

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

127

crowned with a few feeble hairs. The portion included between the lateral
rims is flat and of a much paler color than the remainder of the integument,
which is provided with an abundance of blue pigment. A very distinct
slit divides^the organ into two symmetrical halves. This is all that can be
seen from the surface; for further details recourse must be had to cross
sections. (Fig. 15.) Here it is seen that the projection of the organ above
the general surface of the segment is about equal to its diameter. The
cuticle (ct.) is rather thick and externally very finely papillose. This un¬
evenness of surface is continued over the lateral rims, but where the
center is depressed and paler the papillose cuticle is replaced by a smooth
and more delicate layer (ct.), which stains pink in lithium carmine. This
portion of the cuticle, deeply induplicated at the median slit that divides
the organ into two symmetrical halves, evidently differs considerably in
its chemical structure from the unstainable papillose cuticle covering the
remainder of the body. The hypodermis forming the sides of the collo-
phore has very large flattened nuclei ( hy .), which are almost concealed in
the dense layer of pigment. Beneath it lies a mass of connective tissue
(cn). At the inner boundary of the rim of the ventral face of the organ,
where the papillose cuticle is replaced by the delicate and stainable layer,
the hypodermis also undergoes a marked change. From being a rather
thin, deeply pigmented layer with huge flattened nuclei it becomes a
thicker layer of evenly granular, unpigmented protoplasm, smooth on its
external face but raised into numerous rounded protuberances on its inner
surface, (gl.) A spherical nucleus considerably smaller than those of the
pigmented hypodermis, is lodged in each of these protuberances, which
thus represent the different cells. These are not, however, separated by
perceptible boundary lines; hence this modified portion of the hypodermis,
and perhaps also the unmodified portion, is to be regarded as a syncytium.
The whole of the hypodermis underlying the modified cuticle is peculiarly
and symmetrically folded. In its center it presents a broad induplication
corresponding with the narrower one of the superjacent cuticle. The cells
forming this median portion are small and flat. On either side there is
another rather deep infolding, to the inner angle of which a delicate muscle
is attached, (ms.) The ventral nerve chain, indicated at n, runs beneath
the median induplication. As may be seen from the figure, there is a wide
space between the modified hypodermis and its cuticle. I have seen no
traces of blood in this cavity, which in some specimens contains small
masses of a granular and very deeply stainable secretion, (s.) Larger
masses of the same substance are frequently seen clinging to the outer
surface of the modified cuticle. I regard the modified hypodermis as the
gland that secretes this granular substance. The cavity of the organ
bounded on the outside by the hypodermis is filled with blood ( bl .) which,
when the organ is called into action, is probably forced against the glandu¬
lar hypodermis, the two retractor muscles relaxing. Probably the infold¬
ing of the cuticle is pushed out simultaneously with the three infoldings

128

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

of the glandular hypodermis. The great extent of surface of the hypoder-
mis compared with that of its cuticle may indicate that during protrusion
the latter is stretched and attenuated, thus allowing the secretion of the
glandular cells to transude more readily.

I have made no observations on the use to which the organ is put by the
living animal. The observations of Lubbock and De Geer quoted above,
render it probable that Anurida maritima uses its collophore as a sucker
wherewith to fasten itself to the surface of the stone while the water is
rising and falling. It probably does not leave its place of concealment
during high tide to move about on the surface of the water like some of
our inland species. As its body, like that of most other species, is not
readily wetted, the layer of air that would cover it when emersed might
be sufficient for respiration till the returning ebb.

The collophore of Anurida , may be readily reduced to a pair of append¬
ages applied to each other in the median ventral line. The median in¬
duplication of the hypodermis and the corresponding single infolding of the
cuticle I take to represent all that remains of the originally wide sternal area
separating the two appendages. Sections through the more complicated
collophores of a few of our common Podurids have convinced me that
these organs are also reducible to the simple pattern of a pair of appenda¬
ges more or less closely united in the median line. I have not, however,
made a sufficiently extended study of the more complicated types to be
able to explain the manner in which their different parts originated. It is
to be hoped that some investigator will in the near future subject these
interesting organs to a rigid comparative examination, from both an ana¬
tomical and physiological standpoint. Ryder's observations on the embryos
of Anurida maritima , together with the observations I have presented on
the adult of the same species, render it very probable that the Collembolan
collophore is to be regarded as a pair of appendages homologous with the
pleuropodia of the lieterometabolous insects.

It seems, moreover, not improbable that the collophore of the Collem-
bola may have been derived directly from the pleuropodia of primitive in¬
sects. Originally a pair of protuberances, covered with a sticky, perhaps
malodorous secretion, these appendages may have come to be of assistance
as adhesive organs in such leaping species as had rather weak limbs and
lived where they found it of advantage to alight on surfaces of different
inclinations.

Milwaukee, December 20th, 1889.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 129

While my manuscript was being copied for the printer, E. Haase's re-
cent paper entitled “ Die Abdominalanhange der InseHen, mit Beriick-
sichtigung der Myriopoden ” (Morph. Jahrb. Bd XV 3. Heft. p. 831-435,
1889) came to my notice. This treatise, by far the most complete and
accurate ever published on the subject, contains, besides a mass of other
observations, so many interesting facts and considerations bearing on
what has been set forth in my more special contribution, that I seize the
opportunity to append a few paragraphs on the points of most importance
in connection with the pleuropodia of insect embryos.

Haase has made a study of the pair of appendages on the first abdom¬
inal segment of Campodea staphylinus and finds that they are specialized
to form glandular organs (p. 378-380). These two-jointed appendages do not
stand off at right angles to the body but are applied to its surface. The
inner face of the broadly oval distal joint, i. e., the face turned to the
ventral surface of the abdomen is beset with 20-30 peculiar hairs (Haaran-
hange) arranged in rows. The two outer rows are composed of longer
and thicker setae, arranged like the teeth of a comb. Each bristle is in¬
serted on a rounded follicle (Balg) which is surrounded by a ridge. A
gland- cell terminates in each follicle. This pair of appendages is regarded
by Haase as “ rudimentare, in der Entwicklung zurtickgebliebene
Beine,” and hence as in no sense homologous with the ventral stylets
(Ventralgriffel) occurring on the 2nd to 7th abdominal segments. As evi¬
dence in favor of this view he adduces the fact that the appendages of the
first abdominal segment are largest in young Campodece and that their
relative size diminishes with the growth of the insect.

Haase makes a somewhat similar observation on Iapyx gigas and
solifugus. In these Thysanurans no appendages are developed on the first
abdominal segment, but in their stead six peculiar glands which are de¬
scribed as follows:

“Bex Japyx gigas Brauer aus Cypern, einer Art von 23-28 mm Lange,
tritt an der ganzen Bauchplatte des ersten Abdominalsegmentes jederseits
des schmalen, etwas eingesenkten Mittelschildes eine flache Vorwolbung
der Seitentheile auf . Am Hinterrande liegen jederseits des nur 0,125 mm
breiten mittelsten Stiickes, das eine einfache diinne Duplikatur der Ven-
tralhaut darstellt, drei scliarfbegrenzte, von einer bindegewebigen Mem-
bran umschlossene Drusenzellmassen, welche selbst in zuriickgezogeneni
Zustande den Plattenrand nocli iiberragen und von einer schmalen
Ringfalte eingeschlossen sind. Die ausserste Drusenmasse isf bei 0,25 mm
Lange 0,135 mm hoch und an den Vorderecken abgerundet. Die mittlere
bildet einen eher abgerundet rechteckigen Korper von 0,13 mm Lange
und 0,13 mm Ilohe; die innerste ist flach und quer gestreckt, 0.26 mm
lang und nur 0,09 mm hoch. Die beiden ausseren Driisenmassen sind an
ihrer freien Hinterfiache sehr dicht, die innerste sparlicher mit starren,
spitzen, gelben Borstchen besetzt, die bis 0,03 mm lang werden und deren

9— A. & L.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

an der mittleren Masse gegen 100, an der aussersten fiber 200 vorkommen.
Die Drfisenzellen sind trfibe durchsheinend, von gelblicher Farbe.”

i( Der Bau der Drfisenmassen am ersten Hinterleibsringe von J. gigas
wurdean Langschnittenuntersucht. Die auf der Cuticnla stehenden Har-
chen sind gelblich und bis zur Spitze von einem weiten Kanal durchzogen,
der scheinbar direkt in den langen Hals einer einzelligon Drfisenzelle fiber -
geht. Die Ausffihrgange sind in der Mitte oft stark aufgeblasen, wahrend
sie sich am Ende wieder bis zu 0,001 mm Durchmesser verschmalern.

Aehnlich lasst sich auch bei J. solifugus der Uebergang des die hohlen
jkurzen Haarstacheln durchziehenden Kanals in den dfinnen 0,02 — 0,03 mm
langen Ausffihrungsgang einzelliger rundlicher Hautdrfisen von 0,005—
0,008 mm Durchmesser erkennen.”

These observations on Campodea and Japyx are of considerable interest
in connection with the hypothesis advanced in the concluding paragraphs
of my paper. Notwithstanding the glandular portion of the first abdom¬
inal segment in Japyx is broken into six clearly defined masses, it may
still be true that originally the three glands on either side of the median
sternal line formed only one mass. The pair of glands which might thus
have given rise to the six separate masses mav be traced back through
structures like the pleuropodia of Cicada to a pair of true glandular ap¬
pendages like those on the first abdominal segment of Campodea. Haase's
Fig. 17, Plate XV, representing a section through the glandular mass in
Japyx , calls to mind the pleuropodium of Zaitha.

Haase also gives a very interesting account of the eversible sacks,
which have long been known to occur in pairs on the ventral faces of the
abdominal segments in many Thysanura. He has subjected both literature
and insects to a painstaking examination, with results that I here very
briefly summarize: In the Myriopod Lysiopetalum (two species) pairs of
eversible sacks occur on the coxee of the 8rd-16th pairs of legs; in Poly-
zonium germanicum and a Moluccan Siphonophora there is a pair of these
sacks on nearly every segment caudad from the third. Scolopendrella has
10 pairs of eversible sacks, a pair on each segment from the 3d to the 12th.
In Campodea they are present on the 2nd to 7th abdominal segments; in
Japyx on the 2nd abdominal segment. In Macliilis maritima and M.
polypoda pairs of eversible sacks occur on the 1st to 7th abdominal
segments; one large pair on the first and two smaller pairs on each
segment from the 2nd to the 5th; the 6th and 7th segments are
each provided with but a single pair of small sacks. Experimental
evidence is adduced to prove that the eversion of these sacks is a voluntary
act on the part of the insect, brought about by blood pressure, and that
when everted these organs subserve a respiratory function. To distinguish
them from tracheal and vascular gills Haase designates them “ Blutkiemen.”

The study of these peculiar organs naturally leads to a consideration of
the Collembolan collophore, to which Haase also ascribes a respiratory
function. Since he has not yet completed his study of this organ, his

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

131

remarks are meagre, and, I believe, open to some objection. Thus, in
disregard of Ryder's observation on the embryo Anurida, he supposes the
bifurcate, protrusible and glandular portion of the collophore to be derived
from a pair of eversible sacks apposed in the median ventral line. On
page 373 he remarks: “ Wie zuerst J. Wood-Mason hervorhob, ist die
Entstehung des Ventraltubus der Collembola auf die Verschmelzung eines
Abdominalsackpaares, wiesiebei Thvsanuren auftreten, zuriickzufiihren,
und in Uebereinstimmung damit ist auch bei den weniger rtickgebildeten
Formen die Bilateralitat der Endsackchen noch deutlicher ausgepragt.”
He is careful not to maintain an homology between the pleuropodia of
insect embryos and the eversible sacks of the Thysanura, though he agrees
with Graber in ascribing to the pleuropodia a respiratory function. The
wish to homologize the collophore with a pair of eversible sacks seems to
have prevented Haase from seeing the at least equally probable homology
between the collophore and the pair of appendages on the first abdominal
segment of Campodea and between these last appendages and the pleuropo¬
dia of insect embryos — an homology which 1 could only surmise, but which
Haase's own observations now render very probable.

Though Haase regards both the Ventralsackchen and the collophore as
respiratory organs, he nevertheless believes them to have arisen from what
were originally glandular structures. This is very clearly expressed in the
following paragraphs, quoted because they make to a certain extent for
my theoretical conclusions in regard to the pleuropodia.

“ In der That ist es wahrscheinlicli, dass die Ventralsacke der Symphylen,
Chilognathen und Thysanuren auf weit verbreitete driisige Bildungen zu¬
riickzufiihren sind. Um nur die Antennaten zu beriihren, so liegen die
verschiedenen Organe alle nahe der Beinwurzel an der Unterseite order
an entsprechenden Stellen der Bauchplatten, auch .scheint ihr Bau auf ein
Schema zuriickfiihrbar, auf eine Einstiilpung der Chitinliaut, die fiber
driisigem Epithel liegt und entweder als Coxal-order Cruraldriise dem
Beine fest eingefiigt ist order als Ventralsackchen willkiirlich durch Blut-
fiillung vorgestiilpt und durch Muskeln zuriickgezogen werden kann.”
After mentioning the coxal and crural glands of Peripatus and the Myrio-
poda, and describing the peculiar coxal secretion of Lithobiids, Haase con¬
tinues: “ Es ist nun sehr wahrscheinlich, dass diese (the eversible sacks)
als Derivate von Driisen aufzufassen sind, welche ihre secernirende
Funktion mit der respiratorischen vertauschten, wie dies ahnlich von ler
Umwandlung von Hautdriisen zu Tracheen augenommen wird. Auf die
urspriinglicli driisige Natur der Hiiftsackchen deuten wohl noch die
Riesenkerne in der Matrix derselben bei Scolopendretla und Campodea.

“ Die rein driisige Natur homologer Gebilde tritt uns, vielleicht sekundar
unter den Thysanuren bei Japyx entgegen, wo bei J. gigas und J. solifur-
gus kompakte Driisenzellhaufen auftreten, deren Sekret sich in feine Hohl-
haare ergiesst. Dass ahnliche Organe, wie die von Japyx anch die
Vorlaufer der respiratorischen Sackchen sein konnten, ergiebt sich schon

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

daraus, dass letztere bei J. gigas an derselben Stelle, wenn aucfa. in
nnvollkommener Form, am zweiten Abdominalsegment auftreten.

Die urspriinglich driisige Natur der Bauchsacke von Machilis scheint,
wie durcli die eigenartige Matrixlage, so auch durch die lan gen gereihten
Haare an der Dorsalseite der eingestiilpten S&ckchen bezeichnet zu sein,
die mit verkiimmerten einzelligen Hautdriisen in Yerbindung stehen.”

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

133

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’80 Balfour, F. M.

Notes on the Development of the Araneina.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Science, Vol. 20, 1880.

’87 Bruce, A. T.

Observations on the Embryology of Insects and Arachnids.
Baltimore, 1887.

’70 Buetsclili, 0.

Zur Entwickluugsgeschichte der Biene.

Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie. Bd. 20, 1870.

’85 Carnoy, J. B.

La Cytodierese chez les Arthropodes.

‘*La Cellule,” 1885.

’89 Cholodkovsky, N.

Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Insecten.

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’87 Claus, C.

Lehrbuch der Zoologie.

4. Auflage; page 486. 1887.

87 Croneberg, A.

Ueber ein Entwicklungsstadium von Oaleodes.

Zoolog. Anzeiger No. 247, 1887.

’61 Gerstaecker, A.

Ueber das Yorkommen von ausstiilpbaren Hautanhangen am
Hinterleibe von Schaben.

Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1861, page 107-115.

’77 Graber, Y.

Die Insecten, 2. Theil, 1877.

’88 Graber, Y.

Ueber die Polypodie bei den Insect enembryonen.

Morph. Jahrb. Bd. 13, Heft 4, 1888.

’89 Graber, Y.

Ueber den Bau und die phylogenetische Bedeutung der embryona-
len Bauchanhange der Insecten.

Biolog. Centralbl., Bd. 9 No. 12, August 15, 1889.

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

’84 Grass!, B.

Intorno alio Sviluppo delle Api nell’ Uovo. Atti dell Acad. Gioena
di Scienze Nat. in Catania. Ser. 3, vol. 18, 1884.

’87 Haase, E.

Die Vorfahren der Insecten.

Abhandl. d. Gesell. “Isis.” Dresden. Bd. 11. 1887.

’89 Haase, E.

Zur Anatomie der Blattiden.

Zoolog. Anzeiger No. 303. March 25, 1889.

’89 Heider, K.

Die Embry onalentwicklung von Hydrophilus piceus, L. I. Theil.
Jena, ’89.

’82 Klemensieivics, S.

Zur naheren Kenntniss der Hautdriisen bei den Raupen und bei
Malachius. Verhandl. d. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien, 32. Jahrg., 1882,
page 459-474.

’82 Korotneff, A.

Die Embryologie von Gryllotalpa.

Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie. Bd. 41, Heft 4, 1885.

’71 Kowalevsky, A.

Embryologische Studien an Wiirmern und Arthropoden.

Mem. de V Acad. Imp. d. Sciences de St. Petersb. Tome 16, Ser. 7, No.
12, 1871.

’60 Leuckart, Fr.

Ueber die Geruchs und Gehororgane der Krebse und Insecten.
Reichert und Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv. fur Anatomie, 1860.

’86 Leunis, J.

Synopsis der Thierkunde.

3. Auflage., 1886, page 419.

’86 Locy, W. A.

Observations on the Development of Agelena naevia .

Bull, of the Mus. of Comp. Zool. Vol. 12, No. 3, 1886.

’87 Loman, J. C. C.

Freies Jod als Driisensecret.

Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Ver. Deel 1, 1887.

’73 Lubbock, Sir John.

Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura.

Ray Society. London, 1873.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

135

’80 Marx, Geo.

Notes on Thelyphonus.

Entomologica Americana Vol. 2, 1886-1887.

’80 Maynard, C. J.

The defensive plands of a species of Phasma, Anisomorpha bupre -
stoides , from Florida.

Contributions to Science Vol. 1, No. 1, April, 1889.

’88 Minchin, E. A.

Note on a New Organ and on the Structure of the Hypodermis in
Periplaneta orientalis.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Science. New Series No. 115, Vol. 29, part 3,
1888.

’87 Morin, J. .

Zur Entwicklungsgeschiclite der Spinnen.

Biolog. Centralbl. Bd. 6, 1887.

’80a Mueller, F.

As maculas sexuaes dos individuos masculinos das especias Danais
erippus e D. Gilippus.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2, 1879, page 25-29. (1886.)

80b Mueller, E.

Os orgaos odoriferos dos especias Epicalia Acontius , Lin, e de
Myscelia Orsis, Dru.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2, 1879. page 31-35. (1886.)

’80c Mueller F.

Os orgaos odoriferos nas pernas de certos Lepidopteres.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2. 1879. page 37-46. (1886.)

’80d Mueller, F.

Os orgaos odoriferos da Antirrhoea archaea.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 3, 1880, page 1-7. (1886.)

’86e Mueller, F.

A prega costal das Hesperideas.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 3, 1880, page 41-50. (1886.)

’89 Nusbaum. J.

Zur Frage der Segmentirung des Keimstreifens und der Bauchan-
haenge der Insectenembryonen.

Biol. Centralbl. Bd 9 No. 17, Nov. 1 , 1889, page 516-522.

’87 Oudemans, J. T.

Bijdrage to de Kennis der Thvsanura en Collembola.

Academische Proefschrift, Amsterdam. 1887.

136

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

’89 Oudemans, J. T.

Ueberdie Abdominalanhaenge einer Lepismide {Thermophila fumo-
rum, Rovelli.)

Zoolog. Anzeig. No. 311. Juli, 1889.

’8.1 Packard, A S. ,

Scolopendrella and its position in nature.

American Naturalist. Vol. 15 No. 9. September, 1881.

''86 Packard, A. S.

The fluid ejected by Notodontian Catterpillars.

American Naturalist. Vol. 20, 1886.

*84 Patten, W.

The development of Phryganids with a Preliminary Note on the
Development of Blatta germanica.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Science. Vol. 24, 1884.

’86 Poulton, E. B.

Notes in 1885 upon Lepidopterous larvae and pupae, including an ac¬
count of the loss of weight in the freshly formed Lepidopterous
pupae, etc.

Trans. Ent. Soc. London, page 137-179. 1888.

'44 Ratlike, H.

Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Maulwurfsgrille ( Gryllotalpa vul¬
garis.)

Muller’s Archiv fur Anat. und Phys. Jahrg. 1844.

’81 Ryder, J. A.

The structure, affinities and species of Scolopendrella.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Science. Philadelphia, 1881.

’86 Ryder, J. A.

The development of Anurida maritima, Guerin.

American Naturalist. Vol. 20, 1886 page 299-302.

’59 Say, Thos.

Complete Writings. Edited by John L. Leconte. 2 vols. 1859.
page 84, Vol I.

’86 Scudder, S. H.

A systematic Review of our Present Knowledge of Fossil Insects, in¬
cluding Myriopods and Arachnids.

Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. Survey. No. 31. 1886.

’86 Smith, J B.

Scent organs in some Bombycid Moths. Entomologica Americana,
Vol. 2, No. 4, page 79-80, 1886

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

137

*82 Tichoiuiroff, A.

On the development of the silk -worm (. Bonibi/x mori ) in the egg.

(In Russian) Contrib. from the Laboratory of the Zool. Museum.
Moskau 1 Vol. 1882.

’89 Watase, S.

On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of Arthropods.

Studies from Biolog. Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University.

Vol. 4, No. 6, 1889.

’63 Weismaim, A.

Die Entwicklung der Dipteren im Ei nach Beobachtungen an Chir-
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Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoolog. Bd. 13, 1863.

’89 Yoeltzkow, A.

Entwicklung im Ei von Musca vomitoria.

Arbeiten aus dem zoolog. zootom. Institut in Wuerzburg.

Bd. 9, Heft 1, 1889.

’89a Wheeler, Wr. M.

Homologues in Embryo Hemiptera of the Appendages of the First
Abdominal Segment of other Insect Embryos.

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’89b Wheeler, W. M.

Ueber drusenartige Gebilde im ersten Abdominalsegment der
Hemipterenembryonen .

Zoolog. Anzeiger No. 317, September 30, 1889.

’89c Wheeler, W. M.

The Embryology of Blatta germauica and Doryphora decemlineata.
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’88 Will, L.

Entwicklungsgeschichte der viviparen Aphiden.

Zoolog. Jahrb. Bd. 3, Heft 2, 1888.

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

EXPLANATIONS OP THE PLATES.

PLATE 1.

Pig. 1. Lateral view of a Blatta embryo 16 days old [during revolution]
a, amnion; sr, serosa; lb, labrum; md, mandible; mx,x first
maxilla; ma?2, second maxilla; at, antenna; px, p2, _p3, thoracic
limbs; ap, pleuropodium, or appendage of the first abdominal
segment.

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through the metathoracic and first three
abdominal appendages of a Blatta embryo 12 days old; ps,
metathoracic leg; ap, ap 2, ap3, first, second and third abdo¬
minal appendages; ms, mesodermic somite; ecd, ectoderm.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section through the pleuropodium of a Blatta em¬
bryo 14 days old; ecd, ectoderm; ms, mesoderm; v, vacuole.

Fig. 4. Three cells from the same series of sections as Fig. 3. Zeiss horn,
immers., A oc. II. v, vacuole; ne , plastine nucleolus.

Fig. 5. Five nuclei from a longitudinal section of the pleuropodium of a
Blatta embryo 20 days old; drawn with focus on the equator-
ial plane. Magnification same as in Fig. 4.

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section of a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 19
days old. pd, peduncle; cv, cavity; cn, constriction; v, series
of vacuoles.

Fig. 7. Longitudinal section from a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 20
days old. Reference letters same as in Fig. 6.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal section ot a pleuropodium from a Blatta embryo
about 25 days old. n, nuclei; pi, protoplasm.

Fig. 9. Section through a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 26 days old.
n, nuclei; pi, protoplasm.

PLATE 2.

Fig. 10. Longitudinal section through a pleuropodium of an embryo
Periplaneta orientalis , in a late stage; after the closure of the
body walls in the median dorsal line and the secretion of the
first cuticle, ecd, ectoderm; ms, mesoderm [connective tissue];
pi, protoplasm issuing from the distal end of the organ; t, tips
of pleuropodial cells; v, vacuole; x, two pleuropodial cells
about to pass through the peduncle into the body cavity of
the embryo.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 139

Fig. 11. Longitudinal sections through a pleuropodium of an embryo
Mantis Carolina before revolution; ecd , ectoderm; ms, meso¬
derm; x, point where the ectoderm is comparatively thin; p,
one of the thoracic appendages; ap, pleuropodium.

Fig. 12. Cross section through one of the pleuropodia of an embryo
Xiphidium ensiferum during revolution; sr, serosa; as, am-
niotic secretion; ct, chitinous cuticle; ap, pleuropodium; cv,
cavity; p, one of the thoracic appendages; ecd, ectoderm; ms,
mesoderm.

Fig. 13. Section through the base of one of the pleuropodia of Xiphidium
ensiferum just before hatching; ap, pleuropodium; pd, pedun¬
cle, inserted in a pit of the hypodermis ecd, which has secreted
its second cuticle, ct; s, granular secretion.

Fig. 14. Cross section through the same pleuropodium; s, granular secre¬
tion; cv, cavity.

Fig. 15. Cross section through the coilophore of Anurida maritima [adult] ;

ct, cuticle; hy, large nucleus of the hypodermis; pg, hypoder¬
mic pigment; ct, delicate cuticle covering the glandular part
of the organ; s, granular secretion; gl, gland cells; ms, retrac¬
tor muscles of the glandular hypodermis; cn, connective
tissue; st, sternum; hi, blood.

Fig. 16. Surface view of the collophoral (first abdominal) segment of the
adult Anurida maritima. p 3, metathoracic legs; ah, first ab¬
dominal segment; c, coilophore.

PLATE 8.

Kg. 17. Half of a transverse section through the first abdominal segment
of the embryo Zaitha fluminea during revolution, ap, pleuro¬
podium; s, penicillate secretion; ecd, ectoderm; ent, ento¬
derm; vt, yolk; vp, vitellophag; cn, connective tissue; ms,
muscle; ad, corpus adiposum; cb, cardioblast; gl, ganglion of
the first abdominal segment.

Kg. 18. Three cells from a pleuropodium of Zaitha fluminea enlarged.

x, granular and widened inner ends of cells; h, hyaline and
attenuated outer ends of cells; s, threads of secretion. Zeiss,
homog. immers. ^ Oc. II.

Kg. 19. Longitudinal section of a pleuropodium of the embryo Cicada
septemdeoim during revolution, ap, pleuropodium; s, secretion ;

140

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

as, amniotic secretion; p , one of the thoracic appendages; ch,
chorion; ecd , ectoderm; ms, mesoderm; ct, connective tissue;
vt , yolk.

Fig. 20. Portion of a transverse section through the ventral plate of a
Cicada embryo before revolution, a, amnion; ecd, ectoderm;
ap, pleuropodium forming as an apple -shaped thickening of
the ectoderm; gl, ganglion of the first abdominal segment;
ms, mesodermic tissue.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. VIII. Pla te I.

Wheeler, Del

Trans. Wis. Acad. Voi, VTTT. Prate II.

Wheeler, Del

Trans. Wis. Acad

Vol. VIII. Plate 111

Wheeler, Del.

SOME NEW THEORIES OF THE GREEK KA-PERFECT .

By CHAS. E. BENNETT.

In spite of all that comparative grammar has done to throw light upon
the morphology of the different Indo-European languages, there yet re¬
main in the individual languages a goodly number of formations without
correspondence in any other language. As examples of such isolated for¬
mations may be cited the Greek passive aorists in -rjv and -27 jv, the so-
called *72- or weak declension of the Germanic languages, and the gerundive
of the Latin.

With regard to these and similar formations two theories might at first
suggest themselves:

First, that we have to do with primitive Indo-European formations,
the traces of which have disappeared in the other languages and are pre¬
served in one alone, or

Secondly, that the formation does not go back to the Indo-European
Ursprache, but is a new creation of the particular language in which it is

found.

As a matter of fact we at once discard the theory that any formation of
the nature in question existed as such in the Indo-European Ursprache .
Unless we have the combined testimony of at least two groups of lan¬
guages as to the primitive character of a formation we shall not be justi¬
fied in attributing it to the Ursprache. We must rather view such a for¬
mation as due to the specific agency of the particular language in which it
is found, as produced by way of analogy or association with other forma¬
tions of the same language, by the use of inflectional material already at
hand.

It is in this way that we explain the origin of the weak or -n- declension
in the Germanic group. The -n- declension arose simply from a wider ex¬
tension and more frequent application of endings which were originally
peculiar to -72-stems, such as Latin nomen, Greek Saip.Gov, etc. So in Greek
the so-called 1st and 2nd aorists passive in -r/v and -Srjv were originally
nothing more than intransitive 2nd aorists active of the -pi form, i. e.,
constructed after the analogy of forms like efiXrjv e6rrjv, etc. The for¬
mation in -r]v was the earlier, as in k-rtXdnpv, kdraXrfv , kcpdvrjr, etc.,
while the so-called first aorists in -Sr/v are formed after the analogy of
those in -rfv, under the influence of such presents as dxs 2 go, 7t\r/%Go, <p2z'2(»,
fiifiddSco, rejus^GO, dx^ojuai, vi j$GQ, pirv^oo, 7tpr/%GD, kv?'/^go, etc.

The above are cited simply as examples to illustrate the methods by
which we may expect to explain similar formations peculiar to a single

142

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and- Letters.

language, and which therefore cannot be referred to the Ursprache for
their origin. Such a formation is the Greek perfect in -xa. No other Indo-
European language presents any trace of it, and we therefore assume that
we have to deal with a formation which has developed itself on Greek
ground by way of association or analogy with some other inflectional form
of the Greek language.

There have lately appeared several new theories in explanation of the -xa-
perfect. The two most important of these have emanated from the school
of the so-called “ Junggrammatiker,” and have been propounded by the
heads of the school, one by Prof. Brugmann of Leipsic, the other by Prof.
Osthoff of Heidelberg. A third is that of Felix Hartmann.

Before taking up the consideration of these theories, let us state more
precisely the problem to be solved. The oldest formation of the Greek
perfect, was unquestionably by the suffix -a, appended to the strong form
of the root, with the reduplication prefixed, e. g.,

root Xeitc-, perf. Xe -X ont-a.

root 7t£i$-, perf. Tte-rtoi'S-a.

root psvy-, perf. Tte-cpEvy-a , earlier ^ ite-cpovy-a .

The Sanskrit formed its perfect in the same way, and there can be no

doubt that the formation goes back to the Ursprache , for its origin. But
by the side of this Greek perfect in -or we find in the oldest monuments
of the language also a considerable number of perfects in -xa. As time
goes on this number increases, and in the Attic of the 4th century B. C.
the -xa perfect is the regular formation for all verbs except stems in
labial and palatal mutes and a few others, which have retained the old
-a- formation.

The problem before us is to explain this -xa; why we have -xa in¬
stead of -a.

BRUGMANN’ S THEORY.

Brugmann’s theory appeared first in Yol. XXV. of Kuhn's Zeitschrift
fur Vergleichende Sprachforschung, p. 212 ff., 1879.

As he omits some of the earlier theories we may mention them here.

An examination of the perfects used by Homer discloses the fact that
but an extremely small number of -xa- forms occurs. While perfects in
-a, as TtertoiSa, Ei'Xr/xa, EiXr/pa, xexpaya, etc., are very numerous, the - xa -
perfects found in the Iliad and Odyssey together number only twenty. As
examples may be mentioned, ftefir/xa, ftefiXrjxa, SeSvxa , sdrr/xa, 7tepvxa,
reSr/xa, rsrXr/xa. All the Homeric -%<n-perfects, moreover, are from
vowel stems. There are no Homeric -%<n-perfects from consonant stems,
such as the later Attic TtsrtEixa , sdraXxa spSapxa, rticpayxa.

This circumstance led Thiersch and subsequently Ahrens to explain the
x as inserted between two vowels for the purpose of avoiding hiatus, so
that according to this theory fi£(dr/xa would be explained as arising from
* fie (dr/a, by the insertion of x; so Edrr/xa from an imaginary *£drr/a. As

143

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

/

a ground for this explanation Thiersch and Ahrens cited ovxen and
firfKsri. But the x here belonged originally to the ovx in all probability ,
so that ovxsri is for ovx-en (not for an earlier ^ov-eri), while prfxeri is
formed after the analogy of ovxen.

It is scarcely necessary to add that a theory involving such an extraor¬
dinary phonetic phenomenon as the bodily insertion of x, a change not
only not elsewhere exemplified in Greek, but also without analogy in other
languages, is unworthy of further consideration to-day, when the inviola¬
bility of phonetic laws is so insisted upon by even the less rigid inves¬
tigators.

Curtius, in his earlier work, the Tempora und Modi, followed Thiersch
and Ahrens, but in his Verbum der Griechischen Sprache , he propounds the
following explanation of the -hoc- perfect. He designates the -hoc as a
“ stammbildendes Element.'’'’ He further assumes that nominal stems were
first formed with this suffix; and from these nominal stems verb-stems, just
as the verb-stems in -va-9 - rv -ro-,-avo~, -to-, -6xo~, are, by Curtius, in their
origin, assumed to be nominal stems . Curtius further says, ‘ ‘ Assuming that
there was a nominal stem *fia-xa (Ion. *(3rj-xa) then from this we might
have a reduplicated (3e-f3a-xa (Ion. (3s-ftr)-xa ), and such reduplicated
stems might, in the period when the verbal forms were still undetermined,
establish themselves here and there in the perfect by the side of the shorter
forms in -a”

To this theory of Curtius Brugmann presents the following objections:

1. Where are these nominal stems in -xa? The language does not seem
to have had them. We should expect them to exist in some abundance;
but we find only a very few. We may cite ^ijxr/ and 6coxby, but from
%r}nV we could hardly directly explain the form re-Seixa as the vocalism
of the two words is different, one having rj the other ei. Nor can we satis¬
factorily explain the aorist eSrjxa from ^rjKV. For Srjxr] means £ chest,
vessel,’ and the testimony of the Sanskrit dha-ka, which has the same
meaning, seems to indicate that in the Ursprache the word had this spe¬
cialized sense of the root dhe -. It is difficult to comprehend how a
denominative aorist or perfect in the sense of ‘ put’ should be formed from
a’noun meaning ‘ holder.’

2. Curtius speaks of a form /3e0jxa establishing itself by the side of a
form * /3s(j?ja at a time when the verbal inflections were still undeter¬
mined. Brugmann with propriety inquires when Curtius conceived this
to have been. Was it subsequent to the period of the Ursprache? If so,
he should remember that the verbal inflections were then no longer un¬
determined. The substantial unity of the verbal inflection of the separate
languages shows this. Or does Curtius mean the period of the Ursprache?
If so he should consider that we can not pretend to explain a formation
which has confessedly developed upon specific Greek ground, by referring
to the Ursprache, or any conditions which may have prevailed in it.

To these two leading objections of Brugmann might be added another,

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

viz.: Is it conceivable that denominative verbs in simple -go should be
formed from stems in -a (Ion., Attic -rf) e. g., a */3?}xgo from *fifixrj? Could
we expect anything else from ^fiffxrj than ^fipxdco or * (irjxs go f Would not
the overwhelming abundance of denominatives like rijudco, dpaojucn,
< piXeco , etc., be a sufficient assurance that, even admitting the existence of
fgKT], we should never have had a form ^figxco from it, from which to
produce a perfect fie- firjx-a?

In view of the objections which Curtius’s theory raises against itself Brug-
mann thinks we must try in another way to solve the problem of the -xa-
perfect. From an examination of verbal formations in -k- Brugmann
finds six which are pre Homeric. These are:

oXsXGO

Sgoxoi (on the Idalian Bronze Tablet, line 16.)

dsididdopai (for SsiSixiojuai.)

The three aorists sdcoxa, efbrjxa, pxa.

To all of these forms correspond perfects in -xa, which likewise seem to
belong to the primitive stages of the language. These are 6A.GoA.sxa, Ssdooxa ,
SsiSoixa (i. e., *8sSFoixa), rsSr/xa (reSeixa), sixa.

Brugmann subjects each of these verbs to a careful examination with
reference to determining whether their -x- not only is pre-Homeric but pos¬
sibly even dates from the Ursprache. He arrives at a negative conclusion
with reference to the forms rjxa , eSrjxa, Seididdopai, with their corres¬
ponding perfects sixa, rsPr/xa (re P sixa), 8 eiS oixa.)

With reference to o’A.sxgo and its perfect oAoddexa, he finds it impossible
to reach a decision, owing to its obscure etymology, s8coxa with its perfect
8 sdcoxa and its present optative d goxoi is the only one of the -^-formations
which Brugmann concedes goes back to the Ursprache for its origin.

This form Ssdooxa Brugmann derives from the root 8 cox- and identifies
with the Sanscrit da-ddg-a. The correspondence in form between the
two is exact. The signification also of the Sanskrit da-ddg-a is the same
as that of 8 sdcoxa. For the Sanskrit root dag- means ‘give, vouchsafe,
offer,’ just as does the root da- = Greek Sgo -.

The so called aorist active sdcoxa Brugmann also derives from this same
root 8 cox- (Sanskrit dag-). This sdcoxa is for an original ^eSoox-m, m rep¬
resenting the vocalic nasal or “ nasalis sonans,” which when unaccented
regularly develops in Greek as a; just as the Rhenish Germans say gegange
for ge-gang-n (i. e., gegangen ), geriite for gerittn(i. e., geritten), obe for obm
(i. e., oben). Other examples in Greek of the development of the vocalic

v ,, „ r

nasal or “nasalis sonans” are s\v6a (for * sAivdm ), ysypacparai
rerpdqoarai (for *yeypdcp-nrai, etc.; cf. fis-fiovXsv-rrai).

According to the above view of the forms s8Goxa and 8s8coxa we have,
in the different systems of the Greek verb didcopi, to deal with two roots,
one root 8 go- corresponding to the Skrt. da- and another 8 cox- corres¬
ponding to Skrt. dac- Both roots are nearly identical in meaning and

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfeet. 14&

hence have become united in one verb; just as frequently the same thing
occurs where the different roots are clearly distinct, e. g.,

opaGo, oipojuai, eiSov
q)spcj, ol'6gd, rjveyxov.

deSooxa therefore is de-Saw-a, i. e., a regularly formed perfect from the-
root 8gox- with the ending -a, the regular ending of the perfect both in
Greek and Sanskrit, as seen in 7t£itoi%a, XeXonta, Tticpevya and numer¬
ous other similar forms; and it is from this one form that Brugmann con¬
ceives the entire category of -xa- perfects to have arisen, and in the fol¬
lowing way. After eSooxa and deSooxa had become part and parcel of
the verbal system of 8l-8gq-jui they were mentally referred to the root 8go-
also, and the ending -xa was felt as a tense-suffix.

As soon as it was felt as such it began to be employed in the formation
of other perfects with long vowel roots, e. g., s6n/xa {6rp-), f5s(3pxa
(fii)-), Ttecpvxa ( cpv -).

Brugmann thinks he discovers a particular reason why the -xa- forma¬
tion was so readily adopted by the long vowel stems. The original inflec¬
tion of the singular of the perfect indicative of the root 8 go-, for example*
must have been:

* 8s- 8 go- a

* 8s- 8gj- ? (-Sd)

* 8£- 8go- £

By contraction this must have early given:

* 8 £8 GO

* 8£8gd$

* 8 £8 go

These forms were felt to lack the distinctive perfect character and were
likewise identical in the 1st and 3rd singular. Hence it was that the lan¬
guage readily availed itself of such formations as £dr? -/xa, fisfirjxa-
Ttscpvxa. It is at about this stage in the history of the perfect that th
Homeric poems belong. The -^-perfects in Homer are almost exclusively
from long vowel roots; but short vowel roots are also just beginning to
adopt the -xa- formation, e. g., fi£0ir/xa, 8£8£i7tvr/xa, etc. Still later and
subsequent to Homer are the formations from consonant stems, such as
£6raXxa, Gcp^apxa, 7t£7t£ixa, pyy £Xxa, rG^avyaxa.

The theory that one form like 8 £8 coua should have been the type that
has called hundreds of others into existence seems at first, perhaps, too
remarkable to be lightly credited; yet similar phenomena are well attested
for other languages. Thus in Old Bulgarian the first singular of the verb
in the present indicative ended almost always in a— original Indoger-

_ r

manic o. Only four verbs had the ending -mi, viz:jesmi, vemi, dami, jami.
Yet these four verbs have been the type from which all verbs in the modern
Slovenian and Servian languages form their 1st person singular present
indicative in -m. So we have hundreds of forms from four alone. So also
10— A. & L.

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

in German we have in the nominal inflections the frequent plural ending -er
producing Umlaut of the root syllable, e. g. , Thai, Thaler; Buck , Bucher;
Grab, Grdber; Irrthum , Irrthumer; Kalb, Kalber, and very many others.
All of these are modern except Kalb, Kalber, which must be considered as
having furnished the starting point for the whole category. The plural
Kalber therefore in the number of forms it has called into existence would
furnish an exact parallel to SeSooxa.

An interesting and instructive illustration is furnished also by the Italian.

The Latin steti, stiti became in Italian stetti. This form was felt as
consisting of st- as root and -etti as the ending. So by the analogy sto,
stare, stetti, we got in Italian from do, dare, the perfect detti instead of
diedi (Latin dedi). The ending - etti was then applied to other verbs, such
as vendetti, fremetti, credetti, dovetti and many others. I have not been
able to determine the exact extent of the application of this ending, from
lack of the requisite books of reference, but am convinced that it is quite
extensive.

The example is at all events a striking one of how even one single form
can furnish the model after which innumerable others may be constructed.
Stetti, therefore, would furnish a complete analogy of what we have
claimed for SsSGoxa. It is historically certain for stetti', ifc is therefore
very possible for 8s 8 coxa.

The, objection then to one form’s being the starting point for many
would seem to be met by the above considerations.

Hermann von der Pfordten in his Geschichte des griechischen Perfects
calls attention further to the fact that the other perfects from stems in
-x- as:

8sSopx-a (root 8rpx-)
jue-juvx-a (root juvx-)

TE-TT/K-a (root T7/X-)

/ isjUT/K-Go 5 (root ppx-)

TC£-(ppiK-CX (root ppiK-)
soix-a (root Feik-)

may have contributed to the illusion that -xa was a tense suffix and so
have assisted in its application to other roots.

In fact von der Pfordten thinks that even the so-called -xa- aorists
EdGoxa, E^pxa, i/xa may have contributed their share in the same direc¬
tion, especially when one considers the great frequency of these words
(some 500 times) in the Homeric poems, the very stage of the language at
which we find the -xa- formation just beginning to assume greater propor¬
tions.

Brugmann’s theory then may be summed up in the following words:

There was in Greek an early confusion of two roots of the same meaning,
dca-and 8 cox- , da?- being used for the present and future, 8 cox- for the aorist
and perfect. By reason of this confusion the ending of SeScoxa was felt
as -xa instead of -a, as it really was; and being once felt as a tense suffix, it

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

14?

was given a wider application, being appended first to other long vowel
stems as r/~> dry- afterward to short vowel stems, and eventually
to some mute and all liquid stems.

This theory, it will be observed, explains the reason why we find the
ending -xa applied first to long vowel stems; it is because it originated with
such a stem, Sao-. It explains further the origin of the aorists e^pxa,
rjxa, and two others not usually given in the grammars, e6ryxa and
'iepprjxa. These aorists were formed after the analogy of eSaoxa just as
'idrrjxa after the analogy of Sedooxa,

It might seem strange, in view of this fact, that we do not find a similar
wide extension of the -xa- aorist, just as of the -xa- perfect. The reason of
course is plain. The same time suffix could not clo duty for both tenses.
The analogy might have taken its development in the line of the aorist,
just as well as of the perfect, and if that had occurred, we should have
looked upon it as perfectly natural; but it could not do double duty, serv¬
ing both as a perfect and an aorist suffix.

As it is, the -xa- suffix developed in the perfect, and beyond a few -xa-
aorists formed before the suffix had come to be felt as peculiar to the per¬
fect, it took no further development in the line of the aorist.

Such is Brugmann’s theory of the -xa- perfect. It is really less
fanciful than one might be at first inclined to consider it. His theory
is worked out with rigid method, nothing Ijeing assumed, which is incon¬
sistent with known phonetic laws or unsupported by the analogy of the
Greek itself and other languages. A demonstration, however, it can not
be held to be. It is simply an extremely clever hypothesis supported by
striking analogies.

It has met with recognition from German scholars such as von der
Pfordten in his Geschichte des griechischen Perfects, as well as from Gus¬
tav Meyer in his Griechische Grammatik. While therefore we may not
call it a proof vve must admit that it suggests a plausible method by which
the -xa- perfect may have developed.

We consider next

osthoff’s theory.

For several years after Brugmann propounded his theory it enjoyed gen¬
eral repute as the only plausible explanation yet given of the problem, un¬
til the appearance in 1884, of Osthoff’s Geschichte des Perfects im Indo-
germanischen. Herman Osthoff, the author of this work is professor of
Sanskrit and comparative philology at Heidelberg, and a man of astound¬
ing ingenuity in solving the riddles of Indo-European grammar. His
mind is constantly evolving a new solution of some knotty point of
morphology, worked out with an elaborateness which anticipates every ob¬
jection that can be raised against it. Although an intimate friend of
Brugmann and with him the head of the school of “ Junggrammatiker ”,
yet he never could feel quite satisfied with Brugmann’s theory of the origin
of the -xa- perfect, which we have just considered above.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and' Letters.

He consequently set to work to find some explanation which should be
more satisfactory, and the result of his lucubrations is given us in a
lengthy chapter of the work above cited, pp. B24-890.

Osthoff’s theory is that we have in the Greek -xa- perfect the particle
xsv; that SeScoxa is dedoo + xsv.

Let us proceed to the details. And first a few words on roots and the
different forms they assume under different circumstances.

It is a generally accepted theory that roots appear under different forms
in consequence of accentual conditions. Thus we explain

Skrt. as- mi
as- i
as- ti

as having the full form of the root as- because accented on the root sylla¬
ble; whereas the dual and plural forms

svds smas
sthds stha
stds santi

take the weakened form of the root -s because the accent is on the personal
ending. So also in Greek we had origin ally *8i-8g5-jui, *dz- da?- 61, * Si-doo-ri
*8i-do-r6v} *8i-6o-tov9 *di-8o-ju£v, etc., with the strong form of the root
Sod- in the singular, because the accent stands on the root syllable,
and the weak form do- in the dual and plural, because the accent is on
the personal ending. Of course this primitive accentuation was lost in
Greek, before we know it historically as an independent language; the
primitive accentual conditions disappeared with the rise of the three sylla¬
ble law and of the recessive accent of the verb.

So also in the inflection of the noun in Greek. In words of the type of
Ttarpp, prjTrjp, etc., we have the strong form of the stem Ttarep-, pprep-
where the stem syllable is accented, as in the accusative singular nave pa;
nominative plural Ttarepe^; but we have the weak form of the stem itarp-
where the accent falls upon the case ending, as Ttarp- 65, Ttarp-i ; %a-
rpd6i{r) also is formed from the weak stem Ttarp-.

This variation of the form of the root in two, three and sometimes even
four ways (called by the Germans Stammabstufung ) extends to all parts of
speech. It is not limited to nouns and verbs, in which the accent origin¬
ally shifted, standing now upon the root syllable, now upon the ending,
but may occur also in monosyllables, which by their varying force some¬
times receive a decided stress and at other times are enclitic.

All parts of speech are equally liable to this change of form dependent
upon stress- accent. The phenomenon is witnessed most frequently incase
of nouns, adjectives and verbs; yet it occurs also (and this is at present the
important point for us) in the case of particles; and we shall soon see that
in xa we have simply another form of xev, a form bearing the same relation
to xsv, as our unaccented “ the ” does to our accented “ the or as “ come ”
in “ cm in” to our “come” in the phrase “ you come.”

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

149

The demonstration of this relationship depends upon the principles of
the nasalis sonans theory, which was alluded to above in connection with
Ikv6a for * sXv6m\ and eSaoxa for * e'S aoxm. We there saw that this
sonant nasal developed in Greek, when unaccented, into a; just as in
many dialects in Germany the ending -n (i. e. - en ) when unaccented be¬
comes a short e- vowel, through the medium of the sonant nasal.

The full or strong form of the particle kev is hey. When unaccented
it sinks to x + the sonant nasal or *xn. This sonant nasal then regularly
develops to a giving us xa\ just as we have raro 5, verbal from reive*)
(root rev-), for *rn-ro5.

The Sanskrit, it maybe mentioned, develops the sonant nasal in the same
way; thus we have ta-tds for tn-tas, corresponding to Greek ra-ro$; and
ta-no-mi in the 5th Sanskrit class (acc. to Bopp) for tn-nd-mi.

Nor is kev the only illustration, among particles, of this variation of
weak and strong form, this Stammabstufung.

We have another striking illustration in the case of the particle ocv,
which has for its weak or unaccented form -v. This unaccented form is
seen in 7 tdv-v ( cf . rear) and further probably in ovros , ro-v-rov, etc. It
is doubtless the same as the Sanskrit particle -u and the Gothic -u, seen in
the passive forms of the optative and imperative, as nimada-u and
nimainda-u.

The same Abstufung holds similarly for many other particles, to which
Osthoff has devoted some exhaustive consideration in the fourth volume
of Morpliologische Untersuchungen , pp. 222-277, in his consideration of
what he calls the “ Tiefstufe im Indog ermanischen Vocalismus .” It is un¬
necessary to consider this matter further here.

We may now return to kev. We have seen that we have to deal with
two forms, kev and xa. There are to be sure two other forms of our
particle viz. ke and xa, but as they do not concern our present purpose,
we omit any consideration of the question of their special origin, inter¬
esting as that might be. The form xa is confined pretty nearly to the
Doric and Lesbic- Aeolic dialects in the historical period; yet this does not
constitute any objection against its antiquity, or against its having at some
time been in frequent use in all dialects.

So much for the morphological side of the particle. Let us now look at
its probable signification.

The tradititional etymology of kev has connected the word with the
Skrt. Mm, which means 4 well, indeed, to be sure’; and even the latest
scholars have signified their acceptance of this view, including among the
latter Delbrtick in his Syntaktische Forschungen, vols. I. , and IY. ; Ascoli,
Studj Critici II., 231 ff; and Gustav Meyer in his Greek Grammar. Osthoff
is the first to raise objections to this etymology; not, as he admits,
because it is phonetically inadmissible, though he mentions one or two
weak spots (which we shall have to omit here), but because he thinks he
has a better etymology to propose. He thinks kev identical with Skrt,

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

gam, an indeclinable adjective signifying “ beneficent, advantageous, whole¬
some, good.” This word, which has not yet become a particle in Sanskrit,
Osthoff thinks became one in Greek and in the signification of the German
wol united itself in its weak or unaccented form xa with the primitive
inflection of the perfect: e. g., SeSed-, to form the -net- perfect, Sedaoxa.
SeSaoxa would therefore mean “ I have indeed given,” or as Osthoff puts
it in German, “ ich habe wol gegeben .”

It is in fact this very correspondence in meaning between the Sanskrit
gam and the German wol that leads Osthoff so decidedly to prefer the ety¬
mology of xev which he proposes and advocates. He traces the develop¬
ment of the German wol from its Old High German force of “ well,”
through the Middle High German, where it takes on the additional mean¬
ing of “quite, very, thoroughly, certainly,” until it reaches that force,
untranslatable in English, which it exercises with such frequency in the
German of to-day, as for example in such expressions as “Sie sindwol
krank; das haben Sie wol gesehen.,'> Osthoff believes xev or xa has gone
through the same course of development. The Sanskrit gam he considers
to represent the original signification of xev , namely “excellently,” while
in the historical period of the Greek language he thinks he finds clear
traces of xev in the same sense as Germam wol in its weak, almost pleon¬
astic force.

The question that naturally first presents itself is: Does xev actually
have this force ?

Delbrtick, Syntaktische Forschungen, I., 90, expresses the opinion that
while xev, dv “ begleiten den conjunctiv und optativ durch alle inner en
wandlungen , sie erzeugen dieselben nicht. Sie sind nar ein beredter aus -
druck dessen , was auch durch den blossen conjunctiv und optativ ausge-
druckt wird;” i. e., the force of the subjunctive and optative does not de¬
pend upon the xev or dv but the xev or dv simply adds a more eloquent
expression to tbe force already inherent in the subjunctive or optative
themselves. If this be true, it accords excellently with the signification
which Osthoff wishes to attach to xev, and we shall then not be surprised
if we find xev joining itself freely with any mode and tense.

Thus in Homer we find xev with the future indicative as A 139 6 8e xev
KExoXoodErai uv xev ixcojuai, which Osthoff would render “ der wird wol
zurnen, zu dem ich kommen werde;” or A 176 xai xe ri$ (08' epssi Tpoocov
“so wird wol mancher unter den Troern sprechen ,” and a number of similar
instances.

The present indicative also occurs, though rarely, as 484 rep xai xe
tv, s svxerai dvrjp “ darum wunscht sich ivolil auch mancher A

Faesi, in his edition of the Iliad, in commenting upon these and similar
passages says that xev with the future and present indicative does not ex¬
press any doubt or uncertainty, but a calm confidence, equivalent to that
expressed by 7 tov, oipai. Cf. his notes on W 102, 484. In this sense xev
corresponds exactly to the German wol in such expression as “ das ist wol

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

151

zwanzig jahre her; ich bin wol zu beneiden ,” where wol is quite equivalent
to the Greek rtov, oijuai, “forsooth, I think, in my opinion.”

It is doubtful whether we have any example of the imperfect with kev,
as the reading of 104 is uncertain. Only one manuscript reads: svSa
kev rjfxariT] jjev vqxxivEdxev jusyav idrov. The others give evSa uai; but
of the aorist indicative we have at least one instance, viz. S 546.

7/ yap fu.iv Zgdqv ys KiygdEai, r) kev ’ Opsdrr/s

hteIvev v7toq)SdfJ£vo$.

Here again we may translate “ you will find him alive or (it may be as¬
sumed) Orestes has killed him,” the kev being equivalent to wol. In Ger¬
man we might translate “ oder es hat ihn wol Orestes getodtet .”

In German wol is used with the perfect indicative with great freedom in
popular poetry, e. g.,

“ Es ging ein Muller wol uber's Feld.”

“ Es zogen drei Burschen wol uber den Rhein.”

“ Ein Knablein ging spazieren wol um die Abendstund.”

That no example of the perfect indicative with kev in Homer is found,
Osthoff regards a matter of chance, to be explained by the rarity of the
perfect indicative in the epic or narrative style.

So much for the form and signification in which kev , Ka has attached
itself to the primitive perfect to produce the -Ka- perfect. Let us now note
the successive stages of the process by which the -Ka- inflection became es¬
tablished throughout the whole perfect indicative and subsequently
throughout the whole perfect system. First let us set clearly before our
eyes the original inflection of the perfect indicative active of a Greek verb,
such as those among which we know the -Ka- perfect to have arisen, viz. ,
long vowel stems. Let us take the stem dr a- (Ion., Att. drrj-). The early
Greek inflection of this perfect (though not the earliest) was probably

Singular.

*Edv7f (for *e- dr rj- a; cf. XE-Xgnca)
^edrifC, (for ^E-drg-a^,; cf. A.£A.oi7taS )
*Zdrrf (for *£-drrj-£; cf. XeXontE)

Dual.

edrarov

Edrarov

Plural.

tdrauEv
e dr are
edradiv

The stages of development are as follows:

1. By the union of the Ka with the original 1st singular *sdr g we get
Edrr/Ka. Further illustrations of this perfect from long vowel stems are:

Ss-Sif-Ka (Segd ‘bind ’) Aeschylus, Andocides.
rs-Sy-Ka, later rs-SsiKa, after the analogy of EiKa.
de-Sco-Ka.

*yE-yvoj-Kat later s-yvco-Ka.

2. In the second stage we find that the -Ka- perfect has extended its in¬
flection from the first singular in -Ka- to the second singular in -Kaf> and

152

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

the third singular in -xe(v). In this step it has, of course, simply adopted
the regular perfect inflection as already existing in the language and ex¬
hibited in such words as -itEcpEvya, i'ppooya, etc. The -not inflec¬

tion, however, has not yet strayed beyond the limits of the singular. The
dual and plural show no traces yet of the -xa, as seen in such words as

yeyjjxa,

pi.

yeyajuEv

(iejdpxa,

pi.

(defiapEv

TErXr/xa,

pi.

t£tX a/iEv

r£$r?/xa,

pi.

rdAvajUEv

Edr?/xa,

pi.

Edrajusv

d£-da)-xa,

pi.

lxtco-8 E-86-avSi Cauer2

This second stage is characterized further by the formation of new -xa-
perfects, but only from long vowel stems; and these new formations have,
like their models, the -xa- inflection only in the singular. This is about the
stage represented in the Homeric epics. For out of the hundreds of instances
of the -xa- perfect in Homer, all formed from long vowel stems, we have
•only five instances of a plural -xa- perfect, viz:

kdrpxadiv A 434

xararE'Avpxadiv 0 664
TtEpvxadir ?/ 114

TE^apdpxadiv 1 420,687

'3. The -xa- inflection extends itself throughout the entire indicative,
and also throughout the rest of the perfect system, i. e., the subjunctive,
optative, infinitive and participle. This stage is represented in general by
the post-Homeric Greek, though an incipient tendency of the - xa - forms to
oxtend themselves is seen in Homer, in the sporadic occurrence of a few
plural indicatives and a few perfect participles.

With this the development of the -xa- perfect may be considered complete.
•Some interesting changes in the Ablaut occurred, which may be left
anmentioned.

Osthoff finds in certain Sanskrit forms what he considers a powerful
support of his theory of the Greek -xa- perfect. These forms are the Sans¬
krit perfects:

daddu , dadhau, papau, tasthau.

Osthoff thinks that here we have original perfect forms with the added
particle -u.

da-dau is therefore simply da dd-u, etc., this u being the same particle
that we have already noticed as occurring in the Gothic nimadau, nim -
aidau.

Any one familiar with the Sanskrit sandhi -rules will see at once an ob¬
jection to this theory, since pa-pd-u, da-dd-u, etc., ought, according to the
laws of Sanskrit phonology, to give not pa-pdu , daddu but papo da-do.

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

153

Osthoff, however, maintains that the composition of the root with the
particle antedates the historical period of the Indian language and that we
have in da-ddu, etc., the legitimate successors of an Indo-European de-do-u.
Whitney in his Sanskrit Grammar (§ 800 c of the German ed.) cites two
forms from the Rig Veda of perfects from d-stems in simple a, not -du,
viz.: papr a, jaha ( pra-9 , hd- “follow”), instead of paprau, jahdu. This
would seem to indicate that roots in - d originally formed the perfect in -a,
and if that is so it would be natural to see in the forms in -du traces of an
added -u as Osthoff does. If now, reasons Osthoff, the Sanskrit employs
the particle -u in a perfect formation by adding it to the 1st and 3rd singu¬
lar of long vowel stems, what more natural than that the Greek should do
the same with Tier?

Osthoff’s theory then, briefly stated, is that the particle hev in its weak or
unaccented form hoc, a form actually occurring in several Greek dialects,
became added to the original perfect forms of long vowel stems, first to
the 1st and 3rd singular, and that it afterwards extended its range over the
entire perfect system; and the analogy of the Sanskrit perfects in -du is
appealed to, to substantiate this view.

Is this a probable theory? It 3&ems to me that it does have a good deal
to commend it to our favorable consideration.

1. As to the amalgation of different words into one word in the indi¬
vidual Indo-European languages we need have no hesitation. Instances
are frequent of the union of an inflected form with a particle, or of two
inflected forms with each other, as may be seen, e. g., in the Gothic liu-
ganda-u, nimaida-u (Greek vep oiro), in the French j ’ aimer-ai , Latin veneo ,
(for venumeo), calefacio, fervefacio, etc., and, as I incline to believe, also in
Sanskrit daddu, etc. As to the form xa, it is only what we should be
compelled to assume as the weak form of hev, even did we not know of
its actual existence in seve ral of the Greek dialects. That the form xa
therefore should combine with the original perfect is not at all unlikely.

2. As to the exact etymology of hev (xa) I conceive that that really
concerns the main question very slightly. It is immaterial whether hev
be the same as the Sanskrit kam or gam, or in fine neither the one nor the
other. It is certainly an independent word of the Greek language and as

* such can unite with an already existing inflectional form to create a new
form. If it really be the same as the Sanskrit gam and has gone through the
same semasiological development as the German wol so much the better,
though neither of these facts is necessary to our theory.

3. To my mind it can hardly be fortuitous that we find the origin of
the -hoc- perfect in Greek in those very stems, which in Sanskrit we are
led to look upon as compounded in their perfect formation, with the
particle - u , viz., the long vowel stems. To be sure we find this -u in the
Sanskrit perfect only in the 1st and 3rd singular; yet we must bear in
mind that in Greek also the perfect in -xa was for a long time confined to
the singular of the indicative, and that practically only in the post-Hom-
•eric Greek did it extend its range beyond this.

154

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It should further be borne in mind that the three identical roots which
furnish us with the earliest specimens of the Greek -xa- perfect are also
Sanskrit roots in -d, which form the perfect in -au. Thus we have side by
side the roots

6ra- (Ion., Att. 6rrj-) sthd-
Sco- dd-

3 7]-

And the perfects

s6rr/xa
Sad coxa
TeSrfxa
(re Seiko)

dhd-

tasthdu

dadau

dadhau

It would seem as though these possessed some innate tendency to join
to themselves a completing element, and if that be so what other element
can this be for the Greek than xa, and what can xa be but the particle xev
in its weak form ?

4. As to the non occurrence of xa with the perfect indicative in any
historical monuments of the Greek language, we need not feel any surprise,
such ’as Curtius does, in his critique of this theory, in his Zur KritiJc der
neuesten Sprachforschung, p. 152 f. Curtius considers in fact that the non¬
occurrence of the particle with the perfect indicative is sufficient ground
for condemning the whole theory, which he proceeds to do very summarily.

But let us consider a moment. By the very terms of the hypothesis, it
must have been at a period considerably prior to the oldest monuments of
the Greek language that the particle xa become united with the already
existing perfect inflection to form the - xa - perfect. At that time the par¬
ticles xa, ar and very likely many others enjoyed a much freer use and
wider application than later, when the language had become more stereo¬
typed. Certainly at the beginning of the historical period of the Greek
language xsv and av had become appropriated to certain distinct uses and
were confined to them. Not only do we not find either xev or civ with
the perfect indicative in Homer, but it is only with the greatest difficulty
that we succeed in gathering together a few instances of its use with the
present and future indicative. Even if we had discovered one or two in¬
stances of it with the perfect indicative it would not have materially
favored our theory.

It seems to me, therefore, that Osthoff’s theory exhibits an unusually
keen perception and fine appreciation of the principles governing linguistic
development, and that, while it cannot, any more than Brugmann’s, be
called a demonstration, yet it is as probable and even more instructive.

Hartmann’s theory.

Hartmann’s theory appeared first in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. xxviii.
p. 284, in a brief article entitled Wieder einmal das x- Perfectum.

Hartmann starts with the declaration that the -xa- perfect could take its

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

155

origin only from such stems as possessed a gutturallv extended form by the
side of the original one. Thus 7troo6dao for {fitTGo k-igo) which points plainly
to a stem 7 traoK-, as an extension of the stem tct- ( cf . 7Ci-7tr-ao), gives the
perfect TtaitTGau-a. This 7t£7trGOKa, being associated with 7ti-7tr-Go as its
perfect naturally gave rise to the conception of -coxa as the perfect suffix,
whence arose such forms as ol'xGoxa, possibly even kSijdoxa.

This is intended to serve only as an illustration of the method to be fol¬
lowed in seeking the origin of the -na- perfect. Hartmann admits that the
relation between tct- and TtaTCtooua could only give us -coxa as a perfect
suffix (as seen in ox^xa, oi'xGoxa), not -xa. He is consequently led to seek
further in search of some analogy which shall be more far-reaching in its
effects. He thinks he finds this in the relations existing between fiddxGo
and fdEfrjxa. He explains fiafirjxa as the perfect of fdddxco properly, not
of fiaivao, and as arising by proportional analogy. Just as Xddxoo, which
is a real guttural stem (being for *Xax- Oxgo, cf. s-Xax-ov, aorist), forms its
perfect XeXrjxa, so after the same analogy fdddxai (though not really from
a guttural stem) forms the perfect fdafh/xa.

After fteftrjKa had once come into existence the analogy extended to
other presents in - dxco , e. g., Srr/dxGD, ftXddxGD, fdi/UpGodxGo, etc., whence
the perfects reSvr/xa, fiepfiXcoxa, fisfipGDxcc, then subsequently to other
stems. ,

Such in brief is Hartmann’s theory, though his own statement of it is
exceedingly unfortunate and obscure. It will be seen that it resembles
Brugmann’s theory quite closely. I hold it, however, as much less proba¬
ble than Brugmann’s for three reasons.

1. The analogy by which fiddxGo is supposed to form its perfect
/Sefirjxa, viz., from the relation existing between XddxGo and XeXrjxa is
not at all plausible. There is no similarity of meaning between the two
words which would tend to associate them together in the mind, nor is
XadKGD a common word or one which from the frequency of its use would
be expected to exercise an influence upon other word-forms.

2. There is no evidence that the form fiafipua is more recent than
XiXrjxa, as is implied by the terms of Hartmann’s theory. Both forms are
found in the oldest monuments of the Greek language, but nothing tends
to show that XdXrjxa existed before /SefdrjKcx, so as to serve as the model
for the formation of the latter.

3. It is ncft likely that a formation taking its origin from a present with
a short vowel, like fidduGo should operate immediately in affecting presents
with a long vowel as Srr/duGo, fiXoadKGo, fiifSpaodKGo, etc., while at the same
time failing to influence presents with a short vowel, such as fiodKGa,
tpddKGD, etc. On the other hand we should expect these short vowel pres¬
ents to be first affected by the analogy, and the long vowel presents later,
if at all.

156

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ON SOME METAMORPHOSED ERUPTIVES IN THE
CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF MARYLAND.

By WM. H. HOBBS.

Recent studies of the crystalline rocks, while they leave us still in doubt
as to the origin and much of the subsequent history of the so-called/tmda-
mental complex ( Urgeneiss or Grundgebirge of Germans), yet have been
very successful in explaining satisfactorily many areas of crystalline schis¬
tose rocks by the metamorphism of sedimentary layers or eruptive masses.
Thus many areas of rocks not to be distinguished in the hand specimen
from schists which lie below the lowest fossiliferous horizons, have been
shown to be metamorphosed sediments of Silurian, Devonian, or even
younger ages. In Norway and in western New England, Silurian beds have
been changed to crystalline schists. Schistose Devonian rocks occur in the
Ardennes and Taunus. In northern Italy, at Carrara, the Trias is repre¬
sented by marble and in other localities crystalline schists are assigned to
the Cretaceous.

In seeking to analyze more carefully the process and find analogies with
other metamorphosing agencies, the attention is directed at once to those
processes which take place within the contact -zones of eruptive masses.
Careful comparison shows that as concerns mineral decompositions and
the atomic and molecular re-arrangements, the two processes yield re¬
markably similar results. The hydrous minerals generally disappear,
certain mineral species disappear and are replaced by other species
formed from their constituents, which are more stable under the conditions
of the process. The more common metamorphic minerals are mica,
garnet, staurolite, epidote, vesuvianite, wollastonite, and certain varieties
of pyroxene and hornblende. Analyses in toto of the unaltered and met¬
amorphosed phases of the same rock yield identical results, exceptions
being noted when tourmaline, topaz, or allied species, in whose formation
gaseous material is concerned, have been developed during the process.
Mineralogically, then, the process consists in a more or less thorough re¬
arrangement, which may be mainly molecular as in the case - of hornblende
after augite, but it more frequently involves elaborate chemical decomposi¬
tions and reactions. The German expression, Umbildung, aptly describe*
this process.

If the agent be sought which affects the transformations, we are directed
to a different source in each of the two cases of Contact and Regional

Some Metamorphosed Eruptwes of Maryland. 157

metamorphism. In the first it is without question, heat, while in the
second we are forced to believe that heat, if a factor at all, is a very small
one, its place being taken by pressure, accompanied by internal movement.
Where the rocks show most disturbance in the field, there the microscope
reveals the maximum of pseudomorphic change and alteration of texture.

We see then, that much the same effect can be produced at least along
two different lines, and from what has been said about the chemical com¬
position of the rock before and after the process, it would not seem to be
impossible to produce by metamorphism from a shale and a gabbro, the
same resultant rock, provided their analyses in toto were the same.

The study of metamorphosed massive rocks has yielded perhaps the
most satisfactory results, since the original character is frequently betrayed
even after pronounced metamorphic action, by areal or structural relations,
or by the remains of rock-textures. The sending of dikes or apophyses into
surrounding rocks, the presence of included fragments of them, and
the remains of crystal boundaries now existing for some other species
known to be secondary, are valuable bits of evidence. In some re¬
gions where massive gabbro oi diabase occurs in conjunction with
hornblende gneisses, it is seen that they pass insensibly into one an¬
other, and careful study has shown that the hornblende gneiss is the
metamorphosed form of the gabbro. Geologists have further been able to
trace the steps of the process by examining the rock from parts of a
given area that have been but slightly effected, at localities where most
disturbance has taken place, and at intermediate points. It would seem
that the feldspars are the most sensitive to disturbance, a wavy extinction
between crossed Nicols being noticeable when the other minerals show no
effects. If the process is more advanced, a breaking up of this mineral
may result, and one of the decompositions to saussurite, epidote or amphi-
bole may be noticed. Pyroxene is altered to amphibole (Uralitization). A
breaking up of hornblende crystals takes place with an arrangement of the
longer axes of fragments parallel to a plane of schistosity. The details of
the process differ somewhat according to the original chemical and min-
eralogical composition of the rock, the intensity of the matamorphism,
and other conditions which we can not analyze.

A region which furnishes an example of the metamorphism of gabbro
to hornblende-gneiss is that southwest of the city of Baltimore. The
Potomac formation (Juro -Cretaceous) consists in this vicinity of unconsol¬
idated gravels which rest on the crystalline schists and gneisses of the
Pre-Cambrian belt, and their included intrusive members. To the west
and northwest of the city of Baltimore is a nearly circular area of hypers-
thene-gabbro and gabbro- diorite, which has become well known through
the beautiful studies of Dr. Geo. H. Williams. The results have been pub¬
lished in a bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey. Professor Williams
has shown that the hypersthene-gabbro of that area passes into gabbro-
diorite by the alteration of both hypersthene and diallage to horn-

158

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

blende. The alteration begins on the surface of the pyroxene and proceeds
from there toward the center. From the same hand specimen sections
were prepared in which could be seen almost unaltered pyroxene, and the
same mineral with wide marginal fringes of hornblende. In the hand
specimen the hypersthene-gabbro possesses a bronzy lustre from the pre¬
ponderance of orthorhombic pyroxene, while the gabbro-diorite is green,
owing to the secondary hornblende derived from pyroxene.

An area five miles square immediately southwest of that just described,
I have examined in the field and studied by means of microscopic sections
and otherwise in the laboratory. The western portion of the area is occu¬
pied by the Pre-Cambrian gneisses. The remaining portion of the area
contains outcrops of gabbro, gabbro-diorite, true diorites, hornblende
gneiss, and intrusive rocks which belong to later periods of eruption. The
field study shows that the gabbro forms a continuation of the gabbro area
studied by Professor Williams. This part of the gabbro area, however,
differs in two respects from that farther north; first, in the greater differ¬
entiation of the magma, which here produced true diorites as well as
gabbro; and, second, in the greater metamorphic action, which has pro¬
duced from the gabbro first a gabbro-diorite, and then a hornblende gneiss.
The true diorites have gone over to hornblende gneiss by much the same
process as the gabbro-diorite. These several modifications are assumed to
have formed one and the same mag¬
ma from the absence of any visible
contact between them. The gabbro
and diorites have not been found in
the same outcrop, but the field evi¬
dence is such as to make it very prob¬
able that they are differentiations of
the same mass. Gabbro, gabbro dio-
rite, and hornblende gneiss on the
other hand, can be seen to pass imper¬
ceptibly into one another in the vicin¬
ity of Ilchester. The microscopic ev¬
idence is most confirmatory on this
point, slides having been prepared

from a sufficient number of speci- between feldspar and hornblende. X 50.
mens to show the steps in the pro¬
cess. To make clear, it will be necessary to give somewhat in detail
the characters of the end types, gabbro and hornblende-gneiss, and of
the intermediate varieties.

The entirely unaffected hypersthene gabbro has not been found within
the area studied, but a rock containing both hypersthene and diallage sur¬
rounded by marginal fringes of green hornblende, composes a core a few
feet in diameter enclosed in gabbro-diorite. This core occurs in the wall
of rock formed by the railroad cutting at Ilchester station, and its brown

Some Metamorphosed Eruptives of Maryland.

159

color makes it apparent in contrast with the green of the surrounding rock.
The feldspar of this rock is a basic plagioclase, corresponding closely with
bytownite. Between crossed Nicols its strained condition is apparent in
the wavy extinction. The hypersthene is strongly pleochroic, and, like
the diallage, has the usual characters except for the marginal rim of horn¬
blende.

The gabbro diorite contains neither hypersthene nor diallage, both hav¬
ing been changed completely to hornblende. This mineral is not generally
so fibrous as that of uralitized diabases, but it is a green massive variety
in crystals not many times smaller than those of the pyroxene from which
they are derived. Not infrequently the central portions contain areas,
roughly circular, of a colorless mineral of low refractive index, which is
believed to be quartz separated in the alteration process, and indicating
that its host is less acid than the original pyroxene. Similar areas occur
in the hyperite-diorites of Sweden and in the Baltimore gabbro- diorite.
The feldspar is bytownite, but here it shows more marked optical ano¬
malies than in the gabbro.*?' In the more effected specimens, hornblende
is developed in needles within the feldspar, being sometimes arranged in
bands and indicating, it would seem, lines of weakness. In certain of these
specimens a distinct reaction-rim appears between the feldspar and the
hornblende. Between crossed Nicols this rim affords high colors like those
of epidote. Epidote was found by Dr. Williams to compose reaction-rims
in the gabbro- diorite of Mount Hope, and it was at first suspected that
these aggregates might be composed largely of epidote. Prof. Rosenbusch
suggested to me that the mineral is amphibole in thin scales, the high col¬
ors resulting from intercalated films of air. (Fig. 1.)

In some specimens of this rock
rutile is present as an important ac¬
cessory constituent, associated with
ilmenite, and both are surrounded
by wide rims of titanomorphite or
sphene. (See Fig. 2.) In a few local-
ties (Ilchester R. R. cut) these min¬
erals can be seen in the hand speci¬
men, where they closely resemble
the similar association in the horn¬
blende gneiss of Lampersdorf in
Silicia. As soon as the rock takes
on the laminated character of a
gneiss, the feldspars appear broken
down or granulated peripherically
into fine mosaics ( Randliche Kata-

Fig. 2. — Section of gabbro-diorite from
Bchester, Md., showing ilmenite, rutile and
titanomorphite. X275.

klassstruktur.) Simultaneously a “fraying out” and splintering of
hornblende, and a considerable development of epidote are to be

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

are to be observed. The splintered fragments of hornblende and the newly-
formed minerals become roughly oriented with reference to a plane of
schistosity. (See Fig. 8.) Plate I is from
a photograph of the wall of hornblende
gneiss on the left bank of the Patapsco
river opposite Ilchester railroad station.

In the same region are found other
younger intrusive masses which cut the
rocks just described. The most import¬
ant of these is a porphyritic granite con¬
taining allanite-epidote intergrowths,
and having dioritic facies resembling the
diorites associated with gabbro. Isolated
bosses of a non-feldspathic pyroxene

rock and a coarse hornblende picrite 3- Section of Hornblende-Gneiss

r (Metamorphosed hyperstnene gabbro)

(Cortlandtite) occur. Further, a coarse from Thistle Cotton Mills, ilchester, Md.,

showing peripheral granulation of feld-
pegmatite is especially abundant in the spar, fraying out of hornblende, and

, . . . , „ . J development of epidote with zonal

neighborhood of Ilchester. structure. X50.

In the course of a hasty reconnaissance in the Odenwald in Hesse, I was
much impressed by the striking resemblance in characters of the rocks of
that region and of the one just described. The porphyritic hornblende
granites and diorites of the Birkenauerthal resemble more than any others
that I have seen the Ilchester granite. In the vicinity of Burg Franken¬
stein on the Bergstrasse occur gabbros associated with dioritic rocks bear¬
ing much resemblance to the gabbro- diorites of Ilchester. The Ilchester
Cortlandtite finds its representative in the Schillerfels of Schriesheim. The
analogy might be carried further to include a pegmatite'and a basic pyrox¬
ene rock (Wehrlite) from the same general locality in the Odenwald region.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Gabbro- diorite passing into hornblende gneiss. On left bank of Patapsco
river, near highway bridge, at Ilchester, Md. The gabbro-diorite is seen
on the left, passing by insensible gradations into hornblende gneiss to¬
ward the right.

Vol. VIII

Frans. Wis. Acad.

at 'nna;

Concerning the Ericacea.

161

NOTES AND A QUERY CONCERNING THE ERICACEAE.

By OHAS. H. CHANDLER, Ripon, Wis.

Plants of the Heath Family are rarely found in regions where the soil
is calcareous. The personal search of the writer m his leisure hours for
some years, as well as inquiries made of botanists acquainted with the flora
of several states, have disclosed no examples of Ericaceae in such regions
except such as by their peculiar conditions seem to be exceptions tending
to prove the general rule of their absence.

The only vigorous growth found under such conditions has been that of
the parasitic Monotropa, reported by several observers; but since its support
is thus indirectly obtained from the soil, its growth is not inconsistent with
the statement that the Ericaceae will not tolerate compounds of lime.

Rare and feeble specimens of Pyrola rotundifolia are said to have been
found in Ripon, Wis., in a region of Trenton limestone. But, as nearly as
the two spots in which it was found can now be determined, they were
both upon knolls of drift gravel, wdiere the effects of the underlying lime¬
stone must have been very slight, if not entirely absent.

A vague account has been received of some one of the smaller species,
Vaccinium having been found in or near Waupaca county, in a region of
hard water. But here too it may be reasonably suspected that the condi¬
tions were like those mentioned in the case of the Pyrola, since the Vac¬
cinium was said to have been found in a region of knolls, and upon the
knolls rather than between them.

No other apparent exceptions have been found to the rule that calca¬
reous soils are unsuited to the growth of all members of the Heath Family,
and this to a degree which is practically prohibitive.

Several specimens of Kalmia latifolia, upon being carefully transplanted
into a soil of weathered limestone and clay in Greene county, Ohio, died at
once; and othei’s set in a black vegetable loam filling a long depression in
the same soil lingered without any growth for some months and then died

The query whether if is possible for any member of the Ericaceae to
grow in a calcareous soil may lead to broader questions which have re¬
ceived very little attention from either writers on agriculture or botany,
such as whether the non-adaptability of certain soils to certain plants may
not often be due as much to the positive presence of injurious constituent
11— A. & L.

162

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

as to the negative property that certain food elements demanded by the
plants are absent; and whether such lines of adaptability do not frequently
coincide with generic or family division lines.

Note. — After the reading of this paper cases were cited by members
present showing real exceptions to the rule suggested. Gaylusacia resinosa
is found upon Trenton limestone three miles west of Hanover, Ind., on the
high banks of the river. Both Gaylusacia and Vaccinium on hill tops of
Lower Magnesian limestone in towns of Troy, Franklin and Spring Green,
Sauk county, Wis., and other plants of this order, but the species were not
named, in Lincoln county, Ky. In none of these cases, however, did it
appear that the drainage from limestone would come to the plants; but
still the soil must be calcareous.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses .

168

ARTIFICIAL KEYS TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES
OF MOSSES RECOGNIZED IN LESQUEREUX AND
TAMES’S MANUAL OF THE MOSSES OF NORTH
AMERICA. - ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

By CHARLES R. BARNES.

Since the separate publication of the Keys printed on pages 11-81 of this
volume, the author has discovered a number of errors, typographical and
other. He is also indebted to Mrs. E. G. Britton, Miss C. E. Cummings,
Mr. E. A. RaU, Dr. C. W. Swan and Mr. L. S. Cheney for suggestions or
corrections. The additions and corrections which have thus accumulated
are deemed of sufficient importance for publication.

Page 18, for first three lines under TT TT? substitute:

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Leaves subulate to lance -subulate, from a broader

base . Lepto trichum, 105. 87.

Leaves broader.

Lid short, conic or beaked .... Desmatodon, 110. 88.

Lid elongated-conic . Trichostomum, 108. 88.

Page 23, for line 12, substitute:

Leaf cells quadrate at basal angles.

Plants small, capsules about 2mm. long . Platygyrium, 307.

Plants large, capsules about 4mm. long Cylindrothecium, 310. 67.

Page 25, below B. 1, insert:

[SS. qymbifolium and papillosum may be sought here.]

Page 28, for line 15, substitute:

Qosta broad a bove, almost or quite filling point.

164

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

Page 80, under DXCRANELLA, read:

L Cells of the exothecium rectangular-quadrate; seta red; costa narrow

and well defined beloio.

Page 31, line 1, read:

U. Cells of the exothecium prosenchymatous; seta often yellow; costa

usually broad and indistinct below.

Page 32, set D. palustre, 19. opposite line 11 and dele lines 12 and 13. For

line 19, substitute:

Papillose at back.

Capsules solitary . D. spnrinm, 21 .

Capsules clustered ...... D, Brummondii, 22,

Under 2, dele line a.

Page 33, line 13, for to, substitute B.

Page 43, after line 15, insert:

[G. Pennsylvanica will be sought here.]

Page 47, for last 3 lines, substitute:

Capsule wholly exserted.

Smooth when dry, defluent into seta ... 0. Isevigatum, 2.

Furrowed when dry, abrupt at base .... 0. Douglasii, 6.D

Page 48, for line 5 from bottom, substitute:

Capsule furrowed when dry . 0. Douglasii, 6. 11

Page 64, under NECKERA, in lines 2 and 4, read:

Plants slender (shoots 1 — 2 mm. wide), etc.

Plants robust (shoots 3 — 4 mm. wide), etc.

Page 65, to Hookeria Sullivan tii, add foot note:

Muller writes (July 18, 1888): “Die Hoolcerict Sullivantii mihi unterscheide ich auch
heute noch von H. lucens und ebenso von H. acutifolici aus Indien.” . Fide Mrs. E. G.
Britton.

Page 66. under THEM A, for last two lines, substitute:

Usually bi-furcate, teeth long (1:17 — 20), leaves ciliate T. asprella, 2.

Usually 4 furcate, teeth short (1:12), leaves not ciliate T. Lescurii, 4.

1 The position of the stomata of this species is still uncertain, and until it is found again
no more definite characterization of it seems possible.

165

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

Page 69, under for lines 2, 8 and 4, substitute:

Stem leaves short acuminate, cilia 2, annulus double . H. scitum, 8.
Stem leaves long acuminate, cilia 8, annulus simple . H. gracile, 10.
Stem leaves long acuminate, cilia 1, annulus 0 . H. calyptratum, 11.

Under -» — *— , for lines 4 and 5, substitute:

Apical cells of branch leaves round , papillose . H. delicatulum, 14.
Perichsetial leaves not ciliate, apical cells of branch leaves

oblong, with 2—3 papillae . . . , H. recognitum, 13.

Under b insert as line 6:

Plants minute, leaves entire (but papillae salient), costate

to the middle . H. pygmseum, 7.

Page 70, -x- * , substitute:

* * Leaves entire , or denticulate above , plants creeping.

Page 71, under ®f[ ®f[ insert, as line 1:

Leaf cells rhombic above, rectangular below H. occidentale, S. & L.a

Change the co-ordinate choices in this paragraph, lines 6 and 12, so as

to read:

Leaf cells alike throughout.

Leaf cells enlarged, rectangular at the basal angles.

Page 73, insert as line 8 from botton:

Leaves broad-ovate, acute, segments split . . H. Mans, 77.

Page 74, for line 3, substitute:

Deltoid, with long slender points (leaves of branchlets sometimes blunt).

Page 75, for line 8, substitute:

Leaves widest above base, long acuminate.

Leaf cells oblong, parenchymatous . . M. ckrysophyllum, 130.

Leaf cells fusiform, prosenchymatous . . . H. riparium, 127.

1 Sull. Icon. Muse. Suppl. 105. pi. 81.— Accidentally omitted from the Manual.

- - i . , ' - l

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Page 76, for last 10 lines, substitute:

Leaves not falcate.

Abruptly filiform apiculate, alar cells not conspicu¬
ous . H. tricliopiiorum, 100,

Gradually filiform acuminate, alar cells orange.

Plants slender, 2 — 3 cm. long.

Branches erect, leaves serrate . . H. MuMenbeckii, 111.

Branches intricate, leaves nearly entire . H. Fitzgeraldi, 112.
Plants stout, 7 — 10 cm. long, leaves quite entire H. stellatiim, 131.
Acute or short apiculate, alar cells few, large . II. palustre, 165,
Obtuse, entire, alar cells hyaline . . . H. cuspidatnm, 176.

Page 78, under II, in parenthesis, dele:

and Bracliytliecium Tliedenii.

The following typographical errors should also be corrected:

Page 13, line 1, for nothing read noting.

Page 15, line 10 from bottom, for 153 read 152.

Page 22, line 4, for B * read 2 *.

Page 53, line 20, for P. Muhlenbeekii read P. Mulilenbergii.

Page 60, line 7 from bottom, for A. augustatum read A. angustatum*
Page 69, line 16 from bottom, for H. abietiuum read If, abietiimm.

Science of the English Language in the Light of Gothic . 167

THE RELATION OF OLD ENGLISH ‘REOMIG’ TO

GOTHIC ‘RIMIS.’

By G. H. BALG.

The following discussion is the concluding part of my paper on “The
Science of the English Language in the Light of Gothic,” read before the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, December 28th, 1888,

A number of Germanic stems in -as : is, both concrete and abstract, have
been given by Sieve rs, in his Old English Grammar, by Kluge, in a re¬
view of that grammar ( ‘ Anglia,’ vol. V, part 4), by ‘ Paul, in Paul and
Braune’s Beitraege’ (vol. IV, p. 415; VI, p. 229), by Kluge, ‘ Nominale
Stammbildungslehre ’ (§§ 84 and 145), and elsewhere. The above suffix an*
swers to Gr. 05 : £5, in neuter substantives like yeros, gen. yevov$ con¬
tracted from yevsoz, for a more ancient *y dyed 05; and to Lt. us:er, in
genus, gen. generis, for Agenesis. The accent fell on the radical syllable,
and, therefore, in Germanic the suffixal s changed into z which appears in
Gothic as s when assuming the final position, but, by leveling, there occurs
z for s, and $ for z.

The Gothic word rimis, ‘ rest, quietness,’ shows s in all cases. Its original
stem, rimiz-, answers to pre-Germanic remez-, from root rem seen in
Gr. rj-pEju-o 5, rrpEju-aio 5, ‘quiet,’ f/-p£ji-ia ‘rest.’ According to the
law that pre-Germanic unaccented e changed into i in Germanic, and pre-
Germanic accented e became i in Germanic, when the following syllable
contained i (Comp. Gr. 7t68-£$, Germanic *fot-iz, primitive Old English
fet-i, by i-umlaut of 6 and loss of -z ; later fete, Middle English fet ,
Modern English feet), pre Germanic remez- first became remiz-, and then
Wm?2(=rimis), our Gothic word in question. Furthermore, Germanic un¬
accented i after a short root syllable was first retained as i in Old English
and afterward weakened to e.

According to the above laws of development and decay, Germanic remiz
(Goth, rimis) appeared in Old English as remi : rimi : rime.

Now I claim that rime is found in Old English reomig, ‘ quiet,’ formed
by means of the Germanic adjective suffix -ag-. The dark vowel of -ag
changed the i of rime (the final vowel of which was dropped) into io, * rimag
becoming riomag, later *riomeg (by weakening). But there is another
Germanic sufh, -ig (=Goth. -eig~; -ag-- Gothic -ag-), which was likewise

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and, Letters .

used to form adjectives from substantives. In Old English -ig was first
shortened to -ig, and in the inflected cases weakened to -eg. In conse¬
quence of this weakening, the two suffixes -ag and -eg coincided in the in¬
flected cases, and, by the law of analogy, there occur not only nominative
cases with original -ig, but also such with -ig for -eg, from original -ag ;
an example is our Old English adjective *riomig. A similar case of con¬
fusion is that of Old English io from i, and eo from e, a fact supported by
numerous examples. It is owing to this double confusion that Old English
reomig stands for *riomeg; hence, Old English reomig is derived from
* rime = Gothic rimis.

.vV.f .i;;- . ,

Sr.'f 1

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

169

ARISTOTLE’S PHYSICS (PHYSIKE AKROASIS)

REVIEWED.

By JOHN J. ELMENDORF. S. T. D.,

Professor of Mental Philosophy in Racine College.

An attempt to revivify Aristotle’s Physics, when this nineteenth century
is drawing to its close, may seem to some an absurd anachronism His mis¬
statements of facts have furnished stock quotations to those who would
illustrate the ignorance of benighted antiquity. His a priori method has
been only subject for ridicule, because in this enlightened period there is
only one secure path to true scientific knowledge, sc., the slow, but safe road
of accurate observation and careful experiment. If the critical observer,
from without the sacred precincts, remarks that empirical science mani¬
festly contains a priori assumptions which indicate the line, among an in¬
finitude of lines, which experiment shall follow, and is stated under the
form of concepts which need accurate definition, the reply may be that
advanced science is proceeding on the straight and lowly road of “ phe¬
nomenology,” and confines itself to that. The critic might reply, with Aris¬
totle, that there can be no such thing as a science of phenomena, because
they must be appearances of some thing, and cannot be thought or de¬
scribed, much less accounted for , without some assumption, true or false,
respecting that thing. But the dispute would only grow more lively, and
the end be far off. The critic will, perhaps, be safer in confining himself
to the remark, that so long as the experimenter says, “ I see that,” no
meaning can be attached to the purely phenomenal construction of his words,
to-wit. : “A chain of successive (subjective) states called, I, is at this mo¬
ment followed by the subjective state called, seeing one of co ordinate
phenomena called that” Since pure phenomenology appears to be reduced
to this, so much the worse for phenomenology.

Logic, pure mathematics, even that despised thing called metaphysics,
will have their word in the matter, and claim their place in the large do¬
main called ‘'science.”

It is, perhaps, time to call a halt; and after laughing at “ high priori”
roads to science, to consider more seriously whether or not those same a
priori methods have not some place even in the study of nature, whether
or not the analysis of reason’s fundamental concepts and necessary judg¬
ments is absolutely worthless for scientific ends.

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Admitting, provisionally, the absurdities of Aristotle and his school,
cheerfully granting the necessity of verification of all deductive infer¬
ences, yet I have reason to maintain that that a priori road, where every
concept is rigidly defined, and primary truths are analyzed, truths abso¬
lutely unassailable, has proved suggestive of observations, fruitful in in¬
ferences which might have been verified, but which have been very slowly
reached, and only as hypotheses, by the empirical route.* The inquiry, it
seems to me, is not unpromising; the result may appear in a re examina¬
tion of Aristotle’s Physike Akroasis.

At a first glance, one is impressed by the glaring difference between this
treatise and, modern works bearing similar titles. It is not merely that
Aristotle cites some observations, so-called, which were reported to him, or
which he himself noted with very inaccurate observation; for the same
thing has happened since his time. Thus one of our chief contemporary
authorities in natural science, cites certain facts, so-called, which were
privately confessed to me, many years ago, to be sheer imposture, and are
now publicly so acknowledged. (M. & K. Fox.)

But, setting this aside, one sees in a modern treatise the attempt, at
least, to follow a strictly empirical method, and to attain higher and higher
generalizations by careful inductions. In the Physike Akroasis the aim is
to clear up those primary concepts which underlie all physical investiga¬
tions, and to make strict logical deduction fiom certain primary principles,
however those may have been obtained, which have the most absolute and
intuitive certainty.

This difference is of course largely due to the fact that Aristotle is aim-
ing at the philosophy of physics; to secure clear concepts and precise defin¬
itions, to determine (I. 1,) the principles, causes and elements concerned in
nature.

Aristotle first (I. 1) indicates his method, which is to proceed from what
is more familiar as coming under the observation of the senses, to what is
more fundamental, to elements, causes and principles. I suppose that we
must not call this “ Baconian induction,” but rather analysis. That which
is primarily given to us in knowledge is complex; we analyze it, using also
logical induction in order to reach remoter, but higher principles. Verifi¬
cation would of course supplement this method, but our author makes very
imperfect use of that.

Physics, in its widest sense, embraces all the sciences of nature. What

Grove, in the preface to his “ Correlation, etc.,” claims what is expressed by his title as
the latest and grandest discovery in physics. We will not dispute his assertion, if he means
experimental physics. But inasmuch as Aristotle maintains that all change in nature (and
nature is that world of beings whose characteristic mark is change, II, 1; III. 1,) is reduc¬
ible to local motion, and gives clear demonstration of his proposition, Grove’s assertion,
taken in its widest sense, seems hardly warranted by the facts. On the contrary, the a
priori method ought to have pointed out, in this case as in others, the road for experiment,
by giving anticipations from something more than “scientific imagination ” of the results
which might be expected.

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

171

is nature? A collective name for those things, together with their causes,
etc., which have in themselves a principle of motion or change (kinesis).
(II. 1.) It is necessary, then, to have clear concepts of matter, form,
cause, change, including local motion, time and place or space, with their
correlated ideas, and this is the aim of the treatise now before us.

(I. 6, 7). Two principles at least, perhaps three, are necessary to ex¬

plain nature as it is known by us, viz., a passive matter, and an active
force, manifested in contrary phenomena; (attraction and repulsion, heat
and cold, etc.)

Motion, kinesis, taken in the widest sense, is the (continuous) transition
from a potential state to an actual state. It is either a change of quantity,
or of quality, or of place. But the three are reducible to one, viz. , local
motion. (VIII, 1.) If to these we add the change from potential to actual
being in generation, and its contrary, decay (phthora) we shall have the
whole sphere of changes perceived in nature.

II. 2. Applied mathematics consider the purely intelligible and un¬
changeable element which is found in nature, underlying all its changes.

II. 3. We account for any of those changes which we perceive in na¬
ture, when we assign their causes. But the word cause is very ambiguous,
and needs definition. All uses of the word are reducible to four: (1). The
material of the thing which comes into being may be called its cause, (con¬
dition), as marble of the statue; (2). The form or pattern, as the idea of
an oak is that towards which the acorn develops; (3). The efficient cause
or originator of the change which may itself be a changeable antecedent;
(4). The end, or final cause, or reason why. Why does one take exercise?
The cause is not fully given, if we name the man, describe the exercise
and account for muscular contraction; we add (II, 3), another cause; sc., the
exercise is for the sake of health.

In discussing cause, also, we must not overlook the fact (II, 7) that two
very different principles are requisite in explaining nature, sc., the sensible
antecedents, and the intelligible principle which is not physical nor subject
to change. Nature requires for its explication the supernatural.

II. 8. The discussion of final causes is of such interest in connection
with modern physics, and especially with reference to recent questions in
Natural history, that I may perhaps be allowed to present it in condensed
paraphrase. Why would it not be sufficient explanation of the expansion
of water cooled down to 40 degrees of Fahrenheit, if we could, as we can¬
not, assign its physical antecedents ? But our mind recognizes a relation
to the good of the world, an order and connection of things. And we must
assign chance, spontaneous action, or design, in accounting for that order,,
if we assign any cause for it. (Chance, here, does not mean the entire ab¬
sence of law, but a law which does not enter into the series of events in
question.)

By chance results may be obtained, indeed, as, when our guest came for
other reasons but took a bath at our house, we say that by chance he took a

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bath. But neither chance nor spontaneous action will account for the in¬
variable series in nature’s work which I have illustrated in the expansion of
cooling water with its effects; therefore, final cause must be assumed. I
am not considering the value of this argument; I only note it as the first.

Secondly, each thing in nature acts as it is adapted by nature to act; and
as it acts, so it is adapted by nature. It acts for some end, therefore it was
naturally produced for that end. If a house were among natural things it
would be constituted as it now is by art. And if natural things could be
produced by art, it would constitute them and adapt them as they now
are. Art sometimes imitates nature; sometimes attempts what nature
does not; but in both cases for some end. The argument, then from art’s
having an end to final cause in nature is valid; for the relation of prior to
posterior is the same in both.

Thirdly, we have no warrant for imputing conscious art or deliberation,
to insects or to vegetables; yet there is an end, a form towards which these
work.

Here we note an objection, that if nature seeks an end, she does not al¬
ways reach it. But the same thing is true of art, wherein all admit the
existence of final cause. This principle does not exclude the principle of
necessary conditions, which are found in the matter by which all things
that are produced are conditioned. In these we must find the cause of
failure. The end of a saw is to cut wood, but iron is the necessary matter,
and may be the cause of failure. So nature requires the matter, but the
end is found in the form, the idea (eidos). If the end is to be reached, the
antecedent conditions must also exist; if these latter do not exist, then the
former cannot exist.

Without criticizing these arguments, I note the wide divergence of
method from the empirical. But as the latter can only discover antecedent
conditions existing in time, we need not allow it to interfere with our esti¬
mate of Aristotle's analysis of final cause and his attempted demonstration.

Its value seems to consist largely in its fixing attention on the necessity
of a rational explanation of nature. For who explains a watch by merely
stating its materials, and the physical antecedents of its motions? The
plan, the adaptation of part to part, the end accomplished, are still more es¬
sential. So in nature. Who explains a woodpecker’s tongue, if he de¬
scribes its anatomy and mechanism, and speculates concerning its origin,
but leaves out its relations to the bird and the conditions of its life ?

III. 6. The infinite is a physical concept which requires examination
and definition. Physics treat of body, that which has dimensions; and
whether it be known sensibly, or regarded in thought, it is necessarily lim¬
ited, finite. Potentially it exists in thought as indefinite, (apeiron) that
from which something can always be taken away, which can be always
further divided, to which something of the same kind can always be added.
Distinguish, therefore, the perfect, the completed whole, (teleion) which as
such, admits of no addition or subtraction.

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

173

I pass over the proofs that the universe as a whole is finite in magnitude.
In the Fourth Book we find the well known analysis of place as a relation
existing between corporeal things, the relation of some actual finite body
to its container. The universe, as a whole is therefore not in place.
(III. 5.)

IV. 8. What then, do we mean by space? It is merely the indefinite
(apeiron) enlargement of the same idea, applied to the potential, not actual,
extension of bodies with their three dimensions. In other words, space is
no actualized entity, but the indefinite thought whose actuality is place
as a relation in actual bodies. I do not see that in this we have made any
advance from our author. Physical science can tell us whether wre need
anything more.

IV. 8. Aristotle clearly sees and points out the relations of the prob¬
lem of the existence of a vacuum to this question of space, and denies its
existence. Vacuum is unintelligible, it involves contradiction in thought;
it contradicts experience.

From this denial of a vacuum follows a mechanical theory of motion,
(kinesis) which Aristotle intimates, but does not follow out, neither was
any man then competent to do so.

IV. 10. Motion and time are co-eval. There never was a time in which
motion did not exist. Which brings us to a physical conception, as funda¬
mental as it is thoroughly established, and I believe, as fruitful as any in
Aristotle’s physics. What is time? He proves that it is not an independ¬
ent entity. It is not change, which is particular, found in this or that.

IV. 10. It is not motion, which is faster or slower; predicates which
are not applicable to time. And yet it requires motion; i. e. , change; and all
things which are immoveable, unchangeable, are not in time. Time is con¬
tinuous; it is limited by what we call “now;” which is like amoving
point describing a line.

So we reach our definition; “ Time is the number of motion (change) in
respect of prior and posterior.” This, of course, implies an intelligence to
do the numbering. In a purely material universe there would be no such
thing as time. (It may seem to us otherwise; but we put ourselves there
to do the numbering.)

IV. 11. Time is continuous, not an aggregate of instants or nows.

IV. 12. A very plain deduction is that time is either finite, actually,
or indefinite, potentially. But it can never be perfect (teleion) or what I
should call the proper infinite. When limited by two nows, like, two
points, e. g., one past and the other that moving point which we call the
present, time is finite; disregarding either of the nows, we get the poten¬
tially infinite (apeiron) in duration.

IV. 1 2. Things which are not in time (and such things there are), neither
move nor rest. For rest is the privation of motion, and is numerable in Che
same way. Those beings only are in time which are subject to motion, to
change.

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IV. 14. Is time such a relation that it would not exist if there were
no mind to number continuous change and refer it to some measure?
That seems to be necessary deduction from our definition of time.

VI. 1. Time, like every other continuous quantity, cannot consist of
indivisible units, any more than a line can consist of successive points.

L.. VI. 6. All changes, like time their number, are, potentially, divisible
ad infinitum. From this is deduced the very suggestive principle, that no
change or motion can possibly be instantaneous.

In Aristotle’s De Sens, Chapt. VI, he applies this principle to show the
progressive motion of light.

VII. 1. Wherever there is change, or motion, there must be an ante¬
cedent, efficient cause, which itself may be something moved or changed.
And so we may make a regress indefinitely; but such a series cannot be
infinite.

I do not propose to follow the metaphysical proof of this proposition,
but only to note the result, viz. , that in physics a first moving cause which
is not itself subject to change must, according to principles of reason, be
assumed to exist. We shall not reach that first cause, perhaps, by regress
through the chain of changes; for these are discovered by the senses; but
this first cause is not so discoverable, but is an intelligible principle, neces¬
sary in accounting for change, and known with absolute certainty to exist.

VIII. 1. Motion, change, cannot be annihilated. Nature is orderly, sub¬
ject to law, and the law of continuity of force canies on successive
changes in the indefinite extension of time.

VIII. 5. Let us consider further the prime mover. It may indeed, act
hrough many media, just as a man may impel a stone through the media of
his cane, his hand, etc. ; but it is impossible to recede in such a chain through
an absolute infinity of links. The first mover, then, is self -moved. It does
not constitute one of the chain of links; for those are sensible, the prime
mover is purely intelligible. It is itself immutable. Everything which
is mutable, is also divisible. But the prime mover is one and indivisible.

VIII. 6. It never changes, but the things which are moved change
their relations to it, as it does to them. Here I observe, in passing, that
the changed relations of Deity to the world of finite beings, according to
this principle, are based on changes in the things which belong to time.

This prime mover is eternal. For motion has neither beginning nor end.
It has absolute unity. There may, indeed, be many motors which are
immutable; but if they come into being, or cease to be, there must be a
cause of that, as of any other change. Thus, we are carried back again to
the eternal, primal mover. All change is, in ultimate analysis, reducible
to one continuous motion. Therefore the first cause is one only. All
living things may be called self-moved; but they are also changeable and
conditioned by external things. “

Concluding this too brief review of Aristotle’s fundamental physical
principles, I will try to state what laws of nature now empirically estab-

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

175

lished, he rationally deduces from first principles of reason, by aid of his
accurately defined concepts.

1. All change is reducible to local motion.

2. Energy is an unchangeable quantum, enduring through all transmu¬
tations. Motion is never destroyed.

3. All indefinitely continuous motion (local) is in curved lines.

4. Light, and, by parity of reasoning, all changes of condition in mat¬
ter, transmitted through space, are not instantaneous, but require time for
their transmission.

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THE DEFECTIVE CLASSES.

By A. O. WRIGHT,

Secretary of the State Board of Charities and Reform.

The defective classes form a series of small but very troublesome tumors
upon the body politic. For various reasons, ranging all the way from the
imperative need of protection to society up to those humane influences for
which our century is distinguished, these classes have fallen under the
more or less effective guardianship of government in all civilized coun¬
tries. Private effort is also doing much to palliate or to prevent the evils
which the defective classes bring on themselves and upon society at large.
And still there is everywhere an apparent, if not a real increase in the
number of these classes and in their ratio to the total population. It is
claimed that this increase is in many cases caused by the very efforts
which are made to care for them, and it is at least certain that these ef¬
forts bring to light many cases of evil which would have been hidden, and
preserve many miserable lives which would have been allowed to perish in
former days. In other cases it is claimed that the complex conditions of
modern society favor the increase of these classes. At any rate the subject
deserves attention and study by the philanthrophist as well as by the
statesman, by the student as well as by the man of affairs.

It seems to me that the following classification of the defective classes,
which is original wTith me, is more philosophical than any other I have
seen and also as good for practical purposes as any other. This classification
depends upon the three divisions of the mental faculties which are gener¬
ally accepted by psychologists. Insanity and idiocy are different forms of
defective intellect. Crime and vice are caused by defect of the emotions
or passions. And pauperism is caused by defect of the will. Blindness
and deafmutism are defects of the senses requiring special forms of edu¬
cation, but are not defects of the mind any more than the loss of an arm
or a leg. Blind or deaf and dumb people properly educated are not a bur¬
den or a danger to society as are criminals, insane persons or paupers.
Their defects are physical not mental, and they should not be classed with
persons who have these mental defects.

The above^classification has the advantage of starting from the center
instead of from the circumference. “The mind is the measure of the
man” andjt is the abnormal and defective mind which produces the mis¬
chief rather than the physical disability or the social conditions. Doubt-

The Defective Classes.

177

less these have their influence, but it is a more remote influence. The im¬
mediate cause is in the mind, and the cure, if there is to be a cure, must
be addressed to the mind either directly by argument and influence or in¬
directly by changing the conditions surrounding the subject, so as to
change his motives. Anything which fosters abnormal and ill regulated
thoughts or passions or which weakens the control of reason, conscience
and will over the mind tends to produce insanity, crime and pauperism.
Everything which aids self -control reduces the tendency to these abnor¬
malities.

I am speaking now of these classes as a whole and not here taking ac¬
count of the exceptions to be found in them. I know a man who was a
good average man in every respect, but who by a fall upon his head from
a load of hay, was made insane, deaf and dumb and blind, all at once, and
who is still thus triply afflicted, but is otherwise healthy. In his case the
insanity was a pure accident. The state of Georgia severely punished the
missionaries who undertook to civilize and christianize the Cherokee In¬
dians contrary to the laws of the commonwealth. They were criminals
in one sense, as violators of human law, but no one will attempt to class
them as criminal in anything more than a technical sense. I once found
an old man of good character and standing in the community in a poor-
house. He had given his farm to his son on condition of his son’s caring
for him in his old age. The father was tortured with chronic rheumatism
and was therefore some trouble to care for. The son sold the farm and
moved out of the state, leaving his poor crippled old father to die in the
poorhouse. The father was an accidental pauper and could not fairly be
included in the list of voluntary paupers. But such cases as these are ex¬
ceptions, and the rule is as I have stated it.

The distribution of the defectwe classes by nationality, education,
wealth, age, sex, occupation and the like, is interesting from a scientific
point of view and important from a practical standpoint. A study of the
distribution of insanity, crime and pauperism, may reveal the conditions
which create or foster them. And as society has more or less control over
social conditions, it may become possible to heal some of these ulcers on the
body politic, if we know where they are and what irritant produced them.
But please notice that I say may, not shall. The small success of all ef¬
fort in the past toward curing these evils, ought to make social reform¬
ers modest.

First the question of sex. Men and women are about equally afflicted
with insanity. Massachusetts has more women than men insane, because
it has more women than men in the total population. Wisconsin has more
men insane than women, because we have a preponderance of the male sex.
Either the causes are the same in men and women, which produce insanity,
or they are equivalent. Heredity, worry, over -work, under feeding, sick¬
ness and the weaknesses of old age affect women and men equally, and the

12 —A. & L.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

perils of childbirth and of loneliness for solitary farmers’ wives are about
equal to the dangers from accident and the vices to which men are exposed .

But crime and pauperism are liabilities of men much more than of
women. There are generally about forty times as many men as women in
our state’s prison and in our jails and houses of correction. The dispropor¬
tion is not quite so great in some other states and is still less in Euro,
pean countries. In Europe there is no sentimental pity for a woman
on account of her sex. In this state a few years ago, a farmer was mur¬
dered by his wife and the hired man. The hired man is now in state’s,
prison, while the more guilty woman is free. But even in Europe the pro¬
portion of men to women is perhaps ten to one. Women do not commit
crime as readily as men do; it may be from principle; it may be from
cowardice; it may be from lack of temptation. 4

And women do not become paupers as readily as men. In getting out
door relief, it is true, women are a little ahead of men, but that is because it
is easier for a woman to get poor relief than for a man. And in fact,
where outdoor relief is laxly administered, though it is the women who
usually apply for it, there are often lazy men behind them sending them
for it or else drinking up all their earnings in the comfortable conscious¬
ness that the public will support their families. One case I heard of in this
state, where a man spent all his week’s wages every Saturday night and
Sunday, at a certain saloon, whose proprietor was the officer who gave pub¬
lic money to support the wife and family. That man was the real pauper,
not his wife. So that even in outdoor relief, it is probable that the men
have a good share of the pauperism. And in the poorhouse, as I said, there
are thrice as many men as women.

Second, as to age. About an equal number of each sex are born idiots
and remain so all their lives, so that the question of age in idiocy need not
be taken into account, except that idiots are not long lived. But insanity
is a defect of mature years. Out of thousands of insane whom I have seen,
I only remember two insane children. Going through an insane asylum ,
you are struck with the general age of the patients in contrast with the
youth of the attendants. This, of course, is partly caused by the fact that
insanity is not very curable. Only about one-fourth of the insane recover,
a few die, and the rest end their days as chronic insane. But it is also
caused by the fact that most insane are middle aged, or elderly before they
become insane.

Crime is rarely committed by little children, and when committed, is ex¬
cused by the law or by the judges and jury. The absurdity of hanging a
boy for murder or sending him to state’s prison for life for burglary, both
of which have been actually done in the south recently, is not allowed in
any northern state. But every visitor to a jail or state prison must notice
the comparative youthfulness of the prisoners. The average age of the
convicts in state’s prison is 27. Or, to put it in another way, the majority

The Defective Classes.

179

of convicts in state’s prison are under 25. The difference between 27 and
25 is accounted for by the difference between an average and a majority.

The direct opposite of this is the case with pauperism. The majority of
paupers are over 50 years old. Criminals are mostly young men. Paupers
are mostly old men and old women. Youth is the age of passion, and
perverted passions lead to crime. The author of the Jukes Family, the
best sociological study ever made, says that among the descendants of
Margaret, the “mother of criminals,” it is very noticeable that in youth
they were prostitutes and criminals, and in age, beggars and paupers.
The same perverted instincts which led them to prey upon the community,
took the direction of crime in the time of strength and of pauperism in the
time of weakness.

The question of tramps comes in here. A tramp is a person determined
to live without work, and who therefore is compelled to wander from
place to place in order to do so. No individual, or society, or institution,
or communitv, will support an able-bodied loafer in idleness any length of
time. But many will give a little money or bread out of mistaken sympathy
to a stranger, or as the easiest way to get rid of an annoyance. I have seen
some thousand tramps, and with very few exceptions they were young men,
I have seen two or three men fifty or sixty years old, and I have seen
two or three women tramps. But I have seen hundreds of young men
under twenty- one, and thousands under thirty, healthy able-bodied men.
Among them were a few who were ready for robbery, burglary or rape,
if a good opportunity offered. And in the judgment of skilled officers,
there are some murderers and other criminals hiding among the tramps.
But the mass of the tramps prefer to prey on society by beggary, rather
than by crime. If they were bolder they would be criminals. What be¬
comes of the old tramps? I do not believe that many of them live to be
old. They are killed on the railroads or die of exposure. Many of them
tire of tramping and get back to work again. Some drop into crime and
get into prison, and are in some cases reformed by the steady discipline of
prison life. One tramp told me that he got the opium habit through the
toothache, and was broken of it by being sent to state prison for burglary.
Other tramps break down and die in poor houses or insane asylums. We
probably have a hundred tramps in our insane asylums in this state, and
about as many in our poor houses. This is an enormous proportion to be
furnished by from 500 to 1,000 tramps, the probable number who are in
our state at any given time.

The question of education is often stated as if education favored insanity
and opposed crime and pauperism. As a fact, I do not think that educa¬
tion has so great an influence either way, as many seem to think. We
were told half a century ago that it was cheaper to build school houses
than jails and poorhouses. We have dotted the country over with school-
houses, and we find that jails and poorhouses are just as necessary as ever.
But some one may say that this is because there is no effective compulsory

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education and because we have an unusual number of ignorant foreigners
coming to our shores. But this is sufficiently answered by looking at Ger¬
many, with its homogeneous population and compulsory education and
compulsory religious, as well as secular education, at that. In Germany,
crime and pauperism and insanity are increasing as they are with us.
Criminals, paupers and insane, all average a little below the rest of the
community in education. There are, of course, exceptions. In the case
of the insane and of criminals we can all of us point to conspicuous excep¬
tions. I know a few cases of educated paupers, but very few, because
their relations or friends care for them and do not let them go to the poor-
house. Inspecting a poorhouse a while ago I found in one of the rooms a
book which had been given as a prize for scholarship in a famous New
England academy. The owner had been district attorney of the county,
and was now in the poorhouse through liquor. All efforts to reform him
had proved in vain. But the fact remains that the average of the defec¬
tive classes is of a lower intellectual grade than the average of the com¬
munity. Their smaller knowledge and less natural ability makes them
break down into insanity more easily and easier drift into crime or
pauperism.

The best statistics of criminals have been kept for over half a century by
the Eastern Pennsylvania penitentiary. The results of these statistics
seem to show that idleness rather than ignorance is the mother of crime.
An investigation, which I made a few years ago by personal inquiries
from poorhouse to poorhouse in Wisconsin satisfied me that about one-
tliird of the paupers are made so by idleness, one- third by liquor and one-
third by all other causes combined. In my judgment the idleness which
makes truants from school and therefore poor scholars, leads to crime or
pauperism in many cases, and in those cases it is not ignorance which is
the cause of crime, but idleness which is the cause of both ignorance and
crime.

The question of social standing is not of as great importance in this
democratic country as in Europe. Paupers of course do not come from the
wealthy or the middle classes. Many of the laboring classes do drop into
pauperism through misfortune or vice. But many of the paupers are not
even of the laboring class, but come from the outcasts of society. The
same is the case with the criminals. They do not come very largely from
the wealthy or middle classes. Some of them come from the laboring
classes, but they are very largely from the outcasts of society. To some
extent this holds good with insanity, but only to a small degree. The in¬
sane are found in all classes in considerable numbers, but the laboring class
furnishes more than its share of insane, and the outcasts an immense pro¬
portion to their total number. Criminals and paupers frequently become
insane, I should say, ten times as many as from the same number of aver¬
age humanity.

The advantages and disadvantages of city life have often been talked of.

The Defective Classes.

181

Many people suppose that the excitement and strain of city life conduces
to insanity. Others say that thedoneliness of country life has the same
effect. An English physician has taken the pains to tabulate the statistics
of insanity for the city of London for forty years and for several purely
agricultural counties in the south of England with about the same popula¬
tion for the same period of time, and finds that there is no difference be"
tween city and country" in the amount of insanity. But for crime, all
statistics show clearly that crime is concentrated in the cities, which are
the refuge of the criminal classes and the nurseries of young criminals in
the neglected street children. Pauperism is greater in the city than in the
country, though this may arise from the corrupt municipal governments
encouraging pauperism to win votes.

Now I come to some very curious results of the United States of 1880.
According to the figures of the census, insanity is about twice as prevalent
among foreigners as among native whites, and about twice as prevalent
among native whites as among negroes. In round numbers one in a thou¬
sand of the negroes of the United States are insane, one in five hundred of
the native whites, and one in two hundred and fifty of the foreigners.
There has been a great deal of nonsense written upon this by learned men
about foreign governments shipping their insane to us to take care of. The
fact is that the ordinary immigrants are healthy young people, with less
insanity than the average, and that comparatively few cases of insanity
are shipped over here, and that in recent years a strict watch is kept at the
ports against the shipment of any of the defective classes to this country.
One observation will prick this bubble. In the census the children of for¬
eigners born here are counted as natives, properly enough; but by taking
away from the foreign population most of the children and adding them
to the native population, it makes an unfair basis on which to estimate the
proportion of insanity, as children do not become insane. The proper
basis would be what is the proportion of foreign born insane to the adult
foreign population, and of native insane to the adult native population.
On this basis there is still a slight disproportion of the foreign and native
insane, but not more than can be accounted for by the comparative ignor¬
ance and poverty of the mass of the foreigners who come here and the
trials they have to meet in adapting themselves to the conditions of life in
a strange land. But why are negroes so much less insane than white
people ? I do not pretend to say. Perhaps it may be on account of their
easy, happy dispositions, which makes them less thrifty than the whites,
but also less liable to bring themselves into insanity. Dr. Bryce, of the
Alabama State hospital, says that insanity since the war is rapidly increas¬
ing among the negroes.

There is a greater proportion of crime and pauperism among foreigners
than among natives, probably because of their greater ignorance and pov¬
erty, and because they have been accustomed to rely upon a paternal gov¬
ernment and do not get accustomed to the freedom of America. The

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greater tendencies to pauperism I ascribe to the fact that in most European
countries the laboring class is on the verge of pauperism and is continually
being pushed over into it by sickness or old age. In England two per cent,
of the population are paupers and a large part of the agricultural laborers
end their days in the workhouse, for the reason that they barely get a liv¬
ing when able to work and therefore cannot save anything for old age.
The paupers in this country are a great deal less than half of one per
cent, of the population. Where the laboring classes are brought up to ex¬
pect to end their days in the poorhouse, it is not wonderful that in coming
to this country they seek relief easier than the natives do.

Negroes furnish a larger proportion of crime and a smaller proportion
of pauperism than the waites. As the negroes are mostly massed in the
southern states, we may look at the condition of society there for part of
the explanation of this. Negroes get little sympathy from whites in the
south and consequently do not easily get into poorhouses, but do easily get
into prison. Negroes do not consider petty theiving very wrong, having
learned that during slavery times. A negro will not starve as long as there
are smoke houses and chicken coops in the neighborhood, and the climate
does not require much in the way of houses, clothing or fuel. But the
penitentiaries are filled with chicken thieves. Alabama has three large
penitentiaries and Wisconsin one small one, the popalation being nearly
the same.

The effects of climate have not been much considered. But I believe it
will be found that warm climates do not have so great a proportion of in¬
sanity as cold climates. It is certain that in Europe, Greece has a much
less proportion of insanity than Norway. In this country there is less in¬
sanity in the south than in the north in proportion to population. A
part of this is due to the negroes in the south having a small proportion of
insanity, and the foreigners in the north having a large proportion. But it
is possible that climate has also something to do with it. I cannot discover
that climate has anything to do with crime. Pauperism is increased in
cold climates by the greater difficulty of getting a bare subsistence.

Much has been said about the rapid increase of the defective classes,
especially of the insane. Statistics show this both in Europe and America.
But statistics of the mere numbers of insane at any given time are very
deceptive. The greater humanity with which the insane are treated now
than a hundred or even twenty- five years ago has preserved their lives
and thereby caused an accumulation of the insane. This greatly increases
the numbers who are alive at any given time, but does not show that any
more persons become insane in any one year than ever. Careful statistics
have been kept in England with reference to the latter point and it is
found that there was an increase in the proportion of commitments to the
total population up to a recent time, but that it now seems to have reached
its highest point and become stationary. It is believed that the increase in
the commitments was caused partly by the discovery and placing in insti-

The Defective Classes.

183

tutions of cases that would otherwise have been hidden at home and
partly by calling things insanity which formerly would have been called
by some other name — such as senile dementia, epilepsy eccentricity or
primary dementia. I believe that these statistics show that insanity is not
now increasing faster in England than the population.

In the United States insanity is obviously increasing very rapidly. In
ten years in Wisconsin the insane under public care have increased from
about 1,700 to about 3,000. This is partly due to the causes discussed
above. But it is also due to another fact, to which I was the first to call
attention, now generally accepted, that the ratio of insanity to the popu¬
lation is much greater in the older states than in the newer ones and in
the older counties of Wisconsin than in the newer ones.

In 1860 there were only 200 or 300 insane in the state. In 1880 there were
2,200 including those at home. And now there are probably 3,300 including
those at home. The pioneers of Wisconsin were healthy young people,
who left their insane behind them. It has taken two generations to
reach the amount of insanity we now have. But if we had the proportion
of insanity to the population which Massachusetts now has, we should
have nearly twice the number of insane we now have. We may expect
to keep on with our increase till we reach the proportion of Massachusetts
and of England. Already some of the older counties in Wisconsin are
approaching that proportion, while those in the north have only the ratio
of our far western states and territories.

The rapid increase of crime in this country is doubtless an incident of
the rapid growth of city population. But probably the more careful
administration of the laws has increased the number of prisoners, while
the system of reformatories for boys and girls and all the good influences
of Christian civilization have been resisting the increase of crime. It is
noteworthy that a better prison system in England than we have in this
country, joined to the private reformatory work of all kinds, has brought
the increase of crime to a stop, and that there is absolutely less crime in
Great Britain now than there was fifteen years ago notwithstanding the
increase of population.

It is fair to call attention to the fact that the only reliable statistics of
crime are from the state prisons, partly for the reason that jails and police
stations do not always keep accurate registers, and for the more important
reason that officers make petty crimes appear to be less or more at their
pleasure. For the sake of fees or to get a reputation for efficiency officers
and magistrates often largely swell the number of prisoners by ‘ ‘ running
in ” tramps and drunks to suit their own notions.

The same causes have made an increase of pauperism in this country —
the growth of cities and the foolish or corrupt use of public money in aid¬
ing undeserving applicants for poor relief.

To a considerable extent these three defective classes link into one
another. It is hard to say whether a tramp is a pauper or a criminal.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Many criminals may be called insane and some are when they have money
or friends to help them, and some insane have criminal tendencies. A
very large per cent, of criminals become insane in prison or afterward.
A considerable number of paupers become insane. The children of the
one class pass easily into the other class. Street children who are the chil¬
dren of misfortune are easily drawn into crime. Here and there in our
country, and in every other one are knots of defective classes all tangled
up together, families closely related furnishing a whole population of
criminals, paupers, idiots and lunatics among themselves. Such were
the family in Ulster county, N. Y., called by Dr. Dugdale the Jukes family
to disguise their real name. Such is the “ Tribe of Ishmael” recently de¬
scribed by Rev. O. C. McCulloch in Indianapolis. The interchangeability of
these defects is very clearly shown in these cases. Another noteworthy
thing is the general physical weakness of these hereditary defectives, run¬
ning easily into consumption and similar diseases. Even in good families
with a hereditary taint of insanity it is noticable that it is interchangeable
with consumption. One generation or one brother or sister has consump¬
tion, another has insanity. Or the same person has insanity but recovers
of insanity to die of consumption.

What are we now doing with the defective classes. With some excep¬
tions all civilized nations are pursuing the following lines of policy. Pau¬
perism is relieved and discouraged. The treatment fluctuates between the
extremes of lavish relief and stringent discouragement, but is generally a
compromise between these two extremes. Insanity is cured if possible, if
not, it is usually protected in institutions of some sort. Crime is punished
in prisons and prevented in reformatories. These methods express the
average wisdom of the present generation, which is far in advance of what
has previously been done for the defective classes. It does not follow that
this is the best that can possibly be done for them. In fact here and there
experiments are in progress which I believe represent not the average wis¬
dom but the best wisdom of our times. Here and there private societies
have taken up the work of eradicating pauperism, not by relief, which
often encourages it, nor by merely repressive measures, but by carrying
out the motto of the charity organization societies, “ Not alms, but a friend.”
And Rev. J. H. Crooker, of Madison, has recently shown by a remarkable
historical investigation that this is not a new discovery, but is a century
old, when it was more fully applied to public poor relief than it has since
been. The methods of reforming criminals and these of reducing crime
have been discovered and applied in the British Isles, while in America
they have been only so applied in a few places. The methods of treating
the insane have been growing milder and more humane in Europe and
America within a few years. In my judgment the State Hospital of
Alabama and the county asylums for the chronic insane of Wisconsin, mark
the highest point yet reached in the direction of liberty for the insane. At
the rate of progress which we are now making, it will take a genera-

The Defective Classes .

185

tion for the average American treatment of the defective classes to reach
the standard set for pauperism by the charity organization societies, for
crime by Elmira and Concord, and for insanity by the Wisconsin system
of care for the chronic insane.

Our measures of treatment of the defective classes sometimes increase
the very evil we meant to cure. Poor relief, instead of relieving pauperism,
very often increases it. Insane asylums seem to increase the number of
insane, prisons of criminals. This, however, is not a necessity of the cure,
but only an incidental evil, which needs to be guarded against. We must
also allow that our humane methods of treatment, in addition to the good
effects which they have, do also tend to increase the number of defective
classes, by prolonging their lives and by making their lot a more desirable
one. I have already mentioned the accumulation of insanity by the mere
prolongation of life in the insane in civilized countries. It is still a ques¬
tion whether this does not sufficiently account for the greater number of
insane in civilized over savage countries.

Where the insane are killed as witches or executed as criminals or killed
by private vengeance or malice or allowed to die by neglect, and where
only the robust can survive the hardships and perils of life in any case, it
is not wonderful that the insane existing at any given time are few. So
also with pauperism. If no poor relief is given there will be no paupers,
for some will starve and others will steal. But crime seems to decrease
with milder punishment, whether these are the cause of the decrease or
only a result of the general civilization of society which is reducing both
crime and punishments alike. It is also true that we discover and do
something from a large number of cases now who would not be known as
defectives under a less perfect administration of government. This is one
of the causes of the increase of insanity, as I have already said. Crime is
more completely looked after and things are called crime now which
would not have been called so a few years ago.

But on the whole I believe that the measures we are taking to treat the
defective classes are really reducing the numbers. For one thing, we keep
them shut up in institutions, where they are not allowed to propagate their
kind, or to practice or teach their vices. A notable exception to this is the
county jail system, where prisoners are herded together in idleness to con¬
stitute schools of crime and vice. Our methods do also cure many of the
defectives. About one-fourth of the insane are permanently cured. From
half to two-thirds of the criminals are never convicted a second time.
Many paupers and tramps do finally drop back into society again. It is of
course a struggle which may be made to appear to be tending one way or
the other according as we are optimistic or pessimistic in the best of our
own minds. But I take the side of the optimist and believe that we are
graduall y healing up these ulcers upon society.

The best sign of the future is that public sentiment and legislation is
steadily tending in the direction of prevention as well as of cure. Some

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

/

measures of prevention like the various phases of child-saving work have
been already fruitful of good results. In other cases it is still doubtful
what is best to be done in the way of prevention. But I believe the time
is coming, when by the combination of public and of private effort we
shall greatly reduce, if we do not entirely eradicate the defective classes.

In my dealings with them I am sometimes tempted to despair of human¬
ity. But then I look at our churches and schools, our literature and our
industries, and best of all our happy homes, the pledge of the future; and
I take heart again, and I remember that after all the total number of pris¬
oners, paupers, insane, deaf and dumb, blind and idiots in the United States
is only one per cent, of the population, a less proportion than any other
civilized country has.

Trans. Wis Acad,

Vol. VIII, PI. V.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana . 187

NOTES ON A LITTLE KNOWN REGION IN NORTH¬
WESTERN MONTANA.

By G. E. CULVER*

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introductory . 188

The party . 188

Object of the journey . 188

Region traversed . 188

Previous Explorations . 189

Geography and General Description . 189

The plains . 189

The foot-hills . 190

The mountains . 190

Scenery . 190

Ahern Pass . 191

The western slope . * 191

A side trip . 192

Mud Creek . 193

Flathead Valley . 193

Geological Notes . 193

The plains formation . 193

The foot-hills . 194

Structure of the mountains ........ 194

Strata exposed . 195

Igneous rocks . 195

1. Location and character of outcrops . 195

2. Petrographical notes ... .... 197

Existing Glaciers . 199

Former Glaciers . 201

Western border of drift . 201

Ice tongues of eastern slope of Rocky Mountains . . . 201

Ice records west of main range . 203

*

Origin of Ice Tongues of Eastern Slope of the Rocky Moun¬
tains . 203

* The peti’ographical notes included in this paper were kindly furnished by Dr. Will¬
iam H. Hobbs, of the University of Wisconsin, to whom the writer wishes to make grate¬
ful acknowledgment for this and other favors.

188

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

INTRODUCTORY.

The party. — In August, 1890, a small party of soldiers under the com¬
mand of Lieut. George P. Ahern, of the Twenty-fifth infantry, was sent
to explore the mountainous region in northwestern Montana. The
party as finally made up consisted of two mountaineers, packer and
guide respectively, two prospectors eager to take advantage of a new
route to possible gold fields, two Indian guides, a squad of soldiers, black
as ebony, the commanding officer, and the writer. All were mounted
and well armed. Thirty days’ rations were carried. It was supposed we
would reach an outpost on the west side of the range in a month, to
which point another thirty day’s supply was sent. Owing to the assist¬
ance of various hungry natives and the keenness of mountain appetites
our rations lasted but twenty days. Game of all kind was abundant,
but the noise made by the passage of such a party prevented very fre¬
quent additions to our larder from this source. A few ducks, grouse,
and ptarmigan paid our “ cook-house ” a visit, as did numerous fine
trout. Of large game we secured one bighorn, and sixteen mountain
goats. The young of the latter are very fine eating; the old bucks taste
of musk.

The region covered by the route lies between the 49th parallel on the
north and the 47th on the south, and between 112° 30' and 114° 30' west.
It is divided naturally into the following regions: 1. The western bor¬
der of the plains, a strip 40 by 130 miles. 2. The narrow belt of foot¬
hills, four to twenty miles wide skirting the range. 3. The main range
of the Rocky mountains, and 4. The Great Flathead valley with its
tributaries. In the eastern portion of this region, well toward the na¬
tional boundary, the Piegan and Blackfeet Indian reservations are lo¬
cated. In the southwestern portion is the Flathead Indian reservation,
extending from Flathead lake down to the Northern Pacific railroad.
With the exception of these agencies lying on the outer border of the
region it is wholly uninhabited, and, so far as could be learned, almost
\yholly unexplored.

Object of the journey. — The object of the expedition was to find, if
possible, a pass over the main range farther north than any then known,
to map the course of the streams and the principal Indian trails. As
such a trip might offer some opportunity for geological observation I
accepted Lieut. Ahern’s invitation to join him.

Region traversed. — We left Fort Shaw, Montana, on the morning of
August 5th. Our route for the first ninty miles was over a rolling prai¬
rie, somwhat west of north, but gradually swinging more to the west, until
at the end of the fourth day we went into camp in the foot-hills close up
to the base of the main range on the Cut Bank Creek, thirty-five miles
from the boundary. A fairly good wagon trail leads to this point, and

A Little- Knoicn Legion in Northwestern Montana. 189

our supplies had been so far transported by wagon. They were now
transferred to the pack-mules, who entered a vigorous protest ^gainst
this return to more primitive methods.

Our course from the Cut Bank was nearly north to the national
boundary, which we touched first in longitude 113° 30' west. From this
point we moved westerly to the valley of the Belly River, crossing the
main range at the head of that stream about fifteen miles south of the
boundary, in longitude 113° 40'. From the new pass we descended by
the way of Mud Creek into the valley of the North Fork of Flathead
river, our course being very crooked, but averaging about southwest by
south. Our farthest west, 114° 45', was reached near the 48th parallel, at
which point I left the party, returning home by the way of Flathead
lake and south to the Northern Pacific railroad. We were eight days
on the plains and twenty-two days in the mountains. Side trips were
made as follows: Up the Cut Bank to the summit of the main range,
where there is an easy pass at an elevation of 7,800 feet; up the Swift
Current from the foot of St. Mary’s lakes also to the summit, but a
vertical descent on the western side, of many hundred feet barred
further progress there. Another trip was made over the divide between
MacDonald’s Creek and the head waters of the East Kootanie to Glacier
Creek. Tho whole distance traveled in saddle or on foot was estimated
at 370 miles.

PREVIOUS EXPLORATIONS.

So far as I know, the only explorations in this region previous to our
visit were by members of the Boundary Commission along the 49th
parallel, and by Dawson, McConnell, and others of the Canadian Survey
on the north side of the line. None of these, so far as I can find, trav¬
eled far south from the line in the mountains.

GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

The j)lains. — The region lying east of the mountains from Fort Shaw
to the boundary is a high prairie, sloping rapidly from west to east and
traversed by occasional swift streams from the mountains. The eleva¬
tions range from 5,000 feet at the base of the mountains to 3,500 at a
distance of forty miles east. The Milk River Ridge, where we crossed
it, rises several hundred feet above the streams that unite to form the
South Fork of Milk River and over a thousand feet above the surface of
St. Mary’s Lake. This ridge has a nearly north and south trend near
the boundary, but bears a little west of south and joins the main range
on the upper waters of the Cut Bank. It is the water-shed between the
Hudson Bay basin and the Gulf of Mexico. It was followed by Lieut.
Ahern and myself to its junction with the main divide of the Rocky
Mountains, and the separation was found to be so sharp that from the

190

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

summit on the north side of the pass one might without moving from
his tracks cast three snow-balls so that one would fall on the Pacific
slope, another on the Gulf slope, and a third on that of Hudson’s Bay.

The foot-hills. — The high prairie is separated from the mountains by
a narrow belt, consisting of a somewhat confused mass of ridges and
hills. The ridges constituting the foot hills run in all directions, but
the highest are approximately at right angles to the trend of the moun¬
tains. The strata are considerably disturbed being usually tilted more,
and much more irregularly than the beds in the adjacent mountains.
The elevation of these hills is usually under 1,000 feet above the plains,
but sometimes runs up to 1,500 feet or more. The line separating the
foot-hills from the mountains is quite as sharply drawn in this region as
that between the plains and the foot-hills. The latter are usually
wooded and somewhat rounded. The mountains, on the other hand*
present a frowning battlement of bare and almost vertical walls facing
the plain and rising 3,000 to 4,000 above it.

The mountains.— -On entering the mountains by way of the valley of
the Belly River we found that the range makes makes a sharp bend to
the west about twenty miles from the boundary, so that, although we
were now traveling nearly south, we were approaching the main divide
nearly at right angles to it. The valley is over a mile wide near the
boundary, but a short distance up the stream it becomes quite canyon¬
like. The walls are very steep and rarely less than 2,000 feet high. We
went into camp just at the lower end of the canyon, in a dense fog which
shut out from view all objects a hundred yards away. In the morning
when we looked out of our tents the fog was slowly drifting away and
glimpses of the lofty peaks could be had through rifts in the fog. The
effect was quite striking. The foot of the mountains was entirely con¬
cealed, but at our camp some two miles away the air was clear. Now
and then a projecting portion of a mountain side perhaps 2,000 feet
above us would be clearly revealed, while above and below the white
fleecy veil hid all and seemed to have taken the mountain up bodily and
to be about to remove it from our pathway. In other places the upper
peaks alone rose clear and distinct above the sea of cloud and seemingly
almost over our heads. Altogether it was a picture long to be remem¬
bered by those who saw it.

Scenery. — The scenery even along the foot-hills is strikingly beauti¬
ful. The lower ridges, rounded and tree-covered, rise abruptly from the
plains, while as a background the bare rocky walls of the mountains cut
by transverse valleys rise in stately grandeur. A single glance takes in
a view of level plain, tumbled foot-hills, and lofty mountains, the latter
softened somewhat in their outline by distance. As the summit of the
main range is neared plains and foot-hills disappear and the landscape
is made up only of rocky mountains lifting their jagged summits above

A Little Known Region in Northwestern Montana . 19J

deep narrow valleys down which swift torrents, from the snow-fields and
small glaciers above, roar and tumble over their rocky beds, or plunge
from ledge to ledge in beautiful cataracts. At intervals in these valleys
the falling debris from the canyon walls has dammed the stream and
beautiful lakes are formed. The river we ascended takes its rise in one
of thesepakes, lying in a beautiful amphitheatre at the very foot of the
continental divide. The lake is about two miles long and a mile wide.
It is supplied wholly by three small glaciers which cling to the side of
the mountain 2,000 feet above it. The amphitheatre contains about
eight square miles. It is the result of a loop-like bend in the dividing
ridge. Its walls are almost vertical, save one portion on the southeast
sideband are from 2,000 to 3,500 feet high. The new pass is at the head
of this amphitheatre, 7,250 feet above sea.* The dividing ridge itself’
the backbone of the continent, is surprisingly narrow and quite sinuous
It is terminated at the summit by a thin wall varying from 50 to 300 feet
in thickness and surmounted by pinnacles and chimneys which em¬
phasize its wall-like appearance. It is in many places so narrow and
rugged that it would be impossible to travel along it without the use of
ropes and ladders. It preserves this peculiar mural character for at
least 50 miles.

Aliern Pass. — Ahern Pass is 2,000 feet above the lake at its foot, and
the summit wall on either side of the pass was estimated to be at least
1,500 feet more. The entire force had worked two days in making a
trail from the foot of the talus slope to the summit of the pass. The
assent is very steep and was made with difficulty.!

The Western Slope. — The western slope is in strong contrast with the
eastern. A gentle grassy declivity, down which we could indulge in the
rare luxury of riding, stretched away for a couple of miles, after which
it rapidly became steeper, following the changing dip of the strata, until
we were obliged to dismount and lead our horses through the thick tan¬
gle of brush with which the steeper slopes were covered. We passed the
summit in a biting wind accompanied by rain and sleet, with a tempera¬
ture of 39°. As we descended the rain increased. We marched in single
file through the dripping beech brush, halting every few yards for the

* It was here that the services of our Indian guide came in play. One of the prospectors
with us had three years before camped at this very spot with three other men and had
tried for a week to find some means of scaling the rocky wall which barred their way.
They were used to the mountains, but were obliged to give up and retrace their steps.

t “ Aug. 22. As I led the pack-train out this morning I felt extremely anxious as there
were several places on the trail where a misstep meant certain death. At the north end of
the lake the trail zig-zags up a very steep grassy slope for 800 feet and then over
loose slide-rock — talus — for 1,100 feet higher to the cut-walls, which loom up 2,000 feet
above the slide-rock. The trail now follows narrow ledges straight for the gap, which is
on the same level and 500 yards west. At one place we climbed a narrow and very steep rock
fifteen feet high, in which we had to cut steps. We led our most troublesome animals over
this. My feelings were indescribable when I started up this rock, not knowing what the horse
would’do. The ledge was about eighteen inches wide, the upside wall sloping back. On
the lower side was a fall of 1,900 feet.” — From Lieut. Ahern’s official report.

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

axemen to cut a trail. Sometimes we could travel for a few rods in the
bed of the stream. Then obstructions in the form of cascades or huge
rocks would compel us to cut a path up the steep banks and pursue our
course along the sloping sides of the valley. The descent grew con¬
stantly steeper and our progress correspondingly difficult and slow. For
four hours we toiled along in this fashion, every hundred yards in ad¬
vance bringing us to greater difficulties. At last, wet to the skin, our
teeth chattering with cold, and thoroughly worn out, we cleared a place
large enough to put up our tents and went into camp. What a luxury a
fire is under such circumstances! We had eaten an early breakfast at
the foot of the lake on the other side. Since that time we had been
working incessantly, most of the time in a pouring rain, until five o’clock
in the afternoon found us in the condition described, two and a half
miles down the Pacific slope in a dense tangle of fallen logs, thickly
overgrown with brush. We had our supper, warmed ourselves, and
were fairly comfortable in a couple of hours, but there was nothing for
the horses to eat and we were obliged to tie them to the trees for the
night. The next morning they were taken back a mile on the trail to
the last grass we passed, where they were pastured for a couple of days
while the men cut a trail two miles to the more open country in the val¬
ley below.

A side trip. — Leaving the main party here to rest for a few days, Lieut.
Ahern and myself with the prospector, Lewis Meyer, made a four days’
trip up MacDonald’s Creek and over the divide to the headwaters of a
branch of the East Kootanie. Our purpose was to examine the large
glacier described in another portion of this paper. The route lay across
a succession of ridges, ranging in elevation from 500 to 2,700 feet above
their respective valleys. The lower slopes are densley wooded and fallen
timber added to the work of climbing. The summits of all except the
highest ridges were quite level grassy parks, with borders and patches of
pines. From any of these summits a magnificent view was to be had of
the great backbone over which we had climbed. Fifty miles of it could
be seen at once owing to the great bend it makes to the westward.

On our return trip we endeavored to shorten our route by taking a
short cut over the summit of a spur of the main range. This took us up
8,000 feet. A rapid descent of 2,000 feet was then made, and the first
part of the cut off had been successfuly accomplished. After a couple
of miles of easy going we started on another descent of 2,000 feet into the
valley of MacDonald’s Creek. We found the descent extremely difficult.
It was so steep that we kept our feet with difficulty. Impassible ledges
were frequently in our way and multitudes of fallen trees encumbered
the less precipitous slopes. We were three hours making the first
half mile. Darkness came on while we were still three miles from camp
and we spread our blankets on the stony banks of the stream and lay
down to wait for daylight. We had eaten the last of our rations at noon,

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 193

expecting to reach camp that evening. We started on at 6 A. M., and at
10:30 rode into camp and ordered dinner.

We were now not more than eight miles from the large glacier else¬
where mentioned, and I was eager to visit it. But travel in this region
is indescribably difficult; we had spent four days in the side trip I have
just described, onr rations were nearly gone, and we had yet nearly a
hundred miles to go before we could reach our base of supplies. It was
therefore plainly evident that we must move on and leave this most at¬
tractive region, in the hope that at some future time fortune may be
more kind.

Mud Creek. — Our route now was down the valley of Mud Creek to the
north fork of the Flathead. This stream, Mud Creek, flows between
steep rocky walls from 1,500 to 2,000 feet high. They gradually grow
less precipitous and the valley widens as we descend. The lower portion
of the valley has been covered with a thick growth of pines. In the
winter avalanches sweep down the steep slopes on either side and to¬
wards the bottom carry everything before them; not a stick or a stone
is left. The debris thus accumulated is hurled into the bed of the stream
and in some cases permanent dams have been thus made and lakes
formed. Some of these have in the lapse of time become marshes stretch¬
ing clear across the valley. These marshes are soft and miry for pack
animals, hence the name Mud Creek. The existing lakes are half full of
the slowly decaying trunks of the pines swept into them. A great mass
of trees, earth, stones and snow, the remains of an avalanche of the pre¬
vious winter still lay at the foot of one of the many wide swaths cut
through the pines, a silent but eloquent witness of the destroying work
of the snow.

Flathead Valley. — The great Flathead valley, although deeply eroded,
is not a valley of erosion, but is a good example of a synclinal valley. It
is a deep trough between the Rocky Mountain range on the east and the
high ranges to the west. Its character will be seen when it is stated
that if a line be measured from the summit of the Rockies to the Flat-
head valley, and another an equal distance out to the plains eastward,
the elevation of the point on the plains will be found to be from 1,000 to
2,500 feet higher than the corresponding point in the Flathead valley.
The same is true of the great Columbia-Kootanie valley of British Co¬
lumbia. Dense forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, etc., crowd the valley
of the Flathead and those of its tributaries on the east down nearly to
Flathead lake. Here on the prairie-like openings a few ranches have
been established.

GEOLOGICAL NOTES.

The plains formation. — A large portion of the beds forming the sur¬
face of this portion of the plains I judged to be Laramie. This conclu¬
sion is based only on the lithological character of the beds, as no fossils
13— A. & L.

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

were found at any point.* Beds which I refer to the Laramie were first
seen on Dry Fork, a branch of the Marias Liver, and they were traced
from there all the way to the 49th parallel. On the Two Medicine, near
the Mission, the supposed Laramie has been cut through by the stream
and black shales of presumably Cretaceous age are exposed. The Lara¬
mie has a thickness here of about 500 feet. In most of the exposures
seen it has a greenish color and the beds consist of an intimate admix¬
ture of sand and clay without the usual seams of lignite and with fewer
concretions than are commonly observed in these beds in North Dakota.
On a branch of Swift Current, near St. Mary’s Lakes, the Laramie was
again seen close up to the base of the mountains, underlain by soft
black shale, which appears to be Benton. No tertiary beds were seen
although they may exist here. The beds later than Laramie were small
local fluviatile deposits still in process of formation.

The foot-hills. — The rocks exposed in the foot-hills seem to be largely
of Cretaceous age, though there are some beds of limestone that can
hardly be so young as Cretaceous.

Structure of the mountains. — I have already ref erred to the precipitous
character of the east base of the mountains.4 This appearance is due
to the structure of this portion of the mountains. A fairly correct idea
of this structure may be obtained by imagining a long fold to be frac¬
tured along the anticlinal axis, and the eastern half to fall back to nearly
its original position, leaving the western half of the fold to stand at its
elevated position. The plane of fracture thus becomes the eastern
escarpment of the mountains and the foot-hills are the disturbed edges
of the upper strata of the down-sinking eastern half of the original fold.
I suppose it is altogether more probable that the eastern half never rose
at all, but that the faulting was accomplished by the simple elevation of
the western half. The effect is the same in either case. It will be under¬
stood I presume that the uplifted western portion does not present an
unbroken wall for hundreds of miles as might perhaps be inferred from
what I have said. I have spoken of a single fault; in reality there are
several, roughly parallel to each other and less so with the general trend
of the range. There have also been transverse fractures, or else the
streams have done valiant work in cutting through the rocky walls in
which their beds are made. The total result of all the forces at work

* At Fort Shaw the Sun River runs over shales containing fossil Inocerami, beautifully
preserved.

+ Captain Twining, of the Boundary Commission, speaking of this region, says: “ I had
been led to suppose that the ascent to the summit was a gradual slope, and was greatly
surprised to find that the rolling prairie abutted abruptly against an impassable escarp¬
ment of rocky precipices, ft was found to be impossible to carry a continuous line even so
far as the crossing of the Belly River, and the three stations at this point are connected by
traverses; the connections between the two final stations are made by a traverse of thirty-
five miles through the South Kootanie Pass.” Report of Chief Astronomer, p. 65.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana .

195

here, whatever they wer£, is this: The strata once continuous and level
have been slightly flexed and broken into huge blocks from one to two
miles in thickness, and five, ten or fifteen miles in each of the other di¬
mensions. These blocks have been heaved up to their present position.
The mountains thus formed have two features in common. The side
facing the plains has been most elevated. They thus present steep walls
to the east, with long gentle slopes to the west. In other respects they
differ. Some of them, for example, have not only steep walls on the
east, but also on the south, with a gentle slope in the other two direc¬
tions. Others reverse this, having north and east facing walls, and
slopes on the west and south. The structure here outlined is marked in
the vicinity of the 51st parallel by an additional feature. The vertical
displacement is reported by McConnell * as being over 15,000 feet, and
accompanying this is a horizontal displacement or overthrust of from
two to seven miles. This latter feature may occur south of the 49th par¬
allel, but I saw no evidence of it.

Strata exposed. — The rocks exposed in the walls of the vallej^ of the
Belly River give a practically continuous section of 5,000 or 6,000 feet of
strata. They are all rather thin bedded and the whole series seem to be
perfectly conformable. The beds consist, from below up, of yellowish
gritty limestones, red sandy shales and sandstones, and green and black
shales with more limestones at the top. The colors are quite distinct
and give a broadly banded appearance to the high walls which form the
sides of this valley, making it easy to trace the stratigraphic relations
as we ascended. The dip was slight but towards the south or away from
the plains, as it is along the range farther south. As we were climbing
somewhat rapidly in the direction of the dip we were steadily getting
higher in the series. No fossils were seen during the trip. The sand¬
stones often showed wind-drift structure and ripple-marks and the red
shales were full of mud cracks. The black shales and limestones indi¬
cated deeper water. From base to summit there is an entire absence of
crystalline rocks.

The rock exposures on the Pacific side were not so numerous, but
showed the same order of the same beds, the only difference being the
addition of several intercalated beds of diorite, and the fact that the
strata in the mountains west of the main range have been more strongly
folded. The disturbance producing this folding occurred after the in-

t

trusion of the diorite. This is shown by the fact that the latter has
shared in the folding and has been much fractured in the process.

Igneous rocks. — 1. Location and character of outcrops. The outcrops
of igneous rocks are on the headwaters of MacDonald’s Creek. The
first one observed is about two miles from the summit of Ahern Pass
(see 1 on map). The bed is about fifty feet thick, is smoothly inter-
bedded with the stratified rocks of the region, and is exposed for about

*'Annual Report Canadian Geological Survey, 1886, vol. 2, p. 33D.

196

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

four miles along the side of the val¬
ley. Five miles down the valley on
the other side another outcrop
about an eighth of a mile long oc¬
curs. (See 2 on map.) It has the
same thickness and general char¬
acter as the first mentioned.

These two exposures are on the
east fork of MacDonald’s Creek.
On the west fork of this stream, at
its source, a very extensive expos¬
ure is found. This valley is contin¬
uous with that of a stream flowing
in the opposite direction, a branch
of the East Kootanie.

The western wall of this common
valley is lined with a sheet of dio-
rite (see 3) from the bed of the
stream up to a height of a thousand
feet. The slope is about 20° from
the horizontal. For at least a half
a mile this sloping wall of rock has
been smoothed and planed by the
ice, and so enduring is the rock that
the glacial polish still shows plainly.
This bed has about the same thick¬
ness as the others.

A fourth exposure occurs a mile
down the valley on the Kootanie
side (see 4).

Other exposures seen at a dis¬
tance occur north of Mt. Euger
(see 5).

The uniformity in the character
of this rock, macroscopically at
least, over such a large area is note¬
worthy. The same may be said of
the manner of occurrence. The
sheets have been intruded between
the stratified beds so neatly as to
present the appearance of being
original members of the series. The
thickness too is remarkably uni¬
form, averaging about fifty feet.
The shales near the contact, above
and below, have been abaked and

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 197

hardened by the heat and pressure. The diorite sheet, although in
some exposures the surface formation and in others hundreds of feet
below the surface, is nevertheless found at very nearly the same geologi¬
cal level in each of the exposures.

2. Petrographical notes.— The petrographical study of this mass of
rock has been made on four specimens, three of which are from the lo¬
cality marked 1, where a cliff almost forty feet high is capped by a green
sandy shale. Specimen 1 is from near the bottom of the cliff, perhaps
thirty feet from the contact. Specimen 2 was taken from a point about
twenty feet, and specimen 3 about ten feet below the contact, so that the
specimens show in inverse order the gradations in characters of the
rock in passing from the contact toward the center of the mass. The
sedimentary rock of the cap is well baked. The other specimen of the
eruptive rock which has been sectioned is from the contact with shale at
locality 3, and shows portions of both rocks in the section.

The rock is all cases much decomposed. Specimens 1, 2 and 3 show a
steady decrease in the coarseness of texture, the crystals in No. 1 having
average dimensions of from one to two millimeters, with occasional
hornblende crystals sometimes attaining to a half centimeter in diam¬
eter. The crystals in No. 2 will average about one-half, and those of
No. 3 about one-fourth these dimensions.

All the specimens from locality 1 have a more or less apparent gran¬
itic structure with a tendency to porphyritic development of the horn¬
blende. A dull greenish lustre so characteristic of rocks of this type is
apparent in all, but somewhat irregularly distributed. The lens reveals
in the coarser specimens feldspar, augite, hornblende, black ore material
and pyrite. When the rock was powdered a considerable portion of the
ore material was strongly attracted to the magnet, indicating magnetite.
In addition to the minerals above mentioned the microscope reveals in
all sections ilmenite, leucoxene, quartz, chlorite, zoisite, and apatite.
Section 2 contains well crystallized sphene and section 3 epidote as well
as sphene.

The more coarsely crystalline of the three shows in section a plagio-
clase which is very much decomposed and is associated with more or less
micro-pegmatite. The nature of the alteration seems to be saus-
suritization, zoisite being identified as one of the products by its moder¬
ately high index of refraction, its parallel extinction and low interference
colors. Augite and hornblende are present in about equal proportions,
but the crystals of the former are much larger than those of the latter
The hornblende is the brown variety with deep colors. The absorption
is c > b > > a. It is always well outlined and shows perfect prismatic
cleavage. It is very unstable, the initial stages in the alteration consist¬
ing apparently in a change of color to green, followed by a decomposi¬
tion to chlorite. This decomposition has in some cases proceeded so far

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

as wholly to replace the crystal, in other cases the chlorite occupies but
one half of the crystal or appears in inclosed areas within the crystal.
The chlorite is strongly pleochroic (yellow to green), and is often radial
(delessite.) Both hornblende and augite are frequently twinned. The
small amount of quartz not in the form of micro-pegmatite may be either
original or secondary. The black ore material shows in some cases in
square sections and is strongly attracted to the magnet in the rock powder.
Yet many grains are almost entirely changed to leucoxene, indicating
the presence of titanium, probably as ilmenite. Apatite is present though
not in great abundance.

Section 2, from a specimen taken at a point about ten feet nearer the
contact, shows besides a more finely crystalline texture than section 1,
certain differences in mineralogical composition. It contains more
quartz than micro-pegmatite. The feldspar is more altered. The mag¬
netite shows a greater tendency to appear in skeleton growths, and well
crystallized sphene, as well as considerable leucoxene is present. As in
specimen 1 the augite is but little altered, while the hornblende is in
many cases much decomposed to chlorite.

Section 3 shows very beautiful skeleton forms of magnetite, long and
slender growths running entirely across the field with a magnification of
thirty. Imperfect parallel growths of brown hornblende about augite
are seen much as they have been described in the augite diorite from
Somerville, Mass.,* with which this rock presents many analogies. Like
section 2, this section contains sphene, and epidote was made out, prob¬
ably a product of the combined alteration of feldspar and hornblende.
The characters of this rock as made out in the three sections agree well
with those of the camptonites of Rosenbusch.

In section 4, from the contact of the igneous intrusion with meta¬
morphosed green shale (locality 3 on map), the decomposition is too great
for the section to be of great interest. It can be seen, however, that the
feldspar was in lathshaped crystals with perfect outlines, oriented with¬
out reference to one another. The structure is that of a typical diabase.
Between the altered feldspar laths is a mass of decomposition products
of a greenish or dirty brown color in which chlorite is made out, and
the mass is crossed by serrated magnetite skeletons. No distinct crys¬
tals of either hornblende or augite can be made out, and it seems prob¬
able that both hornblende and augite are entirely altered.

In order to form reliable conclusions as to the dependence of the rock
characters on the distance from the contact, observations should be made
on a larger number of sections at several localities somewhat widely sep¬
arated. The evidence obtained so far as it goes, seems to be, (1) that
* there is a gradation in texture, the finest grained rock being nearest the

* Wm, H. Hobbs, on the Petrographical characters of a Dike of Diabase in the Boston
Basin: Bull. Mus. Comp. Zobl., Harv. Coll. xvii. .Plate 1, fig. 2, March, 1888.

A Little- Known Region in Northwestern Montana .

199

contact; (2) that the diabase structure is restricted to portions of the
mass which consolidated quite near the the contact; (3) that nearness
to the contact measures the tendency of the magnetite to appear in
skeleton forms; (4) that the hornblende and augite show more tendency
to crystallize in parallel growths nearer the contact.

In his study of the diabase dykes of the Rainy Lake region,* Dr. Law-
son has shown that in some cases a porphyritic structure, a diabase
structure, and an allotriomorphic-granular or granitic structure in turn
characterize the rock of a single dyke in passing from the contact toward
the center of the dyke. The conditions of consolidation of the rocks
here studied have not been such as to give rise to the formation of a
porphyrite, but with that exception the observations are quite similar.

EXISTING GLACIERS.

At the close of his interesting paper on this subject, Mr. I. C. Russell|
writes as follows: “Existing glaciers were discovered by Prof. Pumpelly
during the progress of the Transcontinental Survey, at the head of the
Flathead River in northern Montana. No scientific account of these ob¬
servations has yet been published; but I am informed by Prof. Pumpelly
that two glaciers were seen in the mountains in which the East Fork
of the Flathead rises at an elevation of about 7,000 feet. It was observed
that the glaciers broke off suddenly at the summit of precipices 2,000 feet
high and that the waters flowing from beneath the ice had the milky
color characteristic of glacial streams. The mountains in which these
glaciers were discovered extended northward into British America, and
are supposed to reach their greatest elevation north of the boundary. It
seems safe to predict that when this little known region is more fully
explored additional glaciers will be found about the peaks known as the
Crows and Mountain Head.” I am unable to determine from this ac¬
count just where the glaciers seen by Prof. Pumpelly are. Two glaciers
answering almost perfectly to the description here given are plainly visible
from the crest of the Milk River ridge, and from very many points on and
near the International Boundary. These glaciers, however, are on the
head- waters of the Belly River, a fact which could not escape Prof. Pum-
pelly’s notice had he come near enough to see the milky color of the water.
He would also have seen that there were four instead of two glaciers; hence
I conclude that these are not the ones referred to by him.J Small gla¬
ciers are numerous in all the higher mountains within twenty or thirty

* Petrographical Differentiation of certain Dykes of the Rainy Lake region: Am. Geol.,
March, 1891.

t Existing Glaciers of the United States: 5th Ann. Report U. S. Geological Survey, p. 347.

t Since the above was written I have seen Prof. Pompelly and find that the region referred
to is northwest of the Cut Bank Pass, between MacDonald’s Creek and the main divide of
the Rocky Mountains. It seems entirely probable that this glacier is in the same mountain
mass as those described in the present paper.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

A

miles of the boundary, but are more numerous and larger on the north
slope of the portion of the range which bends to the west, and especially
on a spur or branch of the main range nearly parallel with this same por¬
tion of it and some miles farther south. J udging from what I saw I pre¬
sume there are twenty or thirty glaciers in this region. Several termina¬
ted at the crest of high precipices with falls varying from 500 to 2,500
feet. The thunderous roar produced by these ice falls is unlike any other
sound I have ever heard. The nearest approach to it is that of distant
thunder. In each of the cases of this kind observed save one the ice did
not again accumulate at the foot of the fall, but melted as soon as it
reached the lower level. In the single exception noted the fall was
probably not over 500 feet and the direct rays of the sun did not fall
upon the ice, wdiich accumulated and moved on down the lower slope
pushing its moraine ahead of it. One fair sized glacier on Quartz Creek
extends down into the bed of a little lake which it supplies. Most of
the glaciers were wider than long, their length being apparently deter¬
mined by the shadow of the parent mountain.

The Mt. Dana glacier, described and illustrated by Mr. Russell * is a
good type of the average glacier in this region. One somewhat larger
than that glacier was made the object of our only side trip for any such
purpose. It lies in a small amphitheatre at the head waters of the East
Kootanie near the 114th meridian, about fifteen miles from the bound¬
ary. Its width is about two miles and its length one and a half.
Although it is on the northeast side of the mountains a large part of its
surface is exposed to the sun’s rays fully two-thirds of the day . Its sur¬
face is remarkably smooth and free from crevasses. Its front is oval,
like an inverted wash-bowl, and it is so steep that it can be ascended at
only one or two points. The thickness of the ice a few hundred feet
from the edge was estimated at from 250 to 500 feet. On gaining the
summit of the glacier it was found to stretch away smooth and nearly
level to the adjoining mountain. Patches of morainic supplies and
scattered bowlders were seen here and there on the front half. There
was no dust upon the surface, nor were there any dirt bands in the ice.
The terminal moraine of this glacier is quite imposing. Approaching
its highest part from without, one must climb 100 feet to reach the sum¬
mit; from there down to the edge of the ice, forty feet at the time of my
visit. This was not, however, the bottom of the moraine. It varies at
other points down to perhaps fifteen feet in height. Its length is fully
two and one-half miles, and it varies in width from 150 to 400 feet. It is
composed wholly of somewhat subangular stones, varying in size from
tiny bits up to huge blocks weighing forty or fifty tons. Six parallel
ridges of rock-fragments on the inner slope of the central portion of the
moraine indicated as many successive advances and retreats of the ice.

*5th Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 201

Whether these advances and retreats were annual I could not tell. We
camped for the night near the banks of one of the milky streams flow¬
ing from the ice, and found in the morning that the volume of the
stream had fallen off about one-third, and the water was much clearer.
I concluded therefore that not only the melting, but the motion also of
this glacier depends largely on the heat of the sun. The slope on which
it lies is quite gentle. A few miles down the valley an older moraine,
some four miles in length but much lower than the present moraine, in¬
dicates a stage in the recession of the large glacier of which the present
is the shrunken remnant only. The glacier just described was the
largest seen close at hand. Indeed only one was seen in the whole
region that was larger. This, if it be a true glacier, is much the largest
in the United States, exclusive of Alaska.* We saw it from many points,
at distances varying from eight to twenty miles. It lies in a horse shoe
shaped basin or valley at an elevation of about 7,000 feet and covers, as
near as I could estimate, an area about four by six miles in extent. We
passed half way around it but did not find the stream that must flow
away from it, unless a somewhat remarkable branch of the Belly River
has its source there. This stream flows out from the foot of a precipi¬
tous wall, fully 2,000 feet high, forming the northeast face of the conti¬
nental divide. The rocky wall has not a fissure in its face from top to
bottom. The ice field lies on the opposite side of the ridge fully ten
miles away and 2,000 feet above the point where the stream comes forth.
The latter has the milky character common to glacial streams and flows
from the direction of the large ice field. The strata dip from the ice
field in the direction of the stream. Further evidence of its relation¬
ship must await future investigation.

ft

FORMER GLACIERS.

Western border of drift. — So far as my observations extended the
portion of the plains traversed by us is entirely devoid of drift material,
with exceptions hereafter noted. Dr. G. M. Dawson, | in a journey from
Fort Benton on the Missouri, to Fort McLeod, British Columbia, found
bowlders all the way. As his route was some sixty or more miles east of
mine, it would seem that the western limit of drift material lies between
these two routes, and as Dr. Dawson found undoubted Laurentian
erratics at or near the 113th meridian on the international boundary,
it is likely that the western limit of drift for 100 miles south of the
boundary is somewhere from forty to fifty miles east of the base of the
mountains.

Ice tongues of the eastern slope of Rocky Mountains. — Several ice
tongues have at some time descended from the range on the west and

* The location of the large glacier was in some way left out from the original map. Its
location on the present map is only a guess at the correct place.

t Report of Progress of Geol. Survey of Canada, 1882-84, p. 147C.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

have plowed their way nearly at right angles to the range, and conse¬
quently directly in the face of the great Laurentian ice sheet for many
miles out on to the plains. The trough-shaped depressions made by
these alpine glaciers are now sometimes occupied by small lakes walled
in on all sides except towards the mountains by the old moraine. Some¬
times the water has cut through the morainic walls and completely
drained the lake. In such cases it usually happens that the swaying of
the stream from side to side has cut away the whole front portion of
the moraine, leaving two long parallel ridges on either side extend¬
ing back along the course of the stream to the mountains. In still
other cases the troughs once occupied by the ice are dry and empty.
Measured on the plains these ice tongues varied from live to forty miles
in length and from half a mile to five miles or more in width. Of their
mountain extensions I shall speak later. Their thickness can in some
cases be inferred from the appearance of the moraines. These are much
higher on the ice side than on the outer or plains side, as would be ex¬
pected, since the ice came down upon the soft Laramie beds at a steep
angle. The glacier which plowed out the beds of St. Mary’s Lakes was
the largest of all in this region and must have been of no mean propor¬
tions. These lakes, two in number, lie at nearly the same level, the one
just outside the narrow belt of foot-hills, the other extending through
the foot-hills reaches the very base of the mountains. The lower lake
is about five miles long and two wide; the upper is seven or eight miles
long, but not more than two miles wide. The stream discharging them
is 150 feet wide, three feet deep, and very swift. From our camp at the
foot of the lower lake the stream seemed to have cut through a moranic
wall about 300 feet high a few hundred yards below the foot of the lake.
I found, however, on climbing up this slope that the ice had ridden over
the seeming wall, which was not a moraine at all, but a terrace marking
the depth of post-glacial erosion of the stream. The topography of this
upper level was unmistakably that of a ground moraine, yet there was
something unfamiliar about it which I was at first unable to interpret.
There are three glacial lakes on this terrace, one a mile in diameter, and
the whole region showed unmistakable evidence of having been covered
with water since the retreat of the ice. On the sides jf the Milk River
ridge, which forms the eastern walls of St. Mary’s valley, terraces, a
dozen or more, extend up to a height of at least 800 feet above the pres¬
ent level of the lakes. These, with the peculiar outline given to the
knobs and hills, constitute the unfamiliar features spoken of. I fol¬
lowed down the valley five miles or more, but saw no signs of a terminal
moraine or barrier ridge of any sort that could have held the waters at
such a level as is indicated by the terraces. I concluded, therefore, to
adopt tentatively the hypothesis that the Laurentian ice sheet was
the barrier; that it had sent a tongue up the St. Mary’s valley far

A Little Known Legion in Northwester n Montana.

203

enough to pond back the waters and form the lake whose terraces I had
seen. The southern extension of this lake was the steep-walled fiord¬
like valley of the upper St. Mary’s Lake. On the east the water was
held in by the Milk River ridge; on the west by the mountains. How
far north it extended would depend on the position of the hypothetical
ice barrier. Lack of time prevented further investigation of this region.

Ice records west of main range. — After crossing the continental divide
the valleys on the western slope were found to give evidence of heavy
glaciation. Planed surfaces and trains of bowlders were common but
were confined to the valleys. Bowlders of undoubted glacial origin were
found at an altitude of 7,250 feet.

ORIGIN OF THE ICE-TONGUES OF THE EASTERN SLOPE OF THE ROCKY

MOUNTAINS.

In passing up along the eastern flank of the Rockies, as we came near
enough to them to begin to encounter the moraines of the ice-streams
spoken of in a previous paragraph, certain crystalline bowlders were oc¬
casionally observed. On examination they proved to be a rather fine¬
grained diorite.

As we moved up the valley of the Cut-Bank these bowlders grew quite
numerous.

In the trip to the summit of Cut-Bank Pass it was confidently ex¬
pected that the outcrop of this diorite would be found. However, al¬
though the bowlders were to be seen all the way, the rocks in place
seemed to be wholly of sedimentary origin and were very little if at all
metamorphosed.* The failure to find the igneous rock was accounted
for by supposing that it might now be hidden by debris from the cliffs
above it. A second ascent was made up the Swift Current with no better
results so far as finding the diorite was concerned. This valley is twenty
miles from that of the Cut-Bank and there is no communication between
them; but diorite bowlders occur in this valley also.

The third ascent was by way of Belly River. As before stated, the bare
walls of this valley afford no hiding place for beds of any prominence
whatever. The exposure is peactically continuous for fifteen miles from
the summit. No diorite or other eruptive or crystalline rock occurs in place
in this valley. At the head of this river on the summit of Ahern Pass, at
an altitude of 7,250 feet, bowlders of the diorite, some of them glaciated,
were quite abundant.

Some ten or twelve hundred feet below the summit, on the Pacific
slope, a mile and a half from the pass, the diorite was found in place.
The exposure is four miles in length. It occurs on both sides of the val¬
ley, which is fully a mile wide.

* Diorite bowlders were seen however within 800 feet of the summit, at 7,000 feet eleva¬
tion.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Scieaces, Arts and Letters .

There are many other exposures on the upper waters of McDonald’s
Creek, where the diorite is the surface formation and is strongly glaciated.
On the divide between the East Kootanie and McDonald’s Creek, the slop¬
ing west wall of the common valley is a bed of this diorite. It has been
planed and smoothed for a thousand feet from the bottom of the valley
by the ice stream that once flowed through this gap.

In brief, then, the evidence is this:

1. Trains of diorite bowlders were traced from the plains east of the
mountains up to the axis of the range, along three lines widely separated
from each other.

2. No outcrops of diorite could be found on the eastern slope on any
of these lines.

3. Extensive, heavily glaciated outcrops occur on the western slope
1,000 feet below the summit of Ahern Pass.

4. On the Belly Diver line, the bowlder train was followed over the
summit of Ahern Pass, down the western slope to the parent ledge.

From these facts, then, it seems clear that the ice-tongues which crept
down the valleys on the east slope of the Rockies, and plowed their way
out some miles beyond the foot-hills, did not originate on the east side
of the range; but were pushed up over the continental divide through
the gaps and passes mentioned, and probably through others not yet
examined, by some force from the west. What that force was, admits of
but little question. That it was an ice sheet of some vigor is obvious.
That it was separate and distinct from the Laurentian ice sheet, at least
to high latitudes, is equally clear. Dr. Dawson has brought forward
evidence * to show that a great ice sheet which he has called the Cordil-
leraii Glacier once occupied the region between the Coast Range and
the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, and later he has found evi¬
dence | that the ice ran through the gaps in the Coast Range and down
to the sea.

President Chamberlin J has shown that the ice extended southwest to
the vicinity of Lake Pend d’ Oreille, Idaho. Mr. Bailey § Willis has
found similar evidences in Washington. Neither of these observers,
however, connect the ice records seen by them with the Cordilleran
Glacier.

From such observations as I was able to make, it is my impression that
the ice ran in the valleys, in streams whose courses were determined
partly by the source but mainly by the mountain topography. The re¬
gion lying between the main range on the east, the Rocky Mountains

* Quart. Joui\ Geol. Soc., vol. 31, p. 89, and Quart. Jour. G-eol. Soc., vol. 34, p. 72.
■(■ G-eol . Mag. Decade III, vol. 5, 1888, p. 347.
t Bulletin No. 40, U. S. G. S.

§Ibid.

A Little Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 205

proper, and the Cascade range is very mountainous. The ranges are
broken and irregular. Short spurs and ridges trending in various direc¬
tions give rise to a net-work of valleys. Through this labyrinth the
ice-streams made their way. Some of them found more or less direct
passage into the great Flathead valley and there died a natural death.
Others were caught by the transverse spurs and carried up over the main
range from whence they descended to the plains on the east.

The tendency toward a southerly movement may indicate a northern
origin for the ice. It is evident, however, that local supply would be
abundant, if, indeed, it might not be sufficient to account for all the
glaciation observed.

Madison, Wisconsin, December 29, 1891.

206

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

ON A NEW OCCURRENCE OF OLIVINE DIABASE IN
MINNEHAHA COUNTY, SOUTH DAKOTA.

By G. E. CULVER and Wm, H. HOBBS*

Field Notes. — The rock considered in this paper occurs in the south¬
eastern part of South Dakota, in Minnehaha county. The country rock
is the Sioux Quartzite, large outcrops of which occur throughout this
and adjoining counties.

The quartzite lies in gentle folds with axes approximately east and
west. In the vicinity of the diabase the dip is to the south at an angle
of 8° the outcrop being on the north of the diabase.

The surface of the latter lies somewhat below the general level of the
district, in the valley of one of the small tributaries of the Big Sioux.

The stream has cut a trench twenty-five or thirty feet deep and a mile
in length directly through the diabase. Whether this represents the
width or the length of the mass it is impossible to say, there being no
other exposures.

No actual contact with the quartzite could be found, but from the fact
that undisturbed beds of the latter occur very near the diabase, it may
be inferred that the latter is older than the quartzite, and may have
been an island in the sea in which the quartzite was deposited.

On the other hand the diabase gives no indication of having been
poured out upon the surface. Not only is it completely crystalline but
the size of the crystals indicates slow cooling. The only way in which it
seems possible to harmonize these facts is to suppose that the ancient
rock with which the diabase was once covered had been entirely removed
before the deposition of the quartzite. Such a supposition must rest on
very insufficient data at present however.

No other eruptive rock occurs in either Dakota outside of the Black
Hills, 300 miles away, but some seventy or eighty miles northeast of this
locality, in the Minnesota valley, there are many outcrops of eruptives
in the gneisses and other ancient rocks of that region. In order to com¬
pare the South Dakota diabase with these rocks, the best exposures in
the neighborhood of Granite Palls, Minnesota, were visited and speci¬
mens collected representing a dozen or more varieties. Macroscopically,
none of these bore very close resemblance to the South Dakota diabase.

* Field notes by Gr. E. Culver and petrograpliical notes by Wm. H. Hobbs.

A New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase.

207

Unfortunately the specimens were lost before sections had been made
from them so that the comparison was not carried to completion.

Perhaps the most prominent field characteristic of this rock is the
profound decomposition it has suffered. How much of it has been re¬
moved by erosion it is impossible to say, but the whole exposure from
its upper surface down to the bed of the stream, a distance of twenty to
twenty-five feet, seems to be thoroughly disintegrated. It apparently
maintains its vertical position only by the support of a net-work of thin
quartz veins which ramify through it in all directions.

The decomposition has brought out a set of lines indicating a horizon¬
tal movement in the fluid mass. Parallel with these apparent flowage
lines, a layer of bowlders of decomposition, well rounded, but still in
situ , extends for some distance along the bank of the stream. The rock
below this layer of bowlders is as much decomposed as the upper por¬
tion. The limit of decomposition seems to be marked by the position of
the stream. The rock in its bed is firm and apparently unaltered.

Just below the lower end of the diabase exposure, an excavation was
made to determine if possible the relations of the diabase to a bed of
siliceous flour which occurs there. (Another bed of this material occurs
about a mile farther down the creek resting on the quartzite.)

About two feet below the surface a layer — not continuous — of steatite
about two inches thick was encountered. Immediately below this
steatitic layer was a stratum of the same material containing hard frag¬
ments up to a quarter of an inch in diameter. Whether these were frag¬
ments of sound diabase, or pieces of the quartz veins was not determined.
Below this the rock became gradually more firm so that at a depth of
six inches a pick could be driven into it with difficulty.

It does not appear that the extensive decomposition of this rock is due
to any inherent tendency in that direction, but rather to the peculiar
circumstances of its history.

In the warmer and moister portion of our country south of the glaci¬
ated area — in fact, in any ucglaciated region where ancient crystalline
rocks occur, extensive and profound decomposition very commonly
occurs.

This rock, however, is in the more arid portion of the glaciated area.
The surface of the adjacent quartzite is planed and scratched after the
orthodox glacial fashion.

Within half a mile of the diabase outcrop, on a tabular surface of
quartzite, two distinct sets of strise occur. One set runs S. 20° E. and
the other S. 50° E., indicating at least two ice movements.

These visitations of the ice must have swept off all previously decom¬
posed material from the diabase, so that the present accumulation is in
some degree a measure of the work of the destructive agencies since the
second of the two ice invasions to which reference has been made.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Further light is thrown on this question by the fact that in its final
advance the ice did not overrun this particular region . Hence whatever
accumulation there was as a result of inter-glacial decomposition was
preserved to be added to by the same disintegrating forces in post-glacial
time.

If one were inclined to jump at conclusions, the inference would be
easy, that since rocks very similar to this, both in character and age,
within the region covered by the ice in its last advance show almost no
accumulation of decomposed material, while this rock, perhaps equally
enduring, but lying just without the area of the last advance, is so
deeply decomposed, therefore the time between the second and the last
advance of the ice is much greater than that which has elapsed since its
final retreat.

This evidence would have more value as a time measure if there were
other exposures of the same rock within the adjacent latest glaciated
area. Unfortunately none occur. Of those that do occur from the
granites near Big Stone Lake to the basic eruptives at Granite Falls no
one of them, so far as can be learned, exhibits any appreciable accumu¬
lation of decomposed material. The same is true of this class of rocks
in Wisconsin and northern Michigan and generally throughout the
northern United States and Canada.

So far as it goes, then, the testimony of this rock falls in with that
which has been derived from comparisons of the till of the earlier and
the later glacial epochs. These comparisons all go to show that inter¬
glacial time was vastly longer than post-glacial time.

Petrograpliical Notes.- — The fresher rock is a very coarse-grained
olivine diabase. The hand specimen shows lath-shaped twinned feld¬
spars over a quarter of an inch in length, sometimes with a dull green¬
ish hue as though partly changed to saussurite. Large columnar augite
crystals, penetrated in all directions by feldspar, show in some cases
cleavage faces over an inch in length. Spotting these cleavage surfaces
are small yellow-green grains of olivine. Considerable black ore ma¬
terial and a little pyrite can also be made out under the lens. After the
rock was pulverized the black ore material was strongly attracted to a
magnet and when dissolved in hydrochloric acid in presence of tin gave
no titanium reaction.

The microscopicai study was made on two sections from one of the
bowlders near the bed of the stream. In both the diabase structure is
typically developed, the lath-shape fe Idspars penetrating the other con¬
stituents in all directions. No evidences of disturbances are visible, ex_
cept such as are explained by movements in the partially consolidated
magma. There are present besides feldspar, augite, olivine, hornblende,
biotite, ilmenite, apatite and clorite.

The feldspar is poly synthetically twinned according to both the ordi¬
nary laws, and is only moderately altered. Determinations by Michel-

209

A New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase .

Levy’s or Pumpelly’s method of measuring the extinction angle in those
sections which give symmetrical extinctions (zone of b), furnished a max¬
imum value of 28°, making it probable that the feldspar is labradorite.
A tolerably fresh piece gave a specific gravity of 2.695. Some crystals
show a decided cloudiness, which is found to be due in part at least to
the formation of a colorless micaceous mineral.

The augite, which is penetrated in all directions by plagioclase laths
presents some interesting characters. The usual cleavage parallel to
the prism is well marked with good partings parallel to one or both of
the vertical pinacoids. In some basal sections all four of these are well
developed. The color of the mineral is reddish to yellowish-brown, but
with varying depth of tone, and sometimes grades into an olive near the
periphery of the section. The dichroism of basal sections is most
marked, the ray vibrating parallel to the plane of symmetry, being yel¬
low-brown with a slight tinge of red, and that vibrating in the perpen¬
dicular direction being distinctly red-brown. The monoclinic symmetry
of the mineral is evinced by the inclined optic axis always obtained in
sections which show nearly perpendicular cleavages, and by the high
extinction angles (as high as 45°) in those sections which show but one
cleavage. A brown or greenish brown hornblende is sometimes found
as a partial peripheral zone about or inclosed within augite crystals,
generally with approximately the same orientation as the augite. It
appears to be original, its position being explained by parallel growth.
The hornblende cleavage and the marked pleochroism serve to identify

it. The pleochroism is c deep blue-green or brown, b deep green or
brown, and a light green or light reddish brown. The absorption equa¬
tion is c = b > > a. In one of the two sections there is considerable
green hornblende in good crystals, grouped about areas filled with more
or less unresolvable material (probably both hornblende and chlorite
and doubtless pseudomorphs after olivine crystals).

Olivine is present in one of the sections in crystals which are identi¬
fied by their peculiar hexagonial outlines, colorless character, rough
surface, parallel extinction, imperfect cleavage, and large optical angle
in the plane perpendicular to the cleavage lines (base). In this section
the mineral is in many cases remarkably fresh, showing along cracks,
however, a small amount of a bluish green substance which is also to be
found about crystals. There are also small, more or less irregular areas
particularly abundant in the vicinity of ilmenite, which are in part red-
brown and pleochronic and in part greenish. The brown parts are
made out to be brown hornblende, and the green portions chlorite, in
part of the variety known as delessite. The chlorite sometimes shows
very marked pleochroism from intense orange to bluish green, and has
slightly inclined extinction. It is clear from the disposition of the
chlorite that it is the alteration product of the hornblende as well as of
14— A. & L.

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the olivine, and it is probable that in some cases at least the hornblende
is an intermediate stage, the alumina necessary for the alteration being;
obtained from feldspar. Cores of olivine are found in some crystals
that are more than half altered. In the second of the two sections no
olivine is present, but patches of more or less opaque green or brown
substance indicate the position of the original mineral.

In both sections a little biotite is present in fresh blades which give
the marked mottled appearance just before extinction between crossed
Nichols. Apatite is abundant in crystals of moderate size, sometimes,
though rarely, broken across. Fluid inclusions in the apatite are rare.
Magnetite is quite abundant in large crystals which frequently show
skeleton forms, and there is a little pyrite.

The rock is therefore a coarse-grained and feldspathic olivine diabase..
Examination of a larger number of sections would quite likely add some
characters to those that have been mentioned. The presence of a tal-
cose mineral in the decomposed rock observed at the locality is not ex¬
plained by examination of the sections. It doubtless arises mainly from
a profound alteration of the pyroxene constituent, which in the sections
is almost unaltered.

I

The Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake.

211

ON THE DEEP WATER CRUSTACEA OF GREEN LAKE.

By C. DWIGHT MARSH.

During the past two seasons I have become interested in the deep
water fauna of Green Lake, and have made a large number of collections.
While the results may not be particularly striking, I think they are of
sufficient interest to warrant the presentation of a short paper on the
subject. Because of its depth, Green Lake resembles, in the conditions
controlling animal life, the larger bodies of water, and might be ex¬
pected to have a fauna somewhat different from that of the shallower
lakes. My collections seem to justify this expectation.

It is only within a few years that it has been deemed worth while to
make any investigation of the fauna of deep water. Even after the ex¬
istence of a very rich pelagic fauna in the oceans was recognized, bodies
of fresh water were almost entirely neglected. Now, it is well known
that our lakes have a pelagic fauna rich in individuals, if not in species,
and a less abundant abyssal fauna. Most of the European lakes have
been explored with more or less thoroughness. Especially noticeable is
the extended work of Prof. Porel upon Lake Geneva and the smaller
Swiss Lakes.

In this country comparatively little has been done. Since the initia¬
tory work of Dr. Hoy in Lake Michigan, some twenty years ago, so far
as I know, only two persons have published anything on this subject —
Prof. S. I. Smith, and Prof. S. A. Forbes.

The bottom of Green Lake, in the deeper parts, is a fine blue clay, in
which are great numbers of ostracod shells and some few shells of mol¬
luscs. I submitted the molluscs to Mr. C. T. Simpson of the United
States National Museum, who tells me that there was nothing of especial
interest among them. They were all littoral forms, and, in most cases,
probably washed in from shallower water.

There were also several species of hydrachna, worms, and infusoria,
which I have not worked out. The crustacean fauna is extremely
abundant, although the number of species is small.

212

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The following species were noted:

Diaptomus sicilis Forbes.

“ minutus Lillj.

Epischurci lacustris Forbes.

Limnocalanus macrurus Sars.

Cyclops fluviatilis Herrick
“ serrulatus Fischer.

Canthocamptus sp.

Cypris sp.

Daphnella brachyura Baird.

Ceriodaphnia reticulata Jnrine.

Daphnia kalbergensis Schoedler.

Bosmina sp.

Alona glacialis Birge.

Leptoclora hyalina Lillj.

Pontoporeia Hoyi Smith.

Mysis relicta Loven.

There were, besides, several forms of cy clops, which seem to differ from
any described American species. As I am now engaged in a study of this
genus, I will leave their description for a later publication. None of the
species of cyclops which I have found is peculiar to the deep water, as I
have found the same forms in the littoral zone of the lake, and in smaller
bodies of water in the vicinity.

The pelagic fauna consists mainly of the following species: Diap¬
tomus minutus Lillj; Diaptomus sicilis Forbes; Epischura lacustris
Forbes; Limnocalanus macrurus Sars; Daphnia kalbergensis Schoedler;
Leptodora hyalina Lillj. All of these, with the exception of limnocalanus
macrurus , come to the surface at night. The species of cyclops are repre¬
sented very sparingly, and canthocamptus , daphnella , ceriodaphnia , and
alona are quite rare. Evening collections showed vast numbers of
diaptomus minutus and epischura lacustris , and in some cases of lepto¬
dora hyalina. I found bosmina very abundant in November, but rather
rare in the summer months. The abyssal Crustacea are cypris , ponto¬
poreia Hoyi Smith, mysis relicta Loven, and perhaps some of the forms
of cyclops. Especial interest, perhaps, attaches to three species of the
preceding list.

Diaptomus minutus Lillj. is found in great numbers, being much
more abundant than diaptomus sicilis Forbes. My specimens corre¬
spond very closely to the description by Lilljeborg, as given in “ Envis¬
ion des Calanides d’Eau Douce,” by Guerne and Eichard, differing only
in the following particulars. The joints of the right fifth foot of the
male are shorter and stouter, and the terminal claw is longer and some¬
what more slender; the lateral spine on the last joint is blunt. The
inner ramus of the left foot is more nearly elliptical. The animal aver-

The Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake,

213

ages somewhat smaller than the type. These differences are so minute
that I consider them only varietal, although they are constant in the
specimens I have examined.

Diaptomus minutus has been found, hitherto, only in Greenland and
Newfoundland, although it seems probable that it is widely distributed
over the northern part of North America.

Pontoporeia Hoyi Smith, has been found, hitherto, only in Lake Super¬
ior and Lake Michigan. A species almost identical with it, pontoporeia
affinis Kroyer, occurs in the abyssal fauna of the Scandinavian lakes.

My sis relicta Loven, was first found in the Scandinavian lakes. It is
so closely allied to mysis oculata Kroyer, a marine form found off the
coast of Labrador and Greenland, as to be considered only a variety of
that species. It was found in Lake Michigan by Dr. Hoy, receiving the
name of mysis diluvianus from Prof. Stimpson. Later, Prof. S. I. Smith
collected specimens in Lake Superior. I have not had an opportunity
to compare my specimens with those from the Great Lakes, or with the
original description of the Scandinavian form, but I have [little doubt
that they are identical with them.

When we compare the deep water Crustacea of Green Lake with those
of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, as shown in the lists published
by Prof. Smith and Prof. Forbes, we find a striking similarity. That
this should be true of the pelagic fauna is not strange, for it is easy to
explain the migration of such forms from one body of water to another
through the agency of water fowl.

The presence of pontoporeia Hoyi , and mysis relicta however, is not
so easily explained. They are abyssal forms, found only in deep water,
and never coming to the surface. Their presence in the Scandinavian
lakes is explained by supposing that the bodies of water, in which they
are found, were formerly connected with the sea, and that, when the ac¬
cess of salt water was cut off, the change to fresh water was so gradual
that the animals accustomed themselves to their new conditions of exis¬
tence. They belong to the “ fauna relegata ” or “ relickten-fauna ” of
the Germans. This explanation does not seem to apply to Green Lake.
The lake is of glacial origin, a dam of drift at the western end prevent¬
ing its waters from flowing into lake Puckaway. The outlet of the lake
is a small stream flowing through the village of Dartford, and emptying
into the Fox River. So far as I know, there is no geological evidence
whatever of any connection of Green Lake with either the Mississippi
Basin or the Great Lakes, by which these deep water animals could have
migrated to their present location.

The problem is one for which I can at present offer no solution.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

NOTES ON DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE OF GREEN

LAKE.

By C. DWIGHT MARSH.

Green Lake is situated in Green Lake county, and is something over
seven miles in length, and rather less than two miles in its greatest
breadth. It extends in a northeast and southwest direction, and is con¬
sidered by geologists, to be of glacial origin, its shores at the western
extremity being formed of drift hills.

The lake is of especial interest because of its depth, it being, I think,

the deepest lake within the limits of the state.

While at various times soundings have been made by which the deep¬
est parts of the lake were located with a fair amount of accuracy, the
only attempt at systematic soundings was made some years ago by
Prof. C.’ A. Kenaston, when he was connected with Ripon college.
Through the kindness of Mr. Henry Wolcott, of Ripon, I was enabled
to get the results of Prof. Kenaston’s work. The soundings were made
in winter through the ice and the distances between stations chained off.

Four lines of soundings were made: from Bowen’s cottage to Oak-
wood Hotel, from Sandstone Bluff to Oakwood, from Sandstone Bluff
to Sherwood Forest, and from Sandstone Bluff to Sugar Loaf. The
following tables give the results:

From Bowen’s Point to Oakwood.

Distance.

64 rds
192 44
256 “
272. “
288 “
304 “
320 “
336 “
352 “
384 “
432 “
464 “
626 44

Depth.
63 feet.

96 44
84 44

97 44
90 44
20 44
61 44
66 44
53 44
38 44
49 44
41 44
Shore,

Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.

From Sandstone to Oakwood.

Distance.

Depth.

27 rds.

52 feet.

43

a

89

a

59

a

144

a

75

a

160

a

91

it

160

a

155

a

151

it

267

a

88

tt

315

a

27

a

363

it

25

u

395

a

48

c;

427

a

22

a

491

a

Shore.

From Sandstone to Sugar Loaf.

Distance.

Depth.

48:

rds.

75

feet.

96

a

136

a

144

a

160

a

208

a

180

a

320

a

190

it

560

a

195

a

720

it

180

it

752

a

152

a

816

a

40

a

896

a

Shore.

From Sandstone to Sherwood Forest.

Distance. Depth.

40 rds.

150 feet.

64 “

160 “

100 “

159 “

196 “

140 “

256 “

132 “

292 “

73 44

316 “

15 44

348 “

Shore.

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

From these tables and the profiles derived from them, it will be seen
that the eastern part of the lake is comparatively shallow, and that
there is a bar not far from the center where the depth is only twenty
feet. The greatest depth — 195 feet — is reached between Sandstone
Bluff and Sugar Loaf.

I have made no attempt at systematic soundings, but, in connection
with dredging, have always taken the depth at the time of the haul, and
my figures agree in all respects with those of Prof. Kenaston, except
that they are uniformly somewhat less; this is easily explained by the fact
that the level of the lake has been lower than usual for the past two or
three years.

In the western part of the lake but few soundings have been made by
any one. Capt. Pierce tells me that the greatest depth he has found is
172 feet. It is popularly supposed that the deepest place is between
Sugar Loaf and the south shore, as that is the last place to freeze. I
have found there, however, only 189 feet.

It will be noticed that the littoral zone, in most parts of the lake, is
very narrow, considerable depths being reached quite near the shore.

When dredging in deep water, I also took surface and bottom tem¬
peratures. This work was done in Aug., Sept., and Oct. 1890, and July*
1891. As, so far as I know, very little work of this kind has been done
in our lakes, I have thought the results worth recording, although my
observations were too few to form a basis for any general inferences.

For bottom temperatures, I used a Miller-Casella deep sea thermom¬
eter, loaned by the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries,
and for surface temperatures a common chemical thermometer. As the
thermometers were not tested, the results may not be absolutely accur¬
ate. The deep sea thermometer was attached about two meters from the
sounding lead, giving the “ bottom temperature.”

The following tables give the temperatures arranged by depths:

Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.

217

August, 1890.

Depth.

Surface tern.

Bottom tern.

17 meters.

d

o

&

10.25° C.

24.5

25.

7.7

31.

26.

7.45

33.

24.

7.2

36.

25.5

7.2

40.5

26.

7.

40.85

25.

7.

41.5

24.

7.

42.

24.5

rr

t .

42.2

24.

7.

43.

24.

7.

45.25

6.6

46.75

24.

6.6

48.45

22.

6.6

July, 1891.

Depth.

Air tern.

Surface tern.

Bottom tern.

41.85 meters.

22°.77 C.

21.° C.

5.4° C.

43.5

23.33

23.

5.56

50.

22.22

22.

5.28

50.5

25.

22.

5.28

51.2

20.55

22.

5.28

56.

21.11

21.

5.28

57.75

24.72

21.

5.28

58.

26.3

5.28

We notice that in August, 1890, there was a uniform temperature of
6.6° C. below a depth of 45 meters, and that up to 25 meters there was
an elevation of temperature of only one degree. In July, 1891, the bot¬
tom temperature was 5.28° C. While we cannot compare temperatures
taken in August, 1890, with those taken in July, 1891, I think we may
fairly infer that the maximum bottom temperature in Green Lake is
reached in August, and that it remains nearly the same during Septeim
ber and October. The surface temperature is nearly the same in all the
deeper parts of the lake. Swimmers, in crossing the lake, claim that
they pass through “streaks” of different temperatures, but the ther¬
mometer determinations show a practical uniformity of surface tem¬
perature.

In comparing these temperatures with those obtained by Prof, and
Mrs. Peckham in Pine Lake (Trans. Wis. Acad. V, 273), I notice that

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

although the surface temperatures in Pine Lake, in both July and
August, are higher than in Green Lake, the temperature of the deep
water is nearly the same. For instance, in August, 1879, at a depth of
18.28 meters, the bottom temperature was 7.23° C., while the surface
temperature at the same time was 24.44° C., and in July, at a depth of
24.38 meters, the bottom temperature was 5.56° C., and the surface tem¬
perature 26.12° C. Thus, at 24.38 meters, was reached very nearly the
minimum temperature which I found in Green Lake at 50 meters and
below.

/

Trans. Wis Acad.

Vol. VIII , PL VI.

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The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

219

THE IRON ORES OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION.

By C. E. VAN HISE.

The object of the present article is to bring together in a single paper
the more important conclusions as to the iron ores of the Lake Superior
region, which have been reached in recent years by the Lake Superior
Division of the United States Geological Survey.

The iron ores are all associated with peculiar nonfragmental rocks
which have great variety, but which have the common feature of con¬
taining a considerable content of iron. The varieties include ferrugin¬
ous cherts, ferruginous slates, sideritic slates, actinolitic schists, magneti-
tic schists, hematitic schists and intermediate phases. At different times
in the past it has been suggested that the Lake Superior iron ores, like
many of those of later age, are derived from carbonate of iron. How¬
ever, Irving was the first to definitely prove this by showing that in this
region there is abundant residual iron carbonate, and that there are
actual transitions between this and other phases of the iron formations.*
Since this conclusion was announced, the evidence that these and also
the ores are derived directly or indirectly from a lean cherty and often
calcareous and magnesian siderite has been greatly augmented.

The manner of the transformation of the iron carbonates into the
other phases of rock of the iron formation have been traced out in de¬
tail in the Penokee and Animikie districts.! The work of the past two
years has given a large amount of evidence that exactly similar trans¬
formations have taken place in the Marquette, Vermilion, and Kaminis-
tiquia districts. As yet the Menominee proper and Felch Mountain
districts have not been sufficiently studied to furnish this evidence; but
the ferruginous rocks here occurring are exactly like those in the other
districts and there is no doubt as to their equivalent age, so that it is.
highly probable that the same is true.

The iron ores now mined occur in two geological series, separated by
a physical break. J These are the Lower Huronian and Upper Huronian.

* Irving, R. D., Origin of the Ferruginous Schists and Iron Ores of the Lake Superior
region: Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 32, 1886, pp. 255-272.

t Irving, R. D. and Van Hise, C. R.: The Penokee Iron-Bearing Series of Michigan and
Wisconsin: Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890, pp. 380-422.

t Van Hise, C. R. : An attempt to harmonize some apparently conflicting Views of Lake
Superior Stratigraphy. Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 41, 1891, pp. 117-137.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts ancl Letters.

In each there is one main iron-bearing formation both of which were
originally of nearly the same character, ancl their subsequent trans¬
formations have been much alike. The chief differences are that hard
specular hematite, magnetite, and the actinolite-magnetite-schists are
more common in the older formation; while the soft hematites, limon-
ites and cherts are more common in the newer formation. However,
most phases of rocks and ores are found in both newer and older forma¬
tions, the main difference being that of relative proportions.

As a consequence of the likeness of original characters and subse¬
quent transformations it is possible to treat together the genesis of the
ores of these two series.

A third horizon at which ore-bodies occur is at or near the base of the
Upper Huronian. This formation is not continuous, it being present
only when the base of the Upper Huronian chances to rest upon the iron¬
bearing formation of the Lower Huronian. Here the detritus has been
largely derived from the immediately subjacent formation and is conse¬
quently rich in iron. As will be seen, a farther concentration of the iron
oxides at this horizon has occurred at the same time as the concentra¬
tion of the iron ores of the two main formations. At this third horizon
are to be placed several of the important mines and certain of the ore-
bodies of others of the mines of the Marquette district. The history of
these deposits explains why they frequently occur adjacent to the ore-
deposits of the Lower Huronian.

The Lower Huronian includes the Eastern Menominee, Felch Moun¬
tain, Lower Marquette, Vermilion, and Kaministiquia districts; and the
Upper Huronian includes the Western Menominee, Upper Marquette,
Penokee, Mesabi, and Animikie districts. It thus appears that in the
Felch Mountain and Vermilion districts only the iron-bearing formation
of the Lower Huronian is known, and in the Penokee and Mesabi dis¬
tricts only the iron-bearing formation of the Upper Huronian is known.
In the Marquette and Menominee districts the iron formations of both
series are represented, but the relations of the two are much more easily
made out in the former than in the latter. The Kaministiquia and
Animikie series also come together in a single district and the uncon-
formable relations which here obtain are as clear as in the Marquette
district.

As areas to serve as types we will first consider the Penokee and Lower
Marquette series, the first belonging to the Upper Huronian and the
second to the Lower Huronian. These are chosen because here the in¬
vestigations have gone farther.

The Penokee ores.- — In the Penokee district the iron-bearing formation
comprising all the varieties of rocks above mentioned as belonging to
this member, is on an average about 800 to 850 feet thick, but the iron
ores are mainly confined to the lower 400 feet. The formation rests upon
an argillaceous quartz-slate the uppermost horizon of which is a per-

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region . 221

sistent quartzite. It is covered by a great formation of clay -slates, gray-
wacke-slates, etc. These formations constituting the Penokee series are
a simple monocline, dipping northward from 50° to 80° (PI. VII, fig. 1.)
The series has been cut before tilting by numerous basic dikes nearly at
right angles to the bedding, but in such a direction as to now make the
outcrops of a dike and the iron-bearing formation form the two sides of
an acute angle which usually faces to the east. The unaltered phase of
the iron-bearing formation, i. e., the lean cherty carbonate of iron, is
most frequently found immediatly under the overlying slate, which has
protected this material from percolating waters, while near its base rarely
is found this sideritic phase, it having here usually been decomposed.
The intersections of the dike rocks and the quartz-slates form numerous
right angled troughs tilted somewhat to the northward, (PI. VII, fig. 2.)
These generally have a pitch toward the east (PI. VII, fig. 3), consequent
upon the relations already described. But if the outcrop of the dike is
parallel to that of the ore formation the ore-deposit will have no pitch,
while if the outcrops of the dike and quartz-slate form a westward-facing
acute angle the deposit will have a pitch toward the west.

Now, with few exceptions, the ore-bodies of the entire Penokee dis¬
trict occur at the apices of these troughs (PI. VII, figs. 2 and 3), having
roughly a triangular section or a V shape the lower part of which is re¬
latively heavy and pitching with the altered underlying diabase dikes,
usually called by the miners “ soapstone.” The boundaries of the ore
formation are usually sharp along the dike-rocks and the quartz-slate, but
vary upward often by imperceptible stages into the ferruginous rocks of
the iron-bearing formation. It follows from the above that each ore-deposit
may be traced to the surface in one direction, and in the other direction will
pass deeper and deeper. It is not uncommon for one dike some distance
below another dike to also carry an ore-body. In this case a shaft will
pass through its first ore-body, its basement dike and a greater or lesser
thickness of lean ferruginous material, when another ore-body, resting
upon another dike will be found (PL VII, fig. 3). This latter body may
have been previously discovered at or near the surface at some point
east or west of where the uppermost body reaches the surface and there¬
fore ceases. In other cases the dikes may be so close together as to have
the entire space between them filled with ore. In still other cases more
than two dikes bearing ore-bodies have been found in vertical section.

Summing up, the Penokee ore-deposits are then roughly triangular in
cross section. They usually pitch to the east. They rest upon impervi¬
ous formations below, and generally grade upward into a porous ferrugin¬
ous chert or slate of the iron formation.

The Lower Marquette Ores. — In the Lower Marquette* series the ores
have somewhat greater variety of occurrence. The deposits, instead of

* Van Hise, C. R. The Iron Ores of the Marquette district of Michigan. Am. Jour. Sci.,
3d series, vol. 43, 1892, pp. 116-132.

222

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

being for the most part at the base of the iron-bearing formation, are
either within this formation or at its upper part; that is, just below the
base of the Upper Huronian. The formation above the iron-bearing for¬
mation is a quartzite grading downward into a conglomerate, the mater¬
ial of which, is largely derived from the subjacent Lower Huronian series.
The iron-bearing formation is cut by numerous dikes at various inclina¬
tions and by great bosses of basic eruptives. These latter sometimes break
across the bedding of the iron formation, at other times the intrusives
bow the bedding upward so as to make the formation dip away from the
greenstone ridges. Not in frequently a ridge of eruptives forms a more or
less complete semicircle, the iron formation constituting a valley within
it.

Now, the ore deposits are found either at the contact plane between
the Upper and Lower Huronian, or else they rest upon or along the
eruptives (PI. VII, fig. 4); when fresh called diorite, when altered called
soapstone. The dikes may be vertical or inclined. One may be alone or
two or more may be adjacent. The greenstone bosses may have a uni¬
form dip or may be folded so as to form a complete synclinal trough (PI. VII,
fig. 5). A dike may unite with a larger greenstone mass to form a trough
(PI. VII, fig. 6). Whether the ore deposit rests upon a wall, a synclinal or
an irregular trough of eruptive rock, the body is not horizontal, but fol¬
lowing the greenstone, pitches at an angle of 20° to 40° or even more. As
in the Penokee district, the ore-deposits have an abrupt termination at
the underlying eruptive rocks and grade upward somewhat gradually
into the chert and jasper. In the case of those ore-deposits which are at
the contact of the Upper and Lower Huronian, the bodies usually occur
at places where the ©reformation has been sharply shattered or bent; or
where an intersecting intrusive serves as an inpervious basement; or
where both are combined. Such deposits may terminate abruptly along
a joint or may grade into the chert or jasper (PI. VII, fig 7).

While the Marquette ore-deposits may rest upon formations of differ¬
ent characters, and may vary greatly in shape, in common with those of
the Penokee district, they lie for the most part upon impervious forma¬
tions in pitching troughs, and grade above into the broken aud porous
material of the ore formation; or, if at the contact horizon, into the re¬
composed ore formation of the Upper Huronian.

Ores at base of Upper Marquette series. — The contact deposits of the
Lower Huronian may continue upward into the Upper Huronian, a
single ore-body belonging in part to the Lower Huronian and in part to
the Upper Huronian, when the two series, although unconformable, are
welded together by subsequent infiltrations, as a consequence of which
the non-fragmental iron formation of the Lower Huronian appears to
grade up into the mechanical sediments of the Upper Huronian. In
other places the ore-deposits near the contact plane may lie wholly
within the Lower Huronian or wholly within the Upper Huronian. In

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

223

the latter case this may be sometimes due to the fact that erosion has
removed all or nearly all of the Lower Hnronian iron-bearing formation
The ores above this contact plane, like those already considered, are
frequently adjacent to or underlain by subsequent intrusives which serve
as impervious basement formations.

The ores adjacent to the contact plane include the magnetites of the
Marquette district. Those belonging to the Lower Huronian have a some¬
what different aspect from those of the Upper Huronian. This is due
to the extraneous mechanical detritus of the latter. In thin section it
is often found that more or less mica has developed. In examining the
structure of the ore-deposits, it is seen that much of the magnetite is in
veins or cavities in finer grained and partly or wholly original material.
An examination of thin sections of the overlying magnetic quartzites
and conglomerates shows conclusively that much of the magnetite is a
secondary infiltration.

Ores of other districts. — It is unnecessary to give the details of the oc¬
currences of ores in other districts, but it may be said, while the
character of the bounding formations may be somewhat different, that
the ore-deposits as in the Penokee and in the Marquette districts rest
upon formations which are impervious. These may be fragmental
slates, contemporaneous surface volcanics, or subsequent intrusives.
Also any one of these, or two of them, may combine to form a pitching
trough. And even in the cases in which there is but a single impervious
wall upon which the ore rests, it is usually found that the deposit has a
pitch. The ore-bodies usually grade above into the other phases of
rock of the iron-bearing formation, as in the Penokee and Marquette
districts.

In the Western Menominee district the ore-bodies very extensively
rest upon surface volcanics which appear to be here the inferior forma¬
tion of the Upper Huronian series. In both the Upper Menominee and
the Upper Marquette ores are also found resting upon the slates. In
some cases these underlying slates have a monoclinal dip as in the Pen¬
okee district, and in others are folded into pitching synclinals. The
iron-bearing horizons of these districts do not appear to be continuous
belts of pure iron formation materials as is that of the Penokee. They
are often but sideritic phases of the great slate formation of the Upper
Huronian. Where this slate becomes usually sideritic and the other
conditions explained as requisite occur together the concentration
of ore-bodies has taken place.

In the Vermilion district the ore-bodies commonly rest upon im¬
pervious schists believed to be greatly modified volcanics or upon intru¬
sive massive greenstones of later age. Not infrequently one or both of
these combined form pitching troughs.

In the newly developed Mesabi range the ores, according to Mr. Mer-
riam, are near the base of the series resting upon a quartzite which

224

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

lies unconformably upon impervious green crystalline schists of the
Archean complex. They are overlain by a slate or shale of great thick¬
ness. They have a gentle dip to the southward. In certain respects they
are like the Penokee deposits. Whether the bodies will be found in
pitching troughs, it is yet too early to say.

Genesis of the ores. — The peculiar forms and relations of the Lake
Superior iron ores exclude a large number of explanations which have
been advanced for the genesis of these deposits. It is evident that in
their present position they are not eruptives. Even if it be argued that
the iron-bearing formations are igneous it would hardly be held that
these peculiar ore-bodies are of direct intrusive origin. The forms
which these bodies have are wholly unlike those of intrusive rocks. .In¬
stead of being continuous downward as such rocks should be they usu¬
ally terminate below upon igneous rocks. It is equally plain that the
ore-deposits are not of direct sedimentary origin, although it is believed
that the formations containing them, and from which they are derived
are sedimentary. We know of no way by which sediments could be de¬
posited in such irregular forms as these. Also their frequent connection
with subsequent intrusive rocks shows that between the ore-deposits
and the latter there is some genetic connection. Although by the miners
the ores are often spoken of as veins, these deposits have never been
seriously regarded as fissures, nor can they be regarded as deposits
which have filled caves.

All of the evidence plainly points in one direction, that is, that they
are concentrations produced by downward percolating water. These
waters removed a part of the original material of the iron-bearing for¬
mations at the places where the ore-bodies occur and introduced iron
oxide nearly simultaneously. This explains the forms, positions and re¬
lations of the ore-deposits. They rest upon tilted walls or troughs of
impervious formations because water has here been converged. They
occupy places once taken by a part of the ore-formation because this is
readily penetrated by water, because it was rich in iron carbonate, and
because the constituents other than iron oxide are readily soluble.

The original condition of the ore-formation, as has been said, is a lean
sideritic and cherty slate. In order that the ore-bodies should be formed,
silica must have been removed and iron oxide introduced. That this inter¬
change has actually occurred is shown by an examination of the iron-
formation rocks associated with the ore-bodies. It has been noted that
the change from the ore-bodies to the rocks above is a transition rather
than abrupt. Along this transition zone it is a common thing to see sil¬
ica ban(Is die out by gradual removal. In the iron formation proper the
silica is frequently in nearly solid bands, alternating with bands richer
in iron. In passing toward the ore, cavities appear in the rock, the silica
being removed so that the stratum is here a porous one. The cellular
or geodal cavities formed by the removal of silica are very characteristic

225

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Beg ion.

a

of this transition zone and even when so minute as not to be visible in the
hand specimen are discoverable by a microscopical examination. How¬
ever, before all of the silica is removed, iron oxide begins to be intro¬
duced, and finally when the interchange is complete, in the places of the
siliceous bands is a solid body of iron ore.

It is usually found that the eruptive rocks underlying the ore-bodies
are greatly altered, the alkalies having been removed. It. is probable
that these alkalies have been an important agent in the solution of the
adjacent silica. It is evident that the pitching troughs are places along
which abundant water must travel because the surface waters are not
able to penetrate the underlying formation, and the overlying formation
is a porous one. It is equally evident that the contact plane between
the Upper and Lower Huronian, where there is a coarse conglomerate at
the base of the Upper Huronian, is also a horizon along which under¬
ground waters travel, and this is particularly true where violent folding
has shattered the underlying ore-formation, and here it will be remem¬
bered the ore-bodies of this horizon usually occur.

Along these channels of percolation, as in the case of fissures, waters
from various sources meet. A portion of these waters will have traveled
for a considerable distance through the iron carbonates. Such waters
will have oxidized this iron carbonate in part and thus become carbon¬
ated and take other iron carbonate into solution. Such iron-bearing
waters will meet along the impervious formations other waters which
have reached these positions by shorter paths, traveling perhaps wholly
through already altered and brecciated ore-formation material contain¬
ing no iron carbonate. Such waters carrying no iron, but containing
oxygen, will precipitate the iron from the carbonated solutions.

Those ore-bodies which underlie one or more impervious formations,
but rest upon other impervious formations have derived their material
from the areas of iron formation material between the dike or other
basement formations of the ore-bodies in question and those of the next
overlying deposit. In a given instance this part of the ore-formation
will have a considerable surface area for the entrance of percolating
waters between the outcrops of the underlying and overlying impervious
formations. (See Plate VII, fig. 3.) The waters have here carried the iron
oxide along the impervious formation upon which the ore rests and have
precipitated it under the overlying impervious body. Whether the ore-
body thus produced fills the entire space between the two impervious
formations depends upon the supply of material which was available
and upon the perfection with which the process of concentration has
been carried out.

In the production of the magnetic ores it appears that there was not a
sufficient amount of oxygen to peroxidize the iron, although there was
15— A. & L.

226

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

enough to precipitate it or a part of it at least. Pyrite associated with
the magnetite indicates the presence of actual reducing agents and
these may have changed some of the original hematite of this horizon
to the form of magnetite. This lack of oxygen at the plane separating
the Lower and Upper Hnronian may be due to the fact that immediately
above is the impervious slate of the latter; consequently from the sur¬
face there wTas no direct path for percolating waters.

From what has been said as to the transition zone between the ore-
bodies and the iron formation, it will be seen that the process of the
solution of the silica often runs in advance of the introduction of the
iron oxide. It is wholly possible that the silica has been sometimes
removed so far ahead as to cause a considerable sagging of the ore-for¬
mation. This suggestion is made because the brecciated character of
the rocks adjacent to the ore-bodies frequently indicates that local
fractures have occurred.

Many of the intrusives which cut the ore-formations are probably of
Keweenawan age. If this be true it is evident that the concentration of
these ore-deposits has occurred since Keweenawan time. It is also
manifest that the final concentration did not occur until the folding
and erosion subsequent to both the Lower and Upper Huronian series,,
and for a part of the districts at least these were post-Keweenawan. It
is almost certain that the Lower Huronian iron formation was exten¬
sively modified before the Upper Huronian series was deposited, but it
is also probable that the ore-bodies now mined have been produced
simultaneously with those of the Upper Huronian, otherwise the Lower
Huronian ore-deposits would not invariably be found above the eruptive
rocks with which they are in contact. While the final concentration
did not begin until the later foldings to which these series have been
subjected, there is no evidence that the process has ceased at the pres¬
ent time.

The ore-bodies at the base of the Upper Huronian were concentrated
in the lean detritus of the Lower Huronian iron formation at the
same time and in the same manner as the ore-deposits just considered.

The remarkable likeness of the Upper and Lower Huronian ore-
formations is then explained to be due to the likeness of the original
iron-bearing formations of the Upper and Lower Huronian, and to the
fact that the concentration of both was due to the same causes operat¬
ing at the same time.

The Huronian rocks of Lake Superior are often spoken of as the iron¬
bearing series. The foregoing discussion shows that ore-bodies occur
only in certain definite formations which constitute but a small percent¬
age of the entire Huronian series. Moreover it is evident that valuable
ores are only found within these formations where a combination of
peculiar conditions occur causing local concentrations of iron oxide. A

227

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

recognition on the part of practical mining men of these principles will
save large sums of money annually spent in unscientific prospecting,
and, as they have already done in certain cases, will undoubtedly lead to
the discovery of additional ore-bodies.

U. S. Geological Survey,

Lake Superior Division,

Madison, Wis., March 7, 1892.

228

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of Penokee series. Showing its relations to the
underlying Archean, the overlying Keweenawan, and the conformable
succession of its three members.

Fig. 2. Cross-section of Pence mine, Penokee series, showing the re¬
lations of the dike-rock, quartzite, ore-deposit, and drift material.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of a Penokee deposit, looking south.
The figure shows how, as a consequence of the pitch of the dikes, the
ore-bodies which reach the rock surface soon pass under the furruginous
chert. The figure also shows, when one dike is parallel to another or
nearly so, that the ore-body of the lower dike may pass under that of
the upper. The vertical distance between the two deposits depends
upon the horizontal distance between the outcrop of the two dikes and
upon their pitch. The irregular way in which the ore passes above into
the chert is seen, as well as a horse of rock at the west end of the west
open pit.

Fig. 4. Generalized section of Lower Marquette ores, showing the
relations of the deposits to the associated formations. Ore is seen at
the contact of the Upper and Lower Huronion, above a folded mass of
diorite, upon one or both sides of intersecting dikes, and in a trough
formed by the union of a dike and a mass of diorite.

Fig. 5. Vertical cross-section of an ore-deposit of the Marquette dis¬
trict. This is bounded below by a synclinal of soapstone grading into
diorite and above by ferruginous chert. The change from ore to chert
is not so sharp as drawn. In longitudinal section this body shows a
considerable pitch.

Fig. 6. Vertical cross-section of an ore-deposit of Marquette district.
At the left the ore rests upon soapstone grading into diorite. At the
right it is upon one side of a dike-rock, the latter being an off-shoot of
the diorite. At the contact of the two a pitching trough is formed in
which the ore-body becomes of large size.

Fig. 7. Horizontal section of ore-deposit on east side of Republic horse¬
shoe, Marquette district. The left side of the ore is bounded by a cross
joint. The right side is bounded in part by a sharp flexure passing
into a joint, and in part grades into the lean banded jasper and ore.

Trans. Wis. Acacl

Vol. VIII. PI VII.

ORE DEPOSITS of LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem.

229

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE LATITUDE

PROBLEM.

By G. C. COMSTOCK.

[ABSTRACT.]

The title which has been announced for my paper, “ The Present Con¬
dition of the Latitude Problem,” imposes upon me the necessity of ex¬
plaining in what the latitude problem consists, since I can not assume
that the term thus employed will be well understood even in scientific
circles.

There come down to ns from remote antiquity legends, curious enough
in themselves, which seem to imply that at the time of their origin a
very different condition of affairs obtained from that which now exists.
Thus the early Egyptian temples appear to have been oriented with ref¬
erence to the points of the compass at times when those points were
different from what they now are, and there are traditions of a time at
which the sun rose in the west and set in the east. And coming down
to much more recent dates, speculation has been rife as to whether the
great pyramids in Egypt may not contain in themselves evidence of a
changed position of the earth’s rotation axis.

Until within the last half dozen years such matters were looked
upon by astronomers with the utmost incredulity, and it was almost a
matter of faith that the earth’s axis is the one thing terrestrial which is
permanent in position. But about a half dozen years since Dr. Knestner,
one of the astronomers connected with the observatory at Berlin, under¬
took a very extended and accurate series of latitude determinations at
that place, having in view as the object to be attained the solution of a
very different problem, the determination of the so-called “ constant of
aberration.” But Kuestner’s results for the aberration came out wrong;
they would not agree with the classical values of this quantity elsewhere
determined, and he found himself face to face with the alternatives that
either his observations were hopelessly bad, or that the latitude of his
observatory had changed to the amount of nearly half a second during

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the time covered by his observations. Kuestner adopted the latter al¬
ternative, but his suggestions were received with great incredulity on the
part of astronomers, and it was only when it became apparent that sim¬
ilar changes could be traced in simultaneous observations elsewhere that
the matter seemed worthy of serious investigation. Such investigation
it has received under the auspices of the International Geodetic Associ¬
ation, which has for over two years past maintained a continuous series
of observations at three German observatories, which agree in indicating
a variation of the latitude of these stations in character entirely similar
to that detected by Kuestner. In our own country similar investigations
have been prosecuted in a less systematic manner, but agreeing never¬
theless with the results of the German work.

But we come here to a new phase of the matter. An extended and
very elaborate discussion of long series of astronomical observations
running back over a period of more than a century has been undertaken
by Mr. S. C. Chandler, who has reached the very remarkable result that
during this entire period traces of a similar variation in latitudes may be
detected, that is, that during this period the latitude of any given place
on the earth’s surface, instead of being absolutely fixed, has oscillated
about a mean value, being at times a little greater and at others a little
less than its average amount.

If we inquire into the causes of such an instability of latitude, we shall
find very serious difficulties in the way of any explanation based upon
known dynamical laws. It is true that Euler pointed out a century ago
that if the axis about which the earth rotates does not coincide exactly
with its axis of figure, that is the short diameter of the spheroidal earth,
there will necessarily result a rotation of one of these axes about the
other producing a slight periodic change in latitudes, and that this
change should run through its complete cycle in a period of 308 days
But it seems difficult at first sight to identify this theoretical oscillation
with the actual changes detected by the European observers and by Mr.
Chandler. The work of the European observers appeared to indicate an
oscillation of latitudes having a period of very approximately a year,
while the time required for the periodic change detected by Chandler is
427 days; so that the periods appear to be entirely discordant. A sugges¬
tion has been made in this connection, however, by Professor Newcomb
which may help to bridge over the difficulty of co-ordinating these periods
among themselves. He points out that the period of 306 days which is
associated with Euler’s name has been computed upon the supposition
that the earth is a perfectly rigid body, while we have abundant evidence
that the earth’s rigidity, although great, is by no means infinite, and this
lack of perfect rigidity will have the effect of lengthening the Euler
period, so that it may be made 365 days or 427 days long, thus possibly
bringing it into agreement with the observed periods. One difficulty

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem .

231

however, stands in the way of this explanation. Mr. Chandler has in¬
dicated as a result of his investigation that the period of time within
which the latitude makes a complete oscillation is not of uniform length
hut ranges from about 350 up to 427 days, and this variation in the length
of the period is in no way accounted for by Newcomb’s explanation.

Turning now for a moment aside from this periodic variation of the
latitude, let us briefly consider another but allied phase of the same
matter. At the conference of the International Geodetic Association,
held at Home in 1884, Fergola, an Italian astronomer, presented a con¬
siderable amount of data tending to show that during the past century
there had been a progressive diminution in the latitudes of European
observatories. In other words, that aside from this periodic variation of
latitudes there had been a steady and uniform drift of the surface of
the earth in Europe away from the north pole. Fergola’s paper at¬
tracted great interest at the time, and his suggestion that a concerted
plan of action should be adopted for the systematic investigation of this
secular change in latitude was adopted by the Geodetic Association.
Measures were taken to have a series of observations for this purpose
commenced at Washington and at Lisbon; but unfortunately the mat¬
ter terminated without anything having been accomplished and the
plan for systematic investigation seems to have been abandoned.

At the earnest request of some geologists especially interested in gla¬
cial phenomena, I took up the question of the secular variation of lati¬
tudes anew some three years ago, with the intention of examining more
carefully the American data, which had scarcely been touched upon by
Fergola, and of ascertaining whether it could be made to yield any con¬
tribution to a better knowledge of the secular change. Without going
into the details of this investigation, it may suffice to state here that this
data, although somewhat scanty in amount, still indicates very strongly
that American observatories have a common motion toward the north
pole amounting to about four feet per year; in other words, that the
rotation axis of the earth, instead of being fixed relatively to the crust of
the earth, is changing its position, moving in a direction along the west
coast of Greenland, so that it is being brought progressively nearer to
American stations and carried more slowly away from European ones.
The results of this investigation were presented last summer to the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a committee
of that association was appointed to devise means for further investiga¬
tion of these changes in latitude, both periodic and secular. Under the
auspices of the International Geodetic Association, simultaneous obser¬
vations are now being made in Germany and in the Hawaiian Islands.
These will suffice for a very accurate determination of the periodic
changes of latitude, but they are not well adapted to a determination of
the secular change, the longitudes being badly chosen for this purpose,

232

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

and it is very much to be desired that as soon as possible a series of ob¬
servations having the secular change in view should be undertaken in
the United States and along the eastern coast of Asia, since the direction
of the motion of the pole appears to be such that stations thus located
will be subject to larger variations of latitude than those in any other
longitudes.

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

233

ON THE CORRELATION OF MORAINES WITH RAISED

BEACHES OF LAKE ERIE*

By FRANK LEVERETT.

The narrow ridges of sand and gravel which traverse the plains of the
western Erie basin, at distances varying from a few miles up to 80 miles
or more from the present shore of Lake Erie, as well as those of the
eastern portion of the Lake Erie basin, which lie near the borders of the
lake, were recognized by the early settlers as old lake shores, and were
known in many sections as “lake ridges.” Nearly all the reports of
geologists, whose work has lain within the territory covered by these
beach lines, contain references to the beaches, and many contain valu¬
able data concerning them, but so far as I am aware no complete tracing
of any one of the beaches has been made by my predecessors.

At the time the reports of the Ohio geological survey were written,
the question seems not to have been raised as to whether the beaches
completely encircle the lake, though Dr. Newberry and Prof. Winchell
each entertained the hypothesis that the high stage of water in the lake
may have been caused by the occupancy of the present outlet of the
Great Lakes by the retreating ice-sheet.^ During the twenty yeaps that
have elapsed since these reports appeared, critical investigation of cer¬
tain districts has shown that these beaches do not in all cases surround
the bodies of water which they border. To Mr. Gilbert especially are
we indebted for the advancement of knowledge along this line. The
discovery was made by him, some years ago, that several of the raised
beaches of Lake Erie do not completely encircle that body of water, but
that those along its south shore terminate in a successive series from
higher to lower in passing eastward from northern Ohio to southwestern
New York. The results of his study are unpublished, but through his
kindness I have been made acquainted with his recent views and sup¬
plied with the principal data. In explanation of the failure or disap¬
pearance of these beaches, in the eastern portion of the basin, Mr. Gil¬
bert has entertained the theory that their eastern termini represent suc-

* The article from which the main part of this paper is taken appears in full in the
American Journal of Science, Yol. XLIII, April, 1892.
t Geology of Ohio, Yol. I., p. 552; Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1872, p. 183.

234

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

cessive positions of the ice front in its northeastward retreat across the
Lake Erie basin, but has held that the complete verification of this
theory depends upon the occurrence of moraines which are the demon¬
strable correlatives of the beaches. It is believed that such moraines
have now been discovered and traced into connection with the three
beaches which terminate in Ohio. Two other beaches terminate in
southwestern New York, but since the glacial phenomena of that region
have not received critical attention, it is not known whether moraines
occur there which can be correlated with the beaches. The limitations
of the several stages of the lake, on its north shore, have not been de¬
termined. The study is, therefore, far from complete and the present
paper furnishes but a brief introduction to the interesting history
which further investigations promise to reveal.

The facts to be presented are naturally grouped under three heads:
(I) The Van Wert or Upper beach and its correlative moraine, the
Blanchard ridge; (II) The Leipsic or second beach and its correlative
moraine; (III) The Belmore, or third beach and its correlative moraine.
The names here adopted are those suggested by Prof. N. H. Winchell *

I. THE VAN WERT OR UPPER BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

(a) The Van Wert or Upper Beach. — The distribution of this beach in
Ohio and Indiana, and the southwestward outlet of the lake which it
bordered, are well shown in maps published many years ago by Mr Gil¬
bert.! It was supposed by Mr. Gilbert, at that time, that the beach con¬
tinued further east than Findlay, and his maps accordingly contain a
hypothetical continuation along the north slope of the Blanchard mo¬
raine to the Sandusky river at Tiffin. It is now found that there is a
beach line having about the position conjectured by Mr. Gilbert, but it
is the Leipsic or second beach, while the Van Wert or upper beach ap¬
parently terminates at Findlay, there being in the district east from
the uieridian of Findlay no beach line outside (south) of the Leipsic
beach. At its eastern terminus, the beach is in the midst of a plain that
rises gradually toward the north, the east, and the south, so that the
lake terminated in a mere point whose waters were quite shallow.
Along the Blanchard moraine, on the north side of of the river, there is
no beach line of corresponding age with the Van Wert ridge, though
sand sets in on the outer slope a short distance west from Findlay and
reaches altitudes as great as on the beach south of the river. The phe¬
nomena along the moraine, as shown below, seem to indicate that the
ice-sheet overhung it while the lake was still occupying the Van Wert
beach, and thus prevented the waves of the glacial lake from making
their impress on the moraine.

*Proc. Am. Ass. Aclv. Sci. 1872, pp. 171-179. Geol. of Ohio, Vol. II., p. 56.

1Am. Journ. of Science, May 1871, p. 341. Geol. of Ohio, Vol. I. 1873, p. 540.

Trans Wis. Acad. tol. VIII. PI. VIII

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Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

235

The altitude of the Van Wert beach throughout its course in Indiana
and Ohio, has a variation of scarcely ten feet, the general altitude being
very nearly 210 feet above Lake Erie. In Michigan it has been examined
by Dr. J. W. Spencer, who reports a marked northward differential up¬
lift between Ypsilanti and Berville, its altitude being 211 feet at Ypsi-
lanti, and 244 feet at Berville.*

The Van Wert ridge, so far as I have examined it, consists in the main of
a deposit of sandy gravel. It is not a strong beach, its usual height being
three to five feet and its breadth but ten to twelve rods. Its pebbles are
often but slightly worn, an indication that wave action was not strong. It
is not improbable that throughout a larger portion of the year than at
present the lake shore was fringed by ice. Fossils are extremely rare if
not entirely absent from this beach, a feature which accords well with
the view that the beach was formed during the low temperature of the
glacial period, though it is merely negative evidence, since the ab¬
sence or scarcity of fossils is not always due to the original absence of
life, but often to the lack of conditions for preservation.

(b) The Blanchard Moraine. — The Blanchard is the latest moraine of
the series in Ohio, that can be traced around the western end of Lake
Erie. Westward from Findlay the moraine, though a less conspicuous
feature than eastward from that city, was recognized and mapped by Mr.
Gilbert more than twenty years ago.| It is, therefore, one of the earliest
recognized moraines on this continent. From near the meridian of
Findlay eastward it resembles the earlier moraines in presenting a
broadly ridged and slightly undulatory tract of till, standing twenty to
forty feet above the plain south of it, and having a breadth of one and
one-half to three miles. Near the meridian referred to it assumes a
very different appearance, that of a knob and basin topography of sub¬
dued type in which knolls of conical form rise abruptly five to ten feet
and cover an acre or less each, and among which are sharp basins occu¬
pying usually but a small fraction of an acre each, though frequently
several feet in depth. The crest of the moraine is no longer well de¬
fined though it continues to be a water shed-between tributaries of the
Maumee, all the way to that stream near Defiance.

The structure presents as marked a change as the topography. In¬
stead of a uniform deposit of till at the surface, there is a variety of for¬
mations remarkable for the abruptness of their alternations. In one
knoll a fine sand may occur while its neighbors are composed of clay, or
a portion of a knoll may be sand and the remainder clay, the whole
being moulded together in a symmetrical knoll, like the gravel and till
in ordinary kames. A few knolls contain gravel but as a rule pebbles
are rare, and no surface bowlders or large pebbles were observed. The
nlays are very calcareous and abound in nodules in nearly every exposure .

* Am. Journ. Sci. March 1891.

+ Am. Journ. Sci., May 1, 1871, pp. 339-342.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Such is the character of the moraine for a distance of ten or twelve
miles. About three miles northwest of Leipsic, near the center of town¬
ship 2 north, range 7 east, the Leipsic or second beach crosses the moraine,
and from there northwestward the moraine has a comparatively smooth
surface, the result of wave action subsequent to the retreat of the ice.

The portion of the moraine of especial interest is the knob and basin
tract, above described. If my interpretation be correct this owes its
peculiar topography and structure to the presence of lake water beneath
the ice-margin. This portion of the moraine has an altitude but slightly
below the level of the Van Wert Beach, consequently the water was
shallow and incapable of buoying up the ice-sheet and producing ice¬
bergs. The result was what might be anticipated under such conditions
of deposition, a variable structure produced by the motion of water
under the edge of the melting ice-sheet, and an uneven surface moulded
by the inequalities of its base and margin. It may be suggested that
the moraine received its sandy deposits from a lake that covered it after
the ice had retreated. It seems improbable, however, that such was the
case, (1) because the sandy deposits are not in the form of a beach nor
in any way connected with a well defined beach, but consist of sharp
knolls similar to the clay knolls of the moraine; (2) because the sand in
places graduates into clay of glacial origin showing contemporaneous
deposition with it; (3) because the basins and depressions are so sharp
and of such a form and arrangement as to forbid the idea that wave
action was long exerted on them; (4) the portion of the moraine north¬
westward from where the Leipsic beach crosses, affords a clear illustra¬
tion of the effect of an open lake on the moraine, its surface being
smooth and its sand either a uniform coating or aggregated into forms
clearly referable to wave or wind action. It is fortunate that the lake
in its later stages fell short a few feet of reaching its earlier maximum
stage, and thus left unmodified a portion of what appears to be a lake-
deposited moraine. So far as I am aware no case of a moraine demon¬
strably formed in lake water has been reported from other parts of the
glaciated district, but it is not improbable that other instances will be
found when attention is directed more closely to the subject, if they
have not already been observed by other students. It is quite probable
that in portions of this moraine further north there will be found other
places similar to that described.

Summing up the phenomena of this district it appears, (1) that the
Van Wert ridge terminates near Findlay, Ohio, and that east from there
the Blanchard moraine is its correlative, (2) that the Blanchard moraine
from near the line of Putnam and Hancock counties northward was
deposited in lake water. The beach as well as the morainic phenomena,
therefore, support the hypothesis that the lake bounded by the Van
Wert beach was of glacial age.

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

237

II. THE LEIPSIC OR SECOND BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

(a) The Leipsic or Second Beach. — This beach was traced from the
Blanchard river, near Ottawa, eastward to its eastern terminus near
Cleveland. Its course is not known west from the meridian of Ottawa,
but it is probably the correlative of Mr. Gilbert’s “ Second Beach ” that
passes through Bryan and Hicksville, Ohio, since it has about the same
altitude as that beach, and since no other beach that could be a correla¬
tive has been found.

In the portion already traced the course of the beach is winding, fol¬
lowing pretty closely a contour line 195 to 200 feet above the lake, though
for a portion of its course, lying between the villages of Van Buren and
Bellevue, it has an altitude about 210 feet above the lake.

From the Blanchard river, at a point about three miles above Ottawa,
it passes northwestward along the outer face of the Blanchard moraine
for a distance of 9 to 10 miles. Here it crosses the moraine and passes
south of east along its inner face for a few miles. It then leaves the
moraine to the south and takes a course north of east, through McComb
and Van Buren, to Fostoria. From Fostoria it bears south of east
through Bascom to the Sandusky river at Tiffin, then northeast to
Bellevue, southeast to the Huron river, near Pontiac, northeast again
nearly to Elyria, then south a few miles to Black river, after which it
takes nearly a direct course toward its eastern terminus near Cleveland.
The bays at Sandusky, Huron and Black rivers, were not formed by the
cutting back of the shore of the lake, for a restoration of the original
slope on which the shore was carved, shows that the lake nowhere cut
back its shore a mile, and usually but a few rods. The general appear¬
ance of this beach is much like that of the Van Vert, though it is on the
whole somewhat stronger, its wave cut benches standing often 6 to 8 feet,
and occasionally 15 to 20 feet, above the inner border plain. Its gravels
like those of the Van Wert beach contain many pebbles which are but
slightly rounded, and there are many places where bowlders are im¬
bedded in the beach deposits. The only fossils discovered are the horns
of elk and deer which were obtained in a railway gravel pit three miles
east of Ottawa, from undisturbed gravel at a depth of 7 to 9 feet from the
surface. All the evidence collected favors the view that the shore
throughout a large portion of the year was protected by ice from the
action of the waves.

As previously stated the Leipsic beach has its terminus near Cleve¬
land. The beach here connects with the western end of a moraine.
Between Rockport and Linndale the beach swings from a course north
of east, to a southerly course, and is there made up of a series of ridges
of nearly uniform height, which are united at the curving portion of the
ridge, but diverge into distinct ridges toward the southeast, so that their
ends are spread out over a space of nearly one-half mile. The outer

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ridge comes to Big Creek bluff in North Linndale. There is outside of
these beach ridges a peculiar ridge, which appears to be a compromise
between a beach and a moraine. At its western end, near the inner bend
of a tributary of Big Creek, a mile or so west of North Linndale, it is
composed of gravel, and resembles in every way the beaches just north
of it, but upon tracing it eastward the gravel changes to till, giving it
the appearance of a low glacial ridge. This low till ridge may be traced
through North Linndale to the bluff of Big Creek, near the bend of that
stream, and upon crossing the creek we find a much larger ridge of till,
one worthy the name moraine. This larger ridge is separated from
the eastern end of the beach proper by the narrow valley of Big
Creek, one-fourth mile or less in width. I was unable to find beach
gravel along the inner (north) slope of the morainic ridge, further east
than the terminus of the beach ridge, but this inner border district is
very flat, and its clays contain few pebbles compared with the clays of
the moraine. These features apparently indicate that the lake water
covered the tract north of the moraine, either while the ice overhung it
or subsequently.

(b) The Correlative Moraine of the Leipsie Beach. — This moraine as
indicated above, is traceable no further west than North Linndale. Both
north and west from there the surface, aside from the flow beaches, is a
monotonous plain with scarcely any undulation. The disappearance of
the moraine at the point where the beach appears, leaves little room for
doubt that the ice-sheet here terminated in a lake, and that the beach is
of glacial age. The portion of the moraine west of the Cuyahoga does
not show evidence that it was deposited in lake water. On the contrary,
its structure, so far as exposed, opposes such a theory of deposition, the
mass of the ridge being ordinary till without capping of sand or other
water deposits. The descent is rapid toward the Lake Erie basin from
the junction of the beach and moraine; there was probably sufficient
depth of water to cause the ice-sheet to break up into bergs at its margin
instead of resting on the lake bottom and forming such a moraine as it
did in the western Erie basin, northward from the junction of the Van
Wert beach and Blanchard moraine.

Tracing the moraine eastward we find it passing just south of the vil
lage of Brighton, near which it is interrupted by the Cuyahoga valley. It
reappears on the east side of the river in Newburg and is traceable from
there eastward, through Randall and Warrensville to the Chagrin river
below Chagrin Falls. West of the Cuyahoga it is a single gently undu¬
lating ridge, about 80 rods in width and 20 to 30 feet in height. East of the
river it consists of many short ridges and conical swells 10 to 25 feet in
height and has a width of one to two miles or more. In places there is a
well defined crest, but as a rule the crest is wanting.

The range of altitude is considerable. West of the Cuyahoga the mo¬
raine stands about 800 feet A. T. East of the river it rises from 800 feet

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches .

239

at Newburg to 1,050 feet at Randall (only six miles distant), and ranges
up and down 200 to 250 feet in eastern Cuyahoga and Geauga counties in
crossing ridges and valleys, its highest points being about 1,250 feet A. T.

The thickness of drift as shown by its relief above border districts is
only twenty to thirty feet, but spread out as it is over a width of one to
two miles, it represents an accumulation^ least 100 times that of the
correlative beach. The moraine is composed principally of till, though .
in places it has gravelly knolls (kames). Pockets of gravel and sand oc¬
cur in the till, and beds of assorted material are occasionally interstrati-
fied with it. In short, the moraine in its topography, range in altitude,
bulk and constitution, is so different from the beach that the two forma¬
tions cannot be confused, and yet there seems to be no question that
the moraine of the eastern Erie basin has, in the western Erie basin, a
beach for its correlative.

III. THE BELMORE BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

Between the Leipsic beach and the present shore of Lake Erie, there
are several beaches. One of these, the Belmore beach, terminates near
Cleveland, the others continue eastward into southwestern New York,
and do not concern us in the present discussion. From its eastern ter¬
minus westward to the meridian of Belmore and Leipsic, the Belmore
beach lies only one to three miles and in places, as at Berlin Heights,
only a few rods north of the Leipsic beach. Westward from this
meridian the courses of the two beaches are quite divergent, the Leipsic
bearing south of west, while the Belmore bears northwestward crossing
the Maumee river near Defiance, from which stream it bears east of
north into Michigan. The general altitude of the Belmore beach within
the state of Ohio is 160 to 170 feet above Lake Erie. It lies, therefore,
too low to open southwestward, as do the earlier beaches, through the
Ft. Wayne outlet.

In size and general appearance this beach differs but little from the
Leipsic, but is on the whole more sandy.

The ridge phase of the Belmore beach apparently exists no further
east than the Cuyahoga river but it is thought that the lower of the two
terraces in the eastern part of Cleveland was occupied by the lake at the
time this beach was forming. The absence of a beach, in the eastern
Erie basin, which could be considered a correlative of the Belmore
beach, has been determined by Mr. Gilbert, we therefore are led to in¬
quire whether a moraine occurs there as a correlative of the beach.

The innermost moraine formed on the southern borders of the Lake
Erie basin, is distinctly traceable from the eastern end of the lake, west¬
ward to Euclid, Ohio, a village situated about ten miles east from the
mouth of the Cuyahoga. The gap between the western end of the
moraine and the eastern end of the ridge phase of the Belmore beach, is,
therefore, about ten miles, but between the moraine and the Cleveland

240

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

terrace it is scarcely half that distance, and I am not certain bnt that
the terrace may find occasional development along the face of the bold
escarpment south of Lake Erie, as far east as the western terminus of
the moraine. But should the gap between the moraine and the beach
prove to be five or even ten miles, it would not follow that they cannot
be correlated with each other, for the position of the boundary between
the ice-sheet and the lake may have oscillated through a distance as
great as this gap, during the course of the period in which the moraine
and beach were forming. The failure or disappearance of the beach
necessitates an explanation, and the only probable one yet found, is
that the ice-sheet excluded the lake from the eastern portion of the
basin, and the disappearance of this moraine near the eastern end of the
beach, though it does not connect as closely with the beach as do earlier
moraines with their correlative beaches, leaves no reasonable room for
doubt that it is the correlative of the Belmore beach.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

From the data abov^e presented it appears that Lake Erie in its earlier
stages was but a small body of water, its size being conditional on the
position of the retreating ice-sheet, and the height of the western rim of
the basin it occupied. It at first occupied only a portion of the district
between the outlet and the western end of the present lake, the remain¬
der of the basin, including the whole of the area of the present lake,
being occupied by the ice-sheet. Its south and north shores were then
at the Van Wert ridge, while its eastern border was at the Blanchard
moraine. At the time of the formation of the Leipsic and Belmore
beaches the area of the lake was nearly as great as the present area of
Lake Erie, though it occupied but little of the present bed of the lake.

From the phenomena attending the replacement of the three beaches
in Ohio by moraines, we are led to suspect that the two later beaches
which die away in southwestern New York are there connected with mo¬
raines, and that similar moraines will be found to connect with the
beaches of Lake Ontario at points where they disappear on its eastern
and northern borders.

Differential uplift was slight in the western Erie basin compared with
what it was in the eastern Erie basin and the Ontario, and on the shores
of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. The data at hand indicate that it
amounts to scarcely more than ten feet in the whole area of the portion
of the Erie basin west of Cleveland, and has therefore played an insigni¬
ficant part in causing the three stages of the lake herein described.

The bulk of the moraines is many times that of the beach deposits’
though no longer time was involved in their deposition. The ice-sheet was,
therefore, a much more efficient transporting agency than the lake waves.

The extreme scarcity of evidence of life in these waters is a feature
quite accordant with the theory deduced from the relation of the beaches
to the moraines, that the lake was of glacial age.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides .

241

THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS ON THE MONUMENTS

OF THE ACHCEMENIDES*

TRANSLATED BY

HERBERT CUSHING TOLMAN, Ph. D.

»

THE SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTION OF CYRUS.

The oldest inscription of Persia is found on that structure generally
believed to be the tomb of Cyrus. At Pasargadae, in the midst of the
plain of Murghab, stands a building of white marble rising to the height
of thirty-six feet from the ground. Its base is forty-seven, feet long and
forty-four feet broad. A figure in bas-relief carved on a pillar, perhaps
the portrait of the king himself, strengthens the theory that this struc¬
ture is the tomb of Cyrus. A narrow doorway leads into an inner cham¬
ber, where Arrian says, the body of Cyrus was placed. Under the relief
is the cuneiform inscription, the translation of which follows:

I (am) Cyrus, the king, the Achaemenide.

For the sake of comparison I add the epitaph of Cyrus quoted by
Strabo, (XV, 3.)

12 drQp<jJ7tE, eyed KvpoS zipi 6 Kajj.(3vdov, 6 tt)v apxvv HzpdaiZ
KaradrT/ddjueroZ ncti rrj $ AdiaA [iadiXevdoA. Mp ovv ^ovrjdiQ’i jdoi rov
jur?jjuaroS.

* For the original text of the inscriptions the reader is referred to the translator’s Old
Persian Grammar, published by Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. (1892).

16— A. & L.

242

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF DARIUS HYSTASPES AT BEHISTAN.

The longest and most important of the Old Persian inscriptions is the
great monument of Behistan. The name Behistan forms a dependent
compound, the first member being baga (God) and the second stana
(place.) Behistan or “ Place of God ” was known to the Greeks who gave
it the name (dayidravov opo6. This immense rock rises abruptly to a
height of 1,700 feet from the plain below. No place in all Persia could
Darius have found more fitted for the purpose of holding an everlasting
memorial of his reign. The bas-reliefs are uninjured and show a row of
nine usurpers bound with a cord about their necks. In front of them
stands the monarch who treads upon the prostrate body of a tenth vic¬
tim. Behind Darius are two attendants, armed with the spear and bow.
The figures of the conquerer and his warriors are skillfully executed,
while the rebels are intentionally represented as diminutive in size.
Above the picture is an effigy of Auramazda, the greatest deity of the
Persians.

Over the heads of the king and his captives are placed legends com¬
memorating the monarch’s triumphs and showing the ancestry of Darius
and the fraud of the usurpers. Below the reliefs in five parallel columns
occurs the inscription of nearly one thousand lines, the translation of
which I make at this point.

i.

1. I (am) Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king in Persia,
the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arshama,
the Achaemenide.

2. Says Darius the king my father (is) Hystaspes, the father of
Hystaspes (is) Arshama, the father of Arshama (is) Ariyaramna, the
father of Ariyararamna (is Caispis *), the father of Caispis (is)
Achaemenes.

3. Says Darius the king therefore we are called the Achaemenides:
from long ago we have extended t from long ago our family have been
kings.

4. Says Darius the king VIII.J of my family (there were) who were
formerly kings: I am the ninth IX: individually we were (lit. are) kings.

* Caispis is omitted by tbe carelessness of the stone-cuttei\ It is easily supplied from
the inscription above the head of Darius which repeats these introductory sections ; vide
infra.

X The Persian word amata I connect with the Sanskrit root ma to measure (CP Zend ma
and Latin me-to). The A is doubtless a prefix corresponding to the Sanskrit a (hither).
amata would mean measured hither or to the present time, i. e. reaching to the present .
It is possible to emphasize the idea of the root ma (measure): hence the word might
signify measured , tested, tried.

X The numerals are represented by horizontal wedges for the units and oblique for the
tens.

Trans. Wis. Acad.

Vol. VIII , PI. IX.

The Behistan Mountain

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 243

5. Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda I am king: Am-
amazda gave me the kingdom.

6. Says Darius the king these are the countries which came to me: by
the grace of Auramazda I became king of them, Persia, Susiana, Babylon,
Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, which are by the sea, Sparda, Ionia, Media,
Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, Area, Chorasmia, Bactriana,
Sogdiana, Gandara, Saka, Thatagus, Haravatis, Maka, in all (there are)
XXIII countries.

7. Says Darius the king these (are) the countries which came to me:
by the grace of Auramazda they became subject to me: they bore tribute
to me: what was commanded to them by me this was done night and
(lit. or) day.

8. Says Darius the king within these countries what man was a friend*
Mm will supported I supported: who was an enemy him well punished
I punished; by the grace of Auramazda these countries followed my law:
as it was commanded by me to them, so it was done.

9. Says Darius the king Auramazda gave me the kingdom; Auramazda
bore me aid until this kingdom was established: by the grace of Aura¬
mazda I hold this kingdom.

10. Says Darius the king this (is) what (was) done by me after that I
became king; Cambyses by name, the son of Cyrus (was) of our family: he
before was king here: of this Cambyses there was a brother Bardiya (i. e.
Smerdis) by name possessing a common mother and the same father with
Cambyses; afterwards Cambyses slew that Bardiya: when Cambyses slew
Bardiya, there was not knowledge j (on the part) of the state that Bar¬
diya was slain: afterwards Cambyses went to Egypt: when Cambyses
went to Egypt, after that the state became hostile, after that there was
deceit to a great extent in the provinces, both Persia and Media and
other provinces.

11. Says Darius the king afterwards there was one man, a Magian,
Gaumata by name; he rose up from Paishiyauvada; there (is) a moun¬
tain Arakadris by name; from there on the 14th dayj of the month
Viyakhna then it was when he rose up: he then deceived the state; I am
Bardiya the son of Cyrus brother of Cambyses: afterwards the whole
state became estranged from Cambyses (and) went over to him, both
Persia and Media and the other provinces: he siezed the kingdom; on
the 9th day of the month Garmapada then it was he thus seized the
kingdom; afterward Cambyses died by a self-imposed death. ||

* The Persion word is of doubtful interpretation. It looks like the nomen agentis of gam
to go, a goer hither or a comer. The translation friend is a conventional one.

t azda, a doubtful word. I connect it with the root da to know which occurs in the com¬
pound AURAMAZDA.

t Lit. with fourteen days; a use of the instrumental which denotes the association of time
with an event. This idiom is employed in all like temporal expressions.

11 The word uvamarshiyush I divide into uva self (Cf. Skt. sva. Lat. se) and marshiyush

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

12. Says Darius the king this kingdom which Gaumata the Magian
took from Cambyses, this kingdom from long ago was (the possesion ) of
our family: afterwards Gaumata the Magian took from Cambyses both
Persia and Media and the other provinces; he acted in accordance with?
his own pleasure? he became king.

13. Says Darius the king there was not a man neither a Persian n or
Median nor anyone of our family who could make Gaumata the Magian
deprived of the kingdom; the state feared him vehemently (or because
of his violence); he would smite the state utterly which knew the former
Bardiya; for this reason he would smite the state that it might not know
me* * that I am not Bardiya the son of Cyrus; any one did not dare to say
anything against Gaumata the Magian until I came; afterwards I asked
Auramazda for help; Auramazda bore me aid; an the 10th day of the
month Bagayadis then it was I thus with (my) faithful? men slew that
Gaumata the Magian and what men were his foremost allies; there (is) a
stronghold Sikayauvatis by name;| there is a province in Media Visaya
by name; here I smote him; I took the kingdom from him; by the grace
of Auramazda I became king: Auramazada gave me the kingdom.

14. Says Darius the king — the kingdom which was taken away from
our family, this I put in (its) place; I established it on (its) foundation;
as (it was) formerly so I made it; the sanctuaries? which Gaumata the
Magian destroyed I restored. The commerce ? of the state and the
cattle and the dwelling places and in accordance with % the clans which
Gaumata the Magian took from them (I restored); I established the state
on (its) foundation both Persia and Media and the other provinces; as-
(it was) formerly so I brought back what (had been) taken away; by the
grace of Auramazda this I did; I labored that our clan I might establish
in (its) place; as (it was) formerly, so (I made it); I labored by the grace
of Auramazda that Gaumata the Magian might not take away our race.

15. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did, after thatP became king..

16. Says Darius the king when I slew Gaumata the Magian after¬
wards there (was) one man Atrina by name the son of Upadara(n)ma; he
rose up in Uvaja (i. e. Susiana); thus he said to the state; I am king in
Uvaja; afterwards the people of Uvaja became rebellious (and) went
over to that Atrina; he became king in Uvaja; also there (was) one man

a Babylonian Naditabira by name the son of Ain . ; he rose up in

Babylon; thus he deceived the state; I am Nabukudracara the son of
Nabunita; afterwards the whole of the Babylonian state went over to*

die (Cf. Skt. mar Lat. morior). The meaning also corresponds to the statement in Herodo¬
tus III 64-65. that Cambyses died from a wound inflicted by his sword as he was leaping
from his horse.

* Note the direct form of expression.

t Nama is not the accusative of specification but is attacted into the case and even the gen¬
der of the subject. Lit. there is a stronghold (its) name (is) Sikayauvatis.

X The transition from the accusative to the instrumental is hard to explain.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 245

i

that Naditabira; Babylon became rebellions; the kingdom in Babylon
-he seized.

17. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth (my army) to Uvaja;
this Atrina was led to me bound; I slew him.

18. Says Darius the king afterwards I went to Babylon against that

Naditabira who called himself Nabukudracara; the army of Naditabira
held the Tigris; there he halted and was on shipboard; afterwards I de¬
stroyed the army . one (army) I made submissive, of the other

. . I led; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda we

crossed the Tigris; here the army of Naditabira I slew utterly; on the
:27th day of the month Atriyadiya then it was we thus engaged in battle.

19. Says Darius the king afterwards I went to Babylon; when to

Babylon . ; there (is) a town Zazana

by name along the Euphrates; there this Naditabira who called himself
Nabukudracara went with his army against me to engage in battle;
afterwards we engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the "grace

of Auramazda the army of Naditabira I slew utterly .

. . the water bore it away; on the 2nd day of the month Ana-

maka then it was we thus engaged in battle.

ii.

1. Says Darius the king afterwards Naditabira with (his) faithful ?
horsemen went to Babylon; afterwards I went to Babylon; by the grace
of Auramazda I both seized Babylon and seized that Naditabira; after¬
wards I slew that Naditabira at Babylon.

2. Says Darius the king while I was in Babylon these (are) the prov¬
inces which became estranged from me, Persia, Uvaja, Media, Assyria,
Armenia, Parthia, Magus, Thatagus, Saka.

3. Says Darius the king there (was) one man Martiya by name, the
•son of Cicikhris — there (is) a town in Persia Kuganaka by name — here
he halted; he rose up in Uvaja; thus he said to the state; I am Imanis
Mng in Uvaja.

4. Says Darius the king then I was near by Uvaja; afterwards from

me . the people of Uvaja seized that Martiya who was chief

of them and slew him.

5. Says Darius the king one man Fravartis by name, a Mede, he rose
up in Media; thus he said to the state; I am Khshathrita of the family
of Uvakhshatara; afterwards the Median state which was in clans be¬
came estranged from me (and) went over to that Fravartis; he became
Mng in Media.

6. Says Darius the king the Persian and Median army, which was by
Mm, it was faithful ? (lit. a faithful (?) thing); afterwards I sent forth an

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

army; Vidarna* by name, a Persian, my subject him I made chief of them*;
thus I said to them; go smite that Median army which does not call it¬
self mine; afterwards this Vidarna with the army went away; when he

came to Media . there (is) a town in Media . by name — here

he engaged in battle with the Medes; he who was the chief among the
Medes did not then hold (the army) faithful ?; Anramazda bore me aid;
by the grace of Anramazda the army of Vidarna smote that rebellious
army utterly; on the 6th day of the month Anamaka then it was the bat¬
tle (was) thus fought by them; afterwards my army — there (is) a region
Ka(m)pada by name — there awaited me until I went to Media.

7. Says Darius the king afterwards Dadarsis by name, an Armenian,,

my subject, him I sent forth to Armenia; thus I said to him; go, the re¬
bellious army which does not call itself mine smite it; afterwards Dad-
arsis went away; when he came to Armenia, afterwards the rebellious
ones having come together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle
. a village . by name in Armenia; here they engaged in bat¬
tle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote
that rebellious army utterly; on the 6th day of the month Thuravahara
then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

8. Says Darius the king a second time the rebellious ones having*
come together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle; there (is) a
stronghold, Tigra by name, in Armenia — here they engaged in battle:
Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda, my army smote
that rebellious army utterly; cn the 18th day of the month, Thuravahara
then it was the battle (was) thus fought by them.

9. Says Darius the king a third time the rebellious ones having come

together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle; there (is) a strong¬
hold, U . ama by name, in Armenia — here they engaged in battle;

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote
that rebellious army utterly; on the 9th day of the month, Thaigarcis
then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them; afterwards Dadarsis
awaited me until I came to Media.

10. Says Darius the king afterwards Vaumisa by name, a Persian, my
subject, him I sent forth to Armenia ; thus I said to him; go, the rebell¬
ious army which does not call itself mine, smite it; afterwards Vaumisa.
went away; when he came to Armenia afterwards, the rebellious ones
having come together went against Vaumisa to engage in battle; there

(is) a region, . by name, in Assyria — here they engaged in battle;

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

* A nominative in apposition with an accusative. This weak syntax is common to the Old
Iranian languages. Artificially the construction can be explained by supplying asti is and
repeating the idea in the form of a pronoun. The boldest case is in III. 2. fraishayam
dadarshish I sent forth Dadarsis , the nominativejbeing used apparently as an object. For
a fuller discussion of the subject the reader is referred to my Old Persian Grammar 61, a,.
notes, 2.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the AcJuemenides. 247

that rebellious army utterly; on the 15th day of the month Anamaka,
then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

11. Says Darius the king a second time the rebellious ones having
come together went against Vaumisa to engage in battle; there (is) a
region Autiyara by name in Armenia — here they engaged in battle;
Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

that rebellious army utterly; . . of the month Thuravahara

. thus the battle (was) fought by them; afterwards Vaumisa

awaited me in Armenia until I came to Media.

12. Says Darius the king afterwards I went from Babylon; I went
away to Media; when I went to Media — there (is) a town Kudurus by
name in Media — here this Fravartis (i. e., Phaortes) who called himself
king in Media went with (his) army against me to engage in battle;
afterwards we engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace
of Auramazda I smote the army of Fravartis utterly; on the 26th day of
the month Adukanis then it was we engaged in battle.

13. Says Darius the king afterwards this Fravartis with faithful ?
horsemen — in that place (was) a region Raga by name in Media — here
went; afterwards I sent forth my army against them; Fravatis was
seized (and) led to me; I cut off (his) nose and ears and tongue, and to

him . I led; he was held bound at my court; the whole state

saw him; afterwards I put (him) on a cross at Ecbatana, and what men
were his foremost allies, these I threw within a prison at Ecbatana.

14. Says Darius the king one man, Citra(n)takhma by name, a Sagar-
tian, he became rebellious to me; thus he said to the state; I am king in
Sagartia, of the family of Uvakhshatara; afterwards I sent forth the
Persian and Median army; Takhmaspada by name, a Mede, my subject,
him I made chief of them; thus I said to them; go, the rebellious army,
which does not call itself mine, smite it; afterwards Takhmaspada went
away with the army (and) engaged in battle with Citra(n)takhma; Aura¬
mazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that
rebellious army utterly and seized Citra(n)takhma (and) brought (him)

to me; afterwards I cut off his nose and ears, and to him . I led;

he was held bound at my court; the whole state saw him; afterwards I
put him on a cross in Arabia.

15. Says Darius the king this (is) what (was) done by me in Media.

16. Says Darius the king Parthia and Hyrcania . of

Fravartis . called himself; Hystaspes my father .

army . afterwards Hystaspes .... allies . town - by

name . they engaged in battle . . . thus

the battle (was) fought by them.

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

hi.

1. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth the Persian army to
Hystaspes from Raga; when this army came to Hystaspes, afterwards
Hystaspes with that army went away — there (is) a town Patigrabana by
name in Parthia — here he engaged in battle with the rebellious ones;
Auramazada bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda Hystaspes smote
that rebellious army utterly; on the first day of the month Garmapada
then it was that thus the battle (was) fought by them.

2. Says Darius the king afterwards it became my province; this (is)
what (was) done by me in Parthia.

3. Says Darius the king there (is) a region Margus by name; it be¬
came rebellious to me; one man Frada, a Margianian, him they made
chief; afterwards I sent forth Dadarsis by name, a Persian, my subject,
satrap* * in Bactria against him; thus I said to him: go, smite that army
which does not call itself mine; afterwards Dadarsis with the army
went away (and) engaged in battle with the Margianians; Auramazda
bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that rebellious
army utterly; on the 23rd day of the month Atriyadiya then it was thus
the battle (was) fought by them.

4. Says Darius the king afterwards it became my province; this (is)
what (was) done by me in Bactria.

5. Says Darius the king one man Vahyazdata by name — there (is) a
town Tarava by name; there (is) a region Yutiya by name in Persia — ■
here halted; he a second time (i. e. after Gaumata) rose up in Persia;
thus he said to the state; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; afterwards the
Persian army which (was) in clans departed from duty; it became
estranged from me (and) went over to that Vahyazdata; he became king
in Persia.

6. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth the Persian and
Median army which was by me; Artavardiya by name, a Persian, my
subject, him I made chief of them; the other Persian army went with
(lit. after) me to Media; afterwards Artavardiya with the army went to
Persia; when he came to Persia — there (is) a townRakha by name in
Persia — here this Vahyazdata who called himself Bardiya went with (his)
army against Artavardiya to engage in battle; afterwards they engaged
in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army
smote that army of Vahyazdata utterly; on the 12th day of the month
Thuravahara then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

7. Says Darius the king afterwards this Vahyazdata with faithul?
horsemen then went to Paishiyauvada; from thence he went with an army

* The Persian word khshatrapavan (satrap) is lit. protecting the kingdom; khshatra
kingdom (Cf. artakhshatra, Artaxerxes) and pa protect (Cf, Skt. and Zend pa, Lat. pa-vi,

• s. FODA"and the root in the Lat. pater and its cognates.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcem'enides. 249

again against Artavardiya to engage in battle; there (is) a mountain
Paraga by name — here they engaged in battle; Auramazda gave me aid;
by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that army of Vahyazdata
utterly; on the 6th day of the month Garmapada then it was thus the
battle (was) fought by them and they seized that Vahyazdata and what
men were his foremost allies they seized.

8. Says Darius the king afterwards — there (is) a town in Persia
Uvadaidaya byname* — here, that Vahyazdata and what men were his
foremost allies, them I put on a cross.

9. Says Darius the king this Vahyazdata who called himself Bardiya
he sent forth an army to Harauvatis — there (was) Vivana by name, a
Persian, my subject, satrap in Harauvatis — against him (he sent an
army) and one man he made chief of them; thus he said to them: go,
smite that Vivana and that army which calls itself of Darius the king
afterwards this army, which Vahyazdata sent forth, went against Vivana,
to engage in battle; there (is) a stronghold Kapishakanis by name —
here they engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of
Auramazda my army smote that rebellious army utterly; on the 13th
day of the month Anamaka then it was thus the battle (was) fought by
them.

10. Says Darius the king again the rebellious ones having come to¬
gether went against Vivana to engage in battle; there (is) a region
Ga(n)dutava byname — here they engaged in battle; Auramazda bore
me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that rebellious army
utterly; on the 8th day of the month Viyakhna then it was thus the bat¬
tle (was) fought by them.

11. Says Darius the king afterwards this man, who was chief of that
army which Vahyazdata sent against Vivana, this chief with faithful ?
horseman went away — there (is) a stronghold Arshada by name in Harau¬
vatis — he went beyond thence; afterwards Vivana, with an army on
foot went (against) them; here he seized him and what men were his
foremost allies he slew.

12. Says Darius the king afterwards the province became mine; this
is what was done by me at Harauvatis.

13. Says Darius the king when I was in Persia and Media a second
time the Babylonians became estranged from me; one man, Arakha by
name, an Armenian son of Han(?)dita,j* he rose up in Babylon; there (is)

* The reader has noticed the constant use of paratax. Instead of bringing the words of
the sentence into syntax independent constructions are employed. In no other language is
this loose arrangement (which we must feel was original to speech) shown to better ad¬
vantage than in the old Persian inscriptions.

t The N in Handita as well as the N in Dubana conjecture has supplied. The combina¬
tion of wedges in the cuneiform text resembles no other characters on the stone and per¬
haps is the sign for L which otherwise would be wanting in the Old Persian alphabet. I
however feel that it is simply a careless writing of the nasal.

250

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a region, Dnban(?)a by name — from there he rose up; thus he lied; I am
Nabukudracara, the son of Nabunita; afterwards the Babylonian state
became estranged from me (and) went over to that Arakha; he seized
Babylon; he became king in Babylon.

14. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth my army to Babylon;
Vi(n)dafra by name, a Mede, my subject, him I made chief; thus I said to
them; go, smite that army in Babylon which does not call itself mine;
afterwards Vi(n)dafra with an army went to Babylon; Auramazda bore

me aid; by the grace of Auramazda, Vi(n)dafra seized Babylon . .

on the 2d day of the month . then it was thus . .

• a o •

IV.

1. Says Darius the king this (is) what was done by me in Babylon.

2. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did; by the grace of Auram¬
azda it was (done) wholly in (my) way;* after that the kings became re¬
bellious I engaged in XIX battles; by the grace of Auramazda I smote
them and I seized IX kings; there was one, Gaumataby name, a Magian;
he lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; he made Persia re¬
bellious; there (was) one, Atrina byname, inUvaja; he lied; thus he said;
I am king in Uvaja; he made Uvaja rebellious to me; there (was) one,
Naditabira by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said; I am Nabuku¬
dracara the son of Nabunita; he made Babylon rebellious; there (was)
one, Martiya by name, a Persian; he lied; thus he said; I am Imanis
king in Uvaja; he made Uvaja rebellious; there (was) one Pravartis by
name, a Mede; he lied; thus he said; I am Khshathrita of the family of
Uvakhshatara; he made Media rebellious; there (was) one, Citra(n)takhma
by name, in Sagartia; he lied; thus he said; I am king in Sagartia, of the
family of Uvakhshatara; he made Sagartia rebellious: there (was) one,
Frada by name, a Margianian; he lied; thus he said; I am king in Margus;
he made Margus rebellious; there (was) one, Vahyazdata by name, a Per¬
sian; he lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; he made Per¬
sia rebellious; there (was) one, Arakha by name, an Armenian; he lied;
thus he said; I am Nabukudracara the son of Nabunita; he made Baby¬
lon rebellious.

* hamahyaya tharda is of doubtful interpretation. Rawl. suggested “the performance of
the whole Oppert “ dans toute ma vie; dans toute l’annie, toujours Spiegel “ in aller
Weiser 11 Many idle attempts have been made to connect tharda with the Sanskrit qarad,
autumn used in the Veda metaphorically for year , but they are unsatisfactory. I feel
that we have nothing which can give us light on this phrase.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

251

3. Says Darius the king these IX kings I seized within these battles.

4. Says Darius the king these (are) the provinces which became re¬

bellious; a lie made them* * * §. . . .that these deceived the state; afterwards
Auramazda made them in my hand; as desire (moved) me, thus. . . . .

5. Says Darius the king O thou who wilt be king in the future, pro¬
tect thyself strongly from deceit; whatever man will be a deceiver, him
punish well (lit. him well punished punish, Cf.. I. 8), if thus thou shalt
think “ may my country be firm.”

6. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did; by the grace of Aura¬
mazda I did (it) wholly in (my) way;| O though who shalt examine this
inscription in the future, let it convince thee (as to) what (was) done by
me; do not deceived thyself.

7. Says Darius the king Auramazda (is) a witness? that this (is) true
(and) not false (which) I did wholly in my own way.J

8. Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda .

(what) else (was) done by me to a great extent, that (is) not inscribed on
this inscription; for this reason it (is) not inscribed lest whoever will

examine this inscription in the future . it may

not convince him (as to) what (was) don6 by me (and) he may think (it)
false. §

9. Says Darius the king who were the former kings, by these nothing
(was) done to a great extent as (was) performed || wholly by me though
the grace of Auramazda.

10. Says Darius the king . let it convince thee (as to) what

(was) done by me; thus . for this reason do not

hide (this monument); if thou shalt not hide this monument (but) tell
(it) to the state, may Auramazda be a friend to thee and may there be to
thee a family abundantly and live thou long.

11. Says Darius the king if thou shalt hide this monument (and) not
tell (it) to the state, may Auramazda be a smiter to thee and may there
not be to thee a family.

12. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did wholly in (my) way;^[ by
the grace of Auramazda I did (it); Auramazda bore me aid and the other
gods which are.

13. Says Darius the king for this reason Auramazda bore me aid and

the other gods which are, because I was not an enemy, I was not a de¬
ceiver, I was not a despot . family above law, above

* Perhaps we can supply with Spiegel hamitriya a lie made them rebellious .

t Cf. IV. 2.

t Cf . IV. 2.

§ Although much has become obliterated yet we have enough to enable us to gain the
sense of the passage. The idea is: should I write the memorial of all my achievements,
they would be so many that men would lose faith in the testimony of this stone.

II Cf. IV. 2. but here tharda fails to appear.

II Cf. IV. 2.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

me . I did . that whoever for me helped

those belonging to my race, him well supported I supported; whenever
. him well punished I punished.

14. Says Darius the king 0 thou who art king in the future, whatever

man shall be a deceiver . shall be . (be) not

a friend to these; punish these with severe punishment.

15. Says Darius the king O thou who shalt see this inscription in the
future which I inscribed or these pictures, thou shalt not destroy (them)
as long as thou shalt live; thus guard them.

16. Says Darius the king if thou shalt see this inscription or these
pictures (and) shalt not destroy them and shalt guard them for me as
long as (thy) family shall be, may Auramazda be a friend to thee and may
there be to thee a family abundantly and live thou long and whatever

thou shalt do, this for thee (let) Auramazda . let him grant thy

prayers.

17. Says Darius the king if thou shalt see this inscription or these
pictures (and) shalt destroy them and shalt not guard them for me as
long as (thy) family shall be, may Auramazda be a smiter to thee and
may there not be to thee a family and whatever thou shalt do this let
Auramazda destroy for thee.

18. Says Darius the king these (are) the men who were there then
when I slew Gaumata the Magian who called himself Bardiya; then
these men cooperated as my allies; Vi(n)dafrana by name, the son of
Vayaspara, a Persian; Utana by name, the son of Thukhra, a Persian;
Gaubaruva by name, the son of Marduniya, a Persian; Vidarna by
name, the son of Bagabigna, a Persian; Bagabukhsha by name, the son
of Daduhya, a Persian; Ardumanis by name, the son of Vahauka, a
Persian.

19. Says Darius the king O thou who art king in the future, what

. what Darius .

I did.

v.

1. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did . . . 7 . .

. . way . . . .

. king . province; this became

estranged from me; one man ..imina by name; the (people) of Uvaja
made him chief; afterwards I sent forth (my) army to Uvaja; one man
Gaubaruva by name, a Persian, my subject, him I made chief of them;
afterwards this Gaubaruva with an army went to Uvaja; he engaged in

'V , • •

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Aclicemenides. 253

battle with the rebellious ones; afterwards
, . and to him .

me . province

. thus it . .

he seized and led to

2. Says Darius the king

. Auramazda .

Auramazda . I did.

3. Says Darius the king whoever in the future

by the grace of

4. Says Darius the king . I

went against Saka .

. Tigris . . . to the sea .

. I seized the enemy . to .

. . Saku (n) ka by name, him I seized .

. there another as chief .

. afterwards .

5. Says Darius the king . . . not

Auramazda . if by the grace of Auramazda

. . . I did.

6. Says Darius the king . worship? Aurmazda: .

Kossowicz remarks: “Notatu dignum omnium, quantum scio, imperatorum, qui ar-
morum vi atque gloria celebres extiterant, nisi duo, Darium Hystaspi nempe et Napole-
onem I — mum, commilitonum nomina, victorias suas recensendo, in publicis monumentis
memoriae tradidisse.”

254

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Arts and Letters.

THE SMALLER INSCRIPTIONS OF BEHISTAN.

A.

Over the picture of Darius.*

I (am) Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of Persia, king of the
countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arshama, the Achae-
menide. Says Darius the king my father (is) Hystaspes, the father of
Hystaspes (is) Arshama, the father of Arshama (is) Ariyaramna, the
father of Ariyaramna (is) Caispis, the father of Caispis (is) Achaemenes.
Says Darius the king therefore we are called Achaemenides; from long
ago we have extended; from long ago our family have been kings. Says
Darius the king VIII of my family (there were) who were formerly kings;
I am the ninth IX; individually we are kings.

B.

Under the prostrate form.

This Gaumata the Magian lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya, the son of
Cyrus; I am king.

c.

Over the first standing figure.

This Atrina lied; thus he said; I am king in Uvaja.

D.

Over the second standing figure.

This Naditabira lied; thus he said; I am Nabuk (u) dracara, the son of
Nabunita; I am king in Babylon.

E.

Upon the garment of the third standing figure.

This Fravartis lied; thus he said; I am Khshathrita of the family of
Uvakhshatara; I am king in Media.

E.

Over the fourth standing figure.

This Martiya lied; thus he said; I am Imanis, king in Uvaja.

* Cf. I, 1-4.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

255

Gr.

Over the fifth standing figure.

This Citra(n)takhma lied; thus he said; I am king in Sagartia, of the
family of Uvakhshatara.

H.

Over the sixth standing figure.

This Vahyazdata lied; thus he said; I anFBardiya, the son of Cyrus;
I am king.

i.

Over the seventh standing figure.

This Arakha lied; thus he said; I am Nabuk (u) dracara, the son of
Nabunita; I am king in Babylon.

J.

Over the eighth standing figure.

This Frada lied; thus he said; I am king in Margus.

k.

Over the ninth standing figure.*

This (is) Saku(n)ka, the Sakian.

* Herodotus mentions the high cap which was peculiar to the garb of the Sakians. It is
interesting to note that the figure is represent on the stone wearing this national head-dress.
Of. plate, opp. page 242.

256

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF ALVEND.

This inscription is engraven upon two niches on a large block of stone
near the base of Mt. Alvend. Not only is the monumental fame of Da¬
rius perpetuated by the Behistan mountain, but in different parts of the
Persian empire this monarch caused to be inscribed historic records of
his reign. At Persepolis the palaces declare the name of their founder
and his prayers for the protection of heaven. To Darius beyond all
others we are indebted for what we have of the Paleography of Persia.
After translating the inscription indicated above I shall take up the re¬
maining ones of this king at Persepolis, Suez, etc.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven,* who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made Da¬
rius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Darius the great
king, king of kings, king of the countries possessing many kinds of people,,
king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Hystaspes, the Achae-
menide.

* Asman ( heaven ) is literally a stone as we know from its cognate in Sanskrit. Probably
the Persians regarded the sky as a solid dome; cf. the Hebrew word raqi (a) (Gen. I. 8J), and
our firmament (firmamentum).

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

257

THE INSCRIPTIONS OF SUEZ.

A crowned head is carved upon the stone together with the legend:

Darins the great king, king of kings, king of the countries, the son of
Hystaspes, the Achaemenide.

Above are a dozen lines of Persian cuneiform text the translation of
which follows.

B.

A great god (is) Auramazda, who created yonder heaven, who created
this eai'th, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made

Darius king, who gave the kingdom to Darius; what great .

. I (am) Darius the great king, king of

kings, king of the countries possessing many people, king of this great
earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenide. Says Darius
the king I am a Persian; with (the help of) Persia I seized Egypt; I com¬
manded to dig this canal * from the Nile by name a river which flows
in Egypt to the sea, which goes from Persia; afterwards this canal was
dug there as I commanded . . . . .

*Cf. Herodotus IV. 39. Xrjyei $£ avzrj [p ' Apafirf), ov Xpyovda ei y?/
vojxop, £<s rov koXtcov zov ’Apafiiov , kS zov AapsioZ £K zov NiiXov
diGopvxct kdfjyaye.

17— A. & L.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

. 258

THE INSCRIPTION OF LONDON.

The following short inscription can be seen in the British Mnsenm on
a cylinder which furnishes a fine specimen of gem engraving. A warrior
in his charriot is represented as attacking at full speed a lion,* the
symbol of power. This warrier from his crown we can interpret as King
Darius. He holds his bow ready for action, while the charioteer urges
on the steeds. This cylinder was carried to England from Egypt.

I (am) Darius the king.

* On tlie Persian sculptures, the lion and hull occur often, as emblems of strength. Meta¬
phors of this kind are frequent in all oriental literature. In making a list of the epithets of the
god Indra in the Veda, I was struck with the repeated comparisons of this sort. ' However,
the Vedic poets drew from the stall as the most fertile source of metaphors, and it was the
later Sanskrit which used the beasts of the forest more extensively for that purpose,
(e. g, the tiger of men, etc.) In Biblical literature the reader is referred to Ezekiel i. 10.
“ As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the faces of a man, and the face of a lion
on the right side.” Daniel vii. 4. “ The first was like a lion and had eagles wings.” The

familiar national emblems of later date, the Roman eagle, the British lion, etc., all had.
their origin in this early conception.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

259

THE INSCRIPTIONS OF DARIUS AT PERSEPOLIS.

The inscriptions of Persepolis show that same spirit of patriotism
which characterizes the record on Mt. Behistan. The superiority of
Persia over the provinces of the empire is set forth by the monarch with
the purpose of elevating the feelings of his countrymen and of keeping-
alive ever in their hearts the love of country. The palace of Darius
shows the ruins of several apartments with external chambers which were
evidently guard-rooms. The roof of a large room, fifty feet square, was
supported by pillars, the bases of which remain to-day. This edifice is
one of those ruins which represent the combined work of several succes¬
sive Achaemenian kings. All the structures stand upon the same plat¬
form around which are great walls of hewn stone. Two inscriptions are
found above the wall and one on two pillars, which read as follows:

A.

Above the ivall surrounding the palace.

r

The great Auramazda, who (is) the greatest of the gods, he made Darius
king; he gave to him the kingdom; by the grace of Auramazda Darius (is)
king. Says Darius the king this (is) the country Persia which Auram¬
azda gave me, which, beautiful, possessing good horses, possessing good
men, by the grace of Auramazda and (by the achievements) of me Darius
the king, does not fear an enemy. Says Darius the king let Auramazda
bear me aid with (his) fellow gods and let Auramazda protect this coun¬
try from an army, from misfortune, from deceit; may not an enemy. . . .
come unto this country, nor an army, nor misfortune nor deceit; this I
pray of Auramazda. . . .with (his) fellow gods; this let Auramazda give
me with (his) fellow gods.

B.

Another inscription above the ivall.

I (am) Darius the great king, king of kings, king of many countries,
the son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenide. Says Darius the king by the
grace of Auramazda these (are) the provinces which I subdued with (the
help of) that Persian army, (and) which feared me (and) brought to me
tribute; Uvaja, Media, Babylon, Arabia, Assyria, Egypt, Armenia, Cap-

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

padocia, Sparda, Ionia, which (are) of the dry (land) (and) which (are) of
the sea, and the provinces which (are) in the east, Sagartia, Parthia,
Zara(n)ka, Haraiva, Bactria, Sugda, Uvarazamiya, Thatagus, Harau-
vatis, India, Ga(n)dara, Saka, Maka. Says Darius the king if thus thou
tshalt think “may I not fear an enemy,” protect this Persian state; if
the Persian state shall be protected, may this goddess (namely) this
spirit (of patriotism) for a long time unharmed, descend upon this race.

c.

Over the pillars in the palace.

Darius the great king, king of kings, king of the countries, the son of
Hystaspes, the Achaemenide, who built this palace.

Trans. Wis. Acad.

Vol. VIII, PI. X.

The Tomb of Darius

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 261

THE INSCRIPTION ON THE TOMB OF DARIUS.

Naqshi — Rustam is the burial place of Darius.

On the face of a mountain which rises to the perpendicular height of
900 feet are cut the excavations which are doubtless tombs. These relics
have a common external appearance. They are carved into the rock
fourteen feet deep in the form of a cross the upright section of which is
about ninty feet, the tranverse division about fifty feet. Four pilasters
about seven feet apart ornament the tranverse section, in the midst of
which is the deor of the tomb. On the division above the facade of this
sepulchre are the sculptures. A double row of fourteen figures support
two cornices. Two bulls form the pillars at each end of the upper cor¬
nice. On an elevated pedestal of three steps stands a figure dressed in a
flowing robe holding his bow in his left hand. Without doubt this is the
effigy of him who lies buried beneath. Opposite the standing form on a
pedestal of three steps is an altar upon which the sacred fire is burning,
while above is a disk probably representing the sun of which the fire
blazing at the shrine is the symbol. Above is the image of Auramazda.
One of these structures Ker-Porter visited and with great difficulty
explored its interior. Although he was not able to read the inscription,
yet he conjectured that this was the tomb of Darius. I quote him at this
point. “ The second tomb is the only one whereon the marks of an in¬
scription can be traced; but over the whole tablet of the upper compart¬
ment, letters are visible wherever they could be introduced; above the
figures, between them and the altar, along the side, from top to bottom,1
in short, everywhere, we see it covered with the arrow-headed characters
and in good preservation. What a treasure of information doubtless
is there to the happy man who can decipher it. It was tantalizing
to a painful degree, to look at such a sealed book, in the very spot of
mystery, where probably, its contents would explain all. But it certainly
is a very distinguishing peculiarity of this tomb that it alone should con¬
tain any inscription, and that the writing on it is so abundant; a circum¬
stance that might warrant the supposition of this being the tomb that
was cut by the express orders of Darius Hystaspes to receive his re¬
mains. ” (Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, ancient Babylonia etc.,
etc. by Sir Robert Ker-Porter, vol. I, p. 523).

Before translating the inscription I wish to call the attention of the
reader to Herod III. 88. Tcpdorov psv vvv tvtcov Ttoir/6dpEv oS XiBivov
(AapeioS) e6t?]6e. ^gdov 8e oi evt/v dv?)p i7t7tEv ?. ETtsy paipE Se y pdppara
Xhyovra rads. Aapsio^ 6 tT6rd(j7t£oS 6vv te tov iititov rp dpErp uai
OifidpsoS rov imtoKopov £Krrj6aro rrjv IlEpdsGov f5a6iXpb)v.

262

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

A.

A great god is Auramazcla, who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made Darins
king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Darius the great king
king of kings, king of the countries possessing many kinds of people,
king of this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes the Achaeme-
nide, a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan, an Aryan offspring.
Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda these (are) the provinces
which I seized afar from Persia; I ruled them; they brought tribute to

me . what was commanded to them by me, this they did;

the law which (is) mine, that was established; Media, Uvaja, Parthia, Har-
aiva, Bactria, Suguda, Uvarazamis, Zara(n)ka, Harauvatis, Thatagus, Ga-
(n)dara, India, Sakae Humavarkae, Sakae Tigrakhaudae, Babylon, Assy¬
ria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Sparda, Ionia, Sakae beyond
the sea, the Ionians wearing long hair,* Patians, Kusians, Macians, Kar-

kians. Says Darius the king Auramazda, when he saw this earth .

. afterwards gave it to me: he made me king; I am king;

by the grace of Auramazda I established it on (its) foundation; what I
commanded to them, this they did as desire came to (lit. was) me. If
perchance thou shall think that manifold (lit. a manifold thing) are
these provinces which Darius the king held, look at the picture (of those)
who are bearing my throne,t in order that thou mayst know them; then
to thee will be the knowledge (that) the spear of a Persian man hath
gone forth afar; then to thee will be the knowledge (that) a Persian man
waged battle far from Persia. Says Darius the king this (is) what
(was) done; all this by the grace of Auramazda I did; Auramazda bore

me aid until this (was) done; let Auramazda protect me from .

and my race and this country; this I pray of Auramazda; this let Aura¬
mazda give me: O man, what (are) the commands of Auramazda, may he
(make them) revealed to thee; do not err; do not leave the right path; do
not sin.

B.

A great god (is) Auramazda who . made

spirit? of man . above Darius the

king . . .

Says Darius the king by the

*Cf. the Homeric %ap?/%o/4&5or.r£s.

t The northern throne of the great palace contains five tiers of ten warriors supporting
the platform on which the king is represented sitting, surrounded by his attendants.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 263

grace of Auramazda .

. is violence .

. violence . .

c.

Gaubaruva, a Patisuvarian, spear -bearer of Darius the king.

D.

Aspacana, quiver-bearer?, a server of the arrows of Darius the king.

E.

This (is) a Macian.

264

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTIONS OP XERXES AT PERSEPOLIS.

A.

Upon each one of the four pillars of the entrances to the palace of Xe rxes

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder-
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who created
Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great
king, king of kings, king of the countries, possessing many kinds of people,
king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Darius the king, the
Achaemenide. Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Auramazda, this
entrance possessing all countries I made; much else (that is) beautiful
(was) done by this Persian (people) which I did and which my father did;
whatever (that has been) done seems beautiful, all that we did by the
grace of Auramazda. Says Xerxes the king let Auramazda protect me
and my kingdom and what (was) done by me and what (was) done by my
father, (all) this let Auramazda protect.

B.

Upon the pillars on the western side of the palace , ivhere Xerxes is repre¬
sented standing with two attendants.

Xerxes the great king, king of kings, the son of Darius the king, the
Achaemenide.

c.

Upon the wall by the stairs of the palace.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes,
king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great kingy,
king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of people,
king of this great earth far and wide, son of Darius the king, the Achae-
menide.,' [Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Auramazda this,
palace (lit. seat) I made; let Auramazda protect me with the gods and
my kingdom and what (was) done by me.

D.

The above inscription is repeated on the western stairs of the palace.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 265

E.

Upon the highest pillar near the southern stairs.

A great god (is) Aurmazda who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes
king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great king,
king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of people,
king of this great earth far and wide, son of Darius the king, the Achae-
menide. Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Aura * Mazda this
palace (lit. seat) Darius the king made, who (was) my father; let Aura-
mazda protect me with the gods and what (was) done by my father
Darius the king, (all) this let Auramazda protect with the gods .

F.

The above inscription is repeated upon the walls of the southern
stairs.

G.

Upon the stairs of the palace.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made
Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many . I (am) Xerxes the great
king, king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of peo¬
ple, king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Darius the king,
the Achaemenide. Says Xerxes the great king what (was) done by me
here and what (was) done by me afar, all this I did by the grace of
Auramazda; let Auramazda protect me with the gods and my kingdom
and what (was) done by me.

* Notice that the two members of the compound are separated. In the Zend Avesta we
read ahura mazda, aura signifies lord (Cf . Sanskrit \ asura, Zend ahura) ; mazda
we can divide into maz great (Cf. Sanskrit mahat, Lat. mag-nus, Gothic mag, Eng.
might.) and da to know.

266

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF XERXES AT ALVEND.

The following inscription is engraven upon two niches cut into a small
rock:

A great god (is) Auramazda, who (is) greatest of the gods, who created
this earth, who created yonder heaven, who created man, who created the
spirit? of man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of
many. I (am) Xerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the provinces
possessing many kinds of people, king of this great earth far and wide »
the son of Darius the king, the Achaemenide.

THE INSCRIPTION UPON THE VASE OF COUNT CAYLUS.

This vase contains the three customary forms of cuneiform writing
and a line of Egyptian hieroglyphics. This relic is preserved in Paris.
Four fragments of similar alabaster vases containing the same quadri-
lingual inscription have been found by W. K. Loftus in Susa, and are
to be seen to-day in the British Museum.

I (am) Xerxes, the great king.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 267

THE INSCRIPTION AT VAN.

This inscription is about sixty feet from the plain below, engraven
upon a niche in an enormous rock which rises to the perpendicular
heighth of one hundred feet:

A great god (is) Auramazda who (is) the greatest of the gods, who
created this earth, who created yonder heaven, who created man, who
created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one
lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the
provinces possessing many kinds of people, king of this great earth far
and wide, the son of Darius the king, the Achaemenide. Says Xerxes
the king Darius the king who (was) my father he by the grace of
Auramazda did what (was) beautiful to a great extent and he com¬
manded to carve this place - ? he did not make the inscription in¬

scribed; afterwards I commanded to inscribe this inscription; let Aura¬
mazda protect me with the gods and my kingdom and what (has been)
done by me.

268

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES I.

This inscription, which is quadrilingual is engraven upon a vase which
is preserved in the treasury of St. Mark’s at Venice.

Artaxerxes,* the great king.

THE INSCRIPTION OF DARIUS II.

Above the posts of the windows in the palace at Persepolis.

(This) lofty stone structure (has been) made by (one belonging to) the
race of Darius the king.

THE PECULIARITIES OF INSCRIPTIONS OF ARTAXERXES
MNEMON AND ARTA XERXES OCHUS.

These inscriptions show that the work of decay had already begun in
the grammatical structure of the language. Such careless irregularities
occur in them that I wish to call the attention of the reader to a few
before I begin the translation: (1) what should be a genitive becomes
attracted into the nominative on account of proximity; (2) the nomina¬
tive is attracted into the case of a preceding noun for the same reason*
yet allowing the predicate to be in the proper case; (§) the nominative
is thrust into the accusative as if it were to become a direct object, yet
the passive construction is retained. In consequence of these irregu¬
larities it will be impossible to make a literal translation as I have done
heretofore, but I shall translate as if the regular constructions were
employed.

* The cuneiform text spells the name of the monarch on the vase ardakhcashca. This
spelling must be due either to foreign pronunciation or to the ignorance of the workman,.
Elsewhere the cuneiform characters give the regular artakhshatra.

V.'V ■ '

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcepienides. 269

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES MNEMON AT SUSA.

This inscription is upon the base of one of the columns in the ruins
of what once must have been a great palace. Much of this building was
used for the pavement of other edifices by the races which in after time
possessed this spot.

t

A.

I (am) Artaxerxes, the great king, king of kings, the son of Darius* the
king.

B.

Upon the base of a pillar in a large row of columns. This palace
seems to have been fashioned after the model of that of Darius at Per-
sepolis. In connection with this edifice it is interesting to refer to Dan.
viii. 2. “ and it came to pass when I saw, that I was in Susa (or Shu-
shan) in the palace ” etc.

Says Artaxerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the countries,
king of the earth, the son of Darius the king; Darius (was) the son of
Artaxerxes the king; Artaxerxes (was) the son of Xerxes the king;
Xerxes (was) the son of Darius the king; Darius (was) the son of Hys-

taspes, the Achaemenide; this building Darius, my ancestor made .

. . . . . Artaxerxes (my) grandfather . Anakata

and Mithra . by the grace of Auramazda the building I made; let

Auramazda, Anahata and Mithra protect me . .

* Darayavus (Darius) although having a stem in u is treated like nouns whose stems end
in a. So in Prakrit there is a strong tendency for the so-called first declension to trespass
upon the others, thus breaking down the barriers which were observed by the Sanskrit.

270

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES OCHUS AT PERSEPOLIS..

Upon the steps of the palace.

A great god (is) Anramazda who created this earth, who created yonder
heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made me,
Artaxerxes, king, one king of many, one lord of many. Says Artaxerxes
the great king, king of kings, king of countries, king of the earth. I
(am) the son of Artaxerxes, the king; Artaxerxes (was) the son of Darius
the king; Darius (was) the son of Artaxerxes the king; Artaxerxes (was)
the son of Xerxes the king; Xerxes (was) the son of Darius the king;
Darius was the son of Hystaspes by name; Hystaspes was the son of
Arshama by name, the Achaemenide. Says Artaxerxes the king this
lofty stone structure (was) made by me during my reign (lit. under me).
Says Artaxerxes the king let Auramazda and the ®god Mithra j protect
me and this country and what (was) done by me.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 271

THE OLD PERSIAN LANGUAGE.

We have now translated all the inscriptions of the Achaemenides
which have been discovered. Before closing this work I wish to speak
a word for the Old Persian language. Not only the historian feels an
interest in reading the records written by the monarchs of one of the
greatest empires of past ages, but the philologist recognizes in the
speech, which has been preserved to us through the ambition of these
oriental despots another offspring of our mother-tongue. Of that great
sisterhood of languages, to which our own speech belongs, the Old Per¬
sian is a most ancient member. In its grammatical structure it most
closely resembles the Vedic dialect of the Sanskrit and we have to rely
almost entirely upon the combined help of the Sanskrit and Zend for an
understanding of its vocabulary. For the sake of illustration I add a
few Old Persian words with their cognates in the other members of our
family.

Old Persian. Sanskrit.

Zend.

Greek.

Latin.

Gothic.

English.

AITA.

ETAT.

AETAD.

To.

ISTE.

TPIA.

THE.

UPARIY.

UPARI.

UPARA.

V7t£f).

super.

UFAR.

OVER.

TUVM.

TVAM.

THWAM.

6v (tv)-

TU.

THOU.

GAM.

GAM.

GAM.

VENIO.

QUAM.

COME.

PITAR.

PITAR.

PITA.

7taTT}p.

PATER.

FADAR.

FATHER

In its phonetic system the Old Persian showed a striking analogy to
that of the Greek in allowing an original sibilant to pass over into the
aspiration, e. g. ah be for Skt. as.; so in Greek 6 and rj for Skt. sas and
SA.

A few peculiar points of syntax I shall note.* The nominative is some¬
times used apparently as the direct object of a verb. The instrumental
assumes a temporal sense by denoting the association of time with an
event. The dative has disappeared from the language and its place is
taken by the genitive. This datival genitive is simply a pregnant use of
the possessive genitive and occurs likewise in the Prakrit and late San¬
skrit. e. g. khshatram mana frabara, he gave the kingdom to me (made

* For a fuller discussion of the peculiarities of Old Persian syntax, cp. my article in the
Proceedings of the Oriental Society (1892) p. 100.

272

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

it mine by giving). The relative pronoun is frequently equivalent in
meaning and usage to the Greek article agreeing with its antecedent
not only in gender and number but also in case. When used in this way
its independent character is lost.

The imperfect and aorist sometimes appear without augment as often
in the Veda. With the loss of this augment they sacrifice their peculiar
character. After ma prohibitive the sense is that of an optative or im¬
perative. The infinitive often expresses purpose as the dative infini¬
tive in the Rig Veda.

The participle of kar do regularly takes a genitive for the instrumen¬
tal, perhaps on account of the nominal character of the participle.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 273

THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE ON
THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNETISM.

By HIRAM B. LOOMIS, Ph. D.,

Instructor in Physics, State University .

The following paper is an account of some experiments undertaken to
determine more accurately, if possible, the kind of change which takes
place when a magnet is heated and cooled. An extensive investigation
of the changes in magnetic distribution, moment, and permeability is
under way and considerable work has been done in all three lines.
Though the results so far obtained as to changes in moment and perme¬
ability are not deemed complete enough for publication, the investiga¬
tion as to the changes in distribution may be of interest.

The subject will be considered under the following heads:

I. Historical Sketch.

II. Description of Apparatus and Experiment.

III. Calculation and Verification of Results.

IV. Discussion of Results.

I. HISTORY.

* About 1825, Kupffer magnetized a steel bar and placed it in a water
bath. Near it he suspended a magnetic needle and determined the
period of 300 swings before the temperature of the bar had changed.
The bath was then heated to 100° C., and the period of 300 swings again
determined. The bar was alternately heated and cooled between the
same limits of temperature, and determinations of the period were
made. His results may be summed up as follows: If a permanent
magnet be heated above the temperature of magnetization, its magnetic
moment decreases., On again cooling the moment increases, but not
enough to make up the first loss. This is true of the first three or four
heatings and coolings.

t Riess and Moser also experimented on the change in magnetic moment
by swinging magnets in the earth’s field and determining the period of

* Wiedemann’s Electricitat III., p. 753.

t Riess und Moser, Pogg. Ann. 17, p. 425, 1829.

18— A. & L.

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

vibration. For needles 34 lines long they found the following formula
held:

I' = I [1 - 0.000324 (t' - 1) d],

where I and I' are the intensities of magnetization at the temperatures
t and t' on the Reamur scale, and d is the diameter of the magnets. For
needles 2 inches long the numerical factor is 0.000432, showing that the
proportional change in intensity of magnetization is greater in shorter
magnets. Their temperature limits were 0° and 80° R. By swinging
their magnets at different temperatures they found the change in moment
proportional to the difference in temperature as is shown by their for¬
mula, which is to be applied with caution for their magnets had not
been brought to what we call the permanent state.

In 1851,* Lamont found that when a permanent magnet was alter¬
nately heated and cooled fifteen or sixteen times between fixed limits
of temperature, it reached a permanent state in which it had a definite
magnetic moment for a given temperature and always returned to that
moment when brought to the corresponding temperature, provided only
it had never passed beyond the temperature limits mentioned above.
The higher the temperature, the smaller was the magnetic moment.

tProf. G. Wiedemann has made some careful investigations on the
influence exerted by the temper of the steel and the original intensity
of magnetization. He used bars 22 cm. long and 1.35 cm. in diameter.
Before being magnetized, they were alternately placed in melting snow
and boiling water fifteen times, in order to bring the steel itself as far as
possible into such a state that alterations in temperature would produce
no structural change. The bars were magnetized in a coil at a tempera¬
ture of 0°. They were then carefully placed in a box of sheet copper be¬
fore the needle of a magnetometer and the deflection was observed by
a telescope and scale. The temperatures of 0° and 100° C. were obtained
by means of melting snow and boiling water. His results for magnets
that have reached the permanent state show that in the case of hard
steel magnets the change in moment is nearly proportional to the
moment at 0°, while for tempered and soft steel magnets, the ratio of
the change to the moment at 0° C. increases with the moment. As his
results give a good idea of the size of the changes under discussion, I ap¬
pend the following table from his paper:

* Lamont, Pogg. Am. 82, p. 440, 1851.

+ G. Wiedemann, Pogg. Am. 100, p. 235, 1852; 103, p. 563, 1858; 122, p. 355, 1664.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 275

M0

Mi oo

M'0

N0

Nioo

Mo-Mi o o

o

i

o

S

o

o

No N100

M0

M0

M0

N0

I. Hard steel bar.

71.5

41.5

44.8

37.

33.2

0.420

0.373

0.483

0.103

134.5

89.2

96.

85.5

77.8

0.321

0.286

0.364

0.090

195.

134.3

146.2

133.3

120.

0.311

0.250

0.316

0.100

II. Tempered steel bar.

44.

27.

30.

29.

27.

0.386

0.318

0.341

0.0690

148.5

107.2

114.5

110.3

101.

0.278

0.229

0.257

0.0814

219.5

165.

179.

172.

156.

0.249

0.184

0.216

0.0930

317.

239.

260.7

251.2

226 ...

0.246

0.178

0.207

0.1003

Soft steel bar , No. 1.

85.

45.

38.

33.2

0.471

0.553

0.126

141.

73.5

68.5

57.

0.479

0.514

0.168

193.

99.

101.

78.5

0.487

0.478

0.223

209,5

109.5

115.

88.2

0.477

0.451

0.233

Soft steel bar , No. 2.

95.5

49.7

54.2

45.

39.

0.479

0.432

0.529

0.133

136.5

73.

81.5

69.

59.

0.465

0.403

0.495

0.145

174.8

92.5

108.3

93.4

76.

0.471

0.378

0.466

0.186

Very soft steel bar which had been heated and slowly cooled many times.

51.5

34.5

37.

0.330

0.282

80.5

54.5

58.

0.323

0.279

113.

76.

82.

0.328

0 .274

159.5

103.3

116.5

0.353

0.270

181.

113.5

131.

0.373

0.277

M0 is the intensity of magnetization before any change in tempera¬
ture has taken place; M100, when first heated to 100° C.; M'0, after being
again cooled to 0° C, N0 and N100 are the intensities of magnetiza¬
tion at the temperatures indicated by the subscripts after the magnet
has been heated and cooled fifteen times.

276

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

With reference to the theory of these changes Prof. Wiedemann says:
44 Besides the permanent effect dne to an alteration in temperature there
is a temporary change. Each heating diminishes the permanent mo¬
ment of the molecules. Moreover, for the time being, it loosens the
particles of the body and lessens the strain in which they have been
placed by the action of external forces, therefore they return a little
toward their first position of equilibrium, in which they were held by
the forces acting between them before the external forces came into
play. Heating thus diminishes the magnetization temporarily, but on
cooling the molecules return to their former position and the lost mag¬
netization is regained.

“We can produce entirely analogous phenomena if we change the
temperature of bodies which have suffered a change of form (tortion) as
a result of the mechanical forces, and observe the increase and decrease
of this on heating and cooling.”

*Barus and Strouhal carefully distinguished the mechanical effect of
heating from the purely magnetic effect. They found that a temperature
20° or 30e C. above that of the water in which a glass hard steel rod was
dipped in hardening produced quite perceptible annealing effects. This
change in the hardness of steel would naturally affect the magnetiza¬
tion.

According to their experiments, if a glass hard steel rod is thoroughly
annealed by being kept at the temperature of boiling water for a day or
two and then magnetized to saturation at the temperature of the room,
the loss in magnetism on being heated to the boiling point is rela¬
tively small and is nearly independent of the time it is kept there.
Nearly the whole change takes place during the first ten minutes. On
the other hand, if the bar is not first annealed, the change is much
larger and is not complete after twenty-two hours heating.

We pass now to investigations on changes in distribution due to tem¬
perature changes. This field has not been extensively worked. These
two investigations are all that could be found.

■fKupffer determined at two different temperatures the period of
vibration of a short needle placed opposite different parts of a long
magnet, and found the proportional change in distribution greater at
the ends than in the middle of the bar. All his measurements were
made before the bar had reached the permanent state.

X Poloni measured the distribution at various temperatures, by slip¬
ping a coil from different parts of the magnet to such a distance that
the magnet exerted practically no effect, and measuring the quantity
of electricity thus induced. He worked between temperatures 0° and

* Bull U. S. Geol. Sur. No. 14, p. 151.
tKuppfer, Pogg. Ann. 12, p. 133.

X Poloni, Beibl. 5, p. 802. Atti della R. Acad.dei Lincei 5, p. 262, 1881.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 277

200° C., using an oil bath to obtain his high temperatures. The changes
were quite regular between 0° and 180° C., but were very large near 190° C.
Between 0° and 180° C., he found that the following formula held:

M — A £ 1 + K—1 — K~x — K (l + x"> J

where M is the induction in the magnet at a distance x from one of the
ends; 1, the length of the magnet; A, a quantity depending only on the
temperature, while K is sensibly constant for a given magnet.

II. DESCRIPTION OF APPARUTUS AND EXPERIMENT.

The determination of the reason for and laws governing the increase
and decrease in magnetism from changes in temperature forms an inter-
* esting problem, and the investigation was undertaken in the hope of
throwing new light on the subject. The apparatus employed was sug¬
gested by Prof. Rowland, under whose direction the investigation was
conducted, and will be best understood from the diagram on plate XI.

A and B are two cylindrical soft steel magnets (Stub’s steel of the
same temper as when purchased) 30.1 cm. long, and 0.55 cm. in diameter.
They were magnetized to saturation in a coil, the magnetic circuit being
completed by an iron casting, which happened to be of suitable size and
shape. They were then brought to the permanent state by alternate
heating and cooling. In both ends of each holes were bored and threads
cut. The depth of these holes in magnet A was 8 mm. at each end. In
magnet B the hole at the south end was 11 mm. deep, that at the north
end 7 mm. In the experiment the magnets were placed perpendicular
to the earth’s field.

Pieces of brass rod H H H H of the same diameter as the magnets were
screwed into their ends and acted as guides for the two coils (to be de¬
scribed presently), so that after they had been slipped off the magnets,
they could be slipped back again without trouble. DD is a brass rod
about 1.5 metres long, holding the two ‘magnets together in the position
shown in the figure. CC are pieces of non-conducting material to keep
the magnets from changing temperature by conduction along the rod
DD.

E and P are two coils of very fine wire wound on paper tubes which
just fit the magnets. They consisted of 150 turns (five layers of thirty
turns each), and were about 7 mm. wide. Their frames were joined by a
brass rod PP, of such length that when the coil E was at the center of
the magnet B, the coil F was also at the center of the magnet A. By

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

means of this rod they could be moved simultaneously over correspond¬
ing portions of the two magnets. At G is a gauge which regulates the
distance the coils are moved at a time, so that as they are moved step by
step from one end of the bar to the other, the steps will be of equal
length. By loosening a screw the coils may be moved from the middle
of the magnet to either end at one step.

The cross sections of two cylindrical double boxes made of sheet zinc
are indicated at S and T. At K K are openings in which corks holding
thermometers were inserted. At L L are openings into the space be¬
tween the two parts of the double box. Through these a current of
steam or cold water was passed to keep the space containing the magnets
at the requisite temperature. The temperatures employed were 14° and
99.5° C. The water used to produce the lower temperature was city water
direct from the faucet. A fairly constant temperature was easily main¬
tained. M N, M N, are openings by which the magnets were introduced
and through which the bars D D and PP passed. They were about 2.5
cm. in diameter and 20. cm. long, und were stuffed with cotton, the bet¬
ter to maintain the temperature of the interior.

The exploring coils, an ordinary astatic galvanometer of low resistance,
an earth inductor, arid a resistance box were connected up in series. At
first the exploring coils were so joined that the currents produced by
moving them opposed each other. Beginning at the middle of the mag¬
nets the coils were moved step by step to one end, the throw of the needle
being observed for each step. The coils were moved so far in the lastmea-
surment that practically no lines of induction passed through them as was
determined by experiment. Similar observations were made for the other
half of the magnets. This gives the excess of the number of lines of in¬
duction passing from a certain section of one magnet into the air over
that passing out of a corresponding section of the other magnet, that is
the difference of distribution of magnetism in the two magnets. These
measurments are taken first (say) when A and B are both at 14°C, and
and again when A is at 14° C, but B at 99. °5 C. The difference between
the two sets after they have been reduced to the same scale by the earth
inductor readings is evidently the change in distribution in B due to
the change in the temperature. By this method the quantity observed
is of about the same magnitude as the quantity we desire to obtain.

To get the distribution of magnetism of the bars, the difference in dis¬
tribution was first measured as above at the lower temperature, then
the connections of the coils were changed so that the induced currents
were in the same direction and the sum 'of the distributions was meas¬
ured in a similar way. In this case extra resistance had to be added
from the resistance box to keep the readings on the scale.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 279

III. CALCULATING OF BESULTS.

The formula for the ballistic galvanometer is

Q = k sin

where Q is the quantity of electricity; k, a constant factor; and 5 the
angular throw of the needle. The observations were made with telescope
and scale. Calling d the observed throw and r the distance of the mirror
from the scale.

tan 2 5 = —

r

5

Expanding sin we have •

this formula was used in reducing the large readings.

The earth inductor readings were taken frequently and were sub¬
stantially the same throughout the experiment. The throw of the nee¬
dle due to the earth inductor when both magnets were at 14° C. was 39.5
scale divisions; when one magnet was at 99.°5 C. and the other at 14° C.,
it was 37.8. The average throw due to slipping the exploring coils over
a certain portion of the magnets when one was hot and the other cold,
was multiplies by f f f = 1.045 to reduce to the scale of readings taken
when both magnets were cold. Corresponding readings were then sub¬
tracted, giving the change in distribution in terms of the scale divisions.
The reduction to absolute measure was as follows: The effective area of
the earth inductor as determined by previous observers is 20,716 sq. cm.
The value of the horizontal component of the earth’s field at and near
the position in which the earth inductor was placed has been determined
by numerous observers, and by various methods, and may safely be
taken as within 1 per cent, of 0. 2 C. G, S units. The total number of
lines of induction cut by turning the earth inductor was 2 H A = 8,286.4.
As the throw was 39.5 scale divisions, each division correspouded to
8,286.4-r- (39.5 X 150) = 1.398 C. G. S. lines of induction. The factor 150
is due to the 150 turns of the exploring coils. The change in distribu¬
tion in scale divisions obtained above was then multiplied by 1.398
giving the change in linear distribution in C. G. S. lines of induction
per 2.17 cm., that being the distance the coils were moved at each step.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

In determining the difference in distribution, the angles observed were
quite small. The largest was less than 2s, making the angular throw of
the needle less than 1°. The deflections in scale divisions were there-

3-

fore taken as proportional to sin The error in the case of the largest

reading would not exceed one part in 3,500. The error in the result is
still less, as it is obtained by subtracting two throws.

Specimen Calculation.
Magnet A.

Middle to North End.

Steps.

Average
observed
throw at
11° C.

Average
observed
throw at
99.°5 C.

Corrected
throw at
99.°5 C.

Difference
in distribu¬
tion in
scale
divisions.

Difference
in distribu¬
tion in

C. G. S.
lines of
inductions.

I .

18.0

17.5

18.3

— 0.3

— 0.4

II. . .

18.4

18.1

18.9

— 0.5

— 0.7

Ill .

11.8

12.6

13.2

— 1.4

— 2.0

IV .

— 7.2

— 4.2

— 4.4

— 2.8

— 3.9

V... .

—34.3

—27.2

—28.4

— 5.9

— 8.3

VI .

—42.0

—27.7

—28.9

—13.1

—18.3

VII .

—49.0

—19.4

—20.3

—28.7

—40.2

End .

— 5.4

— 2.2

— 2.3

— 3.1

- 4.3

In finding the sum of the distributions it was found necessary to make
use of the formula given on p. 279, because the angles were too large to

3

take sin proportional to tan 2 3. The corrected readings were re-
A

duced to absolute measure in the way just described. We have now the
sum and difference of the linear distribution of the two magnets. One-
half the sum plus one-half the difference gives the distribution of one,
one-half the sum minus one-half the difference gives that of the other.
The distributions at the higher temperature were obtained by subtract¬
ing the change in distribution due to the heating.

The induction at each point of the magnet was obtained by adding
up the number of lines of induction passing out of the magnet beyond
the point in question.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 281

Tables of the results for magnets A and B are given on pages 282-83.
The first column gives the distance of the exploring coils from the cen¬
ters of the magnets at the end of each step. The second and fourth
columns gives the number of C. G. S. lines of induction passing out from
the magnet at 14° and 99.°5 C. respectively in the step of the coil shown in
the first column. The third column gives the change in distribution. The
fifth and sixth columns gives the magnetization at the two tempera¬
tures, i. e. the number of C. G. S. lines of induction per square centime¬
ter passing through the magnet at the point indicated. The seventh
column gives the proportional change in magnetization at different
points of the magnet.

In the fifth and sixth columns two values are given for the center of
the magnet, calculated from the two ends, and serve to indicate the de¬
gree of accuracy attained. The variation is considerably less than one
per cent. The second and third columns from which all the others are
calculated give the means of at least five or six separate determinations,
which agree well among themselves. The results were further checked
by slipping the coils from the middle of the magnet clear off each end
at both temperatures. The variation between this measurement and
the others was always less than one-half of one per cent. This was con¬
sidered quite good as it is impossible to slip the coils over this whole
distance at the same rate at which they were slipped over the small
divisions.

In plate XI our results are shown graphically. The full lines give the
distribution at 14° C and 99. °5 C. The dotted lines give the change in
distribution due to this change in temperature. The scale of ordinates
in the last curves is ten times that of the distribution curves.

In addition to the checks upon accuracy already mentioned, the fol¬
lowing entirely independent determinations of the magnetic moments
of the two magnets were made. In the tables of distribution pp. 282-83, we
are given the number n of lines of induction issuing from little divis¬
ions of the bar, as well as the distance d of these divisions from the
center of the magnet. A first approximation to the moment is given
by the formula:

M=4 ~ 2 nd.

47T

282

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Magnet A.

Distance
from
center of
magnet.

Distribu¬
tion at

Change in
distribu-

Distribu¬
tion at

Il4 .

Induction

1-9 9 .5,

Induction

1-14 '1-9 9.5

14° C.

tion.

99°.5.

at 14° C.

at 99°.5.

Il4

70.1

— 4.3

65.8

15.20

296.

278.

.060

428.5

—40.2

388.3

13.03

2106.

1918.

.089

285.4

—18.3

267.1

10.86

3309.

3044.

.080

204.9

— 8.3

196.6

8.68

4175.

3875.

.071

146.8

— 3.9

142.9

6.51

4795.

4479.

.065

91.2

— 2.0

89.2

4.34

5180.

4586.

.062

56.6

— 0.7

55.9

2.17

5419.

5092.

.060

18.6

— 6.4

18.2

( 5498.

( 5169 l

0

\ 5453.

\ 5126 \

.060

— 17.9

0.

— 17.9

2.17

5377.

5050.

.060

— 55.5

+ 0.4

— 55.1

4.34

5143.

4818.

.063

— 96.9

+ 2.5

— 94.4

6.51

4734.

4420.

.066

—142.1

+ 3.2

—138.9

8.68

4134.

3834.

.072

— i.99.9

+ 6.2

—193.7

10.86

3289.

3015.

.083

—276.3

4 14.8

—261.5

13.03

2122.

1910.

.100

-^432.6

439.2

—393.4

15.20

294.

247.

.159

— 69.7

411.2

— 58.5

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 283

Magnet B.

Distance
from
uenter of
magnet.

Distribu¬
tion at 14°

Change in
distribu¬
tion.

Distribu¬
tion at
99.°5.

I 14

Induction
at 14°.

9 9 _5 •

Induction
at 99.°5.

1-14 1-99.5

1.14.

61.0

— 3.9

+ 57.1

15.20

258.

242.

.062

359.5

— 39.6

+ 3i9.9

13.03

1777.

1594.

.103

227.6

— 15.1

+ 212.5

10.86

2738.

2491.

.090

159.7

— 6.0

+ 153.7

8.68

3413.

3141.

.079

139.4

— 3.4

+ 136.0

6.51

4002.

373.6.

.071

108.1

— 2.1

-f- 106.0

4.34

4458.

4163.

.066

81.4

— 1.5

+ 80.0

2.17

4802.

4503. .

.062

43.5

— 0.1

+ 43.4

( 4986.

J 4950.

( 4685.

\ 4650.

.060

3.6

+ 0.7

+ 4.3

2.17

4965.

4668.

.060

— 36.2

+ 1.1

— 35.1

4.34

4812.

4520.

.060

— 79.8

+ 2.0

— 77.8

6.51

4475.

4191.

.063

— 128.3

+ 2.4

— 125.9

8.68

3933.

3659.

.069

— 188.6

+ 6.6

— 182.0

10.86

3136.

2890.

.078

— 266.3

+ 19.0

— 247.3

13.03

2011.

1845.

.082

— 406.4

+ 35.4

— 371.0

15.20

294.

277.

.057

— 69.7

+ 4.1

— 65.6

■

234

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

To this value the following correction was added: If A B, in Fig. 1?
is the length of one of these divisions of the magnet, and C D a part of

the distribution curve supposed to be straight, then the area ABDC
represents the number of lines of induction issuing from the magnet
in the length A B. Let F be the center of gravity of the triangle
C E D. It is evident that the portion of the distribution represented
by the triangle should be multiplied by the abscissa of F, not of H,
therefore a correction

2 area of C E D X G H

was added to the summation already given. From this calculation the
following results were obtained:

Magnets.

A.

B.

m14 .

Moment at 14° C .

2298

2060

Moment at 99. °5 C . . .

2140

2018

.

■M-14 -M-99.5 • • •

Loss .

158

142

Mi4 M9 9 5 . . .

Proportional loss .

0.0687

0.0689

Ml 4

Intensity at 14° C . . .

322

289

Intensity at 99. °5 C .

300

283;

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 2S5

The magnetic moments were also determined by swinging the magnets
at the two temperatures in a known field. The experiments were per¬
formed with great care and gave the following results:

Magnets.

A.

B.

M, A .

Moment at 14° C .

2359

2091

^ ,J-1 4 .

Moo - .

Moment at 99 . 6 5 C .

2197

1947

9 9.5 .

M. Moo r

Loss . . .

166

146

-LTJ- 1 4 'LTJ' 9 9 _ 5 • • • •

Ml 4 M99 5

Proportional loss . .

M14 ••••

0.0686

0.0687

Intensity at 14° C .

339

298

Intensity at 99 . °5 C .

316

277

The difference between these two sets of values is considerable, in the
case of magnet A the variation amounts to two per cent. This may be
due to the fact that only an approximation could be made to the mo¬
ments of inertia of the magnets because of the holes in the ends, where
a slight error would affect the result materially, the distance from the
center being 15 cm. The moments of inertia were calculated by divid¬
ing the magnet into two parts, an inner core and an outer shell extend¬
ing beyond the core at both ends. On the other hand it is to be noticed

]y[ _ m

that the ratios — h* — !!_§_ differ by less than one part in 300. In this

Mi 4

ratio the moment of inertia of the magnet is eliminated. I think on
the whole that the accuracy of the work is fairly well shown.

IV. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

The result of the experiment may be stated as follows: If a magnet
be heated after it has been brought into the permanent state, the pro¬
portional loss in distribution is greatest at the ends and least in the
middle. A glance at the table on pages 282-83, or at the curves on plate XI,
will show this. The same fact may be stated in other words as follows:
The proportional change in the number of lines of induction passing
through a cross-section of the magnet is greater, the nearer the section
is to the end, as is shown by column seven in the table on page 282-83. This

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

is different from the result obtained by Poloni, who found the propor¬
tional change sensibly constant throughout the magnet. It could not,
be expected that the small difference noticed here could be detected by
his method which consisted in measuring two large quantities and sub¬
tracting them in order to obtain a small difference. In the method em¬
ployed in this research the quantities measured differed but little in
size from the quantities desired, and much greater accuracy is easily
obtained.

I would suggest the following explanation: Prof. Ewing has recently
made an important addition to Weber’s theory of magnetism. He
says the forces which hold the little molecular magnets in position are
largely the mutual attractions and repulsions of these molecular magnets
themselves. In applying Ewing’s theory to the case in hand, let us con¬
sider a row of magnetic molecules ABC, etc.

ABC HIJKL

J is held in position by the action of H I, etc., on the one side and
K L. etc., on the other, while A has only B C, etc., to act upon
it. It is evident that the force holding J in position is greater
than that acting on A. Suppose the bar of which this line of
molecules is a part is heated. If in this process the energy of
vibration of A and J receive equal increments, it is evident that the
increase of amplitude of A will be greater than that of B. Now the
magnetic moment contributed by each molecule is the moment of the
molecule resolved along the direction of magnetization of the bar. The
moment contributed by A would suffer a larger proportional loss than
that contributed by J, and so the loss would be greatest at the ends.

There are other facts pointing in this direction, e. g., when a magnet
is heated before it has reached the permanent state, Kupffer found, as
already stated, that the proportional permanent loss was greatest at the
ends. In some rough tests I have made on this point, heating the bar
almost to redness, I have found the proportional loss at the ends nearly
twice as great as at the center of the bar. This would naturally follow
from the supposition made, for the force holding the end molecules in
position being less, they are more easily set in such violent vibration as
to swing out of one position of equilibrium into another.

I am tempted to add a single remark on another part of the investiga¬
tion. In every case tried so far, the area of the cycle of magnetization
(the largest magnetizing force being the same for all temperatures) is
always smaller for the higher temperature. I have only experimented

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 287

on soft steel. If the same thing is true for iron and is as marked in
degree, I should expect alternate current transformers to work more
efficiently at high than at low temperatures. I understand that some

t

efficiency tests point in this direction.

Madison, Wis., December 28th, 1891.

4

*

Trans Wis. Acad.

M=

H

&

Magnet A

Magnet ]3

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

289

«

EARLY LUTHERAN IMMIGRATION TO WISCONSIN.*

By KATE A. EVEREST.

The first immigration of Germans to Wisconsin in large numbers was
that of the so-called Old Lutherans of Pomerania and Brandenburg, who
came between 1839 and 1845, as a result of the attempt by King Frederick
William IV., of Prussia, to unite the Lutheran and Reformed faiths.

My purpose is to sketch the history of that movement with the emi¬
gration that followed and the forming of several German settlements in
this state.

Philip Schaff divides the history of the Lutheran church into five
periods. The first reaches from the Reformation to 1580, the date of the
adoption of the Book of Concord; the second from 1580 to 1700, when the
doctrinal system was defined in opposition to Romanism, Calvinism and

the milder forms of Lutheranism; the third period reaches from 1700 to

*

the middle of the eighteenth century, and is the time when. Pietism was
exercising its moderating influence; fourth, the period of Rationalism,
which reached the higher circles, the clergy, and the universities, and
created a revolution in theology; fifth, the period of the revival of evan¬
gelical theology and religion at the third centennial of the celebration of
the Reformation in 1817.1

From Reformation times there had been attempts to reconcile the fol¬
lowers of Luther with those of Melancthon and Zwingli, but the year
1580 marks their failure. In that year the Book of Concord was adopted
which strictly defined the Lutheran faith in distinction from both Cal¬
vinism and the milder forms of Lutherism represented by Melancthon. J

The controversy had been carried on hotly by the followers of each
reformer. At his death, Melancthon said, “ For two reasons I desire to
to leave this life: first, that I may enjoy the sight which I long for of the
son of God and of the church in Heaven; next, that I may be free from
the monstrous and implacable hatred of the theologians.” [|

* For informat1 on in regard to the Wisconsin communities, I am indebted to the pastors
of the churches: Rev. Gram, Rev. E. Pankou, Rev. R. Grabau, Rev. A. W. Keibel, of Wis¬
consin, and Rev. Philip von Rohr, of Minnesota, also to Dr. Falge, Mr. Blumenfeld and
others v ho have generously given me the information at their disposal. — K. A. Everest.

t Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, article. “Lutheranism.”

X Brockhaus Conversations — Lexicon. Vol. XI, article ‘Union. ’

II Gardiner’s “ Thirty Years War.” p. 13.

19— A. & L.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The basis of the Lutheran doctrine was the “ unaltered * Augsburg
confession,” the Smalcald article, and Luther’s catechisms.

By the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the only Protestant faith recognized
in Germany was the Lutheran and that the unaltered Augsburg confes¬
sion, but in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), both Lutheranism and Calvin¬
ism were given a legal standing.

At the beginning of the Thirty Years War it is estimated tliat between
seventy and ninety per cent, of the population of Germany were Protest¬
ant and by far the larger part of that number were Lutherans. The seat
of Lutheranism was northern Germany, while in the south the German
princes had adopted Calvinism. The Reformed faith or Calvinism had
taken root in Germany partly from Switzerland, the home of Zwingli,
and partly through the teachings of Melancthon, but it never gained
that hardy growth in Germany, says Gardiner, that it had in its native
soil. It was the religion of the courts, and according to the principle of
the times, it became the religion of the people, (cujus regio, ejns religio.)

Prom 1580 to the close of the seventeenth century the lines between
the two Protestant faiths were drawn still more closely, and the first
modification of dogmatic principles was effected by the influence of
Spener and the Pietists. Doctrine became subordinate to “ inner light ”
and to practical piety, it was like the Methodist revival in England
but did not result in secession.!

Meanwhile the thought of union was being revived. Frederick I. of
Prussia called councils of Lutherans and Reformed theologians at Berlin
for the sake of obliterating differences, and in 1737, Frederick Wil¬
liam I. sought to unify church usages by abolishing certain forms. But
the times were doing more. Rationalism was at work modifying creeds,
so that at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth
century the Lutheran church had but few representatives. J The old
hatred seemed strange, even incomprehensible to the new race. Ration¬
alism was above dogmatic strife and Pietism regarded the eternal love
as the essence of Christianity. Hence the idea naturally arose that
Protestantism might well return to its early unity. [| Of this idea
Schleiermacher was the spokesman and Frederick William III. its propa¬
gator, though they differed materially as to the manner in which it was
to be carried out.

The beginning of this century was rich with new national life for
Germany. Romanticism and the War of Liberation gave rise to a revival
of the past. It was a time of peculiar activity and awakening, which
called out German patriotism and above all new political aspirations.

* The Augsburg confession was edited and altered by Melancthon; hence two forms: the
invciriata editio and variata editio.

t Brockhaus, XVI, p. 37.

$ Brockhaus, XI, p . 269 .

|| Treitschke, Staaten-Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit. II, p. 239.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

291

By all the leaders in this movement a constitution with popular repre¬
sentation was demanded. The idea that the people should participate
in government and legislation underlay every attempt at reform. Even
in religious matters the same right was recognized. Thus as early as
1813 great importance was attached to the necessity of a free church
constitution. The great representative of this idea was Schleiermacher.
For this he wrote and worked unceasingly, believing that in this way
only could the union be brought about,* but the spirit of absolutism at
the Prussian court which was unfavorable to political constitutions, wa s
not less so to a free church constitution.

The year 1817 marks the beginning of a new' epoch in religious mat¬
ters. In that year Claus ITarnes published his ninety-five theses against
rationalistic apostasy and in the same year at the three hundredth anni¬
versary of the Reformation, King Frederick William III., of Prussia, pro¬
claimed the union of the Reformed and Lutheran churches. The great
point of difference between the two creeds lay in the doctrine of the
Lord’s Supper; the Lutherans taught the real presence of Christ’s body
44 in,” “ with,” and “under” the bread and wine of the sacrament; the
Calvinists made these symbolic of the real spiritual presence to believers
only. Other points of difference related to the doctrine of predestina¬
tion which Luther had not taught in any strict sense; but the Reformed
church laid great emphasis on moral character, and for that reason was
more inclined to the idea of unity than the Lutherans who emphasized
doctrinal points.

To the king who was of the Reformed faith the union seemed most
simple. 44 According to my opinion,” he had said, 44 the communion strife
is only an unfruitful theological subtlety, of no account in comparison
with the fundamental faith of the Scriptures.” | The fact that he was
outside of the church to which the great majority of his people belonged,
was a source of great regret to him. Possessed of a deeply religious
nature and for some time under pietistic influences, the union had been
one of his dearest objects. Though the act may have been praiseworthy,
and was performed by the king in the profound belief that he was called
to do that work, yet his unfortunate belief in the sacred prerogative of
kings which led him to carry out the reform in a thoroughly absolute
manner, was destined to call forth an opposition which ended in the par¬
tial failure of the attempt. The union was proclaimed without the con¬
sent of the churches, and in 1822, a new agende was drawn up by Bishop
Eylert and the court theologians, and. in 1830, was rigidly enforced.
Schleiermacher, the upholder and defender of the Union, was strongly
opposed to the agende, partly on account of its source, namely the royal

*Weber’s Weltgesckichte, vol. XIV, p. 900. Brockhaus, articles “Union” and “ Schleir-
macher.”

+ Treitschke II, p. 240.

292

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

will instead of the free choice of. the church, partly on account of its
contents, on the ground that they were antiquated and reactionary.

“ The Union rested not simply upon a weakening of the opposing
Evangelical doctrines,” says Weber, “but upon positive dogmatic princi¬
ples.”* It was ostensibly a liberal union leaving the interpretation of
disputed points to the conscience of the individual while the Bible only
was recognized as the ground of faith and life.

While the movement had many warm supporters and was imitated
by other German courts, namely, by Baden, Nassau and Rheinpfalz,,
yet it was not heartily supported by the rationalistic element, and on
the other hand, aroused a new Lutheran consciousness. It was taken
as an attempt to root out Lutheranism which the revival of Germany’s
great past was more likely to restore. This was especially the case in
those parts of Prussia where Lutheranism existed almost unmixed,
where, then, there was no sympathy with Reformed doctrines and the
union was not felt as a practical necessity. This was the case in North
Germany — Saxony, Mecklenburg and in Pomerania. “ It seemed,” says
Treitschke, “ like an uprising of Reason against Revelation.”!

For some years the opposition was confined to literary polemics,! but
in 1830 when the new agende was enforced by cabinet orders, Prof.
Scheibel of Breslau founded a separate society of two or three hundred
families, and being refused permission to worship according to the old
agende, Scheibel left the country. Many Silesian pastors followed his
example and resistance spread rapidly to Erfurt, Magdeburg and differ¬
ent parts of Pomerania. At Erfurt the leader of the movement and
afterwards of the emigration to America was Rev. Johannes A. A. Gra-
bau, pastor of the Evangelical church. In spite o“ an early education
under the influences of a pastor of the United faith, Grabau seems to
have kept his preference for the Lutheran church. Finally, in 1836, he
reached the conclusion that the Union was contrary to the Scriptures
and declared publicly that he could no longer use the new agende with
good conscience. Being questioned by the counsellor of the Consistory,,
he replied that the new form in the administration of the Lord’s Supper
did not express the belief of the Lutheran church, and that their faith
was curtailed and weakened in the new spirit of the times. His society
agreed with him and when he was suspended from his office and a new pas¬
tor was put in charge, they followed him to his house where services were
held. This, too, was forbidden, but they decided “ to obey God rather than
men.” The separate society grew until it reached a membership of nearly
400. Meanwhile, at Magdeburg, another small body of Lutherans had
separated from the Union church and were holding services at the home
of a captain of the guards, Henry von Rohr. The movement was

* Weber 14, p. 900.

+ Treitschke, Vol. II, p. 243.

X Schaff-Herzog II, 1376.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin. 293

spreading in Pomerania and many pastors and laymen were being perse¬
cuted. In 1837, Grabau was imprisoned and, at that time, there were
said to be twenty pastors in prison or banished.* Laymen who refused
to send their children to the United schools, or who availed themselves
of the administration of Luthern pastors in baptism or marriage cere¬
monies, but especially those who refused to pay the taxes required for
the support of a pastor of the United faith were imprisoned, fined or
otherwise punished.

At length Capt. von Rohr who had been deprived of his position as
captain of the guards, for his refusal to conform, assisted Grabau to es¬
cape from prison where, it was claimed, he was illegally detained. They
reached Seehof, on the cost of Pomerania in safety. Previous to this
time, frequent calls had come to Grabau from the Pomeranian churches
which had been deprived of their pastors, and he now visited and con¬
ducted services in the different societies. Already the question of emi¬
gration had been talked of here and letters were received from friends
in Ohio. Grabau advised them to wait until it was definitely settled
whether the Lutheran faith would be tolerated. Accordingly, letters
were sent to the government asking, in case it should not be tolerated,
for permission to emigrate. To the first question, the answer was “ The
Lutheran church is within the United church and outside of it, the
King will tolerate no Lutheran church in this land.” | Permission was
given to emigrate, in case they proved to the satisfaction of the govern¬
ment that they had a pastor, but not otherwise. In consequence of this,
many societies in Pomerania and the one at Magdeburg placed them¬
selves in communication with Grabau, asking him to become their
pastor. Grabau, meanwhile, had been imprisoned a second time, but he
Teceived permisssion to emigrate on strict conditions, namely, that he
go directly to Hamburg where they were to embark, accompanied by
police officers, lest he hold services on the way.

This was in the spring of 1839 and with Magdeburg as a center, a large
emigration was arranged for that year. Capt. von Rohr was chosen to
engage passage for them and to go in advance to America and choose
places for settlement. He chose Buffalo N. Y., and Milwaukee. Just why
lie selected Wisconsin, it is impossible to say, but after travelling through
New York, Ohio, Illinois and Wisconsin, in order to find the best possible
location for a settlement, Wisconsin and New York seemed the most
favorable. It is thought that the climate which resembles that of North
Germany was one inducement. Another was the prospect of obtaining
finely wooded lands, always highly prized by the Germans, at low prices.
Capt. von Rohr was very fond of the hunt and the west doubtless at¬
tracted him strongly.J The position of Wisconsin too, as to the routes of

* Lebenslauf des Ehrwurdigen J. A. A. Grabau von John A. Grabau (son), p, 26.

d Life of Grabau. p. 35.

t Letter from Rev. Philip von Rohr (his son). Winona, Minn.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

travel through the Great Lakes must have been another favorable con¬
sideration. Land was plenty and cheap in Wisconsin, and land offices,
had been established within a few years in Milwaukee, Mineral Point,
and Green Bay.

To defray the expenses of the journey, a common treasury was formed
to which the wealthier members contributed part of their means to as¬
sist the poor to accompany them. Directors were appointed for each
company, to take charge of the money and distribute it according to the
needs of the poorer people.

Passage was engaged for one thousand people in five American sail
vessels. Rev. E. P. L. Krause, a pastor from Silesia with his society ac¬
companied them. They emigrated in the latter part of July and reached
Buffalo, October 5th. Capt. von Rohr had met them in New York and
told them of the places he had chosen and their advantages. Accord¬
ingly about one half settled in and near Buffalo while the remainder
came to Wisconsin with Capt. von Rohr.

These were chiefly Pomeranians. It is doubtless this body of immi¬
grants that is mentioned in Mr. Buck’s Pioneer History of Milwaukee.
“ The year 1839,” he says, “ brought the first installment of immigrants
from Germany and Norway. The effect of their arrival with their gold

and silver wherewith to purchase land was electric .

Whereas Milwaukee had been under financial depression before, now all
doubts about the future were dissipated.” Again he says: “The first
German colony arrived in 1839. It consisted of about eight hundred
men, women and children [the number is probably exaggerated]. They
brought with them the necessary housekeeping utensils and encamped
on the lake shore south of Huron street. The men went about in a.
business way, examining the government plats in the land office, and
having ascertained by all means in their power where lands well tim¬
bered and watered could be purchased, they entered lands bounding on
the Milwaukee river, between Milwaukee and Washington (later Ozaukee)
counties. A small number remained in the village [probably Milwaukee
is meant], but the most of them employed themselves without delay in
clearing and cultivating lands. The men immediately declared their in¬
tention to become American citizens, every man signing his name to his
petition, to the number of seventy in one day.” *

The majority of the immigrants, over three hundred people, and prob¬
ably those still possessing some means, went to Mequon and there formed
the Freistadt colony, a name chosen, no doubt, to commemorate their
new freedom; some settled in Cedarburg also, while a few remained in
Milwaukee.!

These settlers were from Pomerania, chiefly from the district of
Stettin and from Kamin an Greifenberg and the neighboring country.

* Buck’s Pioneer History of Milwaukee, p. 181; ancl an address by Judge Miller, p. 265.

tKoss “Milwaukee,” p. 103. “In der Neuen Heimatk.” Eickhoff, 372.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

295

Farming and stock raising are the chief industries of this country and
the greater part of the land, about 60 per cent.,* * * § is held by large land
owners. Stettin is said to be the center of one of the best farming com¬
munities in Pomerania.| The Wisconsin settlers were chiefly farm-
laborers and handicrafts men, and, accordingly, well adapted to pioneer
life. They bought nearly all of the western half of the town of Mequon,
where they built log houses and improved the land. Capt. Von Rohr
had come with them, and during the first year he conducted their services
until the arrival of Rev. Krause from Buffalo, who was their first pastor;
immediately on his arrival a log church was built on section 19. In the
Milwaukee Society services were held in a house built by a fisherman on
land given him by Byron Kilbourn, near Chestnut street. It was a very
solid structure, built in true German style of panel work and clay fill¬
ing. They had no pastor, but the teacher Luck held services, while Rev.
Krause came occasionally from Freistadt.J

In 1843 another large immigation followed from Pomerania, from the
neighborhood of Stettin and the cities of Kolberg, Treptow and Kamin,
on the Baltic, and also from Brandenburg, from the country lying be¬
tween Ktistrin and Wrietzen on the Oder. Rev. Kindermann acted as
their leader. He had been directed to the Pomeranian churches by Rev.
Grabau during the earlier period of the persecution^ Others continued
to come until 1845. It was the reports of the earlier emigrants, who
were their friends and acquaintances, that led them to Wisconsin.

The cause of this emigration also was religious persecution, which had
not yet ceased, though it was abating. || But there were other causes as
well. Differences had sprung up in the Lutheran church in Germany
over the question of church government. The decrees of the synod were
that in disputed questions of doctrine, the majority of votes should de¬
cide. Against this one party protested and claimed that the only ulti¬
mate authority was the Scriptures. To this party, which was the weaker,
Rev. Kindermann belonged. . To avoid unpleasantness, therefore, they
decided to emigrate with those of like mind.

This company, too, had formed a common treasury to which the
wealthier members contributed from 15 to 20 per cent, of their means
to assist the poor, both in the passage and in purchasing land. It was
expected that the money would be returned with interest, but in many
cases this has not been done and the creditors have overlooked it.

Of this second body of immigrants, altogether about four hundred
families, some remained in Milwaukee and joined the first comers in the

* This includes the estates containing 600 morgen (acres) and more .

t. Brockhaus Conversations-Lexicon, article, ••Pommern.” Also Schonberg’s Handbuch
der Politischen Oekonomie. Auflage 2, p. 962.

t Koss, Milwaukee, p. 103.

§ Life of Grabau, p. 29.

|| Separate worship was allowed by King William IV, in 1846.

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

neighborhood of Chestnut street, but the majority went to the farms.
Kirchhayn, Washington county, and Lebanon, Dodge county, were
chosen for settlement. Lebanon was chosen by the advice of their
countrymen, J. Grunhagen, one of the earlier immigrants to Milwau¬
kee, probably for its situation on the Rock River. Seventy-eight fami¬
lies settled here in the years 1843 and 1844. These were the people from
Stettin and Brandenburg, while those from the Baltic lands settled at
Kirchhayn.

Rev. Kinderman became the pastor of the Kirchhayn people, while
at times he held services for the Lebanon community. For a
year or two the settlers in Washington county suffered great pri¬
vations; their land was heavily wooded and it took time to make it pro¬
ductive. Lebanon was more open and easier to cultivate. “ Within
fifteen years,” says Mr. Blumenfeld, of Watertown, “the country be¬
came a garden, and to-day it surpasses most towns in its high state of
cultivation.” Both the communities by their industry and thrift, have
been successful. There has been a marvelous change in the condition
of these people from that of poor farm laborers, in most cases, to that of
independent proprietors, almost all well-to-do farmers.

Between 1850 and 1860, a number of the early setlers went from Frei-
stadt, Cedarburg and Kirchhayn, to Sherman, Sheboygan county, and
Cooperstown, Manitowoc county. Land was cheap and plenty in the
northern counties and there again they formed prosperous settlements.

The large Pomeranian and North German element in Wisconsin is un-

j

doubtedly due in great measure to the early emigration of the Old
Lutherans to the state. Through their reports to friends and relatives in
the Fatherland, many have since followed them and either joined the
original communities or spread out into adjoining towns and counties.
Moreover, in 1853, Capt. von Rohr and Rev. Grabau made an extended
tour through Germany, especially through North Germany, and by their
conversations and reports about the success of their countrymen in
Wisconsin caused the majority of the Lutherans to settle in this state.
Emigration from the northern countries had scarcely begun at that period
but since 1870, Pomerania, Prussia and the adjoining countries have
furnished the greater part of the German emigration, of which Wis¬
consin has received a large share.

But these early settlers were not only the first body of German im¬
migrants to Wisconsin; they were also the beginning of the Lutheran
church in the state.

Freed from state support and government restraint the Lutheran
church has grown marvelously in this country. One indication of its
growth is its large membership;* another indication is the variety of
creeds that have developed, shown by the large number of synods of

* According to Prof. Ernst there are 200,000 Lutherans in Wisconsin.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

297

which there are five in Wisconsin representing differences of creed
more or less fundamental. In these original communities questions of
church government and religious belief caused divisions, through which
the Missouri Synod and others were able to establish separate churches.

Between 1840 and 1850 the two synods of Buffalo and Missouri were
formed; the one by Rev. Grabau, the other by ministers from Saxony.
Soon a controversy arose between them on the question of the calling
and ordination of the clergy and the relation of the minister to his so¬
ciety. Rev. Grabau held that a minister must be called according to the
old church ordinances, and that the society must obey their minister in
all things not contrary to the word of God, while the Missouri Synod
held more Congregational views.* In this controversy Rev. Grabau was
supported by Rev. Kindermann, Rev. Krause and deputies from Mil¬
waukee who signed themselves “The Lutheran Synod of the church
emigrated from Prussia.” j*

In Milwaukee, meantime, they were still too poor to hire a pastor and
Rev. Krause had come from Freistadt every six weeks, but the journey
was long and expensive, so he called upon the 150 communicants to pay
each three cents a week for twenty weeks to buy him a horse and wagon,
but the tax appeared too large to them and they refused his request. The
demand was doubtless somewhat arbitrarily imposed, Rev. Krause being
a man of the extreme type of clerical dignity. The society was severely
rebuked by him, and was finally refused admission to the communion
until they recognized their sins and made public confession, but the
difficulty only increased and finally a large part of the society withdrew
and joined the Missouri Synod, which allowed more self rule. The
separated society was supplied with a pastor from Missouri and formed
the nucleus of the later Trinity society, the first of the numerous
churches in the state belonging to that synod; the remaining element
formed what is now the St. Paul’s society, in Milwaukee, belonging to
the Buffalo Synod.J

In the Lebanon community a controversy arose in 1847 on the subject
of worldly music which caused one party to form an independent or¬
ganization. Later in the same church the use of the private confessional
was discussed, and again in the Milwaukee church. || The demand for the
general confessional in its place caused the disuse of the private confes¬
sional in nearly all the churches after a few years.

There questions indicate an activity in the societies, partly the result
of new conditions and the union of people from different communities
in Germany, and partly the result of their recent experiences. In the

* Wolf’s Hist, of the Lutheran Church in America, p. 413.

+“ Hirtenbrief des Herrn Pastors Grabau zu Buffalo vom Yahre, 1840.”

tHist. of Milwaukee, by Frank A. Flower, p. 924; 'and Koss,1 Milwaukee, p. 137 seq.

|| Bericht des Nordlichen Districkts der deutschen Evangel. Luth. Sy ode. von Mo.,
Ohio, u. a. Staaten 1855 and 18Fg

298

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Lebanon community, it is said that each family owns its set of Luther’s
works and is familiar with theological questions. It is not strange then
that there are six churches there with three pastors, of whom one is inde¬
pendent, another belongs to the Iowa Synod, and another to the Missouri
Synod.

In Kirchhayn, Cedarburg and Freistadt also, in 1855, we find besides
the churches belonging to the Buffalo Synod other societies belongingto
the Missouri Synod. * Such divisions are not infrequent as the re¬
sult of an unusual mental and spiritual activity, as for example Germany
itself in Reformation times and England in Puritan times.

While the other synods have increased rapidly in numbers in Wiscon¬
sin and other states, the Buffalo Synod has remained comparatively iso¬
lated and small, owing to its very conservative character, and its rigid
adherence to earlier doctrines. The use of the private confessional is
still preserved in its churches, while its doctrines adhere to the old
Saxon and Pomeranian church ordinances. The synod has but five
churches in the state and these are all the original communities who
emigrated between 1839 and 1815. They are Milwaukee (St. Paul’s),
Cedarburg, Preistadt, Kirchhayn and Sherman. The Cooperstown
church, though belonging to the Wisconsin synod, keeps the doctrines
and forms of the Buffalo synod.

* Berlcht — 1855.

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

299

THE CLAN CENTERS AND CLAN HABITAT OF THE

EFFIGY BUILDERS.

By STEPHEN D. PEET, Ph. D.

The animal effigies of Wisconsin are very interesting specimens of the
handiwork of a people who have passed away. Who this people were, is
at present unknown. They were, however, remarkable for one thing —
their skill in imitating animal figures and especially in molding massive
imitative forms out of earth and raising bas-reliefs above the surface so
that they could easily be seen and recognized. Nowhere on the face of
the earth are there so many of these effigies as here, and nowhere else
can we learn as much about the effigy builders. There are, to be sure, a
few effigies in the state of Ohio which, like these in Wisconsin, are
molded from the soil. They are as follows: The Great Serpent in
Adams county, the Alligator mound, and the Bird mound in Licking
county, and the animal effigy in Scioto county, near the mouth of the
Scioto river. The writer has discovered also a massive serpent effigy
near Quincy, Illinois, and other gentlemen have discovered turtle and
animal effigies, both in northern Illinois and eastern Iowa, though these
probably belonged to the same system with the effigies of Wisconsin,
stray specimens which were built beyond the borders of the state. Other
than these, no effigies made of earth have been discovered anywhere on
the continent. There are, to be sure, effigies made of stone in various
parts of the country, as follows: Two in the shape of birds, discovered
in Georgia and described by Col. C. C. Jones, who is one of the most
skillful archgeologists. Several in the shape of serpents, turtles, buffa¬
loes and human form in Iowa, described by Prof. John Todd and Mr. T.
H. Lewis. The figures of birds, turtles and nondescript creatures may
be frequently seen inscribed upon rocks. Marquette, the missionary,
saw one such near Alton, Ill. Jonathan Carver saw others in the caves
in Minnesota. Rev. Edward Brown described those in West Salem, Wis¬
consin. Mr. T. H. Lewis has made a study of those found in the caves
of Iowa and Minnesota. It may be said, however, that the effigies made
from earth, notwithstanding the havoc made with them by the relic
hunter and the farmer, have proved about as enduring as those made
from stone, and no more liable to be marred and destroyed than are the
inscriptions in the caves. This makes the responsibility of the citizens

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

of the state all the greater. The effigies of Ohio are some of them to be
preserved by especial enactment. The serpent effigy has been purchased
and the ground about it laid out in a public park. No public movement
has, however, taken place in Wisconsin, which looks toward the preser¬
vation of these most interesting monuments. They are rapidly disap¬
pearing. At the present rate of destruction, it will not be long before
they will all be gone beyond recovery. When an effigy has been destroyed
it is impossible to restore it. If it is reconstructed it has a modern look
to it and lacks the peculiar air and grace which a native hand alone
could give. The touch of the white man’s hand is different from that of
the mound-builder. It would be useless for him to attempt to recon¬
struct these animal forms.

Many things have been impressed upon us from the study of these ef¬
figies, some of which we have already embodied in the work on Em¬
blematic Mounds which was published in 1890. Other things, however,
have been brought to light by later explorations and to these we would
now call attention:

I. In reference to the imitative skill of the effigy -builders, it is well
known that early and rude races had this in a remarkable degree. We
need only to go to the cave-dwellers of Europe to be convinced of this.
Here we find the mammoth, the reindeer, the horse, and many other ani¬
mals plainly drawn on pieces of ivory. They are excellent imitations
and show that the early races excelled in this. We do not, to be sure,
recognize in these the religious feeling which was exercised in erecting
effigies on the soil of Wisconsin. There are however inscribed figures
on the cylinders which have come down to us from the early historic
times, which have more of this religious symbolism embodied in them.
We do not know that these figures are totemistic in their design, but
they are symbolic at least and are wonderful imitations. Let us take
the cylinder that belongs to Sargon, 3300 before Christ. Here we find
Izdubar watering the sacred oxen. The oxen have wide-spread, branch¬
ing horns and small bodies — resembling Texan cattle. The human fig¬
ures have strange, wild faces and shaggy hair and resemble Scythians
but the drawings are excellent, the muscles are plainly seen on the oxen,
the expression in the faces is striking, and the water which flows from
the vessels is very like water. The effigies of Wisconsin are prob¬
ably not as old as these figures from the caves of Europe or from the
mounds of Chaldea, but they show the same imitative skill. Let me
illustrate this: There is an effigy on the east bank of Lake Mendota but
two or three miles from the capitol which represents a deer in the atti¬
tude of jumping. (See plate XII.) The deer has the head partly
thrown back, the rump thrown up, the hind legs drawn toward the
body very much as any deer would jump. An instantaneous pho¬
tograph could not take the o attitude better than did these native
artists. The effigy comes to its place remarkably well, when the meas-

Trans Wis. Acad. Vol. VIII, li. XII.

■

.

. .

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

301

urements are taken, and the lines drawn according to a scale of
inches. The eye is useful in determining the animal intended
but the platting brings out the attitude more perfectly. Take an¬
other instance: There are two animals north of Buffalo lake, not
far from Crooked lake, which resemble squirrels. The platting of
these effigies brings out the fact that they are not squirrels at all but
raccoons. We find in them both nearly the same measurements, but as
the lines come out on paper we fin$ the crooked legs, the small head,
the high curved back, the short belly and the curved, bushy tail — all of
which are peculiarities of the coon. Near these CDons we find a turtle —
but a turtle in a most novel attitude, the same . attitude which a horse
assumes when he “ racks,” two legs upon one side thrown -forward, two
on the other side turned back, the whole figure being distorted and
twisted as only a turtle can twist. (See plate XII.) On the west side
of Green lake, squirrels appear in great numbers; every one of these
squirrels has a different attitude, but an attitude perfectly natural to
the animal.

II. In reference to the work of identifying the animals in the effigies.
A writer in the Nation of New York, seems to have doubts in reference
to this point. He thinks it is impossible for any one to train his eye to
recognize the animals in the figures and insists upon it that the sur¬
veyor and the naturalist be summoned before one undertakes to ident¬
ify the animals or decide as to the intent and hidden significance of the
figures. This is an old complaint but one that is too hypercritical to
be heeded. We do not deny the value of the surveyor’s services and
stated in the very introduction to the book that the first discovery of
the shape of the effigies, was made by those engaged in the work of sur¬
veying the mineral lands. We have also everywhere given credit to the
gentlemen who first platted the effigies. We have frequently quoted
Dr. Lapham, and have acknowledged our indebtedness to him. We
have also used the unpublished notes of Mr. H. M. Canfield, of Baraboo.
This gentleman seems to have been correct in all of his observations.
We have found from experience that the eye does become trained, so
that it takes in large figures, and one may come to recognize the animal
intended even before the measurements have been made. This, how¬
ever, must always be subordinate to the surveying and every observation
must be verified by measuring and platting.

The hidden significance of the effigies can not, however, be given by
surveying. This comes to the mind only after a long, close study of the
effigies in connection with the very locality where they are found. They
must be compared with one another and classified. The totem system
also of the wild tribes must be studied and then taken as a key into the
field and applied to the different groups and collections of groups. We
do not say that the totem system as it is now known will solve all
the problems, for there are many things which baffle us, notwithstanding

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the application of this system. We find ourselves on the borders of an
unknown realm, so much lies beyond us that we feel that we have
hardly passed the rudiments, still we are sure so far as we have gone.
It is possible that the effigies are myth bearers as well as totems, and
that we shall need to know the myths before we can fully explain the
figures. Picture writing may, also, have been practiced in the effigies,
for there are groups of mounds in which the animal figures are so re¬
lated to one another that it would seem as if there was a pictograph on
a large scale,— these, however, are few and perhaps we shall be able to
explain them in some other way. There may be other escoteric systems
and various sacred mysteries embodied in the effigies. Possibly a trans¬
mitted symbolism will yet be discovered. To illustrate: There is a fig¬
ure of an owl, with its projections above the head, making it resemble
the horned owl. The eyes of the owl were not in the head but were un¬
der the wings and were composed of two small circular ponds of water.
(See fig 1.) This effigy is found near Merrit’s Landing. The whole fig¬
ure taken together makes a symbol which is very common in America.
The symbol consists of the eyes and nose of the divinity, and is found
in Mexico and Central America as well as in the mound-builders region.
The same symbol was found by Schlieman, in Troy.

# Fig. 1.— Homed Owl near Merrit’s Landing.

III. Location of the clans. In the book on the emblematic mounds,
we stated that there were various clans whose habitat could be easily
bounded; within that habitat all the processes of clan life could be
recognized in the effigies. We stated that the turtle clan was located on
the Rock river and extended from Lake Koshkonong above Janesville,
through Beloit and Rockford to the mouth of the Kishwaukee river;
possibly Lake Geneva should be embraced within the bounds of this
clan. We located, also, the panther clan on the Fox river, made it to
extend from Milwaukee to Racine to the state line, and embrace the

The Clans of the Effigy Builders .

303

large group of mounds near Big Bend on Fox river, and including an¬
other group near Burlington on the same river.

The wolf clan we located on the Milwaukee river. The raccoon clan
on the Sheboygan river. This fixed the map of the southeast part of the
state. The southwest part of the state was, however, uncertain. Since
the book was published we have visited this part of the state and have
passed up the Wisconsin river a second or third time, filling in the links,
and are now prepared to give the chain of clans which stretched from
the mouth of the Wisconsin river, up through to the Dells, and from
the Dells across to the Fox river and from the Fox down to its mouth.
This is the old historic waterway, but it was occupied in prehistoric
times. We begin in the southwest part of the state. Our first point is
at Potosi, an old mining town. Here we identified two serpent effigies
and a panther effigy. The mounds, however, here are mainly long
mounds and stretch in lines along the summits of the narrow bluffs —
very few effigies among them. (See fig. 2.) Cassville was the next point.
Here we discovered on the estate which formerly belonged to Gov.
Dewey, and now belongs to Gen. Newberry, of Chicago, a large number
of long mounds. There is a large group of burial mounds on the
bottom land opposite the picturesque ruins of Gov. Dewey’s house.

Passing up the Mississippi river, we come to the mouth of the
Wisconsin river. Here we find the bear or buffalo upon one side and
the swallow upon the other. Passing up the Wisconsin we come to
Boscobel. Here through the politeness of Dr. Armstrong, we were able
to visit several groups both west and east of the village and to fix the
limit of the swallow clan. The group which marks the boundary of this
clan is situated near Port Andrews, and is quite a remarkable group. It
consists of a line of swallows over a mile long. (See fig. 3.) The swallows
are on the slope of the hill near the bank of the river and underneath
the rocky cliff which is here very high. The road runs along the edge
of the cliff, and overlooks the land where the effigies are. They can be

304

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

plainly seen from the road and are very interesting and beautiful though
they are fast disappearing under the plow. There is one swallow here of
which we shall speak hereafter. It is at the end of the line of swallows
but is placed by itself on a knoll, and so surrounded by long mounds as
to be protected on three sides, constituting a sort of enclosure by itself.
East of this, in the neighborhood of Muscoda we find the eagle to be the
common .emblem.

Fig. 3.— Line of Swallow Effigies near Port Andrews.

The eagle clan appears to have been a large clan. It extended from
near Port Andrews, up through all the towns on the Wisconsin river and
as far east as Sauk City and even extended over the water-shed, and left
its totem on the banks of the four lakes at Madison. Mr. S. Taylor was
the first to recognize the eagle, but he said nothing about the eagle clan
and did not follow up the subject in this way. In fact all the early
Archaeologists were successful in their work of identifying particular
birds and animals, but did not undertake to trace the clan emblems or
to study the totem system. The eagle effigy, discovered by Mr. S. Taylor,
at Black Earth, marks the western extremity of this clan. The eagles
which, in company with Prof. P. W. Putnam, we discovered at the Dells,
may have marked the eastern extremity, though the center of the clan hab¬
itat proper was in the vicinity of Eagle township. We notice that there
is a difference in attitude of the eagles. At Muscoda there is a bird effigy
which is about 1,000 feet in length with the wings straight out. We
also found about twenty eagles with their wings partly folded in the
spread eagle attitude. At the Dells of the Wisconsin and near Sauk
City, the eagles have their wings in a straight line, exactly as they are
on the asylum grounds north of Madison. At Honey creek there are
two eagles near a game drive, and near the game drive two elks with a
foe watching the elks, but in this same locality we discovered several
swallows, showing that the swallow clan came into the territory of the

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

305

eagle clan and placed their clan effigy on the same ground. The Eagles
seem to have been great hunters, for there are a great many game drives
in their territory — the elk and the moose being very common. Next to
the eagles were the mink — the same clan that we have referred to
before. This clan seemed to have had its center in the neighborhood of
Baraboo, but it extended south across Sauk Prairie to Honey creek, east
to the four lake region, north to the neighborhood of Portage and north¬
east to Buffalo lake. There is a group of effigies near the stone quarry
two miles west of Madison, in which there is a large elk, a mink, and an
eagle. There is another group near Merrill’s Springs, in which there are
two buffalos and an eagle, but no mink, and half a mile east, two eagles,
a wild goose, a wolf and several animal effigies. The mink is not com¬
mon in the four lake region, but is very numerous about Baraboo. The
raccoon is another clan. This was located northwest of the mink clan —
in Adams county and Juneau county. The raccoon is a very interesting
effigy. It is difficult to measure and to plat, but when it is platted,
comes out very beautifully. The wonder is that the effigy builders could
have made it so correct. They were much better imitators than the or¬
dinary white man. The individual who has made the work a study sees
more skillful molding of animal forms than he is able to exercise in de¬
lineating them and is led to go beyond the critics, especially if they are
critics who have never seen these imitative forms.

The clan east of the mink was that of the squirrel. Their habitat was
very extensive. It reached from Buffalo lake across Green lake to Win¬
nebago lake, and occasionally visited Horicon lake, even to the head¬
waters of Milwaukee river.

IV. The manner in which the clans marked their boundaries is an¬
other point. The effigy builders were evidently hunters, but they were
hunters who seem to have carried this totem system to a great length.
We find clan totems present everywhere and are able to recognize the
clans by the effigies. A preponderance of one particular animal or bird
over all others will be so great in one region, that it becomes a cer¬
tainty that this was the clan emblem. We can fix even the habitat of
the clan, by this means. Having entered into the region, we first ascer"
tain the preponderating effigy, then follow this to the limits, until we
find a change to some other. Within the bounds the clan totem appears
not only in the villages and centers but near thq game drives, and near
temporary encampments. We ascertain by this means all about the
clan. 2. The clan totem is not often carried beyond the habitat but ap¬
pears near the boundaries of other clans. In such cases the effigies which
embody the totem will be much larger than nearer the clan center. There
may have arisen at times disputes as to the hunting grounds. This would
lead the clan which claimed the hunting ground to make its totem
specially conspicuous. 3. We find also, that the emblems which are
20— A. & L.

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

placed on the borders between two clan habitats are not only very large,
but they seem to be associated with all the animals which would naturally
be hunted; the moose, elk, buffalo, bear are grouped together, and the
clan totem placed in the same region.

We now take up the illustration of these points. Let us begin at Mer¬
ritt’s Landing. (See fig. 4.) Here there are two or three very large
mink effigies, — one of them 700 feet long. It is so long and so level that
the farmer who owns the land has placed his gateway at the head
of the mink and drives to his field on the body of the mink, the road¬
way being open where the effigy is, but a second growth of timber comes
to the very edge of the mink on either side. This mink is nearly as long
as the whole drove of animals, the group on the edge of the lake being
1,000 feet and this 700 feet long. Another mink near by measures 450 feet.

These effigies mark the border of the habitat of the mink clan. This
clan extended from Sauk Prairie, through Baraboo across the portage of
the Wisconsin and Fox rivers to the North side of Buffalo lake. On the
south side of the lake about ten miles to the east of the mink clan
the habitat of the squirrel clan began. Both clans seem to have had their
hunting grounds on this lake. The elk, buffalo, moose, were the animals
which they hunted. There are many elk effigies on the north side of
the lake but the mink effigy is associated with them, mink effigies being
found, also, west of Buffalo lake, near the head waters of the Fox river .
Squirrel effigies extend across to Puckaway lake on the north side but do
not extend west of Buffalo lake. The squirrel clan also hunted the elk.
There is a group of squirrel effigies near Montello but there is an elk
effigy surrounded by squirrels, and everythingin the group indicates that
it was the hunting ground of the squirrels.

There is one contrivance which the squirrel clan adopted that is worthy
of notice here. They made two squirrels on a large scale, twisted

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

307

the tails of the squirrels around over the back, very much as it is
twisted in the squirrel effigy on the asylum grounds opposite Madison,
but between the tail and the body of each squirrel, they dug a large pit
in the sandy soil and so made a trap for the animals which they would
drive from the forests towards the lake.

It is probable that they placed timber or brush, palisades or fences
around these traps but the squirrel effigies and the pits are all that are
left. The mink clan placed a moose on the highest hill that they could
find and from the top of this massive effigy could watch the squirrel
clan chase their game; for the two groups are not so far apart but that on
a clear day, they might recognize their presence or at least they could
exchange signals with one another. We are convinced that the clans
were friendly for these signal stations are scattered all over the state;
but the border lands between the clans may have been common pro¬
perty.

V. We now turn to the clan centers. The question which arises here
is, whether there were any clan centers which can be recognized. It is
well known that every clan has its central organization, its village site,
its council house, its burial place, frequently its place of sacrifice, and
its own place of assembly. The hunters did not differ from others in
this. They had game drives and frequently encamped away from their
villages, but there was among them a clan organization and a clan
center. It has been therefore a purpose with us to discover the clan cen¬
ters. We think we have done this in some cases, but in others are some¬
what doubtful. In the book on Emblematic Mounds we have spoken of
the villages of the effigy builders, one located at Big" Bend, another at
Waukesha, both on the Fox river, another at Racine. The village at
Racine was situated on the summit of an isolated bluff and was sur¬
rounded by conical mounds and panther effigies. There were look¬
out mounds on adjoining hills and garden beds in the valley below
and a large number of burial mounds on a hill opposite the village. The
village at Big Bend was surrounded with oblong mounds and panther
effigies. Opposite this, on a high bluff, was an altar mound and some
two or three miles west was a game drive and another two miles north of
the village, both of them abounding with panther effigies. Caches, or
pits, for storing corn were numerous near this village. The enclosure
at Aztlan may have been a clan village or it may have been a general
capital or a place of general assembly for all clans. Mr. W. H. Canfield
has located the village of the Mink clan, near Baraboo, and has spoken
about the council house. He represents this as a sort of circle or en¬
closure, which is surrounded by a large number of animals, the mink
being the most numerous. If we take this as our clue, we should place
the council house of the Turtle clan on the east side of Lake Koshkon-
ong, for the group here resembles that at Baraboo in many respects.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

We discovered at Green lake, a circle or ring of earth in the midst of a
large number of effigies, the fox, eagle, wild goose, but the squirrels
largely preponderated. This ring was situated not far from the village,
the village being near the water, with the squirrels guarding its gate¬
ways, but a council house on the hilltop remote from the water. One
peculiarity of these so-called council houses, we do not understand.
We find around them so many effigies which are different from the clan
emblems, a strange mixture of animal forms. In Catlin’s Indians is a
description of a medicine lodge of the Mandans. The medicine man sits
in his lodge and summons all the animals which are the totems of all
the tribes. We have the same picture in the effigies. In one place at
Lake Koshkonong, we have the eagle, turtle, the fish, pigeon, woodcock,
the blue heron, the wolf, the lizzard and many other animals. At West
Bend we have the lizzard, the wolf, wild cat, coon, snake, and about a
dozen squirrels. At Baraboo we have the elk, buffalo, bear, wolf, eagle,
coon, fox, and a large number of mink. At Beloit, the panthers, wolf,
bear, pigeon and several turtles. All of these are grouped together in a
very remarkable manner. We call these council houses, but we do not
understand all of the features that are embodied in the group. This is
the point which we confess to be obscure, but think we are on the bor¬
ders of a constructive, rich field, but do not pretend to have fathomed
the subject.

VI. The citadels or sacred enclosures will be considered next. Here we
draw a distinction between groups of effigies, in the midst of which are
the circles or earth-rings which we call council houses and the long lines
of effigies at the end of which are what we call “ sacred enclosures,” but
which Mr. S. Taylor called “ citadels.” These are lines of long mounds
which have no “ citadels ” or “ inclosures ” connected with them. These are
placed “ generally,” at the summit of long narrow bluffs, on high land, and
were probably used either as screens or hedges or barriers to stop the flight
of wild game, to drive them into narrow openings, or as elevated roads for
hunters to run upon when they were chasing the game. They are in the
most sightly places, and are elevated to a uniform height and run along
the summit of the bluff for many miles. There are very few effigies con¬
nected with them. They are different from the lines at the end of which
are the citadels. The “ citadels,” so called, are nothing but little clus¬
ters of effigies, five or six in number, so arranged that they form a sort of
enclosure. In the center of the area, there is always to be seen a mound
of some kind, either a high lookout mound, or an effigy . There are many
such citadels, at least one to every clan habitat. A good illustration of
this is found in the isolated clusters in the Port Andrews group opposite
Boscobel. (See fig. 3 and 5) Here the effigy is a swallow— a totem of the clan
which lies to the west. It is surrounded by long mounds, and forms an
unique cluster. It is at the end of a long line of effigies, all of them swal¬
lows. Another example is found near Muscoda. The group is here prom-

The Clans of the Effigy Builders. 309

inent and forms the top of the principal mound; occupying the center of
the enclosure, may be seen at least 100 elevations, which stretch about 400
yards to the westward. The effigies which form the walls to this enclosure
are eagles, the eagle being the totem of the clan at Muscoda. A simi¬
lar cluster has been described by an old settler living near Merritt's
Landing, as having formerly existed on a knoll not far from his house.
The effigies surrounding the enclosure were mink, their tails extending
out long distances, like the spokes of a wheel, their heads toward the
center. We have said that the mink was the totem of this region. We
would say also that one of the groups of effigies of this place consisted of
a long line of elks which stretch along the borders of the lake. The so-
called citadel on the top of the hill was not far from the end of this line.

Fig. 5. — Sacred Enclosure near Port Andrews.

Mr. K,. C. Taylor discovered a long line of “ bear effiigies ” near the “ Blue
Mounds ” in Dane county. In the line was the man mound. The line
was about one and one-half miles in length and contained six effigies of
bears, six oblong mounds and one effigy of the human figure and a small
circle. There is a group on the south shore of Lake Mendota near Mer-
ril’s Springs. Here there is a short line of burial mounds with the effigy

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

of the eagle at one end. At the east end two buffalo effigies, three ob¬
long mounds, arranged around a central lookout or conical mound. This
we should hardly call a citadel though it illustrates how the effigies are
sometimes clustered or grouped around a central mound.

Fig. 6. — Group of Mounds on north shore of Lake Mendota, Madison, Wis.

The group on the north shore of Lake Mendota differs from this and
from nearly all other groups which we have visited. (See fig. 6.) Here the
effigies are neither in a line with a citadel at the end nor are they grouped
around a central circle with the “ council house ” in the circle but they
are arranged in a row with the heads of many of them toward the lake.

There are in this entire group from 40 to 50 mounds — many of them
effigies, but no one class of effigies preponderating. At one end is a
very large animal which we call a panther, next to this is a mink, at the
end of the mink, a man mound, near this a buffalo, next the fox, then
the bear, and another man mound and three or four pigeons of gigantic
size. (See fig. 7.) In the front of the asylum three eagles, a wolf, a bear, a

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

311

fox and a squirrel. West of the asylum we find three long mounds with
an effigy in the midst on the side hill — on the top of the hill an animal
with a very long tail, possibly a squirrel, another with a short bushy tail,
perhaps a raccoon, another man mound, and a large cluster of burial
mounds, one of which contained an altar. These effigies do not bear the
right proportion to one another, for the panther is some two or three
times larger than the buffalo and the pigeon is even larger than the
panthers. The fox is very slender but the two man mounds are even
smaller than the fox; the deer is very small, not an eighth as large as the
eagle, but the squirrel has a tail 300 feet long, which is really the longest
tail we have anywhere seen.

Our explanation of these two classes of works is that one (the citadel)
embodied the council houses or assembly places of the clans, the other
the houses of the chiefs or clan rulers. This is conjectural but satisfies
the demands of the problem better than any other conjecture. We
throw it out merely as a suggestion, but would call attention to the
different classes of mounds as they are brought before us on this general
map. The habitats of the different clans may certainly be ascertained
by the totems. We think also that the clan centers can also be ascer¬
tained and the different places where clan life embodied itself can be
identified. Their villages with their game drives, burial places, sacrificial
places, dance grounds, assembly houses, council houses, and the houses
of their chiefs, all can be located by the study of the effigies.

31 2

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE LIMONENE GROUP OF TERPENES.

By EDWARD KREMERS.

The following historical study was undertaken with the desire to throw
some light upon the history of the terpenes. This class of compounds
has been of interest to chemists ever since organic chemistry may be re¬
garded as a science. Year after year the material accumulated until by
the beginning of the last decade it constituted a special lumber-chamber
of chemical literature. The reasons for this disorder are of a varied
character. The thought that every volatile oil contained its peculiar
terpene, when such was present, for a long time seems to have prevailed
in the minds of chemical investigators. Another grave fault is to be
found in the fact that one investigator often gave but little or even no
attention to the researches of others. This brought about serious con¬
fusions in the chemical nomenclature, which in turn gave rise to mis¬
understandings everywhere. The reason why, even in later years, so
little could be done to clear up the subject is to be sought in the fact
that for the most terpenes, no characteristic reactions were known.
Since at present, at least some systematic knowledge has been acquired,
it may not be without interest to look back and see who has identified
himself with the problems under consideration, who has aided in their
solution and who has retarded the same. In the course of years the
amount of material has accumulated to such an extent that a survey of
the same is a difficult matter, even for the person who has made a special
study of the subject. In fact an understanding of the Limonene group
of terpenes became possible only after Prof. Wallach, in 1888, had
demonstrated the relations existing between the members of this group.

For the better understanding of the subject the following explanatory
remarks may serve as a brief introduction. The limonene group of ter¬
penes consists of three hydrocarbons: the optically active, dextrogyrate
and laevogyrate limonene and the optically inactive dipentene. Whether
the inactive compound resulting from the mixture of equal parts of the
optically active components is identical with dipentene still remains an
open question. Suffice it is to say that all crystallizable derivations of
such an optically inactive mixture are identical with the corresponding

* These notes are translated from a series of articles published on this subject by the
writer in the “ Pharmaceutische Rundschau” of 1891 and 1892.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

313

‘dipentene compounds. The two physical modifications of limonene can
add one molecule of hydrogen chloride without loosing their optical ac¬
tivity. The additions of a second molecule, however, renders them op¬
tically inactive, they are then no longer limonene, but dipentene com¬
pounds. Pinene, the most characteristic hydro-carbon of the turpentine
oils, adds one molecule of hydrogen chloride to form the so-called arti¬
ficial camphor, or pinene, monhydrochloride. Under certain conditions
it also will add two molecules of hydrogen chloride and thus be converted
into dipentene dihydrochloride. Limonene as well as pinene can be
“ inverted” into dipentene. This inversion can also take place through
terpin hydrate. Limonene, and pinene even more readily, will add three
molecules of water to form terpin hydrate. This optically inactive hydrate
is no longer either a limonene — or pinene — but a dipentene derivative .
As will be shown later these inversions for a long time baffled chemical
investigators, and it is but recently that their character is being under¬
stood. This knowledge, the outcome of a series of investigations by
Prof. Wallach, has at last shed considerable light upon the constitution
und isomeric relations of the terpenes.

THE HYDROCARBONS.

SYNONYMS AND HISTORY.

Dextrogyrate Limonene.

Citrene — J. Dumas,1 1833.

Essence de citron — J. Dumas 1 & 3.

Citronyl — Blanchet & Sell,2 1833.

Carven 19 - — Schweizer,4 1840.

Hesperidene — Wright Piese,11 1871.

Citren 19 \

Hesperiden ( ^ allach. 1 -

Limonen — Wallach, 1884.

Citrene — Yoshida, 1885.

Rechts-Limonen — Wallach 22, 1888.

Dumas1 stated (1833) that “ Citrene,” the hydrocarbon from oil of lemon
is isomeric with “ camphene,” the hydrocarbon from turpentine oil, with
this difference: the molecule of the former is but half as large as that of
the latter. This distinction is shown by their different capacity for ab¬
sorbing hydrogen chloride. He regarded the natural “ citrene ” (dextro¬
gyrate limonene) as being identical with the artificial hydrocarbon which
he recovered from the hydrogen chloride addition-product (namely dipen¬
tene), and which he also designated as “ citrene.”

Blanchet and Sell2 (1833) designated as “ citronyl ” that hydrocarbon of
the lemon oil which is capable of forming a solid compound ( “ festes

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

salzsaures citronenol ”) with hydrogen chloride, and regard it as iso¬
meric with “ Dadyl ” that hydrocarbon of turpentine oil which is cap¬
able of yielding a crystallizable compound with hydrochloric acid.

Soubeiran and Capetain (1840) distinguish for the first time between
limonene and dipentene. They had determined the rotatory power of
their original material (for the “ essence de citron rectifiee [or] = 80°.916

dextrorotatory), but found the “ camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydro¬
chloride) obtained from it, as also the regenerated “citrene” (dipentene)
to be optically inactive. The difference, they state, is the same as that
between the “terebene” (o-Pinene) and the essence of turpentine (-Pi-
nene). They also call attention to the fact that the “ essence de tereben-
thine” (-Pinene) retains in the “ camphre solide” (Pinene-monhydrochlo-
ride) its optical activity, and that “S’il est possible de supposer que
l’essence de terebenthine soit entree sans alteration dans le camphre
solide, on ne peut se refuser a reconnaitre que dans ancune de ses com-
binaisons l’essence de citron n’a conserva son etat meleculaire primitif.”
Soubeiran and Capetain had thus recognized and pointed out the differ¬
ence beeween the hydro-carbons we now designate as dextrogyrate limo¬
nene and dipentene, and had also indicated the inversion of one into
the other. But, although they isolated and identified the dextrogyrate
limonene from the oil of orange, they do not at all call attention to th e
identity of the same with that from lemon oil.

In ] 840 Schweizer 4 isolated from the oil of caraway a hydro-carbon,
which he designated “ carven ” ( + Limonene). By passing hydrogen
chloride into it he obtained a dihydro chloride melting at 50° (Dipentene
dihydro chloride). The hydro carbon regenerated from this compound
by means of lime he regarded as unchanged carvene. Based upon his
analyses and vapor density determinations he assigned to the “ carven ”
the formula C 10H16 Boiling point 173° C.

It is quite apparent from what has been stated above that the different
capacity for the saturation of hydrogen chloride was regarded as chief
distinction between pinene and limonene. Based upon the direct for¬
mation of dipentene dihydro chloride from turpentine oil, Berthelot 5
(1852) claimed that the distinction between turpentine oil and lemon oil,
i. e., between pinene and limonene, was not at all essential. He seems to
regard both as identical, though he admits a slight difference on account
of the somewhat varying stability of the molecule of the two. As a
further proof for the latter statement, he shows later that limonene is
not as easily affected by heat as pinene 6~7.

Already in 1840 Volckel 8 had surmised the existence of a hydrocar¬
bon besides carvol in the oil of caraway. In 1853 9 he pointed out the
apparent genetic relations existing between carvol and this hydrocar¬
bon, the so-called carvene (+ limonene). Although Volckel’s formulas
have long been discarded the fact remains and is of historic interest.

The Limonene Group of Terrenes.

315

In 1864 [Gladstone attempted to introduce order into the then already
chaotic condition of the terpene literature. Based upon physical and
chemical properties he classified the terpenes into three great groups.
It is of special interest to note that he would regard the terpenes from
sweet orange oil, lemon oil and the oil of citrus medica as identical
rather than isomeric.

In 1871 Wright & Piese11 oxidized hesperidene from orange oil (4- lim¬
onene) with chromic acid mixture, and obtained acetic acid. From this

CH. CH3

they conclude that the formula || expresses in part “the group¬

's H13)

ing of the constituent carbon atoms.” Nitric acid oxidizes hesperidene
to oxalic and carbonic acids.

Two years later Wright12 obtained from hesperidene besides acetic and
formic acid a substance C10 H16 O when oxidized with chromic acid
mixtures. When oxidized with nitric acid he obtained oxalic acid and
hesperidinic acid, C30 H36 017, but no terephthalic acid.

When a molecule of bromine is added a liquid non-characteristic
dibromide is formed which when heated splits off hydrobromic acid and
cymene results which is identical with the cymene obt. from pinene and
“ citrene ” (-j- limonene from oil of lemon). From this Wright concludes
“that these three terpenes may all be regarded as dihydrides of cymene.”
The yield of cymene from “ hesperidene dibromide ” was 80 per cent, and
from the cymene he obt. by oxidation 45 per cent of terephthalic acid.
From the latter experiment he concludes that “the production of tereph¬
thalic acid “ from cymene by oxidation shows that two ‘ lateral chains ’
are present; and as toluic acid is also obtainable from cymene, one of
these must be methyl (since toluic acid gives rise to methyl-benzene to¬
luene); cymene therefore is either a methyl propyl-benzene or a methyl
isopropyl benzene.”

As to some of these views, however, Oppenheim 13 has claim of prior¬
ity. He had obtained “ citrene cymol ” by addition of bromine to “ cit¬
rene” and then splitting off hydrobromic acid by means of anilin; also
according to Kekules method by adding iodine and splitting off hydro -
iodic acid with the aid of heat. In his oxidation experiments with dilute
nitric acid he obtained not only terephthalic acid but also para-toluic
acid and acetic acid. Neither “terpene cymol” nor “citrene cymol”
therefore contain an etlyl group, but both have in para-position methyl
and propyl. The formation of acetic acid makes it probable that the
latter is isopropyl.

Already a year previous Oppenheim14 had remarked that the terpenes
were hydrocymols. Remarkable are, however his words which he wrote
shortly after. “ The fact, however, that until now para cymol has only been
obtained from terpenes may well create the suspicion that even the mild¬
est reaction according to which hydrogen may be abstracted, the action

316

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

of iodine on the terpenes, distnrbes the molecular arrangement of the
same and causes a rearrangement of the atoms which prevents us from
recognizing the original structure of the terpenes.”

In the seventies Tilden introduced a new class of terpene derivatives
which proved of exceeding interest and importance. His nitrosylchlor-
ide addition products and the nitro terpenes obtained therefrom afforded
a better means to distinguish the hydrocarbons of the pinene group
from those of the limonene group. He showed also that the terpenes
from orange oil, bergamot oil and caraway oil afforded the same nitro-
sylchloride addition product.

With the year 1884 there began a new era in the literature of terpenes
and volatile oils. Wallach had succeeded in preparing a tetrabromide 17
of “cynene” C10 H16 Br4 (now Dipentene tetrabromide), a handsomely
crystallizable body which melted at 124°. Soon after he obtained a
tetrabromide from “ hesperidene ” ( + limonene), which crystallized in a
very similar form, but melted at 104°. Wallach wrote at the time, “ There
seem to exist very close relations between “cynene” and “hesperidene,”
but no complete identity.” In these tetrabromides we have, as ifc were,
the key to our present knowledge of the terpenes. Th^se two terpenes
which for decades had been a stumbling block to chemists, were now
characterized. The importance of these substances already becomes
evident from the second contribution 20 of Wallach four months later.
By means of the tetrabromide Wallach proved the presence of limonene in
the fraction ITS1 of the following oils: lemon oil (so-called “ citrene ”),
bergamot oil, caraway oil (so called “ carvene ”), dill oil, erigeron oil and
in the oil of the leaves of pinus sylvestris.

Wallach showed, furthermore, that these fractions could be inverted
into dipentene by means of heat (temp, of 250-270°) as was shown by
means of the dipentene tetrabromide. Also by adding two molecules
of hydrogen chloride and splitting off the same by heating with aniline
and converting the resulting hydrocarbon into its tetrabromide.

Wallach then characterizes limonene in the following manner: “ It
boils between 175-177°, and possesses a lemon like odor. It produces a
nitroso derivative which melts at 71°, and a tetrabromide which melts at
104°, and crystalizes in rhombic-hemiedric forms. Hydrogen chloride
converts it in etherial solution into a dihydrochloride of dipentene
which melts at 50°. Hesperidene, citrene, carvene, etc., are hereafter to
be designated as limonene.”

The true character of limonene, i. e. its position as the dextrogyrate
member of the limonene group became apparent in 1888 when Wallach22
recognized lgevogyrate limonene as such and succeeded in the syntheti¬
cal preparation of dipentene derivatives from its destrogyrate and
lsevogyrate components. The peculiar differences between the limo
nenes and dipentene as revealed in their derivatives, as also the singular

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

317

position of the clipentene derivatives when compared with the optically
inactive derivatives of pinene and camphene must be considered later.
It is no doubt largely due to these peculiarities that our knowledge of
the relations existing between the members of the limonene group was
so long retarded.

«

Lcevogyrctte Limonene.

Limonen — Wallach 2 1884.

Citrene — - Yoshida 3 1885.

Links-Limonen — Wallach 4 1888.

Apparently Deville1 (1849) has first described laevogyrate limonene,
without, however, recognizing its peculiar relation to dextrogyrate limo¬
nene, then chiefly known as citrene. From elemioil Deville obtained a
hydrocarbon which had the constant boiling point 174°, and to which he
assigned the composition Ci 0 e . At 11° it had the specific gravity 0.849 ;
coefficient of refraction 1.4719 at 14°C; specific rotatory power -90s, 30;
vapor density 4.84 (calculated 4.76). With hydrogen chloride he obtained
a compound to which he assigned the formula C10 H8 H Cl, and of which
he states: “La rotation de a camphre est nulle comme celle du cam-
phre de citron, son isomere.”

In 1884 Wallach demonstrated by means of the tetrabromide reaction
the presence of limonene in the oil from pinns sylvestris without, how¬
ever, paying attention to its optical properties. In the following year
Yoshida3 isolated from camphor oil a fraction 172-173° of the com¬
position C10 H16 of which he writes (p. 787): “This hydrocarbon is
probably chemically identical with citrene, the main constituent of the
so-called essence of lemon. The point of difference from the lemon oil
citrene is its lsevorotatory power, viz. [a]. = — 68.3°, but this can be

J

looked upon as a physical difference between the two, such cases being
common among the optically active terpenes.” Yoshida obtained from
this fraction a “Dihydrochloride of Citrene,” C10 H16 2H Cl (melting
point 58-59° C.), but did not succeed in making the nitroso-chloride. By
the addition of one molecule of bromine and splitting off hydrobromic
acid he obtained cymol, which upon oxidation yielded 40 p. c. tereph-
thalic acid.

In 1888 Wallach4 showed that laevogyrate limonene occurs in the oil
from the leaves of pinns picaea. “ The lsevogyrate limonene has a con¬
stant boiling point of 175-176°, its spec, gravity was 0.8465 at 20°, [u]D =

— 105° . Tetrabromide and nitroso-chloride clearly demonstrate the op¬
posite character of the hydrocarbon with reference to its dextrogyrate
congener.

318

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Dipentene.

Citrene 1 — J. Dumas, 1833.

Citronyl 2 — Blanchet and Sell, 1833.

Kautschin 3 — Himly, 1835.

Citrene 4 — Soubeiran and Captain, 1840.

Carven 5 — Schweizer, 1840.

Cynen 6 — Volckel, 1854.

Cinseben 7 — Hirzel, 1854.

Caoutchine 8 — Williams, 1860.

Cynen 9 — Grsebe, 1872.

Isoterebenthene 10 — J. Riban, 1874.

Di-isoprene 11 — Bouchardat.

Terpilene 11 — Bouchardat.

Dipentene 12 — ")

i

Terpene 12 — - }■ Tilden.

Terpilene — J

Citrene 13 — Watts, 1886.

Cynen 14 — Wallach, 1884.

Cajeputen 15 — Wallach.

Cinen 16 — Wallach, 1884.

Dipenten 17 — Wallach, 1884.

In an article “ Sur la combinaison de l’essence de citron avec l’acide
muriatique,” Saussure18 (1820) states that from the “muriate citre” (dipen¬
tene dihydrochloride) the hydrochloric acid can be removed in part by
distillation with caustic lime.

In 1833 J. Dumas reports on the regeneration of the hydrocarbon
“citrene” (dipentene) from the “camphre de citron” (dipentene
dihydrochloride) by repeated distillation with caustic potassa and
caustic baryta. He assigns to the regenerated hydrocarbon the formula
C6 H4 and makes about it the following concluding remark: Si ’1 est
done certain, que cette matiere, qui fait presque totalite de l’essence de
citron, est isomerique avec celle, qui forme de son cote la presque totalite
de l’essence de terebenthine, avec cette difference, que la condensation
des elements est double dans la derniere.” Prom these remarks it be¬
comes quite evident:

1. That Dumas recognizes the isomerism between pinene and limo-
nene, resp. dipentene.

2. He supposes the limonene present in the oil of lemon to be identi¬
cal with the dipentene regenerated from the dipentene dihydrochloride
obtained by the addition of hydrogenchloride to, and by the inversion of
limonene.

3. He recognizes the fact that limonene will, absorb again as much
hydrogenchloride as pinene. Laboring under the false supposition that

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

319

a molecule of hydrocarbon can combine with but one molecule of hydro¬
gen chloride, he comes to the conclusion that the molecule of limonene,
resp. dipentene is but half as large as that of pinene.

Blanchet and Sell 2 (1833) obtained independently the same results and
come to the very same conclusions.

In 1835 Himly 3 obtained from the products of dry distillation of
caoutchouc a fraction 168-171°. Saturated with hydrogen chloride this
yielded “ salysaures Kautschen,” (dipentene dihydrochloride) from which
the hydrocarbon can be regenerated by distillation with caustic potassa
and rectification over metallic potassium. The regenerated hydrocarbon
was colorless, possessed a limonene odor; spec, gravity 0.8423 at 16° ;
boiling point 171°; vapor density 4.461. He assigns to it the formula
C5 H8.

An observation of Soubeiran and Captain (1840) is of great interest,
viz.: that the hydrocarbon regenerated from the optically inactive
“camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydrochloride) is likewise optically
inactive and is thus distinguished from the “essence de citron”
(+ limonene).

Schweizer,5 however (1840), still regarded the dipentene regenerated
from the dihydrochloride as identical with the “carvene” (+ limonene)
from which the dihydrochloride had been prepared.

In 1848 List 19 observed that when the “ chlorwasserstoff verbindung
des Terpins ” (dipentene dihydrochloride) is distilled with caustic lime,
or when anhydrous terpin is distilled repeatedly with anhydrous phos¬
phoric acid a volatile oil of the composition “ C20 H16” is formed.

In the following year (1849) Deville20 regenerated the hydrocarbon
from the “camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydrochloride) prepared
from terpin hydrate and declares this hydrocarbon dipentene to be
identical with “1’essence de citron” (+ limonene). This, he states, “fur¬
nishes the means to transform the essence of turpentine into the essence
of lemon.” (That Deville, who made considerable use of the polariscope
in his investigations, apparently gives no heed to optical properties in
this case is rather surprising.)

In 1860 Greville Williams 8 in his researches on “Isoprene and Caout-
chine,” confirms Himly’s analysis. He states further that “ caoutchine”
(dipentene) decolorizes four equivalents of bromine; that by the alter¬
nating action of bromine and sodium cymol is obtained, which upon
oxidation yields “ insolinic acid.” Sulphuric acid converts “ caoutch¬
ine” into a viscid oil. Small quantities of an acid “C20H16S3O6” are
also formed from which a calcium salt, “ C30H15CaS2O6” was made.
Williams assumes that the heat effects a tearing assunder of a polymeric
body (caoutchouc), and that the substances which are formed stand in a
simple relation to the mother substance.

Tilden 11 in 1882 repeated some of the experiments of Greville Wil-

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

liams and of Bouchardat pertaining to the decomposition of terpenes at.
high temperatures. In an article 12 (1884) he makes the following very
important claim: “ There is no doubt that the di-isoprene of Bouchar¬
dat and the dipentene which I have just described, are identical with
terpilene, the optically inactive hydrocarbon into which the terpenes
and citrenes are convertible.”

In 1886 Watts31 showed dipentene (called by him “citrene,”) to be
present in the oil of the leaves from citrus limetta. He states that it
resembles “ citrene ” (+limonene) very much, but behaves differently
toward polarized light.

Bouchardat and Lafont22 (1886) studied the action of chromic acid on
leevogyrate pinene. Among other products they obtained a hydrocar¬
bon C10 H16 which boiled between 174-178°, [n]D = — 56° and combined
with hydrochloric acid to form a “ chlorhydrate de terpilene ou de
citrene” which melted at 47°, (dipentene dihydrochloride). It is quite
evident that this hydrocarbon consisted of a mixture of limonene and
dipentene. The “ isoterpenes ” of Flawitzky23 obtained by the dehydra¬
tion of the so-called “ terpenhydrate” (evidently mixtures of the opt. in¬
active terpinene with the opt. active ones,) are no doubt similar mixtures*

Bouchardat and Voiry24 (1888) bring nothing new when they state that
dipentene dihydrochloride when heated with alcoholic potash yields a
“ carbure terpilenique ” (impure dipentene). This fact simply shows
that the deplorable custom of dishing up old facts with new names has
not entirely ceased25. In his articles “ Sur l’essence d’Eucalyptus
globulus ”26 and “ Sur l’essence de cajeput”27 Voiry even surpasses his
master in scientific dishonesty.

In a historical study of dipentene wormseed oil (Oleum cinae) must
not be left unconsidered. It constitutes as it were a special chapter in
the history of this hydrocarbon. It will, therefore, be necessary to turn
back and study the development of our knowledge concerning dipen¬
tene ( “ cynene”) in connection with this oil.

In 1841 Wohler27 communicates the results of Volckel’s analysis of the
oil. He states that “it does not appear to stand in any simple relation
to santonin” but consists of a substance “C9 H15 O” admixed with
small quantities of another oil.” In 1853 Volckel28 assigned to the chief
constituent of the oil boiling at 174-175° the formula “C:2 H10 O.” In
the following year in an article “ Veber das Cynen ” he treats of a hydro¬
carbon obtained by distilling wormseed oil repeatedly with anhydrous
phosphoric acid. After successive treatment of the crude product with
sulphuric acicl , water and chloride of calcium in order to “ purify ” ? it,
the “cynen ” distilled completely between 173-175°. He assigns to it the
formula C13 H9. “Das Cynen ist demnach aus dem Wurmsamenol:
C12 H10 O durch das Ausscheiden vom 1 Aeq. Wassertoff and 1 Aeg.
Sauertoff als Wasser entstanden.”

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

321

Hirzel7 (1854) regards the rectified “ 01 Cinae ” to consist of a mixture
of a hydrocarbon “Cinaeben” “C10H8” with “Cinaeben campher,”
“ C10 H9 O.” The latter when distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid
yields among other products “ Cinaeben.”

Kraut’s 29 analysis of wormseed oil (1862) would lead him to the form¬
ula “ C24H20O2,” However, his vapor-density determinations bring him
to the conclusion that the oil is a mixture of a substance “C20H18O2,”
with little of a hydrocarbon “(probably of the formula C20H16).”

Kraut and Wahlforss 30 verify Volckel’s statement in so far as the oil
when distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid yields a hydrocarbon.
Their analyses and vapor-density determinations, however, lead them to
the formula “ C10 H16.” “ This hydrocarbon is optically inactive .”

Graebe 9 replaced (1872) phosphorus pentoxide by phosphorus penta
sulphide. He obtained a hydrocarbon which he supposed to be “ cy-
nen.” However it must have been cymol, since it yielded terephthalic
acid upon oxidation. Graebe’s “cynen sulfosaeure, C10 H15 (S03 H)”
when fused with caustic potassa did not yield a phenol of “ cynen” but
of cymol, consequently it must have been a derivative of the latter.

Faust and Homeyer 31 prepared “ Cynen” according to Graebe’s method
and identified it as cymol by means of paratoluic acid and of cymol sul-
phonate of barium. They believe that there can be no further doubt as
to the identity between “ cynen ” and cymol.

Hell and Stiircke32 (1884) again use phosphorus pentoxide as dehydrat¬
ing agent and obtain the hydrocarbon C10 H16. Fuming sulphuric acid
blackens it and converts only a part of it into the sulphonic acid. The
barium salt is stated to be identical with the barium cymol-sulphonate
obtained by Kraut from caraway oil. Hell and Stiircke arrive at the
conclusion that by the action of phosphorus pentoxide upon worm-
seed oil “ cynen ” and not cymol results, but that the sulphuric acid by
abstracting two hydrogen atoms oxidizes the former into the latter34.

Hell and Ritter 35 (1884) have observed that when hydrogen chloride is
passed into wormseed oil, this becomes heated and C10 H18 0. H Cl is not
formed but water is split off and “ cynendihydrochlorid ” C10 H18 Cl
(melting point 50-51°) results (dipentene dihydrochloride). From this
“ cynen ” (dipentene) can be obtained by distillation wth caustic soda
and rectification over metallic sodium. These reactions are to be ex¬
pressed by the following equations.

1. C10 H18 O + H Cl = C10 H18 Cl (OH), [a chlorhydrin.]

2. C10 H18 Cl (OH) + H Cl = C10 H18 Cl2 + H2 O.

3. C10 H18 Cl 2 = C10 H16 + 2H Cl.

About the same time with Hell, Wallach36 began his investigations
of the terpenes. In part they meet on the same ground, in part they
supplement each other. However, where Hell feigned analogies to exist
21— A. & L.

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

among terpenes or their derivatives Wallach removed all doubts and
thus laid a foundation for a systematic investigation of the terpenes.

Wallach showed that the composition of the hydrogenchloride addi¬
tion product of cineol C10 H18 O, the chief constituent of wormseed oil,
is expressed by the formula (C10 H18 0)8 H Cl. When heated by itself
this compound splits off water and hydrochloric acid as expressed by
the following equation:

(Cio H18 0)3 H Cl = 2 H3 O + H Cl + 2 C10 H16 whereby cinene
(dipentene) is formed. Cineol adds two bromineatoms to form a
bibromide which is deliquescent. Water and hydrobromic acid split off
and a tetrabromide C10 H16 Br4 is formed which melts at 125.5°. This
tetrabromide is identical with the one obtained by the addition of
bromine to the hydrocarbon cynene (dipentene). At the same time
Wallach showed that cajeputol37 is identical with cineol, also cajeputene
with cynene. The limonene odor of cinene (dipentene) lead Wallach to
surmise the relations existing between this hydrocarbon and hesperidene
( + limonene). The preparation of limonene tetrabromide38 melting at
104° proved these suppositions to be true.

The importance of these tetrabromides soon became apparent. Already
in his second contribution Wallach showed conclusively by means of
the tetrabromide reaction that dipentene was formed in a large number
of reactions. Wallach, at that time, characterized dipentene as follows:

“ It boils at 180-182039. The odor resembles that of limonene. It com¬
bines with bromine to form a tetrabromide which crystallizes in the rhom¬
bic system and melts at 125-126°, also with two molecules of hydrogen
chloride, without being changed thereby, to dipentene dihydrochloride
which melts at 49°. At high temperatures it polymerizes without being
previously modified.” 40

Dipentene is classified here as the special hydrocarbon of the dipentene
group, whereas the closely related “ hesperiden ” (-f limonene) is placed
in the limonene group.40 The reason for such a separation is * quite
apparent. The inactive modifications of pinene and camphene are
not essentially different from their optically active modifications.
Laevogyrate limonene was not yet known as such. It was only with the
discovery of this terpene on the part of Wallach41 that the true relations
existing between dipentene and the optically active limonenes could be¬
come wholly apparant. Whereas the relations existing between o-pinene
and ± pinene are those of o-tartaric and to ± tartaric acids, the re¬
lations existing between o-dipentine and ± limonene are explained
by those existing between o-racemic acid and the optically active tar¬
taric acids.

Dipentene, therefore, is not optically inactive limonene in the same
sense in which o-pinene and o-camphene are the optically inactive mod¬
ifications of the respective groups. That dipentene derivatives, pre-

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

323

pared synthetically from the optically active modifications, have but a
simple molecule has been shown by Wallach in connection with opti¬
cally inactive carvoxime. 43 On account of the peculiar position of the-,
optically inactive members of derivatives from the limonene group he.
has retained the designation “ dipentene ” in preference to 0-limonene^
for optically inactive limonene derivatives corresponding to those of
optically inactive tartaric acid may yet be found.

Properties.

The hydrocarbons of the limonene group are colorless liquid terpenes
of an agreeable lemon-like odor. 1 Two of the three are optically active,
being opposite in character. The physical constants of the limonenes
have been determined as follow's :

Boiling point, 175—176°. 2 3

Spec, gravity at 20° 0,816. 3

[a] = 105° 3 resp. + 106.8° 2

Coefficient of refraction nD 1.17459. 3

Molelecular refraction ^n, — 15.23. 3

(n2 + 2)d

Chemically the two modifications are identical. They add one mole¬
cule of hydrogen chloride without losing their optical activity. When
every trace of moisture is avoided they will not add more.4 In the
presence of moisture, however, they add two molecules of hydrogen
chloride and thereby become optically inactive, i. e., are converted into
a dipentene derivative, dipentene dihydrochloride. The di bromine ad¬
dition products appear to be viscid liquids and are therefore not charac¬
teristic. When hydrobromic acid is split off cymol results.13 The
tetrabromides, however, are very characteristic.5 Optically 6 as well as
crystalographically 7 their character is opposite. The limonenes add also
nitrosyl chloride, apparently but one molecule. However, two addition

products of j qP result, an a — and a (5 — nitroso-chloride. With bases

Like limonene the mon-

NO

Cl

and

NO

O (NO)a.

both yield the same a — and (5 — nitrolamines.
hydrochloride is still capable of adding the groups

In this case, however, but one hydrochlor-nitroso chloride or hydo-
chlor-nitrosate resp. results. The molecule of hydrogenchloride can
also be added after the addition of the NO Cl group, viz., by the nitrol¬
amines. Thus e. g. the u-nitrolanilid will yield an u-hydrochlor addition
product, the /3-nitrol anilid a /?-hydrochlor addition product. Of these
the u-base is identical with the one obtained from the hydrochlor-nitroso-
chloride.8 These peculiarities, which have thus far been observed in con¬
nection with limonene group only indicate a different behavior of the two
double bonds toward regents.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The behavior of the limonenes toward water is similar to that toward
The hydrohalogens. After the addition of one molecule of water the
-hydration product still appears to be a limonene-derivative.9

The addition of a second molecule of water makes it a dipentene
derivative. Terpin and its hydrate are both optically inactive and upon
dehydration yield dipentene but no limonene.

The transformation of limonene to dipentene is termed inversion and
seems to be brought about easily by the presence of acids. Thus e. g. a
partial inversion takes place in the preparation of the nitrosochlorides
and nitrosates, and especially of the hydrochlor nitrosochlorides and ni-
trosates10. Limonene can also be inverted into terpinene whereby di¬
pentene results as intermediate product11. Indirect inversion into ter-
pinolene12 also seems to take place under favorable conditions. If the
isoterpenes of Fl^witzky9 are but impure limonenes then the pinenes
can be inverted into limonene by means of alcoholic sulphuric acid. It
thus becomes apparent that limonene though a relatively stable terpene
is by no means the most stable.

Dipentene closely resembles the limonenes in most of its properties
Boiling poing 178°, spec, gravity 0.845 at 20°, nc = 1.47308. It is readily
distinguished from the limonenes by being optically inactive. Whether
dipentene is physically identical with optically inactive limonene, re¬
sulting from a mixture of equal parts of dextro-and Isevogyrate-limo-
limonene has not yet been decided. Chemically they are identical.
Since in all characteristic cases the optically inactive limonene deriva¬
tives have been shown to be identical with the corresponding derivatives
obtained from dipentene the term dipentene only will be used here¬
after. The dihydrochloride is identical with the one resulting from the
addition of two molecules of hydrogen chloride to the limonenes. The
tetrabromide, however, is distinguished from the limonene tetrabrom-
ides in form, melting point and solubility. What has been mentioned
of the limonenes with reference to nitrosylchloride also holds true for
dipentene. It might yet be stated that all dipentene derivatives can
also be obtained by mixing solutions of equal parts of the corresponding
detro- and lsevogyrate limonene derivatives. It is to be supposed that
dipentene like limonene will add water to form terpin hydrate, but this
has not yet been demonstrated.

Limonene as well as pinene and phellandrene can be inverted into
dipentene, which in turn can be inverted into terpinene only. Dipentene
is therefore one of the most stable terpenes.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

325

OCCURRENCE'.

Dextrogyrate Limonene :

In the oil of Citrus Limonum.16

aurantium.17

medica.18

r 15

l

“ bigaradia sienensis.19 |

“ “ myrtifolia.19 J

“ Bergamia.20
Carum Carvi.21

Anethnm gravelens (Dill oil).22
Erigeron Canadense.23

Lcevogyrate Limonene :

In the oil of Lauras camphora (camphor oil).24

| (“ Fichtennadel oel”).25

Pinus picea.

Dipentene :

In Camphor oil.29

“ Cubeb oil.30

“ Elemi oil.31

“ Olebanum oil.32

“ Swedish turpentine oil (modified natural product).33

“ Russian turpentine oil 34 (modified natural product).

“ Oil from leaves of Citrus Limetta.35

“ Oil of black pepper.36

The statements that 01. Cinae, 01. cajeputi and 01. Eucalypti contain
dipentene as natural product, are without proof.37

The presence of limonene can readily be ascertained in the fractions
of volatile oils boiling about 175° by Tilden’s nitrosylchloride reaction
as modified by Wallach.26 If the yield is not too small the n-nitroso-
chloride can be recrystallized from ether and recognized by its crystal¬
line form.47 The conversion of the crude nitrosochloride into carvoxime
is characteristic but not easily performed. The double decomposition
of the crude nitrosochloride with benzylamine is much simpler.28 The
u-nitrol-benzylamine base crystallizes in dull needles which melt at 93°.
The tetrabromide reaction is also very characteristic but not as easily
and readily performed as the one mentioned last.

Dipentene is found in fractions boiling from 175-180° It is character¬
ized by means of its tetrabromide 38 melting at 124°, by means of its
nitrosochloride and the benzylamine base obtained therefrom.39 The
u-base crystallizes well from dilute alcohol in colorless transparent crys¬
tals, melting at 109-110°.

326

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Methods of Formation.

If the “ Isoterpenes” of Flawitzky 9 are impure limonenes, then the
latter can be obtained by inversion of the optically active pinenes
through the optically active terpineols (terpene hydrates of Flawitzky).

Dipentene being more stable than its optically active modifications
results from a large number of reactions:

I. Polymerisation of Isoprene, a hemiterpene. 40

II. Inversion of less stable terpenes, viz.:

1. By means of heat : direct inversion into dipentene.

2. By means of acids-

f a. Hydrohologen acids: into dipen¬
tene dihydrochloride, etc.
b. Sulphuric acid : apparent direct in-
^ version.

3. By means of water in presence of acids (e. g. nitric acid) con¬
version into terpin hydrate.

According to these methods pinene, 41 limonene 42 and phellan-
drene 43 can be converted into dipentene.

III. Destructive distillation of polymerized terpenes : e. g. Kaoutch-
ouc (Himly’s “ Kautschin ”).

IV. Regeneration of dipentene from derivatives :

1. Removal of hydrohalogen from dipentene dihydrochloride

and dihydrobromide by means of alcoholic potash,44 sodium
acetate 45 or anilin.46

2. Dehydration of O-Terpineol or terpin, resp. terpinhydrate 47

Methods of Preparation.

Dextrogyrate limonene is obtained by fractional distillation. Oil of
sweet orange consists almost entirely of + limonene. The “ carvene.” of
commerce and Erigeron oil are also very rich in + limonene and relative¬
ly cheap.

Levogyrate limonene is thus far obtained from “Fichtennadel 61” only.

Dipentene is best obtained by decomposition of its dihydrochloride or
bromide by boiling with anilin.46 The use of sodium acetate and glacial
acetic acid45 cause the formation of byproducts. It is rather difficult to
remove the last traces of halogen.5

HYDROHALOGEN ADDITION PRODUCTS.

Monohydrochlorides.

History :

The question whether a limonene monhydrochloride analogous to
pinene-monhydrochloride can exist has long remained an open one.
Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the liquid
byproducts, resulting in the preparation of dipentene-dihydrochloride.
Some regarded it as a monhydrochloride, others as an isomeric liquid

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

327

dihydrochloride. Those who supported the latter view termed it “ cam-
phre-liquide de citron ” in opposition to the “ camphre solide de citron ”
(crystalized dipentene dihydrochloride). From this “camphre liquide
de citron” Soubeiran and Capitain1 went so far as to prepare the hypo¬
thetical hydrocarbon “citrylene”: spec, gravity 0.88, boiling point 168°,
vapor density 5.08, optically inactive. More than this, they created a
group of liquid camphors, in distinction to the solid and artificial cam¬
phors.

Characteristic as well as interesting are Berthelot’s2 views (1882). He
had succeeded in preparing dipentene-dihydrochloride from pinene.
From this he concludes that the difference between pinene and limonene
(“ essence de citron ”) is not “essentielle.” Consequently limonene must
yield a mono hydrochloride, analogous to artificial camphor. However
“ sa preparation est difficile, car elle parait se produire seulement en
faible proportion et d'une maniere aceidentelle .”

That under such conditions it is perfectly impossible to interpret all
older statements in the light of present knowledge is certainly apparent.
A complete catalogue of all the literature that has reference to this par¬
ticular subject would therefore be useless. In most cases it may be
assumed that these liquid products were mixtures of mono- and dihy¬
drochlorides.

A statement by S. de Luca8 (1887) appears to be more rational. When
he passed dry hydrogen chloride into relatively pure limonene from the
citrus bigaradia no solid compounds icould result. Crystallized dipentene-
dihydrochloride, however, resulted when the oil was shaken with
aqueous hydrochloric acid, de Luca, however, makes no statements re¬
garding composition and character of this liquid chloride. Ribans4
statements (1874) are more important. By passing dry hydrogen chloride
into limonene a liquid monhydrochloride resulted which could be
converted into crystallizable dihydrochloride by treatment with moist
hydrogen chloride. Bouchardat5 (1875) claims to have obtained a liquid
monhydrochloride and a solid dihydrochloride. Maissen6 (1883) also
obtained a hydrohalogen addition-product which was not saturated.
From these statements by de Luca, Berthelot and Maissen it would
seem that the hydrogen chloride must be dry to yield a monhydro¬
chloride. Others7, however, who according to their statements employed
dry hydrogen chloride obtained dipentene-dihydrochloride and no
monhydrochloride. It is therefore not at all surprising that Wallach8
(1887) after an unsuccessful attempt to prepare a monhydrochloride de¬
nied the existence of such a compound. The study of Maissens com¬
pound (dipentene-hydrochlor-nitrosate), however, again brought up this
question.

As a result of these investigations it became apparent that a monohy¬
drochloride of limonene could exist, and that it was an unsaturated com¬
pound. The understanding of Riban’s and Maissan’s experiments had

328

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

to make the latter fact apparent, but Wallach first called attention to it.
Physical as well as chemical characteristics were first studied by him.
Wallach’s monohydrochloride was, as I have shown, chiefly dipentene-
monhydrochloride.10 The optically active monhydrochlorides were first
described by me.11

Properties.

Since there is no criterion to ascertain the purity of the monhydro-
chlorides the following data found for the three physical isomers will
have to be accepted at present : 11

+ Limonene-monhydrochloride.

44 A colorless, mobile liquid of faint limonene odor. It boils at 97-98°
under pressure of 11.-12 mm. Spec, gravity 0.973 at 17.8°; [u]D = -f- 39.5°.”

—Limonene-monhi/drochloride.

“This corresponds with the dextrogyrate compound in all but its
optical properties. The rectified product boiled at 95-96° under a pres¬
sure of about 11-12 mm.; spec. grav. 0.982 at 16°; [or] = + 40.0°.”

Dipentene-monhydroeliloride.

It was prepared by mixing equal parts of the above dextrogyrate and
lgevogyrate compounds. “The mixture was optically inactive; spec^
gravity 0.982 at 16.5°; boiling point 98° under pressure of 12 mm.” Wal¬
lach 12 ascertained the physical properties of a dipentene compound to
be as follows; Boiling point 90° under pressure of 11 mm.; spec. grav.
0.98; nc = 1.4789, molecular refraction 49,86, calculated for an unsatu¬
rated compound C10H17C1 50,28.

Chemically the monhydrochloride behaves like an unsaturated com¬
pound. Under the conditions, however, which are most favorable to its
formation it will not add a second molecule of hydrogen chloride.11 But
in the presence of moisture it adds another molecule and the limonene
derivative is thereby converted into a dipentene derivative. It also adds

H 13
Br

NO

Cl

14

and

NO
O (NOa).

15

Chlorine very likely also can be added, but

this apparently substitutes at the same time.16 Water is not added di¬
rectly. In the presence of water the chlorine is substituted by hydroxyl, 1&
and the aqueous hydrochloric acid acts upon the terpineol to form ter-
pin hydrate.17

The monhydrochlorides polymerize in a very peculiar manner.18 Hy¬
drogen chloride is split off at the same time and partial inactivity results
when the underlying hydrocarbon was optically active.

The Limonene Group of Terpeyes.

329

The hydrogen chloride is not easily removed and traces of chloride
are apt to remain. The regenerated hydrocarbon is a mixture of limo¬
nene and dipentene19.

Preparation.

When dry hydrogen chloride is passed into a dry solution of limonene
or dipentene in carbon disulphide the monhydrochloride alone results.
For technical details compare the original.20 Dipentene monhydro¬
chloride can also be prepared by splitting off a molecule of hydrogen
chloride from dipentene dihydrochloride21.

Identification.

The monhydrochlorides can easily be identified by means of the
hydrochlornitrolaminebases. The preparation and purification of the
hydrochlornitrolbenzylaminebase is easily carried out22.

Dipentene-dihydrochloride.

Synonyms.

Muriate Citre — Th. de Saussure, 1820.

Camphre de Citron — J. Dumas, 2 1833.

Citrene chlorhydrate — J. Dumas, 2 1833.

Festes salzsaures Citronenoel — Blanchet & Sell, 4 1833,
Salzsaures Kautschin — Himly, 5 1835.

Hydrochlorate de Citrene — Laurent, 6 1837.

Camphre solide 7 de citron — Soubeiran and Capitain. 8 1840.
Chlorwasserstoffsaures Carven — Schweizer, 9 1840.
Chlorwasserstoff Terpin — List 10 1848.

Bichlorhydrate d’essence de Terebenthine — Berthelot, 11 1852.
Dichlorhydrate de terpilene — Berthelot, 12 1861.

Zweifach chlorwasserstoffsaures Terpilen — Oppenheim, 14 1864.
Dihydrochloride of citrene — Yoshida, 15 1885.

Cynen dihydrochlorid — Hell& Ritter, 16 1884.
Dipenten-Dihydrochlorhydrat — Wallach, 17 1884.

Chlorhydrate de terpelene — Bouchardat & Lafont, 18 1886.
Dipenten-Dihydrochlorid — Wallach 17 1887.

History :

Dipentene dihydrochloride is one of the oldest characteristic terpene
derivatives. The so-called artificial camphor, the pinene monhydro¬
chloride alone has claim to priority.19 In an article “ Sur la combinaison
des acides avec les substances vegetales et animales.” Thenard in 1807
mentions a crystalline substance which resulted upon the absorption of
hydrogen chloride by lemon oil. There can scarcely be any doubt as to
the identity of this substance. At least Blanchet and Sell4 mention
Thenard as the discoverer of the compound under consideration. The

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

fact that Thenard recognized that the hydrochloric acid was added
without causing a decomposition of the molecule adds to the interest of
the discovery.

In 1820 Saussure 1 prepared dipentene dihydrochloride in pure form
and described the same. He calls attention to the physical differences
between this “ muriate citre ” and the “ muriate terebinthine.” From it
he also regenerated the hydrocorbon.

J. Dumas,2 in 1833, accepts the formula C5 H4 -f- y2 H 3^ Ch for the
“ camphre de citron.”

In the same year Blanchet and Sell4 characterize the “salzsaure
Citronenol” as follows: “From ether it crystallizes in laminae with a
silver lustre and of tuberose-like odor. It melts at 43° and sublimates
at 50° without decomposition,” etc. Percentage of chlorine 33.5 p. c.;
formula C5 H8 + Cl H. Thenard has tried to ascertain the composition
of the compound by noting the quantity of hydrogen chloride absorbed
by the oil. Saussure destroyed the substance with nitric acid and pre¬
cipitated the chlorine as silver chloride. He obtained 27.6 p. c. chlorine.
Blanchet and Sell employed the lime method. These chemists also sup¬
posed that by the action of hydrogen chloride upon lemon oil two solid
compounds are formed, the one of which decomposes into hydrochloric
acid and oil when recrystallized from warm alcohol, the other being
more stable. The latter is termed “ salzsaures citronyl ” (the substance
under consideration), the other “ salzsaures Citryl.”

Himley21 (1835) obtained “ Salzsaures Kautschin” by passing hydrogen
chloride into “Kautschin ” (dipentene) and regenerated the hydrocarbon
by distillation with lime and rectification over potassium.

Soubeiran and Captain8 (1840) mention the readiness with which
dipentene dihydrochloride decomposes: “II sufELt meme d'evaporer une
dissolution alcoolique de ce camphre pour qu’il soit detruit en partie,”
etc. They do not accept Blanchet and Sell’s view regarding the mixture
of two isomers. They recognize the fact that the “ camphre de citron ”
and also the regenerated “ citrene ” are optically inactive.

Schweizer 9 (1840) assigns to his “ chlorwasserstoff saures Carven,” the
formula C10 H16 + Cls H2. He regards it as isomeric with the solid
compound obtained by the action of hydrogen chloride upon lemon oil,
copaiva oil, and orange oil, with which it corresponds more or less in
some of its properties.

List 10 (1848) regards the chlorhydrate “Co0HtooCl3” obtained from the
terpin as isomeric with the one obtained by Blanchet and Sell and by
Dumas. He claims cyrstallographic differences, also differences in
melting points and solubility.

Deville’s observation of 1849 is of some interest : “Les hydrates de
terebenthine donnent avec l’acide chlorhydrique de 1’eau et du cam¬
phre de citron dont on peut retirer une huile qui par ut identique

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

331

avec 1’essence de citron elle-meme, ce qni fournit le moyen de transformer
l’essence de terebentine en essence de citron.”

Berthelot 11 obtained (1852) dipentene dihydrochloride directly from
turpentine oil by shaking the latter with aqueous hydrochloric acid,
or by passing hydrogen chloride into a solution of turpentine oil in
ether, alcohol or glacial acetic acid.

Trying to replace the three molecules of “ water radicles” in terpin hy-
chlorine, Oppenheim 14 (1862) always obtained the dihydrochloride of
dipentene.

These extracts and remarks may afford sufficient insight into the older
literature of the dihydrochloride of dipentene. To give complete liter¬
ary references up to date would be useless. From the above it becomes
obvious that with a better knowledge of this compound some light was
shed over the relations of terpenes in general. It must also be obvious,
however, that for many it was a stumbling block and brought about
greater confusion. Some chemists indeed recognized the identity of this
compound from whatever source they obtained it, others denied the
same. In the imaginations of some there were as many dihydrochlorides
as there were terpenes, and these were limited only by the number of
volatile oils containing hydrocarbons of the formula C10 H16

In spite of Berthelot’s ideas Gladstone’s 24 (1864) classification of the
terpenes gained ground more and more. According to this dipentene
dihydrochloride was regarded as the characteristic addition product of
“ citrene ” ( +• limonene) and allied terpenes, whereas artificial camphor
was taken as characteristic derivative of the “terpenes” (pinene and
allied terpenes.)

In the following twenty years little was added to a better understanding
of this compound. A full understanding was possible only after the dis¬
covery of lsevogyrate limonene, (1888) i. e., after the completion of the
limonene group and synthesis of dipentene derivatives.

Properties.

Dipentene dihyrochloride crystallizes in pearly laminae which melt
at 50°. 3 5 It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, readily
soluble in chloroform, from which solution it can be precipitated with
methyl alcohol. Its presence effects a decrease of the melting-point of
other substances.22

Chemically, dipentene dihydrochloride behaves like a saturated com¬
pound, and as a terpene derivative it is relatively stable . By splitting off
one or both hydrogen chloride molecules it is converted back into un¬
saturated compounds. Heated by itself,28 or in alcoholic solution.29
it decomposes into its components, dipentene and hydrogen chloride.
Caustic potassa and anilin split of hydrogen chloride, but the last traces
of chlorine are very difficult to remove.30 Solution of permanganate of
potassium attacks it readily.31

332

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Methods of formation:

I. Addition of hydrogen chloride:

1. To the monhydrochlorides of the limonene group.32

2 To the hydrocarbons of this group.33

The optically active hydrocarbons are hereby inactivated. The indi¬
rect formation from cineol 34 is to be classed with 2, since the hydrogen
chloride acts first as a dehydrating agent forming k‘ cinene ” (dipentene).

II. Esterification of the diatomic alcohol terpin and its hydrate:

1. By means of hydrochloric acid.35

2. By means of the tri- and pentachlorides of phosphorus.36

Ad I and II. The formation from the terpineols 37 no doubt consists in
an esterification of the monatomic alcohol and subsequent addition of a
second molecule of hydrogen chloride.

III. Inversion and addition:

e. g. From pinene,38 phellandrene,39 and probably from terpino-
lene.40

Preparation.

Larger quantities of dipentene dihydrochloride are rationally pre¬
pared by passing hydrogenchloride over (not into) a solution of limonene
in one-half its volume of glacial acetic acid. A rise in temperature of
the solution must be avoided to prevent the formation of oily products.
After the solution has congealed to a crystalline mass it is poured into
water and the drained chloride is purified by dissolving it in alcohol and
precipitating with water.41

Small quantities can be readily purified by dissolving in chloroform
and precipitating the solution with methyl alcohol.

Dipentene-Dihydrobromide.

Dibromhydrate de terpiline, Berthelot,42 1861.

Zweifach bromwasserstoffsaures terpilen, Oppenheim,14 1864.
Cynen-dihydrobromid, Hell and Ritter,16 1884.
Dipenten-dihydrobromid, Wallach,17 1887.

History.

Dipentene-dihydrobromide was first prepared by Berthelot 42 from ter-
pinhydrate analogous to the chloride. In the following year (1862)
Oppenheim 14 prepared it from terpinhydrate with tri- and penta bromide
of phosphorus. In 1884 Hell and Ritter16 prepared it from cineol
analogous to the chloride. Wallach has repeatedly prepared the dihy¬
drobromide from dextrogyrate limonene, dipentene, terpinhydrate,43 also
from terpinolene.44

The Limonene Group of Terpenes .

333

Properties.

In its properties the bromide resembles the chloride. Melting point
64°. (Hell & Ritter16 42°.)

Methods of Formation.

These are analogous to those of the chloride. In how far they have
been carried out can be seen from the historical sketch.

Preparation.

Dipentene dihydrobromide can be prepared in few minutes when to a
solution of limonene or dipentene an excess of a saturated solution of
hydrobromic acid is added. The mixture must be left cold, and when
poured into water the dihydrobromide is precipitated in pure condi¬
tion.45.

Dipentene Dihy dr iodide.

Zweifach jodwasserstolfsaures Terpilen — Oppenheim.14 1862.
Cynen-Dihydrojodid — Hell und Ritter.16 1884.
Dipenten-Dihydrojodid — Wallach.17 1887.

History.

Wiggers46 and also List 10 did not succeed in preparing a hydriodide-
analogous to the hydrochloride. Oppenheim was the first to succeed.
He obtained it by treating terpin hydrate with phosphorus iodide. The
product, however, cannot have been pure as indicated by the melting point
48°. Hell & Ritter 16 (1884) obtained the hydriodide analogous to the hydro¬
chloride and hydromide from cineol. Melting point 76-77°. At the
same time and independently Wallach and Brass47 obtained the same
compound from the same material. Wallach also prepared it from
terpin-hydrate 48 and terpineol49 with the aid of hydriodic acid.

/

Properties.

In its properties the dihydriodide is analogous to the dihydrochloride
and dihydrobromide, but it is less stable. However with its purity its
stability increases. Prom petroleum ether it crystallizes in two phys¬
ically isomorphous modifications60: rhombic crystals melting at 77° and
monosymmetric crystals melting at 78-79°.

Methods of Formation :

These are analogous to those above mentioned. In how far they have
been carried out can readily be seen from the historical notes.

334

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Preparation :

1. Analogous to that of the hydrobromide.

2. From terpin hydrate: to 5 g. terpin hydrate contained in a flask
about 20 cbcm. of cone, hydriodic acid (spec. grav. 1.96) are added and the
mixture is shaken without the application of heat. The transformation
into the iodide takes place quantitavely. The drained product is crys¬
tallized from petroleumether in which terpin hydrate is almost insol¬
uble.51

THE HYDRATES OF THE LIMONENE GROUP.

Terpin and Terpin-hydrate.

Synonyms.

Pyrocamphorium1 — Trautwein.

Terpenthin salz1 — Buchner,2 1820.
Terpentinolcamphorid1 — Trommsdorf,3 1828.
Terpin1 — Berzelius,4 List,5&9 1848.

Trihydrate d’essence de terebenthine1 — Deville.
Turpentine camphor1 (C 20 C20 Q4).

Hydrate of oil of turpentine.1
* Terpenthincampher — Blanchet and Sell,6 1833.

*Wachholderbeerenolhydrat ( Bianc
* Terpenthinhydrat \

Terpenthincampher — Wiggers,8 1840.
Terpentinolhydrat,9 1884.

Hydrate de terebenthine
Bihydrate d’essence de terebenthine

Terpinhydrat — Wallach.11

History.

Disregarding the dehydration products the chemical literature of ter¬
pin, resp. of terpin hydrate at first sight appears to be very simple. Ac- •
cording to Gmelin1 terpin hydrate was observed as early as 1827, by
Geoffroy; Buchner2 is stated to have regarded it as a salt of succinic
acid with a volatile base, whereas Dumas and Peligot12 and then Wiggers8
considered it to be a hydrate of turpentine oil. It is rather strange that
Blanchet and Sell7 are not mentioned by Gmelin in his historical re¬
view. The same views, however, have been expressed before, viz.:
by Blanchet and Sell,13 by the publishers of the “Annalen der
Chemie und Pharmacie,” and by List. They are the same we find in our

* Those marked with *, no doubt, pertain not to terpin or its hydrate but to pinol hydrate
which was not recognized as such at the time.

TheLimonene Group of Terrenes.

335

hand-books to-day. A critical study, however, must throw doubt upon
at least some of their statements. Unfortunately time does not
permit at present to verify these doubts by experimental evidence.
Nevertheless, the same, as well as the reasons therefore, shall be men¬
tioned. If Blanchet and Sell’s contribution13 be read in the light of our
present knowledge of terpin hydrate several points will have to be re¬
garded in a rather doubtful light. The same is true of the historical
sketch given by the editors of the “ Annalen.” It is even stranger that
List could make the remark that the older analytical results corres¬
pond, whereas they fall very distinctly into two categories. An explana¬
tion for their views is probably to be found in the fact that at an early
date terpin hydrate was converted into terpin free from water of crystal¬
lization, and that pinol hydrate, a substance approaching terpin closely
in empirical composition had not been recognized as such. To make
physical differences agree or to regard such differing statements as mis¬
prints may be admitted a single time, a repetition of such a procedure,
however, must create suspicion. An attempt to bring all statements
concerning the so-called “ terpentine oil hydrate” in harmoliy with actual
facts would leave a number of points unexplained. This riddle, however,
may be solved by substituting pinol hydrate in place of terpin (free
from water of crystallization) whenever necessary. The following table
may, therefore; serve as a key to a better understanding of the terpin-
literature.

Ci0H20O8

CioH1803

Blanchet
& Sell.

Dumas &
Peligot.

Sten-

house.

Wiggers.

Sobrero. ;

69.76

70.58

C

70.91

• • • •

• • • »

• • • •

69.99

70.30

.

70.58

11.62

10.58

H

11.05

11.68

11.62

10.58

CO

a.

b.

c.

M

63.15

C

63.8

63.8

64.0

63.315

63.25

01

H

o

11.57

H

11.4

11.5

11.4

11.555

11.56

o

Meltinar noint ....

150°

15

0°

*

* Armstrong has shown recently that pinol hydrate prepared according to Sobrero
melts at 150° (J. C. S , June, 1891, J. 317.)

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Properties.

Terpin hydrate crystallizes in large transparent prisms.17 It is solu¬
ble in 250 p. of water, 10 p. alcohol, 100 p. ether, 200 p. chloroform; in 32 p.
of boiling water and 2 p. of hot alcohol;18 it is insoluble in petroleum
ether. It melts at 116-117°, sublimating at the same time. When heated
in a flask the water of crystallization is first given off with which a por¬
tion of the substance passes over, then the anhydrous terpin distills at
258° . The anhydrous terpin congeals to a hard crystalline mass which
melts at 102-105° .20

Terpin and its hydrate are saturated compounds 1 9 when boiled with
acids or other dehydrating agents there results first of all the monatomic
unsaturated alcohol tepineol, C10 H18. Further dehydration yields ac¬
cording to the conditions and dehydrating agent employed, three hydro¬
carbons C10 H16 differing essentially in their properties: terpinene,
terpinolene and dipentene.21 Cineol also results, but only in small
quantities22 When treated with the hydrohalogen acids dipentene
dihydrochloride,23 dihydrobromide 24 and dihydriodide 25 result respec¬
tively. When treated with the chlorine, bromineand iodine derivatives
of phosphorous the same dipentene derivatives result.26 Hydrofluoric
acids also acts upon terpin hydrate but the resulting products have not
been studied27. With nitric acid it appears to yield an ether from which
upon saponification the alchol can be regenerated only in part.28 Nitric
acid29 also oxidizes terpin hydrate; permanganate solution30 even more
readily.

Occurrence.

In some text-books it has been stated that terpin hydrate has been
found in the oil from Acimum basilicum, L., and in Cardamom oil. This
however, is not at all to be considered as a natural occurrence. To our
knowledge terpin hydrate does not occur in plant organs.

Determination.

Characteristic for terpin hydrate are its crystalline form and its melt¬
ing point, as also the melting-point of the anhydrous terpin. Chemically
it can be characterized by converting it into any one of the dipentene-
hydrohalogen derivatives. Of these the di-hydriodide can be prepared
most readily.31

Methods of Formation.

Hydration of —

I. The hydrocarbons C10 H16:

(a) Limonene.32

(b) Pinene 33 (whereby inversion takes place.)

II. The alcohol terpineol 34 C10 Hi 8 O. As an indirect formation

that from limonene monhydrochloride 35 may be con¬
sidered under terpineol.

ThelLimonene Group of Terpenes.

332

Preparation .38

According to’Hempel, who compared the methods of Wiggers and De-
ville, 8p. of turpentine oil are mixed with 2p. nitric acid (spec, gravity
1.25 — 1.3) and 2p. alcohol. □ The mixture is shaken several times daily
until crystals begin^to form. To obtain crystals in comparatively short
time shallow dishes can be employed. The drained crystals are re-crys¬
tallized form alcohol.

Terpineol.

Synonyms :

Terpineol 1 — List 2 1848.

Berthelot 3 1852.
Oppenheim4 1864.
Tilden5 1878.
Tanret6 1885.

Diterebenhydrat — Oppenheim 4 1864.
Terpinhydrat — Flawitzky 7 1879 and 1887.
Monohydrate de Terebenthene — Tanret6 1885.
Terpineol — ¥/allach 8 1885.

Bouchardat and Voiry 9 1887.

History :

In an impure form, as so-called “ terpinol,” terpineol has given rise to
manifold speculations, which need not be considered here. Both Tilden5
and Flawitzky,7 according to opposite methods, obtained relatively
pure terpineol, but it was Wallach who first introduced order into the
chaos of older speculations. By means of a systematic study of the
dehydration products of terpin, in which all side reactions were avoided
as much as possible he ascertained that terpineol is the first dehydration
product of terpin, and that by further dehydration it is converted, ac¬
cording to conditions, and reagents into one or more of three hydro¬
carbons, viz., dipentene, terpinene, terpinolene; also that in the process
of dehydration of terpin small quantities of cineol are formed as
byproduct. These few introductory remarks will enable us to interpret
the older literature upon this subject.

In 1846 Wiggers 10 obtained from terpin hydrate by heating the same
with hydriodic acid a compound to which he assigns the formula
C 20 H 16 + H. The results of his analyses do not at all agree well with
this formula. He remarks that this substance might be regarded as the
“Oxyd von einem aus dem Terpentinol neuentstandenen Radical =
C20 H,17 wozu, aber, wie es scheint durchaus kein Grund vorhanden ist.’5

22— A. & L.

33 S Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

In 1848 List2 supposes to have obtained the same substance Wiggers
had in hands by boiling terpin with acidulated water (one drop of cone,
sulphuric acid sufficed to decompose 11.5 g terpin). The substance
termed “ Terpinol ” by him is stated to possess a hyacinth-like odor, es¬
pecially when largely diluted and to boil constantly at 180°. When sat¬
urated with hydrogen chloride it yields the same chloride as does terpin
hydrate. (Dipentene dihydrochloride.) This fact, List supposes, sup¬
ports Berzelius’ view (27, Jahresbericht, p. 445,) that terpinol is the oxide
of a radical C20 H,17 and that terpin is the hydrate of terpinol. The fol¬
lowing formulae are to express “ die verschiedenen Betrachtsungsweisen
der Constitution dieser Korper:”

Crystallized Terpin: —

C2° H22 O6 = C20 H16 + 6H = C20 H17 O + 3 H + 2aq.
Anhydrous Terpin: —

C20 H20 O4 = C20 H16 + 4H = C20 H17 O + 3H.

Terpinol: —

C20 H17 O = C20 H16 + H = C20 H17 O.

61 Chlorwasserstoff Terpin ” : —

C20 H18 Cl2 = C20 H16 + 2H Cl — C20 H17 Cl + H CL
However, these views do not satisfy List, for “ es erheben sich dagegen
alle die Umstade, welche gegen die Annahme sprechen, das der Alchohol
das Hydrat der Aethers und dieser das basische Oxyd von C4 H5 sey.”

According to Oppenheim 4 (p. 155) Berthelot 8 (1852) is stated to have
obtained “ terpinol ” “ bei der Einwirkung von Kali auf die zweifach
chlorwasserstoffsaure Verbindung des Terpilens.” He accepts the form¬
ula “C20 H16,HO.”

Oppenheim 4 (1864) claims to have obtained “ das Terpinol von Wiggers
und List ” by treating “ zweifachbromwasserstoffsaures Terpilen ” with

acetate of silver: 2C10H18Br2 -f4C2H3 Ag02 =4AgBr -f- n3 jj3 q ( ^

2C2 II4 02 4- C20 H34 O. This “terpinol” boiled between 165-208°.a
Oppenheim acknowledges that lie could never obtain a product of con¬
stant boiling point ; also that Gerhardt doubted the existence of such a
substance. As an “ Aether des Terpins ” Oppenheim designates a sub¬
stance which very likely was impure acetate of terpineol. (p. 157.)

By boiling terpinhydrate with water acidulated with hydrochloric
acid Tilden 5 (1878) obtained a substance C10 H18 O, resp. C10 H16. Hs O

to which he assigns the double formula C10 H18 <q> C10 H18. He

retains for it the term terpinol and supposes it to be an ether or anhy¬
dride of terpin, i. e. to stand in the same relation to terpin as ether
does to alcohol. “ Almost conclusive evidence of this is supplied by the

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

339

action of hydrochloric acid, which does not give a monochloride as
might be expected if terpinol had the constitution expressed by C10 H17
(O H)

In the following year, however, a vapor density determination com¬
pels Tilden to accept the simple formula C10 H18 O. “It is somewhat
remarkable that this chloride (i. e. dipentene dihydrochloride) thus
formed from terpinol, corresponds in constitution not with that sub¬
stance but with terpin.

although when decomposed by alkalis it yields terpinol and not terpin.”

Tanret 6 (1885) states that the formula (C20 H16) 2 H2 02 for terpinol
ought to be rejected, that terpinol proper boils between 215-220° and is
a monohydrate of terebenthene (C20 H16fH2 02; also that the product

which results from the action of dilute acids upon the terpin, or of alco¬

holic potassa upon “ Terebenthen dichlorhydrat ” are but mixtures of a
hydrocarbon C20 H16 with monohydrate.

Since we shall have occasion to refer repeatedly to Wallach’s8 (1885)
researches on terpineol it may suffice here to mention the results of his
dehydration experiments, which, as has already been mentioned served
as a key to a better understanding of this part of the limonene literature.
Hydrochloric and nitric acids were not employed as dehydrating agents
on account of the byproducts to which they give rise: hydrochloric acid
to chlorides, nitric acid to oxidation products. The products resulting
upon treatment of terpin hydrate with

sulphuric acid (1 : 2) are terpinene.

terpinolene.

terpineol.

sulphuric acid (1:7) terpinene (largely),
phosphoric acid [spec. gr. 1.12 = 20 p. c.] (1:4): terpineol and

terpinene or
dipentene.

phosphoric acid [spec. gr. 1.12 = 20 p. c.] (1:2): terpineol (exclusively).

glacial acetic acid terpineol (essentially),
potassium bisulphate: terpineol.

dipentene.

Terpineol always results as intermediate product and upon further
dehydration is converted into one or more of the above mentioned ter-
penes. “ Bei der Zerlegung des Terpinhydrats durch Sduren od. durch
wasserentziehende Mittel ensteht unter keirier Bedingung eine Verbindung
von der Zusammensetzung C20 IT34 O und dem Siedepunkt 168°.

Thus far the terpineol under consideration, whether pure or impure
as “ terpinol,” always showed itself to be optically inactive.

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Bouchardat and Lafont 11 report (1886) on a series of experiments per¬
taining to the action of acids on the terpenes. The action of acetic
acid on pinene furnishes a mixture of acetates which can be separated
by means of fractional distillation under diminished pressure. The
separated acetates yield upon treatment with alcoholic potassa optically
active terpineol and borneol respectively. Whereas, by this treatment
pinene could be converted into terpineol and borneol, camphene could
be converted into borneol only, dipentene into optically inactive ter¬
pineol, dextrogyrate limonene12 into dextrogyrate terpineol. From the
o-terpineol they obtained crystals at a very low temperature.

With the introduction of new terms, viz.: “ terpilenol ” and “ terpol ”
for terpineol, and of “terpal” for cineol Bouchardat and Voiry9 (1887)
have rendered poor service to science. Their disregard of the results
achieved by others certainly is not honorable.

( 1879 )

Flawitzky7 j ^gg^ j prepared optically active monohydrates, which he

termed “ Terpenhydrate,” by treating dextro — and laevogyrate pinene-
with alcoholic sulphuric acid. No doubt, these terpenehydrates as well
as'the “ terpilenoles ” of Bouchardat are optically active terpineols inacti¬
vated more or less by the presence of optically inactive terpineol.
When dehydrated with acetic acid anhydride they yielded optically ac¬
tive hydrocarbons C10H16 which Flawitzky termed “ Isoterpene ” and
which, to judge by their properties were more or less impure limonenes.

Properties.

Terpineol is a viscid13 liquid18 of agreable odor,14 lighter than and in¬
soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol. It is volatile with water
vapors and boils between 215-218° 15. That obtained from dipentene and
and terpin is optically inactive,6 that obtained from optically active
pinene and limonene is optically active.17

Terpineol is an unsaturatod compound.19 The addition of water con¬
verts it into terpin and its hydrate.20 The removal of a molecule of water
dehyrates it according to reagents and conditions to dipentene,21 ter-
pinene or terpinolene,22 but never to pinene. The hydrohalologen acids
convert terpineol like terpin into the dihydrohalogen addition products
of dipentene i. e. the dihalogen esters of the diatomic alcohol but not
into a monohalogen ester of the monatomic alcohol terpineol23, probably
according to the equation.24

C10 H17 OH + H Cl = C10 H1S | 3^

Cio H18 | oh + H Cl = C10 H-18 Cl2 + H3 O.

The monohydrochlorides of the limonenes, no doubt are to be regarded
as monochlorine esters of the terpineols.25 Apparently the acetic ester
can be prepared from the alcohol.26 When saponinfied with alcoholic

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

341

potassa thes esters yield the corresponding terpineols.11-12 Presumably
nitric and sulphuric acids are capable of forming similar compounds,
which, however, are very unstable. The presence of water at a normal
temperature suffices to sapoinfy them.27 Phosphoric acid converts ter-
pineol into the isomeric cineol.28 With carbanil terpineol yields a crys-
tallizable phenyl-terpinyl-urethane, which sufficiently demonstrates the
alcoholic nature of the same.29 Apparently the hydroxy hydrogen can
be replaced by sodium.30 Whereas very dilute nitric acid causes the
formation of terpin hydrate more concentrated acid oxidizes. Potassium
permanganate also readily oxidizes terpineol.31

Methods of Formation.

I Hydration of

Pinene.

Limonene and Dipentene.

II Dehydration of

Terpin, resp. terpin hydrate.

III Saponification of

1. The acetates of the terpineols.

2. The dihalogen esters of terpin.

Preparation.

To prepare optically inactive terpineol 25 g. of terpin hydrate are boiled
with 50 cbcm. of phosphoric acid, specific gravity 1.12 [= 20 per cent.]
for 10 or 15 minutes, or 50 g. of terpin hydrate are boiled in a flask at¬
tached to a reflux condenser with 100 cbcm. glacial acetic acid for five or
six hours. The resulting products are distilled with water vapor. The
dried oil is rectified and the fraction boiling between 215-218° is col¬
lected8. The optically active terpineols can be obtained according to
Flawitzky7 by hydration of the pinenes by means of alcoholic sulphuric
acid, or according to Bouchardat and Lafont1]&12 by saponification of the
acetic esters (obtained from the optically active pinenes or limonenes)
by means of alcoholic potassa.

Occurrence and Identification.

Thus far the analysis and boiling point of terpineol and the conversion
into dipentene dihydrochloride have served as factors for its identifica¬
tion. Whether these data are sufficient is rather questionable. If pos¬
sible the carbanil reaction should be employed. If the latter be taken
as the only true criterion the presence of terpineol in natural products
has not yet been absolutely proven. However, the occurrence of ter¬
pineol in a number of volatile oils is very probable.

342

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Nitrosochlorides , Nitrosates, Nitrolctmines.

History :

According to Wallach2 Bunge was the first to prepare a nitrosyl chlor¬
ide derivative of a terpene. Tilden,3 however, was the first who examined
it more carefully and described it. Thus he obtained from the class of
“ terpenes ” (pinene) an optically inactive nitroso chloride which melted
at 103 ’, and which, by splitting off hydrogen chloride was converted into
the characteristic nitroso terpene, melting at 129°. From the class of
“ citrenes ” (limonene) he obtained an isomeric, optically active nitroso
chloride, v/hich, by splitting off hydrogen chloride, was converted into a
nitroso derivative (“ nitroso herperidene ”) isomeric with “ nitroso ter¬
pene,” and whose melting point was 70-71°. These reactions henceforth
characterized Gladstone’s 4 “ terpenes ” and “ citrenes,” and the identity
of herperidene, carvene and citrene could no longer be doubted. Til-
den’s method of preparing the nitroso chlorides by passing nitrosyl
chloride into a solution of terpene, however, was very defective. Neither
did Tilden surmise that his “ herperidene nitrosyl chloride ” was a mix¬
ture.

In 1885 Goldschmidt 5 showed that the oxime from carvol was chem¬
ically identical with “ nitroso herperidene ” of Tilden. Soon after (1888)
Wallach 6 taught how to prepare the nitroso chlorides in large quanti¬
ties with the aid of hydrochloric acid and amylnitrite, also the prepar¬
ation of the nitrolamines. Fully as important was the discovery that
the nitroso chlorides were mixtures and that they could be separated
into the a and fi compounds (1889). 7

Preparation.

Wallach’s method of preparation is as follows: “ To 5 cbcm. of limo¬
nene, 7 cbcm. of amyl nitrite (or 11 cbcm. of ethyl nitrite) and 12 cbcm.
of glacial acetic acid are added, and to this solution, kept cold in a.
freezing mixture, a solution of 6 cbcm. of crude muriatic acid in 6 cbcm.
of glacial acetic acid is carefully added in small quantities. Finally 5
cbcm. of alcohol are added.” The great solubility of the a — and the
sparing solubility of the (5 — compound admit of an easy separation of
the two nitroso-chlorides.

Physical Properties.

a-Nitrosochlorides.

The limonene u-nitroso-chlorides crystallize in tabular crystals of
the monoclinic system 9. The dipentene derivative does not crystallize
as well10. The + and — u-nitroso-chloride melt at 103 — 104°, whereas
the dipentene derivative melts at 78° n, but congeals to a crystalline mass
immediately after, and melts a second time at L03-1040. The limonene
derivatives are soluble in about an equal weight of chloroform and twice

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

343

their weight of 'ether. These solutions are strongly optically active
[u]D =+313.4° resp. — 314.8° 13. The dipentene derivative is more read¬
ily soluble, and is optically inactive.

/ 3-Nitrosochlorides .

The limonene /3-nitrosochlorides are precipitated from their chloroform
solutions with methyl alcohol as woolly crystalline needles.14 By care¬
ful crystallization from chloroform they can be obtained in handsome
prismatic crystals.15 The /?-nitrosochlorides are much less soluble than
the ar-derivatives. Their optical activity is also not as great: [a jp __
+ 240.3° resp. — 242.2° 16 The melting point has been found to vary, viz.,
100-106° 14 Dipentene /3-nitrosochloride, like the u-derivative, is more
Soluble, does not crystallize as well as its optically active modifications
and melts at 101°- A third modification which melts at 75-76° has been
observed.17

Chemical Properties.

The chemical properties of the a- and /3-nitrosochlorides do not differ
essentially and can, therefore, be considered together. When carefully
heated by themselves (Tilden 3), or when heated with alcoholic potassa
(Wallach18) hydrogen chloride is split off and carvoximes result (Comp,
also Goldschmidt 5). Thus dextrogyrate limonene-nitrosochloride yields
laevogyrate carvoxime, also obtainable from laevogyrate carvol; whereas
laevogyrate limonene nitrosocloride yields dextrogyrate carvoxime, also
obtainable from dextrogyrate carvol.19 From dipentene nitrosochloride
optically inactive carvoxime results, which can also be obtained by
mixing solutions of equal parts of the optically active carvoximes.20

A molecule of hydrogenchloride can be added to form nitrosochloride-
hydrochlorides, but these differ from the hydroehlor-nitrosochlorides.21

The chlorine of the j group can easily be replaced by basic radicles

whereby nitrolamine bases result. In these double decompositions a-
and /3-nitrosochloride behave alike.22

The nitrosochlorides are unsaturated. With bromine they yield an
unstable dibromide (Tilden1). Their unsaturated condition is also
recognizable from the hydrochlor nitrosochloride.

Nitrosates.

Thus far dipentene-nitrosate only has been described. There appears
to be some difficulty connected with the preparation of the limonene-
nitrosates.23 Dipentene-nitrosate crystallizes in laminae which melt at
84° In its constitution it is analogous to the nitrosochloride; by split¬
ting off nitric acid o-carvoxime results; by double decomposition with
bases the optically inactive nitrolamine base results; apparently it adds

344

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a molecule of hydrogenchloride (molecular addition); its unsaturated
condition becomes apparent from the hydrochlor nitrosate. Thus far a
separation of two nitrosates, if such a mixture results at all, has not
been effected.

Nitrolamines.

The double decomposition of terpinene nitrosite with bases on the part
of Wallach induced this investigator to study the behavior of nitroso-
chlorides and nitrosates toward bases. Thereby the analogy between the

nitrosochlorides

No

Cl, nitrosites

No ( NO

O (NO) and nitrosates } O (NOa) was

established. The application of this reaction proved especially favorable
in the limonene group. Even before the nitrosochlorides were known
to be a mixture the notrolanilids were recognized as such. Further¬
more, it was ascertained that the separated a and (5 nitrosochlorides
yielded each two, viz, an a and a (5 nitrolamine base, and that these a and
/ 3 nitrolamine were respectively identical. The reactions may be ex¬
pressed in the following manner:

a — Nitrosochloride ft — Nitrosochloride

a — Nitrolamine fi — Nitroamine

(NO

a-Nitrolpiperidine 26. C10 H16 -j

(n.C5H10

Limonene-a- nitrol piperidine crystallizes from alcohol in hand¬
some rhombic crystals which melt at 93-94°. In petroleum ether, in
ether and chloroform it is readily soluble, less so in alcohol. The solu¬
tions turn the plane of polarized light in the [direction® of the underly¬
ing hydrocarbons: [or] = + 67, 75° resp. — 67, 60°. The hydrochlo-

1 CZZ □

rides turn the plane of polarization in the opposite direction.

The dipentene base precipitates upon the mixture of the petroleum
ether solutions of the optically active components. From alcohol it
crystallizes in monosymmetric crystals which stand in no relation to
the well formed crystals of its optically active modifications.

(NO

/?- Nitrolpiperidine 26 Cxo HT6 ]

(n.c5hT0.

The Limonene derivatives melt at 110-111°, crystallize monosymmet-
rically, and are less soluble, especially in petroleum ether, than the

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

345

-compounds. The solutions turn the plane of polarized light in a
direction opposite to that of the underlying hydrocarbon:

dextrogyrate-limonene-/3-nitrolpiperidine [a:] = — 60, 37°.

Isevogyrate “ “ “ “ M D — + 60, 18°.

Their hydrochlorides are almost optically inactive. The dipentene
base stands in similar relation to its components as does the a-base to
its. It melts at 152°.

( NO.

u-Nitrol benzylamine 27 C10 H10 •]

( NH CH3 C6 H5.

The limonene u-nitrol benzylamine crystallizes from alcohol in hard
needles which possess no sharply defined crystal faces. It melts at 93°.
It is optically strongly active turning the plane of polarized light in the
same direction with the underlying hydrocarbon; [a] = + 163.8°, resp.

— 163.6°. The salts of this base are sparingly soluble in water, more read¬
ily in alcohol. Their rotatory power is without exception opposite to
that of the free base.

dextrogyrate-limonone u-nitrol benzylamine-chlorhydrate [or] =

— 82.26°.

lsevogyrate-limonone u-nitrol benzylamide-chlorhydrate [uJD =

+ 83.06°.

dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-nitrate [or] = — 81.5°.
laevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-nitrate [or] = + 81.0°.
dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-d-tartrate [a] = — 49.98°.
lsevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-d-tartrate [a] = + 69.6°.
dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-l-tartrate [u] = — 69.9°.
laevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-l-tartrate [<*] = + 51.0°.

The /3-Nitrol benzylamines have not yet been obtained in a pure con¬
dition.

(NO

a-Nitrol anilids 28 C10 H16 ]

(nhc6h5

The limonene derivatives crystallize, when pure, from dilute alcohol in
hard, colorless, tabular crystals which melt at 112-113°. Their action upon
polarized light corresponds to that of the underlying hydrocarbons,
viz.: [u] — 4- 102.25° resp. — 102.62°. The hydrochlorides are sparingly
soluble in water, more readily in alcohol. Their solutions deviate the
ray of polarized light but little, however, in the same direction as do the
free bases.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

(NO

The a-Nitroso-derivatives ,29 C10 H16 ■] crystallize in.

( N (N O) C6 H5,

white blunt needles and melt at 142°. Their solutions deviate the ray
of polarized light in the direction as do the underlying bases, but the
action is lessened, viz.: [n] = + 46.20° resp. — 47.82°

Dipentene-a-nitrolanilid crystallizes from a mixture of alcoholic solu¬
tions of equal parts of the limonene derivatives and melts at 125-126°.

The dipentene nitroso-compound 29 is obtained in the same way from its
components. It is less soluble than the latter, crystallizes better, i. e.,
in triangular tablets and melts at 147°.

The Nitrolanilids, like the nitroso-chlorides, are unsaturated compounds
and can take up a molecule of hydrogen chloride. The u-hydrochlor

(NO

addition products, C10H17 Cl s are identical with the hydro-

(nh.c6h6

chlor nitrol anilids to be described later.

(NO

(3 -Nitrolanilids™ C10 H16 ]

(nh.c6h5.

The limonene /3-nitrolanilids are somewhat filty needles, which are
almost insoluble in water and petroleum ether, readily soluble in hot
benzol, but difficultly in cold benzol and in ether, more readily soluble
in alcohol and chloroform. Whereas the solutions of the /3-compounds
are not. precipitated. The latter thus appear to be stronger bases. Melt¬
ing-point 152°. Optically they act in a direction opposite to that of the
underlying hydrocarbons and thus differ from the /3-derivatives.

dextrogyrate-limonene /3-nitrolanilid [cr] =■ — 89.39°.
lsevagyrate-limonene /3-nitrolanilid [n] =+87.17°.

Their nitroso-derivatives-9, however, which melt at 136° again turn the
plane of polarized light corresponding in direction to that of the under¬
lying hydrocarbon. Their specific rotatory power is by (about) 10°
stronger than that of the corresponding a derivatives:

dextrogyrate-/3-nitrol-nitroso-anilid [or] = + 57,67°

laevogyrate-/3-nitrol-nitroso-anilid [or] — — 57,75°

Dipentene (3 nitrol nitroso anilid , obtained from its optically active
components, does not crystallize well and melts at 129° .

The /3 -hydro chlor addition products 30 differ from the n-compounds and
have thus far not been obtained from the hydrochlor-nitrosochlorides.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

347

The limonene derivatives crystallize from alcohol in beautiful, hexagonal
tablets and melt at 78° . They are not at all strongly optically active,
but turn the plane in a direction corresponding to that of the underly¬
ing hydrocarbons, [or] = + 12.91° resp. — 12.51° . The hydrochlor ad¬
dition product of Dipentene- (3 -nitrol-anilid crystallizes from its alcoholic
solution in four sided prisms and melts at 90° .

Hydrochlor, Nitrosochlorides, Nitrosates and Nitrolamines.

Through the action of hydrochloric acid, amyl nitrite and nitric acid

( NO Cl

upon “carvene” Maissen obtained a “compound C10 H16 j jj ’’which

Wallach recognized as hydrochlornitrosate, C10 H17 Cl. NO (O. NOs).
Later it was shown that this compound was a dipentene and not a lim¬
onene (“carvene”) derivative. The corresponding hydrochlor-nitroso-
chloride was first prepared by Wallach. The optically active modifica¬
tions were prepared by me in Prof. Wallach’s laboratory.

The hydrochlor-nitrosochlorides, etc., are saturated compounds. They
can be regarded as nitrosochlorides, nitrosates and nitrolamines of the
monhydrochlorides of the limonene hydrocarbons. Thus far all of the
saturated nitrosochlorides, etc., prepared from monhydrochlor limonene,
have been obtained in but one modification, which corresponds to the
u-modification of the unsaturated derivatives free from chlorine.

( NO

Hydrochlor nitrosochlorides 31 C-10 H17 Cl ]

(Cl

The limonene derivatives crystallize poorly, melt at 92-93° without de¬
composition. [a] for the dextrogyrate compound = +173.71°. The crude

product is largely contaminated by the dipentene modification. The
latter apparently posseses a higher melting point, viz, 109°. Like the
unsaturated nitrosochlorides they split off hydrochloric acid, however,
to form hydrochlorcarvoximes.

( NO

Hydrochlor-nitrosates 32 C10H17Cl-j

( O (NO,)

The limonene derivatives can be obtained in handsome pearly prisms.
They melt at 108° decomposing at the same time, [or] for the dextro¬
gyrate compound = +61.34°. The dipentene hydrochlor-nitosrate also
melts at 108-109° and is readily distinguished by its optical activity.
From it a molecule of nitric acid can be split of with the aid of dimethyl-
anilin33 anologous to the hydrochlor carvoxime reaction. The resulting

348

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

product crystallizes from an ethyl-alcoholic solution with a molecule of
C3 H5 O H, from a methyl-alcholic solution wit a molecule of C H3

OH.

Hydrochlor-nitrolbenzylamine ,34 C10 H17 Cl

The Zimonewe-derivatives were obtained in white filty needles, which
melt at 103-104.° They turn the plane of polarized light as do the
underlying hydrocarbons: [n] = +• 149.6° resp. — 147.4.°

The chlorhydrates crystallize from alcohol in small needles which
melt and decompose at 163-164. ° The action upon polarized light cor¬
responds to that of the free bases though weakened: [a] = + 46.97°
resp. — 50.9. °

The dipentene-hydrochlor-nitrol-benzylamine crstallizes better than
its optically active components, melts at 150° and is but difficultly solu¬
ble. Its hydrochlorate, however, is more soluble than its components,
but possesses the same melting point.

HydrocTilor-nitrolanilids ,35 C10 H17 Cl

The limonene-derivatives crystallize from ether in handsome colorless
flat prisms. Melting point 117-118° [n]^ = +126.95,° resp. — 122.34.°

DipewZewe-hydrochlor-nitrolanilid, prepared synthetically is colorless and
melts at 140-141.° When hydrogen- chloride is split off a- and ft- nitrol
anilids apparently result.36

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

349

REFERENCES.

Dextrogyrate Limonene :

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 52.

2 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

3 J. Pharm, T. 26, p. 1.

4 J. pr. Chem. Bd. 24, p. 257.

5 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37.

6 Ibidem, T. 38.

7 Ibidem, T. 39.

8 Annalen, Bd. 35, p. 308.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 85, p. 246.

10 J. C. S., Vol. 17, p.l.

11 Ibidem, Vol. 24, p. 1186.

12 Ibidem, Vol. 31, p.549.

13Berichte, Bd. 6, p. 915.

14 Ibidem, Bd. 5, p. 94.

15 Ibidem, (1874) p. 627.

16 J. C. S., 1877, Vol. 1, p. 554.

17 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 311.

18 Ibidem, p. 318.

19 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 290 and 291.

20 Ibidem, p. 277.

21 Ibidem, p. 289.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 222.

Loeovgyrate Limonene.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37, p. 80.

2 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 287.

3J. C. S., Vol. 47, p. 779.

4 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 222.

6 Dissertation, p. 16.

Dipentine.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 52.

2 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 27, p. 40.

4 J. Pharm., T. 26, p. 1.

6 J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

6 Annalen, Bd. 89, p. 358.

350

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

7 Jahresber. f. Chem. f. 1854, p. 591 (Zeitschr. Pharm. 1854 pp. 3, 17, 65*
180.) Jahresber. f. Cliem. f. 1855, p. 655 (Zeitschr. Pharm. 1855, pp. 2, 33,
etc.)

8 Royal Society of London Proceedings, vol. 10, p. 516.

9 Bercihte, Bd. 5, p. 677.

10 Compt. rend. T. 79, p. 223.

11 Ibidem, T. 102, p. 50.

12 Chem. News, vol. 46, p. 120.

13J. S. C., vol. 49, p.316.

uGraebes “ Cynen ” is cymol, comp, also Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 225.

15 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 314.

16 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 278.

17 Ibidem, p. 301.

18 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 13, p. 259.

19 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

20 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 27, p. 80.

21 J. C. S., vol. 49, p. 316.

22 Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 50.

23 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354 and

Bd. 20, p. 1956.

24 Compt. rend., T. 106, p. 663.

25 Compare Ann. Bd. 252, p. 128.

26 Compt. rend., T. 106, pp. 1419 and 1538.

27 Annalen, Bd. 38, p. 111.

28 ibidem Bd. 87, p. 312.

29 Arch. d. Pharm., [2] Bd. Ill, p. 104.

30 Annalen, Bd. 128, p. 293.

31 Berichte, Bd. 7, p. 1427.

32 Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1970, (sent in Ang. 14th, 1884.)

33 Annalen, Bd. 192, p. 222.

34 This view is confirmed by Wallach. But as Faust & Homeyer, in

judging Voelckel’s analyses (these are stated to agree better with
cymol, C10 H14) apparently did not consider that Voelckel had
used P2 Os in dehydrating cineol, so Hell & Stiircke overlook the
fact that Faust & Homeyer employed P2 S6. Wallach has shown
that phosphorus pentasulphide easily converts cynene (dipentene)
into cymol.

35 Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975. (“ Eingelaufen am 14, Aug. 1884.”)

36 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 291. (“ Eingelaufen am 10, Aug. 1884.”)

37 Ibidem, p. 314 and ]8 p. 317.

"Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 277.

89 Compare Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 197.

40 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 221.

42 Ibidem, p. 228.

43 Ibidem, p. 230.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

351

Properties , etc.

1 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 291 and 301.

2 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 144.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 222.

4 Dissertation, p. 38.

5 Compare also F. Scheidt, “ Ein Beitrag znr Kenntniss der Terpene
Bonn, 1890.

6 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 145.

1 1bidem, Bd. 246, p. 224.

8 Dissertation, p. 9.

9 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2357 and
Ibidem, Bd. 20, p. 1956.

10 Dissertation, p. 51.1

nDipentene is always found as an impurity in artificial terpinene
Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 261, and
Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 38. •

12 Annalen, Bd. 230, pp. 247 and 262, and
Ididem, Bd. 239, pp. 2, 23 and 51.

13Oppenheim; Berichte, Bd. 6, p. 915, and
Ibidem, Bd. 7, p. 627.

Wright: J. C. S., vol. 21, p. 686.

15 Only such data were considered that were deemed sufficient proof
i. e. those in which optical properties are included.

16 1840 — Soubeiran & Capitain, J. d. Pharm., T. 26, p. 1. 1885 — Wal-
lach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 290.

17 1840 — Soubeiran & Capitain16. 1877 — Tilden, J. C. S., Vol. I., p.
554. 1884 — Wallach — Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 318.

18 1854 — M. Berthelot, Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 40, p. — .

19 1857 — S. de Luca, Compt. rend., T. 45, p. 904.

20 1885 — Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 290.

21 Ibidem, p. 291.

22 Ibidem, p. 292.

23 Ibidem, p. 292.

24 1885 — Yoshida, J. C. S.,Vol. 47, p. 787.

25 1888 — Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 221.

26 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 109.

27 Ibidem, p. 111.

28 Ibidem, pp. 121 and 136.

29 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 296.

80 Ibidem, Bd. 238, p. 80.

81 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 102.

32 Ibidem, p. 101.

33 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 224 and Bd. 239, p. 26.

34 Ibidem, p. 246.

352

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

85 J. C. S. -

Eberhardt, Arch. d. Pharm., Bd. 225, p. 515.

87 Wallach speaks of “aus Wurmsamenol erhaltliehem cynen,” but
he obtained this “ cynen ” with the aid of chemical reagents, by means
of which cineol is converted into dipentene. The hydrocarbon occuring
in these oils no doubt is dipentene, but the experimental proof is want¬
ing. Comp. e. g. E. Jahns, “Ueber das Eucalyptol.” Archiv d. Pharm. y
Bd. 223, p. 52.

38 Method of preparation, Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 3.

69 Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. 127 and 136.

40 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 295., Comp. Diisoprene of Bouchardat.

41 1 Comp. Wallach: “ Am. Terpentinol., Fichtennadelol, Wachholder-
beerenol, Macisol, Salbeiol, Citronenol.” Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 277 et seq.

2 (a.) That under certain conditions pinene will not form artificial
camphor but dipentene dihydrochloride was first shown by Berthelot
(1852.) Comp, historical sketch. Also Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 286.

(5.) The inversion of pinene into dipentene by means of sulphuric
acid was studied by Armstrong and Tilden; Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 1754.
Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 283.

3 Compare Terpinhydrate.

42 1 Comp. Wallach: “ Pomeranzenschalenol, Fichtennadelol, Annalen,
Bd. 227, p. 277.

2 Comp, historical shetch, also Dissertation, p. 38.

3 Comp. Disertation p. 46 9. Hydrochloric acid acts like nitric acid:
Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266, Dissertation p. 45.

43 Annalen, Bd 239, p. 44.

45 Annalen. Bd. 239, p. 4.

46 Annalen, Bd. 245. p. 196.

47 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 247 et. seq.

Ad. Monhydrochlorides. •

1 Journ. de Pharm., T. 26, p. 1.

2 Ann. Chim. Phys., [3] T. 37.

3 Compt. rend. T. 45, p. 904.

4 Ibidem, T. 79, pp. 223 and 315. (J. C. S. Vol. 32, p. 1162.)

5 Ibidem, T. 80, p. 1446. (J. C. S. Vol. 33, p. 1259.)

6 Gazetta Chimica, T. 13, p. 99. (Berichte, Bd. 16, p. 1241.

7 Compare e. g.:

Himly (1835) Annalen, Bd. 29, p. 40.

Schweizer, (1840) J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

8 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 10.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 241, p. 324.

Ibidem, Bd. 245, pp. 241 et. seq. (p. 248, also pp. 258-260.)

The Limonene Group of Terpenes .

353

10 Dissertation, p. 55.

11 Ibidem, p. 40.

12 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 249.

13 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 259.

14 Ibidem, p. 260; Dissertation p. 46.

15 Ibidem, p. — ; ibidem p. 49.

18 Dissertation, p. 45.

17 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

18 Ibidem Bd. 245, p. 259; Dissertation, p. 41.

It is of interest to note that the addition of one molecule of hydro¬
gen chloride renders limonene more apt to polymerize. Disregarding
the crystalline camphene (no doubt also fenchene) the terpenes with
one double bond apparently polymerize more readily than those with
two.

19 Dissertation, p. 43.

20 Ibidem, p. 39.

21 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 250.

22 Dissertation, p. 51, etc.

ad Diliydrolialogen addition products.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 13, p. 259.

2 Ibidem, T. 52.

3 Dumas proposes the ending ene for the hydrocarbons from volatile
oils to avoid confusion with the alkaloids.

4 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

5 Ibidem, Bd. 27, p. 40.

6 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 66, p. 196.

7 Comp. Monohydrochlorides — note 4.

8 J. de Pharm. T. 26, p. 1.

9 J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

10 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

11 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37.

12 Ibidem [3] T. 61, p. 463.

13 According to the nomenclature proposed by Berthelot in his “ Chimie
organique fondee sur la synthese ” T. IT, p. 735.

14 Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 149.

16 J. C. S., vol. 47, p. 787.

16Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975.

17 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 301, and Ibidem, Bd., 239, pp. 12 and 13.

18 Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 433.

19 The original names of these derivatives already indicate this fact.
To the pinene monhydrochloride alone the term artificial camphor

23— A. & L.

354

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

(“camphre artificiel”) could be applied on account of its camphor like
odor. The dipentene dihydrochloride, which has not the least resemb¬
lance with natural camphor could be called “camphre artificiel de
citron” only because it was prepared from a similar natural product
and in an analogous manner. The “camphre artificiel” proper was.
thereafter also termed “ camphre artificiel de terebenthine.”

20 Memoirs de la Societe D’Arcueil, T. 2, p. 23.

21 Annalen, Bd. 27, p. 40.

23 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], T. 27, p. 80.

24 J. C. S., vol. 17, p. 1.

25 Table of melting points in chronological order:

1833. Blanchet & Sell, 43°.

1840. Soubeiran & Capitain, 50°.

1840. Schweizer, 50°.

1862. Oppenheim, 48°.

1884. Hell & Ritter 50-51°.

1885. Yoshida 58-59°.

1887. Weber 50° (Amalen, Bd. 238, p. 102).

1887. Wallach 50° (Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 12).

26 Can therefore be precipitated from its solution in glacial acetic
acid with the aid of water.

27 Tilden: Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 1131.

Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 5.

28 Wallach Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 260.

29 Wallach Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 12. (Comp. B. & S. 4).

30 Comp. Dipentene: Regeneration.

31 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 267.

32 First observed by Riban: Compt. rend. T. 79, pp. 223 & 314.
Confirmed by Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 247.

33 Comp, historical sketch.

34 Hell & Ritter (1884): Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975.

Wallach & Brass (1884): Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 298.

35 First observed by List10 (1848) verified by Deville (1849); Ann. Chim.
Phys. [3], T. 27, p. 80, and others, Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 248 and
ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 18.

36 Oppenheim14 (1862).

37 Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

Comp, also Flawitzky; (1879) Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354 and (1887)
ibidem, Bd. 20, p. 1956.

Bouchardat & Lafont (1886), Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 433.

38 Berthelot11 (1852).

39&40 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 44.

41 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 267.

42 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], T. 61, p. 463.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

855

43 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 13.

44 Ibibem, p. 24.

45 Ibidem, p. 3.

46 Ibidem, Bd. 57, p. 247.

47 Ibidem, Bd. 225, p. 302.

48 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

49 Ibidem, p. 265.

50 Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 14 and Bd. 252, p. 128.

51 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

ad Terpinhydrate.

1 According to Gmelin “ Hand-book of Chemistry” 1860, vol. 14, p. 258.

2 Repert. 9, 276, and 22, 419.

3 N. Journ. d. Ph., Bd. 15, St. 2, p. 46.

4 Jahresbericht 27, p. 440.

5 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362. List distinguishes between “ Krystallisirtes
Terpin C20 H17 0 + 3 H + 2 aq.,” and “Terpin ohne Krystallwasser?
C20 H17 0 + 3 H,” p. 375.

6 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 267.

7 Ibidem, Bd. 7, p. 167.

8 Ididem, Bd. 33, p. 358.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 52, p. 390.

List 5 rejects this term because according to his views the elements of
water in the terpin are not present as “ Hydratwasser.” He also rejects
the term “ Terpentin campher ” as inappropriate. He accepts the no¬
menclature of Bezilius4-5:

10 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 27, p. 80. (Annalen, Bd. 71, p. 348.)

11 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 247.

12 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 57, p. 334 (1835). (Annalen, Bd. 14, p. 75.

The analyses of Dumas and Peligot pertain to crystals found in tur¬
pentine oil (a), in basil icum oil (Acimum basilicum, L) ( b ) and in carda¬
mom oil] (cardamomum minus) (c). They assign to these substances the
formula C40 H33 + H12 06 and believe them to be identical. No doubt
these crystals were terpin hydrate as also those obtained by Rammels-
berg (Annalen, Bd. 52, p. 391.) from a mixture of turpentine oil, hydro¬
chloric acid, “ Spiritus cochleariae ” and “ Spiritus Serpylli.”

13 Blanchet and Sell mention Buchner,2 Boisonot, Persot, Cluzel and
Geiger (Mag. Pharm. 16, 64), as chemists who have investigated “Terpen_
thin campher.” B. & S. had not prepared the substance themselves but
had recived it from Prof. Geiger who probably obtained it by heating
moist turpentine oil for some time at a temperature of 50°. Based upon
their analysis of the (“ nicht vollkommen von anhangendem Oele

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

befreiten,”) substance they assign to it the formula C10 H16 + H4 O2
__ qi° Hoo q2? consisting therefore “ aus einem Atom Terpenthinol und
einem Atom Wasser.”

Blanchet (Annalen, Bd. 7, p. 167) obtained “ Terpenthinhydrat ”
“ durch vermischen des Oels (Wacholderbeerenoel) mit Wasser und hin-
stellen desselben in gewohnlicher Temperatur, wo denn nach einigen
Wochen das Hydrat an den oberen Wdnden des Gef asses krystallisirt
According to such a method pinol hydrate is obtained, not terpin
hydrate.

14 That Stenhouse, according to Wiggers’ method, should not have ob¬
tained terpin hydrate, but a substance “C5 H4 -j- HO” (i. e. C10 H20 03)
seems strange indeed. Analyses, physical properties and the odor of the
dehydration product do not harmonize with those of terpin-hydrate, but
with those of pinol-hydrate.

15 Attempting to prepare terpin hydrate in one experiment (Annalen
Bd. 57, p. 247) Wiggers obtained according to his well known method

campher ” within half an hour, which, however, disappeared after sev¬
eral hours. After that no further crystals would result. It would ap¬
pear from the text that Wiggers had shaken the bottle whereupon the
crystals dissolved. Under these conditions pinol hydrate might form
in so short a time, but not terpin-hydrate.

List (Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362) essentially verifies Wiggers’ statements,
and calls special attention to the fact that one molecule of water in ter¬
pin hydrate is present as water of crystallization.

Deville (Annalen, Bd. 71, p. 346) adds very little new. It is of interest,
however, to note that he recognized the identity of the dipentene dihy¬
drochloride obtained from terpin hydrate with that obt. from lemon oil.

16 Sobrero first recognized the fact that by the action of oxygen in the
presence of sunlight a hydrate is formed which differs from the “ Terpen-
tinolhydrat ” of Wiggers. He assigns to it the formula “C20 H16 02 -f-
2 H O” [i. e., C10 H18 02 = C10 H16 O -f- H2 O]. This substance recently
designated as “ soberol ” by Armstrong (J. C. S., vol. 49, p. 315), is noth¬
ing more or less than Wallach’s pinol hydrate (Annalen, Bd., 259, p. 313.)

17 A compilation of the various crystallagraphic measurements can be
found in Rammelsberg “ Handbuch d. kryst. phys. Chemie.” (1882) p. 449#

18 According to Vulpius, J. C. S., 56, 1202 (from Chem. Centr., 1889, p. 789,
from Pharm. Centralhalle, 30, 289.) The statement that terpinhydrate is
soluble in 200 p. of cold and 22 p. of boiling water (Realencyclopgedie der
gesammten Pharmacie IX, p. 645) can be traced back to Blanchet and
Sell (Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 266). It has been indicated that these chemists
very likely had no terpin hydrate in hand but pinol hydrate.

19 An alcoholic solution does not decolorize bromine; Wallach: (Anna¬
len, Bd. 230, p. 248.)

20 Ibidem.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

357

21 Ibidem, p. 271. The details of the dehydration experiments, p. 253.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 239, pp. 18, 20, 23.

23 Comp. Dipentene dihydrochloride: Historical notes.

24 Observed first by Berthelot (Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T 61, p. 463.)

25 Comp. Dipentene dihydriodide: Historical notes.

26 Oppenheim (1862). Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 149.

27 Wallach, Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 19.

28 Ibidem.

29 Ibidem, p. 20.

Oxidizing terpin with nitric acid Hempel (Annalen, Bd. 180, p. 71) ob¬
tained besides carbonic and oxalic acids chiefly toluic acid, C8 H8 O,2
terephthalic acid and terebinic acid C7 H]0 O.4 Oxidizing terpin with
chromic acid he obtained terpenylic acid C8 H12 O4 + H2 O. Already in
1856 Personne (Annalen, Bd. 100, p. 253) had obtained “Terebentilsaure
C16 H10 O4 by passing the vapor of terpin over hot soda-lime.

30 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 267.

31 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

32 Dissertation, p. 49.9

33 The first reliable method is that of Wiggers. Tilden obtained the
same product from American and French oil of turpentine. The hydra¬
tion takes place in the presence of acids:

1. Of nitric acid — Wiggers, Mansfield.

2. Of muriatic acid — Rammelsberg (Annalen, Bd. 52, p. 390.)

[3. Of sulphuric acid — Tilden, Wallach.]

34 That the regeneration of terpin hydrate from terpineol takes place
within a few days in the presence of dilute acids was observed by Tilden
and confirmed by Wallach (Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266).

85 Dissertation, p. 45.

Oil. | Nitric Acid. | Alcohol.

Wiggers .

8

9 /Sp. gravd

4 ll. 25-1.3] ••

1 (80 p. c.) . .

(4

1 (Commercial).

3 (85 p. c.) )

Deville. . .

Is

2 (Commercial).

6 (85 p. c.) |

Hempel. .

8

o /Sp. grav.\

4 U. 25— 1.3] ••

2

(2y2

1 (Sp. gr. 1.4)...

1 )

Tilden... .

1 8

3.5 .

3.5 )

Schmidt..

8

2 (Sp. grav.\
Mi. is ] ••

2

Temp. 20-25°. Largest
yield after 2 yrs. 1 oz.
from 1 lb. oil .

From 4 1. after G weeks
250 g: abt. 7.2 p. c _

Tilden claims to have
obtained a yield of
abt. 33 p. c .

Annalen 5 7, 247.

Ibidem, 71, 348.

(Ann. Chim.
Phy. [3] 35,80.)

Anna!enl80,73.

J. C. S. 33, 248.

Pharm. Chem.
II., 818.

358

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

ad Terpineol.

1 Although much has been written about “ Wiggers’ terpinol ” this term
did not originate with Wiggers, but with List. List’ s terpinol is not identi¬
cal with Wallach’s terpineol but a mixture of the latter substance with
hydrocarbons C10 H16 (probably dipentene and terpinene). However,
Berthelot3 already employed the term terpinol for a substance C10H18O,
whereas Oppenheim4. falls back upon List’s formula C20 H340, although
he acknowledges that the substance under consideration is most likely
no chemical unit and even quotes Gerhardt4, wlio does not believe in the
existence of such a body. Tilden5. again declares List’s terpinol to be a
mixture, nevertheless he retains the term for his monatomic alcohol
C10 H180. The same must be said of Tanret6.

2 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 83, p. 106. (Compt. rend., T. 34, p. 799.)

4 Ibidem, Bd. 129, p. 149.

6 J. C. S., Vol. 33, p. 247, and
Ibidem, Vol. 35, p. 286.

6 Ibidem, Vol. 48, p. 990. (J. de Pharm. [5] T., 11, p. 506.

7 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354, and
Ibidem. Bd. 20, p. 1956.

8 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 254.*

9 Compt. rend. T. 104, p. 996.

10 Annalen, Bd. 57, p. 252.

11 Compt. rend., T. 102, pp. 50, 318, 433 and 1155.

12 Ibidem, T. 54 ?, p. 845.

13 Bouchardat and Voiry 9 claim to have obtained crystals of “ tepilenol”
prepared from terpin, that melted at 30-32°.

14 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

15 Terpineol from its acetate (from pinene) 218-223° B. & L.11

Terpineol from terpinhydrate 218 ° B & V.9

“R-Terpenhydrat ” of Flawitzky7 213.7-217.7°.

“ L-Terpenhydrat ” of Flawitzky7 217.7-220.7°.

16 Comp. “ Cautschene Monochlorhydrate ” B. & L.u

Comp. Terpineol, Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 21.

17 From acetate prep, from — pinene [a:] = — 64.3 ° B. & L.11

“L-Terpenhydrat of Flawitzky”7 [a]^ = — 56.2 ° .

“R-Terpenhydrat of Flawitzky”7 [u] = + 48.4°.

“ Terpilenol” from citrene through the acetate [a] = + 67° 31' La-
font.12

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

359

18 Spec. Gravity = 0.961 at 0°, Bouchardat & Lafont.11

0.952 Bouchardat & Voiry.9

0.9339 at 0° )

[ Flawitzky.7

0.9340 at 0° )

0.940 at 15° )

£ Schimmel & Co., Bericht, Oct ’90, p. 52.

0.935 at 20° )

19 It readily absorbs bromine. The bromide, however, is solid at very
low temperatures only. Allowed to stand with an excess of bromine di-
pentene tetrabromide is formed. Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266.

20 Tilden already observed that in alcoholic solution of “ terpinol ” acid¬
ulated with nitric acid crytals of terpinhydrate are generated J. C. S.
vol. 33, p. 250. Wallach observed that very dilute hydrochloric or sulp¬
huric acids at ordinary temperatures favor the addition of water.

21 Since terpinene and terpinolene are products of inversion of limo¬
nene and dipentene the terpineols and terpin must be regarded as deriva¬
tives of the hydrocarbons of the limonene group, but not of the pinene
group. This view is supported by the conversion of the terpineols into
dipentene tetrabromide19 and into the dihydrohalogen derivatives of di¬
pentene.

22 Comp, historical notes: Wallach (1885).

23 List, Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 370.

Tilden, J. C. S., vol. 33, p. 249.

24 Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 267.

Flawitzky, Berichte, Bd. 20, p. 1960.

25 From the method of formation of the monochlorhydrates of the lim-
-onenes we know that by the action of hydrogen chloride upon terpineol
the monochorine ester (if this is identical with limonene monohydro¬
chloride) could not be found. In this reaction water would be generated
and thus the conditions favorable to the formation of the monochloride
would be destroyed. For the formation of terpin-hydrate from the
monochloride comp. Dissertation p. 45.

26 Oppenheim, Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 157. This substance also appears to
result from the action of acetic acid on pinene (B. and L!1), upon limon-
mie (L12) and upon dipentene (B. and L.11)

27 Comp, methods of formation of terpin hydrate, also Wallach, An¬
nalen, Bd. 239, p. 19.

28 Wallach, ibidem, p. 21.

29 Wallach, ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 267.

"Wallach, ididem, Tilden, J. C. S., vol. 35, p. 288.

31 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 267.

32 ad I. Terpene hydrates of Flawitzky7.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ad II. List2: by means of very dilute sulphuric acid (p. 367.)

Berthelot3: action of heat alone, chlorides of zinc, calcium
strontium and ammonium, fluoride of calcium.

Tilden5: by means of dilute hydrochloric acid, (p. 248.

Wallach8: by means of dilute sulphuric acid, phosphoric
acid, glacial acetic acid and potassium disulphate.

ad III. 1 Bouchardat and Lafont11: Acetates from pinene and dipen -
tene.

Lafont12: Acetate from + limonene.

20ppenheim4: Dipetene 2 H Br. with silver acetate (p. 154.)

Oppenheim4: Dipentene 2 H I with ammonia (p. 156.)

List2 (p. 373.) ) By boiling the dihy-

Berthelot3 (according to Oppenheim.) (• drochloride with

Tilden5 (p. 249.) ) water.

Many of these references must be taben with considerable reserve.
In most cases no pure terpineol was obtained. However, it is to be
assumed that in all cases more or less of it was formed.

33 According to Tilden 5 (p. 289) lemon oil contains 10-15 p. c. of a
substance which has the same boiling point with terpineol and yields a
dichloride melting at 48°. This 44 natural terpinol ” is stated to be dex¬
trogyrate. So called 44 Cajeputol ” is stated to contain a fraction which
boils above 200°, which is capable of yielding a dichloride melting at 48°.

Weber (Annalen, Bd. 238, p. 101) separated from cardamom oil a frac¬
tion 205-220°, which yielded dipentene dihydrochloride, melting at 52°.
He did not succeed in making the carbanil reaction.

Watts (J. C. S. vol. 49, p. 316) has sufficient faith in an insignificant
color reaction to conclude from it the presence of terpineol in the oil
from the leaves of Citrus Limetta.

Bertram and Gildemeister (Archiv d. Pharm. Bd. 228, 485), assume the
presence of terpineol beside borneol in the fraction 200-220° of kesso-oil
(valeriana officinalis, var. angustifolia.) They obtained from this frac¬
tion dipentene dihydriodide melting at 76° • The oil also contains
dipentene.

- Kwasnick (Berichte, Bd. 24, p. 81) reports as follows of a fraction
from Kuro-moji-oil (Lindera fericia, Bl.): 44Eine angenehm nach Flie-
derbluehten riechende Fluessigkeit C10 H-18 O, siedet bei 218° und
wurde durch sein Verhalten gegen Chlorwassertoff und gegen Brom, sowie
durch sein schoen hrystallisirendes Jodid, welches bei 75-76° schmilzt,
identificirt.” This oil also contains -j- limonene, dipentene and — carvol.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

361

ad Nitrosochlorides , etc.

1 J. C. S. (1877), Vol. 31, p. 558.

2 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 245.

3 J. C. S. (1875) p. 514 and ibidem (1877), p. 554.

4 J. C. S. 1864.

5 Berichte, Bd. 18, pp. 1729 and 2220.

6 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 241.

7 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 108.

8 Ibidem, p. 109; Comp, also ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 255, and Dissertation,

p. 18.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. Ill; also “ Wissenschaftliche Beilage znm Jahres-
bericht des Elizabeth Gymnasiums, Breslau, Ostern ’90.

10 Ibidem ,p. 124.

11 Dissertation, p. 22.

12 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 125.

13 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 145.

14 Ibidem, p.112.

15 Dissertation, p. 23.

lfl Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 146.

17 Dissertation, p. 24.

18 Annalen, Bd. 245. p 256.

19 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 257, and
Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 224.

20 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 268, and
Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 227.

21 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 257.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. Ill and 125, also

Dissertation, p. 24, et. seq.

23 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 258.

24 Ibidem, p. 270.

25Wallach, “Nitrosate and Nitrosite ” etc., Annalen, Bd. 241, p. 288.
Wallach, Sechste Abhandlung Ibidem, p. 315.

Wallach, Siebente Abhandlung Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 241.

Wallach, Elfte Abhandlung Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 106.

Kremers, Dissertation.

26 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 271.

Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. 113, 125 and 146.

27 Ibidem, pp. 121, 126 and 147.

28 Ibidem, pp. 118 and 126, also.

Dissertation, pp . 24 and 60.

29 Dissertation, p. 29.

30 Dissertation, p. 34.

362

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

31 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 260.

Dissertation, p. 46.

32 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 260.

Dissertation, p. 49.

33 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 265.

84 Dissertation, p. 51.

85 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 262.

Dissertation, pp. 55 and 34.

86 Ibidem, p. 60.

The Psenclo-Gregorim Drama Christus Patiens.

363

THE PSEUDO-GREGORIAN DRAMA xPitro< nd6X*v IN ITS
RELATION TO THE TEXT OF EURIPIDES.

By P. L. VAN CLEEF, Ph. D.

PART I.— THE BAOCHAE.

The Christian Drama XpidroS Ilddx^v, which by its superscription is
ascribed to Gregorius Nazianzenus, has been clearly shown by Doering
and Brambs not to be in accord with the other writings of Gregorius and
assignable not to him but to a much later writer. Doering1 attributed
it to Tzetzes but Brambs,2 who has most recently and most thoroughly
studied the problem, assigns it with seemingly greater right to Theo¬
doras Prodromus or an author of that period, i. e. of the 11th or 12th
century.

The drama is a cento constructed of lines taken from the Prometheus
and Agamemnon of Aeschylus, the Cassandra of Lycophron, the Holy
Scriptures including Genesis, Exodus, the Psalms, the four Gospels, the
letters of Paul and even the Apocryphal books; but mainly, as the writer
acknowledges in his introduction (v. 3 sq.), from Euripides, of whom he
has used seven plays known to us, Hecuba, Orestes, Medea, Hippolytus,
Troades, Rhesus and Bacchae. From these plays it is evident that the
MS. of Euripides, that the writer had in his possession, must have been the
second of the two classes, into which Kirchhoff has divided our existing
MSS. of Euripides, and that no more plays were used may be accounted for
on the supposition that the MS. used by the writer contained only the seven
above-mentioned plays, with which were perhaps bound the two men¬
tioned plays of Aeschylus and the Cassandra of Lycophron. That the
writer had no other plays of Euripides before him seems certain from the
fact that he has plundered these in a most thorough manner, not con-

2De tragoedia Christiana quae inscribitur XpidroS LLddx^v, Realschul-
prog. Barmen, 1864, p. 8.

2 De auctoritate tragoediae Christianae quae inscribi solet XpidroZ
Hadxoav Gregorio Nazianzeno falso attributae. Diss. inaug. scripsit J. G.
Brambs, Eichstadii, 1883, p. 64. Cf. also the Praefatio of Brambs’ edi¬
tion of the Christus Patiens, Teubner, 1885, p. 17 sqq.

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

tent to take here and there a line. Everything that could be of service
has been utilized and the remarkable thing is that he was not tempted to.
use the same line twice. Indeed he seems to have checked off each line
as fast as used and never to have repeated it without considerable varia¬
tion. Nor has he taken the verses in their original order but we find
brought together in the same speech verses not only of different speakers
but taken from very different portions of the same play. Thus of the
prologue of the Medea verses 20-39 (excepting only 23, 24 and
29) have been used by the writer of the XpidroS nddxa)v as follows:
V. 20 -= 4 of the Xp. IT.; 21 sq. = 51 sq.; 25 sq. = 46 sq.; 27 sq. — 912 sq.;
30 = 974; 31 sq. = 945 sq.; 33 = 949;34 —36 = 53 —55; 37 = 489; 38 = 485;
39 = 491. From this it is plain that he was so thoroughly master of these
sixteen verses that he has interspersed them in one thousand lines of his
drama.

Inasmuch as we have here excerpts from plays of Euripides pre¬
served in some cases in a single manuscript and in others in only two, it
would seem probable at first consideration that this cento would be of
great value in determining the text of Euripides. This question was
early investigated, soon after the appearance of Kirchhoff’s critical
edition of Euripides, by A. Doering.1 Kirchhoff had previously pointed
out the fact that the MS. of Euripides used by the author of this cento
contained without doubt the portion of the Bacchse after v. 1328, which
our present MS. lacks, and hence was derived from an archetype which
contained the whole of that play.2 But Doering, after citing all those
passages in which the Xp. IT. had preserved, as he judged, the real read¬
ing of Euripides, reached the conclusion that the MS. used by the
author of the Xp. II. was inferior to the MSS. of Class I but superior to
those of Class II of the Euripidean MSS. It is my intention in this pa¬
per to investigate the problem more thoroughly and to set forth clearly
both sides of the shield, inasmuch as there was a feeling that but one
side had been clearly shown in the articles of Doering in Philologus.
And that the paper may not be too colossal in its magnitude, it has been
decided to limit the present investigation to one play of Euripides, the
Bacchse, preserved in only two MSS., a Palatinus 287 of the 14th century
(designated by the letter P.) and a Florentinus XXXII (known by the
designation C.) also of the 14th century which, however, contains but the
first half of the play, lacking all from verse 756 on to the end (1392). As
the writer of the Xp. II. has taken from the 1392 lines of the Bacchse (the
extracts from those portions now lost in our MSS. do not come here into
consideration) over 250 lines for his cento, over half of which are from

1 Die Bedeutung des Tragcedie Xp. II. fur die Textkritik des Rhesus*
Philologus 23 (1866), pp. 577-591, and Die Bedeutung der Tragoedie Xp. II.
ftir die Euripidestextkritik, Philologus 25 (1868), pp. 221-258.

2 Ein Supplement zu Euripides’ Bakchen, Philologus 8 (1853), pp. 78-93.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus Patiens.

365

the latter half of the play, preserved in a single MS. of the 14th century,
there would seem to be good opportunity in this play for determining the
value of the citations as found in the Xp. II. for the text of the Bacchse.

It must first be remarked that, as the subject of the cento did not
often allow its author to quote directly without change from his chosen
model, we expect to find many variations from Euripides occasioned by
this fact, and do not expect to find many lines to be taken verbatim
Bearing this in mind three classes of citations as made by the author of
the Xp. II. may be distinguished.

I. Those verses in which one or more words have been necessarily
•changed to bring into harmony with the theme the heathen conceptions
of Euripides. This class also includes all those verses in which by
reason of the context some change has been made. The verses in this
class must necessarily constitute the great majority of all the verses
quoted and we add here the list that it may be of service to any who
may desire to investigate the question further.1 2

1 = Xp. n. 1573 (?) 29 = 1553

2 = 1545 (?) 30 ~ 1555

4 = 1546, 1533, 1535 sq., 31 = 1552 (?)
1543, 1758 sq., 40 = 1568
2395, 2405, 2574 * 47 = 1574, 1564

60 =r 2519

61 = 2520
69 = 1608

71 = 1607

72 sq. = 1139

7

= 1582

48

= 1565

73 sq. = 1140

10

= 1585

50

= 1575

75 sqq. = 1141

11

= 1586

51

= 1576

80 sqq. = 1142.

21

= 1563 3

52

= 1577, 1536, 1543

120 = 1599

26

= 1547

53

= 1512, 2374

179 = 1149

27

= 1550

54

= 1536, 1543

180 = 1150

28

= 1551

58

= 1606, 1124

181 = 1152

1 The first and only complete list of quoted verses that exists is to be
found in the preface of Brambs’ edition in the Teubner series, p. 8 sqq.
The list of verses quoted from the Bacchse (p. 15 sqq.) is almost complete.
I have added but two further citations. In a considerable number of in¬
stances the parallelism as there referred to is so very remote as to be of
no value for our investigation, and to leave great doubt in the mind if
the verse is really modeled after that of Euripides.

2 When more than one verse of the Xp. II. is cited as a parallel of a
verse from the Bacchae, the one that stands first is the real corres¬
ponding verse, the others may be neglected, as corresponding only
vaguely with the given line.

3The proposal to read here the future participles x°Pev6gdv xai nava-
drjjdGov from the evidence of the Xp. II. is neither consonant with the
context, nor demanded by the Xp. II. For it is not true that the tense
has never been changed in the Xp. II. Such a change occurs in
280 = 571; 1120 = 2564; 1128 = 1162; 1237 = 163; 713 = 2218; 213 = 1561;
777 = 2245; 955 = 1506; 1077 = 2254; 1223 = 2202.

366

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

183 = 1153

186 = 1156

187 = 1157
213 = 1561

231 = 1558

232 = 1559, 1557 1
240 = 1557 2

248 = 1136

264 = 193

265 = 194 sq.

280 = 571
283 = 570

287 = 572

288 = 575

289 = 577, 585

290 = 579

291 580

306 = 587

307 = 588
309 = 584
313 = 586
315 = 263 3
333 = 599, 565

335 = 1032, 565, 599

360 = 1788

361 = 1789

362 = 1790

363 = 1791

389 sq. = 1801

390 = 1803

391 = 1804

442 = 1384 (?)

443 = 1385, 1928

445 = 2070, 2073

446 = 2074

447 = 2075
450 ^ 1655
489 = 1556
492 = 1668
666 = 2212
670 = 2222
678 = 1845

683 = 1833

684 = 1835

685 sq. = 1836
693 = 2018
712 = 2216

732 — 1812, 1810

733 = 1811, 2039
760 = 1101 (?)
761= 1102 (?)

769 = 2262

770 = 2263
772 = 2265

774 = 2266

775 = 2221
777 = 2245

779 = 2228

780 = 2229

788 = 2278

789 = 2279

790 = 2280
846 = 2287
854 = 2311
960 = 1522

962 = 1524

963 = 1525

964 = 1526
967 = 1521
972 = 1531

973 = 1306, 1295
995 (= 1015) = 1437

1025 = 1648

1026 = 1649 sq. 4

1027 = 647, 1601

1030 = 438, 654

1031 = 1535, 2100, 2542

1032 = 652, 2192

1043 = 657

1044 = 658
1046 = 675
1050 = 678

1064 = 660

1065 = 661

1068 = 663

1069 = 566
1073 = 662
1077 = 2254
1079 = 2257
1082 = 2258

1085 = 2261

1086 = 671, 2013

1088 = 170, 2016

1089 = 2017, 171
1095 = 666
1097 = 668
1113 = 1432
1118 = 2566
1128 = 1162
1135 = 1473

1143 = 1167

1144 = 1062
1202 = 1598

1214 = 1264

1215 = 1265

3 The change of rfavdao to drpdei s is doubtless due to the fact that the
author of the Xp. II. had already used 7tavmi$ in 1557. After substitut¬
ing KctKovpyiai for rr/dds (SanxEiai he could scarcely retain kcckov py ov
and hence changed it to nauovpyov.

2 This similarity has been overlooked by Brambs .

3 The dative/ of the Xp. n. is partial testimony to the dative of C., P.
and Stob. 5, 15. Stobaeus 74, 8 reads eii r?)v g>vdiv.

4 ev yy of the Xp. II. testifies somewhat to ev yaicc of P. and against
Wecklein’s emendation, ev yviaiS.

The Pseudo-Greg orian Drama Chrisius Patiens.

367

1217 = 1486
1219 = 1487
1221 = 1488
1226 = 1455
1233 = 161

1239 = 165

1240 = 166
1243 = 169

1259 = 1053

1260 = 1890

1262 = 1056, 1892

1263 = 1058

1280 = 1310, 444, 853

1281 = 854

1314 = 1342

1315 = 1343

1327 = 1712 sq.

1328 = 1714

1332 = 1760

1333 = 1680

1335 = 1683, 1678

1336 = 1678

1337 = 1681

1338 = 1752, 1682

1339 = 2573

1340 = 1685
1346 = 2562

1352 = 1700

1353 = 1701
1356 = 1671, 1758
1360 = 1684, 1695
1362 = 1697
1366 = 1703

1368 = 1706

1369 — 1706 sq., 1669,

1756.

II. The second class of citations consists of those verses which are
quoted exactly as we have them in our existing Euripidean MSS. This
list is even larger than we should have expected and embraces fifteen
lines, the enumeration of which is here given:

Bacchse. Xp. IT.

Found in both P. & 0. ■<

39 = 1567
178 — 1148
3161 = 264
6682 = 2219

6693 = 2220
679 = 1846

1 This verse which stood clearly in the Eur. MS. of the author of the
Xp. IT. at this place, as in the two MSS. of the Bacchae, (for Xp. IT.
314 — 316 = Bacch. 262 — 264) is rejected by Kirchhoff and Wecklein,
(Cf. the latter’s Curae Criticae, p. 18. Wecklein considers it a dittograph
of Hipp. 79.) because it was lacking in Stobaeus 74.8, who quotes the
whole passage. Nauck, on the other hand, following Dindorf, rejects
Hipp. 79-80 as spurious, and retains our verse. If the verse is to be re¬
jected, then the MS. used by the author of the Xp. IT. is in no way
superior to our Euripidean MSS. and the interpolation must have been
made in the common archetype of our MSS. and that in the possession
of the author of the Xp. IT.

2 MS. A. of the Xp. IT. reads TtoTEp'> 005, V. Ttoorepor (omitting 601). Cail-
lau’s Benedictine edition of 1840 {Xp. IT. appended to the works of Gre¬
gorius Naz.) Ttpd)T ov 601. This variance we shall have occasion to men¬
tion later.

3 Here the Xp. IT. agrees with our Euripidean codices in reading
raKEiOev, which Brunck, whom all subsequent editors have followed,
changed to rd xeIBev.

368

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Found in P. alone -=

771 — 2264
7941 = 2268
795 =2269
838 = 1930
1078 =2256
1112 =1431
11522 = 1147
12613 = 1055
1361 = 1696

III. So far we have made no distinction between the MS. of Eur.
used by the author of the Xp. 77 and the existing MSS. of the Bacchse,
It is in the third class of citations that we shall have occasion to see of
how much value the citations from Euripides found in the Xp. n. are.
This class includes all those verses in which no particular reason seems
to exist to justify a change, and yet, which show some variation from the
MS. readings of the Bacchge. Here three sub-divisions are to be distin¬
guished. A. those cases in which the Xp. II. presents a reading so plainly
superior to our MSS. reading that it has been adopted by Kirchhoff and
all who have followed him: B. those cases in which the Xp. 17, offers a
reading which has appeared to some of the editors of Euripides worthy
of adoption or in which the readings presented by the Xp. 77. seem at
least equally good with those of the MSS. : C. those cases in which the
Xp. 77. presents a corrupt reading, although there is no apparent reason
to justify the corruption.

A. The verses in which the readings of the Xp. 77. have been adopted
by all the editors of Euripides in preference to those of our Euripidean
MSS. are the following:

1. 55. C. & P. \i7tov6a, Xntovdai C2 as also Xp. 77. 1602, Et. M. 453 C.,

while Strabo, 469, testifies at least to the ending — ai.

[Here as in a number of other cases the testimony of the

Xp. 77. is entirely ignored by Kirchhoff.]

2. 655. P. & C. read docpds doqidS si. But the Xp. II. 1529, docpd 5 do<pd$

dv.

3. 694. P. & C. read itapBsvoi re xd^vysZ. The Xp. 77. on the other

hand has napBsroi r'! sr'> dXvysZ which all have adopted.

Usener’s conjecture, (Rh. Mus. XXIII. 160) dv^oi rs

*MSS. V. and B. of the Xp. 77. avrdv.

2 MS. P. and the Xp. II. read jpppn. Orion, Anth. 4, p. 55, reads xrf/jua ,
which all the editors have adopted. (Nauck adopts without any note of
the change!) Here again, if the MS. of Euripides is wrong, the Xp. 77. is
wrong with it, and the corruption is to be traced to the archetype of P.
and the Euripidean MS. of the Xp. 77.

3Bruhn proposes for usvsir^ ysvoXT'’ against the combined testimony
of P. and the Xp. 77.

The Pseudo- Gregorian Drama Christus P aliens. ^ 369

uaQvy e$ , seems extremely probable, in which case the
Euripidean MSS. have preserved the reading better than
the Xp. II., although both have been corrupted by the in
corporation of the gloss, 7t apQsvoi, into the text.

The remainder of the cases are from the portion of the play preserved
only in codex P.

4. 778. P. reads kcpd-itzszai. But the Xp. II. 2227 v<pditrerai. (But

codex V. of the Xp. II. shows the same corruption
kcpaTtrerai.')

5. 1031. dv om. codex. But the Xp. II. 2100 and 2542 retains dv, though

the order of the words is changed. Kirchhoff is followed in
the insertion of dv by Nauck and Bruhn. Other editors
have suggested other methods of restoring either the
dochmiacs or a trimeter. At the best the reading of the
Xp. n. cannot be regarded as very much superior to that
of the Palatinus.

6. 1041. P. rivsi. But Xp. H. 653 zivi .

7. 1049. P. kmtodwv. Xp. 17. 677 ek rtoScidv.

8. 1096. P. upazafdoXov^. Xp. 17. 667 xpazcaftoXovs.

9. 1151. P. oi u at y' . Xp. II. 1146 and Orion, Anth. 4, 55 oiyai 8\

[Here again K. ignores the additional testimony of the
Xp. 77] Beiske changed to zavzd , which Paley follows.

10. 1161. P. k^ETtpdqazo. Xp. 17. 1050 pd’c.sz e. Scaliger had sug¬

gested the change, to whom K. and W. ascribe the reading.

11. 1344. P. XiddojusQa. Codex V. of Xp. II. 2557 XiddojusdQa , the re¬

maining codices agree with the Palatinus. Musurus
changed to XiddojusdQa , to whom the emendation is as¬
cribed by K. and W. with no reference to the Xp. n.

12. 182. This verse seems rightly rejected here, as Dobree has done,

not only because it is a paraphase of 860 but because the
Xp. 77, which quotes the whole passage from 178 to 187 in
verses 1148-1157, entirely ignores the existence of this
verse. Evidently it was not to be found in his MS. of the
Bacchae, else he had made use of it for his theme.

13. 1213. P. 7T/1 ekzgov. Xp. 77 1263 npuzdi, from which Barnes drew

the emendation itpuz^v. The passage will be treated
again.

14. 1345. P. ejieQeW which Musurus corrected to kud$EQ\ The mis¬

take is not to be found in Xp. II. 2560, where the form given
is EjudOojusv.

B. Verses in which the reading presented by the Xp. II. seems at least
as good as that of our MSS. of the Bacchae.

1. 1048. P. 7 tiupov, which Musurus emended to i toippov. The Xp. II.

676 reads xXorjpov. The passage is ably treated by
Doering (Phil. XXV. (1867) ). itoippo 5 is found twice in
24 -A. & L.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

classical Greek and both occurences are in the Cyclops of
Euripides, 45 and 61. x^°VP£L is the form in P. at Bacch.
106, x^or/pzi with ov suprascr. in C. Cf. Wilamowitz, Anal.
Eur. p. 47. Hermann on this passage, reasoning from the
analogy of m66fjprf$, decided that x^°VP£l was to be read
here. For onr passage we must assume a co-ordinate form
j/1 or/poj>, although it does not occur elsewhere. It were
possible to read in the Xp. 17. x^-°VP£5 or X^-°VPL to bring
it into harmony with Bacch. 106. There was no reason
why the author of Xp.n. should have made a change and
he doubtless found xAoVpov in his MS. of Euripides.

2. 1084. P. svAsijuoj,. But Xp. 77 2260 vAijuoy svAeijuos is a arfcct-

Asyojusvov. vAipoS is said to be found in frag. 395. 34.
Cf. Wilamowitz on this line in Bruhn’s edition of the Bac-
chae.1 And Doering rightly notes (Phil. XXV. (1867) ) that
v\ijuo$ agrees better with cpv A/1 7 six£ of 1085 and strength¬
ens the idea of 6iya, while evAsijuos seems an unnecessary
epithet of the rarer}. EvA.siju.oS could easily have arisen
from vAi/u 05 by reason of the pronunciation. Inasmuch as
vAijuoS is rightly constructed (cf. XPV& ijuoS, dorajuoS, etc.),
occurs elsewhere (?) and suits the context better, while
evAeijuoS is as least somewhat suspicious in its formation,
Bruhn inserts the former in the text, while Wecklein de¬
cides also in its favor.

3. 1353. The line in P. has only five feet. The probable completion

of the line, redress, was suggested by Kirchhoff from
Xp. 77 1701 redrraS. This emendation has been adopted
by Schoene and Bruhn. Other editors have proposed
other solutions of the difficulty, while Paley desired to
reject the verse entirely, redress seems the simplest
emendation and the only one that has the slightest
authority.

4. 787. P. reads Aoyaov hAvgov. But the Xp. 77 2277 uAvsir Aoyaov.

Nauck preferred to change to hAvgov A oyaov. The use of
the infinitive in the Xp. EL. seems justified by the difference
in meaning, as Doering (Phil. XXV.) has shown, but the
transposition can be due only to one of two causes. 1.
Because the author of the Xp. II. found the words in their
transposed order in his MS. of Euripides; or 2. Because

1 1 have been unable to find the citation. On careful inspection of
the references to the fragments of Euripides in Bruhn’s edition of the
Bacchae it is not at all evident what edition he made use of, as the num¬
bers correspond in no instance with the editions wuthin my reach, viz.
the older collections of Matthiae and Dindorf and the editions of Wag¬
ner and Nauck.

The Pseuclo-Greg or ian Drama Christus Patiens.

371

he made an arbitrary change in the Euripidean text. The
latter seems to be the reason in this case. As th((
next line in the Xp. II. ends with kXvgqv, its author appar*
ently desired to avoid the simularity of endings and so
changed the order of words in this line. There seems to
be no reason for preferring with Nauck the reading kXvojv
Xoycov.

5. 14. The line is lacking in C. P. and Strabo I. 27 and XV. 687 read

IlF.pd&v which Elmsley wished to emend to <P and
Wecklein, who in 16 reads £7trjXQov for si tEXBaoy from
Strabo XV. 687 (although Str. I. 27 gives etc sXOoor), drops 0 7
altogether. Wecklein however says nothing of the testi¬
mony of the Xp. n. 1588, which also omits 0; but preserves
the participle in verse 16, though changed to n apsXQcov.

6. 20. P. and C. tcoXiv. But Xp. U. 1595 x^ova which Schenkl and

Wecklein have taken into text, who also place verse 20
after 22. In the order of lines preserved by our MSS.

^ the similar endings of 19 & 20, tloXei^ and itoXiv , seem ob¬

jectionable. But if the order be changed th°"- ^iection is
removed. q

We may also include under this head those cases in which the cita¬
tions from the Xp. II. agree with one of the MSS. and not with the other.
They are as follows:

1. 75. P. QiaddsvErai. But C. and the Xp. II. 1141 Qiadeverai.

This statement rests upon Bruhn’s Kritischer Apparat.
Wilamowitz in his Analecta Euripidea does not note this
variance of the MSS., so that it seems at least questionable.

2. 46. P. ovSajuov with which the Xp. II. 1571 agrees. C

3. 56. P. %vveu7t6povs. C. and the Xp. II. 1603 dvv£ymipov%. All

editors follow MS. P.1

4. 314. P2 with Stobaeus Plor. 5.15 and 74.8 read prjd aocppovelv.

P. C. .and the Xp. U. 262 dc&cppovEiv without ju?}.

In the following passage the thought rather than the word of the Xp. II.
has furnished Hartung (whom Schoene & Bruhn have followed) with a
plausible correction of MS. P. 1090-1 ydoovsS || * syovdai certainly
cannot stand. Kirchhoff, following Heath, reads for pddovEi r/ddora
and retains s'xovdai. Wecklein prefers to bracket 1091. ^ The three

® !In 443 = Xp. II. 1385 and 1928 the MSS. of Euripides read ai,
dvvrfp7tada<Z\ Xp. II. 1385 ovi dvr- but 1928 ovS t-vr- Such a point is
entirely beyond the evidence of late MSS., as seems also the case under
consideration. It is only given to give the benefit of the doubt to the
Xp. II. A similar question is that of e$ and sii. Cf. 450 — Xp. II. 1655;
1073 = 662. Likewise -rj or -si in second person singular middle of the
verb. Cf. 787 = 2277 and 2286; 960 = 1522. So also the i subscriptum in
the verb dd^oo; cf. 1050= 678: and the accent of dlya; cf. 1084 = 2260.

372

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

above-mentioned editors draw from the signification of Spduaodi of the
Xp. 77. 2015 and the form of the reading of P. the emendation rpsxov6ai .

C. So far we have regarded the readings afforded ns in any way by
the Xp. 77. as either superior or equal in value to those of our MSS. of
the Bacchae. In Class C. will be collected all those passages in which
the author of the Xp. 17. has apparently with the utmost arbitrariness
changed the Euripidean text or with a more charitable supposition found
in his MS. a very corrupted form of the Euripidean text.

1. 8. Xp. 77. 1583 has rspipovysv'1 for zvcpopeva and a6f8s6zov for

£ti C co6av. These changes were doubtless made to avoid
the resolved feet. The Euripidean line is unmetrical and
difficult. Barnes emended by dropping zs and he has
been followed by all the editors but the line is not relieved
of all its difficulties.

2. 9. Xp. 77. 1584 itpos zr/vd > for sis kprjv. The same variation is

found in

3. 312. Xp. 77. 584 itpo 5 yrjv for sis yrjv and

4. 776. Xp. 77. twice (2244 and 2222) rtpos rdv zvpavvov for sis tov

zvpavvov. Of these three cases the first may have been
due to the context. To obtain a final long syllable in
KoXiv, repos may have been written after it instead of sis.
But this explanation will not hold for the other two in¬
stances and the author of the Xp. 77. does not elsewhere
show such attention to the laws of quantity. A short 1
lengthened under the influence of the accent is not a rare
phenomenon in the Xp. 77.

5. 13. Xp. 77. 1587 -itavsvKXssis itoXsis for rtoXvxpv 6 ovs yvas. The

reading of the Xp. 77. is testimony to the accusative. Elms-
ley, followed by Wecklein, reads rtoXvxpvdGov.

6. 16. Xp. 77. 1590 7tapsXQc2v for STtsXOcov. Here also ’ Appdftcov for

'Apafiiav to avoid the resolved foot. sTtsXBaov is the
reading of Str. 1. 27, but Str. XV. 687 gives s7tr/XBov, which
Wecklein has adopted.

7. 22. Xp. 77. 1564 sjucpavGos for spcpavr/s. Similar is

8. 993 = 1013. Xp. 77. 1099 cpavspcAs for cpavspds.

9. 46. Xp. 77. 1571 3’ for r .

10. 56. Xp. 77. 1603 ejuds Oiados for Qia6os sjuds.

11. 116 sq. Xp. 77. 1614 sv <p QrjXvysrss pivsi ysvos for svBa psvsi j|

Qr/Xvys vrjs oxXos.

12. 184. Xp. 77. 1154 XPV for 3 si. But 8 si is the emendation of Musli¬

ms for dp of the MSS., which corruption had its origin
doubtless in itacism.

13. 185. Xp. 77. 1155 rvv r/yov for s^pyov.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus Patiens. 373

14. 194. Xp. 17. 1161 artovcsD s for djuoxBsi. This is plainly a change as

the line is unmetrically constructed. Codex Vindob. (V.)
gives (f d7tovGD5 ryidov pyrjdaizo. A. and B. ppdSv ocTtovcsD^
' rjyr/dszai. The remaining vjugjv ditovco^ pypdszai.

15. 211. xp. JJ. 228 Hay GO for eyed. Elsewhere the author of the

Xp. JJ. has not been so particular about avoiding 'asyn¬
deton,

16. 285. Xp. IT, 569 zovzo V. B. D., ceteri zovzov for zovzov.

17. 444. Xp. n. 1386, 1929 xdSSpdsv for xdSpday

18. 448, Xp. 17. 2072 dvsldav for dvrjxav.

19. 449. Xp. JJ. 1654 0’ for S’. But V. reads S’. Herwerden emended

to y’ . Also avr/p for dvrjp.

20. 472. Xp. JJ. 1549 (Jpozoii for (dpozdov.

21. 667 = 716. Xp. 77. 2213 6’ for re (667) or r ’ (716).

22. 671. Xp. 77. 2223 to z'oqvOvjuov for xai rov^vQvjuov.

23-24. 672. Xp. 77. 2233 rtavzoov for 7tdvzGo$ and also Si’ kjuov for
kjiov.

25. 713. Xp. 77. 2218 sidopwv for sidiSwv.

26. 955. Xp. 77. 1506 xpvipsi dv for xpvTtzjp S£.

27. 1029. Xp. 77. 649 zi ppvvsii for zi ppvvsis.

28. 1083. Xp. 77. 2259 sdzppt^s for sdzpfms. In the Xp. II. the verbs of

the lines immediately proceeding and following are in the
aorist. That may account for the change in this line. In
Euripides the verb in 1082 is imperfect, in 1084 aorist.

29. 1087. Xp. 77. 673 xapa 5 for xopa$.

30. 1091. Xp. 77. 2015 dpjur/juadiv for Spoprjpadi. This may be due to

the fact that SpajuGodi already stands in the line in the
Xp. n.

31-32. 1111. Xp. 77. 1430 Oaddov for Qaddoov. For the use of the adverb
for the adjective in such expressions cf. examples 7 and 8
supra. Also yapaipicpry for x(XJiai7teTVi> MSS. A. and B.
of the Xp. 77. read xaM-a'1 pi(pV5.

33. 1120. Xp. 77. 2564 oixzsipov for oixzsips S’.

34. 1121. Xp. JJ. 2565 apitXaxiaidiv for ayapziaidiv.

35. 1147. Xp. JJ . 1300 g$5 xaXXinxos, rj xXso 5 rixps psya. A. and B.

have si, with r/ written above it in B. si V. C. M. oitov rj,
where oitov is plainly a gloss upon 77. P. of the Bacchse reads:
xaXXivixov y Saxpva vixpepopsi , which Kirchoff , Paley and
Nauck retain. Reiske, followed by Hermann and Bruhn,
reads dp, while Heath emends to rj, the reading adopted by
Schcene and Wecklein. Emendations of vixrjcpopsl , which
is a onta% Xsy., have been suggested by Portus, vixp epopsi,
and Hartung, vix 77 cpspsi, the latter two adducing the
line in the Xp. II. as partial evidence. In any case the

o?4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

author of the Xp. II. has changed to all appearances his
Euripides.

36. 1150. Xp. n. 1145 ydp for 8 s.

37. 1163. Xp. 17. 1052 aipadvlov caftan.

38. 1213. Xp. II. 1263 spfiaivs Ttpurdf, nhipaKos i rpo5 spfiadsis for

7tA.£xrcSv 7tpdf> oiuovf, uXipduGov ?t podccp ftdd si ?. The cor¬
rection of TtXsKrcSv to 7 tr/KTGov has been spoken of on
page 369. In this line ?rp6 5 hpfiddsi^ is plainly a corruption
of npodapfiadsis, which word the author of the Xp. n. ap¬
parently did not understand. But the singular nXipanoi
is either a variant reading or a deliberate change. The
singular uXipaKof, with Tipodapfiadsi 5 is found in Aesch.
Sept. 466 and Eur. Phoen. 1173. More instructive is Phoen.
489, where Ttpurcdv uXiuaHcov Ttpodappddsi 5 is read, the
two passages being plainly imitations, the one of the other.
This seems a strong argument against Doering’s sugges¬
tion that “ Ttpura^ passt besser zu den Stufen Oder Spros-
sen, als zu der Leiter.”

39. 1216. Xp. U. 1485 qjspcopsv for cpspovrs^.

40. 1223. Xp. n. 2202 s I'd go po\c8v for sdco (3e(3gos.

41. 1237. Xp. n. 163 r/^Go for t/hgo.

42. 1241. Xp. 77. 167 Kvdpovfisvo 5 for yavpovpsvos.

43. 1244. Xp. 77 1048 go psysQo 5 for go 7tsr0o 5.' Here 7tsv0o 5 is restored

by all the editors of the Xp. II. It is doubly strange that
this corruption should have crept in, as it introduces a
resolved foot, which, as we shall later see, the author of the
Xp. 77 plainly avoided. It seems probable that psysOos
stood in his Euripidean MS.

44. 1245. Xp. 77 1049 iqsipyadpsroi for s^sipyadpsvGor. P. reads here

s^sipyadpsvdov. Probably the author of the Xp. 77 did
not understand the construction.

45. 1316. Xp. 77 1634 Qavcdv spot <P for ydp ovkst ; av.

46. 1317. Xp. 77 1635 dei y 7 for spoiy'.

47. 1348. Xp. 77 2563 bpydv for opyds .

48. 1354. Xp. 77 1702 nay go for sycb 0\

To this list should be added the cases in which, to avoid a resolved
foot, a change has been made by the author of the Xp. 77, which num¬
ber 22, and are catalogued on pp. 376 sq.

In the following instances neither our MSS. nor the Xp. II. has pre¬
served the correct reading.

1. 15 = Xp. 77 1589. dvdysipor , corrected by Elmsley to dvdyipov

This is explained by itacism.

2. 263 = Xp. 77 191. P. and C. svdsfisias, which Reiske corrected

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus P aliens.

375

to dvddsfisia?,, a reading adopted by all. The Xp. 77
reads ddsfisias, which gives the right sense but is unmet -
rical.

3. 669 = Xp. 77. 2220. raKslBev, corrected by Branck to rd ksiQsv,

due to the incorrect division into words.

4. 844 = Xp. 77.1287. P. svrfpsxss corrected by Canter to s-orpsitsi.

The Xp. 77. has 7tavsv7tps7tsy

5. 854 — Xp. 77. 2311. ocpXsiv , connected to ocpXslLv for Euripides.

Cf. L. and S. sub voce.

6. 955 = Xp. 77. 1506. P. upvp>fjvai. Xp. 77. xpv(3?/vai . Musurus

corrected to upv^rjvai for metrical reasons.

7. 1099 = Xp. 77. 669 dXXoi, corrected by Brodaeus to dXXai.

8. 1152 = Xp. 77. 1147 xPVILa‘ But Orion, Anth. IV. 55, reads urpya,

which all editors adopt.

9. 1162 -= Xp. 77. 1051. P. yovov. Xp. 77. Qprjvov. Canter changed

to yoov. It is possible that the Xp. 77. may be right here.

10. 1355 = Xp. 77. 1670. P. an 8s poi rd Qsdqxxrov. Xp. 77. sdri ydp

to Oadcparov. It seems likely that the author of the
Xp. 77. found in our Euripidean MS. what our MS. now
contains, but changed to obtain a verb and to avoid the
tribrach. Haupt suggested povdri , which all the editors
have adopted.

11. 1368 = Xp. 77. 1706. Ttcirpcpa, changed by Elmsley to Ttarpia metri

causa.

It remains now to sum up our discussion of the value of the citations
from Euripides found in the Xp. 77. If we have correctly classified the
citations the conclusion is evident. In 14 instances the Xp. 77. has fur¬
nished us the means of correcting our MSS., of which three instances
only are from that portion of the play contained in the two MSS. The
Xp. 77. has not preserved the exact form of the word in all cases, nor have
all, or even the best MSS. of the Xp. 77. preserved the correct reading in
every case. The benefit of the doubt has been given the Xp. 77., so that
cases 13 and 14 have here been included, and case 11, although testified
toby only one MS., and that not the best one. In our second list are to be
found 6 cases in which the excellence of the readings of the Xp. 77. is by
no means so clear as to recommend their adoption to all the editors of
the Bacchee. In four cases the Xp. 77. stands in agreement with one MS.
and not the other, in two of which there may be serious doubt, if the
reading of the Xp. 77. is preferable. However, to be perfectly fair and
just to the Xp. 77., these cases may be all enumerated in its favor, and the
sum total is 24, over against which should be placed the 48 + 22=70 cases
in which the author of the Xp. 77. has without any doubt and for no good
reason changed the reading of the Euripidean text, or found a very
corrupt form of the Euripidean text in his MS. In the following it will

376

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

be shown that the writer of the Xp. 77. was apparently exceedingly faith¬
ful to his Enripidean text, and changed it, in all probability, only to
avoid having more than twelve syllables in his line, and that in conse¬
quence his text of the Bacchae was of a most corrupt nature. If this
is substantiated then it is difficult to place any reliance upon the evi¬
dence of the Xp. 77, so far as the text of the Bacchae is concerned. If,
then, this be the truth in the case of the Bacchae, where the Euripidean
MSS. are so poor, the testimony of the Xp. II. for plays contained in
better MSS. will be proved to be almost unworthy of consideration.

That the author of the Xp. II. followed his text of Euripides faithfully,
even slavishly, is evident from the following considerations:

1. The retention of the Doric forms of choral passages. Such are
fiior&v of 1140 = B. 73 and ipvxdv of 1141 = B. 75. In only one instance
is this neglected. In 1801 riji is written, where Bacchae 389 shows rus,
which change is easily explained as due to the effect of the added word
naXrjS.

2. Line 1099 is very instructive as to the fidelity of the author of the
Xp. 17. to his Euripides and also of the liberty he allowed himself with
the text. Bacch. 993 = 1013 reads, itgo Since cpavepoi, itgo ^icppcpopo^,
a trimeter although in a choral passage. This contained a resolved foot,
which was an offense to the writer of the Xp. II. His version is, there¬
fore, it go 8m1 , it go <pavepG05 Zuppqiopoi, where he has preserved the Dori-
cism Since, but treated the final vowel as short and subject to elision.
He would certainly never have attempted to elide an -p, had he found
that in his MS. of the Bacchae, so that we may regard the Doric form
preserved in this instance also.

3. In 1150 = B. 180, although the author of the Xp. II. has added to
the sentence the three last words of 1149, while Euripides connected
their equivalent with the preceding line and began a new sentence with
this one, the Xp. II. shows the 8’ retained from Euripides, although now
the fifth word in its sentence.

In 1594 codex V. has preserved k'xovda (nom.), though the construction
demands the accusative, and the other MSS. have the accusative, exovda
being the form found in the Bacchae 19. Perhaps this is to be regarded
rather as an error of V. than as the retention of the Euripidean reading,
although in several instances V. has preserved the better readings. Cf.
Braudes’ praefatio to his edition, p. 5.

t 4. The preservation of resolved feet. It has already been pointed out
in several instances that the author of the Xp. 77. has taken the liberty of
changing the Euripidean text to avoid a resolved foot. It remains to be
shown how far this influence has been at work in the Xp. 77. Before giv¬
ing the complete list of cases, a few deserve special mention, as being
very instructive of the method taken by this writer. The simplest way
to avoid a resolved foot was to omit a word from the line. This has taken

The Pseudo-Greg orian Drama Christus Patiens. 377

place in 168 = B. 1242 where yap has been dropped to obtain a twelve
syllabled verse: uaXei <piXovs e£$ Saira • juaxdpios ei for juatia pi os yap
si, in which the first a and the i of paxdpioi receive the accent, although
short in quantity. Again 1589 = B. 15. Here re has been dropped,
thus Bdxrpia [re] reiyp rr/v re dvdyeijiior x®ova, where i of Bdxrpia
receives the accent.

A second way to avoid the tribrach was to combine with the omission
or elision of a syllable transposition. Thus 2007 = B. 692. dW aitn-
fdaXovdai rov vitvov opfidroDv from ai §' ocrcofiaXovdai OaXepdv
ojujudrGov vrfvor. Here are three violations of the rules for quantity, in
the two u7s of cxTtoflaXovdai and the v of vitvov. In 1099 the remarkable
elision of Doric a has been noted on p. 376. In 1592 = B. 17, the Xp. 77.
reads 7tddav r> \ 'Adiav nrX. for 1 'Adiav re nddav nrX.

Then again a change of words could be made. Thus 2223 — B. 671
rd r; oqvQvjuov uai ro Xiav pppevov for uai rov^vQvpov uai ro fiadiXixdv
Xiav, where i of Xiav is lengthened. And 1566 = B. 49. ev diaQeis
rdvQevd,} avadrrjdeis updroi for ravQevde Qejnevo 5 ev, jueradrpdoo
7to8a. An interesting example is 1054 = B. 1260 et eoo 5 reXov^ for
el de dux reXov$.

These cases will suffice for illustration. The remainder are: 569 — B.
285; 1310 = B. 1280; 1536 and 1543=B. 54; 1564 = B. 22; 1570 — B. 45;
1583 =J B. 8; 1590 ==B. 16; 1593 = B. 18; 1603 = B. 56; 1683 = B. 1335;
1754 = B. 1339; 2075 = B. 447; 2519 = B. 60; 2560 = B. 1345. In most of
these cases short vowels have been lengthened to receive the accent'
Adaptation of lines written in other metres are full of the same sort of
errors. Of. 653 = B. 1041; 1052 = B. 1163; 1706 = B. 1368. .

Further when the author of the Xp. IT. found it necessary for his
theme to change the Euripidian text, he avoided the use of a resolved
foot, where the Euripidean equivalent has such. The following are
the instances: 169 = B. 1243; 666 = B. 1095; 668 = B. 1097 ; 1152 = B. 181;
1153 = B. 183; 1156 = B. 186; 1161 = B. 194; 1525 = B. 963; 1552 = B. 31;
1553 = B. 29; 1602 = B. 55; 1668 = B. 492; 1760 = B. 1332; 1790= B. 362;
1811 = B. 733; 1835 = B. 684; 2074 = B. 446; 2280= B. 790; 2520 =B. 61.
In many of these cases a short a is lengthened under the influence of
the accent.

But to return to our point. In four instances the author of the Xp. II.
has retained unwittingly, it would seem, a resolved foot, indicating how
carefully he followed his Euripidean MS. When off his guard he fol¬
lowed his model and allowed a line to him metrically objectionable to
creep in in its exact form. When he has tried to remove the source of
objection he has betrayed himself by his absolute ignorance and disre¬
gard of the laws of quantity. The instances referred to are as follows:
1585 = B. 10. Here the MSS. C., M., A., B. read with Euripides cdvod de
xp id iv [Eur. Kadjuov] afiucrov rj [Eur. d'5] nedov rode . Both Dubner and

378

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Brambs reject 8s from the text but wrongly. We have simply caught
him napping here and have an insight into his method of work.

1570 = B. 45 rj [Eur. 05] Qeopaxsl rh Kara. 6s 6tcov8c6v r7 onto [Eur.
uar1 hfis uai 67tovdoov a7to.] Here Qsojuaxsi was left in C., M., V. and
the other resolved foot removed. It may be that this is to be explained
by synizesis, as in A., B. it appears written Qvjuaxsi.

2219 = B. 668 OsXoo S' aKov6ai, itorspd 601 itap PV 6 ia. This is the
reading of all the MSS. except A. (7 torsp’ 035 7 tapp.) and V. (7 toorspov
7tapp.), which are evidently attempts to remove the objectionable foot.

1048 = B. 1244. This has been discussed on p. 374. It seems most pro¬
bable that he found in his Euripides jusysQo 5.

We have then shown how the author of the Xp. II., when off his guard,
followed his MS. of the Bacchae so closely, that he has introduced re¬
solved feet in several instances, and also that the writer al¬
lowed himself the liberty to change a line to remove the objectionable
tribrach. The conclusion must be drawn, that for Euripidean lines con¬
taining resolved feet the Xp. II. offers in all but a very few instances
testimony of a very insignificant value. We have also demonstrated how
slavishly in several instances he has followed his model to the sacrifice
of grammatical and orthographical accuracy in his own composition.
We feel, therefore, justified in affirming, that, inasmuch as in 48 cases he
has preserved readings vastly inferior to those of our own MSS., cases in
which a change is scarcely to be justified, the writer of the Xp. II. made
use of a MS. of the Bacchae that contained a very corrupted text of that
play. I cannot in view of facts here brought together agree with Doering
that the citations from the Bacchae in the Xp. II. have a. high value for
the text criticism of that play. Nor can' I give assent to his statement,
that the Euripidean MS. used by this writer should be placed for its ex¬
cellence midway between the two classes of the Euripidean MSS. dis¬
tinguished by Kirchhoff. The result of the present investigation has been
to assign to a class much inferior to the existing MSS., which belong to
Kirchhoff’s second class, the MS. of the Bacchae that the author of the
Xp. II. has used. Probably a careful investigation of the subject through
the other plays of Euripides plundered by this ignorant writer would re¬
veal the same state of affairs there also.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

379

LIST OF CRUSTACEA CLADOCERA FROM MADISON,

WISCONSIN.

By E. A. BIRGE,

Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

In 1878 the writer published Notes on Cladocera in the fourth volume
of the Transactions of this Academy,* in which were noted twenty-five
species of Cladocera found at Madison. Returning to the subject with
better means of collecting and a much larger command of the literature
of the group, I have been able to enlarge greatly the number of species
and to identify them more accurately. As the task of reviewing the
greatly scattered literature, especially of the Lynceidce , seems likely to
occupy some time, it seems advisable to print a list of the species
already found, with notes on rare or new forms.

A glance at the subjoined list of sixty-four species and varieties
regarded by many European writers as species, will show how close our
fauna is to that of Europe. Out of the whole number, only nine are
peculiar to this country and of these five are varieties of species found
elsewhere, or are very close to foreign species. Three species are deter¬
mined as new, Latonopsis occidentcilis from the Sididce , Moina sp. nov .
from the Daphnidce , Alona lepida from the Lynceidce.

With the exception of five species and varieties ( Daphnia pidex , Zb
retrocurva , Alona tenuicaudis , and the species of Moina), all of the
species in the list have been found in Lake Wingra. This is a small lake
about one and three-fourths miles long and half as wide, with broad
margins of marsh all around it. In the marsh the water is from a few
inches to two feet deep between the areas of wild rice and reeds, and the
bottom is partly composed of vegetable debris and partly covered by a
dense growth of Chara. The lake itself hardly exceeds fifteen feet in
depth, and almost the entire bottom is overgrown with water plants
of various kinds. Among these weeds and in the marshes Cladocera
abound. The abundance of food and variety of locality offered proba¬
bly account for the great number of species. In Lake Mendota, a
much larger body of water, six miles by four, and having a depth
of sixty to eighty feet, I have found only thirty-eight species of Clado-

* Vol. IV, 1876-7 (printed 1878), pp. 77-110. PI. I, II.

380

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

cera. Doubtless more careful and prolonged collecting would disclose
new species in both bodies of water, but the larger lake is certainly
poorer in number of forms, especially the littoral species. The pelagic
forms are, of course, more abundant in the larger lake, and one variety
has been found in Lake Mendota which Lake Wingra does not possess.

This single locality has yielded a number of species, comparing not
unfavorably with the fauna described from England, Denmark or Russia.
No European country shows more than 100 species; so that more than
one-half of the probable fauna of Wisconsin has been found here. That
so large a fraction of the entire fauna should belong to one locality will
not appear strange when the similarity of the fauna to that of Europe is
considered. If the species of Cladocera have so wide a range as appears
from Sar’s observations on Australian Cladocera, and from my work
here, it is not probable that many species are strictly local. We should
expect to find any given species over a large extent of country in suita¬
ble localities. This expectation has been realized in many cases. As
conspicuous instances I may note the occurrence of Drepanothrix
dentata, Euren, in Wisconsin, the finding of Dunhev edict setiger , Birge,
in Hungary by Daday, and the occurrence of Ilyocryptus longiremis,
Sars, in Wisconsin and in Australia. No doubt some species are strictly
local, confined to a small area, or the product of life-conditions existing
there and not elsewhere. But the chance that this is true in any given
case is small, and all well marked species should be looked for in every
suitable locality. We should expect also that a locality especially favor¬
able to the development of the Cladocera would contain a very large
fraction of the fauna of the region.

The subjoined list also shows the value of long and careful collecting
in one locality, and the impossibility of justly estimating the Cladocera
of a lake from a single visit. The different forms behave much like the
plants of a locality. Some species are present throughout the season.
Some can be found only for a few days. Some come in the spring and
disappear early, while others belong to the latter part of the open season.
Of the nearly sixty species found in Lake Wingra I have never found
more than thirty as the result of a single day’s work. It is clear that a
list of Cladocera compiled from a flying visit to a locality and containing
from six to twenty species, has no claim to represent the fauna of that
locality. Only careful collecting at intervals throughout an entire sea¬
son can give even an approximate idea of the number of species
present.

I may add that a single specimen was found in Lake Wingra, belong¬
ing to the genus Anchistropus, Sars, and apparently not to the species
emarginatus, Sars. It was accidentally destroyed before it could be
carefully studied.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis. * 381

LIST OF CLADOCERA FOUND AT MADISON, WISCONSIN.

1. Holopedium gibberum , Zad.

2. Sida crystallina , O. F. M.

3. Daphnella brachyura , Liev.

4. Daphnella brandtiana , Fisch.!

5. Latona setifera , O. F. M.

6. Latonopsis occidentalism spec.

nov.

7. Moina brachiata , Jur.

8. Moina , spec. nov.

9. Simocephalus vetulus. O. F. M.

10. Simocephalus serrulatus , Koch.

11. Ceriodaphnia megops, Sars.

12. Ceriodaphnia reticulata , Jur.

13. Ceriodaphnia pulchella, Sars.

14. Ceriodaphnia consors , Birge.

15. Scapholeberis aurita , Fisch.

16. Scapholeberis obtusa , Schdl.

17. Scapholeberis mucronata , O.

F. M.

18. Daphnia pulex , De Geer.

19. Daphnia Schoedleri , Sars.

20. Daphnia minnehaha , Herrick.

21. Daphnia hyalina , Leydig.

22. Daphnia kalilbergensis, Qchoed-

ler.

23. Daphnia kahlbergensis , var ced-

erstroemii , Schdl.

24. Daphnia kahlbergensis , var.

retrocurva, Forbes.

25. Lathonura rectirostris , O. F. M.

26. Macrothrix rosea , Jur.

27. Macrothrix laticornis , Jur.

28. Drepanotlirix dentatcc, Euren.

29. Ophryoxus gracilis , Sars.

30. Ilyocryptus sordidus, Lieven.

31. Ilyocryptus longiremis , Sars.

32. Bosmina longirostris, O. F. M.

33. Bosmina longicornis , Schoed-

ler.

34. Bosmina cor nut a, Jur.

35. Bosmina bohemica , Hellich. (?)

36. Eurycercus lamellatus , O. F. M.

37. Leydigia quadrangular is, Ley¬

dig.

38. Alona quadrangular is, O. F. M.

39. Alona affinis, Leydig.

40. Alona linea ta, Fischer.

41. Alona guttata, Sars.

42. Alona costata, Sars.

43. Alona tenuicaudis, Sars.

44. Alona lepida, spec. nov.

45. Graptoleberis testudinaria,

Fischer.

46. Dunhevedia ( Crepidocercus ) sef-

iger, Birge.

47. Pleuroxus trigonellus, O. F. M.

48. Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge.

49. Pleuroxus gracilis, Hudendorff ,

var. unidens, Birge.

50. Pleuroxus exiguus, Lillj.

51. Pleuroxus excisus, Fischer.

52. Pleuroxus procure at us, Birge.

53. Chydorus spliaericus, O. F. M.

54. Chydorus spliaericus, v ar. caela-

tus, Schdl.

55. Chydorus spliaericus, var. punc-

tatus, Hellich.

56. Chydorus globosus, Baird.

57. Alonopsis latissima, Kurz.

58. Alonopsis media, Birge.

59. Acroperus leucocephalus, Koch.

60. Camptocercus macrurus, O.

F. M.

61. Camptocercus rectirostris ,

Schdl.

62. Camptocercus biserratus , Schdl.

63. Polyphemus pediculus, De Geer

64. Leptodora hyalina, Lillj.

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

NOTES ON THE PRECEDING LIST.

Species 1. Holopedium gibberum, Zad.

I have found this species only once in Madison. It is quite abundant
in collections from northern Minnesota, and Forbes* notes its occurence
at Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan.

Species 2. Sida crystallina, O. F. Muller.

No specimens were found belonging to the form S. elongata , DeGeer.

Species 3 and 4. Daphnella brachyura, Liev. and D. brandtiana Fisch.

Of those closely allied forms I have only to say that both are found
with us, and show exactly the same differences as described and figured
by Sars in his Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr. D. brachyura is usually found in
open water, and D. brandtiana in marshes. I cannot state this as a law,
however, as both forms are found together sometimes, in either kind of
locality.

Species 5. Latona setifera, O. F. Muller. Plate XIII. Fig. 6.

Our specimens of Latona have one peculiarity not mentioned by any
European writer. There is a thick coat of short hairs on the head, body
and antennas. These hairs are .02 mm. or less in length, are close set and
give the outline a velvety appearance when seen by transmitted light.
P. E. Muller | says: “ Hvad der er aldeles eiendommeligt for Latona og
neppe jagttaget hos nogen anden Cladoceer, eret fint Lod af ganske korte
Haar, der isaer Andes over Matrix; det er vanskeligt at see og opdages
kun ved staerkt Sidelys.” This exact account shows that his specimens
were not villous as ours are. The hairs are conspicuous in any light and
are very easily seen. No other European writer mentions a similar struc¬
ture. A more extended study of specimens from different localities will
show whether this is a local peculiarity or is characteristic of a distinct
variety. On old females which have not moulted recently the hairs are
worn off.

The male antenna differs somewhat from the account given by Sars.J
The appendix ciliata is much larger than Sars Agures it, and is situ¬
ated at the same level as the sense-hairs instead of distal to them.
The size, number and arrangement of the setae on the edge of the cara¬
pace differ from the details given by Sars, but not in any very important
respect.

Latona seems to be rare in Europe, but the apparent rarity is, as Sars
says, probably due to its mode of life and the method of collecting. In
late summer and early fall, one can be certain of obtaining a good num-

* Forbes, S. A. On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan and adjacent Waters. Am.
Naturalist, vol. xvi., p. 641. Aug., 1882.

+ Muller, P. E. Danmarks Cladocera, pp. 97-98. r
t Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr, p. 55, PI. Ill, figs. 17a, 17b.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

383

ber at various localities near Madison. It lives in clear water among
weeds, and a dredge which can be dragged through the weeds and not
merely above them is needed in order to secure it. With the cone-
dredge it is not difficult to obtain 20 to 100 specimens. The same may
be said of such bottom forms as Ophryoxus and Drepanotlirix.

Sars speaks feelingly of the difficulties which beset one who attempts
to view this powerful and obstinate cladoceran from the side. If a life-
box is used and a trace of per cent, of solution of osmic acid in water
is added to the water containing the animal, there will be little trouble
in turning it on its side. After the poison begins to act, it is best to at¬
tempt turning the animal by rotating the cover of the life-box. If left
to die undisturbed the antennae are usually expanded while an irrita¬
tion applied to it while alive causes it to fold the antennae along its
sides, when it can readily be turned into any position.

Species 6. Latonopsis occidentalis, sp. nov. Plate XIII. Figs. 1-5.

In 1888 G. O. Sars* established the genus and species Latonopsis
australis for a new form of the Sididce raised by him from mud obtained
from Australia. I have found here a second and closely allied species of
this new and remarkable genus, and have succeeded in finding males
which did not developein Sars’ aquaria.

Latonopsis , Sars, is closely ailed to Latona , Sars, and may be charac¬
terized as follows:

'latonopsis, Sars.

r Impression between head and thorax slight or wanting. Labrum
devoid of plate-like expansion. Antennule with a long, plumose, straight
or curved flagellum, articulated to the basal part. Antenna with simple
rami, the superior ramus bi-articulate, the inferior tri-articulate, as in
Daphnella. Heart concave dorsally, truncate anteriorly, the aorta arising
on the ventral side. Shell-gland with three long branches. Male (of
L occidentalism Birge, at least) with simple copulatory organ, and hook
on first leg. Antennule long, slightly curved, armed with fine teeth re¬
sembling in general the antennale of Sida, but having a median projec¬
tion near the base. Color of both species yellowish-transparent.

SPECIES.

a. Fornices absent. Antennule shorter than anterior margin of

head. L. australis, Sars.

b. Fornices present. Antennule longer than anterior margin of

head. L. occidentalis, sp. nov.

" * Sars, G. O.fJ Additional notes on Australian Cladocera raised from Dried Mud. Chris
tiania 1888, pp. 6-15. PI. I. Christiania Videnskabs Selskabs Forhandlinger 1888. No. 7.

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

DESCBIPTION OF FEMALE.

Length up to 1.8 mm. but usually smaller.

Measurements of average specimens.

9

3

mm.

mm.

mm.

Length -

1.30

.82

.61

Height - - -

.80

.40

.27

Antennule -

.42

.35

.28

Abdominal setae

.50

.41

.31

Longest spine on carapace

1.05

—

.50

The head is in some cases marked off from the body by a slight depres¬
sion, not seen in young specimens, and often absent in older individuals.
The anterior outline of the head as seen from the side forms a straight
or slightly convex line from the attachment of the antennules to the eye,
where it passes by an abrupt curve into the dorsal margin. This mar¬
gin is frequently continuous to the hinder end of the valves, and is
nearly straight in young specimens but strongly convex in old females.
Ventrally the anterior margin of the head terminates in a small pro¬
jection to which the antennules are attached. The ventral margin is
continued into the labrum, and is entirely devoid of the leaf -like expan¬
sion characteristic of Latona , Sars’ organum affixionis. Above the inser¬
tion of the antennae the valves are continued into small bilobed fornices,
resembling those of Latona but much smaller, and not continued to the
insertion of the antennules as are those of Latona. The head as seen
from above is somewhat pyramidal in form.

The carapace does not differ greatly from that of the Sididce in gen¬
eral. It leaves the oral structures uncovered in front; it is straight or
convex dorsally according" to the age of the animal; the ventral margin
is evenly rounded and passes into the nearly straight posterior margin
by a curve which forms no marked projection. The upper posteal angle
is well marked. The edge of the carapace is fringed with long plumose
setae, each set on a small elevation. At the lower posteal angle are placed
three setae, much longer than the others. They are often longer than
the carapace, and diverge from each other as they leave the shell, one
passing nearly straight backward and the others more outward. These
setae are longer in our species than in L. australis as figured by Sars.
The valves are not marked except by the braces (Stiitzbalken).

Along the inside of the hinder edge of the shell, from the insertion of
the long setae to the junction of the valves, runs a row of fine spines
like those of Latona.

APPENDAGES.

The antennule consists of the basal part, the sense-hairs and the flagel¬
lum. The first is short, oblong, freely movable. The sense-hairs num-

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis.

385

ber about eight and are placed on the posterior side of the distal end of
the base. The flagellum is attached to the base with a distinct suture.
Sars calls it “ distinctly articulated ” in L. australis. Whether he means
that there is a movable joint he does not make clear. In L. occidentalis
there is simply a distinct suture. The flagellum is long, curved back¬
ward, tapers to a fine point, and is fringed with long straggling sense-
hairs. These are far less numerous than in Latona. Most of them are
on the anterior side of the antennale but at the tip they are attached to
all sides. In this arrangement of the hairs the structure differs from the
antennule of L. australis as figured by Sars. The sense-hairs are also
longer than he shows them and the whole antennule is about twice as
long, relatively, as that of L. australis.

The antenna closely resembles that of L. australis. The basal joint is
exceedingly stout, so that the branches look too small for it. The dorsal

sames is bi-, the ventral tri-articulate.

The

set® are

4 (5) - 7
0 — i — 4

and the spines ^ ^ The basal joint bears the usual dorsal sense

organ at the base, and at the distal end are a spine anteriorly and a
plumose sense-hair behind. The proximal joint of the dorsal ramus
bears four well developed setae, and sometimes a fifth, proximal, seta
which is much smaller than the others. Its presence or absence seems
to depend on no law, as it is either present or absent in specimens of all
ages and both s^exes and may be present on one side and absent on the
other side of the same individual. All setae are two jointed and densely
plumose.

The proportionate length of individual setae differs in my specimens
from L. australis as figured by Sars. The terminal setae of the dorsal
ramus are little longer than the others in L. occidentalis. The seta of the
second joint of the ventral ramus is as long as the largest on the distal
joint and each is quite twice as long as any other seta on the branch.

The post-abdomen closely resembles that of L. australis. It is short,
fleshy, obtusely conical, and armed with nine very small super-anal den¬
ticles. The abdominal setae are two-jointed, plumose, each set on a
fleshy projection. They are a little longer than those of L. australis.
The terminal claws are strongly curved, and have two secondary teeth, of
which the distal is the longer.

The mouth parts and legs seem to resemble closely those of the other
Sididce. No careful study of the legs, has, however, been made. They
number six pairs, as in other Sididce.

INTERNAL ORGANS.

In the structure of the internal organs L. occidentalis agrees closely
with L. australis , and I can add little to Sars’ account. The general ar¬
rangement of the organs of the head may been seen in the figures.

25— A. & L.

3S6 W isconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The heart as seen from the side, shows a tube convex below and con¬
cave above. It is truncated anteriorly, and the aorta issues from its
ventral side. From above the heart closely resembles that of Latona ,
having the form of a broad sac, rounded behind, and widest through the
venous ostia.

The shell-gland has a form in this genus, which is unique among the
Cladocera. It consists of three branches, of which the shortest is dor¬
sal and extends toward the heart, the next in length is ventral, while the
longest extends posteriorly and may reach through two-thirds of the
length of the valve. This last loop is found only in Latonopsis. The
whole gland consists of a tube doubled on itself, whose course can easily
Ibe traced. Beginning near the mandible in a bladder-like expansion the
tube passes into the valve and extends ventrally; it returns on itself to
the middle point, then passes backward in a long loop, returns again to
extend up toward the heart and come back to the middle. Then comes
a second posterior loop, lying parallel to and within the first, and on its
return the tube passes to its outlet near the mandible. Thus there are
two passages in the dorsal and ventral loops and four in the posterior,
not three as stated by Sars (op. cit. p. 9.). Sars’ figure (PI. I, Fig 1.) shows
the organ quite correctly.

DESCRIPTION OF MALE.

The male resembles in general the young female.

The antennules are long and stout, being often nearly half as long as the
animal. They taper toward the apex, are curved, but not geniculate. They
are provided with a long row of very fine teeth extending from a point near
the sense-hairs to the apex. They thus resemble in general the antennule
of the male Sida and Daphnella and differ widely from the male Latona.
Near the base of the antennule on the inner side is a stout projection,
rounded at the apex and covered with very fine hairs. This projection
is probably equivalent to the “ appendix ciliata ” of the male Latona .*
In Latona, Sars shows the appendix ciliata some way distal from the
olfactory hairs, while in Latonopsis , it is some way proximad to these-
My specimens of Latona, however, show the appendix close the to sense-
hairs; so that the difference of position does not interfere with homol¬
ogy. The cilia on the appendix of Latonopsis are very fine and easily
overlooked; they are far less conspicuous than in Latona.

The copulatory organs resemble those of Latona. They are a pair of
long, curved, flexible appendages, perforated by the vasa deferentia.
They arise at the base of the post-abdomen and are long enough to reach
beyond the terminal claws.

The first leg shows a very distinct and strong hook. In this structure
Latonopsis differs from the other Sididce and especially from Latona.

* Sars,JG. O. Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr. ’ Cladocera Cfcenopoda, p. 55. PI. Ill, Fig. 17.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

38?

Sida, Limnosida and Daphnella have short, fleshy knobs rather than
hooks, and Latona is devoid of any special structure. Holopedium has
n hook similar to that of Lcttonopsis but much longer, as is natural in
that genus.

The new hatched male has the copulatory organ in the form of a pair
of small buds, which do not reach the adult form until after four or five
moultings. The antennule of the young male differs widely from the
adult form. It is short, lacks the appendix ciliata, and shows a distinct
suture between base and flagellum. The latter is covered with long stragg¬
ling hairs. The whole structure closely resembles the female anten¬
nule. It is clear that the extension of the male antennule beyond the
sense-hairs in the homologue of the flagellum of the female.

RELATIONS OF THE GENUS.

Sars was entirely justified in separating Latonopsis from Latona. While
the structure of the two genera is quite similar in the female, the male
differs widely from that of Latona. The antenna is more like that of
Daphnella than that of any other genus, especially in the rami, while the
great development of the base is like that of Latona. The antennule is
peculiar and shows an intermediate stage between that of Latona and
Daphnella , though nearer the former. In the male, however, the anten¬
nule is more like that of Sida than that of Latona. In the form of the
body, the outline of the head, in the fornices, the position of the eye,
eye-muscles and optic ganglion; in the heart; in the shape of the cara¬
pace, and the development of the setae of the carapace, it approaches
Latona. It lacks entirely the peculiar development of the antenna seen
in Latona and [the plate on the lower side of the head; while Latona
lacks the development of the shell-gland, which Latonopsis shows. In
most of the points of resemblance and difference between the two
genera, Latonopsis is nearer the ordinary form of the Sididce , and it
may be considered as connecting Latona with the other Sididce , but
with many cross-relations to other genera.

RELATIONS OF THE TWO SPECIES.

L. occidental is is very close to L. australis. Indeed, I am not sure but
that they are really the same species. There are many points of minor
difference, but the most tangible is the antennule, which is about twice
as long in the American form. It must not be forgotten, however, that
Sars’ specimens were hatched from mud, and it may be possible that
specimens collected in their native waters will agree more closely with
the American species. If the difference is constant, L. australis is nearer
the ordinary type of the Sididce in the structure of the antennule.

3S8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

BIOLOGICAL REMARKS.

Latonopsis occidental is was found in Lake Wingra, a small lake about
one and three-fourths miles long with a broad margin of marsh. It
lives chiefly in the marshy region although I have found it in deeper
water — one to three meters. It is most abundant in openings among
the reeds of the marsh, where there is a foot or so of water filled with
algae and vegetable debris. In one such spot it was especially abundant
during the summer of 1891. A single haul of the dredge would give
from six to thirty individuals. I have dredged it with Latona in the
open water, while I have never found Latona in the marsh. Sars’ speci¬
mens came from a clayey mud. I have never found this species in
muddy water.

In the aquarium it behaves quite like Latona. It often remains sus¬
pended and motionless in the water, and can often be turned over with
the dropping tube without disturbing it. When, however, it decides to
move it starts very suddenly. Its movements are less vigorous than
those of Latona , as would be inferred from the different structure of
the antennae.

I have never seen more than eight young in the brood cavity. There
are two sexual eggs, for whose reception a special cavity is enclosed,
although there is no true ephippium.

The males appear in the latter part of July and the first part of
August, and in September no specimens of either sex could be found,
while Latona was more plentiful at this time than earlier in the season.
Constant observation at any small lake will convince the student that
the appearance of the males does not depend on temperature or any
other simple cause. Each species has its own time for sexual reproduc¬
tion, which is related to external influences in the same complex way
as is the flowering of plants.

Species 8. Moina, spec. nov.

A species of Moina , apparently new, has been found, but it is not as
yet thoroughly worked up and will probably form the subject of a spec¬
ial paper. It seems related to M. bracliiata , Jur. and was at first identi¬
fied with this species. Further study, however, showed that there was
only one egg in the ephippium and that the structure in other particu¬
lars differ from M. bracliiata. The male especially shows peculiarities
not found in other species.

Species 21. Daphnia hyalina, Leydig. Plate- XIII. Fig. 9.

Into this species have been united D. galeata , Sars, D. pellucida, P.
E. Muller and D. gracilis , Hellich. Two well marked varieties are found
at Madison. One with pointed crest is found in Lake Wingra, and the
other whose crest is rounded is found in the larger lakes. Although the

Lest of Crustacea Claclocera from Madison , Wis.

389

lakes are only a mile apart, I have not found the pointed variety in
Mendota or the rounded in Wingra. The outlines of the head are very
variable, the variations quite closely resembling those [represented in
D. berolinensis , apicata , and cucullata , although of course this species has
the macula nigra.

The males appear in the latter part of September. The flagellum of
the antennule is convex, stout and short, usually little longer than the
sense-hairs. The anterior sense-bristle in our specimens lies little nearer
the end of the basal portion of the antennule than the head. In this our
specimens differ from Eylmann’s * * description, who says of it, that it is
“ von der Endborste nicht weit entfernt.”

This species is the most abundant in the open waters of the Madison
lakes. I have also obtained it from Minnesota and Michigan, showing
some variation from our form in each case.

Species 24. D. kahlbergensis var. retrocurva, Forbes. Plate XIII.
Figs. 7, 8 .

This form was first described by Forbes * as a distinct species. It is the
most extreme Daphnid form yet observed. I cannot agree in the state¬
ment of Forbes that the large helmeted forms predominate in the smal¬
ler lakes (1. c. p. 643.) At Madison the forms of D. hyalina and of D.
retrocurva in Lake Mendota are much more helmeted than those in Lake
Wingra. The former lake is about six miles by four, the latter
by % mile. D. hyalina in the smaller lake is more like D. apicata ,
while in Mendota the crest is more developed than is shown by any
European descriptions. D. Tcahlbergensis from Wingra shows the forms
typical of that species and of cmerstroemii while the full development
of the crest only comes in the larger lake. The males of this species ap¬
pear late in the fall, in the latter part of October and in November.
The head is of the Jcahlbergensis type, sometimes curved up but never
showing the extreme development of the female. The antennule has a
flagellum a good deal longer than the sense-hairs, curved at the tip and
distinctly articulated to the basal part.

Our specimens do not show the extreme development of the head be¬
fore birth noted by Forbes (1. c., p. 642). The head in the young is not as
much crested as in the adult D. hyalina. This species is always found
in company with D. hyalina and is far less numerous. On calm summer
nights the water of Lake Mendota swarms with these two species, to¬
gether with a Cyclops , a Diaptomus , and Leptodora hyalina. They are
not abundant close to shore and seem to spend the day in swarms at the

* Eylmann , E. Beitrag zur Systematik der Europaiscken Dapkniden, Freiburg i. B. 1886,
p. 33.

* Forbes, S. A. Entomostraca of Lake Michigan and adjacent waters. American Natur¬
alist. Vol. xvi., p. 642, August, 1882.

390

Vdisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

bottom where the vegetation consists mainly of diatoms, outside of the
growth of weeds. The number of the Cladocera is simply incalculable..
I do not think that any shallow water is more filled with crustacean life
than are the open waters of our lakes. Dredging does not give a fair
idea of the number of open water individuals. Only surface collecting-
at night will disclose them.

Species 26. Macrothrix rosea, Jurine. Plate XIII. Figs. 13, 14.

I have succeeded in finding several specimens of the male of this
species and have materially increased the accuracy of my knowledge of
its structure. I found a single male in 1877 which was described in the
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy, Vol. IV. p. 90. Since that time
the male has been seen by Daday,* who gives a figure which, however*
is so small and shows so little detail that it does not add much to our
knowledge.

The male antennules are long and curved, provided with a long an¬
terior sense-hair at the base. They are curved toward the median plane
of the body at the tip and bear the olfactory hairs on a small elevation
on the anterior side. On the posterior side of the apex is a cluster of
5-6 long diverging sense-hairs. Daday shows these in his figure, but
does not mention them in the text. In the possession of this extra
sense organ, the male M. rosea differs from all other male Cladocera.
known, including the closely allied Macrothrix laticornis. These sense-
hairs were not seen by me in my earlier specimen.

The post abdomen is prolonged into a flexible projection, on whose
summit the vas deferens opens, just before the very small terminal
claws. The whole structure thus resembles that of the male Bosmina.

Species 27. Macrothrix laticornis, Jurine.

This form, which is usually given as the commonest of European spec¬
ies seems very rare here. I have met with not more than a dozen speci¬
mens in a season’s collecting, while M. rosea is very abundant in marshes.
It is at times the predominant cladoceran, while M. laticornis has never
appeared except in single specimens.

Species 28. Drepanothrix dentata, Euren. Plate XIII. Figs. 15-17.

1861. Acantholeheris dentata , Euren, Om markliga Crustaceer af or-

dningen Cladocera, funna i Dalarne. Of vers, af K. Vet.-akad.

Forh. 1861, p. 118. Description of female. Tafl. Ill, fig. 2.

Female.

1862. Drepanothrix sentigerci, Sars, G. O. Om de i Omegnen af Chris¬

tiania jagttagne Crustacea cladocera. Forh. Vid.-Selskab. i

Christiania, 1862, p. 156. Description of male and female.

1862. Drepanothrix hamata , Sars., Do. p. 300. Mention only.

* Daday, E. Crustacea Cladocera Faunae Hungaricse,rp. 106, PI. II, fig. 43.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

391

1867. Drepanothrix hamata, Norman and Brady. Monograph of the
British Entomostraca belonging to the families Bosminidae,
Macrothricidae and Lynceidae. Nat. Hist. Trans. Northum¬
berland and Durham, 1867, p. 12, description of female,
pi. XXII, figs. 5 female, 6, antennule, 7 post-abdomen.

1867. Drepanothrix dentata , P. E. Mueller. Danmarks Cladocera, p.
138. Description of female. PI. II, fig. 13, antennule.

1884. Drepanothrix dentata , Herrick, C. L. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur¬
vey, Minnesota. 12th Report, 1884, p. 73. Description from
P. E. Mueller. Plate C, fig. 14, antennule, from P. E. Mueller.
In the description of the genus the word not ” should be
erased in the first sentence, “ The head not separated from
the valves by a depression.”

1888. Drepanothrix dentata , Richard, J. Recherches sur la Paune des
Eaux du Plateau Central. Clermont, 1888. Mention only.

The references given above show that this rare species occurs in Den¬
mark, Scandinavia, Great Britain and France. I have found it here in
both sexes and in considerable numbers. Sars’ description is accurate,
as is that of Norman and Brady. The vas deferens opens in front of
the terminal claws without any prolongation of the base into a penis.

D. dentata is found in Lake Wingra at a depth of from 5-10 feet. It is
most abundant in a particular zone of depth in that lake where the
weeds of the marshy margin cease and those of the deeper water have not
come in abundantly. Here is a stretch of bottom a few yards in width
composed chiefly of broken up snail shells and vegetable debris and with
a few Charae as the chief living plants. In this zone I have found this
cladoceran quite common. It is not confined to it, however, but is met
with both inside and outside of this limit. In the marsh proper, how¬
ever, I have never found it. It 'is a bottom-haunting form and is there¬
fore difficult to obtain in large numbers.

Under some conditions it is markedly repelled by light. If a por¬
tion of the bottom with this and other Cladocera is placed with water
in a watch glass and the whole exposed to strong light as from a lamp,
Drepanothrix will at once hurry to the side remote from the source of
light. While Cliydorus , Pleuroxus , Daphnia and most other forms
present will congregate on the side toward the light, Drepanothrix hastens
away from it in an awkward scramble. The sabre-like setae from which
its name is derived are its chief organ of locomotion. These it uses much
as a boy uses a pair of sticks to propel his sled over the ice. It can swim
fairly well in the open water, but is hampered by the weight and stiffness
of these setae.

392

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Species 29. Ophryoxus gracilis, Sars. Plate XIII. Figs. 10-12.

1862. Ophryoxus gracilis Sars, G. O. Oversigt af de i Omegnen af
Christiania jagttagne Crustacea cladocera, p. 158. Descrip¬
tion of male and female.

(?) 1875. Ophryoxus paradoxurus , Hudendorff, A. Beitrag zur Kennt-
niss der Siisswasser-Cladoceren Russlands, p. 43. Descrip¬
tion of female. Tab. II., fig. 1, a. b. This species, founded
on a single specimen, very possibly belongs here.

1882. Lyncodap hnia macro throides, Herrick, C. L. American Natural¬
ist, Vol. XVI, p. 1006. Description of female. Plate XVI.
figs. 1, female, 2, antennae, 3, post-abdomen, 4, antennule.

1884. Lyncodaphnia macrothroides, Herrick, C. L. Geol. and Nat.

Hist. Survey of Minnesota, 12th Annual Report, 1884, p. 74.
Description of female. PI. B, fig. 12, yg.; 13, labrum; 14, anten¬
nule; 15, last foot. PI. B, 1, figs. 1, female; 2, post-abdomen;
3, antennule.

Ophryoxus is quite abundant in Lake Wingra, occurring through the
the entire summer in openings in the marsh. It ifc nowhere rare, and
never very plentiful. It seems to have the habit of a Daphnia ,
swimming feebly about in the open waters, rather than clinging to
weeds. I give figures of the head, first leg, and the post-abdomen of the
male, which have never been illustrated.

The statement that the young have a long spine, (Sars), or that the
young differ in form from the adult (Herrick), need qualification. The
form never differs greatly from that of the adult, and there is never any
difficulty in recognizing it as the young of Ophryoxus. Indeed, the pres¬
ence of the spine is the only important difference between the young and
old. This spine is not long according to the standard of the genus
Daphnia as it rarely measures more than A of the length of the animal .
It is possessed by the male as well as by the young female. In the adult
female it is reduced to a sharp prominence, like that seen in many
species of Ceriodaphnia.

Species 31. Ilyocryptus longiremis, Sars. Plate XIII, fig. 18.

1888. I. longiremis , Sars. Additional notes on Australian Cladocera,
* Christ. Vid.-Selskabs Forhand. 1888, No. 7, p. 33-41. De¬
scription of male and female. PI. iv. figs. 1, female; 2, female
• from below; 3, spines from edge of shell; 4, female post¬

abdomen; 5, male.

I am unable to distinguish our specimens from those raised by Sars
out of mud from Australia. The antennary setae, from whose length the
name is derived, are even longer in our species than in Sars’ figures,
nearly equalling the total length of the animal. There are 5-7 super-
anal teeth, largest in the middle, an outer row of about eight long post-
anal spines and an inner row of 11-12 post-anal denticles besides several

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

393

very small teeth near the terminal claw. There are 3-4 denticles on each
side of the anus. This armature of the post-abdomen distinguishes the
species at once from Ilyocryptus sordidus and I. acutifrons , while the
antennary setae distinguish it from J. agilis. The fact that moulting is
imperfect also serves to distinguish it from the latter species.

This is the common form of Ilyocryptus here, and is very abundant in
shallow water and marshy localities throughout the summer and until
after the formation of ice in the winter. The failure of food consequent
on long continued cold seems the only thing which checks their multi¬
plication. Whether I. spinifer , Herrick (op. cit., p. 77), is identical with
this species can not be decided as none of the specific characters are
mentioned or figured.

Species 37. Leydigia quadrangularis, Leyd.

The shell-markings in my specimens are far more distinct than those
described by European authors. Otherwise the species agrees entirely
with the descriptions.

Species 40. Alona lineata, Fischer.

If, following Matile’s * advice, the specific name lineata is abandoned,
my form would be A.pulchra, Hellich.

Species 44. Alona lepida, sp. nov. Plate XIII. Fig. 19.

Length, .8 mm. Length of male, .6 mm.

Height, .45-50 mm. Height of male, .3 mm.

Length post-abdomen, .40 mm.

General shape conforms to the normal Alona type. Head depressed,
rostrum sub-acute, nearly reaching the level of the ventral margin of the
shell. Valves quadrangular, dorsal margin arched, superior posteal
angle obtuse, well-marked. Posterior margin oblique, bearing a row of
minute spinules. Inferior posteal angle rounded, very slightly emargi-
nate. Ventral margin beset with a row of plumose setae, of ordinary
length, which ends abruptly at the posteal angle. Valves marked by
close-set, conspicuous, longitudinal striae, alternately stronger and
weaker, occasionally anastomosing, running parallel to the dorsal and
ventral margins and converging into a reticulated area at the anterior
inferior portion of the valves. Between the striae lie the braces.

Antennule extends nearly to end of rostrum: is spindle-shaped, largest
near base, provided with an anterior sense-bristle and 6-8 subequal
sense-hairs. Antennary setae fff. The terminal setae are of unequal
length. All are plumose and without spines. The eighth setae is of
moderate size, bi-articulate and plumose. Spines of antennae, On the
middle joint of the inner branch is a circlet of small spines. Ventral
margin of labrum often notched just anterior to the posterior angle,

* Matile, P. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau, 1890, p. 46.

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

which, is sharp. Eye moderate in size, showing four or fewer lenses.
Macula nigra about as large as eye, angular, and somewhat nearer to eye-
than to apex of rostrum.

Post-abdomen enlarged posteriorly, lower angle rounded, bearing 15-17
serrate post-anal denticles and about the same number of squamae. Ter¬
minal claws smooth. Basal spine rather large. Abdominal setae of ordi¬
nary length.

MALE.

Antennule cylindrical, with anterior sense-bristle and flagellum. Post¬
abdomen devoid of denticles and with a row of squamae. Vas deferens
opens in front of terminal claw. Basal spine large.

Color yellowish to bright yellow, fairly transparent. Lake Mendota,.
in deeper water, 15-20 feet.

This species is evidently related to A. elegans, Kurz * from which it
differs in its greater size, in the reticulation of part of the shell, and
in the size, shape and armature of the post-abdomen. The post-abdomen
of A. lepida resembles in general that of A. quadrangular is, O. F. M.
The species lives at the bottom in rather deep water — 15-20 or more
feet — and is much more abundant in Lake Mendota than elsewhere in
the vicinity of Madison.

Species 45. Graptoleberis testudinaria, Fischer.

My species G. inermis ,| is a variety of this species. The spine on the
terminal claw is sometimes, though rarely, present, and the other char¬
acters adduced for G. inermis fall within the range of variation of Eu¬
ropean forms.

Species 46. Dunhevedia (Crepidocercus) setiger, Birge. Plate XIIL

Fig. 20.

In 1888, G. O. SarsJ raised from dried mud and redescribed Dunhevedia
crassa of King. From his description and figures it is plain that my
genus Crepidocercus is identical with King’s Dunhevedia, which was estab¬
lished in 1853. The genus was named by King from Dunheved, the
place where the animal was found. My species differs from D. crassa ,
King, in the reticulation of the shell and, apparently, from D. podagra,
King, in general form. I have not been able to see King’s original pa¬
per. D. setiger has been found in Hungary by Daday.§

In the latter part of August I found the males of this species. D. setiger
has always been one of the rarest species of Cladocera here. It was
rarely collected at all, and if present in a dredging was found in only

* Kurz, W. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. Sitzb. der K. Akad. der Wissensch. Wien;
1874. Separate reprint, p. 43. Description of female, Tab. II, fig. 1, female.

t Transactions Wis. Acad. Sci., vol. iv, p. 102, pi. I, fig. 17.

X Additional notes on Aust. Cladocei'a, 1888, p. 41, PI. 5, figs. 1-4.

§Daday, E. Crustacea Cladocera Faunae Hungaricae, p. 93, PI. I, fig. 47-48.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madisow, Wis. 395

one or two specimens. At the time named I found in Lake Wingra, in
water filled with Millefolium , immense numbers of the species in both
sexes. Thousands were collected in a single haul of the cone-dredge.
After about a week they disappeared and repeated efforts to find them
in the same locality failed. Doubtless the winter eggs had been laid and
both sexes were dead. It will be interesting to observe at what date the
species will appear in 1892.

The male measures about .36 mm in length and .24 mm in height. It
has the same general form as the female. The first foot has a stout
hook. The post-abdomen resembles that of the female, and is provided
with numerous scattered hairs. The vas deferens opens above the ter¬
minal claws. The terminal claws are smooth in both sexes, differing
from D. crassa in which they are denticulate.

Species 47. Pleuroxus trigonellus, O. F. Mueller.

This species is by no means abundant here, and is usually found in
deep water, down to 12-15 feet.

Species 48. Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge. Plate XIII. Fig. 21.

This is the ordinary Pleuroxus here. It corresponds to P. aduncus, Jur.
in Europe. I give a figure of the male post-abdomen.

Herrick remarks on the similarity of this species to P. procurvatus , .
and suggests that the two names may really belong to varieties of the
same species. I have looked carefully for connecting forms but have
been unable to find then.

Species 49. Pleuroxus gracilis, Hudendorff, var. unidens, Birge.

I was not acquainted with Hudendorff’s paper when I wrote my de¬
scription of this species in 1877. Matile* notes the resemblance of the
two forms and correctly points out that the chief difference lies in the
overhanging projection of the upper posteal angle in P. unidens. As I
find this difference constant and as there are other less important differ¬
ences, I retain my name as characterizing a variety. Both Hudendorff
and Matile note the species as rare. I did the same in my former paper,
having then found only about 15 specimens. By the use of the cone-
dredge I have found it quite abundant in Lake Wingra in late summer
and autumn. There is no difficulty in getting 25 to 100 specimens from
one haul of the dredge.

Species 60-62. Camptocercus.

Three species of Camptocercus are found in Wisconsin. C. macrurus,
O. F. M. has been formed in only a few specimens.

I am doubtful whether Schoedler’s two species C. biserratus and C.
rectirostris are really distinct. I find forms agreeing with both descriptions

* Die Cladoceren der Umg. von Moskau, 1890, p. 37.

396

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

in general, and include both names. In no case have I found the head
directed so horizontally forward as in Schoedler’s figures of C. rectiro-
stris* * * § Nor are the posteal teeth so large. Our form more nearly resem¬
bles that figured by Matile.| In the other form, the head is more depres¬
sed, the macula nigra larger than the eye, and the ventral margin of the
valves is concave. I have found no specimens connecting the two forms
and have therefore identified them as above.

In both species I have found individuals in which the beak was trun¬
cate, resembling that part in C. Lilljeborgii , Schdl., as figured by IIellich,J
or C. latirostris, Kurz.§ The shell markings differ from those figured by
any author. If a cast shell is examined without cover glass and not
covered by water, a reticulated area is seen in the anterior part of the
valves just below the middle. From this radiate most of the striae.
These are in front parallel to the anterior edge of the shell and the
direction gradually changes until they are parallel to the ventral edge.
Sixteen or more striae run out on the ventral edge of the shell. The long¬
itudinal striae anastomose occasionally and those on the dorsal part of
the valves do not bend downward into the reticulated area. I have never
found specimens reticulated all over with quadrangular meshes as Hel-
lich (1. c., pp. 76-77) figures them.

Species 63. Polyphemus pediculus, De Geer.

This species I have found very rarely. Only two or three specimens
have been discovered at long intervals. Zacharias[| notes that this ani¬
mal is distinctly northern in its range. My observations confirm his
conclusion. I find it quite abundant in a small collection from northern
* Minnesota. Herrick also describes it as plentiful in Minnesota. As I
have often searched vainly for it here, I believe that this locality must
be close to the southern limit of its range. The same is probably true of
Holopedium gibberum , Zad.

Species 64. Leptodora hyalina, Lillj.

I quote this species by its old name, without passing on the correct¬
ness of the change to L. Kincltii , Focke. Focke’s paper is inaccessible to
me. Leptodora is very abundant in all our lakes. It grows to a large
size and specimens 18-21 mm. in length are not rare.

* Schoedler. J. E. Neue Beitrage zur Naturgesckickte der Cladoceren, 1853. PI. Ill, fig 50.

t Matile, P. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau. 1890. PI. IV, fig.26.

X Hellick, B. Die Cladoceren Boekmens, 1877, p. 77, fig. 37.

§ Kurz, W. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren, 1874, PI. II, fig. 9.

|| Zacliarias, O. Die Fauna des grossen und kleinen Teickes in Riesengebirge, Zeit. Wiss.
Zool. Vol. XLI., p. 492.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

397

THE CONE-DREDGE.

The dredge which I have used for collecting seems worthy of special
description. It consists of four parts: the body, the cone, the net, and
the screw-top. The body is a cylinder of stout tin, strengthened by a
wire at each end, four inches long, and four inches in diameter. On
top of this is placed a cone of brass netting, five inches high. This is
attached below to a circle of tin so that it fits into the top of the body
like the cover of a tin pail. The bail of the body is of stout brass wire;
the ends passed through the side of the body and enlarged, and the
loop of wire shaped so as to fit within the cone and project through a
hole in its top with an eye into which the dredge-line can be fastened.
To the end of the line is attached a snap-hook larger than the hole in
the top of the cone, so that the cone can not come off the body when
in use. There are two cones provided for my dredge, one of one-tenth
inch mesh, and the other of one-twentieth inch.

The Jjy inch mesh is coarse enough unless it is desired to secure very
large forms. For ordinary shallow water collecting it is the best size.
The cone can easily be removed for work at night in the open water.

The net is of fine cheese cloth, eighteen to twenty-two inches long,
conical, large enough at the base to slip over the dredge body, to which
it is tied. It is faced with stout muslin for a distance of two or three
inches at each end. At the smaller end it is small enough to fit the
screw-top, a tin cylinder one inch in diameter and one and one-quarter
inches in length, with a wire in one end and on the other a zinc
screw-top, such as are used on kerosene cans.

The seam along one side of the net is so made as to leave a sort of a
loop in the cloth, through which a string can be run. One end of this
string is tied about the dredge body; to the other end can be attached
a weight, when desired, without having the pull of the weight come on
the net.

This dredge is very useful for collecting small animals in shallow or
weedy water. It can easily be thrown from the shore to a distance of 50
feet or more, thus permitting much more extensive collecting from
shore than does the ordinary hand net. It can be drawn through weeds
and over muddy bottoms, straining large amounts of water without
becoming filled with mud or clogged with weed. If it is desired to col¬
lect from water close to the bottom without obtaining mud, a weight
fastened to the end of the cord spoken of, so as to drag behind the
dredge will cause the dredge to lift at each pull and so exclude most of
the mud, except in very deep water. If a band of cloth is fastened
about the base of the cone, leaving only the upper part free it will ad¬
mit the water just above the bottom without scraping up mud. An old
rake or other irregular piece of iron fastened to the dredge-line in front
of the dredge will stir up the bottom and thus samples of bottom ani-

398

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

mals can be gathered from a long distance, before the dredge fills. The
cone not only excludes weeds but also keeps out insects, larvae, large
Gammari, etc., which so abound in localities favorable for Cladocera, and
whose size and activity made it difficult to distinguish the smaller Crus¬
tacea in the collector’s jar. The fact that this dredge can be pulled
through weeds and strain a large quantity of water without obtaining
a large amount of vegetable debris makes it very valuable in obtaining
the rarer Cladocera .

The dredge is emptied by unscrewing the screw-cap and washing out the
contents of the bag into a tumbler or small jar of water. In collecting
near home this is brought to the laboratory for study. When it is de¬
sired to preserve collections for future study, the water is allowed to
stand and settle for a short time and then the clear water containing the
animals and free from mud is poured through a funnel into a small bag
of cheese-cloth which is tied and put into alcohol or Other preserving
fluid.

With this dredge it is not at all difficult to collect 20-30 species of
Cladocera from one locality and in a few hauls. In a collection thus
gathered from the shore on a flying trip to some small lakelets at Man¬
istee, Mich., I found twenty-six species of littoral Cladocera. Zacharias*
in a summer’s campaign in North German lakes found only twenty- three
species from the shore waters.

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.
Ffg. 20.
Fig. 21.

PLATE XIII.

Latonopsis occidentalism Birge. Head of male, enlarged 60 diameters.

“ “ Head of young female, enlarged 50 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 75 diameters.

The spines of the carapace are omitted.

“ “ Antennule of new-hatched male, enlarged 200

diameters.

“ “ First leg of male, enlarged 175 diameters.

Latona setifera, O. F. M. Male antennule to show position of appendix cili-

ata (a). Enlarged 200 diameters.

Daphnia retrocurva, Forbes. Male antennule, enlarged 200 diameters.

“ “ Female, enlarged 30 diameters.

“ hyalina, Leyd. Male antennule, enlarged 200 diameters.

Ophryoxus gracilis , Sars. Head of male, enlarged 65 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 160 diameters.

“ “ Part of first leg of male, enlarged 200 diameters.

Macro thrix rosea, Jur. Antennule of male, enlarged 240 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 240 diameters.

Drepanothrix dentata, Eur. Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 175 diameters.

“ “ Female, enlarged 65 diameters .

“ “ First leg of male, enlarged 300 diameters .

Ilyocryptus longiremis, Sars. Male, enlarged 100 diameters. The spines of the

carapace are omitted where they would cross
the post-abdomen.

Alona lepida , Birge. Cast shell to show markings, enlarged 60 diameters.
Dunhevedia setiger , Birge. Male, enlarged 115 diameters.

Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge. Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 165 diameters.

* Zacharias, O. Zur Kenntniss der pelagischen und littoralen Fauna Norddeutschen Seen.
Zeit. Wiss. Zool. Vol XLV, 1887., p. 265.

Vol. VIII , PI. XII I.

'mvv

Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin.

399

NOTE ON CERUSSITE FROM ILLINOIS AND WISCONSIN.

By WM. H. HOBBS.

A few years since the University of Wisconsin obtained by purchase
the mineral collections of W. T. Henry, of Mineral Point, Wis. They
consist largely of the minerals associated in the zinc and lead deposits
of southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois, and comprise the
best series existing from that region. Among the carbonates cerussite
is found, the best localities being Galena, Ill., and several points in Iowa
County, Wis.

In a number of specimens in the University of Wisconsin collections
the mineral is quite well crystallized and is always found on the surface
of galenite, where its presence is best explained by the action of car¬
bonated waters on the galenite. Cubes of galenite attaining in some
cases dimensions of several inches are half covered by yellowish white
cerussite crystals, which vary in size from a millimetre to more than a
centimetre in diameter. They are stoutly columnar and translucent, with
a color varying from yellowish white to light steel-gray. The faces are
generally somewhat rounded, especially the terminal ones. The brachy-
axis is the one of principal development, the columnar habit being
given by the planes s, |Pob (012), and u, 2P,oo (021), which have about
equal development. The fundamental prism M terminates the crystals.
The pyramid t, P (111) appears as a rounding of the combination edge
M : s. Twins parallel to M were frequently observed. Measurements of
the interfacial angles with the goniometer of the Fness Universal-
apparat gave the following results:

u : u (2Pc6 : 2P5o )
s : s (£Pc6 : iPoo ) .
M : M (oo P : ooP)..
t : t (P : P) .

Measured Calculated.
111° 2' 110° 40'

139° 54' 140° 15'

117° 25' 117° 14'

130° 129° 30'

The face t gave no image, the value being the average of a number of
measurements by the shimmer seen when the lens was in place before the
telescope.

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Figure 1 shows the average development of an untwimmed individual.

Mr. R. B. Green, late of the University of Wisconsin and now chemist
for the Lake Superior Iron Company at Ishpeming, Michigan, has made
an analysis of some of the more translucent crystals from Galena, Illinois,,
with the following results:

Calculated
for Pb Co 3.

PbO . 83.42 83.52

C03 . . 16.45 16.48

99.87 100.00

The material analyzed was specially examined for zinc with negative
results.

University of Wisconsin.

PROCEEDINGS.

PROCEEDINGS.

NINETEENTH REGULAR MEETING.

Thursday, December 27, 1888, 4 p. m.
Committee Room of Senate Chamber.
Report of treasurer and secretary read.

That of secretary approved.

The committee on nominations (Prof. Van Hise, chair¬
man), reported the following candidates, all of whom were
elected:

C. C. Pudor, Madison.

Prof. C. D. Marsh, Ripon.

Prank Leverett, U. S. G. S., Madison.

Prof. G. C. Comstock, Madison.

G. B. Ransom, U. S. Navy, Madison.

F. W. A. Woll, Madison.

Prof. Stephen M. Babcock, Madison.

Prof J. S. Brown, Madison.

Dr. H. B. Favill, Madison.

Dr. Jos. Jastow, Madison.

Prof. J. E. Olson, Madison.

Prof. W. A. Henry, Madison.

F. G. Short, chemist, Experiment Station, Madison.

Hon. G. H. Noyes, Milwaukee.

H. J. Desmond, Milwaukee.

Dr. H. A. Puls, Milwaukee.

Dr. J. M. Dodson, Milwaukee.

J. H. Dawley, Antigo.

Prof. J. Bigham, Ripon.

J. B. Thayer, Madison.

404

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

W. H. Chandler, Madison.

Prof. Storm Bull, Madison.

Rev. A. H. Somers, Ft. Atkinson.
Rev. H. D. Maxson, Menomonie.
Prof. C. S. Slichter, Madison.
Prof C. H. Chandler, Ripon.

Thursday, 7:30 P. M.
Assembly Chamber,

Joint meeting of Academy and Teachers’ Association.
Paper — Importance of Libraries in Rural Schools— Hon.
J. B. Thayer.

Paper — Socialism and Anarchy — Rev. H. D. Maxson.
Adjourned.

Friday, Dec. 28, 9 A. M.
Rooms of the Academy.

Prof. Allen in the chair.

Auditing committee appointed consisting of Prof. L. M.
Hoskins and Prof. Chandler.

Committee on nominations appointed consisting of Prof.
Van Hise, Prof. I. M. Buell and Prof. A. J. Rogers.

The following papers were read:

“ Observations on the Till Aggregations in South Eastern
Wisconsin.” — Prof. Ira M. Buell.

“ Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of the Em¬
bryo of the Cockroach.”— W. M. Wheeler.

“ Rote on a Disease affecting the Head and Eyes of Fish.”
— Prof. E. A. Birge.

“ Kame Ridges and Gravel Trains within the Area of the
Green Bay Glacier.” — Prof. Ira M. Buell.

“ British Convicts Shipped to British American Colonies.”
— Prof J. D. Butler.

Adjourned.

Proceedings.

405

Friday, 2 P. M.

Rooms of the Academy.

The treasurer’s report was approved on the recommenda¬
tion of the auditing committee.

The following papers were read:

“ Sectional Features in American Politics.” — H. J. Des¬
mond.

“The Defective Classes.” — A. O. Wright.

“ The Science of the English Language in the Light of
the Gothic.” — G. H. Balg.

“Aristotle’s Physics.” — Rev. J. J. Elmendorf. (This
paper was read by title and a brief synopsis of it given by
Prof. Allen.)

Adjourned.

Friday, 7:30 P. M.

Assembly Chamber.

The following papers were read.

“ Recent Explorations of Aztalan Mounds, with a Dis¬
cussion of the Pre-historic Races of America.” — Rev. A.
1ST. Somers.

“Studies in Archaeology.” — Rev. S. D. Peet.

Prof. Yan Hise offered the following resolution:

That a sufficient amount of money be appropriated fco
illustrate the next volume of the transactions of the
academy; the amount to be determined by the president, •
secretary and treasurer.

Carried.

Nominating committee reported the following candidates
who were elected:

Dominie Schuler, 473 15th Ave., Milwaukee.

Prof. Floyd Davis, Madison.

Rev. W. A. McAtee, Madison.

Rev. J. H. Crooker, Madison.

Resolved (Prof. Yan Hise), That the librarian be author¬
ized to prepare a catalogue of the library of the academy,
spending a suitable amount of money for the purpose.

Adjourned sine die.

406

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

TWENTIETH REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy.

Thursday, Dec. 26, 1889.

Owing to the death of Pres. Allen, Vice-president King
occupied the chair.

Moved (Prof. Barnes) that a president be elected for the
unexpired term.

Carried.

Prof. Birge was elected.

President Birge in the chair.

The report of the secretary was read and approved.

Report of treasurer read.

The vice-president appointed an auditing committee con¬
sisting of Messrs. Barnes and Blackstone.

On motion, Messrs. Tatlock and H. P. Armsby were trans¬
ferred to the list of corresponding members.

The president appointed Profs. Bigham and King a com¬
mittee on new members.

Adjourned.

Friday, 9:30 A. M.

President Birge in the chair.

Report of auditing committee was received and adopted.

The chair appointed Prof. J. D. Butler to prepare a me¬
morial of Prof. Wm. F. Allen, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin to pre¬
pare a memorial of Prof. Roland D. Irving, and Rev. H. D.
Maxson to prepare a memorial of Prof. Lucius Heritage, to
be presented at the next regular meeting.

The following papers were read:

Proceedings. 407

“The Chemical Constituents of Locust Bark,” — F. B.
Power and J. Cambier.

“Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae.” — Chas.
Chandler.

“ Observed Discrepancies from Law of Attraction Recon¬
ciled and Certain Points of Astronomy Explained.” — D. P„
Blackstone.

It was moved and carried that Prof. C. 0. Whitman
be placed on the list of corresponding members.

The treasurer submitted a list of members many years in
arrears.

Moved and carried that the names read be dropped.
Adjourned.

Friday, 2:30 P. M.

Mr. A. J. Rogers in the chair.

The following papers were read :

“Kentucky Pioneers.” — James D. Butler.

“Problems of Hypnotism.” — Joseph Jastrow.

“ On some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline
Rocks of Maryland.” — Wm. H. Hobbs.

Adjourned.

Friday, 8 P. M.

President Birge in the chair.

The committee on nominations reported the following
names for membership.

Mr. Caleb N. Harrison, Milwaukee.

Prof. N. S. Fuller, Ripon.

Prof. A. A. Upham, State Normal School, Whitewater.
Prof. Chas. E. Bennett, Madison.

Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, Madison.

Prof. C. P. Sennott, State Normal School, Milwaukee.

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The Secretary was directed to cast the vote of the Aca¬
demy for these persons.

The following papers were read:

“Science as Related to Invention.” — A. J. Rogers.

“ Some new Theories of the Greek perfect in Ka.” — Chas.
E. Bennett.

Moved and carried that the council be authorized
to expend the amount necessary to meet the running ex¬
penses of the year.

Adjourned sine die.

Geo. W. Peckham,

Secretary .

Proceedings .

409

TWENTY-FIRST REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy,

Tuesday, Dec. 30, 1890, 9 A. M.
President Birge in the chair.

Report of secretary read and approved.

In the absence of the treasurer, Hon. S. D. Hastings, Mr.
F. W. McNair presented his report.

The president appointed Messrs. Van Hise and Barnes
auditing committee on treasurer’s report.

F. M. McNair read a list of members and the amounts
due from each to date.

The following program was then followed:

“Recent Progress in the Chemistry of Sugars.” — H. W.
Hillyer.

“ Some Observations on Lake Superior Stratigraphy.” —
C. R. Van Hise.

“ Electro-Deposition of Aluminum in Aqueous Solutions.”
—A. J. Rogers.

“ On Cleavage and Lamination in Gneisses and their Re¬
lation to Bedding.” — Wm. H. Hobbs.

“The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution.” — C. H.
Haskins. (Read by Prof. P. J. Turner.)

Adjourned.

Tuesday, 2:30 P. M.

The auditing committee reported that the treasurer’s re¬
port and vouchers had been examined and found to be cor¬
rect. Signed C. R. Van Hise and C. R. Barnes.

On motion of Prof. Jastrow the report was approved.

410

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

The president appointed Pres. Chamber] in and Prof.
Peckham a committee on new members.

The regular program was then resumed.

“Recent Theories of the Evolution of Sex.” — A. N.
Somers.

“Some Generalizations of Comparative Psychology.” —
Jos. Jastrow.

“Glacial Lobation in Ohio.” — Prank Leverett.

“Recent Progress in Correlation and Differentiation of
Glacial Deposits.” — T. C. Chamberlin.

“Hypnotism.” — A. N. Somers.

The committee on new members reported the following
nominations :

Dr. C. H. Haskins, Madison.

Prof. E. S. Goff, Madison.

Prof. C. D. Marx, Madison.

Prof. A. A. Knowlton, Madison.

Prof. W. S. Leavenworth, Ripon.

On motion the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot
of the Academy for these new members.

The meeting then adjourned.

Tuesday, 7:30 P. M.

The academy listened to the address of Pres. E. A. Birge
on “ Recent Problems in Biology.”

On the President’s suggestion the usual formalities were
waived and a very general discussion ensued.

The committee on nomination of officers reported as fol¬
lows:

President, Prof. Geo. W. Peckham, Milwaukee.

Vice-president for Science, Prof. R. D. Salisbury, Beloit;
vice-president for Letters, Rev. H. D. Maxson, Menomonie;
vice-president of Arts, Prof. E. B. Power, Madison.

Treasurer, Hon. S. D. Hastings, Madison.

Secretary, Prof. C. E. Bennett, Madison.

Curator and librarian, Prof. Win. H. Hobbs, Madison.

Proceedings .

411

On motion the secretary was directed to cast the ballot of
the Academy for the new officers.

It was moved and carried that the council be authorized
to expend the amount of money necessary to meet the ex¬
penses of the ensuing year.

Adjourned sine die.

C. E. Bennett,

Secretary.

Note — In June, 1891, the secretary, Prof. C. E. Bennett removed to
Providence, R. I., and in September the president appointed Prof. Wm. H.
Hobbs the secretary, ad interim.

412

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

TWENTY-SECOND REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy.

Tuesday, Dec. 29th, 1891.

Meeting called to order at 9:30 A. M.

Vice-president F. B. Power in the chair.

The report of the secretary was read and accepted.

The treasurer, Hon. 8. D. Hastings, then read his report.

It was moved and carried that the following members be
made honorary members of the Academy:

Prof. C. E. Bennett, Providence, R. I.

Mr. Ira M. Buell, Sun Prairie, Wis.

Prof. J. W. Stump, Oswego, Y. Y.

Prof. C. D. Marx, Palo Alto, Cal.

The treasurer was given authority to drop from the list
of members all who were in arrears more than three years.

The presiding officer appointed Prof. C. D. Marsh, Mr.
Frank Leverett and Rev. A. Y. Somers, a committee to
audit the treasurer's report.

The report of the librarian and custodian was next read.

The librarian reported that the books of the library had
been re-arranged and a card catalogue begun. He recom¬
mended to the Academy the appointment of a library com¬
mittee of three, including the librarian, to consider means
of enlarging the library and making it more accessible to
members. It was further recommended that this commit¬
tee be authorized to purchase from the funds of the
Academy such odd volumes as may be necessary to com¬
plete the series of important journals.

It was moved by Prof. Van Hise to amend by requir¬
ing the expenditures of the committee to be subject to the
approval of the council. Carried.

Proceedings.

413

The recommendation was then adopted, and the presid¬
ing officer appointed Prof. G. L. Hendrickson and Prof.
Geo. C. Comstock and the librarian, the library committee.

The custodian recommended that the collection of fossils
belonging to the Academy be deposited in the collection of
the University of Wisconsin to be stored by itself and
labeled as the property of the Wisconsin Academy.

Prof. Birge moved that the recommendation be adopted
subject to the acceptance of the university authorities.

Carried.

Prof. J. W. Stearns, in a brief address, reviewed the life
of Rev. H.«D. Maxson, the late vice-president of the De¬
partment of Letters, and paid a tribute to his many sterling
qualities, to which Profs. Yan Hise and Marsh added their
testimony.

The president asked Prof. Stearns in the name of the
Academy, to prepare a memorial of the life of Rev. Mr.
Maxson for publication in the Transactions.

The president then appointed the following committees :

On Nominations of Officers — Profs. Yan Hise, Birge and
Hillyer.

On New Members — Profs. Birge, F. H. King and Turner.

On Publication — The Secretary ex-officio and Profs. Yan
Hise, Loomis and H. C. Tolman.

The literary program was then begun:

“ Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.” —
C. R. Yan Hise, 25 minutes.

Discussed by Mr. Sennott.

“ On New Attidae.” — G. W. Peckham. (Read by title.)

“ Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Mon¬
tana.” — G. E. Culver, 25 minutes.

Discussed by Dr. Butler, Prof. Yan Hise and Mr. Leverett.

“ Some Influences of Sex on Personality.” — A. N. Somers.
(Read by title.)

“On the Limonene Group of Terpenes.” — Edward Krem-
ers. (Read by title.)

The meeting then adjourned till afternoon.

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Afternoon Session, 2:30 P. M.
The auditing committee, through its chairman, Prof.
Marsh, announced that the report and vouchers of the
treasurer had been examined and found to be correct.

The program was then resumed.

“ Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.”
— C. Dwight Marsh.

“On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake.” — C.
Dwight Marsh, 15 minutes.

Discussed by Profs. Birge and Van Hise.

“ The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem.” — G. C.
Comstock, 30 minutes.

Discussion by Profs. Butler, Davies, Hoskins, Loomis
and Van Hise.

“ On Certain Analogies between the Theories of Elasticity
and Electro-magnetism.” — J. E. Davies, 25 minutes.

“ On the Authenticity of the Commentariolum Petitionis
of Quintus Cicero.” — G. L. Hendrickson, 20 minutes.

“ The effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribu¬
tion of Magnetism.” — H. B. Loomis, 25 minutes.

The Academy adjourned till evening.

Evening Session. 7:30 P. M.

The committee on New Members, through its chairman,
Dr. Birge, nominated the following for membership, and
the secretaty was instructed to cast the ballot of the Acad¬
emy for them.

Prof. G. A. Tolbert, Racine.

Mr. Geo. E. Luther, U. S. G. S., Madison.

Prof. F. L. Yan Cleef, Madison.

Prof. G. L. Hendrickson, Madison.

Dr. H. B. Loomis, Madison.

Prof. G. E. Culver, Madison.

Dr. A. H. Tolman, Ripon.

Mr. S. D. Townley, Madison.

Dr. Edward Kremers, Madison.

Proceedings.

415

Dr. H. C. Tolman, Madison.

Dr. C. F. Hodge, Madison.

Prof. W. A. Eckels, Ripon.

The literary program was then resumed.

“ On Some Interesting Pseudomorphs from the Taconic
Region.” — Win, H. Hobbs, 10 minutes.

“On Cladocera of Madison, Wisconsin.” — E. A. Birge, 30
minutes.

Discussion by Profs. Jastrow, Barnes and Marsh.

“ Some Hew Points in the Physiology and Hygiene of
Nerve Fatigue.” — C. F. Hodge, 30 minutes.

Discussion by Prof. Jastrow.

“ On the Correlation of Moraines and Raised Beaches of
Lake Erie.” — Frank Leverett, 30 minutes.

Meeting adjourned till next day.

Wednesday, 9 A. M.

“The Council Houses and Clan Centres of the Effigy
Builders.” — Dr. S. D. Peet, 25 minutes. (Read by his son,
Mr. C. E. Peet.)

Prof. Leverett then supplemented his paper of Tuesday
evening which had been abridged owing to the lateness of
the hour.

“On Two Hew Occurrences of Diabase.” — G. E. Culver
and Win* H. Hobbs, 20 minutes.

“The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama xpidros na6x^v in its
Relation to the Text of Euripides.” — F. L. Van Cleef. (Read
by title. )

“Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.” — Kate A.
Everest, 15 minutes. (Read by F. J. Turner.)

The Committee on Nomination of Officers through its
chairman, Prof. Yan Hise, nominated for vice-president of
the Department of Letters, vice Rev. H. D. Maxson, de¬
ceased, Dr. A. H. Tolman of Ripon, and for secretary, vice
Prof. C. E. Bennett removed to Providence, R. I., Dr. Wm.
H. Hobbs of Madison.

416

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

The secretary was instructed fco cast the ballot of the
academy for these officers.

The program was then resumed.

“Clocks and Watches” — R. G. Norton, 8 minutes.

“ Ponderable and Imponderable Fluids.” — Simeon Mills,
10 minutes.

“Limited Distribution of the Waterloo Boulder Train.” —
Ira M. Buell. 1 S|

Prof. Yan Hise spoke of the desirability of holding a
local meeting each year, at some of the educational centres
of the state, in addition to the regular annual meeting held
in Madison, and moved that the council be authorized to
hold such a meeting before the next annual meeting mak¬
ing all necessary arrangements as to time and place. After
discussion by the president, Prof. Marsh and others, the
measure was carried unanimously.

On motion of the treasurer, Dr. A. L. Chapin of Beloit,
was made a life member of the academy.

The meeting then adjourned sine die.

Wm. H. Hobbs,

Secretary .

Reports of Treasurer.

417

REPORTS OF TREASURER.

Madison, December 27, 1888.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Gentlemen: The undersigned would respectfully pre¬
sent the following statement of the financial transaction

of the Academy during the past year: —

Balance on hand December 27, 1887 . $849 19

Received from members during the year for fees and dues 58 00
Received from interest on permanent loan . 40 00

$942 19

The disbursements have been as follows: —

1888.

Jan. 21. Paid Nelson & North for printing blank notices.. $2 00

June 4. Paid Luding Kumlein for redrawing maps . 10 00

July 2. Paid Moss Engraving Co. engraving plates . 50 00

Oct. 2. Paid Marr & Richards, engraving maps . 10 00

Dec. 1. Paid M. J. Cantwell for printing . 7 75 79 75

Balance on hand, Dec. 27, 1888 . $862 44

Vouchers herewith submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings.

Treasurer.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬
cial transactions of the Academy during the past year, viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . $862 44

Received for interest on, permanent fund . 40 00

Received from members for initiation fees and annual dues . 85 50

$987 94

27— A. & L,

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The disbursements on the order of the president and sec¬
retary have been as follows, viz. :

1879.

Jan. 10. Paid W. F. Allen on account of catalogues . $10 00

Jan. 17. Paid W. F. Allen on account of catalogues . 12 40

Jan. 18. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen for printing 8 50
Jan. 18. Paid G. W. Peckham for postage and envelopes 2 65
Mar. Paid E. A. Birge for cash paid for catalogue-

ing library . 16 00 $49 55

Balance on hand Dec. 26, 1889 . $988.89

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Vouchers herewith submitted. ' Treasurer .

Madison, December 30, 1890.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬
cial transactions of the Academy during the past year, viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . . $938 39

Received for interest on permanent fund . 40 00

Received from members for initiation fees and annual

dues . 88 00

- $1,066 39

The disbursements on the order of the president
and secretary have been as follows, viz. :

1889.

Dec. 27. Paid S. D. Hastings for postage and envelopes for

6 years . $15 50

Paid Geo. W. Peckham, postage, envelopes, etc . 1 68

Dec. 28. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen, for printing _ 6 75

1890.

Feb. 3. Paid E. A. Birge for postage, etc . 27 00

Feb. 18. Paid Am. Express Co . . 6 75

Mar. 7. Paid Adams Express Co . ^ . . 3 95

Paid C. E. Hoyt for putting up documents . 5 00

Nov. 4. Paid G. W. Peckham for bills of Moss Engraving

Co., N. Y . 30 10

- $96 73

Balance on hand Dec. 30, 1890 . $969 66

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Treasurer .

Reports of Treasurer.

419

Madison, December, 1891.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬
cial transactions of the Academy during the past year:—

viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . $969 6&

Received for interest on permanent loan . 40 00'

Received from members for initation fees and annual dues . 59 00'

Total . $1,068 60

The disbursements upon the order of the president

and secretary have been as follows, viz. :

1890.

Oct. 80. Paid L. S. Cheney for cataloging books, etc . $16 20

1891.

Jan. 81. Paid A. C. McClurg & Co., printing, etc . 4 35

Feb. 21. Paid Chas. E. Bennett, postage and express . 1 75

Mar. 4. Paid Mrs. E. A. Birge, for express . 1 00

May 4. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen for printing.. 3 50

Aug. 6. Paid State Journal, printing, etc . 2 85

Nov. 11. Paid Detrich & Adams stamp pad, etc . 75

Nov. 11. Paid Library Bureau (Boston), sundries . 12 88

Nov. 11. Paid W. H. Hobbs, postage, express, etc . 7 90

Total . $51 15

Balance on hand - 1891 . $1,017 51

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Treasurer .

i

420

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

REPORT OF THE LIBARIAN AND CUSTODIAN.

( Presented at the Twenty -second Regular Meeting , December 39tfiyil391.)

The arrangement and cataloguing of the books of the
library has been begun during the past year, and the
catalogue is about a third completed. The work has been
much hindered because access to the rooms can be had
only on Saturdays and during vacations, owing to their
being used for meetings of the law and history classes.
The cases and shelves have been washed and the doors
fitted with new locks where necessary. The cases have
been given numbers from 1 to 31, and the shelves letters.
The dust of ages has been removed from the books and a
temporary arrangement made on the plan which follows.

As most members know, the library consists almost
solely of journals obtained in exchange for the Transac¬
tions of the Academy. A primary classification has been
made into: (l) Journals which treat of Sciences, Arts and
Letters. (2) Journals restricted to Sciences. (3) Journals
treating of special sciences, as biological journals, geologi¬
cal journals, etc. (This class contains a subdivision for
each science or group of sciences represented.) (4) Jour¬
nals relating solely to the Arts. (5) Journals relating to
Letters. Supplementary to each of these divisions is a
small collection of separate works and brochures of papers
in other journals. The bulk of the library of the Academy
is embraced in the first three divisions — general and scien¬
tific journals.

Under this primary grouping the journals are classified
according to language, as English, German, French, Italian,
Dutch, Norwegian, Swedish, Russian, etc.

A list showing this arrangement, with the number of cases

Report of Librarian.

421

where the journals of each department are to be found, will
be posted this noon near the door, so that members can in¬
spect the shelves and learn what journals the library pos¬
sesses in each or any department of knowledge.

The card catalogue has been adopted as in every way the
most convenient and the best adapted to any change of ar¬
rangement of books that may in future become necessary.
(I should perhaps state that a partial card catalogue exists,
but as it does not tell where the books are to be found, it
proved easier to make a new one than to use the old one.)
The present classification of the cards is the same as that
of the books, and each card gives reference to number of
case and letter of shelf where the book is to be f onnd. The
books have been given numbers on the following plan: Each
journal has a journal number, and each volume of that
journal a volume number separated from the journal num¬
ber by a space and period. The volume number is gener¬
ally the number of the volume. This makes it convenient
to number and catalogue accessions.

It is proposed, if possible, to finish the catalogue before
spring and publish a list of the journals in volume viii of
the Transactions.

The acknowledgment of books receive d and the details
of the work of cataloguing have been carried out by Mr. L.
S. Cheney, Fellow in Biology of the University of Wiscon¬
sin, who has been paid for the work. Credit is due him
for the care he has exercised in a work requi ring consider¬
able care. Journals have in some cases been found bound
with incorrect titles, parts of a volume bound with odd
numbers left out, etc.

At the next annual meeting of the Academy I expect to
be able to present a list of the most valuable of the journals,
and the Academy will be asked to appropriate money for
binding them.

As soon as the library is catalogued it will, I think, pos¬
sess considerable value to many of the members as a library
of reference. It includes many quite important journals,
I would recommend to the Academy the appointment of a
libi? ry committee of three, of whom the librarian shall be

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a member ex- officio, to consider means of increasing our
list of exchanges, other means of enlarging and improving
the library, and how it shall be made most accessible to
members. The constitution provides that such a committee
be appointed annually. I recommend that this committee
be given authority to purchase — subject to the approval of
the council — from the funds of the Academy odd volumes,
when necessary to complete our series.

As custodian of the collection of specimens of the Acad¬
emy, I have little to report. The value of the collection
consists mainly in the type fossils of the late Wisconsin
Geological Survey, whose space on the shelves is needed for
the library. I recommend that these fossils be deposited
in the collections of the University of Wisconsin where
they can be stored by themselves, labelled as the property of
the Wisconsin Academy, and be accessible for study. This
would be done subject to the approval of the university
authorities. *

Respectfully submitted,

Wm. H. Hobbs,

Librarian and Custodian.

* The recommendations in this report were favorably acted on by the
Academy. (See proceedings, p. 412.) The work of the library committee
is hardly more than begun, and a full report will be given at the next an¬
nual meeting. The action of the Academy on the second recommendation
(concerning collection of fossils), has been presented to the faculty of the
University of Wisconsin, and on their recommendation permission was
given by the Board of Regents to transfer the collection to the university.
The transfer has been made accordingly. — Secretary, April, 1892.

Officers and Members

423

OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND

LETTERS, 1892.

OFFICERS.

PRESIDENT,

PROF. GEO. W. PECKHAM,
Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF SCIENCES,

PROF. ROLLXN D. SALISBURY,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF ARTS,

PROF. F. B. POWER,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF LETTERS,

PROF. A. H. TOLMAN,

Ripon College, Ripon.

SECRETARY,

PROF. WM. H. HOBBS,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.

TREASURER,

HON. S. D. HASTINGS, Madison.

LIBRARIAN AND CURATOR,

PROF. WM. H. HOBBS, Madison.

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION.

THE SECRETARY, eX-officiO.

Prof. C. R. Van Hise, Madison.
Prof. H. B. Loomis, Madison.

Prof. H. C. Tolman, Madison.

COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY.

THE LIBRARIAN, eX-OffiClO.

Prof. Geo. L. Hendrickson, Madison.
Prof. Geo. C. Comstock, Madison.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Prof. Edward A. Birge, Madison.

Dr. A. L. Chapin, Beloit.

Prof. J. E. Davies, Madison.

Gen. G. P. Delaplaine, Madison.

Hon. J. L. Hill, Chicago, Ill.

Hon. John W. Hoyt, Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Hon. John L. Mitchell, Milwaukee.

Hon. J. G. Thorp, Eau Claire.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbott, C. C., M. D., Trenton, N. J.

Andrews, Edmund, A. M., M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College,
Chicago, Ill.

Armsby, Prof. H. P., State College, Pa.

Barron, John W., 113 E. 17th St., New York, N. Y.

Bennett, Prof. C. E., Brown University, Providence, R. I.

Benton, J. G., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Buchanan, Joseph, M. D., Louisville, Ky.

Byrness, R. M., M. E., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Officers and Members.

425

Caverno, Rev. Charles, Lombard, Ill.

Crooker, Rev. J. H., Helena, Montana.

Davis, Floyd, Des Moines, Iowa.

Ebenzer, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Fallows, Right Rev. Bishop Samuel, Chicago, Ill.

Fiske, E. O., Minneapolis, Minn.

Gilman, D. C., Ph. D., LL. D., President Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.

Harris, W. T., LL. D., Concord, Mass.

Higley, W. K., Chicago, Ill.

Holden, Prof. E. S., Director Lick Observatory, San Jose, Cal.
Holland, Rev. F. M., Concord, Mass.

Hopkins, F. N., M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

Horr, M. D., President Iowa Inst. Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, Iowa.
Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.

Jewell, J. S., A. M., M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College, Chicago,
Ill.

Le Barron, Wm,, State Entomologist, Geneva, N. Y.

Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof. Northwestern University, Evanston, HI.
Marx, Prof. C. D., Stamford University, Palo Alto, Cal.

Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Ill.

Newberry, Prof. J. S., LL. D., Prof. Columbia College, New York,
N. Y.

Orton, Prof. E., A. M., President State University, and State Geol¬
ogist, Columbus, Ohio.

Paine, Alford, S. T. D., Hinsdale, Ill.

Peet, Rev. Stephen D., Ph. D., Avon, Ill.

Potter, Prof. W. B., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

Safford, Prof. T. H., Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.

Sawyer, Prof. W. C., - .

Shaler, Prof. N. S., A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Shipman, Col. S. V., Chicago, Ill.

426

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Somers, Rev. A. N., La Porte, Ind.

\\

Steele, Rev. G. M., Principal Wilbrakam Seminary, Wilbraham,
Mass.

Stump, Prof. J. W., Oswego, N. Y.

Tatlock, John, Jr., - .

Trelease, Prof. William, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Ct.

Van de Warker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, N. Y.

de Vere, Prof. Scheie M., LL. D., University of Virginia, Va.

Verrill, Prof. A. E., A. M., Yale University, New Haven, Ct.

Whitman, Prof. C. O., Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

Whitney, Prof. W. D., Yale University, New Haven, Ct.

Winchell, Prof. N. H., State Geologist, Minneapolis, Minn.

Young, Rev. A. A., Monona, Iowa.

Note.— The above list is believed to contain many errors. Note of corrections should be
sent to the secretary.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Barnes, Prof. C. R., Madison.

Balg, Prof. G. H., Mayville.

Bartlett, Dr. E. W., Milwaukee.

Beach, Prof. W. H., Milwaukee.

Beaty, Hon. Henry, Milwaukee.
Blackstone, Prof. D. P., Berlin.

Blaisdell, Prof. J. J., Beloit.

Buel, Ira M., Sun Prairie.

Butler, Prof. J. D., Madison.

Bull, Prof. Storm, Madison.

Carr, Chas. F., Madison.

Chamberlin, President T. C., Madison.

Officers and Members.

427

Chandler, Prof. C. H., Ripon.

Chandler, Hon. W. H., Madison.

Comstock, Prof. Geo. C., Madison.

Conover, Mrs. Sarah P., Madison.

Culver, Prof. G. E., Beloit.

Daniells, Prof. W. W., Madison.

Dawley, Prof. J. H., Antigo.

Desmond, Hon. H. J., Milwaukee.

Doyle, Hon. Peter, Milwaukee.

Emerson, Prof. Joseph, Beloit.

Eckels, Prof. W. A., Ripon.

Foye, Prof. J. C., Appleton.

Frankenburger, Prof. D. B., Madison.

Greene, Thos. A., Milwaukee.

Gordon, Mrs. Geo., Milwaukee.

Harrison, Caleb H., Milwaukee.

Haskins, Prof. C. H., Madison.

Hastings, Hon. S. D., Madison.

Hendrickson, Prof. G. L., Madison.

Henry, Prof. W. A., Madison.

Hillyer, Prof. H. W., Madison.

Hobbs, Prof. Wm. H., Madison.

Hodge, Prof. C. F., Madison.

Hoskins, Prof. L. M., Madison.

Hoy, Dr. P. R., Racine.

Jastrow, Prof. Joseph, Madison.

Kerr, Prof. Alexander, Madison.

King, Prof. F. H., Madison.

Knowlton, Prof. A. A., Madison.

Kremers, Prof. Edward, Madison.

Lamb, F. J., Madison.

Leverett, Frank, (U. S. Geol. Survey), Madison.
Leavenworth, Prof. W. S., Ripon.

428

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters ,

Luther, Geo. E. (U. S. Geol. Survey), Madison.
Loomis, Prof. H. B., Madison.

Marks, Dr. Solon, Milwaukee.

Marsh, Prof. C. Dwight, Ripon.

Meacham, Dr. J. G., Sr., Racine.

Meacham, Dr. J. G., Jr., Racine.

Mills, Hon. Simeon, Madison.

McLangen, Chas., Milwaukee.

Morris, W. A. P., Madison.

Nader, Capt. John, Madison.

Norton, R. G., Madison.

Noyes, Hon. G. H., Milwaukee.

Orton, Hon. H. S., Madison.

Parkinson, Prof. J. B., Madison.

Peckham, Prof. Geo. W., Milwaukee.

Power, Prof. P. B., Madison.

Pray, Prof. T. B., Whitewater.

Puls, A. J., Milwaukee.

Pudor, Prof. C. C., Madison.

Rogers, Prof. A. J., Milwaukee.

Salisbury, Prof. R. D., Madison.

Schuler, Dominee, Milwaukee.

Sennott, Chas. P., Milwaukee.

Schneiding, Henry E., Racine.

Smith, Prof. E. G., Beloit.

Sprague, A. R., Milwaukee.

Thayer, Hon. J. B., Superior.

Thwaites, Prof. R. G., Madison.

Turner, Prof. F. J., Madison.

Tolman, Prof. A. H., Ripon.

Tolman, Prof. H. C., Madison.

Townley, S. D., Madison.

Tolbert, Prof. G. A., Racine.

Upham, Arthur A., Whitewater.

Deceased Members.

429

Van Cleef, Prof, F. L., Madison.

Van Hise, Prof. C. R., Madison.

Van Velzer, Prof. C. A., Madison.

Viebahn, Prof. C. F., Watertown.

Wheeler, Prof. W. M., Milwaukee.

Wright, Prof. A. O., Madison.

Note.— Members will accommodate the secretary by promptly informing him of any
errors or omissions in the above list.

DECEASED MEMBERS.

Allen, W. C.

Allen, Prof. Wm. F., Prof, of History, University of Wisconsin.
Armitage, W. E., Right Rev. Bishop, P. E. Church, Milwaukee.

Carpenter, S. H., LL. D., Prof, of English Language, University of
Wisconsin.

Case, J. I., Racine.

Conover, O. M., LL. D., Madison.

De Koven, S. T. D., Warden Racine College, Racine.

Dewey, Nelson.

Draper, L. C.

Dudley, Wm., Madison.

Eaton, J. H., Ph. D., Prof, of Chemistry, Beloit College.

Engelman, Peter, Director German and English Academy, Mil¬
waukee.

Feuling, J. B., Ph. D., Prof. Philology, University of Wisconsin.
Hawley, C. T., Milwaukee.

Heritage, Lucius, Prof, of Latin, University of Wisconsin.

Holton, Hon. E. D., Milwaukee.

Irving, R. D., E. M., Ph. D., Prof, of Geology, University of Wiscon¬
sin, and U. S. Geologist.

Knapp, Hon. J. G., Milwaukee.

Kumlein, Thure.

430

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Lapham, I. A., LL. D., State Geologist, Milwaukee.

Lawler, Hon. John.

Lewis, Mrs. H. M.

Little, Thomas H., Supt. Institution for the Blind, Janesville.

McDill, A. S., M. D., Supt. State Hospital for the Insane, Madison.

Nicodemus, W. J. L., A. M., C. E., Prof, of Engineering, University
of Wisconsin.

Paul, Hon. Geo. H., Milwaukee.

Pradt, J. B.

Keed, George.

Smith, Wm.

Wincheli, Prof. Alexander, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

IHoiant* Qnev gj[t?m«0*
'pltUtaro ^lUen*

guctu# ®evita00+

gjimrij IPoiij l^lctxsan

[Courtesy of American Geologist.]

ROLAND DUER IRVING.

Former President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN,*

President of the University of Wisconsin.

Professor Irving was bom in the city of New York, on the 29th day of
April, 1847. His father, the Rev. Pierre P. Irving, was a clergyman of
the Episcopal church and a nephew of Washington Irving. His mother
was a daughter of Chief Justice John Duer, of the supreme court of
New York. Sprung thus from a family of literary talent on the one
side and of judicial on the other, Professor Irving inherited tastes and
capabilities that especially fitted him for his subsequent work. His
birth and early education in the metropolis of our country impressed
upon him something of the breadth and complexity of its commercial,
social and intellectual activities and gave to a mind naturally disposed
to large and analytic conceptions a pronounced breadth and a discrimi¬
native habit. His youth was spent upon Staten Island, to which his
father had removed in his second year. A lack of entire robustness of
health, emphasized by frequent attacks of illness and a weakness of
sight, interfered with systematic study and checked the indulgence
of his passionate fondness of reading. His early training was therefore
conducted mainly at home, his father and sisters being his chief in¬
structors. It was only in his twelfth year that he entered school. His
dominant studies were classical, but he was fortunate in falling under
the instruction of a teacher whose frequent rambles with his pupils
fostered a love for natural history. Young Roland became especially
interested in the collection of the rocks and minerals that were accessi¬
ble upon the island. The identification and classification of these may
be looked upon as the initiation of his subsequent scientific studies.
In 1863 he entered the classical course of Columbia college. Forced by
the condition of his eyes to suspend his studies in his sophomore year,
he spent six months in England, the impress of which in certain choices
of language and methods of thought remained with him throughout

* This Sketch was first published in the American Geologist for January, 1887.

28— A. & L.

434

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

his life. On his return he was able to resume studies, though it was
necessary that the greater part of the texts should be read to him.
This probably strengthened a memory naturally retentive and drove
him to meditative and independent thought, since he was measurably
cut off from indulgence in simple acquisition. A full course in the
School of Mines, of Columbia College, gave him the technical founda¬
tion for his future work.

During two of his summer vacations he found employment and prac¬
tical experience in the coal mines of Wiconisco, Penn. Soon after
graduation he was appointed superintendent of the smelting works at
Greenville, N. J. Following this he was employed during parts of two
years upon the Ohio geological survey. His career thus far had lain
chiefly in the line of technical work. From this he was turned aside
in 1870 by a call to the department of geology, mineralogy and metal¬
lurgy in the University of YTsconsin, and from that time onward his
activities took two parallel lines, instruction and investigation. As an
instructor his work was characterized by thoroughness, by a masterly
command of the subjects he taught, by clearness of presentation and a
graphic and humorous exposition, by perfect candor and sincerity, by
earnestness, devotion and indefatigable industry — a rare combination
of qualities, which made him not only a singularly effective instructor,
but a worthy leader in all those moral and manly influences which
characterize the true teacher.

Professor Irving’s first independent geological investigation consisted
of the demonstration that the Baraboo quartzites of central Wisconsin
are very much older than the adjacent upper Cambrian sandstone
(Dikelocephalus horizon), which was at the time a battled question.*
Shortly after he made similar investigations on the quartzites near
Waterloo, Dodge Co., Wis.f

Upon the inauguration of the recent geological survey of Wisconsin
(1873), Professor Irving was appointed one of the three commissioned
assistant geologists and began his well-known investigations in that
connection. During the first year he was assigned to the study of the
Penokee iron range. He was here compelled, at the outset of his
official career, to encounter unwarranted expectations raised by pre¬
vious flattering opinions respecting the richness of the iron deposits
given by incautious and inexpert explorers. His perfectly candid and
unreserved report brought the usual reward of frankness and sincerity
in the face of opposing desire, at first a storm of protest and of adverse

*On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk Co., Wis., Am.
Jour. Sci., Vol. Ill, Art. xv, p. 93. The same in Trans, of Wis. Acad, of Sci. Arts and
Letters, Vol. II, pp. 107-119.

t Note on the Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of Portland, Dodge Co., Wis., Am. Jour.
Sci., Vol. V, Art. xxxi, p. 282.

In Memoriam .

485

criticism, which even threatened the existence of the survey, later, a
sullen acquiescence in the truth, and finally, an admiration for the
correctness and the courage of the position taken and a diversion of
enterprise from unprofitable into successful lines of exploitation. In
the second and third years of the survey Professor Irving’s field em¬
braced the Paleozoic and Archaean strata of central Wisconsin. In the
last years he returned to the Lake Superior field and laid the broader
foundation upon which nearly all of his subsequent investigations were
based. The results of his studies in this official relationship are re¬
corded in the four volumes of the Reports of the Wisconsin Geological
Survey (1873-1879). Meanwhile he had published several short articles
in the American Journal of Science, the Transactions of the Wisconsin
Academy, and elsewhere. Among these the more important are the “Age
of the Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior and the Westward Con¬
tinuation of the Lake Superior Synclinal.’'* * * § “ Some New Points in the
Elementary Stratification of the Primordial and Cambrian Rocks of
South Central Wisconsin.”! “ The Stratigraphy of the Huronian Series
of Northern Wisconsin, and on the Equivalency of the Huronian of the
Marquette and Penokee Districts.” J
In 1880 Professor Irving began those investigations upon the geology
of the Lake Superior region for the United States government which
continued until the time of his death. The first of these consisted of
a comprehensive study of the copper-bearing series, the results of which
he gathered into a monograph which perhaps stands as the best single
expression of his work. § This was the first approach to a unified and
systematic discussion of this great formation occupying a tract of 40,000
square miles and embracing portions of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota
and Canada. Whatever differences of opinion may continue to exist
concerning the interpretation of the debated phenomena, this must
ever be recognized as a monument of industrious and able investigation
and of candid and careful induction. Following these studies upon
the copper-bearing series, Professor Irving took up in a correspond¬
ingly comprehensive manner, the investigation of the iron-bearing for¬
mations of the Lake Superior region and their correlation with each
other and with the original Huronian of Canada. Upon this work he
was engaged at the time of his death. He had in preparation and
nearing completion a monograph upon the Penokee-Gogebic range and
had well in hand a large amount of material relating to the Marquette,
Menominee and Vermilion Lake series, as well as the original Huronian
and Animike groups. His loss at this fruitful stage of his work, incal-

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. VIII, Art. vii, p. 46, 1874.

t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IX, Art. vii, p 440, 1875.

t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVII, Art. xlix, p. 393, 1879.

§ “ Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior.” Monograph V., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1883.

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

culable as it is, might have been still greater but for the fact that all
his material passed into the hands of his co-laborer, Professor Van Hise,
who is intimately familiar with his unwritten as well as written views.

Some of Doctor Irving’s leading conclusions from his later studies
were set forth in his presidential address before the Wisconsin Acad¬
emy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, entitled “ Divisibility of the Aarchoean
in the Northwest,” * * and more especially in the following very notable
papers: “Preliminary Paper on an Investigation of the Archaean For¬
mations of the Northwestern States,”! “On the Classification of the
Early Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian Formations. A Brief Discussion of
Principles; Illustrated by examples drawn mainly from the Lake Su¬
perior Region,” J “ Origin of Ferruginous Schists and Iron Ores of the
Lake Superior Region,” || “Is there a Huronian Group? ”^[ and the
introduction to Bulletin Number 62 of the U. S. Geological Survey,
“ On the Greenstones of the Menominee and Marquette Regions,” by
Dr. G. H. Williams.

During these later years in which he was chiefly engaged upon mono¬
graphic studies, he published numerous special papers, among which
the more important were, “ On the Nature of the Induration of the St.
Peter’s and Potsdam Sandstones, and of certain Archeean Quartzites in
Wisconsin,”* “Paramorphic Origin of the Hornblende of the North¬
western States,” t “ On Secondary Enlargements of Mineral Fragments
in Certain Rocks v J (jointly with Professor C. R. Van Hise), and “ The
Junction Between the Eastern Sandstone and the Keweenawan Series
on Keweenaw Point ” § (jointly with President Chamberlin).

Professor Irving’s greatest contributions to science lay in the depart¬
ment of structural geology and genetic petrography. His investiga¬
tions upon the great copper and iron-bearing series and the adjacent
formations of the Lake Superior region, constitute a contribution of
the first order. The deep sympathy of the present writer with Pro¬
fessor Irving’s views on questions that have been subjects of divergence
of opinion should perhaps restrain him from a full expression of his
appreciation of the profound value of this work, lest a color of personal
partiality be thrown over this sketch, but it is not too much to assert
that supporter and opponent alike recognize the ability which has char¬
acterized these investigations, and the high order of value which must
attach to them whatever interpretations may finally prevail.

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIX, pp. 237-249, 1885.

t U. S. Geol. Survey, Fifth Annual Report, pp. 181-241, 1885.

$ U. S. Geol. Survey, Seventh Annual Report, 1886.

|| Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXII, p. 255, 1886.

1 Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 204-249, 1887.

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXV, p. 401, 1883.

*t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVI, p. 321, 1883.

i U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 8.

§ U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 23.

In Memoriam .

437

In the line of petrographic genesis Professor Irving made two very-
notable contributions, first, the demonstration of the prevalence and
importance of the secondary growth of certain fragmental constituents
of clastic rocks and the crystallographic co-ordination of the additions
with the nuclear particles. The existence of such a second growth in
quartz grains was an earlier discovery of others but was hit upon by
him independently. Jointly with his co-laborer, Professor Van Hise, he
demonstrated a similar second growth of hornblende and other min¬
erals and showed that such rebuilding was a prevalent process, consti¬
tuting an important element in those changes heretofore designated
metamorphic, thereby contributing an important factor in the elucida¬
tion of that mysterious process.

Perhaps the most important single determination by Professor Irving,
and one of his latest, was the demonstration of the origin of the iron
ores of the Lake Superior region. By a series of admirable investiga¬
tions he traced step by step the transformation of the ores from original
earthy carbonates of iron to their present forms, and made it altogether
clear that they were primarily deposited as sediments in a manner
closely similar to that of the iron ores of the Coal Measures. This dis¬
covery has given added significance to the association of these ores
with carbonaceous shales, and has led to the recognition of the iron¬
bearing series as marking in some sense a pre-Cambrian carboniferous
period.

The characteristics of Professor Irving as a scientific investigator
and writer are too well known to the readers of this magazine to need
analysis here. Personally, to those who came within the circle of his
intimate acquaintance, he possessed rare charms of character. Sincere,
frank, conscientious in the highest degree, he was a warm and true
friend. Possessed of a rollicking brusque humor, his intercourse was
marked by a freshness that was a source of constant enjoyment and
attraction to his intimate associates. No phrase better expresses it
than picturesqueness. Modest and retiring, the number of his close
friends was not large but their attachment to him was strong. The full
strength of these attachments has only been realized in their breaking.

He leaves a wife, a daughter and two sons. The artistic skill of Mrs.
Irving appears in some of the sketches and particularly in many of the
microscopic illustrations of her husband’s works.

I

In Memoriam.

439

WILLIAM FRANCIS ALLEN.

Late President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

By JAMES D. BUTLER.

William Francis Allen was born September 5, 1830, and died Decem¬
ber 9, 1889. His birth was in Northborough, a Massachusetts village,
thirty-five miles from Boston; his death was in Madison. He grad¬
uated at Harvard University in 1851. His preparation for college was
made at home in a school taught by his father, also a Harvard graduate,
and a Unitarian pastor. For three years he gave instruction at New
York city in a private family, and then in 1854 went abroad. He was for
one year a student in the universities of Berlin and Gottingen. The
following winter he spent in Rome, and the spring in Greece, returning to
America in June, 1856. During the next seven years he was one of the
principals of a classical school near Boston, at West Newton. Late in
1863, accompanied by his wife, married the year before, he went to South
Carolina in the employ of the Freedman’s Aid Association. After a half
year of pioneer work in the education of negroes he came north, but very
soon repaired to Arkansas as an agent of the Sanitary commission. This
service was over early in 1865, and in the spring he returned to South
Carolina, where he served till the close of the school year as a superin¬
tendent in Charleston. The next two years he taught, first in Antioch
college, Ohio, and then at a military academy in New Jersey. His first
wife died in 1865, and after three years he re-married.

Professor Allen was a religious man. He was the true founder of the
Unitarian church in Madison. His life was a sermon of admonition and
a hymn of praise. The training of his children, a daughter by the first
marriage and three sons by the second, was a rare specimen of personal
assiduity. His nature was so far from doing harms that he suspected
none, and his faith in the doctrine of depravity may hence not have
been orthodox. Notwithstanding, no more stinging censure smote Fisk
and Tweed than fell from his lips.

His coming to Wisconsin was in 1867. In that year he accepted a call
to the state university. His chair was at first called that of Ancient
Languages and History, afterwards Latin and History, and for the last
four years of his life History alone. In this Northwest he found the
niche he was ordained to fill — for his teachings here his whole past life,
studies at home and abroad, early training and varied school experi-

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

ences — proved an admirable preparation. How well he paid for more
than a score of years the educational debt due to his profession it is
needless to say. Witnesses abound on every side. They agree that he
gave much information, but that in a way which inspired more than it in¬
formed. It was a favorite maxim with Prof. Allen that “moral educa¬
tion cannot be absent from any living system, that the only foundation
of thoroughness in study is that virtue which embraces a larger share of
human duties within its definition than any other — faithfulness.” Ex¬
emplifying in himself the virtue he praised, he became an inspiration to
many a student — filling him with a life-long delight in whatsoever
things are true, honest, just, pure, lovely, virtuous and praiseworthy.
Seeing him always an eager learner, his pupils became themselves the
more eager to learn.

While faithful to all details of his instructional routine, Prof. Allen
was a voluminous author. The bibliography of his writings, in his
Memorial volume, fills thirty pages and comprises more than nine hun¬
dred articles. We do not wonder that the number is multitudinous, for
many of the articles were brief, so much as at their diversified nature;
titles are arranged under thirty specific heads, but some of them find
their proper place only under yet another division styled Miscellaneous.
Before we run our eyes over a tithe of the topics we feel that the author,
who never wrote on a subject he had not investigated, was a multifarious
scholar — a rare survival of what former generations called a poly-
mathist. We are surprised that he, a recluse scholar, touched society at
so many points. He treated of slave songs and the negro dialect, and of
Latin grammar as well — now of Aristophanes and then of Uncle
Remus — here of the snake dance in Arizona, and anon of a day with a
Roman gentleman. He drew each change of many-colored life.

After all, our feeling is that Prof. Allen was first, last and chiefly an
historian. A great majority of his papers, whether in periodicals, or the
Madison Literary Club or in our Academy, were historical. If he wrote
upon Shakespeare his themes were the historical plays. If his theme
was Novels, it was historical fiction. His twenty lectures in Johns Hop¬
kins University were historic. His editions of classics were mainly his¬
torical authors. Whatever the subject that came before him his view of
it was historic. Every fact in his mind, if past, had made history; if
present, was making history, and if future, was about to make history.
Thus, through its relations, and thus only had any fact value for him.
All were but parts of a stupendous whole.

From Prof. Allen’s early sojourn in Rome as well as the nature of his
academic and university teaching, Roman history became predominant
in his thoughts, studies and writings. A hundred of his published ar¬
ticles on as many aspects of this vast department each shed some side
light upon it. His editions of Caesar and Tacitus, with notes upon

In Memoriam.

441

them, his classes in Sallust and Livy equipped him fully for writing with
classic taste and terseness his own Short History of the Roman People ,
the crowning key-stone in the arch of his authorship — - in penning the
last line of which he ceased at once to work and live. Nay, rather, he
still lives, for we are instinctively prompted to apply to him the touch¬
ing words which he taught, edited, and loved so well: Quiequid ex Agri¬
cola amavimus, quiequid mirati sumus, manet, mansurumque est in ani-
mis hominum.

442

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

LUCIUS HERITAGE.

By HENRY DOTY M ANSON.

Lucius Heritage, son of Isaac C. and Margaret S. Heritage, was born
Dec. 21, 1848, in Walworth, Wisconsin. In childhood his family removed
to Milton, where he spent a large portion of his life. The death of his
mother in 1864, led to a suspension of his studies and a temporary
abandonment of his purpose to prepare himself for a profession. He ac¬
cordingly became apprenticed to learn the wagon-maker’s trade, and
spent three years in this employment. His native taste for the things
of the intellect led him, however, to embrace an opportunity to re¬
sume his studies, and he entered Milton College in 1869. Completing
the Teacher’s Course in that institution in 1872, he taught Latin for a
short time in the St. Paul High School, and then returned to Milton to
receive his diploma from the Classical Course, in 1875. In the fall of
that year he became first assistant of Mr. Albert Markman, in the Mil¬
waukee Academy, where he remained one year. It was my fortune after
an interval of several years to succeed him in this position, and I found
his reputation for character and scholarship still very vivid in the tradi¬
tions of the school. He was pretty uniformly Mr. Markham’s standard
of comparison in speaking of the qualifications of a teacher. “As good
a man as Heritage,” was the highest compliment. In the fall of 1876 he
sailed for Germany, where he spent a little over two years as a student
in Gottingen, Halle and Leipsic. In the year after his return he was
married to Miss Ruth G. Maxson, who survives him, with one son, their
only child, born in 1885. It was during his temporary residence in Mil-
ton in 1879, that I first knew him. Our acquaintances are usually many;
but the circle of friends who really enter the current of our life and
make vital contributions to our character and thought, must always be
small. It was my fortune from this time until his death, to number
Prof. Heritage among these companions of the soul. In 1879 he was ap¬
pointed Latin tutor in the University of Wisconsin. Prof. W. P. Allen,
who, but for his untimely death, would have prepared a worthier biog¬
raphy than I am able to furnish, wrote soon after the death of Mr.
Heritage that when he became a candidate for the instructorship in
Latin, the University faculty were already predisposed in his favor on

In Memofiam.

443

account of the way in which he acquitted himself at an inter-state
oratorical contest held in Madison some years before. “I remember
nothing about the contestants or their subjects,” says Prof. Allen, “ex¬
cept that the delegate from Milton College attracted our attention by
his intellectual countenance and fine bearing.” In 1882, he was elected
Assistant Professor of Latin, and four years later was placed in full
charge of the department. In 1883-4 he spent another year in Germany,
for the purpose of pursuing some special studies. Throughout his life
he was a hard worker at whatever he undertook. Never robust, he un¬
doubtedly overtaxed his strength by intense application to his studies.
For several years, though he himself displayed great confidence and
courage, his immediate friends had been solicitous about his health; and
when a threatened attack of pneumonia prostrated him in November,
1888, they feared that the end was not far off. He rallied, however, and
for a short time resumed his work in the University, but was soon com¬
pelled to relinquish it, and started on a Southern trip in the hope of
regaining his health. The effort was fruitless. He died in Redlands,
California, May 14, 1889.

Prof. Heritage wrote very little for publication. His most important
literary work was an edition of the Dialogues of Tacitus, which, at the
time of his death, he had been for some years engaged in preparing.

It seldom happens that the nil nisi verum of the biographer becomes
more nearly one with the nil nisi bonum of the eulogist than in the case
of Mr. Heritage. Of an exceptionally keen and accurate mind, he was
no less distinguished for the integrity of his character.

His work as a pupil and a teacher I know only at second hand. Of
the latter Prof. Allen wrote: “Under his charge the Latin department
has advanced steadily in thoroughness and breadth of training. As
every year I have taken some of the higher classes in Latin, I have
noticed a marked improvement from year to year in the quality of the
scholarship, especially in the capacity of ready and correct translation.
His power as a teacher was very great. He won the affection and con¬
fidence of his classes in the highest degree, and was as distinguished for
firmness and strictness as for courtesy and fairness.”

While capable of making a thoroughly creditable appearance in public,
and always holding the attention of his hearers by his clearness in both
thought and expression, he did not seek publicity. He was essentially
a man of the study. The energy, which with many gifted people largely
spends itself in more ostentatious ways, with him was rather employed
in enlarging and refining his personal culture. And thus the informal
contacts of intimate friendship became a source of keen delight. It was
in this phase of his life that I knew him best. Conversation with him
was always enriching. He approached a question not in the role of a
debater, but of an inquirer. As far as the interests of truth are con-

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

cerned, debate is for those directly engaged in it worse than profitless,
and it was repugnant to his temper. He was naturally restrained from
taking the attitude of the advocate both by the judicialness of his mind
and the candor of his character; and this disposition was powerfully re¬
enforced by a discriminating intellect which refused to ignore identities
or confuse distinctions. Add the command of a copious and precise
vocabulary, and his equipment for enjoyable and instructive conversation
was complete. It was almost a luxury to have him occasionally hesitate
for a word. It gave one a moment to enjoy in anticipation the right
word which was sure to come,

While by nature a man of the study, he by no means lacked interest
in matters of public concern, and the interest was of a decidedly practi¬
cal rather than of a merely academic character. Politics he greatly en¬
joyed, not at all as a trade, nor yet merely as a science, but more still as
a field for effort in the line of promoting, or trying to promote, the com¬
mon good. While he could never become a partisan, he was always
anxious to actively identify himself with any organized effort to reform
or purify our public life. The temperance problem and other social
questions of importance in our day provoked earnest study, and when
the line of action seemed clear, enthusiastic devotion. If he ever seemed
to any one lacking in public participation in reformatory work, that fact
must be set down to the impartiality of his mind, which insisted on
seeing both sides of the shield ; and that impartiality was greatly
strengthened by an alert and delicate sense of humor — a quality of great
service, not only in giving sparkle to speech, but also in restraining
from absurdity. In medio tutissimius ibis was not with him the maxim
of a calculating prudence. It rather represented the native temper of
the man.

Of those deeper and more difficult themes which we call religious, we
spoke frequently and freely. Mr. Heritage shrank from no light which
the most thorough-going rationalism could shed on the problems of life.
But through all this unrestrained communion of thought and in¬
quiry, I never found his faith to falter in the underlying sanity of things,
the eternal purpose which runs through all, and gives to human effort
and character an immortal meaning. That purpose was most beauti¬
fully displayed in his life. We may well believe that, though not fully
revealed to our eyes, that purpose has with no less beauty, been working
itself out in his death.

In Memoriam .

445

H. D. MAXSOM.

By PROF. J. W. STEARNS.

Rev. Henry Doty Maxson, vice-president of the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, died suddenly at Eau Claire, Nov. 23, 1891. His connection
with the Academy had not been long, but the transparent sincerity of
the man and his complete devotion to the highest aims, had made a
strong impression upon its members. Mr. Maxson was born in De Ruy-
ter, New York, of Seventh Day Baptist family, and the wish of his
parents, and his own early choice, destined him for the ministry in that
denomination. Accordingly, he was in due time sent to the denomina¬
tional college, at Alfred, N. Y., to commence his preparation. But before
the end of his first year a great change had gradually taken place in his
convictions; and he acted upon it with the frankness which always char¬
acterized him, by renouncing his cherished plans and returning to his
home. I have heard him relate with much emotion the struggle it cost
him to take this step, because of the pain which he knew it would cause
his mother. It seemed to separate him from his parents, and to cut off
for the present the hope of a college education, of which he was very
desirous. Fortunately these results which he dreaded did not follow,
and in due time he graduated, in 1877, from Amherst college. He took
the lead of his class in college. He was not only at the head of it in
scholarship, but also in character, a marked man to whom his class¬
mates looked with affectionate esteem and almost with reverence. He
came to Wisconsin as a teacher, and was employed first at Milton col¬
lege, then at Markham’s Academy, in Milwaukee, and afterward for
nearly five years as Institute conductor for the State Normal School at
Whitewater. This service brought him into connection with a large
body of young people upon whom his influence wTas strong and inspir¬
ing. His genial manners, and his kindly interest in® them and their
pursuits made warm personal friends of his pupils. He stood before
them a refined gentleman, of quick sympathies, thorough scholarship,
and lofty aims, and they were broadened and uplifted by the intercourse
with him. In the spring of 1888 he became pastor of the Unitarian
church at Menomonie. Here he accomplished remarkable results in a
very short time. The magnetism of the man was quickly felt, and drew

446

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

about him a strong following; and Bible classes, a kindergarten, a gym¬
nasium, a literary society, a public library, arose and flourished under
his inspiration. Mr. Maxson was an untiring worker for the broadening
of human life and the refining of human nature. Although a close
student himself, there was nothing of the recluse about him. On the
contrary, he adapted himself with a sure insight to men of the most
diverse types, and enjoyed deeply the opportunities of service to others
which his position offered him. Thus in a brief life-time he was enabled
to accomplish a notable work. Members of this society are familiar with
his characteristics as a public speaker. His direct and truth-loving
nature shone out in his discourse. You felt that a strong, sincere, cul¬
tured man was talking to you, and talking directly to the point, with a
true insight and a large charity. He captivated you with the many-
sidedness of his thought and the abundance of the resources from which
it was illustrated and enforced. Those who had but a slight acquaint¬
ance with him felt the charm of his character, while those who enjoyed
his intimacy found in him the best inspirations of a noble manhood.

AUTHORS’ INDEX

BALG, G. H. Page.

The Science of the English Language in the Light of the
Gothic . 167

Baenes, Chaeles R.

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recog¬
nized in Lesquereux and James’ Manual of the Mosses of
North America . 11

- . Ibidem. Additions and Corrections . 163

Bennett, Chaei^s E .

Some New Theories of the Greek KA- Perfect . 141

Biege, Edwaed A.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin . 379

Chambeelin, T. C.

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval Between
the Glacial Epochs . 82

Chandlee, Chas. H.

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae . 161

Comstock, Geo. C.

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem . 229

Culvee, G. E.

Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Montana.. . 187

- . (With Wm. H. Hobbs.)

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha County,

South Dakota . 206

Desmond, Humpheey J.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics . 1

Elmendoef, John J.

Aristotle’s Physics . 169

Eveeest, Kate A.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin . 288

448 Wtsconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Hobbs, Wi. H. Page.

On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline Rocks
of Maryland . 156

- . (With G. E. Culver.)

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha
County, South Dakota . 206

- . Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin . 399

Kremers, Edward.

On the Limonene Group of Terpenes . 312

Leverett, Frank.

On the Correllation of Moraines with Raised Beaches of Lake
Erie. . . 233

Loomis, H. B.

The Effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribution of
Magnetism . 273

Marsh, C. Dwight.

On the Deep-Water Crustacea of Green Lake . 211

- . Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.. . 214

Peet, Stephen D.

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy Builders .... 300

Tolman, H. C.

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achse-
menides . 241

Van Cleef, F. L.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpidro 5 Iladx^r in its Rela¬
tion to the Text of Euripides . 363

Van Hise, C. R.

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region . 219

Wheeler, Wm. M.

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of Em¬
bryo Insects . 87

Wright, A. O.

The Defective Classes . 176

APPENDIX.

i

29 — A< St Li

APPENDIX.

List of Societies, Institutions, etc., with which the Wis
consin Academy Exchanges Publications.

An * indicates that the society has been recently placed on list.

Argentine Republic —

Buenos Ayres. Oficina Meteoro-
logica Argentina.

Cordoba. Academia Nacional de
Ciencias en Cordoba.

Australia —

Sydney. (New South Wales.) De¬
partment of Mines.

Austria —

Brieg. (Silesia.) Naturforschende
Gesellschaft.

Graz. (Styria.) Naturwissen-
schaftliche Verein fur Steier-
mark.

Gorlitz. (Silesia.) Naturforsch¬
ende Gesellschaft.

Prag. (Bohemia.) Die konigl.
bohmische Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften.

Vienna. K. k. Akademie der
Wissenschaften.

Zoologisch-Botanische Gesell¬
schaft.

K. Akademie d. Wissenschaften.

K. k. Naturhistorisches Hof-
museum.

*K. k. Geologische Reichsan-
stalt.

Belgium —

Brussels. Societe Royale Mala-
cologique.

Liege. Societe Royale des Sciences

Mons. Societe des Sciences des
Arts, et des Letters du Hain-
aut.

Brazil —

Rio Janeiro. Museu Nacional do
Rio de Janeiro.

Instituto Historico e Geograph-
ico Brazileiro.

Canada —

Halifax. (Nova Scotia.) Nova
Scotia Institute of Natural
Sciences.

Hamilton. Hamilton Associa¬
tion.

Montreal. Natural History So¬
ciety. (The Canadian Record
of Science.)

Ottawa. Ottawa Normal School.
“The Ottawa Naturalist.”

Toronto. The Canadian Insti¬
tute.

Chili —

Santiago. Deutsche Wissen-
schaftliche Verein.

IV

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Art s and Letters.

4.

CMn a — C ontinued.

Observatorio Astronomico.

Oficina Central Meteorolojica
de Chile.

Denmark —

Copenhagen. Kongelige Danske
Videnskabernes Selskabs.

England —

London. Bernard Quaritch, 15
Piccadilly W., London, Eng¬
land.

British Museum.

The Royal Society.

Manchester. Manchester Liter¬
ary and Philosophical So¬
ciety.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne. North of
England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.

Finland —

Helsingfors. Societe des Sciences
de Finlande.

Finska Vetenskaps-Societetens.

Observatoire Magnetique et
Meteorologique.

Finska Vetenskabs-Societeten.

France —

Amiens. Societe Linneenne du
Nord de la France.

Bordeaux. Academie Imperiale
des Sciences, Belles Lettres
et Arts.

Caen. L’ Academie Nationale des
Sciences, Arts et Belles-Let¬
tres.

Dijon. Academie des Sciences,
Arts et Belles Lettres .

France— Continued .

Le Mans. Societe d’ Agriculture,.
Sciences et Arts de la Sarthe.

Lyon. Academie des Sciences,.
Belles Lettres et Arts.

Montpellier. Academie des Sci¬
ences et Lettres.

Paris. Annuaire Geologique Uni-
versel (M. M. Carez et Dou-
ville, 15 Rue de Tournon).

Rouen. Societe des Amis de&
Sciences Naturelles.

Germany —

Bamberg. Naturforschende Ge-
sellschaft.

Berlin. * Deutsche geologische
Gesellschaft.

Kaiserliche Gesundheitsamte.

Zeitschrift der Gesammten
N aturwissenschaf ten.

Bonn. Naturhistorische Verein
der Preussischen Rheinlando
u. Westfalens.

Bremen. Naturwissenschaftliche
Verein.

Braunschweig. V er ein fur N atur-
wissenschaft.

Briinn. Naturforschende Verein.

Cassel. * V erein f ur N aturkunde.

* Realschule.

Danzig. Naturforschende Gesell¬
schaft.

Dresden. Die Naturwissenschaft¬
liche Gesellschaft Isis.

Elberfeld. Naturwissenschaft¬
liche Verein in Elberfeld.

Emden. (Friesland.) Naturfor¬
schende Gesellschaft.

Frankfurt a.M. Physikalische
Verein.

List of Corresponding Societies.

v

txermany — Continued.

Freiburg. Naturforschende Ge-
sellschaft.

Geissen. Oberhessische Gesell-
schaft.

Gottingen. Kgl. Gesellscbaft der
Wissenschaften.

Halle. (Prussia.) Zeitschrift fur
Naturwissenschaften. (Dr.
O. Luedecke.)

Kaiserliche Leopoldino-Caro-
linische deutsche Akademie
der Naturforscher.

Heidelberg. N aturhistorisch-Med-
izinsche Verein.

Jena. * University of Jena.

Medicinisch-N aturwissenschaft-
liche Gesellscbaft.

Kiel. University of Kiel.

Konigsberg. * University of Kon-
igsberg.

'Leipzig. (Saxony.) Verein fur
Erdkunde.

Magdeburg. *Naturwissenschaft-
liche Verein zu Magdeburg.

Mannheim. Verein fur Natur-
kunde.

Metz. L’Academie de Metz.

Munich. K. b. Akademie der
Wissenschaften.

Konigliche Sternwarte.

Nassau. Nassauische Verein.

Nurnberg. Naturhistorische Ge-
sellschaft.

Regensburg. (Bavaria.) Natur-
wissenschaftliche Verein zu
Regensburg.

Historische Verein von Ober-
pfalz und Regensburg.

Strassburg. * Kaiserliche Univer-
sitats- u. Landes-Bibliothek.

Wiesbaden. Nassauische Verein
fur Naturkunde.

Holland —

Amsterdam. Koninklijke Ak¬
ademie van Wetenschappen.

’s-Gravenhage. Nederlandsche
Maatschappij ter Bevorder-
ing van Nijverheid.

Haarlem. Musee Teyler.

Societe Hollandaise des Sci¬
ences a Haarlem.

Rotterdam. Bataafsch Genoot-
schap der Proef ondervinde 1-
ijke Wijsbegeerte.

Utrecht. Provinciaal Utrechtsch
Genootschap van Kunsten
Wetenschappen.

Koninklijk Nederlandsch Me-
teorologisch Institut.

Hungary —

Budapest. Bureau of Statistics
of the Capital City Budapest.

Ireland —

Dublin. Royal Irish Academy.

Royal Dublin Society.

Italy —

Bologna. Instituto di Bologna.

Catania. Accademia Gicenia di
Scienze Naturali in Catania

Florence. R. Institute di Studi
Superiori Practici e di Per-
fezronamento.

Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale
di Firenze.

Milan. Reale Instituto Lombar¬
do di Scienze e Lettere.

Modena. Societa dei Naturalisti.

Regia Accademia di Scienze
Lettere ed Arti.

vi

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Italy — Continued.

Naples. L’Anomalo (Doctor An¬
gelo Zuccarelli, Via Salvator
Rosa No. 38).

Societa Italiana delle Scienze.

* Societa di Naturalisti in Na¬
poli.

Palermo. (Sicily) Reale Accade-
mia di Scienze, Lettere e
Belle Arti di Palermo.

Pisa. Societa Toscana di Scienzi
Natural!

Rome. Ministero della Pubblica
Istruzione.

Comitato Geologico d’ltalia.

Java —

Batavia. Konigliche Verein fur
Naturkunde (Koninklijke
Natuurkundige Vereinigung).

Mexico —

Mexico. Sociedad de Geografia
Y Estadistica de la Republica
Mexicana.

Museo Nacional.

Sociedad Mexicana de Historia
Natural.

Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio
Alzate.”

Tacubaya. Observatorio Astron-

omico Nacional de Tacubaya.

Portugal —

Lisbon. Academia Real das Sci-
encias de Lisbon.

Russia —

Kharkow. Societe des Natural-
istes a 1’Universite Imperial©
de Kharkou.

Moscow. Societe Imperial© des.
Naturalistes de Moscou.

Meteorologisches Observatoriunt
der Landwirthschaftlichen
Akademie .

Odessa. * Club Alpin de Crime©
(M. le prof. Kamienski, Sec’y.
Odessa, Russia.)

St. Petersburg. Royal Free Econ¬
omical Society of St. Peters¬
burg.

Comite Geologique.

Acti Horti Petropolitani.

Royal Academy of Sciences.

Physikalisches Central-Obser-
vatorium.

Scotland —

Edinburgh. Royal Society of
Edinburgh.

Spain —

Barcelona.* Real Academia d©
Ciencias Y Artes de Barcelo¬
na.

Norway —

Bergen. Bergen Museum.

Christiana. Norwegian Meteor¬
ological Institute.

Norsk© Gradmaalingskommis-
sion.

Videnskabs Selskabet i Christi
ania.

University of Christiania.

Madrid. Real Academia de la His¬
toria.

Sweden —

Lund. University of Lund.
Stockholm. Kongliga Svenska.
Vetenskaps Akademiens.
Kongl. Vitterhets Historie och
Antigvitets Akademiens Man-
adsblad.

List of Corresponding Societies .

vn

Sweden— Continued.

Upsala. University of Upsala.

Royal Society of Science.

Switzerland —

Basel. Naturforschende Gesell¬
schaft.

Berne. Schweizerische Natur¬
forschende Gesellschaft.

Frauenfeld. Thurgauische Na-
turforschende Gesellschaft.

Freibourg. Societe Fribourgeoise
des Sciences Naturelles.

Lausanne. Societe Yaudoise des
Sciences Naturelles.

Neuchatel. Societe des Sciences
Naturelles.

St. Gallen. St. Gallische Na-
tur wissenschaftliche Gesell¬
schaft.

Zurich. Naturforschende Gesell¬
schaft.

Schweitzerische botanische Ge¬
sellschaft.

United States —

Arkansas:

Little Rock. * Geological Sur¬
vey of Arkansas.

California:

Berkeley. Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station of University of
California.

*

Sacramento. California State
Mining Bureau. Wm. Irelan,
Jr., State Mineralogist.

San Diego. “ The West Amer¬
ican Scientist.”

San Francisco. California Acad¬
emy of Sciences.

San J ose. Lick Observatory.

United States— Continued.
Colorado:

Colorado Springs. * Colorado
College Scientific Society.
Denver. The Colorado Scien¬
tific Society.

Golden. State School of Mines.

District of Columbia:
Washington. U. S. Naval Obser¬
vatory.

U. S. Geological Survey. J.
W. Powell, Director.

. Library of War Department.
*National Geographic Society.
Smithsonian Institution.
Bureau of Education.

The American Monthly Mi¬
croscopical Journal.
Weather Bureau, Dep’t of
Agriculture.

U. S. National Museum.

Illinois:

Avon. The American Anti¬
quarian and Oriental Jour¬
nal, edited by Stephen D.
Peet.

Champaign. Illinois State Lab¬
oratory of Natural History.
Springfield. ^Geological Sur¬
vey of Illinois.

Indiana:

Brookville. *Indiana Academy
of Science.

Indianapolis. *Geological Sur¬
vey of Indiana.

Iowa:

Des Moines. Iowa Academy of
Sciences.

Kansas:

Topeka. The Kansas Academy
of Sciences.

/

viii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

United States— Continued.
Maryland:

Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Uni¬
versity.

Massachusetts:

Boston. Boston Society of
Natural History.
^Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

American Academy of Arts
and Sciences.

Cambridge. (Harvard Univ.)
Museum of Comparative Zo¬
ology.

* Harvard University Library.
Salem. The American Associa¬
tion for the Advancement of
Science.

Worcester. * American Anti¬
quarian Society.

Michigan:

Lansing. * Geological Survey
of Michigan.

Minnesota:

Minneapolis. Geological Sur¬
vey of Minnesota.
Minneapolis. Minnesota Acad¬
emy of Natural Sciences.

Missouri:

Jefferson City. * Geological
Survey of Missouri.

St. Louis. Missouri Botanical
Garden.

The Academy of Sciences of
St. Louis.

Kansas City. “ Kansas City
Keview of Science and Indus¬
try.”

Nebraska:

Lincoln. University of Ne¬
braska.

United States— Continued.

New Jersey:

Trenton. The Trenton Natural
History Society.

Princeton. ^Museum of Geolo¬
gy and Archaeology of Prince¬
ton College.

New York:

Albany. New York State Mu¬
seum of Natural History.
New York State Library.
University of the State of
New York.

New York. Torrey Botanical
Club.

*The Auk; A Quarterly Jour¬
nal of Ornithology.
American Museum of Natural
History. (Central Park.)
New York Microscopical^So-
ciety.

* American Geographical So¬
ciety.

*The Technical Index.
Linnaean Society.

North Carolina:

Chapel Hill. ^Geological Sur¬
vey of North Carolina.

The Elisha Mitchell Scientific
Society.

Ohio:

Cincinnati. Cincinnati Society
of Natural History.
Cleveland. Cleveland Acad¬
emy of Natural Sciences.
Columbus. Ohio Agricultural
Experiment Station.
Geological Survey of Ohio.
Granville. * Journal of Com¬
parative Neurology. (C. L.
Herrick, Editor.)

List of Corresponding Societies.

IX

United States — ©ontinued.

Ohio:

Granville. * Bulletin of the
Scientific Laboratories of
Denison University. (W. G.
Tight, M. S., Editor.)

Pennsylvania:

Harrisburg. Second Geological
Survey of Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia. Academy of Nat¬
ural Sciences.

* The American Naturalist.
Zoological Society of Phila¬
delphia.

State College. (Center County.)
The Pennsylvania State Col¬
lege Agricultural Experiment
Station.

The following Colleges and Incorporated Academies of the state are
entitled to receive the Transactions of the Academy:

Northwestern University, Watertown.

Milwaukee Academy, Milwaukee.

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Ecclesiastical College of St. Lawrence, Mt. Calvary, Fond du Lac
County.

Carroll College, Waukesha.

Pio Nono College, St. Francis, Milwaukee County.

Sacred Heart College, Watertown.

Lawrence University, Appleton.

Beloit College, Beloit.

Yale College, Galesville.

Concordia College, Milwaukee.

Ripon College, Ripon.

German English Academy, Milwaukee.

Nashota House, Na shota.

United States— Continued.

Texas:

Austin. * Geological Survey of
Texas.

West Vikginia:

* Morgantown. West Virginia
University.

Wisconsin:

Madison. Agricultural Experi¬
ment Station of University of
Wisconsin.

State Historical Society.

University of Wisconsin.

Washburn Observatory of Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.

Milwaukee. Naturhistorische
Verein von Wisconsin.

x Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

The Public Libraries of the following places in the state are entitled
to reoeive the Transactions of the Academy:

Ashland,

Marinette,

Beaver Dam,

Menominee,

Eau Claire,

Merrill,

Fond du Lac,

Milwaukee,

Green Bay,

Neenah,

Janesville,

Sparta,

La Crosse,

Superior,

Madison,

Tomahawk,

Manitowoc,

W aupun.

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OP
SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS.”

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly,
do enact as follows :

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, In¬
crease A. Lapham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hob-
bins, E. B. Wolcott, Solon Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C. Cham¬
berlin, James H. Eaton, A. L. Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser,
Wm. E. Smith, J. C. Foye, Wm. Dudley, P. Englemann, A. S. McDill, John
Murrish, Geo. P. Delaplaine, J. G. Knapp, S. V. Shipman, Edward D. Hol¬
ton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus C. Pound, Charles E. Bross, Lyman C. Draper,
John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith, J. M. Bingham, Henry Bsetz, LI. Breese,
Thos. S. Allen, S. S. Barlow, Chas. R. Gill, C. L. Harris, George Reed,
J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D. Hastings and D. A. Baldwin, at
present being members and officers of an association known as “ The
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” located at the city
of Madison, together with their future associates and successors forever,
are hereby created a body corporate by the name and style of the “ Wis¬
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and by that name shall
have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law of contracting and
being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and being
impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and per¬
form such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage
investigation and disseminate correct views in the various departments
of science, literature and the arts. Among the specific objects of the
Academy shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the
material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state, with a
view of determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of
science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes
awardedfto artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

xii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the
collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a
general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu¬
tions to science, literature and the arts.

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the same
at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations and
by-laws as maybe necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive
and hold real and personal property, and may use and dispose of the
same at pleasure; provided , that it shall not divert any donation or be¬
quest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor, and that none of
the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be alienated other than
in the way of an exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and other effects,
with similar institutions and in the manner specified in the next section
of this act, without the consent of the legislature.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the
same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,
at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects
in natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other
schools and colleges of the state.

Section 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful
record of all its financial and other transactions, and at the close of each
fiscal year, the president thereof shall report the same to the governor
of the state, to be by him laid before the legislature.

Section 6. The constitution and by-laws of said Academy now in
force shall govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered
or repealed; and the present officers of said Academy shall be officers
of the corporation hereby created, until their respective terms of office
shall regularly expire, or until their places shall be otherwise vacated.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects
embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof, or
be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to the
governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or in¬
stitution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens^
books and other collections as said Academy may make, the governor
shall prepare such apartment or apartments in the capital as may be so
occupied without inconvenience to the state.

Section 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after
its passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

CONSTITUTION.

NAME AND LOCATION.

Section 1. This association shall be called “ The Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and shall be located at the city of
Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS.

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to encourage
investigations and disseminate correct views in the various departments
of Science, Literature and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 3. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not
less than three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosophy —

Embracing:

Metaphysics;

Ethics.

2 d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing:

Jurisprudence ;

Political Science;

Education;

Public Health;

Social Economy.

2d. The Department of the Natural Sciences —

Embracing:

The Mathematical and Physical Sciences;

Natural History;

The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.

4th. The Department of the Arts —

Embracing:

The Practical Arts;

The Fine Arts.

xiv Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

5th. The Department of Letters —

Embracing:

Language;

Literature;

Criticism;

History.

Section 4. Any branch of these Departments may be constituted a
section; and any section or group of sections may be expanded into a
full department, whenever such expansion shall be deemed important.

Section 5. Any existing society or institution may be constituted a
Department, on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members
present at two successive regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPABTMENTS.

Section 6. The specific objects of the Department of Science shall
be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under
the direction of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of a Scientific Museum.

4. The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Con¬
tributions to Science.

The objects of the Department of Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Applications of
Science and the Encouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Improvement of the
Public Taste, by means of Honors and* Prizes awarded to Works of
Superior merit, by Original Contributions to Art, and the formation of
an Art Museum.

The object of the Department of Letters, shall be:

1. The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

2. The Improvement of the English Language.

3. The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

4. The Formation of a General Library.

MEMBEBSHIP.

Section 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing
members who shall be admitted by vote of the Academy, in the man¬
ner to be prescribed in the By-Laws:

1st. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars,
and thereafter an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

Constitution.

XV

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hun¬
dred dollars.

4th. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of
one thousand dollars.

Provision may also be made for the election of Honorary and Cor¬
responding Members, as may be directed in the By-Laws of the
Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Section 8. The management of the Academy shall be entrusted to a
General Council; the immediate control of each Department to a De¬
partment Council. The General Council shall consist of the officers of
the Academy, the officers of the Departments, the Governor and Lieu¬
tenant Governor, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the
President of the State University, the President and Secretary of the
State Agricultural Society, the President and Secretary of the State
Historical Society, Counselors ex officios, and three Counselors to be
elected for each Department. The Department Councils shall consist of
the President and Secretary of the Academy, the officers of the Depart¬
ment, and three Counselors to be chosen by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Section 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who
shall be ex-officio President of each of the Departments; one Vice-Presi¬
dent for each Department; a General Secretary; a General Treasurer; a
Director of the Museum, and a General Librarian.

Section 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-Presi¬
dent, who shall be ex-officio a Vice-president of the Academy; a Secre¬
tary and such other officers as may be created by the General Council.

Section 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall
hold their respective offices for the term of three years and until their
successors are elected.

Section 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall
be by its members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election,
after the first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all
meetings, shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the Academy, which
shall be framed and adopted by the General Council.

Section 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever,
and no expenses incurred for any person or object whatever, except
under the authority of the Council.

I-

xvi Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

KELATING TO AMENDMENTS.

Section 15. Every proposition to alter or amend this constitution
shall be submitted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two-thirds of
the members present at the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative,,
it shall be adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 3: “ The Department of the Arts shall bo
hereafter divided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the
Department of the Fine Arts.” Passed February 14, 1876.

BY-LAWS.

ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a
member, to the General Council and referred to a Committee on Nom¬
inations, which Committee may nominate to the Academy. A majority
vote shall elect. Honorary and corresponding members must be per¬
sons who have rendered some marked service to Science, the Arts, or
Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.

MEETINGS.

2. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in
July, at such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the
first named to be the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by
the Secretary in the notice of the meeting. At any regular meeting, ten
members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.
Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by
request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

□ 4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of
the Museum and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertain¬
ing to their respective offices, or such as shall be required by the Coun¬
cil. The Treasurer shall give such security as shall be satisfactory to
the Council, and pay such rate of interest [on funds [held by him as the
Council^ shall [determine. Five members of the General Council shall
constitute a quorum.

COMMITTEES.

5. There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of
three members each, when no other number is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.

On Finance.

On the Museum.

xviii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Committee
shall consist of the Governor, the President of the State
University, and the President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the Presi¬
dent of the Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the Gen¬
eral Secretary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens
from the Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it
shall be the duty of said Council to provide for the distribution to the
State University and to the Colleges and Public Schools of the State, of
such duplicates of typical specimens in Natural History as the Academy
may be able to supply without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

7. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of
any Department, shall be as follows:

Reading of minutes of previous meeting.

Reception of donations.

Reports of officers and committees.

Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

8. The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case
of the order of business a majority may suspend. They may be amended
in the same manner as is provided for in the Constitution, for its
amendment.

INDEX TO PAPERS IN VOLUME I TO VIII, INCLUSIVE,
OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS.

Allen, W. F. —

The Rural Population of England as Classified in Vol. Pages.

Domesday Book . I 167-177

The Rural Classes of England in the 13th Century . II 220-233

Ranks and Classes among the Anglo-Saxons . II 234-240

United States Sovereignty, — Whence Derived and

Where Vested . Ill 126-132

Peasant Communities in France . IV 1-6

The Origin of the Freeholders . IV 19-24

The English Cottagers of the Middle Ages . V 1-11

The Primitive Democracy of the Germans . VI 28-42

The Village Community and Serfdom in England. . VII 130-140
Town, Township and Tithing . VII 141-154

Andrews, Edmund —

Discoveries Illustrating the Literature and Religion
of the Mound Builders . IV 126-131

Armitage, W. E. —

The German Sunday . I 62-71

Balg, G. H. —

The Science of the English Language in the Light
of the Gothic . VIII 167-169

Barnes, Charles R. —

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses
Recognized in Lesquereux and James’s Manual of

the Mosses of North America . VIII 11-81

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses
Recognized in Lesquereux and James’s Manual of
the Mosses of North America — Additions and
Corrections . VIII 163-167

Bascom, John —

Freedom of Will Empirically Considered . VI 2-20

XX

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Bennett, Chas. E — Vol. Pages.

Some New Theories of the Greek KA — Perfect . VIII 141-155

Birgke, Edward A. —

Notes on Cladocera . IV 77-109

On the Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal

Cord . VI 51-81

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wiscon¬
sin . VIII 379-398

Blackstone, D. P. —

The Variation in Attraction Due to the Figure of the
Attracting Bodies . VI 197-254

Buel, I. M. —

The Corals of Delafield . V 185-193

Bundy, Will F. —

A List of the Crustacea of Wisconsin, with Notes on
Some Little Known Species . V 178-184

Butler, J. D. —

The Naming of America . II 203-219

Copper Tools Found in the State of Wisconsin . Ill 99-104

First Foot-Prints Beyond the Lakes; or, What
Brought the French so Early into the Northwest . V 85-145

The “ Aita^ Aeyojueva ” in Shakspere . V 161-174

Carpenter, S. H. —

The Metaphysical Basis of Sciences . II 23-34

The Philosophy of Evolution . II 39-58

Caverno, Charles —

Social Science and Woman’s Suffrage . I 72-89

The People and the Railroads . Ill 143-150

The Abolition of the Jury System . IV 7-18

Life Insurance, Savings Banks and the Industrial
Situation . V 21-37

Chamberlin, T. C. —

Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the

Vertebrata . I 138-150

Some Evidences Bearing Upon the Method of the
Upheaval of the Quartzites of Sauk and Columbia
Counties . II 133-138

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxi

Chamberlin, T. C. — Continued. Vol. Pages.

On the Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin

Kettle Moraine . IV 201-234

On a Proposed System of Lithological Nomenclature. V 234-247

Observations on the Recent Glacial Drift of the Alps. V 258-270

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval
Between the Glacial Epochs . VIII 82-86

Chandler, Chas. H. —

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae . VIII 161-2

Chapin, A. L. —

The Relations of Labor and Capital . I 45-61

The Nature and Functions of Credit . V 57-65

Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds —

Report . . Ill 105-109

Comstock, Geo. C. —

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem . VIII 229-233

Culver, G. E. —

Notes on a Little known Region of Northwestern

Montana . VIII 187-205

(With Wm. H. Hobbs).

On a New Occurrance of Olivine Diabase in Minne¬
haha County, South Dakota . VIII 206-210

Daniells, W. W. —

Note on the absorption of arsenic by the Human
Liver . II 128

Davies, J. E. —

On Potentials and their application to Physical

Science . I 155-164

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics . Ill 205-221

Report on Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. . . IV 241-264

Day, F. H.—

On the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian
Rocks as Exhibited in Milwaukee County, Wiscon¬
sin and in Counties Contiguous Thereto . IV 113-125

De Hart, J. M. —

The Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound
Builders of Wisconsin . IV 188-200

xxii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Desmond, Humphrey J. — Vol. Pages.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics . VIII 1-10

Eaton, James H. —

Report on the Geology of the Region about Devils

Lake . I 124-128

Relation of the Sandstones, Conglomerates and
Limestones of Baraboo Valley to each other and to
the Azoic Quartzites. . . II 123-127

Elmendorf, John J. —

Nature and Freedom . IV 62-76

Nature and the supernatural . V 66-84

Aristotles Physics . VIII 169-176

Everest, Kate A. —

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin . VIII 289-298

Feuling, J. B.—

On the Place of the Indian Languages in the

study of Ethnology . I 178-181

The Etymology of Church . II 182-192

Studies in Comparative Grammar . II 117-121

Haldeman, S. S. —

On Several Points in the Pronounciation of Latin
and Greek . II 178-181

Hastings, Samuel D.—

The present Condition of the Common Jails of the

Country . I 90-97

Higley, W. K. —

Reptiles and Batrachia of Wisconsin . VII 155-176

Hobbs, Wm. H. —

On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystal¬
line Rocks of Maryland . VIII 156-160

On a new Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minne¬
haha county, South Dakota . VIII 206-210

Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin . VIII 399-400

Holland, F. M. —

Vexed Questions in Ethics . II 35-38

Records of Marriages . II 73-76

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxiii

Holland, F. M. — Continued. Vol. Pages.

Industrial Education . Ill 136-142

The Boa Constrictor of Politics . Ill 151-160

Were the Stoics Utilitarians . Ill 179-195

Hoy, P. R —

Deep Water Fauna of Lake Michigan . I 98-101

Insects Injurious to Agriculture, Aphides. (Plant

Lice.) . I 110-116

Natural History as a Branch of Elementary Educa-

cation . II 105-106

Some of the Peculiarities of the Fauna of Racine . . II 120-122

Fish Culture . Ill 37-39

On the Extent of the Wisconsin Fisheries . Ill 65-67

On the Catocalas of Racine County . Ill 96-98

How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate

Copper Implements . IV 132-137

Why Are There no Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia IV 147-150

Water Puppy. (Menobranchus lateralis, Say) . V 248-250

The Larger Wild Animals that Have Become Ex¬
tinct in Wisconsin . V 255-257

Who Built the Mounds? . VI 84-100

Who Made the Ancient Copper Instruments . VI 101-106

Hoyt, J. W. — Vol. Pages.

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service of the

United States . II 89-104

On the Formal Commendation of Government

Officials . Ill 133-135

On the Revolutionary Movement Among Women. . . Ill 161-176

Hubbell, Herbert P. —

An Examination of Prof. S. H. Carpenter’s Position
in Regard to Evolution . Ill 196-202

Irving, R. D. —

The Age of the Quartzites, Schists, and Conglomer¬
ates of Sauk County, Wis . I 129-137

On Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wis¬
consin . II 107-119

On a Hand Specimen Showing the Exact Junction
of the Primordial Sandstones and Huronian Schists II 139

On the Occurrence of Gold and Silver in Minute

Quantities in Quartz from Clark County . II 140-141

On Kaolin in Wisconsin . Ill 3-30

xxiv Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Jewell, J. S. — Vol. Pages

Mind in the Lower Animals . IV 164-187

King, C. I. —

Boiler Explosions . IV 151-163

Knapp, J. G. —

Conif erse of the Rocky Mountains . I 117-123

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin . I 151-153

Kremers, Edward —

On the Limonene Group of the Terpenes . VIII 312-362;

Kumlein, Thure —

On the Rapid Disappearance of Wisconsin Wild
Flowers; a Contrast of the Present Time With
Thirty Years Ago . Ill 56-57

Lapham, I. A. —

On the Classification of Plants . I 102-109

Oconomowoc Lake, and Other Small Lakes of Wis¬
consin Considered with Reference to Their Capac¬
ity for Fish Production . III 31-36

The Law of Embryonic Development the same in
Plants as in Animals . Ill 110-113

Leverett, Frank —

Raised Beaches of Lake Michigan . VII 177-192

On the Correlation of Moraines with Raised
Beaches of Lake Erie . VIII 233-241

Loomis, H. B. —

The Effects of Changes of Temperature on the Dis¬
tribution of Magnetism . VIII 273-288

Marsh, C. Dwight. —

On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake . VIII 211-214

Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake VIII 214-218

Mason, R. Z. —

The Duty of the State in its Treatment of the Deaf
and Dumb, the Blind, the Idiotic, the Crippled and
Deformed and the Insane . IV 25-30

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII.

xxv

McMurphy, J. G. — Vol. Pages.

Rotation as a Factor of Motion . IV 235-240

Nader, John —

Leveling and Use of the Barometer . Ill 68-76

Improvement of the Month of the Mississippi River. Ill 84-95

The Tides . V 207-233

A Chapter on Foundations . V 282-289

On the Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineer¬
ing . II 153-160

Nicodemus, W. J. L. —

On the Wisconsin River Improvement . II 142-152

Railway Gauges0 . II 161-177

History of the Science of Hydraulics . II 193-202

On the Ancient Civilization of America . Ill 58-64

Oldenhage, H. —

Remarks on the Descent of Animals . IV 138-146

Parkinson, J. B. —

Wealth, Capital and Credit . V 46-56

Payne, Alford. —

Art as Education . IV 31-43

Peckham, Elizabeth G.

(Gifford, Elizabeth M. and G. W. Peckham). Tem¬
perature of Pine, Beaver and Okanchee Lakes,

Waukesha county, Wisconsin, at Different Depths,
extending from May to December, 1879; also Par¬
ticulars of Depth of Pine Lake . V 273-275

(with Geo. W. Peckham). Genera of the Family At-

tidae, with a Partial Synonomy . VI 257-342

(with Geo. W. Peckham). Attidae of North America VII 41-10

(with Geo. W. Peckham and Wm. M. Wheeler).

Spiders of the Sub-family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

Peckham, Geo. W. —

(with Elizabeth M. Gifford). Temperature of Pine,

Beaver and Okanchee Lakes, Waukesha County,

Wisconsin, at Different Depths, extending from
May to December, 1879; also Particulars of Depth
of Pine Lake

V 273-275

XXVI

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Peckham, Geo. W. — Continued. Vol. Pages,

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham). Genera of the Family

Attidae with a Partial Synonomy . VI 257-342

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham). Attidae of North

America . VII 1-104

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham and Wm. M. Wheeler.)

Spiders of the Sub-family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

Peet, S. D. —

Primitive Architecture in America . V 290-320

Ancient Villages among Emblematic Mounds . VI 154-176

The So-called Elephant Mound in Grant County, and

Effigies in the Region Surrounding it . VII 205-220

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy
Builders . VIII 299-311

Salisbury, R. D. —

Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper . VI 42-50

Saeford, T. H. —

On the Present State of Our Knowledge of Stellar

Motion . VI 145-152

On the Employment of the Method of Least Squares
in the Reduction of Transit Observations . . VII 193-204

Sawyer, W. C. —

Letters an Embarrassment to Literature . IV 50-55

The Philosophy of F. H. Jacobi . V 146-160

Sherman, W. H. —

Vermillion by a New Process — Its Photographic

Properties. (Letter to the President.) . I 165-166

Simmons, H. M. —

Mr. Spencer’s Social Anatomy . IV 56-61

Smith, John G. —

Effect of the Duty on Imports on the Value of Gold. II 77-88

Steele, G. M.—

Population and Sustenance . II 59-72

f

Stuart, J. R.

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art . IV 44-49

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxvii

Sweet, E. T. — Vol. Pages.

Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin . Ill 40-55

On Kerosene Oil . Ill 77-83

Swezey, G. D. —

On Some Points in the Geology of the Region about
Beloit . V 194-204

Todd, James E. —

A Description of Some Fossil Tracks from the Pots¬
dam Sandstone . V 276-281

Tolman, H. C. —

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of
the Achsemenides . VIII 241-273

Trelease, William —

Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . VI 106-144

The Morels and Puff-Balls of Madison . VII 105-120 „

The Working of the Madison Lakes . VII 121-129

Van Cleef, F. L. —

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpidros IIa6x<nv in
its Relation to the Text of Euripides . VIII 363-378

Van Hise, C. R. —

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior
Region . VIII 219-229

Wheeler, Wm. M. —

(With Geo. W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham.) Spiders

of the Sub -family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Seg¬
ment of Embryo Insects . VIII 87-140

Willard, S. W. —

Migration and Distribution of North American
Birds in Brown and Outagamie Counties . VI 177-196

Woodman, E. E. —

The Pipestone of Devils Lake . V 251-258

xxviii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Wright, A. O Vol. Pages.

On the Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wis. . I 154

The Philosophy of History . V 12-20

Distribution of Profits, a New Arrangement of that

Subject . V 38-46

The Increase of Insanity (2 papers) . VI 20-28

The Detective Classes . VIII 176-187

The appendix of this volume includes an index by authors of papers
contained in volumes I- VIII inclusive of the Transactions.

The tables of contents, which were omitted from volumes VI and VII,
will be found at the end of this volume.

The academy has a limited number of copies of volumes II- VIII of its
Transactions, which may be purchased at two dollars per volume. Ad¬
dress Wm. H. Hobbs, Secretary, Madison, Wisconsin.

The Library Committee of the Academy is endeavoring to enlarge the
library and render it more serviceable to members.' It has been thought
best to ask scientific workers to present the library with separates of
their personal papers. The gifts will be acknowledged and the titles of
papers will be printed after the author’s name in the annual report of the
librarian. It is requested that packages from abroad be forwarded
through the agencies of the Smithsonian Institution.

It is further suggested to American workers that the library does not
possess the reports of the State Geological Surveys, with the exception
of Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and some of the
volumes of Maine, Illinois and Ohio. The method of distribution of
these valuable documents adopted by many states, makes it difficult to
obtain them except through the courtesy of individuals.

Direct packages to* or address the Librarian of the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Madison, Wisconsin.

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