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iRANSACTIONS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME XXI—NEW SERIES

PHILADELPHIA
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
1908

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ESSIOR Be yeetare,
THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY
LANCASTER

CONTENTS OF VOL, XXII.

ARTICLE I.

The Morphology of the Pelycosaurian Genus Dimetrodon. By E. C. Case. 5

ARTICLE II.
On the Construction of Isobaric Charts for High Levels in the Earth’s Atmosphere
and their Dynamic Significance. By J. W. Sanpsrr6M. 31

ARTICLE III.
Chromosomes in the Spermatogenesis of the Hemiptera Heteroptera. By Tomas H.
Montcomery, JR. 97
ARTICLE IV.
A Study of the Brains of Six Eminent Scientists and Scholars belonging to the Ameri-
can Anthropometric Society together with a Description of the Skull of Professor
E. D. Cope. By Epw. Antony SpirzKa. 175

ARTICLE V.
A Search for Fluctuations in the Sun’s Thermal Radiation through their Influence on

Terrestrial Temperature. 309

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

ARTICLE I.
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON.
[Plates 1-7.]
BY EH. C. CASE.

(Read October 7, 1904.)

The following description is based on four skulls in the collection of the University
of Chicago, bearing the numbers 1, 114, 1001 and 1002, in the collection of vertebrate
fossils of that University. All four of the skulls were discovered and collected by the
author of this paper, the first two in the summer of 1896 and the last two in the
summer of 1903. All are from practically the same horizon, the Permian beds of
Texas, in Archer and Baylor Counties. Numbers 1 and 114 have already been pretty
fully described by the author (Baur and Case, ’99,’03), and only such portions are
here redescribed as are necessary to supplement the material afforded by specimens
1001 and 1002. The last two consist of singularly perfect skulls, showing the complete
anatomy of the temporal arches, a region which, by reason of its fragility, is almost
always destroyed in the process of fossilization. The two skulls were accompanied by
considerable portions of the skeleton in both cases, but were preserved in a very
different manner. Number 1001 was discovered in a soft, friable shale, carrying much
gypsum and many impressions of ferns, with a considerable quantity of lignite. The
nature of the matrix caused the bones to be badly broken and in some parts rotted by
the gypsum, but all were preserved in place, and the skull and lower jaws were

continuous with the skeleton. The processes of collection and preparation have been

very tedious, but when once the bones were joined they could be cleaned from the
A.P.S.—XXI A

6 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

clay by\'simple washing with a soft sponge, so ‘that all the most minute details of
structure and sculpture are clearly made out.

Specimen No. 1002 was preserved in a compact red clay, and the bones were
covered with a hard scale of caleareous material, which was removed with comparative
ease, leaving the bones hard and perfect. This skull is unique in the perfection of its
preservation, the only portions missing being the temporal arches, in part, of the left
side and the median portion of the epipterygoids. The skull lay on its side, and all
the bones are joined in their natural relations. The whole skull has been crushed
slightly from the sides, so that it is seemingly more narrow than it really is. ‘The
bones of the top of the skull have been slightly broken and the palate has been pushed
slightly downward, but on the whole the skull has been so little changed from its
natural condition in life that it is easily restored.

The four specimens are evidently of the same genus, Dimetrodon, of the Pelyco-
sauria but do not belong to the same species; it is impossible to state their specific
position exactly in the present state of our knowledge, but the specimen numbered 1
has been described (Baur and Case, ’99) as Dimetrodon imeisivus; number 114 as
Dimetrodon (Embolophorous) dollovianus (Case, 03); number 1001 is undetermined
but stands very close to number 1 ; number 1002 is almost certainly Dimetrodon gigas.
No attempt will be made in this paper to point out specific distinctions, the object
being solely to give an accurate account of the skull of the genus Dimetrodon as an
example of the skull of the Pelycosawria in general. The restored skull is made up
almost entirely from the skull of D. gigas (No. 1002) and may be accepted as a very ac-
curate account of the skull of that species, as so little has been used from other sources.

In the original descriptions of specimens 1 and 114 (Baur and Case, ’99 ; Case,’03)
an error was made in considering the articular region of the lower jaw as the articular
region of the skull proper ; this led to an unfortunate series of comparisons and specu-
lations which must be in large part abandoned as based on false assumptions. Notable
among these was direct comparison of the Pelycosawria with the Theriodonts of South
Africa (Cynognathus and Gomphognathus) ; this error was due to the supposed depres-
sion of the quadrate bone and its almost complete disappearance under the suspensorial
bones, a condition very close to that of the African forms; the demonstration that
this condition is not found in the Pelycosawrs removes them from any possible connec-
tion with the Theriodonts though newly discovered structures place them, probably,
rather nearer to the Therocephalia of Broom (’03). The error here cited has already
been corrected in two papers (Case, ’04, ’04’).

The discovery of the elevated condition of the quadrate region shows that the
restoration of the skull previously published (Baur and Case, ’99) was too short in the

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 7

posterior portion and that the orbit was much nearer to the middle of the skull. The
elevated facial region while it is one of the most characteristic features of the skull
was not carried to the extent figured by Cope in his restoration of the closely related
genus Naosaurus (’92).

Below is a detailed description of the skull in which it will be seen that in most
particulars it bears a striking likeness to the skull of Sphenodon so that in most parts
the two can be compared directly.

The quadrate, Pl. V, fig. 1: This is a thin plate of bone of considerable vertical
extent reaching nearly half the height of the posterior portion of the skull, but not
reaching such a great antero-posterior length as the same bone in Sphenodon. The
articular portion consists of two condyles elongate in the antero-posterior direction and
with their main axes converging slightly as they advance so that all motion of the jaws
was rigidly limited to the vertical plane. The outer condyle is the more slender and
lies almost in the plane of the upper portion of the bone ; posteriorly it extends beyond
the main part of the bone as a prominent process with its upper face flattened into a
sort of shelf to which is attached the lower end of the quadrato-jugal. The inner con-
dyle is stouter and is offset from the body of the bone. The posterior edge of the quad-
rate is rounded and gives attachment through its length to the quadrato-jugal, but just
above where the quadrato-jugal joins the upper surface of the inner condyle the two
are separated by a good sized foramen, the foramen quadratum. This foramen serves
as an important landmark in the skull; it is not present in the Cotylosauria; it is
probably present in the primitive Archosauria (= Diaptosawria, Osborn) although it
has been demonstrated only in the Pelycosawria and Rhyncocephalia vera; it is present
in the Theropodous Dinosaurs, the Icthyosawrs and the Phytosaurs; it is absent in the
Crocodilia, the Pterosawrs and the Squamata.

The posterior end of the pterygoid overlaps the quadrate on the inner side, the
lower edge extends back almost to the posterior limit of the bone and is attached to
the inner side of the inner condyle.

The quadrato-jugal: The quadrato-jugal occupies a relatively unimportant posi-
tion in the skull. It is a very thin plate of bone, with its lower end and posterior edge
attached to the quadrate as described above. The upper end becomes very sharp and
is wedged in between the prosquamosal and squamosal and comes in contact with the
parietal. It is separated from any contact with the jugal by the descending process
of the prosquamosal, as described below, and in turn it separates the prosquamosal
from the squamosal, thus occupying a unique position among the reptiles. The
position of the quadrato-jugal is not anomalous, however, for if the upper end were
withdrawn from contact with the parietal by shortening, the prosquamosal and

8 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

squamosal would come in contact, and a union of the two would produce the bone
called squamosal or squamosal + prosquamosal in Sphenodon.

The prosguamosal: The prosquamosal has the position usually assigned to the
quadrato-jugal; that is, it connects the jugal and the quadrate. It would have been
taken for the quadrato-jugal in the present specimens if the presence of the foramen
quadratum had not indicated the true position of the quadrato-jugal. (The significance
of the position of the prosquamosal is discussed in the description of the temporal
region below.) The prosquamosal joins the jugal in about the middle of the inferior
temporal arch, the two bones narrowing somewhat as they approach, so the edges of
the inferior arch are concaye both above and below. Posteriorly the prosquamosal
widens, so that it has an upper and lower process and the bone becomes roughly
T-shaped. The lower three quarters of the posterior edge join the quadrato-jugal and
the upper quarter joins the anterior edge of the posterior process of the postorbital to
form the posterior edge of the superior temporal vacuity. There is a little doubt as to
whether the prosquamosal joins the edge of the quadrato-jugal directly or passes under
it, articulating with the lower surface, and finally articulates with the edge of the
quadrate near the quadrato-jugal. The specimen No. 1002 seems to indicate the
latter condition on one side.

The bones forming the edges of the superior temporal vacuity are approximated
so the vacuity is very small.

In the crushed specimens the sides of the upper vacuity are very close together
and it seems that they must have been so in life. The edges of the bones where they
would meet are very thin and it is possible that they did meet over the vacuity in
specimen 1001, although there could have been no articulation even in this case. It
is impossible to say positively whether this is an appearing or a disappearing vacuity
but the former seems to be the most probable from all considerations. In Diopeus
the most primitive member of the Clepsydropidx, the superior vacuity is very small or
absent. In specimen 1001 there is a strong rugosity of the lower ends of the parietal
which covers the vacuity but this I am inclined to regard as pathological.

From the foregoing it will be seen that so far from the quadrate region of the
skull being depressed and approaching the Theriodont type with any relation to the
development of the mammalian skull it is elevated and of the most primitive char-
acter and in connection with all the other specializations of the skeleton of the Ameri-
ean Pelycosauria (Clepsydropidx) indicates rather the approaching culmination of a
side branch of the primitive stem than the true progress of the Sawro-mammalian mu-
tation which was seemingly accomplished in Africa. It is not proven however, as
Osborn suggests, that the Gomphodontia were descended from forms with primitively

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 9

a single arch (Synapsida) for the possible affinity of the Pelycosawria and Therocephalia,
the last the acknowledged ancestors of the Theriodonts, shows that the ancestors of the
two groups may have been common and have had two arches, at least potentially.

The determination of the composition of the temporal arches and the identifiea-
tion of the foramen quadratum in the Pelycosawria enables certain comparisons to be
made that shed some light on the possible history of the development of the temporal
region in general. Baur has claimed that the squamosal of Sphenodon is the united
prosquamosal and squamosal of the Lacertilia and has cited the condition of Sapheo-
saurus to prove this; on the other hand the evidence of embryology is negative or
even against this idea, for Howse and Swinnerton have shown that there is but a single
center of ossification in the developing squamosal of Sphenodon ('93), a fact admitted
by Baur (’94), and Parker has shown that there is but a single center of ossification for
the squamosal of the Crocodilia.

In the specimens of Dimetrodon here described we have the most perfect example
of the skull of the primitive Archosauria (= Diaptosauria, Osborn) known ; it is unfor-
tunate that the specimens should be of the most specialized members of the group but
a comparison with a less perfect skull of a more generalized member of the same
family, Diopeus (Case, ’03’) shows that the primitive condition has remained largely
unaffected by minor changes. As shown in the figures, the prosquamosal of the Pely-
cosawria occupies the position of the quadrato-jugal in higher forms, 7. e., it connects
the jugal and the quadrate region ; it articulates with the postorbital above and the
quadrato-jugal behind, and is separated from the squamosal by the union of the quad-
rato-jugal and the parietal. It is evident that the shortening of the quadrato-jugal
and its withdrawal from contact with the parietal would permit the meeting and
possible union of the squamosal and prosquamosal; if the two bones united it would
produce the exact condition of the skull of Sphenodon, for all the other bones have the
same relations in the two forms and the Sphenodon has a forward prolongation of the
squamosal which is exactly the same in form and relations as the separate pro-
squamosal of the Pelycosawria. This with the separate condition of the two bones
in Saphxosaurus and in the Icthyosauria would seem to establish the primitive freedom
of the bones beyond question were it not for the antagonistic embryological evidence ;
because of this it seems best to present the case in full.

Concerning the region, Baur said (94, p. 321): “Es handelt sich nun darum, zu
zeigen, dass das squamosum von Sphenodon in der That aus 2 Elementen besteht.
Der jiingste von 6 schideln, den ich vor mir habe (Condylis-occipitalis-Praeemax, 25
mm.) zeigt keine andeutung von 2 elementen; dagegen scheint bei Saphzeosaurus
(Sauranodon) aus dem lithographischen Schiefer von Cirin das squamosum durch 2

10 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

stiicke vertreten zu sein.’ He then cites Lortet’s description of the skull (93) as
incorrect, and Boulenger’s remarks on Lortet’s description (93) to support his own
contention as to the separate nature of the elements. Boulenger said “The bones
described as the posterior portions of the parietals appear to be the supratemporals
(=prosquamosals), distinct from the squamosals.”

In the Ichthyosaurs the two bones are always separate.

In the Dinosaurs, Phytosaurs, Crocodilia and Pterosawrs there is one less element in
the temporal complex; the absent bone belongs to the lower arch, and, judging from
its relations, could be either the quadrato-jugal or the prosquamosal; that it is the
latter is shown by the presence of the quadrate foramen, for it is hardly possible that
such a fenestra as the quadrate foramen, carrying no vessels, should survive a series of
changes involving the disappearance of the quadrato-jugal and the assumption of its
position by the prosquamosal. If the above reasoning is correct the foramen quad-
ratum assumes a considerable morphological importance, as it marks definitely the
posterior bone of the lower arch as the quadrato-jugal. From a consideration of the
position of the quadrato-jugal in the Pelycosawria and Sphenodon and a comparison
with the position of the same bone in the Crocodilia, Dinosawria and Pterosawria it is
easily seen that the forward growth of the quadrato-jugal to unite with the jugal may
have pushed up the prosquamosal and excluded it from the lower arch. In the
Dinosauria in general, and especially in the Theropodous Dinosaurs, which are the
most primitive, and very similar in most points of skull structure to the Pelycosawrs
(the Theropodous Dinosawrs are the only ones which possess the quadrate foramen),
we find the same sort of an anterior process of the squamosal as occurs in Sphenodon.
The steps seem perfect from one condition in the Pelycosawria to the other in the
Sphenodon and Theropodous Dinosawrs.

In the Dinosawria where the quadrate foramen is missing, the Sawropoda and Pre-
dentata, the Crocodilia and Pterosauwria it is safe to assume that the same bone has
disappeared as in the forms where the steps can be traced.

Although the present specimens give no positive evidence concerning the disap-
pearance of the lower arch in the Squamata it suggests very forcibly one thought.
The foramen quadratum is in its inception in the Pelycosauria (it does not occur in
the Cotylosawria or in the primitive Pelycosaurians, Diopeus (Case, ’03’) and is much
larger in Sphenodon; it seems possible that the same process of fenestration which
developed the superior and inferior temporal vacuities may have increased the size of
the foramen quadratum after the exclusion of the prosquamosal from the lower arch,
until the quadrato-jugal was loosened from the quadrate and disappeared in the liga-
ment that represents the inferior arch in the Lacertilia.

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 11

The parietal : The parietal has a broadened horizontal upper portion which unites
by strong suture with the frontal, postorbital and the parietal of the opposite side but
does not join the postfrontal. The pineal foramen lies in about the middle of this
horizontal portion and completely posterior to the orbits. The descending portion of
the bone curves sharply outward and downward and joins the quadrato-jugal as
described above.

The squamosal: The squamosal lies largely on the posterior and inner (toward
the median line) side of the parietal. Its lower end is widened and overhangs the
distal end of the opisthotic exactly asin the Sphenodon but in larger degree. The
relations of the parietal and squamosal are rather peculiar; the squamosal forms the
posterior side of the parietal arch and reaches almost to the median line of the skull
thus forming the major portion of the posterior aspect of the upper part of the skull,
in the Sphenodon the parietal forms the posterior portion of the skull in the median
and does not pass under the squamosal till about the middle of the parietal arch.
This gives the squamosal an appearance of greater prominence on the back of the
Pelycosaurian skull but the bones have essentially the same relations in both
forms.

The cranial region is formed by a single complex bone composed of the closely
cooéssified basioccipital, supraoccipital, exoccipital, opisthotic and petrosal ; in none
of the specimens are there well defined sutures separating these bones so that they
must have united early in life. Figures 2 and 3, Pl. V show this region in specimen
1 where it was found disarticulated and complete ; the same region in the other speci-
mens has been somewhat crushed but show enough to make it evident that they are
of the same character as specimen 1. The following description is taken from a pre-
vious paper discussing specimen 1. (Case, ’99.)

“The occipital region closely resembles that of Sphenodon. The condyle is
formed by the exoccipitals and basioccipital. The exoccipitals meet in the median
line above, excluding the supraoccipital from any part in the foramen magnum.
Laterally they join the expanded proximal ends of the opisthotics. The supraoccip-
ital is a triangular plate inclined forward as it ascends and joining by the base of the
triangle the parietals above. Laterally it joins the opisthotics and inferiorly the
exoccipitals. The opisthotics are expanded proximally, joining the supraoccipital and
exoccipitals. Distally they are elongated outwards, backwards and downwards. The
lower edge of the proximal end is marked by a notch which, in union with similar
notches in the basioccipital and petrosal form the fenestra ovalis. The opisthotics
remained free during life or until advanced age. This feature is found only in turtles,
Ichthyosaurs and the young Sphenodon. It has been noticed in young lizards before

14 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

leaving the egg.* The basioccipital forms the lower portion of the condyle and lies
between the exoccipitals and opisthotics. The lower surface is trough-like for its
posterior half and supported a posterior extension of the basisphenoid. Laterally a
slight notch forms the inner wall of the fenestra ovalis. Anterior to the horizontal,
trough-like portion the inferior surface rises sharply; the angle thus formed is
marked by a large foramen of unknown function, perhaps the hypophysis passes into
the interior of the basioccipital, Pl. V, Fig. 3. The petrosals join the opisthotics,
exoccipitals and the basioccipital, but the sutures are not distinguishable. The lower
part of the anterior edges were continued forward as long processes, the anterior
inferior processes of Siebenrock.+ These are partially destroyed in the specimen. A
deep notch in the anterior edge of the petrosals just above the origin of these pro-
cesses, the inciswra otosphenoidea Sieb., marks the point of exit from the brain cavity
of the fifth pair of nerves (trigeminus). The superior end of the anterior edge is
separated from the supraoccipital by a notch which is continued on the sides of the
bone as a shallow, short groove. The posterior edge contributes the last portion to
the walls of the fenestra ovalis.

“The basisphenoid remained free. The posterior edge is greatly thickened verti-
cally and its lower edge stood well away from the basioccipital. The otic region and
the posterior edge of the basisphenoid were covered with a large mass of cartilage.
The lower surface of the basisphenoid is excavated by a deep pit, Pl. V, Fig. 4, which
opens on the posterior as well as the inferior surface of the bone and divides the
posterior into two parts. The upper edge of the posterior surface, forming the base of
the pit, was continued backward as a spout-like process articulating with the lower
surface of basioccipital. The anterior edge is extended forward as a parasphenoid
rostrum originating between the short and stout pterygoid processes.

“The foramina penetrating these bones are remarkably similar in position to those
penetrating the same bones in Sphenodon. The condylar foramen transmitting the
twelfth pair (hypoglossus) penetrates the exoccipital just anterior to the edge of fora-
men magnum. Its outer end opens in a notch (the inciswra vene jugularis Sieb.) in
the side of the exoccipital. A little below and further forward a second and much
smaller foramen opens in the same notch; this may transmit either the ninth or tenth
pair of nerves or a minor blood vessel. Passing forward the notch deepens and is
very soon converted into a foramen by the adjacent portion of the opisthotic. This is
the foramen vene jugularis of Siebenrock and transmits the jugular vein and either the

*Siebenrock, F.: Das Skelet der Lacerta Simonyi Steind. und der Lacertiden familie iiberhaupt ; Sitzunberichten

der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. Mathm. Naturwiss. Classe., ciii, Abth. 1, April, 1894.
t Siebenrock, F.: Zur Osteologie des Hatteria-Kopfes, ibid., Bd. cii, Abth. 1, June, 1893.

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 13

ninth or tenth nerves or both of them. In Sphenodon the foramen transmits not only
these but the twelfth pair as well, the nerves being separated from the vein by very
thin walls of bone and may be separated from each other or haye a common canal.
The opening of the twelfth pair into the notch which forms the beginning of the
jugular foramen is then very similar to the condition found in Sphenodon.

ay Ht!
1 A
f Why Wl
WHAT
Si tit

Fic. 1. Lateral view of the cast of the brain cavity Fic. 2. Inferior view of the same cast. Lettering
of the Dimetrodon incisivus, specimen No. 1. Cb., cere- as in Fig. 1.
bellum ; 7y., cast of the otic cavity ; Hy., hypophysis ;
Ju., cast of jugular foramen. 5, 7, 12, casts of the fora-
mina for the corresponding cranial nerves.

“The fenestra ovalis is a single opening leading by a very short canal directly into
the brain cavity, a character found in fishes and the amphibian Menopoma and existing
imperfectly in some recent reptilia, as the turtles. The same thing is described by
Cope as existing in another Permian reptile, from the same horizon as the present
specimen, but belonging to a separate family, the Diadectidx, and his order Cotylosawria.

“The foramina for the seventh (facial) pair of nerves appear on the outer surface
of the petrosal just anterior to the fenestra ovalis. They are located relatively a little
further back than in Sphenodon. On the inner face of the same bone the foramina
appear at the side of the base of the brain cavity a little anterior to their external
opening. They are located just anterior to a slight ridge which defines the limits of
the tympanic cavity. In Sphenodon this is about the point of location of a foramen
common to the seventh and eighth nerves, which, however, almost immediately divides,
the posterior branch penetrating the inner wall of the tympanic cavity and leading
the auditory nerve to the inner ear.

“The foramen for the fifth (trigeminus) nerve is completed from the incisura
otosphenoidea by the membranous wall of the anterior portion of the brain case, as in
Sphenodon and many lizards.

A. P. Si—XXI. B.

14 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

“A cast of the brain cavity shows fairly well all parts posterior to the fifth pair
of nerves, and the hypophysis anterior to them. As is well known, the brain in the
reptilia does not fill the brain cavity, but is supported by a mass of connective tissue
carrying lymph and fat masses; so a cast of the brain cavity does not give an exact
copy of the brain. However, many points can be brought out by such a cast.

“Tf the cast be held with the short terminal portion of the medulla horizontal,
the lower surface pitches downward at a sharp angle to a point anterior to the
tympanic region, and then ascends as sharply to the point of origin of the hypophysis.
The superior surface is horizontal and arched from side to side to a point over the
tympanic cavity and there turns upward at an angle of 45°. The angle thus produced
is marked by a low, narrow ridge running across the cast and marking the position
on the brain of a narrow and elevated cerebellum, Fig. 1 Cb., such as occurs in
Sphenodon. This region was probably the seat of a large amount of connective tissue,
and it is probable that the upper surface of the medulla descended at as sharp an angle
as the lower. This would make still more marked the resemblance to Sphenodon and
to the cast figured by Cope. This sharp bend of the medulla downward is not found
in other forms, though in the brain of Chelonia and some lacertilia a bend is apparent.

“The sides of the medulla show most posteriorly the beginning of the twelfth
nerves, Figs. 1 and 2 (12), anterior to these the cast of the jugular foramen, Figs. 1 and
2 Ju., and finally the large casts of the tympanic cavity, Figs. 1 and 2 Ty.

“Anterior to the tympanic casts a sharp constriction marks the ridge defining the
limits of the tympanic cavity, and then a sharp outswelling the point of exit of the
trigeminus nerve, Figs. 1 and 2 (5). Near where these leave the body of the cast a
small stub on each side marks the origin of the seventh pair, Figs. 1 and 2 (7).

“The hypophysis is the most interesting feature of the brain. Descending between
the anterior inferior process of the petrosal and turning posteriorly, it occupies a small
notch in the posterior edge of the upper surface of the basisphenoid and then passes
directly into the body of the basioccipital through the foramen mentioned. In the
Crocodilia a somewhat similar condition exists.”

Some additional points have been made out from specimens 1001 and 1002. The
distal ends of the opisthoties rest on or close to the upper edges of the quadrates and
are overlapped by the squamosals. On the left side of the cranial region of specimen
1002 the median portion of the stapes is preserved; it shows that the stapes was a
slender rod extending from the foramen to the quadrate just beneath the opisthotie,
unfortunately neither end is preserved. Cope speaks of both a columella auris and a
stapes but there is no evidence of more than a single bone in these specimens. ‘The
semicircular canals of both sides are fairly well preserved and show the presence of a

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 15

large ampullar space (ampullenrauwm Siebenrock) and well developed semicircular
eanals. A displaced portion of the petrosal shows the penetration of the canals into
its body.

The jugal: The jugal forms the lower half of the orbital rim. The orbital edge
is widened by the development of a strong, sharp ridge on the outer side of the bone
so that the socket is bordered on the lower side by a shelf of at least a centimeter in
width. The lower part of the bone is very thin and the edges are without thickening
rugosities. On the inner side of the jugal a strong ridge extends obliquely downwards
and forwards from the orbit to the antero-inferior angle of the bone, here it leaves the

Fic. 3. View of the inner side of the skull opposite the posterior end of the maxillary showing the mode of articu-
lation of jugal, palatine, maxillary and transverse ; pf. transverse. Specimen No. 1002.
bone and extends as a sessile process with a bifurcate end ; into the bifurcation of the
end articulates the upper end of the transverse, figure 3. The articulation with the
maxillary is by a close interdigitating suture which locks the bones very closely
together.

The bones of the top of the skull have already been described from specimens
number 1 and 114 and the separate elements figured but in the specimen 1001 the
top of the skull is preserved on one side without distortion and the bones can be seen
in their natural relations. Figures 1 and 1a, Pl. VI.

The postorbital : The postorbital consists of a flat anterior portion and two post-
erior branches. One of the posterior branches extends downwards to join the jugal
and form the upper half of the posterior rim of the orbit, it passes inside of the jugal
and so forms much more of the orbital rim than appears on the exterior. The second,
upper, posterior process passes backward to join the prosquamosal and form the upper
edge of the inferior temporal vacuity. The anterior portion joins the postfrontal and
parietal, its outer edge is thickened and rugose and forms the posterior portion of the
superorbital ridge.

16 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

The postfrontal: The postfrontal is a quadrangular bone which articulates
with postorbital and frontal, its outer edge carries forward the rugose superorbital
ridge.

The roof of the orbit formed by the postorbital, postfrontal, frontal and prefrontal
is rounded and vaulted so that its capacity is much increased inwardly. From the
inner edges of the lower side of the postorbital and prefrontal, ridges extend inward
in a curve, these are continued inward on the lower surfaces of the frontal and post-
frontal until they finally meet on the median line of the skull completing a perfect
semicircle. ‘This truss-like ridge surrounding the vaulted roof of the orbit adds greatly
to the strength of the skull.

The /achrymal: The lachrymal is not well shown in any of the specimens nor is
there a lachrymal foramen. In some of the specimens there is evidence of a faint
suture on the anterior edge of the orbit indicating the possible presence of a distinct
bone but it is impossible to trace the suture out upon the facial portion of the skull.
Howse and Swinnerton in their discussion of the development of Sphenodon say that
there is no trace of a lachrymal in that form, it may be very possible that it did not
develop in the Pelycosawria, certainly if it did it very early coalesced with the sur-
rounding bones.

The frontal: The frontal is an elongate bone lying horizontally in the skull, near
the posterior end a process extends outward to the orbital rim forming the middle of
the edge. The union of the bones of the two sides gives a distinct cruciform arrange-
ment in the middle of the skull roof. The articulations of the bone are best shown in
Figure 1, Pl. VI.

The prefrontal: The prefrontal forms the superior anterior angle of the orbit and
extends forward between the nasal and frontal above and the maxillary and lachrymal
(?) below. The posterior portion of the bone is bent at right angles on the antero-
posterior axis, so that the upper portion of the bones is horizontal and the lower
vertical. The horizontal portion forms a part of the roof of the skull and the anterior
part of the superorbital ridge. On the vertical portion a strong ridge carries forward
onto the facial region the superorbital ridge. Beneath the posterior end of this ridge
and just anterior to the orbit is a deep pit. The presence of this ridge and pit is one
of the characteristic features of the Pelycosaurian skull.

The nasal: The nasals are elongate bones occupying the median line of the skull
and extending from a point just anterior to the orbits to the anterior nares in front.

The septo-mavillary : Anterior to the nasal and forming the posterior edge of the
narial opening is a singular bone, the septo-maxillary. These bones are of peculiar
form, difficult of description, but indicated in figures 1, Pls. II and 1V. Each bone

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON 1 ibf

is bent at right angles, so that the lower half forms the floor of the posterior half of
the nares and the upper half its posterior edge. The two bones of the opposite side
meet in the median line. Of the vertical portion, the inner part is only one-half so
high as the outer, so that while the outer part extends to the top of the nares, the
inner part reaches up only one-half the height. This forms a dam across the posterior
part of the nares, so that the air in entering must first pass upward and over the dam
and then downward into the mouth. On the outer side of the septo-maxillary a short

yo)
Fic. 4. Cross section through the facial region of Fic. 5. Section of same opposite the middle of the
the skull of D. gigas, No. 1002, opposite the middle of the diastemal notch. Letterings as in Fig. 4.

palate. Showing the thinness of the facial bones and the
alveolar edge. n., nasal; mx., maxillary; pl., vertical
plates of pterygoids ; pl., palatines ; pv., prevomer.

process at the posterior inferior angle of the nares divides two foramina which pass
between the septo-maxillary and the maxillary to the interior of the skull. Their
function is entirely problematical.

The premacillaries: The premaxillaries are heavy rounded bones uniting in the
median line by a wide sutural area. The lower edge is thickened for the reception of
the tooth sockets, and the outer surface of the edge is marked by deep pits and

18 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

rugosities. The suture between the premaxillary and maxillary terminates below in
the middle of the diastemal notch. Superiorly the premaxillaries send upward and
backward long processes, which pass between the nasals and form the upper portion
of the nares. The premaxillaries always carry large tusks and smaller teeth; the
tusks lie near the median line in the fore part of the bone, but their number seems to
be variable in the different species.

The mavillaries: ‘The maxillaries are peculiar in their great vertical extent
forming the greater portion of the elevated facial region. The upper portion is
remarkably thin, never exceeding 2 mm., even in the largest specimen, while the edge
of the bone carrying the teeth may reach a thickness of two and three centimeters.
The thinness of the upper portion of the maxillary is shared by the adjacent bones,
the nasals, prefrontal, jugal and lachrymal; so that this part of the skull is almost
always shattered in the processes of fossilization and lost. Specimen 1002 is the only
one I know in which the facial region is perfect. The lower edge of the bone is very
abruptly widened into a thick dentigerous border, Figs. 4 and 5, which is in strong
contrast to the weak upper portion of the facial region. The width of this border is
greatest opposite the enlarged canine near the anterior end of the maxillary and
decreases in width toward the posterior end of the bone as the teeth become smaller.
In the diastemal notch there seems to be no great widening of the edge, even in the
forms where teeth are present in the notch. The posterior end of the bone articulates
with the jugal, as described above. The outer surface of the bone on the lower edge
is marked with pits and rugosities.

The teeth are lenticular in form with distinct fore and aft cutting edges which
are strongly serrate. The roots of the teeth are implanted in distinet sockets which
may reach a depth as great as the length of the tooth beyond the outer edge of the
bone ; the outer edge of the bone extends much farther down than the inner so that
a good bit of the length of the tooth after it leaves the socket rests against this edge.
The root of the tooth is hollow and its inner end is open so that it is evident that the
teeth were replaced by absorption of the root and continued growth of new teeth ;
this process is seen in actual progress in some places. In specimen 114 there are two
large canines in the maxillary and in the others but one, this is possibly a case of
where one canine has failed to fall out as the other develops. The number of maxil-
lary teeth is variable but does not exceed twenty in any of the specimens. Teeth
develop in the diastemal arch in some forms of the Pelycosauwria and not in others,
but this seems to be a developmental feature, as teeth occur in the more primitive
Diopeus, in the notch but are absent in Dimetrodon and Naosaurus, the most
specialized,

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 19

The transverse: Heretofore the transverse has not been recognized in any speci-
men but in numbers 1001 and 1002 its presence and relations are readily seen. On
the inner side of the jugal as described above and shown in figure’ 3 a strong ridge
extends forward and receives into its bifurcated end the upper end of the transverse,
from this point the transverse extends straight downward on the anterior and outer
face of the outer process of the pterygoid ; its lower edge fuses with the pterygoid so
that it is impossible to describe its lower limit exactly but it does not extend very far
down on the pterygoid. The anterior edge of the transverse unites with the posterior
end of the maxillary so that it is held firmly in its position.

The pterygoid: The pterygoid as repeatedly described has a distinct tripartite
form, consisting of an anterior horizontal portion, a median vertical process and a
posterior portion which joins the quadrate. The form of the bone is best shown in
figures 6 and 7, Pl. V, which are from specimen 1.

The anterior plate is separated from the maxillary by the palatine and the trans-
verse, the bones join the pterygoid directly so that there are no palatine vacuities in
the posterior part of the palate. The anterior processes come very close together in
the median line but it is impossible to say whether they are united throughout their
length or not; it seems probable that there was a space between the posterior portions
but the anterior parts come close together. From the inner edges of the anterior por-
tions of the pterygoids vertical plates extend upward in the skull forming a median
septum in the lower part of the nasal region. Anteriorly these plates unite and below
they pass into the prevomers; the suture between the plates and prevomers is visible
anteriorly but posteriorly it disappears. (Figs. 4 and 5, and Pl. IV, Fig. 1, pt.) Sim-
ilar vertical plates on the inner edge of the pterygoids of Proterosuchus fergusi Broom.
See Fig. 7a, page 26. The median portions of the anterior processes were covered
with small teeth that were in part, at least, implanted in shallow sockets.

The median external process is a stout projection with a flat external face which
formed a buttress for the lower jaw such as occurs in the Crocodilia and in Sphenodon ;
it stands much nearer the surface of the skull than in the forms mentioned so that its
outer face is in almost the same plane as the side of the skull. The upper and anterior
portion of the external face of this process is certainly formed by the transverse and it
is marked by a sculpture of fine lines. The lower edge of the process is rounded and
carries a row of teeth in sockets; the number and size of these teeth vary and so seem
to be of value in specific determination.

The posterior process is a broad plate standing nearly vertically in the skull but
inclining inward somewhat at the top. At the point of departure from the median
process it is of less vertical extent and stouter but as it passes back it becomes very

20 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

thin and plate-like. It joins the quadrate as described above and from its upper sur-
face rises the epipterygoid.

The epipterygoid: The epipterygoid is the only bone that does not have a com-
plete representation in one of the four skulls. In number 1002 the lower ends are
still in contact with the pterygoid but the upper part is lost, it seems that the bone
articulated loosely by the intervention of cartilage much as in Sphenodon. The form
was that of a slender flattened pillar.

The palatine: The palatines are slender plates closely attached to both the maxil-
laries and pterygoids. The attachment to the maxillary is very firm, a vertical
expansion of the bone is applied to the inner side of the alveolar edge and from this
springs the horizontal plate. The bone reaches from the posterior end of the maxil-
lary to a point opposite the canine tooth. The anterior end forms the posterior edge
of the posterior nares.

The basi-sphenoid: The form of the basi-sphenoid is best shown in figures 4 and
5, Pl. V, the posterior end is swollen and articulates with the basi-occipital ; there is
evidence of the presence of considerable cartilage in this region during life. On the
lower surface there is a deep pit and near the anterior end two strong articular faces.
The anterior end terminates in a strong, median, vertical plate.

The deep pit excavating the lower surface of the basisphenoid is in all probability
the lower opening of the eustachian tubes. In most reptilian forms the tubes pass
into the pharynx in the neighborhood of the basioccipital-basisphenoid suture and
anterior to the fenestra ovalis. In the crocodilia and the aglossal batrachians they
have a common opening into the mouth. In the present form the tubes probably
penetrated the large mass of cartilage covering the otic region and the posterior end of
the basisphenoid and found a common opening in the deep pit described. It is diffi-
cult to imagine the use of such an extensive cavity in the basisphenoid, but in the
Teleosawria an equally large cavity is found roofed over with bone. Anterior to this
pit two foramina penetrate the lower surface of the basisphenoid bone and on its
upper surface a large foramen appears just posterior to the origin of the parasphenoid
rostrum. ‘Through the pair on the lower surface the internal carotid arteries enter
the bone and through the upper it gains access to the brain cavity by way of the
pituitary fossa. On either side of the single foramen a pair of small foramina carry
branches of the internal carotid. All of these foramina are very similar in position to
the same ones in Sphenodon.

The two articular faces near the anterior end are the basipterygoid processes ;
there are no corresponding articular faces on the pterygoid and it is evident from the
specimen 1002 where the bones of the palatal surface of the skull are little disturbed

OF THE PELY COSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 21

that they did not articulate with the pterygoids on their inner side opposite the
external processes, as at first supposed, but much further back. It is probable that
there was a large mass of cartilage between the basipterygoid processes and the ptery-
goid comparable to the meniscus pterygoideus described by Howse and Swinnerton in
the developing Sphenodon skull.

The parasphenoid : From between the basipterygoid process extends anteriorly a
vertical, compressed plate (Fig. 2, Pl. VII, and Figs. 4 and 5, Pl. V) which extends
directly upward in the median line of the skull. The point of union of this plate
and the basisphenoid is marked on the upper edge by a deep notch. It has been
shown by Parker, Siebenrock, Howse and Swinnerton and others that the basi-
sphenoid of the adult reptiles is a compound bone formed of the true cartilaginous
basisphenoid and a dermal ossification which is the parasphenoid of the amphibians.
In embryonic and even in early postembryonic life in Sphenodon (according to Sieben-
rock) the suture between the two is traceable. In the forms with a cartilaginous inter-
orbital septum (Crocodilia, Lacertilia and Chelonia) the cartilaginous presphenoid is
not ossified and the parasphenoid extends as a slender styliform process from the
anterior end of the basisphenoid beneath the cartilaginous interorbital septum and
supports in embryonic life the membranous floor of the pituitary space. ‘There is no
doubt that the anterior process of the basisphenoid in the Pelycosawria, as in the
Lacertilia and Rhyncocephalia vera, is the remnant of the parasphenoid united to the
basisphenoid and not the presphenoid as first described by Baur and Case (’99).

The ethmoid: Instead, however, of the parasphenoid process of the Pelycosauria
ending as a slender rod in the floor of the pituitary space it extends upward as a strong
slender plate and unites above with a second plate which is in contact with the lower
surface of the frontal bones. The suture between the parasphenoid and this plate is
closed but its position is marked by a low ridge showing the point of coosification.
The upper edge of the upper plate is planted firmly against the under side of the
frontals and there seems to be ample evidence of a direct sutural union but as the
region is somewhat crushed it is possible that the plate did not quite touch the frontal
in life but was connected with it by cartilage and that it has been forced into close
contact by the accidents of fossilization ; however it may be, the relations of the bone
would not be altered. The anterior edge of the plate is irregular and very thin show-
ing that it passed gradually into the cartilage of the interorbital septum in front. The
upper portion of the posterior edge is thin but the inferior posterior angle is thickened
and rounded, there is a deep notch between this angle and the parasphenoid below
and this notch marks the position of the escape of the second pair of cranial nerves.
There is no trace of either orbito- or ali-sphenoid ossification, as remarked above.

A. P.S.—XXL ©.

22 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

A plate identical in position and relations with this one has recently (Broom,
04) been demonstrated in Lystrosawrus (Ptychognathus), see Fig. 6. In the Cro-
codilia, Lacertilia and Chelonia the interorbital septum is cartilaginous, and in the
Ophidia the osseous septum is formed in a very different manner, by the extension of
the brain case forward and the downward development of the frontal bones to meet
the parasphenoid without any intervening ossification of a median septum.

In the young Sphenodon there is a very complete cartilaginous septum which is
double in the region of the nasal and oral capsules, but in the orbital region is single
and reaches upward toward the frontal, from the upper surface of the parasphenoid.
This plate is called by Howse and Swinnerton the presphenoid cartilage, but the
presphenoid is a basi-cranial bone, and in the chondrocranium is that portion of the

Fic. 6. Median section of the skull of Lystrosaurus ( Ptychognathus) latirostris Owen. After Broom. bo., basi-occip-
ital ; bs., basi-sphenoid ; eth., ethmoid; fr., frontal ; fm., foramen magnum; 7., nasal; p., parietal; pp., preparietal ;
pf., pineal foramen, pmz., premaxillary ; pt., pterygoid ; ro., vomer.

cartilage anterior to the pituitary region. It is evident that the whole of the cartilage
called by Howse and Swinnerton the presphenoid cannot be true presphenoid, but that
the anterior portion at least must belong to the interorbital septum, the ethmoidal
complex.

The developing chondrocranium of the different orders of reptiles is, in all the
essentials of the relationships of the parasphenoid bone and presphenoid and septal
cartilages, the same; so that it is evident that the median plate of the skull of the
Pelycosauria here described is an ossification of the median septum of the skull directly
connected below with the parasphenoid bone, 7. e., the ethmoid.

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 23

The vomers?: Sutton (’84) and Broom (’02) have demonstrated that the bones
known as vomers in the fishes, amphibians and reptiles are not homologous with the
bone known as vomer in the mammals, but they are separate ossifications of the
palatine region of the skull.

It is impossible to reproduce the argument of Sutton’s paper because of its length,
but the main points made are as follows: He first shows that the parasphenoid of the
adult Pike and the vomer of the human foetus at birth have essentially the same
relations, and that in an earlier stage of the human fcetus, before the roof of the mouth
has closed, all the resemblance between the positions of the two bones is even more
striking. He shows that in the history of the development of reptiles from amphibians
the increased ossification of the basi-cranial bones does away with the need of a well
developed parasphenoid bone to support the floor of the brain case. He then demon-
strates the complex origin of the maxillary bone in the mammals and comes to the
following conclusions :

“Tt is now evident that for morphological purposes the superior maxillary
consists of four distinct portions—

‘“‘(a) The premaxillary region in relation with the ethmo-vomerine cartilage and
the naso-palatine nerve.

‘“(b) A prepalatine portion forming a platform for the support of the anterior end
of the vomer.

“(¢) A maxillary center situate to the inner side of the superior maxillary division
of the fifth nerve.

‘“(d) The malar piece lying outside this nerve and supporting the maxillary bone.”
He concludes that the prepalatine centers are the homologues of the vomers of the
amphibians because—

1. They are membrane-formed bones.

2. The bone in each case underlies the anterior end of the yvomer and parasphe-
noid, respectively.

3. Although in the Pike the so-called vomer is median and single, nevertheless in
Lepidosteus, Rana, Menobranchus and many other (reptiles) forms, the bones so called
are double.

4. In their relation to the premaxillee and palate bones they fulfill the required
anatomical conditions.

In his work on the origin of the mammalian vomer Broom (03), after a careful
and full discussion of the relations of the bones, gives the following conclusion, p. obs:
“In the large majority of the reptilian orders the so-called “ vomers” are undoubtedly
homologous with the prevomers of the lizard. This is the case in the Ophidia, Rhyn-

24 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

cocephalia, Plesiosauria, Iethyosauria, Pelycosauria, Dinosauria and Pareiasauria. In
the Theriodontia and Anomodontia the bone which has been referred to as the vomer
is the true homologue of the mammalian vomer, and this is almost certainly also the
ease in the Chelonia.” He then, following the same line of argument, proceeds to
demonstrate that the parasphenoid of the Amphibia is the homologue of the mam-
malian vomer.

In comparing the median section of the skull of the Dimetrodon with that of
Lystrosaurus (Ptychognathus), Fig. 6, it is evident that the separate vomer of the
Anomodont skull is absent in the Pelycosawria, but it seems probable that the para-
sphenoid plate still attached to the anterior end of the basi-sphenoid can be nothing
but the developing vomer, thus furnishing ample proof of the theory of the origin of
the mammalian vomer as proposed by Sutton and Broom.

Broom has already shown (:03”) that the most primitive of the African forms,
Proterosuchus of the Therocephalia, has a true median vomer (parasphenoid) correlated
with vertical plates rising from the inner edge of the pterygoids exactly as in the
Pelycosauria. This median plate is present in the mammals and in the Gomphodontia,
it is just as certainly absent in all other reptiles; it seems safe to predict that when
the anatomy of the Theriodonts is known that a complete series connecting the Gom-
phodonts with the Therocephalia will be shown to have this median plate.

The prevomers: The specimen number 1002 is of especial value in preserving
the thin median plates of the skull. It clearly shows the presence of paired pre-
vomers. The prevomers (Broom : 03’) are rather stout rods of bones extending from
the middle of the premaxillaries backward and downward in a curve to a point oppo-
site the end of the palatine. Their form and relations are shown in Figs. 1 and
2, Pl. VII, and Fig. 1, Pl. [V. The curvature of the lower surface makes a vaulted
roof to the mouth in the anterior portion. In about the middle of their course they
are free from the bones on the sides leaving a cavity which forms the posterior nares ;
the sides of the prevomers at this point are marked by a prominent rugosity of the
edge. Superiorly and posteriorly the prevomers join the vertical pterygoid plates ;
superiorly the upper edges diverge and receive between them the united plates, pos-
teriorly they shade indefinitely into the plates so that it is impossible to fix the exact
limits of the bones.

The Jower jaw: In specimen 1001 the lower jaws are preserved almost perfectly ;
the coronoid which was a small splint bone seems to be lost from both sides. The
posterior portion of the jaw becomes very high by the development of the posterior
bones as vertical plates and from the inner side of this region the articular region pro-
jects as an almost sessile process made up of various processes from the angular, suran-

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. 25

gular and prearticular (splenial) ; for this reason the posterior portion of the jaw is
almost always shattered in the ground and the more solid articular region is the most
commonly preserved. It was such an isolated mass which was interpreted by Baur
and Case as the articular region of the skull.

Figs. 1 and 1a, PI. III, shows the lower jaws and the articular region in detail.

The articular: The articular is a flattened disc-like bone completely enclosed on
all sides but the superior. The upper surface bears two cotyli corresponding to the
condyles of the quadrate. On the under side of the articular the posterior ends of the
prearticular (splenial) and the angular meet in the median line and furnish the main
support of the articular region ; between the articular and angular is slipped the pos-
terior end of the surangular, this appears largely on the upper surface and forms the
inner side of the pedicle supporting the articular and its main attachment to the
main portion of the jaw. On the outer side of the upper surface the prearticular
appears and the articular sends a process forward for a short distance between
this bone and the surangular. There is a deep pit extending backward and in-
ward along the line of the articular-surangular suture. From the posterior edge of
the articular in specimen 1001 a curious short curved process extends inward and
upward.

The main portion of the bone is best understood from figures. The articular
pedicle is crushed down, in the natural condition it stood out almost at right angles
from the jaw.

The surangular passes directly into a broad plate forming the posterior portion of
the upper half of the bone ; it rises rapidly as it passes forward to meet the rising end
of the dentary. There are impressions on the adjoining ends of these two bones indi-
cating the loss of an element, the coronoid.

The angular forms the lower portion of the posterior half of the jaw; it is rather
wide and continues the lower edge of the jaw as far downward as the coronoid carried
the superior edge upward. It extends forward past the middle of the jaw forming a
good portion of the outer surface of the jaw.

The prearticular extends forward between the angular and surangular till it
meets the splenial.

The splenial is relatively narrow, covering the upper half of the inner face of the
jaw and extending as far forward as the symphasis of the jaw but does not take part
in the symphasis.

The dentary carries a variable number of teeth in the different species, there are
always one or two enlarged tusks near the anterior end, corresponding to the incisor
tusks of the premaxillary above but none that correspond to the canine tusk.

26 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE. SKULL

It is impossible to pass from the discussion of the skull of the Pelycosauria without
speaking of its relations to certain of the more primitive reptiles of the African region ;
it has been shown in the first part of this paper that there can be no relation as pre-
viously supposed between the more specialized African which are ancestral to the
Promammalia and the Pelycosauria but there is a group of very primitive forms

which show a very decided resemblance to the Pelycosawrs.

In the prosecution of his valuable work on the Permian reptiles of South Africa
Broom has divided the original group Theriodontia into two groups, the Therocephalia
and Theriodontia (:03). These groups are characterized as follows :

THEROCEPHALIA.

“Medium sized reptiles, with temporal region supported by a single lateral arch.
Post frontals usually absent (present in Scylacosaurus), postorbitals and squamosals

Fic. 7a. Cross section through the skull of P. fer-

gusi after Broom.

TS

eeooteecse

er ccolt eee rt oe eo

oes

SVS. WARE SAEED

XS

"=~ 4 ete maces OS Cones
-
see e ee ee

ec oooeeeseeo oo eee OO

“220900 © eee

Fig. 8. The palatal region of Scylacosaurus

The palate of Proterosuchus fergusi, Broom after

FIG. 7.
sclateri, Broom after Broom,

Broom,

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON. PAL

present, supratemporals and quadrato-jugals absent. A well developed quadrate.
Palate a slight modification of the Rhyncocephalian type. Teeth on the pterygoids
in Scylacosaurus and lurosaurus. Maxillary and premaxillary differentiated as in
mammals into incisors, canines and molars. Occasionally more than one pair of
canines; molarssimple. Scapula without an acromion process ; probably a cleithrum.
Manus and pes unknown.” = Including Seylacosawrus, Alwrosawrus, Ictidosuchus, Deu-
terosaurus, Rhopalodon, Titanosuchus, and Gorgonops.

THERIODONTIA.

Medium sized reptiles, with temporal region supported by a single lateral arch.
No distinet postfrontals, supratemporals or quadrato-jugals. Quadrate rudimentary.
A secondary palate formed by the maxillaries and palatines. Prevomers small.
True vomer large. Transpalatines usually absent. Occipital condyle double. No
teeth in palate. Scapula with a distinct acromion. Phalangeal formula 2, 3, 3, 3, 3.”

Including Lycosawrus, ? Cynodraco, Cynognathus, Galesawrus, Gomphognathus,
Microgomphodon, Trirachodon, and Diademodon.

A glance will show the resemblance that, except for the condition of the temporal
arches, exists between the Therocephalia and the Pelycosawria. In Figures 7 and 8 are
shown the palate of Scylacosawrus and Proterosuchus drawn after Broom showing the
remarkable similarity of the palate in these genera to the Pelycosauria. This resem-
blance Dr. Broom regards as a common inheritance in the two groups from a Cotylo-
saurian ancestor, but it is to be observed that the genus Gorgonops is the only one in
which the condition of the arches is known and in this the temporal region is com-
pletely roofed over; the presence of a primitively single arch in the forms otherwise
most closely related to the Pelycosawria is unknown from observation. Should the
genera, Scylacosawrus, Proterosuchus, Alwrosaurus or any of them prove to have an
arrangement of the temporal bones indicating the Rhyncocephalian type, even though
the temporal vacuities are very poorly developed or even not open the extremely
primitive origin of the single arched ancestor of the mammalia as assumed in Osborn’s

Synapsida and Diapsida must be subject to some revision.

State Normal School,
Milwaukee, Wis.

a8 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SKULL

REFERENCES.

Baur, G., 94. Bemerkung ueber die Osteologie der Schliifengegend der hohern Wirbeltiere. Anat. Anzeig., Bd. X,
No. 10, p. 321.

Baur, G., and Cask, E. C., ’99. The History of the Pelycosauria with a Description of the Genus Dimetrodon,
Cope. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., N.S. Vol. XX, pp. 1-58.

BoULENGER, G. A., 93. On some newly described Jurassic and Cretaceous Lizards and Rhyncocephalians. Anns.
Mag. Nat. Hist. March, pp. 204-210.

Broom, R., 03. On the classification of the Theriodonts and their Allies. Rep. South African As. Ad. Se. 1903.

03’. On the Mammalian and Reptilian Vomerine Bones. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, pt. 4.

03'’.. Ona new Reptile ( Proterosuchus fergusi) from the Karoo Beds of Tarkastad, South Africa. Anns. South Af.
Mus., Vol. IV, Art. 7, p. 159.

04. On some points in the anatomy of the Anomodont skull. Records of the Albany Museum. Vol. 1, No. 11,
p. 75, Pl. IV, Fig. 5.

Cask, E. C., ’97. On the Foramina perforating the Cranial region of a Permian Reptile and on a Cast of its Brain
Cavity. Am. Jnl. Se., Vol. III, p. 321.

03. The osteology of Embolophorous dollovianus, Cope, with an attempted restoration. Jnl. Geol., Vol. XI, p. 1.

103’. The structure and relationships of the American Pelycosauria. Am. Naturalist, Vol. XX XVII, No. 434, p. 85.

04. A remarkably preserved specimen of a Pelycosaur collected during the last summer in Texas. Se., Feb. 12,
p 253.

04’. The Osteology of the skull of the Pelycosaurian genus, Dimetrodon. Jnl. Geol., Vol. XII, May-June, pp.
304-311. ,

Corr, E. D., 92. On the homologies of the Posterior Cranial Arches in the Reptilia. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol.
XVII, p. 11.

Lortet, L., 93. Les Reptiles fosiles du Bassin du Rhone. Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Lyon, Vol. V, p. 41.

Howse, G. B., and SwrnnERTON, H. H., ’93. On the Development of the Skeleton of the Tuatara, Sphenodon
punctatus, with remarks on the Egg, on the Hatching and on the Hatched young. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, Vol. XVI,
pp. 1-86.

Surron, J. BLAND, ’84. Observations on the Parasphenoid, the Vomer, and the Palato-pterygoid arcade. Proc.
Zool. Soe., p. 566.

OF THE PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON, 29

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1. Right side of skull of Dimetrodon sp. near incisivus, Cope. Specimen 1001
Fig. la. Explanation. f., frontal ; ju., jugal ; mx., maxillary ; n., nasal ; orb., orbit ; p., parietal ; plf., postfron-
tal ; prf., prefrontal ; pf., parietal foramen ; psq., prosquamosal ; qg., quadrate ; 7 /., quadrate foramen ; qj., quadrato-jugal.

Plate II. F

Fig. 1. Left side of skull of Dimetrodon gigas, Cope. Specimen 1002.

Fig. la. Explanation. Lettering as in Fig. la, PJ. I. pmwz., premaxillary ; sm., septo-maxillary ; /?. lachrymal ;
pt., pterygoid.

Plate III.

Fig. 1. Inner side of the left side of the lower jaw of skull shown in Pl. I.

Fig. 2. Outer side of right side of the jaw of same specimen.

Figs. la and 2a. Explanation. art., articular ; ang., angular ; dent., deutary ; pre-art., pre-articular, sp., splenial ;
8. ang., Surangular.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1. Skull of Dimetrodon gigas with the left side removed showing the bones of the median axis. Specimen 1002.
Fig. la. Explanation. 0., basi-occipital ; ep., epipterygoid ; mw., maxillary of right side; n., nasal ; pv., pre-
vomer, pt., vertical plates of the pterygoids ; pl., palatine ; pas. parasphenoid ; pt., pterygoid ; pf., prefrontal ; pmz., pre-
maxillary ; sm., septo-maxillary ; v., ethmoid.
Plate V.

Fig. 1. Inner side of the quadrate region of specimen 1001. pt., posterior end of pterygoid, g., quadrate ; q/.,
quadrato-jugal ; ¢f., quadrate foramen.
Fig. 2. Posterior view of the occipital region of specimen 1, Dimetrodon incisivus.

Fig. 3. Lower view of the same.

Fig. 4. Lower view of the basi-sphenoid of the same specimen.
Fig. 5. Lateral view of the same.

Fig. 6. Lateral view of the pterygoid of the same specimen.
Fig. 7. Lower view of the pterygoid of the same.

Plate VI.
Fig. 1. Top of the skull of specimen 1001.
Fig. la. Explanation. Lettering asin Pl. [., Fig. la.
Fig. 2. Restoration of the skull of Dimetrodon gigas. Lettering as in PI. I.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1. Restoration of the palate of Dimetrodon gigas. Specimen 1002.

Fig. 2. Restoration of the median section of the same skull.

Fig. 3. Restoration of the posterior view of the same skull. Lettering of all asin previous figures. ¢th., ethmoid;
po., paroceipital. The arrow of Fig. 2 shows the course of the nares.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI

CASE.—MORPHOLOGY OF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN GENU

a”

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE Il

FIGs!

CaASE.—MoRPHOLOGY OF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON

i’

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XX] PLATE III

CaASE.—MorPHOLOGY OF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE IV

SS op
ly

ve
Son ene

Fic. 1A.

Ee

_—MorPHOLOGY OF SCULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC , N. S. XXI. PLATE V

CasE.—MORPHOLOGY OF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN Genus DIMETRODON.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

PLATE VI

Case.—MorPHOLOGY

oF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN Genus DIMETROD

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.
PLATE VII.

Case.—MorPHOLoGy OF SKULL OF PELYCOSAURIAN GENUS DIMETRODON.

yi rs

ARTICLE II.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AND THEIR DYNAMIC SIGNIFICANCE.

(Plate VIII.)

By J. W. SAnpstrOM, SrocKHOLM, SWEDEN.
(Read April 14, 1905.)
I. Inrropuction.

The construction of isobaric charts for high levels has been attempted by several
investigators in dynamic meteorology. I will here only mention:

(a) Teisserenc de Bort’s attempt to draw such charts over the whole earth based
on the isobars and isotherms at sealevel, the observed direction of motion of the
clouds, and an assumed probable diminution of temperature with altitude ;

(6) Koeppen’s graphic presentation of such charts based on the isobars and iso-
terms at sealevel, and

(c) Hergesell’s construction of similar charts on the basis of the results of the
international balloon ascensions.

From the relation of the isobaric charts for sealevel to the dynamics of the lower
atmospheric strata, the analogous relation of the isobaric charts for higher levels to
the dynamics of the upper strata has been correctly appreciated. Indeed from the
charts already drawn we have succeeded in explaining many of the phenomena of the
upper layers of the atmosphere, for example, the general circulation from West to
East * and the movements of the clouds in the upper portions of cyclones.+

My attempts to apply Bjerknes’ theory of solenoids{ to dynamic meteorology
have led me also to the construction of isobaric charts for higher levels. This theory
requires, however, that such charts be drawn on level surfaces of gravity and not on
surfaces of equal elevation above sealevel. In the following pages I shall show how
such charts can be constructed from meteorological observations obtained by means of
kites and balloons in the free air.

*L, Teisserenc de Bort: Etude sur la circulation generale de l’atmosphere. Annales du Bureau Central Meteorolo-
gique de France, 1885, Tome 4.

+ W. Koeppen : Ueber die Gestalt der Isobaren in ihrer Abhingung von Seehohe u. Temperaturvertheilung. Met.
Zeit., 1888, p. 476.

{See Bjerknes, in Monthly Weather Review, 1900, October, pp. 434-443, December, pp. 532-535. Sandstrom: On
the Application of Prof. V. Bjerknes’ Theory, in Memoirs Royal Swedish Academy, 1900, vol. 33.

A. P,S.—XXI. A. 21, 11, ’05

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

(St)
bo

I shall then draw auxiliary charts that show the differences of pressure for any
vertical line between sealevel and the higher levels ; by a simple graphic superposition
of these charts upon the isobaric charts drawn in the ordinary way for sealevel we
shall obtain the isobaric charts for the various higher levels. It is necessary to pro-
ceed in this way in the construction because the kite and balloon stations are too far
apart from each other to allow us to draw the upper isobars directly from the results
obtained from the ascensions. On the other hand these kite and balloon results suffice
quite well for drawing the charts of differences, because the differences change but
little from place to place.

Furthermore, Bjerknes’ theory leads to the construction of yet another kind of
charts, namely those which represent the lines of intersection of any given isobaric
surface with the level surfaces of gravity, and which are thus a kind of topographic
charts of the different isobaric surfaces. These charts, which are closely related to the
isobaric maps, are like those constructed by the superposition of difference-charts based
on the observations made at fixed meteorological stations combined with those made
by means of kites and balloons.

If the isobaric chart for any level not too far removed from sealevel is compared
with the chart of isobars at sealevel, both charts will be found to show nearly the
same type of isobars, and one can scarcely learn more from both together than from
the chart for sealevel alone. In such a case, however, the difference-chart furnishes a
much more effective means of discovering the relation between these two isobaric
charts. Now it has been found that such difference-charts are very closely related to
the Bjerknes’ solenoids, so that indeed, the number and positions of the solenoids in
the atmosphere are fully presented by these difference-charts. I shall therefore in this
essay consider equally the difference-charts, the isobaric maps, and the topographic
charts of isobaric surfaces.

I shall first construct the level surfaces of gravity in the atmosphere and then
calculate the mutual positions of the isobaric surfaces and the level surfaces of gravity
under both static and dynamic conditions. Thus all the aids necessary for the con-
struction of the above-mentioned maps will be obtained. Finally I shall show how
Bjerknes’ theory is to be applied to these charts.

I would express my warmest thanks to the United States Weather Bureau for the
abundant observational data so kindly sent me. I also owe many thanks to Professor
V. Bjerknes for his interest and many good suggestions and the support which he has
given me during the progress of my work.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 33

IJ. THe Lever Surraces or GRAVITY.

We first consider the level surfaces of gravity because, by reason of their abso-
lutely fixed positions with relation to the earth, they are specially adapted to serve as
coordinate planes in the atmosphere. Let it be remarked in passing, that all the
burdensome corrections in meteorological work arising from the variations of gravity
with elevation and geographical latitude disappear * if once for all we introduce level
surfaces of gravity as the codrdinate planes in place of surfaces of equal elevation
above sealevel.

The level surfaces of gravity are surfaces which are at every point perpendicular
to the direction of the gravitational force.; A fundamental property of the level
surfaces of gravity results directly from this definition, viz.: no work is necessary to
shift a mass from any point in a level surface to any other point in the same surface.
Further it also follows that the same amount of work must be performed to transfer a
mass from any given level surface to any other given level surface, quite independently
of the path along which the transfer takes place. We shall make use of this property
in the construction of our system of level surfaces in the atmosphere by choosing the
surface of sealevel [7. e., the geodesist’s spheroid], as our zero-surface and distributing
the other surfaces in such a way that it will always require just one unit of work to
raise the unit of mass from one level surface to the surface next above it. As unit
pound X mile?

hour’?

To raise one pound through the vertical distance of one mile requires a number g

of mass we choose 1 pound (English) and as unit of work one

of units of work, if by g we indicate the acceleration of gravity in mile/hour’. If

* This does not refer to the reduction of the mercurial barometer to normal gravity, because this is to be considered
as an instrumental correction.

+ Norte By THE Ep1ToR: This is the so-called ‘‘apparent gravity ’’ or the attraction of the earth as diminished
by the distance from the earth’s center and also by the centrifugal force due to the diurnal rotation of the globe.

Let the term geoid apply to the natural irregular surface of the earth and the term spheroid to the ideal regular sur-
face of the geodesist which coincides nearly with sealevel and is necessarily a level surface. The observed values of
acceleration of apparent gravity made at points on the surface of the geoid are usually reduced vertically downward to a
point on the ideal spheroid by some one of several formulz, and the collation of all such reduced values shows that for
this spheroid in general

g = 32.172 6 (1 — 0.002 59 cos 22).
For a point on the geoid surface, i in feet, or H in meters, above this spheroid apparent gravity diminishes by
Bie HiNe
distance but increases by the attraction of the intervening earth, as represented altogether by the factor (1 — z “P ), 1. Gry
(1 — 0,000 000 059 7h) or (1—0.000 000 196#).

For a point in the atmosphere, z in feet or Zin meters, above the geoid surface apparent gravity diminishes by
increase of distance only, or by the factor (1—2z/R), i. e., (1— 0.000 000 095 7z) or (1 — 0.000 000 3142). Hence

5
starting from the geoid surface we may say that apparent gravity increases with descent by the factor (1 _ aioe ), but
decreases with ascent by the factor (1 —.2z(R).

34: CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

however, g be expressed in feet/second? units as is customarily done, then we find
that in order to raise one pound a vertical distance of one foot the expression

pound x mile?

0.464 876 x g x Fou

represents the amount of work which must be performed. Therefore every foot of
vertical distance will be intersected by 0.464 876 X g level surfaces of gravity. At the

feet here will be 0.464 876 X 32.089 = 14.917

sec.”

Equator, where gravity equals 32.089

such planes; and at either pole, where gravity equals 32.256, there will be 0.464 876 x
32.256 = 14.995 such planes to every foot of vertical rise. These figures hold true
near sealevel, while at greater heights the level surfaces will lie somewhat farther
apart. The level surfaces are thus seen to constitute closed surfaces at approximately
one-fifteenth foot intervals from one another, enclosing the earth and showing a polar
flattening similar to that of the ocean surface.

In order to distinguish the individual surfaces of this system they are numbered
as follows: sealevel is numbered zero (0); the plane standing about one-fifteenth
foot above zero is numbered one (1); the plane standing about two-fifteenths foot
above zero is numbered two (2) and so onward. Thus the surface numbered ten (10)
has an elevation of about two-thirds foot; number 100 an elevation of about 63 feet ;
the planes numbered 1 000, 10 000, 100 000, ete., have respectively heights of about
67, 669, 6 690 feet, etc., above sealevel. The true elevations above sealevel of these
level surfaces are somewhat greater at the Equator and somewhat less at the poles,
than the average values here given.

If now these level surfaces of gravity are to be used as codrdinate surfaces in the
atmosphere instead of the surfaces of equal elevation above sealevel, then instead of
expressing the elevation of any point in feet above sealevel we must state the ordinal
number of the level surface in which it les. The transformation from “feet above
sealevel” to the ordinal number of the level surface of gravity may be easily per-
formed by means of a table showing the relation between the two numbers. Such a
table should be calculated for every locality where the elevations of kites, balloons or
clouds are measured, and in the following paragraphs I show how such a table may
be calculated.

Designate the elevation above sealevel of the point by z, and the ordinal number
of the level surface in which it lies by V. Then V is equal to the number of level
surfaces included between the given point and sealevel. V also expresses the work
required to be done in order to raise a unit mass from sealevel to the position of the
given point, for it always requires one unit of work to raise a unit mass from one sur-

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 35

face to the next higher one. Now this total quantity of work required is equal to

fig-ae °
0

where by dz we designate an element of the vertical line from the point to sealevel and
by g designate the accleration of gravity for this element. We thus obtain the follow-
ing relation between V, g, and z:

= f ga (1)

where the integration is to be carried out along the vertical line joining the point with
sealevel. The distribution of gravity along the vertical and above the surface of the
earth is given by the well known formula

9 = 91 — 0.000 000 095 7(z —z,)), (2)

where 2 represents the elevation of the earth’s surface above sealevel, and gq is the
acceleration of gravity at the earth’s surface. If z represents depth below the earth’s
surface then g at this depth is given by the formula

9g = 9(1 + 0.000 000 059 7(z, —2)). (3)

Here and in what follows, by the earth’s surface in the neighborhood of a meteoro-
logical station is always meant the level of the barometer of the station, or the level
from which cloud-altitudes, kite-altitudes and the like are calculated [1. e., the so-called
“station level” of the United States Weather Bureau].

The ordinal number Vy of the gravity surface which coincides with the surface of
the earth at the station is obtained by substituting equation (3) in equation (1) and
integrating from sealevel up to the surface of the earth. We thus find

V, = 0.464 876 x g, x =(1 + 0.000 000 029 85z,). (4)

For example, to find V, for the kite-station at Omaha, Nebr., we substitute the
altitude above sealevel, z = 1 241 feet, and the acceleration of gravity at the earth’s .
surface at Omaha, g, = 32.160 foot/sec.’, in formula (4) ; whence we have

V, = 0.464 876 x 32.160 x 1 241(1 + 0. 000 000 029 85 x 1 241)
= 18 550.

There are thus seen to be 18 550 level surfaces of gravity between sealevel and the
level of the barometer of the kite-station at Omaha; or work to the amount of

p Pound x mile?

18 55 hoi

36 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

must be performed in order to raise one pound from sealevel to the level of the station
barometer in Omaha. .From now on the numbers of these level surfaces of gravity
will be expressed in even tens, since the heights are not measured closer than to
one foot.

If now we substitute in (1) the value of gravity obtained from (2) and continue
the integration from the surface of the earth up to the elevation z above sealevel, we
obtain the ordinal number V of the level surface that passes through the point at the
elevation z. We find

V = V, + 0.464 876y,(z — z,)(1 — 0.000 000 047 85(z — z,))

where z — % is the elevation of the point above the earth’s surface. If this elevation,
z — z, be represented by z, then we have

V= V, + 0.464 8769,z,(1 — 0.000 000 047 852). (5)

The calculation of V is much simplified by using the small Table I, which con-
tains the value of the quantity 0.464 876 x z,(1 — 0.000 000 047 85z,) for each 1 000
feet of elevation above the earth’s surface.

TABLE 1.
0.464 876 < z,(1—0.000 000 047 85z2,).

ca (V— Vo)! 90

1 000 ft. | 464.85
2 000 | 929.66
3 000 | 1 394.43
4 000 | 1 859.15
5 000 | 2 328.82
6 000 | 2 788.46
7 000 | 3 253.04
8 000 eSilTe5s8
9 000 4 182.08
10 000 4 646.54

Thus to caleulate V for Omaha, we must, according to formula (5) multiply the values
given in Table 1 by g,= 32.160 and then add the quantities thus obtained to
VY, = 18550. We thus obtain the values given in Table 2.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. ot

TABLE 2.

GRAVITY-POTENTIAL TABLE FOR OMAHA, NEBR.

z, V
1 000 ft. 33 500
2 000 48 448
3 000 63 395
4 000 78 340
5000 | 93 285
6 000 108 227
7 000 123 168
8000 _| 138 107
9000 — | 153 046
10 000 167 983

By linear interpolation in this Table we obtain Table 3 which we may designate
as the gravity-potential table for Omaha, since V is identical with the potential of
gravity according to (1). In other words by taking the derivative of that formula we
find

dV
de

38

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 3.

TABLE OF GRAVITY POTENTIALS FOR OMAHA, NEBR.

zy 0 | = 410 20 30 50 60 70 80 90
0 | 18550 | 18700 | 18850 | 19000 | 19150 | 19300 | 19450 | 19600 | 19750 | 19900
100 | 20050 | 20190 | 20340 | 20490 | 20640 | 20790 | 20940 | 21090 | 21240 | 21390
200 | 21540 | 21690 | 21840 | 21990 | 22140 | 22290 | 22440 | 22590 | 22740 | 22890
300 | 23040 23180 | 23330 | 23480 | 23630 | 23780 | 23930 | 24080 | 24230 | 24380
400 | 24530 | 24680 | 24830 | 24980 | 25130 | 25280 | 25430 | 25580 | 25730 | 25880
500 | 26030 | 26170 | 26320 | 26470 | 26620 | 26770 | 26920 | 27070 | 27220 | 27370
600 | 27520 | 27670 | 27820 | 27970 | 28120 | 28270 | 28420 | 28570 | 28720 | 28870
700 | 29020 | 29160 | 29310 | 29460 | 29610 | 29760 | 29910 | 30060 | 30210 | 30360
800 30510 | 30660 30810 | 30960 31110 | 31260 | 31410 | 31560 | 31710 | 31860
900 | 32010 | 32150 | 32300 | 82450 | 32600 | 82750 | 32900 | 33050 | 33200 | 33350
1000 | 33500 | 33650 | 33800 | 33950 | 34100 | 34250 | 34400 | 34550 | 34700 | 34850
1100 | 35000 | 35140 | 35290 | 35440 | 35590 | 35740 | 35890 | 36040 | 36190 | 36340
1200 | 36490 | 36640 | 36790 | 36940 | 37090 | 37240 | 37390 | 37540 | 37690 | 37840
1300 | 37990 38130 | 38280 38430 | 38580 | 38730 | 38880 | 39030 | 39180 | 39330
1400 | 39480 | 39630 | 89780 | 39930 | 40080 | 40230 | 40380 | 40530 | 40680 | 40830
1500 | 40980 | 41120 | 41270 | 41420 | 41570 | 41720 | 41870 | 42020 | 42170 | 42320
1600 | 42470 | 42620 | 42770 | 42920 | 43070 | 43220 | 43370 | 43520 | 43670 | 43820
1700 43970 44110 | 44260 | 44410 | 44560 | 44710 | 44860 | 45010 | 45160 | 45310
1800 | 45460 | 45610 | 45760 | 45910 | 46060 | 46210 | 46360 | 46510 | 46660 | 46810
1900 | 46960 | 47100 | 47250 | 47400 | 47550 | 47700 | 47850 | 48000 | 48150 | 48300
2000 | 48450 | 48600 | 48750 | 48900 | 49050 | 49200 | 49350 | 49500 | 49650 | 49800
2100 | 49940 50090 | 50240 | 50390 | 50540 | 50690 | 50840 | 50990 | 51140 | 51290
2200 | 51440 | 51590 | 51740 | 51890 | 52040 | 52190 | 52340 | 52490 | 52640 | 52790
2300 | 52930 53080 | 53230 | 53380 | 53530 | 53680 | 53830 | 53980 | 54130 | 54280
2400 | 54430 | 54580 | 54730 | 54880 | 55030 | 55180 | 55330 | 55480 | 55630 | 55780
2500 | 55920 | 56070 | 56220 | 56370 | 56520 | 56670 | 56820 | 56970 | 57120 | 57270
2600 | 57420 | 57570 | 57720 | 57870 | 58020 | 58170 | 58320 | 58470 | 58620 | 58770
2700 | 58910 | 59060 59210 | 59360 | 59510 | 59660 | 59810 | 59960 | 60110 | 60260
2800 60410 | 60560 | 60710 | 60860 | 61010 | 61160 | 61310 | 61460 | 61610 | 61760
2900 | 61900 | 62050 | 62200 | 62350 | 62500 | 62650 | 62800 | 62950 | 63100 | 63250
3000 | 63400 | 63550 | 63700 | 63850 | 64000 | 64150 | 64300 | 64450 | 64600 | 64740
3100 | 64890 | 65040 | 65190 | 65340 | 65490 | 65640 | 65790 | 65940 | 66090 | 66240
3200 | 66390 | 66540 | 66690 | 66840 | 66990 | 67140 | 67280 | 67430 | 67580 | 67730
3300 67880 | 68030 68180 | 68330 | 68480 | 68630 | 68780 | 68930 | 69080 69230
3400 | 69380 | 69530 | 69670 | 69820 | 69970 | 70120 | 70270 | 70420 | 70570 | 70720
3500 | 70870 | 71020 | 71170 | 71320 | 71470 | 71620 | 71770 | 71920 | 72070 | 72210
3600 | 72360 | 72510 | 72660 | 72810 | 72960 | 73110 | 73260 | 73410 | 73560 | 73710
3700 | 73860 | 74010 74160 | 74310 | 74460 | 74610 | 74750 | 74900 | 75050 | 75200
3800 | 75350 | 75500 | 75650 | 75800 | 75950 | 76100 | 76250 | 76400 | 76550 76700
3900 | 76850 | 77000 | 77140 | 77290 | 77440 | 77590 | 77740 | 77890 | 78040 78190
4000 | 78340 | 78490 | 78640 | 78790 | 78940 | 79090 | 79240 | 79390 | 79540 | 79690
4100 | 79840 | 79980 | 80130 | 80280 | 80430 | 80580 | 80730 | 80880 | 81030 | 81180
4200 | 81330 | 81480 | 81630 | 81780 } 81930 | 82080 | 82230 | 82380 | 82530 | 82680
4300 | 82830 | 82970 | 83120 | 83270 | 83420 | 83570 | 83720 | 83870 | 84020 | 84170
4400 | 84320 | 84470 | 84620 | 84770 | 84920 | 85070 | 85220 | 85370 | 85520 | 85670
4500 | 85820 | 85960 | 86110 | 86260 | 86410 | $6560 86710 | 86860 | 87010 | 87160
4600 | 87310 | 87460 | 87610 | 87760 | 87910 | 88060 | 88210 | 88360 | 88510 | 88660
4700 | 88810 | 88950 89100 | 89250 | 89400 | $9550 | 89700 | 89850 | 90000 | 90150
4800 | 90300 | 90450 90600 | 90750 | 90900 | 91050 | 91200 | 91350 | 91500 91650
4900 | 91800 | 91940 | 92090 | 92240 | 92390 | 92540 | 92690 | 92840 | 92990 | 93140

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE.

2

0

10

20 «|

TABLE OF GRAVITY POTENTIALS FOR OMAHA, NEBR.

TABLE 3 (Concluded).

30 | 40 50 | 60 70 so | 90

5000
5100
5200
5300
5400

-5500
5600
5700
5800
5900

6000
6100
6200
6300
6400

6500
6600
6700
6800
6900

7000
7100
7200
7300
7400

7500
7600
7700
-7800
7900

8000
8100
8200
8300
8400

8500
8600
8700
8800
8900

9000
9100
9200
9300
9400

9500
9600
9700
9800
9900

A. P, S.—XXI.

93290 |
94780
96280 |
97770
99270

100760
102250
103750
105240
106740

108230
109720
111220
112710
114210

115700
117190
118690
120180 |
121680 |

123170
124660
126160
127650
129150

130640
132130
133630
135120
136620

138110
139600
141100
142590
144090

145580
147070
148570
150060
151560

153050
154540
156040
157530
159020

160520
162010
163500

164990
166490 |

93440 |
94930
96430
97920
99420

100910
102400
103900
105390
106890 |

108380 |
109870
111370
112860
114360

115850
117340
118840
120330
121830

123320
124810
126310 |
127800
129300

130790
132280
133780
135270
136770

138260
139750
141250
142740
144240

145730
147220
148720
150210
151710

153200
154690
156190 |
157680
159170

160660
162160
163650
165140 |
166640 |

93590 |
95080
96580 |
98070 |

EG)

101060 | 101210 | 101360 | 101510 | 101660 | 101810 | 101960 102100

102550
104050
105540

107030 |

108530
110020
111520
113010
114500

116000
117490
118990
120480

93740 93890) 94040) 94190 943840) 94490 94630
95230 | 95380) 95530! 95680) 958380; 95980) 96130
96730 | 96880, 97030} 97170! 97320) 97470} 97620
98220 | 98370| 98520) 98670) 98820! 98970) 99120
uN) 99860 | 100010 | 100160 | 100310 100460 100610 |

102700 | 102850 | 103000 | 103150 | 103300 103450 | 103600
104200 | 104350 | 104500 | 104640 | 104790 104940 | 105090
105690 | 105840 | 105990 | 106140 | 106290 | 106440 | 106590
Ae i tl reall st ak 107930 | 108080

108680 | 108830 | 108980 | 109130 | 109280 | 109430 109570
110170 | 110320 | 110470 | 110620 | 110770 | 110920 | 111070
111670 | 111820 | 111970 | 112110 | 112260 | 112410 | 112560 |
113160 | 113310 | 113460 | 113610 | 113760 | 113910 114060 |
114650 114800 | 114950 SAND I a2 115550

116150 | 116300 | 116450 | 116600 | 116750 | 116900 117040 |

1

| 117640 | 117790 | 117940 118090 | 118240 | 118390 | 118540

121970

123470
124960

126460 |

127950
129440

130940
132430
133930
135420
136910

138410
139900
141400
142890
144380

145880
147370
148870
150360
151850

153350
154840
156330
157830
159320

160810
162310
163800
165290
166790

150510 | 150660 | 150810 | 150960 151110 | 151260 | 151410

119140 | 119290 | 119440 | 119580 | 119730 | 119880 120080
120630 120780 120930 | 121080 | 121230 | 121380 121530 |
122120 | 122270 | 122420 | 122570 | 122720 | 122870 | 123020

123620 | 123770 123920 | 124070 124220 | 124370 | 124510
125110 | 125260 | 125410 | 125560 | 125710 | 125860 | 126010
126610 | 126760 | 126910 127050 | 127200 127350 127500
128100 | 128250 | 128400 | 128550 | 128700 | 128850 129000

129590 | 129740 | 129890 | 130040 | 130190 | 130540 130490

131090 | 131240 | 131390 | 131540 | 131690 131840 | 131980
132580 | 132730 | 132880 | 133030 | 133180 185330 1338480
134080 | 134230 | 134880 | 134520 | 134670 134820 134970
135570 | 135720 | 135870 | 136020 | 136170 136320 136470
137060 | 137210 | 137860 | 137510 | 137660 | 187810 137960

|
138560 | 138710 | 138860 | 139010 139160 139310 | 139450
140050 | 140200 | 140350 | 140500 140650 | 140800 140950 |
141550 | 141700 | 141850 | 141990 | 142140 | 142290 | 142440 |
143040 | 143190 | 148340 148490 | 143640 | 143790 | 143940
144530 | 144680 | 1448380 | 144980 | 145130 | 145280 | 145430

146030 | 146180 | 146330 | 146480 146630 | 146780 | 146920

147520 | 147670 | 147820 | 147970 | 148120 | 148270 | 148420
149020 | 149170 | 149820 | 149460 149610 149760 | 149910

152000 | 152150 | 152300 | 152450 | 152600 | 152750 | 152900

153500 | 153650 | 153800 | 153950 | 154100 154240 | 154390
154990 | 155140 | 155290 | 155440 | 155590 | 155740 | 155890
156480 | 156630 | 156780 | 156930 | 157080 | 157230 | 157380
157980 | 158130 | 158280 | 158420 | 158570 | 158720 158870 |
159470 | 159620 | 159770 Sa oo ocenO 160370 |
|
160960 | 161110 | 161260 | 161410 | 161560 | 161710 | 161860 |
162460 | 162610 | 162750 | 162900 | 163050 | 163200 | 163350
163950 | 164100 | 164250 | 164400 | 164550 | 164700 164840
165440 | 165590 | 165740 | 165890 | 166040 166190 | 166540
166930 | 167080 | 167230 | 167380 | 167530 | 167680 | 167830

B. 21,

11, 05.

39

Led to

1) 10
2) 30
3 40
4 60
5| 70
6 90
7,100
8 120
9130

40 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

The dimension or “dimensional equation” of the quantity V is obtained from
distance? :
See” that is to say

the dimension for work done upon a unit mass. In Table 3 the unit for V is

formula (1), and in fact this quantity is expressed in terms of

mile’ . fs ‘ ,
chosen as one hour? 12 order that the velocities resulting from the solenoids may be

expressed in — In order to obtain from Table 3 the value of V at any given ele-

vation, e. g., 3 487 feet, above the level of the station barometer at Omaha, we pro-
ceed as follows. First in the principal Table 3 we seek the value of V corresponding
to z=3 480 feet, viz., 70570; then by the aid of the small auxiliary table of pro-
portional parts we find for z=7 feet the additional portion of V= 100 and thus the
mile*
hourz

complete = 70 670 for z = 8 487 feet. Consequently work amounting to 70 670

must be performed in order to raise the unit mass from sealevel to the altitude of
3 487 feet above the station barometer at Omaha, or we may say that there are 70 670
level surfaces of gravity between sealevel and the point standing 3 487 feet above the
Omaha station barometer.

This method for the calculation of V can be applied at all stations where g, has
been previously determined by pendulum observations. At points where no such
measurements of g) have been made the following well-known formula for the caleula-
tion of gravity at the earth’s surface must be employed,

Jp = 32.1726(1 — 0.002 59 cos 2A) (1 — 0.000 000 059 7z,). (6)

TABLE 4.

THE ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY AT SEALEVEL.

Latitude: 0°, | ae .| 29e)_ |) “321. | ae Pa eee goa ees go? | Shige
| | | | |
0° 32.089 | 32.089 | 32.089 | 32.090 32.090 | 32.091 32.091 | 32.092 | 32.092 32.093
10 | -094 | .095 | 096 | 098 .099 | -100 | 102 | 104 | .105 107
20 .109 elhilat 113 | 115 | pu lalir/ -119 | i} .124 126 | .128
30 Bon .133 .136 | aiid) | .141 144 .147 | -150 «152 155
40 158 161 | .164 | .167 2170) L173 | .176 | .178 .181 .184
50 .187 .190 193 | .196 -198 | .201 | -204 | -206 | .209 212
60 .214 a Aly .219 | pe 224 .226 | .228 .231 eo .235
70 . 236 .238 . 240 242 243 245 .246 247 | .249 .250
80 .251 202} . 253 ada: 254 -255 | .255 .255 .256 .256

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 4]

TABLE 5.

DECREASE OF GRAVITY WITH ELEVATION ABOVE SEALEVEL.

Elevation. Decrease.

1 000 ft. —(.002
2 000 —().004
3 000 —(0 006
4 000 —0.008
5 000 —0.010
6 000 —0.012
7 000 —0.013
8 000 | —0.015
9 000 —0.017
10 000 | —0.019

Table 4 shows the acceleration of gravity at sealevel, and Table 5 the decrease in
the acceleration of gravity with elevation above sealevel calculated according to formula
(6). To find the value of g at the surface of the earth, for instance at Omaha, by the
aid of these tables one first seeks in Table 4 for the value of g at sealevel for the lati-
tude of Omaha (A = 41° 16’) and finds it to be 32.162. From this value one then sub-
tracts the correction 0.002 given in Table 5 for the elevation (z= 1 241 feet) above sea-
level ; hence the value 32.160 for g at the surface of the earth [i.e., the geoid] at
Omaha.

When one would consider the influence of the topography of the earth’s surface
on the dynamic meteorological processes he constructs charts having lines of equal
values of V, instead of contour lines of equal elevation above sealevel. Such charts
of lines of V, may be easily constructed from the contour charts by means of Table 6,
which gives the elevations above sealevel of the lines V, = 10 000, V, = 20 000, ete., to
V,=150 000, for each 10° of latitude, north or south.

TABLE 6.

ELEVATIONS ABOVE SEALEVEL OF THE V, SURFACES FOR EACH TEN DEGREES OF LATITUDE.

Vo 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° =| 60° 70° ~| 80° | 90°
10000 670 670 670 669 669 668 | 668 667 | 667 | 667
20000 1341 1341 1340 1339 1338 1337 1336 1335 13384 | 1834
30000 2011 2011 2010 2009 2007 2005 2003 2002 2001 2001
40000 2682 2681 2680 2678 2676 2673 2671 2669 2668 2668
50000 3352 38352 3350 3348 3345 3342 3339 3337 | 33835 | 3335
60000 4023 4022 4020 4017 4014 4010 | 4007 4004 ; 4002 | 4002
70000 4693 4692 4690 4687 4683 4679 4675 4672 | 4670 4669
80000 5364 5363 5360 5357 53852 5347 | 5348 | 5339 5337 5336
90000 6034 60383 6031 6026 | 6021 6016 | 6011 | 6007 | 6004 | 6003

100000 6705 6704 6701 6696 6690 6684 | 6679 | 6674 | 6671 6670
110000 7375 7374 7371 .7366 7360 7353 7347 | 7342 7338 | 7337
120000 8046 8045 8041 8036 8029 8022 8015 | 8009 8006 | 8005
130000 8717 8715 8711 8706 8698 | 8690 8683 | 8677 | 8673 | 8672
140000 9388 9386 9382 93875 | 93867 9359 | 9351 9345 | 9341 | 9339
150000 | 10058 10057 | 10052 10045 10037 10028 10019 10012 | 10008 | 10006

42 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

Such a map for North America, constructed by the aid of this table, is shown in
Pl. VIIL. The curves of V, on this map show that by reason of gravitation it always

: mile? . :
requires the performance of work amounting to 10 000 hour! 2 order to raise the

unit mass from a point on one curve to any point on the curve next above.

Ill. Tue Revative Posrrions oF THE JsoBARIC SURFACES AND THE LEVEL SuR-
FACES OF GRAVITY UNDER STATIC CONDITIONS.

The well-known condition for atmospheric equilibrium is that the isobaric sur-
faces and the level surfaces of gravity shall coincide. If this condition is fulfilled then
we may express the pressure p as a function of the gravity-potential only; and con-
versely can write the gravity-potential V as a function of the pressure only. In the
following pages pressure considered as a function of gravity-potential will be repre-
sented by py, and gravity-potential considered as a function of pressure will be
represented by V,. The values of these functions are obtained by integrating the
differential equation for the barometric determination of heights.* Since it is conve-
nient to perform these integrations at first for special intervals, the following expres-
sions are introduced :

Lo (7)

i= Pr —Pr- (8)
According to the above given definitions the quantities V,, and V,, are equal to the

; ./ mle :
number of level surfaces of gravity expressed in our Units lying between sealevel and

hou

the isobaric surfaces p, and p, respectively ; and E;,; is the number of level surfaces
betiveen the two isobaric surfaces p, and p,;. The quantities py, and p,;, are the num-
bers of isobaric surfaces lying between sealevel and the two level surfaces of gravity
numbered V, and V, respectively. Ij: represents the number of isobaric surfaces
lying between the two level surfaces of gravity Vj and V,. In all this we imagine the
existence in the atmosphere of an isobaric surface for each inch of the column of a
mercurial barometer [under standard gravity ].

To calculate E”! we start with the equation of condition for dry air, viz.:

PY _ PX
TT (9)

and with the differential equation for the barometric measurement of altitudes, viz.:

* NoTE BY THE Epriror: All barometric readings and isobars refer to absolute pressures as indicated by the mer-
curial column reduced to standard temperature, gravity, ete.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE.

gdz = —vdp.

By solving (9) for v and substituting in (10) we obtain

But from (1) we see that
dV =gdz,

and if we substitute this in (11) we have

Asya ee. py: he
0 P
By integrating formula (12) from p = p, to p = p, we obtain
r r __ Po a zs dp
Vee a ee = i ce 1 p

or by substituting from equation (7)

) PO 1
ES = Bt [ eles
Po Tr } p

43

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

; : ; , 1
In the calculation of Ij: we may start with equation (12). First solving for =

and then integrating from V= V, to V = V, we obtain

7 TF nNdV
log nat. foie Pian PLEO ae

’ 7 q
P% Poo Vo r

_% [ee
Vo 7)

- 2 por
Pr — Pr, = Pr(l —e al

or

whence by (8) we find
EM pg
Hy = py(1i —e rm 7).
Now by substituting the values
Py = 2.4934 x 32.1726 x 846.728,
v, = 1/0.080 259,
T, = 459.4 + 32.0 = 491.4,

in equation (14) we obtain the following expression

PL
E,, a

2.4934 x 32.1726 x 846.728 ie pie
0.080259 x 491.4 ss Pp

(15)

(16)

(17)

44 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

The dimension of this expression is most readily found when it is written in the fol-

lowing form

846.728 p> T d
B® = 2.4934 x 32.1726 x if =
P

0.080 529 J,, 491.4 p-

In this expression the quantity 2.4934 is the height in feet of the mercurial column
for a pressure of one atmosphere, and hence it has the dimension, foot. The number
32.1726 is the acceleration of gravity at sealevel at latitude 45° and has the dimension

foot ; 846.728
second” aeoriue eo 0.080 529

has the dimension zero. The two remaining quotients

is the ratio of the densities of mercury and air and

p “dp
7914 and = are also non-

: : : : Sa ssee LOOK

dimensional. Therefore the dimension of the whole expression is saraade In order
pai mile? . Bore : dp
to convert this into hour it must be multiplied by 0.464 876. Furthermore a may
be replaced by 2.302 59 d (log p) by introducing Briggsian instead of natural loga-

rithms and we then write (17) in the form

E?'=1 837.3 ik "(t + 459.4)d(log p) . (18)
Pi

where ¢t indicates degrees Fahrenheit, but p may be of any system of units since d(log p)
is non-dimensional.

By treating equation (16) in a similar way we obtain

1 Yn av
ie = pr(l =o mms JSy, Hee): (19)

Moist air has a somewhat greater specific volume than dry air at the same tem-
perature and pressure; but by applying an appropriate correction to the temperature,
the Mariotte-Gay-Lussae law and formulas (18) and (19) can be made applicable to
moist air also. ‘To determine this correction we start with the equation of condition
for moist air, viz. :

Me Senin) Sas
db “Ree:

0

where + = relative humidity and f= tension of saturated water-vapor at the tempera-
ture 7. We have now to apply such a correction to T that the equation may be writ-
ten in the Mariotte-Gay-Lussac form and yet give a true value of v. We therefore
write

' FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. 45

where T, expresses the corrected temperature. By eliminating v from these last two
equations it is found that

-_ pr
T= 5=0.37i +

By subtracting 7 from both members this gives the correction

which by translating the above temperatures from the absolute to the Fahrenheit

scale, may be written
0.377r -f: (t+459.4)
ra p—0.37ir-f ” )

where f, is the “ virtual temperature” of Guldberg and Mohn on the Fahrenheit scale.
For purposes of tabulation we make r= 1 in equation (20), thus obtaining as the cor-

rection for saturated air
ee 0.377: (t+ 459.4)
iy Se pS OST ee

Table 7 gives t, — ¢ for each inch of the mercurial barometer and each Fahren-
heit degree. In order to derive t, — ¢ from t, — ¢ and r, the approximate formula

t,—t=r(t,—)

suffices. Table 8 gives t, —¢ for each five per cent. of relative humidity and each
half degree of the quantity 4, — ¢.

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

46

TABLE 7.

Pressure in Inches.

THE VALUES OF /,—1.

he on 19019 SAN H
man OOH SH 19:19 19 19 10

mHNOH DOr OD OA
wownouvuno CeVeueuo er

p=

SSonnnN NNANAN

mwoo°eceo 19191919 © eeows esos mo O19 eo853no oeH4ecee

Seay ie eee

Asse soot Hatt idisidid Heo SSS KErerrs LHHBGS

19.1019 ©1919 © 1D 1D 19 19.10)
SSonnnAN ANNAANN

i mwimwmoo Fo. 190'9 e07191919 ec! ennose m9 O08
rEernn DHOaadG

Boe oom HH HHH oiididsd SSooor

191910 1010 © 1D 191919 ©
Soconnnn AANA A 6

eoo8'4) moo oSo onnneo ennneo eSnnoeo mWigaoeos. noone
Sos OD OD CO OO HH OS HH HS 1616 161566 CSOSCrr K~rnnw BAGAS

191910 01919 S D1 1D OS
SSonnnN AA A 6d 06

ooonn 8oooceo 121919 OS wQWin19 oS D1gO O19 19 OO 1019 eHnoe
I~ 0 0 0 0 AAGSS

sess es ee co HH HH Hodis M6S6SS SSOKrKK

19 19 19 ©1919 © winoes
SOO TRAN ANNH OO

Se 19181 19 OO O18 19190 O19 19190 O19 9S 21919 eSeH1nneo HNO

OAs HOMHAH HAtidid6d Bid dSS Orrrr HHHHGD GASCSS
ra yal

IN1DO O19 OS ad
Sonn nAN GI 6d 66 65 05

SOmmpoo F0SCHnD WSO MW 95S} 9D ao eonino18 O19 19 2

soe tiw Hotta didadidid SSssos ~rerrrs

WMIinoownwowm COOo°o%
SCOnmmTrNN oO OD OD OD

DIDO OS eo. 191019 So O29 16 16 Senne Sn oeo
oot HHH IN16 1615 16 SSSOSCrK KEK nH

OCOD AD

BOSD oncon

19:10 1910 2 18 eeoens

SonnnaAN 68 6 68 6 68

BOSSCS HNNSS ONMNS OHNOS HLOCOH
Cotta H tHdtidid sido ids SCSOrrK KFrnHw

1919 © 1919 O19 So791919
SonnnNAN O8 6d Of 69 O85

9O OO} Mines wi1gdOo OS IN 19 Oo O19 19 2 1919 S
ott HHtididis oisscs COrrr KHnKS

ID 190 O19 © O19 © 16 19 19 19

\SSHANAAN SMOG OS

D1 O19 O O19 19 19 1910 ©
Sonnaann 63 of 6d of oH

ee mooo8 OO 1819 a) e109 0'9
sit Hot oH 15.15 1515 DOSS SCEKKH ODHKHAS

oo'w ue) 1d eoeoo8 econo SHnnoceo B19 S199
+oHata st 19 19 15 159.15 CSScor ~rrHnH DHGaGS

} 191319 © 19 OOS mH 1 oS

SOK HRANG Swot

S999 Sonne ennosc 1919 ©1919 Sceonoe
+ i id 19 15.19.15 COoOrr Frrnnn BaAASS

oan omono i O19 19 OS ID1d OSS 1919 O O19 mo o1n Oo | | | | |
2) SSnnana oo HH Ht wi ot id is IS 15 OO COOrrr~ ~HHOD

e182 oo
ABSSS

elt

19 O1919 2
asccocn

i

47
90
91
98
99

94

9.5

10.0
12.0
12.5
13.0

11.0

F
AS

10.0 | 10.0
10.5
11
12.5
13.0

14.0 | 13.5

11.0 10.5
12.0 | 11.5

13.5 | 13.0
14.0 | 13.5
14.5

5

2.

11.0 | 10.5

11.5

?

EARTH S ATMOSPHERE.

3.0 | 1

11.5
12.0
| 1:

THE
TABLE 8.

5 Momo Swowno momMmonm SwMwoWS Mowmow ome |

re eRe Se BAe

SE ec ee ee eS ie ee SUS Mehl or
Sl SMA AQN HHH H WOOCKE BDOGAS SHK- AN NAH
) Wefivetivetivetion ea weasel
n| BWSHOSwH SHONS SHONHS HSHSH SOHOMS KOO
S| SHAAN Sots OwUHSSr FTHHASD SscHeN aad
be eB oe Bh oe oe | ee
wonow nS 2 O1 cononsc SINSInS In S1n SC 1 In S19
12) Su AN Adaews WisSSKr KroHa SSconn Had
Se oo he oe | A oe I oe oe |
-| WSMIRS MOMSOH MONMOH SCONMNSIN OHSOOH CHH
Bl San AN AHH wdinss KKK HH GAESSO Hon
ree Se oe oe
J moMMsS NMOSHS HOSOHS HSOSHS MOMHS HOS
BZ) SAARAN ANGST tides COrrerws BAGAS Sex
mee

2|'2SSRHS SONS SCHOMM SOROS SHOR Con
| Om AANQKMHsH AHsti6nwH SoOrrer HBdHoaa sss
| ~~

IMIRSIRS SHSOSOH SCOHMSH HSiINIHS mMiInSIRS SIRO

El sSSHAA ANKNSM Htdtids CSSoK Kraad Bas
| BRS SHMSR WOSHS SHOQH SORSS HOS
8) SSdanq (Gia ak a5 08 Sats widoos rrr ae ORR
g| B2SSR Some WHOSH SoNHS BROOK OOM

SSH AKANAKS Sts WH hs COSKrKEe _ Bow
| WIROOW WOOMS Snneos ninco; Sonne O19
6| SSH AN at ot oF 09 68 09 st ids is eooor Leta
o| mHOOH NHOOKHH CONHS onnoo DINO O19 INOS
BI SSHHAH FAANAAN Hoist weston wisneos Orr

Pressure in Inches.

THe VALUEs oF t,—1.
THE VALUES OF (,—1.

Pp

TaBLe 7 (Continued).
Percentage of Relative Humidity.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN

SwMIRSOS MNOCSM MNSSHW WSSMIN WOO1InW eo;

SSSHA FHAAAN Aan Coit Stix Hisinigin SOS

SSSA FAH AN Anaad oh ob od aH i Six ids WS 18 18

> S 19 19 1 oocn 210 DOOOW 1919 ©
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48 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

Example: During a kite ascension made at Omaha on Sept. 23, 1898, at 11.25
A. M., 75th meridian standard time, there was observed p = 24.20 inches, t = 68° F.,
r = 51 per cent.

Table 7, for p = 24.20 inches and t = 68° F., gives t, — t = 5°.5; and

Table 8, fort; — t= 5°.5 and r= 51 per cent., gives t, —t = 3°.0. The virtual
temperature is thus found to be 68° + 3° = 71° F.

Formule (18) and (19) can be made valid for moist air if t, be substituted for ¢ in
them, and they then read

PO
EP — 1837.3 i (, + 459.4)d(log p), Gn)
PA
1 Yn av
Ij, = pri — 10 ssrad cara) i)

The condition for atmospheric equilibrium may be so formulated that the num-
ber II}: of isobaric surfaces contained between two level surfaces, V= V, and V= J,
is everywhere the same. From equation (22) it appears that this is the case when
t, can be expressed as a function of V alone, 7. ¢., when the surfaces of equal values of
t, coincide with the level surfaces of gravity. Whence it appears that in an atmos-
phere in the condition of static equilibrium the surfaces of equal values of ¢,, as well
as the isobaric surfaces, coincide with the level surfaces of gravity.

The values of E?: and of Ilys may be easily tabulated if we restrict ourselves once
for all to a small number of limiting values of p, and p, as well as of Vj and V,. For
example, we choose respectively every half-inch of barometric pressure and every
10 000th level surface of gravity, that is to say we compute the following values:

Exo Ems Koso Etss Engo ete.,
TT TT{p 000 Tz 000 T0000 ete.
For such small intervals the average values of t, may be readily found by graphic inter-

polation. When these values are substituted in (21) and (22) and the latter are then
integrated we obtain :

m= 1 837.3(t, + 459.4) Po (23)
1

and
J J

Il 4] =p y(1 —10 1337.3 tA $50.9), (24)

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. 49
From equation (23) are obtained the following :

Ey = 12.966(¢, + 459.4) = EX) = 14.920(¢, + 559.4) 123 = 17.535(t, + 459.4)
E32 = 13.186(t, + 459.4) E#° = 15
E35 — 13.410(t, + 459.4) E33 = 15.498(t + 459.4) BS = 18.340(¢, + 459.4)
Ex5 = 13.640(¢, + 459.4) E33 = 15.801(¢, + 459.4) Ei! = 18.773(t, + 459.4)
Ego = 13.877 (¢, + 459.4) Ex = 16.116(t, + 459.4) Ens = 19.230(t, + 459.4)
E39 = 14.122(¢, + 459.4) EXS = 16.445(t, + 459.4) ES? = 19.703(t, + 459.4)

Exs = 14.375(t.+459.4) E35 — 16.788(¢ + 459.4) ERs — 20.204(t + 459.4)

or 13 | es

Ez? = 14.640(¢, + 459.4) EX9 = 17.148(f,4+ 459.4) El? = 20.736(t, + 459.4)

5.206(f, + 459.4) ES? = 17.929(t, + 459.4)

22.5

From equation (24) there results

10 000
TLp = py {1 — 10 1887-86-+4594)} |

Table 9 contains the values of E}})--- E}}$ for each whole degree Fahrenheit of the
virtual temperature between the limits ¢, = 15° and t, = 99°.

Table 10 contains the values of II;-*!° as a function of p, and ¢, for every tenth
of an,inch of barometric pressure between the limits py = 19.0 inches and p, = 30.9
inches and for every ten degrees of the Fahrenheit scale.

In calculating the value of p, those level surfaces of gravity that lie beneath the
surface of the earth are of course to be excluded. We compute first the pressure for
the first level surface above the ground that is a whole multiple of 10 000. For ex-
ample, in Omaha this would be V = 20 000 since the station-barometer there is in
the level surface 18 550. If we substitute V, = 18 550 and V, = 20 000 in (24) we
obtain the difference in pressure between the level surface of gravity V = 20 000 and
the station-barometer at Omaha, viz.:

20000 __ ,
T1330 = P18 550 — P20 0009

1450

= Pisss0 {1 — 10 197-5(6, +4504) }

Table 11 contains these values of Ij39%} expressed as a function of the pressure pg 559
recorded by the station-barometer at Omaha, and the mean virtual temperature, ¢,
between V = 18 550 and V = 20 000.

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

5()

0ZL9 | OFS9 | 0969 | OLOL| OBTL | OGEL| OSL | 06S4 |0ELL 0884) 0E08) 0618 | O9E8 | OfS8 | OTLB | 0068 | 0606 | 00E6 OIS6 | O€L6 | OL66 | OTCOL, — _ 6¢

OILY | 089 | 0F69/090L|OBIL OLEL O&PL O8SL 0GLL/098L 0B08| O8IB OPEB | OTS8 | 0698 | OBB | 0L06 | OxG6 | O6PG | OILE 0866 O6LOT| — | — | gg
00L9 | 0189 |0G69|OFOL | O9TL OGBZL | OSFL | O9SL OOLL | OS8L 0088) 0918 _ OSES | O6FS | 0898 | 0988 | 0906 | 09Z6 | OLFG | O0LG | O66 OLIOT, — | — | Lg
0699 | 0089 | 0169/0G0L|OSTL O86L OLFL| OSS2 O69L/OEBL 0864) OFI8 | OLE8 | O8FS | 0998 | OFSB | OFOG | OFZ | O9FG 0896 166 OSTOI OIFOT, — | 9
0L99 |06L9 |0069/0G0L | OFIL OLGL O6EL | OESL OLOL/OGBLOLEL) OLI8 | 0628 | O9FB | OF9B | O&88 | 0606 | OEZE | OFPE | O996 | 0686 OPLOT OGEOT, — | ee

0999 | 0LL9 | 0889| 0004 | 0BTL| OGBL | 08EL | 0GSL) 0994/0084 OS6L) OTT | O8%8 | OFF | OF98 | OT8B | 0006 | OTS | OTE | NFHG | OL86 OGIOT | OLEOT | OPHOT FS
0299 | 0949 | 0489| 0669 |OLTL| OFZL | O9EL|00SL | OF9L|/06LL OF6L) VOT8 | 0978 | OSF8 | O198 | 0648 | 0868 | O6GT6 | OOF | 0696 | OS86 | OOTOT | OSEOL | OG90L ES
0899 | 0SL9 | 0989 | 0L69|060L| 0GGL | OSEL | O6FL | OE9L/OLLL 0G6L| 0808 | OFZ | OLFR | 06GB | 0848 | 0468 | OLI6 | O8E6 | 0096 | O&86 | OBOOT OSEOT OOVOL Zg
0699 | 0829 | 0989/0969 | 0804 O1GL| OSEL|OLPL| OT9L|09LL/ 0164) 0908 | O&G8 | OOFS | O8S8 | 0948 | OS68 | OST6 | O9EG | OB8cK | OI86 | O9D0L | OLEOT | O8cOT 1¢
0199 | Q@L9|0&89|0S69 0L0L 00GL) OGEL | O9FL O09L| OPLL /068L| OGO8 | O1G8 | O8Es | O9G8 | OPLB | O68 | OFIG | OSEG | O9G6 | 0646 | OPOOT | O6GOT |O9S0L, 0g

069 | 0TL9 | 0G89 | 0869 | OSOL|08TL| OOEL OFFL OSL |O&LL 088L| OF08 | 00GB | O9E8 | OFS | OBLB | OT68 | OZTG | OFE6 | OSCE | NOBLE | OGOOT | OLZOT | OFSOT
0889 | 9699 | 0089/0269 OFOL| QLIL|06GL OSPL|OLGL|OTLL|098L| 0608 | O818 | OSES | O&Gs | OIL8 | 0068 | ONIG | OIE6 | OFS6 | 0946 | OODDT OSZOL | O@GOL «RE
0LS9 | 9899/0629 | 0169 O&OL| NSIL|O86L | OGPL|OSSL|00LL | 0G8L| 0008 | O9I8 | OE8 | OTS8 | 0698 | 0888 | 0806 | 06GE | O16 | OFLE | 0866 | OSGOT | OOLOT LPF
0929 | 0299/0829 | 0689|010L | OFTL|09GL | OOFL | OFSL|089L/0E8L) O6B6L | OST8 | O18 | O6F8 | OL98 | 0988 | 0906 | OLE | O6FE | OGLE | 0966 | OIGOL | O8POT, 9F
OFS9 |NG99 | 0929/0889 | 0004 | OGIL|OSGL | O6EL|0GSL)OL9L/OT8L| OL6L | OFTB | OES | OLP8 | 0998 | OF88 | OGNE | OSZE | OLFE | DOLE | OF6E | OGIOL|O9POL|) SP

0&9 | 0F99 | 0SL9 | 0L89| 0869 | OTTL | OS%L | OLEL | OTSL|0S9L 0084] OG6L | OZT8 | O8%8 | O9F8 | OF9B | O88 | O06 | OFZE | OSFE | 0896 |0G66 | OLTOT | OPFCT | FF
0289 | 9£99|0FL9|0G89 | 0L69 OOTL| OBL | 09EL|O6PL|OF9L|OBLL| OFEL | OOT8 | O9ZB | OFFS | 098 | O188 | OL06 | OZG6 | OFF | 0996 | 0066 | OSTOL | OIFOL EF
0929 | 0199 | 0GL9 | OF89 | 0969 O8OL|O0GL OPEL |OBPL|OGIL|OLLL) OZEL | 0808 | OGZB | OZR | 0098 | O6L8 | 0668 | 00G6 | OTF6 | OF9G | 0886 | OELOT O6EO! GF
06F9 |9099 | 0TL9 0689 OF69/0L0L/O6IL OSEL|O9FL|OL9L/OSLL| O16L | 0L08 | OEzg | OIFS | 06S8 | OL48 | 0268 | 0816 | OOFE | 0G96 | 0986 | OLTOL OLEO1| TF
O8F9 | 069} 00L9 | 0189 | 069) 0G0L|08TL)O1&L | OSPL|06SL OFLL| O68L | OSO8 | O1BB | O6E8 | OLSB | O9L8 | O968 | O9I6 | O8E6 | 0096 | OF86 | OBVOT | OSEOl | OF

09F9 | OL¢9 | 0899 | 0089 | 0169 |OPOL|O9TL OOSL|OEFL | OLGL|OGLL| OBL | OFN8 | ONZE | OLE8 | OSL8 | OFLB | OF6S | OFTG | O9EE | ORGE | OGRE OLOOT | O€8OT 6¢
OSP9 | Q9cC9 0299 | 0849 | 0069 O80L | OSTL 086L|OGFL O9SL|OTLL| OORL | UZOB | O8I8 | 09E8B OFS8 | OGL8 | 0268 | OSI6 | OFS6 | 09S6 | 0086 | OSVOT OLEOT 8&
OFFI | NSE9| 0999 OLLO| 0689 OTOL | OETL | OLEL OOPL | OFSL O069L| OF8L | 0008 | OLIS | OFS8 | OZSB | O0L8 | 0068 | OIT6 | OZE6 | OFSE | 0826 | OSOOT | O6ZOI Li
O£F9 | OFS9|0G99 | N9L9 | 0489 000L | OBTL| OSL | O6EL OFSL)OLIL| OSBL 0664 | OSI8 | OsF8 | 00S8 | 0698 | OBR | 0606 | ONE6 | OFS6 | 09L6 | OLOOT OLGOTI
OTF | 9ZE9| 0899 OFL9 0989 0869 | OOTL OGL OLEL | OIGL|099L! O1gL | OL6L | OSI8 | O1S8 | O8V8 | OL98 | OL88 | OLNG | O8Z6 | OIS6 | OFLE | 0666 | 02801 cE

0069 | TT¢9/ 099 0EL9 OF89 069 060L 066L ogee, 00S2/0F9L) ooge | 0S6L | OZTs | 068 | OLFB | OS98 | OEEB | 0206 | 09zE | OBFE | 0ZL6 | 0266 | OEGOI FE
06E9 | QNS9 | 0199 | 0ZL9 089 0969 | OLOL OTZL|OSEL | ORPL|OL9L| ORLL | OFBL | ONIB | OLGR | OSS | OF9B | OF8B | 006 | OFZE | OLFG /00L6 | 066 O1ZOI ee
OLE9 | 9RF9! 069 | 00L9 | 0ZB9/0FG9|090L OOSL|OGEL OLPFL|OINL| OOLL | OG6L | 0808 | 09GB | OEFS | 0Z9B | O188 | 0606 | OEE | OSG 0896 | O66 | OGIO cE
0989 | (249 869 0699/0089 | 069 | OGOL OBTL|OSEL OGFL|O09L) OSLL | O1GL | OLO8 | OFGB | OZHS | OU9B | 0648 | 0006 | O1Z6 | OEFG |0996 | O1G6 OLIO1 Te

OSE9 | Q9p9 | OLS9 0L99 06L9 0169 OSUL|OLTL OOSL OFFL|O8SL| OSLL | O6BL | OSO8 | 0GZB | OOFB | O8S8 | OBL8 | 0868 | O66 | OPE | OFI6 | 0686 OSLOL Of

OFE9 | OFFI! 0SS9} 0999 |08L9|0069| OZOL |OSTL | O6ZL | OSFL|OLSL| OZLL | OLBL | OFO8 | OTS | O8E8 | O9E8 | O9LB | 0968 | OLTE | OKE6 | 0Z96 | OL86 OGIOT 66

0689 | OEF9 | OFS9| 0S99 | 09L9 | 0889 000L|OFTL | OLGL|OIFL/OSSL| OOLL | O9BL | OZOB | 0618 | O9E8 | OSB | OFLB | OF68 | OST | OLE6 10196 | 0686 | OO10T 8%

OTED | NGO OSI | 099 |0SL9 0489 0669 |OGTL |O9GL O6EL|OPSL) O69L | OPSL | 0008 | OLI8 | OSE8 | OES8 | OZLB | 0Z68 | OSI6 | OSE6 | ORG6 | OER6

0089 | 00F9 | OTS9| 0Z99 | 0EL9 | 0989 | 0L69 | OLTL| OFGL OBEL 0@SL. OLOL | OgeL | O86L | O9TS | OFE8 | O1S8 | OTLB | O168 | OTTE | OFE6 | 09G6 | 0186
|

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a)

0869 | 0689 009 | OL99 0GL9 | 0F89 0969 | V60L OesL O9EL|00SL’ OG9L | OI8L | OLEL | OFTS | OLE8 | O6F8 | 0698 | 0688 | 0606 | OL€6 | OFS6 | 06L6 OFO0; &%

| | }
0LG9 | N8E9 | O8F9 | 0629 | OTL9 | OF89 | 0S69 | OBNL | OTL ocer|06FL| oF9L | OBLL | OG6L | OSI8 | OOE8 | O8FS | OL98 | OL88 | 0806 | 06ZE NZSE | OLLE | OZONOT FZ
0969 | (9.9) OLP9. 089 |0699|0189|0869|090L|00GL OSSL/OLFL OOL | OXLL | OF6L | OTIS | 08GB | O9FB | OS9B | OS88 | 0906 | O8C6 | 00S6 | OFL6 — OOODT £6
0FB9 |Q¢e9 | 09F9. 0LG9 | 0899/0089 | 069 |0G0L|ORTL OZEL|O9PL| OTOL | ODLL | OZEL | 0608 | 09GB | OFFB | O98 | OE8B | OF0G | 09G6 | O6FG 0GL6 0866 rd
O£69 | OFE9| OFFI] NSS9 0999 |06L9 | 0069 |OGOL|OLTL OOEL|OFPL) OBSL | OSLL | ONGL | OLOB | OPEB | OGhB | OG9B | OT8B | 0606 OCB | OLF6 | 00L6 0966 1%

0669 0GE9 0&9 OFS9 0999 | OLL9 |0689|0G0L/OGIL O6GL OPL OLGL | OSLL | O68L | OSOB8 | O&G8 | OTP | 0098 | 0088 | 0006 | 026 | OSh6 0896 | OF66 0G
| | | | ae) | :
O1Z9 | TED) OZEI 0BS9|0F99 | 09L9 | OL89| OTOL OFTL OLGL OTPL) O9SL | otLL | oLgL | 0F08 | OTZS | 068 | 0868 | OBLE | 0868 | 0026 | OFF6 | 0996 6I
0619 | 0089) [009 OTS9 0699 OFL9 0989 | 0669 | OGIL 09EL|OOPL) OFSL | OOLL | OS8L | OZU8 | 0618 | OLEB | 09E8 | 0948 | 0968 | OST6-| OLE | OF96 8I
0819 | 08c9 | 0689! 0089 | 0199 | OLL9 0F89 0869 OTTL OFGL O8EL) OESL | OR9L | OF8L | 0008 | O8I8 | OGE8 | OFS8 | OFL8 | OFGB | ONTE | 06E6 | 0796 | O886 LI
OLT9 |OLZ9|0RE9 OSFI 0099 \0GL90£89109 9/1NBOL NESLIOVEL| OTSL | O99L | OGRL | OBBL | O9IB | OFEB | OSS8 | OBLB | OS6R | OFTG | OLE6 | 0096 | 0986 91
O€86 ¢

ost9 (DE 0989 joure b9 0889 0049 0889 |0S69|Q80L O1GL|OSEL) OOSL | OOL | OOBL | OL64L | OFIB | OGEB | 0198 | 00L8 | O168 OGI6 0¢E6
: —|— : aes
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206

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oegtl | ose | once | cece osze

lo'0e,-|¢" 62 ry 0°62 O'R, C'LZ\0
a rally aC i; 0'6zu rao ee OLB Fgiac | G'93

‘6 TIAL,

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE.

OFsL | 0LEL|06FL|Oz9L/0SL2/0682)} — | — —_. - — _
OSGL OSL OLFL | 009L OfLL/vzgz| — | — | - —

OGSL OPEL OOFL | OGSL | OGLL | 098L _ —

OOGL OFEL' OSL OLSL OILL OPRL/OR6L) -— — = —= —.

OBIL | OTSL/OSPL | O9SL/069L0E8L 0L6L} — | — — | — _

O8STL OOEL ODPL OSL O89L OGSL OS6L/ 0018 — — — : =
OLTL O66L OLPL O€SL |099L 008L OF6L)0608, — | = i = |
OSTL OLGL O6EL OGSL | OS9L OGLL OZ6L}OLOR -
OPTL 09GL O8EL OOSL OFOL OLLL 006L\0908 OTe@e8!) — — — -
O€TL OSBL OLEL O6PL OZ9L OOLL Y68L/0FO8 00z8 — = mS == =

OLTL | 086L OSEL O8FL OTOL OSLL | 088L)0S08 O8TS OFEH) — 5 — | = P=

OOTL OGL OPEL OLPL/ O6SL OFLL OL8L/0B0R OLIR OZER) oe UW Ge ea (i eo ==
0604 O1GL OFEL OSFL O8SL OGLL | OS8L!0008 OSI OO0Es} - | =
OLOL OGTL OTEL OPPL OLSL OOLL OFSL/066L OFI8 06ZR) ASE = = || = ; — _
0904 | O8TL OOEL OGPL OSSL O69L OZ8L 0L6L OGI8 OLE8 OSPR. - = = = : =

OSOL OLTL 06L OTPL OFSL O89L OTL 096L OTIS 09GR OZER) OBER = =a a =
OPOL O9TL O86L ODPL OGSL O99L OGLL OFGL 0608 OFZB}OOFR) OLEX = = = =) | =

0G0L | OPTL O9GL OSEL OLSL OS9L O8LL |0E6L 0808 O0&Z8!06ER| OSs = : =

OTOL NETL OSGL OLEL 00SL | OS9L | O9LL OT6L 0908 O1Z8)0LE8| OPES | OLR > = =| i Se
QOL |OGTL OFGL O9EL OBL /OG9L | OSLL 0064 USO8 0068) 09E8) O6S8 | OOLR | — = = al

0869 OOTL 0BGL OPEL OLPL VO9L OPLL | O88L 0808 O8TS|ObS8! O1S8 | 0898 0988 = : =
0469 OB0L O1GL OSEL O9PL O6SL 0SLL|OLBL OZO8 0L18) 0888) O6FS | 0998 | OFS —
0969 080L/00GL OBEL OFFL O8SL OTLL|0S8L' 0008/0ST8|/OIg8] O8F8 | OS98 | O@es |) — | — = =
OF69 O90L O8IL ONEL OSFL O9SL 069L | OP8L 066L OF18|06Z8| O9FR | OF98 | OTRB | 0006 = —, =
0869 |OS04 | OLTL 06GL OTFL OSEL | O89L | DESL | 0L6L |0G18/0868| OFF8’| O98 | 06L8 | 0868 | - = =

0669 OFOL OSTL OLGL OOPL DESL 099L | OTSL 096L OTTS|09ZB| OFFS | 0098 | OLL8 | 0968 | OSI6 | —
OT69 OGOL OPTL O9GL OGEL OZSL OG9L |O08L OF6L|0608|0SG8) O1F8 | 08G8 | O9LR | OG68 | OFI6 a
0689 OTOL OSTL|OSGL OLEL OTSL OP9L |O8LL OF6L/ 0808] 08%} OOPS | OLG8 | OFL8 | OF68 | OsI6 | —
0889 O00L OGIL O&BL N9EL GFL NGL |OLLL OT6L 0908/ 068) O8E8 | OSSs | O%L8 | 0168 | 0016 | O0E6
OL89 | 0869 OTIL 0G6L OPEL O8FL OT9L|0SLL 0062 0G08/00G8} OLE8 | OFE8 | OTZ8 | 0688 | 0806 | O8e6 | —

| |
0889 OL69 N60L) O1GL OSEL| O9FL| 06SL|/OFLL 068L/0808|06T8| OSes | OZE8 | 0698 | 0888 | BLOG | OLZE | ORF
OF89 | 0969 | 0L0L| 06TL| ORL OSPL | OSL) OZLL OLBL | 008) OLT8) OSes | 0OS8 | 0898 | 0988 | 0S06 | OGz6.| ODP
O&89 OF69 | O90L O8TL| 00SL OFFL 09SL|OILL O84) 0008/0818) O&E8 | O6P8 | 0998 | OSB | O86 | OSE | OFFE
0189 069 | 0G0L) OLTL 06ZL| OGhL| OSEL O069L OF8L)066L OFT8) OOE8 | OLPS | OF98 | OF8R | 0206 | O1A6 | OGh6
0089 |0669 O&0L | OSTL | O8GL OTPL| 0€SL) OB9L OZ8L)OL6L)0G18| 06%8 | OSS | O£98 | OL88 | 0006 | 00G6 | OOF

|
06L9 | 0069 0604 OPIL O9GL O6EL) 0GEL|099L OT8L|0S6L|OTT8| OLG8 | OFFS | OT9B | 06248 | O868 | OBTS | 066
0849 | 0689 OTOL OBIL | OSGL|N8EL| OTSL| OS9L OBLL | OFGL| 0608; OSZB | OSB , OBS | UBL8 | 0968 | ONT | OLE6
O9L9 0889 0669 |OTTL O&GL) 09EL|06PL | 0E9L O8LL|0B6L 0808 OFZ | OOPS | O8S8 | 0948 | OS68'| OFIE | OSE6
OSL9 0489! 0869 | OOTL 0BGL OSEL| O8FL | 0ZIL O9LL|O16L) 0908) OZR | OGE8 | O9E8 | OFL8 | O68 | OETS | OfS6
OFL9 O89 0469 O80L OIL! OPEL| O9FL|OT9L| OGLL 0684/0208) O1@8 | OLE8 | OFS8 OLB | O168 | OTI6 | O16

|
OTST SOS y | O°O8r- SBS py | 0°6Z | 8'SEpy | 0' RB | OLE | OLE | 8" 09%; g'ar 0°97, o'Fz,
fost 00g wooed ooael o'seel 0°83 ogeL 0°16 oogel ose oreo ogee SF ove
!

0'Fz,

"87, 0'87, O'2s,
oeel [ied oogel

*(papnpauog ) 6 ATAVY,

52 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 10.
THe VAuzs oF [J]; +” =p,—Pys 000,
p, |t=0° | 10° | 20° | 30° | 40° | soe | ooo | we 80° 90°
19.0 0.511 | 0.501 | 0.490 | 0.480 | 0.471 | 0.462 | 0.453 | 0.444 | 0.4386 | 0.429
1 214 503) «|e 493.4) 483 473 | .464 | .455 -447 .439 .431
Oi sali, || xis 495 | .485 A76 | .467 -458 | -449 441 .433
3 519 .509 498 488 478 469 .460 451 443 -4385
4 .522 511 -501 .490 481 471 462 -454 -446 4388
19.5 .525 .514 .5038 .493 483 A74 -465 -456 448 -440
6 527 .516 -506 -495 486 , .476 467 | .458 .450 -442
7 .530 .519 .508 | .498 -488 | .479 470 461 4538 444
8 533 522 -511 .501 491 481 472 .463 -455 -447
ot) .536 524 .513 .503 .493 .484 474 .465 457 .449
20.0 | 0.538 | 0.527 | 0.516 ; 0.506 | 0.496 | 0.486 | 0.477 | 0.468 | 0.459 | 0.451
1 541 .530 OOM = O08 498 488 479 | .470 -462 .453
2 544 .532 PAL || ati -501 491 482 | .472 464 -456
3 .546 | .535 .524 -513 -5038 .493 -484 .475 .466 -458
v4 549 | .538 .526 | .516 -506 .496 -486 ATT .469 -460
20.5 552 | .540 | .529 | .518 -508 498 -489 -479 471 -462
6 004 | .643 | .531 | .521 -510 -501 .491 .482 473 .465
7 007 | .546 .084 | .523 .513 -503 .493 484 475 -467
8 .560 548 .537 -526 515 -505 -496 -487 A478 469
at) 562 551 539 .528 518 | .508 498 489 480 A72
21.0 | 0.565 | 0.553 | 0.542 | 0.531 | 0.520 | 0.510 | 0.501 | 0.491 | 0.482 | 0.474
1 -568 | .556 | .544 .533 .523 .513 .503 -494 .485 -476
2 .570 | 559 | .547 -536 525 -515 505 -496 487 .478
3 .573 | 561 .550 -538 | .528 -518 -508 -498 .489 481
4 576 | .564 | .552 .541 .530 .520 -510 -501 492 483
21.5 579 | 567 -555 .544 -5383 | ~ .522 .513 -503 -494 485
6 581 | .569 .557 .546 .5385 .525 .515 -505 -496 487
ail .584 572 | .560 .549 -5388 527 517 -508 -498 .490
8 087 | .574 |! .562 -551 .540 -580 .520 .510 -501 -492
a) || oltste) i) olsie/7/ -565 | .554: .543 .532 .522 .512 -503 -494
22.0 | 0.592 | 0.580 | 0.568 | 0.556 | 0.545 | 0.535 | 0.524 | 0.515 | 0.505 | 0.496
al -D9D .582 .570 | .559 548 537 .527 -517 .508 -499
2 597 .585 .573' | .561 .550 .539 .529 .519 .510 -501
3 | .600) | 3588) | .575 564 | .553 -542 .532 .522 .612 -503
4 | .603 | .590 578 -566 .555 .544 584 524 -515 -505
22.5 605 | .593 | 581 | .569 .558 -547 .536 .526 517 .508
6 .608 596 | .583 O71 .560 .549 .5389 .529 -519 .510
off .611 | .598 586 | .574 -563 | .552 541 .531 521 .512

8 .614 601 -588 -576 -565 554 544 -533 -524 514
9 616 ° .603 591 579 | .567 -556 -546 .536 -526 -517

0.619 0.606 | 0.593 | 0.581 | 0.570 | 0.559 | 0.548 | 0.538 | 0.528 | 0.519
.622 .609 j | .561 -551 -540 531 521

0
1 596 | ;

.2| .624 | .611 | .599 | .686 | .575 | .564 | 1558 | .b43 |. 1638 | .528
.8| .627 | .614 | .601 | .589 | .677 | .566 | .555 | .545 | 685 | 626
4| .630 | .617 | .604 | .592 | .580 | .569 | .658 | .547 | .587 | .528
B.| “3682 | 3619: || 2606 alee | .5671 | .560 | .550 | .640 | .530
6 | .635 | .622 | .609 | .597 | .585 | .5738 | .668 | .552 | .542 | .582
7| .6388 | .624 | .611 | .699 | .587 | .576 | .565 | .554 | .644 | .536
:

or
Je)
~
ou
oO
bo

. -640 : 5 Hike - : z .537
9 | .648 .6380 -617 | .604 .592 -581 -570 -559 -549 -539

ne)
~1
pir
is
er)
=)
No)
or
Ye)
S
ou
-~I
ror)
or
for)
~I
on
a
~I
ot
rs
~I

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE.

Taste 10.—Continued.

THE VALUES or J]? 1° ~—

pen) e—or | — 10° 20° 30° 40°
24.0 | 0.646 | 0.632 | 0.619 | 0.607 | 0.595
1] .649 | .635 | .622 | .609 | .597
- .2| .651 | .688 | .624 | .612 | .600
3| .654 | .640 | .627 | .614 | .602
4| .657 | .643 | .630 | .617 | .605
24.5 | .659 | .646 | .632 | .619 | .607
6| .662 | .648 | .635 | .622 | .610
“7 |*-665.| .651 | .687 | .624 | .612
8 | 667/| .653.| .640 | .627 | .615
.9| .670 | .656 | .642 | .629 | .617
25.0 | 0.673 | 0.659 | 0.645 | 0.632 | 0.620
1| .675 | .661 | .648 | .635 | .622
.2| .678 | .664 | .650 | .637 | .624
3| .681 | .667 | .653 | .640 | .627
4| .684 | .669 | .655 | .642 | .629
25.5 | .686 | .672 | .658 | .645 | .632
.6| .689.| .675 | .660 | .647 | .634
7, | 692. | 677.) | .663.| .650.| .637
.8| .694 | .680 | .666 | .652 | .639
.9| .697 | .682 | .668 | .655 | .642
26.0 | 0.700 | 0.685 | 0.671 | 0.657 | 0.644
ny). 2 |) 2688 | .673 | .660 | .647
.2| .705 | .690 | .676 | .662 | .649
.3| .708 | .693 | .679 | .665 | .652
4| .710 | .696 | .681 | .667 | .654
26.5 | .713 | .698 | .684 | .670 | .657
.6| .716 | .701 | .686 | .672 | .659
-7| .718 | .704 | .689 | .675 | .662
.8| .721 | .706 | .691 | .678 | .664
.9| .724 | .709 | .694 | .680 | .667
27.0 | 0.727 | 0.711 | 0.697 | 0.683 | 0.669
A | .729 | 714 | .699 | .685 | .672
tae | ake | 702, | | .688, |-| 674
a (7a |4 19) | .704'| 690 | .676
2 eat Wiuet22 707" | 693°) .679
27.5.| .740\| .725-| .710.| .695 | .681
fewase | a ci27. | .712 | 698 | .684
.7| .745 | .730 | .715 | .700 | .686
15 arden) M7as (NS 77 703: | ' 689
Uilge apts |... 785,\| 720 ;|).7057,|, 691
28.0 | 0.753 | 0.738 | 0.722 | 0.708 | 0.694
1| .756 | .740 | .725 | .710 | .696
21 .759 | .743:| .728 | .713 | .699
oa) 062) |, 746-2780) |) 715° )) 701
ieerete | 2748, | 0782 | 718) .704
28:5) .167 | .751 | .735 | .720 | .706
Oe. ted | 738" | 723") 2709
eee |) 7G | 2740. F266) 711
8) tie | 2759 | 743 | 728 | .714
Gi TIS. 762. | 2746" |) e781 |) 2716

| 0.583

50°

586
-088
-590
-593
-595
-598
-600
.603
-605
0.608
-610
-612
-615
-617
-620
-622
-625
-627
-629
0.632
634
.637
-639
642
644
-646
-649
-651
-654

0.656
-659
-661
-663
-666

668
671
.673
-676
-678

0.680
-683
-685
-688
-690
-693
-695
697
- 700
-702

60°

0.572
-575
O77
.D79
-582
584
586
-589
591
O94

0.596
598
-601
-603
-606

-608
610
-613
-615
-617
0.620
.622
.625
627
-629
632
-634
.637
-639
641

0.644
646
648
651
-653

-656
.658
.660
.663
.665

0.668

.670
.672
-675
-677
.679
.682
684
-687
-689

.-— °
Pr Pv + 10 00

587
.589
| .092
094

-596
-599
-601
-603
-606

| 0.608
-610
-613
-615
617
-620
-622
-625
.627
-629

0.632
634

| .636

.639

-641

-643

.648

.650
-653

| 0.655

697
-660
-662
-664
.667
-669
.671
.674
-676

646 |

53

so° 90° 100°
0.551 | 0.541 | 0.532
5D 544 5384
556 546 536
558 548 .538
560 .550 | .540
563 553 543
565 DDD 545
567 .5DT 547
570 | .559 549
572 562 552
0.574 | 0.564 | 0.554
5T7 566 556
579 | .569 558
581 571 560
583 .573 563
586 575 | .565
588 -578 .567
590 | .580 569
593 582 571
595 584 574
0.597 | 0.587 | 0.576
600 | .589 578
602 | .591 580
604 593 583
606 596 585
609 TDS MEDS
611 .600 | .589
613 .602 | .591
616 .605 | .594
618 607 596
0.620 | 0.609 | 0.598
.622 -611 .600
.625 | .614 602
.627 .616 | .605
629 .618 | .607
.632 .620 | .609
634 623 611
.636 625 614
.639 627 616
641 | .629 | .618
| 0.643 | 0.632 | 0.620
645 634 622
648 .636 625
.650 | .638 | .627
652 641 629
655 .643 | .631
.657 .645 | .633
.659 .647 | .636
.662 | .650 | .638
.664 .652 | .640

54 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 10.—Conceluded.

THE VaLuss or [7+ —py—Py. 4 oo"

peel e—aot | poet], bse) Wsoces|) Wao eea eso: 60% ||. OPE ape 90° 100°
29.0 | 0.780 | 0.764 | 0.748 | 0.733 | 0.719 | 0.705 | 0.691 | 0.678 | 0.666 | 0.654 | 0.642
all .783 -767 UO len| coon || mene -707 694 .681 -668 -656 -645
2 -786 -769 .153 | .738 724 -710 -696 -683 -671 -659 -647
3 -788 1772 | .756 741 -726 112 -699 .685 .673 -661 -649
4 one -775 -759 -743 -f29 -714 -701 .688 -675 -663 -651
29.5 .794 StlCts -761 -746 .731 -717 - 703 .690 .678 -666 -653
6 STIG -780 - 764 -748 -733 a (ik!) - 706 .692 -680 -668 -656
sf skh -783 - 766 -751 -736 122 .708 -695 -682 -670 -658
8 .802 785 769 .753 .738 724 -710 -697 -685 .672 -660
4) -805 -788 -771 -756 -741 12 713 -699 -687 -675 -662
30.0 | 0.807 | 0.791 | 0.774 | 0.758 | 0.743 | 0.729 | 0.715 | 0.702 | 0.689 | 0.677 | 0.665
al .810 .793 777 761 -746 731 .718 704 -691 .679 667
2 813 .796 779 -763 -748 734 720 -706 -694 -681 -669
3 -815 .798 | .782 - 766 -751 2736 122 -709 -696 -684 -671
4 -818 -8OL 784 -769 -793 -739 725 ati lttt -698 -686 .673
30.5 | .821 -804 - 787 offal -756 741 127 -713 -701 -688 -676
6 -823 .806 | .789 774 758 | .744 .730 -716 -703 .690 -678
aif .826 .809 192 -776 761 -746 .732 -718 -705 .693 -680
8 | .829 .812 9D) | tO 163 | .748 734 -720 -707 -695 -682
9 | .832 -814 797 | -781 -766 | 751 .737 -723 -710 -697 -684

TasiE 11.

20 000
THE VALUES OF [js 550 = Pis 550 — P20 o00-

Passo | & = O° | i :

Inch. Inch. | Inch. | Inch, Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. | Inch,
24.0 | 0.095 0 093 | 0.091 0.089 | 0.087 0.085 0.084 0.082 | 0.081 0.079 0.078
20.0 | .099 O97 .095 .093 | .091 .O89 -O87 .O86 O84 .083 O81
26.0 -103 .100 098 | .096 .094 .093 O91 .089 O87 O86 -084
27.0 .107 104 | .102 100 098 -096 094 .093 O91 O89 O87

10° | 20° 30° | 40° 50° =| 60° 70° 80° gor | 100°

28:0 | 111 -108 106 104 102 100 098 -096 -094 -092 -O91
29.0} .115 112 110 -108 105 108 101 .099 S097 41.096 -094
30.0} .119 IG) Seuss a litit -109 107 105 - L083 sLOD | "099" |) S097
31.0] .122 -120 alt || alas) 113 110 108 - 106 .104 | .102 - 100

As an illustration of the way in which Tables 9, 10 and 11 are to be used let it be
supposed that the following values of t, have been deduced from balloon observations
made during static atmospheric conditions :

Between V= 18 550 and V= 20 000, t, = 67.0

« V= 20000 « V= 30 000,¢ =69.5
« V= 30000 “ V= 40000, ¢ = 73.0
« V= 40000 “ V= 50 000, ¢ =74.0

xe V= 50000 “ V= 60.000, ¢ = 73.5

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 55

Between V= 60000 and V= 70 000, ¢ =71.5
Us V= 70000 “ V= 80 000, t = 70.5
u: V= 80000 “ V= 90 000, t = 69.5
v V= 90000 “ V= 100 000, ¢ = 68.0
< V=100 000 “ V=110 000, t = 65.0
es V=110000 “ V=120 000, ¢ = 62.0

Assume further that the mercurial barometer at the level surface, V= 18 550,
shows a pressure of 28.496 inches.

Table 11 for p43 55 = 28.496 and t, = 67.0 gives pis 550 — Po «00 = 9-098 inch. There-
fore the pressure at the level surface V = 20 000 equals 28.496 — 0.098 = 28 398 inch.
For 2 0 = 28.398 and t,=69.5 Table 10 gives 112} 0%} = 0.666, so that ps9 09 = 28.398
— 0.666 = 27.732 inches. Again when po 9 = 27.732 and t, =73.0 Table 10 gives 11% >”
= 0.645, whence p49 9) = 27.732 — 0.645 = 27.087. Proceeding upward in this same
manner, the following values of I}: and py, are obtained :

II 29° — 0.666 inch . P 2 «0 = 28-398 inches
TI 20% — 0,645 « sh co Seema at
TI 0 — 0,629 « Den 27.087 «
TI 20% — 0.614 << P so 000 = 20-408
TI 73% — 0.603. « Poon = 20-084 «
LIES itt (Ob asX0) Dining = sola |<
11 90% — 0.577 « P eo om = 24.651“
T1190 0.565 Dev sj ee Ues
T1110 0.555 « Digan =
MDE = (Osta) Prro om = 22.954 “
Pio oy = 22-409

From these values of pressure and the corresponding values of ¢, already given,
may be obtained graphically the mean value of ¢, for each pair of the isobaric surfaces
p = 28.5 in., 28.0 in., 27.5 in., etc., as follows:

Between p = 28.5 and p = 28.0, ¢, = 68.0
Seis. — ee ita (1)
i — Ao op Oy t— 1 o.0
CHE i — 21.0 U pia 26.0, t= "74.0
ee pi—2b0m epi—26:0}it8— 13.0
«p= 26.0° 6 p= 25.0, t= 72:0
Been 20.5) op = 25,0, '%: == 71.0
opr 25.05% p 224.5, £:= 70.0

56 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS
Between p = 24.5 and p = 24.0, t, = 69.5
“ p=24.0 “ p= 23.5, t = 67.5
“= 23.5 “ p=23.0, t = 65.0
« 7 =23.0 “ p= 22.5, t = 62.5

For these values of ¢, Table 9 gives the following :

E22 — 7 450 E#2 = 8 100 E24 = 8 700
E25 = 7 620 E35 = 8 230 E35 = 8 850
Ez? — 7 800 E%2 — 8 380 EZ? = 9 000
E35 — 7 960 E25 = 8 530 B25 = 9 150

Finally, to calculate the quantities V1, Vso.5, V300, Voss, etc., we must first deter-
mine the number JV, of level surfaces of gravity lying between sealevel and the first
of the isobaric surfaces just named which the balloon meets as it rises into the air.
This number consists of two parts, viz., Vj = the number of level surfaces lying between
sealevel and the station-barometer, and E?: = the number of level surfaces lying
between the station-barometer for which the pressure is p, and the isobaric surface
p=p. V,is a constant and has already been computed for Omaha so that it only
remains to obtain the quantity E®. To accomplish this we use formula (23), written
‘in the following form :

EP! = 1837.3 x 509.4 x log + 1837.3(t, — 50° F.) log
1 1

By writing
1837.3 x 509.4 x log = (En)so

this equation may be written

, A t — 50° F,
Eye = (Ebp)s0 + 7500 (Ent) so

Table 12 contains the values of (E?:);. considered as a ieee of p, and py.

r t, :
fable 13 contains the values of the expression : 0 Cm. )so considered as a func-

509.4
tion of (E?:);, and ¢,. Of course the difference p, — p, never exceeds 0.5 inch.

In the illustrative example for Omaha, p, = 28.496, Pe = 28. Be and ¢, = 68.0,
whence from Table 12 (E®:);. = 7130, and from Table 13," ane 0 (Ego = = -+ 250.

Thus the number of level surfaces lying between the station-barometer and the 28.0-
inch isobaric surface equals 7 130 + 250 = 7 380. The number JV, of level surfaces
lying between sealeyel and the isobaric surface of the station-barometer is 18 550.
The total number of level surfaces of gravity included between sealevel and the
isobaric surface of 28.0 inches, is therefore V>.. = 25 930.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 57

If the value EX? = 7 620, viz. the number of level surfaces of gravity pre-
viously found to lie between the isobaric surfaces p = 28.0 and p = 27.5, be added to
the value 25 930 just found for V2.0, then we obtain the quantity V,,, = 33 550, or
the total number of level surfaces of gravity lying between sealevel and the isobaric
surface p = 27.5 inches. Again by adding E?? = 7 800 to V,,, = 33 550, we obtain

Vxzo = 41 350; by repeating this process the following values of JV, result :

Vio = 25 930 Vegg = 57 410 Vouo = 91 250

eat Vass = 65 640 Ving = 100 100
eg ee0 Vso = 74 020 Ving = 109 100
V5.5 = 49 310 Vins = 82 550 Vos = 118 250

Under static equilibrium in the atmosphere the values of IIs, p;, E?:, and V,, are
constants at all points and at all times. Therefore a single balloon ascension, worked
up in the manner just described, would suffice to determine for all time the relative
positions of the isobaric surfaces and the level surfaces of gravity throughout the
whole mass of static atmosphere.

58 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 12.

,) OR THE NUMBER OF LEVEL SURFACES BETWEEN p) THE STATION PRESSURE AND p, THE

THE VALUES OF (Ez),
PROXIMATE ISOBARIC SURFACE.

Pp, = 24.5 Inches.

lo 1 Buus wanes 4, iw, ie a: ead eres 9

24.5 OO ielz0 330 500 | 660 830 990 1160 1320 1490

6| 1660 | 1820 1990 | 2150 | 2320 2480 2650 2810 2980 3140
Sf 3300 3470 3630 | 3800 | 3960 4130 4290 4450 4620 4780
-8} 4950 5110 5270 | 5440 5600 | 5770 5930 6090 | 6260 6420
9} 6580 6750 | 6910 7070 7230 | 7400 7560 7720 7890 8050

Pp, = 25.0 Inches.

25.0 | 0 160 320 490 | 650 810 970 1140 1300 1460
1 1620 1780 1950 2110 2270 2430 2590 2750 2920 3080
2|. 3240 38400 | 3560 3720 3880 4040 4210 4370 4530 4690
3 | 4850 5010 | 5170 5330 5490 5650 5810 5970 6130 6290
4, 6450 6610 6770 6930 7090 7250 7410 7570 7730 7890

p, = 25.5 Inches.

25.5 | 0 160 320 480 640 800 960 1110 1270 1430
.6 | 1590 1750 1910 2070 | 2230 2380 2540 2700 2860 3020
-7 3180 3330 3490 3650 | 3810 3970 4120 4280 4440 4600
.8 | 4750 4910 5070 5230 5380 5540 5700 5850 6010 6170
9 | 6330 | 6480 6640 6800 6950 7110 7270 7420 7580 7740

P, = 26.0 Inches.

26.0 | 0 160 310 470 620 780 940, 1090 1250 1400
oll! 1560 1720 1870 203 2180 2340 2490 2650 2800 2960
2} 38110 3270 3420 3580 3730 3890 4040 4200 4350 4510

lap Ss
-3 | 4660 4820 4970 5130 5280 5440, 5590 5740 |- 5900 6050
4 | 6210 6360 6510 6670 6820 6970 7130 7280 7440 7690
Py = 26.5 Inches.

26.5 | OF | eetdO eso 460 610 770 920 1070 1220 1880
6 | 1530 1680 | 1840 1990 2140 | 2290 2450 2600 2750 2900
-7 | 3060 3210 | 3360 3510 3660 3820 3970 4120 4270 4420
.8| 4580 4730 | 4880 5030 5180 5330 5480 5640 5790 5940
9 | 6090 6240 6390 6540 6690 6840 6990 7150 7300 7450°

py = 27.0 Inches.

27.0 150 | 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350
ol! 1 500 ah 1650 1800 1950 | 2100 | 2250 2400 2550 2700 2850
.2| 3000 | 3150 3300 3450 | 3600 | 3750 3900 4040 4190 4340
3 | 4490 | 4640 4790 4940 | 5090 | 5240 5380 5530 5680 5830
4| 5980 | 6130 | 6270 | 6420 | 6570 | 6720 | 6870 | 7010 | 7160 | 7310

Pp, = 27.5 Inches.

27.5 0 rT, 50 300 | 440 | 590 | 740 890 1030 1180 1330
-6 | 1480 1620 1770. | 1920 | 2060 | 2210 2360 2500 2650 800
all 2950 3090 3240 | 3390 | 3530 3680 3820 3970 4120 4260
.8| 4410 4560 | 4700 4850 | 4990 | 5140 5290 5430 5580 5720
-9 | 5870 6020 | 6160 6310 | 6450 6600 6740 6890 7030 7180

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. 59

TasLe 12.—Coneluded.

THE VALUES OF (E2:),. OR THE NUMBER OF LEVEL SURFACES BETWEEN py) THE STATION PRESSURE, AND Pp, THE
PROXIMATE ISOBARIC SURFACE,

P; = 28.0 Inches.

Po 0 | eat 13 3 4 5 ic 6 7 8 9

0 0 150 290 440 580 730 870 1010 1160 | 1300
-1| 1450 1590 1740 1880 | 2030 2170 2320 2460 | 2600 2750
.2| 2890 8040 3180 3330 38470 3610 38760 8900 | 4040 4190
3| 4330 4480 4620 4760 | 4910 5050 5190 5340 5480 | 5620
4| 5770 | 5910 6050 6190 | 6340

6480 6620 | 6770 6910 | 7050

Pp, = 28.5 Inches.

5 0 140 280: 430 570 710 850 1000 1140 1280
6} 1420 1570 1710 1850 1990 2130 2280 2420 2560 | 2700
.7| 2840 2980 3130 8270 3410 38550 3690 3830 3970 4110
8| 4260 4400 4540 4680 4820 4960 5100 5240 5380 5520
9| 5660 5810 5950 6090 6230 6370

| 6510 6650 6790 6930

Pp, = 29.0 Inches.

0 0 140 280 420 560 700 | 840 980 1120 1260
1| 1400 | 1540 | 1680 | 1820 1960 | 2100 | 2240 | 2380 | 2510 | 2650
.2| 2790 | 2930 | 3070 | 3210 | 3350 | 3490 | 3630 | 3770 | 3910 | 4040
3
4

4180 4320 4460 4600 4740 4880 5010 5150 5290 5430
5570 5710 5840 5980 6120 6260 6400 6530 | 6670

6810

Pp, = 29.5 Inches.

5 | 0 140 280 410 550 690 | 830 960 1100 1240
6 | 1380 1510 1650 1790 1920 2060 2200 2340 2470 2610
.1| 2750 2880 3020 3160 3290 3430 3570 3700 83840 3980

8| 4110 4250 4390 4520 4660 4790 4930 5070 5200 5340

9| 5470 5610 5750 5880 6020 6150 6290 6420 6560 6700

Pp, = 80.0 Inches.

0 0 140 | 270 410 540 680 810 950 1080 1220
-1} 1350 1490 1620 1760 1890 2030 2160 2300 2430 2570
.2| 2700 2840 2970 3100 3240 3370 3510 3640 | _ 3780 3910

3 | 4040 4180 4310 4450 4580 4710 4850 4980 | 5120 5250

4, 5380 5520 5650 5780 5920 6050 6190 6320 | 6450 6590

py = 80.5 Inches.

5 0 130 | 270 400 530 670 800 930 | 1060 | 1200
.6| 1330 | 1460 | 1600 | 1730 | 1860 | 1990 | 2130 | 2260 | 9390 | 2520
-7| 2660 | 2790 | 2920 | 3050 | 3190 | 3320 | 3450 | 3580 | 3710 | 3850
8

9

3980 4110 4240 4370 4510 4640 4770 4900 | 5030 | 65160
5300 5430 5560 5690 5820 5950 6080 6220 | 6850 6480

Pp, = 81.0 Inches.

| 0 130 260 390 520 660 790 920 | 1050 1180

|
31.0 |
1| 1310 | 1440 | 1570 | 1700 | 1830 | 1960 | 2090 | 2220 | 2350 | 2480
.2| 2610 | 2740 | 2870 | 3000 | 3130 | 3260 | 3390 | 3520 | 3650 | 3780
3| so10 | 4040 | 4170 | 4300 | 4430 | 4560 | 4690 | 4820 | 4950 | 5080
4| 5210 | 5340 | 5470 | 5600 | 5730 | 5860 | 5990 | 6120 | 6250 | 6370

60

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TasLeE 13.
Tue VALUES oF = (En). FOR VALUES OF ft, AND (ES). F

(E%),,| #=0° | 10° 20° 30° 40° so | 60° | zoe | goe 90° 100°

= =i |
07 0 0 0 0 0. om a0 0 Dee 0 0
100) |) == 104} == 10; == 310 0 0 OF. 0. 0 10 10 10
200 20 | — 20 10 10 0 ® jp 10 10 20 20
300 Sor — 20 20 10°) ==" 10 o |) 10 10 20 20 30
200) 20 | —= 80 0 | 20 ee ON ape 20 20 30 40
500s) ==! 50) —= 401804 00 head OY dO 20 30 40 50
600) = 60) || == 508) —40) | 0 0 10 20 40 50 60
700 70 50 40 | —. 804|\e—sale 0 10 30 40 50 70
800 80 60 50 30 20 0 20 30 50 60 80
YOY || —= OY) |] — FY || FO || —= D_ |]. — BD) 10) 20 40 50 70 90
1000) —100" |) — 807)" —=\60) | = 40) =="20 0 20 40 60 80 100
1100) —110 | — 90.|.— 160 |) — 40 )=590 0 20 40 60 90 110
1200 | —120 90 70 50 20 0 20 50 70 90 120
1300 | ==130. || — 1000 k=O On ea 0 30 50 80 100 130
1400 140 110 80 60 | — 30 0 30 60 80 110 140
1500 | —150 120 90 60 | — 30 0 30 60 90 120 150
1600 | —160 | —130 90 60 30 OTe 30 60 90 130 160
1700" |) —170-! 130" | =_100) |= 70" =="30 0 30 70 100 130 170
18000), 180") 140s | =o = 0a 0 40 70 110 140 180
1900 | —190 | —150 | —110 | — 70 | — 40 0) e40) | 70 110 150 190
2000 | —200 | —160 120° | —=-80) | = 408 0 40 | 80 120 160 200
2100 | —210 160 | —120 80 40 0 | 40 80 120 160 210
9200'1 —220 | —1'70 | 130 | — 90)\)— 40 0 40 90 130 170 220)
2300 | —230 | —180 140 90 50 0 50 90 140 180 230
2400 | —240 | —190 | —140 || — 90°] = 50 0 50 90 140 190 240
2500 | —250 | —200 | —150 | —100 | — 50 0 50 100 | 150 200 | 250
2600 | —260 | —200 | —150 | —100 | — 50 0); | 250 100 150 200 260
3700}. — 270. | — 3110 | 1160) | 11.0) == 50 0 50 110 160 210 270
2800 270 220 160) |; 10 |)=50 0 50 110-160 220 270
2900" (0280) 230) | 170 ul—=1010 |: s60 Opa reO 110 170 230 280
3000 | —290 240 180 120 | — 60 0. _ || 6071) "70 180 240 290
3100 300 240 180 120 60 0 60 120 180 240 300
3200 310 250 190 130 | — 60 0 60 130 | 190 250 310
3300 | —320 260 190 130 60 0 60 | 130 190 260 320
3400") —3880"|'—270"|'=200" | —_190 || —= 70 0 70 | 130 200 270 330
3500 340 270 210. | 140) |—0 0 70 140 210 270 340
3600 | —350 | —280 | —210 | —140 | — 70 0 70 140 210 280 350
3700 | —360 | —290 220 150 70 0 70 150 220 290 360
3800 | —370 | —300 220 150 | — 70 0 70 150 220 300 370
3900 380 310 230 150 | — 80 0 80 150 230 310 380
4000 | —390 310 240 | 160 |— 80| 0 | 80 160 240 310 390
4100 | —400 | —320 940 | 160" —— 80 0 eee 160 | 240 320 400
4200 410 | —330 250 170 | 80 One 80 170 250 330 410
4300 | —420 340 250 170 | 80°] 0%. 4 80>} TRO al 2250 340 420
4400 | —430 350 260 | —170 | — 90 | 0 90 170 | 260 350 430
4500 | —440 | —350 | —270 | —180 9 0 90 | 180 | 270 | 350 | 440
4600 | —450 | —360 | —270 | —180 9 0 90 | 180 | 270 | 360 | 450
4700 | —460 370 280 180 | — 90 Oo |) ooo 180 280 370 460
4800 | —470 | —380 | —280 | —190 | — 90 | 0 | 90 | 190 | 280 380 470
4900 | —480 | —290 | —190 | —100 | 0 100 | 199 | 290 | 380 | 480

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 61

TABLE 13.— Concluded.

’ tr — 50
THE VALUES OF > E),. FOR VALUES OF ft, AND (ER)...

509.4 Po Po
(E2),,| k=O A oe SOF | 2,402 | 60° | 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°
5000 | —490 | —390 | —290 | —200 | —100 Ome i, LOO 200 290 390 490
5100 | —500 | —400 | —300 | —200 | —100 0 100 200 300 400 500
5200 | —510 | —410 | —310 | —200 | —100 0 100 200 310 410 510
5300 | —520 | —420 | —310 | —210 | —100 | 0 100 210 310 420 520
5400 | —530 | —420 | —320 | —210 | —110 0 110 | 210 320 420 530
5500 | —540 | —430 | —320 | —220 | —110 | 0 110 | 220 | 320 430 540
5600 | —550 | —440 | —330 | —220 | —110 | 0 110 220 330 440 550
5700 | —560 | —450 | —340 | —220 | —110} 0 | 110 220 340 450 560
5800 | —570 | —460 | —340 | —230 | —110 0 110 230 340 460 570
5900 | —580 | —460 | —350 | —230 | —120 0 120 | 280 350 460 580
6000 | —590 | —470 | —350 | —240 | —120 | 0 120 | 240 350 470 590
GLO S —G00n |) 280 1 300) | — 240) —120) | 0 120 240 360 480 600
6200 | —-610) | —490 | —370 | —240) | —120 0 120 240 370 | 490 610
6300 | —620 | —490 | —370 | —250 | —120 0 120 250 | 370 | 490 620
6400 | —630 | —500 | —380 | —250 | —130 0 130 | 250 380 | 500 630
6500 | —640 | —510 | —380 | —260 | —130 0 130 260 380 510 640
6600 | —650 | —520 | —390 | —260 | —130 0 130 260 390 520 650
6700 | —660 | —530 | —390 | —260 | —130 0 130 260 390 5380 660
6800 | —670 | —530 | —400 | —270 | —130 0 130 270 | 400 | 530 670
6900 | —680 | —540 | —410 | —270 ; —140 0 140 | 270 | 410 540 680
7000 | —690 | —550 | —410 | —280 | —140 0 140 280 410 550 690
7100 | —700 | —560 | —420 | —280 | —140 0 140 | 280 420 560 700
7200 | —710 | —570 | —420 | —280 | —140 0 140 | 280 | 420 570 710
7300 | —720 | —570 | —430 | —290 | —140 0 140 290 | 430 570 720
7400 | —730 | —580 | —440 | —290 | —150 0) 150 290 | 440 | 580 730
7500 | —740 | —590 | —440 | —290 | —150 0 150 290 440 | 590 740
7600 | —750 | —600 | —450 | —300 | —150 0 150 | 300 | 450 | 600 750
7700 | —760 |:—600 | —450 | —300 | —150 0 150 300 | 450 600 760
7800 | —770 | —610 | —460 | —310 | —150 | 0O 150 | 310 | 460 610 770
7900 | —780 | —620 | —470 | —310 | —150 | 0O 150 | 310 | 470 620 780

IV. Tue Revative Positions or THE Isoparic SURFACES AND THE LEVEL SURFACES
oF Gravity Unper Dynamic CoNDITIONS.

Experience has shown that the formula for static barometric conditions, viz.,
dp = pd V,

also obtains very closely indeed for the actual dynamic conditions. In the succeed-
ing pages I shall assume this formula to hold true since thereby the calculations are
simplified and more clearly apprehended.

The primary cause of all atmospheric movements consists in the fact that on
account of the unequal heating of the atmosphere the surfaces of equal values of t, do
not coincide with the leyel surfaces of gravity. The immediate consequence is that

62 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

a

the number of isobaric surfaces included between two level surfaces of gravity, as well
as the number of the level surfaces included between any pair of isobaric surfaces,
can not be everywhere the same, as is the case under static conditions, but on the
contrary all the isobaric surfaces are in a state of continuous movement and deforma-
tion relative to the level surfaces of gravity, as is well known from the study of daily
synoptic weather maps.

Therefore, in order to find the relative positions of the isobaric surfaces and the
level surfaces of gravity under dynamic conditions, the quantities ly, py, EP, and V,
must be calculated along every vertical in the atmosphere and for every instant.
The practical carrying out of this problem would require the sending up simultaneously
from a number of stations, kites or balloons carrying self-registers, by means of whose
records the four above-mentioned quantities for the verticals at the stations can be
calculated. The values thus obtained for these quantities can then be entered on
synoptic charts and graphically interpolated, just as is now done, daily, for the
barometric readings observed at the meteorological stations and reduced to sealevel.

The kite- and balloon-ascensions heretofore executed may be classed under four
types, viz.: ascents reaching great altitudes by means of sounding balloons, as at
Trappes, near Paris; ascents in manned balloons, such as are made in Germany ;
ascents to great heights by means of kites, as at Blue Hill, Mass., and Trappes;
and finally the kite-ascents carried out by the Weather Bureau from a large
number of specially equipped kite-stations, e. g., the 17 kite-stations of 1898. In
cooperation with the manned balloon ascents in Germany, frequent simultaneous
ascents of manned and unmanned balloons are carried out at many other European
stations (7. e., the international balloon-ascensions). These international balloon-
ascensions in Europe and the kite-ascensions made by the U. 8S. Weather Bureau in
America, are especially adapted to synoptic presentation of the four quantities E?:,

r', py and JV, in the atmosphere, because the pressure may be calculated from them
along a number of verticals in the atmosphere for the same moment of time. In the
present paper I shall work up only the observations with kites executed by the U. S.
Weather Bureau.

For the purpose of synoptical study of the Weather Bureau kite-observations it
is very desirable that they be carried out at those hours for which the daily weather
maps are made, viz., at 8 A. M. and at 8 P. M., 75th meridian time. Since, how-
ever, the wind-conditions often made it impracticable to send up the kite at so early
or so late an hour, therefore the observations made at any time during the day must
be extrapolated to 8 A. M. or to 8 P.M. The rules for this extrapolation can be
deduced only after the proper study of all the kite-observations heretofore made.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 63

Because of our ignorance of these rules I have in the succeeding calculations interpo-
lated to 8 A. M. only those observations obtained from ascents between 6 A. M. and
11 A. M.

The extrapolation of the observations to 8 A. M. or to 8 P. M. and the calculation
of the values of the four quantities II}, p,, EP, V,, can be most advantageously per-
formed by the kite-observers immediately upon reeling in the kite. The results may
be readily concentrated to two or three numbers and thus easily telegraphed to the
Central Office. As an illustrative example I proceed to show how the kite-ascension at
Omaha, Nebr., on 23 Sept., 1898, should be worked up. In Table 14 the figures for
pressure (p), temperature (f), and relative humidity (r), are taken from the corre-
sponding curves of the self-recording meteorograph at the kite, while the heights (h)
are calculated trigonometrically from the length of the kite-line of steel wire and the
angular elevation of the kite. The values of ¢, are deduced from p, ¢ and 7; and the
values of V from the observed elevations, in the manner already described.

TABLE 14.
KiTE OBSERVATIONS WITH THE VALUES OF f, AND V, AT OMAHA, SEPT. 23, 1898.
Time.* P t | r h i V
Inch. ON Per cent. Feet. £9 F. <1)
7? a.m. 28.50 63.0 88 0 66.5 18550
he 27.35 69.5 82 1467 74.0 40490
8” 27.10 70.0 79 1742 74.5 44590
dle 24.80 68.0 51 4453 71.0 85110
lds 24.20 68.0 30 5111 69.5 94940
ial 23.75 65.0 18 5739 | 66.0 104340
12"| p. m 23.40 64.0 12 6224 64.5 111580
Lo 23.15 62.0 11 6541 62.5 116310
ne 23.00 61.5 10 6780 62.0 119880
1Pau 22.90 61.0 10 | 6905 61.5 121750
|

us 24.10 70.0 5 5131 | 70.5 95240
hee 24.25 71.0 4 4960 ales 92690
3% 25.10 69.0 50 Cy engl meer OR 74400
416 ABP) 70.0 58 3487 73.5 70680
4% 73.0 60 2569" eS T7.O" > | - 62840
4% 26.30 77.0 70 2405 82.5 54500
4% 26.90 81.0 66 1638 86.0 43040
5* 28.40 87.0 53 0 92.0 18550

Using the values of t, in Table 14, as abscissee and the corresponding values of V
as ordinates, the points in Fig. 1 are plotted and then a curve drawn through them
which gives the values of ¢, at the elevation of every level surface of gravity both for
the ascent and the descent, by direct reading. By the aid of this (f,, V)-curve and
the observations made at 8 A. M. at the station, the observer or kite official should

* 75th meridian time or 1" 24™ faster than Omaha local mean solar time.

64 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

next proceed to construct upon the same set of codrdinates by extrapolation, the curve
showing the value of ¢, at each level surface of the station-vertical, for 8 A, M. This
curve for our example, and as drawn on the same coérdinate plane, is shown in Fig. 2,

Vv

/20000
/10000

/00000

SS
“%
33
S
s
RK
»
S
5
8
Ny)

Gravity Palen =

60° 7a" 80") 30> Foo’; 0
° ° ° ° 3)
—+ Virtual Termperature 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° /00t,
Aiscern di17g Descending Obs, Virtual Term perature a
Fig. 1. The curves of virtual temperatures at Omaha for Fig. 2. The curves of virtual temperatures at Omaha from
each value of the gravity potential as calculated from kite rec- Fig. 1 with the interpolated curve C for the hour of the synoptic
ords for September 23, 1898. Ascending curve A, descending map, or 8 a. m., 75th meridian time, September 23, 1898.
curve B.
where the 8 A. M. extrapolated (¢,, V)-curve is given as the heavy line (C) together

with the curves in dotted lines, obtained directly from the observations of the day as
already shown in Fig. 1. From the extrapolated (t,, V)-curve of Fig. 2 for 8 A. M.
may now be read off the following values for the average virtual temperatures (t,) at
8 A. M. of the day in question.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 65

Between V= 18 550 and V= 20 000, t = 67°.0
sé V= 20000 “ V= 30.000, t = 69°.5
ss V= 30000 “ V= 40000, t = 73°.0
“e V=,40000 “ V= 50000, t = 74°.0
“% V= 50000 “ V= 60.000, t = 73°.5
a V= 60000 “ V= 70000, ¢ =71°.5
fe V= 70000 “ V= 80000, al Oe
ce V= 80000 “ V= 90-000, ¢ = 69°.5
ee V= 90000 “ V=4100 000, ¢ = 68°.0
cs V=100 000 “ V=110.000, ¢ = 65°.0
G: V=110000 “ V=120-000, ¢ = 62°.0

We may further assume that the air pressure shown by the station barometer at
8 A. M. equalled 28.496 inches of mercury.*

Now, if the barometric formula for static conditions be assumed as sufficiently
exact for the assumed dynamic conditions, then the calculation of the four quantities
II}, py, E?: and V,, will be carried on in exactly the same way for the vertical through
Omaha, Nebr., on 23 Sept., 1898, 8 A. M., 75th meridian time, as though the atmos-
phere had been in a static condition on that day. We might therefore here make
use of the tables given in the chapter on static conditions. In order to avoid unnec-
essary repetition, the values just given for ¢, for Omaha, 23 Sept., 1893, 8 A. M., 75th
meridian time, have been used as the basis for this illustration of static conditions.
The following values were found by the method previously described :

ie 0.098 Da ep AeG
TD 35 oc = 0.666 Dian ele
Me erccie= 0-040 Bess 000 = ton
Tonk 02629 P 40 099 = 21-087
ML aes COLI! P «0 ow = 26-458
Loon = 0-603 Po uo = 20844
WT on==10-090 Dy ong = 20-24
TOD eee) == (Oe aver/ Pwo 22-601
I spo = 0-060 P oo 00 = 24-074
TT io ooo = 0.555 Poo 000 = 23-909
T1373 boo = 0.545 Pri0 000 = 22-904

P20 oo = 22-409

* This station-pressure is to be reduced to standard gravity since this reduction is considered as one of the instru-
mental corrections, see pp. 33 and 42. The correction to a self-registering aneroid should include this item. —C, A.

(op)
[ep)

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

Here the quantities P13 550, P2000, ete., are the barometric pressures at the level sur-
faces V = 18 550, V = 20 000, etc. From the (¢,, V)-curve for 8 A. M. in Fig. 2, we
find corresponding values of ¢, for the same level surfaces as follows :

For V 45 5% P = 28.496, t, ='67.0
for Vo) P = 28.398, #, = 67.5
Fay = 21132, L— TCO
to 2 = 20.081, a0

p = 26.458, t = 74.0

50 000

V
Vv
V
for Vso og DP = 20-844, t, = 72.5
for Vi. P= 20-241, 1 = 71.0
for Vso o9 P= 24-651, t, = 70.0
for Vo) oo P= 24.074, ¢ = 69.0
for Vico 09 P= 20-009, t, = 66.0

for V, p = 22.954, t = 63.5

110 000
me |Z = 22.409, ¢ = 61.0

120 000 Pp
By plotting the above values of p and ¢, as a system of codrdinates in which p is
ordinate and the corresponding value of t, is abscissa, a curve is obtained which shows

70° 80° 9Ft,
Virtual Termperature —>

Fig. 3. The (> , t-)-curve of virtual tem-
peratures at Omaha for each value of atmospheric
pressure as calculated for 8 a. m., 75th meridian
time, from the kite record of September 23, 1898.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 67

e@0000

Fig. 4. Chart of 115° °°° for8a. m., September 23, 1898, or lines Fig. 5. Chart of Il{> jo, for 8 a, m., September 23, 1898, or lines
of equal differences of barometric pressure between sea level and the 40000 of equal differences of barometric pressure between the 40 000 and 80.000
potential surface of gravity as telegraphed from all stations to the Central potential surfaces of gravity as telegraphed to the Central Office.
Office.

Fig. 6. Chart of po or isobars for sea level for 1898, September Fig. 7. Chart of pyo 999 for 1898, September 23, 8 a. m., or iso-
23, 8 a. m., as observed and telegraphed. bars at the 40 000 level surface as deduced from the isobars for sea level

by subtracting the numbers on Fig. 4 from those on Fig. 6.

68 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

the value of t, in every isobaric surface above Omaha for 23 Sept., 1898, 8 A. M.

This curve is shown in Fig. 3.
From this curve the following average values of ¢, are easily read off:

Between p = 28.496 and p = 28.000 ¢, = 68.0
pi — 128.0 Adie f= Td
piso pl) ae — ali a)
Ci — 71.0) Di 20-0 t = 74.0 -
Ee pi—2620 = WO t. = 73.5 3
“ p = 26.0 “ p= 25.5 t= 72.0
« p = 25.5 “ p= 25.0 toiled)
cc p = 25.0 < p= 24.0 fa 10:0
[pi 245 pita) t = 69.5
“ p = 24.0 Le) Po) t, = 67.5
<p =23.5 © p= 23.0 t = 65.0
oD p= 28.0. p22 eee

For these values of ¢, and p we obtain from Table 9

E9,, = 7 380 Ex? = 8 100 B22 = 8 700
EZ =7 620 E35 = 8 230 E25 = 8 850
Ez2 =7 800 EZ — 8 380 E22 = 9 000
E35 —7 960 E245 = 8 530 B25 = 9 150

and, by the aid of Tables 12 and 13, the following values

Ving = 25 930 Vog9 = 57 410 Vose= 91 250
Vers = 33 550 Vis; = 65 640 V,; = 100 100
Vong = 41 350 V5.9 = 74 020 Voso = 109 100
Vog.s = 49 310 Vy,5 = 82 550 Voos = 118 250

By bringing together the preceding results we may arrange a convenient tabular
form as in Table 15 for working up the results of a kite ascension at a kite-station.
As an example I have collected in this Table 15, the results already worked out for
the observations at Omaha, 23 Sept., 1898.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. 69

Go000o
20000

>

Fig. 8. Chart of pso ooo for 1898, 8a. m., September 23, or iso- Fig. 9. Chart of 1135 55, for 1898, September 23, 8 a. m., or lines
bars at the level surface 80 000 as deduced from the isobars for 40 000 by of equal differences of barometric pressure between the 60000 and the
subtracting the numbers on Fig. 5 from those on Fig. 7. 20 000 potential surfaces of gravity.

Fig. 10. Chart of V,,., for 8a. m., September 23, 1898, or chart Fig. 11. Chart of V,;., for 8a. m., September 23, 1898, or chart

of the level lines on the isobaric surface 27.5 inches as telegraphed. of the level lines on the isobaric surface 25.0 inches as deduced by adding
the numbers on Fig. 12 to those on Fig. 10.

70

CONSTRUCTION

OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 15.

ForM FOR THE DYNAMIC COMPUTATIONS BASED ON KITE OBSERVATIONS.

OmanA, NEBRASKA, SEPT. 23, 1898.

TI Computation of t, and V. Computation of 1 re and py. 1

2 1 | ore ies 5 im (tea 8 9 10 1 12 13 14 2

3 Time.* | Bar. |Temp.| t,—t r pe ees | Zz J V teeny eee 2 Py t, 3

| hm HME OT | e5 a a feet Inch: |} 4

4 8:00 a.m. 28.496 63.5) 4.0 88 3.5 67 0 18 550 | 18 550. 67.0 | 0.098< 28.496 | 67 4
5 7:50 28.50 | 63 4.0 88 3.5 66.5 0 18 550 | 20000 69.5 0.666< 28.398 | 67.5| 5

6 8:06 27.35 | 69.5 | 5.5 82 4.5 74 1467 | 40490 | 30000 < 73.0 0.645< Qio2 | OL 6

uf 8:19 27.10 | 70 5.5 79 4.5 74.5 | 1742 | 44590 | 40 0005 74.0 0.629— 27.087 | 74 7

8. | 11:25 24.80 | 68 5.5 51 3.0 71 4453 | 85110 | 50 000< 73.5 0.614— 26.458 | 74 8

9 11:45 24.20 | 68 5.5 30 1.5 69.5 | 5111 | 94940 | 60 000<¢ 71.5 0.603— 25.844 |72.5| 9
10 11:54 23.75 | 65 5.0 18 1.0 66 5739 | 104340 | 70 000< 70.5 0.590— 25.241 | 71 10
wil 4) 12:13 p. m.| 23.40 | 64 5.0 12 0.5 64.5 | 6224 | 111580 } 80 000¢ 69.5 0. SIT 24.651 | 70 11
12 12:25 23.15 | 62 5.0 11 0.5 62.5 | 6541 | 116310 | 90 000<¢ 68.0 0.565— 24.074 | 69 12
13 12:47 23.00 | 61.5 | 4.5 10 0.5 62 6780 | 119880 |100 000< 65.0 0.555< 23.509 | 66 13
14 12:57 22.90 61 4.5 10 0.5 61.5 | 6905 | 121750 |110 000 62.0 0.545<| 22.954 | 63.5 | 14
15 1:44 24.10 | 70 6.0 5 0.5 70.5 | 5131 | 95240 |120 000: 3 7 22.409 | 61 15
16 1:57 24.25 | 71 6.5 4 0.5 71.5 | 4960 | 92690 16
17 3:56 25.10 | 69 5.5 50 3.0 72 3736 | 74400 17
18 4:16 25.32 | 70 6.0 58 3.5 73.5 | 3487 | 70680 18
19 4:25 73 6.5 60 4.0 77 2963 | 62840 19
20 4:39 26.30 | 77 7.5 70 5.5 82.5 | 2405 | 54500 20
21 4:54 26.90 | 81 8.0 66 5.0 86 1638 | 438040 21
22 5:25 | 28.40 | 87 9.5 53 5.0 92 0 18 550 22

* All records are kept on 75th meridian time which is 15 24™ faster than Omaha local mean solar time.
TABLE 15.— Continued.
ForM FOR THE DYNAMIC COMPUTATIONS BASED ON KITE OBSERVATIONS.
OMAHA, NEBRASKA, SEPT. 23, 1898.

1 Computation of ie and Vp. Values of fr in situ. - } 1

2 15 16 | 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2

3 p t EPA Vp fh v |. Time. t, Time. | ¢, 3

4 os495_| 2 18 550 67.0 0 saa Sipe 2 4

: | = 55 7. — — — —

5 BON Fe | 5oe 7 380<| 25930 | 69.5 | 10000 = | = = Ps

6 7.5 <I 7g 7 8002] 33.550 72 20 000 7:52a.m.| 67 | 5:23p.m.) 91.5 | 6

7 27.0 <4 7 9602| 41350 74 30000 | 7:57 71 | 5:10 89.5 | 7

8 26.5 S 73 5 8 100— 49 310 74 40 000 8:06 74 4:58 87.0 8

9 26.0 S$ a 8 930 -| 57 410 73 50 000 8:45 74.5 | 4:48 84.0 9
10 25.5 S$ 71 8 380 S 65 640 71.5 60 000 9:34 73.5 | 4:29 79.0 | 10
11 25.0 S| 70 8 es 74 020 70 70 000 10:22 71.5 | 4:12 73.5 | 11
12 24.5 = 69 5 8 700< 82 550 70 80 000 11:08 71.0 | 3:23 72.0 | 12
13 24.0 S$ 67. 5 8 8502) 91 250 68.5 90 000 11:36 70.5 | 2:12 72.0 | 13
14 23.5 <) gs | 9 c002| 100100 66 100000 | 11:40 67. | 1:39 69.0 | 14
15 23.0 S| 62 5 9 150< 109 100 63.5 110 000 12:10 p.m 65 1:30 66.0 | 15
16 22.5 | 4 : 118 250 61.5 120 000 12:50 62 1:13 62.0 | 16
17 130 000 1:00 60 1:00 60.0 | 17
18 18
19 19+
20 20
21 | 21
22 | | 22

In this schematie presentation, the various columns as numbered have the fol-
lowing significance :
No.

1 contains the moments of observation. All time records are uniformly in

75th meridian time.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S’ ATMOSPHERE. 71

j

40209 $0300 40300 #0209 "9/00 <o700

Fig. 12. Chart of E3}:2 for 8 a. m., September 23, 1898, or the Fig. 13. Chart of E3/:? for 8 a. m., September 23, 1898, or the
number of solenoids in the layer of atmosphere over any place between the number of solenoids in the layer of atmosphere between the isobars 27.0
isobaric surfaces 27.5 and 25.0 as computed and telegraphed ; showing the and 27.5 above any place.

tendency of the air at any place to maintain a vertical circulation.

8300

Fig. 14. Chart of E;;': for 8 a. m., September 23, 1898, or the Fig. 15. Chart of the E>: ") for 8 a. m., September 23, 1898, or the
number of solenoids in the layer of atmosphere between the isobars 26.0 number of solenoids in the layer of atmosphere between the isobars 20.0
and 26.5 above any place. and 25.5 above any place.

72 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

Nos. 2 and 3, respectively, the pressure and temperature registered at these hours [the
local pressure expressed in inches of mercury under standard gravity.—C. A.].

No. 4, the values of (¢, — t) for these pressures and temperatures as obtained from
Table 7.

No. 5, the registered relative humidities.

No. 6, the values of (¢, — ¢) deduced from Table 8, for the data in columns 4 and 5.

No. 7, the ¢, or the sum of the (¢, — ¢) in column 6 and the temperatures t in column 3.

No. 8, the observed elevations computed trigonometrically.

No. 9, the values of the gravity potentials V obtained from No. 8 by means of Table 3.
From the ¢, and Vin columns 7 and 9 the (¢,, V) curve of Fig. 1 is constructed

and along side of it the corresponding extrapolated curve for 8 A. M. as in Fig. 2.

From the (¢,, V) curve for 8 A. M. we read off the mean values of ¢, for the intervals

V = 18 550 to V = 20 000, V = 20 000 to V = 30 000, ete.; and proceed to the follow-

ing columns:

No. 10, the ordinal numbers of the level surfaces of gravity.

No. 11, the mean values of ¢, for the intervals between the surfaces of column No. 10.

No. 12, the values of II}; for the average t, as given by Tables 10 and 11.

No. 13, the value of p, for each level surface obtained by successive algebraic addi-

tions of IT; to the reading of the station-barometer at 8 A. M.

No. 14, contains the values of ¢, for the level surfaces, V = 18 550, V = 20 000, ete.
at 8 A. M., obtained directly from the extrapolated (¢,, V)-curve of Fig. 2.
From the values of p, and ¢, given in columns 13 and 14, the curve of Fig. 3 is

constructed and from this the mean value of ¢, for each half-inch of barometric change
is read off.

No. 15, contains the barometric pressure for each of these half-inch intervals.

No. 16 gives the corresponding mean values of f,.

No. 17 gives the values of E?: for these ¢,-values, obtained by aid of Tables 9, 12 and 13.
No. 18 contains the values of V,, that result from successive additions of the values in
. column 17 [to the value of V, for the level surface that contains the station

barometer.—C. A.].

From the curves in Figs. 2 and 3 there may also be determined the values of ¢,
for the isobaric surfaces at 8 A. M., and for the level surfaces of gravity at the
moments when the kite passed through them.

No. 19 contains the values of ¢, at 8 A. M. read off from the curve of Fig. 3 and

corresponding to the isobaric surfaces given in column 15.

No. 20 gives the ordinal number for each 10 000th level surface of gravity.
Nos. 21 and 23 give the times when the kite passed through each of the surfaces
given in column 20, ascending and descending respectively.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 73

These times of passage through the level surfaces as given in columns 21 and 28
may readily be obtained graphically as follows: The times given in column 1 are
plotted as abscisse and the values of V in column 92 as ordinates. Then the
(Time, V)-curve is drawn through the points thus plotted and from this curve the
time of the moment of intersection for each 10 000th level surface of gravity may be
read off directly.

Nos. 22 and 24 give the values of t, at each passage through the level surfaces of
column 20; these values having been read from the curves for the kite ascension

shown in Fig. 2.

Preparation of Synoptical Charts at the Central Station.

For synoptic study at the central station it is sufficient to telegraph only some of
the most important of the quantities above calculated, e¢.g., the quantities Ij, 1130 0°.
T1!29 90) Voz5, E2°, and E2°. The value of 1®™ is obtained by subtracting P40 000 = 27.087
from the reading of the station-barometer reduced to sealevel, or Po = 29.74, whence
results the difference, IIj’"” = 2.653. In the same way are obtained the values

TT} 00 = 21.087 — 24.651 = 2.436, and IIS} oe = 24.651 — 22.409 — 2.242. The value
of Vz; = 33 550 is taken directly from column 18 of Table 15. The values of

Es = 40 470, and E53 = 44 230 are the differences V2,9— Vo,; and V5 — Vos9 respec-
tively. The numbers to be telegraphed to the central station are therefore 2.653,
2.436, 2.242, 33550, 40470 and 44230. For telegraphic purposes these numbers
may be shortened by dropping the first and the last figures of each, so that we have
to telegraph only the abbreviated numbers 65, 44, 24, 355, 047 and 423. These may
be combined into three groups of five figures each, as for example 65 355, 44 047,
24 423.*

Now assume that all the kite-stations where ascensions were made with register-
ing instruments during the forenoon of 23 Sept., 1898, had worked up their obser-
vations according to the foregoing method and sent telegraphic reports to the central
office. Then these telegrams as received would have read somewhat as follows :

23 Sepr., 1898, 8 A. M., 75TH MERIDIAN TIME.

Cleveland, O. 68 135 ACIOGSMEINL BO! ores.
Dodge City, Kan. 74 193 44 016 22 446
Knoxville, Tenn. 70 635 AD QOS Te til ay yey waceecetn
Omaha, Nebr. 65 355 44 047 24 423
Pierre, S. D. 73 076 ANS ODA: 9") Fa een sees
Topeka, Kan. 68 363 E330) Aero le ia

* This contraction for economy in European telegraphy would be advantageously replaced in America by our usage of
short cipher code words or syllables. —C. A.

74 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

es

At the central office of the Weather Bureau by means of these numbers charts
can be drawn presenting synoptically the values of IIy’™, T130 boty 40 0007 ‘Pso.000, Esi.s, Voris
and V;,,. The first step is to separate the figures of the telegrams and to supply the

missing figures, with the following result:

23 Sepr., 1898. 8 A. M.

Obs, Staton. HEP yy)! op cele Keren \vs ERE Jo | a ERS
Cleveland, O. 2.68 2.48 | — | 31 350 ~ 39 630 | —
Dodge City, Kans. 2.74 2.44 2.22 31930 40160 44 460
Knoxville, Tenn. 2.70 2.49 — | 36 350 =6| «39 930 —_
Omaha, Nebr. 2.65 2.44 2.24 33550 | 40470 44 230
Pierre, So. Dak. 2.73 2.41 — 30760 | 40540 =
Topeka, Kans. 2.68 2.43 =2 381680). ||. 40*740. |). - =

The second step is to enter these values at the appropriate stations on a series of
skeleton maps. The sketch map forming Fig. 4 on page 67 gives a synoptic map of
the quantity me’. Fig. 5, page 67, shows a similar map for the quantity T%p 00.
The maps, Figs. 4 and 5 and curves have been drawn just as. the isobars for sealevel
are drawn on the usual isobaric maps. The three maps following, viz., Figs. 6, 7, 8,
pages 67, 69, show the quantities Po, Ps 000, Psooo, respectively. The map for pg, Fig. 6,
is copied directly from the Weather Bureau map of barometric pressure reduced to
sealevel. The py oo map, Fig. 7, which is a map of the isobars at the level surface
V = 40 000, is constructed graphically by superposition of the p) chart, Fig. 6, and
the 11° chart, Fig. 4, making use of the relation

: 40 000
P0000 = Po — II,

The ps oo map, Fig. 8, page 69, is constructed in an analogous way by superposing
Figs. 5 and 7, using the relation

80 000
Ps0 000 = P40 000 — LH 40 ooo

The synoptic map of the values IIS} to forming Fig. 9, of page 69, will be discussed later.

Fig. 10, on page 71, shows the synoptic distribution of the quantity V2; 7. e., the
number of level surfaces of gravity between sealevel and the isobaric surface for
p = 27.5 inches; it is constructed from the telegraphed values of V,,; superposed
on the map of isobars for sealevel. The last map on page 69, Fig. 11, shows the
distribution of the values of V,,,, 7. e., the number of level surfaces between sealevel
and the isobarie surface p = 25.0. It is constructed by superposing Fig. 10 for Vy;
and Fig. 12 for E3? using the relation

V5.0 77, Vars tr Eos

The first map on page 71, viz., Fig. 12, presents a synoptic view of the values

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 75
~

of the quantity E75, and is constructed from the telegraphed values of E2’ in a
manner analogous to the chart of II), page 67, Fig. 4. The remaining maps on
page 71, viz., Figs. 13, 14, 15, present synoptic views of the distribution of the quan-
tities E33, E33, and E3°, respectively, and will be discussed later.

The distribution of pressure under the prevailing dynamic conditions in the
atmosphere is thus presented on the one hand by p, charts, showing the isobars on the
level surfaces of gravity, and on the other hand by V, charts, showing the level lines
of gravity on the isobaric surfaces. These two systems of charts taken together
present a very clear picture of the relative positions of the isobaric surfaces and of the
level surfaces of gravity. From kite observations and by the aid of the tables accom-
panying this memoir, isobars on the level surfaces of gravity can be constructed for
much smaller intervals, 7. e., for the level surfaces of V= 0, V = 10 000, V = 20 000,

- V = 180 000, as also level lines on the isobaric surfaces of p= 31, p = 30.5,
p = 30.0.--p =19.0. The charts on pages 67, 69, 71, however, suggest that such
intervals are much too small. In fact, the charts for Psp 9, Po 00, aNd py Show nearly
the same characteristics; and the same is true of the charts for V,;) and V,;. It is
obviously superfluous to draw charts for such small intervals that the types are nearly
identical. On the other hand the interval must not be too large since then the
features would differ so much that it would be difficult or impossible to follow the
continuity of the change in the type with increasing elevation. We must learn
through experience what intervals are to be chosen as best suited to our studies, and
to the condition of the atmosphere.

I have chosen the isobaric map drawn for sealevel as the base for the p,- and
V,-maps, because the values of atmospheric pressures as telegraphed from permanent
observing stations are, without exception, reduced to sealevel. But when one wishes
to construct maps for the free atmosphere, it is quite superfluous to first reduce the
pressure to sealevel, and then re-reduce it upwards from sealevel to a higher one. The
rational way would be to reduce the pressures observed at the permanent stations, not
to sealevel but to the nearest level surface of gravity for which a p,-map is to be con-
structed, and then use the value of p, thus obtained in constructing the corresponding
Prmap. In an analogous way the number of level surfaces of gravity lying between
the level of the station-barometer and the nearest isobaric surface adopted for map-
ping values of V,, might be calculated ; whence by adding the values of V4, the values
of V, for the isobaric surface in question could be determined and be used in con-
structing the proper V,-map. The values of py and V, obtained from the kite-obser-
vations would thus serve in constructing their respective maps for the free air and the
values of Ij: and E?: could be used in the manner already described, for superposition

76 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

.
on the p,-and V,-maps. By the foregoing method of procedure, however, no isobaric
charts at sealevel would be obtained for those regions where the stations are at con-

siderable altitudes above sealevel.

V. Tue Dynamic SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CHARTS OF py, V,; ES: anp II}.

The following conclusions are deduced on the distinct assumption that the earth
does not rotate and that friction does not exist. I defer to a later paper the consider-
ation of the influence of the rotation of the earth and of friction tpon the dynamic
processes of the atmosphere. In this section I shall consider only the primary cause
of all atmospheric movements, in other words the want of uniformity as to temperature
and humidity. This is that which has the power to set up a movement in an
atmosphere otherwise at rest relative to the earth, whereas the earth’s rotation and the
friction do not possess such power.

Significance of py-maps.—The dynamic significance of the p,;-maps, namely,
the maps of the isobars on the different level surfaces of gravity, is already familiar
enough through the daily use of the maps of the isobars at sealevel. I would only
here call attention to the fact that in order to obtain the acceleration of the particles
of air the pressure-gradient must be divided by the appropriate density of the air.
Consequently, in the higher levels where the air has a less density, the same gradient
of pressure will produce a much greater velocity than it would at sealevel.

Significance of V,-maps. — The dynamic significance of the V,-maps (which may
be called topographic charts of isobaric surfaces, or maps showing the intersections of
an isobaric surface by successive level surfaces of equal values of gravity), is seen from
the fact that an air-particle moving on such an isobaric surface experiences the same
acceleration as if it were confined to that surface and subject only to the force of
gravity. Therefore, if we assume that an air-particle moves from a to b on the

V5o-chart (see Fig. 11, page 69), and during this movement remains in the isobaric
surface, p = 25.0, then the acceleration of the particle may be found by dividing the
difference in gravity-potential at the points a and b by the length of the path of the
particle or the distance between a and b. Now the gravity-potential at a equals

eT aa ile? ile? : :
V, = 74 000 a a and at b equals V, = 73 000 fale so that the difference in
10ur hour*
mile?

gravity-potential at the two points is V, — V, =1 0 The distance between

hour®
a and b is approximately 140 miles, whence the acceleration of the particle of air is

1ROO0 Rae mile
seen to be ="

: » It is easy to calculate the velocity », of the air-
140 hour? :

ee

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. : 77

particle, when it arrives at 6, from the velocity v, it had at a and the difference in
gravity-potential, V, — V,, by the aid of the well known formula

— ve
=r = i = V;.
Thus if it be assumed that the velocity. v, at the point a be 10 se) and that
mile® } : dk A
V. — V, = 1 000 hour? then the velocity v, of the particle on arriving at b is obtained

by solving the equation
v? = 107+ 2x 1 000 =2 100

This method of using the map for calculating the acceleration of an air-particle
from the length of its path and the difference in gravity-potential, and for calculating
the velocity of the particle from the difference in gravity-potential and the initial
velocity, may also be used when we consider relative movements, since the component
of acceleration due to the Earth’s rotation always acts in a direction at right angles to
the path of the particle and thus has no effect upon the acceleration along this path.

The calculations have been carried out for a particle which always remains in the
same isobaric surface. They are, however, equally applicable to particles moving
within a slight distance from the given isobaric surface, because these surfaces, which
lie very close to one another, have almost mutually parallel directions, and thus inter-
sect very nearly the same number of level surfaces of gravity.

Comparison of V,- and py-maps.— It seems to me that from a dynamic point of
view the V,-maps possess certain advantages over the p,-maps. These advantages
arise, partly, from the fact that the acceleration and the square of the velocity of a
particle may be read directly from the V,-maps without taking into consideration the
density of the air, whereas the pressure-gradients obtained from the p,-maps must
first be divided by the density of the air in order to obtain these quantities. When
we limit ourselves to purely qualitative considerations these advantages appear yet
more striking; for the accelerations are directly proportional to the number of lines
[between any two points] on the V, charts and quite independent of altitude in the
atmosphere. On the other hand, if the p,-maps for two different levels show the same
number of lines [within the same distance], then the air-particles at the higher level
have the greater acceleration. It is thus seen that the V,-maps for different levels are
completely comparable with one another, while the p,-maps are not.

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

I
oo

Significance of E®:-maps. —The dynamic significance of the E>;-maps, Figs. 12-15,
results from a principle in hydrodynamics recently stated by Prof. V. Bjerknes,* and
I would first recall this principle. According to Lord Kelvin’s definition, the circu-
lation of a closed curve made up of atmospheric particles, consists of the sum of the
tangential components of the velocity of every particle around the whole curve. If
the velocity of a particle of the curve be designated by u, and the tangential com-
ponent of this velocity along the curve by w, then the circulation “C” is expressed
by the integral

C= af us

where “8s” is a longitudinal element of the curve and the integration is to be carried
out completely around the whole of the closed curve. This ‘“‘circulation” is an
expression for the rotatory movement of the atmosphere, for wherever the velocity of
the air has a potential, there all closed curves have no “circulation ”’; and conversely,
the more intense is the rotatory movement of the air so much the greater is the “cir-

?

culation” of the closed curves.

By means of the integral just cited, the “circulation” of a closed curve in the
atmosphere may be determined from simultaneous observations of the direction and
velocity of the wind at different points on the curve. Bjerknes has given a theorem
for calculating the increase or decrease of the “circulation” during a unit of time, by
using the observations of pressure, temperature and humidity at points along the
curve. If then we have the four elements— wind, pressure, temperature and rela-
tive humidity observed at any moment of time, for various points along a closed
curve in the atmosphere we may calculate the “circulation” of that curve not only
for the moment of observation, but also for a series of instants both preceding and fol-
lowing that moment. The theorem may be mathematically formulated as follows :

a == Hk vdp = A. (25)
Here dC/dt is the increase of circulation Cin a unit of time; v is the specific volume of
a particle of air on the curve, and p is the pressure prevailing at this particle. The
integration is to be carried out around the whole closed curve and will give A =the
number of solenoids,+ enclosed within the closed curve. The law may then be
stated as follows.

*See V. Bjerknes. ‘‘The dynamic principle of circulatory movements in the atmosphere.’’—Monthly Weather Re-
view, Oct., 1900, p. 434.

} A solenoid is a tubular figure in the atmosphere arising from the intersections of surfaces of equal pressure, or iso-
baric surfaces, with surfaces of equal specific volume, or isosteric surfaces. The unit solenoid is found between two iso-
baric surfaces differing by the unit of pressure and two isosteric surfaces differing by the unit of specific volume,

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 19

The increase of circulation per wnit of time, in a closed atmospheric ewrve made up of
_ air-particles 1s equal to the total number of wnit solenoids embraced within that curve.

Now the number and position of the solenoids in the atmosphere may be ob-
tained in a very simple way from the E?: maps. Thus we choose any two points a
and 6 on any two of the lines of such a map as the E$ map shown in Fig. 12, page
71. Imagine verticals falling from these points in the atmosphere to corresponding
points on the isobaric surfaces p = 27.5 and 25.0 which vertical lines we will desig-
nate also by the letters a and 6. The lower ends of these verticals are connected by
the line a-b, which lies wholly in the isobaric surface 25.0 and the upper ends are
connected by the line a—b which lies wholly in the isobaric surface p = 27.5. Thus is
obtained a closed curve in the atmosphere consisting of two vertical portions aa and
bb, and two isobaric portions, ab and ba. The number of solenoids within this closed
curve may be determined by carrying out the integration fvdp around the whole
curve. Now along the two isobaric portions ab and ba of the curve, both vdp and
fvdp, are equal to zero so it only becomes necessary to perform the integration along

5
the two verticals aa and bb. The integral along aa may be represented by ( rf vdp)
*795.0 a

26.

27.5
and the integral along bb by ( if vdp) , then by virtue of equation (25) we have
25.0 6

27.5 275
4=(f[ v-dp) -(f v-dp ) (26)
25.0 a 25.0 b

which integral may be simplified by making use of the barometric formula *
dV=—v- dp.

By integrating both sides of this latter formula along the vertical aa we find that

21.5
Vo50— n= (ff v-dp ) :
25.0 i:

If by (E2%), we designate the number of level surfaces of gravity lying between the
27.5- and 25.0-isobaric surfaces along the vertical a, then we may write

27.5, *
ey v- dp ) = (Ex3)e
25.0 a

( V5 = Vas), = (Ears) ar

27.5
( if v-dp ) = (Ens),
25.0 A:

Whence from (7) we have

Analogously we find that

* See equations (1) and (10),

80 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

By substituting these into (26) there results
A = (E33), — (Ei?) (27)

27.5,

This formula holds true for any two points a and b on the E;}$-map and for the

21.0

corresponding closed curves in the atmosphere. For the points a and b shown on the

me ile? ‘5
Emap (Fig. 12) of page 71 we have (B%%), = 40 200 +" “, and (Bi), = 40 100
ale so that by equation 27, A = 100 ze If now we move the points a and b
hour” hour

of this map at will along the curves 40 200 and 40 100 respectively, and imagine the
closed curve consisting of the verticals a and b, and the connecting lines lying in the
isobaric surfaces of p = 27.5 and p = 25.0 as moving in a corresponding manner, then
we see that during this movement the quantities (E333), and (E73),, always retain the
values 40 200 and 40 100 just calculated for them. Therefore the closed curve, even
during its movement, always encloses 100 solenoids. We therefore conclude that the
tubular structure in the atmosphere, bounded by vertical walls through the curves
40 200 and 40 100 and by the isobarie surfaces of p = 27.5 and p = 25.0, encloses
exactly 100 unit solenoids whose courses must lie parallel to the curves 40 200 and
40 100. By a series of analogous operations we are led to the conclusion that there
are always 100 solenoids between each pair of adjacent curves on the E%;$-map (Fig.
12, page 71).

According to Bjerknes’ theory these solenoids tend to set up a rotational move-
ment in the atmosphere. The direction of this rotation is expressed by the rule that
the air tends to rise where E3% is large, and to sink where E339 is small. Thus the
movement resulting from the solenoid system of the chart of E3%, page 71, Fig. 12,
is an ascending one in the vicinity of Pierre and Topeka, and a descending one in the
outer portions of the region shown on the map.

Returning to the closed curve in the atmosphere indicated at ab in Fig. 12, we
know first of all that it embraces 100 solenoids. Therefore from the preceding theorem
we know that the increase of circulation along this closed curve is at the rate of 100
ae per hour, and that it is directed upward along the vertical a and downward
along the vertical b. If this increase in the circulation be divided by the length of the
line ab, which from measurement is seen to amount to 125 miles, then, according to the

Be : : : : : mile
definition of circulation, we obtain a mean tangential acceleration of 0.8 hous for the

air-particles composing the curve. In other words, if we assume that the air was
originally at rest, and if we leave out of consideration the influences of friction and the

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. P toe

earth’s rotation, then this solenoid-system would have produced a mean velocity of 0.8

mile
<a along the curve by the end of the first hour. At the end of the second hour

the mean velocity would be 1.6 mile a

Raa’ at the end of the third hour 2.4 , and so
1Ou

on. By carrying out a number of such numerical calculations on the oa one
will soon become so familiar with the dynamic significance of its lines that a glance at
the chart will suffice to recognize and read the accelerations indicated by it.

The E;75-map may be constructed directly from the values telegraphed to the cen-
tral office; but after the complete results of the kite-observations at the different sta-
tions eee been received by mail these maps may be constructed for much thinner
strata in the atmosphere. Then, for instance, the layer of air between the isobaric
surfaces for p = 27.5 and p= 25.0 can “be subdivided into five strata whose dynamic
condition can be presented by charts for E3?°, E33, EX! E23) E29 On page 71 only
three of these latter maps have been drawn, viz., for E}} as Fig. 13; E%° as Fig. 14;
and E33?.as Fig. 15. From Fig. 13 it is seen that in the layer of air between the iso-
baric surfaces of 27.5 and 27.0, the maximum ascensive tendency is southeast of
Topeka. The E};$-map, Fig. 14, shows that in the layer between the 26.5 and the 26.0
isobaric surfaces the air has its maximum ascensive tendency just over Topeka. The

i3s-map of Fig. 15 shows the maximum ascensive tendency to be above Pierre and
Dodge City. If we neglect this shift of the center of ascension toward the northwest
then we find that the solenoids as drawn for the thinner strata have nearly the same
characters as those drawn for the larger interval of the E3%-map. It suffices, there-
fore, to construct EP:-maps for thicker strata or greater intervals by aid of the tele-
graphic reports and afterward for smaller intervals by means of the more complete
reports by mail. In this way very brief condensed telegraphic reports may be made
to do good service.

The general expression for the number of solenoids within a closed curve consist-
ing of two verticals a and b, and two curves lying in the isobaric surfaces p = p, and
ahi is

= (Ep). — (Ens (28)

po) y/

This may be deduced in exactly the same way as the special formula equation (27).
It follows from equation (28) that each of the tubular-shaped figures in the atmosphere
bounded by the isobaric surfaces p = p, and p = p,, and the vertical walls, passing
through the curves drawn on such a map, contains a number of solenoids equal to the
number obtained by subtracting the numbers belonging to those latter curves.
Hence it follows that in the maps forming Figs. 13, 14 and 15 of page 71 designated

82 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

as E3i!, B3¢, E22, there are always 50 solenoids between each pair of adjacent curved

Significance of 1\:-maps.— The dynamic significance of the charts of IT}+ results
from a second principle enunciated by Bjerknes.* If the velocity of the air be in-
dicated by wu, and the density of the air by p, then w = pu expresses the amount of the
so-called specific quantity of motion of the air. The tangential component u, of this
quantity, when integrated along a closed curve, we call the “ moment-circulation ”
of that curve. By moment-solenoid we designate the tubular figure formed in the
atmosphere by surfaces of equal density (isodense surfaces) and by level surfaces of
gravity, when these surfaces are constructed for each unit difference of density and of
gravity potential, respectively. If we further assume that the barometric formula for
static conditions also holds true under dynamic conditions, then Bjerknes’ second
theorem may be stated somewhat as follows :

The increase, during a unit of time, of the moment-circulation of a closed curve con-
sisting of particles of air in the atmosphere, is equal to the number of moment-solenoids en-
closed by that curve. We designate the moment-circulation of the closed curve by C
and the number of enclosed moment-solenoids by A; then this theorem is expressed

de
GnA= [ev (29)

where integration is to be carried out along the whole closed curve. Now the num-

by the formula

bers and positions of the moment-solenoids are readily determined from the I ;s-maps.
To demonstrate this let the closed atmospheric curve be composed of two lines ab and
ab, lying in the level-surfaces of gravity V = V, and V = V, respectively, and of the
two verticals aa and bb, joining the ends of these two lines. Then pdV, and fpdV, each
equal zero along the lines ab in the level surfaces and it only becomes necessary to
carry out the integration along the verticals aa and bb.

Thus we obtain
dC "1 "
a-(f piv’) -(f pir). (30)
Vo a Vo b

By the aid of the static barometric formula
dp = — pdV

the above integrals may be transformed. The integration of this formula along the

vertical aa gives
y
GL pd r) = (Pr, — Pri)

*V. Bjerknes— ‘‘On the formation of circulatory movements and vortices in frictionless fluids.’’—Christiania,
Videnskabsselskabets Skriften, 1898, No. 5.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 83

but
(Py, — Pr), = (Il Ta

(f er) arp,

Then by substitutions in (30) we have

hence

In an analogous way,

A = (Ty}), — (Hy), (31)

The number of moment-solenoids, A, has therefore the same dimensions as a pres-
sure, 1. €.,
mass
length, time?
or its equivalent,

density x ——.

If the specific gravity, po), of water at its maximum density be selected as our

unit of density, then
mile*

a pressure of 1 inch of the mercurial column = 16.945 X py X hoa

If we choose the density of air, p,, at 32° F. and 1 atmosphere of pressure as the
unit of density, then

mile?

a pressure of 1 inch of the mercurial column = 13 105 X p, X haa

Finally if p,= 0.169 45 p, be chosen as unit of density, then
mile?
hour”

Therefore a closed curve composed of two verticals aa and bb, and two lines,
ab and ab lying in the level surfaces V= V, and V= J, respectively, for which curve
we have A =(1f:), — (1), =1 inch of the mercurial barometer column, embraces

a pressure of 1 inch of the mercurial column = 100 X p, X

mile? : : 2
fone -system of dimensions; or 13 105 moment-
10

16.945 moment-solenoids of the Po°
a
hour?

On the I1/-chart, see pages 67, 69, Figs. 4, 5, 9, curves for each 0.01 inch difference
of pressure have been drawn. ‘Therefore each of the tubular figures in the atmos-

: mile*
-system, or 100 moment-solenoids of the p, - hour? *ystem.

solenoids of the p, - 10ur

84 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

phere bounded by vertical walls through any two adjacent curves of these maps, and
by the two level surfaces of gravity, V= V, and V= V;, embraces

ile? ,
0.16945 po — moment-solenoids,
mile? ;
or 131.05 p, haa moment-solenoids,
mile? ‘
or 1X pp raat moment-solenoids

according to the standard unit that we adopt.

These moment-solenoids tend to direct the specific quantity of motion upward
at places where II}; is small, and downward at points where Ij; is large. Accord-
ingly, the air lying between the level surfaces V=0 and V=40 000 (see Fig. 4)
will be pushed upward most strongly in the region northeastward from Omaha.
The I1°%-map (see Fig. 9) shows the greatest ascensive tendency to be over Topeka,
and the II%%-map (see Fig. 5) shows the greatest upward force to be westward
from Pierre.

With the aid of these I{:-maps such numerical examples showing the specific
quantity of motion can be computed, just as corresponding examples for the velocity
were computed from the E?:-maps. It seems to me, however, that from a dynamical
point of view the specific quantity of motion is a less convenient quantity than the
velocity. Probably the ITjs-charts will only be used in working on certain special
problems, such as the comparison of movements in media of such different densities,
as the air and the ocean; or when one wishes to calculate the mass of air transported
by the winds.

va.

ConcLupING REMARKS.

The connection of the charts that we have here drawn for the higher atmospheric
strata with the dynamics of the atmosphere must be clear from the preceding pages.
It is to be expected that upon such maps we may easily and naturally present our ob-
servations and experience as to atmospheric movements and therefore, it would seem
to promise good results if the daily weather-predictions could be based upon such
maps. At least this latter is practicable in so far as it would require not more than
an hour to work up the data necessary for the telegraphic reports from the kite sta-
tions. Certainly within one and a half hours after the descent of the last kite these
maps could be drawn and finished at the central office of the Weather Bureau.

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. 85

On the other hand, practical difficulties will certainly be experienced, through
occasional inability to make kite ascensions at the proper hour of the day at a sufficient
number of stations. But it is to be expected that better results will be attained as the
technique of kite-flying develops. In any case it is very desirable that kite-observa-
tions be supplemented by observations of another character. Such supplementary ob-
servations are indeed supplied by the measurements of cloud heights and cloud yeloci-
ties. But in order to utilize these we must make use of the Bjerknes theorem of
circulation as perfected by taking into account the earth’s rotation. I hope soon
to return to the consideration of cloud-observations as supplementary to the high-level
charts, and also to the consideration of the importance of such charts in weather
prediction.

APPENDIX.

ForMUL& AND TABLES IN THE MeErrRic SysTeM (DATED OcToBEr, 1902).*

It is easy to convert the formule and tables of the preceding memoir from Eng-
lish into metric measures by using the following relations :

: mile meter
Velocity, 1 hot 0.447 032 Beery Is
il t
Acceleration of velocity, 1 _—~ = 0.000 124 175 5 5.
hour second
ile? ter?
Gireulation, 1 = 719.415
hour second
ile? ter?
Acceleration of circulation, 1 ae ONG9 BSTES oes :
hour? second

The formule of this memoir thus become converted respectively into the follow-
ing, where the units are the meter, the second of mean solar time and the degree
centigrade :

(2) g=g1 — 0.000 000 314(z — z,)).

(3) g=g,(1 + 0.000 000 196(z, —2)).

(4) V,=g (1 + 0.000 000 0982).

(5) V=V,+ 9, 2,(1 — 0.000 000 157z,).

(6) g, = 9.80604(1 — 0.00259 cos 2) (1 — 0.000 000 196z,).

0.760 x 9.80604 x 13.59593 7%, dp
7P1 __ Nee) i: Z = wads
GY Bn = ~~ 9.001293052 x 273 0 pe
(18) Ez = 660.9 f (t+ 273°)d(log p).
Pi
: 1 yi av
(19) aa i=py,(1 — 10 60.9 y, 4278 ) :
0.37 7rf(t + 273)
2 SY, SSG
(20) vane p — 0.877 rf

*In order to meet any possible question of priority or responsibility it is proper to say that this memoir by J. W.
Sandstrom was received by Professor Cleveland Abbe in April, 1902, with permission to translate and publish ; the appen-
dix in metric measures was received in October, 1902. The translation by Dr. Cleveland Abbe, junior, was finished during
1903, and was read by Professor Abbe at the annual meeting of the American Philosophical Society, April, 1905. —C. A.

86

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. 87

(21) EP = 660.9 f “(t, + 273)d(log p).
is

(22) h=p,(1— 10 wad, 73)

(23) E?! = 660.9(, + 273) log

(24) I= p,(1 —10-ae+2m) ,

From formula (23) it results that
Es = 7.267 (¢, + 273°) B= 9.731 ¢ + 273°

—

EM =7.456( “ ) Bee = 10.072( « »)
EW =—7.654( “ ) Ew — 10:438( « )
EM —7.864( “ ) Es? — 10.832( “ )
Em — 8.086( “ ) Ew —11.257( « )
E%® = 8.320( “ ) Re irr ey
Ee —8.569( “ ) Fe 12.916 ** )
Eee = 8.8382( “ ) Ei® = 12.759( “« )
B= 9.118( “ ) me 13.352( “« )

#0 9.411 (t + 273°) Ey = 14.004 (t, + 273°)

If we put V; = V,+ 2 000 then from equation (24) we get
= ae 20s
TI %+2 — (1 mas 9} 660.9¢¢,+278))

The other equations will not be changed by the introduction of the metric system of
measures.

In the following pages are given the most important metric tables, numbered
the same as the corresponding tables in English measures in the preceding memoir:

838 CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TasBLe 1 in THE MErric SysTEeM.
2, (1—0.0000001572,).

3000 | 4000 pee 6000 | 7000
2998.6 | 3997.5 | 4996.1 | 5994.4 | 6992.4

8000
7990.0

9000 | 10000 meters
8987.3 | 9984.3

z, = altitude = 1000 2000
(V— V,)/g, = 999-8) 1999.4

TABLE 4 IN THE Metric SysTEM.

THe ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY AT SEALEVEL IN METERS PER SECOND.
Geogra hic ° ° [) ° ° ° ° °
Beoeep mos 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 | 8° 9°

——S | | ahh Sere! —_
0° 9.7806 | 9.7807 | 9.7807 | 9.7808 | 9.7809 | 9.7810 | 9.7812 | 9.7814 | 9.7816 | 9.7819
10 9.7822 | 9.7825 | 9.7828 | 9.7832 | 9.7836 | 9.7840 | 9.7845 | 9.7850 | 9.7855 | 9.7860
20 9.7866 | 9.7872 9.7878 | 9.7884 | 9.7891 | 9.7897 | 9.7904 | 9.7911 | 9.7919 9.7926
30 9.7934 | 9.7941 | 9.7949 | 9.7957 | 9.7965 | 9.7974 9.7982 | 9.7990 | 9.7999 | 9.8008
40 9.8016 | 9.8025 | 9.8084 | 9.8043 | 9.8052 9.8060 | 9.8069 9.8078 9.8087 | 9.8096
50 9.8105 | 9.8113 | 9.8122 | 9.8130 | 9.8139 | 9.8147 | 9.8156 | 9.8164 | 9.8172 | 9.8180
60 9.8187 | 9.8195 | 9.8202 | 9.8210 | 9.8217 | 9.8224 | 9.8230 | 9.8237 | 9.8243 | 9.8249
70 9.8255 | 9.8261 | 9.8266 | 9.8271 | 9.8276 | 9.8280 | 9.8285 | 9.8288 | 9.8292 | 9.8296
80 9.8299 | 9.8302 | 9.8305 | 9.8307 | 9.8309 | 9.8311 | 9.8312 | 9.83813 | 9.83814 | 9.8314

TABLE 5 IN THE METRIC SysTEM.

DECREASE OF GRAVITY WITH ALTITUDE ABOVE SEALEVEL.

Altitude in meters = 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Decrease of g = —0.0019 —0.0038 —0.0058 —0.0077 —0.0096 —0.0115 —0.0185 —0.0154 —0.0173 —0.0192

—

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE.

TABLE 6 IN THE Merric System.

THE ALTITUDES IN METERS ABOVE SEALEVEL OF THE LEVEL SURFACES OF GRAVITY.

4 = Geographic Latitude.

Vo
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° | 60° 60°
Meter. Meter. Meter. |_ “Meter. Meter. Meter. Meter,
0 0 0 0 0

1000 | 102.2) 102.2; 102.2; 102.1 | 102.0] 101.9] 101.8
2000 | 204.5 | 204.5) 204.4 | 204.2] 204.1 | 203.9] 203.7
3000 | 306.7 | 306.7 |} 306.6 | 306.3 | 306.1 | 305.8 | 305.5
4000 | 409.0 | 408.9 | 408.7 | 408.4 | 408.1 | 407.7 | 407.4
6000 | 511.2} 511.1] 510.9) 510.6} 510.1 | 509.7} 509.2
6000 | 613.5) 613.4; 613.1 | 612.7; 612.2) 611.6] 611.1
7000 | 715.8] 715.7 | 715.3 | 714.8 | 714.2 | 713.6] 712.9
8000 | 818.0 | 817.9} 817.5 | 816.9} 816.3 | 815.5 | 814.8
9000 } 920.3 | 920.2) 919.7 | 919.1 | 918.3 | 917.4) 916.7
10000 | 1022.5 | 1022.4 | 1021.9 | 1021.2 | 1020.3 | 1019.4 | 1018.6
11000 | 1124.8 | 1124.6 | 1124.1 | 1123.3 | 1122.4 | 1121.3 | 1120.4
12000 | 1227.1 | 1226.9 | 1226.3 | 1225.5 | 1224.4 | 1223.3 | 1222.3
13000 | 1329.3 | 1329.1 | 1328.5 | 1327.6 | 1326.5 | 1325.3 | 1324.2
14000 | 1431.6 | 1431.4 | 1430.7 | 1429.7 | 1428.5 | 1427.2 | 1426.0
15000 | 1533.9 | 1533.6 | 1532.9 | 1531.9 | 1530.6 | 1529.2 | 1527.9
16000 | 1636.1 | 1635.9 | 1635.1 | 1634.0 | 1632 6 | 1631.2 | 1629.8
17000 | 1738.4 | 1738.1 | 1737.4 | 1736.1 | 1734.7 | 1733.1 | 1731.7
18000 | 1840.7 | 1840.4 | 1839.6 | 1838.3 | 1836.8 | 1835.1 [1833.6
19000 | 1943.0 | 1942.7 | 1941.8 | 1940.4 | 1938.8 | 1937.1 | 1935.5
20000 | 2045.3 | 2044.9 | 2044.0 | 2042.6 | 2040.9 | 2039.0 | 2037.3
21000 | 2147.6 | 2147.2 | 2146.2 | 2144.7 | 2143.0 | 2141.0 | 2139.2
22000 | 2249.9 | 2249.5 | 2248.5 | 2246.9 | 2245.0 | 2243.0 | 2241.1
23000 | 2352.1 | 2351.8 | 2350.7 | 2349.1 | 2347.1 | 2345.0 | 2343.0
24000 | 2454.4 | 2454.0 | 2452.9 | 2451.2 | 2449.2 | 2446.9 | 2444.9
25000 | 2556.7 | 2556.3 | 2555.1 | 2553.4 | 2551.2 | 2548.9 | 2546.8
26000 | 2659.0 | 2658.6 | 2657.4 | 2655.5 | 2653.3 | 2650.9 | 2648.7
27000 | 2761.3 | 2760.9 | 2759.6 | 2757.7 | 2755.4 | 2752.9 | 2750.6
28000 | 2863.6 | 2863.1 | 2861.9 | 2859.9 | 2857.5 | 2854.9 | 2852.5
29000 | 2965.9 | 2965.4 | 2964.1 | 2962.0 | 2959.6 | 2956.9 | 2954.4

30000 | 3068.2 | 3067.6 3066.3 | 3064.2 3061.6 | 3058.9 |

| 2443.

70°

Meter.

101.8
203.6
305.
407.
508.
610.
712.
814.
916.
1017.
1119.
IPPAIE
1323.
1425.
1526.9
1628.7
1730.5

| 1832.3

1934.1
2035.9
2137.7

| 2239.6

2341.4

2545.
2646.
2748.
2850.
2952.4

onoo bt

3056.3 | 3054.2

Swowde woo &

80°

Meter.

101.
203.
305.
406.9
508.7
610.4.
1212
813.9
915.6

1017.4

| 1119.2 |

1220.9

132287

1424.4

1526.2

1627.9

1729.7

| 1831.4

| 1933.2

| 2035.0

| 2136.8

2238.6

2340.3 |

| 2442.1 |

2543.9

| 2645.7

2747.5 |

2849.3 |

bors

| 2951.0 |
| 3052.8 |

90°
Meter.

0
101.7 |

508.6

1220.
1322.
1424.
1526.0
1627.7

_

=)
eas NS
WANSwWOND Ow

1729.4 |

1831.2

89

Vo

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000

10000
11000
12000
/ 18000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000

1932.9

2034.7 |

2136.5
2238.2
2340.0
2441.7
2543.5
2645.3

2747.0 |

2848.8
2950.6
3052.4

19000
20000
21000
22000
23000
24000
25000
26000
27000
28000
29000
| 80000

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

90

TABLE 7 IN THE Merric SysTEM.

THE VALUES OF f,—t FOR ANY PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE AND SATURATED AJR.

Barometric Pressure in mm.

660 | 680

CHAN WID CONN D DROSH AMNNO MNHONAN HOH Ar Qinwom 2 |

g ssossosss SSSSS SSRN HAAR BANA aididinied OM did did i515
SANA CDDIDID OOM ND ABROAA NNN DRONM NOHNON HOBIH MPOMESS |

2 ssssssos SSSSS Sonn Anand asmaiaiald aidiaicdad esos cd ot Tid isidc

eo | Onmace ini Onn DH AOSCHAN NHS HDOHAH WHR ron arto

Sl SScScSSSSS SSSSS SHAH FHA ANAAN Adidcdes Sods dididid
OANA MOTHIND ONE DA ROHAN MHNOM AON CHONMH CHAHO ANoD |

rs ssssosss S5009 Sinitminteas BAA AA Aidicdedos oitisint siidisis

= | COHN HHID © RROD SOHN HINO DO AMANMIN MAW MONIDD Ath

R | Ssssesooscso ssoss Tosi ai Benn BANA Cidicdoded tsiaiai ididid

g | CHNMHHDS MPN MOR Gara WIDOMO CHMOD WDONHS DHIMOR NOR

z SSSSSSSS Soo BHAA BRR ANNAN aicdesededs osiniaiat ididis
FAN HHIDO RPODAD CNAME WINN DR ONMNM™ AONINE ANNA Hr
ssssosss 396966 didn dieninin Aaiciaa Nesededos cost tid adis
BAAN HiDINDS RODRS SHNMH NOM WOS FNHOD AHMOM HMOAN 10@
Sssdodds6 SSSSH BAHAR BARA AAANAN Adasoed sistintstid i615 |

ge | AANA HDDOS MOAAS AAAGH MOHAS AMQhD OAH A car rit &

BlsessscodosS5 SSSSH BHAA BARA AANA o8 03 2 09 08 sisiiidid 19

oe | HANH ADO BHROS ANAND OMNAN AKON mono DORA H |

Blsesscdcdsdd6 SSSHH AHA HAKAN ANA Sooo dictidid 16

S| ANOHHIROR DABS AAGMHIQ CHRON INODOS CMUGMAN Words

Bi ssessesesce¢ SSSA Bn BHF BA ai ai od CO od eS eS HH Hid 19 10

2 aco aigon DAROY ANHin© RORAN HONG NOW OBMOR

® | SoSsSSsooscSs ooonH Ban BRA Aidididniadd Soest Hdididid

2 ole HigiaoM DRO AMHini® RAONM DLHON NRANIN OHH

B|SSSSSSSS SOHN BHAA BANGIN NaN ocd dHididis

2 | ANMHDOOr BRONN OHNE DOHAAH ONONH CHOKE om |

rs sssossss SSann Hen BAAN Adidas Sod dit i191d15

S TH O69 SHAD Or Od OD =H im 6 CO me aicnin = Oreooid rt OID id

® | SOSoSscscocSd 4 14 dad riaicicial Nnededod cost Ht 19 1919

500

ooooococoo

—Aaalhen lien an!

igen wD
naan

oun Ho DOA Hc

AANAANA

MOOD Hin ho

ssssssseq

rN 68 1D COI OM

oooooeooo

mN CHD Oo i- OS

ooocoocoecrn

MA HIDOMm AO

oooooocr

OCOnmnno

sonia oon hoon eel

mT OD 1D

Sn oon en oe oe

m1 60 Hid
in|
OI OD “Hid 6

eiheen ieee ieee!

Hone

MM AAH ©

ON +H 19

S lawn ie ohok... in» |
nell

| |

SConmac

INO l= OD

Ion 6) 60 60

D 60 19

Hoa 0 onnnt Oo

aH SH 1 19 19

oontrt
Hid 1d 1s

BRAVO

sid 1s 1

i} of st
Oise aa

x

19.15,

ve}

Yo)

ror)

ue i
a ca |

IDI OR Sado tH

ANA oF 00 60 65 00

540

91

’

IN THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE.

FOR HIGH LEVE

TABLE 8 IN THE Merric System.

THE VALUES OF t-—¢ FOR ANY VALUE OF t,—¢ AND ReLAtiIve Humupiry.

2.6

2.4

a

1.8

t—t.
1.6

1.4

~ ere is
=) sooos|! 22e6!| coosocoeoeoosce
ZARSSSERES gii2| SRSSSSERES
| al 4
|
MOAN HOe treo a CABWOONDNS
SsSsonnnainaad egy beset aban Gi eb deh
i | ="2 77
| ODMH OM O |e GN = C9 SAY sie GRIGG
SSonnnaAnaad S| SHAnAaNK THIS
|
| oa eon = | —;
MIDDOMODeHNDo o | CH NWDAHRIDOO
SSSonR RHA “| Srradensios
gnoatnans 2) BS AN AHA
SsSonn RRNA SB | SRR NAN 4 HHS
At ESS roth CUI COIN a | poenencana
ih 6 | SHANA MSH HHO
AMHOOONWOOS e | moMmoMoONWoOHS
SSSSn RRA lanes ees
SUSE bs Ce rat C2 HCG05 | 2D SHC tL Sh OBC.
iii AF | SHARAN OHH
NMIODoria wes | |e | ie weet
| SSSSSninnaines sl] 4% | SSHHANG SH
Tet Ot Oa es C0 vel 9 st «| tanonennex
SSssssosonninn Fl SSR HRANM OTH!
AHN OR DORN a | HoOmrnnaton
Ssssossooninn Fe | SSH NAA HOH
Ve ea cane eaonetes eo | HaNnoowaonoo
esssossososon Fl SoSH ANA 6 HH
NAHAS oN HD 2 | Origen ot
ssscosssoso 8 | SSHH HANA
tt 101 09 HH 19D © | Shr HON ANS
(Sere eas tac | ee es Oh a oe
SaAAAI Hs «| enotnotnnt
ssososssso 6 | SSH n HAAG od
Soma aciey o | BEOMOAIOAN
sscosossssss Si Serine ge Oe
BS ee aS
ft blo
SARSSSRSES Re LS| HAO ESS SES
5 onl i=] -_

92

CONSTRUCTION

OF

ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 9 IN THE MetTRIC SysTEM.

THE VALUES OF Ej:

780 pce 740 720 700 680 660 640 | 7,620 | 5 | 500) 2
ty Eso | 4730 Bieo | B74 ‘En » Er Eeso Eeeo Keio Bee |[Een0 [Esco Bea [Es eee EX aepliElae Exo aeoped| ts
oC. | | } | |
90 1839 1886 1936 1990 |2046 2105 2168 2234 |2306 2381 2462 2548 2641 |2740 2848 2964 3091 3228 3378 3543 =F
19 1846 1894 1944 1997 |2054 |2113 |2177 |2243 |2315 |2390 |2472 |2558 |2651 |2751 |2859|2976 3103/3241 339113557| —79
18 1853 1901 1952 2005 2062 2122 |2185 2252 |2324 2400 2481 |2568 |2662 |2762 |2871 2988 3115 3254 3405 3571 —18
17 1860 1909 1959 2013 |2070 2130 |2194 |2261 2333 |2409 2491 2578 |2672 |2773 |2882/3000 3127/3266 3418 3585| —17
16 1868 |1916 1967 (2021 |2078 2138 2202 |2270 |2342 |2419 |2501 |2589 |2683 |2784 |2893|3011 3140 3279 3431 3599 16
45 1875/1924 1975 2029 2086 2147 [2211 2279 2351 12428 |2511 12599 |2693 2795 2904 3023 3152/3292/3445'3613] —15
14 1882 1931 1982 2037 2094 2155 2219 2287 2360 |2437 2520 |2609 2703 |2805 2916 3035 3164 3305 3458 3627) 14
13 |1889 1939 |1990 |2045 |2102 2163 2228 |2296 |2369 2447 |2530 |2619 |2714 |2816 2927 3046 3176 3317 3472 3641) —13
12 1897 1946 1998 2053 |2110 2172 |2237 |2305 |2378 |2456 |2540 2629 |2724 |2827 2938 3058 3188 3330 3485 3655, —12
“11/1904. 1953 2005 2060 |2119 2180 2245 |2314 |2388 |2466 |2550 |2639 2735 |2838 2949 3070 8201 3343 3498 3669) —11
10 1911 1961 2013 2068 2127 2188 |2254 2323 |2397 |2475 |2559 2649 |2745 2849 2961 3082 3213 3356 3512 3683] —10
— 9 1918 1968 2021 2076 2135 2196 |2262 |2332 |2406 |2485 |2569 |2659 2756 |2860 2972 3093 3225 3368 3525 3697] — 9
— 8 |1926 1976 2028 |2084 |2143 2205 |2271 2340 |2415 |2494 |2579 |2669 |2766 |2870 |2983 3105 3237 3381 3538 3711| — 8
— 7 |1933 1983 2036 |2092 |2151 2213 |2279 |2349 |2424 |2503 |2588 |2679 |2777 |2881 |2994 3117 3249 3394 3552 3725] — 7
— 6 1940 1991 2044 2100 |2159 2221 |2288 |2358 |2433 |2513 |2598 |2689 |2787 |2892 |3006 3128 3262 3407/3565 3739| — 6
— 5 1948 1998 2051 |2108 |2167 |2230 |2296 |2367 |2442 |2522 |2608 |2699 |2797 |2903 |3017 3140 3274 3419 3578 3753) — 5
— 4 1955 2006 2059 |2115 |2175 2238 |2305 |2376 |2451 |2532 |2618 |2709 |2808 |2914 |3028 3152 3286 3432\3592 3767, — 4
— 3 1962/2013 2067 |2123 2183 2246 |2314 12385 |2461 |2541 2627 |2719 |2818 |2925 3039 3164 3298 3445 3605 3781) — 3
— 2 1969 |2021 2074 |2131 |2191 |2255 |2322 |2393 |2470 |2550 |2637 |2730 |2829 |2935 |3051/3175 3311/3458 36183795 — 2
— 1 |1977 2028 2082 |2139|2199 2263 |2331 |2402 |2479 )2560 |2647 |2740 |2839 |2946 |3062 3187 3323 3470 3632/3809) — 1
0 1984 2035 2090 2147 |2207 '2271 2339 2411 |2488 |2569 |2657 |2750 |2850 |2957 |3073 3199 3335 3483 3645 38231 0
1 1991 2043 2097 |2155 |2216 2280 2348 |2420 |2497 |2579 |2666 |2760 |2860 |2968 3084 3210 3347 3496 3658 3887, 1
2 1998 2050 2105 |2163 |2224 2288 2356 |2429 12506 |2588 |2676 |2770 |2870 |2979 |3096 3222 3359 3509 3672,3851 2
3 2006 |2058 2113 |2170 |2232 2296 2365 |2438 |2515 |2597 |2686 |2780 |2881 |2990 3107 3234 33723521 36853865, 3
4 2013 2065 2120/2178 2240/2305 2374 |2446 |2524 |2607 2696 2790 2891 3000 3118 3246 3384 3534 3699 3879, 4
5 2020 2073 2128 |2186 2248 |2313 |2382 |2455 |2533 |2616 2705 |2800 |2902 |3011 3129 3257 3396 3547 37123893 5
6 2027 2080 2135 2194 2256 2321 2391 2464 |2543 |2626 2715 2810 |2912 3022 [3141 3269 3408 3560 3725 3907 6
7 2035 |2088 2143 |2202 |2264 2330 |2399 |2473 |2552 |2635 2725 |2820 |2923 |3033 |3152 3281 3420/3573 3739/3921, 7
8 2042 2095 2151 2210 |2272 2338 2408 |2482 |2561 |2644 2734 |2830 |2933 3044 3163 3292 3433 3585 37523935 8
9 2049 2103 2158 2218 2280 2346 2416 |2491 |2570 |2654 2744 |2840 |2944 3055 3174 3304 3445 3598 37653949] 9
10 2057 2110 2166 |2226 2288 2355 2495 |2499 |2579 |2663 |2754 |2850 |2954 |3065 3186/3316 3457 36113779 3963 10
11 2064 2118 2174 2233 2296 2363 |2434 2508 |2588 |2673 2764 2860 2964 3076 3197/3328 3469 362437923977 11
12 (2071 2125 2181 2241 2305 |2371 |2442 |2517 |2597 |2682 |2773 2871 '2975 |3087 |3208|3339|3482 3636 38053991) 12
13 2078 2132 2189 2249 2313 2380 |2451 |2526 |2606 |2692 |2783 [2881 2985 3098 3220/3351 3494 3649 3819 4005) 13
14 2086 2140 2197 2257 2321 |2388 |2459 |2535 |2615 |2701 2793 |2891 |2996 |3109 |3231|3363 3506 3662 3832 4019 14
15 2093 2147 2204 2265 2329 2396 |2468 |2544 |2625 [2710 2803 2901 3006 3120 3242/3374 3518 367 5 3845 4033) 15
16 |2100 2155 |2212 |2273 |2337 |2404 |2476 |2552 |2634 |2720 |2812 |2911 |3017 3130 |3253/3386 3530 3687 3859/4047, 16
17 2107 2162 2220 2281 2345 |2413 2485 |2561 [2643 |2729 2822 |2991 |3027 3141 3265/3398 3543 370038724061 17
18 2115 2170 2227 |2288 2353 |2421 |2494 |2570 |2652 |2739 2832 |2931 |3037 3152 |3276'3410 3555/3713,3885|\4075, 18
19 2122 2177 |2235 |2296 2361 |2429 |2502 |2579 |2661 |2748 2841 |2941 |3048 |3163 |3287/3421 3567. 3726 3899 4089, 19
20 |2129 2185 |2243 2304 |2369 |2438 |2511 2588 |2670 |2757 |2851 |2951 |3058 [3174 3298 3433 3579 3738 3912 20
21 2136 2192/2250 2312 |2377 |2446 2519 2597 2679 2767 2861 2961 |3069 |3185 3310 3445 3592 3751 3925 411721
2 2144 z zd ees 2320 [2385 2454 (2528 2605 2688 |2776 |2871 |2971 |3079 |3195 (3321/3457 3604 376439394131 22
23 2151 2207 2 2266 |2328 2303 |2463 |2536 |2614 2697 |2786 |2880 |2981 |3090 /3206 [3332/3468 3616 3777/3952/4145| 98
24 2158 2214 2273 2336 2402 |2471 2545 |2623 |2707 |2795 |2890 2991 |3100 3217 3343 3480 3628 3789 3966 4159 24
25 |2166 |2292 |2281 |2343 (2410 |2479 12554 |2632 2716 |2804 2900 3001 [3111 3228 3355, | 25
26 2173 2229 2289 |2351 [2418 |2488 |2562 |2641 |2725 |2814 |2910 |3012 |3121 |3239 |3366 26
27 |2180 |2237 |2296 |2359 | 2426 2496 2571 2650 2734 |2823 2919 3022/3131 3250 3377 27
28 2187 2244 |2304 |2367 |2434 |2504 |2579 |2658 |2743 |2833 |2929 |3032 |3142 3260 3388 | 28
29 2195 2252 23422375 2442 |2513 |2588 |2667 |2752 2842 2939 3042 3152 3271 3400 29
30 2202 2259 (2319 |2383 |2450 |2521 |2596 |2676 |2761 |2852 3
3L |2209 |2267 |2327 |2391 |2458 |2529 |2605 [2685 |2770 |2861 | 31
32 2216 |2274 |2334 |2399 |2466 |2538 |2614 |2694 |2779 |2870 as fee
33 (2224 |2989 |23.42 |2406 |2474 |2546 |2622 | 2703 2789 |2880 | | | 35
34 2231 2289 |2350 |2414 2482 2554 2631 2711 2798 |2889 | | high | 34
35 2238 2296 2357 |2422 '2490 | } | 35
36 2246 2304 2365 |2430 2499 | 36
87 |2258 |2311 |2373 |2438 |2507 | 37
38 |2260 2319 2380 |2446 |2515 | | 38
39 |2762 |2326 |2388 |2454 |2523 | | | 39
780 | 44760 |-7740 |4720 700 +1680 | 7.660 |+~6 620 — +58 56 5 52 45 B0 yy 2
ESE ag [Py | Tots |i [Bots | 00S as [Foe [Eee Ioan [Elen Bs) Eden ay Eos

FOR HIGH LEVELS IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE, 93
TasBLe 10 rn THE Metric Sysrem.
Tue Vauves or J] y"*™.
Virtual iene tr GanGeradal SH i
Py = =it — Py
—20° | —15° —10° | —5° 0° 5° 10° 152 eh 202 25° 309 85° 40°
mm. e: | ; : mm.
400 | 10.87 10.66 10.46 | 10.27 10.08 9.90 9.73 | 9.56 400
410 | 11.14 | 10.93 | 10.72 | 10.52 | 10.33 | 10.15 | 9.97 | 9.80 410
420 11.41 11.19 10.98 10.78 10.58 10.40 | 10.21 10.04 420
430 11.68 11.46 11.24 11.04 10.84 10.64 10.46 | 10.28 | | 4380
440 | 11.95 11.72 11.50 11.29 11.09 10.89 10.70 10.52 | 440
450 | 12.22 | 11.99 11.77 | 11.55 11.34 11.14 10.94 | 10.76 | 10.58 | | 450
460 | 12.50 |} 12.26 12.03 | 11.81 11.59 11.39 11.19 11.00 | 10.81 } | 460
470 | 12.77 12.52 12.29 12.06 11.84 11.63 11.43 | 11.23 |} 11.05 | 470
480 | 13.04 | 12.79 12.55 12.32 12.10 11.88 11.67 11.47 11.28 480
490 | 13.31 13.06 12.81 12.58 12.35 12.13 |} 11.92 | 11.71 11.52 | 490
500 | 13.58 | 13.32 | 13.07 12.83 12.60 | 12.38 12.16 11.95. | 11.75 | 11.56 | } 500
510 13.85 13.59 13.33 13.09 12.85 12.62 12.40 12.19 11.99 | 11.79} 510
520 | 14.13 13.86 13.60 13.35 13.10 12.87 12.65 12.43 12.22 | 12.02 520
530 | 14.40 14.12 | 13.86 13.60 | 13.36 13.12 | 12.89 12.67 12.46 | 12.25 430
540 | 14.67 | 14.39 | 14.12 13.86 13.61 13.37 13.13 12.91 12.69 | 12.48 540
550 | 14.94 | 14.66 14.38 | 14.12 13.86 13.61 13.38 13.15 12.93 | 12.71 | 12.50 | 550
560 | 15.21 14.92 | 14.64 14.37 14.11 13.86 | 13.62 13.39 13.16 | 12.94 | 12.73 560
570 | 15.48 15.19 14.90 | 14.63 14.36 14.11 13.86 13.63 13.40 | 13.17 | 12.96 570
580 15.76 15.46 15.17 14.89 14.62 14.36 14.11 13.86 13.63 | 13.40 | 13.18 580
590 | 16.03 | 15.72 15.43 | 15.14 | 14.87 14.60 | 14.35 14.10 13.87% | 13.64 | 13.41 590
600 | 16.30 | 15.99 | 15.69 15.40 | 15.12 | 14.85 | 14.59 14.34 14.10 | 13.87 | 13.64 | 13.42 | 600
610 | 16.57 | 16.25 15 95 15.66 15.37 15.10 | 14.84 14.58 14.34 | 14.10 | 13.87 | 13.65 610
620 | 16.84 | 16.52 16.21 15.91 15.62 15.35 | 15.08 14.82 | 14.57 | 14.33 | 14.10 | 13.87 620
630 | 17.11 16.79 16.47 16.17 | 15.88 | 15.59 | 15.32 | 15.06 14.81 | 14.56 | 14.32 14.09 | | 630
640 | 17.39 | 17.05 16.73 | 16.43 | 16.18 | 15.84 | 15.57 | 15.80 | 15.04 | 14.79 | 14.55 | 14.32 | | 640
650 | 17.66 17.32 17.00 | 16.68 16.38 | 16.09 | 15.81 15.54 15.28 | 15.02 | 14.78} 14.54 | 14.31) 650
660 | 17.93 | 17.59 17.26 16.94 16.63 | 16.34 | 16.05 15.78 15.51 | 15.25 | 15.004 14.76 | 14.53 660
670 | 18.20 17.85 17.52 | 17.20 | 16.88 | 16.58 | 16.30 16.02 15.75 | 15.48 | 15.23 | 14.99 | 14.75 | 670
680 | 18.47 | 18.12 | 17.78 17.45 | 17.14 |} 16.83 | 16.54 | 16.25 15.98 | 15.72 | 15.46 | 15.21 | 14.97) 680
690 | 18.74 | 18.39 18.04 17.71 17.39 | 17.08 | 16.78 | 16.49 16.22 | 15.95 | 15.69 | 15.43 | 15.19 690
700 | 19.02 | 18.65 18.30 17.97 | 17.64 | 17.33 17.02 | 16.73 16.45 | 16.18 | 15.91 | 15.66; 15.41 | 700
710 19.27 18.92 18.56 18,22 17.89 17.57 17.27 16.97 16.69 | 16.41 | 16.14 | 15.883 15.63} 710
720 | 19.56 19.19 18.83 18.48 | 18.14 | 17.82 | 17.51 17.21 16.92 | 16.64 | 16.37 | 16.11 | 15.85 | 720
730 | 19.83 19.45 19.09 18.74 18.40 18.07 17.75 17.45 17.16 | 16.87 | 16.60 | 16.33 | 16.07 | 730
740 | 20.10 | 19.72 19.35 18.99 | 18.65 | 18,382 | 18.00 | 17.69 17.39 | 17.10 | 16.82 | 16.55 | 16.29 740
750 | 20.37 19.99 19.61 19, 25 18.90 18.56 18.24 17.93 | 17.63 | 17.33 | 17.05 | 16.78 | 16.51 | 750
760 | 20.65 | 20.25 19.87 19.51 19.15 18.81 18.48 | 18.17 | 17.86 | 17.56 | 17.28 | 17.00 | 16.73 | 760
770 | 20.92 | 20.52 | 20.13 | 19.76 | 19.40 | 19.06 18.73 18.41 18.10 | 17.80 | 17.51 | 17.22 | 16.95 | 770
780 | 21.19 | 20.78 | 20.39 20.02 | 19.66 19.31 18.97 18.65 18.33 | 18.03 | 17.73 | 17.45} 17.17 780
790 | 21.46 | 21.05 | 20.66 | 20.28 19.91 19.55 | 19.21 18.88 | 18.57 | 18.26 | 17.96 | 17.67 | 17.39 | 790
= | —15° | —10° | —s° | .0° | 5 | 10 15° aoe | 25° | 30° | a5 | 40°
TABLE 11 In THE MetRIc System.
VALUES oF [[3? FoR OMAHA; WHERE 1 — 41° 16/ N.; 4 = 378.2 METERS, 9) = 9.8020 Mert.*/Src.?
WHENCE V,=3 707 MEt.?/SEc.*.
7 tr = Virtual Temperature. | F
ae —20° ©. 10° | ofc | 09a | 20°C 30° C 40° C “ed
680 2.74 2.63 2.54 2.45 2.37 2.28 | 2.21 680
690 2.78 2.67 2.57 | 2.48 2.40 2.32 | 2.24 690
700 2.82 Dat. 2.61 2.52 2.44 | 2.35 2.28 700
710 2.86 2.75 2.65 2.56 2.47 } 2.39 2.31 710
720 2.90 2.79 2.69 2.59 2.51 2.42 2.34 720
730 2.94 2.83 2.72 2.63 | 2.54 2.45 2.37 730
740 2.98 2.86 2.76 2.66 |* 2.58 2.49 2.41 740
750 3.02 2.90 2.80 2.70 2.61 2.52 2.44 750
760 3.06 2.94 2.83 2.74 2.64 | 2.55 2.47 760
770 3.10 2.98 2.87 2.77 2.68 2.59 2.50 770

94

ake .
THE VALUES OF (ES) gaia en

P.

CONSTRUCTION OF ISOBARIC CHARTS

TABLE 12 in THE METRIC SysTEM.

OR THE NuMBER OF LEVEL SURFACES BETWEEN py AND p, WHEN t, —0° C.

PD, Po 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
400 | 400 0 196 391 585 780 973 1167 | 1359 | 1552 | 1744
410 | 1985 | 2126 | 2316 | 2506 | 2696 | 2885 3073 | 3261 | 3449 | 3636
420 | 420 0 186 372 558 743 927 repel 1295 | 1478 | 1661
430 | 1843 | 2025 | 2207 | 2389 | 2570 | 2750 2930 | 3109 | 3288 | 3467
440 | 440 O | aiid 355 532 709 885 1061 1237 | 1412 | 1587
450 | 1761 | 1935 | 2108 | 2281 | 2454 | 2627 2799 | 2971 3142 | 3313
460 | 460 0 170 340 509 678 847 4015 | 1183" |- daar") ame
470 | 1685 | 1852 | 2018 | 2184 | 2349 | 2514 2679 | 2344 | 3008 | 3172
480 | 480 0 163 326 488 650 812 973 | 1134 | 1295 | 1456
490 | 1616 | 1775 | 1935 | 2094 | 293 | 2411 2569 | 2727 2885 | 3042
500 | 500 0 157 313 469 624 779 934 | 1089 | 1244 | 1398
510 | 1552 | 1705 | 1858 | 2011 | 2164 | 2316 2468 | 2620 | 2771 | 2999
520 | 520 0 150 301 451 600 750 899 1048 | 1196 | 1345
530 | 1493 | 1640 | 1788 | 1935 | 2082 | 2228 2375 | 2521 2667 | 2812
540 | 540 0 145 290 434 578 722 866 1009 | 1152 | 1295
550 | 1438 | 1580 | 1722 | 1864 | 2006 | 2147 2288 | 2499 | 2569 | 2710
560 | 560 0 140 279 419 558 696 835 973 | 1111 | 1249
570 | 1387 | 1524 | 1661 | 1798 | 1935 | 2071 2207 | 2343 | 2479 | 2614
580 | 580 O | 135 270 404 539 673 807 940 | 1073 | 1206
590 | 1339 | 1472 | 1605 | 1737 | 1869 | 2001 2132 | 2964 | 2395 | 2596
600 600 0 130 261 391 521 650 780 909 1038 | 1167
610 | 1295 | 1494 | 1552 | 1680 | -1807 | 1935 2062 | 2189 | 2316 | 2443
620 | 620 0 126 252 378 504 629 755 80 | 1005 | 1129
630 | 1254 | 1378 | 1502 | 1626 | 1750 | 1873 1996 | 2119 | 2242 | 2365
640 | 640 0 122 244 366 488 610 731 852 973 | 1094
650 | 1215 | 1335 | 1456 | 1576 | 1696 ! 1815 1935 | 2054 | 2173 | 2292
660 | 660 0 119 237 355 474 592 709 827 944 | 1061
670 | 1178 | 1295 | 1412 | 1528 | 1645 | 1761 1877 | 1992 | 2108 | 2204
680 | 680 O + | 215 230 345 460 574 688 802 916 | 1030
690 | 1144 | 1257 | 1371. | 1484 | 1597 | 1710 1822 | 1935 | 2047 | 2159
700 | 700 0 112 224 335 446 558 669 780 890 | 1001 |
710 | 1111 | 1222 | 1332 | 1442. | 1552 | 1661 171 1880 | 1989 | 2099 |
720 | 720 0 109 217 326 | ° 434 542 650 758 866 973
730 | 1081 | 1188 | 1295 | 1402 | 1509 | 1616 1722 | 1829 | 1935 | 2041
740 | 740 0 106 211 317 422 528 633 738 843 947
750 | 1052 | 1156 | 1260 | 1365 | 1469 | 1572 1676 | 1780 | 1883 | 1987
760 760 0 103 206 309 411 514 616 718 821 923
770 | 1024 | 11296 | 1228 | 1329 | 1430 | 1531 1632 | 1733 | 1834 | 1935
780 780 0 | 100 201 301 401 501 601 700 800 899
790 998 | 1097 | 1196 | 1295 | 1394 | 1493 1591 1689 1788 |_ 1886

.
FOR HIGH LEVEL? IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE, +S FB)
TaBLeE 13 IN THE Metric System.

tr
TAvWES OF Pi
THE VALUES OF 973° (EX, (t=0? C.)

59 117 | 176 | 234 | 293 352 | 410 | 469 | 3200
60 121 181 242 | 302 | 363 | 423 | 484 3300
62 125 | 187 | 249 | 311 374 36 | 498 3400

PPL fs a 7 _ aa = — a ee rs Pi ie |
Enue=0 ¢.) =) Sie On = ae 10 1 | 20 | 25 30. «| 85 10 F p(t,=0° C.)°
0 07 O- 0; Oo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100. j— 7i— 5i— 4/2 On 2 mera et | <9) 11 13 15 100
200 15) Ute) 27 4 | (0 | 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 200
300 3 ee Ce ae 0 0 | 56 11 16} 22 | 27 | 33 | 3 44 300
409 29 22| 15 uh 0 7 15 22 29 37 44 | 51 59 | 400
500 tl Sg 0 9 18 27 | 37 46 55 | 64 7 500
600 44 33 2P),\) a () \| ak 2 33 44 55 66 17 88 600
700 51 38 26| 13 0 13 26 38 | 51 | 64 17 90 | 103 700
800 59 44 29 | 15 0 | 15 29 44 | 59 | 73 88 | 103 | 117 800
900 66 49 33 | 16 0 | 16 83 | 49 66; 82 OOM eas 162 900
1000 783 ashy | ERY? |S (|| ae 87 | 5b 73 92 | 110 | 128 | 147 1000
1100 81 60 40 | 20 0 | 20 40 60 81 | 101 | 121 | 141 | 161 1100
1200 88 66 44| 92 0 22 44 66 See et108 || e092.) Uae 1) 176 1200
1300 95 71 48 | 24 0 24 48 71 95 | 119 | 143 | 167 | 190 1300
1400 103 17 51} 26 0 26 Bl | 77 | 108 | 128 | 154 | 179 | 205 1400
1500 = Op — S20) — pono lh By 55 82 | 110 | 137 | 165 | 192 | 220 1500
1600 117 88 59 | 29 0 29 59 88 | 117 | 147 | 176 | 205 |} 234 1600
1700 125 93 (ip || > Sal 0 31 62 93 | 125 | 156 | 187 | -218 | 249 1700
1800 132 99 66 | 33 0 33 66 99 | 182 | 165 | 198 | 231 | 264 1800
1900 139 | 104 70 | 35 0 35 if 104 | 189 | 174 | 209 | 244 | 278 1900
2000 tA ai—110)|— 73 3 0 37 73 | 110 | 147 | 183 | 220 | 256 | 293 2000
2100 154| 115 77'| 38 0 38 77 | 115 | 154 | 192 | 281 | 269 | 308 | 2100
2200 161 | 121 81 | 40 0 40 81 | 121 | 161 | 201 | 242 | 282 | 392 2200
2300 168 | 126 84| 42 0 42 84 | 196 | 168 | 211 | 258 | 295 | 337 2300
2400 176 | 132 88 | 44 0 44 88 | 1382 | 176 | 220 | 264 | 308 | 352 2400
2500 —183 |—137 |— 92 |—46 0 46 92 | 187 | 183 | 229 | 275 | 321 | 366 2500
2600 190 | 143 95 | 48 0 48 95 | 143 | 190 | 238 | 286 | 333 | 381 2600
2700 198 | 148 99 | 49 0 49 99 | 148 | 198 | 247 | 297 | 346 | 396 2700
2800 205 | 154] 103] 51 0 51 | 103 | 154 | 205 | 256 | 308 | 359 | 410 2800
2900 212 | 159| 106) 53 0 53 | 106 | 159 | 212 | 266 | 319 | 372 | 425 2900
3000 ==990 |—165 |—110 |—55 0 | 55 | 110 | 165 | 220 | 275 | 330 | 385 | 440 3000
3100 227} 170} 114] 57 0 57. | 114 | 170 | 227 | 284 | 341 | 397 | 454 3100
0
0
0
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/

ARTICLE III.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.*

By Taos. H. MonrcGomery, Jr.

The present paper treats of the behavior of the chromosomes in forty species of
the Hemiptera, whereby especial attention is given to their number and form in the
maturation mitoses, and to the changes of the modified chromosomes. Then there are
treated from broader points of view, the modified chromosomes, chromosome difference,
and the facts of the number of chromosomes. ‘This is an amplification and correction
of earlier researches of mine (1898, 1901a, 1901), 1904a) upon the same species; and
the preparations studied were the same as those previously used.

Certain phenomena treated in those earlier papers are not discussed in the present
one, such as the conditions of the plasmosomes (nucleoli), and the relations of the
modified chromosomes in the rest stage of the spermatogonium.

I have felt it necessary to introduce a new nomenclature, indicated in a preliminary
note (1906), for the different kinds of chromosomes. Since the discovery of peculiarly
modified chromosomes in certain of the insects a great variety of names has been pro-
posed for them, and most of these suffer from a quite unnecessary length. My own
earlier terms “heterochromosome” and “chromatin nucleolus” were cumbersome,
and “accessory chromosome” and “ heterotropic chromosome” sin equally in this
regard, while “special chromosome” and “ idiochromosome” are no way self-explana-
tory. Therefore for the sake of uniformity but more especially simplicity in writing
I here employ the following nomenclature :

Chromosome, the original term of Waldeyer (1888), to be retained as a convenient
collective word for each separate mass of chromatin and linin. When there are no
marked differences in the behavior of the several chromosomes of a cell, all may be
given this name. But when chromosomes of different behavior occur, they are dis-
tinguished as follows :

(1) Autosome (autosoma), the non-aberrant chromosomes that I have previously
called ordinary chromosomes.

(2) Allosome (allosoma), any chromosome that behaves differently from the auto-
somes, and is a modification of the latter. ‘This term is much more concise than my

* Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Texas, no. 72.

Reps ext J. 21; 7,706.

98 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

earlier one, heterochromosome, and etymologically has the same significance. ‘Two main
kinds of allosomes are now known in spermatogenetic cycles, and these are :

(a) Monosome (monosoma), an allosome that is unpaired in the spermatogonium,
i. €., Without a correspondent mate there. Heretofore these have been named _ vari-
ously: accessory chromosomes (McClung), chromosomes spéciaux (de Sinéty), chromosomes
xand unpaired chromosomes (Montgomery), heterotropic and differential chromosomes
(Wilson).

(b) Diplosome (diplosoma), allosomes that occur in pairs in the spermatogonium.
These have been previously denominated : small chromosomes (Paulmier), chromatin
nucleoli (Montgomery), idiochromosomes and m-chromosomes (Wilson).

I regret to have to add new names to the cytological dictionary, for there is
already somewhat of a chaos of them. But these seem to be about as simple and
uniform as could be invented, and I trust that their convenient brevity will insure
their adoption by fellow investigators.

Wilson’s recent series of ‘Studies on Chromosomes” has brought out two new
and important points with regard to the allosomes. One is that the diplosomes (his
idiochromosomes) of certain Hemiptera conjugate in the second spermatocytes and
there divide reductionally. This phenomenon had been entirely overlooked by me;
my oversight was due in part to the fact that in most of the species I did not examine
the spermatogenesis beyond the stages of the first maturation mitosis ; and in greater
part to the fact that I was influenced by the thought that when there is an even
number of chromosomes in the spermatogonium there must be exactly half that
number of bivalent chromosomes in the first spermatocytes. And yet in certain
species (Huschistus tristigmus, Oncopeltus, Zaitha), | showed that diplosomes may be
univalent in the first spermatocytes and divide there separately. Now I am able to
confirm Wilson’s discovery for quite a number of species. His second and more
valuable conclusion is that when there is a single monosome in the spermatogenesis,
it is always represented by a pair in the ovogenesis; and Miss Stevens and he have
enlarged upon this phenomenon to partially explain sex-determination. Further,
Wilson has found the occurrence of a monosome in certain Coreids where I had over-
looked it, and even in Anasa where his own student, Paulmier, had not found it.

The present paper then is an attempt to reconcile these differences of observation,
on the basis of a fuller and more complete study of all of my old material. It
seemed clearest to present the facts gained for each species separately, then in conclu-
sion to bring them together under certain generalizations.

The term “reduction division” is here used to express the separation of entire

chromosomes from each other in an anaphase of division; or, in the case of a mono-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 99

some, of its passage without division to one of the daughter cells. In reality such
processes are not acts of division at all, but rather ones of separation, yet it seems best
to retain the long-accustomed terminology for them. And by ‘ equational division”
is meant any division of a univalent chromosome ; this is always along the length of
an elongate element, and then probably always an equal halving; in the case of a
rounded chromosome it is practically impossible to determine the plane of the divis-
ion, except by an analysis of the changes of the chromosome in the early prophases,
when it can be demonstrated that even rounded chromosomes divide in a plane along
which they were previously elongated.

Farmer and Moore (1905) have introduced the term ‘“ maiotic phase,” ‘ to cover
the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated
as heterotype and homotype by Flemming.’

?

But the older word ‘“ maturation
period”’ need not be given up, provided we recognize that one of the maturation mito-
ses is always reductional.

Finally, by the term ‘“safraninophilous” I indicate that an element stains red
after the use of the triple stain of Hermann, safranine, gentian violet and orange G ;
and would again insist on the point that for the study of the allosomes this stain is in
a number of ways preferable to the iron hzematoxyline method.

I. OBSERVATIONS.
PENTATOMID A.
1. Euscuisrus VARIOLARIUS Pal. Beauy.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — Pole views of the equatorial plate stage show in most
cases 14 chromosomes; the two smallest are not quite equal in volume and are the
diplosomes (Di, di, Plate IX, Figs. 3, 4); the twelve others are autosomes which com-
pose 6 pairs of graduated volumes (A, a-F,f). But in one case there were clearly 15,
and this was illustrated in Fig. 3 of my preceding paper (1901)); that earlier figure
erroneously showed 16 because I had mistaken one of the longest for 2. And now |
find two clear cases each with 16 chromosomes (Figs. 1, 2); the additional elements
are the ones marked G, y. In both of these cells it will be noted that the compo-
nents of the pair G, g do not lie in the same plane, but that one is placed immediately
below the other, which would be a reason to conclude that the two are the pre-
cociously separated halves of a single one. These differences in number are puzzling,
and I have been unable to explain them satisfactorily. But perhaps they are to be
interpreted as follows: the usual number of chromosomes is 14, but oceasionally there
is present an additional one which divides before the others, and thereby gives the

L100 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

appearance of a totality of 16. It was on the basis of cases of this kind that I had
previously decided that the normal number is 16, whereas 1 now find that the usual
number is 14. Whenever all the chromosomes le with their long axes in the plane
of the equator their arrangement in pairs of like components may be readily made out.

Growth Period. — In the synapsis the 12 autosomes conjugate to form 6 bivalent
ones as I previously described. in some detail (1898, 1901b). The diplosomes also
always unite then end to end. At first each diplosome may become more or less
irregularly bent (Fig. 5), later becoming more spherical. After the synapsis period
they are at first in intimate contact, each is a little longer than wide with a slight
constriction around the middle (Fig. 6, Di, dv); this probably represents a longitudinal
split of each. The two may lie parallel or slightly divergent, or frequently with their
long axes making a right angle. When they are so placed a small space is seen
between them, and this I erroneously described in 1898 as a vacuole within a single
element ; now I can decide that no such vacuole is formed, and that the diplosomes
swell but little in size during the growth period. Though the two may often be so
near together as to appear to form an apparent single sphere, they never seem to
actually fuse, for a line of separation can always be found.

First Maturation Division. —'The behavior of the autosomes was described in full
in the papers already referred to. In the late prophase, just before the dissolution of
the nuclear membrane, or at that time, the diplosomes separate. After they separate
each may continue to show the longitudinal split (Fig. 8) or may not (Fig. 9); in the
latter case there is, that is to say, a temporary closure of the split, just as happens reg-
ularly with the autosomes. In the monaster stage are found 8 elements, and all of
these are shown on lateral view in Fig. 10. Six of them are bivalent autosomes and
these divide reductionally. But each of the two smallest chromosomes is a univalent
diplosome, and their division is probably through the plane of their earlier longitu-
dinal split. Each second spermatocyte receives 6 univalent autosomes, and half of
each of the diplosomes.

Second Maturation Mitosis. —In the equator of the spindle (Figs. 11, 12) all the
6 autosomes become placed with their constrictions (longitudinal splits) in the plane
of the equator, and they all divide equationally. But the two diplosomes conjugate
in the middle of the chromosomal plate where they compose a bivalent element with
components of unequal volume (Di, di), and this double element divides reductionally.
Consequently each spermatid receives 7 chromosomes, whereby half the spermatids
get the larger diplosome (Fig. 13) and half the smaller (Fig. 14).

Literature. — In my previous papers, 1898, 1901b, I made the serious mistake of

failing to note the separation of the diplosomes just before the first maturation divi-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 101

sion, their equational division there, and their conjugation and separation in the see-
ond mitosis. In my first paper on this species the spermatogonial number of chro-
mosomes was correctly given, while in the later paper I was misled by one of the
unusual cases, here described, of 16 chromosomes in the equator of the spindle.

2. KuSCHISTUS TRISTIGMUS Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions.

Always 14 chromosomes (Plate IX, Fig. 15), 3 (Di, I, f)
being noticeably smaller than the others. When these elements lie suitably 12 of them
are seen to compose 6 pairs (A, a—I, f) each pair with components of approximately
equal volume and form; these are the maternal and paternal autosomes. There re-
main two elements, Di and di, one of which is the smallest of all, the other larger
than this and also larger than either component of the smallest autosome pair; these
two elements of such different volumes are the diplosomes.

Growth Period. —The autosomes unite to form 6 bivalent ones as previously de-
scribed by me. ‘The diplosomes also unite regularly and remain so during the earlier
part of the growth period (Di, Di, Fig. 16), but they, later separate.

First Maturation Division. —There are always 8 elements (Figs. 17, 18), 6 of these
are bivalent autosomes (4, a-I’, f), and these divide reductionally. And 2 are the
separated and univalent diplosomes (17, di) which also divide and hence equationally.
A pole view of a daughter chromosomal plate of the ensuing anaphase (Fig. 19) be-
fore the chromosomes have taken their place in the. equator of the second spindle
shows the two diplosomes unconstricted, and each of the six autosomes with a con-
striction that is the longitudinal split.

Second Maturation Division. — In the equator of the spindle (Fig. 20) are seen the
6 autosomes dividing along the line of the longitudinal split ; but the two diplosomes
have conjugated end*to end and form a bivalent element with unequal components
that divides reductionally. Each spermatid receives 7 chromosomes, half of them
receiving the larger (Fig. 22) and half the smaller diplosome (Fig. 21).

In this species each chromosome pair can be followed with great certainty during
all its changes, thanks to the marked differences in volume of the different pairs; and
this I have illustrated upon the figures by correspondence in the lettering.

Literature. — My first account was entirely correct (1901b), and I described how
the diplosomes divide separately in the first maturation mitosis. But I failed to notice
their conjugation in the second spermatocytes. Wilson’s account of this and the pre-
ceding species is correct.

102. GHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

3. Popisus sprnosus Dall.

Spermatogonie Divisions. —'There are 16 chromosomes in the equator of the spindle
(Plate IX, Fig. 23). Fourteen of them make up 7 pairs (A, a—G, g), and the pairs form a
gradated series. The 2 others are the diplosomes which are of unequal volumes, one
of them (D7) being the smallest of all the chromosomes while the other (dz) is as large
as the components of the smallest autosome pair.

Growth Period. —The 14 autosomes conjugate to form 7 bivalent ones. The
diplosomes likewise become apposed and during the synapsis stage and a part of the
later portion of the growth period this bivalent diplosome is placed against the nuclear
membrane and is composed of a larger and a smaller element in close contact (Hig.
24, Di, di), but usually, as in the figure, a narrow line of separation is to be seen
between the two.

first Maturation Division.—In the late prophases the diplosomes separate, and
are apart from each other in the equatorial plate (Fig. 25) ; the smallest element there
is the smaller diplosome (17), but which element represents the larger it would be
difficult to determine from the size relations. Each diplosome divides in the plane
of its transverse constriction, which can represent nothing else than a longitudinal
split. Each of the 7 bivalent autosomes divides reductionally.

Second Maturation Division. —In the center of the spindle the diplosomes conju-
gate end to end; Fig. 26 shows a pole view of all the chromosomes, and in the center
can be seen a smaller diplosome placed at the end of a larger (Di, di); lateral views
(Fig. 27) show clearly this bivalent diplosome with its unequal components. This
bivalent element divides reductionally, while all the 7 autosomes divide equationally.

Literature. — My preceding account (1901b) was entirely correct except that I
failed to note the unequal volumes of the diplosomes and the phenomenon of their
being separate in the first maturation monaster; I had figured and described the
second maturation monaster in mistake for the first. Wilson (1905a) was the first to
show the conjugation of the diplosomes in the second spermatocyte, and their redue-
tional division there.

4. MormiprA LuGENS Fabr.

Spermatogonic Division.—'There are apparently 14 chromosomes in the spindle
(Plate IX, Fig. 28); this is a redrawing of Fig. 31 of my preceding paper (1901b) in
which I had erroneously represented each of the two largest elements A, a as two.
There are 6 autosome pairs, A, a—F’, f, which show gradations in volumes ; only in
regard to the supposed pair 2, eam I undecided whether it is a single or two chro-

mosomes. ‘The two smallest bodies are the diplosomes (Di, di) and are unequal in size.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 103

Growth Period. —'There are formed in the early growth period 6 bivalent auto-
somes, and one bivalent diplosome. In the earlier stages the latter is composed of two
of unequal volume placed end toend. Later stages show a much larger, ovoid diplo-
some containing one large or several smaller vacuoles; I could not decide whether
this is the whole bivalent diplosome or only one of its components.

First Maturation Division. — Pole viewsi of the equatorial plate (Fig. 29) show
always 8 elements, 6 of which must be bivalent autosomes. Two elements are much
smaller, and judging by their size relations in the spermatogonia these must be the
diplosomes (Di, di); if this conclusion be correct, then the bivalent diplosome must
have separated into its two elements in the prophases of this mitosis. ‘The chromosomes
are very regularly arranged ; a large autosome forms the center of a circle composed
of the five other autosomes and the two diplosomes.

Second Maturation Division. — Pole views show apparently only seven elements in
the spindle (Fig. 30); but the central one is really bivalent, made up of the two dip-
losomes placed end to end; probably this bivalent diplosome undergoes a reduction
here, but I cannot say so with certainty because my slides contained only a few of
these stages.

Literature. — Previously (1901b) I was mistaken in supposing there to be 16

chromosomes in the spermatogonia; I did not describe the second maturation division.

5. COSMOPEPLA CARNIFEX F abr.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — There are 14 autosomes which compose 7 pairs of gra-
dated sizes (A, a—G, g, Plate IX, Fig. 31); and two diplosomes, one of which (D7) is
the smallest element of all, while the other is much larger and rod-shaped (di).

Growth Period. —'The 14 autosomes conjugate to produce 7 bivalent ones. ‘The
2 diplosomes also first unite end to end, then more closely side to side ; each of them
becomes longitudinally split, and their changes appear to be exactly as described for
Kuschistus variolarius.

First Maturation Division. — In the late prophases (Fig. 32) the diplosomes sepa-
rate, each is bipartite, and they enter into the spindle apart from each other. Both
of them divide, therefore equationally, while the 7 bivalent autosomes divide reduc-
tionally. On pole views it is difficult to recognize which are the diplosomes (Fig. 33),
but on lateral aspects (Fig. 34) they may be recognized as being the two smallest
elements and the only ones that are not tetrads.

Second Maturation Division. — Just before the arrangement of the chromosomes
in the plane of the equator the unequal diplosomes conjugate in the middle of the
equatorial plate to form a bivalent element, hence one sees either 8 bodies (Fig. 35)

104. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

in which case the smaller diplosome is hidden from view by the larger, or 9 (Fig. 36)
when one of the diplosomes is seen below the other. The 7 autosomes divide equa-
tionally, but the diplosomes without dividing pass into opposite daughter cells (sper-
matids). Each spermatid (Fig. 37) shows on pole view 8 chromosomes, a circle of
7 autosomes around a central diplosome; half the spermatids receive the larger
diplosome, and half the smaller.

Literature. —1 had originally erroneously stated there were 18 chromosomes in
the spermatogonia, and had failed to note that the diplosomes enter separately into
the equatorial plate of the first maturation monaster.

6. NEZARA HILARIS Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — In the equatorial plate (Plate LX, Fig. 38) there are 14
chromosomes ; 12 are autosomes that compose 6 pairs of gradated volumes (A, a—F, f),
while the two smallest are apparently not quite equal in volume (Di, di) and are the
diplosomes.

Growth Period. — The diplosomes conjugate and remain in close contact during
the growth period (Fig. 39, Di, di). From the late synapsis stage on each appears
plainly constricted, which is probably to be interpreted as a longitudinal splitting.

There were no later stages upon my slides.

Literature. —In the former paper (1901b) I was mistaken in supposing there to
be 16 chromosomes in the spermatogonia. Wilson (1905a) presents observations upon
the later stages, and shows that the diplosomes divide separately and equationally
in the first maturation division, but conjugate and separate reductionally in the
second ; but he is mistaken in saying that the diplosomes are of equal volume.

7. BrRocHYMENA sp.

Spermatogonie Division. — Pole views of the equatorial plate (Plate LX, Figs. 40,
41) show 14 chromosomes, of which 12 (A, a—F, f) form 6 pairs of graduated volumes
in which the two members of each pair are approximately equal in form and volume ;
while the remaining pair consists of one element (D7) that is the smallest of all and
of another (di) that is constricted and is larger than either of the components of the
autosome pair, Ff.

Growth Period. —The twelve autosomes unite to form 6 bivalent ones. The
diplosomes also conjugate, and each becomes constricted as in Huschistus variolarius.

First Maturation Division. — Late in the prophase the diplosomes separate and
enter into the chromosomal plate apart from each other (Di, di, Figs. 42, 43). These

divide equationally, but the 6 bivalent autosomes reductionally.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETRROPTERA. 105

Second Matwration Division. — Here there are 6 univalent autosomes that divide
equationally (Figs. 44, 45, A-F’). But the diplosomes conjugate in the center of the
equator and this bivalent element (17, di), with components of very unequal volume,
divides reductionally. Accordingly each spermatid receives 6 autosomes and one of
the two diplosomes.

This is another species where the particular chromosome pairs may be recognized
with great precision in each cell generation, as one finds by comparing the correspond-
ingly lettered elements in the figures.

Literature. — I previously (1901b) concluded there were 16 instead of 14 chromo-
somes in the spermatogonia, for I was misled into counting two constricted elements
as two each. Further I did not notice that the diplosomes enter separately into
the plate of the first maturation mitosis, and did not describe the following mitosis.
Wilson (1905a) described and figured this process correctly.

8. PERILLUS CONFLUENS H.-S.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — There are 14 chromosomes (Plate 1X, Fig. 46) of which
12 form 6 gradated pairs of autosomes (A, a-Ff); while the two smallest elements
(Di, di) are not of quite equal volume and are diplosomes as the later history shows.

Growth Period. — Six bivalent autosomes are formed. ‘The diplosomes also conju-
gate but later in the synapsis stage than in the other Pentatomids. Subsequently each
becomes constricted, and they lie close together and at the same time against the plas-
mosome (Fig. 47).

First Maturation Division. — In the late prophases the diplosomes separate and lie
in the chromosomal plate near each other (Fig. 48, Di, di); each divides through the
plane of its previous constriction. Fig. 49 shows a daughter chromosomal plate of the
early anaphase of this mitosis; 6 show a line of division and they are uniyalent auto-
somes with the reopening longitudinal split, while the two that show no such constric-
tion are the autosomes.

Second Maturation Division. — On pole view of the spindle (Fig. 50) are seen 7
elements of which the central one is really bivalent, formed by the conjugation of
the two univalent diplosomes (Di, di). Fig. 51 represents a lateral view of the
same stage but showing only 6 of the 7 elements; the one with the two components
of unequal volume is the bivalent diplosome. This diplosome divides reductionally,
the autosomes equationally ; consequently each spermatid (Fig. 52) receives 7 elements»
namely, 6 autosomes and one of the two diplosomes.

Literature. — My previous description was erroneous in stating there to be 16
chromosomes in the spermatogonia, and in failing to note that the diplosomes lie

AOPis— RT. 1 2, 7,706,

106 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

separate in the first maturation monaster. I did not describe the second maturation
mitosis.
9. Casnus DELIus Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. —In the equator of the spindle there are 14 chromo-
somes (Plate IX, Figs. 53, 54). Ten of these compose 5 pairs of gradated sizes, each pair
with components of equal volume (A, a—E, e). Of the remaining 4 I take 2 (/ f) to
be another pair of autosomes, though they are not quite equal; while 2 others still
more unequal in size (Di, di) are probably the diplosomes judging from the later
history of the chromosomes in the spermatocytes. That all of these elements become
halved in the anaphase is shown by the recurrence of the number 14 in a daughter
chromosomal plate (Fig. 55).

Growth Period. —'The two very unequal diplosomes may be either united during
the growth period, which appears more frequent, or they may be separated.

First Maturation Division. — Eight chromosomes enter into the spindle, and were
all shown on lateral view in Fig. 61 of my earlier paper (1901D). They are 6 bivalent
autosomes that divide reductionally, and 2 separated diplosomes that divide equa-
tionally. A pole view of a daughter chromosomal|plate of the early anaphase is shown
in Fig. 56; the 6 bipartite elements are univalent autosomes with the reopening longi-
tudinal split, and the two unipartite bodies in the center are the diplosomes (1, di).

Second Maturation Mitosis. —The two diplosomes conjugate in the center of the
equatorial plate (Figs. 57, 58), and in the anaphase separate from each other without
dividing, while the 6 autosomes divide equationally.

Literature. — My previous account (1901b) was incorrect in stating 16 to be the
number of spermatogonial chromosomes, and in considering the diplosomes to divide
reductionally in the first maturation mitosis ; then I did not follow the spermatogenesis
beyond this point. Wilson has given a full account of the whole process, and my
present observations corroborate his in every particular, except that I find the two
diplosomes to be by no means always regularly separated from each other in the

growth period as Wilson describes.

10. TRICHOPEPLA SEMIVITTATA Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — Fig. 59, Plate IX, is a careful redrawing of the chromo-
somal plate illustrated in Fig. 65 of my earlier paper (1901)). It shows distinetly 15
elements, while the small protuberance Z attached to the chromosome a may be a
sixteenth. From the phenomena of the growth period there are to be concluded at
least 16 chromosomes for the spermatogonium, in agreement with my former descrip-

tion. ‘Twelve, which compose a series of gradated pairs (A, a—F, f), are probably auto-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 107

somes, while two remaining elements of very unequal volume (Di, di) are probably
correspondent to the two larger diplosomes of the later stages. The minute body
lettered Z is probably another diplosome and so also the one lettered Y. All the chro-
mosomes are characterized by rather uneven and irregular outlines.

Growth Period. —Twelve autosomes unite to form 6 bivalent ones as shown by
the phenomena of the subsequent prophases. The two larger diplosomes (Di, di,
Figs. 60-63) usually lie close together in the earlier growth period, but separate from
each other either soon after or else not until the late prophases. When in contact
their long axes may be parallel, but more usually they are crossed. At an early stage
each becomes distinctly split along its length, but this usually closes soon after it
becomes well marked, which is associated with the phenomenon that each diplosome
swells in size and becomes more spherical ; just before the following mitosis this split
reappears on each as a transverse constriction. Besides these two larger diplosomes
more minute ones are to be seen during the growth period, and despite their small
size may be easily distinguished by their deep stain from the pale autosomes. It is
very difficult to decide exactly what their number is, though in most cases 3 or 4 such
bodies can be found. Generally two minutest ones of equal volume (kK, Figs. 61, 63)
lie upon the surface of the largest plasmosome (//), while 1 or 2 slightly larger ones
(x, Figs. 62, 63) are situated elsewhere in the nucleus and sometimes in contact with
smaller plasmosomes. ‘The 2 smallest, those upon the largest plasmosome designated
by the letter K, are always close together and of equal size, therefore they are prob-
ably (longitudinal?) division products of a single one; while the two others are
usually widely separated and of unequal size. These four smallest diplosomes of the
growth period may be represented by three minute elements in the spermatogonium :
we found in that stage (Fig. 59) one minute element (}’) and another probably separ-
ate element (Z), and there might be still another in this chromosomal plate but hidden
from view. Accordingly, judging from the phenomena of the growth period, there
must be at least 4 diplosomes represented in the spermatogonium, that is, a total of 16
chromosomes, if not indeed 5 diplosomes.

First Maturation Mitosis. —'There are always at least 8 distinct elements in the
spindle, which are: 6 bivalent autosomes of very different volumes (A, a-F, f, Fig.
65) which undergo a reduction division ; and two univalent diplosomes (Di, di) which
divide presumably equationally, and represent the diplosomes so lettered in the pre-
ceding stages. The minute diplosomes are rarely found in the equatorial plate, but
in two cases, one of them shown in Fig. 64, a pair of small bodies («) placed close
together were found ; they do not appear to divide with the other chromosomes and
seem afterwards to move out into the cytoplasm; they may represent the small ele-

108. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

ments marked K and «x of Figs. 61-63, and the elements Zand Y of the spermato-
gonium (Fig. 59).

Second Maturation Division. —On pole view of the spindle (Plate X, Fig. 67) are
seen 7 chromosomes, the central one of which is bivalent and represents the two larger
diplosomes placed end to end as lateral views evince (Fig. 66, Di, di); this bivalent
chromosome divides reductionally, the 6 autosomes probably equationally. In the
spermatids (Fig. 68) there are always 7 chromosomes, half of the spermatids containing
the larger and half the smaller component of the larger diplosome pair.

Literature. — My previous account was entirely correct, except that I failed to note
that the larger diplosomes divide equationally in the first maturation mitosis. Wilson
(1905a) described the second maturation mitosis correctly, but could not follow the
history of the smallest diplosomes any more satisfactorily than I have been able to do
in either of my accounts.

11. EuRYGASTER ALTERNATUS Say.

Growth Period. — There are two diplosomes of very different volumes (i, di, Plate
X, Fig. 69); this figure shows also three whole bivalent autosomes. In the earlier
period these are usually, not always, placed end to end. Each is at first elongate, in
the postsynapsis undergoes a split through its length, and for a considerable time retains
this fissure in this position; later each half of each diplosome rounds up so that the
whole appears to be transversely constricted, but this constriction is the same as the
earlier split. There is no complete rest stage.

First Maturation Division. — There are always 7 chromosomes (Fig. 70); the two
smallest (Di, di) are the diplosomes that come to lie separately in the equator and
divide equationally ; their precise location in the chromosomal plate is variable. The
others are 5 bivalent autosomes that divide reductionally as may be ascertained with
great certainty from the examination of the earlier stages; and when seen from the
Hat surface each shows the longitudinal split parallel to the long axis. In the succeed-
ing anaphase this split opens up as in the other Hemiptera.

Second Maturation Mitosis. — Pole views (Fig. 72) show apparently only 6 chromo-
somes, but the central one is really bivalent, composed of the two diplosomes (Di, di)
placed end to end; a lateral view shows this bivalent element more distinctly (Fig.
73). The diplosomes divide reductionally, the autosomes equationally, so that each
spermatid receives 6 elements.

Though there were no spermatogonic mitoses upon my preparations, there can be
little doubt that the chromosomes there would consist of 10 autosomes and 2 diplosomes.

Literature. — My previous very brief account was correct so far as it went.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. LO9

12. PERIBALUS LIMBOLARIS Stal.

Spermatogonic Divisions. —'There are 14 chromosomes (Plate X, Fig. 74); 12 of
them make up 6 well marked pairs of autosomes (A, a-F’, f), and all of these are
elongate ; the two remaining are very unequal in volume (Di, di), are rounded, are
the smallest of all, and are the diplosomes. The gradation in size of the autosome
pairs is very marked.

Growth Period. — During the greater part of the growth period there appears to
be only one diplosome in the spermatocytes, and it usually is of rounded form and
contains one or several vacuoles; whether this single one represents both diplosomes
of the spermatogonia, or only the larger one of them, I could not positively determine.
Towards the close of this period, however, two separated ones of very dissimilar yolume
are occasionally found (Fig. 75, Di, di). During the synapsis, unlike the conditions
in the other Pentatomids, these are not safraninophilous but stain violet like the
plasmosomes of which there are usually two or three in each nucleus, and for this
reason it is then difficult to determine the diplosomes.

First Maturation Mitosis.—In the equator of the spindle are present always 8
chromosomes (Figs. 76, 77); the two smallest are the diplosomes which have entered
the spindle separately and divide there equationally ; they are dyads. The 6 larger
elements are bivalent autosomes, each of which appears as a tetrad with distinct com-
ponents when seen from its flattened surface (Fig. 77); the longitudinal split of these
is parallel to their long axes, the same position as it held in all the earlier stages, and
accordingly in this first maturation mitosis the autosomes divide reductionally. A pole
view of one of the daughter chromosome plates, from the early anaphase, is illustrated
in Fig. 79; the diplosomes (Di, di) can be readily distinguished from the autosomes
by being unipartite and smaller.

Second Maturation Division. — Pole views show apparently only 7 elements (Fig.
78); but the central one is seen to be composed of two placed the one immediately
above the other (Di, di), which are the now conjugated diplosomes. This bivalent
diplosome is more easily recognized upon side view-(Fig. 80), and divides reduction-
ally, 7. ¢., the larger diplosome (di) passes into one spermatid and the smaller diplosome
(Di) into the other, while the 6 autosomes divide through the plane of their longi-
tudinal splits.

Literature. —I had erroneously (19015) stated the number of spermatogonial
chromosomes to be 16, and was consequently led into concluding that there is a
bivalent diplosome dividing reductionally in the first spermatocyte division.

110 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

NABIDA:.
13. Napis ANNULATUS Reut.

On my preparations there were no stages of the spermatogonia or earlier portion
of the growth period.

First Maturation Mitosis. — Very early prophases show 6 autosomes in the form of
long loops which are evidently to be considered tetrads with a very wide longitudinal
split. Besides these there is apposed to a plasmosome (Pl, Plate X, Fig. 81) a still
larger body (Di), safraninophilous, of uneven contours, which the later history shows
to be a number of allosomes in close juxtaposition. Later the 6 autosomes shorten
and condense, and then each appears to consist of two parallel univalent elements
rach longitudinally split, as illustrated by those marked m in Figs. 81-88; each of
these gradually condenses into a tetrad composed of four parallel rods, whereas in
most other Hemiptera the univalent elements come to lie end to end; further, the
longitudinal split remains open instead of closing temporarily. In these later pro-
phases the safraninophilous body (Di, Fig. 81) separates into 4 allosomes, while the
plasmosome to which it is attached gradually dissolves (Figs. 82, 83). Two of these
compact allosomes are quadripartite (Di. 2), and each of these is therefore probably,
and the later history confirms this decision, a bivalent, longitudinally split chromo-
some; these are the ones lettered Di. 2, di. 2 and Di. 3, di. 3 in Figs. 82, 83 and 85.
Each is, that is to say, a bivalent diplosome with its components in close contact and
with these components of approximately equal volume. But the remaining pair of
allosomes consist of the largest and the smallest respectively, and are very unlike in
volume, while each is a dyad and not a tetrad (Di. 1, di. 1, Figs. 82-85). These rela-
tions cannot be determined as long as these bodies are in close contact, but very clearly
as soon as they become separate. These three pairs of diplosomes are readily distin-
guished from the autosomes by their dense and rounded form and their strong affinity
for the safranine stain. ‘There are accordingly three pairs of diplosomes in the sper-
matocyte, two of them tetrads, and one pair with widely separated components of
unequal volume.

Pole views of the first maturation monaster show always 10 chromosomes (Fig.
86). Eight of these are clearly quadripartite, as can be readily determined when the pole
view is slightly oblique as that of the figure given, and these must correspond to the
8 tetrads of the prophases, namely, to the 6 bivalent autosomes, and to the 2 bivalent
diplosomes marked Di. 2, di. 2 and Di. 3, di. 3; which two, however, are these par-
ticular diplosomes, cannot be determined with certainty in the stage of the equatorial

plate. The two remaining elements are not tetrads but dyads, they are of unequal

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERRA. 111

volumes (Di. 1, di. 1, Figs. 86-88), and clearly represent the third pair of diplosomes
of the preceding prophases; they are respectively the largest and the smallest ele-
ments of the chromosomal plate. Each tetrad is composed of 4 parallel rods, shown
in their length in Fig. 86, and from end in Figs. 87, 88; their long axes always lie in
the plane of the equator. But in the case of the two dyads, the larger (di. 7) may
have its long axis in this plane (Fig. 88), but more frequently is inclined to it (Fig.
87); while the smaller dyad (Di. 1) is composed of two spherules, one on either side
of the equatorial plane. All these chromosomes are large, and their parts can be
made out with unusual facility. Each of these 10 elements divides so that each sec-
ond spermatocyte receives 10, 7. ¢., a portion of each of them. Whether this is a re-
ductional or an equational division of the 8 tetrads it would be exceedingly difficult
to determine, since each, as in the case of Ascaris, is in the form of four parallel rods ;
but I conceive that these 8 bivalent elements differ from those of other Hemiptera
only in having their univalent components placed side to side instead of end to end,
and that therefore their division may well be, as is certainly the case in the other
Hemiptera, reductional. A pole view of one daughter chromosomal plate in the
early anaphase is shown in Fig. 89; here are 8 bipartite elements, the daughters of
the former 8 tetrads, and 2 unipartite ones (Di. 1, di. 71), the division products of the
2 earlier dyads.

Second Maturation Mitosis. —'The 8 bipartite elements, which are 6 autosomes and
2 of the diplosomes, take positions with their long axes in the plane of the equator
(Figs. 90, 91), and all of them divide so that the components of each become separated
into opposite spermatids; this is probably an equational division. But the unipartite
diplosomes Di. 1 and di. 7 never lie in the equator, but one is always near one spindle
pole and the other near the opposite pole; this was invariably the case with every one
of these stages found. Accordingly, the smaller diplosome, Di. 1, passes wholly into
one spermatid, the larger diplosome, Di. 7, into the other spermatid. Fig. 92 shows
the chromosomes of a spermatid that has received the smaller one, and Fig. 93 a sper-
matid that has gotten the larger, these diplosomes being recognizable among the other
chromosomes by their form as well as by their deeper stain.

In the spermatocytes there are accordingly 6 autosomes that divide in both ma-
turation mitoses; 2 probably bivalent diplosomes each of which divides as do the
autosomes ; but one pair of diplosomes, that one characterized by very unequal com-
ponents, each component dividing separately (so probably equationally) in the first
mitosis, but their daughter products, without conjugating, passing without division
into opposite spermatids in the second mitosis.

The 6 quadripartite autosomes are probably, by analogy with the phenomena of

112 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

the other Hemiptera, bivalent in the spermatocytes, and so are probably the 2 quadri-
partite diplosomes; the large and small diplosomes are undoubtedly univalent.
Therefore we can postulate for the spermatogonium with a high degree of certainty :
12 autosomes, and 6 diplosomes, the components of only one of these diplosome pairs
being very unequal in volume.

Literature. — My preceding account (1901a), which did not extend beyond the
first maturation mitosis, was entirely correct except for the conclusion that the sper-
matocyte had four bivalent diplosomes. My preparations of Coriscus ferus, another
member of the same family, had faded to such a degree that I could not test the cor-
rectness of my account of it (19010).

COREIDA..

14. HarMosTES REFLEXULUS Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. —There are 13 chromosomes. One unpaired element
(Plate X, Figs. 94, 95, Mo) is the monosome, and it is not the largest. The 2
smallest are the diplosomes (Ji, di) and are not quite equal in volume. The remain-
ing 10 are autosomes and are seen to compose 5 readily recognizable pairs (A, a—, e);
what is to be noted in them is that the two components of each pair seem to be of
slightly different form and volume, as is seen most clearly in the case of the pair A, a;
and perhaps in each pair the larger element may be the maternal one and the smaller
the paternal. The components of the 2 or 3 largest pairs are regularly transversely
constricted.

Growth Period. —The 10 autosomes conjugate to form 5 bivalent ones. The
monosome (Mo, Figs. 96-99) remains safraninophilous during this whole period. In
the synapsis (Fig. 96) it becomes elongated and concomitantly more or less bent,
thereby showing a great variety of forms; frequently it is attenuated at the ends and
thicker at the middle. In the early postsynapsis (Fig. 97) it becomes longitudinally
split so that the halves sometimes widely diverge from each other and at the same
time it becomes less dense and more or less granular, though to much less extent than
the autosomes (Fig. 98). In the rest stage, which is complete (Fig. 99), this split
becomes more or less closed ; and then the monosome (Mo) has usually a rod shape,
shorter than in the synapsis stage, with its arms parallel; throughout the growth
period it lies against the nuclear membrane. I could not distinguish the diplosomes
in the earlier part of the growth period before the plasmosome arises. In the rest
stage the latter (P/, Fig. 99) is a large body near the center of the nucleus. Quite
generally there are attached to its surface about 3 or 4 small safraninophilous bodies ;

the 2 larger that may or may not be in contact I take to be the diplosomes (Di, di) ;

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 113

.

the smaller ones (x) are bodies represented in neither the spermatogonie nor the sper-
matocytic mitoses. In the case figured (Fig. 99) the bivalent diplosome has each
component longitudinally split.

First Maturation Division. — In the early prophases (Figs. 100, 101) a bivalent
diplosome (Di, di) is frequently to be seen lying near the monosome (Mo), which might
indicate that previously it had been in contact with it, from which it would appear
possible that when the diplosomes are not discernible in the preceding rest period it
is because they may be closely applied against the monosome. ‘The diplosomes seem
not to increase in size during the growth period. In these prophases the longitudinal
split of the monosome again appears.

In the chromosomal plate (Figs. 102, 103) there are always present 1° bivalent
diplosome (Di, di) that divides reductionally, and | monosome (Mo) that divides
through the plane of its longitudinal split. There may be either 5 bivalent autosomes
(Fig. 102, A, a—H, e) all of which divide reductionally; or 4 bivalent autosomes (A,
a—C, ¢, EH, e, Fig. 103) and 2 univalent ones (D, d); in the latter case the 2 univalent
ones are regularly of the same form and volume, and therefore are evidently ones that
had either failed to conjugate or, more probably, ones that had precociously separated
from each other after conjugation, and which in this mitosis pass without division into
opposite daughter cells, 7. ¢., divide reductionally as do the other autosomes. The
longitudinal split is well marked upon one or two of the larger autosomes.

Second Maturation Division. — Here there are always 7 elements (Fig. 104, where
one of the autosomes has not yet taken its place in the equator of the spindle). The
smallest, the diplosome (Di), regularly divides, and so do the 5 autosomes, all of these
equationally. But the monosome (Jo) shows no sign of any division and passes bodily
over into one of the spermatids. The latter show correspondingly either 6 chromo-
somes (Fig. 105) or 7 (Fig. 106), the monosome being absent in the former case ; the
minute element in each spermatid is a diplosome.

Literature. — My preceding accounts (1901a,b) were correct in the main, stated
the spermatogonial number of chromosomes accurately, the variation in number in
the first maturation spindle, and the behavior of the monosome in the maturation
divisions. But what escaped me then was that the large allosome of the growth
period is the monosome and not the bivalent diplosome.

15. CoriIzus ALTERNATUsS Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — There are 13 chromosomes (Plate X, Fig. 107). The
smallest elements, of slightly different volume, are the diplosomes (Ji, di). Then 6
pairs of autosomes (A, a—F, e); of these the largest pair (A, a) is composed of 2 rela-

A.P.S.—XXI. L. 23, 7,06.

114. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

tively enormous elements, one of which is approximately straight and apparently a
little more voluminous, while the other is horseshoe-shaped. Finally there is a single
chromosome without a corresponding mate, therefore a monosome (Jo).

Growth Period. —In the synapsis stage the 10 autosomes become longitudinally
split and conjugate to form 5 bivalent ones. But 3 of the chromosomes differ in pre-
serving their safraninophilous stain and dense structure; from the later history of
these there can be no question that the largest (Mo, Figs. 108-111) is the monosome,
the 2 smaller the diplosomes (Di, di). The monosome increases somewhat in volume
and in the postsynapsis (Migs. 109, 110) is rod-shaped, sometimes bent, and undergoes
a longitudinal splitting ; in the rest stage, that is complete (Fig. 111), it becomes more
rounded and then shows either no trace of this split, or else only a mere sign of it in
the form of an indentation at either end; it may or may not lie against the nuclear
membrane. ‘The diplosomes are unequal in volume as in the spermatogonium, and
undergo but slight increase in mass during the growth period. In the postsynapsis
each (Di, di, Fig. 109) becomes bipartite, which is evidently a longitudinal splitting,
and they remain so during the remainder of the growth period. The spermatocytes
contain each several large plasmosomes (P/, Figs. 110, 111), and the diplosomes, and
less frequently the monosome, may be in contact with these.

First Maturation Division. —In the prophases there are 5 bivalent autosomes
(A, a-FE, e, Figs. 114-116), each longitudinally split. One of them, by far the largest
(A, a), is in the earlier stages the single one that is regularly ring-shaped (Fig. 112),
with a distinct longitudinal split in each arm of the ring; this ring gradually opens
until it first becomes an angle (Fig. 113), then straight (Figs. 114-116), the longitudinal
split still continuing in the axis of each arm (univalent constituent). By the gradual
condensation of the autosomes (Fig. 116) their longitudinal splits become more or less
closed, but even in the metaphase it is sometimes clearly indicated (Plate XI, Fig.
118), and is then always parallel to the long axis of the chromosome. No animal
shows more decisively than this one that the first maturation mitosis separates whole
univalent chromosomes. The monosome can be recognized as a large dyad (Mo, Figs.
114-116). The diplosomes (Di, di, Figs. 114-116) do not conjugate until the later
prophases, apparently usually not until the nuclear membrane has disappeared ; in
them the longitudinal split becomes temporarily closed as in the case of the autosomes,
but the monosome continues to show it distinctly.

There are in the spindle almost invariably 7 elements (Plate XI, Figs. 117, 118) ;
in a few cases 8 are to be seen on pole aspect, which is then due, as in Harmostes, to a
precocious division of two of the bivalent elements, but here usually of the bivalent

diplosome. ‘There is a central bivalent diplosome (Di, di) and around it a circle com-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 115

posed of 5 bivalent autosomes and the univalent monosome (Mo, Fig. 117); the latter
can be recognized on pole view by its lesser depth, and on lateral view (Fig. 118) by
its quadratic form. The constrictions of the autosomes seen on pole view mark their
longitudinal splits, as is very clearly proven by the earlier history of these chromo-
somes. The bivalent diplosome and autosomes divide reductionally, the monosome
equationally. Fig. 119 reproduces a daughter plate of chromosomes from the early
anaphase ; the monosome (J/o) can be recognized as being the only element that shows
no longitudinal split.

Second Maturation Division. — Here again there are always 7 elements (Plate XI,
Figs. 120, 121), the smallest being a diplosome (7), and the one that is rounded with-
out having any constriction the monosome (Mo). The diplosome and the 5 autosomes
always divide, but the monosome passes wholly over into one of the spermatids; this
is shown clearly by the anaphase shown in Fig. 122, where at one spindle pole are 7
elements and at the other only 6.

Literature. — My preceding description (1901a) was incorrect in giving 14 as the
normal number of chromosomes ; this was because I had counted into the chromosomal
plate elements of an adjacent cell. Further, I had entirely overlooked the presence
of a monosome, and had not described the second maturation mitosis.

16. Cortzus LATERALIS Say.

No spermatogonic divisions were found.

Growth Period. —My preparations had faded considerably so that [ could not
make out the diplosomes with any certainty. But the largest allosome present is the
monosome and it becomes longitudinally split.

First Maturation Division. — There are 7 elements (Plate XJ, Fig. 125): 5 biva-
lent autosomes and 1 bivalent diplosome (i, di), with components of dissimilar vol-
ume) that divide reductionally ; and 1 roundish element, the monosome (Jo), that
also divides but equationally.

Second Maturation Division. — Again 7 elements: 5 autosomes and 1 diplosome
(di) that divide again, and a rounded monosome (Mo) that passes into one spermatid
without division, as shown in all lateral views of the anaphase (Fig. 125).

The whole spermatogenesis seems very similar to that of the preceding species,
and we may conclude with considerable certainty that there will be found in the
spermatogonia : 10 autosomes, 2 diplosomes and 1 monosome.

Literature. — My earlier account (1901) was in the main correct, and though I
did not decide for the presence of a monosome I noted that one of the chromosomes
of the first maturation mitosis differed in form from the others, ‘“ for it is not more

116 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

than half the volume of the other five, and sometimes it does not appear dumbell-
shaped.”
17. CHARTESTERUS ANTENNATOR Fabr.

There were no spermatogonie divisions suitable for study.

Growth Period. —In the synapsis and later stages (a complete rest stage was not
observed) there are in each nucleus two compact, safraninophilous bodies, close to the
nuclear membrane; a plasmosome was not found. The smaller of these bodies (1,
di, Plate XI, Fig. 126) is regularly constricted, and by analogy with the relations in
other members of the family is probably a bivalent diplosome, and its later history is
in accord with this assumption. The larger safraninophilous body is longitudinally
split (Jo), and corresponds to the monosome of the later stages.

First Maturation Division. — Pole views of the chromosomal plate show in most
cases (14 out of 18) 13 elements (Fig. 127). The central is always the smallest, and
very likely is a bivalent diplosome (Di, di); its two components are of approximately
the same size. Around it is a circle of 11 autosomes, and just outside of the latter an
element (Jo), the monosome, lying with its long axis in the equator while the autosomes
are perpendicular to it. In 4 out of the 18 clear pole views examined there appeared
to be 14 elements (Fig. 128); these are to be interpreted, as in Harmostes, that one of
the bivalent autosomes has its univalent components. precociously separated ; and
in all such cases illustrated by Fig. 128 there lie near each other two elements of
equal volume (JI), each of which is of less depth than any other of the autosomes. The
autosomes and the diplosome divide reductionally, the monosome through the plane
of its longitudinal split (Fig. 129).

Second Maturation Division. — Here there are always 13 elements (Fig. 130).
The smallest is a diplosome (di), 11 others are autosomes, and all these divide equa-
tionally. But the monosome passes without division into one of the spermatids.
This is shown distinctly in two daughter chromosomal plates of the early anaphases
of the same cell, the drawings made accordingly at different focusses (Figs. 131, 132);
in each there is a diplosome recognizable by its very small size, but only one shows
the monosome (J/o, Fig. 131). And in later anaphases on lateral views (Fig. 135) are
to be seen regularly an element, the monosome, in one spermatid that is not found in
the other. Half the spermatids receive, accordingly, 13 elements, and half 12.

Judging from the relations during these maturation mitoses the number of chro-
mosomes in the spermatogonia would be::1 monosome, 2 diplosomes, 22 autosomes, a
total of 25.

Literature. — My preceding observations (1901b) were correct, and though I did

not distinguish a monosome in the growth period of the spermatocytes, I called atten-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 117

tion to the fact that one of the chromosomes of the first maturation mitosis is differ-
ent in form from the others, and left the question open whether it might be univalent
there (so be a monosome). ‘The subsequent mitosis was not described,

18. PRoTENOR BELFRAGEI Hagl.

The previous account given by me (1901)) was detailed and entirely correct, and
Wilson has recently corroborated it. I have simply to add to it that all the auto-
somes of the spermatogonium can be grouped into pairs (A, a—l, e, Plate XI, Vig.
134), that the diplosomes there are slightly unequal in volume (Di, di), and that the
monosome (Jo) is by far the largest element. Another figure (135)iis given of these
elements in the growth period. The monosome becomes always longitudinally split
in the synapsis period (Mo, Fig. 135), and its division in the first maturation mitosis is
along the plane of this split and not, as I had previously interpreted it, transverse to its
long axis.

19. Atypus prLosunus H. 8.

Spermatogonic Division. — Four clear pole views showed in each case 13 elements,
namely (Plate XI, Fig. 136): 5 pairs of autosomes A, a—l, ¢ of remarkably different
volumes and forms; 2 unequal diplosomes (Di, di), the smallest of all; and 1 mono-
some (Jo).

Growth Period. —In the growth period there is a single safraninophilous body of
considerable size, that from its singularity and later behavior is undoubtedly the
monosome (Jo, Figs. 137, 138), and from the early synapsis on increases to at least
twice its original volume, as shown by comparison of the figures. In the postsynapsis
it beeomes longitudinally split, lies regularly against the nuclear membrane and _ fre-
quently also against a plasmosome. The diplosomes are apparently not distinguishable
during the growth period, and therefore it is probable that they undergo much the
same changes as the autosomes except for their later conjugation.

First Matwration Division. —In the prophases the diplosomes (17, di, Fig. 159)
become compact ahead of the autosomes, and reappear as two rounded bodies that do
not conjugate until the nuclear membrane disappears. The monosome (J/o) is to be
distinguished from them by its larger size. The autosomes are longitudinally split
and bivalent. In the equatorial plate (Fig. 140) there are always 7 elements: 5
bivalent autosomes that divide reductionally, and a bivalent diplosome (Di, di) that
divides in the same manner as may be readily determined on the basis of its two
components being dissimilar in volume. The monosome (Jo) divides lengthwise.
The bivalent diplosome is always central, the monosome most excentric. In a number

118 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

of eases two of the larger autosomes were found closely applied side to side and in the
preceding late prophases this is also sometimes the case.

Second Maturation Division.— Again 7 elements are found (Fig. 141), the smallest
of which is the diplosome, the nonconstricted one the monosome (Mo). All of these
divide except the monosome which passes wholly over into one of the spermatids, as
shown clearly in the anaphase illustrated in Fig. 142 where one daughter plate shows
7 and the other only 6 elements. ‘The monosome frequently lags behind the others
in reaching the spindle pole (Fig. 143).

Literature. — My preceding account (19015) was very brief, I overlooked the mon-
osome entirely and erroneously gave 14 chromosomes as the normal number. Wil-
son (1905c, 1906) has correctly emended my observations and has given a good series
of figures, but he failed to note that the diplosomes are unequal in size.

20. ALYDUS EURINUS Say.

My earlier accounts (19016, 1905 p. 194) were correct, except that I failed to note
that the allosome of the growth period (Mo, Plate XI, Fig. 145) is the odd chromo-
some, 2. @., the monosome, and not a bivalent diplosome ; there is no trace during the
growth period of the very minute diplosomes. The monosome is rather ovoid in the
synapsis period, but it later becomes more elongate and longitudinally split (this split
shows usually simply as an indentation at either end, but sometimes as a fine clear
line along the whole length). Its division in the first maturation mitosis (Fig. 147)
is in the line of this split, therefore equational. A daughter chromosomal plate of
this division is reproduced in Fig. 148; the monosome is the only element that
appears unconstricted, while all the others, including the small central diplosome (1),
show a constriction that is the longitudinal split reopening for the next mitosis. In
the second mitosis there are again 7 elements, all of which divide except the mono-
some (Mo) that passes without division into one of the spermatids. In the spermato-
gonium (ig. 144) the 13 chromosomes make up 5 pairs of autosomes (4, a—H, e) one
pair of diplosomes (Di, di), and the monosome (Mo). The whole spermatogenesis is

quite similar to that of the preceding form.

21. Anasa ristis De Geer.

Spermatogonic Divisions. — In seven very clear pole views 21 chromosomes could
be counted. These are (Plate XI, Fig. 151): 2 small rounded bodies, not quite equal
in size, the diplosomes (Di, di); a longest unpaired one that is sometimes constricted,
the monosome (Jo); and a series of 9 pairs of autosomes (A, a-J, 7).

Growth Period. —The large allosome of the growth period is the monosome (Mo,

Migs. 152-155), which remains compact and safraninophilous. It is irregularly elon-

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 11g

gate during the synapsis (Fig. 152) and in the later postsynapsis (Fig. 155) shows a
split along its length which, as is the case also with the autosomes, is widest at its
middle; this split becomes temporarily closed a little later. The diplosomes (Di, di,
Figs. 153, 154) remain very small during the growth period but retain their red stain
and dense structure; usually but not always they are close together, and like the
monosome lie against the nuclear membrane. There is always one large plasmosome
(Figs. 154, 155, Pl) and frequently one or two smaller ones.

First Maturation Mitosis. — In the spindle there are 11 elements so placed that
within a circle of 9 autosomes is the bivalent diplosome (Di, di, Fig. 156), and outside
of this circle the univalent monosome (Mo) which lies with its long axis in the equa-
torial plane ; the annular constrictions of the autosomes found upon pole views mark
their longitudinal splits. All of these are shown on lateral view in Fig. 157, and 6 of
them in Fig. 158. The 9 autosomes divide reductionally, and so does the bivalent
diplosome because its parts that separate from each other are unequal in volume and
in the preceding stages we found this dissimilarity characteristic of the two. ‘The
monosome, however, lies with its long axis in the plane of the equator (Figs. 157, 158,
Mo), and divides through its length.

Second Maturation Division. — Here again there are 11 elements (Fig. 159), but
grouped differently from those of the preceding division in that there are usually 2
within a circle of 9. They are 1 univalent diplosome (Ji), 9 univalent autosomes,
and the half of the monosome. The autosomes and the diplosome divide again and
equationally (Fig. 160), but the monosome (Jo, Figs. 160, 161) passes undivided into
one of the spermatids and usually lags behind the others in reaching the spindle pole.

Literature. — Paulmier’s monographic account of the spermatogenesis of this
species (1899) was in the main a very correct one, save that he stated the normal
number of chromosomes to be 22, and consequently identified the allosome of the
growth period and the chromosome that does not divide in the second maturation mito-
sis with the minute diplosomes. I (1901) followed Paulmier in these mistakes, and
because the monosome of the spermatogonium is constricted counted it as two. Wil-
son (1905c, 1906), in whose laboratory Paulmier’s work was done, was the first to cor-
rect these errors, and to trace the history of the monosome distinct from that of the
diplosomes. But Wilson failed to note that the diplosomes are not quite of the same
size, and that they may be distinctly recognized during the greater part of the growth
period.

22. Anasa sp. (from California).

Spermatogonic Divisions. —In every. case there are 21 elements in the spindle

(Plate XI, Fig. 164). These are: 2 diplosomes of unequal volume (1), di); 1 mono-

120 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

some that appears to be regularly constricted (M/o); and 9 pairs of autosomes
(A, a-I, 2).

Ovogonie Divisions. —On the only two clear pole views upon my preparations
there were exactly 22 elements. A careful comparison shows that the odd one of the
spermatogonia, the monosome (Mo, Fig. 164), is represented in the ovogonia (Figs.
162, 163) by a pair of elements (J/o,"mo) ; each component of this ovogonie pair is of
about the same volume as the single monosome of the spermatogonia. In the ovo-
gonia there are also a pair of diplosomes of dissimilar volumes.

Growth Period. —The monosome and the diplosomes show the same behavior as
in the preceding species, and the longitudinal split of the monosome is very distinct.

First Maturation Division. — Pole views show 11 elements, in the center the bi-
valent diplosome (Di, di, Fig. 165) and a bivalent autosome, then a circle of 8 bivalent
autosomes, and outside of the latter the monosome (Jo). All of these divide reduc-
tionally except the monosome (Mo, Fig. 166) that divides equationally.

My preparations contained no second maturation mitoses, but probably the
monosome will be found to behave in them as it does in Anasa tristis.

Literature. — My earlier account (1901b) was erroneous in stating the sperma-
togonic number of chromosomes to be 22; because the monosome there is regularly
constricted I was misled into counting it as two. And that led to the further mistake
of concluding the allosome of the growth period to be the bivalent diplosome.

23. ANASA ARMIGERA Say.

Spermatogonic Divisions. —On the only two clear pole views of chromosomal
plates 21 elements could be counted (Plate XI, Fig. 167); here the monosome is the
only one that is somewhat constricted (Jo) and is not the largest; then there are 2
very small diplosomes (Di, di) of nearly equal size, and 9 pairs of autosomes (A, a—T, 7).

Growth Period. —'The staining of my single preparation was not favorable for
determining the behavior of the diplosomes, but the large allosome must be the
monosome on account of its similarity to that of the other species of this genus.

Kirst Maturation Division. — There are 11 elements, all shown in Fig. 168. The
smallest is the bivalent diplosome (Di, di), while the monosome can be recognized by
its unipartite appearance (J/o). I have seen stages no later than this metaphase, but
it is sufficient to show that the autosomes and the diplosomes divide reductionally.

Literature. — My previous very brief account (1901b) made the same mistakes as
I had made for the other species of the genus. In the figure then given of the sper-
matogonie chromosomes (Fig. 77, 1901b) I had counted the constricted one just to the
left of the two diplosomes as two whereas it is really but a single monosome: my

drawing was more correct than my reasoning.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 121

24. METAPODIUS TERMINALIS Dall.

Spermatogonic Divisions. —'Two pole views of the chromosomes are shown in
Plate XI, Figs. 169, 170. Each shows 2 very minute elements which are unequal in
size and are the diplosomes (Di, di). Then there is one unpaired, constricted element,
the monosome (Mo). The remainder are 9 pairs of autosomes (4A, a—J, 7).

Growth Period. —Throughout this period there is a dense safraninophilous body
of considerable size close to the nuclear membrane (Mo, Plate XII, Figs. 171-173); it
is ovoid in the synapsis, more elongate in the postsynapsis, ovoid again in the (incom
plete) rest stage; it never appears double as if formed by the conjugation of two
elements, nor any at any period shows clearly a longitudinal split. This is probably
the monosome because it is far too large to be the bivalent diplosome. No sign at all
of the diplosomes is to be seen ; this may be either on account of-their yery small size,
or perhaps on account of their not retaining a compact form. The 18 autosomes con-
jugate end to end to form 9 bivalent ones.

First Matwration Division. — In the prophases (Fig. 174) reappear the diplosomes
(Di, di) as a pair of small rounded bodies, not attached together until the time of dis-
appearance of the nuclear membrane. In the spindle the 11 elements show a very
regular disposition (Figs. 176, 177) like that of Anasa tristis, with the bivalent diplo-
some in the center and the monosome (Mo) excentric. All these elements are shown
on side view in Fig. 175: there the diplosome is seen to have its components of dis-
similar volume, and to divide reductionally as do the 9 bivalent autosomes. But the
monosome (Mo, Fig. 175), when examined in profile, is seen to be placed with its
long axis in the plane of the equator and to divide through its length. As the
daughter chromosomes separate in the anaphase (lig. 178) a constriction upon each
marks the reopening of the longitudinal split; but the monosome (Mo) does not
show this constriction, and upon pole views of a daughter plate (Fig. 179) appears
simply ovoid while all the others are dumbbell-shaped.

Second Maturation Division.—In the spindle the chromosomes are again differently
arranged (Fig. 180), they are 11 in number; the diplosome (d7) can be recognized by
its small size, the monosome (J/o) by its small depth. All of these divide again except
the monosome which passes without division into one of the spermatids (J/o, ligs.
181, 182).

Literature. — In my previous brief account (19015) I did not describe the second
maturation division, gave the number of spermatogonic chromosomes as 22 (counting
the constricted monosome as 2), and in the growth period confused the monosome
with the diplosomes.

A. P.S.—XX]. M. 23, 7, 706.

122 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

LYGAIDA.

25. CEDANCALA DORSALIS Say.

Spermatogonic Division. —The spindle contains 13 elements (Plate XII, Fig. 183).
These are: 2 diplosomes of approximately equal volume, the smallest of all (Di,
di); 1 monosome (Mo), the only unpaired element; and 5 pairs of autosomes (A, a-H,
e) of which the pairs are to be recognized rather by peculiarities in form than in size.

Growth Period. — Up to the late postsynapsis the allosomes cannot be distinguished
from the autosomes, that is, they neither remain dense and compact nor do they con-
tinue safraninophilous. It is, accordingly, probable that until then the allosomes
undergo changes parallel to those of the autosomes, except, as will appear from the
later history, the monosome remains a single element and the diplosomes probably do
not conjugate, while the 10 autosomes go to compose 5 longitudinally split bivalent
chromosomes. ‘Throughout there is a large plasmosome (P/, Figs. 184, 185), lying
usually against the nuclear membrane. The growth period is closed by an almost com-
plete rest stage (Fig. 185), one in which the chromosomal boundaries cannot be well dis-
tinguished. Just before this rest stage there becomes visible a safraninophilous double
body (Mo, Fig. 184) placed almost invariably upon the plasmosome; we shall find
that this is the monosome. It reappears first in the form of a pair of rods, each finely
granular, which are to be considered the split halves of the monosome because they
are of equal length and volume ; at this stage the two are more or less curved so that
together they bound an oval space. They soon become compacter with smooth sur-
faces, and appear as two shorter parallel rods (Jo, Fig. 185). No trace of the diplo-
somes is to be seen, 7. ¢., they do not stain differently from the autosomes.

First Maturation Division. —In the early prophases the plasmosome dissolves
without a visible remnant. The monosome (Jo, Figs. 186, 187) has the form of two
short, thick rods, which may be parallel but are more frequently divergent. The
autosomes now commence to stain with saffranine (Figs. 186, 187), and they compose
5 bivalent elements in which each univalent component is longitudinally split; this
split gradually narrows up to the stage of the metaphase. And now reappear for the
first time the diplosomes (Di, di, Figs. 186, 187) as two very small elements, each in
structure and stain like a miniature univalent autosome; they are not in contact with
each other in any part of the prophase, but are more or less widely separated ; some-
times each appears longitudinally split (Fig. 187). By their size relations there can
be no doubt which of these various nuclear structures are the diplosomes and which
is the monosome. In the late prophases (Fig. 188) the monosome (Mo) changes

form so that each of its halves becomes spherical; the diplosomes (Di, di) become

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 123

compact and shorter, and though they are usually near together appear never to
actually conjugate ; and the 5 bivalent autosomes shorten and condense into short
tetrads.

In the spindle the diplosomes never form a bivalent element in the equator but
always lie on either side and at some distance from this plane (Di, di, Fig. 190). A
pole view of the equatorial plane shows, accordingly, only 6 chromosomes (Fig. 189),
which are the univalent monosome (Mo), recognizable by its lesser depth, and 5 auto-
somes; the constrictions seen on end views of the latter are their longitudinal splits.
The monosome is a dyad, while the autosomes are tetrads, as shown on lateral views
(Fig. 190). In the anaphase (Fig. 191) each daughter cell receives one of the diplo-
somes (Di, di), a half of the monosome (Jo), while the 5 autosomes divide reduction-
ally and their daughter components as they separate show each the reopening longi-
tudinal split.

‘Second Maturation Mitosis. — Pole views (Fig. 192) of the spindle show 7 elements
all in one plane ; the smallest is a diplosome (17) while the monosome (Jo) may be dis-
tinguished from the autosomes by its lesser depth ; a lateral view of the same stage is
given in Fig. 193, where the monosome is readily marked by its unconstricted form.
Each of the autosomes divides equationally and so does the diplosome. But the
monosome passes without dividing into one of the spermatids (Jo, Fig. 194). A pole
view of any spermatid shows a circle of 5 autosomes around a minute central diplo-
some (Fig. 195): and half of the spermatids show just beneath this chromosomal plate
a monosome.

Literature. —1 had described (1901b) this spermatogenesis in the main correctly,
only I failed to decide whether what I called the “odd chromosome” divided in the
second maturation division and failed to notice that it is the larger allosome of the
growth period ; but later (1905) I showed that the monosome does not divide in this
mitosis.

26. ONcorELTus FAscIATUS Dall.

My preceding account, a rather detailed one, of the spermatogenesis of this species
was entirely correct. Of the 16 chromosomes of the spermatogonia I demonstrated
that 2 are diplosomes, that these are distinguishable during the growth period, and
very frequently separated from each other there, and that they enter the chromosomal
plate of the first maturation mitosis separately and that each divides by itself. All
that is to be corrected is my former interpretation that each of these is in the sperma-
togonium already bivalent, and that the division of each in the spermatocytes is to be
considered reductional; now I find no good reason for such a view, and judge the
latter division to be an equational one of the diplosomes. There is to be added to
that former account the description of the

124 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Second Maturation Division. —A pole view of a daughter chromosomal plate of
the first maturation mitosis (Plate XII, Fig. 196) shows 9 elements; the 2 central
rounded ones are the univalent diplosomes, and outside of them is a circle of 7 univa-
lent diplosomes the constriction of each being its longitudinal split. As these come
to arrange themselves in the equator of the second spindle there appear to be only 8
instead of 9 of them; this is because the univalent diplosomes have conjugated in the
centre to form a bivalent one (Fig. 197). This bivalent element can be recognized
only by its central position because its components are of equal volume (D1, di, Fig.
198). Each of the 7 autosomes divides equationally, but the bivalent diplosome
divides reductionally. And each spermatid exhibits always exactly 8 elements of

which the central one is a diplosome (Fig. 199).

27. PELIOPELTA ABBREVIATA Uhler.

Spermatogonic Division. —There were on my preparations only two fairly clear
pole views of the equatorial plate (Plate XII, Figs. 200, 201), and in each of these the
elements were more or less obliquely placed. ‘There are in all 14 chromosomes, 10 of
which are noticeably larger and 4 considerably smaller. The following history shows
that these 4 smaller ones are diplosomes, which compose a larger pair (Di. 2, di. 2) and
a smaller pair (Di. 1, di. 1).

Growth Period. — From the synapsis stage (Fig. 202) there are in each nucleus,
besides the long loops of the bivalent autosomes, 2 large dense bodies of equal volume ;
and when the autosomes become longitudinally split each of these becomes constricted
at its middle point (Di. 2, di. 2, Fig. 203). By their size relations these are evidently
the same as the pair of larger diplosomes of the spermatogonia, for they are much too
large to correspond to the smaller pair. They may be apposed (Fig. 202) or may be
separated (Fig. 203). The smaller diplosomes could not be distinguished with cer-
tainty at this time, whence it is likely that they undergo changes like the autosomes do,
or at least do not remain dense and safraninophilous. The 10 large autosomes join
end to end to form bivalent elements, and each becomes longitudinally split; they
are then mostly in the form of a U ora V and the split in the arm of each remains
narrow and never opens up widely.

First Maturation Division. — In the prophases condense 5 large tetrads, which are
the bivalent autosomes; a single one of them is drawn in Fig. 204, and 4 in Fig. 205,
they being the bodies that are not lettered ; these may condense so as to appear nearly
solid and very massive, but frequently the point of junction of the univalent elements
continues recognizable as well as the longitudinal split in each of the latter, and this

split is always parallel to the long axis. Next in size to these are 2 elements

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 125

(Di. 2, di. 2) alike in volume, each transversely constricted and the two never in close
contact ; each of these is then a dyad, not a tetrad, therefore is univalent and the two
correspond to the larger pair of diplosomes of the earlier stages. Then there become
clearly distinguishable a pair of much smaller bodies (Di. 7, di. 1, Figs. 204, 205)
which correspond to the smallest chromosomes of the spermatogonium, and are a
smaller pair of diplosomes; in the earlier prophases (Fig. 204) each of them is
longitudinally split, and they may or may not be in mutual contact. Therefore there
are in the prophases: 5 bivalent autosomes, 2 larger univalent diplosomes, and 2
smaller univalent diplosomes, 9 bodies in all.

In the equator of the spindle there may be the same number of elements, or
there may be only 8 (Figs. 205, 206). This results because the smallest diplosomes
may be joined end to end (as in Figs. 206, 207, Di. 1, di. 1) or be placed side by side
(Fig. 208, Di. 1, di. 1); in either case, however, a whole one of these passes without
division into one of the daughter cells, which amounts to a reduction division of the
pair, and to each appear to be attached mantle fibres from only one spindle pole.
The 2 larger diplosomes (Di. 2, di. 2, Figs. 206-208), which are recognizable by being
dyads of equal volume and next in order of size, remain separated from each other,
and each by dividing along the plane of its previous constriction divides equationally.
The remaining, largest, chromosomes are all tetrads (the unlettered ones of Figs. 206-
208), and these divide reductionally, because each divides transversely to its long
axis. Each second spermatocyte receives accordingly 5 whole autosomes, a whole
diplosome of the smaller pair, and a half of each larger diplosome, a total of 8 elements.

Second Maturation Division. — Here there are on pole views (Fig. 209) always
only 7 chromosomes visible, 5 larger and two much smaller. The five largest are
clearly the autosomes. The two smaller must then correspond to the 5 diplosomes
that each second spermatocyte receives, 7. ¢., one of them must be bivalent. Lateral
views (Fig. 210, which shows all the elements) demonstrate that each of the smaller
elements is composed of two parts of equal volumes. Therefore there could not have
taken place a conjugation of a large with a small diplosome, but two diplosomes of
equal volumes must have conjugated. Now since we found that the second sperma-
tocyte receives only one diplosome of the smaller pair, but a half of each of the
larger, and since the latter were of equal volume, it is these larger ones that must
conjugate, come to lie the one immediately above the other, in the second spindle
Accordingly, of the 6 elements shown in Figs. 209 and 210, the 5 largest are univalent
autosomes, the smallest (di. 7) is one univalent diplosome of the smaller pair, while
the next smallest, the central one, is bivalent (Di. 2, di. 2). This explanation suf-
fices to make clear the change in number from 8 to 7 in conjunction with the per-
sisting size relations.

126 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Stages later than that of Fig. 210 were not found; but from the form and _posi-
tion of the chromosomes there it is probable that the 5 autosomes divide equationally,
that the small diplosome (Di. 7) divides in the same way, but that the bivalent diplo-
some (Di. 2, di. 2) divides reductionally.

Accordingly, there are two pairs of diplosomes; in the maturation mitoses the
larger of them divide first equationally then reductionally, the smaller first reduc-
tionally then equationally, so that the phenomena of division are reversed in the two
pairs.

Literature. —In my preceding account (1901c) the spermatogonial number of
chromosomes was erroneously given as 16, since I had counted two of the larger con-
stricted ones as two each ; and the contrasted behavior of the two diplosome pairs was

overlooked because the second maturation mitosis was not studied.

28. IcHNODEMUS FALICUS Say.

Spermatogonic Division. —On the clearest pole view (Plate XII, Fig. 211) 15 ele-
ments could be counted. There must, however, be 16 present at this stage as will be
shown by the later ones. Further, 4 must be diplosomes, of which the two marked
IN. 2, di. 2 must be the larger pair of diplosomes and Di. 7 be one component of a
smaller pair. The 12 largest bodies are certainly autosomes.

Growth Period. —Six bivalent autosomes are found in the form of V’s or, as fre-
quently, parallel rods, that is, they may conjugate end to end or side to side; each
becomes longitudinally split. Sharply distinguishable from these during the whole
growth period are 2 deep-staining, compact bodies, markedly different in volume,
attached to the nuclear wall (Di. 2, di. 2, Figs. 212-214). These are the larger pair
of diplosomes and represent the two similarly lettered ones in the spermatogonium
(Fig. 211). They are rarely in contact with each other so that it may be that they do
not conjugate. The larger of them (di. 2, Fig. 214) becomes iongitudinally split, this
split continuing up to the following mitosis; the smaller one is elongate, but only
in rare cases does it show signs of division (Di. 2, Fig. 213). Towards the close of the
growth period, which is not a rest stage, a large irregular plasmosome is developed
(Pl. Fig. 214), to which one or the other of the large diplosomes is frequently attached.

First Maturation Division. —In the early prophases reappear the pair of small
diplosomes (Di. 1, di. 1, Fig. 215); they are not connected and each is at first a small
bent rod with uneven contours and a longitudinal split. Each condenses and shortens,
the split still maintained (Di. 7, di. 1, Figs. 216-219), and they usually do not conju-
gate until the stage of the equatorial plate. The pair of larger diplosomes are recog-

nizable by their greater size (Di. 2, di. 2). Then there are in each nucleus 6 bivalent

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 127

autosomes (Figs. 215-219, all of them shown in Fig. 217), which are much larger than
any of the 4 diplosomes; they are at first of very diverse forms, inasmuch as each may
have its univalent components meeting at an angle, or placed side by side, or more or
less twisted around each other ; the longitudinal split may be narrow for its whole
length, or may be widest at the middle. These generally condense so that in each the
univalent components come to lie in one line and the longitudinal split becomes
obscured (Fig. 219).

On pole views of the monaster stage (Figs. 221, 222) are seen always 9 elements.
The 6 largest are the bivalent autosomes (those that are not lettered), the smallest one,
which is usually central in position, is bivalent being the pair of small diplosomes
(Di. 1, di. 1) the components of which may lie one above the other or else side by
side. The 2 remaining elements are those marked Di. 2, di. 2; they are unequal in
volume and are placed apart from each other upon the periphery of the chromosomal
plate ; these are the elements of the larger diplosome pair, each of them univalent.
A lateral view of the spindle (Fig. 220) shows the small bivalent diplosome (Di. 1, di.
1), the separated univalent diplosomes of the larger pair (Di. 2, di. 2), and 3 of the 6
autosomes. The 6 autosomes and the small bivalent diplosome divide reductionally
as can be told from their position within the spindle; but each large diplosome by
dividing separately undergoes an equation division ; each second spermatocyte receives,
accordingly, 6 univalent autosomes, one whole univalent component of the smaller
diplosome pair, and a half of each component of the larger diplosome pair.

Second Maturation Division. — Pole views of the equatorial plate (lig. 224) show
only 8 elements, and not 9 as in the preceding mitosis. The six largest are the auto-
somes, and the very smallest is clearly the small diplosome (Di. 7). The element
lettered di. 2 must therefore be composed of two elements, in order to account
for the apparent reduction in number in the second spermatocyte; and it is in-
deed bivalent, the composite of the components of the larger diplosome pair, for
on lateral aspect of the spindle (Fig. 223) this chromosome is found to be com-
posed of 2 bodies of dissimilar volumes placed end to end (Di. 2, di. 2), and we
found that the diplosomes of the larger pair were characterized by this dissimilar-
ity in volume. From the position of all these elements in the spindle it becomes
evident that all the gutosomes divide again, so equationally, and that the small diplo-
some (Di. 7) does the same; but that the bivalent larger diplosome divides reduction-
ally in that its larger component passes into one spermatid and its smaller one
into another. Only one good pole view of a spermatid was found (Fig. 225); this
showed 7 elements which from their size are to be considered the 6 autosomes and the
smaller component of the larger diplosome pair, while the element of the smaller dip-

128 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

losome pair was not visible (though it must be present on account of its division fore-
shadowed in the case shown in Fig. 223).

Literature. —In my preceding account (1901b) I did not find the diplosomes in
the spermatogonic monaster, and did not describe the second maturation division ;
but I was correct in concluding that there are one bivalent and two uniyalent diplo-
somes in the first maturation monaster.

29. CyMUS ANGUSTATUS Stal.

My preparations showed neither spermatogonic mitoses nor pole views of the first
maturation division, and their staining was unsuitable for determining the phenomena
of the growth period.

Second Maturation Division. — Pole views show 14elements, one of them (di. 7,
Fig. 226, Plate XII), very minute and probably a univalent diplosome. Lateral views
of the spindle demonstrate that one of the larger elements is composed of two bodies
of unequal size placed end to end (Di. 2, di. 2, Fig. 228); in one case these two lay
side by side (Fig. 227), and each seemed to be connected with only one spindle fibre.
This is probably a bivalent diplosome destined to undergo a reductional division. ‘The
13 other elements would seem to divide equationally or at least into equal parts.

While not much can be definitely decided from this stage alone, yet the phe-
nomena show similarity to those of Peliopelta and Ichnodemus. That is, in the first
spermatocyte there might well be 15 elements, one more than in the second; and
these would be 12 autosomes that divide reductionally, a small bivalent diplosome
dividing in the same manner, and a larger pair of diplosomes each component
of which would divide by itself and these two then conjugate in the daughter
cell. In the second spermatocyte there is certainly one bivalent element that divides
reductionally, and it shows close resemblance to the bivalent diplosome of the same
stage in Ichnodemus.

Literature. — My preceding observations (1901b) stated nothing definite. My prep-
arations of Cymus luridus, of which a brief description was given by me (1901a),
were not favorable for study.

TINGITID A.

9

30. TinaIs cLAvATA Stal.

No spermatogonic divisions were seen.

Growth Period. —'The iron-heematoxylin stain of the slides was too deep for clearly
distinguishing allosomes, but, in addition to a large, somewhat irregular body that is

probably a plasmosome, may be found one or two dense bodies of different volumes
that may be diplosomes.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 129

First Matwration Division. — Pole views show in most eases 7 elements (Plate XIII,
Fig. 229), a circle of 6 around a central one. On side view all of these appear dumb-
bell-shaped (Fig. 250) except the central one which is composed of parts of unequal
volumes (Di, di) ; these parts are placed usually end to end but sometimes side by side.
This central one is probably a bivalent diplosome and divides reductionally, while
the 6 others are probably bivalent autosomes that also divide. In two pole views out
of a considerable number seen 8 elements were found; this happens because sometimes
the components of one of the autosomes may be separated, as the two bodies marked.
M in Fig. 231.

Second Maturation Division. —'There are regularly 7 elements present, namely, 6
autosomes and either the larger (di, Fig. 232) or the smaller diplosome (Di, Fig. 233).
In a single case, manifestly an abnormality, 8 elements were present, both diplosomes
being in the same cell (Di, di, Fig. 284). All 7 elements divide, presumably equa-
tionally, and 7 elements are always present in the spermatids (lig. 235), half of the
spermatids containing a division product of the larger and half of them a division
product of the smaller spermatid.

Literature. — In my earlier description (1901a) I noted that one of the chromo-
somes of the first maturation mitosis is characterized “in having its two components
of very unequal volume,” but I failed to follow its behavior in this and the following
mitosis.

PHYMATID.
31. Paymarta sp. (P. wolffit Stal.?).

I can add little to my former account (1901), and find that the chromosomes
are too crowded in the second spermatocytes to be counted with precision. But in
the spermatogonium I now think there are 29 and not 30 elements as I had _ pre-
viously described, for one is much longer than any of the others (J/o, Fig. 237, Plate
XIII), and this I had originally counted as two. This unique chromosome was to be
seen in all three of the distinct pole views. ‘Therefore there is a possibility that a
monosome is present in this species.

REDUVIID.

32. ACHOLLA MULTISPINOSA de G.
Spermatogonic Division. — Pole views show exactly 32 chromosomes (Plate XIII,
Fig. 238), of which 8 are 4 minute pairs of diplosomes.
Growth Period. —'The 4 pairs of diplosomes can be recognized throughout the
growth period, and were described in some detail in my previous paper; they lie on

CEE ING. 28:7, 06:

13C CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

the surface of the plasmosome (P/, Fig. 239), and as in the spermatogonium the pairs
are of slightly different sizes.

First Maturation Division. — The bivalent diplosomes, 4 in number, are readily
distinguished by their small size and lie always upon the periphery of the chromo-
somal plate ; most frequently 3 lie close together, the 4th some distance off from them
(Fig. 241); or they may all be near each other (Fig. 242), or 2 may be situated at one
place and 2 at another. These diplosomes with the 12 bivalent autosomes are all illus-
trated on lateral aspect in Fig. 240, and all these elements divide, probably reduc-
tionally.

Second Maturation Division — Pole views of the spindle show again 16 elements
but in different arrangement in that the 4 diplosomes now lie in the center (Figs. 243,
244). Lateral views show that all of these are bipartite, and therefore they all prob-
ably divide again though their number could not be counted in the spermatids. ‘There
is certainly no conjugation of any of the diplosomes in the second spermatocytes, and
no evidence at any stage of the presence of a monosome.

Literature. — My earlier observations (1901 >) were entirely correct, and I have to
add to them simply the account of the second spermatocytes.

33. SINEA DIADEMA Fabr.

My earlier observations were essentially correct, and the three pairs of diplosomes
of the rest stage of the spermatocyte are shown in Plate XIII, Fig. 245, attached to the
plasmosome (P/). Another pole view of a first maturation monaster is presented in
Fig. 246, the 3 bivalent diplosomes readily distinguishable by their small volumes.
Of the 13 autosomes three are always close together and so form a regular complex
(A, a, B, b, C, cc), just as I previously described ; but now I find no reason to consider
the central one of this complex quadrivalent, for there is no good evidence that it is
anything else than an unusually large bivalent autosome and it does not behave dif-
ferently from the others during the preceding growth period. ‘This central one of
the complex is always the largest and a very evident tetrad (B, b, Figs. 247, 248);
close to one end of it is asmaller bivalent autosome (A, a), and close to its other end
a still smaller-one (C, c); these size relations are always the same. All the elements
of this mitosis are shown on lateral view in Fig. 247; the 3 smallest are the bivalent
diplosomes and they are of slightly different volumes. All 16 elements divide reduc-
tionally, so that each second spermatocyte receives a univalent component of each.
The complex of the 3 autosomes A, a, and B,b, and C, ¢ divides more tardily than the
others, as shown by the successive stages of Figs. 248-250, and in these anaphases the

lateral autosomes (A, a and C, ec) become separated from the large middle one (B, b).

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 151

There were no clear cases of second maturation mitoses. But judging from the
composition and behavior of the elements in the first spermatocytes, there would be

in the spermatogonium : 6 univalent diplosomes and 26 univalent autosomes.

34. Prionipus crisratus Linn.

My former account (1901)) was correct in the main.

A new drawing of a spermatogonic monaster is given (Plate XIII, Fig. 251). Of the
26 chromosomes 2 are much larger (A, a) and 2 much smaller (1, /) than the others.
All these are found on careful inspection to be arrangeable into a series of pairs, A,
a-M, m, in which the two components of each pair are of approximately equal volume
except the 2 marked K,k. There is probably no monosome because the number is
an equal one.

In the complete rest stage of the spermatocytes are found 3 or 4 safraninophilous
bodies (Fig. 252, Di. 1, Di. 2, Di. 3) attached to the surface of a large, more or less
central, plasmosome (P/). They are of unequal volumes; and when there are 3 of
them each appears bipartite, while when there are 4 the 2 smallest are each unipartite.
Perhaps, as in Sinea, these relations are to be interpreted as 5 bivalent diplosomes, the
smallest of which may sometimes have its parts separated.

BELOSTOMATID &.

; 35. ZAITHA sp.

Spermatogonic Division. — In all of eight clear pole views 24 chromosomes were
counted (Plate XIII, Fig. 253). They are of very different volumes, 4 being much larger
and 2 much smaller than any of the others. They make up 11 pairs gradated both
in form and size (A, a—K, k), all these being autosomes; and 1 pair of 2 unequal com-
ponents (i, di) that correspond to the diplosomes of the later stages. The 4 largest
autosomes are about equal in length, but 2 of them (A, a) are thicker than the others
(B, b). The 2 smallest elements (K, k), are always slightly different in volume.

Growth Period. — This terminates with a complete rest stage of short duration.
In it is found a single spherical plasmosome (P/, Fig. 254), and attached to its surface
either 2 or 3 smaller rounded bodies, Di. 1, di. 1. The most frequent condition is that
figured, and these smaller bodies probably represent the unequal diplosomes of the
spermatogonium, the bipartite nature of the larger being due toa splitting. The
amount of cytoplasm is relatively great and it contains towardsithe end of the growth
period, besides one or a few small yolk spherules (Y), 3 or 4 rather dense bodies (/d)
more or less spherical in form, staining like the cytoplasm ; they are variable in posi-
tion and size but are usually close to the nucleus. Each one has a considerable resem-

132 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

blance in form and size to the single idiozome body of Peripatus; and they are
probably masses of idiozome substance, well defined and few in number, whereas in
most of the Hemiptera this substance is usually more or less diffused in a zone con-
centric to the nucleus. In the synapsis stage there is a single large mass of this
substance at the distal pole of the nucleus.

First Maturation Division. — There are always 13 elements (Fig. 256), one more
than half the number in the spermatogonium, therefore 2 of them must be univalent
and the others bivalent. They show rather a dense grouping. ‘The largest 2 (A, a—
B, b) correspond to the 2 largest pairs of the spermatogonium, and are usually placed
in the middle of the chromosomal plate; 2 smallest elements always lie on the peri-
phery, the smaller of which (4, &) probably represents the smallest pair of the sperma-
togonium. All divide in this mitosis so that the second spermatocyte receives also
13 chromosomes.

Second Maturation Division. — Here the chromosomes are grouped differently in
the spindle (Fig. 258), namely, as a circle of 11 around a central pair. The latter is
composed of a smaller (Di) and a larger (di) body placed one above the other, and
these move apart into opposite spermatids before the other chromosomes divide (Fig.
257); these 2 are obviously the unequal elements of the spermatogonia, and each of
them must have undergone an equational division in the preceding mitosis and have
been univalent there. The smaller component of this bivalent diplosome, Di, is next
larger than the smallest of the autosomes, A, k, while the larger, di, is, counting from
the smallest, the fourth in size of all the elements; these size relations probably hold
true for the preceding division, and by means of it we can determine which elements
of the former chromosomal plate (Fig. 256) are these elements Di and di. Each of
the 11 autusomes divides, so that each spermatid receives 12 elements in all; this is
to be determined from the form of the chromosomes and their position in the spindle
(Fig. 257), for they are too densely crowded in the spermatids to be determined there.

Literature. — My preceding account (1901) was entirely correct, except that by
a slip of the pen I stated that the second spermatocyte receives only 11 chromosomes ;

I did not deseribe the second maturation mitosis.

HYDROBATIDA.

36. HyGorrecuus sp.
Spermatogonic Division. — There were only four good pole views. In three of
them 20 elements could be counted, but in the fourth, which was the clearest because
the chromosomes were most fully separated, 21- were found (Plate XIII, Fig. 259).

Twenty of these are seen to form 10 pairs (A, a—J, j), which vary to considerable extent

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 133

in both form and volume; but the very smallest (/o) has no mate in size, and is
therefore a monosome.

Growth Period. — This terminates in a complete rest stage (Fig. 260). There is a
large plasmosome (P/) attached to which is either a single body or a pair of bodies of
like volume (Mo); the latter condition is to be explained as a monosome divided equa-
tionally into two parts, because these later join to compose the monosome of the
maturation mitoses, and more particularly because in the earlier growth period these
are represented by a single one. This monosome, respectively its halves, swells con-
siderably in size during the growth period, and while continuing dense it does not
remain safraninophilous. No bodies were found that represented diplosomes.

First Matwration Division. — In the prophases the plasmosome disappears ; Fig. 261
reproduces a late prophase and shows all the chromosomes. Each autosome is bivalent.
composed of 2 univalent ones placed more usually end to end, more rarely side to side,
and each univalent element when viewed from its flattened surface shows a split along
its axis which is evidently the same as the earlier longitudinal split of the postsynapsis
stage. This split gradually closes, though never completely, as the autosomes con-
dense and retains its position parallel to the length of the autosome. Besides these
autosomes there are 2 much smaller bodies (J/o), which are alike in size and each, so
far as I could determine, is unipartite ; at this stage they are frequently not separated
but apposed, and probably. represent the halves of the monosome.

Pole views of the equatorial plate (Figs. 266, 267) show 11 elements, one more
than half the number in the spermatogonium; on strict pole view 10 of them, the
autosomes, always seem bipartite, while the smallest one, the monosome (J/o), appears
unipartite ; seen from the side (Fig. 262) the 10 autosomes are found to be tetrads,
while the monosome (Jo) is a dyad. This monosome divides and apparently through
the plane where its halves had previously come together, therefore equationally. The
10 tetrads, the bivalent autosomes, are so nearly quadratic in outline that it is diffi-
cult to decide how they divide, but there is no reason to hold that they do not divide
reductionally. As a result each second spermatocyte receives also 11 elements.

Second Maturation Division. —The chromosomes evince no great constancy in
their arrangement in the spindle (Figs. 266, 267), the monosome may be recognized
by its lesser depth (Mo). Side views (Fig. 265) show that 10 are always bipartite with
their constrictions placed in the equator; these are the autosomes and there can be no
question that all of them divide. But the smallest element, the monosome (Jo), is
spherical, and placed usually a little above or below the plane of the autosomes ; I
have not drawn its mantle fiber attachments because I was unable to ascertain them.
Only one clear pole view of a daughter plate of chromosomes of this mitosis was seen

134 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

(Fig. 268), and that showed 10 elements. But from its unipartite appearance in the
spindle, and from its situation a little out of the plane of the autosomes, there can be
little doubt that the monosome passes undivided into one of the spermatids.

Taterature.

My former description (1901) was incorrect in concluding 20 to be
the normal number of chromosomes, and in supposing the allosomes of the growth
period to be a pair of diplosomes. Also I did not describe the second maturation
mitosis.

37. LIMNOTRECHUS MARGINATUS Say.

The spermatogenesis is on the whole very similar to that of the preceding species.
There were no spermatogonic divisions on my slides.

Growth Period. —'There is a monosome, which in the rest stage (Mo, Fig. 269,
Plate XIIT) is longitudinally split; it may be nearly spherical, but more usually is
elongate with the split along its length; further, it is usually separated from the plas-
mosome (P/). These constitute the main differences from Hygotrechus.

First Maturation Division. — There are 10 large tetrads, the autosomes, and 1 small
dyad, the monosome (Jo, Figs. 271, 272). All of them divide, the monosome
equationally.

Second Maturation Division.— There are also 10 autosomes and the half of the
monosome (Fig. 274), the latter recognizable upon pole view by its lesser depth. Atl
the autosomes divide, but the monosome (J/o, Fig. 273) remains rounded, is placed
usually a little nearer one spindle pole than the other, and therefore probably passes
undivided into one of the spermatids.

Literature.

My preceding account (1%01b) was very brief, and I supposed a pair
of diplosomes to be present.
CAPSID Ai.
38. CALOCORIS RAPIDUS Say.

Spermatogonic Division. —'There was only one clear pole view (Plate XIII, Fig.
275), and that showed exactly 30 elements.

Growth Period. —Throughout this period there is a deep-staining, rod-like body
close against the nuclear membrane, which on profile gives the effect of a crescent.
In the synapsis (Fig. 276, Mo. 7) it is more or less ovoid, but it later assumes the form
of a bent rod (Mo. 7, Fig. 277) and during all the stages except the earliest shows a
well-marked longitudinal split. In the later stages this body has usually the form of
two bent rods, which may be parallel, or slightly divergent when the space between
them is the longitudinal split. This is the larger monosome of the spermatocytes, as

will be demonstrated by its later history. Though always prominent in the nucleus

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 135

by reason of its large size and deep stain, it does not remain completely compact and
dense, but sometimes shows a loosening of its texture. Besides this there is a second
and much smaller monosome (Mo. 2, Figs. 276, 277), usually rod-shaped in the synapsis
and more spherical later, generally separated from the nuclear membrane ; it shows
no signs of a longitudinal split. Both of these monosomes increase considerably in
volume, then decrease again during the following prophases. Plasmosomes seem to
be absent, and there is no complete rest stage.

First Maturation Division. —In the prophases (Fig. 278) the smaller monosome
(Mo. 2) can be recognized by its unipartite aspect, the larger one (Jo. 7) by its form
of two more or less parallel rods. All the other elements are quadripartite autosomes
except the two smallest; one of the latter has the shape of two apposed spherules

(Di. 1, Fig. 278), while the other (Di. 2) eventually assumes this form but is the latest

of all the chromosomes to become dense in structure ; these two smallest elements are
probably bivalent diplosomes, because though they are not distinguishable during the
growth period they differ from the monosomes by much smaller volume and different
form ; and I judge that each is bivalent on account of its behavior in the two matu-
ration mitoses.

In the spindle there are always 16 elements, all placed in one plane except one
(Mo. 2, Figs. 279-283) that lies invariably nearer one spindle pole than the other.
This is the only one that seems unipartite, and is the smallest of all; it is undoubtedly
the smaller monosome, and has decreased in volume since the prophases. Of the re-
maining elements one is the larger monosome and it can be recognized on side view
only, and then because its long axis lies in the plane of the equator (Jo. 1, Fig. 283).
Then there are 2 diplosomes (Di. 1, di. 2) which are very small and next larger than
the smaller monosome. The 12 remaining elements are 12 bivalent autosomes, each
quadripartite; one of them, that marked ¢ in the Figs. 279-281, is unusually large,
and for this reason I had originally (1901) supposed it to be quadrivalent ; but since

there are 30 elements in the spermatogonium this one cannot be more than bivalent.

The 12 bivalent autosomes divide transversely to their lengths, therefore probably
reductionally. The two diplosomes also divide, but in what way I have no means of
determining. The larger monosome divides and equationally. But the smaller mono-
some, which always lies a little out of the plane of the other elements, never divides
but passes wholly over into that spermatocyte of the second order to which it is near-
est. Half the second spermatocytes receive, accordingly, 16 chromosomes, and half
of them 15, the one that may be lacking being the smaller monosome.

Second Maturation Division. — Pole views of the second spindle are shown in
Figs. 285, 286. One of them is a cell containing the smaller monosome (Mo. 2, Fig.

136 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

285), while the other is a cell that lacks this body. There are always two diplosomes
that can be recognized by their small size, but slightly larger than the smaller mono-
some. Asin the preceding mitosis the smaller monosome always les a little outside
of the plane of the other chromosomes, so in this second mitosis the larger one always
lies somewhat to one side of the equatorial plane (Jo. 7, Fig. 284); and by virtue of
this position it may be recognized even upon pole view (Jo. 7, Fig. 285). Fig. 284

shows the 3 smallest elements, which we have found to be the smaller monosome (Jo.

2), and the two diplosomes (Di. 1, Di. 2), all three of them showing a division con-

striction. This demonstrates that the smaller monosome divides, that the diplosomes
also do, and because the 12 autosomes are equally constricted they too must divide.
But the larger monosome (Jo. 7, Fig. 284) lies nearer one spindle pole than the other,
is never constricted, and in the anaphases (Fig. 287) passes without dividing into one
of the spermatids.

Accordingly there are in this complicated case: 12 autosomes that divide in both
mitoses, 2 diplosomes that do likewise (therefore are probably also bivalent), a smaller
monosome that does not divide in the first but does divide in the second mitosis, and
a larger monosome that divides in the first but not in the second mitosis. Therefore,
each spermatid receives 12 autosomes and 2 diplosomes, while only half of them re-
ceive the larger, and only half of them the smaller diplosome; whether any spermatid
ever receives both monosomes, or whether any one ever lacks both monosomes, I
could not decide, because the chromosomes are closely crowded in the spermatids.

From the relations of the chromosomes in the spermatocytes the elements in the
spermatogonium should be as follows: 24 autosomes, | larger and 1 smaller mono-
some and 4 diplosomes, a total of 30 elements which was the number constated to be
present there.

Literature. — In my earlier observations (1901) I mistook the larger monosome of
the growth period for a plasmosome, because I supposed a plasmosome must be present ;
what I then called the “univalent chromatin nucleolus” corresponds to what I now
denominate the smaller monosome ; and I correctly showed that this does not divide in
the first maturation mitosis. The following mitosis was not described. Otherwise

the complex phenomena were correctly ascertained.

39. PascILOocAPsUS GONIPHORUS Say.
Growth Period. —This is terminated by a complete rest stage. Attached to the
plasmosomes (P/, Fig. 288, Plate XIII), though occasionally separated from them, are a
number of safraninophilous dense allosomes. The largest of these (di. 7) is always in

the form of a pair of short parallel rods, and, therefore, is to be regarded as probably

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 137

a longitudinally split, univalent element. Three other pairs of different sizes are
always to be seen (Di. 1, Di. 2, Di. 3) and sometimes a fourth (Di. 4). The compo-
nents of each pair are equal in volume, but whether each pair is to be considered as
two diplosomes, or as the division products of a single one, I could not determine
since the number of chromosomes in the spermatogonia is unknown.

First Maturation Division. — There are always 18 elements (Fig. 289), 17 large
and | (Di. 1) much smaller. The latter is always bipartite (Fig. 290), never quadri-
partite, and as will be evident from its later history is an univalent diplosome, and
from its size perhaps correspondent to the two bodies marked Ji. 1 in the growth
period (Fig. 288). Of the 17 larger elements i must be the largest diplosome of the
preceding growth period (di. 7, Fig. 288), but at this stage it cannot be distinguished
with certainty from the other larger elements. In this mitosis the other small diplo-
somes of the growth period (Di. 2, Di. 3, Di. 4) are to be found neither in the spindle
nor in the cytoplasm. All 18 elements divide, and this is an equation division of the
large and small diplosome, but probably a reduction division of the 16 bivalent auto-
somes.

Second Maturation Division. — There are 17 larger elements seen on pole views
(Fig. 291), 1 less than in the preceding spindle. This is because the large and small
diplosome have conjugated end to end, as one may ascertain by careful focussing (1.
1, di. 1). Lateral views (Fig. 292) show that this bivalent element lies always slightly
out of the plane of the other chromosomes, and that each component of it is uncon-
stricted. Each of the 16 autosomes divides, but the components of the bivalent diplo-
some pass without division into opposite spermatids. ‘lwo daughter plates of the ana-
phase are reproduced, as drawn from the same cell at two levels; one exhibits the
smaller diplosome (Di. 7, Fig. 293), while the other lacks this but shows the larger
diplosome (di. 1, Fig. 294).

From the number of chromosomes in the maturation mitoses it may be concluded
that there are present in the spermatogonia 32 autosomes and 2 diplosomes.

Literature. — My previous account (1901b) confused the two maturation mitoses,

and did not deseribe the second one.

40. Lyaus PRATENsIS Linn.

Spermatogonic Division. — There were only 2 pole views, on the one I counted
33, on the other 34 elements. The correct number is probably 35 as we shall find.

Growth Period. —One large, longitudinally-split allosome can be distinguished
in the spermatocytes ; whether there are others could not be determined.

A.P.S—XXI. 0. 24, 8, 706.

13S CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

First Maturation Division. — In the spindle there are 19 chromosomes (Plate XIII,
Figs. 295, 296). The smallest of them (J/o, Fig. 296) is never in the equatorial plane
but always nearer one of the spindle poles ; it does not divide but passes bodily into
one of the spermatocytes of the second order. This minute element would appear to
be a monosome, comparable to the smaller monosome of Calocoris. ‘There is no sign
of it in the chromosomal plate of the following mitosis. Of the 18 elements that lie
in the equator (Fig. 295) all divide in this mitosis. Two of them (Di. 7 and Di. 2,
di. 2) are much smaller than the others; the smaller of the two (17. 7) is a univalent
diplosome as its later behavior shows, while the larger isa bivalent element and it may
be a pair of diplosomes (though its small size is the only reason to consider it a diplo-
some). Of the 16 large elements one of the largest, if not the very largest, must be
another univalent diplosome, which with the small element Di. 7 are unequal com-
ponents of a diplosome pair. ;

Second Maturation Division. — There are always exactly 17 elements to be seen
on pole views of the spindle (Fig. 297), 2 less than in the preceding spindle; this
number was found in numerous cases. All are larger than the small monosome of the
antecedent mitosis, and this monosome is not to be found in the chromosomal plate ;
one would expect to find it in the equator of half of the second spermatocytes, as is
the case with the correspondent element in Calocoris; but it is always absent, and
therefore probably lies out in the cytoplasm where it is indistinguishable from small
yolk spherules. Further, in the equator there is only one separate small element
(Fig. 297, Di. 2), and not 2 separate elements (as in the preceding spindle, Fig.*295,
Ii. 1, Di. 2). Careful study shows that one of the chromosomes is bivalent, composed
of a small one (17. 1, Fig. 298) placed at the end of a much larger one (di. 1), the
larger one lying invariably a little above or below the equator which enables one to
recognize it upon pole view (di. 1, Fig. 297). This bivalent chromosome is composed
of the division products of the largest and smallest diplosomes of the first spermato-
eytes, which had divided separately but are now in conjugation. The single separate
small element (Di. 2, Figs. 297, 298) again divides by itself; it is a little larger than
the smaller element of the bivalent pair and therefore represents a half of the bivalent
element Di. 2; di. 2 of the former mitosis. The 15 autosomes also divide, and the
bivalent diplosome divides reductionally, its smaller component going into one sper-
matid and its larger one into the other ; for this becomes evident from their position
within the spindle (Fig. 298, Di. 1, di. 1), while in the anaphases the larger compo-
nent (Fig. 299, di. 1) comes to lie wholly in one of the daughter chromosomal plates.

There are accordingly in the maturation mitoses: one very small monosome that

does not divide in the first spermatocyte, and is not present in the chromosomal plate

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 139

of the second ; a large and small diplosome (di. 1, Di. 1) that divide separately and
therefore equationally in the first mitosis, but conjugate in the second spermatocytes
and undergo a reductional separation there ; and asmall bivalent element, Di. 2, di. 2,
that may be another diplosome, which divides in both mitoses as do the 15 autosomes.
Consequently each spermatid must receive halves of the 15 autosomes and of the ele-
ment di. 2, di. 2, half of them receive Di. 7 and the other half receive di. 1, and half
of them get the monosome.

From these relations we may conclude for the spermatogonium : 30 autosomes,
one monosome, one large and one small diplosome (di. 7, D7. 7), and a pair of small
diplosomes (Di. 2, di. 2), a total of 35 elements.

Literature. — In my earlier account I overlooked the small monosome, and did
not describe the second maturation division.

II. GenrrRaL CoNSIDERATIONS.
1. BEHAVIOR AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ALLOSOMES.

In the Hemiptera heteroptera the allosomes present the following relations in the
spermatogenesis :

A. Only Diplosomes Present, and these exhibiting the following differences :

Al. The diplosomes conjugate early in the growth period, divide reductionally
in the first maturation mitosis, and equationally in the second. his is the case in
Tingis, where there is a single pair with components of very unequal volume ; and in
Acholla (4 pairs) and Sinea (3 pairs), where the diplosomes are very small and the
components of a pair of about equal volume. In Sinea and Acholla they remain dense
during the growth period; in Tingis it was not determined how they behave during
this stage.

A2. One pair of diplosomes which divide separately and equationally in the first
maturation mitosis, but in the second spermatocytes conjugate and then divide reduc-
tionally. This modus was first discovered by Wilson; I had shown (1901)) that in
certain species (Huschistus tristigmus, Oncopeltus, Zaitha) the diplosomes divide separ-
ately in the first maturation mitosis, but I failed to note, because in these species I
omitted to describe the second mitosis, that their daughter products unite in the
second spermatocytes and there undergo a reductional division. Diplosomes of this
behavior Wilson called the “idiochromosomes,” and he correctly noted that they are
unequal in volume; in Nezara alone he states that they are equal, but even here I
find that there is always a slight voluminal difference. They always remain more or
less dense and compact during the growth period; and in most cases they conjugate
early in the growth period as I had previously described, but, as Wilson first demon-

140 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

strated in detail, separate from each other before taking position in the first maturation
spindle. Wilson has described these for Lygaus, Canus, Nezara, Euschistus, Brochy-
mena, Podisus, Trichopepla; and they are described in the present paper for Euschistus,
Podisus, Mormidea, Cosmopepla, Nezara, Brochymena, Perillus, Ceenus, Trichopepla,
Eurygaster, Peribalus, Oncopeltus, Zaitha, and Peecilocapsus. In the last named species
and in Trichopepla much more minute allosomes are found in the growth period, but
cannot be distinguished with certainty during the maturation mitoses.

A3. Two or more pairs of diplosomes of diverse behavior. In Nabis there are in
the spermatocytes two bivalvent diplosomes that remain compact during the growth
period, divide reductionally in the first maturation division and equationally in the
second, and the components of a pair are equal in size; and then another pair of
diplosomes that are of very unequal size, which are also distinct during the growth
period, but which divide separately and equationally in the first maturation mitosis
and in the next mitosis (without conjugation in the equatorial plate) divide reduction-
ally. In Peliopelta, Ichnodemus and probably Cymus there is a smaller pair, which do
not remain compact during the growth period and do not conjugate until late, and
these divide reductionally in the first maturation mitosis and equationally in the
second; and besides these there is a larger pair of very unequal components which
remain apart from one another during the growth period and then retain their dense
structure, which divide separately and equationally in the first maturation mitosis, and
in the second spermatocytes conjugate in the equatorial plane and then divide reduc-
tionally. Then in Syromastes Gross has described two pairs of diplosomes: the larger
conjugate very early in the growth period, remain dense, divide in the first maturation
mitosis reductionally and in the second equationally; while the smaller pair, adequal
in volume, undergo changes like the autosomes during the growth period, do not con-
jugate until after it, and compose & tetrad which divides in the first maturation mitosis
but not in the second. — Accordingly, this third type of diplosome relations may be said
to be a combination of the previous two.

B. Only Monosomes Present. —This would appear to be the most unusual condi-
tion present in the Hemiptera, and is here described for Hygotrechus and Limnotrechus,
while Henking found it for Pyrrhocoris; in these cases the monosome remains com-
pact during the growth period, divides equationally in the first maturation mitosis
and does not divide in the second.

C. Both Diplosomes and Monosomes Present, showing the following diversities :

Cl: One pair of diplosomes of small and adequal volume that usually conjugate
in the early growth period and during it may either remain compact or may undergo
changes much like those of the autosomes (Alydus, Metapodius), divide in the first

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 14]

maturation mitosis reductionally and in the second equationally ; and one monosome,
much larger than the bivalent diplosome, always compact in the growth period (ex-
cept in Cidancala, and in Harmostes it may become more or less reticular), which divides
equationally in the first maturation mitosis, but does not divide in the second. This
condition was first described by me for Protenor and Uédancala, then found by Wilson
for Anasa, Alydus and Harmostes, and in the present paper it is described for these
genera as well as for Corizws, Chariesterus and Metapodius. Accordingly, Syromastes
would appear to be the only Coreid thus far described which does not conform to this
type.

C2. In Culocoris there are two bivalent diplosomes that divide in the maturation
mitoses first reductionally and then equationally ; a smaller monosome that does not
divide in the first maturation mitosis, but does divide in the second; and a larger
monosome that divides in the reverse order of this. The monosomes remain compact
during the growth period, but the diplosomes do not.

C3. In Lygus there is a single, very small monosome that does not divide in either
maturation mitosis. And one pair of diplosomes of very unequal volume, which
divide separately and equationally in the first maturation mitosis, conjugate in the
second spermatocytes and divide reductionally. Another bivalent element, the smallest,
which divides like the autosomes, may be another diplosome pair, but this could not
be distinetly determined by me.

C+. In Archimerus Wilson (1905c) finds that the monosome does not divide in
the first maturation mitosis, but in the second divides equationally ; while a bivalent
diplosome with small components of equal volume divides first reductionally and
second equationally.

C4. And in Banasa Wilson (1905c) describes a monosome that behaves like that
of Archimerus, together with a pair of very unequal diplosomes that divide in the
first maturation mitosis separately and equationally, conjugate in the second sperma-
tocytes, and then divide reductionally.

The other groups where allosomes are known to occur are the following. In the
spermatogenesis of the Orthoptera according to the researches of Wilcox (1895),
McClung (1899-1905), Sutton (1900, 1902b), de Sinéty (1901), and Baumgartner (1904)
there is a single monosome said not to divide in the first maturation mitosis but to
divide equationally in the second. The only exceptions among the Orthoptera are
Syrbula, where I showed (1905) there to be a pair of diplosomes which conjugate early
in the growth period, and divide first reductionally and then equationally in the
maturation mitoses ; Hippiscus as described by McClung (1900), where a single mono-
some is stated to divide in both maturation divisions ; Stenopelmatus, where Miss Stevens

142. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

(1905b) finds the monosome to disintegrate in the second spermatocyte but to probably
reappear in the spermatids ; and in Periplaneta where Moore and Robinson (1905) con-
elude there is no allosome, but reinvestigation of this species is needed because Miss
Stevens has described a monosome in the closely related Blattella. McGill (1904) has
deseribed for Anax, an Odonate, an allosome that divides in the first maturation mitosis
and not in the second; but this author identifies this single element with a pair of chro-
mosomes of the spermatogonium, which makes the phenomena somewhat difficult to
interpret. The account of the spermatogenesis of the coleopteron C'ybistes, given by
Voinoy (1903), I have not seen. Miss Stevens (1905b) finds them to be absent in
aphids and Termopsis (a termite); in the coleopteron Tenebrio she describes a pair of
very unequal diplosomes that divide in the maturation mitoses first reductionally and
then equationally ; and in Sagitta she describes an allosome that divides in both matu-
ration divisions. In Agalena Miss Wallace (1905) finds a pair of diplosomes that do
not divide in either maturation mitosis, which is quite different from my own results
upon Lycosa (1905), to the effect that the pair of diplosomes divide reductionally and
then equationally. The spermatogenesis of the Chilopods (Scolopendra), as described
by Blackman (1905a, b), is peculiar in that the monosome during the growth period
comes to contain all the autosomes, so to form a “karyosphere”; they pass out of it
before the first maturation mitosis, where it does not divide, but it divides equationally
in the second mitosis; essentially similar results were obtained by Miss Medes (1905)
for Scutigera. Some of the most interesting and complex relations of monosomes have
recently been found by McClung (1905) in various acridiids, consisting in the adhesion
of the monosome to one or more autosomes whereby plurivalent elements may be
formed not only in the spermatocytes but even in the spermatogonia.

We may now attempt to decide what decisions the diversity of behavior of the
allosomes, particularly in the Hemiptera, may give in regard to their genesis and
mutual relations.

Since Henking’s first discovery of them in Pyrrhocoris all observers have been
in agreement that they are modified chromosomes. And on the observational basis
that we have to-day we are in position to conclude what this genesis may have been.
In the first place the ordinary chromosomes, the autosomes, of the Hemiptera are
proven to divide in the maturation mitoses first reductionally, and second equation-
ally. ‘The results of Henking, Paulmier, Stevens and myself are in agreement on this
issue, and only Gross assumes a reversed order of division ; Gross’s position is not
borne out by his own observations, as I pointed out in another place (1905) and there
reasoned, and Grégoire (1905) has strongly seconded me in this, that probably in all

Metazoa the first maturation division is reductional and the second equational. On

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 143

account of the great mass of evidence upon this question, which has been fully dis-
cussed in earlier papers of mine, we shall assume it as proven that in the Hemiptera
the autosomes divide in this sequence. ‘Therefore, the allosomes being modified
chromosomes, those allosomes that divide in the same way as the autosomes do would
be genetically closest to the autosomes. Such are the diplosomes of the Coreide
(except the smaller pair of Syromastes), of the Reduviidee and Tingis, Calocoris, the
smaller diplosomes of Nabis, and one of the diplosome pairs of Peliopelta and Ichno-
demus. These diplosomes correspond to the “ M-chromosomes” of Wilson. They are
in most cases the smallest of all the chromosomes, sometimes very minute, and, except
in Tingis, are only very slightly different in size. Probably those of them that do not
remain dense but become reticular in the growth period, as is the case in Alydus,
Metapodius, CEdancala and Calocoris, are the least modified, because the most similar
in behavior to the autosomes. ‘The other kind of diplosomes correspond to what
Wilson has called the ‘idiochromosomes,” and he first distinguished between these
and the preceding kind. These usually do, sometimes do not, conjugate in the early
growth period, enter the chromosomal plate of the first maturation mitosis separately,
aud divide there equationally, then in the second spermatocytes (usually but not
always after a conjugation in the center of the chromosomal plate) divide reduction-
ally; they always remain more or less dense and compact during the growth period,
and are usually very different in volume, though Wilson has shown that in Nezara
they are nearly equal. Both kinds of diplosomes may occur in the same cell.

We do not know intermediates between these two kinds of diplosomes, though
there can well be no doubt that the second is a further modification of the first;
because sometimes in the first type the diplosomes may be unequal, and in the second
type sometimes almost equal in size, size difference cannot be taken as a criterion of
them, and for this reason it seemed to me inadvisable to consider them as quite dif-
ferent allosomes as Wilson has done. ‘The most striking difference between the two
types is the discord with regard to the reduction division ; in the first type it occurs
in the first maturation mitosis, in the second type in the succeeding mitosis. This
certainly stands in some relation with the time of conjugation of the elements of the
pair, which in the first type is always early in the growth period, while in the second
type it may occur then, but frequently does not take place until the stage of the
second spermatocyte or may not occur even at that stage. From the series of facts
now at hand, we might conclude that the genesis of the diplosomes is as follows.
First a pair of autosomes became modified so as to retain their compact nature during
the growth period, still maintaining their approximate equivalence in volume. Be-
cause such allosomes are usually very small, we might conclude also that they arose

144 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

from the smallest pair of autosomes. In the next change would appear a growing
disparity in size, which, if our last assumption be correct, would be due not to one
becoming smaller and to the other becoming larger, but rather to one retaining its
original volume and to the other becoming much larger. This second step would
then be one of differentiation of the two, a becoming-different, probably implying also
difference of metabolic activites. This would account for the lessening affinity of the
two as exhibited by the protraction of the time of conjugation. Then would be
attained the stage of the second type of diplosomes, no longer united but separate in
the first maturation spindle. And the last step would be that, instead of a reduction
division of them in this spindle, there would take place there an equational division
of each.

In this interpretation, which serves at least to unify the diverse phenomena and
is in accord with them, we learn that the two kinds of diplosomes are not really radi-
cally different structures, but are rather extremes of a series of modifications.

We may now pass to the question of the genesis of the monosomes. In most
cases these are larger than the diplosomes, sometimes the largest of all the chromo-
somes, more rarely are they very minute, as in Calocoris and Lygus. Usually the
monosome remains dense and compact during the growth period, but in Utdancala it
becomes reticular and is then practically indistinguishable from the autosomes; in
Harmostes it becomes reticular to a much less degree. A monosome lke that of
(Edancala is clearly a less modified chromosome than are the monosomes of the other
Hemiptera. ‘Then monosomes may divide in the first maturation mitosis but not in
the second (Hygotrechus, Limnotrechus, Pyrrhocoris, all the Coreidee except Syromastes,
(Hdancala, and the larger monosome of Calocoris); my recent observations show that
it is always an equation division, along the line in which the monosome splits in the
growth period. But in Archimerus and Banasa, according to Wilson, the monosome
does not divide in the first maturation mitosis but does in the second; I find the
smaller monosome of Calocoris behaves in the same way, and that in Lygus the minute
monosome does not divide in either mitosis. Thus with regard to the sequence of
division, three kinds of monosomes occur in the Hemiptera, of which the kind that
divides reductionally in the first maturation mitosis must be considered the least
modified because the one that behaves most like the autosomes.

In an earlier paper (1901) I discussed the question of the genesis of the mono-
somes; showed that a monosome might be produced by the hybridization of species
with different chromosomal numbers, but concluded this to be improbable; and
inclined to the view that monosomes arose by some abnormality in mitosis, as by

failure of two spermatogonial chromosomes to separate, which led to my assumption

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 145

that the larger monosomes are bivalent elements. This idea of the bivalence of the
monosomes I carried out further in my last paper (1905). ‘This seemed to me to best
explain the usually relatively large size of the monosomes. Since then MeClung
(1905) has demonstrated the occurrence of undoubted bivalent chromosomes in the
spermatogonia of certain Orthoptera, which may be a union of two or more autosomes
or of a monosome with an autosome.

But Miss Stevens (1905b) showed for Tenebrio that while in the spermatogenesis
there is a pair of diplosomes of very unequal volume, this pair is represented in the
ovogenesis by two of equal volume. Then Wilson (190Gb) compared the ovogenesis
and spermatogenesis in a series of Hemiptera, confirming Miss Stevens’ conclusion and
elaborating it; Wilson’s results may be briefly summarized as follows. Where there
is asingle monosome in the spermatogenesis (as in Protenor, Harmostes, Anasa and
Alydus) there are two in the ovogenesis so that the ovogonia possess always an equal
number of chromosomes. And where in the spermatogenesis there is a pair of diplo-
somes of unequal volume, there is in the ovogenesis a pair with components equal in
volume to the larger diplosome of the spermatogenesis. Thus while half the sperma-
tids lack the monosome, and half of them lack the larger diplosome, each ovotid
would contain a monosome and each a larger diplosome. And from this phenomenon
Wilson concludes, as did Miss Stevens before him, that a spermatozodn containing a
monosome or the larger diplosome on fertilizing an egg produces a female individual ;
but that a spermatozo6n lacking either of these gives rise to a male individual.

The point in this important discovery of Wilson’s that immediately concerns us
is that the modification of autosomes into allosomes has taken place in the spermato-
genesis ; and that a monosome of the spermatogenesis has originated by the continuance
of the larger element of a diplosome pair in the sperm cells, and the loss of the smaller
element there. This is a very plausible conclusion, but there are in particular two phe-
nomena that must be explained before it can be accepted. One is, how an allosome
becomes lost in the spermatogenesis ; and the other is, how the allosomes introduced by
the spermatozoén into the ovum behave during the ovogenetic cycle; on both of these
questions we know as yet practically nothing. Ishowedin 1904 for Anasa that the pair
of minute diplosomes of the spermatogonium are represented in the ovogonium by a
pair equivalent in size and appearance. Such equivalent diplosomes we have just found
to be probably the least modified kind of allosomes. The commencement of the allo-
somes may have had then a parallel course in the two sexes. And the point that now
needs to be determined is the behavior of the ovogenetic allosomes in the growth period
and the maturation divisions.

So we have reached the conclusion that the allosomes are to be considered modi-

APS XXE. P24, 8, 706.

146 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

fied chromosomes, of which the most primitive condition would be pairs of like volume
conjugating and dividing in the same way as the autosomes do. One component of
each pair must be paternal and one maternal, as I proved some years ago (19010).
Therefore, corresponding elements must have become modified in the germ cells of both
sexes. A more modified condition would be pairs composed of components of dissim-
ilar volume, not conjugating until the second spermatocyte, and dividing in the ma-
turation mitoses in reverse order from that of the autosomes. Wilson’s observations
would indicate that this further specialization has taken place in the spermatogenesis
alone, but it is by no means proven that such need to have been the case in all species.
Finally, as to the monosomes, they may be single surviving components of diplosome
pairs of which one has been lost in the spermatogenesis as Wilson concludes ; or it is pos-
sible that they may have originated by the permanent coalescence of two chromosomes,
either autosomes or diplosomes, as I have argued. I wish simply to indicate how di-
verse the possibilities are, and to point out that we cannot be sure of these conclusions
until more is known of the phenomena in the ovogenesis.

As to the function of the allosomes, Paulmier (1899) concluded them to be

degenerating chromatin masses: ‘I would make the suggestion . . . that these small

chromosomes, or idants (to adopt for the moment Weismann’s terminology) contain
“ids” which represent somatic characters which belonged to the species in former
times, but which characters are disappearing.” Then I argued (1901b): “The chro-
matin nucleoli [allosomes] are in that sense degenerate, that they no longer behave
like the other chromosomes in the rest stages; but they would appear to be special-
ized for a metabolic function. Thus it might be that in the insects the chromatin
nucleoli are those chromosomes which exert a greater metabolic activity than the
other chromosomes, or which carry out some special kind of metabolism; and from
this point of view they would certainly seem to be much more than degenerate
organs.’ Then I pointed out that not infrequently they are attached regularly to
plasmosomes ; and now I would call attention to the fact that they are still more fre-
quently in contact with the nuclear membrane. Undoubtedly their function must be
very different from that of the autosomes, because they appear and behave so different
from them. The retention of the compact form and safraninophilous stain, so charac-
teristic of many of them, throughout the growth period and in the rest stage of the
spermatogonia, indicates that their nucleinie acid constituent changes less than in the
autosomes. The sex determination by them, reasoned by McClung, Miss Stevens
(1905b) and Wilson (1906), is a secondary function; if they do exercise a differentia-
tion of sex this would be not their primal function but rather an indirect result of

their metabolic peculiarities. From their position within the cell there can be little

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 147

question that they fulfill an important part in the interplay of nuclear and cyto-
plasmic activity, an influence perhaps in proportion to their size. Yet this influence
can hardly be one of the nature of an assimilation process, else the chemical nature of
the two allosomes could not remain so constant during the growth period.

2. THe Nucikar ELeMent anp CuromosoMAL D1rrerRENCcr.

More than twenty years ago Carnoy (1885) spoke of the Metazoan nucleus as con-
taining an “élément nucléinien,” by which he meant a continuous complex of linin
and chromatin. We now know that his idea of nuclear structure was not exact, that,
for instance, in the majority of nuclei there is no well marked chromatin spirem
through the rest stage of the cellas he conceived it. Yet Carnoy had probably the
right general idea. In my analysis of the spermatogenesis of Peripatus (1900), which
was quite largely an examination of the changes of the linin threads, I went into con-
siderable detail into the connection of the chromatin and the linin, and developed the
thought very similar to that of Carnoy, that as the nuclear element of the first order
should be considered the totality of the linin and chromatin. I conceived of this asa
continuous and persisting linin band with which the chromatin masses are always in
contact. The unity of this element is best seen in the prophases of cell division, where
there is a continuous linin spirem with chromatin masses segregated upon it. But
though the linin band becomes very much branched in the rest stage, and the chro-
matin particles become finely distributed along these branches, yet there is consider-
able evidence that it always maintains its continuity as a single band. In all sperma-
togonic divisions the whole band, not only the chromatin masses, probably divides
along its entire length, so that each daughter nucleus would receive one half of the
original nuclear element; but in the reduction division this band would become
transversely divided, therefore broken into as many portions as there are chromosomes.
And I showed (1900, 1901b) that just after the reduction division, and in the earliest
cleavages of the fertilized egg, the chromosomes are most distinct, presenting the
appearance of small, independent vesicles. Therefore the reduction division causes
‘the segmentation of the nuclear element, and accordingly it must become reconstituted
before the spermatocyte and ovocyte stages of the next generation. All this is in
accord with the phenomenon of the paternal and maternal chromosomes forming
separate groups in the spindle in only the earlier embryonic cleavages, and not, as
Hicker has argued, through the whole germinal cycle.

This was all elaborated at length in the earlier papers of mine referred to, and
there shown to explain the mechanics of very diverse cellular changes. To that I
would now add another thought. When the nuclear element becomes segmented by the

148 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

reduction division, which is a division breaking the linin connections between con-
jugated chromosomes, its later reconstitution, 7. e., the restoration of a nuclear con-
tinuous nuclear element in the next generation, must take place by the maternal and
paternal chromosomes arranging themselves in a continuous chain in such a way, that
every two correspondent paternal and maternal chromosomes lie together. For this
alone would explain why chromosomes of corresponding appearance are placed
together in the prophases of division, and how in the synapsis stage of the growth
period corresponding chromosomes conjugate unerringly.

The main results of these observations and interpretations amount to this, that
the important nuclear element of the first order is a continuous band of linin with
which chromatin is always locally connected. Beyond this there is in the nucleus
nothing but the karyolymph, the nucleoli (plasmosomes), and minute floating gran-
ules (eedematin or lanthanin). With considerable justification we may assign to this
nuclear element the main activities of heredity and differentiation, because it is the
most constant structure.

Therefore we are to conceive of chromosomes not as separated nuclear masses, but
as bodies in continuous physical connection. And each chromosome is a mass not of
chromatin alone, but of chromatin always combined with linin, whether the chromatin
be condensed as in mitosis, or whether it be finely distributed along delicate linin
fibrils as in the rest stage. These two substances must be considered conjointly in any
concept of the ‘“ hereditable substance,” and not, as so many seem inclined to do, only
the chromatin.

As elements of a second, lower grade we find the chromosomes. And we may
define chromosome as a particular portion of the nuclear element on which the chro-
matin becomes massed during cell division. We can imagine the relation most
simply in this way: there is a continuous linin band, on which chromatin is always
suspended, more or less sparsely and irregularly when the cell is not in division, but
in compact masses during division; each portion of a linin band on which chromatin
is so massed in division is a chromosome. Whether the movement of the chromatin
particles on this band is automatic, or whether it is produced by local contractions of
the linin, we have no means of deciding ; but certainly it is independent of extra-
nuclear energies.

This idea of mine of the chromosomes as mere portions of a continuous nuclear
element by no means implies that the chromosomes are not to be considered indi-
viduals, 7. ¢., structures that reappear in the same form and number in cell generation
after generation. Indeed there is as much evidence that each chromosome is the prod-

uct of a preceding one and not a new formation, as that a cell is always the division

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 149)

product of a preceding cell. And in all my work I have consistently argued for the
chromosomes as persisting structures, in substantiation of the idea of the individuality
of the chromosomes founded by Van Beneden, and supported by a great number of
students.

Now in any consideration of the chromosomes the question presses on one: Are
the several chromosomes of a given nucleus alike in their energies, or are they dif
ferent? Are they actively or potentially equivalent, or are they not? Weismann
and Roux were perhaps the first to take up this question, and Weismann has reasoned
on the basis of his determinant hypothesis, that in any cell where the chromosomes are
neither very sinall nor very numerous, each single chromosome is the bearer of all the
hereditable qualities of a whole individual of the species. Against such a valence of
the chromosome there is much evidence of serious weight, and it has been nowhere
more succinctly summed up than in the recent review by Boveri (1904). To this
matter of the potentiality of the chromosomes we will now turn.

Boveri has argued very strongly (1904) that particular chromosomes have partic-
ular energies, that one chromosome represents certain activities not evinced by another.
His own important empirical contribution (1902) to this idea was the analysis of the
abnormal development of eggs fertilized by one spermatozoén. And he concluded :
“that not a fixed number but a fixed combination of chromosomes is necessary for
normal development, and this means nothing else than that the particular chromo-
somes must possess different qualities.”

Another line of evidence is that afforded by the differences in behavior of the
chromosomes, when the cell is not molested by experiment. Such are the allosomes,
of which we treated in the preceding section. They may behave differently from
the autosomes, as we have seen, either by preserving their density in the rest period of
the spermatogonia and the growth period of the spermatocytes, or by dividing in the
maturation mitoses in a different sequence from the autosomes. Therefore in nuclei
containing allosomes there are at least two kinds of chromosomes: the unmodified
autosomes, and the modified allosomes; and there can be no doubt that these have
different activities.

But we may go further than this. Are we to regard the possession of chromo-
somes of different kinds, particularly the possession of the highly modified allosomes, as
simply a taxonomic peculiarity of certain forms, such as the insects, araneids, chilopods
and Sagitta? I think not, for if there are such great differences in the chromosomes
of these forms, is it not probable that there would be also chromosomal differences
in other forms, even if less readily demonstrable ?

For leaving the allosomes out of consideration comparative studies are proving

150 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

dissimilarities of form and size in the unmodified chromosomes, the autosomes. I
showed (19016) that in a number of species of Hemiptera there are spermatogonic
chromosome pairs marked by peculiarities in size; and that when this is the case there
are corresponding bivalent elements in the first spermatocytes, 7. e., that these size dif-
ferences are constant during succeeding cell generations. I also showed in the same
memoir that chromosomes of like size conjugate in the synapsis stage, and proved that
of the two chromosomes that so conjugate the one is paternal and the other maternal,
consequently that the synapsis is to be interpreted as the last stage in fertilization, the
conjugation of correspondent chromosomes of opposite nativity. In the next year
Sutton (1902) showed that in Brachystola all the autosomes compose pairs. And then
(1904a) I demonstrated that in the spermatogonia of Urodelous Amphibia the twenty-
four autosomes can be without difficulty resolved into twelve pairs, the components of a
pair being distinguishable not only by size relations but also by peculiarities in form ;
and I showed this to be true of Ascaris also, where the ovotid contains one small and
one large chromosome and the spermatozo6n introduces one small and one large one.
Wilson (1905) has recently found this to be the case for a number of Hemiptera, adding
materially to my former observations ; and in the present paper this constancy of pairs
in the spermatogenesis is detailed for a still greater number of species. We can say
that whenever the chromosomes are not too small or too numerous, they can be seen
to present certain size relations that remain constant during succeeding cell genera-
tions, united sometimes with certain form relations as Baumgartner (1904) also has
shown. McClung has likewise found this to hold true for certain of the Orthoptera.
So we are justified in saying that each spermatogonium and oyogonium has ¢
double series of chromosomes, a paternal and a maternal set, which go to make up a
series of pairs, the pairs being of gradated sizes or forms, and each pair composed of a
paternal and maternal element of approximately equal size and form. The two ele-
ments of a pair probably lie close together in the spirem stage of the spermatogonium
as I showed elsewhere (1904a); and even in the equatorial plate they frequently lie
close together. The two elements of such a pair are the ones that conjugate in the
synapsis stage, and that separate from each other in the first maturation division.
Accordingly, even where there are no such great differences present as between
autosomes and allosomes, distinct pairs can frequently be distinguished, and thereby
morphological differences of size and form be made out. It is obvious that chromo-
somes of different sizes cannot have the same physiological value; they must have
activities differing at least in amount. But we may decide that their activities differ
uso in kind, else a particular chromosome would not always conjugate only with its

correspondent in form and size but should be expected to conjugate with any other

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 151

chromosome. ‘That is to say, there is marked affinity or attraction only between the
elements of such a pair, an attraction exhibited by the conjugation process. ‘There is
then something correspondent between the elements of a pair, not shared by them
with the elements of any other pair, and this can be only a functional peculiarity, one
based perhaps upon different metabolic energies. ‘Therefore, as Sutton (1903) has
reasoned, a chromosome must be the seat of particular qualities of the individual, not
the center of the sum total of the individual’s activities. Different chromosomes, that
is to say, must have different physiological energies, and the sum of them, that is the
whole nuclear element, present the energies of the individual.

Thus the experimental studies and the morphological ones are in accord in this
matter, as Boveri (1904) has shown, and more recently Heider (1906). And these
constant size and formal differences enable us to analyze the cell constituents much
more fully than we could do a few years ago.

Another result I would mention here. When I first discovered the constancy of
such chromosome pairs, I concluded that the two components of each pair were exactly
equal in form and volume, and so have the others who followed me. In the pres-
ent paper I have given especial attention to this point, and now find good evidence
that the components of each pair are probably constantly slightly different from each
other involume. This isa difficult point to make sure of because it is hard to estimate
voluminal mass in such small objects where there is much chance of optical illusion.
But in most of those cases of pairs of small diplosomes of approximately equal yolume,
as those of the coreids, I find that they are always slightly different in yolume in the
first maturation mitosis, then always different in this respect in the spermatogonium ;
and here one can be fairly certain of his conclusion, because these bodies are nearly
spherical and so relatively easy to compare. Again, in Corizus alternatus of the five
pairs of autosomes of the spermatogonium, the largest pair (A, a, Fig. 107) is regularly
composed of two relatively enormous elements, one slightly more voluminous and
nearly straight, the other slightly smaller and horse-shoe shaped. And in Harmostes,
where I have studied many spermatogonic divisions, all the autosome pairs are unusu-
ally distinct, and in each the two components appear constantly very slightly different
in volume. ‘This is clearly the case in Ascaris also. Now in this connection let us
recall the discovery of Miss Stevens (1905b) and Wilson (1905a) that when there is a
pair of diplosomes of markedly dissimilar volume, as in Tenebrio or Huschistus, the
smaller must be the paternal element and the larger the maternal. If this is so for
these diplosomes, is it not also probable that in any chromosome pair the slightly
smaller element may be paternal and the larger one maternal? ‘There would certainly
seem to be a probability of this, and if it can be shown to be a constant relation it will

152. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

eive us the means of recognizing, after the determination of the chromosomal pairs, the
maternal and paternal chromosomes of each nucleus, and thereby advance our means
of analysis still another step.

And a word may be added here to those who may be sceptical as to the possi-
bility of distinguishing particular chromosome pairs. Any one who looks over the
plates given in this paper, and notes the chromosome pairs distinguished by corre-
sponding letters, may say that the imagination plays too large a part in such distine-
tions. But he should recall that we can draw no conclusions without the help of the
imagination, and that what we see we must also imagine. But more than this, he
should recall that the printed figure can in no way be as clear as the preparation under
the focussing microscope since it can reproduce only the profile, whereas the eye sees
this and also the depth of the structure. One has only to draw the chromosomes care-
fully with the camera lucida, then search for correspondent ones upon such drawings,
to be convinced of the actual presence of such pairs. And above all, no one has any
right to express doubt of these relations who has not made broad comparative obser-
vations of his own. )

This constant difference of the chromosome pairs, and the probable constant
though much slighter differences of the elements of each pair, which are the expression
of both morphological and physiological distinction, I would denote by the term
“chromosome difference” which expresses the phenomena perhaps a little more pre-

cisely than Boyeri’s term “ nuclear constitution.”

)

3. Tae NuMBER OF CHROMOSOMES AND TAXONOMY.

One incentive to me to make comparative studies of the chromosomes in the
Hemiptera was to determine how far the number of chromosomes is constant in a
particular group of animals; and certain conclusions were presented in two preceding
papers (1901a, 1901b). From the observations on the Hemiptera then made it
appeared that the chromosomal numbers were not constant, so that the determination
of the factors governing the number seemed as unexplained as ever before. And in
now touching on the question again I find that the problems are as difficult of solu-
tion as ever.

Yet it seemed worth while to reéxamine the matter from a taxonomic standpoint,
to test the value of chromosome numbers as eriteria of racial affinity. And since no
one has tabulated the number of chromosomes known in animal species, not since the
brief list of cases summarized by Wilson (1900, pp. 206, 207), I have compiled these
statistics for the germ cells only of the greater number of described species; there are

a number of omissions because some of the literature was inaccessible, but the list is

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 153

very nearly complete. Data on hybrids are omitted; and data from certain older
papers, as that of Carnoy (1885), where no particular pains were given to deter-
mining the numbers accurately, are left out. In the first vertical column of each
table is given the name of the group, subgroup and species; in the second column the
germinal cycle is indicated by the abbreviation “Ov” for ovogenesis, and “ Sp”’ for
spermatogenesis, in the third column are the names of the describers; and in the
remaining columns the headings ‘“‘ Gonium,” “ Cyte I,” ““Cyte II,” and “Tid” stand
respectively for ovogonium (or spermatogonium), first ovocyte (or spermatocyte),
second ovocyte (or spermatocyte), and ovotid (or spermatid). In these tables allosomes
are not distinguished from autosomes since the intention is to present the entire
chromosomal numbers. When a number is given as, e¢. g., “10-11” it means that it
was not determined whether 10 or 11 is present; but when it is stated “10, 11,” it
signifies that either 10 or 11 may be present, which of course would be a cycle com-
plicated by the presence of a monosome. For the Hemiptera when my name is given
as an authority, reference is made to the observations of the present paper.

Group and Species. | Cycle. Authority. Gonium) Cyte I | Cyte EU), snd:
VERTEBRATA.
1. Mammalia.
POSTURE UO Shememeccecievccedecss- css | Sp. Schoenfeld, 1901. 12 |
Lepus cuniculus...............- Oy. | Winiwarter, 1900. ca, 42
WKTGYRA INTE segeee cee ceedepcoccuons Sp. Lenhossek, 1898. 12 | 12 12
Wits TatGlsteccaasercca>escceass snc ‘¢ | Moore, 1894. 16 | 8 8
Cavia Cobaya...............-.00- Soe) Ge alsyofey 32 16 16 16
2. Aves.
Wolumbailiviasl:3:...-<0055-- 65 Ov. | Harper, 1904. | 8 8 8
3. Amphibia. |
Triton alpestris.........
Triton cristatus......... ) ....-- Sp. | Janssens, 1901. 24/ 12 12 12
Triton punctatus ...... a " ; fs
Salamandra maculosa......... ke Meves, 1896; Janssens, 1901. | Fa | 12 12 i
Batrachoseps attenuatus...... ‘© | Bisen, 1900; Janssens, 1903. Ca 12} 12 12
Desmognathus fusca. ......... «| Kingsbury, 1902; Montg. = TZ 12 12
Plethodon cinereus.............) ‘< | Montg., 1904; Janssens, 1903. 24 12 12 12
Diemyctilus torosus............ Oy. Lebrun, 19010. 2 12 12
Amphiuma means. ............ Sp. | McGregor, 1899. | 2 12 12
Bufo lentiginosus...........-... Ov. | King, 1901, 1905. - 12 12 12
Rana temporaria..............- Ih se Lebrun, 1901a. 10 10
4, Pisces. | ec NO 96 26
Myxine glutinosa .............. Sp. Schreiner, 1905. 52 26 26 2
SalmIOWarlO eas. c en sceee~ see e | Ov. Bohm, 1892. 12 12 12
Seyllium canicula...... }
Pristiurus ...........006. | Sp. | Moore, 1895. ie 12| 12 12
MonpedGrss=-e-be=-2---Fs- |
TR Pig sapacoane, Gobour GeteS | ; sitet

P= ekd. Gy - 27) 8, 706.

154. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Group and Species. Cycle. Authority. Gonium | Cyte I Cyte Il} Tid.
TUNICATA.
Styelopsis grossularia.......... | Ov. | Julin, 1893. 4 8 4 2
Styelopsis grossularia.......... Spomaiacs 3 4 4 2 1
Phallusia mammillata......... Oy. | Hill, 1896. 8 8 78
IASGidiat ei eee eae | ** | Boveri, 1890. 9
ARACHNIDA.
Agalena neevia.................. Sp. | L. B. Wallace, 1905. 40 20 |19, 21 |19, 21
Lycosa insopita ................ ue Montgomery, 1905. | 26 13 13
CHILOPODA.
Scolopendra heros ............. 3 Blackman, 1905. | 33 LEV AG AG el,
Scutigera forceps ............... be Medes, 1905. 37 iS) |} ilkeys ah)
INSECTA.
1. Coleoptera.
WD yibiSCUS soe eeace ene ened oe Ov. | Giardina, 1901. ea. 40 10 10
Oryctes nasicornis ............ _ Sp. | Prowazek, 1901. nD 6 16 8
Tenebrio molitor ............... leas Stevens, 1905d. ai 220 10
Ely drophilus\cs-s-s.eseeoessaees eC Vom Rath, 1892. 16 32 16 16
Cybister roeselii. .........2...<5.- 33 Voinoy, 1903. ca, 22 13 12 12
Silpha carinata ...............-. Ke Holmgren, 1902. 32 16 17 17
Agelasticar ant... scsc-.esoeneess Ov. | Henking, 1892. 12
Agelastica alni .................. Sp. “ 6 ca. 24 |16-17| 6-8 |- 6-8
DONACIS <<. 's5 5522 -)onnmscegeeenes Ov. “ “ 15 8
Lampyris splendidula......... ce ce 7 6-8
Crioceris asparagi .............. } 83 “ “
2. Odonata.
ANAX|UNIUS Ree ecee eects Sp. |MeGill, 1904. 28 14 14 | 138, 14
3. Hymenoptera.
APIS EME UGA ereeceeeeees eee Oy. Petrunkewitsch, 1901. | 16 16 | 8
Wsasius miseries aera ce Henking, 1892. | 10 10 |
Rhedites rossey ees eee eee | °8C “ “ ca. 9
4. Isoptera. |
Termopsis angusticollis ...... Sp. | Stevens, 1905. 52 26 26 26
5. Lepidoptera. |
Bombyxemorty. eee eee “f Toyama, 1894. 26-28 | 26-28 28 14
IPaeris PTAssiese osc se eee Ov. | Henking, 1890a. 14 14 14
PieriS|bTassl Cee. ce-ecesn epee tes Sp. ce 1891. 30 | 14-15) 14-15 14-15
Pieris NAPs: ws 5.<c eee cee Oy. ee 1890D. 50 25
6. Orthoptera.
(Gryllide. ) : |.
Gryllus assimilis eR We ae Sp. | Baumgartner, 1904. 29 | 15 | 14, 15)/ 14,15
Gryllus domesticus. ............ us “ “ of) 1 0, Opa
Gryllotalpa vulgaris............ ‘““ | Vom Rath, 1892. |, aae 24) 12] 6
(Mantidee.)
Mantis religiosa .. .............. Sp.Oy. Giardina, 1898. jax4 eae 14 | 7
(Blattide. ) |
Periplaneta americana......... Sp. Moore and Robinson, 1905. ca. 32 16 16s «16
Blattella germanica............ cr Stevens, 1905b. 23 12 }11,12) 11,12
(Locustidee. )
Orcheshicugis.-:--2-soeh easter ve McClung, 1902. ca. 33 LY | T6RLTyaGs Ly
Orphania denticauda........... os de Sinéty, 1901. 1 Sa) py elG albyeG
Stenopelmatus.................. Pees) 24 23 24

‘« | Stevens, 1905d.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Group and Species.

Insecta (continued).
7. Hemiptera (continued).
(Phasmidee. )
Leptynia attenuata ............
(Forficulide. )

Forficula auricularis ...........
Labidura riparia ...............
(Acrididee. )
Brachystola magna.............
Caloptenus femur-rubrum....
Hesperotettix speciosa.........
WVRQUSIANENSD soy cetpay os faa den wiavsisn)n'8 <<

7. Hemiptera.
(Aphididee. )
PN DIS eM ONS a aes «chia ds sgeins cesos
Aphis cnothere. ...............

(Pentatomidee. )

Euschistus tristigmus .........
Euschistus tristigmus .........
Euschistus variolarius. ......
Euschistus variolarius. ......
Euschistus servus. ............|
Euschistus servus. ..... ......
Euschistus ictericus. .........
Euschistus fissilis..............
Euschistus fissilis. .............
Mineus bioculatus. ...........
Podisus spinosus...............

Podisus spinosus................
Mormidea lugens...............
Cosmopepla carnifex. .........
INGZarar nants: Jee. sas... scces:
INGZATaVARIATISNR sc .sseoh sccecoees
IBTOCHYMICN as. ss2. soe cessnssse se
Perillus confluens..............

WORMS OC]INS. 2.65... 820.020 .000s-
(Ciosrnii?sjics (el lhe hyeanas Aenean ae eee
Trichopepla semivittata ......
Trichopepla semivittata ......
Eurygaster alternatus....... .
Peribalus limbolaris............
BAN ABA CALV Bsc. 2ci0c0e--0scae

(Nabide. )
INabis annulatus: ...--. ..---.-

(Coreidee. )

Archimerus calearator. ......
PAT ASMMELDISUIStacte. «-se cere. ceces.
ATILSee UnIBbISc est onccae ccs aves
Anasa armigera. ...............
PATIASURS DS, cossesGns-saeskebeesesss
DATES) Osedbe cnobcen AEA pEBOOECE

| Cycle.

Authority.

de Sinéty, 1901.

ae ae

ce ce

Sutton, 1902.

Wilcox, 1895.

MeClung, 1905.
ce ce

Montgomery, 1905.

-| Stevens, 1905.
“ce ce

Montgomery, Wilson, 1906.
Wilson, 1906.
Montgomery, Wilson, 1906.
Wilson, 1906.

ae ce

Wilson, 1906.
“ee “

oe ee

se 1905a.
ce L906:

Montgomery, Wilson, 1905a,

Wilson, 1906.
Montgomery.
oe

ef Wilson, 1905a.

Wilson, 1906.

Montgomery, Wilson, 1905a.
oe

ie Wilson, 1905a.

Wilson, 1906.
oe 1905a.
Montgomery.
ce

‘c

Wilson, 1905c.
Montgomery.

Wilson, 1905e.

Ut 1905¢e, Montgomery.

1906.
Montgomery.
se

ce

155

Gonium | Cyte I | Cyte | Tid.

|
36 19 |18,19
24 12
6
23 12 |11, 12 |11, 12
12 24 12 6
23 11 |11,12)11,12
23 10 10 | 10, 11
20 Os ee 10
|
alto, 10 10 5
10 5 i) 5
14 8 7 7
14
14 8 7 I
14 8
14 7 7
14 7
14 7
14 8
14 8
ie
16 9 8 8
16 |
14 | 8 7)
16 9 5 5
14 8 | Gi 7
14 |
14 | Sa 7 7
14 8 i iy
14 | 8 | i 7
14
14 8 7 7
16 8 7 7
| 6 6
14 8 7 7
15 |13, 14|18, 14
10 | 10 9
15 8 7,8
21 ty | mic (Oe) fa 0)
22
21 11 11
21 inl |
22 |

156

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS’ OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

I

C
1

Group and Species. Cycle. Authority. Gonium| CyteI | Cytell) Tid.
NsEcTA (continued).
7. Hemiptera (continued).
Harmostes reflexulus ......... Sp. Montgomery, Wilson, 1906. 13 le Ganl
Harmostes reflexulus ......... Oy. | Wilson, 1906. 14
Corizus alternatus.............. Sp. | Montgomery. 13 7 TA BT
Corizuslateralis-cs sacs <n On a 7 al Osea)
Chariesterus antennator...... a % 13 13 |12,13
Protenor belfragei_ ..........-. A = Wilson, 1906. 18 i TNE NT
Protenor belfragei ...........- Oy. | Wilson, 1906. 14
Alydus pilosulus ............... Sp. meer Sea ek Wilson, 1905c. 13 7 To \eGeat
Alydus pilosulus ............... Ov. uson, . 14
igeare parinus rca wonemcttai ase Sp. Montgomery. 13 7 Lol Snet
Metapodius terminalis ....... ue ie 21 11 11 |10, 11
Syromastes marginatus ...... se Gross. 22 iil 11 |10, 11
(Lygeeidee. )
Pyrrhocoris apterus...... ..... a | Henking, coe. 24 ie abe} fatale a
Vv. Oo =O he
Lygzeus turcicus .............- Sp. | Wilson, 1905a. i a © 4 7
Lygeus turcicus ...... ........ Ov. “1906. 14
(Edaneala dorsalis ...........- Sp. | Montgomery. 13 7 i het
Oncopeltus fasciatus ......... ot " 16 9 8 8
Peliopelta abbreviata ........ . 2 14 | 8,9 7 7
Tchnodemus falicus ............ ce hi 16 9 8 8
Cymus angustatus ............ 3 re 14 | ?14
(Tingitide. )
Mingisclavatan 22. .ssqseseee sr Sp. | Montgomery. 7 7 7
(Phymatidee. )
Phy matayeccsresesceceaseeee te oe ot 229
(Reduviidee. )
Acholla multispinosa ......... es oe 32 16 16
Sinea diadema .................. a ue 16
Prionidus cristatus ............ ae 3 26
( Belostomatide. )
ZALbD a een. ener es ecee eee tse as We 24 13 12 12
(Hydrobatidee. )
Ey Cobrechus) 22-0. .2sees2 os es Be 21 ah Tails) Alsat
Limnotrechus marginatus....) ‘‘ “ 11 ee tO Sei
(Capsidee. )
Calocoris rapidus............... uG &e 30 16 | 15,16
Peecilocapsus goniphorus ..... “ cc 18 17 17
Lygus pratensis. ............. Ba ae ?35 19 |17, 18] 17,18
ONYCHOPHORA.
Peripatus balfouri. ............ Mi a 1900. ca. 28 14 14 14
JRUSTACEA.
. Branchiopoda.
Artemia salina..................4| Oy. | Brauer, 1893. 168 $4 | 84 |84, 168
Branch pussies setae ee Sp. | Moore, 1894. 10 10 |ca. 5
Branchipus grubei. ........... Ov. | Brauer, 1892. 12 12 12
2. Copepoda. |
Cyclops brevicornis ............ ‘¢ | Hacker, 1902, 1904. 12 12 6 6
_ Cyclops strenuus.............+. ES Rickert, 1894. 11 ala! 11

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE
Group and Species. Cycle. Authority.
Crustacea (continned).
2. Copepoda (continued).
Heterocope robusta ............ cs ce
Diaptomus gracilis............. te ee u
HDIAPEOMIUG eescp ens jonsc--.-on-= Ov.Sp. Ishikawa, 1891.

3. Isopoda.

Oniscus asellus.................. Sp. | Nichols, 1902.
4. Ostracoda.

Cypris reptans......... ......... Ov. Woltereck, 1890.
5. Decapoda.

PMSUEUCUN 5) /aeisctis's's(oe sis ojeae's onieo0 80 Sp. Prowazek, 1902.
BRACHIOPODA.

Lingula anatina................. Ov. | Yatsu, 1902.
Enpoprocra.

Pedicellina americana......... Ov.Sp. Dublin, 1905.
EcCHINODERMATA.

Strongylocentrotus............. Ov. | Stevens, 1902.

Echinus esculentus............ yee Bryce, 1903.

Echinus microtuberculatus...
MoOxOpPWeUStES....-.0-.-....-.0.n0%

PrRosopyGil. |
IPRASEAOSOMA 6s csc ccs aeeceeasec

ANNELIDA.
Thalassema mellita ............
Myzostoma glabrum............
Allolobophora fceetida.........
Tlyodrilus coccineus............
UH TIGHENMIS= 25.2 -ccgs.-ce ++ coeee
Ophryotrocha puerilis........

MROMOPUCEISs ee.t osc dos -ecss esses
Mo.Luvsca.

1. Gastropoda.
Enteroxenos ostergreni. ...... |
(Prosobranchia. ) |
Crepidula plana .................
Paludina vivipara. ..... .....
Ipterotraches 2f....065.-.66-+.>--
(OPTIT EES: 6 se ece SOUP OBE BB OE ECO
(Pulmonata. )

ISM S OMA a? 5... ce0<-c02065--
Helix pomatia............. .....
Helix pomatia,........5.0.00.+..
Limax maximus. ..... ... ....
Limax cinereo-niger. .........
Limnza elodes...............+

«¢ | Boveri, 1905.

se Wilson, 1900.

| Gerould, 1903.
|

‘¢ | Griffin, 1900.
‘6 } Wheeler, 1897.
| Foot, 1898.
‘© | Vejdovsky and Mrazek, 1903.
“e oe

ub Korschelt, 1895.
Sp Calkins, 1895.
Mead, 1898.

os W. Wallace, 1904.

ay Bonneyie, 1905.

‘| Conklin, 1902.

Sp. | Meves, 1902.
Ov. | Boveri, 1890.
“ ee ee
Sp. | Ancel, 1903.

ue Prowazek, 1901); v. Rath, 1896.
is Lee, 1897.

Ov. Linville, 1900.
Sp Vom Rath, 1892.

Linville, 1900.

HEMIPTERA

Gonium

| 34

14

48
24
24

16

Cyte I

HETEROPTERA.

Cyte I

16

16
16

24

16
16

157

Tid.

158

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Group and Species. Cycle. Authority. Gonium| CyteI | Cyte II) Tid.
Mo.uvusca (continued).
1. Gastropoda (continued).
(Opisthobranchia. )
Aplysia punctata ............-.. ‘¢ | Janssens and Elrington, 1904. 16 16 16
Aplysia depilans .............. ‘« | Bochenek, 1899. 16 |
Haminea solitaria. ..... ...... ‘¢ | Smallwood, 1904. 16 16
Pehyillimhces-eeeeteecsestecer sees ef Boveri, 1890. 16 16 16
Cymbulia peronii............... ut Nekrassoff, 1903. 16 16 16
2. Pelecypoda. |
IMiactralyecccaraccesasceeeeeeones: ef Kostanecki, 1904. 16 16 16
CH&®TOGNATHA.
Sagitta elegans eee. cee I | | s, 1903, 1905e.
Sagitta bipunctata. ...) 7" pO ups) sees) ; us 2 9 9
GorDIACEA. |
Paragordius varius....... ....| Ov. | Montgomery, 19046. 7 7 7
E@UGHUE, soonoseccosoneacosdo-opeccl 9 | Camerano, 1899. ea. 8
ACANTHOCEPHALA. |
Echinorhynchus gigas......... | Sp. | Kaiser, 1893. 4 4 4 5)
NEMATODA. |
Ascaris megalocephala Oy.Sp. Van Beneden, 1883; Hertwig,
bivalens. 1890; Boveri, 1887; Brauer,
| 1898. 4 2 2 2
Ascaris megalocephala uni- ‘* Carnoy, 1886; Brauer, 1893;
valens Boveri, 1887. oD) il 1 1
Ascaris sp. (from Canis)...... Ov. | Lukjanow, 1889. 16 8 4
Ascaris sp. (from Canis)...... Ov. | Carnoy, 1886. 8 4
Ascaris lumbricoides. ......... Ge Boveri, 1887. 24,48
Ascaris clavata................- oS Carnoy, 1887. 24 24 4
Spiroptera strumosa........... oe Carnoy, 1886. 8 4 2
Filaroides mustelarum ...... a ie - 8 4 4
Ophiostomum mucronatum .| “ ae ee 6 6 6
Strongylus tetracanthus ...... “¢ | Meyer, 1895. 6
NEMERTINI. |
Cerebratulus marginatus ..... ‘Coe, 1899; Kostanecki, 1902. 16
Tetrastemma vermiculum ...| ‘‘ | Lebendinsky, 1897. 4 4 5)
TURBELLARIA.
1. Polycladidea.
Prosthiostomum siphunculus) ‘‘ | Francotte, 1898. 8 8 8
Leptoplana tremellaris ...... se ef 1897. 8 8 8
Oligocladus auritus ............ ae tf iy 8 8 8
Cycloporus papillosus ........ We ub es 8 8 8
Prosthecerzeus vittatus ......| ‘ Francotte, 1897; Gérard, 1901;
Klinckowstrom, 1896. 6 6 6
Thysanozo6n brocchi.......... ae Schockaert, 1902; Van der
P | Stricht, 1898. 18 9 9 9
Eustylochus ellipticus ........ ‘© | Van Name, 1899. 10 10 10
Planocera nebulosa............. UL Van Name, 1899. 10 10 10
2. Rhabdoceela. |
Mesostomum ehrenbergi...... | Al Bresslau, 1904. 10 5 5

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 159

Group and Species. Cycle. Authority. Gonium Cyte I |Cyte Il) Tid,

TuRBELLARIA (continued). |
3. Tricladidea.

Planaria simplicissima........ 2 jak Stevens, 1904. 3 3

Planaria simplicissima......... Sp. | of fe 8 4 4

‘*Freshwater forms” ......... Ov. | Mattiesen, 1903. 8 4 4
TREMATODA.

Polystomum integerrimum... ‘* "Goldschmidt, 1902. 8 8

Zoogonus Mirus ,................ cc 1905, 10 10 10 5

Gyrodactylus elegans. ........ e renee 1904, 8 8 4
CNIDARIA. |

13 5 /o be oe onecgeecn seco eon CECC REECE CE Sp. | Downing, 1905. ca. 48 24 24 24

/Equorea forskalea............. | Ov. | Hacker, 1892. 6 6

MAYA eescestat ace sca socssontssecss as Boveri, 1890. 14

Gonothyrea lovenii ............ sc Wulfert, 1902. 8

Clava squamata................. ee Harm, 1902. ca. 16

For purposes of comparison the chromosomal numbers of the spermatogonia (and
ovogonia), or those of the ovotids (and spermatids), are the safest to consider, because
in cells of these generations in almost all cases the chromosomes are univalent, while
different observers have varied greatly in their estimates of the valence of chromosomes
of the ovocytes and spermatocytes. It is probable that the spermatogonic (or oyogonic)
number of chromosomes is always double that of the number in the spermatid (or
ovotid), so that the one can be readily calculated from the other; the only exception
is in cases of spermatogenesis with a monosome, where the spermatid may contain one
more chromosome or one less than half the number in the spermatogonium. And
for purposes of comparison the full (not reduced) number of chromosomes is prefer-
able, because in any species all the spermatogonia have the same number of chromo-
somes, while the spermatids may have different numbers.

Wilson’s discovery that when there is an uneven spermatogonic number of
chromosomes in the spermatogenesis there is an even number in the ovogenesis intro-
duces a complexity in the comparisons. But this is easily obviated ; for so far as
known when the spermatogenesis has an uneven number it contains always one
chromosome less than the ovogenesis, therefore, ¢. g., a spermatogonium having 13
chromosomes we can calculate the ovogonium to have 14. In such cases we will use
for comparison only the number of the ovogenesis, whether directly ascertained or
whether derived by adding one to the spermatogonic number when the latter is an
odd one.

When we look over the statistics presented in these tables we find that the num-
ber of chromosomes of the ovogonium or spermatogonium (translating odd spermato-

160 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

gonic numbers into even ovogonic ones) may be arranged in their order of frequency
as follows :

24 chromosomes is the unreduced number in 30 species, about one-sixth of the
whole list; the numbers 32 and 14 occur each in 24 species; the number 16 in 20
species ; the numbers 12 and 22 each in 9 species; the numbers 18 and 20 each in 7
species ; the numbers 4, 8, 30 each in 6 species; the numbers 28 and 36 each in 5
species; the numbers 10, 34, 48 each in 4 species; the numbers 26, 40, 52 each
in 2 species; and the numbers 2, 38, 42, 46, 50, 60, 64, 116, 168, each in only one
species.

Thus the full number of chromosomes is below 34 in the greater number of species
so far studied.

Certain of these animals show the rare peculiarity of having two normal numbers,
one twice that of the other; thus Ascaris megalocephala has either 2 or 4, Ascaris lwm-
bricoides, 24 or 48, Helix pomatia, 24 or 48, and Echinus microtuberclatus, either 18 or
36. In each of these species we might distinguish then a variety “ univalens”’ from one
“bivalens,”’ as O. Hertwig (1890) has done for Ascaris megalocephala. In the last
form Meyer (1895) was able to distinguish no anatomical differences between the two
varieties, and Herla (1898) has proven that there is frequently crossing between them.
But such hybrids contain three chromosomes, not twice the lower normal number.
And evidently variation in the normal number, such as that of the four species men-
tioned, cannot have originated by polyspermy, for three spermatozoa would have to
fertilize an ovum to produce double the usual normal number of chromosomes ; and
Boveri (1902) has shown that such polyspermy results in abnormal development.

Further, two cases are known where the spermatid has a different number of
chromosomes from that of the ovotid, Planaria and Styelopsis, these being cases not due
to the presence of a monosome in the spermatogenesis.

Finally, let us examine the constancy of the chromosomal numbers within certain
circumscribed groups of animals. In some a certain constancy is to be found: the
normal number is 24 in all the urodelous Amphibia; McClung (1905) states there are
always 23 in the spermatogenesis of the Acrididee among the Orthoptera (but Syrbula
and Caloptenus are exceptions to this) ; among the Pentatomide (Hemiptera) either 14
or 16 is the number (17 species examined), but Banasa has probably about 28; in the
Coreidee the numbers are 22 or 14 (one with 16); in all the opisthobranch molluscs
examined it is 32; and in the Turbellaria, 12, 16 (most usual), 18 or 20. In most of
the other groups of equivalent scope the variation in number is so great that there
seems to be no constancy ; thus in the hemipteran family Lygiide there may be 24,
14,16 or 28. And in the spermatogenesis of two closely related species of Gryllus
Baumgartner (1904) finds the numbers to be 21 and 29.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 161

We can decide this much about numerical relations of the chromosomes, that cor-
respondence in number by no means implies community of race ; one has simply to
list the different animals with the number 24 to be sure of this. On the other hand
there is often constancy through smaller groups such as genera or species. The ques-
tion is then: when we find a genus like Ascaris, with chromosomal number ranging
from 2 to 48, are we to judge from this variation that chromosomal number has no
taxonomic significance, or are we to decide that the forms combined in the genus
Ascaris are really not generically related ?

This is an exceedingly difficult question to decide. If our present relegation of
the species of Ascaris be justified, then clearly chromosomal numbers have not even
generic worth. Butour whole classification of somatic individuals is at present merely
tentative, and the grouping of the various species of the Nematodes in particular
seems to be very artificial. There is uncertainty at both ends of the argument. We
must commence with the premise, that seems to me fully justified, that the species is
one and the same from the egg up to the adult condition. Therefore it is per-
missible to classify germ cells as well as adults, and, e. g., to compare chromosomal
relations through a series of germ cells as we would conditions of the nervous system
through a series of somatic individuals. ‘The chromosomes as portions of the very
conservative nuclear element should surely offer as good a basis for genetic compari-
sons as any set of somatic structures. That is to say, an entirely rational phylogeny
of organisms might be founded in part upon relations of the germ cells; therefore
nuclear constituents be used as characters quite as much as any other sets of structures.
The only reason to prefer comparisons of adult individuals is because they exhibit
differentiation more than germ cells do, and not because they are really more differ-
entiated. ;

Therefore when germ cells show differences in chromosomal numbers, these can
signify only differences of the individuals that contain them. And while numerical
differences are among the least important of the anatomical characters, yet when they

are differences of so important an organ as the nuclear element they should be granted
"some degree of importance in a rational taxonomy. Consequently, it would be
incorrect to place different species, some with 4 and others with 48 chromosomes, in
the same genus, for such differences of the chromosomal number must constitute at
least genetic and much more than specific difference. Were this not so, we could not
explain why in so many cases there is constancy of chromosomal number in groups
much higher than genera. Therefore chromosomal number is a character that should
be considered in taxonomy.

At the same time number is only one of the properties of chromosomes, they have
A. P.S—XXI1,_ R. 27, 8, 706.

162 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

also other characters of form, arrangement, and process change, some of which will
undoubtedly be found to be of greater value than number in the analysis of descent.
McClung (1905) was the first to draw attention to arrangement of the chromosomes as
a high taxonomic character, thus seconding my idea (1901a, b) that there should be
a comparative phylogenetic study of the germ cells as a check and supplement to the
analysis of the phylogeny based upon somatic structures. The foundation of a rational
phylogenetic system upon cellular differences is as yet little more than suggested,
because the comparative basis is so small and the phenomena so complex. Yet I
believe it should be attempted, and that it will be found to be entirely possible.

Perhaps the best way of attacking the problem of the influences determining
chromosomal number, is by the analysis of the phenomena in those species where
there are two normal numbers.

In conclusion the position of the chromosomes in the equatorial plates of the
maturation mitoses of the Hemiptera may be summarized.

Those diplosomes that divide equationally in the first mitosis and reductionally
in the second are not central in the first spindle (except in Oncopeltus), but are central
in the second spindle.

Those diplosomes that divide first reductionally and second equationally are
always central in the first maturation spindle (except in the Reduviide), and more or
less excentric in the second spindle (but central in the Reduviide).

It is therefore the rule that the positions of the diplosomes are reversed in the two
maturation spindles; and that they are in the center of the chromosomal plate when
they are bivalent (except in the Reduviidee). Consequently the position of the diplo-
somes is rather a criterion of their valence than a character of any taxonomic
importance.

There is a tendency in most of the Hemiptera, when the autosomes are not very
numerous, for those of the first maturation spindle to be disposed in a circle around a
central one, while there is generally less regularity in the second maturation spindle.
Such positions would seem to be dependent upon the interaction of the number of
chromosomes and the mechanics of the cell division, and therefore to be of no particu-

lar taxonomic importance.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 163

LITERATURE LIST.

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1905. Idem., 3. The spermatogenesis of Scolopendra heros. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 48.

BocHENEK, A., 1889, Die Reifung und Befruchtung des Kies von Aplysia depilans. Bull. Acad. Cracovie.

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1890. Zellen-Studien. 3. Ueber das Verhalten der chromatischen Kernsubstanz bei der Bildung der Richtungs-
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1902. Ueber mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns. Verh. phys.-med. Ges. Wiirzburg, N.
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1904. Ergebnisse tiber die Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns. Jena.

1905. Zellen-Studien. 5. Ueber die Abhiingigkeit der Kerngrésse und Zellenzahl der Seeigel-Larven von der
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BRAM, F., 1897. Die geschlechtliche Entwickelung von Plumatella fungosa. Zoologica, Stuttgart, 23.

BRAUER, A., 1892. Das Ei von Branchipus Grubii von der Bildung bis zur Ablage. Abh. preuss. Akad. Wiss.

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1893b. Zur Kenntniss der Spermatogenese von Ascaris megalocephala. Ibid., 42.

BRESSLAU, E., 1904. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Turbellarien. 1. Die Entwickelung der Rhabdo-
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Bryce, T. H., 1903. Maturation of the ovum in Echinus esculentus. Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. (N.S.), 46.

CALKINS, G. N., 1895. Thespermatogenesis of Lumbricus. Journ. Morph., 11.

CaRnoy, J. B., 1885. La cytodiérése chez les Arthropodes. La Cellule, I.

1886. La cytodiérése de Voeuf. Ibid., 2, 3. :

1887. Les globules polaires de 1’ Ascaris clavata. Ibid., 3.

Cor, W. R., 1899. The maturation and fertilization of the egg of Cerebratulus. Zool. Jahrb., 12.

ConkKLIN, E. G., 1902. Karyokinesis and cytokinesis in the maturation, fertilization and cleavage of Crepidula
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Downina, E. R., 1905. The spermatogenesis of Hydra. Zool. Jahrb., 21.

Dustin, L. I., 1905. The history of the germ cells in Pedicellina americana. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 16.

EBNER, V. V., 1900. Ueber die Theilung der Spermatocyten bei den Saiigethieren. Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 108.

EISEN, G., 1900. Spermatogenesis of Batrachoseps. Journ. Morph., 17. ‘

FARMER, J. B., AND Moork, J. E. S., 1905. On the maiotic pase (reduction divisions) in animals and plants.
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Foot, K., 1898. The cocoons and eggs of Allolobophora foetida. Journ. Morph., 14.

FRANcorrTE, P., 1897. Recherches sur la maturation, la fécondation et la segmentation chez les Polyclades. Mém.
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1898. Idem.— Arch zool. expér. génér.

GERARD, O., 1901. L’ovocyte de premier ordre du Prosthecerieus vittatus avec quelques observations relatives Ala

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164. CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

GEROULD, J. H., 1903. The development of Phascolosoma. Arch. zool. expér. génér. (4), 2.
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1905. Eireifung, Befruchtung und Embryonalentwicklung des Zoogonus mirus Lss. Zool. Jahrb., 21.
GREGOIRE, V., 1905. Les résultats acquis sur les cinéses de maturation dans les deux régnes. I. La Cellule, 22.
GRIFFIN, L. E., 1900. Studies on the maturation, fertilization, and cleavage of Thalassema and Zirphaea. Journ.
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Gross, J., 1904. Die Spermatogenese von Syromastes marginatus L. Zool. Jahrb., 20.
GUYER, M. F., 1900. Spermatogenesis of normal and of hybrid pigeons. Chicago.
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1892. Untersuchungen iiber die ersten Entwicklungsvorgiinge in den Eiern der Insekten. 3. Specielles und All-
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ISHIKAWA, 1891. Spermatogenesis, ovogenesis and fertilization in Diaptomus sp. Journ. Coll. Sci. Imper. Univ.
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chez Batrachoseps attenuatus et Pletodon cinereus. Ibid., 20.
JANSSENS, F. A., AND ELRINGTON, G. A., 1904. L’élement nucléinien pendant les divisions de maturation dans
Voeuf de l’Aplysia punctata. Ibid., 21.
JULIN, C., 1893. Structure et développement des glandes sexuelles ; ovogénése, spermatogénése et fécondation
chez Styelopsis grossularia. Bull. Sci. France et Belgique, 25.
Kaiser, J. E., 1893. Die Acanthocephalen und ihre Entwickelung. Bibliotheca zoologica, 7.
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Kina, H. D., 1901. The maturation and fertilization of the egg of Bufo lentiginosus. Journ. Morph., 17.
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Kinospury, B. F., 1902. The spermatogenesis of Desmognathus fusca. Amer. Journ. Anat., 1.
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KorscHect, E., 1895. Ueber Kerntheilung, Eireifung und Befruchtung. bei Ophryotrocha puerilis. Zeit. wiss.
Zool., 60.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 165

KosTANECKI, A., 1902. Ueber de Reifung und Befruchtung des Eies von Cerebratulus marginatus. Bull. Acad,
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1904. Cytologische Studien an kiinstlich parthenogenetisch sich entwickelnden Eiern yon Mactra. Arch. wikr.
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LEBENDINSKY, J., 1897. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Nemertinen. Biol. Centralbl., 17.

LEBRUN, H., 190la. La vésicule germinative et les globules polaires chez les Anoures. La Cellule, 19

1901b. Les cinéses sexuelles chez Diemyctilus torosus. Ibid., 20.

LECAILLON, A., 1901. Recherches sur l’ovaire des Collemboles. Arch. Anat. Mier. Paris, 4.

Leg, A. B.; 1897. Les cinéses spermatogénetiques. La Cellule, 13.

LENHOSSEK, M. v., 1898. Untersuchungen iiber Spermatogenese. Arch. mikr. Anat., 51.

LINVILLE, H. R., 1900. Maturation and fertilization in Pulmonate Gasteropods. Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard.

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mikr. Anat., 34.

McCuiuna, C. E., 1902. The spermatocyte divisions of the Locustidz. Kansas Uniy. Sci. Bull., 1.

1905. The Chromosome complex of Orthopteran spermatocytes Biol. Bull., 9.

McGiIxt, C., 1904. The Spermatogenesis of Anax junius. Univ. Missouri Studies, 2.

McGreoor, J. H., 1899. The Spermatogenesis of Amphiuma. Journ. Morph.

MATTIESEN, E., 1903. Die Eireifung und Befruchtung der Siisswasserdendrocoelen. Zool. Anz., 27.

MEAD, A. D., 1898. The origin and behavior of the centrosomes in the Annelid egg. Journ. Morph., 14.

MEDEs, G., 1905. The Spermatogenesis of Scutigera forceps. Biol. Bull., 9. E
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mikr. Anat., 48. P

1902. Ueber oligopyrene und apyrene Spermien und tiber ihre Entstehung, nach Beobachtungen an Paludina und
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MEYER, O., 1895. Cellulaire Untersuchungen an Nematoden-Eiern. Jena. Zeitsch. Naturw., 29.

MoENKHAUs, W. J., 1904. The development of the hybrids between Fundulus heteroclitus and Menidia notata.
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Monteomery, T. H., JR., 1898. The spermatogenesis in Pentatoma up to the formation of the spermatid. Zool.
Jahrb., 12

1900. The spermatogenesis of Peripatus (Peripatopsis) balfouri up to the formation of the spermatid. Ibid., 14.

1901a. Further studies on the chromosomes of the Hemiptera heteroptera. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia.

19016. A study of the chromosomes of the germ cells of Metazoa. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 20.

1904a. Some observations and considerations upon the maturation phenomena of the germ cells. Biol. Bull., 6.

1904). The development and structure of the larva of Paragordius. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia.

1905. The spermatogenesis of Syrbula and Lycosa, with general considerations upon chromosome reduction and
the heterochromosomes. Ibid. 5

1906. The terminology of aberrant chromosomes and their behavior in certain Hemiptera. Science (N.S.), 23.

Moore, J. E.S., 1894. Some points in the spermatogenesis of Mammals. Internat. Monatschr. Anat. Phys., 11.

18945. Some points in the origin of the reproductive elements in Apus and Branchipus. Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci.
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1895. On the structural changes in the reproductive cells during the spermatogenesis of Elasmobranchs. Ibid., 38.

Moorg, J. E. S.,“AND Roprnson, L. E., 1905. On the behavior of the nucleolus in the spermatogenesis of Peri-
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Moorg, J. E. S. AND WALKER, C. E., 1906. The maiotic process in Mammalia. University Press of Liverpool.

Name, W. G. VAN, 1899. The maturation, fertilization and early development of the Planarians. Trans. Conn.
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NEKRASSOFF, A., 1903. Untersuchungen iiber die Reifung und Befruchtung des Kies von Cymbulia peronii.
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Nicuo.s, M. L., 1902. The spermatogenesis of Oniscus asellus Linn. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe., 41.

166 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

PETRUNKEWITSCH, A., 1901. Die Richtungskérper und ihr Shicksal im befruchteten und unbefruchteten
Bienenei. Zool. Jahrb., 14.

PROWAZEK, S., 1901a. Spermatogenese des Nashornkiifers (Oryctes nasicornis L.). Arbeit. zool. Inst. Wien., 13.

1901. Spermatogenese der Weinbergschnecke (Helix pomatia L.). Ibid.

1902. Ein Beitrag zur Krebsspermatogenese. Zeit. wiss. Zool., 71.

RATH, O. vom, 1892. Zur Kenntniss der Spermatogenese von Gryllotalpa vulgaris. Arch, mikr, Anat., 40.

1896. Neue Beitriige zur Frage der Chromatinreduction in der Samen- und Eireife. Tbid., 46.

RickKeERT, J., 1894. Zur Hireifung bei Copepoden. Anat. Hefte.

ScnocK AERT, R., 1902. L’ovogénése chez le Thysanozoon brocchi. La Cellule, 20.

SCHOENFELD, H., 1901. La spermatogénése chez le taureau et chez les mammiféres en général. Arch. de Biol., 18.

ScCHREINER, A., AND K. E., 1905. Ueber die Entwickelung der miinnlichen Geschlechtszellen von Myxine glutinosa
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Srnery, R. DE, 1901. Recherches sur la biologie et l’anatomie des Phasmes. La Cellule.

SMALLWoop, W. M., 1904. The maturation, fertilization and early cleavage of Haminea solitaria (Say). Bull.
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Stevens, N. M., 1902. Experimental studies on eggs of Echinus microtuberculatus. Arch. Entwicklungsmech., 15.

1903. On the ovogenesis and spermatogenesis of Sagitta bipunctata. Zool. Jahrb., 18.

1904. On the germ cells and the embryology of Planaria simplicissima. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia.

1905a. <A study of the germ cells of Aphis rose and Aphis cenothere. Journ. Exper. Zool., 2.

1905). Studies in spermatogenesis with especial reference to the ‘‘accessory chromosome.’’ Carnegie Institute Publ.

1905c. Further studies on the ovogenesis of Sagitta. Zool. Jahrb., 21.

Srricut, 0. VAN DER, 1898. La formation des deux globules polaires et 1’ apparition des spermocentres dans l’oeuf
de Thysanozoon Brocchi. Arch. de Biol., 15.

Surron, W. S8., 1902. On the morphology of the chromosome group in Brachystola magna. Biol. Bull., 4.

1903. The chromosomes in heredity. Ibid.

Toyama, K., 1894. On the spermatogenesis of the Silk Worm. Bull. Coll. Agric. Imper. Univ. Japan, 2.

VEJDOVSKY, F., UND MRAZEK, A., 1903. Umbildung des Cytoplasma wiihrend der Befruchtung und Zellteilung.
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Vornoy, D., 1903. La spermatogénése d’été chez le Cybister Roeselii. Arch. zool. expér. génér. (4), 1.

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WALLACE, L. B., 1905. The spermatogenesis of the Spider. Biol. Bull., 8.

WALLACE, W., 1904. The oocyte of Tomopteris. Report 73 Meet. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.

WHEELER. W. M., 1897. The maturation, fecundation and early cleavage of Myzostoma glabrum Leuckart. Arch.
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WItLcox, E. V., 1895. Spermatogenesis of Caloptenus femur-rubrum and Cicada tibicen. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
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WILson, E. B., 1900. The cell in development and inheritance. 2d ed. New York.

1905a. Studies on Chromosomes. 1. The Behavior of the idiochromosomes in Hemiptera. Journ. Exper. Zool., 2.

1905). The chromosomes in relation to the determination of sex in Insects. Science (N. S.), 22.

1905e. Studies on chromosomes. 2. The paired microchromosomes, idiochromosomes and heterotropic chromo-
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1906. Idem. 3. The sexual differences of the chromosome-groups in Hemiptera, with some considerations of the
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WINIWARTER, H. v., 1900. Recherches sur Vovogénése et l’organogénése de l’ovaire des Mamiféres (Lapin et
Homme). Arch. de Biol., 17.

WOLTERECK, R., 1898. Zur Bildung und Entwickelung des Ostracoden-Eies. Zeit. Wiss. Zool., 64.

WULFERT, J., 1902. Die Embryonalentwickelung von Gonothyrea lovenii Allm. Ibid., 71.

Yatsu, N., 1902. On the development of Lingula anatina. Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan, 17.

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, March 26, 1906.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 167

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

All the figures have been drawn by the author with the camera lucida at the level of the base of the microscope,
and the reproductions are the size of the originals. Figs. 1-68, 94-106 and 126-133 are drawn at a magnification of about
2,080 diameters, all the others at a magnification of about 2,480 diameters. Lateral views of the first maturation spindles
are placed the length of the plate, of the second maturation spindle the width of the plate, which enables one to distin -
guish them ata glance. The following abbreviations have been employed :

Di, diplosome.

Mo, monosome.

Pl, plasmosome (true nucleolus).

The diplosomes are paired elements, and when their separate components can be distinguished, they are lettered Di
and di respectively ; in case there is more than one pair of them to a cell a number is placed after letters, viz., Di. 1, di. 1
would be one pair and Di. 2, di. 2 a second pair ; the capital letter is used for the small component of a pair and the small
letter for the larger one in those cases where they differ in size. If there is a single monosome present it is lettered
simply Do, but if two they are lettered Mo. 1 and Mo. 2. Single letters denote autosomes, a capital and a lower case
letter of the same kind (as A and a) marking the components of a pair ; if the capital and the small letter are separated
by a comma, as ‘‘ A, a,” a pair of correspondent ones is denoted ; but if a capital is followed by a small letter enclosed in
parentheses, as ‘‘ A (a),’’ it is indicated that but one of the elements is present, i. e., either A or a.

Some of the figures are redrawings of cells previously figured by me, and in such cases this is noted by the date of
the paper where the particular cell was first illustrated followed by the number of the original figure, all this being
enclosed in parentheses, as ‘‘(v. 1901), Fig. 2).’

PLATE IX.

Figs. 1-14, Euschistus variolarius.
Figs. 1-4, spermatogonic monasters (with Fig. 1, v 1901), Fig. 2).
Fig. 5, nucleus in synapsis stage.
Figs. 6-9, successive prophases of the maturation mitosis, the last two showing all the chromosomes.
Fig. 10, first maturation monaster.
Figs. 11, 12, second maturation monasters.
Figs. 13, 14, chromosomes of two spermatids.

Figs. 15-22, Euschistus tristigmus.
Fig. 15, spermatogonic monaster.
Fig. 16, nucleus of synapsis stage.
Fig. 17, pole view of first maturation spindle.
Fig. 18, lateral view of the same.
Fig. 19, pole view of a plate of daughter elements before their arrangement in the spindle.
Fig. 20, second maturation spindle.
Figs. 21, 22, chromosomes of two spermatids.

Figs. 23-27, Podisus spinosus.

Fig. 23, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901b, Fig. 27).
Fig. 24, nucleus of late synapsis stage.

Fig. 25, oblique lateral view of first maturation spindle.
Fig. 26, pole view, second maturation spindle.

Fig. 27, lateral view of the same stage.

168 CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Figs. 28-30, Mormidea lugens.
Fig. 28, spermatogonic monaster (v. 19010, Fig. 31) ; the autosomes Cand c are seen from their ends, and it could
not be decided whether ZF, e is one or two elements.
Fig. 29, pole view of first maturation spindle.
Fig. 30, pole view of second maturation spindle.

Figs. 31-37, Cosmopepla carnifex.
Fig. 31, spermatogonic monaster.
Fig. 32, late prophase of first maturation division.
Fig. 33, pole view, first maturation spindle (v. 19010, Fig. 41).
Fig. 34, lateral view, first maturation spindle (v 1901, Fig. 40).
Figs. 35, 36, pole views, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 37, chromosomes of a spermatid.

Figs. 38, 39, Nezara hilaris.

Fig. 38, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901b, Fig. 44).
Fig. 39, nucleus of postsy napsis stage.

Figs. 40-45, Brochymena sp.
Figs. 40, 41, spermatogonie monasters (with 41 v. 1901b, Fig. 47).
Fig. 42, oblique lateral view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 43, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 44, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 45, pole view of the same stage.

Figs. 46-52, Perillus confluens.

Fig. 46, spermatogonic monaster.
Fig. 47, plasmosome and diplosomes of the early prophase of the first maturation division.
Fig. 48, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 49, pole view of a daughter plate of the first maturation mitosis.
Fig. 50, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 51, lateral view of the same stage (one of the elements not shown).
Fig. 52, chromosomes of a spermatid.

Figs. 53-58, Canus delius.
Figs. 53, 54, spermatogonie monasters.
Fig. 55, daughter plate of spermatogonic division.
Fig. 56, daughter plate, first maturation division.
Fig. 57, pole view, second maturation spindle.

Fig. 58, lateral view of the same stage.

Figs. 59-65, Trichopepla semiviltata.
Fig. 59, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901), Fig. 65).
Figs. 60, 61, spermatocytie nuclei, late growth period.
Fig. 62, spermotocytie nucleus, rest stage.
Fig. 63, idem, early prophase of first maturation division.
Figs. 64, 65, first maturation spindles.

PLATE X.

Figs. 66-68, Trichopepla semivittata.
Fig. 66, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 67, pole view of the same stage.

Fig. 68, chromosomes of a spermatid.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA

Figs. 69-73, Eurygaster alternatus.
Fig. 69, spermatocyte nucleus, late postsynapsis.

Fig. 70, first maturation spindle, the chromosomes not in definite arrangement.

Fig. 71, pole view of the same stage.
Fig. 72, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 73, idem, lateral view.

Figs. 74-80, Peribalus limbolaris.
Fig. 74, spermatogonic monaster.
Fig. 75, spermatocyte nucleus, near end of growth period.
Fig. 76, pole view, first maturation spindle (v. 1901), Fig. 37).
Fig. 77, obliqué lateral view of the same stage.
Fig. 78, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 79, daughter plate, first maturation division.
Fig. 80, oblique lateral view, second maturation spindle.

Figs. 81-93, Nabis annulatus.
Figs. 81-85, successive prophases, first maturation division.
Fig. 86, pole view, first maturation spindle (v. 1901la, Fig. 14).
Figs. 87, 88, lateral views, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 89, pole view of early daughter plate of preceding division.
Figs. 90, 91, second maturation spindles.
Figs. 92, 93, chromosome plates of spermatids.

Figs. 94-106, Harmostes reflevulus.
Figs. 94, 95, spermatogonic monasters.
Fig. 96, spermatocyte nucleus, synapsis.
Fig. 97, idem, postsynapsis.
Fig. 98, idem, later postsynapsis.
Fig. 99, idem, rest stage.
Figs. 100, 101, idem, early prophases of first maturation division.
Figs. 102, 103, first maturation spindles (v. 1901), Figs. 113, 116).
Fig. 104, second maturation spindle.
Figs. 105, 106, chromosome plates of spermatids.

Figs. 107-116, Corizus alternatus.

Fig. 107, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1091a, Fig. 18).

Fig. 108, spermatocyte nucleus, late synapsis.

Figs. 109, 110, idem, postsynapsis.

Fig. 111, idem, rest stage.

Figs. 112, 113, the autosome A, a, prophase of first maturation division.

Figs. 114-116, successive prophases, first maturation division.

PLATE XI.

Figs. 117-122, Corizus alternatus.
Fig. 117, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 118, lateral view of the same stage.
Fig. 119, daughter chromosomal plate of preceding stage.
Fig. 120, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Figs. 121, 122, second maturation spindles.
A. P.S:.—XXI. S. 27, 8, ’06.

HETEROPTERA,.

L69

170

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Figs. 123-125, Corizus lateralis. "
Fig. 123, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 124, second maturation spindle.

=
r)

ig. 125, late anaphase of second maturation.
Figs. 126-133, Chariesterus antennator.
Fig. 126, spermatocyte nucleus, postsynapsis.
Figs. 127, 128, pole views, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 129, lateral view of the same stage.
Fig. 130, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Figs. 131, 132, corresponding daughter plates of second maturation division.
Fig. 133, anaphase, second maturation division.

Figs. 134, 135, Protenor belfragei.
Fig. 134, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901b, Fig. 119).
Fig. 135, spermatocyte nucleus, late growth period.

Figs. 136-143, Alydus pilosulus.

Fig. 136, spermatogonic monaster.
Fig. 137, spermatocyte nucleus, early synapsis.
Fig. 138, idem, late synapsis.
Fig. 139, late prophase of first maturation division.
Fig. 140, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 141-143, successive second maturation spindles.

Figs. 144-150, Alydus curinus.
Fig. 144, spermatogonic monaster (vy. 1901b, Fig. 96). .
Fig. 145, spermatocyte nucleus, late synapsis.
Fig. 146, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 147, lateral view of first maturation spindle.
Wig. 148, daughter plate, early anaphase, first maturation division.
Fig. 149, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 150, lateral view, second maturation spindle.

Figs. 151-161, Anasa tristis.
Fig. 151, spermatogonic monaster.
Figs. 152, 153, spermatocyte nuclei, synapsis stage.
Figs. 154, 155, idem, later growth period.
Fig. 156, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 157, 158, first maturation spindles.
Fig. 159, pole view, second maturation spindle.

Figs. 160, 161, second maturation spindles.

Figs. 162-166, Anasa sp.
Figs. 162, 163, ovogonic monasters.
Fig. 164, spermatogonie monaster.

Figs. 165, 166, pole and lateral views, first maturation spindle.

Figs. 167, 168, Anasa armigera.
Fig. 167, spermatogonic monaster.

Fig. 168, first maturation spindle.

Figs. 169, 170, Metapodius terminalis.

Figs. 169, 170, spermatogonic monasters (with 169 v. 1901d, Pig. 85).

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA. 171

PLATE XII.
Figs. 171-182, Melapodius terminalis.
Fig. 171, spermatocyte nucleus, synapsis.
Fig. 172, idem, postsynapsis.
Fig. 173, idem, rest stage.

Fig. 174, late prophase of first maturation division.
)
Figs. 176, 177, pole views of the same spindle.

g. 175, first maturation spindle.

Fig. 178, anaphase of the first maturation division.

Fig. 179, daughter plate, early anaphase, first maturation division.
Fig. 180, pole view, second maturation division.

Figs. 181, 182, second maturation spindles.

f Figs. 183-195, Gidancala dorsalis.
Fig. 183, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901), Fig. 154).

Fig. 184, spermatocyte nucleus just before rest period

Fig. 185, idem, rest stage.

Figs. 186-188, successive prophases of first maturation division.

Fig. 189, pole view, first maturation spindle.

Figs. 190, 191, first maturation spindles (with 191 v. Fig. 158, 1901).
Fig. 192, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 193, second maturation spindle (v. 19014, Fig. 157).

Fig. 194, second maturation anaphase.

Fig. 195, pole view of chromosomes of a spermatid.

Figs. 196-199, Oncopellus fasciatus.

Fig. 196, daughter plate, early anaphase of first maturation division (v. 1901), Fig. 171).
Figs. 197, 198, pole and lateral view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 199, chromosome plate of a spermatid.

Figs. 200-210, Peliopelta abbreviata.
Fig. 200, spermatogonie monaster.
Fig. 201, idem (v. 1901), Fig. 149).
Fig. 202, spermatocyte nucleus, synapsis.
Fig. 203, idem, postsynapsis.
Figs. 204, 205, late prophases, first maturation division.
Fig. 206, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 207, oblique lateral view of chromosomes of the same division.
Fig. 208, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 209, pole view, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 210, second maturation spindle.

Figs. 211-225, Ichnodemus falicus.
Fig. 211, spermatogonie monaster (v. 1901b, Fig. 145).
Figs. 212, 213, spermatocyte nuclei, postsynapsis.
Fig. 214, idem, end of growth period.
Figs. 215-219, successive prophases, first maturation division.
Fig. 220, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 221, 222, pole views of first maturation spindles (v. 19010, Figs. 147, 148).
Fig. 223, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 224, pole view, second maturation spindle.

Fig. 225, chromosomes of a spermatid.

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

Figs. 226-228, Cymus angustatus.
Fig 226, pole view, second maturation spindle (v. 19010, Fig. 144).
Figs. 227, 228, second maturation spindles.

PLATE XIII.
Figs. 229-236, Tingis clavata.
Fig. 229, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 230, oblique lateral view of the same stage.
Fig. 231, pole view, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 232-234, pole views, second maturation spindles.

Figs. 235, 236, chromosome plates of spermatids.

Fig. 237, Phymata sp.
Fig. 237, spermatogonic monaster (vy. 1901D, Fig. 200).

Figs. 238-244, Acholla multispinosa.
Fig. 238, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901), Fig. 207).
Fig. 239, spermatocyte nucleus, rest stage.
Fig. 240, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 241, 242, pole views, first maturation spindle.

Figs. 243, 244, pole views, second maturation spindles (with 243 v. 1901), Fig. 211).

Figs. 245-250, Sinea diadema.
Fig. 245, spermatocyte nucleus, rest stage.

Fig. 246, pole view, first maturation spindle.

Fig. 247, oblique lateral view of chromosomes, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 248-250, first maturation spindles (v. 1901, Figs. 217, 218).

Figs. 251, 252, Prionidus cristatus.
Fig. 251, spermatogonic monaster (v. 1901), Fig. 224).
Fig. 252, spermatocyte nucleus, rest stage.

Figs. 253-258, Zaitha sp.
Fig. 253, spermatogonic monaster. .
Fig. 254, spermatocyte, rest stage.
Fig. 255, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 256, pole view, first maturation spindle.

Figs. 257, 258, lateral and pole views, second maturation spindle.

Figs. 259-268, Hygoetrechus sp.
Fig. 259, spermatogonic monaster (v. 19016, Fig. 229).
Fig. 260, spermatocyte nucleus, rest stage.
Fig. 261, late prophase, first maturation division,
Figs. 262-264, lateral and pole views, first maturation spindle (with 264 v. 1901), Fig. 231).
Figs. 265-267, lateral and pole views, second maturation spindle.
Fig. 268, chromosome plate of a spermatid.

Figs. 269-274, Limnotrechus marginatus.
Fig. 269, spermatocyte, nucleus, rest stage.
Fig. 270, monosome and plasmosome, early prophase of first maturation division.
Figs. 271, 272, pole and lateral view, first maturation spindle (vy. 1901, Pig. 233).

Figs. 273, 274, lateral and pole view, second maturation spindle.

—_———————

CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA METEROPTERA.

Figs. 275-287, Calocoris rapidus.
Fig. 275, spermatogonie monaster (v. 1901), Fig. 177).
Fig. 276, spermatocyte nucleus, synapsis.
Fig. 277, idem, end of growth period.
Fig. 278, late prophase, first maturation division.
Figs. 279, 280, pole views, first maturation spindle (with 279 v. 19014, Fig. 185).
Figs. 281-283, first maturation spindles (with 281 vy. 1901b, Fig. 182).
Fig. 284, second maturation spindle.
Figs. 285, 286, pole views of second maturation spindles.
Fig. 287, second maturation anaphase.

Figs. 288-294, Pacilocapsus goniphorus.
Fig. 288, spermatocyte nucleus, rest stage.
Fig. 289, pole view, first maturation spindle (v. 1901), Pig. 196).
Fig. 290, first maturation spindle.
Fig. 291, pole view, second maturation spindle (v. 19010, Fig. 197).
Fig. 292, second maturation spindle. -

Figs. 293, 294, corresponding daughter plates, early anaphase of second maturation division.

Figs. 295-299, Lygus pratensis.
Figs. 295, 296, pole and lateral views, first maturation spindle.
Figs. 297, 298, pole and lateral views, second maturation division.
Figs. 299, anaphase of second maturation division.

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MONTGOMERY.—CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

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MONTGOMERY.—CHROMOSOMES IN THE SPERMATOGENESIS OF THE HEMIPTERA HETEROPTERA.

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ARTICLE IV.

A STUDY OF THE BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS BE-
LONGING TO THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOMETRIC SOCIETY, TOGETHER
WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE SKULL OF PROFESSOR E. D. COPE.

By Epw. Anruony SpirzKa, M.D.,

PROFESSOR OF GENERAL ANATOMY, JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE, LATE FELLOW AND
DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

(Read March 16, 1906.)

“Den Korper Jasst ffnen ; es gewihrt diess vielleicht einigen Nutzen. Findet sich ein Theil, der

den Aerzten Belehrung gewibren kann, so nehme man ibn in eine anatomische Sammlung auf.”’
— From Tiedemann’s will (1861).
It is owing to the courage and wise forethought of certain advanced thinkers and
fruitful contributors to science that the brains of members of the American Anthropo-
metric Society have become available for scientific study. Occasionally an individual
has directed his nearest of kin to arrange for the preservation of his brain; such men
were Tiedemann, Grote and the two Seguins. But not until the Mutual Autopsy
Society of Paris was founded in 1881 was this most legitimate claim of science met
by the establishment of an association formed for the express purpose of securing ¢lite
brains for scientific study. On this side of the Atlantic, the American Anthropo-
metric Society was the pioneer association founded on similar lines, followed by the
Cornell Brain Association under the leadership of Prof. Burt G. Wilder. Not many
years after the celebrated Retzius, of Stockholm, in view of the rather negative results
of older investigators in the field of cerebral morphology, and with the wish of satis-
fying himself whether the brains of persons of superior intellectual capacity were or
were not to be distinguished from ordinary brains by special anatomical characters,
proposed, in conjunction with the physiologist Tigerstedt, that his colleagues bequeath
their brains for scientific purposes. The forms of bequest received the signatures of
just two men: Retzius and Tigerstedt. Better results had been obtained by the
Mutual Autopsy Society of Paris which now possesses ten brains or more, among them
those of Gambetta, Bertillon, Véron and de Mortillet. ‘The Cornell Brain Association
has bequeathed to it about seventy brains of educated, orderly persons, of which thir-
teen are already preserved in the Neurological Laboratory at Cornell. There is a

A. P.S.—XXI. T. 10, 10. 07. 175

176 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

large collection at Munich and a smaller one at Gottingen which does not seem to
have received any additional brains since Wagner’s cessation of work on cerebral
morphology.

The American Anthropometric Society was established in 1889 at a meeting which
took place of the residence of ———-. The founders were: Harrison Allen, Francis
Xavier Dercum, Joseph Leidy, William Pepper, and Edward Charles Spitzka. The
chief object of the society was the preservation of the brains of its members. ‘Three
of the founders of the society have since died and their brains were duly removed and
preserved as were those of members who subsequently joined the society and are now
deceased. In the order of acquisition, the list of brains in the collection included the
following :

Joseph Leidy.
Philip Leidy.
J. W. White, Sr.
Andrew J. Parker.
Walt Whitman.
Harrison Allen.
Edward D. Cope.
8. William Pepper.

The brain of Walt Whitman, together with the jar in which it had been placed,

was said to have been dropped on the floor by a careless assistant. Unfortunately, not

aU so Sis SOS

even the pieces were saved. The brain of Dr. White is not in good condition. The
brain of Dr. Parker had been allowed to remain in Miiller’s fluid ever since 1892 and
when found was badly broken. Fortunately, there exists an excellent cast of the un-
dissected brain which had been made soon after hardening under the supervision of
Dr. Dercum. With the utmost care I was able to restore some of the parts so as to
delineate considerable portions of the mesal surfaces as well as to expose and make
casts of the insulz. It is to be regretted that like opportunities were not afforded in
the case of Walt Whitman’s brain. The brains of Joseph Leidy, Philip Leidy and E.
D. Cope are in excellent condition. Of Philip Leidy’s brain there also exist casts of
the cerebral halves and of the cerebellum and isthmus in one piece. The brain of
Harrison Allen had become flattened, while that of William Pepper had been both
flattened and distorted.

These brains were first placed at my disposal in the winter of 1902-03 and the
objective study of the specimens was completed in time to render a brief report at the
meeting of the Association of American Anatomists at Philadelphia in Decem-
ber, 1904. These studies were also briefly referred to in an address before the Ameri-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 177

can Anthropological Association at about the same time. The work bestowed upon
these brains was amplified by studies that were conducted throughout the same period
upon the brains of other notable persons as well as exceptional brains of various races
and of normal, ordinary persons executed in New York State for murder — available
for removal and preservation immediately after death and therefore affording for com-
parison a series of as nearly fresh and perfectly preserved brains as can be. The work
was conducted in a systematic manner with the view of utilizing new criteria of brain-
measurement and fissural pattern to serve as a basis for the formulation of standards
of which we stand so urgently in need. For, in the comparison of human brains one
of the chief difficulties to contend with lies in the inadequacy of former attempts to
express morphological differences in exact terms, and however irksome and tedious a
row of statistical figures may be to the anatomical investigator I could not help but
feel how necessary it had become to resort to exact expressions of size and form. ‘There-
fore, in addition to my general observations on the surface morphology of these brains,
I have ventured to obtain additional facts from a study of measurements in compara-
tive tabulation of the brains of the two Doctors Seguin, Major John W. Powell, George
Francis Train and Major J. B. Pond, together with those of ten — for all present
intents and purposes — normal brains of men executed by electricity.

Ife

A brief review of what has been done with the brains of notable individuals may
prove interesting and the writer ventures to interpolate a fairly complete series of
references, nearly all in chronological order, to the brains of 180 notable men and four
women.

1. BeerHoven (1770-1827), German composer. Dr. Johann Wagner, who was
present at the autopsy of Beethoven, is quoted by J. von Seyfried as having said that
“the convolutions appeared twice as numerous and the fissures twice as deep as in
ordinary brains.” J. von Seyfried: ‘“ Ludwig von Beethoven’ Studien.” Schaaf-
hausen : 16. Versamml. d. deutsch. Anthropolog. Gesellsch.; Gorrespondenzbl. in Vol.

“XVI of Arch. f Anthr., 1885.

2. Gat, F. Jos (1758-1828), German Anatomist and Phrenologist. In the report
of the last illness and post-mortem examination of Dr. Gall there is the following state-
ment: “At the base of the skull four or five ounces of fluid were found. The brain
which was not dissected weighed two pounds, ten ounces and a quarter. The right
side of the cerebellum was rather larger than the left, and contained a small fibro-
cellular tumor, which internally was of a bony structure.” According to Topinard
the cranial capacity was 1692 cubie centimeters. (Brain-weight = 1198 grams.)

178 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

London Medical Gazette, Sept. 18, 1828, page 478. Topinard, Elements d’ Anthropologie
générale, 1885, p. 628.

3. Cuvier, GeorGr LEopoLp CHRETIEN FREDERIC DacoBert (1769-1832), Natural-
ist (of German descent), was really a native of Wuerttemberg and his parents belonged to
the Germanic, not the Celtic race. The autopsy took place on May 15, 1832, and the
following physicians were present: Orfila, Dumesnil, Dupuytren, Allard, Biett, Valen-
ciennes, Laurillard, Rousseau, Andralueven and Bérard. Two reports were published ;
one by Bérard and one by Rousseau. Unfortunately there is a discrepancy between
these reports relative to the brain-weight, Rousseau’s figure being one ounce higher
than Bérard’s, which, in the metric system, is equivalent to 1830 grams. ‘The cere-
bellum weighed 191.4 grams. Rousseau gives certain measurements of the head
which are worth while recording here.

Max. circumference of head. . . . ..... . . 60.45 ctm.
Are from glabella tounton’ <o ga. & . ea ae oe
Arc over vertex from ear to ear (meatus audit.). . . 40.60

The post-mortem report makes no mention of the finding of evidences of hydro-
cephalus and Bérard says that he never before saw a brain so complexly convolute
and with so many deep fissures. Bérard: Gazette medicale, May 19, 1832. E. Rous-
seau: Lancette francaise, May 26, 1832. 'Topinard: Memoires de la société d anthropologie
de Paris, 1883, p. 15. G. Hervé: Le cerveau de Cuvier. Bull. de la société d anthro-
pologie de Paris, 1883, pp. 738-748. Karl E. von Baer: ‘“Lebensgeschichte Cuvier’s.”
Arch. f. Anthrop., XXIV, 1896, pp. 227-275.

4. Dupuyrren (1777-1835), French surgeon and anatomist. The autopsy was
performed on February 9, 1835, thirty-two hours after death. The official report is
signed by Doctors Broussais, Cruveilhier, Husson and Bouillaud. ‘The brain-weight
(French system) was 2 livres, 14 ounces (1,437 grams). The brain was normal.
Gazette des Hépitaux, civils et militaires; 1835, IX, No. 20, p. 77. R. Wagner: “ Vor-
studien, ete.,” I, 1860, p. 96.

5. Donurcer, lanaz (1770-1841), German anatomist and physiologist (Munich
collection). The fresh weight was not recorded, but Bischoff estimates the loss in
weight during immersion in alcohol to have been 41 per cent. The subfrontal gyre
was well developed and the parieto-occipital region was largely expanded and com-
plex. Estimated brain-weight 1,207 grams. Bischoff: Das Hirngewicht des Men-
schen, p. 137. Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anatomie des Sprachcentrwms (1882). Riidinger :
Beitr. z. Anatomie der Affenspalte, 1882.

6. ABERCROMBIE, JoHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician. The autopsy was con-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 179

ducted by Goodsir in the presence of Doctors Adam Hunter, Alison, Renton, Gillespie,
Begbie, Cumming and J. A. Hunter. Except for atheromatous changes in the arteries
the brain was normal. Its weight was reported to have been 63 ounces (1,786 grams).
Edinburgh Med. Jowr., 1845, LX VIII, 231.

7. CHALMERS, Tomas (1780-1847), English theologian. The autopsy was con-
ducted by Dr. Hughes Bennett and reported by Dr. Begbie. “The brain weighed 53
ounces avoirdupois and was healthy.” (1502.5 grams.) James Begbie: Edinburgh
Monthly Med. Jowr., XII, 1851, March, p. 205.

8. Donnizetri, GAETANO (1798-1848), Italian composer, died in Bergamo in 1848
of paralytic dementia. The brain weighed 1391 grams. Cappelli: Arch. ital. per le
malatie nervosi, 1887, XXIV, p. 135. Newrolog. Centralbl., 1887, p. 216.

9. JEFFREY, Lorp Francis (1773-1850), Scottish justice and writer. Calderwood
quotes the following: “Sir Robert Christison, who, along with Prof. Miller, carefully
weighed Lord Jeffrey’s brain, favored me with the following extract from his letter to
Sir B. Brodie and Dr. Bright: . . . ‘The brain was much congested, the archnoid
membrane contained much gelatiniform effusion. The encephalon weighed 514
ounces, the cerebellum 6% ounces.’ ... Lord Jeffrey was of rather small stature.”
(Brain-weight, 1471 grams.) Calderwood: The Relations of the Mind and Brain,
1884, p. 23.

10. Wessrer, Dantex (1782-1852), American statesman (English descent). The
autopsy was reported by Dr. Jeffries. The brain was examined by Dr. Jeffries
Wyman. The brain-weight was recorded as 3 pounds, 5 ounces, 8 drachms and 17
grains (avoirdupois). (1518 grams.) The cerebrum alone weighed 2 pounds, 14
ounces and 7 drachms. (1317 grams.) The intracranial capacity is stated to have
been 122 cubic inches (1999.5 cubic centimeters). The circumference of the head
was 237 inches (60.3 ctm.). Jeffries concludes that the brain probably weighed as
much as 63% ounces (1807 grams) at maturity. Jeffries: Amer. Jowr. Med. Sciences,
1853, pp. 110-120.

11. CzELAKovsky, Franz Lapistaw (1799-1852), Bohemian writer. The brain
was removed and examined by Dr. VY. D. Lambl in the presence of Purkinjé. The
skull is described as being of large size and ovoid shape while the brain was richly con-
voluted. V. Stanek (and V. D. Lambl): Posledni nemoc F. L. Czelakovského a jeji
predchtideové. Czas. Czes. lék., 1864, III, p. 300, 307. Matiegka: Ueber das Hirn-
gewicht des Menschen, Sitzber. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wiss., 1902, p. 37.

12. ArHerton, CHartes G., American politician (U.S. Senator). “The brain
weighed 564 ounces.” Brain-weight = 1602 grams. Boston Med. and Surg. Jour.,
January 18, 1854, p. 512.

180 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

13. Gauss, Karu Frrepricu (1777-1855), German Mathematician and Physicist
(Gottingen collection). The brain is in many respects the most notable of any in
this series. It was preserved in alcohol and the illustrations in Wagner’s memoirs
were made from the somewhat shrunken specimen. The intracranial diameters
were 18 and 15 ctm. (in Vol. II (1862) Wagner gives the diameters of an endocra-
nial cast of Gauss as 18.5 and 14.1 etm.) while the hardened brain was 17 ecm. in
length and 12 ctm. in breadth. The fresh brain-weight was 1492 grams; after harden-
ing it weighed 1031 grams. The surface configurations of the cerebrum are remark-
able for the multiplicity of fissures and the great complexity of the conyolutions.
The richness of fissuration is particularly notable in the frontal region while the sub-
parietal regions, especially the marginal and angular gyres, exhibit a relatively enor-
mous expansion. ‘The very thorough morphological studies of this brain are published
in Wagner’s two memoirs. R. Wagner: ‘“Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen
Morphologie und Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns als Seelenorgan.” (G6ttin-
gen) I (1860); II (1862).

14. Fucus, Konrap Hetnricu (1803-1855), German Pathologist and Physician
(Géttingen collection). Fuchs was a man of medium stature. Death was caused by
fatty degeneration of the heart. The fresh brain-weight was 1499 grams. After preser-
vation in alcohol each hemicerebrum weighed 489 grams; the ratio of cerebrum to
cerebellum was 88.1:11.9. Wagner observes that the central fissures of both sides
are interrupted by bridging gyres. The frontal lobes are more massive and more com-
plexly marked than in average brains. The tortuosity of the fissures is especially
marked in the left frontal lobe. The asymmetry of the surface-markings on the two
sides is more marked than usual. The paroccipital gyres are depressed so that the
occipital fissure extends laterad for quite a distance. R. Wagner: “Vorstudien, ete.,”
II, 1862, pp. 14, 15, 17 and 91.

15. Hermann, Cart Frrepricu (1804-1855), German philologist and archeologist
(Gottingen collection). Compared with the brains of Dirichlet and Gauss, Wagner
finds this brain to present rather simpler contours. Hermann’s stature was about 170
etm. The fresh brain-weight was 1358 grams. In the hardened specimen, preserved
in alcohol, the left hemicerebrum weighed 447 grams, the right, 443 grams. R.
Wagner: “ Vorstudien, ete.,’ I and II.

16. ScuumMANN, Ropert (1810-1856), German composer, when about 44 years of
age, became melancholy and attempted suicide. In a communication to y. Wasilewski,
by Dr. Richarz of Endenich (near Bonn) concerning the illness and death of Schumann,
is the following account of the examination of the brain: “It may be interesting to

known that the transverse (acoustic) stria marking the fourth ventricle of the brain

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 181

were numerous and finely fashioned. The following abnormalities were revealed : Dis-
tended bloodvessels, especially at the base of the brain; ossification at the base of the
brain and abnormal development of normal projections, as a new formation of irregular
masses of bone, which partially pierced the external covering (dura) of the brain
with their sharp points; concretion and degeneration of the two inner coverings (pia-
arachnoid) of the brain and unnatural growth of the innermost covering (pia) and the
posterior portion of the cerebrum ; a considerable atrophy of the whole brain, which
weighed 7 ounces (Prussian troy weight) less than is usual in a man of Schumann’s
age.” If we assume 1380 grams to be the average weight for one of Schumann’s age,
an interpretation of the above statement as to the lesser weight of his brain would
give about 1100-1110 grams. Schaafhausen found the cranial capacity to the 1510
cubic centimeters and cites Richarz as giving the actual weight of the brain “2 Pfund,
28% Loth,” or 1475 grams. v. Wasilewski: “Life of Robert Schumann” Transl.
by A. L. Alger, Boston, 1871, p. 258. Schaafhausen: Archiv f. Anthrop., XVI, Corre-
spondenzbl., p. 149.

17. Drricuier, Perer Gustave Lesgeune (1805-1859), French mathematician
(Géttingen collection). This brain approaches that of Gauss in superiority of deyelop-
ment. The frontal lobes are remarkably massive and intricately convoluted. The
superfrontal gyre is large and intricately fissured. The fresh brain-weight was 1520
grams. The left hemicerebrum weighed 478 grams, the right 479 grams (after hard-
ening). Wagner only gives a dorsal view of the brain. It would be interesting to
compare the development of the sub-parietal regions with those in the brains of other
mathematicians such as Gyldén, Kovalevsky, Gauss, Oliver and Siljestrém. R. Wag-
ner: ‘‘ Vorstudien, ete.,” I and IT.

18. Hausmann, Jon. Frrepr. Lupw. (1782-1859), German naturalist (mineral-
ogist) (Géttingen collection). Hausmann’s brain is described by Wagner as the small-
est and most simply convoluted in his series. There is a nearer approach to symmetry
in the arrangement of the surface-markings and Wagner goes so far as to regard this
as an expression of arrest in development. Hausmann was a tall man; stature 180
ctm. The brain weighed 1226 grams; after hardening, the left hemicerebrum
weighed 360 grams; the right 356 grams. R. Wagner: ‘“ Nachrichten,” Géttingen,
February 26, 1860. R. Wagner: “ Vorstudien, etc.,” I and II.

19. WavrHer, German surgeon. There is an allusion to this brain in Wagner’s
memoir, but no particulars are given. Wagner: ‘“ Vorstudien, ete.,’’ I, p. 5.

20. CAMPBELL, Lorp Jon (1779-1861) English Lord Chancellor. Acton, in his
report on the post-mortem examination states that the brain, which was examined
thirty hours after death, was found to be healthy and weighed 533 ounces (1517
grams). Acton: Lancet (London), August, 1861, II, p. 193.

182 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

21. FALLMERAYER, JAKOB Puritip (1790-1861), German historian (Munich collec-
tion), died of an aneurism of the aorta. His stature was 165 ctm. The brain weighed
1,349 grams. The left subfrontal gyre was well developed, but on the whole is
smaller than the corresponding region in the brains of Melchior Meyr and Lichten-
stein with which Riidinger compared it. Bischoff: ‘(Das Hirngewicht des Men-
schen,” 1880, p. 186. Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anatomie des Sprachcentrums, 1882.

22. 'TreEDEMANN, Frrepricu (1781-1861), German anatomist (Munich collection),
died of pneumonia and cerebral cedema. The autopsy was performed by Buhl and
Riidinger. His stature was 172 ctm. The brain weighed 1,254 grams. It was quite
cedematous and the atrophy of the convolutions was marked. The circumference of
the head was 54.5 ctm.; of the cranium, 53.1 ctm.; the scalp was very thin. Bischoff
estimates that age-atrophy reduced the brain-weight from about 1,422 grams at
maturity. Riidinger states that the subfrontal gyre is particularly well developed on
the right side, though large on the left as well. Bischoff: Sitzwngsber. d. k. bayer.
Akad. d. Wissensch., 1864, I, p. 39, 51-53. Bischoff: “Das Hirngewicht des Menschen,”
1880, pp. 186 and 139. Riidinger: Beitrag. z. Anatomie des Sprachcentrums, 1882,
p. 44.

23. von StesoLtp, Epuarp Kaspar JAKop (1801-1861), German gynecologist.
Wagner examined the brain at the autopsy and states that it was richly fissured and
convoluted. A fissure divided the subfrontal gyre into two tiers; it is not stated
whether the right or the left side is meant, or both. The preservation of the brain
was not permitted. R. Wagner: “ Vorstudien, etc.,” II, 1862, pp. 14 and 16.

24. Lorpen. Wagner also had the opportunity of examining the brain of the
talented etcher, whose fine engravings illustrate Wagner’s first memoir of 1860. The
post-parietal region is described as particularly extensive, complex and prominent.
R. Wagner: ‘“ Vorstudien, ete.,” IT, 1862 (footnote, p. 32).

25. Harwess, Emr (1820-1862), physiologist (Munich icollection). The fresh
weight of this brain was not recorded. Bischoff, by adding 41 per cent. to the weight
of the specimen after preservation in alcohol for a number of years, estimates the
original weight at 1238 grams. According to Riidinger the subfrontal gyre is best
developed on the left side. Bischoff: ‘‘ Das Hirngewicht des Menschen,” 1880, p. 137.
Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachen, 1882, p. 44.

26. THackerAy, WiiirAM Makepeace (1811-1863), English humorist. The
autopsy was probably performed by Dr. Elliotson. A contemporary newspaper report
states that the brain weighed 584 ounces. ‘ His medical attendants . . . add that he
had a very large brain, weighing no less than 584 ounces.’ London Times, December
25, 1863. Marshall: Jowrn. of Anat. and Physiol., 1892, Vol. XXVI, p. 446.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 183

27. Lincotn, ABRAHAM (1809-1865), American statesman (U.S. President). The
autopsy was performed at noon on April 15, 1865, at the White House. ‘The physi-
cians present were the Surgeon-General Joseph K. Barnes, U. 8. A., Assistant Surgeon-
General Charles H. Crane, U.S. A., Dr. Robert K. Stone, of Washington, Assistant-Sur-
geon J. J. Woodward, U.S. A., Assistant-Surgeon W. M. Notson, U.S. A., and Assist-
ant-Surgeon Edward Curtis. Drs. Woodward and Curtis opened the head with the
view of finding the track taken by the bullet in order to establish officially the facts
of death by homicide. Dr. Curtis writes that owing to the absence of suitable scales
he could not weigh the entire brain, but did so piecemeal. ‘The weighing of the
brain gave approximate results only since there had been some loss of brain substance
in consequence of the wound during life after the shooting.” No official record was
made of the weight and to a recent inquiry addressed to Dr. Curtis he states that he
has utterly forgotten what the figure was. In a letter written a week after the autopsy
Dr. Curtis states that ‘the figures, such as they were, seemed to show that the brain-
weight was not above the ordinary for a man of Lincoln’s size.”

28. Dre Morny, Cuartes Auauste Louis Joseru (1811-1865), French statesman.
The brain-weight is stated as 53.6 ounces by Thurnam as being reported in the news-
papers “and confirmed by a distinguished anthropologist of Paris.” (Brain-weight,
1520 grams.) Thurnam: Jowr. of Mental Science, 1866.

29. WuHeweLL, WiiraM (1794-1866), English philosopher. Whewell died as the
result of an accident while riding a horse. ‘‘The brain weighed 49 ounces. It was
shrunken, the convolutions standing apart instead of being close together.” (Brain-
weight, 1889 grams.) G.M. Humphrey: Lancet (London), March 17, 1866, LI, p. 279.

30. Goonsir, Jonn (1814-1867). The autopsy was conducted by Drs. Chiene and
Stirling. The brain weighed 574 ounces (1629 grams). Goodsir’s Anatomical
Memoirs, 1868, Vol. I, p. 195.

31. Hermann, Frreprich Brenepickr WitHEtm von (1795-1868), economist,
geometrician, statistician (Munich collection), is said to have been very tall. The
brain weighed 1590 grams. ‘The left subfrontal gyre was superiorly developed, accord-
ing to Riidinger. Bischoff: Das Hirngewicht des Menschen, 1880, p. 136. Riid-
inger: Beitrag. z. Anat. des Sprachcentrwms, 1882, p. 44.

32. Prrurer, Kart von (1806-1869), German physician (Munich collection),
died of apoplexy. His stature was 170 ctm. The brain weighed 1488 grams. Riid-
inger emphasizes the large development of the left subfrontal gyre as compared with
the right. The convolutions in general are rather broad and simple. Bischoff: Das
Hirngewicht des Menschen, 1880. Riidinger: Beitrag. z. Anat. des Sprachcentrums,
1882, p. 44.

Kes —XXI; U. 10,.10, 707.

184 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

33. Srpson, Str JAMES Youne (1811-1870), English physician and archeologist.
The autopsy was performed by Drs. J. B. Pettigrew and John Chiene in the presence
of Drs. A. Wood, W. Begbie and J. Noir Munro. “The brain was healthy, the sulci
were deep, the convolutions numerous and the substance natural.” The brain-weight
was 54 ounces (1531 grams). Lancet (London), 1870, May 14, p. 717.

34. Mryr, Metcutor (1810-1871), German poet and philosophical writer, died
of cancer of the stomach. His stature was 170 ctm. His brain weighed 1415 grams.
Bischoff states that Meyr’s and Fallmerayer’s brains had the simplest convolutions in
the collection (i. ¢., up to 1880). Bischoff: “Das Hirngewicht des Menschen,” 1880,
p. 136. Riidinger: Beitrag. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrwms, 1882, p. 48.

35. Banpacer, C. (1792-1871), mathematician and inventor (London collection).
The brain is preserved in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
(D. 685). Its weight immediately after removal was 494 ounces (1403 grams). G.
Elliot Smith, in a letter (October 6, 1903), says that Prof. Duckworth, who has looked
the brain over, emphasizes the “presence of a well-developed sulcus frontalis medialis
of Cunningham and a special richness of sulci of the anterior part of the inferior
frontal convolution.” Marshall: Jour. of Anat. and Physiol., XXVII, 1892, p. 30.
Catalogue of the Physiological Series of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons of England, IH, 1902, p. 464.

36. Grore, GrorGe (1796-1871), English historian. This distinguished writer of
Greek history died in June, 1871. Eight years before his death he wrote the follow-
ing wish :

“T desire that after my decease my cranium shall be opened by the Professor of
Anatomy in University College, London, or by some other competent Anatomist.

“T desire that my brain shall be carefully weighed and examined, and that the
weight thereof shall be communicated to Professor Bain, together with any other

peculiarities which may be found, especially whether the cerebellum is deficient as
compared with the cerebrum.”

Prof. John Marshall removed and studied the brain. Its weight, after drainage,
was 493 ounces (1410 grams); about 12 drachms (45 c.c.) of fluid were collected.
“The skull,” remarks Marshall, “ was unusually thick. The cerebrum and cerebellum,
still invested hy their membranes were soft and flaccid and easily fell out of shape ;
and the cerebral conyolutions, so far as they could be observed, appeared to be very
broad.” This breadth of the convolutions became still more obvious after the mem-
branes were removed. Mr. Grote died at the age of 76, and Marshall expresses it as
his belief that both age and disease caused a wasting of brain-tissue amounting to per-
haps three ounces or more (90-100 grams). That wasting must have taken place is

certainly indicated by the accumulation of more than 45 c.c. of fluid in the cranial

ve

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 185

cavity. Compared with the cerebro-cerebellar ratio in average brains, Grote’s cerebel-
lum was relatively small.

The general form of the cranium was brachycephalie but it was decidedly higher
than usual. The cerebrum itself was, in accordance with the shape of the cranium,
short, broad and deep. ‘The frontal lobes appeared to be very long on their upper
surface, very wide in front of the sylvian fissure and both long and broad on their
under surface. The parietal lobes were short and wide. The temporal lobes were also
wide though short. The occipital lobes were small and shallow. ‘The cerebral con-
volutions were very massive, being not only broad and deep, but well folded and
marked with secondary sulci, especially in the frontal and parietal regions. Marshall
states that the callosum was so long that its sectional area was unusually great ; and
he concludes from the size of the convolutions, the sufficiency of gray matter and from
the remarkable number of the white fibers, especially of the transverse commissural
ones, that the brain of Grote must be pronounced to have been of very perfect and high
organization. Grote’s stature was 179 ctm. By descent he was half English, one
quarter German and one quarter French. John Marshall: “The Brain of the late
George Grote, with Comments and Observations on the Human Brain and its Parts
generally.” Jowr. of Anat. and Physiol., October, 1892.

37. De Morean (1798-1871), English mathematician (London collection?). The
brain was examined by Dr. H. C. Bastian and Dr. Wilson Fox on the third day after
death. The brain-weight was 521 ounces (1,494 grams). Professor De Morgan had
an exceptionally large head. Bastian’s measurements are as follows:

Inches. Centimeters.

Head circumference. . ......... . 246 63
Are, root of nose to occipital protuberance . . . . 158 39
aren OVeL VOltEx=] . 9. « - o« 2 «.. « 15% 39.3

“As a consequence apparently of a blindness of the right eye, dating from a few
days after birth, the left cerebral hemisphere of De Morgan’s brain was smaller than
the right. ... Except for a degenerated condition of the right optic nerve and the
corresponding left optic tract there is nothing to be discovered which can possibly
account for the smaller size and stunted development of the left hemisphere.” Cer-
tain measurements of the hardened specimen are given. C. Bastian: “The Brain as
an Organ of the Mind,” 1880, pp. 391-393.

38. Aaassiz, Louis (1817-1873), American naturalist (French descent). The
autopsy was reported by Dr. Morrill Wyman. “The weight of the brain was 53.4
ounces” (1,514 grams). Drs. J. J. Putnam and R. H. Fitz were present. The antero-

186 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

posterior diameter of the head was 19.7 ctm.; the lateral diameter, 16.3 ctm. The
skull is said to have been thick. M. Wyman: Medical and Surgical Reporter (Phila-
delphia), 1874, XXX, p. 131.

39. Liesia, Jusrus von (1803-1873), German chemist (Munich collection). Bis-
choff states that the specimen shows advanced age-atrophy and it lost weight very
rapidly when placed in alcohol ; 34 per cent. in four weeks and nearly 50 per cent. in
about seven years. ‘The endocranial cast shows the cranial capacity to have been
1,550 ctm. The cranial circumference was 54.6 ctm. Bischoff estimates the weight
of the brain at maturity to have been at least 1,450 grams. The actual weight was
1,352 grams. Liebig’s stature was 170 ctm. Bischoff observes further that the cere-
bral convolutions are more complex than in any other brain in the collection. Riid-
inger compares the subfrontal gyres of the two sides and gives a figure which shows
enormous development of the parietal-paroccipital region. Bischoff: ‘Das Hirnge-
wicht des Menschen,” 1880, p. 139. Riidinger: Beitrag. z. Anat. des Sprachcentrums,
1882. Riidinger: Beitrag. z. Anat. d. Affenspalte, 1882.

40. Navotron III (1808-1873), French sovereign. The brain-weight only is re-
corded in Ammon’s list. Brain-weight, 1500 grams. Ammon: Die Nattirliche
Auslese bein Menschen, p. 255.

41. Bennert, Jonn Huaues (1812-1875), English physician. The autopsy was
performed by Dr. Cadge, assisted by Professor Sanders. The brain weighed 47 ounces
(1332 grams). W. Cadge: “On the case of the late Professor Hughes Bennett.”
Brit. Med. Jowr., 1875 (October 9), p. 454. :

42. Asskzat, JuLEs (1832-1876), French political writer and journalist (Paris col-
lection). The brain was very oedematous. The weight, which was not taken until
two hours after removal, was 1403 grams. The gyres are complex and the fissures
tortuous, especially in the frontal region. The parietal-paroccipital fissure is of great
depth, uninterrupted, and is directly confluent with the postcentral fissure. The
frontal fissures are frequently interrupted by annectants so that the superfrontal and
medifrontal gyres are hardly demarcated from each other. Duval, Chudzinski and
Hervé: Bull. de la société d Anthropol. de Paris, 1883, p. 331.

3. Patacky, Franz (1798-1876), Bohemian historian. This brain still awaits
description in the Royal Bohemian Museum. ‘The postmortem examination took
place on the fourth day after death, the body having received an injection of sublimate.
Palacky’s head was very large, as the following measurements indicate :

Circumference . .. . = ~~ « =o :eiRnen tonne (RGORTIS
Head length. © =... soe ee

Head width. =... ese, Te TT

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 187

The brain was normal, the cerebral convolutions small and compact, the fissures
deep. V. Steffal: Vysledek ezasteCného pitvani mrtvoly Frant. Palackého. Czas lék,
ezes. XVI, 1877, p. 169.

44. Wriecut, Cuauncey (1830-1875), American philosophical writer (Cornell col-
lection). This brain was first described by Thomas Dwight. Mr. Wright is said to
have been a man of very varied acquirements, a proficient in physics and mathematics,
and what may be called a general critic. He was considered an instance of very ex-
ceptional mental power. He was of rather large frame, with a large head and a high
forehead. Mention is made by Professor Wilder, to whom the brain was subsequently
loaned for further examination, of Wright’s mental and physical deliberateness. The
brain is remarkable in many ways. In the first place, ‘the simplicity of the fissures
and the width and flatness of the gyres are paralleled in the Cornell collection only in
the much smaller brain of an unknown mulatto” (Wilder). Secondly, the central
fissures (both sides) are interrupted by isthmuses at about the junction of the middle
and dorsal thirds. The brain weighed 532 ounces (1516 grams). T. Dwight: Amer.
Acad. of Arts and Sciences; Proceedings, XIII, 1877, pp. 210-215. B. G. Wilder:
Jour. Nerv. and Mental Diseases, XVII, pp. 7538-754. B. G. Wilder: Amer. Newrol.
Assoc. Trans., 1890. B. G. Wilder: Ref. Handbook of the Med. Sci. (Buck’s), 1890.
Vidtly p. 158; 1X, p. 108. B. G. Wilder: Proc. Assoc. Amer. Anat., 1896. B. G.
Wilder: Ref. Handbook of the Med. Sci., 1901, II.

45. AssELing, Louts (1829-1878), French jurist and journalist (Paris collection).
The brain-weight is reported by Thulié as 1468 grams, immediately after removal.
The paroccipital gyres are depressed, notably on the right side, so that the occipital
fissure is confluent with the paroccipital at considerable depth. In general, the cere-
brum is fairly well convoluted, but the frontal lobes, though massive, are less fissured
than usual. Broea said of it: ‘“‘Ce n’est pas un cerveau fin; les circonvolutions sont
epaissés, presque grossiéres.”” The subfrontal gyres are of medium size. The descrip-
tion of this brain drew forth a rabid denunciation of the aims and purposes of the
“société mutuelle d’autopsie” by a certain M. Foley. Messrs. Dally and Topinard
made vigorous reply. Thulié: Bull. de la soc. danthrop. de Paris, 1878, p. 161; ibid.,
1880, p. 239. Duval, Chudzinski and Hervé: ibid., 1883, pp. 260-274. Broca: wid.,
1883, p. 26. Foley, Dally, Topinard (discussion): ibid., 1883, p. 274.

46. Ayuerr, Pairre A. American physician, a well-known blind physician
whose remarkable memory served to make him a celebrated quiz-master for medical
students. He died in the Presbyterian Hospital of New York, at the age of 58, on
October 5, 1878. His brain weighed 52 ounces (1474 grams).

47. Huser, JoHannes (1830-1879), German Philosopher (Munich collection).

188 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

The weight of the brain was 1409 grams. The left subfrontal gyre is better developed
and more massive as shown by the endocranial cast. Ritidinger gives a figure of the
subfrontal region on both sides. Bischoff: “Das Hirngewicht des Menschen,” 1880,
p. 186. Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882, pp. 85 and 39.

48. Scumrp, Hermann THEODORE von (1815-1880), German jurist and writer
(Munich collection), is said to have been a talented linguist and orator and in correla-
tion with this Riidinger found the left subfrontal region to be the better developed.
The brain weighed 1374 grams. Rtidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882.
Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Affenspalte, 1882. Ammon: “ Die Natiirliche Auslese bei
den Menschen.”

49. Biscuorr, ©. H. E. (1785-1864), German physician. C. H. E. Bischoff’s
brain-weight is reported in his son’s memoir as being 1452 grams. His stature was
172 ctm. The left subfrontal gyre showed a superior degree of development. Bis-
choff: “Das Hirngewicht des Menschen,” 1880, p. 186. Rtidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d.
Sprachcentrums, 1882, p. 44.

50. Broca, Paun (1824-1880), French Anthropologist (Paris collection). The
brain was weighed by M. Kuhff. The brain-weight was 1484 grams. No further
records seem to have been made of this brain. Topinard: ‘‘ Elements d’ Anthropologie
Générale, 1885, p. 553.

51. Seaury, Epovarp (1812-1880), French-American physician (psychiatrist)
(author’s collection). The elder Seguin was born at Clamecy, Department of Niévre,
in France. His ancestors ‘for several generations were eminent as physicians, archi-
tects, ete. Dr. Seguin received a very thorough education at the colleges of Auxerre
and St. Louis and commenced the study of medicine with the celebrated Itard as pre-
ceptor. He was subsequently associated with the distinguished alienist and psychol-
ogist, Esquirol, in his investigations. The study of what is now known as arrested
mental development began with Seguin’s devotion to the welfare of the idiot children
at the Hdspice de Bicétre and for over forty years he remained devoted to the cause
he had made his own. Edouard Seguin was the pioneer in advocating the introduc-
tion of the metric system in this country and he is equally noted for his contributions
to the subject: of medical thermometry. He came to New York in 1850. His brain
was removed within twenty-four hours after death by Dr. E. C. Spitzka, assisted by
Dr. R. W. Amidon. The brain was normal and weighed “2 pounds, 12 ounces, 53
drams”’ (44.344 ounces or 1257 grams). At the present time, after over twenty-five
years’ immersion in alcohol, this weight is reduced to 880 grams, having lost 30 per
cent. of its original weight. I have described this brain together with that of the
younger Seguin as indicated in the references below. Spitzka, Edw. Anthony: Proc.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 189

Assoc. of Amer. Anatomists, X1Vth Session (Baltimore, December, 1900). Spitzka,
Edw. Anthony: “A preliminary communication of a study of the brains of two dis-
tinguished physicians, father and son.” Phila. Med. Jowr., April 6, 1901. Spitzka,
Edw. Anthony: “The redundancy of the preinsula in the brains of distinguished
educated men.” Med. Record, June 15, 1901.

52. von Lasauux, philologist (Munich collection). The brain weighed 1,250
grams. His stature was about 170 ctm.; death was caused by heart disease. Riidinger
gives a figure showing the complex and expanded development of the parieto-paroc-
cipital region. Bischoff: “Das Hirngewicht des Menschen, 1880, p. 127. Riidinger:
Beitr. z. Anat. d. Affenspalte, 1882.

53. Bunt Lupwie (1816-1880), German anatomist (Munich collection). The
brain weighed 1,229 grams. Riidinger calls attention to the better development of
the right subfrontal gyre as compared with that of the left. Bischoff: ‘“ Das Hirnge-
wicht d. Menschen.” Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882.

54. von Porzt, German jurist (Munich collection). Riidinger mentions the
superior development of the left subfrontal region. The weight of the brain has not
been published. Rtidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, p. 44.

55. Scuretcu, Martin (1827-1881), German humorist, writer and orator (Munich
collection). Ridinger states that although the subfrontal regions of both sides are
well developed, the left one preponderates. The endocranial cast shows a greater
prominence on the left side in the speech-area. The brain weighed 1,503 grams.
Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachzentrwms, p. 43.

56. Koxsevy, Franz Rirrer von (1803-1882), German geologist and poet. Brain-
weight, 1445 grams. Ammon: “ Die nattirliche Auslese bei den Menschen.”

57. Meyer, Lupwic, German surgeon (Munich collection). The brain is men-
tioned in Riidinger’s two memoirs, but no brain-weight or other details are recorded.
Ridinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882, p. 44. Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d.
Affenspalte, 1882, p. 9.

58. SKOBELEFF, MicHAEL DairriewircH (1843-1882), Russian general (Moscow
collection ?), died in Paris of heart paralysis. The autopsy was conducted by Dr.
Neiding, assisted by Dr. Béline. Skobeleff’s stature was 173 em.; circumference of the
head, 57 ctm.; circumference of the cranium, 54 ctm. The brain weighed 1451
grams. It has probably been preserved in alcohol, for a morphological description
by Prof. Zernoff, of Moscow, appeared later. The cerebrum is large and well devel-
oped. ‘There is a decided redundancy of the association-areas as compared with the
somesthetic (sensori-motor) zones. The frontal lobes are especially well-developed
and the cerebral shape merits the adjective—“ bombifrons.” ‘‘ Poids du cerveau de

190 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

General Skobeleff,’ Bull. de la soc. @antrrop, de Paris, 1882, p. 5389. D. N. Sernoff:
“ Concerning the anatomical peculiarities in the brains of intellectual men.” Proe. II,
Session of Russian Physicians at Moscow, Vol. I, pp. 14-88, with 3 figs. (in Russian),
Moseow, 1887.

59. GamBerra, Lion (1838-1882), French statesman (Paris collection), died De-
cember 31, 1882, but the autopsy was not performed until January 25, 1883. The
body was preserved by an injection of zine chloride. On opening the skull it was
observed by Duval that considerable fluid had exuded and that the brain had
shrunken. Its weight on removal was 1160 grams. By utilizing the endocranial
cast as well as by other methods, Duval estimates the true weight to have been, sever-
ally, 1294, 1204 and 1241 grams; average, 1246. Rtidinger’s estimate confirms
Duyal’s figures. Krause’s estimate brings the figure up to 1314 grams. The cere-
brum shows a fair degree of development though no such phenomenal redundancy of
the left subfrontal gyre as was originally reported. Chudzinski and Duval: Bull. de
la soc. danthrop. de Paris, 1886, pp. 130, 399. Duval: Progres medicale, 1886, No. 30.
Riidinger : Sitzber. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1887, p. 69. W. Krause: ‘“ Ueber
Gehirngewichte,”’ Allg. Wien. Med. Ztschr., 1888, and Internat. Monatschr. f. Anat. u.
Phys., V, 1888.

60. Bischorr, THEopoR Lupwieg WrtHELm (1807-1882), German anatomist
(Munich collection), the son of C. H. E. Bischoff (No. 49 of this series). The brain
showed signs of senile atrophy and a spot of softening in the occipital lobe. It
weighed 1370 grams. Ammon: “Die nattirliche Auslese bei den Menschen,” p. 255.
F. Daffner: “Das Wachsthum des Menschen,” p. 274.

61. Kraus, Franz Xavier (1840-1882) (?), German theologian. Jul. Wald-
schmidt, in his article on cerebral speech-areas, describes the insulz in the brains of
two congenital deaf-mutes, of a laborer, and those of the brains of two highly intel-
lectual members of the faculty of the University of Freiburg, one a theologian, the
other a prominent jurist. In reply to a recent injury, Dr. Waldschmidt states that
the brain of the jurist was apparently not weighed, while that of the theologian
weighed 1800 grams. The names of both were not revealed, but as Franz Xavier
Kraus was professor of theology at Freiburg 1878-1882, and as Waldschmidt gives the
“theologian’s”’ age as 42, there is little doubt as to whose brain this is. The weight
of the brain was obtained by Waldschmidt from Professor Wiedersheim. Jul. Wald-
schmidt: “ Beitrage zur Anatomie des Taubstummengehirns.” Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych.,
1887, pp. 371-379. Edw. Anthony Spitzka: “The redundancy of the preinsula in
the brains of distinguished educated men.” Medical Record, June 15, 1901.

62. Licurenstery, Stamunp, German novelist (Munich collection). Riidinger

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 191

gives a figure showing the broad and complex configuration of the parieto-paroccipital
regions and mentions the superior degree of development of the subfrontal gyre on the
left side. Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882, p. 43.

63. WueELrertT, German jurist (Munich collection). Riidinger gives figures
showing superior development of the left subfrontal gyre and of the left insula as com-
pared with the corresponding regions on the right side. The length of the left sub-
frontal gyre is 23 mm.; of the right, only 16 mm. The brain weighed 1485 grams.
Riidinger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrums, 1882, pp. 38 and 44.

64. Harrer, German jurist (Munich collection). Riidinger briefly mentions the
good development of the subfrontal region. The brain-weight is not recorded. Riid-
inger: Beitr. z. Anat. d. Sprachcentrwms, 1882, p. 44.

65. ScaHLaaintTweit, German naturalist and explorer. As no initials are given in
Ammon’s list, it is not clear whether Hermann von Schlagintweit (1826-1882) or his
brother Robert (1833-1885) is meant, as both were naturalists. In Ammon’s list the
age is given as 51 years; but as Hermann was 56 and Robert 53, this does not help us.
The brain-weight is given as 1352 grams. O. Ammon: “Die natiirliche Auslese bei
den Menchen,” p. 255.

66. Bertitton, ApoLtpHe (1821-1883), French anthropologist (Paris collection),
best known as a productive writer on anthropological topics: His chief faults were
said to be his difficulty in speaking, his wretched orthography and his inability to
distinguish one melody from another. In these respects Bertillon could almost have
been called an aphasic; his attempts to speak in public met with scant approbation
and yet, deep in his mind, according to his intimate friends, he could appreciate
simile, metaphor and poesy. He has been called a ‘“ psychic orator,” hampered by a
faulty emissary mechanism. ‘These facts are interesting in the light of the post-mortem
findings in the examination of his brain.

Bertillon’s brain, immediately after removal, weighed 1398 grams. <A plaster
endo-cranial cast was also made. The skull also seems to have been preserved. Ber-
tillon’s stature was only 156 ctm. After immersion in alcohol for four and a half
years the parts of the brain weighed as follows:

ere bisHenmicerebrum | 6.6 ys) os ie 406. grams
feet OMMICOrGDOMIM 8S jos owines sve cuits ol « -fed-gTams
Cerebellum, pons and oblongata. . . .. =. . . 117 grams

957. grams
indicating a loss of 441 grams, or 312 per cent.

The cerebral fissures are quite tortuous and ramified. The preoperculum
A: P.S.—XXI V. 11, 10, ’07.

192 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

(“Broca’s cap”) is small. The right paracentral gyre is small on the right side. The
precentral gyre is relatively small. he ventral part of the left post-central gyre is
complex. Chudzinski and Manouvrier consider the callosum small though this does
not seem justified by the figures accompanying the report. The frontal lobes show
large development while the temporal lobe and the cerebellum are relatively small.
The right supertemporal gyre is comparatively smaller than on the left side.

Bertillon was congenitally left-handed and doubtlessly his emissary (motor)
speech center lay in the subfrontal gyre of the right hemicerebrum. In fact, this
region is correspondingly better developed on the right side. At about the age of ten
years, Bertillon became deaf in the left ear. Corresponding to this defect the right
supertemporal gyre is narrow, straight and simple, while the left supertemporal gyre
is broad, long and sinuous and of much more complex configuration. His partial
deafness undoubtedly forced him to depend more upon his visual sense. Whether the
better development of the angular gyre on the left side may be correlated with this
fact is still a matter of speculation. Chudzinski and Manouvrier: “ Etude sur le
Cerveau de Bertillon.” Bull. de la soc. d’anthrop. de Paris, 1887, pp. 558-591. Manou-
vrier: Les premiéres circonvolutions temporales droite et gauche chez un sourd de
Voreille gauche (Bertillon). Bull. de la soc. d’anthrop., 1888.

67. Kyiaut, E. H. (1824-1883), American mechanician, author of the “ Mechan-
ical Dictionary.” He was employed in the U.S. Patent Office and was one of the
American Commissioners to the French Exposition of 1880. He is said to have
possessed a phenomenal memory. “His brain is reported as having weighed sixty-
four ounces, but we are ignorant of the appearances presented by the convolutions.”
Boston Med. and Surg. Jour. (Editorial), February 15, 1883, p. 184.

68. TurcEnry, Ivan Serceyewrrcu (1818-1883), Russian novelist and poet, died
in Paris of cancer (myxosarcoma). The autopsy was conducted by Dr. Brouardel in
the presence of Drs. Descoust, Segond and Magnin. The examination of the head is
reported as follows: (Transl.) “The bones of the skull are thin. The membranes are
healthy (normal) and are easily removed from the cortex. The arteries at the base of
the brain are dilated and notably atheromatous. The brain is very large and weighs
2012 grams. Neither a tumor, tubercles, or serous or sanguineous exudation wags
revealed on section. There is no lesion of any kind in the fourth ventricle.” Topinard
states that the brain was notable for the symmetry of its convolutions. ‘ Procés verbal
de l’Autopsie de Monsieur Yvan Tourgueneff, faite le 5. Septembre, 1883, par Mon-
sieur le Docteur Brouardel, Professeur de Médecine légale a la Faculté de Médecine
de Paris, en présence du Docteur Descoust, Chef de Travaux de Médecine légale Pra-

tique a la Faculté de Médecine de Paris, du Docteur Paul Segond, Professeur agrégé

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 193

de la Faculté de Médecine et Chirurgien des Hépitaux de Paris et du Docteur Magnin
de Bougival (Septembre, 1883), Paris, pp. 21, 5 figs. Topinard: “ Elements d’An-
thropologie Générale.”

69. CoupEREAU, AuGusTE (1832-1882), French physician (Paris collection). The
autopsy was conducted by Prof. Laborde, assisted by Drs. Duval, Chudzinski and
Hervé. Just after removal the brain weighed 1390 grams. Half an hour later it
weighed 1378 grams. The cerebrum weighed 1183 grams, the cerebellum, 195 (?)
grams. The cranium was plagiocephalic. The most notable feature in the cerebrum
is the peculiar ramification of the occipital fissure on the meson of the left hemicere-
brum. The arrangement is apparently due to the confluence of both the cuneal and
adoccipital fissures with the occipital. Duval, Chudzinski and Hervé: Bull. de la
soc. danthrop. de Paris, 1883, p. 377.

70. SIEMENS, WERNER VoN (1816-1884), German physicist. The brain is said to
have been very cedematous and is cited by Hansemann as having weighed 1600 grams.
D. Hansemann : Zéschr. f. Psych. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, 1899, 1.

71. Smerana, FriepricH (1824-1884), Bohemian composer, was a man of small,
delicate frame. His death occurred in the course of a paralytic dementia which set
in late in life. Owing to this disease the brain showed numerous lesions; atrophy of
the convolutions, dilatation of the ventricles, atrophy of the auditory nerves (Smetana
became deaf in his latter years), and other pathological signs. The brain weighed
only 1250 grams; but, as Hlava remarks, this figure is comparatively high when the
marked degree of atrophy is considered. The skull-length was 17 em., skull-width, 14
em.; thickness about 1.5 em. J. Hlava: “Zprava o pitve mistra Bedricha Smetany,”
Czas. lék. czes., XXIII, 1884, p. 323. Matiegka: ‘“‘Ueber das Hirngewicht des Men-
schen,” 1902, p. 38.

72. Lasker, Epuarp F. (1829-1884), German jurist and politician, died in New
York on January 5, 1884. Drs. A. Jacobi and W. H. Welch conducted the autopsy.
The brain was found to show spots of softening and general arterio-sclerosis. A note
concerning the weight of the brain was subsequently destroyed by fire, but it is cited
by Lombroso as being 1300 grams. Lombroso’s authority for this figure is incorrectly
quoted and cannot be verified.

73. SenzeEL (or Seizel?), French sculptor. The autopsy on Senzel was performed
by Chudzinski and Hervé. The brain weighed 1312 grams. Senzel was a talented
artist but not particularly eminent intellectually. Manouvrier: “La Quantité dans
Encephale,” p. 280. Manouvrier: In Richet’s “ Dictionnaire de Physiologie,” 1897-
1898, p. 688.

74. Lupwie IT (of Bavaria) (1845-1886), German (Bavarian) Sovereign. Ludwig

194 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Il, the “mad king,” committed suicide on June 13, 1886. The autopsy was per-
formed in Munich on June 15 by Riidinger, in the presence of Prof. Grashey and Drs.
Kerschensteiner, Halm, Hubrich and Riickert. His stature was 191 em. ‘The brain
weighed 1349 grams. W. W. Ireland: Jowr. of Mental Science, October, 1886, p. 345.
75. Otney, Epwarp (1827-1887), American mathematician. Professor of math-
ematics at the University of Michigan, 1863-1887. His stature was about 5 feet, 8
inches ; his body-weight about 180 pounds. His brain was removed by Prof. W. J.
Herdman, of the same university, and weighed 1,701 grams. Cf. Phila. Med. Register,
April 27, 1887, p. 337.

76. Rreseck. In Ammon’s list is merely given the name “ Riebeck”’ described
as “Industr.”” Possibly Joh. Karl. Otto Ribbeck, a German philologist and critic
(1827-1888) is meant. he brain-weight is given as 1,580 grams. Ammon: “ Die
natiirliche Auslese bei den Menschen,” 1893.

77. Veron Evcene (1825-1889), French philosophical writer, critic and jour-
nalist (Paris collection). Véron’s brain belongs to the class of superiorly developed
ones. The weight of the brain was unfortunately not ascertained ; nor is the cranial
capacity known, since the skull was not preserved. By means of a stiff hat worn by
Véron, Manouyrier found the antero-posterior diameter to be 194 mm., the transverse
diameter, 162 mm. (cephalic index, 83). These figures are well above the average as
comparisons with 71 physicians and with 280 soldiers of about the same age show.
Manouvrier gives exhaustive measurements of the preserved brain. The right super-
frontal gyre is doubled for a large part of its extent. The left subfrontal gyre is
well developed. Some of the peculiarities in the fissural pattern which Manouvrier
emphasizes are: The left postcentral communicates with the sylvian cleft deeply; also
with the parietal and by means of this with the occipital. Finally the calcarine
fissure is prolonged to the ‘“fente de Bichat’’ (hippocampal fissure). On the right
side the postcentral also communicates with the sylvian cleft, but the parietal does not
run into the occipital. On both sides the paroccipital gyres are deeply situated. ‘There
is an odd “fronto-limbie” formation. Manouvrier: Etude sur le cerveau d’Eugene
Véron. Bull. de la soc. danthrop. de Paris, 1892, pp. 238-279. Manouvrier: 7bid.,
pp. 505-529.

78. Rice, A. THornpyK (1853-1889), American diplomat and journalist. Editor
of the North American Review and Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia. The autopsy
was performed on May 17, 1889, by Drs. E. L. Keyes, E. G. Janeway, E. E. Dunham,
H. Goldthwaite, E. Fuller and C. H. Chetwood. Mr. Rice died at the age of 35.
The brain weighed fifty ounces (1418 grams). N. Y. World, May 18, 1889, p. 4.

79. Nusssaum (1829-1890), German surgeon. Brain-weight, 1410 grams.
Daffner : ‘ Das Wachsthum des Menschen,” 1902, p. 2785.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 195

80. Frrris, B. G. (1802-1891), American jurist (Cornell collection). A promi-
nent lawyer, district attorney, president of the public library and Secretary for the
Territory of Utah. Author of “Utah and the Mormons” (1854), and “A New
Theory of the Origin of Species.” The brain is in the collection of Cornell University
(No. 2870) and weighed 1225 grams.

81. Bucuner, Hans (1850-1892). ‘Das stark oedematose Gehirn des Hygien-
ikers Hans Biichner”
schen,” 1902, p. 275.

82. Grant, R. E., English mathematician. Brain-weight, 454 ounces (1290
grams). Marshall: Jowr. of Anat. and Physiol., XXVIII, 1892, p. 30.

83. Brown, GrorGr, Canadian editor. Editor of the Toronto Globe. He was

weighed 1560 grams. Daffner: “Das Wachsthum des Men-

over six feet tall. His brain is said to have weighed 56.3 ounces (1596 grams). “The
Lost Atlantis and other Ethnographic Studies” (Edinburgh), 1892, p. 576.

84. Harrison, R. A., Canadian jurist, Chief Justice of Canada. His brain
weighed 56 ounces (1590 grams). ‘The Lost Atlantis and other ethnographic
Studies” (Edinburgh), 1892, p. 376.

85. Burter, Bensamin F. (1818-1892), American soldier, lawyer and statesman.
“The brain is said to have weighed sixty-two ounces” (1758 grams). Medical Record,
Feb. 11, 1893, p. 186.

86. Curticr, Hosra (1825-1893), American mathematician and educator (Cornell
collection). Professor Wilder reports its weight to have been 1612 grams. The cere-
brum is large and richly fissured.

87. Wurman, Watt, American poet. The weight of Walt Whitman’s brain is
variously given as 45.2 ounces (1282 grams) and 48.3 ounces (1228 grams). His
stature was 6 feet and in health he weighed about 200 pounds. The brain had been
preserved but some careless attendant in the laboratory let the jar fall to the ground ;
it is not stated whether the brain was totally destroyed by the fall, but it is a great
pity that not even the fragments of the brain were rescued. “Jn re Walt Whitman”
(Philadelphia), 1893. C. K. Mills: Textbook of Nervous and Mental Diseases.”

88. Mauiery, Garrick (1831-1894), American ethnologist and soldier. Gradu-
ate of Yale University, served in the Civil War with distinction, was admitted to the
Bar and later became celebrated for his studies in ethnology. His brain was removed
and weighed by Dr. D.S. Lamb. Brain weight, 52 ounces (1503 grams).

89. Oxtiver, JAMES Epwarp (1830-1895), American mathematician (Cornell col-
lection), professor of mathematics at Cornell University. He was a philosophic
thinker, in not only the higher mathematics, but other sciences and ethics. He was
left-handed and absent-minded, but rapid in thought and action. For an account of

196 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

his life and writings see Hill’s memoir. The brain weighed 1416 grams and has been
well preserved. The cerebrum is richly fissured and shows a superior degree of devel-
opment in many respects. B. G. Wilder: Jour. of Comp. Anat., Vol. V, July, 1895.
Wilder: ‘‘ Buck’s Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences,” Vol. II, 1901. G.
W. Hill: Science, April, 1895.

90. Hovetacqur, ALEXANDRE A. (1843-1895), French anthropologist, philosophi-
cal writer and deputy (Paris collection). Brain-weight, communicated by Georges
Hervé, 1373 grams.

91. RupincEr, Nicotaus (1832-1896), German anatomist (Munich collection).
Brain-weight, 1380 grams. Daffner: ‘ Das Wachsthum des Menschen,” 1902, p. 2785.

92. Gytprn, Huco (1841-1896), Swedish mathematician and astronomer (Stock-
holm collection). One of the most illustrious of Europe’s astronomers. His astro-
nomical work was of the mathematical-physical rather than of the observational kind.
He was inclined to be speculatively philosophical. He was a clear, logical speaker, a
talented musician ; of strong constitution, medium height. He was deaf upon the
left ear, the result of an ear-trouble in infancy. The brain was-removed on the third
day after death and was very soft and flaccid. With much care, Retzius was able to
preserve the specimen in good shape. The brain weighed 1452 grams. In general
the cerebral convolutions are well formed, regular and not notably complex. The
prefrontal region is traversed by numerous secondary fissures. The subfrontal gyre is
strongly developed on the right side in the operculum intermediwm; on the left it is
peculiar in form; the pars basilaris is poorly developed on both sides, being depressed
in the depths of the diagonal and precentral fissures. The most notable features in
Gyldén’s brain are presented -in the region around the up-turned end of the sylvian
(episylvian ramus). On the right side, the caudal arm of the marginal gyre consti-
tutes a largely developed ‘operculum parietale posterius”’ so as to encroach upon and
push up (dorsad) the caudal end of the sylvian cleft. In other words, the struggie for
cortical expansion has, in this brain, manifested itself in an unusual breadth of the
marginal gyre, so broad in fact, as to constitute a veritable operculum. On the left
side, the arrangement is somewhat different, but the development is equally pro-
nounced. The episylvian ramus is small and with it the true marginal gyre is small ;
but dorsad of this there lie three well-developed gyres which necessarily must be con-
sidered part of the marginal territory. The interest in this region lies in the fact that
it borders upon, and possibly includes, on the one side the central organ of audition,
on the other side, the great parietal association area and it is quite likely that it is the
special area for the mathematical faculties. G. Retzius: Das Gehirn des Astronomen
Hugo Gyldén’s. Biol. Untersuch., N. F., VIII, 1, Stockholm, 1898.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 197

93. Konar, Joser Grora (1812-1896), Bohemian dramatist and poet. The
autopsy was performed by Prof. Hlava, of Prague. The brain weighed 1300 grams ;
there was marked age-atrophy. The convolutions are quite sinuous. The subfrontal
gyre shows six bends on the left and 5 such on the right side. The skull was later
exhumed and studied by Matiegka. Matiegka: Ueber das Hirngewicht des Menschen.
Sitzber. d. k. bohm. Ges. d. Wiss., 1902, pp. 38-39. Matiegka: Télesné ostatky Jana
Kollara, Vestrik krdl. czes. spol. nduk., 1904.

94. CHEVE, (?-1896) (Paris collection). A member of
the “société mutuelle @autopsie.” The brain-weight, communicated by G. Hervé was
1365 grams.

95. GuaArprA, José&-Marta (1830-1897) (Paris collection). A member of the
“societé mutuelle @ autopsie.” The brain-weight, communicated by G. Hervé, was 1272
grams. (ruardia’s age was 67 years.

96. McKnicur, GrorGcE (1840-1897), American physician (Cornell collection), an
eminent physician and writer of sonnets. According to his son some of his sonnets
were highly praised by Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Sargent included some of them
in the “ Cyclopedia of British and American Poetry” (Harper’s). The brain is in the
Cornell collection (No. 3531). Prof. Wilder states that it weighed 1545 grams.

97. DE MortiLuet, GABRIEL (1821-1898), French anthropologist and ethnologist
(Paris collection). The brain-weight, communicated by G. Hervé, was 1480 grams.

98. Seaury, Epwarp CHARLES (1843-1898), American physician (neurologist) of
French descent (author's collection). Son of Edouard Seguin (No. 51 of this series).
The autopsy took place on February 21, 1898, and was made by Dr. J. S. Thacher
assisted by Drs. J. Arthur Booth and E. C. Spitzka. Drs. Hallock and Pooley were
present. The brain was removed about 30 hours after death, and was found to be
normal. It was divided into its principal parts and each weighed separately as follo ws:

Rishthemicereorum> . . =... . =. «..,.,.. 642 grams.
OMe eMIGCECOUUNN si ec tiey hp) yee op, « GOB, “
Ore Out oe ee re ce cs we LAO

Pen hh en eee ee nmr os = OL
Total weight after dissection and drainage. . . . . 1,502 “

After nearly three years immersion in a mixture of alcohol and formalin the
brain had lost 13 per cent. of its original weight. The brain was studied and a ~
morphological description published by the author. Edw. Anthony Spitzka: “A pre-
liminary communication of a study of the brains of two distinguished physicians,
father and son.” Proc. Assoc. Amer. Anat., 1900; Philadelphia Med. Jowr., April
6, 1901.

198 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

99. Koysrantinorr, A., Bulgarian litterateur. Though only 25 years old when
he died, had already achieved considerable fame as a writer. Matiegka and Watjoff
cite the brain-weight as having been 1,595 grams. Matiegka: “ Ueber das Hirnge-
wicht des Menschen,” 1902, p. 36. Watjoff: Arch. f. Anthrop., XXVI, p. 1,080.

100. Hetmuorrz, Hermann Lupwia Friepricu (1821-1894), German anatomist,
physiologist and physicist. Died of cerebral hemorrhage. The autopsy was per-
formed by Hansemann in the presence of Drs. Renvers, Kirchhoff and Bein. Helm-
holtz’s stature was 169.5 ctm. Head circumference, 59 ctm. Cranial circumference,
55 ctm. Cranial length, 18.3 ctm.; cranial width, 15.5 ctm. (Cranial index, 85.25.)
The skull was symmetrical. The weight of the brain together with the included clots
of blood was at first 1,700 grams. It was possible to remove about 160 grams of
clotted blood, but much more yet remained in the cerebral tissues. The right hemi-
sphere was badly torn by the extensive hemorrhage and it was decided to attempt to
make a plaster cast of the left, undamaged hemicerebrum. Hansemann furnishes
photographs of this cast, showing the lateral and mesal surfaces. D. Hansemann:
‘Ueber das Gehirn von Hermann y. Helmholtz. Zéschr. f. Psychol. wu. Physiol. d.
Sinnesorgane, XX, 1899, 1, pp. 13-26, 2 plates.

101. Perrenkorrr, Max y. (1818-1900), German pathologist (Munich collection).
Bollinger, of Munich, writes: ‘The brain of Pettenkofer weighed 1320 grams, and in
spite of his old age, the cerebrum showed only a moderate beginning atrophy.”
Daffner states that the cerebrum was richly fissured, Pettenkofer’s head had a hori-
zontal circumference of 57.5 em. It was brachycephalic. Daffner quotes the brain-
weight as 1312 grams. Daffner: ‘‘ Das Wachsthum des Menschen,” 1902.

102. Aurmann, Ricwarp (1852-1900), German anatomist. An assistant of Pro-
fessor W. His, in Leipzig and is best known as the discoverer of the ‘‘Granula-Theorie.”
He died in the asylum at Hubertusburg and the author is indebted to the director,
Dr. P. Nicke, for several photographs of the hardened brain. The brain-weight was
1460. Altmann’s stature was 178 cm.

103. Cory, Rosprerr (1845-1900), English physician. A celebrated authority
upon small-pox and vaccination. The autopsy was performed 163 hours after death.
The brain weighed 45 ounces (1276 grams). St. Thomas Hospital Reports, X XIX,
1902. Lancet (London), March 31, 1900.

104. Srerrrz (1836-1900), chess player. Famous champion chess player, died
in the Manhattan State Hospital (East) in 1900 after suffering from acute melancholia
for about nine months. The immediate cause of death was mitral stenosis. The fol-
lowing is quoted from the autopsy report by Dr. L. C. Pettit: “With a dwarfed

appearance (height four feet eleven inches) due to arrested development of the lower

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 199

extremities, was found an almost entire occlusion of the common iliac arteries ;
the aorta . . . was a mere calcareous shell. ‘The brain was almost phenomenal in the
development of the orbital and frontal conyolutions as shown by their increased
number and diminished size. The orbital plates presented deep indentures conform-
ing to the convolutions which were in prominent relief. The entire brain weighed
1462 grams; its relative weight to the body was as one to twenty-eight. The intellect
displayed during life, coupled with the degenerative and morbid conditions found
after death, seem clearly to place the case under the heading of pseudo-genius or mat-
toid. It is probable that the beginning of a bad end was made, when after defeat he
left the chess board and began the study of problems of social reform, anticipating to
gain a fortune thereby from his writings. The development of his insanity from that
time was gradual; first came annoyances from telepathic influences, then electric
shocks ; he was able to send messages without instruments; he spent much time gaz-
ing into space ‘trying to hypnotize Bab the Persian God.’ From a partially systema-
tized insanity he soon became overwhelmed with delusions of persecutions and hal-
lucinations.” L. C. Pettit: “The Pathology of Insanity.” Proc. Amer. Med.-Psych.
Assoc., 1901.

105. Gracomrnt, Carto (1840-1898), Italian anatomist (‘Turin collection). About
a fortnight prior to his death Giacomini wrote in his will that it was his wish that his
bones and his brain be preserved. Sperino published a description of the brain. The
weight of the several parts of the brain was as follows:

Eeciighemicerebrum: 7 oa) 2 ty > 6 4 =: /- 095 grams.

Detmbemiceropnumy .. (4 5 ys seas, = OE . “

Cerebellum, pons and oblongata. ..... . . 186 “
PRG Mii ee ee Gee ee | ie MADD) 5

In general the cerebrum is of only moderately complex configuration. Sperino
believes that there exist two central fissures on the right side of Giacomini’s brain.
The author is convinced that Sperino’s interpretation of the regions in question is
erroneous (see my article, ref. below). Sperino: L’Encefalo dell’Anatomico Carlo
Giacomini,” Giornale della R. accad. di Torino., Aug., 1900, pp. 737-808. Edw. An-
thony Spitzka: “Is the Central Fissure Duplicated in the Brain of Carlo Giacomini,
Anatomist?” Phila. Med. Jowr., Aug. 24, 1901.

106. Cottimr, Frank (1856-1901), American lawyer (English-born). A success-
ful attorney and took an aetive part in politics and social life, enjoying much popu-
larity. His activity is illustrated by the fact, stated by his sister, that at 5 years of
age he had read Scott’s ‘“‘Ivanhoe”’ five times through. During a political campaign

A.P,S—XXI. W. 11, 10, '07.

200 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

in Chicago (1889) his head was injured. Insanity developed subsequently. The
autopsy was performed by Dr. E. P. Noel. The brain was deseribed by Dr. Thor
Rothstein. The weight of the brain was 1720 grams. In general the gyres are broad.
The right occipital fissure anastomoses with the paroccipital and exoccipital fissures.
The callosum, judging from the drawings, seems of large size. R. Dewey: “A case of
Circular Insanity,” Jowr. Amer. Med. Assoc., April 30 and May 7, 1904.

107. Lenz, Rupour, Hungarian violinist. A pupil of Joachim, was a highly tal-
ented violin-virtuoso and professor of music. His brain, immediately after removal,
was found to be somewhat softened and weighed 1636 grams. The most notable
feature in the cerebrum is the great expansion of the sub-parietal regions, particularly
of the right side. J. Guszman: Anat. Anz., April 12, 1901, XIX, pp. 239-249.

108. Szmacy1, Destper, Hungarian statesman and orator. To judge from the
half-tone reproduction accompanying M. Sugar’s description of Szilagyi’s brain it
appears to have been poorly preserved. The weight of the brain was 1380 grams.
The article lacks much in the way of precise anatomical observations and betrays but
an indifferent familiarity with even general details of macroscopical cerebral morph-
ology. (See the author’s more extended criticisms referred to below.) M. Sugar:
Orvosi Hetilap., 1902, Nos. 1 and 2. M. Sugar: Klin. Therap. Wochenschr., 1902, Nos.
24-25. Edw. Anthony Spitzka: Medical Critic, September, 1902, p. 572.

109. StusestrRéM, Per Apam (1815-1892), Swedish physicist and pedagog (Stock-
holm collection). An eminent physicist and pedagog; he was connected with the
Paul Gaimard Polar Explorations, and is best known for his valuable researches on
Mariotte’s law and for his efforts in behalf of the school systems of Europe. Most of
his work in this line was done subsequent to his visit to the United States in 1849-'50,
where he studied the various school systems and published his views. His intellectual
abilities are spoken of as having been of the highest order. Siljestrém’s brain weighed
1,422 grams and is splendidly developed. Its convolutions are particularly rich in
the frontal and parietal association areas and it appears in most respects more complex
than do those of Gyldén and Kovalewski. The brain shows special order of normal
asymmetry so typical of the higher brains. As in Gyldén’s and Kovalewski’s the
right sylvian fissure is shorter (47 mm.) than the left (58 mm.), and the marginal gyre
shows a similar complexity; these features are of interest in their possible relation to
the mathematical abilities of these persons. G. Retzius: Biol. Untersuch., N. F.,
X, 1902.

110. Wrison, Henry (1841-1902), American statesman. The name “ Henry
Wilson” is said to be an assumed name used by Jeremiah Jones Colbraith. He

changed the original name when he came of age. He was Vice-President of the

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 201

United States with President U.S. Grant. The brain, which was removed by Dr. D.
S. Lamb, weighed 49 ounces (1389 grams.)

111. Gourz, (1834-1902), German physiologist. In a communica-
tion from Professor Ewald to Professor Schwalbe (the: latter informed the writer) the
brain of Goltz is reported to have weighed 1395 grams. After the removal of the
pia and drainage it weighed 1324 grams.

112: Bouny, Josrrx, French jurist and notary (Paris collection). A half-brother
of the celebrated geographer E. Réclus and the surgeon Paul Réclus. Bouny’s stature
was 175 cm. He was very intelligent and his memory is said to have been a remark-
able one. ‘The brain, which was fully described by Manouvrier is well developed and
1935 grams. The callosum is unusually small. Manouvrier: Considerations sur
Vhypermegalie cérébrale et description d’un éncephale de 1935 grammes, Rev. Anthrop.,
XII, 1902, December.

113. Mrixatkovicz, Hungarian biologist. The brain-weight is quoted as being
1440 grams in Sugar’s list. M. Sugar: “ Orvosi Hetilap,” 1902, p. 8.

114. Powrit, Jon Westry (1834-1902), American geologist, ethnologist and
soldier. On the death of Major Powell in Maine, his remains were embalmed and
brought to Washington. - Dr. D. 8. Lamb performed the autopsy about 60 hours after
death. The brain, which weighed 1488 grams, was preserved in formalin and placed
at the writer’s disposal for morphological study. The most notable feature in this
brain was the great redundancy of the sub-parietal regions on the right side, encroach-
ing considerably upon the sylvian cleft. A full description is given in the memoir
cited below. Edw. Anthony Spitzka: A Study of the Brain of the Late Major
J. W. Powell, Amer. Anthropologist, V, 4, October to December, 1903.

115. Lerourneav, Cuarues (1831-1902), French anthropologist (Paris collection).
The weight of the brain was 1490 grams, without the cerebellum (?) 1318 grams.
Jour. of Mental Pathology, Jane, 1902, p. 269.

116. Levr Hermann, German composer and director. Brain weight, 1690 grams.
Daffner : “Das Wachsthum des Menschen,” 1902, p. 275.

117. Kuprrer, Cart von, German anatomist (Munich collection). Professor Bol-
linger, of Munich, states that the brain of v. Kupffer weighed 1400 grams.

118. Lasorpg, Jean Vincent (1830-1903), French physiologist and anthropolo-
gist (Paris collection). The brain-weight was low, 1234 grams, largely due, probably,
to age atrophy. Dr. Laborde’s notable powers of speech led Papillault to examine the
subfrontal gyres of the two sides with special care, and he found the left one to be
larger and more differentiated. In general, the cerebral convolutious show an ayer-
age degree of development and complexity. Papillault: ‘‘ Premiéres observations

202 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

necrologiques sur le Dr. Laborde,” Rev. de I’ Ecole @ Anthropologie de Paris, 1908, XIII,
142.

119. Ponp, James B. (1838-1903), American soldier and lecture-manager (author’s
collection). ‘The brain was kindly placed at my disposal by Dr. J. H. Larkin, instruc-
tor in pathology at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, to
whom the brain had been submitted by the physicians who last attended Major Pond:
Drs. McPhee and Pritchard. ‘The brain-weight, after one day in 50 per cent. alcohol
and two days in 10 per cent. formalin, was 1407 grams. The cerebrum is somewhat
altered in shape, not having been placed immediately after removal in a suitable ves-
sel. When I first saw the brain something in its general physiognomy suggested that
this was the brain of a left-handed man. Subsequent inquiry elicited the fact that
although Major Pond wrote with his right hand, having probably been taught to do
so in school, he used left-handed shears and tied his cravat left-handedly. The cere-
brum is very well developed in the association areas.

120. Lavornay, French merchant and publicist (Paris collection), ‘“ A member
of the societe mutuelle d’autopsie.”” The brain weighed 1550 grams. (Communicated
by Dr. G. Hervé.)

121. Train, Grorcr Francrs (1829-1904), American merchant, promoter and
traveller (author's collection). The postmortem examination was conducted by the
writer, at the request of Mr. Train’s physician, Dr. Carleton Simon, about 19 hours
after death. The examination was limited to the head, including the removal of the
brain, and a ventral hernia was dissected out to ascertain its nature. A death-mask
was also made. The principal measurements of the head were :

Gibyaniaieceg gos oo & o 6 a # «6 » 36 6 4 Behl Gin,
Head lengthy. ij... 4c, 5 eee ee CO ORCOIIE
Elead width: 9. 2 2) ce ee nn eMC TIN

The cranium measured :

Cranial length... 6 0 es yh ee Oe
Cranialwidth ; << 4 2 Sees ae nee OS CII
Cranial index... : < = .. = Ue cone neue (a(n

The weight of the brain was 1525 grams. Judging from the cranial and cerebral
measurements it may be supposed that in middle age Mr. Train’s brain weighed about
1600 grams. ‘The cerebrum shows a superior degree of complexity in its surface
morphology. Notable features are the intricate fissuration of the frontal lobes, the

relative broadness and shortness of these lobes, the great bulk of the parietal and

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 203

occipital regions, and the notable projection of the cerebrum over the cerebellum (the
‘“aftoverhang,” so to speak). ‘The postorbital limbus is well marked on both sides.
Edw. Anthony Spitzka: ‘‘ Postmortem examination of the late George Francis Train,”
The Daily Medical (New York), Feb. 15, 1904.

122. WrncHELL, ALEXANDER, American geologist and educator. ‘The brain was
weighed by Dr. W. J. Herdman, Ann Arbor, who states that very accurate scales were
not at hand at the time the autopsy was made. The weight was recorded as 583
ounces (1666 grams). Dr. Mills publishes some photographs and comments on the
morphology of the cerebrum. ‘The subparietal regions are especially complex, partic-
ularly on the right side. C. K. Mills: “The Concrete Concept Area,’ Medical News,
November 5, 1904, pp. 868-869.

123. (Swedish statesman; not named) (Stockholm collection). The identity of
the statesman whose brain is described by Retzius is not revealed in the published
account, owing to the refusal of the sons of the deceased to accord permission to
divulge the name. Retzius had, however, known him well since his youth and he
presents a few general remarks concerning the subject’s intellectual capacity. The
man showed great aptitude for learning early in life, was very successful in his studies
at school and under the faculty of law. He rapidly advanced to the position of min-
ister of finance (age 37), and three years after to that of prime minister. He was a
provincial governor up to the time of his death at the age of 53. He is described as a
highly gifted jurist, statesman, thinker, orator and philanthropist. Of large stature,
dolichocephalic and of blond complexion, he belonged to the genuine Swedish type.
His brain, removed on the second day after death by Dr. Curt Wallis, weighed 1489
grams. It was preserved in a mixture of 3 per cent. potassium bichromate and 2 per
cent. formal, suspended in the fluid by a string tied to the basilar artery. The form
of the brain was thus well preserved. The cerebrum is well formed and richly con-
voluted. The association areas exhibit a richness and complexity of fissuration, but
there is hardly any noteworthy characteristic or redundancy of development in any
particular territory. Nor were such findings to be expected. In life the man showed
a well-balanced intellect ; his aptitudes were good in all directions, not in any special
direction alone. Endowed with an excellent memory and good reasoning powers, he
showed great skill and clearness of thought in parliamentary debate, without neces-
sarily availing himself of purely rhetorical art. While not naturally devoted to any
particular branch of the sciences, creative arts or human action, he could familiarize
himself with all of these in the way of facile general understanding. This harmonious
construction of the mental abilities is in no small measure correlative with that
species of symmetry which this brain exhibited, and which is certainly exceptional in

204 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

the richly convoluted brains of persons of highly developed but rather one-sided men-
tal superiority. The left subfrontal gyre was somewhat favored in its development as
compared with the same region on the right side. Retzius: Biol. Untersuch., N. F.,
XI, 1904.

124. Tacucut, Kazuyosut (1838-1904), Japanese anatomist. The brain of Pro-
fessor Taguchi was removed on February 5, 1904, by Dr. Yamagawa, President of the
Imperial University of Tokio. The body-weight was 49 kilos. The brain weighed
1520 grams.

125. Loven, Orro C. (1864-1904), Swedish histologist and physiologist (Stock-
holm collection). Professor Loyén, the Swedish investigator who will be best remem-
bered for his discoveries of the taste-fibers in the papille of the tongue of mammals,
as well as of vaso-dilator nerves, had expressed it as his wish that his brain be pre-
served after death and studied by his friend and associate Gustav Retzius. The brain
exhibits a richness of fissures and these are marked by a superior degree of tortuous-
ness and ramification. The subparietal region is very complex in its surface configura-
tion while the central (sensori-motor) regions are only moderately developed. The
cortical centers for speech and language are notably large and Retzius brings this into
relation with Professor Lovén’s notable powers of clear, exact and logical expressions
of thought in words; less so in the way of oratorical finesse as in the talented use of
the best and most adequate expressions. ‘The weight of the brain is not mentioned,
though its size is said by Retzius to have been well above the average. G. Retzius:
Biol. Untersuch, N. F., XII, 1905.

126. Zeyer, Jonann, Austrian architect. A brother of the poet, Julius Zeyer.
Johann Z. died of chronic nephritis and the brain was quite cedematous. The low
weight, 1310 grams, was due to loss of serum. Stature, 174 ctm. The autopsy was
performed by Professor Hlava (Prague). The brain was weighed after being dissected
and fully 15 minutes after removal from the skull. (Communication from Dr.
Matiegka. )

127. Brrrner, Geora, German-Austrian dramatist and actor. A successful play-
wright and a member of the celebrated ‘‘Meininger Schauspieltruppe.”’ His stature
was 173 cm. The autopsy revealed general arterio-sclerosis. The brain weighed 1556
grams. The autopsy was performed by Professor Hlava. (Communication from Dr.
Matiegka. )

128. Gross, SamueL D., American physician and surgeon. Brain-weight 1361
grams. Cited in Gray’s Anatomy (DaCosta’s edition), 19065.

129. De RiALLE, Grrarp, French ethnologist and folklorist, bequeathed his brain

and skull to the Anthropological Society of Paris. Bull. de la soc. d’anthrop. de
Paris, 1905, pp. 149-150.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 205

130. Wistar, IsAac Jones (1827-1905), soldier, scientist and philanthropist (Wis-
tar collection). General Wistar, the founder of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and
Biology at Philadelphia, made the following bequest: “I bequeath to the Wistar In-
stitute of Anatomy and Biology my right arm, said to be a desirable specimen of gun-
shot anchylosis, and also my brain, to be removed by said institute promptly after my
death.” General Wistar’s brain weighed 49 ounces (avoir.) or 1389 grams.

131. Kontne, Naret, musical composer. <A director at the opera at Frankfurt
a/M. The brain was described by 8. Auerbach, who finds in the considerable breadth
and configuration of the (supra)marginal gyre, as well as the adjacent portion of the
supertemporal, an expression of the greater aptitude for the multitudinous associa-
tions in the auditory sphere which distinguished from others less musical. S. Auer-
bach: Beitrag zur Lokalisation des musikalischen Talentes im Gehirn und am Schadel,
Archiv fur Anatomie und Physiologie, Anatomische Abteilung, 1906, pp. 197-230,
Plates XIJ-X VII.

132. Bitow, Hans von, Musical composer. This brain is referred to by Auer-
bach (cited above) as being in the possession of Prof. L. Edinger and his article con-
tains drawings of this brain. The morphologic configuration is characterized by a
similar redundancy of development in the auditory association area.

133. Menpeveerr, Darrrt (1834-1907), Russian chemist. Professor Bechterew
has examined the brain of the late Professor Mendeléeff: It is said to weigh more
than 1200 grams, and to be remarkable for the number of its convolutions. Science,
Vol. XXV, No. 638, March 22, 1907, p. 479.

134. Kovatevsky, Sonya (1850-1891), Russian mathematician (Stockholm col-
lection). Mme. Sonya Kovalevsky (neé Sophie Corvin-Kronkovsky) was a pupil of
Kirebhoff, Kénigsberger, Helmholtz and DuBois-Reymond. She wrote theses on
mathematical subjects in French and German, spending much of her time in Heidel-
berg, Berlin, Paris and Stockholm. She was appointed ‘to a chair in the University
of Stockholm and here added the Swedish language to the others which she had
already mastered. Her brain is a well developed one of the feminine, eury-gyrencep-
halic type; 7. ¢., it is smaller and less complexly marked than the usual male brain.
The marginal gyre, especially upon the right side, is of particular interest, for in its
development it resembles the brain of the mathematician Gyldén, also studied by
Retzius. ‘The brain was not weighed when removed from the skull. After a period
of four years in alcohol its weight was 1108 grams. Retzius estimates the original
weight to have been about 1385 grams. G.}Retzius: Biol. Untersuch., N. F., IX, 1900.
pp. 1-16.

135. Wrnstow, Carotine B, (?-1896), American physician (Cornell collection).

206 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

The autopsy was performed by Dr. D. 8. Lamb and the brain was sent to Prof. Wilder,
at Cornell University, immersed in a formalin mixture. Dr. Wilder weighed the brain
on March 30, 1897, and found it to weigh 1266 grams. Dr. Winslow was a well-
known physician and sociologist.

136. Brrrner, Marte (1854-1898), Austrian actress. Death was caused by
eclampsia (nephritis gravidarum). The autopsy was performed by Prof. Hlava. The
head-length was 17.5 em., head-width, 15.6 em. The brain weighed 1250 grams
(about 50 grams above the average).

137. Lesiars (MApAme), French educator (Paris collection). A celebrated edu-
eator and orator. Brain-weight, 1260 grams. (Communication from G. Hervé.)

DouptrruL Reports oF Brarns oF Eminent Men.

From various sources I have culled the following references to brains of notable
men which either lack authority or else seem mythical and exaggerated. I have
deemed it best to place them in a separate category pending verification. Vague ref-
erences have been made to the brains of Voltaire and Rousseau, but I cannot find
anything definite about them.

CroMWELL, Ontver. The weight of Cromwell’s brain is variously given as 2330
and 2233 grams. The earliest reference to any autopsy report that Schuchardt could
find was in Anabaptisticum et enthusiasticwum Pantheon und Geistliches Riist-Haus wider
die Alten Quaker und neuen Frey-Geister, etc. Im Jahre Christi 1702 fol., p. 12. The
following is a translated extract: ‘‘ Hereupon the body of Cromwell was opened ; the
intestines were healthy, but the liver was affected and the brain weighed 6! pounds.”
It must be recalled that the above was published forty-four years after Cromwell’s
death. ‘The body of Cromwell has been disposed of in so many ways by as many
writers on the subject that one cannot attach any value to any of the accounts. Crom-
well must have had at least three heads, as one skull is preserved in the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford, there is another in the possession of a private individual at Beck-
enham, while still a third was for a while placed on public exhibition in London.
An interesting collection of these stories, together with a photograph of the death-
mask, may be found in Laurence Hutton’s “A Collection of Death-masks” (Harper’s).
Schuchardt: Letter to R. Wagner in “ Vorstudien, ete.,”’ I, 1860, p. 93.

Lorp Byron, Grorce Not Gorpon (1788-1824). An inordinately large figure
is usually given for the weight of Lord Byron’s brain, viz: 2238 grams. As is well
known, Lord Byron died in Missolonghi, in April, 1824. The body was brought to
Zante and later to England. Schuchardt, writing to Wagner concerning his efforts to
ascertain the facts, says that he was unable to find out when and where the autopsy

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 207

was performed. ‘The postmortem examination report is printed in the Gazette de Santé
(August 25, 1825) by the editor, Antoine Miquel; it was reprinted in the Medico-
Chirurgical Review, N.8., II, 1825, p. 164. From contemporary newspaper reports
a similar account was given in Froriep’s Notizen, IX, p. 148. The weight of
the brain is said to have been “6 medicinal pounds.” If the autopsy was per-
formed at Missolonghi, the Neapolitan or the Venetian system of weights was prob-
ably used ; if Neapolitan, the weight would be equivalent to 1924 grams; if Venetian,
1807 grams. If English weights were at hand, which is very unlikely, the weight
would be 2238 grams. Even if the Venetian system had been used, the figure (1807
grams) is very high. ‘The original report states that the brain was exceedingly con-
gested and two ounces of blood are said to have been found in the cerebral ventricles.
It is very improbable that the brain, if weighed at all, was so with any attempt at
accuracy. The crude statement of the weight in a round figure indicates this. Schuc-
hardt: Letter to Wagner in “ Vorstudien,” I, 1860, p. 98.

LaPuace (1749-1827). The brain of LaPlace is said to have been in the posses-
sion of the anatomist Magendie. Wagner: “ Vorstudien,” 1860, p. 24.

ScHuBERT, Franz (1797-1828). Hansemann and Sperino mention the brain-
weight of Schubert (1420 grams) but give no authority for the figure. I cannot find
evidence of Schubert’s brain having been removed and weighed.

SpuRZzHEIM, Kaspar (1776-1832). The anatomist and phrenologist Spurzheim
was born in Longwich near Trier and died in Boston. It is doubtful whether his
brain was actually removed and weighed. The figure for the brain-weight which is
commonly quoted (1559 grams) was probably estimated from the cranial capacity
(1950 cu. cm.) N. B. Shurtleff: ‘Anatomical Report on the Skull of Spurzheim.”
Read April 2, 1835, before the Boston Phrenological Society. Annals of Prenology
(Boston), IT, 1835, p. 72. Topinard: ‘Elements d’ Anthropologie Genérale,” p. 628.
Manouvrier: La Quantité de l’ Encephale,” 1855, p. 280.

LAMARQUE (General) (1770-1832). The brain-weight, 1449 grams, was probably
estimated from the cranial capacity. Manouvrier: “La Quantité de l’Encephale,”’
1885, p. 280.

PascaL (1623-1662). he physicians in attendance at the post-mortem examina-
tion are cited as having observed the brain to be very large. Broca, in a later com-
ment, attributes its very large volume to the retarded closure of the anterior font-
anelle which is said to have occurred in Pascal’s case. Charpentier: ‘“ Vie de Pascal,”
1854, p. 74. Broca: Bull. de la soc. danthrop. de Paris, 1861, p. 162.

Wir III. There is an account of the post-mortem examination performed
upon William III of England by the “Physitians and Surgeons, comanded to assist

As. eT, KX. 12; 10; 107.

208 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

at the dissection of the body of the late King” in the Lancet of 1702. The following
is an extract therefrom: “The Brain was perfectly sound and without any signe of
distemper.”

THe Brain-weicut OF NoTaBLe Men.

In former contributions on the subject of brain-weight the writer has tabulated
over 100 brain-weights of notable men. The following list contains, in separate tables,
the brain-weights of 115 men of note together with 12 such which are either not well
authenticated or were not observed under proper conditions. In the case of Helm-
holtz, for example, we may only guess at the true figure owing to the extensive cerebral
hemorrhage which caused death. An error in transcribing the brain-weight figure for
Joseph Leidy probably made the original figure 453 ounces instead of 543 ounces; as
will be seen in the writer’s description of Leidy’s brain, the higher figure is more likely
to approach the true weight. The brains of Harless, Dollinger and Gambetta were not
weighed until after preservatives had been used.

Of the 115 men here tabulated, 7 died insane. Their brain-weights are placed in
a separate list and are not included in the recapitulations.

The actual weight of the brains of each of the individuals in the table has doubt-
less been influenced to a varying extent by the conditions and causes of death. These
variations must, however, be disregarded here, except to mention that, as a general
rule, the figures are rather lower than they should be by reason of atrophy from old
age, or from wasting diseases, or both. In a few cases there is ample proof of this
diminution of weight, as for example, in that of the phrenologist and anatomist Gall,
who died at the age of 70, after a most active career, and whose brain had shrunken
considerably, weighing only 1198 grams. The report of the autopsy mentions this
atrophy as well as the existence of “four or five ounces of fluid.” The skull of Gall
had an internal capacity of 1692 cubic centimeters, from which we may fairly infer
that the brain must have weighed fully 1500 grams at maturity. Bischoff for a like
reason would raise Tiedemann’s 1254 grams to 1422 grams, and von Liebig’s 1352 to
1450 grams at the least. At the autopsy on von Liebig there was found “ considerable
fluid under the arachnoid” and that ‘the brain had already lost much in its nutrition
during the last days of life” may be deduced from the fact that it lost in weight very
rapidly after immersion in alcohol, namely, 34 per cent. in the first month and 50 per
cent. after about six years. Daniel Webster, with a cranial capacity of 1995 ¢.¢., prob-
ably had a brain weighing 1735 grams, whereas after death it weighed over 200 grams
less. Spurzheim, with a skull capacity of 1950 e.c., which would indicate a brain-
weight of 1695 grams, had an actual weight of only 1559 grams. The brain of von
Pettenkofer, who died at the age of 82, showed, Dr. Bollinger writes, a mild degree of

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 209

beginning atrophy. The brain of the ethnologist and geologist J. W. Powell showed
distinct signs of atrophy, and those of Whewell, C. Bischoff, and Fallmerayer are
similar examples. That of the Hon. B. G. Ferris, an active lawyer and politician who
lived to be 89 years old, is doubtless another instance of such senile atrophy.

Aside from these atrophic changes there occur the inevitable errors due to varia-
tions in the amount of fluid and blood contained in the cavities and the brain sub-
stance itself, and in the thickness of the pia-arachnoid. ‘These recur so frequently
in brain-weighings that in the absence of special data they may be neglected, since
relativity of the weights is not much impaired. So far as the writer knows, all of the
brains here tabulated were weighed with the pia-arachnoid. As those of Bischoff’s
and Marchand’s tables, used here for comparison, were weighed under like conditions,
no further allowance need be made.

Other factors known to affect brain-weight, such as stature, nationality, body-
weight and build, ete., cannot well be considered in these cases; the necessary data
are insufficient for the purposes of a critical estimate of these influences. Marshall
has essayed to do this with the brain-weights of Thackeray, Grote, Grant, Babbage
and DeMorgan.

_ In my table no attempt at correction for the various deteriorating influences above
mentioned has been made, and all further discussion is based upon these figures ex-
clusively.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

TABLE I.

Nemes Age. Occupation. Nationality. | te
Turgenev. 65 Poet and novelist. Russian. 2012
Bouny. Jurist. French. 1935
Cuvier. 63 Naturalist. German descent. 1830
Knight, E. H. 59 Mechanician. American. 1814
(Kraus, F. X.). 42 Theologian. German. 1800
Abercrombie. 64 Physician. English. | 1786
Butler, Benj. F. 74 Statesman. American. 1758
Olney, Edward. 59 Mathematician. American. 1701
Levi, Herman. 60 Composer. German. 1690
Winchell, A. 67 Geologist. American. 1666
Thackeray. 52 Humorist. English. 1658
Lenz, Rudolf. Composer. German. ? 1636
Goodsir. 53 Anatomist. English. 1629
Curtice. 68 Mathematician. American. 1612
Atherton. 49 U.S. Senator. American. 1602
Siemens. 68 Physicist. German. 1600
Brown, George. 61 Journalist. Canadian. 1596
Konstantinoff. 25 Author. Bulgarian. 1595
Pepper, William. Physician. American. 1593
Harrison, R. A. 45 Jurist. Canadian. 1690
Hermann, F. B. W. 73 Economist. German. 1590
Riebeck. 61 u German. 1580
Buchner. 51 Hygienist. German. 1560
Bittner. 57 Playwright. German. 1556
Lavollay. Merchant and publicist. French. 1550
Cope. 57 Paleontologist. American. 1545
McKnight. 57 Physician. American. 1545
Allen, Harrison. 56 Anatomist. American. 1531
Simpson. 59 Physician. English. 1531
Train, G. F. 75 Promoter. American. 1525
Taguchi. 66 Anatomist. Japanese. 1520
Dirichlet. 54 Mathematician. French. 1520
De Morny. 54 Statesman. French. 1520
Webster. 70 Statesman. American. 1518
Lord Campbell. 82 Statesman. English. 1517
Wright, C. 45 Philosopher. American. 1516
Schleich. 55 Author. German. 1503
Chalmers. 67 Theologian. English. 1503
Mallery. 63 Ethnologist. American. 1503
Seguin, E. C. 5D Neurologist. French descent. 1505
Napoleon ITT. 65 Sovereign. French. 1500
Fuchs. 52 Pathologist. German. 1499
Agassiz. 66 Naturalist. French descent. 1495
Giacomini. - 58 Anatomist. Ttalian. 1495
De Morgan. 73 Mathematician. English. 1494
Gauss. 78 Mathematician. German. 1492
Letourneau. 71 Anthropologist. French. 1492
( 3) 53 Statesman. Swedish. 1489
Powell. 68 Anthropologist. American. 1488
Pfeufer. 63 Physician. German. 1488
Wuelfert. 63 Jurist. German. 1485
Broca. 56 Anthropologist. French. 1484
Mortillet. 77 Anthropologist. French. 1480
Aylett. 58 Physician. American. 1474

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Lord Jeffrey.
Asseline.
Skobeleff.
Bischoff, C. H. E.
Gylden.
Kobell.
Mihalkovicez.
Dupuytren.
Siljestrém.
Rice, A. T.
Oliver.

Meyr, M.
Leidy, Philip.
Nussbaum.
Grote.
Huber.

Pond, J. B.
Babbage.
Assézat.
Kupffer.
Bertillon.
Goltz.
Coudereau.
Whewell.
Wistar, Isaac J.
Wilson.
Szilagyi.
Ridinger.
Schmid.
Hovelacque.

Bischoff, T. L. W.

Cheve.

Gross, S. D.
Hermann, C. F.
Liebig.
Schlagintweit.
Fallmerayer.
Bennett.
Pettenkofer.
Senzel.

Zeyer.

Kolar.

Grant, R. E.
Whitman.
Cory.
Guardia.
Seguin, Edouard.
Tiedemann.
Lasaulx.
Laborde.
Buhl.
Hausmann.
Ferris.

Gall.

|

TABLE I.— Continued.
Occupation.

Jurist.
Journalist.
General.
Physician.
Astronomer.
Geologist.
Biologist.
Surgeon.
Physicist.
Diplomat and editor.
Mathematician.
Philosopher.
Physician.
Surgeon.
Historian.
Author.

Soldier and lecture-manager.

Mathematician.
Journalist.
Anatomist.
Anthropologist.
Physiologist.
Physician.
Philosopher.
General.

U. S. Vice-president.
Statesman.
Anatomist.
Author.
Statesman.
Anatomist.

9
Physician.
Philologist.
Chemist.
Naturalist.
Historian.
Physician.
Pathologist.
Sculptor.
Architect.
Dramatist.
Astronomer.
Poet.
Physician.

9

Psychiatrist.
Anatomist.
Philologist.
Physiologist.
Anatomist.
Naturalist.
Jurist.

Phrenologist and anatomist.

Nationality.

English.
French.
Russian.
German,
Swedish.
German.
Hungarian.
French.
Swedish.
American.
American.
German.
American.
German.
English.
German.
American.
English.
French.
German.
French.
German.
French.
English.
American.
American.
Hungarian.
German.
German.
French.
German.
French.
American.
German.
German.
German.
German.
English.
German.
French.
German.
Bohemian.
English.
American.
English.
Spanish.
French.
German.
German.
French.
German.
German.
American.
German.

21

Brain-
weight.

1471

1468
1457
1452
1452
1445
1440
1437
1422
1418
1418
1415
1415
1410
1410
1409
1407
14038
1403
1400
1398
1895
1390
1389
1389
1389
1380
1380
1374
1373
1370
1365
1361
1358
1352
1352
1349
1332
1320
1312
1320
1300
1290

1282 °

1276
1272
1257
1254
1250

]

~

Die, STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.
TasLE I.— Continued.
Diep INSANE.

Name Age. Occupation. Nationality. | ane
Collier. 45 Attorney and politician. English descent. | 1720
Steinitz. 64 Chess-player. German descent. 1462
Altmann. 48 Anatomist. German. 1460
Donizetti. 47 Composer. Italian. 1391
Schumann. 46 Composer. German. 1352
Ludwig II. 41 Sovereign. German. | 1349
Smetana. _ 60 Composer. i oe. Bohemian. — | 1250

DoustruL: Could not be verified or were not weighed fresh.
| (1700
Helmholtz. 73 Physicist and physiologist. German. 1508
(1440
Combe, Andrew. 49 Phrenologist. English. 1616
Spurzheim. 56 Anatomist and phrenologist. German. ? 1559
Leidy, Joseph. | 67 | Naturalist. American. | eae
Vajda, Janos. Poet. Hungarian. 1500
Lamarque, Gen. | 63 General. French. 1449
(Doctor philos. ) 78 ? Swedish. 14°.9
Schubert. 70 Composer. German. 1420
Lasker. Jurist and politician. German. 1300
Harless. 42 Physiologist. German. 1238
Doellinger. 71 Anatomist and physiologist. German. 1207
_ Gambetta. 44 Statesman. French. | 1160
Germans and Austrians . 38
Americans (incl. Canada) . 27
Frenchmen 20
British et:
Swedes 8
Russians 2
Italian 1
Spanish 1
Bulgarian . 1
Japanese 1
108
Average
Cases. Brain-weight.
Americans (incl. Canadians) 5 2 1519
British (inel. Seots) . 14 1481
Frenchmen . 20 1456

Germans and Austrians

. 38

1439

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 213

The average (arithmetical) brain-weight of the 108 individuals is 1473 grams,
exceeding the various averages given for the European brain by 75 to 100 grams, and
this without allowing for the advanced age of the men in this series,

A better appreciation of the greater average brain-weight of these notable persons
can be formed from a glance at the chart (Fig. 1) showing the distribution of “ ordi-

| Gms. W050, \1150| \05 «sso |= \es «| N55, |165d = \s750, = 85 ln950| 2050) |

Fic. 1. Chart showing the relatively greater number of heavier brains among the (100) ‘‘ eminent men”? (see solid
line) as compared with the distribution of the ordinary brain-weights of the combined series (1334 cases) of Bischoff,
Marchand and Topinard — tabulated for convenience in comparison on the bases of 100 cases. *
nary” and “eminent” brain-weights. It shows a relatively greater number of heavier
brains among the noted individuals, and the chart in Fig. 2 shows the same relation
in another manner. It is further shown that the period of decrease with age is de-
ferred for fully a decade among the more intellectual persons, a point already alluded
to by Donaldson and significant in connection with the longevity of healthy persons
endowed with high intelligence.

In proceeding to a further analysis it seems best to distribute these men of emi-
nence among the three categories of science, creative arts and “action.” In submit-
ting these lists, the writer feels constrained to repudiate any intention of maintaining

* Figures 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14 and 21 are reproduced here through the courtesy of the editor of the American Anthro-
pologist. They served to illustrate a similar but less detailed discussion on brain-weight and brain-size in connection with
the author’s studies on the brain of Major J. W. Powell.

214 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

the classification above adopted to be one meeting all the requisites involved. The
simple division into representatives of science, creative arts and action is necessitated
by the smallness of numbers; a proper rubrication would leave more than one im-
portant division represented by only one or two individuals. Aside from the failure
of three groups to provide for the various branches of mental activity as manifested
in various professions—here conventionally adopted—it were doubtful if mature

45 55 65 75. 9
po [remedial

eee

Fic. 2. Curves of average brain-weights per decade in the series of (97) ‘‘eminent men’’ compared with the
Broca—Bischoff-Boyd series. The curves show the eminent men to be higher in the scale, and further that the senile
decrease becomes marked a decade later than in the ‘‘ ordinary ’’ series.

reflection would endorse such classification. The latter is far from a natural one, for it
does not regard the intrinsic physiological relations of the professions, arts and sciences.
For example, the sharp demarcation of art and science leaves music and mathematics
abruptly and remotely separated ; yet, whatever justifiable presumption exists as to the
relations of cortical fields would assign both to closely situated, nay, in almost identi-
cal areas, tracts, and neurones of such. Again, to place, for example, generals in one
group, is to throw in a chaos of unrelated units the mathematical genius, the geo-
graphical explorer, the expert physicist with the strategic adventurer and opportune
gambler of the battlefield chess-board.

With these limitations the following table expresses the results of such classifica-

tions in condensed form :

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 215

Categories. No. of Cases. Average. Average Brain-

a sa) iF I ts : weight.
RCE ETEROT SOLON CES. ase cheater | oucscsecsocessee! oo eee 9 67.9 1542
eee Oa ON LUE MIPS CION COB Sc oc suc ccacxcetepsveseeceerecce 48 64.0 1453.1
(EEUU SCLETIGOSS) cccccees, Aeedscsectvcuceecschee ees (57) (64.7) (1467.1)
ep hime Artsy PAWOSOphy, C&C: ..........0cc0sscsees 24 57.6 1479.0
Ill. Men of action (Government, Politics, Law,
a Military. )........ deteneeeeeceneteeeeeees asec eeeees 23 61 1516.3
_ Total AVETALES, ....<-022escerevereenses Saanessees 107 62.3 1439.3

Of course, every rule has its exceptions, and, with this limitation, the inference
that the intellectual status is in some way reflected in the mass and weight of the
brain seems generally correct. But further than this our analysis shows that the
brains of men devoted to the higher intellectual occupations, such as the mathematical
sciences, involving the most complex mechanisms of the mind, those of men who
have devised original lines of research (Cuvier) and those of forceful characters, like
Ben Butler and Daniel Webster, are generally heavier still. The results are fully in
accord with biological truths.

Tue CRANIAL CApAcity oF Eminent Men.

The following list shows the capacity of the skulls of 64 notable men. Not all of
these have been measured by exactly the same methods and the result is doubtlessly
not quite accurate. Nor can we be quite sure that all of these skulls have been iden-
tified correctly. The vicissitudes of the bones of even the most eminent deceased quite
preclude authenticity in every case. For example, Welcker has been able to show
that a skull alleged to be Schiller’s could not have been his at all. The identity of the
skull of Sir Thomas Browne is still in dispute.

Another report which has been quoted frequently relates to the skull of Bismarck.
I am unable to find any authentic account of a post-mortem examination and all refer-
ences to the brain-weight and cranial capacity seem to be founded upon certain meas-
urements made upon Bismarck’s head during life. These measurements were taken
during the summer of 1895 by the sculptor Schaph, of Berlin, who made the Bismarck
statue at Cologne. ‘The head-length was 21.2 cm., the head-width 17.0 em. The
cranial capacity was estimated at 1965 cu. cm. This led to the estimation of the
probable brain-weight as 1867 grams (Welcker’s coefficient being used), or 1710 grams
(Manouvrier’s coefficient). Mies: Tiigliche Rundschau,” April 17-18, 1895.

The list of cranial capacities which follows has been collected from numerous
sources; the majority are taken from the writings of Welcker, Schaafhausen,
Manouvyrier, Topinard, Nicolucci and Holl.

Several investigators have attempted to estimate brain-weight approximately

A. P.S.—XXI. Y. 12, 10, °07.

216

STUDY

from the cranial capacity.

OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

The difficulties that are encountered in this procedure are

obvious, for the factors of age, cranial form, state of nutrition and the conditions of

disease prior to death influence the calculations considerably.

Welcker, Bischoff,

Weisbach, Manouvrier, Topinard and Bolk have devoted not a little study to the

subject.

Name.

E > x ay . |
Cranial Capacity in
Cubic Centimeters.

| Cubic Centimeters.

Thos. Browne.
La Fontaine, poet.
Bésard, banker.
Sestini.
Blumauer, poet.
Voigt, mathematician.
Blanchard, aeronaut.

St. Ambrosius, theologian.
Kreibig, violinist.

Junger, poet.

Gauthier, pedagog.

Arnoldi, orientalist.
Cassaigne, jurist.

Duc de Bourgogne.
Beethoven, composer.

Volta, physicist.

Kant, philosopher.

Safarjik.

Frére David, mathematician.
Jourdan, Marshall of France.
De Zach, astronomer.

von Rheinwald, scholar.
Chenovix, chemist.

Caréme, cuisinier.

Descartes, philosopher.
Brunacci.

Gall, phrenologist.
Unterberger, fils.

Boileau, poet.

Robert Bruce.

Bigonnet.

Bordoni.

1955
1950
1940
1850
1846
1826
1793
1792
1785
1773
1770
1750
1750
1750
1750
1745
1740
17388
1736
1729
1715
1710
1709
1708
1706
1701
1700
1692
1690
1690
1685
1681

Pére Prosper, theologian.
Hett, physician.

| Unterberger, pére, painter.

“R. P. X.,’’ theologian.
Jean Kollar, poet.

Pére Mallet, theologian.
Lacloture.

‘Homme de peine.”’

Thouvenin, artistic bookbinder.

Choron. musician.
Petrarch, poet.

Bunger, anatomist and surgeon. |

Hamerling, poet.
Kreutzer, musician.
Sallaba, physician.
Juvenal des Ursins, historian.
von Mosheim.

Gen. Wurmeser.
Cerachi, sculptor.
Alxinger, poet.
Fusinieri, physicist.
Heinse, poet.

Haydn, poet.

Dante, poet.

Bach, composer.
Scarpa, surgeon.
Foscolo, poet.
Leibnitz, philosopher.
Raphael, painter.

d@’ Arles, antiquary.
de Bussuejole, bishop.
Philip Meckel.

1680
1675
1665
1663
1655
1650
1630
1620
1615
1608
1602
1600
1583
1579
1575
1530
1530
15380
1520
1507
1502
1500
1500
1493
1480
1455
1426
1422
1420
1420
1372
1320

Average 1650

Welcker found that the coefficient which expresses the ratio between cranial

capacity and brain-weight is not uniform for both large and small skulls.

ings may be summarized in the following table (after Welcker):

Cranial Capacity in Cubic
Centimeters.

1200-1300
1800-1400
1400-1500
1500-1600
1600-1700

Coefficient.
91

92

94

95

His

«| Average .935

find-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 217

Name Age. Cranial Capacity. sare Coefficient.
(OOS) sh se ease 57 1645 1545 94
WIGHEDOMeserastes ces eerscscwent sen wesces 70 1999.5 1518 -76
PB ONE OD eran arn teeeiieti sss2aacees acres 62 1553 1398 .89
(Boban. cris. cc 5 dtics.seieeaenss 46 1510 1352 .89 )
TG) oe Sane Pee C ee RO ee eRe nICOER eee 70 1550 1352 .875
Galle ee ree reese ese. SM 70 1692 1198 71
(SET cig ee Bee 44 1382 1160? 84?)

Rather in the nature of an experiment than as a final tabulation of estimated
brain-weights of eminent men I here employ both Welcker’s and Manouvrier’s co-
efficients, the resulting figures being tabulated in parallel :

Welcker’s | Manouvyrier’s Manouvrier’s| Welcher’s
Name. Method in | Method in Name. Method in | Method in
Grams. | Grams. Grams. Grams.
= S| = = = =
Thos. Browne. 1857 1701 || Pére Prosper. 1597 1462
La Fontaine. | 1852 1696 Hett. 1592 1457
Bésard. 1843 1688 Unterberger, pére 1578 1449
Sestini. 1757 1609 Ue lit, Mek Coe 1575 1447
Blumauer. 1752 | 1606 Jean Kollar. 1567 1440
Voigt. 1733 | 1589 Pére Mallet. 1561 1435
Blanchard. 1702 | 1560 Lacloture. 1545 1418
St. Ambrosius. 1701 | 1559 ““ Homme de peine.’’ 1537 1409
Kreibig. 1695 | 15538 Thouvenin. 1533 1405
Junger. 1682 | 15438 Choron. 1528 1399
Gauthier. 1680 1540 Petrarch. 1522 1394
Arnoldi. 1662 1522 Binger. 1520 1392
Cassaigne. ; 1662 1522 || Hamerling. 1488 1377
Duc de Bourgogne. 1662 1522 Kreutzer. 1485 1374
Beethoven. 1662 1522 Sallaba. 1480 1370
Volta. 1660 1521 Juvenal des Ursins. 1438 1331
Kant. 1653 1514 von Mosheim. 1438 1331
Safarjik. | 1650 1512 Gen. Wurmeer. 1430 1323
Frére David. |. 1648 | 1510 Cerachi. 1429 1322
Jourdan. | 1642 | 1504 Alxinger. 1416 1311
De Zach. | 1626 | ~ 1492 Fusinieri. 1412 1307
von Rheinwald. | 1621 | 1488 || Heinse. 1410 1305
Chenovix. | 1619 1487 Haydn. 1410 1305
Caréme. i Leny 1486 Dante. 1388 1299
Descartes. | 1615 1484 Bach. 1376 1288
Brunacci. 1610 1480 Scarpa. 1355 1266
Gall. 1609 1479 Foscolo. 1330 1241
Unterberger, fils. | 1607 1472 Leibnitz. 1322 1235
Boileau. | 1605 1470 Raphael. 1320 1235
Robert Bruce. | 1605 1470 D’ Arles. 1320 1235
Bigonnet. | 160 1466 De Brussuejole. 1262 1193
Bordoni. | 1597 | 1462 Philip Meckel. 1215 1148
I Averages. 1561 | 14386

skulls.

Bolk’s figures are based upon examinations of 90 male and 50 female brains and

Prior to the 50th year the cranio-encephalic coefficient is .93.

This becomes

218 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

reduced in the succeeding decades until, in the ninth decade the coefficient sinks
to .86.

Manouvrier has adopted as a good working coefficient: .87, while Nicolucci’s
is .885.

Among the notable men discussed in this memoir there are 7 in whom both
brain-weight and cranial capacity have been recorded. The resultant coefficients are
added in the list. Schumann belongs to the list of the insane, while Gambetta’s brain
was undoubtedly influenced by the zine chloride mixture with which the body had
been preserved before the autopsy.

IDE

Before proceeding to a discussion of the results of anatomical examinations of the
brains of the notable persons considered in this memoir the writer ventures to devote
this chapter to a general exposition of modern views concerning the inter-relations of
the brain and the mind, and to lead up to a consideration of the more complex mor-
phology of the human brain by briefly tracing the stages of its evolution. In this
connection it is necessary to give greater prominence to the post-Darwinian concep-
tions of the fundamental importance of morphological investigations of the relations
which the human organism bears to other animal forms, more especially the Primates.
The demands of evolution have found favorable response in the primate ancestor of
man and the general laws of natural selection must be taken into consideration in this
connection quite as much as in any other morphological question. Evolution may be
said to consist chiefly in the development of means whereby an animal is best adapted
to the environment and successfully meets changed conditions by new adaptations —
and man is doing much in directing the steps of his own evolution. The cause and
effect of human evolutionary progress are both to be found in the story of man’s brain-
development. Man’s competence to deal intelligently with the problem of his exist-
ence determines his superiority to all other types. Man is self-conscious to a remark-
able degree and capable of selecting and adopting methods for the preservation of his
species in a way which no other animal form has yet attained.

The central neryous system of man and the other vertebrates consists of a sym-
metrical apparatus called the cerebro-spinal axis, of which the cephalic extremity in
early embryonic life exhibits an intense growth-energy that is indicative of the higher
functional potentiality of what is to develop into the brain. ‘The spinal cord with its
centrifugal nerves for movements and centripetal nerves for impressions, passes into
the skull, becoming slightly enlarged to form the oblongata with its life-centers and
cranial nerve roots. At the upper edge of the oblongata a thick band of transverse
fibers unites the two lobes of the cerebellum; this structure is known as the pons.

tf

218

7

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XIV.

A. J. PARKER

PAPUAN
PAPUAN
CHIMPANZEE
PITHECAN-
BABOON THROPUS
(HYPOTHETICAL)
MACACUS SEMNO=
PITHECUS
GORILLA
CEBUS
MARMOSET LEMUR MYCETES
‘a 2 YG Iesmatan arre scl in Ci HATS 7) nN ‘ I
Fic. 3. Brains of Primates arranged in phyletic series. Fic. 4. The brain of a Papuan and the hypothetical contour of the

brain of Pithecanthropus (drawn into the cranial outline) interposed be-
tween the brain of a highly intellectual person and that of a gorilla.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 219

Above this the axial fibers divide into two bundles called the cerebral crura, one to
the left and the other to the right; and spreading forwards and outwards go to form
(in part) the cerebral hemispheres, on the surface of which is a layer of gray substance,
the cerebral cortex. The white portion is made up of conducting nerye-fibers, the
gray is the sentient and reacting mass containing numerous nerve-cells from which the
fibers arise. Many fibers pass to other regions of the gray matter within the hemi-
cerebrum on one side, and also, by means of commissures, to the hemicerebrum of the
other side. Of these commissures the callosum is the largest and most important ; it
is a bundle of white fibers which is largest in the brain of man, smallest (or only just
beginning to develop) in the Marsupial and entirely absent in the lower animals.

In the embryo the cerebro-spinal axis begins as a simple tube of nervous tissue,
but in the course of development and growth, especially among the higher vertebrates,
various segments undergo thickening, expansion, elongation and flexion. It is the
enlargement of the brain which causes the formation of the headbend together with
the marked modifications in the skull. Some of the encephalic segments are but
slightly modified, others become metamorphosed into complex and important struc-
tures, while the cavity of the neural tube is represented by the ventricles of the brain
and the narrow spinal canal. The most striking specialization in the Primate brain is
seen in the cerebral parts. No contrast could be greater than is to be seen in the com-
parison of the tiny cerebral appendage of the “olfactory brain” of the earliest verte-
brates with the huge cerebral mantle and dwindled olfactory apparatus in the Anthro-
pomorpha. This remarkable expansion of the cerebral hemispheres with which man
does his thinking is the latest development in the evolution of the brain. If we study
brains arranged in phyletic series, say from the fishes through the reptiles and birds to
the mammals of low and high order, we see the other segments of the brain progres-
sively overlapped by the cerebral hemispheres until we find in the brain of man that
supremacy in size and complexity of thought-apparatus which so distinguishes him
from other species. The amplified development of the special senses and of the
locomotive organization has involved the augmentation of coordinating systems. Thus
the synchronous development of the hand and the intellectual faculties has been one
of the most important factors in the forming of the massive brain which places man
at the head of animal creation.

Perhaps no theme in all the natural sciences interests us so much as our kinship
with the ape. Proofs of the blood-relationship uniting man and monkey abound on
all sides and a general agreement as to man’s place in the zoological system seems
permanently fixed. But in the mental powers of the Anthropomorpha (true apes) in
particular we see their kinship with man shown quite as much as in their physical

220 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

likeness to our species. Their use of the hands and arms and their facial expressions
are quite human. In their intellectual recognition of things they are far superior to
the lower animals and as they most closely approach man in their mental character-
istics we are naturally interested in the architecture of their brain and the mechanism
of their mind.

Whatever series of organs is studied and compared, complete justification is found
for the claim that the Primates— the highest order of mammals so named by
Linnaeus 170 years ago— form a natural monophyletic group. I will not attempt
here to discuss the inter-relations of the subgroups or recite the prevailing inferences
as to the genealogical tree of man. Suffice it to say that these inferences are yearly
amplified and strengthened by new finds in morphological and paleontological lines
of research. At all events the tailless apes show in their development the immediate
transition to the human form. One species may be nearest to man in the number of
ribs as the orang, or in the character of the cranium, dentition and proportional size
of the arms, as the chimpanzee. The gorilla is nearest to man in the proportions of
the leg to the body and of the foot to the hand, in the curvature of the spine, form of
the pelvis and absolute cranial capacity. The gibbon of all the Anthropomorpha is
most remote from man, but its erect attitude, its femur and other skeletal parts are
more human than in any other genera. Then there are several fossil forms apparently
belonging to this group, from Dryopithecus (Middle Miocene) to the Pithecanthropus in
which human characters preponderate. But while fossil specimens of bones and teeth
are rare enough, the perishability of the brain renders its natural preservation prac-
tically impossible and we are compelled to draw our own inferences concerning the
morphology of this organ from a comparison of the brains of modern living forms,
assisted by studies of the cranial configuration of extinct types.

Embryological studies are of the greatest aid in elucidating many otherwise
obscure stages in development. Thus it is seen that the human and anthropoid cranial
form is the universal embryonic norm from which the skulls of all mammals develop.
Every skull at or near the time of birth is orthognathic, that is, the facial angle
approximates a right angle, and each has a tendency to become more and more prog-
nathic, a type of skull in which the jaws are larger and more prominent. In the
gorilla and orang, less so in the chimpanzee, it becomes very prognathic, but in man
it is checked by anatomical correlations. The development of the jaw is more or less
closely associated with the size of the teeth and consequently with the nature of the
diet ; the bulk of the masticatory muscles and the temporal area is greater in the
more prognathic, heavy-jawed skulls, for the temporal muscle must be larger to over-
come the mechanical disadvantages of the longer lever. This muscular influence

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 221

from without was one of the factors which determined the dolicho-cephalic type of the
older stock. Prognathism becomes more and more checked the higher we go in the
scale, and the superior, brainier individuals of the higher races therefore exhibit less
prognathism and greater breadth of skull.

We find corroboration of these general statements in the comparative study of the
brains and skulls of men of notable intelligence with those of the ordinary population,
or of the highly civilized with savage tribes. Many writers have laid stress upon the
apparent relation between stature and the intellectual differences of the races of man,
their hasty conclusion being that stature had everything and brain-size nothing to do
with mental capacity. Though it be granted that the taller Anglo-Saxons have
heavier brains than the shorter Hindoos or Bushmen, a further analysis shows this
rule to be untenable in the case of other races, notably the Mongolians and their kin,
the Eskimos. Brain-weight is influenced by many factors, including age, sex, race,
stature, cranial capacity and form, body-build, state of nutrition and mode of death.
Brain-weight statistics therefore must be judged with care. It is difficult to give an ex-
act expression of the inter-relation between brain-size and mental capacity. Professor
Manouvrier, in 1882, attempted to estimate numerically the two factors in the bulk
of the brain, i. e., size of the body and the degree of the intelligence; his formula
gave concordant results as a rule, but broke down when applied to extremes. Pro-
fessor Dubois, in 1897, proposed a different method. He started with the assumption
that the brain consists entirely of central parts of the reflex ares, the function of which
is to bring sensory and motor nerves into relation with each other and he concluded
that in animals presenting the same degree of physical development the number and
weight of these reflex arcs would be proportional, approximately, to the number of
sensory nerve-fibers. In two animals in very different stages of psychical evolution
but of the same bulk, and having therefore approximately the same number of sen-
sory fibers, the animal in whom the central parts of the reflex ares attain the greater
degree of complexity will have the heavier brain. It appears from the researches of
Dubois that the cube root of the square of the weight of the animal multiplied by a
constant which varies with each species expresses with fair accuracy the relative size
of the surface of the body. If Sand s be the weight of the body of two animals their
surfaces will be

Vand Ws? or S°* and s*°.

In practice the factor is not exactly 0.6 but 0.56, the extremes being 0.54 and 0.58;
thus

W = cS,

222 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

in which W = brain-weight, S = weight of the body and c = the factor of cephaliza-
tion indicating the degree of intelligence. Thus the factor of cephalization is in

Man. . 0 gos ee ne en IES
Monkey. . . 5 « 95 nls cepts ocean a sO NGOUTEDONU Ose
Donkey. -:., 8 se ee ee cea)
Horse «ku kein geese ee eee iC
Cat... fs de ge eee ee ey ee OS ee
Dogs. es sn eg ee Gk

Among the birds we find the parrot at the head of the list; then come crows,
magpies and jays, while the stupid barn-door fowl stands lowest.

Within the range of our own species sufficient material has been collected to per-
mit of general conclusions. Microcephalic idiots have brains far under the size neces-
sary for mental integrity ; these unfortunates may live, eat and sleep, but their small

Fic. 5. Dorsal view of a Papuan brain. (In the Fic. 6. Dorsal view of the brain of Gauss. (In the
anatomical laboratory of Columbia University. ) Gottingen collection.

brains are incompatible with even passable intelligence. In most cases they cannot
command even the rudiments of a language and communication with others is limited
to simple signs and gestures. That a certain class of idiots should possess brains of
normal size, or even unusually large brains has been quite disconcerting to casual
students of the subject. The heaviest brain on record weighed over 100 ounces, or

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 223
.

twice as much as the average normal male brain. In the case of this overburdened
youth, however, there was an abnormal increase of useless tissue with a profound dim-
inution in the number of the functional elements. Structural defects of some such
kind underlie all similar cases.

Fic. 7. a. Brain of Helmholtz (after Hansemann). b. Brain of a Papuan (drawn by the author from a specimen
in the Anatomical Museum, Columbia University). c. Brain of chimpanzee.

The fruitful investigations of many anatomists and anthropologists have resulted
in the tabulation of thousands of brain-weights drawn from all the social and intel-
lectual classes, among which more than one hundred {considered in Table I) are of
men of intellectual eminence. Men of the kind who never remain steadily employed

A. P.S.—XXI. Z. 12, 10, ’07.

224 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

“

2

and who usually fail to learn even a trade stand lowest in the scale. Above them
come the mechanics and trade-workers, the clerks, the ordinary business men and
common-school teachers. Highest of all we find the men of decided mental abilities ;
the geniuses of the pencil, brush and sculptor’s chisel, the mathematicians, scholars

Cc
Fic. 8. a. Brain of Gauss, mathematician (after Wagner). 6. Brain of a Bushwoman (after Marshall). c¢. Brain
of gorilla (D. 658, Mus. Roy. Coll., Surgeons of England).

and statesmen. Vigorous minds depend not only upon the acquisition of knowledge,
but also upon the initiative power of utilizing knowledge to the best advantage ; to do
this the individual must possess a brain of superior organization. Not only must it

be large enough ; its elements must consist of the best material and the plan of con-

STUDY OF BRAINS OE SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 225

struction must be one of the most elaborate and efficient kind possible. A Swiss
watch of fine construction is a more reliable timepiece than a cheap and hastily man-
ufactured alarm-clock. In like manner the expert anatomist discerns the differences

\)
y

c

Fic. 9. a. Brain of Siljestrém, physicist and pedagog, also mathematician (after Retzius). 6. Brain of ‘‘Sartjee’’
or “‘Hottentot Venus’’ (after Gratiolet and Bischoff. c. Brain of orang-outang ‘‘ Rajah’? (drawn by the author from
specimen received from Dr. Harlow Brooks).

between the simply constructed brains of lower forms and the complex thought-
apparatus of man, and even within our own species demonstrable differences in the
elaboration of cerebral architecture have been determined. For example, the more
numerous, sinuous and ramified the cerebral fissures are, the greater is the degree of

226 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

expansion of the cerebral cortex, the number of nerve-elements is proportionately
increased and the possibilities of coordination of the separate units of thought and
action are augmented in a corresponding degree. And where the different parts of
the cortex with different functional relations possess still greater potential growth-

c

Fia. 10. a. Brain of General Skobeleff (after Sernoff). %. Brain of Professor Altmann, anatomist (from photo-
graph kindly sent by Dr. P. Niicke, of Hubertusburg). c. Brain of Gambetta (after Duval).

energy, the number of infoldings will be greater and the fissuration more accentuated
and compact. This is at least true of brains within the primate order of animals.
Che brain of a first-class genius like Friedrich Gauss is as far removed from that of

the savage Bushman as that of the latter is removed from the brain of the nearest

526

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XV.

Hic. 11. 1. Brain of Helmholtz (after photo of cast by Hansemann). 2. Brain of Papuan from
British New Guinea; specimen in Anatomical Laboratory at Columbia University, New York.
3. Brain of Gorilla (D. 658, Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons of England).

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. BAT

related ape. We find expression for these differences not only in the degree of fissural
and gyral development of the cerebrum, but also in the actual weight of the brain:
The range of brain-weight within the human species is a very wide one, from a
Turgeneff’s brain weighing 2012 grams or a Cuvier’s weighing 1830 grams to that of
a Zulu weighing only 1050 grams. ‘There is a distinct gap between the lowest brain-
weight of a normal human being and the highest figure recorded for an anthropoid
(425 grams in a gorilla), but more finds of a pithecanthropoid character like that
found in the Trinil bed in Java will speedily serve to supply the deficiency.

The pattern of the fissures and convolutions in the brains of the higher anthro-
poids and man presents the same general features in all these types. As we trace the
stages of the development of man’s great brain through the lower forms we observe
how, in a number of ways, in consequence of the demands of evolution, certain regions
of the cerebrum assume a greater energy of growth and expand in proportion to the
rise in functional dignity of these areas. These regions of “unstable equilibrium”
present numerous details of fissural and gyral arrangement which differ not only in
different individuals but also in the cerebral halves of the same individual. The care-
ful study of these regional redundancies has resulted in the formulation of a most im-
portant statement in the physiology of the central nervous system. Man and the
higher anthropoids possess many points in common with reference to their anatomic
structure, their habits and their mode of life; but over and above these traits man
possesses an associative memory or ability to register and compare sensations far
greater than that of the highest ape. Small wonder, then, that this supremacy of the
intellect should find somatic expression in the greater size and complexity of structure
of the human brain. ‘hat is why the association areas constitute the greater portion
of the cerebral cortex of man’s brain. ‘This relative increase of association-cortex de-
mands a still more intricate inter-connection of the many nerve cells by a multitude
of association fibers; hence the great preponderance of white matter in the brain of
man as compared with that of any inferior species. These coordinating fibers never
project outward from the brain to the periphery. They are as truly representative of
the complexity of man’s thought-apparatus as the number of inter-connecting wires
within a telephone “central” station is indicative of the amplitude of connections
possible in that system. A brain made up of gray matter only would be as useless as
a telephone system with all its inter-connecting wires destroyed.

With the aid of the microscope the maturing of the brain-elements can be fol-
lowed from the earliest stages of embryonic life to the period of senescence. One of the
important stages in the growth of each nerve-element within the brain is the acquisi-
tion of a medullary sheath which surrounds the axis-cylinder process (axone) along

228 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

which impulses are carried. The curious fact to be remembered in this connection is
that the function of nerve-fibers within the brain is only established when the medul-
lary sheath has developed. But this development of mature nerve-fibers does not oc-
cur simultaneously throughout the brain, but step by step in a definite order of suc-
cession; equally important bundles of fibers are developed (medullated) simultane-
ously, but those of dissimilar importance develop one after another in accordance with
a biological law recently formulated by Professor Flechsig. This successive medulla-
tion of bundles of fibers going to the various areas of the cortex closely corresponds to
the successive awakenings of mental activities and faculties in the growing child. Now
whether a given child shall be normal, backward or precocious depends largely, if not
wholly, upon this progressive ripening of the numerous nerve-elements of the brain.
When the maturing process is a slow one and the stimulating training of ordinary —
educational methods finds only slight response, the child remains backward and may
ever be feeble-minded. Contrariwise, the rapid and early development of a brain that
is generously planned to begin with often results in a mental superiority that is only
found in the precocious genius. Why some brains develop slowly and others rapidly
is another question to be relegated to the consideration of the “inequality of man.”
In the precocious genius it must for the present be assumed that the ripening of the
nerve-fibers is perhaps stimulated by some obscure bio-chemical conditions which are
less marked or less effectual in the ordinary child. It is fair to assume some such
chemical factor, for the absence or impairment of function of the thyroid gland, which
is invariably associated with mental failure and retention of the infantile state so
characteristic of sporadic cretinism, cannot be disregarded in this connection. We
need not assume that the secretions of the thyroid gland alone are essential ; many
other substances, as yet undiscovered, may be as necessary. Who knows whether
there may not be some substance which stimulates brain-development just as the
adrenal secretion stimulates the unstriped muscle cells of the arterial system to con-
tract. Indeed, the early ripening of the brain sometimes seems to be an expression of
over-stimulation by some substance either in itself toxic or produced in abnormal
quantity or strength. It is suggestive that some infant prodigies fail to uphold them-
selves beyond the age of puberty and usually fall prey to the ravages of tuberculosis
or other constitutional diseases.

The history of the latest epoch of animal life upon this planet is the history of
the development of man’s progressive brain. The attainment of the erect attitude by
Pithecanthropus, our direct ancestor, the gradual acquisition of reasoning and ideation
as well as manual skill were the chief factors in bringing about the superior structure
of the human brain. Perhaps the most important stimulus to brain-deyelopment was

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XVI.

Fie. 12. 1. Frontal Aspect of the Brain of a Papuan of British New Guinea. 2. Frontal Aspect of the Brain of George Francis Train. This is in many

respects one of the best developed brains on record.

CAT. BABOON. MAN.

Fic. 13. Cross-sections of the brains of the cat, baboon and man — taken at approximately the same plane, and drawn of about the same size to better
show the relatively greater mass of white matter in the human brain.

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STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 229

afforded by the acquisition of the faculty of speech — “the most human manifestation
of humanity,” as Huxley termed it — and the successful localization of this faculty in
certain regions of the cerebrum was the first of a series which resulted in the delinea-
tion of a good working-map of the somesthetic* sense- and association-areas of the
brain. Asa doctrine slowly evolved out of the primitive ideas of the phrenologist
Gall, cerebral localization remains firmly established and now renders surgical inter-
vention possible in cases heretofore considered beyond aid. In some quarters there is
a tendency to revert to phrenology and phrenological methods in localizing the pas-
sions and emotions—the moral qualities as distinguished from the intellect. It isa
fascinating topic and much has been thought and said upon it. In a crude way every
one is a phrenologist and a physiognomist, for it is common to hear it said of this or
that individual : “He has a brutal head ; a brutal face”; ‘ A noble head, a fine face”
—without exactly knowing why we say so. It would be a great benefit to the com-
munity if the subtle moral qualities could be gauged and expressed in exact terms.
The most recent attempt to do this was made by Dr. Bernard Hollander in his book :
“The Mental Functions of the Brain.” His claims are very pretentious and he departs
but little from the old theories of phrenology throughout his argument. The work
contains many errors and the data are handled so loosely that one is easily prejudiced
against the author’s views and one may rightly question the soundness of his judg-
ment. On the whole the work has added little to the conclusions previously arrived
at in clinical neurology.

As for the correlation of cranial development with the mental and moral attributes
of an individual, phrenology has signally failed to afford a satisfactory means for
investigation. To some degree the characters of skull-form indicate relatively greater
development of this or that division of the brain, but always in corroboration of our
present-day knowledge concerning the localization of the mental functions only. Thus
in composers like Bach and Beethoven the skull indicated an enormous development
of the posterior association areas. In the skull of the philosopher Leibnitz there was
a great development of the right parietal and left subfrontal regions. The same was
true of the skull of Immanuel Kant.

When we come to consider cerebral localization in the light of brain-evolution, it
will be seen that the acquisition of such mental functions as language, abstract thought,
ideation and reasoning have been the chief factors in bringing about the superior
structure of the human brain, and, and we have just learned, any given region of the
cortex gains in functional dignity with the increase of its association. When we remem-

* By somesthetic areas I mean those which are devoted to the registration of cutaneous impressions, impressions

from the muscles, tendons and joints ; in short, the sense of movement.

230 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

ber that the cortex of the human brain contains, in round numbers, 9,000,000,000
functional nerve-cells, we need not wonder at man’s capacity for the manifold registra-
tion of sensations and the numerous transformations that characterize his mental
processes.

Considering now the chief mental faculties, we find that in man’s sensory apper-
ception of things vision and audition play the most important roles in the develop-
ment of intelligent thought. As Jastrow has entertainingly written in his paper:
‘“ Eye-mindedness and Ear-mindedness”’ . . . “ Man is a visual animal ; as a race we
are eye-minded. We regard ‘“‘seeing”’ as believing; and we say “we see” when we
comprehend.”

But not all men are endowed with tbe same visual and visualizing powers, and
such variations form a basis for interesting studies. Among scientists, for example,
some will be found to be good visualizers, observers of concrete things with good powers
of memorizing and recalling their visual impressions. Others are poor visualizers, ow-
ing, perhaps, as Galton remarks, “to their busying themselves with abstractions and
generalizations, in which such a faculty would be inconvenient and thus fail to be
cultivated.” In the brains of Joseph Leidy and Cope, hereinafter described, this dif-
ference between the thinker in the abstract and the observer of the concrete appears
to be expressed in the relative redundancy of the frontal sphere of abstract thought
in the one brain, and of the posterior association areas in the other.

Next to sight, the sense of hearing is the most valuable intellectual instrument.
This faculty, too, varies with individuals and the “auditory type” is rarer than the
visual type. Beethoven and Mozart are examples of its highest development. The
fact that Beethoven was deaf does not invalidate the theory that his central auditory
associations were superiorly developed.

The tactile and muscular sensations and the faculties of taste and smell also enter
into our psychic life in different degrees. Artists and others skilled in the use of their
hands use the tactile and muscular sense considerably in association with the visual
and auditory faculties. When, however, a person is deprived of sight and hearing,
the tactile sense may be developed to such an unusual extent as to practically recom-
pense the individual. We see a “tactile memory” remarkably developed in the
cases of Laura Bridgman, Helen Keller and others. Miss Sullivan, the teacher of
Miss Keller, writes that both she and Miss Keller “remember in their fingers” what
they have said. For Miss Keller to spell a sentence in the manual alphabet impresses
it on her mind just as we learn a thing from having heard, seen or uttered it many
times and can call back the memory of its sound or appearances.

Thus we see how the senses help our minds to become cognizant of our environ-

ha

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 231

ment and form the basis of imagination, memory, thought and reasoning ; and now
we see how this very combination of sight, hearing and muscular movement leads us
to recognize at once the importance of the relation of these powers to that great corti-

~

Fig. 14. Views of right (upper figure) and left (lower figure) parieto-occipito-temporal regions in the brain of
Maj. J. W. Powell ; corresponding parts shaded. The squares mark off areas in centesimals of the cerebral length. Note
the preponderance of the right side over the left.

cal area which we know to be concerned in their association. It is this region which
we observe to be remarkably expanded in the human brain as compared with that of
the anthropoids. There are evidences presented by the brains of highly intellectual

persons which show this region to be especially redundant, not only as compared with
A. P.S.—XXI. AA. 12, 10, °07.

232 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

other brains, but particularly of the right (or preponderatingly sensory) half as com-
pared with the left.

In the mental life of man the power of speech plays so important a part that I
will briefly refer here to its chief anatomic relations. The evolution of the faculty of
speech has been admirably epitomized by Cunningham in the following words:
‘Some cerebral variation, probably trifling and insignificant at the start, and yet
pregnant with the most far-reaching possibilities, has in the stem-form of man con-
tributed to that condition which rendered speech possible. This variation, strength-
ened and fostered by natural selection, has in the end led to the great double result
of a large brain with wide and extensive association-areas and articulate speech ;
the two results being brought about by the mutual reaction of the one process upon
the other.”

Let us examine briefly the evidences of cerebral research which bear upon the
brain-centers directly concerned in the speech-faculty. In the first place, the center
for articulate speech, meaning thereby the center for the control of the tongue and
other muscles employed in articulation, has been localized in the subfrontal gyre and
adjacent portion of the precentral, in the left hemicerebrum in right-handed persons
and in the right half in left-handed persons. Nearly all observations upon this region
agree in ascribing a superior development with reference to size and differentiation in
the brains of intellectual persons. Further than this, Riidinger, Schwalbe, Kupffer
and others have found the corresponding region in the skulls of eminent men gifted
with a superior command of language (Wiilfert, Huber, Kant) to bulge more on the left
than on the right side.

A region which I believe, however, to be of not a little importance with reference
to the intellectual powers, particularly that of speech, is the insula. This is the pur-
est association center in the brain and its surface-configuration is somewhat of an index
of the degree of development of the general cerebral surfaces, particularly of those
parts which are more or less in juxtaposition with it and more or less intimately con-
nected with it functionally. Not only is the insular cortex the thickest in the cere-
bral mantle, but the abundance of the fusiform cells in the deepest layer has given
origin to the claustrum and the arcuate association fibers connected with these cells
are so numerous as to give origin to the paraclaustral lamina or capsula extrema.
This massive system of association neurones and tracts connecting the receptive sense-
areas (chiefly the auditory and visual) related to the understanding of the written and
spoken word with the emissary centers for articulate speech is most highly developed
in the brain of man and one is justified in assuming that in this region language is

organized into propositions and arranged for outward projection ; it may be termed a

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 233

language-arrangement center. Asa rule, in the brains of intellectual persons, not only
is the left insula the larger and more differentiated, but more than this, the preinsula,
which is in close juxtaposition with the cerebral centers for articulate speech, is most
redundant. ‘The significance of this redundancy of the pre- or postinsula, as the case
may be, in its relation to the greater or lesser development of neighboring somesthetic
and sense-areas, seems strongly emphasized in the form of the insule of the cetacea
and proboscidea. In these animals the postinsular region is broader, more massive
and more convoluted, a feature which, in the cetacea at least, is concomitant with the
amplitude of the cortical field of the eighth pair of cranial nerves, the functions trans-
mitted by which—both equilibrium and audition

are highly developed in the
cetacea. Here we again see how the insula, in its several parts, shares in its develop-
ment that of the adjacent sense-center, as in the cetacean brain just alluded toj; and
in man, with that of the center for articulate speech. Thus it is that the development
of the preinsular region is actually an intense expression of that feature by which the
human brain excels that of any other animal. And the more a man be a gifted dia-
lectician, the more demonstrable does this redundaney seem to be. Heredity is a
potent factor in this connection. As defects in speech are so likely to be repeated in a
family line, it seem that its skilled employment by the ancestor is similarly reflected
in the way of facile acquirability on the part of the descendant. The speech-faculty
in its intimate relations to thought expression, to memory, in its reading-form to sight,
in writing to manual muscular innervation, exquisitely hereditary as it is in life, and
accurately localizable in the ravages of disease, as shown after death, makes the study
of the insula and adjacent regions highly interesting.

We have seen that men are as variously endowed with intellectual powers as
they are with any other traits. It is our business to endeayor to ascertain why and
how some are more, some less gifted than others. It is not enough merely to admire
the genius of an Archimedes, a Newton, a Michel Angelo or a Bacon; we wish to
know how such men of “brains” were capable of their great efforts of the intellect
and what gave them the capacity for doing great things, as it were, “ without taking
pains.” When we remember that in the human species the brain has attained the
highest degree of perfection, and experience teaches that the manifestations of brain-
action differ considerably in the races and social classes; when we remember that all
that has ever been said or written, carved or painted, discovered or invented, has been
the aggregate product of multifarious brain activity, it seems but reasonable to seek
for the somatic bases for these powers and their differences in different individuals.
That the brains of men intellectually eminent should come to the hands of anatomists
for the purposes of correlating, if possible, the encephalic weight, form and fissural

234 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

pattern with their mental abilities in life, is but a sign of scientific progress and the
subject should form no unimportant branch of anthropometric research. We know
the mind of man to differ most from that of the brute in the unusual development
of the associations of recepts and concepts, 7. e., the powers of reasoning. But if in
the brain of the average man there be a hundred, or two hundred, or five hundred
connections for every fact that he remembers, their number is many times greater in
that of the intellectually superior genius. An elaboration of brain-structure must
therefore accompany the higher intelligence and it is in this direction that our re-
searches must be pursued.

I have endeavored to point out in the preceding lines some of the methods of
study that give most promise of success in our inquiry. Some of the problems which
have been receiving the most attention up to the present time are based upon the
microscopic study of the unit of the nervous system, the neurone or nerve-cell and its
axone with the numberless dendrites, and upon the intricate grouping and chaining
of these millions of neurons within the central nervous system. Not less important
are the studies of the morphologic appearances of the cortical surface, the compara-
tive extent of certain cortical areas, upon the weight of the brain and its component
parts as well as in comparison with that of the spinal cord ; of the ratio between the
collective cross-section area of the cranial nerves and of the spinal cord ; of the number
of fibers in different tracts, be they efferent, afferent or associative (such as the
callosum); on the relative bulk of gray and white matter; on the progressive
myelinization of different nerve-fiber tracts, and so on almost without end.

EVE

Turning now to the objective studies which it is the chief purpose of this memoir
to present, I now proceed to the detailed description of the brain of the six eminent
American scientists and scholars who were members of the American Anthropometric
Society.

Professor Cope stood forth as a great paleontologist. Professor Joseph Leidy was
a recognized leader of natural science who, while he developed many new facts and
deduced new laws, yet had that rare faculty of conveying to others—in simplified and
systematized form —those fundamental principles of biology so difficult for the ordi-
nary student to grasp. Dr. Philip Leidy was a celebrated physician and surgeon who
served with distinction through the Civil War and who later attained high position in
various spheres of human activity by dint of strong and inherent executive ability.
Dr. Pepper stood in the first rank among clinicians and men of affairs. Professor
Harrison Allen exhibited not a little aptitude in the direction of comparative anatomy

PLATE XVII.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC. N. S. XXI.

eph Leidy.

Fia. 16. Jos

Kia. 15. E. D. Cope.

William Pepper.

Allen.

Fig. 19. Harrison

Fig. 18. A. J. Parker.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 235

and zoology and would doubtlessly have achieved much more for science had not
his conscientious devotion to an active medical practice interfered therewith. An
untimely death prevented the name of Dr. A. J. Parker from becoming as famous
among cerebral morphologists as was indicated by his valuable and original contribu-
tions to the science of brain morphology.

It is with the assurance that I have endeavored to conduct the studies of these
notable specimens in an impartial, unprejudiced frame of mind, though ever heedful
of the fact that I was dealing with the brains of men belonging to a most brilliant
coterie of intellectual masters and leaders, that I now submit my observations in pub-
lished form.

At the risk of being thought repetitious I wish to add another word as to the
legitimacy of the demands of science for more such brains. Investigations of this kind
are chiefly prevented by the objections of the relatives of the deceased. The very sug-
gestion of an autopsy with this object in view is looked upon with horror. I think,
however, that in time people will learn that an anatomic examination of this kind,
conducted with expert hands, no more violates respect for the body of the deceased
than does the embalming process. To me the thought of an autopsy is certainly less
repugnant than I imagine the process of cadaveric decomposition in the grave to be.

The methods pursued in the course of my studies on these six brains has been to
note: (a) observations on the present weight of the encephalic parts and the relations
which these bear to each other; (b) a systematic description of the fissural and gyral
pattern ; (c) stereographic drawings of the cerebral halves from the dorsal, ventral,
mesal and lateral aspects ; (d) direct measurements; (¢) projection measurements based
upon the stereographie drawings and carried out according to a scheme devised and
adopted by the author some time ago. Although a number of systems of measurement
have been proposed, not all have stood the test of time and critics. I find those
measurements best which can be reduced from absolute to relative values wherein
some unit of length, preferably the maximum cerebral length, is used as a basis of
expression rather than so many inches or centimeters. Hence I prefer to use cen-
tesimals of the length of the cerebrum in order that such records may be found useful
by other workers in the same field. Of course any method of measurement cannot be
well employed except on brains which have not suffered undue distortion during the
process of hardening. The system formulated here may not be, in its several parts
original with the author, for many items have in fact been chosen from the writings
of Cunningham, Broca, Chiarugi, Marshall, Huschke, Hrdlicka, Eberstaller and others,
but as a newly combined system it appears to cover the salient points in the matter
of cerebral measurement. The measurements of the cerebrum, cerebellum and pons
are recorded separately.

236 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

First, and most important, those of the cerebrum comprise its principal diameters
and circumferences, the are measurements along the dorsi-mesal border and a series
of horizontal distances to be described below.
The principal measurements of the cerebrum are given directly in centimeters ;
they are as follows :
Maximum length, left hemicerebrum.
Maximum length, right hemicerebrum.
Maximum width of cerebrum.

{ Breadth x 100 |

| “iensthe aes

Horizontal circumference :

Cerebral Index

Maximum width, left hemicerebrum.
Maximum width, right hemicerebrum.
Left occipito-temporal length.

Right occipito-temporal length.
Length of callosum.

Left centro-temporal height.

Right centro-temporal height.

Left centro-olfactory height.

Right centro-olfactory height.

The are measurements are made according to Cunningham’s method, consisting
essentially in the measurement by means of a tape (I employed one 6 mm. wide) along
the dorsi-mesal margin from a point corresponding to the level of the lateral part of
the orbitofrontal border, to the most caudal point on the occipital pole. From the
cephalic point measurements to the dorsal end of the central fissure (or its transit
across the dorsi-mesal border) and thence to the dorsal intersection of the occipital fis-
sure are recorded and converted into centesimals of the total fronto-occipital marginal
arc. The component segments of the total arc represent relative values to which the
terms frontal index, parietal index and occipital index are given and they afford the best
means possible for determining the relative marginal extent of these cerebral lobes.
Thus the importance of measuring the occipital index was recognized by even so early
an observer as Gratiolet, and later observations would seem to suggest that, other
things being equal, relative smallness of the occipital are signified superiority of cere-
bral development. Cunningham has ascertained the occipital index in several of the
primates :

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. PH |

Homo (male)
Homo (female)
Orang .
Chimpanzee
Hamadryas .

The third method of measurement,

20.8 | Cynocephalus
21.7 | Mangaby
23.2 Macaque
24.2 Cercopithecus

29. Cebus

on

33.1

and one which readily affords a means of un-

derstanding the relative expanse — be it preponderance or a reduction —of the lobes or

special cortical areas of one side as compared with the other, and of one brain as com-

100 Centesimals.

100 Centesimals’

oO

Fic. 21. Showing some useful methods of brain-measurement and indicating the important points employed in the

author’s system.

pared with others, is one which was used to some extent by Hrdlicka and which the
writer has ventured to amplify. The method of procedure is as follows: A horizontal
plane passing through the ventral border of the frontal and occipital poles at the
mesal border, as shown by the line AB in Fig. 21. This horizontal plane has the addi-
tional advantage of being parallel to Chipault’s plane referred to the skull. A plane

238 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

vertical to this assumed horizontal plane passes through the most cephalic point of the
cerebrum. From this cephalic plane horizontal distances are measured to various
points and are conyerted into centesimals of the cerebral length. Various mechanical
aids may be employed to determine these distances with accuracy. With the aid of a
stereograph, ordinates were drawn from the selected points tojthe horizontal line and
the abscissee thus obtained were directly measured. These values were verified by
further measurements upon the specimen itself with sliding compasses, the hemicere-
brum being placed on a graduated plane similar to Mathieu’s instrument. ‘The sub-
sequent conversion of these figures into centesimals of the hemicerebral length allows
of comparison with other brains, no matter what their size or what the degree of
shrinkage may be so long as there is no actual distortion.

The horizontal distances which have been recorded in the brains here studied are
as follows:

LATERAL SURFACE.
From the cephalic point to
1. Tip of temporal lobe.

Junction of sylvian and presylvian fissures.
Ventral end of central fissure.
Junction of sylvian and episylvian fissures.

Cx b= eo 1)

Caudal point.
MeEsaL SURFACE.
From the cephalic point to
6. Cephalic edge of callosum.

ie
8. Dorsal end of central fissure.

Porta (Foramen of Monro).

9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral fissure.
10. Caudal edge of callosum.

11. Occipito-calcarine junction.

12. Dorsal intersection of occipital fissure.

The measurements of the cerebellum and pons are practically restricted to the
principal diameters.

Unless otherwise mentioned, the length of a fissure was obtained by laying a wet
string along its course. The fissural depths were determined by means of a flat sound
with smooth rounded end and graduated in millimeters.

In the description of the fissures and gyres the author enployed the following
schema in order to secure an orderly manner of treatment for all the brains:

The interlobar fissures :

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 239

The sylvian fissure and its rami (comprising the basisylvian, sylvian, presyl-
vian, subsylvian, episylvian and hyposylvian).
The central fissure.
The occipital fissure.
The calearine fissure.
Fissures of the frontal lobe :
(Lateral surface.)
Precentral fissural complex (comprising the supercentral, precentral and
transprecentral).
Diagonal.
Superfrontal.
Paramesial.
Medifrontal.
Subfrontal.
Orbitofrontal.
Radiate.
(Mesal surface.)
Callosal.
Supercallosal.
Medicallosal.
Paracentral (and inflected).
Frontomarginal.
Rostral.
Subrostral.
Transrostral.
Orbital surface :
Orbital (and transorbital).
Olfactory.
Gyres of the frontal lobe :
(Lateral surface. )
Precentral.
Superfrontal.
(Inflected. )
Medifrontal.
Subfrontal.
(Mesal surface.)
Superfrontal.
AYES eke, BB. 14,10, *07:

240 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Paracentral.
Callosal (in part).
Orbital surface :
Mesorbital.
Orbital gyres (various forms).
(Postorbital limbus.)
Fissures of the parietal and occipital lobes:
(Lateral surface.)
The postcentral fissural complex (comprising the postcentral, subcentral and
transpostcentral).
Parietal.
Transparietal.
Paroccipital.
The exoccipital fissural complex.
Adoccipital.
Preparoccipital.
Postparoccipital.
Preoccipital (?).
Suboccipital (?).
Pomatie (?).
Lambdoidal (?).
Terminations of the supertemporal, episylvian and meditemporal fissures.
(Mesal surface.)
Precuneal.
Intraprecuneal.
Cuneal.
Postcuneal.
Gyres of the parietal and occipital lobes:
(Lateral surface.)
Postcentral.
Parietal.
Paroccipital.
Marginal.
Angular.
Postparietal.
(Mesal surface. )
Cuneus.

STUDY OF BRAINS OE SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 241

Precuneus.
Callosal (in part).

Fissures of the temporal lobe:

(Ventro-lateral surface.)
Supertemporal.
Meditemporal.
Subtemporal.

Collateral.
Postrhinal (or amygdaline).
Hippocampal.

(Dorsal or sylvian surface.)
Transtemporals.

Gyres of the temporal lobe :
Supertemporal.
Meditemporal.
Subtemporal.
Subcollateral.
Subealcarine.
Transtemporals.

The insula :

Preinsula.

Postinsula.
Cireuminsular fissure.
Transinsular fissure.
Insular fissures.

JOSEPH LEIDY.

Born in Philadelphia, September 9, 1823, son of Philip Leidy and Catherine
Mellick. Joseph Leidy was the third of four children by this marriage. When but
a year and a half old he experienced in the death of his mother a loss that would be
usually regarded as irreparable. His father, however, in marrying shortly afterwards
Christiana, the sister of his first wife, gave to Joseph one of whom he said upon one
occasion, ‘‘I knew no other mother; to her I owe every advancement in life.”

Joseph Leidy’s early education was obtained at private schools. From his earliest
days he was a great lover of nature and many authentic stories are told of days and
months spent in the open air in the study of animal life in all its forms. At the age
of nineteen he began the study of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, grad-

242 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

uating in 1844, and practising thereafter for about two years. Leidy was not long,
however, in recognizing that his true vocation lay in the untrodden domains of biol-
ogy. During a long and active career he not only developed many new facts in
zoology and comparative anatomy but he described many new forms of life, correlated
the existing facts, deduced new laws therefrom and, in short, did the chief pioneer
work in formulating the laws and fundamental principles of a systematic science of
biology. While yet a student Dr. Leidy, by his skill in dissecting, had impressed
Professor Hornor most favorably and he was, therefore, shortly after his graduation,
appointed to the position of prosector to the chair of anatomy. In the summer of
1845 Dr. Leidy was elected a member of the Boston Society of Natural History, a
great compliment for so young a man, and a few weeks later he was elected to the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, with which institution his name was
inseparably connected until the day of his death. Through the opportunities for ad-
vancement liberally afforded by this society, he was enabled to accomplish the scien-
tifie work of his life. He was chairman of its board of curators during the last forty-
four years of his life. In 1848 and 1849 Dr. Leidy accompanied Dr. Hornor and Dr.
George B. Wood on visits to Europe, affording him not only the opportunities of see-
ing the great museums of Europe under most pleasant auspices, but also of making
the acquaintance and acquiring the friendship of such distinguished anatomists and
physiologists as Owen, Majendie, Milne-Edwards, Hyrtl, Johannes Miller, and many
others.

At the age of thirty he succeeded Dr. Hornor as professor of anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania. This position he held with the most distinguished success
till his death, a period of nearly forty years. As a teacher of anatomy, and as director
of the Biological Department of the University since its establishment in 1884, Joseph
Leidy attained his undisputed preéminence because his knowledge of human anatomy
was supplemented by familiarity in detail with the anatomy of every phase of animal
life from the amoeba to the higher mammalia. He possessed a masterly ability to so
present anatomic facts that this ordinarily dry and difficult subject became compara-
tively easy to master, chiefly because Leidy knew how to simplify his subject matter
and conyey it to others. His writings, comprising nearly 600 treatises, are equally
notable for lucid expression, simplicity of presentation and accuracy of observation,
and his book on Human Anatomy became the standard treatise in most medical
schools.

Joseph Leidy’s scientific work embraced many fields: Biology in all its branches,
geology, mineralogy and botany, — in short the natural sciences as a whole. For an
explicit description of these achievements the reader is referred to the more thorough

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 243

review in Dr. Henry C. Chapman’s memoir in the Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia of 1891.

It is indeed doubtful if any great character of history was so simple, so absolutely
uninfluenced by honors, so unconceited, so just or so kindly as was Joseph Leidy.
He was not only modest, but noticeably unobtrusive, though far from being a recluse.
From the ordinary standpoint Dr. Leidy’s life might be regarded as uneventful, prob-
ably because of his steadfast and unselfish devotion to the study of nature. He was
never dogmatic or assertive even in those things that were indisputable. He sunk his
personality in his science; a retrospect of his life reveals a long vista of achievements
in which not a trace of self is perceptible; a long and useful career unsullied by a
stain and characterized as much by its sweetness, simplicity and goodness as by its
great mental achievements. Not only was he universally honored, respected and
loved in life, but his fame as America’s greatest naturalist will long endure after his
death.

“ . . The points of pathological interest were the ‘presence of a hemorrhagic
pachymeningitis on the right side and an unusual hardness (atheroma) of the blood-
eas bitie base: ‘ (From Jos. Lerpy, JR.)

The following note in the handwriting of J. A. Ryprr, the preparator, accom-
panied the specimen :

“Brain of Professor Joseph Leidy, M.D. Removed May 1, 1891. Placed in
refrigerator in Miiller’s fluid May 1, 1891. Ice kept in refrigerator till May 22.
Kept in Miiller’s fluid at ordinary temperature from May 22 to June 10, 1891.
Washed in water, June 10, to remove excess of Miiller’s and washings repeated till
the 15th of June. Placed in 70 per cent. alcohol, June 15, 1891.

J. A. RYDER,

Custodian.

The weight of the fresh encephalon was reported to have been 45.5 oz. (Troy) by
Professor Harrison Allen, who removed and weighed the brain. The brain of Dr.
Philip Leidy, who died within 24 hours of Joseph, was also reported to have weighed
45.5 oz. (Troy) by Dr. Dercum who used the same scales and weights. The writer
feels confident that the figure for Dr. Philip Leidy’s brain-weight is correct, but is
inclined to wholly reject the figure as given by Dr. Allen for the brain-weight of
Joseph Leidy. Dr. Allen was much attached to Dr. Joseph Leidy and during the
autopsy is said to have been very much affected and noticeably nervous. Dr. Dercum,
who was present at the time, also thinks that Dr. Allen made an error in recording

the brain-weight as cited.

244 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

I have attempted to justify my belief by calculations based on a comparison of
the present weights and dimensions of the two Leidy brains, assuming that, inasmuch
as the two men died practically together and the brains were subjected to very sim-
ilar conditions of preservation and have lain immersed in like fluids for equal periods
of time, any errors involved and allowances called for must be really very trifling.

i
The present weights of the encephalic parts of the two Leidys are as follows :

Joseph Leidy. Philip Leidy.

Left hemicerebrum . é : ‘ : 5 . 565 525
Right hemicerebrum : 6 ; : : : 595 522
; : : : : : 5 : : 128
Cerebellum } 48 nee
Pons and oblongata : : : 5 . : 37
1325 1209

A glance will show that while the weight of the isthmus and cerebellum is almost
alike in the two brains, there is a material difference between the weights of the
cerebral parts.

IU

Now assuming Philip Leidy’s original brain-weight (1415 grams) to have been
correct, we have:

1209 : 1415: : 13825: 2.
The value of « is, therefore, 1550.

Again, multiplying the present figures of the weight of Philip Leidy’s hardened

brain by (approximately) 1.16 in order to obtain the original weights, we have :

Left hemicerebrum . : F : 5

é : Cerebrum 1225
Right hemicerebrum : : : : ‘ : 610
Cerebellum, pons and oblongata =... : : : 190

1415 grams
Endeavoring now to arrive at the weight of Joseph’s cerebrum, we have:
1047 : 2025 3: VIGO\se:

The value of « is, therefore, 1356.
This leads us to assume that Joseph Leidy’s brain must have weighed :

Left hemicerebrum ; ; : j f ; : < 660
Right bemicerebrum . : : , : : é : 690 or more
Cerebellum, pons and oblongata . : : , ; é 195

Approximately . : : ; : : : . 1550 grams

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 24

ol

III.

Next let us look at the relative dimensions of the two brains:

Joseph Leidy. Philip Leidy.

Max. length, left hemicerebrum_. . : . 17.9 15.6
Max. length, right hemicerebrum . : : : 18.2 15.9
Max. width . F : : : : ; : 13.4 12.4
Circumference : . : . : : . 51.0 46.2
Left centro-temporal height . F : A F 11.2 10.4
Right centro-temporal height : : : ; 11.6 10.5
Left centro-olfactory height . ; ; : : 10.1 8.8
Right centro-olfactory height - é é ; 10.2 8.8

Joseph Leidy’s brain is even larger than that of Cope, which weighed 1545 grams.

IV.
In view of all this I am led to assume that the error must have arisen during the
recording of the weight while in haste as well as under the stress of performing a
necroscopy upon the body of a dear friend and associate.

THE CEREBRUM.

In all its parts the cerebrum shows a high degree of complexity, particularly in
the parietal and occipital regions. Viewed dorsally, the cerebrum appears elliptical
in shape, the left parieto-temporal region being the most prominent. The left frontal
lobe, owing to some flattening while hardening appears less massive than the right,
but is not so actually. Although fissural complexity prevails generally, the parieto-
occipital regions show the highest degree of differentiation. The left frontal is more
complex than the right but it is difficult to decide in which half the caudal regions
preponderate in this respect. Generally speaking the right parieto-occipital areas
seem more extensive than the left. Viewed laterally, and comparing the two sides,
the left preoperculum is the better developed, and the right parieto-occipital and
parieto-temporal transitions preponderate over the corresponding regions of the left
side. Viewed ventrally, the right temporal lobe is broader, more massive and more
richly fissured, and the same may be said for the orbital surface of the right frontal
lobe. ‘The right occipital pole, as is usual, is slighly deflected laterad, but appears to
be, nevertheless, more massive than the left. Taking the brain as a whole, the right
‘ side seems to preponderate in not a few respects. Its greater weight, together with
the more complex degree of fissuration and the greater extent of the caudal parts
quite over-balances the high degree of development of the left frontal region. In
measuring the horizontal semi-cireumferences no appreciable difference can be found
between the two sides.

246 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

The unusual dimensions of the callosum call for comment. The writer cannot
recall having ever before seen this structure of such great size as in the brain of Pro-
rEssor J. Lerpy. Its cross-section area is 10.606 sq. em., nearly twice the average size.
Its great length, 8.5 cm., or 46.7 per cent. of the total hemicerebral length, is striking.
At the genu its thickness is 11 mm., the average thickness of the body is 9 mm., while
the maximum thickness of the splenium is 16.5 mm. It is the caudal part of the cal-
losum which is particularly massive, and that portion of the splenium which “rolls
under” (the ‘“ cauda corporis callosi”’ of Retzius and the spleniwm proper of BErvor)
is certainly of unusual size. In the chapter on the comparison of the brains of Pro-
rEssor Cope and J. Letpy, these features will be discussed in detail.

Lert HemiceresrumM. THE INTERLOBAR FissurEs. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. — The length of the sylvian from its presylvian junction to the episylvian is
6.5 cm. Its course is moderately sinuous and its walls are in close apposition. Its
angle with the plane passing through the ventral margins of the frontal and occipital
poles is 29°. Its depth at the presylvian point is 13 mm.; medisylvian 18 mm. ;
postsylvian, 27 mm. The presylvian ramus is 1.1 em. in length and springs from the
sylvian much further caudad than on the right side, and more so than in most brains.
The subsylvian ramus is short but well marked, and anastomoses cephalad with an
independent segment (possibly of the orbito-frontal).

The basisylvian, measured from the tip of the temporal lobe is 20-21 mm. in
depth. Caudad the sylvian terminates in a short (7 mm.) episylvian ramus. There
is no hyposylvian.

The Central Fisswre.— The length of the central on this side is 10.3 em., a trifle
longer than that of the right, as well as much more sinuous and more ramified. It
anastomoses cephalad with the supercentral and caudad with the subcentral. The
general direction of the fissure makes an angle of about 60° with the intercerebral
cleft.

The Occipital Fissure. —The length on the meson is 3.5 em. ; on the convex sur-
face 1.3em. Ata point 1.3 em. distant from the occipito-calearine junction, the fis-
sure is joined by an unusually long and well-marked adoccipital, giving rise to an ap-
parent bifurcation of the occipital, not infrequently noted in some other brains.* The
fissure makes an angle of about 50° with the (arbitrary) horizontal plane chosen in
these studies, an extreme opposite to the very much greater angle described by this
fissure in the brain of Prorrssor Copr. In Leidy’s ease this caudal deviation of the
fissure is due to the interpolation of a well-marked cuneolus, 7. e., the wedge-shaped
piece marked off by the adoccipital.

*In the brain of Dk. CoUDEREAU there was an apparent trifureation of the occipital.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 247

The Calearine Fisswre.—The calearine and postcalcarine parts join to form a
simple uninterrupted fissure of quite sinuous course. Its total length is 6.2 em.

The occipital and calcarine fissures meet at considerable depth and continue as
the occipito-calearine stem, passing cephalad for 3 cm. to within 1 em. of the hippo-
campal fissure.

FissuRES OF THE FrontaL Lope (LATERAL Surrace). The Precentral Fissural
Complex. — The supercentral fissure is of the usual zygal shape, anastomosing cephalad
directly with the superfrontal and caudad with the central. Both the dorsal and ven-
tral limbs are long, so that the entire lateral extent of the fissure reaches 6.5 em.
Separated from the supercentral by an isthmus is the tortuous and well-marked pre-
central fissure. The precentral dips into the sylvian cleft, while its cephalo-dorsal
ramus (Quain’s “anterior precentral ramus’) anastomoses with the medifrontal.
There is no transprecentral and no diagonal fissure on this half.

The superfrontal fissure is well-marked, extensive, and though quite ramified,
does not pursue a very tortuous course. It is 8.8 cm. in length, and runs fairly
parallel to the intercerebral cleft. Three paramesial segments mark the superfrontal
gyre, imperfectly dividing the convolution into two longitudinal tiers. In the pre-
frontal region there is a marked tendency to transverse fissuration.

The medifrontal fissure, from its origin at the precentral ramus, passes cephalad
for 3 cm. to end in a Y-shaped manner. The fissure is a good example of the com-
pound zygal forms, the two zygons joining by a ramus and stipe respectively.

Rather unusual appearances are presented by the subfrontal. The main (longi-
tudinal) portion is extremely short, terminating cephalad in an irregular radiate fissure,
while caudad it sends a long ramus toward the Sylvian, parallel with the radiate.
Dorsad it gives off three short rami. The orbitofrontal may be traced as an irregular,
but fairly extensive fissure, in a part of its course resembling an additional medifrontal
segment.

Mesrau Surrace. — The supercallosal sweeps cephalad uninterruptedly from its
junction with the paracentral for 12.5 cm., terminating just ventrad of the rostrum.
The paracentral is rather short and irregular ; its caudal limb is tortuous and anasto-
moses superficially with the central fissure; the cephalic limb is straight. There is
also an intraparacentral ramus. There is no inflected fissure. The frontomarginal
fissure is particularly well marked in this case; except for a slight interruption just
cephalad of the genu, it attains a length of 11 cm., joining the rostral fissure cephalad.
The rostral fissure is 4.5 em. in length ; a short subrostral is also present, anastomosing
with the olfactory fissure. The terminal hook of the supercallosal bears some resem-
blance to the transrostral of Rerztus.

A. P.S.—XXI. CC. 14, 10, 07.

248 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

OrspITaAL SuRFAcE. — Two fissural segments mark the orbital surface, each of
zygal shape. The larger caudal one has a transverse zygon or stem, with two long
cephalic rami embracing the smaller segment. The olfactory fissure is about 4 em. in
length and anastomoses with the subrostral, as described above.

Gyres oF THE Frontau Lope (LATERAL SuRFACE).— The precentral gyre is mas-
sive and complex. The superfrontal is of usual size, but tends to partial subdivision
in a longitudinal manner, owing to the paramesial fissural segments. The medifrontal
gyre is notably extensive, and intricately fissured, particularly by transverse pieces.
The subfrontal area is not of the common form, but seems rather made up of three
conyolutions separated by transverse fissures (one of these being the radiate). These
fissures are very deep, and the cortical expanse in this area is doubtlessly greater than
in average brains.

Mesrau Surrace. —The marked fissuration of the superfrontal gyre on the mesal
surface by means of the long, tortuous and much-ramified frontomarginal fissure gives
it a complex appearance. The paracentral gyre is rather small. The frontal portion
of the callosal gyre is simple.

OrBITAL SuRFACE. — The mesorbital gyre is narrow. The remainder of this sur-
face may be said to be divided into a preorbital and a postorbital region by the larger
of the two zygal orbital fissures. The preorbital region consists of a V-shaped gyre
embracing a quadrate area within the cephalic arms of the smaller orbital fissures.
The postorbital region is of a simple conformation, indented by an orbital limb of the
basisylvian cleft. Mesad and laterad of the larger orbital fissure there are gyral
portions of fair size. ‘

FissuRES OF THE PARIETAL AND Occrprrat Lopes (LATERAL Surrace). The Post-
central Fisswral Complex.—The dorsal postcentral segment is readily identified. It is
4 em. in length, anastomoses superficially with the caudal limb of the paracentral but
is otherwise independent. In seeking out the representation of the subcentral we
meet with such exceedingly intricate foldings in the region comprising the ventral
portion of the postcentral gyre and the marginal gyre that it: is difficult to determine
the exact interpretation of all the features presented here. ‘The irregular tri-radiate
fissure, whose limbs anastomose, cephalad with the central and caudad with the pari-
etal, while doubtlessly the subcentral is certainly of unusual appearance. Between
its ventral ramus and the end of the central lies the Y-shaped transpostcentral, dip
ping into the sylvian cleft.

The fissure lying dorsad of the subcentral and for the greater part of its course
running parallel with the dorsal limbs of the subcentral is the parietal. The peculiar
arrangement of the fissures in this region requires particular attention. At a point

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 249

directly dorsad of the episylvian ramus there occurs an anastomosis of three fissures,
viz.: the subcentral, parietal, and intermedial. The gyre between the parietal and
subcentral dips below the general surface as it passes caudad, and by means of the
indenting ramus near its end has the appearance of a dimple, or cortical islet, from
which radiate a number of fissural rami. ‘The appearance is a very unusual one, and
is best seen in Fig. 24.

The paroccipital is notable for the length and direction of its zygon or stem.
This is 3.5 em. in length, and converges towards the median line cephalad, instead of
being parallel to or converging toward this plane caudally, as is seen in ordinary
brains. Rtpincer describes a similar feature in the brain of Jusrus v. Ligsia, where
the redundancy of the paroccipital gyre is apparently so great as to push the correspond-
ing fissure far laterad. In Letpy’s case it is the caudal arm of the paroccipital gyre
which is immensely developed, and hence the caudo-lateral deviation of the main
course of the fissure. The cephalic paroccipital stipe is short and passes near the
occipital ; the cephalic ramus bifurcates to embrace the parietal, and the mesial limb
anastomoses with a transparietal piece. The caudal ramus and stipe together form a
T-shaped ending* passing parallel with the ventro-lateral border of the hemicerebrum,
instead of approximately vertical to it, as is the rule.

Between the episylvian and the terminal portion of the supertemporal lies an
intermedial fissure of more complex arrangement than is common. It is irregularly
zygal in shape and one of its rami anastomoses deeply at the site of the subcentral-
parietal junction.

The fissuration in the occipito-temporal transition is so intricate in this case that
in the present state of our knowledge concerning the interpretation of these fissures
no definite statements can be made. It is to be hoped that further studies may help
to elucidate some of the problems presented here.

Mestat Surrace. — The precuneal fissure is of the usual zygal shape with a short
stem or zygon running parallel with the callosal fissure. The cephalic rami are both
long; the dorsal one reaching the dorsi-mesal margin. A short intraprecuneal lies
dorsad.

The adoccipital fissure, marking off a cwneolus has been described on page 246.
The cuneus is quite intricately marked by three fissural segments, one of which passes
well onto the convex surface in the redundant arm of the paroccipital gyre.

GYRES OF THE PARTETAL AND OcciprTaAL Lopes (LATERAL Surrace). — The post-
central gyre is unusually massive, particularly in its middle and ventral portions. It

* Called by EckER the “‘ transverse occipital,’ and supposed by him to represent a part of the ‘‘ Affenspalte’’ ; see,
however, the writer’s paper, ‘‘ The Fissural Integrality of the Paroccipital,’’ 1900.

250 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

is interrupted by the junction of the subcentral with the central and the other neigh-
boring fissures and their rami help to make the gyre quite a tortuous one. The
parietal gyre is of complex appearance but not particularly large. The unusual shape
of the paroccipital has been alluded to above. It should here be noted however that
the most striking feature is that the caudal arm (7. e., the postoccipital portion) of the
paroccipital gyre is tenfold greater in area than the cephalic area. Its great width
has caused the marked lateral deviation of the paroccipital fissure as it passes caudad,

Fia. 22. Mesal aspects of the cerebral halves of Joseph Leidy. The cuneus and precuneus are shaded. The upper
figure shows the mesal aspect of the right half ; the lower figure shows the left half.

and this feature is perhaps of not a little significance in relation to Lerpy’s observa-
tional powers. Whatever psycho-physical interpretation may attach to the redun-
dancy of this part of the paroccipital, it cannot be denied that it is an expression of
the highest development of the premiere pli de passage externe of the anthropoids.

The marginal and angular gyral districts present very interesting features. The

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 251

marginal in particular is of most complex configuration and seems to portray the won-
derful powers of associational and dissociational observation which Prorrssor Lerpy
possessed in life; the somatical-psychological aspect of this proposition will be dis-
cussed in the sequel.

The cuneus and precuneus together with the interpolated cuneolus present a wide
expanse in sharp contrast with the reduced corresponding areas_in the brain of PRo-
FESSOR COPE.

FissuRES OF THE ‘TEMPORAL Lose (LATERO-VENTRAL SuRFACE).—The supertem-
poral fissure pursues a very tortuous course. Its length, measured with a moist string,
is 15 em. At its middle third it makes several sharp turns, and throughout its course
it gives off a number (6-7) of rami. One long ramus traverses the meditemporal gyre
and reaches to the ventro-lateral border of the hemicerebrum. The caudal termina-
tion of the fissure in the gyre embraced by the paroccipital and its cephalic ramus is
simple. Near the cephalic terminus of the fissure, at what appears like a zygal seg-
ment, there is a small sunken area or “‘islet,”’ due to a peculiar rolling over, or oper-
cular formation of the adjacent meditemporal gyre.

The course of the meditemporal fissure can be traced along two segments. The
subtemporal pursues an unusual course. Cephalad it anastomoses with the collateral ;
it then passes caudo-laterad in a tortuous manner, reaches the ventro-lateral border,
and passes onto the convex surface to anastomose with a meditemporal segment.
Another piece lies further caudad, but this also anastomoses with the collateral near
its middle. The arrangement of the collateral and subtemporal fissures is that of a
stem with two branches on one side of it.

The collateral fissure, aside from the two anastomoses above mentioned presents
nothing unusual. Its length is 10 em. ‘The post-rhinal (or amygdaline) fissure is
only indicated by a shallow groove.

Gyres oF THE TeMporRAL Lose. — All the gyres of the temporal lobe are notable
for their massiveness, breadth and complexity. The supertemporal gyre is quite tor-
tuous, the subtemporal quite massive. The subcollateral makes up in breadth what
it loses in length by the peculiar anastomosis of the subtemporal with the collateral.
The subcalearine and hippocampal gyres are clean-cut and well-shaped.

? Tue Insuta.— The insula shows a good development. The gyres are full and
the intervening fissures quite deep. There are five preinsular gyres, while the post-
insular gyre is subdivided into two caudal portions, giving seven peri-insular digita-
tions. Compared with the right insula it exhibits a superior degree of differentiation.

Riest Hemiceresrum. THe InrerLopar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. — The sylvian fissure is slightly sinuous, its walls are in close apposition, and

252 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

its caudal termination is simple, there being no sharp turn in passing into the epi-
sylvian. There isa short hyposylvian. The length of the sylvian proper, between
the presylvian and its junction with the epi- and hyposylvian rami is 4.2 cm. The
presylvian is simple, 1.8 cm. in length; the subsylvian, 2 cm. in length, anastomoses
with the radiate. The episylvian appears as the direct continuation of the sylvian,
though an examination of its depths shows it to spring from the caudal angle of the
circuminsular fissure. Its length is 2.6 em. The hyposylvian ramus is a trifle over 1
em. in length.

The Central Fissure. — The central fissure, 10 cm. in length, pursues a much
straighter course than on the left side. It anastomoses with the supercentral. In its
general direction it makes an angle of 62° with the intercerebral cleft.

The Occipital Fisswre.—Its length on the meson is 2.8 cm., on the dorsum 2 em.
At a point 1.7 em. from the occipito-calearine junction, the fissure is joined by an
adoccipital of lesser extent than on the left half, but giving a similar appearance of

?

“bifurcation” of the occipital. The fissure makes an angle of about 52° with our
horizontal plane.

The Calcarine Fissure. —The calearine fissure springs from its junction with the
occipital almost as if a continuation of the latter, so that the angle of the cuneus is
exceedingly obtuse (150°). The fissure then sweeps caudad in a sinuous manner for
5.7 em., terminating at the occipital pole. A cuneal fissure joins it in its caudal third.
The occipito-calearine stem is 3.8 cm. in length. ;

FissurEs oF THE FrontTaL Lope (LATERAL Surrace). The Precentral Fissural
Complex.— The supercentral is a tri-radiate fissure whose cephalic arm is continuous
with the superfrontal. The ventral ramus joins the central. The precentral is of
zygal shape, the dorso-cephalic ramus being continuous with the medifrontal. The
transprecentral, springing from the sylvian cleft, but otherwise independent, is 1.5 em.
in length.

The diagonal, 3.5 em. in length, lies just cephalad of the precentral, is super-
ficially confluent with the sylvian and anastomoses cephalad with the subfrontal.
The superfrontal is a tortuous fissure, passing well cephalad without interruption with
a length 9 cm. The medifrontal is exceedingly well marked. Springing from the
precentral it pursues a very tortuous course, sending off a number of rami, and ter-
minating in a bifurcation, the lateral limb anastomosing with the orbitofrontal. Its
total length is 7 em. The subfrontal is a more extensive fissure than that of the left
side. It anastomoses with both the diagonal and the orbitofrontal.

The orbitofrontal is a very tortuous combination of segments. It anastomoses
with the subfrontal and medifrontal fissures, and reaches to the mesial border. Its

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 253

length, measured with a wet string, is 7.5em. The radiate, 3.5 em. in length, anas-
tomoses with the subsylvian, the subfrontal, and superficially with the orbitofrontal.

Mestan Surrace. — The supercallosal, measured from its junction with the para-
central, is 12.5 cm. in length. It sends off a number of rami, several of which join
frontomarginal segments in the superfrontal gyre. The paracentral is a moderately
sinuous fissure; its caudal limb passes vertically, while the cephalic limb is barely
indicated by a slight notch. There is an intraparacentral piece of zygal shape whose
course is parallel to the main fissure, and whose cephalic rami lie in the ideal pro-
longation of the cephalic limb bounding the paracentral gyre. Dorsad of this, across
the dorsi-mesal margin lies a tri-radiate piece which may represent the inflected (not
unlike that seen in the brain of the Eskimo “‘ Nooxran,” right hemicerebrum ; see the
writer’s paper, 1902).

There are two medicallosal segments in the callosal gyre; a long one (4.5 em.)
lying dorsad of the callosum, a shorter one cephalad of the genu.

The rostral fissure is 5 cm. in length, while an irregular subrostral passes over the
margin to lie cephalad of the olfactory fissure.

ORBITAL SurFACE.— The arrangement of the orbital fissures resembles that of the
left half, but the transorbital segment is better marked. On the whole, the orbital
surface of this side is of a more complex appearance. ‘The olfactory fissure is 4.2 em.
in length.

GYREs OF THE Frontat Lose (LAreRAL Surrace).— The precentral gyre is of
uniform breadth and of a good size. It is traversed by the central-supercentral anas-
tomosis and indented by short rami of the central and precentral. ‘The superfrontal
is quite broad and distinctly demarcated. Six fissural segments, generally of trans-
verse direction mark its surface. The medifrontal is notable for its great breadth and
for its distinet division into two tiers. The transverse breadth of the medifrontal dis-
trict averages about 4 cm., a large dimension as compared with ordinary brains. The
subfrontal gyre is correspondingly reduced to a width of about 2.5 cm., and is in every
way smaller than its fellow on the left side. All the frontal gyres may be described
as well-developed and as particularly complex in the prefrontal region.

MestAu Surrace.— On the mesial surface the superfrontal gyre is of good uni-
form width, marked by several rami of the supercallosal and by a number of fronto-
marginal segments. The paracentral gyre is of rectangular shape, and taking the
cephalic limbs of the intraparacentral as representing the ideal continuation of the
abbreviated cephalic limb of the paracentral proper, the gyre has a length of 4 cm.;
somewhat greater than on the left side. ‘The frontal portion of the callosal gyre ex-
hibits a tendency to subdivision by two medicallosal segments.

254 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

OrpiraL Surrace. — This surface is rather more complex in appearance than that
of the left half, due to the greater number of fissures and to their increased ramifica-
tion. It should be mentioned here that the mesorbital gyre is very narrow.

FissuRES OF THE PARIETAL AND Occrpr1TaAL Lopes (LATERAL SuRFACE). The Post-
central Fisswral Complex. — There is a triradiate postcentral piece whose dorsal rami
embrace the extremity of the caudal paracentral limb. The subcentral is the more
important element in the postcentral complex. Dorsad it is confluent with a segment
of the parietal, ventrad it dips into the episylvian, while its length is 4.5 em. In its
course it sends a ramus well across the postcentral gyre and caudad it joins the curved
intermedial. There is also a distinct transpostcentral.

The parietal fissure presents unusual features. An isthmus near its middle breaks
up the fissure into two segments; the cephalic one being confluent with the subcen-
tral, while the caudal one is independent and sends off two long rami, dorsi-cephalad
and ventro-caudad, respectively. A narrow isthmus separates it from the paroccipital.
The paroccipital is of the usual zygal shape and anastomoses caudo-ventrad with one
of the exoccipital elements. The cephalic stipe is embraced between the occipital and
adoccipital.

Two exoccipital elements can be made out on this half. Both are tri-radiate ;
the dorsal one is confluent with the paroccipital and with a cuneal fissure ; the ventral
one is independent. The latter is interesting because there is a decided opercular
formation of the part constituting the caudal wall of this fissure. It stands out quite
prominently and caps over a part of the fissure and the adjacent (depressed) gyres.

In the subparietal area the fissuration is very intricate. The up-turned end of
the supertemporal joins the parietal over a vadum. ‘There is a curved intermedial
between the last-mentioned fissure and the episylvian, also joining the parietal.

Mesran Surrace.— The precuneal fissure is zygal and anastomoses with the
paracentral. Other segments help to make the precuneus of complex appearance.
The cuneus is also well supplied with fissures, there being three well-defined elements,
one of them joining the ealearine fissure.

GYRES OF THE PARIETAL AND OccrpeITAL LOBES (LATERAL SuRFAcE).— The post-
central gyre is very broad throughout. The parietal is large and complicated. The
paroccipital is of very good extent, and, similar to the same gyre on the left side, is
small in its cephalic portion, but broad caudad of the occipital fissure.

In the sub-parietal region, comprising the marginal, angular and _post-parietal
gyres, we see the great breadth and massiveness as well as the regular complexity of
configuration so distinctive of this brain in the “posterior association area.’’ Com-

pared with the left side it is not only more intricately fissured, but because of its some-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 255

what greater mass it encroaches further upon its sylvian cleft, materially shortening it.

MestaL Surrace.—The cuneus and precuneus are both of much greater extent
and also rather more richly fissured than the corresponding parts of the left half.*
The markedly obtuse angle of the cuneus at the point of junction of the occipital and
cealearine fissures is quite notable. The cuneolus on this side is smaller than on the left.

FIssURES OF THE TEMPORAL LOBE (VENTRO-LATERAL SurRFACE). — The supertem-
poral fissure is well-developed, quite sinuous and attains the great length of 14 cm.
It anastomoses with a meditemporal segment and superficially with the parietal. The
meditemporal is represented by four independent segments of which the caudal one is
quite complex. Two fissural pieces represent the subtemporal; the cephalic one is
tri-radiate and communicates with a meditemporal segment. The collateral is not
very long. An independent part of it, cephalad, joins the postrhinal (amygdaline)
groove.

GyYREs OF THE TEMvorRAL Lose. — The supertemporal gyre is narrow cephalad
but broadens out very much in the region of transition into the subparietal lobule
(7. e., marginal gyre). ‘There is a compensatory cephalic widening of the meditemporal
gyre, the caudal part being of moderate width. The subtemporal gyre is of the usual
dimensions except in its caudal part where it broadens out in the transition into the
very redundant expanse of the postparietal region.

Tuer Insuta. — The right insula resembles that of the left in most respects but is
slightly less massive as shown by the depths of the Sylvian. The preinsular region is
not so expansive and the transinsular fissure passes further cephalad than on the left

side.
PrincrpAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEREBRUM.

(After Hardening. )

Centimeters,
Maximuun length, left hemicerebrum. - 2 : 6 : : 7-9
Maximum length, right hemicerebrum : é ; ; : : 18.2
Maximum width of cerebrum (cerebral index = 74.9) ; 3 ; 13.4
Horizontal circumference : : ‘ : : ; : ; 51
Maximum width, left hemicerebrum z : ; . ; t 6.7
Maximum width, right hemicerebrum : : , ; : ; 6.7
Left oceipito-temporal length . : 3 : : : : : 13.2
Right occipito temporal length F : - . . : : 13.3
Length of callosum . ; : ; : : 3 : : ; 8.5

or 46.7 per cent. of total cerebral length.

* Pieces of sheet-lead, of uniform thickness and density, as ascertained by a number of control-tests, cut of the same
size as the visible surface of the precuneus and cuneus together weighed as follows: Left, 31.8 gms. ; right, 35 gms.
Ratio of left to right as 100 : L110.

A. P.S.—XXI: DD. 2, 11, 707.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

PrincipAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEREBRUM.

Right centro-temporal height : : : :
or 62.57 centesimals, in terms of total cerebral length.
Right centro-temporal height
or 64.26 centesimals.
Left centro-olfactory height
Right centro-olfactory height

Arc Measures ALONG THE Dorsi-MESAL MARGIN.

(Cunningham's Method. )

Lert HeMICEREBRUM.

1. Cephalic point to central fissure

bo

Central fissure to occipital fissure .
3. Occipital fissure to occipital pole

Ricgur HEMICEREBRUM.

1. Cephalic point to central fissure

bo

Central fissure to occipital fissure
3. Occipital fissure to occipital pole

CEREBRAL INDICES.

(Based on Arc Measures given above.

Frontal index
Parietal index.
Occipital index

Horizontal DISTANCES.

(Expressed in centesimals of the total hemicerebral lengths. )

From the Cephalic Point to
1. Tip of temporal lobe
2. Sylvian-presylvian junction
3. Ventral end of Central f.
4, Sylvian-episylvian junction
5. Caudal point
6. Cephalic edge of callosum
7. Porta (Foramen of Monro).
8. Dorsal end of central f.
9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral f.
10. Caudal edge of callosum
11. Occipito-calearine junction

12. Dorsal intersection of occipital f.

112
11.6
10.1
10.2
Centimeters.

16.
7.2
0.9
16.0
6.5
6.8
Left. Right.
. 04.95 54.60
» 24 22.18
~ 20:27 23.12
Left. Right.
28.8 26.9
33.8 30.2
40.5 42.3
67.2 bila
100.0 100.0
18.8 18.4
40.2 40.1
57.5 57.7
70.0 62.9
66.6 64.7
75.5 76.1
87.2 86.8

aATOa

ow

PLATE XVIII.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI

Dorsal aspect of the cerebrum.

Fic, 24.

Basal aspect of the cerebrum.

Fic. 23.

BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

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TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XIX.

Fic. 25. Lateral aspect of right hemicerebrum.

Ita. 26. Lateral aspect of left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

PLATE XxX.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

Fic. 27. Mesal aspect of right hemicerebrum.

Fic. 28. Mesal aspect of left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

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TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XxXl.

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BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XxiIl.

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ia. 32. Lateral aspect of the parieto-oceipito-temporal lobes of the left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

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TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XxXill.

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Fic. 34. The left and right insule, exposed by divaricating the opercula.

BRAIN OF JOSEPH LEIDY.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 257

CEREBELLUM—Pons, OptonGata. —'These parts all show a good degree of develop-
ment. A notable feature is the great size and massiveness of the pons and parts con-
nected with it. The postgemina are smaller, but stand out higher, while the pre-
gemina are larger, broader and more rounded off.

The cerebellar peduncles, particularly the pre- and medipeduncles are seen, on
section, to be of great massiveness.

MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEREBELLUM.
Centimeters,

Maximum height ‘ ; ; : ‘ Acer ; ; : 5.6
Maximum cephalo-caudal diameter, left hemisphere. : : ; 6.4
Maximum cephalo-caudal diameter, right hemisphere . : ; : 6.5
Dorsal length of vermis : : ; : : ; : : : 3.6
Maximum depth, caudal incisure. 5 : ; ; : : - 1.5
Maximum lateral width - : ; : : : 2 ; ~ LO
MEASUREMENTS OF THE Pons.
Maximum length ; : : : 5 ; : : : : 2.9
Maximum thickness. : : : : 4 . : : ; 3.0

DRS PRTLEP LELDY:

Born in Philadelphia, December 29, 1838, son of Philip Leidy and Christiana
Taliana Mellick.* With the exception of his paternal grandmother, Catherine Le
Febre, the sister of Francis Joseph Le Febre, Duke of Dantzig, Marshal under N apo-
leon I, he was of German extraction. The original Carl Ludwig Leidy (Leydig) emi-
grated to America in 1727 from the Rheinish-Palatinate (Oberstein).

Dr. Leidy’s grandfather, Jacob Leidy, served in the American Revolution as
Ensign, 1777-1778 ; subsequently promoted to First Lieutenant in Capt. John Cope’s
Company, Pennsylvania Line. His great uncle, Dr. John Leidy, was commissioned
Surgeon in the American Revolution, in the command of Col. Timothy Green, Penn-
sylvania Line. His father, Philip Leidy, served in the war of 1812 and Mexican war,
1845.

* Joseph and Philip Leidy were half-brothers whose mothers were half-sisters. The relationship may be shown as
follows :

a —___—_ brothers
Peter Mellick >< Miss Clingman Michael Mellick < Miss Christian
Catherine Mellick Christiana Mellick
John Jacob Leydig < Catherine LeFebre
1st Lieut. Amer- | sister of Francis Joseph LeFebre
ican Revolution ; (Duke of Dantzig)

Pennsyl]vania Line.

7 canberanie Mellick

Philip Leidy 1s
Christiana Mellick

Catherine was Joseph’s mother while Philip Leidy II. was the son of Christiana.

8 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

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=

Dr. Leidy was educated by private tutors and in the public schools of Philadel-
phia. Matriculated in the Medical Department, University of Pennsylvania, 1857.
His student days were spent in the office of his brother and preceptor, Prof. Joseph
Leidy. Graduated in medicine 1859. Was immediately appointed Resident Physi-
cian, Philadelphia Hospital (Blockley). Entered the United States service, War of
Rebellion, as Examiner of Recruits, June 8, 1861. Assigned at the first battle of Bull
Run to the 106th Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteers, as Assistant Surgeon with the
rank of First Lieutenant. After the battle of Balls Bluff, established the first general
field hospital of the war, near Pdolesville, Maryland. Was in all the engagements of
the army during the Peninsula campaign. His ability for organization attracted the
attention of his superior officers, which resulted in his transfer to the 119th Regiment,
Pennsylvania Volunteers, as Surgeon with the rank of Major, with a special detail to
establish the Wager Hospital, the first general hospital in the Shenandoah at Bolivar
Heights, 1862. Shortly after he was appointed Assistant Medical Director of General
Sumner’s Division, Post Surgeon at Winchester, Virginia, and Director of the Depart-
ment of the Shenandoah on General Sheridan’s Staff. Later, Surgeon-in-Chief 3d
Brigade, Ist Division, 6th Army Corps. One of the Chief Operating and Consulting
Surgeons of the 6th Army Corps. During 1864-65, Surgeon-in-Chief of the hospitals
of the 6th Army Corps during the siege of Richmond and Petersburg. Dr. Leidy
served upon special detail duty in every engagement of the Army of the Potomac, and
with General Sheridan in the Valley of Virginia. At the close of the war Dr. Leidy
was tendered but declined the appointment of Surgeon in the medical department of
the Regular Army.

From 1866-1870 he was°United States Examining Surgeon at Philadelphia.
From 1873-1882 Port Physician of the city of Philadelphia; 1884 Physician-in-Chief
of the insane department of the Philadelphia Hospital; 1886 appointed Consulting
Physician to the same institution. Dr. Leidy served various charitable institutions in
Philadelphia in a consulting capacity. He was the author of various articles upon
medical and scientific subjects and of reports to the medical and surgical department
of the War of the Rebellion.

President of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Philadelphia; President Northern
Medical Society, Philadelphia; member of the College of Physicians, Board of Edu-
cation, and of various medical and scientific societies. Died April 30, 1891.

(Above notes computed from the records of the United States War Depart-
ment, etc.)

Dr. Leidy died of the broncho-pneumonia of grippe. The brain was removed and

weighed by Dr. F. X. Dereum. The encephalic blood-vessels presented numerous

ee ee eee ee eee

ary

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 259

mustardseed-like patches of atheroma but nothing else unusual. he brain was pre-
served in Miiller’s fluid and later transferred to aleohol. Casts of the cerebral halves
and of the cerebellum, pons and oblongata (in one piece) were subsequently made
under Dr. Dercum’s supervision.

The brain was weighed while fresh, by Dr. Dercum, with the same seales which
Dr. H. Allen employed in weighing the brain of Joseph Leidy. Troy weights were
used. The brain-weight of Philip Leidy, as determined by Dr. Dercum, was 45.5 oz.
(Troy) equivalent to 1415 grams. The weights of the encephalic parts on November
2, 1904, were as follows :

Left hemicerebrum . ; : ‘ ; : ; A 525 grams.
Right hemicerebrum : . : é - ; : 522
Cerebellum, pons and oblongata —. . ; : 3 162

Total P é : : : : ; ; . 1209 grams.

The loss in weight through the removal of the pia-arachnoid and through the
action of the preservatives during the long period of immersion (1891-1904) amounts
to 206 grams or 14.5 per cent. of the original weight.

THE CEREBRUM.

The cerebrum shows a high degree of complexity and ‘richness of fissuration in
all its parts. Viewed dorsally the right half appears slightly longer. Except for the
more prominent fronto-lateral curve and blunter occipital pole on the left side the
cerebrum is quite symmetrical in form. Viewed laterally and comparing the two
sides, the left preoperculum is seen to be the better developed and, as in the brain of
Joseph Leidy, the right sub-parietal areas are much more extensive. Viewed ven-
trally the right temporal lobe appears more massive while the left temporal is more
richly fissured ; the same comment applies to the appearances of the orbital surfaces.
The left semi-cireumference is 22.8 em. ; the right semi-circumference it 23.4 em.

Although the callosum in this brain is not as large as that of Joseph Leidy it is
of unusual proportions. The callosal length is 8 em., nearly 1 cm. above the average;
and while the average in ordinary brains is equivalent to less than 42 per cent. of the
total cerebral length, in this specimen it is equal to 50.6 per cent. Even the large
eallosum of Joseph Leidy, 8.5 cm. in length, is equivalent to 46.7 per cent. of the
cerebral length. The cross-section area of the callosum in the brain of Philip Leidy
is 7.01 sq. em., while the average in ten ordinary brains was found to be 5.63 sq. cm.
Other structures, so far as the fragility of the specimen permitted of more or less
thorough examination, were of normal and average form and size.

PPS ek BF. 4 1, ’07.

260 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Lerr Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its Rami.
— The length of the sylvian fissure from its presylvian junction to the episylvian is
4.8em. The sylvian angle is 20°. The depths are as follows: Presylvian, 12 mm.:
medi-sylvian, 18 mm.; post-sylvian, 381 mm. The presylvian ramus is 2 cm. in
length. There is no subsylvian ramus present. Caudad the sylvian terminates in an
episylvian with but slight change in direction and a hyposyJvian ramus anastomoses
with the supertemporal fissure.

The Central Fissure. —The length of the central fissure is 10.5 cm., or 1 cm. longer
than that of the right as well as much more sinuous and more ramified. A slight
vadum separates it from the supercentral.

The Occipital Fissure. — The length on the meson is 3.5 em.; on the convex sur-
face, 1.5 cm. The fissure is quite deep and the interdigitating subgyres are well
marked. Near the dorsi-mesal margin it is joined by a small tri-radiate adoccipital.
As in the brain of Joseph Leidy the occipital fissure makes an angle of about 50° with
our horizontal plane.

The Calcarine Fissure. —'The calearine and postealearine elements join to form an
uninterrupted fissure of moderately sinuous course. Its total length is 5.2cm. The
occipito-calcarine stem is 2 em. in length.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fissural Complex. —
The supercentral fissure is of the usual zygal shape, anastomosing cephalad with the
superfrontal. Measuring along the full extent of the dorsal and ventral limbs the
fissure has a length of 6.5 em. The precentral is quite tortuous and ramified. It
anastomoses over a vadum with the diagonal and transprecentral elements which in
this specimen are so closely crowded as to appear practically merged.

The superfrontal fissure is represented by two well-marked segments. ‘Two para-
mesial pieces, one quite small, mark the superfrontal gyre. In the prefrontal region
transverse fissuration prevails.

The medifrontal fissure is characterized by marked tortuosity and numerous
ramifications ; its extent is quite considerable. The subfrontal is a rather short but
tortuous fissure quite independent of all neighboring fissures. There is one distinct
orbitofrontal segment.

Mesal Swrface. — The supercallosal sweeps cephalad uninterruptedly from its junc-
tion with the paracentral for 7 em., terminating just cephalad of the genu (callosi).
The paracentral is of simple form and average extent. There is an independent intra-
paracentral piece, but no inflected fissure. The frontomarginal segments are very well
marked ; there are three distinct pieces of which the cephalic one anastomoses with the

rostral fissure. The rostral is 4 em. in length ; there is also a shorter subrostral.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 261

Orbital Swrface. — The orbital fissure is quite complexly ramified. The olfactory
fissure is 4 cm. in length.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). — he precentral gyre is sinuous and
of lesser width than its fellow on the right. The superfrontal is of moderate width.
The medifrontal is quite extensive and complexly marked by the medifrontal fissure
with its numerous branches. ‘The perfect continuity of the medifrontal fissure tends
to produce the “four-tier type” of frontal lobe in one portion at least. The sub-
frontal gyre of this side is more distinctly demarcated than its fellow on the right.
(Compared with that of Joseph Leidy it is relatively smaller.)

The mesal surface is quite definitely divided into three tiers by the concentric and
fairly distinct supercallosal and frontomarginal fissures. The paracentral gyre is of
good size and regular shape. The frontal portion of the callosal gyre is quite simple
and only slightly marked by a medicallosal groove.

Orbital Surface. —'The left mesorbital gyre is broader than that of the right. The
rest of this surface is quite cemplexly marked by the much-ramified orbital fissure.
A postorbital limbus is present.

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral
Fissural Complex.— The dorsal postcentral segment is a wholly independent zygal
fissure of limited extent. The subcentral is directly continuous with the parietal
fissure and anastomoses with the transpostcentral dipping into the sylvian cleft.

The parietal fisswre is 4.5 cm. in length and anastomoses caudad with the paroc-
cipital, ventrad with the supertemporal. There is a ‘T-shaped transparietal commu-
nicating at the dorsi-mesal margin with the intraprecuneal. The paroccipital is of
the usual zygal shape.

Mesal Surface. —The precuneal fissure is irregularly zygal and anastomoses with
the paracentral and intraprecuneal fissures. The adoccipital fissure has been men-
tioned in the description of the occipital fissure. ‘There are well marked cuneal (tri-
radiate) and posteuneal (quadri-radiate) segments in the cuneus.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). —'The postcentral gyre
is much wider than the precentral. The parietal gyre is wider than its fellow on the
right ; the paroccipital is also larger and of simpler appearance. ‘The marginal and
angular gyres are all massive and complexly marked.

Mesal Surface. — Both cuneus and precuneus are of good size, especially the
latter, and the fissural markings are quite intricate.

Fissures of the Temporal Lobes (Latero-ventral Surface). —The supertemporal fissure
presents a markedly tortuous course and seems to be made up rather of connected
zygal segments, in this respect very much resembling the brain of Joseph Leidy.

262 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Caudally it anastomoses deeply with the parietal and a meditemporal segment. The
meditemporal is represented by two zygal segments. ‘The subtemporal is more clearly
defined and of a good length. The collateral fissure is 10 cm. long. The postrhinal
is barely indicated.

The gyres of the temporal lobe are notable for their complex and irregularly tor-
tuous conformation. The subcollateral is of considerable width.

The Insule. — It was not practicable to examine the insulee thoroughly owing to
the fragility of the specimen. The depths of the sylvian cleft on both sides are as
follows :

Left. Right.
Pre-sylvian depth . : . é : : : ales 15
Medi-sylvian depth . : : : é : : ~~ ls 23
Post-sylvian depth . : F ; : é : 5) Bil 31

Right Hemicerebrum. The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its Rami. —
The length of the sylvian fissure is 4.5 em. The sylvian angle is 18°. The depths are
as follows: Pre-sylvian, 13 mm.; medi-sylvian, 23 mm.; post-sylvian, 31 mm. The
pre-sylvian ramus is 2 em. in length, the subsylvian about the same. The episylvian
ramus is more vertical in direction than that of the left side. The hyposylvian is
merely indicated by an incisure.

The Central Fisswre. — The length of the central fissure is 9.5 em. and it is less
sinuous and less ramified than the left central. It does not anastomose with any of
the neighboring fissures.

The Occipital Fissure. —The length on the meson is 3.3 em.; on the convex sur-
face, 1.5 cm. It is joined by a well-marked cuneal fissure which gives the occipital
an appearance of bifurcation. The occipital angle approaches 65° ; this is due to the
more caudal situation of the occipito-calearine junction as compared with the left side.

The Calcarine Fissure proper is 4em.in length. A slight vadum separates it
from the postcalcarine, a triradiate fissure situated well upon the occipital pole. The
occipito-calcarine stem is over 3 em. in length and almost totally traverses the hippo-
campal gyre.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fisswral Complex. —
The supercentral fissure is of zygal shape and directly continuous cephalad with the
superfrontal ; a well-marked paramesial with long transverse caudal rami closely ap-
proaches the former fissure. The precentral is well marked and sends off a long
‘anterior precentral”’ ramus.

The superfrontal runs well cephalad and presents a marked resemblance to the
same fissure in the right half of Joseph Leidy’s brain. The medifrontal is 7 em. in

—

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 263

length, quite tortuous and likewise of similar conformation to that of Joseph Leidy.
The subfrontal is apparently divided into two segments, of which the cephalic one
joins the radiate fissure.

Mesal Surface. —'The supercallosal proper is shortened by the intervention of an
oblique isthmus joining the superfrontai and callosal gyres as is commonly observed in
cases of so-called “duplication of the (old) calloso-marginal.” The paracentral fissure
is markedly tortuous and ramified. ‘The rostral fissure anastomoses with the fronto-
marginal-supercallosal piece and cuts across the hemicerebral border.

Orbital Surface. — The orbital fissure is a simple zygal fissure. The olfactory is 4
em. in length.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface).— The precentral gyre is somewhat
wider and of simpler configuration than that of the left side. The superfrontal is of
good size and very much resembles that of Joseph Leidy’s right hemicerebrum. The
medifrontal gyre is rather larger, the subfrontal a trifle smaller as compared with those
of the left side.

The mesa! surface is not so clearly divided into three tiers except where the
supercallosal fissural segments overlap in parallel. The paracentral gyre is smaller
and of irregular shape. The callosal gyre is quite broad just ventrad of the para-
central and is marked by a short medicallosal fissure.

Orbital Surface. — The mesorbital gyre is a trifle less wide and the general surface
is less complexly marked than on the left side.

The postorbital limbus is somewhat more marked on this side.

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral Fis-
sural Complex. — The postcentral, subcentral, parietal and intermedial (thence super-
temporal) fissures anastomose within a small area in a way that is in many respects
similar to the confluence of these fissures in the left half of Joseph Leidy’s cerebrum.
The subcentral is continuous with the transpostcentral dipping into the sylvian cleft
on the left side. The tendency to transverse fissuration has abbreviated the parietal
fissure considerably and it is separated from the paroccipital by an isthmus. The
paroccipital is of irregular zygal shape with numerous rami. The exoccipital complex
in this case shows a well-defined “sulcus lunatus” (Elliot Smith) and a prelunate
ramus.

Mesal Surface. — The precuneal fissure is of markedly irregular zygal type. Two
fissures mark the cuneal surface, one already described as joining the occipital fissure,
the other anastomosing with the calcarine.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). — The postcentral gyre
is of good width in its dorsal two-thirds but quite narrow ventrad of this. The parietal

264 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

is rather narrower than that of the left and of more irregular configuration ; the par-
occipital is also smaller. The angular and postparietal areas are markedly extensive.
Mesal Surface. —The precuneus presents a very complex configuration owing to
the numerous ramifications of the precuneal and intraprecuneal fissures. The cuneus
is of average size and form.
Fisswres of the Temporal Lobe (Latero-ventral Surface). —'The supertemporal fissure
is less tortuous than that of the left half; the length of the main segment is 9.5 cm.

FIG. 35.—Dorso-caudal view of the brain of Philip Leidy.

Caudo-dorsad it anastomoses with the complex intermedial-parietal junction. The
meditemporal fissure is represented by several zygal segments. The subtemporal is
well marked and long. The collateral fissure is 11 em. long, while the postrhinal is
indicated by a shallow groove.

Gyres of the Temporal Lobe in this half are much more regular in contour than
those of the left half. They all tend to preserve a uniformity of width which is in

marked contrast to the irregular appearances presented in the left hemicerebrum.

EE EE

*AGI3] diIHd 4O NivYg

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XxXI.

PLATE XXV.

Fig. 38. Lateral view of left hemicerebrum.

Fic. 39. Lateral view of right hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF PHILIP LEIDY.
A. P.S.—XXI. GG. 4, 11, ’07.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XXVI.

Fic. 40. Mesal view of right hemicerebrum.

Fic. 41. Mesal view of left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF PHILIP LEIDY.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 265

ANDREW JACKSON PARKER, M.D.

Born in Philadelphia, August 17, 1855. He was of New England parentage. He
was educated in the public schools and while in the grammar school, he attracted
attention because of his unusual brightness and unusual facility in the writing of com-
positions. While a student at the Central High School, he became greatly interested
in scientific subjects. He had the unique distinction of never attaining less than the
highest possible mark in either physics, chemistry or mathematics.

He matriculated in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in
the spring of 1874 and while there enjoyed the great privilege of being the personal
student and pupil of Prof. Joseph Leidy. Professor Leidy became greatly interested
in Parker as did also Dr. Henry C. Chapman. Parker evinced an especial interest in
the purely scientific branches of medicine and concentrated his attention upon general
biology and comparative anatomy. Clinical medicine interested him very little,
Under the stimulus of Leidy, he studied the protozoa and to a large extent inverte-
brate forms, while he diligently dissected the great mass of vertebrate material placed
in his hands by Professor Chapman. He was especially fortunate in having placed at
his disposal a large number of brains of apes and monkeys. With the aid of the
coroner, he collected quite a number of negro brains.

At his graduation in 1877, he presented a thesis on “The Morphology of the
Cerebral Convolutions with Special Reference to the Order of Primates.’ This thesis
was awarded a prize and later formed the nucleus of a more elaborate paper which
was subsequently awarded the Boyleston prize of Harvard University and which was
published in the Proceedings of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Volume X. At the age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of comparative
anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, which position he held until he was thirty-
one, when ill-health compelled his resignation.

Dr. Parker was five feet, seven inches in height, of rather slight build, though he
was muscularly very strong. His features were well defined, the nose being promi-
nent and rather aquiline, while the chin was exceedingly well developed and pro-
nounced. His eyes were large and so prominent as at times to suggest a slight degree
of exophthalmus. He was of dark complexion. He was an omnivorous reader ; his
favorite subjects by far were those which related to scientific matters, but he was
thoroughly at home in general literature. He was a deyoted disciple of Spencer and
Huxley and a great admirer of Tyndall, Darwin and the other great scientists of his
day. His scientific papers were characterized by accuracy of statement, clearness of
thought and systematic and logical arrangement of the subject matter. They were
always original in character. In scientific debate, he was logical, forceful and con-

266 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

vineing. He perceived almost as by instinct the important and vital matters of an
issue and relegated the secondary and unimportant questions to their proper places.
He was always broad and philosophical in his conceptions and brought to bear upon a
given biological problem a wealth of physical, chemical and mathematical knowledge.

His command of English was remarkable. He talked with great facility, and,
when oceasion offered, as in after-dinnar speaking, he became’ eloquent to a degree.
He was always ready to speak, never paused for a word, and had a rich flow of
imagery.

He acquired a reading knowledge of both French and German, but never took the
trouble to become proficient in either of these tongues. The explanation probably lay
in the fact that to him language was merely an instrument of communication and not
of itself interesting, and he never for this reason seriously applied himself. All other
knowledge he acquired with extreme rapidity and facility and readily codrdinated the
newly-acquired facts with those already in his possession. His method of thought was
systematic in the extreme, and his mind was a store-house in which everything was
well classified and arranged. In addition he possessed an excellent memory, which in
debate or after-dinner speaking served him to good purpose in rendering spontaneous
citations.

His perceptions were very acute and his muscular codrdinations were very accu-
rate. He was a remarkably good shot and was fond of out-of-door exercise. He was
exceedingly fond of music, of which he possessed not only a keen appreciation, but a
profound and philosophic comprehension. He not only enjoyed it thoroughly, but he
was especially fond of discussing its physics and mathematics. Art in its other forms
appealed to him in but an average degree.

He was diffident in manner, and while his acquaintance was large, he had but
few intimate friends. His tastes were rather Bohemian and unconventional, and
though not devoid of a feeling of reverence, he was an outspoken agnostic.

As regards his scientific work, he was rather indifferent in the matter of publica-
tion. When he had satisfied his own mind as to a given question he would only
exceptionally publish the results. For this reason the number of his published
articles is rather limited, the most important of them being the one on the cerebral
conyolutions of the primates already mentioned. An important investigation which
he never completed was on the interaction of crystalloids and colloids and embraced
a large number of experiments of crystallizations in various colloid media. In talking
with his friends, he claimed that in the interaction of erystalloids and colloids is to be
sought an explanation of much of the mystery underlying organic forms. Unfortu-

nately his dilatory habits interfered with the publication of his experiments, and to

i

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 267

this his steadily increasing ill health also contributed. He finally died of an attack
of pneumonia at thirty-six. He was unmarried.

His intellectual make-up is well illustrated in his paper on the convolutions of the
primates. It is replete with observations which form the basis of a brilliant generali-
zation, and it concludes with a novel and remarkable application of mathematical
principles in explanation of the arrangement of the convolutions. His intellectual
development was unquestionably precocious; at twenty he had the balance, force and
judgment of much older men.*

The brain was found to have remained in Miiller’s fluid ever since 1892. As a
natural result the brain-substance had become exceedingly fragile and had suffered
badly from subsequent handling. It had been broken into numerous fragments when
received by me and it was only with the utmost care that I was successful in deline-
ating the greater part of the mesal aspect of the cerebral halves. Fortunately a cast
of the undissected brain had been made under Dr. Dercum’s supervision and with the
help of this cast and such of the fragments as were still useful, the author was able to
reconstruct much of the cerebral contour. The objective study as hereinafter reported
is therefore based upon combined observations upon the cast and the brain fragments
and is necessarily incomplete in some respects. By means of more extensive dissec-
tion than would have been warranted in a better preserved brain it was possible to
completely expose the insule and make casts of them. This was done with great
care and the result was excellent.

Unfortunately the weight of this brain is not on record. Judging from the
dimensions of the cast of the brain, it must have weighed about 1500 grams, or some-
where within the range of 1475 to 1525 grams.

THE CEREBRUM.

This specimen is one of the most richly fissured brains in the series. The frontal
and parieto-occipital areas are particularly rich in secondary fissures and ramifications
and one is reminded of the brachycephalic type of cerebrum. The left hemicerebrum
is the most notable in every respect.

Lerr HemIcerEBRUM.
The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its Rami. — The sylvian fissure
is 6 em. in length and curves gently dorsad to terminate as the episylvian ramus, 5
em. in length, there being no hyposylvian ramus. The sylvian angle is 20°. The
depths of the sylvian fissure are as follows: Pre-sylvian depth, 13 mm. ; medi-sylvian,

* The writer is indebted to Dr _F. X. Dercum for this biographical sketch of A. J. Parker.

268 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

19 mm.; post-sylvian, 25mm. The presylvian ramus is 2 em. in length while the
subsylvian is absent.

The Central Fissure is 9.5 em. in length and slightly more sinuous than that of
the right half. Its inclination to the meson is 68°. The central does not anastomose
with any of the neighboring fissures.

The occipital fissure is 4.8 cm. in length on the meson, 2.5 cm. on the dorsum. Its
course is sinuous throughout and on the dorsum it anastomoses with the cephalic stipe
of the paroccipital.

The calcarine fissure could not be examined, owing to the extensive loss of the
occipital parts. The occipito-calcarine stem anastomoses with the precuneal and
collateral fissures.

Fisswres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fisswre Complex. —
The supercentral fissure is a simple tri-radiate piece whose cephalic ramus is directly
continuous with the superfrontal. The ventral and dorsal limbs run parallel with the
central fissure, their total length being 5 cm. The precentral fissural element is less
extensive itself but sends a long “anterior precentral ramus” well across the medi-
frontal gyre and by means of the diagonal element it communicates directly with the
sylvian cleft. There is a well-marked transprecentral.

The superfrontal fissure is distinct for a length of 6 cm. from its supercentral
origin. The fissural markings in the prefrontal region are too intricate to be distin-
guished by names. There is an orbitofrontal piece from which springs a short medi-
frontal. The subfrontal fissure is very well marked.

Mesal Surface. —So far as the fragments of this specimen permit of examination
the supercallosal fissure appears in two segments separated by an oblique isthmus.
There are several frontomarginal segments and a well-marked rostral fissure. The
paracentral is extensive and unusually ramified.

The orbital surface is marked by a much-ramified-quadri-radiate orbital fissure
together with several smaller independent segments.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). —The precentral gyre is of average
width. The superfrontal gyre is well-developed and marked by a distinct paramesial
fissure and several unnamed segments. The medifrontal is of good width and marked
by numerous transverse fissures. The subfrontal gyre is larger and better developed
than that of the right side.

The mesal surface is incompletely preserved. The three-tier type prevails. The
paracentral gyre is large and of a rectangular shape.

Orbital Surface. —The mesorbital gyre is rather narrow. The irregularly zygal
orbital fissure makes the configuration of this surface rather intricate as compared with
the more regular markings on the right side.

eee

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 269

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral Fis-
sural Complex is an irregular zygal piece whose dorsal arms embrace the caudal limb
of the paracentral fissure. An oblique transparietal anastomoses with it while a caudal
ramus joins a parietal fissure, the subcentral anastomosing with both. ‘The whole
arrangement is quite unusual and complex. There is a well-marked transpostcentral.
The parietal itself is short but sends off long rami dorsad and ventrad. The paroccipital
is separated from the parietal by an isthmus but its cephalic stipe joins the occipital.
The paroccipital is of the usual zygal form with long curved stipes.

Mesal Surface. —The precuneal fissure is exceedingly complex and anastomoses
with both the paracentral and the occipito-calearine stem. (The cuneal fissures
cannot be described owing to the destruction of the part.)

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). —The postcentral gyre
is of good width and marked by numerous fissural rami and independent pieces.
The parietal gyre presents intricate fissure-markings. The marginal and angular gyres
are exceedingly well developed but less so than the corresponding areas on the right side.

Mesal Surface.— The intricate markings of the precuneus have already been
alluded to. (‘The cuneus cannot be described owing to destruction of the part.)

Fissures of the Temporal Lobe (Latero-ventral Surface. — The supertemporal fissure
is represented by two short cephalic segments while the caudal piece, 9.5 em. in
length, anastomoses with the subcentral-parietal junction over a vadum. The medi-
temporal is represented by several segments rich in transverse anastomoses. The
remaining fissures of the temporal lobe cannot be described owing to the destruction
of the parts.

Gyres of the Temporal Lobe. —'The supertemporal gyre is well defined, fairly
sinuous and traversed by an arm of the second supertemporal fissural segment. The
remaining gyres, so far as they can be examined, present a very complex and tortuous
configuration.

Rieur HEMICEREBRUM.

The Interlobar Fisswres. The Sylvian Fissure and its Rami. — The sylvian fissure
is 5.9 em. in length, its course is moderately sinuous and the sylvian angle is 26°.
Its depths are as follows: Pre-sylvian, 16 mm.; medi-sylvian, 21 mm. ; post-sylvian,
25mm. ‘The presylvian fissure is short, while the subsylvian attains a length of 2.5
em. The episylvian ramus joins the subcentral fissure. The hyposylvian is short.

The central fissure is 10 em. in length and its course is less sinuous than that of
the left side.

The occipital and calcarine fissures could not be thoroughly examined, owing to
the extensive loss of the occipital portions of the brain.

A. P.S,—XXI. HH. 4, 11, ’07.

270 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fissural Complex.—
The supercentral presents a form similar to its fellow on the left, but is shorter. The
precentral is more distinct and does not dip into the sylvian cleft.

The superfrontal can be traced for 4 em. from its origin but cannot be distin-
guished in the intricate markings of the prefrontal regions. The orbitofrontal and
medifrontal fissures are more distinctly marked on this side. The subfrontal is well-
marked and anastomoses with the diagonal fissure.

Mesal Surface. — The supercallosal fissure presents a very tortuous course and
gives off several vertical rami. A fairly long frontomarginal in the precallosal region
gives a well-marked appearance of the three-tier type. There is a fairly long rostral
fissure. The paracentral fissure is curved and sends off several rami.

Orbital Surface. —The arrangement of a transorbital fissure with longitudinal
rami gives an appearance of a postorbital gyre with several sagittally-directed pre-
orbital gyres. The mesorbital gyre is somewhat broader than its fellow on the left.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). —'The precentral gyre is of regular con-
tour. The superfrontal gyre is quite broad, the medifrontal is complexly marked,
while the subfrontal is of smaller extent than that of the left side.

The mesal surface of the superfrontal gyre is marked by numerous rami of the
supercallosal fissure. The callosal gyre is marked by numerous independent segments
and by several rami of the paracentral,

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral Fissural
Complex.— It is byno means easy to identify all the segments of this complex. The post-
central is a small zygal segment while the subcentral is a more extensive fissure which
anastomoses with the parietal and episylvian fissures. Thereis a long transpostcentral.

The parietal fissure pursues a very irregular course, anastomoses with the super-
temporal but is separated from the paroccipital by a slight vadum. ‘The paroccipital
is irregularly zygal. There is a well-marked transparietal.

Mesal Surface.—The precuneal fissure is a quadri-radiate zygal fissure. Numerous
independent pieces mark the precuneus, while the cuneal surface could not be examined.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). — The postcentral gyre
is of fair width but less intricately marked than that of the left. The parietal gyre is
likewise of simpler contour. The marginal and angular gyres, on the other hand, are
notable for their extent and rich fissuration.

Fissures of the Temporal Lobe. —'The supertemporal fissure pursues a tortuous
course and measures, to its junction with the parietal fissure, 14 em., an unusual
length. Several meditemporal segments, each considerably branched, mark this sur-

face. ‘The other fissures could not be thoroughly examined.

OO EE

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of

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XXVIII.

Fie. 44. Lateral view of the left hemicerebrum.

Fic. 45. Lateral view of the right hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF A, J. PARKER

TRANS. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XXIxX,

\
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Fic. 46. Mesal view of the right hemicerebrum.

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Fig. 47. Mesal view of the left hemicerebrum. . |

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Fre. 48. Left insula.

Fie. 49. Right insula.
BRAIN OF A. J. PARKER

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 271

Gyres of the Temporal Lobe. —The supertemporal gyre is quite tortuous and well
developed. ‘The remaining gyres are of good width and, so far as could be examined,
appeared to be richly marked by fissures.

The Insule. — As stated above, it was possible to examine the insulee more closely
than in any other brain in this series because the dissection necessary to expose these
parts was permissible in a specimen already worthless for other purposes. Casts of the
insulee thus exposed were carefully made with a wax-paraffine mixture and from these
several positive casts in plaster of Paris were secured for permanent use.

Both insulz show a high degree of development, but with one notable difference,
viz.: the preinsula, or that portion nearest the motor speech centers of the cerebral
mantle, is larger, better developed and more prominent on the left side than on the
right. The dimensions of the insule are :

Left. Right.
Cephalo-caudal length : : : : . 5.4 em. 4.9 cm.
Transinsular diagonal width ; : é ne eee 8:9) ©
Dorso-ventral width . : : - : oy ees aU 3.4
Height of the insular from the mesal surface . 4.5 ** ry ae

These measurements show that the left insula as a whole is also larger than its
fellow on the right side.

HARRISON ALLEN.

Born in Philadelphia, April 17, 1841. His parents were Samuel Allen and Eliz-
abeth Justice Thomas. His ancestors accompanied William Penn, and on his father’s
side he was descended from Nicholas Waln, distinguished in the early history of Phil-
phia. Although he would have preferred pure science, financial considerations led
him to study medicine, including dentistry, at the University of Pennsylvania. He
was on duty for a time at the Blockley Hospital, and on January 31, 1862, he was
appointed Acting Assistant Surgeon U.S. A., and Assistant Surgeon, July 30, 1862,
serving in hospitals and in the defences of Washington until the acceptance of his
resignation, December 8, 1865. He then ranked as Brevet Major.

Dr. Allen now practised his profession with assiduity and success. His dental
education facilitated specialization in respect to the air passages, and in 1880 he was
President of the American Laryngological Association. Of his strictly medical and
surgical publications (numbering about fifty) most relate more or less directly to his
specialty.

But while he earned his living by medicine Dr. Allen devoted much time and
thought to science and published many valuable contributions on comparative and
human anatomy. In Professor Wilder's biography of Dr. Allen, from which these
data are taken, about 200 monographs are listed. His investigations on the bats of

Ress KEN, UL 4, 11, 707.

Die STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

North America, on crania from the Hawaiian Islands and congenital malformations
are most notable. He was professor of zodlogy and comparative anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania from 1865 to 1876; professor of physiology from 1878 to 1885 ;
professor of comparative anatomy and zodlogy, 1891-96. Dr. Allen was an active or
corresponding member of numerous scientific societies in this and in other countries,
and was President of the American Society of Naturalists in 1887 and in 1888. A
large part of his work was done at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
and published in its proceedings. He was President of the Contemporary Club of
Philadelphia; Curator of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy ; President of the Anthro-
pometric Society, and sueceeded Professor Joseph Leidy as President of the Association
of American Anatomists.

Dr. Allen died November 14, 1898. Asa member of the Anthropometric Society
he directed that his brain should be entrusted to that organization ; his body was cre-
mated. The autopsy revealed the cause of his death as heart failure, due to fatty
degeneration ; he had in his later years also been subject to rheumatism.

(For further details see biography by B. G. Wilder, Proceedings of Association of
American Anatomists, December, 1897; also Science, pp. 262-265, 1898.)

THE BRaIn.

The weight of the encephalon, after having been immersed for 15 minutes in a
mixture of water, formalin and alcohol, was 54 ounces avoirdupois, or 1531 grams, a
weight which closely approaches that of Cope. After having lain immersed for nearly
six years and after the removal of the pia from the cerebral halves, the weight of the

encephalic parts was as follows :

Left hemicerebrum j : $ , : ‘ . 525 grams.
Right ut : , P F ' j : 3 540—
Cerebellum : ; 3 E : 4 ; . 1555
Pons and oblongata . ; : F : : ¢ c PRs

1248 grams.
The loss in weight amounts to 283 grams or 18.4 per cent. of the original weight.

THE CEREBRUM.

The entire brain has unfortunately suffered much distortion. It had rested upon
its ventral surface so that the cerebellum pressed up against the caudal parts of the
cerebral halves, flattening these considerably and.spreading the occipital poles apart.
The distortion is such that measurements are of no value except with reference to iso-

lated and unaffected regions and of single fissures. The accompanying drawings rep-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. PAT

“aie

resent the actual appearances presented by the cerebral parts as they have hardened
in this distorted condition. Owing to this manifest displacement the writer refrains
from attempting to describe the general appearances of the cerebrum as a whole; a
morphological description of the fissures and gyres must suffice.

The large relative size of the callosum is striking and will be discussed more at
length in the sequel. The crura cerebri are also quite large.

Lerr Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fisswres. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. —'The sylvian fissure is extremely short, only 3.9 cm. in length. Its depths
are as follows: Pre-sylvian depth, 13 mm.; medi-sylvian, 21 mm.; post-sylvian 28
mm. The presylvian ramus bifureates and with its larger arm attains a length of 3
em. The subsylvian is short. The episylvian is 3 cm. in length and there is a short
ramifying hyposylvian.

The central fisswre pursues a very sinuous course, exhibiting seven alternate curves
and attaining a length of 1! cm. It anastomoses with the postcentral and supercentral

The occipital fisswre, on the mesal surface, is 3 cm. in length; on the dorsum it
curves cephalad. A postparoccipital segment which dips into the occipital cleft joins
it (superficially) with the paroccipital. On the dorsal surface it is characterized by a
marked turn cephalad.

The calearine fissure and postcalearine fissure together attain a length of 6.5 em.,
the terminal part passing well onto the convex surface. The occipito-calearine stem
is nearly 3 cm. in length.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fisswral Compler.—The
supercentral is tri-radiate, its cephalic arm continuing as the superfrontal. The ventral
limb anastomoses with the central. ‘The precentral segment is 4 cm. in length and anas-
tomoses with the subfrontal. There is a short transprecentral but no diagonal fissure.

The superfrontal fissure consists of two segments: the caudal one springs from the
supercentral and is 4 cm. in length; the cephalic one is shorter but pursues a more
tortuous course and is more ramified. The intricacy of the prefrontal region is such
as to make it difficult to trace the fissural integers and the reader must be referred to
the figures.

Mesal Surface. — The supercallosal fissure springs from the paracentral, attains a
length of 10 em. and anastomoses with the rostral fissure. The paracentral is rather
short (2.6 em.) and sends off several rami. A number of fronto-marginal segments,
mostly of zygal shape, mark the superfrontal gyre on the mesal surface. The rostral
fissure joins a transrostral element, forming a U-shaped piece.

Orbital Surface. — The fissuration on this surface is quite complex and difficult to
describe in words; the reader is again referred to the illustration.

274 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe. (Lateral Surface). — The precentral gyre of this half is
rather broader than that of the right half and at its middle it is interrupted by the
central-supercentral anastomosis. The superfrontal gyre is well defined in its caudal
half, its lateral boundary being lost in the complexity of the prefrontal region. The
medifrontal gyre is wide and the subfrontal is larger than the corresponding region on
the right side. The left frontal lobe throughout is far more complexly fissured and is
considerably differentiated from the common type.

FissurEs oF THE PARTETAL AND OccrprraL Lopes. Lateral Surface. The Post-
central Fissural Complez.—The postcentral fissure, 8 cm. in length, describes an
irregular zig-zag course anastomosing ventrad with the subcentral and caudad with
the parietal. The T-shaped subcentral is small and anastomoses with both the central
and postcentral fissures. The parietal fissure bears an unusual relation to the paroc-
cipital. Instead of joining the latter by a cephalic ramus, the parietal lies for the
most part laterad of the paroccipital and then, with an abrupt mesal sweep, the
parietal joins the paroccipital opposite the occipital incisure.

A well-marked intermedial fissure which joins the parietal demarcates the exten-
sive marginal gyre from the angular while a second smaller “intermedial” lies
between the intermedial proper and the episylvian.

Mesal Surface. — The precuneal is of irregular zygal shape and several smaller
fissures mark the surface of the precuneus. A small cuneal fissure running parallel
with the calcarine marks the cuneus.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes. Lateral Surface. —'The postcentral gyre
is very broad in its middle third. The parietal is of good width, but comparatively
short, while the paroccipital occupies an odd position owing to the cephalic turn of
the dorsal part of the occipital fissure. The marginal is quite wide; at its transi-
tion into the supertemporal gyre it is characterized by a distinct operculation. It is
to this overlapping that the shortening of the sylvian fissure is chiefly due. The
angular gyre is fairly complex and is characterized by its overlapping of the parietal-
paroccipital.

Mesal Surface. —'The comparative smallness of the cuneus and the larger size of
the precuneus are to be noted.

Fissures of the Temporal Lobe. —'The supertemporal fissure is represented by two
segments, a short cephalic and a longer caudal one ; the latter is quite tortuous and
ramified. In the medi and subtemporal regions the transverse tendency of the fissures
does not permit of a clear determination of the medi and subtemporal fissures as they
are commonly seen. The collateral fissure is more clearly marked. The postrhinal

is merely indicated by a groove.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 275

The supertemporal gyre is particularly large at its transition into the marginal
and angular gyres. The remaining temporal gyres all show a good degree of devel-
opment.

The insula is well-formed, so far as could be seen, though not large. There are
four preinsular and one postinsular gyres. (Compared with that of the right side it is
better differentiated and the insular pole is more prominent.

Rigar Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. — The sylvian fissure is even shorter than that of the left side, being only 3.5
em. in length. Its depths are as follows: At the pre-sylvian point 15 mm.; medi-
sylvian, 24 mm.; post-sylvian, 28 mm. The pre-sylvian is 3 em. long; the sub-
sylvian is absent. The epi-sylvian and hypo-sylvian rami much resemble those of
the left half.

The central fissure is somewhat less sinuous than that on the left side and its length
is 11.5 em,

The occipital fissure, on the mesal surface, is 3em. in length ; its dorsal termination
is almost hidden through the close approximation of adjacent parts, together with
almost complete submergence of the paroccipital gyre.

The calearine fissure and postcalearine together attain a length of 7em. The
occipito-calcarine stem is 3 em. in length.

Fissureof the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fissural Complex.—The
supercentral is tri-radiate; from it springs the suprafrontal. The precentral is short
but much ramified, from it springs the subfrontal. There is a short transpre-central.

The superfrontal fissure lies in the postfrontal region, joining the medifrontal
cephalad. ‘The medifrontal, springing from the orbitofrontal, pursues a very flexuous
course. The subfrontal fissure is short. There is well-defined radiate fissure, which
seems to be duplicated by a parallel element (rdt”) just-ventrad of the principal fissure.

Mesal Surface. — The supercallosal is represented by a long cephalic segment,
much ramified and anastomosing with the rostral, while a caudal segment joins the
paracentral. The paracentral is of the usual type. The rostral fissure is 5 cm. in
length ; the subrostral is slight.

Orbital Surface. — The fissures include a well-marked transorbital fissure together
with a zygal and a tri-radiate piece in the preorbital region.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). —'The precentral gyre is of rather a
finer contour and not so wide im its middle part as that of the left side. ‘The super-
frontal is of good width and marked by several paramesial segments. ‘The medi-
frontal is very wide and exceedingly complex in its fissuration. The subfrontal shows
nothing notable and is less extensive than that of the left.

276 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

The mesal surface of the superfrontal is fairly complex but not as wide throughout
as the corresponding gyre on the left side. The paracentral gyre is somewhat larger
than that of the left.

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Gyres. (Lateral Surface.) The Postcentral

Fissural Complex. — It israther difficult to determine the limits of the segments which

ey

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ee
Se

F1q. 50.—Dorso-caudal view of the brain of Harrison Allen.

make up the postcentral fissural complex. On the whole it is an extremely irregular
system with numerous modifications. It joins the parietal and the zygal transparietal.
The transpostcentral is unusually long.

The parietal fissure joins the paroccipital fissure in the usual manner. The ce-
phalie stipe of the paroceipital dips into the occipital cleft so that on a superficial view
the two fissures appear to be confluent. Beside the exoccipital complex and the super-
temporal fissure the intermedial may be mentioned, appearing as a branch of the
parietal.

Mesal Surface. —'The precuneal fissure is of the usual zygal shape with fairly long

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TRANS. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XXX.

Fig. 51. Dorsal view of cerebrum.

BRAIN OF HARRISON ALLEN.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XXX]

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Fic. 52. Ventral view of cerebrum.

BRAIN OF HARRISON ALLEN.

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TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

Fira,

54.

Lateral view of left hemicerebrum.

Lateral view of right hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF HARRISON ALLEN,

PLATE XXxIl.

a)

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

Mesal view of left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF HARRISON ALLEN.

PLATE XXxiIll.

———

a ee

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. AUT

_ stem and anastomosing cephalad with the paracentral. ‘The cuneus is marked by an
independent cuneal fissure and by a postcuneal fissure.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes. (Lateral Surface.) —The postcentral is
of irregular contour and, in general, quite broad. ‘There is not a very distinct demare-
ation from the parietal gyre. Of the paroccipital gyre its caudal arm only is visible
upon the surface.

The marginal gyre is less extensive than that of the left but the angular gyre of
this side is larger than its fellow of the left half.

Mesal Surface. —'The precuneus is smaller than that ofthe left and somewhat less
complexly marked by fissures. The cuneus does not differ much from its fellow in
size or contour.

Fissures of the Temporal Lobe.— The supertemporal is very tortuous and much
ramified. Caudally it anastomoses with an exoccipital element. ‘The meditemporal
is well marked and attains a length of 9 cm. The subtemporal is represented by only
a few small segments. The collateral fissure is 9.5 em. in length. ‘The postrhinal is
a well marked and fairly deep groove.

Gyres of the Temporal Lobe. — The gyral development of the lobe is, on the whole,
quite similar to that of the left half. There is not so marked a tendency toward trans-
verse fissuration, however, so that the identification of fissures and gyres is compara-
tively easy.

The Insula. — Ason the other side, the insula is not of any notable size. Further-
more the right insula is of somewhat simpler contour and the preinsular pole is less
prominent.

Remembering the distorted condition in which the brain has come to our hands
the measurements herewith given are not of great value. In a general way, however,
they may convey some idea of the dimensions and permit one to form some judgment
as to the allowances that ought to be made for the displacement. The callosum, at
least, can be said to have suffered little change during the stages of preservation.

Length of cerebrum . A : : ; : : ; 5 16.8
Width of cerebrum ., : F 3 : : : : : 14.1

(Cerebral Index 84. )
Semi-cireumference (each half) . : : : p : 2 24.

Length of callosum . ; 3 : : : : ; ; 8.0
(or 47.6 per cent. of cerebral length ).

278 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

EDWARD DRINKER COPE.

Born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1840, of distinguished American ancestry. In
boyhood he showed great independence in character and action, incessant activity in
mind and body, and quick and ingenious thought. At the age of nineteen he went
to Washington to study and work in the Smithsonian Institution under Spencer F.
Baird. In April, 1859, he contributed his first paper to the Academy of Natural Sci-
ences, ‘“‘on the primary divisions of the Salamandride, with a description of two new
species.” He followed this by a full description, in the same year, of reptiles brought
from West Africa by Du Chaillu, naming several new forms; also by a catalogue of
the venomous snakes in the museum. In the succeeding three years he made twenty-
four communications upon the Reptilia and established himself, at the age of twenty-
two, as one of the leading herpetologists of the country. He exhibited a wide range
of self-acquired knowledge and keen powers of systematic diagnosis and generalization.
He was professor of natural science in Haverford College (1864-1867) and professor of
geology and paleontology in the University of Pennsylvania (1886-1897). H. F.
Osborn speaks of Cope as the “last and the most distinguished of the old school of
comparative anatomists.”” While connected with the U. 8. Geological Survey, under
Dr. Hayden, he made explorations in Wyoming and Colorado (1872-73), which
resulted in the discovery of many new types of fishes, mosasaurs, chelonians, dinosaurs
and other reptiles. He spent his summers in the Bad Lands, rapidly accumulating
an enormous collection of fossils and publishing exhaustive memoirs. At his death,
in 1897, he left twenty octavo and three great quarto volumes of collected researches.
Cope is not to be thought of merely as a specialist in paleontology, but rather as a
philosophic anatomist, who, while less logical and less accurate than Huxley, was more
creative and constructive and never let an opportunity slip by of at least throwing out
an hypothesis as to the phyletic relations of every great type he studied, and many of
these random guesses have been confirmed.

Cope worked deliberately, and gave his whole mind to one subject at a time, if he
considered it of special importance, this power being aided by his remarkable memory
of species and of objects long laid aside for future reference. His field exploration was
characterized by great enthusiasm and indefatigable energy. Many friends in this
country and abroad have spoken of the invigorating nature of his companionship. In
times of relaxation he displayed a large fund of amusing anecdotes of the experiences,
mishaps and frailties of scientists, his own as often as those of others. Some of his
countrymen have allowed certain of his characteristics to obscure his stronger side, and
during his life he received few of the honors such as foreigners are wont to bestow

upon their countrymen of note; yet few men have done as much as Cope to push the

EE EO

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. Zt

world’s thought along. His face reflected his character. His square and prominent
forehead suggested his vigorous intellect and marvelous memory ; his brilliant eyes
were the media of exceptional keenness of observation ; his prominent chin was in
traditional harmony with his aggressive spirit.

(Compiled from biography of H. F. Osborn; Science, May 7, 1897, and Century
Magazine, November, 1897.)

THE Bran.

The weight of the fresh encephalon, with the pia-arachnoid still attached, was
54.5 ounces, equivalent to 1545 grammes, a weight which exceeds that of the average
male brains of whites by about 150 grammes. (See Table I.) After immersion in an
alcohol-formal mixture, and after removal of the pia, the weight of the encephalic
parts was as follows :

Left hemicerebrum . A : : : : : < s 475.8
Right hemicerebrum . . 5 2 : : E : - 448.9
Cerebellum, pons and oblongata : ; : : : : 153.5

Total . 7 3 : ; : : : : : F 1078.2

The loss in weight amounts to 467 grammes, or 30 per cent. of the original weight.

THe CEREBRUM.

In general, the cerebrum presents a fairly complex development, with intricate
fissuration and a bold contour of the numerous gyres. Viewed dorsally, its great
breadth (cerebral index 81.8) is readily noted, as also the relatively greater fullness of
the left hemicerebrum in the region of the fronto-parietal operculum and the adjacent
parts. Of the frontal lobes, the left seems the more complexly and deeply fissured, as
well as the more massive. Viewed laterally, and comparing the two sides, the pre-
operculum is better developed and more massive on the left side, as is also the region
about the left marginal and angular gyres. ‘The right super-parietal region, however,
is more massive than on the left side, though, if we compare this brain with some
others of eminent men, Gyldén’s for example, this portion of the cerebrum is not par-
ticularly large in its development. In the ventral view, the right temporal lobe is
slightly longer and of more slender contour than the left, which is considerably
broader and thicker. The fissuration is also more marked on the left side. The
greater breadth of the orbital surface of the left half is quite apparent. On the whole
it may be said that there is a slight preponderance in the size and in the degree of fis-
suration of the left as compared with the right half. The horizontal semi-cireum-
ference on the left side, measuring between the hemicerebral poles, exceeds that of the
right side by 1 cm.; these measures are, respectively, 23 and 22 cm.

Been =r RRS. 5,/11, 707.

280 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Lerr Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. — The sylvian fissure attains a length of 5.9 cm., its walls are in close apposi-
tion, and its course is quite tortuous. Its angle with a plane passing through the
ventral margins of the frontal and occipital poles is 28°. Its depth at the pre-sylvian
point is 13 mm.; medi-sylvian depth 19 mm.; post-sylvian depth 25 mm. The pre-
sylvian ramus is 2.5 cm. in length and anastomoses caudally with the diagonal. The
subsylvian is short. The basisylvian, measured from the tip of the temporal lobe is
20 mm. in depth. Caudad, the sylvian terminates in the episylvian ramus 2.4 em. in
length. The hyposylvian is absent.

The Central Fissure.
length ; measured with a pair of compasses, 8.2 em., quite above the average. It does

Measuring with a wet string, this fissure is 11.8 cm. in

not anastomose with any other fissure and has only one short caudal ramus near its
ventral end. The course of the fissure can be resolved into seven alternate curves,
instead of the usual five. Several interlocking subgyres may be seen in its depths
but there is no appreciable ‘central yadum.” The ventral end is separated from the
sylvian by an isthmus 6 mm. in width; the dorsal end appears on the mesial aspect
for 1.5 em. The general direction of the fissure makes an angle of 53° with the inter-
cerebral cleft.

The Occipital Fisswre. — Its length on the meson is 2.8 em. ; on the convex surface
2.3em. It sends one ramus into the cuneal surface and terminates on the dorsum in
a furcal manner, the cephalic limb communicating with the cephalic stipe of the par-
occipital at a depth of 8 mm. over a very narrow submerged isthmus — the reduced
cephalic limb of the paroccipital gyre. Notable is- the obtuse angle which the fissure
makes with the (arbitrary) horizontal plane alluded to above; namely 70°. In most
brains this angle approximates 60°. The fissure therefore does not approach the cal-
losum as much as is the rule, and its junction with the calcarine is effected much
further caudad than usual.

The Calcarine Fisswre. — The calearine fissure describes an angular course, bend-
ing sharply dorsad near its junction with the occipito-calcarine stem. It terminates
caudally in a T-shaped bifurcation, the ventral arm of which again bifurcates. Each
of these bifurcations embraces an independent fissural segment, of which the ventral
one probably corresponds to the postealearine, ‘‘ or sulcus extremus” of Schwalbe.

The occipital and the calecarine meet at considerable depth to pass into the occi-
pito-calearine fissural stem. This passes cephalad for 3.7 mm, and comes within 1
mim. of anastomosing with the hippocampal fissure.

FissuRES OF THE Fronrat Lope (LareraAn Surrace). The Precentral Fisswral

Complex. —his consists of three segments: an independent supercentral, and two

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STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 281

superficially confluent precentrals. The supercentral is fundamentally of triradiate
shape, though it exhibits a tendency to zygal form; its maximum length, parallel
with the central, is 4.em. ‘The dorsal limbs embrace an inflected gyre, as determined
by the existence of a short inflected fissure. Of the two precentral segments, the
dorsal one (PRC’, Figs. 57 and 60) extends well across the medifrontal gyre and anasto-
moses with the superfrontal over a vadum 5 mm. in depth. Ventrad, over another
vadum of about the same depth, it joins the second precentral segment. The latter
(PRC", Figs. 57 and 60) joins the diagonal, and by means of this the sylvian fissure.
Near the dorsal end of this second precentral segment there arises a long ramus (3.5
em.) which nearly traverses the entire medifrontal gyre. This corresponds to the
“anterior precentral” of the authors, and we thus see two precentral elements which
tend to run parallel with each other for a fair distance, including between them not a
small portion of the medifrontal.

The transprecentral appears on the convex surface for 1.5 em., and does not com-
municate with any other fissure. The diagonal fissure is short, joins the precentral as
described above, and anastomoses with the presylvian over a vadum.

The superfrontal fissures does not, as is usual, spring from the supercentral, but
beginning in a simple manner it passes cephalad in an extremely tortuous, zig-zag
course, sending off several rami, attaining a length of 8 cm. for the principal segment.
Further cephalad, the fissure may be traced a part of the distance, but in the highly
complex prefrontal region it is difficult to determine. Numerous transverse pieces
mark the superfrontal gyre.

The medifrontal fissure is a distinetly marked segment, coursing about midway
between and parallel with the super- and subfrontal fissures. It has numerous rami,
and far cephalad it anastomoses with the prefrontal part of the superfrontal. As the
fissure passes toward the frontal pole, it converges toward the mesial plane, making an

angle of about 38° with it.

The subfrontal fissure is practically an independent one; its main part is of zygal
form, with an extensive dorso-cephalic ramus which reaches well toward the frontal
pole and by its many ramifications helps to make this region so very complex.

The orbitofrontal seems to be represented by at least two well-defined segments ;
the mesial one traverses the frontal pole to appear on the mesial aspect; the lateral
one is tri-radiate. Both segments are independent. There is a long (3.7 cm.) radiate
fissure, independent, which marks the rather large preoperculum.

Mesran Surrace. — The supercallosal, from its junction with the paracentral to
its termination ventrad of the rostrum of the callosum, is an uninterrupted fissure of
a length of 9.5 cm., and sends off five distinct rami into the superfrontal gyre. A short

282 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

parallel fissure, which may be conveniently called the medicallosal, marks the callosal
gyre just dorsad of the genu of the callosum.

The paracentral fissure is of the usual form, the stem being 4 em. in length; the
cephalic limb 1.4 cm.; the caudal limb 1.3 em. on the meson, and 1.7 cm. on the
dorsum. ‘There is a short inflected fissure appearing on both the dorsal as well as the
mesial aspect, and situated, as is the rule, caudad of the cephalic paracentral limb.

.In the superfrontal gyre there is a very short frontomarginal segment confluent
with one of the rami of the supercallosal. The rostral fissure is distinct, 4.7 em. in
length and independent; the subrostral is merely indicated by a slight furrow.

OrpITAL SurrAce. — There are two orbital fissures separated from each other by
a shallow vadum; the mesial one is of zygal shape, the lateral one quadri-radiate,
resembling the letter “ K.” The olfactory fissure is simple and attains a length of 3.8
em. ‘The cephalic end becomes visible on the mesial aspect. |

GyREs OF THE FrontTAL Lope (LATERAL SuRFAcE).— The precentral gyre of this
half is slightly less massive, and of rather less tortuous configuration than its fellow
on the right side. The ventral portion is the broader. ‘The superfrontal gyre is of
good width throughout and beside the numerous indentations of the exceedingly
ramified superfrontal, is richly supplied with smaller fissures, notably in the prefrontal
portion, and generally of transverse direction. The medifrontal gyre is broad, par-
ticularly in the caudal portion where the well-marked “anterior precentral”’ has
already been noted. The intricate fissuration in the prefrontal region gives this part
of the gyre a very complex appearance, and it is difficult to trace the fundamental
fissural pattern here. ‘The existence of a fairly long medifrontal fissure divides the
gyre into two tiers. The subfrontal gyre is the one to which the massiveness of the
left as compared with right frontal lobe is due. The great width of the medifrontal
gyre would seem to apparently diminish the area of the subfrontal, but this is more
than compensated for by its greater longitudinal expanse. Measurements taken from
the ventral end of the central (or any other point of general constancy) to various
corresponding points in the subfrontal gyre of the two sides shows that of the left to
be considerably larger than the right in practically all its dimensions. The greater
massiveness Of the left subfrontal is readily appreciated when the two hemicerebra are
compared with each other.

Merstan Surrace. — The superfrontal, on its mesial surface, appears as a broad,
richly-fissured gyre, of a width ranging between 2.9 cm. and 2.1 em., and giving an
impression of redundancy; few brains show quite so much cortical expanse in this
region. ‘The paracentral gyre is of good size and bold contour; its length is about
4 cm., its width between 2 and 2.7 em. Its dorsi-mesal margin is indented by the cen-

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 283

tral and inflected fissures, and its surface is marked by one vertical and one longitu-
dinal intraparacentral segment; the latter is confluent with the caudal paracentral
limb over a yadum.

That part of the callosal gyre which is cephalad of the precuneus, aside from the
medicallosal fissure described above presents nothing unusual.

OrsiraL Surrace is slightly concave, fairly well fissured and of rather broader
expanse than on the left side. The mesorbital gyre is quite narrow. The remainder
of this surface tends more to sagittal than to transverse division.

A certain peculiarity observable on this surface consists in the formation of a
prominent eminence in the form of a limbus which is in apposition to the temporal
apex as if struggling for the occupation of the middle fossa of the skull. This forma-
tion, to which I venture to give, provisionally, the name “ postorbital limbus”
is demarcated by a distinct incisure in which the wings of the sphenoid bone were
received. As a result of this protrusion of the orbital parts into the middle fossa, the
basisylvian fissure necessarily falls below the margin of the sphenoidal wings instead
of being just at it. This is best seen in Fig. 2.

I find but one description in literature of a similar peculiarity, given by Retzius
in “Das Gehirn eines Lapplanders.” * ‘The limbus is shown in Wagner’s plate of
Gauss’s brain, and the writer has since observed it in a Japanese brain.+

FissurES QF THE ParreraL AND OccrpirAL Lopes (LATERAL Surrace). The
Postcentral Fisswral Complex.— The postcentral boundaries are quite unusual and
atypical. Instead of the usual long postcentral, only a small furcal segment is repre-
sented, embracing the caudal limb of the paracentral. The subcentral segment is also
short and joins the parietal. Between the postcentral and subcentral lie two unnamed
fissures ; of these one runs obliquely across the postcentral gyre. The transpostcentral
rises deeply from out of the sylvian cleft and divides into two rami.

The parietal fissure is deep and passes without interruption from the subcentral
to become confluent with the paroccipital. In its course it sends off several short rami
and joins the second (caudal) intermedial (itml”, Figs. 1 and 3). <A transparietal
(Brissaud) 4.5 em. in length marks the parietal gyre.

The paroccipital is of the usual zygal form (Fig. 7) and is peculiar in that its
cephalic stipe joins the occipital. The parietal joins the cephalic ramus, while the
other paroccipital branches are free from anastomoses.

It remains to describe the two intermedials. The cephalic one (7fm/’), demarcating
the marginal gyre from the angular, is a very small furrow: the caudal one (itml”),

* Retzius, Internat. Beitrige z. Wiss. Med., I, p. 41, 1891.
+ E. A. Spitzka, American Journal of Anatomy, Vol. II, 1903; Philadelphia Medical Journal, April 11, 1903.

284 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

demareating the angular from the postparietal, is deep, ramified, and joins the parietal
at considerable depth. The upturned ends of the episylvian, the supertemporal and
the meditemporal, around which the three divisions of the subparietal lobule curve,
are well marked and extensive.

The Exoccipital and Fissural Complex.— There are two exoccipital segments ; the one
(eop’) of zygal shape, with its longest ramus passing near to the occipital pole, its dorso-
cephalic ramus joining a segment of the meditemporal ; the other (eop’’) corresponding

?

to the “sulcus occipitalis lateralis” of the authors, being a sinuous and much ramified
fissure which also joins the meditemporal segment. Its caudal terminus closely
approaches the postcalcarine.

MestAL Surrace.— The precuneal fissure may be regarded either as a zygal
fissure with two short caudal rami, or, more properly, as a tri-radiate fissure with.
fureal caudal and dorsal limbs. It is independent. There are two small intrapre-
cuneals.

The cuneus is marked by a large tri-radiate postcuneal, a cuneal ramus of the
occipital, and a vertical ramus of the calcarine.

GYRES OF THE PaARIETAL AND OccipirAL Lopes (LATERAL SuRFACE.)— The post-
central gyre is quite flexuous, of irregular contour, and is in general less broad than
its fellow on the right half. The parietal is of good width and is marked by the dis-
tinct transparietal. Its longitudinal extent is, however, less than most brains exhibit.
The paroccipital gyre is of unusual form, due to the anastomosis of the paroccipital
fissure with the occipital. The larger caudal portion is marked by two (postparoccip-
ital) fissures.

Of the three divisions of the subparietal region the angular and postparietal gyres
are very well developed, but the marginal is rather smaller than common. ‘The sig-
nificance of this feature will be discussed in the summary.

Mestat Surracr.— The precuneus is remarkably small, as is indicated by the
small parietal index, 13.1. Its width, measuring between the caudal paracentral limb
and the occipital, is only 2.4 em. This reduction of its size is due to the great extent
of the frontal lobe; in average brains we find the caudal paracentral limb to cut the
dorsi-mesal margin at a point just dorsad of the edge of the splenium of the callosum ;
in Cope’s brain it reaches further back by fully 1 em. The cuneus, too, is small, but
here the reason is a different one, depending on the closer proximity of the occipito-
calcarine junction to the dorsi-mesal margin. In most brains this junction occurs at
about 3.5 em. from the margin; in Cope’s brain it is 2.8 em., bringing the point of
the wedge further away from the splenium.

The callosal gyre, in its passage into the hippocampal becomes very narrow, owing

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 285

to the close approach of the occipito-calcarine fissural stem to the hippocampal fissure.

FissuREs OF THE TEMpoRAL Lose (LATeERO-veENTRAL SurrAcE).— The supertem-
poral fissure is unusually tortuous, running in a Widely diverging zig-zag path, and
attaining the unusual length of 16 cm., measured with a wet string. It sends off
numerous rami, one at each change in its direction and twice in its course it anasto-
moses with meditemporal segments. The latter fissure is represented by at least five
pieces, of irregular shape and disposition and anastomosing frequently with neighbor-
ing fissures. The most caudal segment, in the postparietal region, anastomoses with
both exoccipitals ; with the second one of these (H#OP”) in a very circuitous manner.
The subtemporal is well-marked, of a length of 8 cm., and anastomoses with the medi-
temporal-exoccipital junction as well as the collateral fissure. ‘The collateral fissure
is divided into two segments by an isthmus; the cephalic segment is joined by the
amygdaline (postrhinal).

GYREsS OF THE TeMporAL Lone. —The supertemporal gyre is of tortuous irregular
contour ; its cephalic portion is uniformly narrow, its middle and caudal parts irregu-
larly broad. The medifrontal is of good width, but is not distinctly demarcated from
the subtemporal in its caudal part. The remaining temporal gyres present nothing
unusual; they are all quite massive and very richly fissured.

Tue Insuta.—In order to examine the insula, the opercula were carefully and
gradually forced apart by insertion of cotton wads, in increasing quantity on succes-
sive days until the insular region was fairly exposed (Fig. 8). The transinsular
fissure is long, the shorter insular fissures are all distinct and the entire insula is
divided into four short (preinsular) gyres and one long (postinsular) gyre whose caudal
part is again divided by a short accessory fissure ; making in all six peri-insular digi-
tations. Compared with the right insula it is better developed in every respect ;
broader, more massive (shown by a comparison of the depths of the sylvian fissures)
and better fissured.

Rieur Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fisswres. Tne Sylvian Fisswre and its
Rami. — The sylvian fissure is only 4.8 em. in length. Its course is less tortuous than

that of the sylvian on the left side and is in general somewhat deeper. Its pre-sylvian
depth is 14 mm.; the medi-sylvian, 21 mm.; the post-sylvian, 25 mm. The pre-
sylvian ramus is 1.8 em. in length and joins an oblique segment in the subfrontal gyre.
The subsylvian is hardly represented. Caudally the sylvian passes without much
change of direction into its episylvian ramus, 1.5 em. long. The hyposylyian is
absent. The basisylvian is 20 mm. deep.

The central fiswre, measured with a wet string, is 12 em. in length; measured by
compass, 8.5 cm., a trifle longer than its fellow on the left side. ‘There are the same

286 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

seven alternate curves and in general the fissure on this side is more tortuous than the
one on the left, as will readily be appreciated by glancing at Figure 3. It sends a
well-marked ramus into each of the adjacent gyres. The fissure is of good depth
throughout, and independent of neighboring fissures. Its ventral end is separated
from the sylvian, and its dorsal end is visible on the mesial aspect for about 1.5 em.

The occipital fiiswre, as on the left side, ascends to the dorsi-mesal margin ata more
obtuse angle than is common ; in this case it is 68° (on the left it is about 70°). Its
length on the mesial surface is 2.9 em.,on the dorsum 2em. As on the left half there
exists a submergence of the cephalic arm of the paroccipital gyre; the cephalic stipe
therefore is likewise confluent with the occipital, but in this case at a greater depth.

The calcarine fissure runs a very irregular zig-zag course, with numerous rami, and
terminates just at the pole. Somewhat caudad of this terminus there is a short
segment which corresponds with the piece on the left half presumed to be the post-
calearine (‘‘sulcus extremus”’ of Schwalbe).

The calcarine and occipital fissures meet at nearly a right angle to continue as the
occipito-calearine stem for a distance of 3.8 em., and just as in the left half, almost
reaching the hippocampal fissure.

Fissures oF THE FrRontAL Lope (LATERAL Surrace). The Precentral Fissural
Complex. — In this case there are two segments, the supercentral and precentral. The
former is of zygal form with its dorso-cephalic ramus confluent with the superfrontal.
It is separated from the precentral by a superficial isthmus. The precentral is of good
length and sends a long (“anterior precentral”’) ramus nearly across the medifrontal
gyre, resembling its fellow on the left in this respect. Further ventrad springs another
ramus which joins the “anterior precentral”” by an oblique anastomosing fissure; in
this way a gyral islet is formed which lies a trifle below the general surface of the
cerebrum.

There is a short transprecentral, while the diagonal is absent.

The superfrontal is quite tortuous and as on the left side, is interrupted at about
the cephalic third. The cephalic shorter segment is of zygal shape, but includes a
depressed gyral “islet” similar to the one mentioned in the description of the pre-
central. As for the remaining fissures of this surface it is exceedingly difficult to
recognize the typical pattern. While there are small scattered segments correspond-
ing to the courses of the medifrontal and subfrontal fissures it is hard to trace them
with any degree of certainty. ‘The intricacy of the fissural arrangement here will best
be appreciated on studying Fig. 4. One fissure, however, is distinctly marked, namely,
the orbitofrontal. It is 3 em. in length, and is joined by a piece which by its analogy

with the fissuration of most brains can safely be named a medifrontal segment.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 287

Mesiau Surrace. — The supercallosal is duplicated, i. e. represented by two seg-
ments which for a part of their course run parallel with each other. The caudal part,
from its junction with the paracentral passes to cephalad of the genu, with a length of
6 cm.; the cephalic segment curving around the genu is 7 em. in length. Both seg-
ments send off rami into the superfrontal gyre.

The paracentral fissure is of the same extent as on the left half, and sends off an
intraparacentral ramus. Strictly speaking, there is not a true inflected fissure present ;
for the piece lying in the situation corresponding to the left inflected does not traverse
or even reach the dorsi-mesal margin.

There is an independent rostral fissure.

OrpiraL Surrace. — The fissures are three in number, exclusive of the olfactory.
The principal one of the orbital fissures is the transorbital of Weisbach 8 em. in length.
The olfactory fissure is simple and 4 em. in length. Only the extreme end is visible
on the mesial aspect.

GyrREs oF THE FronraL Lope (LAreRAL SurrAcE).— The precentral gyre is a
trifle more tortuous and massive than on the left side. The superfrontal gyre is well
demarcated and intricately fissured. The medifrontal and subfrontal together are of
complex appearance, and are not clearly bounded from each other by distinct and
typical fissures, since there is a tendency toward transverse, rather than longitudinal
fissuration.*

Mesial Surface of the superfrontal is of similar expanse as on the left and is quite
richly fissured. ‘The paracentral gyre is of about the same size as on the left side, and
its surface is marked by two intraparacentrals and a ramus of the paracentral. The
dorsi-mesal margin is indented by the central and by a small unnamed segment just
cephalad of the central.

Through the duplication of the supercallosal and the consequent deviation of the
first segment toward the callosum, the callosal gyre is quite narrow in its cephalic
part ; caudad it is broader and marked by several fissures.

OxpBITaL SurrAce. — The mesorbital gyre is a trifle narrower than that of the left
side ; the orbital surface generally is well fissured, but of less extent than that of the
left half. The transorbital fissure permits of a division into a postorbital and several
preorbital gyres. There is a slight tendency toward the formation of a “limbus” as
has been noted on the left side.

FissuRES OF THE PARIETAL AND OccrpITAL Lopes (LATERAL Survace). The Post-
central Fissural Complex. — This consists of the usual two (postcentral and subcentral)

* On the right side of the brain of Czolgosz there is similar tendency shown in the division of the subfrontal fissure

into two segments with intervening transverse pieces.
A. P.S.—XXI. MM. 8, 11, ’07.

288 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

segments. The postcentral is irregularly branched and is separated from the subcen-
tral by a small sub-isthmus. From near the middle of the fissure springs an anasto-
mosing branch which joins the parietal and with the latter marks off a gyral “islet”
not unlike that seen in the left half of Joseph Leidy’s cerebrum. The subcentral
fissure is moderately curved, sends off one ramus into the postcentral gyre and caudad
joins both the intermedial and the parietal. As stated before it is only superficially
joined by the postcentral. The transpostcentral appears on the lateral aspect as a
fureal fissure with its cephalic limb the longer and quite curved.

The short parietal fissure is limited caudad by a paroccipital isthmus, and is joined
by the second intermedial (/7ML”) as well as by a short branch of the postcentral.
A well-marked transparietal traverses the parietal gyre and crosses the margin to pass
into the precuneus. Its total length is 5.5 em.

The paroccipital, as was noted on the left half, also joins the occipital fissure by
mears of its cephalic stipe. The cephalic ramus is separated from the parietal while
the caudal ramus joins the exoccipital.

The intermedials are two in number (with a possible third). The first (itml’)
between the the marginal and angular gyres joins the subcentral; the second (itm/”)
joins the parietal. Another independent fissure, lying parallel to and between the
second intermedial and the terminus of the meditemporal might be named the “ inter-
medialis tertius.”

The Exoceipital Fisswral Complex. —'The arrangement of the exoccipital segments
is interesting. The “ occipitalis anterior” and the “ occipitalis lateralis’ of the authors
(our eop’ and cop” respectively) are fused into one complex, very much ramified fissure
which by its conjunction with the paroccipital and its close approach to the posteal-
carine caudad, serves to demarcate the lateral boundary of the occipital lobe with fair
accuracy.

MesiAL Surrace.— The precuneal fissure is seen to be of quadri-radiate shape
and independent of neighboring fissures. The intraprecuneal piece has been described
as confluent with the transparietal on the dorsum. The cuneus is marked by a tri-
radiate postcuneal which is almost the exact counterpart of the same fissure on the
left side. Two rami of the calcarine and two vertical independent fissures mark the
cuneal surface.

GYRES OF THE PaRTETAL AND OccrprraL Lopes (LATERAL SuRFACE). — The post-
central gyre is a little broader and somewhat more flexuous than the left postcentral.
Especially deep are the indentations by the rami of the postcentral fissure. The parietal
gyre is a trifle broader than the left, and of more complex appearance, particularly in

that region where practically a gyral ‘‘islet’’ isformed. The paroccipital gyre is quite

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 289

massive and broad in its caudal part; the cephalic part is reduced and cut off by the
occipital-paroccipital anastomosis.

The various regions of the subparietal lobule, including the marginal, angular and
postparietal gyres, while exhibiting a good degree of development, are of smaller extent
than on the left side. Their lesser massiveness has been noted above in the description
of the norma dorsalis.

MestAL Surrace. — The right precuneus is likewise unusually small, attaining a
width of only 2.7 em. (measuring between the caudal limb of the paracentral and the
occipital fissure). Its general appearance resembles that of the left very well. ‘The
cuneus too is of similar size and shape and the remarks concerning the distance of the
“wedge” from the callosum apply to this side as well. The occipito-calearine june-
tion takes place 2.7 em. from the dorsi-mesal margin, and 2.4 em. from the caudal
edge of the splenium, practically identical with the distances on the left side. As on
the left, the hippocampal gyre becomes extremely narrowed by the close approach of
the occipito-calcarine stem to the hippocampal fissure.

FissuRES OF THE ‘TEMPORAL Lose (LATERO-VENTRAL SurFAcE).— The supertem-
poral fissure is on this side more regular in its course and is shorter, being 13.5 em. in
length. It bifurcates caudally, embracing the second intermedial (itm/”) between its
limbs. It anastomoses with the sylvian as well as with the meditemporal segment.
The meditemporal is represented by two irregularly ramifying segments, of which the
caudal one anastomoses with the subtemporal. The latter fissure is of rather unusual
extent, referring especially to the caudal piece which extends far caudad, and fuses
with the lateral arm of the collateral, and combined with the latter almost reaches the
ealearine fissure near the occipital pole. The cephalic subtemporal segment is of
quadri-radiate type and also anastomoses laterally with the collateral. :

The collateral attains a maximum length of 11 em. It bifurcates caudally, anas-
tomoses with the subtemporal as described above, and also with the occipito-calcarine
fissural stem. The amygdaline is merely indicated by a shallow furrow which passes
out of the basisylvian.

GyREs OF THE TEMPORAL Lope.— Compared with that of the left, the right super-
temporal gyre is a trifle wider and of much more uniform shape. The same may be
said of the remaining gyres; they are generally less complex than on the left.

Tue Insuta.—The right insula is smaller than the left and presents only five
peri-insular digitations, there being one postinsular and four preinsular gyres. (See

Fig. 9.)

290 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

PriIncripAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEREBRUM.
(After Hardening.)

Centimeters.
Maximum length, left hemicerebrum. : : : é ; 5 GE
Maximum length, right hemicerebrum : : ; : : 5) alles
Maximum width of cerebrum . ¢ c : : : é § alesis
(Cerebral Index, 81.8.)
Horizontal circumference . : : . . : 3 5 . 47.3
Maximum width, left hemicerebrum . 3 é £ j 5 a e638
Maximum width, right hemicerebrum ; 3 4 : ; 656
Left oceipito-temporal length . : 5 : : : : see zed
Right occipito-temporal length . : ; : 3 : : . 13.0
Length of callosum . ; : - Be
(or 43.7 per cent. e total feceeeal iceee
Left olfactory nerve, length. . 5 ; ; c : : . 32
Right olfactory nerve, length . : : . : : : s Bx
Arc Measures Atone THE Dorsi-MESAL MARGIN.
(Cunningham’s Method. )
Left Hemicerebrum.
Centimeters.
1. Cephalic point to central fissure. : . : : : peeled
2. Central fissure to occipital fissure ; 5 : ; : :. Sell
3. Occipital fissure to occipital pole. : : é : : 5 so
Right Hemicerebrum.
1. Cephalic point to central fissure . Fi Z : é é 5 15535)
2. Central fissure to occipital fissure . F i ; ; 4 : 3.0
3. Occipital fissure to occipital pole. : ‘ : ‘ : = SEDtO
Cerebral Indices.
(Based on the are measures given above. )
Left. Right.
Frontal index : : . : . F c : . 65.6 65.9
Parietal index : : : : c . : - celica! 12.8
Occipital index. : : : c : : . . 21.2 PAILS}
HorizontTaL DIsTANCEs,
Expressed in Centesimals of the Hemicerebral Lengths.
( For description of the method by which these measurements were made, see the chapter
“Brain measurement”? in the introduction of this memoir. )
Left. Right.
From the Cephalic point to —
3 1. Tip of temporal lobe . : : : - 5 EBS 22.5
= ; 2, Sylvian-presylvian junction : : : esl 29.9
= 3. Ventral end of Central f. . 5 é - » » 43:6 40.2
o 4. Sylvian-episylvian junction F : 2 5 (atue 54.8
‘Sl 6. Candalpomt . - « + ©) 5) ee LODGED

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 291

6. Cephalic edge of callosum . - : ° PA ly 21.9

3 7. Porta (For. of Monro) 2 : : ; . 40.0 40.2

B. 8. Dorsal end of Central f. . 67.9 68.8

3 9. Dorsal intersection of Paracentral f. . 72.7 70.7
% | 10. Caudal edge of callosum 65.4 65.8
= | 11. Occipito-calearine junction . 78.7 79.3

12. Dorsal intersection, occipital f. 87.2 86.5

CEREBELLUM, Pons, OBLonGara.— These parts all show good development, and are
generally of symmetrical conformation. It might be mentioned that the strize acusticze
on the floor of the fourth ventricle are only faintly discernible.

MEASUREMENTS OF THE CEREBELLUM.

Centimeters.

Maximum height : ; : : : aeeOs9
Maximum cephalo-caudal diameter: left Ronmphers - : ! a MGR
Maximum cephalo-caudal diameter, right hemisphere : : Begs
Dorsal length of vermis. : : ; : : : : 7 a0
Maximum depth, caudal incisure 2 : : - : : es
MEASUREMENTS OF THE Pons.
Maximum length : . : : - 5 ; : : « 2:6
Maximum thickness . - : : : E : “ : . 2.4

THE BRAIN OF DR. WILLIAM PEPPER.*

Died in California on July 28, 1898, and his body was injected with an embalming
fluid before its removal to Philadelphia. An examination of the thoracic and abdominal
viscera was made by Dr. A. E, Taylor in California. Dr. William G. Spiller of Phila-
delphia removed the brain in Dr. Pepper’s home and found that the injection had not
been satisfactory for the brain was soft. The brain was placed in 10 per cent. formalin,
supported on cotton. In May, 1904, it was transferred to 95 per cent. alcohol.

Immediately after its removal from the skull the brain weighed 1593 grams (Dr.
Spiller). The weight of the hardened encephalic parts in July, 1904, was as follows:

Left hemicerebrum_ . é - : : : t : - . 487 grams.
Right hemicerebrum . : : : - ; : : . 488
Cerebellum, pons and piioneate A : : 5 : : 4 1s

Total 5 ¢ - - : 5 - : “ : - 1091

indicating a loss of 502 grams or 32 per cent. of the original weight.

The brain is flattened and somewhat distorted. The cerebral peduncles were
nearly torn through and the separation was completed by a knife-cut. The cotton
placed at the sides of the cerebrum has pressed the temporal lobes together so as to
nearly hide from view all the basal parts of the thalamencephalon. The chief altera-

* For a sketch of Dr. Pepper, see his life by F. N. Thorpe, Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co. 1904.

292 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

tions of form consist in a flattening and lengthening together with an irregular reduc-
tion of the lateral diameters of the cerebrum.

In consistency the brain is only moderately firm and does not admit-of much
handling. The main cerebral arteries are atheromatous. There are no signs of gyral
atrophy.

The callosum shares in the undue lengthening of the cerebrum, being 8.6 cm.
long. At the genu its thickness is 10 mm., the average thickness of the body is 5
mm., while the maximum thickness of the splenium is 11 mm.

Lerr Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fissures. The Sylvian Fissure and its
Rami. — The length of the sylvian fissure is 5.7 em. Its course is nearly straight and
its walls are in close apposition. The sylvian angle is approximately 20°. Its depths
are as follows: Pre-sylvian 9mm.; medi-sylvian, 15 mm., post-sylvian, 27 mm.* The
presylvian ramus is fureal. The reason for interpreting the arrangement here as a
bifureated presylvian rather than a conjunction of a subsylvian with the presylvian is
that the radiate fissure in the usual arrangement lies within the preoperculum
embraced by the sub- and presylvian rami. A subsylvian ramus is not present. The
episylvian is 1.5 em. in length. The hyposylvian is short and superficially confluent
with a supertemporal segment.

The central fissure is 10.5 em. in length, quite sinuous and of a good depth through-
out. There is no anastomosis with any neighboring fissure.

The occipital fisswre is very deep, shows numerous interdigitating subgyres, is 4
em. in length on the meson and 2.5 em. on the dorsum. It meets the calcarine fissure
at an obtuse angle owing to the abutment of a spur from the precuneal-hippocampal
junction.

The calearine fissure is quite tortuous and runs uninterruptedly into the tri-radiate
postealearine. The occipito-calearine stem is 2.5 cm. in length.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fissural Complex.
— The supercentral is irregularly zygal and gives off the superfrontal cephalad. The
precentral proper anastomoses with the superfrontal, the subfrontal and, via the short
transprecentral, the sylvian fissure as well.

The superfrontal attains a length of 8em. The medifrontal springs from the
orbitofrontal and is 4 em. in length. The subfrontal is irregularly zygal, its stem
being 8 cm. in length. The radiate fissure is independent and 3.5 cm. in length.

Mesal Surface. — The supercallosal fissure is separated from the paracentral, sends
off two distinct rami across the superfrontal gyre near the frontal pole and is 10.5 em.
in length. A medicallosal fissure, 3.5 em. long, marks the callosal gyre. ‘The para-

* These depths are practically useless owing to the great distortion suffered by this specimen.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 293

central fissure is of the usual form except that the element of the eephalic limb may
be represented in the caudal piece of the supercallosal. There is a well-marked
inflected fissure, over 3 cm. in length, and a frontomarginal piece marks the super-
frontal gyre. he rostral and subrostral fissures are irregularly represented.

Orbital Surface. — The orbital fissure is h-shaped. ‘The olfactory fissure is simple
and 4.5 em. in length.

Gyres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface).— The precentral gyre is of good pro-
portions and particularly wide in its ventral third, where the emissary-motor centers
for the faculty of speech lie. The remaining frontal gyres, superfrontal, medifrontal
and subfrontal, are all well developed, wide and fairly complexly fissured.

The mesal surface of the superfrontal gyre is of good width and in its prefrontal
portion exhibits a high degree of complex configuration. The paracentral gyre is of
average size and the callosal gyre, as noted above, is for a portion of its extent subdi-
vided into two tiers by a medicallossal fissure.

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral Fis-
sural Complex.— The postcentral fissure is 4.5 cm. in length; its dorsal limbs, very
obtusely divaricated, embrace the annectent gyre curving around the caudal limb of
the paracentral. It sends off several rami and anastomoses with the parietal. The
interpretation of the fissural parts in the region usually occupied by the subcentral, so
useful in demarcating the postcentral gyre from the marginal is in this case obscured.
There is a complexly ramified transpostcentral, together with two elements of a sub-
central, of which one continues into the postcentral-subcentral piece. The parietal
fissure is 4 cm. in length and jojns the zygon of the paroccipital fissure. The paroc-
cipital is of a compound zygal type. There is a well-marked and sinuous transparietal
which anastomoses with the postcentral. The fissuration in the parieto-occipital tran-
sition is quite complex.

Mesal Surface. — The precuneal fissure is of irregular zygal shape and anastomoses
with the paracentral. The intra-precuneal is continuous across the dorsi-mesal border
with the transparietal. A cuneal fissure communicates with the occipital. <A tri-ra-
diate postcuneal lies at the dorsi-mesal margin of the cuneus.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). — The poscentral gyre
is of fair size and usual flexuosity. The parietal gyre is of good breadth, as is the
paroccipital. The marginal gyre is particularly extensive.

Mesal Surface. —The precuneus is of good size, but the cuneus is relatively
reduced.

Fisswres of the Temporal Lobe. —The supertemporal fissure is notably interrupted
in two places, presenting three segments, of which the middle one dips into the syl-

294 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

vian cleft. Caudally the fissure anastomoses with several other fissural elements,
which render a precise description very difficult. The meditemporal and subtem-
poral fissures are quite ramified. The collateral fissure is quite long and anastomoses
with the postcalcarine fissure.

Gyres of the Temporal Lobe. — The supertemporal gyre is narrowed near the epi-
sylvian fissure. The other temporal gyres are broad and complexly fissured. The
subealearine gyre is especially broad in its caudal portion. The hippocampal gyre is
rather narrow.

Owing to the fragility of the specimen the insulze could not be examined in either
hemicerebrum.

Rieaut Hemiceresrum. The Interlobar Fisswres. The Sylvian Fisswre and is
Rami. — The sylvian fissure is very short (4 cm.) and its presylvian and subsylvian
rami are considerably divaricated. The episylvian is3 cm. in length ; the hyposylvian
1 cm. Several fissures dip into the sylvian cleft.

The Central Fissure is fairly sinuous, is 10.5 em. in length and anastomoses with
the postcentral over a very superficial vadum.

The Occipital Fisswre.—On the meson measures 3 cm.; on the dorsum, 2 cm.
At the dorsi-mesal margin there is a small fossette where the occipital apparently
divides into four rami. The vertical piece is the adoccipital.

The Calcarine Fisswre. —'The combined calearine-postcalcarine is a simply sinuous
fissure of a length of 6 em., terminating caudally in a T-shaped bifurcation. The occi-
pito-calcarine stem is a complex affair.

Fissures of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). The Precentral Fissural Complex.
— The supercentral and precentral elements are confluent and quite ramified. From
the combined fissure springs the superfrontal. The latter is interrupted by a trans-
verse gyre which is demareated by a very extensive transverse fissure passing from the
dorsi-mesal border nearly to the subfrontal fissure. In the prefrontal region there are
several other but shorter transverse pieces. The medifrontal springs from a short
orbitofrontal and is 4 em. in length. The subfrontal, together with the diagonal and
radiate fissures which anastomose with it, is a very extensive complex.

Mesal Surface. —The arrangement of the fissures on the mesal surface is as fol-
lows: The paracentral is continuous cephalad with the frontomarginal (which appears
like a duplication of the supercallosal), the supercallosal proper is rather short (6 em.),
the rostral fissure attains a length of 6 em., while the subrostral is also quite long
(3.5 cm.). There is a tri-radiate intraparacentral.

Gryres of the Frontal Lobe (Lateral Surface). —The precentral gyre is of good breadth,
the superfrontal is fairly fused with the dorsal tier of the medifrontal by the numerous

iT:

PLATE XXXIX.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

\

Fic. 68. Lateral view of the right hemicerebrum.

Fig. 69. Lateral yiew of the left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF WILLIAM PEPPER.

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI.

Fic.

70.

Mesal view of right hemicerebrum.

Mesal view of left hemicerebrum.

BRAIN OF WILLIAM PEPPER.

PLATE XL.

_

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 295

transverse gyres above mentioned, the ventral tier of the medifrontal is particularly
broad while the subfrontal is quite well convoluted.

Mesal Surface. — The superfrontal gyre, on its mesal aspect, is distinctly divided
into two tiers by the long and continuous frontomarginal fissure. The paracentral
gyre is 4.5 cm. in length. The callosal gyre presents nothing unusual.

Fissures of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes (Lateral Surface). The Postcentral Fis-
sural Complex.— The posteentral and subcentral together form a moderately sinuous
fissure from which the parietal fissure arises. Dorsally the postcentral terminates in
a T-shaped bifurcation. The total length is 7 em. ‘The parietal fissure is short, ter-
minating caudad in a bifurcation, each of the fureal arms being again bifurcated.
There is a well-marked transparietal. The paroccipital becomes continuous caudo-
laterad with several fissures in the parieto-occipital region.

Mesal Surface. —The precuneal fissure is irregularly zygal and is joined by the
intraprecuneal extension of the transparietal. A curved cuneal fissure, independent,
marks the cuneus. There is a zygal postcuneal fissure.

Gyres of the Parietal and Occipital Lobes. —'The postcentral gyre is, in general, a
trifle narrower than its fellow on the left side. The parietal gyre is of good width ;
the paroccipital is quite complexly convoluted. The subparietal district is extremely
large as is shown by the great encroachment of this area upon the sylvian fissure.

The precuneus is of good size. The cuneus is relatively small.

Fissures and Gyres of the Temporal Lobe. —'The supertemporal fissure is repre-
sented by two segments, a short one at the temporal apex, a longer one caudad. Its
caudal extension is considerably abbreviated. The meditemporal and subtemporal
fissures are represented by several segments difficult to trace clearly. The tendency
to transverse anastomoses of the fissures and their frequent interruption by transverse
or oblique gyral isthmuses is very marked in the entire temporal lobe.

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SKULL OF PROFESSOR E. D. COPE.

The skull is in fairly good condition. The calva has been separated by a saw-
cut, and a portion of the parietal bone in the left temporal fossa is missing. The
specimen is remarkable on account of the proportionately large size of the cranium as
compared with the face, in this respect approaching the notable skull of Kant. The
bones are thin but of considerable hardness and density. The alveolar processes of
both jaws are absorbed to a considerable degree, serving to accentuate the relative
smallness of the facial portion.

The parietal bones are notable for their expanse ; the temporal ridges pass con-
siderably ventrad of the middle of the bone; less than one-third of the parietal lies

296 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

in the temporal fossa. The squama is reduced. The sutures in general show a fine
serration. The appended measurements give further details which I will not recount
here. The following characters of the skull may, however, be mentioned.

The skull is nearly mesaticephalic; there is facial orthognathism ; the mandible
is delicate ; the nasal spine is pronounced. The nasion depression is quite marked ;
the malars are not very prominent; the zygome are quite delicate. The glabella is
moderate ; the supraorbital ridges are slight and most marked in their mesal portions,
near the glabella. ‘There is no pronounced sagittal elevation.

On the base of the skull may be noted: the styloids as well as the vaginal and
spinous processes are well preserved ; the styloids are strong and 2.5 em. in length.
The right jugular foramen is larger than that on the left side. The petrous portions
are quite sunken within the surrounding parts as viewed ventrally. The basi-occipital
and sphenoid are fused.

The internal capacity of the cranium, measured with dry mustard seed, is 1645
c.c. The weight of the skull minus mandible is 670 grams; the weight of the man-
dible is 72 grams. ;

MEASUREMENTS.
Internal capacity ; : : : c : - : . 1645 ce.
(Brain-weight) . : . : : d : : 1545 grams.
(Ratio of cranial capacity to brain-weight) : : : - -100 : 94
Weight of cranium . : ‘ " : j : : . 670 grams.
Weight of mandible . : : 5 ¢ : ‘ : : 14s 93

Cranial Measurements.

Maximum antero-posterior diameter (L. ) : : : ; - 18.8 em.
Glabella-inion diameter . : E 5 ; : 9 : 5 alte}
Intertuberal diameter . : : : : : : - 5 iss}
Maximum lateral diameter (B.) . : : : : ; . 14.2
Bi-auricular diameter. : j ; : L . : ap allay
Minimum frontal diameter. 5 ; : : : = ee
Height, Basion to Bregma (H.) . : c : : : 5 ilps)
L.+ B.+H.. : : : 5 ; : ‘ 5 : . 465
Modulus of L. B. H. . : : F : : : . 155
Bi-stephanic diameter. A , F 3 : ‘ 5 » ‘1b
Height, Opisthion-Bregma : : : : . ‘ BS cits)
Auriculo-bregmatic height —. é : : : : - . - 12.0
Nasion-basion line . : : : ; : - : ‘ . 10.2
Basion-alveon line . ‘ : : : c < : ; Se IGI2s
Intermastoid line . : : : : 3 : : : Og)
Foramen magnum, antero-posterior diameter . : . : - 3.9
Foramen magnum, lateral diameter : ‘ ; : é . 3.0
Pre-auricular projection . : : : : ; : : Ce ates:

Post-auricular projection. : : ; : : - : ger P ORD

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Horizontal circumference F , : , : : ; « 62.8
Pre-auricular are (52 percent.) . : 3 : : ‘ oat
Post-auricular are (48 per cent.) . : : - : : . 25.4
Frontal (sagittal) are. : - - é : ; : ys.0
Parietal are. ; : : ‘ : ; : : : eR
Occipital are. : , - : : : ; : owe: 0
Total sagittal are. : : é : : 5 ter
Sagittal are + foramen magnum + nasion- paaion line : : . 61.8
Nasion-inion are. ; - - - : : ‘ A . 33.5
Inion-opisthion are. 5 : : : : - > : ie 42
Lambda-inion are . : : : F : ; : : 5 BS
Auriculo-ealvarial are. - ; ‘ : - ; , . 384.0
Auriculo-calvarial are over bregma. , : : ; . 32.0
Bi-auricular diameter + auricular-calvarial are. ; ‘ Se Vat

Measurements of Face.

Facial width (between zygomatic-maxillary suture). . - - 12.2 em.
Bi-zygomatic diameter . : : : : : : - . 12.8
Facial height . : : ; : : : 2 : , _—
Nasion-alveon line . : ; : - : : : . Ae slaps!
Nasal height . 5 : : 2 : , : : ; sd
Nasal width . é : : ; : . : - ; oma eal
Interorbital septum : ee 220
(or 21.5 per cent. of ine peewee or bital ence ue sites frontal sutures)
Orbital height. : : : : : : ; A ; | 9 334:
Orbital width : E ; : : : : ; : 0
Orbital depth . : : : : p45
Maximum exterior width of sean Srvecin ar i : : op te
Between supraorbital foramina : : - - : 2 eeDEO
Between infraorbital foramina : : : : - : ye 2:3
Palate length . ° > : : : : s : : . 4.0
Palate width . : : : : : : ‘ : ee)
Between mental foramina C : : - . : . » 1456
Facial angle (Cloquet) . c : : ; ‘ ’ : ‘ 80°
Facial angle (Jacquart) . c s : ; ; : : : 78°
Indices

Cranial index (L. : B.) . : : : , : - 5 WES
Length : height . : 5 : : : : d ; Se filet)
Breadth : height . : : : - . : ; : . 95.1
Length : nasion-basion line 54.2
Index of occipital projection . : ; : ; A : - (560-5
Frontal index : : : - 4 : ; : - . 34.5
Parietal index : : , : : : : F : . 33.6
Occipital index : : ‘ : : : . : : ol.
Nasal index . 3 : : : : : ‘ : 2 . 43.7
Orbital index . ; . - 5 : : : : : . 85.0
Palatine index . . : : : : : ? ~ ze uED

AL EES SO roy ch in ive

298 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

Internal Cranial Measurements.

Maximum internal antero-posterior diameter ee te

Maximum internal lateral diameter c : : 2 13.7

Occipito-temporal diameter. : . : eae a

Internal basion-bregma height 2 : 4 - : 13.0
SUMMARY.

It were unwarranted to propose conclusions of wide significance upon so little
material and only brief comments are offered here upon the most notable findings in
these brains. In general the cerebral surface shows complex development with intri-
cate fissuration and a bold contour of the numerous gyres. In some brains one or
another region preponderates over other regions in the degree of development. The
parieto-occipito-temporal area is generally the most redundant. The brains of the two
Leidys show a general superficial or physiognomic resemblance but aside from a few
points, as for instance in the course of the right superfrontal fissures, there is not so
marked a likeness as I was able to demonstrate in the brains of the three Van Wormer
brothers. But as in the case of the three brothers, the isthmus and cerebellum are
almost identical in size and weight, while the cerebrum of Joseph is immense as com-
pared with Philip’s. Philip's callosum seems to have striven to attain the great size of
Joseph’s and is therefore disproportionately long. Philip’s brain does not exhibit the
great preponderance of the right parieto-occipital areas which characterize Joseph’s
cerebrum. This redundancy is remarkable in the right hemicerebrum of Pepper’s
brain and the distortion suffered by this specimen is particularly deplorable.

A remarkable contrast is shown by a comparison of Joseph Leidy’s brain with
that of Cope, and it is best expressed by the ratio which the mesal area of the frontal
lobe bears to the cuneus precuneus area. This ratio in most brains is

70 : 30
In the brain of Joseph Leidy it is:
66:34
In Cope’s brain it is:
. 73:27

The difference can be seen in the drawings shown in Figure 75, in which the cuneus-
precuneus area is shaded while the mesal area of the frontal lobe is left unshaded.
tecalling now the functions of the two great association areas under discussion, the
surmise that we have here a true somatic expression of naturally endowed superiority
of the powers of conception of the concrete in the one brain, and of remarkable powers

of thought in the abstract in the other brain, were one which past experiences in cere-

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XLI.

SKULL OF E. D. CoPeE.

s #

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XxXI.

PLATE XLII.

Fic. 73.

SKULL oF E. D. Cope.

io — :

ie

bal)

eo

TRANS. AM. PHILOS. SOC., N. S. XXI. PLATE XLIill.

Fie. 74.

SKULL OF E. D. Cope.

aes _
we aa

“

ee aS Se ee ee

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 299

bral localization seem to justify. Cope was more creative and constructive, philosophic
and formative than Leidy; Leidy was a far keener observer of things, quick at seeing
analogies and comparisons, coupling his multitudinous observations into generaliza-
tions and systematizations in a superior manner. Leidy was a good visualizer, and

Fic. 75. The upper drawing represents the mesal view of the right hemicerebrum of Professor Leidy ; the lower
drawing the same view of the brain of Professor Cope. Cuneus and precuneus shaded. In the case of Professor Leidy, the
area of the cuneusand precuneus together (shaded) is to that of the frontal lobe (unshaded) as 34 : 66 ; in Professor Cope’s,
the ratio is as 27:73 (these ratios were determined by weighing pieces of sheet-lead carefully cut of exactly the same
size). In other words, there is a relative redundancy of the parieto-occipital areas in Professor Leidy, while in Professor
Cope it is the frontal area which preponderates.

possessed good powers of memorizing and recalling visual impressions. He excelled
in his abilities as a microscopist, as shown by his monumental work in parasitology,
helminthology and upon the rhizopods. But Cope, I take it, busied himself much
more with abstract generalizations, though I wish by no means to imply that his
observational powers were in any way defective. I merely wish to emphasize in what
way these two men were so differently endowed by nature. I had been led to search

300 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

in this direction by my findings in the brains of Major J. W. Powell, concerning whose
mental traits I once knew nothing, but whose great parieto-occipito-temporal associa-
tion area (particularly in the right or preponderatingly sensory half) led me to venture
the presumption that this redundancy probably corresponded to a superior ability
to register and compare the impressions in the visual, auditory and tactile spheres
(which together form the concept sphere). That Major Powell’s intimate friends and
co-workers corroborated, in general, these presumptions, was indeed gratifying, and I
trust that the similar venture in the case of Cope and Leidy meets with like approval.

Another interesting somatic expression is to be found in a comparative tabulation
of the ‘ cerebro-cerebellar ratio.” The cerebro-cerebellar ratio of weight is expressed
by the weight of the cerebrum as compared with that of the cerebellum, the latter
being taken as 1. By “cerebrum” in this connection is really meant a part of the
diencephalon as well, the division of the parts being made by the customary cut
passing cephalad of the pons and usually between the pre- and postgemina. In the
following list are tabulated the cerebro-cerebellar ratios in the brains of eleven eminent

and ten ordinary men :
TABLE, CEREBRO-CEREBELLAR Ratio.

E. C. Seguin . ; ; 5 1 BELO

Edouard Seguin. ; é 9.0

Jos. Leidy . : : : 9.0 F. Van Wormer . : o IER EO)

G. BF: Drain’: : ; : 8.8

Wm. Pepper . : c ; 8.7

J. W. Powell . : : : 8.4

Hosea Curtice. : 2 é 8.4

Daniel Webster (estimated) . 8.2 Koepping . : : ‘ 6 HZ)

Philip Leidy . ; j : 8:15 Tobin. : ‘ 5 : SpE Oul!

JB Lond sane : F : 8.0
Gaimari ; j ; ‘ Sh etl
W. Van Wormer. : : wed
B. Van Wormer . : : . 71.4
Burness ‘ : ; & apc
Czolgosz : d : 5 tes
Ennis. 5 ‘ ‘ . 5 tae:

Harrison Allen . ‘ ; . 7.0 Turkofski . F A : 7 1.0

A glance at the list shows that while in ordinary men the ratios cluster around
1: 7.5, among eminent men it is fully a unit higher; that is to say, the cerebrum, or
essential-thought apparatus, is relatively more massive, while the somatic organ of
motor codrdination (cerebellum) remains relatively reduced.

Certain special studies on the form and size of the callosum in various brains
prompt me to introduce some remarks concerning the prevailing ideas about the rela-
tive importance of white and gray matter (or, using more appropriate terms, the alba

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 301

and cinerea). So much has been said of the gray matter and its constituent nerve-cells
that the very notable researches of Flechsig and his co-workers in the field of myelin-
development is often overlooked. Were it not for the manifold connection of such
cells with each other, as well as with the periphery by means of the millions and

Fic. 76. Outline drawings of the cross-section of the callosum of 1. Professor Joseph Leidy, morphologist ; 2. Dr.
Edward C. Seguin, neurologist ; 3. A laborer, white ; 4. A negro.

millions of fibers, such a brain, as already pointed out, would be as useless as a multi-
tude of telephone or telegraph stations with all inter-connecting wires destroyed. The
bulk of (normal) white matter in the brain therefore signifies elaborated gray matter
and hence the significance of brain-weight in relation to brain-powers; for even
though there be, as has been computed, over nine billion cells in the cortex, their

302 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

weight is probably less than 1 per cent. of the total brain-weight.* But if there
is still more intricate inter-connection of nerve-cells, out of proportion as it were (by
means of untold numbers of association fibers), the mass of white matter must
necessarily be greater. So characteristic is this preponderance of white matter in the
brain of man, and so needful is such an elaboration and amplification of the cerebral
architecture to the workings of the human mind, that it is only necessary to glance at
the cross-sections of the brains of lower animals as compared with that of man (Fig.

13), while we pause to think that, after all, it is this enormous codrdination of the sep-

2
PS
w
=
=
a5
S)
wy
<=
x
3
cy

Fic. 77. Chart showing the cross-section areas of the callosum (in square centimeters) in the brains of ten eminent
men (see solid black), compared with ten such of ordinary laborers, mechanics, etc. (see shaded figures). The largest cal-
losum (10.6 sq. ctm.) is that of Professor Joseph Leidy, the eminent morphologist ; the smallest (4.7 sq. ctm.) is that of
a laborer of ordinary intelligence.
arate units of thought and action which constitutes the somatic basis of the highest
mental functions. And in the Mammalian series, as we ascend from the small-brained
Marsupial with few callosal fibers, intermingled with those of the dorsal or hippo-
campal commissure to the great neo-pallial commissure which the brain of man ex-
hibits, we may perceive an indication of the elaboration of at least one division of the
great complex of association systems: I refer now to the bilateral codrdinations exclu-
sively. But beyond the fact that the fibers of the callosum connect like regions in the

_ two hemicerebra little more is expressed, and yet every case of deficiency or disease of
this structure is attended by more or less profound weak-mindedness or downright
idiocy, not to speak of hemiparetic and other affections. And the examination of the
brains of these notable men, possessing large capacity for doing and thinking much

* Hammarberg, Thompson and Donaldson.

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 303

more than their fellows, shows the converse to be quite as true. Compared with
ordinary men, individually and collectively, they have larger callosa (Figs. 76, 77).
The callosum of Joseph Leidy exceeds in cross-section area that of any other in this
series or recorded in literature. Here again, then, we have an index in somatic terms
of how we may distinguish the brain of the genius or talented man from that of per-
sons of only ordinary abilities.

304 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

TABLE A.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BRAINS OF THE SIX SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS DESCRIBED IN THIS MEMOIR, TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF THE BRAINS OF
Magor J. W. Powe, Dr. E. C. SEGUIN, AND GEORGE FRANCIS TRAIN, COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGES OBTAINED IN
THE BRAINS OF TEN ORDINARY MEN TABULATED IN TABLE B.

Avs. of Avs. of
N Joseph Philip} A. J. He E. D. | Wm. |J. W. | E. C. | G. F. | 9 Emi-|10Ordi-
EES Leidy Leidy | Parker) Allen | Cope Pepper) Powell) Seguin) Train nent | nary
Men Men
ING 6 ccm vonsngnup Dooce ssoo nS oA ce cobHANUCOU SOC oRE 67 53 36 56 BO" es 68 55 75 58 33
Me ediy (eens) oaoangcnes6dsnevoogoan con. 1545* | 1415 | 1475* | 1531 1545 1593 1488 1502 1525 1513 1443
LTE, Googounod de ode Gaus CecHOODOODO0Ms<C 18.2 15.9 17.3 16.8 16.5 18-+- 17.4 17.5 16.8 17.2 17.2
Braimewidthicssrcisteroyslee tiie oe eaters sere oe teeeaetS 13.4 12.2 12.6 14.1 13.5 12.3 13.8 12.5 14.7 13.2 13.9
Gerehralitindexs Je asence aati ooe ea oe cee 74.9 77.2 73.6 83.9 SiSis | ees 79.3 71.4 88.0 78.7 81.0
Horizontal circumference ...-...... 052. eee ese ee 51.0 46.2 48.0 |50(48)} 47.3 50.0 50.3 49.0 52.5 49.4 50.2
Wadth wlettihemi cerebrum. .ci-)-\crsessle yee eiielersrenets 6.7 6.1 7.1 6.8 6.1 7.1 6.3 7.4 6.5 6.93
Width} might hemicerebruml ec cye-eye i> = eieley-eteneeereiets al AGRI 7.0 6.6 6.2 6.7 6.2 133 6.4 6.98
Left occipito-temporal length ..................... 13.2 11.9 H 12.0 12.8 13.3 13.6 13.3 13.3 13.1 13.3
Right occipito-temporal length .................... 13.3 12.0 13.7 11.6 13.0 13:7 13.0 13.4 13.3 IL | Ws
lkiN Gh collet SononepanpooweoUsarockdoocoass 8.5 8.0 7.15 8.0 7.2 8.6 7.4 7.9 13 He 7.26
Percentage of callosal length compared with brain- k
[Gist Geeoeag ans ceobe ooo cedhoseonock oon 46.7 50.6 41.5 47.6 43.7 47.7 42.5 45.1 43.7 45.5 41.3
Left centro-temporal height ....................... 11.2 10.4 10.2 9.5 10.5 8.7 10.1 10.7 11.1 10.2 10.8
Right centro-temporal height ..................... 11.6 10.5 10.3 9.1 10.5 8.5 10.4 11.2 11.2 10.3 10.9
Left ‘centro-olfactory. height ... .. 00. 225-2) 10.1 8.8 9.2 8.7 8.7 6.7 7.7 9.0 9.0 8.6 8.9
Right centro-olfactory height) <-. 0 -. .-- sss eee 10.2 | 8.8 9.2 8.4 8.7 7.0 8.0 9.5 9.1 8.8 9.0
Arc MEASURES:
Frontal: are) is)ii.scc.n acer 3 seheeters eee 16.0 | 143 14.0 13.0 15.5 14.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 15.0 15.5
Left | Parieta BEC? aysayercvenseh ate sa cuvectepetstont Petes TZ NO: 5.5 4.5 3.1 5.5 5.0 6.0 5.5 5.3 5.7
Occipital arc. Gee arereeee eee 5.9 | 5.8 5.5 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.3 7.0 6.5 5.3 5.7
Rrontalare rarcc.: okie sen Cee ee 16.0 | 14.5 14.0 14.0 15.5 13.6 16.0 16.0 16.0 15.0 15.5
Right | Parietal -are™....c2.cicnece hee eee 65 | 5.0 6.0 4.0 3.0 6.8 5.0 8.0 6.0 5.6 5.5
Occipitall-are® ....0. Ase eee eee 6.8 6.0 5.0 5.5 5.0 5.6 5.0 5.5 6.0 5.6 5.9
CEREBRAL INDICES:
Hrontal index << cethoncmtee cro ares eee 54.95 | 56.1 56.0 55.3 65.6 55.7 60.0 54.2 57.0 57.2 57.7
Left | Parieta INdeK. Kafe eeias =e oe ee 24.74) 21.2 22.0 19.1 13.1 21.1 19.4 20.3 19.8 20.1 21.0
Occipital) indexi eee): eee 20.27 | 22.7 22.0 25.6 21.2 23.1 20.5 pape |) Bh) 22.7 21.3
- Wrontalle indextsraseos vr eos. see eo eee 54.60 56.8 56.0 59.0 65.9 52.3 61.5 54.2 57.0 57.5 57.7
Right Parietal HESS G Soneaadeecasnoccokoss0- 22.18| 19.7 24.0 17.0 | 12.8 26.1 19.2 27.1 21.5 21.3 20.4
OccipttalMindex” Sens eee eee 23.12 | - 23.5 20.0 23.5 21.3 215 19.2 18.7 21.5 21.4 22.1
HortzontaL DISTANCES:
(Expressed in centesimals of the hemicerebral length)
From the cephalic point to— ;
lSeLiprof-cemporalllobel cee eee 28.8 25.5 25.9 23.6 23.0 25.6 22.0 25.7 24.0
Left 2. Sylvian-presylvian junction ........ 33.8 28.7 30.5 29.1 31.0 29.1 29.4 30.2 30.4
Lateral 3. Ventral end of central fissure ...... 40.5 40.1 42.0 — 43.6 40.0 44.0 42.0 41.7 44.4
Aspect 4. Sylvian-episylvian junction ........ 67.2 56.0 60:5) | 60.6 63.7 60.0 61.2 61.3 60.5
De Caudalimomit sete eee 100 100 100" |) <=: 100 100 100 100 100 100
6. Frontal edge of callosum .......... 18.8 16.9 QT) terse 2.01 20.0 21.0 19:7 22.0
7. Porta (Foramen of Monro)......... 40.2 37.6 40:0 40.2 42.5 42.1 40.4 41.2
Left 8. Dorsal end of central fissure ....... 57.5 59.2 67.9 61.2 65.7 65.0 62.0 63.9
Mesal 9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral f.. 70.0 66.2 72.7 64.9 70.3 71.1 68.6 68.2
Aspect | 10. Caudal edge of callosum .......... 66.6 67.5 65.4 63.2 68.6 65.0 66.0 64.2
11. Occipito-calearine junction ......... 75.5 72.6 78.7 57.3 77.0 74.7 72.6 74.7
12. Dorsal intersection of occipital f.... 87.2 88.5 87.2 86.7 914 95.0 88.6 86.2
* Estimated brain-weight.
Notr.—Blank spaces indicate that the measurement could not be made or, because of distortion while hardening, was not available for

2,
the purposes of comparison. The absolute measurements of the brains of the eminent series are often below those determined in the brains
of the ordinary series for the reason that most of the former were preserved in aleohol or mixtures containing alcohol, and therefore
producing more or less shrinkage, while the latter were all preserved in formaldehyde and underwent little or no shrinkage. The figures
expressing relativity (in centesimals or percentage) are the most useful for analysis.

7.
STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS. 305

TABLE B.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BRAINS OF TEN ORDINARY AND NorMAL INDIVIDUALS.
These brains were removed promptly after execution by electricity and placed in a formaldehyde mixture while still firm and fresh,
_ affording an ideal opportunity for securing measurements upon brains which have suffered a minimum of distortion."

- pan | Burton) Fred }
Tur- van Van | Van | Gai- |... - | Koep- Berg-| Bur- | Aver-
Name kofski| Wor- | Wor- | Wor-| mari | Enis | Tobin ane strom | ness ages
mer | mer mer
oy) cece Leger 66 SRECHO CAE Utd OOS IE SCRE yace 41 27 23 21 31 30 40 22 55 | 45 33
2 TN ETTEL oe in CRLEEG OC TO AEIDD COREG SE MISE Acie 1395 1340 1358 1600 1340 1290 | 1520 1590 1490 | 1503 1443
oo Src ARES seo) SABO G UBD BOSC BOE a OOOCae amar 16.6 16.8 17.3 18.3 16.0 16.6 | 17.6 17.9 16.8 | 184 17.2
SPIRE RTONCH EM eT oon Sats ecw oedlidlsfoints © aie,e sis smieth 13.7 13.9 14.0 14.7 14.1 13.2 | 14.3 | 140 14.0 13.4 13.9
. GITL DIGS SS etGGs Aig REISS ODIOts CAE aIEse irae $2.5 83.2 80.9 80.3 88.1 | 79.5 81.2 | 78.2 83.3 73.2 81.0
Horizontal circumference ..........-.-...+-..00005 48.5 | 48.5 | 50.5 | 53.0 | 49.2 | 47.5 | 515 | 51.7 | 505 | 51.0 | 50.2
Wyadth> left hemicerebrum .............--...2+ee0: 68 | 7.0 7.0 7.3 7.1 6.4 7.1 7.0 AV 6.93
Unie it HEMACELEDIUM jo. 5 ie was ee ee ew ee 6.9 6.9 7.0 74 7.0 6.6 ; 7.2 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.98
Wet occipito-temporal length ................0000- 12.5 12.8 13.3 13.9 12.8 12.8 13.9 13.8 13.2 | 14.2 13.3
Right occipito-temporal length .................... 12.5 12.6 13.3 13.9 12.6 12.3 13.9 13.7 12.9 13.9 13.1
SPENT ARUEO MCA OSIM =. 55.2 ale -\0!e claidis vies a\sineees neues 6.1 7.2 7.2 7.2 6.65) ed 7.4 7.8 70 | 8.0 7.26
Percentage of callosal length .................e000- - 36.7 42.2 | 41.6 39.3 41.2 | 42.7 42.0 43.6 40.2 43.5 41.3
Left centro-temporal height ....................22. 10.7 10.0 10.2 ine 10.7 10.5 11.2 11.6 10.9 11.0 10.8
Right centro-temporal height ..................... 10.7 9.9 10.2 11.3 10.6 | 10.7 11.3 11.4 116 | 111 10.9
Lett centro-olfactory height ...............seceeece 8.4 8.4 8.7 8.9 9.0 | 87 9.3 9.5 9.2 9.2 8.9
Right centro-olfactory height ..................... 8.4 8.7 8.7 8.9 9.0 8.9 9.6 9.5 9.3 9.3 9.0
Arc MEASURES:
InngnnH Gide! Waa 45 Gonoeccser OAs “cone 13.5 14.5 16.0 17.0 16.0 14.5 16.5 16.0 15.5 16.0 15.5
Left { ETE LHUMSLY Cosy tare e ats TR nicl ctto= reales pines 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.7 5.5 5.5 6.5 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.7
BRCOR TURN MSUN Cas (Sta. cle fies siaiatesolals mix atana were 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.8 5.5 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.5 6.0 5.7
Bans ecIBeULG eae aote t=els sesoishe ote srersye,s ee ote a 13.5 15.2 16.0 17.2 16.0 14.0 16.5 16.0 15.5 | 15.0 15.5
Right | TH EL Eh Ou sons SACBa a og Onan Se Oee 5.5 5.3 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.5 6.2 5.7 4.8 6.0 5.5
Mil eeeep Mell Msue COP yetehe he chetgi= = cisterns: a casiejece ss 5.5 5.5 6.2 7.0 5.5 5.5 5.3 | 6.3 6.7 6.0 5.9
CEREBRAL INDICES: !
PBPOMUAIGINOEK sree c's ode es evils oc needs a eves 55.1 55.7 58.8 57.6 59.2 58.0 58.9 57.0 57.4 59.2 57.7
Left | LPRTIGIOL TG Co Aeiree Gee i eee ce eeeTe 22.4 21.1 19.1 19.3 20.4 22.0 23.2 21.5 | 22.2 18.5 21.0
DIPCUDIU AL GIN EXS See scales vc sais ois loiere eee 8 22.4 23.1 22.0 23.1 20.4 20.0 17.9 21.5 20.4 22.3 21.3
IDIRTTRRADL, WOT (2 Ota eerie ae eae 55.1 58.4 58.8 58.3 59.2 56.0 58.9 57.0 57.4 55.4 57.7
Right | Pavia TINGS os ra SOS aCe ROR REFER SETS 22.£ 20.4 18.4 17.9 20.4 22.0 22.2 20.4 17.8 22.3 | 20.4
Nee rEER SUL ORS 5 5 ioc ea ptias ok sie oloatase aie. 22.4 |_ 21.1 22.7 23.8 20.4. 22.0 18.9 22.6 24.8 22.3 22.1
Horizonrat Disvances:
(Expressed in centesimals of the hemicerebral length)
From the cephalic point to—
i@atipror temporal lobe ............... 25.4 24.4 23.7 25.6 21.8 24.1 23.6 | 24.0 25.1 22.4 24.0
Left 2. Sylvian-presylvian junction ........ 30.2 30.9 30.0 28.4 28.1 32.0 | 30.1 | 30.8 32.7 30.6 | 30.4
Lateral+ 3. Ventral end of central fissure ...... 40.9 45.8 45.1 44.8 43.1 48.1 45.0 | 40.9 45.6 | 42.6 | 444
Aspect 4. Sylvian-episylvian junction ........ 5625) ||) 16610) ||) 66.1 55.0 | 59.7 | 58.0 | 60.0 | 66.6 | 57.4 | 60.5
fre Oa als pOURG a sre eave = Ss ia a rave! sso) 2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 | :100 100 100
6. Frontal edge of callosum .......... 24.2 21.7 21.4 22.4 22.5 22.9 | 22.1 | 20.1 22.8 20.2 | 22.0
7. Porta (Foramen of Monro)......... | 42.0 40.4 41.6 40.9 41.2 42.1 40.6 41.3 42.2 39.4 41.2
Left 8. Dorsal end of central fissure ....... 59.7 60.6 65.3 60.1 73.1 66.2 | 62.5 58.6 | 70.1 | 62.9 63.9
Mesal 9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral f.. 62.7 66.6 72.2 65.5 77.5 69.9 68.2 63.7 73.1 62.9 68.2
Aspect | 10. Caudal edge of callosum .......... 61.5 64.9 64.1 62.8 65.0 65.0 64.2 63.9 63.7 66.6 64.2
11. Occipito-ealearine junction ......... TOD OM Gs | 743. | 73 | 795 |) 760 | 720°) 730 | 720 | 747
12. Dorsal intersection of occipital f.... 84.0 | 85.1 $7.2 | 83.0 | 91.9 | 85.5 | 88.0 | 854 | 894 | 82.5 | 86.2
ie pot temporalilobe..2.-2<...0..0+- | 24.2 24.1 21.9 22.4 21.2 24.2 20.5 | 22.4 | 25.3 24.0 23.0
Right 2. Sylvian-presylvian junction ........ 29.0 31.9 28.3 33.3 30.0 31.0 26.3 | 30.3 | 31.9 28.2 30.0
Lateral 3. Ventral end of central fissure ...... 42.6 46.4 41.0 47.0 40.6 42.8 40.0 38.2 | 42.2 41.3 42,2
Aspect. 4. Sylvian-episylvian junction ........ 60.9 54.8 56.0 56.8 53.7 54.6 | 54.2 | 52.2 59.0 57.1 55.9
bataudal pointiee ns ialis<,oceneacecce. 100 100 100 100 100 100 | 100 100 100 100 100

*TIn a forthcoming treatise on the brains of criminals these and other brains, secured through the courtesy of Mr. C. V. Collins,
superintendent of New York prisons, and Warden Addison Johnson, will be more fully described.

306 STUDY OF BBAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

TABLE A.— Continued.

MEASUREMENTS OF THE BRAINS OF THE Srx ScIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS DESCRIBED IN THIS MEMOIR TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF THE BRAINS OF
Masor J. W. Powe.t, Dr. E. C. Sraurn, anp GEoRGE FRANCIS TRAIN, COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGES OBTAINED IN
THE BRAINS OF Ten OrprnARY MEN TABULATED IN TABLE B.

Avs. of | Avs. of
= Joseph} Philip} A. J. TEL E. D. | Wm. | J. W.| E. C. | G. F. | 9 Emi-|10Ordi-
Name Leidy | Leidy | Parker} Allen Cope Pepper) Powell Seguin) Train | nent nary
Men | Men
Ie Tipyof temporalilobe --(. 2 ss 15-9 26.9 26.0 22.9 22.5 23.2 23.0 21.4 22.3 23.0
Right 2. Sylvian-presylvian junction ........ 30.2 31.4 27.7 | BY |) = 30.4 27.5 30.3 29.6 30.0
Lateral 3. Ventral end of central fissure ...... 42.3 40.2 40.1 | 40:2) ||| = 39.1 42.0 41.7 40.8 42.2
Aspect 4. Sylvian-episylvian junction ........ 51.1 59.1 O00) | een |) OSS |e 51.7 57.5 53.5 55.5 55.9
5D: Canidal pointy ceiyceiee oe stirs nee 100 100 LOOT |= 100) 7 |e 100 100 100 100— | 100
6. Frontal edge of callosum .......... 18.4 G:9'4|| eee 219 20.1 20.5 20.9 19.8 22.0
7. Porta (Foramen of Monro)......... OSL y | Wee ea |e eee 40.2 ae 40.2 42.5 41.7 40.9 44.0
Right 8. Dorsal end of central fissure ....... 57.7 60.4 58.7 68.8 64.4 67.2 66.6 63.4 64.3
Mesal 9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral f.. 62.9 66.0 64.7 70.7 66.6 71.8 70.2 67.5 69.2
Aspect | 10. Caudal edge of callosum .......... 64.7 68/079 | 65.8 63.2 66.7 64.3 65.4 64.2
11. Occipito-calearine junction ......... 76.1 UY || So - 79:3) 4), === 75.8 84.0 76.8 78.1 75.5
12. Dorsal intersection of occipital f.... 86.8 87.4 85:9) | 2-322 iP S6:5e5 || eee 86.7 96.5 91.0 88.7 87.2
CROSS-SECTION AREA OF CALLOSUM...............+. 10.61 7.01 7.07 8.04 5.77 7.07 6.12 8.48) 6.31 7.39 5.63
CEREBRO-CEREBELLAR RATIO:
(Weiehtofscerebelliumi—w))i--) sere eee 9.0 SST |e 7.0 8.0 8.7 8.4 9.0 8.8 8.4 7.7
MEASUREMENTS OF CEREBELLUM:
Max hel gh titer ter cere evsecettets cree os aie Oe ere 5.6 SOM | iipceecezee || Sroseeee 5.9 4.6 yA, || Weis | 5.4 5.4 5.7
Max. cephalo-caudal diam., left .................- 6.4 6.2 6.2 A 6.5 6.7 GO | a ENGEL 6.3 6.5
Max. cephalo-caudal diam., right ................ 6.5 6.2 G2 eee 6.3 6.7 Chit a eve | 4631 6.2 6.5
Morsalslenethvofvermisie-.-)cs-- eo eee 3.6 GH | (aterm | eer 4.0 4.2 DA eterno eal 3.9 3.9
Max. depth of caudal incisure ...................- 1.5 14 a | eee 1.6 1.2 1S s || tlez 1.4 1.5
(Maxaswidtih stoic s esate toe tee ene 10.1 10.0 OSD | eseeseame lire 7.9 OT | pa 10.3 9.6 10.4
MEASUREMENTS OF THE Pons:
Mase mle nie GAY sieps.to cists aes eee eee EET 2.9 2.9 DAD eek Ponti | eee Ca | eee 2.5 2.6 2.7
Marx mini GkLMessit=rsc una nseeeten ere eee BQ “seeeess | |). eee gall ees BAe |) ae PALE Vitesse | 2.8 2.7 2.5

Norr.—Blank spaces indicate that the measurement could not be made or, because of distortion while hardening, was not available for
the purposes of comparison. The absolute measurements of the brains of the eminent series are often below those determined in the brains
of the ordinary series for the reason that most of the former were preserved in alcohol or mixtures containing alcohol, and_ therefore
producing more or less shrinkage, while the latter were all preserved in formaldehyde and underwent little or no shrinkage. The figures
expressing relativity (in centesimals or percentage) are the most useful for analysis.

.

TY OT ty a

STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

These brains were remoyed promptly after execution by electricity and placed in a formaldehyde mixture while still firm and

TABLE B.—Continued.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BRAINS OF TEN ORDINARY AND NorMAL INDIVIDUALS.

affording an ideal opportunity for securing measurements upon brains which have suffered a minimum of distortion.*

Name

6. Frontal edge of callosum
7. Porta (Foramen of Monro).........
Right 8. Dorsal end of central fissure
Mesal 9. Dorsal intersection of paracentral f..
Aspect | 10. Caudal edge of callosum
11. Oceipito-calearine junction
12. Dorsal intersection of occipital f....

CROSS-SECTION AREA OF CALLOSUM..............-4-

CEREBRO-CEREBELLAR RATIO:
(Weight of cerebellum —=1)...-..2.. 0: -..000-

MEASUREMENTS OF CEREBELLUM:
Max. height
Max. cephalo-caudal diam., left ..................
Max. cephalo-caudal diam., right
PiBAMMen pul OL VELMIS) <:c%. ..- 16% o:2,0 0 syrcls bee ees
Max. depth of caudal incisure
Max. width

MEASUREMENTS OF THE Pons:
LOUSE, IOWANS SS aco OSS DOCIG tes Eee ata
Max. thickness

Tur-

kofski

2.4
2.3

Wi'lis | Burton

Van

Wor- |

mer

21.7
40.3
64.4
70.5
64.5
73.5
89.7

5.80

Fred
Van Van
Wor- | Wor-
mer mer
21.4 22.9
41.1 41.5
62.4 61.7
68.8 68.3
63.6 63.3
73.9 | 72.)
86.7 84.1
5.41 5.99
7.4 9.0
TR |
69 | 70 |
ee)
4.0 4.0
Lb | 17
10.8 | 11.0 |
2.7 2.7

Gai- | pe) |e | Koep-| Berg- | Bur- |
- | Ennis Tobin - a
mari | ping | strom ness |
|
22.5 22.9 22.1 20.2 | 23.5 19.0
40.6 42.2 40.6 40.0 42.2 39.4
68.7 67.7 66.3 65.7 67.4 58.9
73.1 71.4 69.7 68.5 72.3 62.5
63.1 67.0 64.0 63.6 | 65.6 65.7
78.7 77.0 78.2 78.0 77.7 (p(y)
1.1 | 894 | 89.0 | 85.3 | 873 | 842 |
4.72 | 5.49 5.02 6.75 5.98 ».81
7.7 7.3 8.1 8.2 7.4 |
|
5.4 | 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.3 6.0
6.1 6.1 6.5 | 6.3 6.5 6.5
6.1 6.1 6.5 6.5 6.5 65
3.3 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.1
U5, 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.7 rf
10.5 8 10.7 | 10.6 11.2 10.7
|
2.6 2.7 25 3.2 2.9 2.8
ae, | yee |) Ay: ic8] eee) ee OS

*In a forthcoming treatise on the brains of criminals these and other brains, secured through the courtesy of Mr. ©. V.
superintendent of New York prisons, and Warden Addison Johnson, will be more fully described.

In conclusion the writer desires to acknowledge many courtesies and kindly
encouragements proffered him by Doctors F. X. Dercum, Horace Jayne, Judson Daland
and Joseph Leidy, Jr., members of the American Anthropometric Society.

ABBREVIATIONS Usep IN THE FIGURES OF THE BRAINS.

ANG.G. Angular.
CL.G. Callosal.
HMP.G. Hippocampal.
INS. Insular.
PRAINS.G. — Preinsular.
POINS.G. — Postinsular.
MARG.G. — Marginal.
MFR.G. Medifrontal.
MORB.G. Mesorbital.
MTMP.G. Meditemporal.
PARC.G. Paracentral.
PAROC.G. — Paroccipital.
OIG Postcentral.

GYRES.

PO.ORB.G.
Gs Gre
PR.ORB.G.
Hee Gre
SBCLC.G.
SBCLT.G.
SBFR.G.
SBTMP.G.
SPFR.G.
SPTHUP.G.
EES Gr.
IFL.G.

Postorbital.
Precentral.
Preorbital.
Parietal.
Subcalearine.
Subcollateral.
Subfrontal.
Subtemporal.
Superfrontal.
Supertemporal.
Postparietal.
Inflected.

307

fresh,

Collins,

308 STUDY OF BRAINS OF SIX EMINENT SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS.

FIssuURES.
ADOC. Adoccipital. IFL. Inflected.
AMYG. Amyedaline. IPARC. Intraparacentral.
BS. Basisylvian. IPRCN. Intraprecuneal.
C. Central. ITML. | Teena
CL. Callosal. ITML’. ;
CLC. Calcarine. MCL. Medicallosal.
CNL. Cuneal. MFR. :
DG. Diagonal. MFR’. Metizonal
EOP. MTMP.
EOP’. Exoccipital. MTMP'. Meditemporal. ‘
HOP". MTMP".
EPS. Episylvian. OC Occipital.
FMG. Frontomarginal. : OCLC. Occipito-calearine stem.
HMP. Hippocampal. OLF. Olfactory.
FIPS. Hyposylvian. ORB. Orbital.
ORBEFR. | Osianental SBC. Subcentral.
ORBEFR’.{ SBER. | nee
PARC. Paracentral. SBFR’. :
CPH.L. cephalic limb. SBRST. Subrostral.
CD.L. caudal limb. SBS. Subsylvian.
PAROC. Paroccipital. SBITMP. | ey tess
Pe SBIMP’. De
IACH | aero eae SPC. Supercentral.
PCLC. Postealearine. SPCL.
PML. Paramedial. SPCL’. | seen rl.
POCN. Posteuneal. SPFR.
PRC. SPFR’. Superfrontal.
PRC. Precentral. SPTMP.
PRON. Precuneal. SPTMP". Super tomtom
PRS. Presylvian. TRORB. Transorbital.
JEL Parietal. TPRC. Transprecentral.
RDT. Radiate. TRPC. Transpostcentral.
RST. Rostral. TRPTL. Transparietal.

S. Sylvian. TRINS. Transinsular.

ARTICLE V.

A SEARCH FOR FLUCTUATIONS IN THE SUN’S THERMAL RADIATION THROUGH
THEIR INFLUENCE ON TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE.

By Stwon Newcome.

(Read October 4, 1907.)
PREFATORY NOTE.

The purpose of the following study is two-fold. The subject of periodicity in
meteorological phenomena, and its relation to the sun, is prominent in scientific liter-
ature ; and the author desired to treat it by methods different from the usual ones.
He also wishes to submit to the courteous consideration of meteorologists the question
whether the methods here developed can not be advantageously used in other branches
of their science.

The work has been carried through under the auspices of the Carnegie Institu-
tion, the Trustees of which have enabled the author to avail himself of the necessary
apphances, facilities, and computing assistance. Acknowledgment is also due to the
U.S. Weather Bureau, the Chief of which has placed at the author’s disposal, without
restriction, the rich body of material contained in its records, as well as the printed
collections in its library ; and to the Director of the Deutsche Seewarte of Hamburg for
the courteous transmission of unpublished material.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Intrropuction :— Review of the field ;— general principle of the methods adopted ; — necessity

for a criterion for distinguishing between fluctuations of temperature proceeding from local

causes and from general causes common to the entire globe. Pp. 311-315.

CHAPTER I.
Mertaops oF INVESTIGATING FLUCTUATING QUANTITIES.
$1. Fluctuations in a fixed period. The period being supposed known, the amplitude of the depart-
ure at any time may be expressed in a Fourier series of which the coeflicients can be deter-
mined by the method of least squares. Pp. 315-317.
_ A. RS eIn Oey ieee 309

wn 7A)
oo t

Tn Mp
or

YR SK
lor)

wn
ios)

wie)
eo)

$10.

gu

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Irregular fluctuations tending toward a definite period ; the method of time-correlation. When the
fluctuation, not having a definite period, yet has a periodic tendency, this tendency can be
brought out by the method of time-correlation, which is also applicable to the determina-

tion of an unknown period. Pp. 317-21.

3. Treatment of fluctuations without discernible period. Criterion for deciding whether seemingly

irregular fluctuations of temperature in widely separated regions of the globe have any
common element ; method of determining this element. Pp. 821-325,
Case when different weights are assigned to different regions. Pp. 325-826.

5. Method of combining regions in pairs. Pp. 326-828.

CHAPTER II.
Review OF Data AND PROCESSES.
Choice and combination of material. Pp. 328-332.

Arrangement of the work. P. 332.
CHAPTER III.

Discussion oF ANNUAL DEPARTURES OF TEMPERATURE.

. Fluctuation having the period of the sun spots. Work of Koppen, — hypothesis of a harmonic

inequality in temperature corresponding to the sun spot period — method of determining
the coefficients of the fluctuation —amount and formule of the sun spot fluctuation as de-
termined from all readily available observations. Pp. 332-341.

. Irregular fluctuations in the mean annual temperature. Annual departures on which the results

are based — evidence of correlation between annual temperatures in neighboring regions —
correlations of stations by pairs — small outstanding systematic residuals showing a quasi-
periodic character, the seeming period being about six years. Pp. 341-347.

Time correlations among annual world temperatures. A six-year periodicity strongly brought out
from 1871 to 1900, but not in earlier years from 1820. Pp. 347-350.

CHAPTER IV.
Discussion oF Monruty DEPARTURES.
Discussion of Dove's departures. Comparison of departures of temperature in widely separated
regions collected by Dove — a seeming slight correlation is indicated. Pp. 351-355.

$ 12. General discussion of monthly departures from 1872 to 1900. A well marked correlation is found,

5
Ss

9
oO.

which may be attributed to the fact that some pairs of stations compared were geograph-
ically in each other’s neighborhood — evidence of correlation in this case — omitting these,
some evidence of fluctuations common to the whole earth, of which the mean amplitude is
+ 0°.18 C. — this result is in part due to the failure to correct the temperatures for the sun
spot period, and partly represents the systematic fluctuations of the annual departures
already found. Pp. 355-362.
CHAPTER V.
Srupy or Tren-pAy TErRMs.

Stations and material used. Pp. 363-365.

i
14. Tabular exhibit of ten-day departures during the period 1871-1904. Summation of the squares

through annual periods. Result, absence of any correlation whatever. Pp. 365-375.

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 311

§ 15. Search for variations synchronous with the sun’s synodic rotation by the method of time-correlation. When
a tendency toward a periodic variation can be expected — choice of San Diego as a station
time correlation through a period of 33 years from 1872 to 1904 ; result, only a suspicion of a
periodic tendency, the amplitude being two or three-hundredths of a degree — further illus-
tration of the method from the general ten-day departures — tendency toward a persistence
of temperature conditions through periods of more than 40 days. Pp. 375-379.

CHAPTER VI.
Discussion or ReEsuts.
$16. Summary of conclusions. Actuality of the sun spot fluctuation — uncertain evidence of fluctu-

ations having a shorter period — limitation within which the conclusions are to be inter-
preted. Pp. 379-381.

§$ 17. Relation between solar radiation and meteorological processes. The present study limited to thermal
radiation — the question whether other emanations producing aurorz and magnetic storms
have any appreciable thermal effect — relation between fluctuations of the solar radiation
and the fluctuations of temperature hence arising — possible causes of change in the solar
radiation — definitive outcome of the investigation. Pp. 381-384.

§ 18. Comparison with results of Langley’s work of 1903. Pp. 384-387.

INTRODUCTION.

The view that the rate at which the sun radiates thermal energy is or may be
variable finds frequent expression in scientific literature. The inference of such vari-
ability may be drawn from two sources; one direct measures with the bolometer,
the other, meteorological phenomena, especially variations of temperature at the earth’s
surface. Many years ago Lockyer pointed out that a cycle corresponding to that of
the solar spots was indicated in the agricultural productions of India. A similar cycle
has been sought for in the variations of temperature at special places, and in a variety
of meteorological phenomena. Briickner has in an elaborate work adduced evidence
to show a cycle of about 35 years in meteorological changes generally, those of temper-
ature included. Although the fluctuations here described are not always expressly
attributed to the action of the sun, it would be difficult to account for them in any
other way than by fluctuations in the sun’s radiant energy.

Bigelow’s many and long-continued researches on meteorological phenomena, with
the view of determining their laws and periods of variations and their relation to the
activity of the sun, have also led him to an affirmative conclusion. The best marked
period he has sought to establish is one corresponding to the period of the sun’s syn-
odic rotation. But the actual conclusions deducible from his work seem to relate to
the electric and magnetic effects of the solar activity, rather than to purely thermal
effects, which alone are studied in the present work.

312 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Strong evidence on the affirmative side of the question was adduced by Langley,
in a discussion of bolometric measures of the sun’s radiation in 1902-38, compared with
fluctuations in the general terrestrial temperature. During the year 1903 especially,
the bolometer showed well-marked periods during which there seemed to be a remark-
able diminution of intensity of the sun’s radiation. On comparing these fluctuations
with those of the temperature in various regions of the globe, derived from the Deka-
denberichte of the Hamburg Seewarte, a seeming correspondence was shown between
the two classes of fluctuations. The relation was exhibited by curves, but was not
reduced to the form of an exact numerical relation with a determined probable error.

Notwithstanding the volume of observation and investigation bearing on the sub-
ject, and generally supposed to point to the actual existence of fluctuations in the sun’s
heat, the question cannot be regarded as settled until more precise numerical results
than any yet reached are worked out. ‘The drawing of conclusions from any system of
direct measures of the sun’s radiation, whether made by the bolometer or any other
instrument, is subject to the seemingly insurmountable difficulty that the variations
in the transparency and temperature of the atmosphere, especially in the higher
regions, which may materially affect the measures, cannot be accurately determined.
It is equally impossible to determine with precision the varying fraction of the heat
which may be intercepted by the atmosphere, and to eliminate the radiation of the
matter contained in the atmosphere itself. The uncertainty arising from these ever-
varying causes might indeed be reduced indefinitely by comparing simultaneous ob-
servations at points so widely separated that no common atmospheric cause could
affect the measures at any two stations. But, so far as the writer is aware, no at-
tempt to organize such a series of determinations has yet been made.

On the other hand, when it is proposed to detect fluctuations in the solar radia-
tion by observations of temperature, we meet with the difficulty that the temperature
is everywhere subject to fluctuations from local causes, especially the varying aérial
circulation, which it is impossible to determine, or to eliminate individually. Hence,
in studying the fluctuations of temperature at any one place or in any one region, the
problem arises of distinguishing between those due to local causes, and those due to
changes in the original source of heat.

The purpose of the present work is to develop and apply the methods best adapted
to secure definite results, especially the methods of investigating correlations between
irregularly fluctuating quantities. The fundamental principle of this method is the
same as that appled by the author long ago in collaboration with E. 8. Holden, in
discussing the question whether measured variations in the sun’s apparent diameter

were real; and, more recently, whether there existed any tendency toward unisexuality

i i eee

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. Sie

in families. ‘This method is applicable to fluctuations so irregular that no law, periodic

or otherwise, can be detected in their course. Periodicity is to be detected by other

methods, involving somewhat different principles, which will also be developed.

In investigating the question it is well to consider in advance the general char-
acter of the fluctuations which may be expected. ‘The first question to arise is : assum-
ing that the sun’s activity, as determined by terrestrial observations, is subject to a
periodic change, what periods are the most likely? The reply to this is*that there
are only two periods which can be assigned in advance with any plausibility. One is
that of the sun-spots ; the other that of the sun’s synodic rotation. The latter period
would arise if one hemisphere of the sun were occasionally at a higher temperature
than the other through two or more successive rotations. We must regard this as highly
probable if the solar radiation is subject to any change whatever. It is, in fact, rather
unlikely that any cause affecting the temperature of the solar envelope would act at
one and the same time over the whole of the photosphere. Ifa difference in the two
hemispheres were permanent, or even if it continued through large fractions of a year,
there would be no difficulty in detecting it. As a matter of fact, permanence is
scarcely to be expected, and it is in consequence difficult to distinguish between
irregular fluctuations and those having this origin.

Granting that some region of the photosphere experienced a rise or fall of tem-
perature which continued through an entire rotation, the effect would be seen in a cor-
responding fluctuation in the general temperature of the earth. From what is known
of motions in the photosphere, it is clearly impossible that two different regions of the
solar photosphere at the same latitude and the same altitude can be permanently at
different temperatures. But even if the difference in question ordinarily continued
only through two or three months, there would be no difficulty in detecting the periodic
effect as special regions of the photosphere would successively be brought into view
by the sun’s rotation. On the other hand, if the inequality of temperature did not
ordinarily continue through a single rotation, the effect could not be distinguished
from that of irregular fluctuations.

The problem of determining whether there is any period in terrestrial temperature
corresponding to that of the solar spots is one of such simplicity that it need not be
dwelt upon in the present connection. It will be studied in the course of the present
paper.

The really difficult problem is that of detecting with certainty irregular fluctua-
tions in the radiation. The difficulty arises from the fact just mentioned that the
fluctuations of temperature are everywhere determined by varying and accidental

‘meteorological causes, especially the motion of large bodies of air from one region to

314 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

another, and the varying presence of water in its various forms in the atmosphere.
Leaving out these disturbing causes it is very natural, when the temperature of a wide
region is markedly above or below the normal for a considerable period, to attribute
the condition to a change in the amount of heat received from the sun. The ques-
tion of the reality of this cause admits of an obvious test. A change in the sun’s
radiation will necessarily affect every part of the earth. If therefore a change of tem-
perature in one region has this cause as a factor we may, accidental causes aside,
expect a similar change in every other region. The problem is thus reduced to that of
detecting a correlation between the fluctuations of several varying quantities.

Since the ordinary fluctuations of temperature are mainly due to local causes, we
may expect the average or general temperature of the entire globe to be sensibly con-
stant if the sun’s radiation is invariable. To speak more precisely if, on any one day,
it is found that the temperature in every part of the earth is in the general average
above or below the normal, we might rationally attribute this result to the sun. We
thus see that a very obvious way of testing the constancy of the solar radiation is to
determine the deviation of the temperature from the normal on any one day over all
points of the globe, and form their mean. The fluctuations of this mean would rep-
resent those of the sun’s radiation.

It being impossible to extend observations over the entire globe we must accept
the results of observations made within regions at which observations of temperature are
actually available. But even then it would be an error to conclude that variations
in the general mean must be due to the sun or any other common cause. It is not
to be expected that the accidental deviations in different regions completely neutral-
ize each other. The question must therefore be open, after we have determined the
changes of mean temperature from time to time over the whole globe, whether the
mean fluctuations outstanding are purely accidental, or are due to changes in the
thermal energy received from the sun. A rigorous method of treating this question
will also be developed.

It follows that, in order to reach a well-grounded conclusion, some criterion is
necessary to determine whether the changes in the general temperature of the globe
are due to changes in the solar radiation, or tq accidental terrestrial causes. No eri-
terion which will decide this question in any individual ease is possible, but there is a
criterion by which the average amount of the cosmical fluctuation, if it be appreciable,
can be determined. To show the simplest example of its application let the deviation
of the temperature from the normal be observed from day to day and from year to
year in two regions of the earth so widely separated that no common purely terrestrial
cause can affect the two places at the same time. Then, by the law of probabilities,

|
|
|

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 315

we should find in the long run that there was no permanent correlation between the
fluctuations at the one place and at the other. For example, calling the two regions
A and B, if we put into one class all the days on which the temperature in region A
is markedly above the normal, and in another class all the days in which it is mark-
edly below normal ; and if we take the temperatures in the distant region B for the
Same two classes of days, then, in the absence of any correlation, we should find the
mean temperatures at B to be the same in the two classes. If we found that the mean
temperature at B was above the normal when it was above the normal in A, and
below it in the contrary case, it would show that there was some common cause affect-
ing the two places. Should the mean temperature in B be entirely independent of
that in A it would show that there was no common cause affecting the temperature of
the two places and therefore that the fluctuations were not due to changes in the sun’s
radiation.

By this criterion the existence of either periodic or non-periodic changes can be
equally well established, provided that a sufficiently long series of observations is
made use of. But it does not enable us to determine the law of change, but only the
general fact. When the general form of the law is known, especially when the flue-
tuations are of definite period, other methods may be applied.

CHAPTER I.
Meruops oF INVESTIGATING FLUCTUATING QUANTITIES.

$1. Fluctuations in a Fixed Period.

The quantities with which we are concerned in the present paper are in the nature
of observed departures from normal or mean values. Such departures may be either
results of observation, or they may be derived a priori from some theory which is to
be tested by observation. Those considered in the present paper are of the first class.
We shall take up the general problem of studying fluctuations by considering it in the
form suggested by the special problem now before us.

At every place and in every region on the surface of the earth there is for every
day a certain mean temperature, best determined by reading the thermometer at a
number of equi-distant intervals. ‘These means may be extended through periods of
any length, thus giving a series of temperatures extending indefinitely year after year.
The temperatures thus observed undergo fluctuations in an annual period, which may
be represented either by a Fourier series, or by a smoothed curve extending as nearly
as may be through all the observed temperatures. A normal mean temperature for
each day throughout the year at any one place may thus be determined from the
observations of a number of years—the more the better. Subtracting the normal

316 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

temperature of each day, or through a period of several days, from the mean temper-
ature actually observed through the same period, we have a certain departure from
the normal, due to accidental or systematic causes. To fix the ideas I shall designate
the period for which the mean of these departures is taken as a time-term, or term
simply. The data then given by observation comprise the mean departures for a long
number of terms, each considered as a unit, and forming so far as possible a continuous
series.

The most obvious classification of such departures is into periodic and irregular.
In the rigorous mathematical sense a periodic departure is one which always returns
to the same value at the end of an interval P of time, called the period. This may be
either known or assumed in advance, or regarded as unknown. It cannot, however,
be determined as an unknown quantity from conditional equations, because it is im-
practicable so to introduce it as to give the equations a soluble form. If not regarded
as known we have to proceed by the method of trial and error. In this form the
question will be whether a certain assumed period P is indicated by observed depart-
ures. If the fluctuation had no other term than a purely periodic one as thus defined,
its existence could be ascertained by simple inspection. Imagining the fluctuations
to be expressed by the ordinates of a curve of which the abscissa is the time, we only
have to measure on the axis of abscissas from any arbitrary point, the series of distances
P, 2P, 3P, ete., to the end of the series. We then take a number of intermediate
points and erect at each an ordinate expressing the observed departure. If P is the
true period the ordinates would have the same value at all the points distant from
each other by a multiple of P. Practically, however, we always have to deal with the
case in which other fluctuations than those of period P enter. We thus have acci-
dental deviations superposed upon the periodically recurring departures, which may
quite mask them. In this case it is necessary to take the mean value of the observed
departure at the several moments P, 2P, ete., after the initial moment. The mean of
all these values would be that corresponding to the initial phase. Taking, as an
example, the fluctuations represented in Figure (2), we see that the departure is
positive at the beginning of a period.

The method of deciding whether a fluctuation of an assumed period P really
exists is this. We divide each period into any convenient number of equal parts
by the points 1, 2, 3, ete. We then taket he mean of all the ordinates at the several
points 1; the mean for the points 2, for the peints 3, ete. The several means then
show the mean fluctuation during any one period. The absence of any fluctuation in
the given period would be shown by these mean values differing from each other
only by quantities which might be the result of the accidental deviations.

I a i

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 317

If the period is unknown, we must discover it tentatively by taking for P the
value which gives the best marked mean fluctuation, or the greatest range of value
among the mean departures.

In the numerical computation on this principle, after the period is known, or has
been discovered, the most general mode of proceeding is that of development in a
Fourier series. We take an angle N increasing uniformly with the time at sucha rate
that it goes through 360° in the period P. Then, if we represent the departure at any
time by v, we assume it, considered as a function of the time, to be developable in the

form
v=x,+2,cos N+ 2,cos2N+ ---+y,sin N+ y, sin2N+--.

Regarding %, 2, %, -+*Y1, Y2, as unknown quantities, the coefficients of these
quantities at each epoch of observation will be the sines or the cosines in the second
number of the equation. Substituting for each moment of observation the values of
these sines and cosines, and taking the observed departures for v, we shall have a system
of equations for determining the unknowns. ‘he solution of these equations by the
method of least squares will give the values of the unknowns which best represent the
observations.

This method is sometimes employed in meteorology to determine and express
the diurnal and annual fluctuations in the temperature. For reasons not necesssary to
detail at present, the method of forming the mean values, in the manner first set forth,
and then finding the curve which best fits them, is preferable except when, for any
reason, all multiples of NV above the first are omitted. In this last case the fluctuation
will be a purely harmonic one, the coefficients of which can be determined with great
facility by equations of condition. An example will be given in investigating the
fluctuations in temperature having the sun-spot period.

§2. Irregular Fluctuations Tending Toward a Definite Period, — the Method of Time Corre-
lation.

There is a class of fluctuations in which the period may be fairly definite, but yet
for which the preceding method would give no period whatever. This occurs when
we have a superposition of two classes of causes, or two sources of departure, one of
which, by itself, would result in a fluctuation in a definite period, while the other is
in the nature of perturbations, resulting in disturbances of the phase either continu-
ously or from time to time, and leading to seeming frequent changes in the length of
the period. If the preceding or any other method resting on the assumption of
unchanging period be applied to this case, the result might be that no period what-
ever would give a definite fluctuation. In other words a series of departures taken at

ASPs —X<E RR: 13,1, 208.

318 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

equi-distant moments would, in the long run, have for their mean either an evanescent
value, or a constant value for all phases.

To this class of fluctuations belong the ocean waves. If these are carefully
observed we shall generally find in them a tendency in a given state of the weather
to follow each other at fairly definite intervals, perhaps at 10, 15 or 20 seconds, accord-
ing to the distance between the crests. But should we take the mean period, how-
ever exact, and record the phase of the wave at any long series of moments separated
by exactly this period, we should find no one phase always recurring at the moments
thus defined. After a few seemingly regular recurrences of the wave, its height dimin-
ishes, perhaps almost to zero, or a fresh series of waves of similar period begins at a
different phase from that determined by the preceding waves.

Another case of the same kind is afforded by the swing of a pendulum which is
subjected to a continually repeated disturbance, sometimes nearly stopping it, some-
times accelerating it, and sometimes changing the phase of the swing. How fre?
quently soever these disturbances may follow each other, there will always be in the
motion of the pendulum a tendency toward its regular period as a function of its
length. But it may be impracticable to determine any definite time of oscillation
through a long series of observations. In cases like these the perturbations may be so
considerable, and follow each other at such short intervals, and the regular mean
amplitude of the fluctuation may be so small or variable, that it will be impossible to
detect the tendency toward a regular period, except by the application of some special
method, ‘lo devise a method we must find some criterion for distinguishing between
a tendency toward a definite period and complete irregularity.

Any tendency toward a definite period P may be defined in the following way :
Let + be the observed departure at any moment, and 7’ the departure at a definite
interval P following it. Now if there be really a tendency toward the period P, 7
should differ from 7 only by the difference of perturbations, or accidental deviations,
which may however be larger than either of the undisturbed departures, and there-
fore may completely mask the tendency toward equality between 7 and 7’. However
this may be, the undisturbed departure midway of the period, that is, at the moment
+P, will have the opposite sign 7 and 7’. It follows that in the general average, by
comparing a large number of departures in triplets, the individual members of which
are distant }P, and calling 7, the mean of all the middle departures, the excess of
7’ — 7, will in the general average be opposite in sign from 7’ itself. If a period be
found for which this holds true in the general mean, we have a tendency toward a
rhythmical movement in the period P.

The detection of such a period is easy by a method which we may call that of

—

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 319

time-correlation. ‘The nature of the criterion will be most readily seen by the graphic
representations in Figures 1 and 2. Let Figure 1 represent an approximately har-
monic fluctuation. If the ordinate at 0 represents the initial variable quantity, there

0 Yo P A P Y2P

Fia. 1.

will always be a rising phase between the points }P and P; say near the point A at 3
of a period from O. If our initial departure is near $P, then we shall have a descend-
ing phase betweeen P and $P, which is } of a period further on.

Now, imagine that the regular fluctuations thus represented have superimposed
upon them accidental deviations so large as to mask the harmonic character of the
fluctuations. Were these accidental deviations superimposed upon a harmonic motion
in a continuous succession of periods, they could be detected by continuing one system
of observations through a number of periods, because they would then be eliminated
from the mean. But we are supposing a case in which the period is itself disturbed.

7

8

0 %4P YeP ¥4P P YP 64P 74P 2P

Fic. 2.

What we therefore have to do is to take a number of starting points, numbered 0, 1,
2, etc., and continue the series from each so far as we deem it useful todoso. In these
several series the accidental deviations will still be eliminated, ultimately leaving in
the general mean a tendency toward the harmonic phase as described.

Such a case is shown in Figure 2. Here there is not evident to the eye any ten,
dency toward an exact period. But a study of the diagram shows that by measuring
off equidistant intervals to the points P, 2P, ete., the departure is, in the general mean
positive, while at the middle points of the spaces it is, in the general mean, negative.
A criterion is thus offered by which any periodic tendency may be brought out.

We shall now show the method of time-correlation by which not only a period of

320 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

any length, but any tendency toward a period, may be shown. ‘The period being
regarded as entirely unknown, the observed departure from the general mean at any
moment may be regarded as due to the periodic term which we seek, with accidental
deviations superimposed. Let us put a for the departure at some initial moment ;
then let us take a series of equi-distant intervals of time, starting from the initial one,

and let us put

a,, a& a

a9) 2 59) n

a, 2?

the deviations at the ends of the intervals ¢, 2¢, 3f,... mt. If there is any tendency
toward a rhythmical motion in these departures, having a period greater than 2¢ but
less than nt, then, in the general average, assuming a to be positive, we should find
first a diminution and then an increase in the series of a’s; that is, the curve repre-
senting the departures would be convex to the axis of abscissas.

Since one departure may be taken for the initial one as well as another, we may
repeat this process with a,, a, ete., as the initial departures, carrying the products in
each case to the requisite number of terms. We shall thus have a series of products
which may be continued as far as the series of observed departuresextends. Taking as
an example n = 5, the arrangement is the following:

a,” a4, a2, 4,2;
a,” aa, aa, 4,4,
a,” aa, a8, a;
Sums: [aa] [aa,] [aa] eee [aa,]

This arrangement suggests the solution by least squares of a problem which may
be put into the following form. Starting as before with the initial departure ao, if the
fluctuation be a purely harmonic one, the departure at the end of half a period would
always be — ay, that at the end of a period +a, ete. In general the departure at any
time ¢ will be of the form a,)+z, « being a periodic function of ¢. Consequently the
actual deviations a,, a,, etc., will be of the form

2

a,=av, te; a=ag,te,; etc.

€, , ete., being the purely accidental parts of the deviations. The problem thus
resolves itself into determining a series of factors 2,, %, 2%, ete., by means of the
conditional equations

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 321

These may be combined by the method of least squares. The normal equation is

[a,a,]z; = [a,a,]
from which «; is at once found. Thus, putting i = 1, 2, 3, ete., we shall have a series
of quantities

of which numerical values may be determined from the equations. A tendency
toward a rhythmical deviation of the kind we are in search of will be shown by an
increasing value of x at the time corresponding most nearly to the completion of the
period. Ifthere is no tendency toward any period between the limits 2¢ and nt the
series of x’s will converge in the general mean toward the value zero.

§3. Treatment of Fluctuations without Discernible Period.

The method developed in the two preceding sections is applicable to a single series
of observations of fluctuating quantities of any kind, and will enable us to determine
any periodic tendency in them. We have now to consider the case in which the
periodicity is not discernible. In this case results are to be derived by comparisons of
different series of observations made simultaneously at different places. Our treat-
ment will be that of the special case of departures in temperature; but the method
may of course be applicable in the wider field of fluctuating quantities in general.

We know that deviations of the temperature from the normal are of constant
occurrence at every point of the globe. We also know that these are due, in great
part at least, to local causes, especially the motion of the air from region to region, and
the varying effects of cloud and moisture. But they may also be due in part to
changes in the sun’s radiation of heat, or other general causes. The question is what
evidence can be found to indicate the action of a general cause affecting the whole
earth simultaneously. It is plain enough that observations at one place, no matter
how long continued, would never enable us to distinguish between fluctuations of tem-
perature due to local causes and to thesun. But by comparing simultaneous observa-
tions in regions of the earth so widely separated that the same local causes could not
have influenced the temperatures in both regions, it is possible to determine, approxi-
mately at least, by a statistical method which we shall now develop, what part the sun
or other general cause may play in the fluctuations.

The data for our problems are the simultaneous departures of temperature from

the normal, in a number 1 of regions, through a series of terms of equal length in

time, this length being chosen so as to best meet the requirements of the problem.
Let us put

v, v. v

Be A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

the n simultaneous departures of the temperature from the normal in the n regions for
any one term.

Considering the problem thus suggested as that of determining the normal
departure of a world temperature, produced by any cause affecting the whole earth,
such as a change in the sun’s radiation, the obvious method of determining this world
deviation is to take the mean of all the separate departures v,, observed in various
regions. Let us then put 7, for the apparent mean departure of the world temperature
from the general normal. This appparent departure is determined by the equation

NT =v, +2, +2, + +--+ v, = Ly, ' (1)
or
=v,
T= (t=1, 2, ---, n)
n

Before taking up the question of a cosmical cause affecting the world-temperature,
let us consider the problem as that of determining the probable error of the departure
of the world-temperature from the normal. ‘To do this we subtract 7\from the indi-
vidual deviations, v; We then havea series of residuals, 1, Us, ete.

—T, +--+ WU =U,—T

Following the method of least squares let us form the squares of these residuals

U2 = v,? — 2rv, + 77
Up, =v,7 — 277, + 77

u?=v?— Irv +7
Putting ¢ for the mean deviation and summing these residuals we shall have by
the theory of least squares the probable equation

(n— 1)? = Tu? = Ey? — nn? (2)

+4 a4

Conceive now that we determine the deviation of the world-temperature in this
way through a number of time-terms, arriving at a series of values of 7, each having
its mean error e,. It is clear that the value of the mean error should not be deter-
mined separately for each term from the discordances for that term alone, but from
the residuals throughout the whole period. If r be the entire number of time-terms
the number of these residuals will be nr. We represent by =; a summation through the
r terms, and by =,; asummation of all the nr values. Then, by adding the r equations

of the form (2) we have the probable equation

r(n— l)e? = =, jv" = nd jr (3)

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 323

Also, by squaring the equation (1) and adding the + squared equations we find

ne Sc? = Liv? + 2S vv!
where vv" represents the sum of the rn(m—1) products of each two departures in
every term. If these departures v are purely accidental deviations from means the
ratio of vv’ to Xv? will tend toward zero as the number of terms is indefinitely increased.

Dropping them we find the condition

Hence, if we put,
A= 75,7 — &, jv’ (4)

the criterion for the independence of each v from the others will be
NED (5)

If this equation is not satisfied within the probable limits of the accumulated
accidental errors, it will show that the hypothesis of the complete independence of the
temperatures of the different regions is not established, and that there is some corre-
lation between them. This may arise from any common cause affecting the tempera-
ture at two or more of the stations. Let us suppose a varying cosmical cause affecting
the entire earth, the result of which is to raise the world-temperature during any one
term by an amount 7. Each observed departure will then be made up of two
parts :—

(1), the common departure 7, for the whole world ;

(2), an accidental local deviation peculiar to the region. We shall then have, as
the value of each individual departure in any region during any one term

¥, = T) + 2! (6)

v' being the purely accidental deviation, whose mean value is «.
Form the sum of the squares of the equations (6) for the m values of the v,; for any
one term
=v? = nt, + 27,0! + 2? (7)

ra0st

The mean value of »’ being the same as that of «, and each value of v’ being indepen-
dent of 7, we have the probable equation

Sa =)
Summing the equation (7) for the + time-terms and putting & for the mean o” we

have
2, jt = nz,7, + are’ (8)

324 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Now let us treat the mean departure 7 in the same way. We put e, the mean of the
purely accidental part of 7. Then in each time-term,

T=T, + @
Squaring and summing the r values of 7 we have
99> Ss e2
= 2 eT, + = ¢

For the same reason as in the individual deviations we have

Probable Lez, = 0

€
Probable =? = —
n
and thus the equation becomes
re
ae pe
J zg0 n

Eliminating & between this equation and (8) we find by using (4
o to}
Ph oS SS) AO
n(n — 1) 7, = vz 7 v= A (9)

The second member of this equation is computed by summing the squares of all
the 7’s, which are + in number, and also the squares of all the nr individual depart-
ures. Having thus found r values of A, the sum of which we shall call A simply, the
probable mean world-deviation 7 is given by the equations

nr(n — 1)7° =A

A
nr(n — 1) (10)

Probable mean 7,7 =

When several periods, for which the number of regions was unequal, are to be
combined, the final equation for 7,” should be put into the form

Zrn(n — 1)7,7 = 2A

This value of 7,2 will be subject to a probable error arising from the probable
accumulation of accidental deviations in the sum of all the quantities which form it.
Our conclusions as to its value must depend upon how far its actual value exceeds
this probable accidental deviation. If within the limits of probable deviation, we
must consider that the evidence is against its having any determinable value. The
probability of its having a real value increases with its magnitude as compared with
the probability of the accidental value.

It may happen that SA comes out negative. This would signify that, instead of

aa

— _—

en ee eee eee rrr mh rl

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 325

the simultaneous temperatures in the different regions being independent, or affected
by a common cosmical cause, one region on the average becomes hotter or colder at
the expense of another. In other words the conclusion would be that when the tem-
perature was above the normal in one region, it was more likely than not to be below
it in other regions, and vice versa. Thus the conclusion as to a positive correlation,—
no correlation or a negative correlation — depends upon whether A is positive, evanes-
cent or negative.

§ 4. Case when Different Weights are Assigned to Different Regions.

For the sake of simplicity we have developed the preceding method on the
assumption that in determining the general departure 7 the different stations or regions
are all entitled to the same weight. But if the accidental deviations are smaller at
some stations than at others it is clear that the observations at such stations will be of
greater weight for the detection of cosmical causes. We should therefore assign weights
to the several stations determined by the usual methods. Let these weights be

n

Wy) Woy +>, W (11)

and let us call Wtheirsum. The preceding equations will then be replaced by the
following : ;
Instead of using (1) for determining 7 we use the equation

rf By a4 A €
Wr = wyv, + wr, +--+ wv, = 202, (12)

Let us put e, for the mean accidental deviation of v, and e, for that of 7. The
mean deviation of any one product wv, is then we, and the squared mean deviation of
the sum of all these products for any one term, if uncorrelated, is

The mean e, should in this case satisfy the equation .
We? = we” + wfc? + +++ + ,7e,” (15)

If the observed deviations v are wholly in the nature of accidental deviations from a
mean value, we may take for each ¢? the mean of all the v; ; and 7 being then a purely
accidental deviation of the mean, we should have the probable equation

°

e = mean 7

ce

The criterion for deciding whether the deviations are purely accidental may therefore
A. P,S.—XXI. SS. 13, 1, 708.

326 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.
be written in the form A = 0, where for any one time-term
A, = Wr? — (wv + wv? + +++ + w,7v,”)

There being 7 time-terms in all, each will give a value of A; the sum of which we call
A simply.
Summing all + of these probable relations the criterion will become

A = 3,W*? — 33,0020? = 0 (G=1; 92 -e)) ae)

If the value of A comes out too large to be regarded as the accumulated effect of
chance deviations, we must, as before, find a mean deviation 7, common to all the
stations for each separate term of observation, which will reduce the second member
to the value A. We do this by the same process as that when the weights are taken
as equal. We haye, as before, the probable equations

Substituting these values in (16) the terms in é all drop out by virtue of the relation
(15), and we have left the probable equation

E(W? — Spo)? = A (17)

which determines a probable mean value of 7,°, and therefore of 7 on the same princi-

ples as when the weights are equal.

§ 5. Comparison of Regions when Taken by Pacrs.
When only two regions are compared the process of § 3 may be simplified. Calling
v and v’ the observed departures when only two regions are considered we shall have

27 =v-+ 0!
for each term of observation. Hence

2

27? — £(v? + v’?) = wv!
Summing for all + terms, as before

23 r — 4B (v2 $v!) = Spo’

Thus, putting n = 2 in (9) and (10) we find for each time-term the simple expres-
sion

aun!
Mean 7,7 = = Mean vv’ (18)

which is much simpler in this case than the formula (10).

—————————————

——To =

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 327

We may, if we choose, reduce the results for any number of regions in the same
way by taking the regions in pairs. By squaring (1) we have, for any one term of
observation,

nr? = Zvi + 2, vv, (19)

in which each individual product 1, is formed from each pair of the individual v's
for the time-term, so that we have n(m — 1) products v», for each of the 7 time-terms.
Summing the series for all the time-terms during which n remains the same, we

have
NZ 7° =z, wv? + 2D, ; vm, (20)

Combining this with (9) we have
n(n — 1) 75 = 22, , ,vv
Taking 7 to represent the mean value of the cosmical fluctuation through 7 terms, we

have

Also,

L772 =r" (21)

where, for brevity, we put >* for the triple summation of the products. We are thus
enabled, when we so desire, to compute A, and hence the value of 7,’, for each time-term
and each pair of stations taken separately. The final mean of 7° which we thus

derive instead of (10) is
233vv'

eT) 22)

Mean 7,” =

The number of combinations of n stations being [n(n — 1)]/2, this is equivalent to
Mean 7,” = Mean vv’ (23)

which may be found by summing (18) for the pairs of stations and all the time-terms.
For considerable values of n this equation is more laborious in use than (10) or (17),
but it has the advantage of showing whether a correlation among the departures of
temperature exists for all the stations, or is confined to a limited number of stations.

The preceding value of 7,” has been derived for the sake of simplicity, as if the
weights were all equal. When the pairs of stations are all considered individually, no
difference of assigned weights will affect the resulting individual value Ole, Aer bubit
we combine the [n(n — 1)]/2 individual values thus derived, we must assign them
their proper weights. These we find by dealing with (16) in the same way that we
have dealt with nr? when the weights were each 1. By squaring (12) and summing
for the 7 time-terms, we find

> 2 >> SING het 2
220707? = 2, Wr? — 2B, ,, ww (24)

328 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

This, substituted in (16), gives
A = 23, ,, ow,0 (25)

Un
With equal weights we have, from any one pair of stations, (n = 2)
= 29> a! »
A = 22 v0 (26)

It follows that if we put A, the special value of A found for any pair of stations with-
out regard to weights, the final value for use in (17) when the weights are taken

account of is
A = >}, ww, , (27)
and we shall then have

Probable mest. tae eee = (28)

CHAPTER II.
Review or Data AND PRocEssEs.
$6. Choice and Combination of Material.

From the preceding exposition of the general method applied it will be seen that,
since our result is based on systematic or accidental departures alone, and not on
absolute temperatures, our main requirement is long series of observations of tem-
perature, at widely separated points of the earth’s surface, made and reduced on a
plan which should be uniform for each point, but might vary to any extent from one
point to another. A single observation of temperature on each day would suffice in
the long run, provided it were made at the same-hour throughout. Of course a better
result is reached from a number of daily observations at given hours; but this is less
essential than uniformity of system at each separate station.

In planning the work it was hoped that the much-criticised labor spent in accu-
mulating meteorological observations might be found not so ill-directed as is sometimes
thought. Unvaried routine, even if unintelligent, in the method of making and pub-
lishing the observations would be an advantage in a case where errors and defects in
the instruments and methods are unimportant for the result, so long as they remained
unchanged. But, when the actual material was sought out and examined, disap-
pointment was nearly everywhere the result. Outside a few government establish-
ments supported by civilized nations or other permanent organizations, diversity
instead of uniformity was found to prevail,—even unintelligent adherence to any
routine system of making, reducing, and publishing the observations being rare. The
amount of available material was also diminished by the fact that a very important

part of the best-planned meteorological observations are made only to determine the

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 329

climatology of the region, and are abandoned when this requirement is satisfied. The
importance of supplying in a satisfactory way this want of uniformity and continuity
has given a certain disjointed character to the material used in the present investiga-
tion. With this preliminary remark we pass to the selection of the actual material.

Since the effect of any change in the daily amount of energy radiated by the sun
will be more strongly felt in those regions most exposed to that radiation, it follows
that tropical stations should have the preference over those of high latitudes. At the
same time, the longer the period through which a set of observations extends the less
the importance of this preference. I have therefore not made use of observations in
the northern countries of Europe in comparing and observing monthly and ten-day
means; but have utilized a wider range of annual means. No precise limits as to
latitude have been set in any one case, the choice necessarily depending on general
availability.

Deviations of temperature have less weight the wider the range of accidental
variation from day to day. It was therefore deemed advisable to omit regions where
the temperature fluctuated rapidly. But this requirement also was relaxed in case of
terms of long period, because the purely accidental effects would be more and more
diminished as longer periods were taken.

In selecting records to be used we must distinguish the essential from the non-
essential features. As the object is not to determine the actual mean temperature
in the several regions, but fluctuations only, it is nearly indifferent how the daily
means are derived. ‘The mean temperature for the whole twenty-four hours is prefer-
able to a single observation at one and the same hour only because the purely acci-
dental deviation will then be smaller. This actual mean is also preferable to the
mean of the maximum and minimum temperatures, but the advantage in this case is
not sufficiently well marked to justify a great expenditure of labor to secure it. What
is essential is that a uniform system of observed temperatures should extend through
a sufficient number of years to enable a table of normal temperatures for each month
or each decade of the year to be formed. But it is not necessary that even this table
should be one entitled to great weight. In fact without any normal standard, the
mean deviations from day to day, or from period to period, would be entitled to some
weight. While some pains have been taken to construct a table of normal tempera-
tures for several of the stations, this part of the work has not been regarded as
definitive, and is not published in this paper.

From the nature of our method, as developed in the preceding chapter, our first
step must be to divide the surface of the earth into regions, within each of which the
accidental changes of temperature may be supposed independent of those in every other

330 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

region. Having done this, we are not confined to a single observing station in each
region. In fact the more observing stations used in each, and the more widely they
are separated, the greater will be the weight to which the mean result for the region
is entitled.

We shall now review the material made use of, and the method of handling it, so
far as seems necessary to enable critical investigators to examine and test the processes
in detail, and to form a judgment as to the reliability of the result. An entirely syste-
matic statement of the plans and methods is difficult from the fact that they had to be
changed in detail from time to time as the work progressed, owing to the unexpected
cases of incompleteness and other imperfections which showed themselves here and
there as the compilation went on. Lack of uniformity in treatment has also arisen
from the discovery from time to time of new material which it was thought advisable
to use in the work. Moreover a certain perfection of method originally aimed at,
involving a rigorous reduction to a 24-hour mean for every day, was found impractic-
able, and such means as chanced to be available had very generally to be used. The
effect of this drawback upon the results of the work itself is practically quite unim-
portant; but it prevents the material made use of from having the completeness and
certainty that it otherwise might have claimed as a basis for more extended meteoro-
logical researches.

It may be added that the conclusions reached in the research can be judged
without any reference to the original materials on which the work is based ; but, as
already intimated, a knowledge of this material will not only facilitate the judgment
of any details but will be of assistance to any one desiring to review and extend the
work. ‘The following are the sources from which the data were mostly derived.

Records of the United States Weather Bureau.— The original plan was to choose a
number of widely separated stations in the United States and, from the manuscript
records of the Bureau, to reduce the recorded mean temperature of each day to the
rigorous 24-hour mean, and then obtain a daily deviation from the normal during the
entire period. But the discussion of the entire 35 years of records on this plan was
found to be too laborious, especially as the hours and system of observation had been
changed twice during the history of the bureau. It was therefore deemed sufficient
to take as the standard temperature for each day the mean of the maximum and
minimum temperatures. ‘This was, for the most part, reduced to the 24-hour mean
when data for doing so could be readily found.

The Argentine Republic. —The main source for this region has been the publica-
tions of the Officina Meteorologica Argentina. Iam also indebted to Dr. Davis, Direc-

tor of the Meteorological Office, for the communication of observations additional to

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 331

those found in the published volumes. The number of stations used in these years
was different in different years. Generally six or eight were available.

Havana‘ Observaciones Magneticas y Meteorologicas del -Real Collegio de Belen
de la Compania de Jesus en la Habana. Habana, Imprenta del Avisador Commer-
cial Aucargura 30, 1890.

Jamaica: Temperatures in Kingston, Jamaica. Jamaica; Government Printing
Office. Doc. No. 275.

Mauritius: Meteorological Observations taken during a number of years, and
published annually as a Mauritius blue book.

Bombay: Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at the Government Obser-
vatory, Bombay. Bombay, printed at the Government Central Press, 1895.

Batavia: Observations made at the Royal Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-
vatory, Batavia, 1900. Here only one station is available and the deviations as will
be seen from the table are larger in the mean than in the case of any others that have
been included. They received therefore only the weight 1.

Ceylon: Administrative Reports on Meteorology. No general title in detail.
These publications contain monthly and annual means of observations at a number
of stations on the island. ‘The deviations used here and elsewhere are the means of

generally six or more stations in various parts of the island.
Australia: The sources for these observations are the annual publications of the

Adelaide Observatory hy Sir Charles Todd. ‘The means given are generally those at
five or six different stations.

Madras: Results of the meteorological observations made at the Government Ob-
servatory at Madras, — 1861-1890. Madras, 1892. Also other volumes parfly with-
out title and partly bearing a similar title.

Manila: Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903, Bulletin 2. The Climate of
the Philippines by Rev. Jose Algue, Director of the Philippine Weather Bureau,
published by the Census Office, Washington, 1904.

Apia: The Deutsche Uberseeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen contains meteoro-
logical observations at a number of coast and island stations; but, for the most part,
the observations are not pursued continuously through a sufficient period to be well
adapted to the present work. The best station for our purpose proved to be Apia
where the record is nearly complete since 1890. The unpublished results up to 1904
were courteously communicated by the Director of the Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg.

In equability and uniformity of temperature this station not only leads every
other on the list but every region. If therefore internal consistency had been the sole
guide in assigning weights, it would be entitled to greater weight than any other two

332 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

stations. But there is always a possibility at any one station of varying systematic
errors from one cause or another. Hence, it has received no greater weight than the
best of the remaining stations.

$7. Arrangement of the work.

Owing to the complexity of the conditions which have determined the final form
of the work, the task of studying its processes will be facilitated by a condensed state-
ment of its arrangements. ‘The main features to be borne in mind are the following :

Firstly, as regards geographic distribution ; that portion of the earth best avail-
able for the purpose is divided into regions within each of which the fluctuations of
temperature are prima facie independent of those in other regions. The question
whether this independence is real is regarded as open to question and therefore has
been investigated in special cases where a correlation is possible.

Then, within each region as many stations of observation as practicable are to be
selected in order that the accidental fluctuations of the regions may be reduced. Fre-
quently there is but one station in a region.

Secondly, as to the time; the whole period included in each special branch of the
discussion is divided up into time-terms. The time-terms actually used are three, (1)
the year; (2) the calendar month; (3) the decade.

Were the work ideally complete in every particular, we should logically begin
with the decade, then pass to the month, and then to the yearly terms, because this is
the order in which the observations are made and the work has to be done. But, for
reasons not necessary to set forth at length, the different series of time-terms are pre-
sented in reverse order, beginning with the year.

The material used is different for the three classes of terms. In discussing the
ten-day terms it was found that, quite apart from the labor of forming ten-day means,
the available material in the form of daily observations was comparatively limited.
But monthly and annual means are found in so many publications that the data
available for this branch of the research is great. This additional wealth of material
has permitted the use of a much greater number of regions than are available for the

ten-day means.

CHAPTER III.
Discusston or ANNUAL DerviIATIoNs oF TEMPERATURE.
§ 8. Fluctuations Having the Period of the Sun-spots.
Proceeding according to the plan mapped out, our first step will be to determine

the fluctuations in temperature corresponding to the 11-year inequality in the solar

ee eel

—_— eS eS

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 333

spots. This periodic change in the amount of solar spottedness indicates that a change
of some sort is going on in the sun ; and if the radiation of the latter is subject to any
periodic change, we must expect this to be one of the principal periods. ‘Two methods
of investigation are open to us, which would be identical if the variation in the spotted-
ness were a rigorously harmonic fluctuation in a fixed period. One is to take the
degree of spottedness from time to time as the term of comparison ; the other is to
assume a period in the general terrestrial temperature exactly equal to the mean period
of the spots, and determine the coefficients of the fluctuation so as to best satisfy the
observations. The second method seems preferable because we have some reason to
suppose that the degree of spottedness is a secondary rather than a primary phe-
nomenon. The writer showed in his paper on the period of the solar spots that the
irregularities in the period of the observed phenomenon tended to compensate them-
selves, in the course of time returning to an original primordial period. This was
especially shown by the fact that about 1760-90 the epochs of maximum and mini-
mum were accelerated for several years, but afterward returned to the original places
in the period. That is to say we have in the spots a fairly exact period subject to
fluctuations on one side and on the other. Now the change in radiation is as likely
to follow the rigorous period as to follow the apparent phenomena of spots.

The irregular and fragmentary character of our data affords another reason for
taking as the basis of our work the hypothesis of a period of 11.13 years simply. If
we had at our disposal a uniform and homogeneous system of observations in various
widely separated regions, extending through a long period, either method could be
applied with equal facility. But the fragmentary character of the actual data would
render weak a comparison of the temperature during a period of such great bespotted-
ness as that of 1870-71 with that of the year 1900, during which there were very few
spots.

The most exhaustive attempt with which I am acquainted to discover the relation
between the solar spottedness and the terrestrial temperature is that of Koppen.* The
material made use of comprises mean fluctuations of temperature in various regions
of the globe, from 1767 to 1877. The regions were classified according to their lati-
tude as tropical, sub-tropical, warm, temperate, etc. The general conclusion was that
the temperature of the tropical regions was lower by about 0°.73 C. near the time of
maximum sun spots than near the time of minimum. It is known that the spots
radiate less heat in proportion to their surface than does the photosphere, and the
general nature of this result is the same as if the temperature per unit area of the
non-spotted photosphere were invariable, so that the total radiation was diminished

* Zeitschrift der Oesterreichen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, VIII Band.
A. P.S.—XXI. TT. 13, 1, 08.

33 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

by the spots. The fluctuation of terrestrial temperature was shown to be the greatest
in the equatorial regions, and to diminish progressively as the latitude increased to
north or south. There were also indications of a non-correspondence between the
epochs of maximum and minimum temperatures, and the minimum and maximum
of spottedness, but the determination of the difference must be considered as weak, in
view of the uncertainty of the data and the minuteness of the fluctuation.

The writer proposes to reinvestigate this question, using both Képpen’s data and
more recent observations, in order to apply the more rigorous method of equations of
condition. We assume only that the mean temperature at the earth’s surface fluctu-
ates harmonically in a period of 11.13 years. ‘This hypothesis may be represented in
the general form

At =~2 cos pt + y sin pt 4 2 (29)
where p is to be so taken that the angle pt shall go through 360° in the given period.

Taking the year as the unit of time this gives
p= 32°.35
The epoch from which ¢ is measured is quite arbitrary, because when, after deriving
x and y from observations, we reduce the expression to a monomial
Ar = psin (ut + c)
the value of pt +c for a given moment of time will be the same, whatever the chosen
epoch for t = 0.

Putting, for brevity,
a=cos pt; 6 =sin pt

each observed deviation of temperature, At = 7, will give the equation of condition
au + by +z2=7r

These conditional equations being treated by the method of least squares we shall have
the normal equations
[aa]x + [ab]y + [ac]z = [an]
[ab]a + [bb]y + [bc]z = [bn]
[ac]# + [be]y + [ce]z = [en]
Having found « and y from these equations we may substitute them in (15), and
reduce the trigonometric terms to a monomial by computing p and c from
P cos € = &
psine= — y

The harmonic fluctuations of which we are in search will then be

Art = p cos (pt + c)

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 335

*

In the actual investigation I have taken the epoch 1844.6 as that from which ¢ is
counted. his epoch corresponds to a sun-spot minimum ; but this is unimportant at
the present moment. From this starting point the value of the angle of pt was taken
for the middle of each year, and its sine and cosine, with their squares and products,
were computed with results shown in the following table :

TABLE I.
Coefficients for Detecting Fluctuations Having the Sunspot Period.

Year | a aa a* * ab | | Near |) Cae] a’ Bb | ob
1820 +05 | —09 | 025 | os1 | —o4 || isc | +07 | —o7 | 049 | 049 |° —05
21 +0.9 —05 | 0.81 0.25 —0.4 66 +1.0 02 1.00 0.04 | —0.2
22 +1.0 0.0 | 1.00 0.00 +0.1 67 +0.9 | +0.4 081 | 0.16 | -+0.3
23 +08 | +06 | 064 | 036 | +05 | 6s | +06 | +08 | 036 | 064 | +05
24 +04 +0.9 0.16 0.81 +0.3 — 69 +0.1 +1.0 0.01 | 1.00 +0.1
| | |
1825 | —0.2 +1.0 0.04 1.00 —0.2 1870 | —0.5 +0.9 0.25 | 081 | —04
26 —0.7 | +0.7 0.49 0.49 —0.5 71 | —0.9 +0.5 0.81 | 025 | —04
27 —1.0 +0.3 1.00 0.09 —0.2 72 } —1.0 0.0 1.00 0.00 +0.0
28 —1.0 | —0.3 1.00 0.09 +0.3 isp | OS —0.6 0.64 0.36 +0.4
29 —0.6 | —08 0.36 0.64 +0.5 74 | —0.4 —0.9 0.16 0.81 +0.4
} | |
1830 —0.1 | —1.0 0.01 1.00 | -+0.1 1875 +0.2 —1.0 0.04 100 | —02
31 +04 | —0.9 0.16 0.81 —0.4 || 76 +0.7 | —0.7 | 049 | 0.49 —0.5
32 +08 —0.5 0.64 0.25 —0.4 || 77 +1.0 —0.3 1.00 | 0.09 —0.3
33 +1.0 0.0 1.00 0.00 0.0 | 78 +1.0 +0.3 1.00 | 0.09 +0.3
34 +08 | +0.5 0.64 0.25 | +04 | 79 +0.7 +0.8 0.49 0.64 +0.6
1835 +04 | +0.9 0.16 0.81 | +04 | 1880 +0.1 +1.0 0.01 1.00 +0.1
sm | =te | tog | 83s | om | te | & | W88 | $83 | Sat | om | Has
38 Ge Ey eeill top| n00" |) os 83 =n a 100 | 0.00 | 00
39 —1.0 —0:3 |} 1.00 0.09 | +0.3 | 84 —0.9 —0.5 0.81 0.25 0.4
| |
1840 —0.7 —0.7 0.49 0.49 | +0.5 1885 —0.4 —0.9 0.16 0.81 +0.4
41 —0.2 =i) 0.04 100 +02 | 86 +0.1 S111) 0.01 | 1.00 —0.1
42 +0.4 —0.9 0.16 0.81 =e 87 +0.6 —0.8 0.36 0.64 —0.5
43 +0.8 —0.6 0.64 0.36 —0.5 88 +0.9 —=013 0.81 0.09 =—0.3
44 +1.0 0.0 1.00 0.00 01 | 89 +1.0 +0.2 1.00 0.04 +0.2
1845 +0.9 +0.5 0.81 0.25 | +04 | 1890 +0.7 +0.7 0.49 049 | +05
46 +0.5 |. +09 0.25 0.81 +04 | 91 +0.2 +1.0 0.04 1.00 | +0.2
47 Oi +1.0 0.01 1.00 lee 92 —0.3 +0.9 0.09 | 081 | —0.3
48 —0.6 +0.8 0.36 0.64 | —05 | 93 SE +0.6 0.64 0.36 | —05
49 —0.9 +0.4 | 0.81 0.16 —0.3 || o4 —1.0 | +0.1 1.00 | 0.01 —0.1
1850 —10 —0.2 | 1.00 0.04 +02 || 1895 —0.9 —0.4 0.81 0.16 +0.4
51 =) —0:7 0.49 0.49 +05 || 96 —0.5 —0.9 0.25 0.81 +0.4
52 —0.2 —1.0 0.04. | 1.00 +02 |i 97° 00) eo 0.00 1.00 0.0
53 +0.3 Sidi) 0.09 1.00 SNS}. 98 +0.5 ys 0.25 0.64 —0.4
54 +08 —0.6 0.64 0.36 —=05 1899 +0.9 —0.4 0.81 0.16 —0.4
1855 +1.0 =O. 1.00 0.01 | —0.1 | 1900 +10 | +01 | 1.00 | 0.01 +0.1
56 +0.9 +0.4 0.81 0.16 | +0.4 | Ol +08 +0.7 0.64 | 0.49 +0.6
57 +0.5 +0.8 0.25 0.64 | +0.4 02 +0.3 +1.0 0.09 1.00 +03
58 0.0 +1.0 0.00 100 0.0 03 —0.3 +1.0 0.09 1.00 =O
59 —05 +0.8 0.25 0.64. —04 | 04 Ay +0.7 0.49 0.49 —0.5
1860 —0.9 +0.4 0.81 0.16 Ses | 1905 ON | E02 1.00 0.04 —0.2
61 SS =i)-t) 1.00 0.01 “EO | 06 —0.9 —0.4 0.81 0.16 +0.3
62 —0.8 —0.6 0.64 0.36 | +05 07 —0.6 —0.8 0.36 0.64 +0.5
63 =0.:3 —0.9 0.09 0.81 | +0.3 08 sl} Ss) TO 1.00 +0.1
1864 +0.2 =) 0.04 1.00 | —o2 | 1909 05 —0.9 | 0.25 0.81 —0.4

With this table the computation of x and y is so easy a matter that I have for the

336 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

most part computed all the series of observations I could find which extended through
as long a time asa single spot-period. Each station is generally treated separately ;
but in a few instances I have combined the results of neighboring stations into a single
mean. I forego any detailed description of the various methods by which the mate-
rial, even when accurate, had to be treated in order to obtain the best annual means,
presumably referred to a uniform standard. The more important sources are those
already cited.

The following table shows the observed annual deviations formed from my own
work. But in addition to these I have included observations, often fragmentary,
made at British colonial stations, and published in the British meteorological reports :

Tasue II.

Mean Annual Departures of Temperature at Stations or im Regions.
(eae le etopel (eee FRE (et
U.S. | Habana ton | tine Bombay Madras Calcutta Ceylon Manila (yi, Batavia Apia | Mean
| Fahr. | ©. Fahr. | C. Fahr. | Fahr. | Fahr. | Fahr. C. Fahr. ¢. C. C.
S| = == a ==
1S q/le \e=t-O! Sie eee | +0.5 | +0.3 | — 0.5 +0.18
NOM | cee eters = (708 — 04 —0.12
(3 || SB) See | <7 |) =08 = 02 —0.03
74 | +02 | —0.1 13 | =o || =OR |) ele | |) ee = Oi —0.28
1875 | —0.3 | +0.1 Se | On | Oe. Wee || Gee || ee — 02 —0.04
76 | +02 | —0.3 =08} || 402 = 02 —0.01
77 | +04 | —0.1 +0.7 | +0.6 + 0.4 +0.25
78 | +0.3 | +01 | 2015) | 1-12 + 12 +0.31
79 | +02 | —02 | Hi) || OF = iF —0.08
1880 | —0.1 | +0.2 =O || on | =io | 2 || a | — 0.6 —0.10
81 | +06 | +0.1 +-0.4 | +03 ss a= 1012 +0.14
82 | +0.5 | +04 i —0.5 OO | OO | 02) 2 — 04 0.02
g3 | +0.6° | +-0.4 | +0.2 | +0.24 | —o8 | —0.3 —0.2 =) 02 —0.07
84/ +04 | 0.0 | —0.3 | +0.25|—08 | —0.7 —0.6 = (8 —0.23
1885 | 0.0 | —0.5 | +06 | —0.02 | —04 | —02 —0.1 = Ol —0.08
86 | —1.0 | —02 | 40.7 | +016] —01 | —05 —0.2 + 0.2 —0.08
87 | —0.2 0.0 | —04 | +0.38 | —0.9 | —04 =) | = 0.5 —0.14
88 | —0.5 | +0.2 | +06 | +064] +05 | —0.2 40.1 SE (es |) SE |) Seen
89 | +0.2 | +02 | +09 | —022] 0.0 0.0 +0.6 | S508) |) cece +0.22
is90 | +0.9 | +0.1 | —0.6 | —0.29 =02 = 04 | —0.21 |) —007
91 | —0.2 0.0 | +02 | +0.08 0.0 + 0.5 | —0.24 | —0.04
P| Se |) S04 | =O |) Oa +0.1 6 (MU |) OS |) —Oee
AB | OB |) SUN ae) |) ae: —0.2 05) |) — 0162) 0185
94) —0.3 | —0.2 | —0.8 | —0.2 —0.2 | — 0.2 | —0.24 | —0.20
1995) || =O |p =0'0 1) 02) | -EOrG —0.1 | —0.09
96| +04 | 00 | +04 | 411 0.0 | +0.19
97 | #01 | +02] -+03 | —o2 +0.6 | +0.22
98 | —0.1 | —0.2 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.00
a) | OL] ENS |) oo —— —0.2 +0.02
1900 | +0.5 | +0.1 | +0.5 +0.27
01 | —0.9 | —0.4 +0.1 40.14
02 | —0.2 +0.1 Out +0.12
O3i| 0% || 0.) | | ae | | |e 0.00
04) 20167 ||) eee a a) Sa ae | eee —0.08
sy 8.1 5.5 4.6 8.5 8.8 4.1 ACh |) MALS Pelle 120i eS eee
eee 024! 0.18 | 026) 032) 028 0.21 0.21 0.23 OMORI is wOBO4 |e
| |
w 3 4 3 Ne ne 4 | 2 4 4 3 any ale ke |e

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 337

: 5 4 :
The following example of the computation of the fluctuation from the annual
departures at Kingston, Jamaica, will make the process clear :

apis : 1 : =
Coefficient of Sunspot Fluctuation at Kingston, Jamaica.

Mean
Years Pooper: Deviation adr bar Sa Xb Xa yp Sab
~ = 5
1881 79.0 +0.2 —0.1 +0.2 —3.4 —0.9 2.78 3.23 —0.6
82 78.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 43.1 +147 279 3.07 —06
83 79.0 +0.2 —0.2 0.0 —2.7 —2.4 2.95 2.98 +0.3
84 78.5 08 +0.3 +0.2
; = {Sr 52 9°80 eos
1885 79.4 +0.6 —0.2 —0.5 ta be hg Pe) bis
86 79.5 +0.7 +0.1 Snr
87 78.4 —0.4 —0.2 Haye) |
88 79.4 +0.6 +05 | —02 Normal Equations :
89 79.7 +0.9 +0.9 +0.2
p 8.522—0.9 y— 3.0z=+42.1
1890 78.2 —0.6 —0.4 —0.4 —0.9 x+9.28y— 1.6z——2.0
91 79.0 +0.2 0.0 +0.2 —3.0 z—1.6 y+18.0z2z=—0.4
92 78.1 Sty +0.2 —0.6 7
93 77.9 —0.9 +0.7 —0.5
94 78.0 —0.8 +0.8 SN | ee
1895 78.6 —0.2 +0.2 91 |
96 79.2 40.4 —0.2 Se | ed fer ice
97 79.1 +0.3 0.0 —0.3 Result y = — 0.20
1898 78.2 —0.6 —0.3 +0.5 i ap Ca
Mean 78.8 y=—04 42.1 7= oe

In addition to the observations collected by myself for this work, I have made
use of those of Képpen cited in the paper already referred to. This course was
adopted because it did not seem necessary to repeat Képpen’s work, even were the
means of doing so available, which was not the case for the earlier observations. So
far as I could infer from an examination of his work, and its comparison with pub-
lished records, it is practically complete for all our present purposes. It is possible
that there is a slight duplication of some of the observations in the work of Koppen
and of myself, arising from the fact that his series and mine in a few cases overlap.
But these cases are too few to be important, and only amount to assigning double their
proper weight to the few duplicated records.

The results for « and y, with the numbers necessary for their final combination,
are shown in Table III. ‘The first column gives the place, or in a few cases the region,
in which the observations were made. Down to Barbadoes the temperatures were
those worked up by myself. The nine following are the regions within which the
deviations were given and discussed by K6ppen.

The value of x and y are in all cases expressed in degrees Centigrade, although the
original deviations were often expressed in degrees of the Fahrenheit scale.

338 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TasieE IIT.
Coefficients Expressing Observed Fluctuations of Temperature through the Sunspot Periods
at Various Places or in Various Regions in the Form: Ar = x cos v + y sin v.

Place Period of Obs. & UT] W pie w cos @
Caleutta 1868-85 +0.22 —0.06 9 0.48 6 1.0
Ceylon 1881-01 +0.23 +-0.02 10 0.32 10 4.0
Bombay 1846-01 40.09 —0.01 28 0.37 25 1.0
Madras 1861-9 +0.14 +0.05 15 0.28 16 1.0
Manila 1883-02 +0.20 0.00 10 0.08 12 1.0
Seutari 1865-86 —0.14 —0.09 ll 1.53 3 0.9
Malacea, ete. 1893-03 +0.17 —().23 5 0.30 5 1.0
Apia 1890-04 +0.30 +0.07 1). |) eee 15 1.0
Mauritius 1885-96 —0.12 +0.11 6. 0.22 9 1.0
Natal 1872-86 +0.25 —0.08 7 1.90 1 0.9
Batavia 1866-00 +0.27 —0.08 17 0.23 20 1.0
Australia 1883-01 +0.17 —0.05 9 0.24 13 0.8
Malta 1865-81 +0.06 —0.02 9 0.26 11 OS
Gibraltar 1854-82 —0.07 —0.31 12 1.20 a 0.8
Washington 1871-04 +0.14 -++0.09 17 1.25 4 0.8
Key West 1871-04 —0.21 +0.01 17 0.71 8 0.9
St. Louis 1871-04 +0.28 +0.16 17 1.70 3 0.8
Galveston 1871-04 —0.06 +0.07 17 0.76 8 0.9
San Diego 1871-04 +0.17 —0.09 17 1.01 5 0.9
Bermuda 1856-79 —0.28 —0.29 7 0.78 2 0.9
Havana 1874-03 0.00 +0.06 15 0.07 10 0.9
Kingston 1881-98 +0.13 —0.12 9 0.31 10 0.9
Barbadoes 1865-82 +0.14 —0.43 9 2.07 I 0.9
S. Africa 1842-67 +0.02 —0.08 12 0.13 20 0.8
Trop. America 1824-69 +-0.16 —0:07, 22, 0.24 25 1.0
S. U. States 1823-59 —0.04 +0.14 18 0.67 9 0.8
Farthest India 1820-62 +0.29 —0.08 21 O17 25 1.0
India & Sunda 1840-58 +0.04 —0.20 9 0.14 10 1.0
China-——Japan 1841-55 +0.29 +0.53 8 0.26 10 0.7
Temp. 8. Amer. 1843-60 —0.06 —0.19 9 0.11 15 0.8
Australia 1841-70 -+0.08 0.00 15 0.13 20 0.8
Mediterranean 1820-70 +0.11 —0.02 26 0.20 25 0.7

|
|
|
|
|
|

Column JW gives approximately the integral part of the coefficient aa or bb. In
the case of observations extending through any integral number of periods these two
values would be the same. Practically they are always so nearly the same, approx-
imately half the number of years, that it was unnecessary to make any distinction
between them. In other words, the values of « and y may be regarded as always
of equal weight.

Were the accidental fluctuations at the several stations equal in amount, W would
be the weight to assign to each result. But, as a matter of course, different points and
different regions are subject to different mean fluctuations. The mean of the squares
of these fluctuations is shown in the column >. In a rigorous treatment by the
method of least squares the value of = should be derived from the residuals left when
the concluded values of the unknown quantities are substituted in the equation of
condition. But, for obvious reasons, we should not find the residuals from each spe-
cial solution, but by substituting the final values of the unknowns derived from the
combination of all the data. Even then the weight might frequently be illusory,

eee

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 339

through a purely fortuitous accordance of the observations with the final results.
Actually, therefore, I have deemed it best to use for =’ simply the mean square of the
actually observed deviations from the normal.

The weights to be assigned will then be proportional to W+*S*. In order to
express them in convenient units I have put approximately for the weight w = W + 3°.
This formula has not howeyer been without some modifications as will be seen by the
columns W, >’, and w. Owing to the possibility of systematic errors at any one station
the stations which by the formulae would be entitled to great weight have their weights
slightly diminished, and no station is allowed a greater weight than 25.

It was found by Képpen that the fluctuation was greatest in the tropics, and
diminished in either direction as the latitude increased. This is what we should expect.
We may therefore plausibly suppose its amount at any place to be proportional to the
insolation, or to the cosine of the latitude. The value of this cosine to a single place
of decimals is given in the last line of the table.

It now remains from all the numbers of this table to derive the most probable
values of « and y for the equatorial regions. The values given are those derived from
observation in each region, without correction for latitude. Putting «, and y, for the
values at the equator we form from each given « and y an equation of condition in the

form
x, cosh = x
y, cosd = y
The final values are
Swe cos d

x, = =—— 3
0 Sw cos? d
with a corresponding expression for y.
We find, from the numbers of the table,

Ywe cos = + 37.5 a 0.13

Lwy cosp=— 6.2 Y) = — 0.02

rw cos d= 298 = 0.13
c aye

Hence, for the sun-spot fluctuation :
Ar = 0°.13 cos pt — 0°.02 sin wt = 0°.13 cos (ut + 9°)

The expression has been derived without any reference to the actual epochs of
the solar spottedness. All that we have done is to assume a period of 11.15 years in
the temperature, and determine what constants of a harmonic fluctuation in this
period will best represent the observations. It now remains to compare the epochs
of temperature thus derived with those of the spots. ‘This is done in Table IV. In

340 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

studying this table it must be noted that the given epochs are not those derived indi-
vidually from the observations in each case, but are the results of the general formulae
which best represent all the observations. Consequently, the difference between the
sunspot epochs and the temperature epochs as derived are constant in each of the
respective phases of maxima and minima. :

TABLE IV.

Comparison of Epochs of Temperature and Sun-spots.

Max. Temp. Min. © Spots A Min. Temp. Max. © Spots A
y y wi y. y. y

1844.3 44.6 —0.3 1849.9 49.3 +0.6
1855.4 55.8 —0.4 1861.0 60.4 +0.6
1866.6 66.9 —0.3 1872.1 71.5 +0.6
1877.7 78.0 —0.3 1883.3 82.6 +0.7
1888.8 89.2 —0.4 1894.5 93.8 +0.7
1900.0 00.3 —0.3 1905.6 04.9 +0.7

It will be seen that, in the general mean of all the epochs, the temperature epoch
follows the spot epoch, the comparisons of each phase being

ME
Maximum temperature — minimum sunspots — 0:33
Minimum temperature — maximum sunspots + 0.65
Mean of all the comparisons + 0.16

The difference between the comparisons of the two phases arises from the fact
that, by the method adopted, the intervals between the maxima and minima of tem-
peratures necessarily come out equal, while those between the maxima and minima
of sunspots are unequal.

The general conclusion is that the fluctuations of temperature follow very closely
those of the sunspots, according to the law first clearly brought out by Képpen. The
slight lagging of 0°.16, or two months, is too small to be regarded as the result of any-
thing but accidental deviations, being less than the probable error of its amount.

Very remarkable is the fact that the actual fluctuation is less than half that
found by Képpen. In order to show whether, when treated by the more rigorous
method, the deviations of temperature used by him would give a different result from
mine, we have only to find the general result of his data taken separately. This we
do by deriving the mean values of « and y from his data alone, the individual results

of which are found in the last nine lines of the table. These give
a = 0°.13

y = — 0°.05

Accidentally, the principal coefficient of the fluctuation is practically the same

whether derived from his observations or from the others.

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 341

Although the reality of this 11-year fluctuation seems to be placed beyond serious
doubt, the amplitude being several times its probable error, its amount is too small to
produce any important direct effect upon meteorological phenomena.

§9. Study of Irregular Fluctuations of the Mean Annual Temperature.

The next question before us is whether, after correcting the annual departures of
temperature for the sun-spot inequality, indications can be found of fluctuations in the
general temperature other than those arising from accidental deviations. In this
study we apply the statistical method developed in Chapter IT, § 4, preceding. The
data are shown in Table V, which is formed from Table II by reducing to the centi-

TABLE V.

Reduced Annual Deviations of Temperature at Stations or in Regions in Degrees C.

ez | |
Year | U.S. | Habana ee oe Bombay Madras Caleutta) Ceylon | Manila Sarre Batavia Apia | India
negat |elGisoa| eee ee ale eos mae Ee) cee || NY [IT pce Spi
7a AEG | Ree Re Jahan) | =i |) || Sel ee |) eS 027 eee 00
Rane oO |e ed |) che JLNB. || Sei |) Sortie | Cera Tuer ealed (ie Sie | Pe lip |) 2 —.04
eau] aeTgh|| Saupe Vda G5 ||) Sal i Re | Ta Seem | eee eta =20.67n\ ase —.40
TG || Sl) SLATE ee ite et emai a. | 245 |e =e
Gul OOu |e —.400)|) ee SIN ONIN OO er oOhie. | toa |) 2 —0.30 +.01
MONE Ora| 288 |e Seely 4) se Gay. |) eas || eae), |) SRE) | ie 40.27 +.16
mine Gal = =.08 | oa... mre O Wace 18 etn Gia le ed8n lt Makes |) ee | ee +1.08 | _ | +.42
7) PSE |] POT eS set yin | Mendivi| Saari 4 hse S ual | ee (eg On —0.27 | ...... —.20
|
1880 | —10 | +20 | iinet on ——6oe ack) i ee —2)
81-| +.37 Scag || super | ee |) tear || eh || Se ee a El eee +.16
82 | +.42 ETO M PeEO OTe | 1G al mepeio ieee a | ig.) Mace | ee = (ey || eae +..02
83 | +.43 ni || sane || Bye | Sie | 0.0 ee —21
84 | +.30 —10 | +035 —.30— 00% |: 0200) As —.32
| j
1885 | +.04 +34 | +002 | —.16 | +14 | —0.06 |... —.05
86 | —.63 seey || EO} |) ak: +.07 | +017 | 2 || aig
S719 —29 | +029 | —59 i) || iy || ee Sr
88 | —43 +17 | +051 | +.17 Gye | 027 |) —.05
89 | —.02 2651 || Sse || aie +28 | +068 | ...... —.05
1890 | +.42 E38. | S037"|\ = 288 +.22 | —048 | —29 | —24
oi, | +.09 | +007 | —11 Sa || SEG) || Ss |) ail
92 | —.34 —.34 | —0.65 | +.26 — 924 | 40.16 | —.26 | -++.09
93 | —.09 ee 30n 119) | —.29 +11 | —0.39 | —51 | —23
94 | —.07 =o || oe |) 2B} A || £007 |= a0 || }-.07
1895 | —.49 Sean || 24yyat | Seam 4.01 | +021 | —21 | +.05
96 | +.25 4.25 | 41.15 | +.65 —25 | +0.65 | —26 | +.42
97 | +.08 EET all — 02) — 18 +.17
98 | —.19 —39 | —049 | +.31 +.20
Si): || SS TAT Nis ee pee +.07 —04
1900 | +.18 | —.02 | ........ +.08 +.31
01 | —59 | emt +.01 +47
02 | —.12 I eae | +.28 4.28
03 —.35 — Pe) Se a a | a a | a pe tee
(ie ay | cca Selle) ey eR a a recelie |reeeeerny eco :
Wtw| 3 4 3 3 Ciel | ie 2 4 4 4

A, P.S.—XXI. UU. 14, 1, 708.

342 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

grade scale and correcting the departures for the sun-spot fluctuation. They are given
in some cases for the individual stations, and in others for entire regions. The column
“India” is the weighted mean of the four Indian stations alone, which has been
separately formed for a reason which will hereafter be shown.

In combining the departures into a general mean it is advisable to assign different
weights to different stations, on account of the diversity of the mean fluctuation, as
shown in the several columns. If we could regard each departure as independent of
all the others, and free from any source of systematic error, the weights would be pro-
portional to the inverse square of the mean fluctuations, as given in each column.
But this course would result in giving too great a relative weight to the stations of
small fluctuation. Actually, in the first combination, the weights used are those at
the bottom of the several columns.

TasLe VI. :
Treatment of Annual Departures.
Year at ee A© a W | weer Swev* t UE | ace Sw?
=| =| — —_—_|—__|_____|— — ——|
i871 | +0618.) +019 | —012-| +030 | 13 1520 lee (O27 +0.31 8 5.76 | 4.16
ie |) One = |) 05k} +0.01 16 0.0 | 2.0 Sui | ilil 0.01 0.19
73 —0.03 +0.03 —0.09 +0.06 16 09 | 3.2 +012 | 11 1.69 1.35
ie |) eR —0.23 —0.03 = || BH) || Se | 7.4 —0.20 | 15 9.00 3.94
|

1875 —0.04 | —0.04 40.04 —0.08 | 20 2.6 1.2 —0.08 | 15 1.44 0.70
76 —0.01 —0.05 Sei) |) Osta 20 4.8 4.6 —0.15 | 15 4.84 2.74
77 +0.25 +0.24 +0.13 +0.12 | 20 5.8 3.8 +011 | 15 |~ 256 3.26
78 +0.31 +0.24 +0.12 +0.19 | 20 14.4 8.1 +0.12 15 2.89 5.59
79 —0.08 —0.05 +0.07 —0.15 | 20 9.0 6.2 —0.12 15 | 3.61 1.99
1880 —0.10 —0.06 0.00 | —0.10 | 20 4.0 2.7 —0.06 | 15 0.81 | 1.73
81 +0.14 +0.16 Sany |) SENET || 27 32.1 48 +0.23 18 | 1681 | 3.21
82 +0.02 +£0.08 SN || Snes |) By 14.3 65 +0.20 18 | 14.44 6.40
83 —0.07 0.02 —0.13 +0.06 | 34 4.2 9.8 40.15 | 25 | 1444 | 858
84 —0.23 —0.16 =|) Os} |) 8A 19.5 9.8 —0.06 25 | 1.96 | 8.00
1885 —0.08 | —0.07 | —0.04 || —0.04 | 34 1.8 5.1 —0.03 | 25 0.49 4.51
86 —0.08 —0.07 0.03 —0.11 32 12.4 7.1 Si ny) GIs Ary
87 —0.14 —0.10 +0.09 | —023 | 32 54.2 10.1 —0.19 | 25 | 22.09 | 6.59
88 0.20 | +0.24 +0.13 +0.07 | 32 5.0 7.9 +0.11 25 7.29 7.31
89 +0.22 +0.26 +0.12 +0.10 | 32 10.2 7.9 +0.14 | 25 12.25 7.09
1890 —0.07 —0.05 +0.08 | —0.15 | 35 27.6 8.7 =H Sma es 12.96 | 7.88
91 | —0.04 —0.04 +0.01 —0.05 31 24a 1.6 —0.05 | 28 100 | 1.48
92 —0.23 —0.26 —0.06 hig |) 4s 27.8 10.1 —0.20 | 28 | 31.36 9.26
93 —0.35 | —0.35 Sil || Oe || Bil 55.4 | 20.0 —0.24 | 28 | 4624 | 19.40
94 —0.20 —0.21 Swi || SOW 31 4.7 1.2 —0.08 | 28 5.76 1.34
1895 —0.09 —0.09 —0.11 | +0.02 31 0.4 7.2 -+-0.02 | 28 | 0.16 7.10
96 +9.19 +0.17 —0.05 +0.24 | 31 55.4 19.2 +0.22 | 28 | 36.00 | 17.00
97 +0.22 +0.22 +0.02 | +020 | 31 48.1 10.7 40.20 | 28 | 31.36 8.66
98 0.00 —0.03 +0.09 —0.09 | 3l 7.8 7.0 —0.12 28 12.25 | 6.67
99 | +0.02 —0.01 +0.13 —0.11 | 25 7.6 4.6 —0.14 22 7.29 | 4.27
1900 40.27 +0.25 +0.12 | +0.15 25 14.1 9.4 +0.13 22 7.29 | 7.25
01 +0.14 +0.08 +0.09 | +0.05. | 24 1.4 19.3 —0.01 21 0.09 12.63
02 +0.12 +0.13 40.02 EOS | ae7 2.9 3.3 +0.11 18 3.61 3.67
03 0.00 0.00 —0.05 +0.05 10 0.3 4.3 +-0.05 10 0.25 4.49
1904 —0.08 —0.08 —0.11 +0.03 | 6 0.0 0.9 +0.03 | 6 0.01 0.85

The process of applying the criterion for correlation is shown in Table VI. To

ee a EEE COON COO COE EE

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 343

illustrate the method as fully as possible, two combinations of the data have been
made. In the first the four Indian stations are treated as independent, in the second
their mean is used as a single region. The second and third columns show the general
mean departures of temperature, uncorrected for the sun spot fluctuations, as formed
from the departures in Table II. In the first of these the four Indian stations are
treated as if they were independent; in the second their combined mean is used, as
found from the last column of Table V.

Ao is the sun-spot fluctuation. Subtracting it from the two columns of means
we have a world-departure of temperature, found in the columns 7’ and 7, according
to the use of the Indian stations. Following each of these is its weight, which is the
sum of the weights of the individual departures.

Fixing our attention on these world-departures we note that their general mean
value is about + 0°.13, and that in only 7 of the 34 years does it rise to 0°.2. If we
could regard these departures as actual means for the entire globe, they would indi-
cate corresponding fluctuations in the sun’s radiation. But, before we can draw any
conclusion to this effect, we must determine whether the departures exceed in their
general mean the values to be expected from the accidental deviations in the separate
regions.

As the statistical method has been set forth, the sum of the squares of the general
deviations 7 are derived from any unbroken series of observations at a number 7 of
stations extending through a number ¢ of years. In substance, the method consists in
subtracting from the sum of the squares of the products Wz the portions of the
squares which would be due to the accidental deviations, or Sw*v*. The remainder
SW? — Sw*2?, which we have called A, is proportional to the sum of the squares of
the deviations for the whole globe, as shown by the equations (16) and (17). We
might subtract for each unbroken series, not the squares of the actual regional devia-
tions v, but the product of the mean values of v by 7. The final result would
obviously be the same in either case.

We now sum the columns Wr” and w’v” to find the value of A, dividing the time
into convenient terms of four or five years as follows :

2 2 a)
Term Wr" we A Ww
1871-74 41.1 18.3 4 22.8 1081
1875-79 36.6 23.9 4+ 12.7 2000
1880-84 74.1 33.6 4 40.5 4170
1885-89 83.6 38.1 4 455 5252
1890-94 117.9 - 41.6 + 763 5069
1895-99 119.3 48.7 4+ 70.6 4469
1900-04 18.7 37.2 — 18.5 1626

Sum 491.3 241.4 249.9 23667

b44 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.
The weight assigned to each station and region being taken as constant we have

SS. oe = pel spe ene Seni
2; jw = TW, ap RAD a + ru

non

r being, in each ease, the number of years through which the observations extend.
To find the mean cosmical fluctuation indicated we have, for use in (17)

lw” — rw? = 20766
Meani7=—i
-*. Mean 7. —s- Oot:

This is the mean general fluctuation of temperature of the earth from year to year
which is indicated by the data of observation.

But, before we accept this as really cosmical, we must find whether it affects all
the stations, or whether the correlation exists only between stations so situated that
they may be subject to like departures of temperature through the great movements
of the air from one region to another.

The four Indian stations are especially in close proximity; we shall therefore
discuss their departure by themselves, to decide whether they show any well-marked
correlation. In doing this it will be unnecessary to make any distinction of weights.
We shall therefore put w= 1 in each case, which will make W identical with the
number of stations. Of course we must then use for 7 the unweighted means, which
are slightly different from those of Table V. Starting with 1871, we find these to be
7 = + 0°.29, + 0°.06, + 0°.02, ete., instead of + 0°.31, 0°.00, — 0°.04, ete. For use
in the equation (9) the values of n7* are .252, .011, .001, ete. These we sum by periods
during which the number of stations remains unchanged. Then we sum the individual
departures in the same way, and divide each annual sum by n. We have for 1871,
Su = .42? 4 .32? 4 .12? = 0.293. This gives, for 1871, Sv? + n = .098, in using which
two decimals are amply sufficient. Carrying through this computation for each year

and summing by periods, we find the following results :

Period n n?dr? dv? A
1871-80 3 4.7 1.0 3.7
1881-85 1 3.1 1.2 1.9
1886-90 3 2 1.0 1.4
1891-01 2 2. ies) 0.5

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 345

The positive correlation shown by A is so clearly marked as to leave no doubt, a result
which accords with what we might anticipate from the geographical proximity of the
stations.

We next investigate the result when the four Indian stations are combined into a
single mean, which is found in the last column of Table V. The general world-de-
parture then found is shown in column 7+ of Table VI, and the computation of the two
series whose difference shows the correlation is shown in the last two columns of the
table. Summing by terms as before, we have the following numbers :

Tern Wee wy A Ww
1871-74 16.4 | Sen ie i 6s 531
1875-79 15.3 | 123i On| 1125
1880-84 48.5 27.9 | + 206 2123
1885-89 48.4 32.7 | SoG | 3125
1890-94 97.3 39.4 abS.08. | || 3920
1895-99 - ANG! 43.7 4+ 434 | 3620
1900-04 11.2 28.8 a7. | 1385
Sun a 324.2 : 196.3 | 127.9 | 15829

We thus have for the entire period of investigation
(= AES)
The value of the general fluctuation is thus reduced to
7, = + 0°.07

a quantity not greater than its probable error.

But we still cannot assume that all the regions are so distant from each other as
to be unaffected through an entire year by any common terrestrial cause, especially
the winds. Considering first the proximity of the stations, we notice that Havana
and Kingston may be regarded as in the same region with each other, and with the
United States. Moreover, the Southeastern Asiatic and Australian stations are so
linked in a geographical series that we cannot regard each as necessarily independent
of that next to it. On the other hand North America, South America, Apia and the
Asiatic-Australian series form four sets which we cannot deem to be correlated except
through the action of a cosmical cause, presumably fluctuations of the sun’s radiation,
which would affect all the stations, how widely soever separated. We therefore inquire

whether the correlation we have found is or is not quite general for the earth by

correlating the stations in pairs by the method shown in $5. Beginning with the
widely separated stations we correlate the three North American regions, United

346 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

States, Havana and Kingston with the distant ones, shown in the following table with
the result :

Correlation Between North American and Distant Regions, Taken Two by Two.

UES: Havana Kingston

4A ww) tA wu'r ZA wu'r
Argentina +2.6 243 +2.6 300 +11.8 162
Apia —4.3 135 —2.8 168 + 3.5 81
Manila +1.4 240 | +03 320 + 5.4 192
India —0.8 384 —6.0 464 + 2.3 216
Batavia —1.6 90 —0.4 108 + 3.5 54
Australia —2.1 171 | —1.9 228 + 1.2 144

Sum 48 1263 | —82 | 1588 sp7-7 | NS4ou

The correlation between Argentina and distant regions is as follows :

Argentina: Apia 42A = + 3.6 wu'r = 81
“ Manila ce — 4.6 mee 192

« India cs + 4,2 GW 324

ce Batavia “ I O(N) “ 81

& Australia ob — 2.6 G 144
Sum Pane $22

We have finally the correlation between Apia and the Indo-Australian regions.

Apia: Manila 423A = + 2:6 ww'r = 156
“ India “ ES 66 156
“ Batavia & JE I) “ 33
«Australia as — 0.3 Os

Sum ate Oe 453

The curious synchronism between the annual departures of Kingston and all the
most distant stations, especially Argentina, may well excite notice. But I do not con-
ceive that we can attribute it to anything but chance coincidence.

We next take the pairs between which we should expect correlation on account
of their proximity. A detailed exhibit of the results does not seem necessary. The
summation of ww'vv' gives:

United States: Havana—Kingston 3 pairs A=+ 15.7
Indo-Australian series 6 pairs A= + 20.3

The complete summation of the values of A gives 62°.3, in fair agreement with
that derived from the combination of the squares of the deviations.
It seems therefore that, of the 36 pairs of regions, 9 which were in proximity

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 347

contribute more than half to the making up A, the correlation number. Of these 9,
the two extremes, India-Australia and Manila-Australia, are so distant from each other
that they should be included in the class not subject to any common cause of change of
temperature. Their contributions to $A are:

India-Australia 4A = — 3.0 wun = 228
Manila-A ustralia ne «= 298
Sum = Shy 456

We now have the following equations for the mean value of that portion of the
fluctuations of mean annual temperature which we may attribute to a general cause
affecting the whole earth :

United States and dist. points 6 pairs 12637,7 = — 4.8
Havana net AL & Gis a 1588 St
Kingston OES ath Gmc 849 + 27.7
Argentina ee ce « Gy ce 822 aby
Apia co “ 4 « 453 Je ha
Australia Be oe Pe Oe 456 — oil

Total 29 543172 4 22.6

This gives 4
T, = .0042

7, = + 0.065 ©,

This fluctuation, if regarded as real, is too minute to produce any important mete-
orological effect. That it may well arise from the accidental deviations is shown by
the fact that, had Kingston been omitted, 7,7 would have come out negative, indicating
a tendency toward an equalization of the general temperature of the globe from year
to year. But there is nothing to justify us in rejecting Kingston for this reason,
though a careful analysis might show that we have given it greater relative weight
than it is entitled to. The same remark would, however, apply to Havana, the
result of which is markedly in the opposite direction from that of Kingston.

§ 10. Time Correlations in Annual World Temperatures.

Returning to Table VI, it is noticeable that the larger outstanding departures 7
do not seem to be scattered at random, but are rather collected in groups of like alge-
braic sign, as if they were the result of a fluctuation having a period of several years.
It would be easy to represent them by the ordinates of a sinuous curve, but a conclu-
sion based on this method would be altogether unreliable. We shall therefore apply
the method of time correlation, developed in § 6, which will bring out with numerical
exactness any period that may exist, or any periodic tendency. The numerical process
is shown in the following lines, the numbers of which are formed as follows: Starting

348 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAI TEMPERATURES.

with the departure for 1871, 0.31, which, for our present purpose we call a), we form
its square, and also its product by the following departures in the order of time to any
extent to which we may suspect a correlation. In the present case we have considered
it sufficient to form the products through terms of nine years. The nine consecutive
products formed by multiplying 0.31 by 7 for the years 1871 to 1880 are written in
the first line of the following table.

Next we take the year 1872, form the square of its departure, and the products by
the departure for the nine years following. These form the second line of the table.
We repeat the process for 1873 and subsequent years to the end of the series and

“write the results in consecutive lines with each initial year of the series. Of course the
number of years available will fall off by one for each line in which the initial year is
greater than 1895. ‘The series terminating with 1904, we have eight products for 1896,
seven for 1887, ete.

TasLe VII.

Time Correlation Among Annual Temperatures.

|
Initial 2 ‘ i
year | 4 Ay, Aya, Aya, aya, aoa, aya, ant, ya aya,
1871 096 -+.003 +.037 —.062 4.037
72 .000 +.001 —.002 —.001 —.001
73 014 —.024 —.010 —.018 —.007
74 .040 +.016 -+.030 =1022 —.046
1875 .006 +.012 | —.009 —.010 | —.016
76 022 —.016 | —.018 +.018 —.022
77 012 +.013 | —.013 —.007 —.007
78 014 —.014 | —.007 +.028 —.004
79 014 +.007 —.028 —.024 +.012
1880 004 | —.014 —.012 —.009 +.011
81 053 +.046 | +.034 | —.014 +.025
82 040 +.030 —.012 —.006 -+.028
83 023 —.009 —.005 —.015 —.020
84 004 | +.002 +.006 +.011 +.003
1885 001 | +.003 | -+.006 —.003 +.006
86 010 | +.019 | —.011 —.014 +.024
87 .036 —.021 | —.027 +.025 +.015 |
88 012 +.015 —.014 —.006 +.002
89 .020 —.018 | —.007 —.028 +.031
1890 017 | +.007 | -+.026 | --.031 —.026
91 003 | +.010 |. +.012 +.004 +.006
92 040 | +.048 +.016 —.004 +.028
93 .058 +.019 | —.005 —.053 —.031
94 .006 | —.002 | —.018 —.016 -++.001
1895 | .000 | +.004 | +.004 —.002 +.002
96 048 +.044 | —.026 —.031 +.011
97 040 | —.024 | —.098 +.026 -+-.006
98 | 014 | -+.017 —.016 +.001 | —.013 | —.006 | —.004 | wou. |
99 020 —.018 | +.001 i010) | i ==l007 75] \ ==l0085) |e ee ee ees
1900 | 017 | —.001 4.014 -+-.007
01 | .000 | —.001 —.001 .000
02 012 | +.006 | +.003 | ..........
03 008% 7|! 002)" ||" ees
04 [egeOOD) 3) ‘p22 Sl etc
bY 700 | +.162 | —.080 ++.019

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 349

It is to the summation found at the bottom of this table that our attention will
be especially directed. It must be admitted that the periodicity among the numbers
seems to be very well marked, the apparent period being about six years. This is so
nearly one-half that of the sun-spot period that, if the result is not purely fortuitous,
we may well regard this as an actual period.

Assuming the correlation to be real, the fact brought out may be found by
dividing the first sum [a,"] into each of the sums following. This is done in Table
IX. The second column of the table gives the values of [ajay], [aa], ---, [aa,],
which are the sums = just found. The third column gives the quotients [a,a,]+[ayay].
Accepting them as real, the result may be expressed as, follows: Whatever the mean
annual world departure in any one year, we have had since 1871, as a mean rule, a
departure in the same direction of 0.23 of its amount the year following. In the third
year following we have had a departure in the opposite direction of 0.30, of its initial
amount; in the fourth year of 0.21; in the sixth year a departure, now in the original
direction, of 0.16; and in the ninth a departure in the opposite direction, of 0.40 of
the initial departure.

To estimate the probability that this periodicity is real we must estimate the
probable accumulated amount of the purely fortuitous deviations. We have for this
purpose

Standard annual deviation = + 0.14

The probable mean value of a product of two such deviations will depend upon
the law of statistical distribution. Our best result will be derived not by assuming
the normal law of distribution, which may not be strictly applicable, but by taking
the indiscriminate average, without regard to sign, of the entire 261 products. We
thus find

General average aa = .0155

The average expected accumulations of 30 such sums, if fortuitous, will be about + .08.
This, then, is the expected average value of a non-systematic [aja;] (i = 1, 2, 3, etc.),
for the period 1871-1904. The actual average we see to be 0.13. The excess is no
greater than might well be the result of chance deviations. But the inference of its
reality is strengthened by the evident 6-year periodicity of the sums. On the other
hand, the existence of this period as an unbroken one is negatived by the fact that
during the last ten years of the series the epoch is practically reversed. The proof of
a permanent:period half that of the sun-spots therefore falls to the ground. If there
is any real periodicity the case is similar to that of the waves of the ocean when, after
a series of definite period, a new series sets in with the same period, but not a con-

tinuation of the first.
ASP S = XX VV. 14 1, 708.

350 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Taste VILLI.

Time Correlations Through Nine-year Terms.

Years 1871-1904 Years 1820-69
7 [a,a,] Quot. i [a,a,] Quot.
0 +0.700 -+1.00 0 +4.99 +1.00
1 +0.162 +0.23 1 +1.73 +0.34
2 —0.080 —0.11 2 +1.74 +0.35
3 —().209 —0.30 3 +1.09 +0.22
4 —0.147 —0.21 4 +0.29 +0.06
5 —0.031 —0.04 5 +0.42 +-0.08
6 +0.111 +0.16 6 +1.52 +0.30
7 +0.068 +0.10 7f —0.08 —0.02
8 +0.019 +0.03 8 —0.15 —0.03
9 —().278 —0.40 9 —0.63 —0.13

The reality of the periodicity can be established only by carrying the investi-
gation back through the years preceding 1871. I have done this with K6pping’s
table of annual departures already cited, after correction for the sun-spot inequality.
The result is found in the second part of Table IX, preceding. There is here not
only no periodicity, but, on the contrary, a tendency toward a persistence of the
departure in the same direction for as much as six years. The products are, in gen-
eral, several times larger than those for the modern period, showing wider accidental
deviations. We may attribute both this and the systematic character of the correla-
tion products to the imperfections of the older instruments and observations. But
this would not be likely to mask entirely a six-year periodicity, if any such existed.
We must, therefore, regard the seeming period as unreal, or at least open to serious
doubt, notwithstanding the plausibility of the statistical evidence in its favor.

CHAPTER IV.
Discussion OF MontrHty Departures.

Since the only period exceeding a month that we can assign a priori as probable,
that of the sun-spots, has already been investigated in the preceding chapter, the pur-
pose of the present chapter is to determine whether the monthly departures of world-
temperature show any systematic character not found in the results of the annual
departures. If this result were the only one aimed at, ideal simplicity and perfection
would require that we first correct the normal temperatures from which the departures
are computed for the fluctuations already derived from the annual means. In other
words, our normal temperature should include at least the sun-spot fluctuation. But

this has not been done. Consequently, the general departures 7), affecting all parts

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 351

of the world simultaneously, may be expected to reappear in the discussion and com-
parison of the monthly means. But it does not seem objectionable to allow this. We
have only to recall the fact in drawing conclusions from any systematic departures
that may be found.

The monthly mean departures which have been selected for discussion are partly
those of Dove, and partly those specially collected for the present work. Among the
latter are included those subsequently given in connection with the ten-day means.

$11. Discussion of Dove's Departures.

In the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1858 Dove gives a great number of
tables of observed temperatures at widely separated stations, which are in some points
similar in form to those required for the present work. Those best adapted to the
present purpose have therefore been used for material. ‘These are found on pp. 364,
ete., of the Memoirs. A certain number of regions were selected from Dove’s tables
so far apart that there seemed to be no possibility of a correlation of their monthly
temperatures, except from some cosmical cause. It was also necessary to prefer sta-
tions and regions where the temperature was least subject to rapid fluctuations, and
for reasons already mentioned, regions of low rather than of high latitude. The
regions thus selected were :

Eastern Asia; mean of Nagasaki and Pekin.

Southern Europe; mean of stations in southern Russia.

United States; mean of several stations in the southern portion.

Cape of Good Hope; one station only.

Hobartown ; one station only.

Madras; one station only.

‘In taking the means no distinction of weight was made between the different
regions or stations.

The mean deviations formed from Dove’s tables were tabulated and summed
separately for each year. ‘The observations at Hobartown terminated with September,
1848.

The results of the summation of the squares ofthe deviations for the several years
are shown in the following table.

Dove’s deviations are given in the Reaumer scale. For convenience these are
used without change in the table.

4

352 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Tasie IX.

Dove's Simultaneous Monthly Departures of Temperature from the Normal.

l
| E. Asia |S. Europe! U.S. Cape | Hobarton | Madras a) G

1845

Jan. SLD 1G +0.9 ili 40.4 0.0 +3.2 +0.53
Feb. +0.3 —25 =) —0.9 —0.4 —0.6 —49 —0.70
Mar. +0.5 —0.8 =o +0.2 +0.1 —0.8 —0.9 —0.15
April —0.1 0.0 +1.3 —0.3 +0.4 =) +1.0 +0.17
May +0.5 —1.6 —0.4 =i =0.4 —0.1 =D —0.35
June 40.7 +0.4 +0.2 —0.8 =i +0.6 +1.0 +0.17
July 0.0 +0.1 40.5 =). +0.8 +0.3 +1.6 +0.27
Aug. —0.6 —0.8 —0.2 S15 +0.2 —0.2 34. —0.57
Sept: =) 0.0 0.0 —0.3 . 40.9 +0.3 =. —0.02
Octane 0'5 0.0 —014 +0.3 +0.7 =07/ —0.6 —0.10
Noy. —0.6 oj —0.9 =o +0.2 —0.3 =i —0.12
Dec. —2.4 +1.0 as) =e +0.2 —0.6 —48 —0.80
1846

Jan. —0.6 Sy —0.3 —0.7 —0.2 —0.6 —0.12
Feb. —0.2 +13 —1.0 =o Sen Le, i —0.24
Mar. —0.8 Sane) |) alu —0.1 =05 +0.6 10.12
April —0.2 Sy) | SING = 007 +0.1 —0.2 —0.04
May =i) +0.9 +0.2 —0.6 +0.5 —0.9 —0.18
June =09) +15 —0.5 +0.1 -+0.1 +1.0 40.20
July —0.3 +1.2 == O07) +1.5 —0.4 ENS) +0.26
Aug. +0.5 +0.7 0.0 Sih +0.8 +1.3 +0.26
Sept. +0.9 +0.6 +0.1 +0.8 —0.2 aEoD, +0.44
Oct. +0.7 +09 —0.4 iL 40.3 +2.6 +0.52
Nov. —0.3 —0.2 +0.2 +0.2 +0.5 +0.4 +0.08 |
Dee. Lil =i +15 +1.1 +0.7 +3.3 +0.66
1847

Jan. +0.8 iil +0.6 +0.1 —0.2 JL +0.24
Feb. =03 —0.9 —0.5 ae —0.2 =O —0.14
Mar. —0.4 —0.6 lin 0.0 —0.4 | —2.5 —0.50
April 241i —0.7 40.5 —0.4 0.0 +0.5 +0.10
May —0.2 TLS —0.8 0.0 —0.8 0.0 0.00
June iS =i | =o =) Si =—4.4 —0.88
July +0.3 —02 —0.5 O17, +0.1 =i) —0.20
Aug. | +10 | 00 | —02 —0.8 +0.8 +0.8 +0.16
Sept. | —09 —0.9 —0.3 0.0 +0.6 a —0.30
Oct. 00 | —08 40.5 +1.0 —0.3 | sen 40.08
Nov. LO) |} NY +1.0 —0.6 eo eee 05 +0.10
Dee. +0.6 —0.4 —1.6 —1.0 40.5 —1.9 —0.38
1848

Jan. +0.2 —3.4 +0.9 -+0.8 —0.9 od —0.48
Feb. —0.8 +0.3 +0.3 —0.5 —0.9 Sie —0.32
Mar. 40.6 41.4 +0.1 +0.8 +0.3 +3.2 40.64
April sui |) Seg —0.5 —0.8 +1.6 12.4 +0.48
May | +08 | —0.3 +0.3 +0.4 —0.1 Se7L +0.22
Gam || Se a) Sen 0.0 0.0 +0.2 +2.3 +0.46
July =eqSaea| —04 | 0.0 +0.2 —04 +0.2 0.04
Aug. 0.0 | +03 —0.1 —0.4 —0.3 —056 | —0.10
Sept. +01 | 40.1 —0.7 0.0 —0.7 —12 —0.24 |
Oct. +07 | +04 | +405 04 oe ills) exces +2.0 +0.50 |
Noy. —0.3 —0.4 —1.8 +0.4 eh , =e —0.52
Decne eet: Tae — O's 43.5 =) | ee | +47 JET,
1849

Jan. +03 | —03 +1.4 +0.2 +1.6 40.40
Titles |) eT |) = a Sah +0.4 +2.) +0.52
Mar. +1.7 =013 +2.0 0.4 +3.8 40.95
April | +06 | —1.0 —0.2 0.0 —0.6 —0.15
May —0.6 0.0 +0.3 —0.4 —0.7 —0.17
June —05 | +16 +02 | +02 ee a te +1.5 +0.37
July —05 | —0.3 —0.7 +0:2:. «| eee eee ; —1.3 —0.32
Aug. +0.7 | —08 -+0.8 =O) | 22 6.) +0.6 +0.15
Sept. 40.7 +0.4 +0.4 E01) | Se ee | +1.6 +0.40 |

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Taste [X.— Continued.

Dove's Simultaneous Monthly Departures of Temperatures from the Normal.

1854

Feb. |

Mar.

FE. Asia

|

|

8. Europe

+04
—0.9
—1.6

U.S.

Cape

Hobarton

Madras

i.

—1.1

354 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG: TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Taste IX.—Concluded.

Dove's Simultaneous Monthly Departures of Temperature from the Normal.

| |
E. Asia |S. Europe U.S. Cape Hobarton | Madras Py T | =

1854
April +0.6 —0.2 —1.5 Sey) |) teres | +1.0 +0.1 +0.02 | 0.00
May +0.2 +0.4 +0.2 +11 | +0.8 +2.7 +0.54 +0.29
June +0.3 —0.8 0.2 +0.9 +1.3 +1.9 +0.38 +0.14
July —0.4 —0.6 +0.4 —0.3 -++0.6 —0.3 —0.06 0.00
Aug. —0.3 —0.9 —0.1 +0:1 meee | +0.7 —0.5 —0.10 +0.01
Sept. 0.0 —0.9 +0.7 =1=(soe a || see | +0.4 +0.5 +0.10 +0.01
Oct. +1.0 +0.1 +0.2 EAN |g eee +0.4 +1.5 +0.30 -+0.09
Novy. +0.9 —1.2 —1.3 +1.1 dais -+0.6 +0.1 -+0.02 0.00
Dec. | +26 42.2 —0.8 40.4 +0.3 44.7 0.94 0.88
1855 |
Jan, | -—1.8 —1.3 —0.1 +0.7 +0.2 —2.3 —0.46 +0.21
Feb. —1.5 —0.6 —2.5 +0.3 -++0.1 —4.2 —0.84 -++0.70
Mar. 0.0 +06 | —1.1 +0.7 —2.6 —2.4 —0.48 +0.23
April +0.4 —0.9 +1.3 —0.1 -+0.2 +0.9 +018 | +0.03
May —0.2 —08 | —0.2 +0.6 +1.3 +0.7 +0.14 +0.02
June +0.3 —0.6 —0.2 +0.3 +0.8 +0.6 +0.12 | -+0.01
July 0.0 0.0 +0.1 —0.4 soi 40.8 +0.20 +0.04
Aug. —1.7 +0.2 +0.3 0.0 +1.2 0.0 0.00 0.00
Sept. —0.2 +03 | +08 +0.1 +0.8 +1.8 +0.36 +0.13
Oct. +2.0 —14 +0.6 0.2 +1.4 +0.35 -+0.12
Noy. +0.2 +1.7 lent +0.2 +3.8 +0.95 -++0.90
Dee. —2.7 ++0.4 ST 2a || ieee sae | Reese —l1.1 —0.37 +0.14

Ne ee a ee Be Pere | fae | es BBY:

The sums of the squares of the deviations which enter into the theory are formed
for each year, and shown in the following table. wv” is, in each case, formed from the
deviations in the preceding table. ¥,7 is the sum from the last column of that table,
which is multiplied, for each year, by , the number of stations used. As shown in
the general theory, the difference, n°7° — ¥,v*, so far as it is not the result of acci-
dental errors and deviations, measures the correlation among the stations.

Results of Dove's Mean Monthly Deviations.

HH |
2 East | South | 7, « |p| L° | Mad- : ’ :

Year Asia Europe U. S. | Cape | pela Pisas Mean Equation for z,* | Normal equation

. + . * . 2 v2 7 |

Se | Sa) Sos esas || ys ey See laa eae ay — allie
1845 10.3 15.7 9.3 | 6.7 2.7 2.6 | 2.13 | OU Wea 7, 5 12| 60 72=+ 49} 3607.2—=-+30
46 (iil 15.6 4.7 | 7.2 | 3.4 ses. || eS 31 | 39 4 12| 48 — 15} 240 —8
47 | 10.1 | 103) 69 | 5.1 | 47 aid | S71 a7 | asl as —0.1| 240 0
48 6.8 18.4 17.5 | 2.9 | 5.1 | 135 | 34 | 51 4 9) 36 + 0.7 180 —l7
49 9.7 8.7 | 181 | 0.9 | 2.11 34 | 37 3 12} 36 — 0.9 144 —3
| | |
1850 9.0 13.8 11.8 | 3.4 sis 1.78 28 | 38 3 12) 36 — 2.4 144 —10
51 6.4 15.8 4.5 | 2.6 = 2.80 45 28 3 12) 36 + 40 144 Li
52 10.8 | 20.2 18.1 1.0 | 0.7 2.00 50 ol 4 12} 48 — 0.2] 240 —1
53 8.4 14.0 6.4 | 4.0 | 5.2 | 2.13 53 38 4 12} 48 + 3.1 240 +15
4 12.9 11.2 8.1 5.0 5.6 | 1.84 46 43 4 12| 48 + 0.6} 240 +3
1855 8.7 15.7 15.2 | 6.4 12.6 | 2.72 68 538 4 | 12) 48 + 1.9) 240 +10
- ——_— _ - - — - — | = —— —

ee ee | es: oes oe ee 503 467 42 |129|492 +,2=+10.1| 2412 >2—=-+36

By reduction to the centigrade scale the final equation becomes

24127? = 56

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 355

This equation will be combined with those to be derived from the later material. When
taken alone it gives the result

7? = 023; 11 =+0°.15C.

$12. General Discussion of Monthly Departures from 1872 to 1900.

In pursuance of our general plan we take up the mean simultaneous departures
of the temperature in these regions for which I have found observations to be readily
available. The results are given in Table X following. In explaining them the object
is to facilitate the work of using the departures, rather than to set forth in detail how
they were formed. The construction of the table is as follows. The period under dis-
cussion, 1872-1900, is divided into periods during each of which the number of sta-
tions remain unchanged. ‘This is convenient because our general formule, as
developed in Chapter I, involve a separate summation for each of these periods.

For the first period the entire United States is taken as a single region, because it
is possible that, in the course of a month, a departure of temperature would have time
to extend itself across the Rocky mountains from San Diego to Texas. The mean
departures found in the table are formed from the ten-day means given in the next
chapter. From and after 1874 the West Indian stations are combined with the United
States, so as to form one general mean for all of North America. ‘The region South
America is practically identical with the Argentine Republic. The data for this region
are also given in the ten-day tables.

It will be seen that the Indian stations and Batavia are treated as if completely
independent. Whether this is the case cannot be determined in advance of the gen-
eral discussion. ‘The Australian departures are determined from an extended study
and combination of the results given in the publications of the Adelaide Observatory
by Sir Charles Todd. For the most part they are formed from the mean of these six
stations in which the departures were found to be least subject to fitful fluctuations

The departures at the several stations are numbered 7, “, ete., in accordance with
the system followed in Chapter I. These index numbers are therefore the values of
7 in the equation of § 4-7.

Partly as a check, and partly to facilitate the ulterior discussion, the algebraic
sum of the 12 departures for each year are found below the line for December.

The column >? which terminates the column for each year is the sum of the
squares of all the departures for the year at each individual station. From them the
steadiness of the temperature may be inferred.

The mean 7, the general world departure so far as it can be inferred from the
stations, and its square form the last two columns. ‘These enter into the formule of
Chapter I, and are summed at the bottom of the columns.

\+ |

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

|

|
2-5

L++++++ |
StS SS eee

“soooses

|

TABLE X.

Frrst PERIOD.

Monthly Simultaneous Deviations of Temperature in Widely Separated Regions.

iS
Onl

es!

India |

Hare eae teere facto oieeteale We

PAW RUE WW lye Hb

| SsSSoserssoorr.

oO

b+) +++) 4+

rm ssosossoosossorss
oom NWRNNRKY NRK wwoc

sr ||

|+++ +++

NWN AR FNNWOUNN Ww

India Batavia |_

UY

lar |

Sum
>2

ey lat (i ieeeaeee ere:
So

o9|sossosssssss

++|+++|
© Go

aeilsrilse tise

+ |

2°
Co ee

ooo
anow

eco ip seraceen Soe epee el al
te! RON Hw

S
~

ar ||
—t
i to

hea ee |

ROOST O01 S
Snr pik wipRHio

fy | Sa ee Say

ra
ne

Mean
T c

—0.1 | 0.01
—0.3 | 0.09
—0.6 | 0.36
—0.2 | 0.04
40.4 | 0.16
+0.2 | 0.04
+0.2 | 0.04
+0.2 | 0.04
+0.3 | 0.09
—0.3 | 0.09
+0.1 | 0.01
40.1 | 0.01
0.0 | 0.98

Mean
T a
—0.4 0.16
—0.3 | 0.09
—0.6 | 0.36
—04 0.16
—0.1 | 0.01
—0.2 | 0.04
—0.1 | 0.01
+0.1 | 0.01
+0.1 | 0.01
—0.1 | 0.01
+0.2 | 0.04
40.3 | 0.09
—15 | 0.99
0.0 | 0.00
—0.1 | 0.01
+0.1 | 0.01
0.0 | 0.00
0.0 | 0.00
+047) 0.16
+1.0 | 1.00
+0.3 | 0.09
+0.3 | 0.09
| 40.6 | 0.36
| +1.0 | 1.00
| +0.9 | OSI
+45 | 3.53

ee

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 357
TaBLE X.— Continued.
Monthly Simultaneous Deviations of Temperature in Widely Separated Regions.
SEconp PERiop (continued).
Mean | d
Da N. Am.|S. Am. India Batavia a N. Am.|S. Am. | India | Batavia be
e v ae = |, Date v, | » al
1 2 3 4 - ae | 1 2 s 4 = a
- : | :

1878 | 1879
Jan. — 0.6 |. — 06-| +08 | + 22 | +04 | 0.16 || Jan = 07) || 0.4" |) 05 0.0 | —0.2 | 0.04
Feb. + 04/408 | +411 +424 | +12 | 144 || Feb | —04 | —04 | +04 | + 02 0.0 | 0.00
Mar. +10} +13 | +08 | +18 | +12 | 144 || Mar. | +08 | —06 | +02 | — 03 0.0 0.00
April + 0.9 | + 08 | +0.2 | + 1.0 | +0.7 | 0.49 || April | 0.0 | —05 | +0.1 0.0 | —0.1 | 0.01
May | + 04 | — 03 | +04 | + 1.0 | +04 |.0.16 || May 03> | —04) 1/08) i= "03))|| 030) 008
June |} +08 | +05 | 41.1 | + 0.2 | +0.6 | 0.36 || June | —0.2 | —0.9 | —0.8 | — 0.7 | —O.7 | 0.49
July +10/+06 —03 41.1 | 406 0.36 July +0.4 | +0.6 | —0.2 | — 0.1 | +02 | 0.04
Aug. | +06 |—03 —01 + 0.9 | +0.3 | 0.09 |) Aug. * | —0.1 | —0.1 | —0.5 | — 1.0 | —0.4 | 0.16
Sept Oe ee ot 0.0 | + 13 | +0.4 | 0.16 || Sept. | +01 | —0.9 | +02 | — 04 | —0.3 | 0.09
Oct. Oo 0.0 | £0.7 | + 1.8 | +0.6 | 0:36 || Oct. =e(ioa| Oa O100 8) OIE
Nov. (= 02 | os | +08 | + 0.2 | +04 | 0.16 || Nov. =020 | e009 0.0 | —0.2 | 0.04
Dec. b= 1 || i) ea 0.0 | —0.6 | 0.36 || Dec. | +0.1 | —0.7 | —1.1 | + 0.4 | —03 | 0.09
Sum |} +22 |+34 +56 413.9 | +62 | 5.54 | Sum 2 Ea Saw) Baa bea
3? +82 [45.3 | 45.0 | $227 | | coon xy? ayy || eri |) teri || tae [fe |

1880 | 1881
Jan. | +18 |—07 —05 —08 | —0.1 | 0.01 || Jan. —0.7 0.0 | +0.7 | — 0.9 | —02 | 0.04
Feb. +18 |—05 | —06 | + 04 | +0.3 | 0.09 || Feb. +02 | +05 | +04 | + 06 | +04 | 0.16
Mar. |— 04 | — 03 | +04 | — 0.4 | —0.2 | 0.04 ||) Mar. —1.0 | +12 | +02 | — 02 | +0. | 0.01
April +01 | +02 | +05 | — 04 | +0.1 | 0.01 || April 0.0 | —0.1 | +0.1 | + 0.4 | 40.1 | 0.01

ay + 0.1 | +09 | +02 | — 02 | +02 | 0.04 || May +0.9 | +0.5 | +0.6 | + 0.6 | +0.6 | 0.36
June = 04 | -- 19) | --02 14 | +0.3 | 0.09 |) June +0.9 | +0.2 | +01 | + 03 | +0.4 | 0.16
July 20 |) eT) | SN SS cial 0.0 0.00 | July +0.2 | —04 | +06 | + 0.2 | +0.2 | 0.04
Aug. = (6) TE Te) 0.0 —0.7 | +02 | 0.04 || Aug 0.0 | —0.4 0.0 0.0 | —0.1 | 0.01
Sept. 02) | — 07 }—0'5 |= 09) | —0.6 | 0:36 || Sept 0.0 | +0.1 | —0.2 0.0 0.0 | 0.00
Oct. = 05 | Se 0.0 — 0.7 | —0.5 | 0.25 | Oct +03 | +02 | +03 | + 0.9 | +0.4 | 0.16
Nov. Sen 1030) 0:2 | — 06))) —04 HONG H Noy (6) |) se Pak |) Set || Osh a
Dec. = 08 |) so 0g | SENT S08 |) S01) oe +0.7 | +0.6 | +0.1 | +09 | +0.6 | 0.36

— SE es =——— — — on ——

Sum 2608 | 2 Sb) Sr |S She ee +12 | +25 | +28 | + 2.9 | +24 | 1.32
ze | Sens || teniG) HO) a) ee |e 2 | SE [PERG | PSIG) |S BG |) see || oo

1882
Jen. |—02 | 00 | +05 | +01 | +01 | 0.01
Feb. | +05 |—06 +401 | +07 | +02 | 0.04
Mar. (426 fe SLB | Ss em || Cet
April = +03 |— 11 40.1 +401 | —0.1 | 0.01

ay 0.0 0.0 | —02 | — 0.9 | —0.3 | 0.09
June 2507 | = O2 ) 20H || = 2) |) aah | mn
July OG |=] O8 Soy |= 10!) ae | OG
Aug. 22.) |) ab 0.0 | — 0.1 | +0.1 | 0.01
Sept. 0.0) |, 20'S 0.0 | — 1.0 | —0.3 | 0.09
Oct. 42 (2. || 42 tei 1) 0) = ei |pajo
ieee 07] — oF | 04 | —.09 | 0.6 | 0.36
Dee. /— 0.7 |— 14 | —02 | + 0.3 | —0.5 | 0.25 ||
Sum | POS aah | 00) | 4 19) | 105 |||

be JP, |) 36 Ga 4) I |e GO |) ae

A.P.S.—XXI. WW. 14, 1, 08.

358 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TABLE X.—Continued.
Monthly Simultaneous Deviations of Temperature in Widely Separated Regions.

TuHirRD PERIOD.

| |
* e : .| Aus- Mean | E Ba- | Aus- Mean
Date N. Am.|S. fim: | India | Batavia jig | — Nl ipate N. Am. S. Am.)| India fasta | sepa ——=
VY, OF OF v, v; = =) v, v, Vs y, v; ae]
1883 | 1884
Jan. —0.3 | —0.1 | +0.6 | — 0.1 | +0.4 | +0.1] 0.01 || Jan. —0.7 | +0.2 | —0.9 | —0.4 | —0.8 |+0.1 0.01
Feb. | +0.3 +0.1 —0.2 | — 04 —1.1 | —0.3] 0.09 Feb. +0.6 | —0.3 | —0.7 | —0.6 | +0.1 | —0.3 0.09
Mar. | +0. 3 | +0.7 | —0.2 | + 0.4 +0.2 | +0.3| 0.09 || Mar. +0.5 | +0.7 —0.3 | —0.9 +0.6 | +0.3 0.09
April ; —0.1 | —04 | —0.1 | — 05 +1.3 0.0) 0.00 || April —0.5 | —0.4 | —0.6 | —0.4 | —0.2 0.0 0.00
May | —0.2 | +0.3 | +0.2 | — 0.3 —04 | —0.1 | 0.01 May +04 , —0.9 | —04 | —0.5 | +0.1 | —0.1 0.01
June +0.7 | +0.9 | —0.2 | + 0.9 +1.4 | +0.7| 0.49 |) June —0.1 | —0.8 | +0.3 | +0.1 | +0.4 | +0.7 | 0.49
July +0.1 | +0.1 | —05 | + 04 +0.8 | +0.2} 0.04 || July +0.1 | —0.1 | +0.1 | —0.6 | —0.7 | +0.2 | 0.04
Aug. 0.0 | —1.0 | +0.2 | — 0.1 0.0 | —0.2| 0.04 || Aug. —0.3 | +24) +04 0.0 +1.2 08 | 008
Sept 1 =20:45| 0:2 }) = 0:1! ||) == 10:3) |) 20) = 0:20:04 Sept. —0.4 | —04 | —0.3 | +0.1 | +0.2 | —0.2 0.04
Oct. | —0:3 | -+-0.2 | —0.8 | — 0.6 —0.8 | —0.5 | 0.25 |, Oct. +05 | —0.3 —0.5 0.0 | —0.3 | —0.5 | 0.25
Nov. | +0.1 | +0.3 | —0.7 | — 1.1 —0.3 | —0.3} 0.09 || Nov. +0.1 | +0.1 (SU: |b 3 | =O 83) |
Dee. +03 | +02 | —14 0.7 | —0.7 |—0.5| 0.25 || Dec. | +08 |__ 0.0 | —0.5 | —0.7 | —1.4 | —05/0.25
Sum. |} +1.3 +1.1 | —3.0 | — 2.4 | —0.2 | —0.8} 1.40 || Sum +1.0 | +0.2 —4.4 | —4.2 | —0.9 | —0.8 1.40
> ales | Sree Seni || sp ced) | arse! | eee} cone > +2. +8.3 | +3.8 | +2.8 | +5.2 | 2.) -.-..
1885 | 1886 | |
Jan. +0.4 +05 | —0.1 | — 0.8 —0.4 | —0.1} 0.01 || Jan. —1.1 | +06 —0.2 | +0.9 +1.1 | +0.3 0.09
Feb. | —0.2 OM. jp —038 O08 | 1.1 0.6) 0.36 | Feb. 0.0 | —0.3 | —0.3 | —0.1 | —1.3 |—0.4 0.16
Mar. 0.1 |) —0'6) |) —0!45 |) 10) |) 149) 02710249) || |S Mar. —0.6 | +0.7 | +0.2 0.0 0.0 | +0.1 0.01
April +1.0 | +1.4 | —0:9 | — 0.2 | —0:2 | 40.2} 0:04 |) April —0.8 | +0.1 | —0.2 0.0 | +0.1 | —0.2 0.04
May +0.3 | -+0.4 | —0.8 | — 0.4 | +1.4 | -+0.2'| 0.04 || May +0.2 | —0.4 | —0.2 | +0.2 0.0 0.0 0.00
June 0.0 —0.3 0.0 | + 0.5 | —0.9 | —0.1} 0.01 _ June +0.5 | —0.6 —0.8 | +0.2 | —0.3 | —0.2 0.04
July +0.7 | —0.3 | +0.4 | + 0.6 | +0.2 | 40.3} 0.09 |) July +0.2 | —1.0 | —0.5 | +0.9 | +0.7 | +-0.1 | 0.01
Aug. +0.4 —0.6 | +0.3 = 0.1 | +0.8 | +0.2) 0.04 || Aug. +0.4 | —0.9 | —0.2 | +0.3 | +0.3 0.9 0.00
Sept. +0.2 | +0.8 | +0.3 | + 0.5 | 0.0 | -+0.4| 0:16 || Sept +0.5 | —0.5 | +0.3 | +0.5 | +14 | +04 0.16
Oct. —0.2 | +02 | +0.3 | + 0.3 | +0.9 | +0.3] 0.09 | Oct 014) | 0:7 | —0:1) |) —0:2)) 13" | 0:5 025:
Nov. +0. +1.1 | +03 ) + 0.1 | —0.1 | +0.3)| 0.09 |} Nov —l1.1 | —0.1 | +0.3 +0.6 | +0.4 0.0 0.00
Dec. —0.2 +0.1 —0.1° + 0.4 | +0.7 | -+0.2] 0.04 || Dec. —0.3 | +0.3 | —0.1 | —0.5 | —0.3 | —0.2 0.04
Sum 2.4 | 2-6 | —1.5 | — 0.9 | —0-1 | 0.6) 1-46 || Sum —2.5 | —2.8 | —18 | +2.8 | +0.8 | —0.6 0.84
3 SGN] Seago) |) ECE} |) Se ays || STE eal | 32 SEY || MENG) SENG | Sees | a |) ieee
1887 | | 1888
Jan. 0.0) +0.6 } 8 + 0.4 | +1.1 | +0.4! 0.16 |) Jan. —0.9 | —0.2 | 0.0 | —1.0 | +0.2 | —0.4 0.16
Feb. +13 —0.3 | —0.5 | — 0.1 | —0.2 | +0.1} 0.01 || Feb +1.1 +04 > +0.3 | —0.5 | —1.0 |+0.1 0.01
Mar. +0.5 —0.3 | —0.3 | — 0.4 | —0.2 | —0.1} 0.01 Mar —0.7 | +0.3 | +0.3 | +0.2 | —0.8 | —0.1 | 0.01
April —0.1 | —0.6 | —0.4 | — 0.4 | —0.1 | —0.3) 0.09 || April +08 +01 | +03 —0.2 |) +1.0 | +0.4 0.16
May +0.6 —0.5 > +0.3 | — 1.1 | —0.8 | —0.3} 0.09 May —0.2/ 0.0 | —0.3 | —0.3 | +0.5 | —0.1 | 0.01
June —04 41.6 —0.8 } — 10) —0.9 —0.3| 0.09 || June +0.2 | —1.2 | +0.1 | +0.9 | +0.8 | +0.2 | 0.04
July IND || 033) =O || = OF 0.0 |—0.2) 0.04 |) July 0.0 | +0.9 | —0.1 | +0.4 | +0.4 |+0.2 0.09
Aug. —0.1 +2.1 | —0.6 | — 0.2 | —0.3 | —0.2) 0.04 Aug +0.3 | +0.7 | —0.3 | +0.7 | —0.4 | +0.3 | 0.04
Sept. 0.0 | —0.3 | —0.7 | — 1.0 | —0.9 | +0.6| 0.36 || Sept +0.3 | +1.0 | +0.3 | +0:7 | +0.9 | +40.6| 0.36
Oct. (iI 0.0 | —0.3 0.7 | —0.2 | —0.3} 0.09 |) Oct +-0.1 | 1.1 | +-0.4 | +1.1 | +03 |-+0.6] 0:36
Noy. +0.2 | —0.7 |} +0.2 | — 0.9 | —1.3 | —0.5} 0.25 || Nov 0.0 | +0.6 | +0.8 | +1.2 | +1.8 | +0.9 0.81
Dec. —04 402); 00) — 04 —0.1 | —0.1} 0.01 Dee. } —0.1 | +1.2 +0.1 | 41.2 | +12 2, +0.7 0.49
Sum +1. i +15 | —3.6 | — 64 | —3.9 | —2.0) 1.24 || Sum | +0.9 | +4.9 | +1.9 } +4.4 | +4.9 |+3.4 2.54
>? +2. +8.9 2.3 | + 5.7 | 6.2 } 2.) 3... py +3.3 | +7.0 | +1.4 | +7.3 | 49.3 | .W0.) 2...
1889 :
Jan. See} |) Sen) || LS |) SS TR |) etal | Seno ON
Feb. —0.3 | +0.5 | +0.3 | + 1.5 | +0.6 | +0.5| 0.25
Mar. | +0.3 | +1.1 | +0.3 | + 1.0 | +1.4 |+0.8) 0.64 ||
April | +0.7 | +0.3 | +0.1 | + 1.5 | +0.7 |+0.7| 0.49
May | +0.1 | +0.6 | +0.4 | + 1.2 | +0.4 |+0.5] 0.25
June +0.1 | —0.5 | +0.1 | + 0.3 | +1.0 |-+0.2] 0.04
July see |) Skye} || SOL |] 33 0.0 | +0.2| 0.04
Aug | +0.1 | —0.7 | +0.3 | + 0.9 | +0.1 |+0.1] 0.01
Sept. 0.0 | —1.0 | +0.2 | + 0.3 | —0.1 |—0.1} 0.01
Oct. —0.2 | +0.4 | —0.2 | — 0.6 | +0.8 | 0.0] 0.00
Nov. +0.6 | +0.3 | —0.7 | + 0.1 | +0.5 | +0.2] 0.04
Dec. | +1.9| +08 | —04/ +08 | —0.3 | +0.6 0.36
Sum | +4.0 | +3.1 | +0.6 | + 8.9 | +6.2 |+4.6) 2.94 ||
32 SF Wea ess) || eid |) Seni || |) Le

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 359

TABLE X.— Continued.
Monthly Simultaneous Deviations of Temperature in Widely Separated Regions.

Fourra Prriop.

| | | |
N. 8. = Baal ||) Anig= Mean | N. S. Slate eee lare Mean
Am. | Am. India tavia | Apia tralia | ——— | Date | Am.| Am. [pais tavia Apia tralia
v% UP Us Y% | Us U, r 2 VY, v, v, v, | v, U, - | x?
——— = | = | |
1891 |
+1.4 0.0 | +0.1 | +1.5 | —0.3 +1.9) +0.8 | 0.64) Jan. 0.0|-+- 0.3} +0.1) + 0.4!) +0.4 | —0.7 | +0.1 | 0.01
+1.4)+ 0.1 | +0.5|4-0.1| 0.0) +0.4|) +0.4/0.16|) Feb. | +0.6)-+ 14) —0.7 | — 0.1) +0.1) —0.8 | 4-0.1 | 0.01
—0.4| — 0.9 | +0.6 | +0.2 | +-0.5 | +0.5 | +0.1| 0.01 |} Mar. | —0.6}-+ 1.2) —0.4| — 0.3 | +0.2 | +0.6 | +0.1 | 0.01
+0.1| + 0.3 | +0.1 | +0.4 | —0.4 | +0.3 | +0.1| 0.01 || April | —0.4| + 0.4} —0.5 | 0.0; 0.0) —0.3 | —0.1 | 0.01
+0.3 | — 0.3 | —0.1} —0.3 | +0.1|-+0.4| 0.0/0.00|| May | —0.4|— 0.8) —0.5|+ 1.0 +0.1 +-0.8 | +-0.1 | 0.01
+0.1} — 1.7} —1.1} —0.8 | +0.1 | +1.1 | —0.4/0.16)| June | +0.2) + 0.7) +1.0| + 0.7, +0.1 —0.7 | 4+-0.3 0.09
+0.3| + 0.2 | —0.8 | —0.9 | —0.5 | —0.4 | —0.3| 0.09 || July |—0.1)— 04) 0.0| + 0.2) —0.5 |, —0.3 | —0.2 | 0.04
—0.5| — 1.0] —0.9 | —0.7 | —0.2 | —0.3 | —0.6 | 0.36 || Aug. | +0.1}— 0.3 | +0.3| — 0.7 | —0.4 | —0.1 | —0.2 | 0.04
—0.5|— 0.5 | —0.4| —0.8 | +0.6 | +0.9 | —0.1| 0.01 || Sept. | +0.5 | — 0.3, —0.1|+ 0.5) 0.0) +-0.1 | +-0.1 0.01
—0.1| + 0.1 | —0.1 | —1.3 | +0.2 | —0.3 | —0.3 | 0.09 || Oct. | —0.6|-+ 1.0) +0.3) +4 18/)+0.5) 0.0) +0.5 | 0.25
+0.9| + 0.6 | +0.1 | —1.7 | +0.1 | —1.2 | —0.2| 0.04 || Noy. | +0.1]— 0.1|+0.2|+ 1.4| +0.1 | —0.4 | +-0.2 | 0.04
+0.5 | + 0.8 | +0.4 | —0.3 | +0.4 —0.5 | +0.2 0.04 | Dee +0.2|— 1.3 +0.3 | + 0.6 | +0.2 —0.4 | —0.1 | 0.01
+3.5|— 2.3|—1.6| —4.6| +-0.6 | +2.8 | —0.3| 1.61 |} Sum |—0.4}-+ 1.8)+0.1]+ 5.5 | +0.8 | —2.2 | —0.9 | 0.53
=258)) =1- 6.1 || 43.6] -1-9.7 | 1.3 | +8.3)| ........) -....- los? | 4+18)+ 7.9|+2.4| + BL | $0.8 | $3.2 | cooeeeee | onnne
| |
1893
—0.9 0.0 | +0.9 | +0.3 | —0.3 | —0.3, —0.1| 0.01 || Jan. —1.3 nero — 08 elas —0.6 0.36
+0.2/ + 1.6) +1.4| +1.3 | +0.4 | +0.7 | +-0.9 | 0.81 | Feb. | +01 — 1.7} —1.4| — 0.6} —0.5 | +0.1 | —0.5 | 0.25
—1.0}— 1.1)+0.3| +0.2;+0.7/+0.8); 0.0/0.00|) Mar. | —0.3; — 0.1 | —0.7 | + 0.1 | —0.2 +0.9 —0.1 0.01
—0.3 | — 0.7 | +1.7 | —0.7 | +0.2 | —1.0 | —0.1 | 0.01 | April | +-0.1 | — 0.6 | +-0.4 0.4 | —0.8 | —0.3 | —0.3 | 0.09
—0.2|— 1.4) +0.7 | —0.1 | —0.4 | —0.2 | —0.3 0.09 May | —0.2|— 1.4| —0.4| — 0.3 | —0.6 | +-1.2 | —0.3 | 0.09
—0.5|— 2.2} —0.3| +0.1 | +0.2 | +0.4 | —0.4/0.16 || June | —0.1| — 3.3) —0.7| — 0.8 +0.3 | —0.4| —0.8 | 0.64
—0.7 | — 0.3 | +0.3 | +0.2 | —0.1}+0.4| 0.0/0.00|) July | +0.1)-+ 0.1} —0.2|} — 0.6) —0.1)+0.8) 0.0) 0.00
0.0) — 2.3 | —0.5 | —0.2 | +0.2 | +0.8 | —0.3| 0.09 || Aug. |-—0.1|— 2.6) 0.0) — 0.4) —0.1 | +-0.4 | —0.5 0.25
+0.2}— 1.2 | —0.7 | —0.7 | —0.3 | —0.1 | —0.5 | 0.25 || Sept. | —0.1 | — 3.0 | —0.1 — 0.3 | —0.3 | +0.3 | —0.4 | 0.36
—0.3 | + 0.2 +0.2 0.0; +0.1 —0.2; 0.0) 0.00 | Oct. —0.1|— 2.3} —0.4| — 0.5 | —0.5 | +-0.5 | —0.6 | 0.36
—0.2 | — 0.2 | —0.5 | +0.4 | —0.7 | +0.7 | —0.1| 0.01 |] Nov. | —0.2}— 2.1) 40.2}— 0.5| 0.0} —0.6 | —0.5 | 0.25
—0.5|— 1.0) —0.2} +0.5 | —0.4 | —1.2 | —0.5 | 0.25 |) Dec. +0.8;+ 1.1) +0.2|}— 0.9 =03 0.0 +0.2 0.04
—4.2|— 8.6) +3.3 |} +1.3) —0.4| +0.8 | —1.4/ 1.68 |) Sum —1.3| —15.9 | —3.7| — 6.0 | —3.8 | +-2.5 | —4.6 | 2.70
+2.9 | +18.9 7.4) +38.2)+1.8 |) +5.1] 02.2) 2. Se +2.4 | +42.9 | +4.0/-+ 3.8 +2.2 | +4.2 pesnacaadll peceees
1895
+0.7 | + 0.3 | +0.7 | —0.9 | —0.2 | —0.4 0.0 | 0.00 |) Jan. —0.1] — 1.8) —0.4] — 0.3 | —0.1 | —0.8 | —0.G | 0.36
—0.9| + 0.4 | +1.1 | —0.5 | —0.4 | —1.7 | —0.3/ 0.09 || Feb. | —2.6|-+ 0.6] -+0.1]— 0.5 | —1.0| —0.3 | —0.6 | 0.36
+0.1]— 1.4] +0.6 | —0.4 | —0.2 | +0.1 | —0.2| 0.04 |) Mar. | —0.2)-+ 1.5|-+0.4}— 0.2|—0.1 —0.3 +0.2 | 0.04
—0.1 0.0 | +-0.3 | —0.2 | +0.5 | +-0.1 | +-0.1 | 0.01 | April | —0.3| + 1.5} —0.1| + 0.3 | +-0.2 | —0.2 | +-0.2 | 0.04
0.0} + 2.0} +0.1 | —0.8 | —0.1 | —0.9 | +0.1]0.0L|| May | +0.2)-+ 1.2|—0.2}— 0.2) +0.8 | —0.4 | +-0.2 | 0.04
—0.8; — 0.7 | —0.1 | —0.4 | +0.3 | —0.3 | —0.3 0.09) June | —0.1| + 3.3 0.0} + 0.1) +0.2 , +0.3 | +4-0.6 | 0.36
—0.3|— 0.1 | —0.1 | +0.4 | —0.3 | —0.1 | —0.1| 0.01 |) July | —0.3| + 2.0 +0.1|— 0.8) +0.4) —0.2-) +-0.2 | 0.04
—0.1} — 0.6 | +0.3 | +0.3 | +0.6 | —0.2 | +-0.1 | 0.01 |) Aug. 0.0} + 1.5! —0.1} — 0.3) —0.2 | +0.4 | +0.2 | 0.04
—0.3|— 1.2) —0.5| +0.1 | +0.5 | —1.4 | —0.5/ 0.25 | Sept. | +0.6|— 0.7, —0.3| + 0.9 | —0.4 —0.2 0.0 0.00
et = 8: Oe: 0.0 | +0.6 | —0.5 | —0.4 | 0.16 || Oct 0.2 0.9 | +0.2 | + 1.0 0.0 | +1.2 | +0.2 | 0.04
+0.2|-+ 0.4 | —0.5 0.0 | —0.4 | —0.1 | —0.1 |} 0.01) Nov —0.1|— 1.2) +0.9| + 0.4| —0.4| —0.7 | —0.2 | 0.04
—0.1| — 0.2 | —0.3 0.0 | —0.1 | —0.4 | —0.2 | 0.04 || Dec —1.2|)+ 0.6| +0.2|}-+ 0.4|+0.4|—0.2|; 0.9) 0.00
—1.7|— 2.9 +1.2|—2.4 +0.8) —5.8 | —1.8 0.66), Sum —4.3 ) + 7.6 | -+-0.8 + 0.8 | —0.2 | —1.4| +0.4 | 1.36
+2.1 | +12.0 | +3.0 | +2.3 | +1.8) +6:4) 22) is +8.8 | +28.6| +1.3|-+ 3.3 | +2.4| 43.2) ........ | cae
|| 1897
+0.2 | — 0.2) +1.1 | +0.6 | —0.2 | +0.2 | +0.3/ 0.09} Jan. —0.4| — 0.5) —0.2| + 2.7 | —0.3 | —1.0} —0.1 | 0.01
+0.2} — 0.2 | +0.3 | +0.5 | —0.4 | —0.5 0.0 | 0.00 | Feb +0.6) + 0.4) —0.3) + 1.6 | —0.2 +0.4) +0.6 | 0.36
—0.6|+ 0.4] -+0.5 | +0.4| +0.1 | +0.2 | +0.2|0.04 || Mar. |-+0.1]+ 2.7|—0.8|+ 1.0) +0.3 | —1.2| +0.4 | 0.16
—0-5} + 1.1} +12] —0.3 | —0.2 | —0.1 | +-0.2| 0.04 |} April | 0.0) + 1.9) +-0.2) + 0.2 +0.1 | +0.8 | +0.5 | 0.25
+0.1 0.0 | +0:8 | +0.3 | 4-0.6 | —0.6 | +-0.2| 0.04 || May |+0.1)+ 1.6) +0.1}+ 1.3 | —0.1| —0.3 | +0.4 | 0.16
+0.7| — 0.2 | +0.2| +0.6 | —0.4| —1.6| —0.1| 0.01 |) Juue | —0.3) + 0.7|+1.1) + 1.3 | +0.3 | +0.9 | +-0.7 | 0.49
0.0] + 3.5 | +0.1| +0.6 | —1.1|—0.8|+0.4|0.16 || July | —0.2|— 18|-+0.3}+ 0.9|—0.1)+1.2) 0.0) 0.00
+0.4|} + 3.9 | —0.3) +0.5 0.0 | —0.9 | +0.6| 0.36) Aug. 0.0|— 18} +0.6!+ 0.9 | +0.2| —0.4| —0.1 0.01
+0.1} + 2.4 | +0.9 | +0.8 | +0.3 | —0.9 | +-0.6 | 0.36 | Sept. +0.1}— 1.0/+0.5|+ 1.2) —0.5 +0.2) +0.1 | 0.01
+0.3| + 0.7|+1.4| +1.4|+0.6| +0.5|+0.8|0.64| Oct. |+0.9|-+ 1.0| +0.3/+ 0.5 | —0.2 | —0.3 | +0.4 | 0.16
+1.1}] + 0.3} +1.2| +1.8 | —0.4 | +0.4 | +0.7| 0.49} Nov. | +0.9 | — 0.6 | —0.6 | + 0.4 | —0.7 | +-0.9 0.0 | 0.00
+0.5|— 0.4| +0.9| +0.1 | -+0.5 | —0.3| +0.2|0.04! Dec. |+0.5|+ 0.8|—0.7|+ 1.0| +0.1| +0.7 | +0.6 | 0.36
+2.5} +11.3 | +8.3 | +7.3 | —0.6 | —4.4|+4.1]2.27| Sum |-+2.3) + 3.4 | +0.5 | +-13.0 —1.) | +1.9 | +3.5 | 1.97
+2.8 | +35.4 | +8.6 | +7.8 | +3.9| +5.9 | | -.- 2 42.5 | +23.8 | +3.6 | +18.7 | +1.0/ +7.1| ........| --.-

360 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TABLE X.— Concluded.

Monthly Simultaneous Deviations of Temperature in Widely Separated. Regions.

FourtH PERtop (concluded).

N. | S | (SBa-a | ecm cA ance
Date | Am. | Am. badlta rine ae tralia ==

v, We We Oe | ves Orn eee Nes
1898 |
Jan. |+0.3/+ 0.7|+0.4) +0.2) —0.6 | +0.7 | +0.3 | 0.09
Feb. |+0.2|+ 14]+0.2|+0.1|—0.6 | -+1.4/+0.4 | 0.16
Mar. |—0.1/— 0.8|+0.4| +0.3| —0.8 | —0.1 | —0.2 | 0.04
April | 0.0|— 1.2|+0.6| +0.4| —0.3 | —0.7 | —0.2 | 0.04
May |—0.5|+ 1.4|+0.4|+0.6/—0.3 | —1.5|—0.2|0.04
June |+0.1/+4+ 24] 0.0] +0.5|—0.1 | —0.1 | +0.5 | 0.25
July |+0.2)— 1.5|+0.1) +0.3/+08|+0.3| 0.0) 0.00
Aug |+02|— 2.1/+03/40.7| 0.0/+0.8| 0.0] 0.00
Sept. |+0.7|— 12] 0.0)+04|+02 +0.3/ +0.1/ 0.01
Oct. | 0.0|— 2.5|+1.4|—0.6 | —0.2| +0.5 | —0.2 | 0.04
Nov. | 0.0]— 2.2] +1.2/—0.3|—0.6 | —1.1| —0.5 | 0.25
Dec. | —0.5 | — 0.1) +1.0| —0.2|—0.1 +0.9|-+0.1] 0.01
Sum |—0.6|— 5.7|+6.0|+42.4|—2.6) +14] +0.1 | 0.93
3? [1.0 |+31.3)| -+5.5|-+29|(Foe)-fae| ee) 8

FirtH Prrtop.
| |

N. . Basal eee) eAts= Mean | N. - | Ba- . | Aus- | Mean

Date | A™. eke tavia | Apia! tralia _——— Date | Am India | tavia | AP! | tralia | ——7~—
) ) ) Tt - 2

OF Vy J eh v; z a OF ; V5 u%, v; T S
1899 | 1900
Jan. | +10] —1.1 —05 —08 | — 26 | —0.8 | 0.64 || Jan. | +1.0 | —0.4 | +0.7 | +0.5 | 40.3 | +0.4 | 0.16
Feb. | —12 | +02 —0.6 —0.2 | + 13 | —0.1 | 0.01 || Feb. | —0.2 | —0.3 | +0.7 | +0.5 | +0.7 | +0.2 | 0.04
Mar. | 0.0 | +05 —04 —0.2) + 0.7 | $0.1 | 0.01 | Mar. | +04 | +0.1 | +0.7 | —0.3 | —0.6 | +0.1 | 0.01
April | —0.4 | +02 —0.3 | —0.1 | + 0.3 | —0.1 | 0.01 |] April | —0.3 | —0.1 | +04] 0.0 | —0.5 | —0.1 | 0.01
May | —06| +03 +04 —02 | — 0.7 | —02 | 0.04 || May | +0.2 | +0.2 | +0.1 | —02 | +02 | +0.1 | 0.01
June | —0.4| —03 —03 —0.6 | — 02 | —04 | 0.16 || June | +02 | +1.1 | +05 | —0.6 | +0.2 | +0.3 | 0.09
July | +0.1 | +0.6 +06 +403) — 13} 40.1 | 0.01 | July 0.0 | +09 | +06 | —0.4 | —0.2 | +0.2 | 0.04
Aug. | —0.2 | +08 +01 —0.1 | — 06} 0.0 | 0.00 | Aug. | +03 | +0.2 | —08 | +03 | —02 | 0.0 | 0.00
Sept. | +0.6 | 40.7 +01 | +04 | — 0.2 | +0.3 | 0.09 || Sept. | +04 | +04 | +1.0 | +0.5 | —0.7 | +0.3 | 0.09
Oct. | +02) +410 +404 +401 | — 0.7 | +02 | 0.04 || Oct. 41.1] 0.0 | +1.0 | +03 | +0.1 | +0.5 | 0.25
Nov. | +0.9| +03 +04 +04 | — 0.4 | +03 | 0.09 || Nov. | +1.5 | +0.6 | +0.6 | —0.1 | +0.3 | +06 | 0.36
Dee. 0.0 | +0.6 —01 —0.1 | + 02 | +01 | 0.01 |! Dec. 41.1 | $1.1 | 41.1 | —0.2 | —0.2 | +0.6 | 0.36
Sum | 00.) +40) —02 —1.1|— 42] —05/1.1 || Sum | +57 | +38 | +66 | +03 | —04 | +32 | 1.42
St | +44 | 446 | +20] +415 | +194] 2. aoe ff 2 | OB | a) 6 a5 |) 18 Lee

To investigate the correlation among the stations we apply the method and

formule of § 4, as we have done in the case of the annual deviations. For example,

we have for the first period, 1871 and 1872,
1871: 0s — HO) let eo ts On

1872: ¢ =1.3 + 6.6 + 1.8 + 2.9 = 12.6
also

4

4
wn
|

26 + 0.98 = 2.24
Thus, this period alone gives

Se Se
2, jv = 28.9

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 361
Since n = 4, and +, the number of ree terms, is 24,
Thus (9) gives the equation
2887,” = A = ao 6.9

Carrying this computation through all the time-terms we have the following results :

Period n rs nic? Equation for tr,”
n

1872-73 4 21 7.2 9.0 2887°—+ 7

1874-82 4 108 47.6 73.7 1296 +104

1883-89 5 84 33.3 58.6 1680 +127

1890-98 6 108 67.5 82.3 3240 + 89

1899-00 5 24 9.0 12.7 480 + 18
Sum ye eee 164.6 236.3 6984757 =+-345

A positive correlation is well shown, leading to the mean result

= 0493
T= = 0.22° Ci = 30:4° Fahr.

When we add in the equation from Doye’s work the final equation is

93967,2 = 401
whence

Ti— Ola
The existence of the positive correlation is beyond serious question, but before we
accept it as cosmical, we must learn whether it holds between the more distant
stations, as well as between those in neighboring great geographic zones.

As no correlation but a cosmical one can exist between the North American mal
the other regions, we first compare that with the others. The table shows that simul-
taneous temperatures in North and South America are available from 1872 to 1898,
period of 324 months. Forming the sum of the 324 products 1,v, we find the result

Sor! = A= + 15.3

Proceeding in the same way with the other stations the collected results are :

North America — South America ; r = 324 Suv = + 15.3
. [os Indiay: “ 348 “« — 2.8
< « — Batavia ; “ 348 “ 418.4
fe « — Australia ; SoZ # 0.0
“ « = — Apia; “ 132 et 1.0

Sum + 31.9

362 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

The South American products being formed in the same way, the results of their

summation are:

South America — India ; r = 348 Suv’ = + 18.
se « — Australia ; Gs Isp Bo af,
& “« — Apia; “ 108 «4 4,
xe “= __ Batavia ; 327 Go te SYR.
Sum + 53.
Next we have
India — Batavia ; r= 348 Sov’ = + 51.
« — Apia; “ 132 d: 0.
cc — Australia; «216 G5 by
Sum 4 56.
Then
Batavia — Australia ; r = 216 Xv’ = + 26.
« — Apia; 132 coe Fr DE
Sum + 28.
Lv’ = + 4

It will be seen that, while there seems to be a general tendency toward a positive
correlation, the largest part of A arises from the two combinations India-Batavia and
Batavia-Australia. "These pairs being in comparative geographic proximity, we may
well throw them out. The remaining pairs give:

Whole number of products, 2924

Sum of all these products + 96
Hence,
Mean vv’ = mean 7,7 = + 0.033

Mean 7, = + 0°.18 C. = + 0°.32 Fahr.

It therefore seems that the monthly departures of temperature indicate fluctua-
tions in the general world temperature of which the general amount is about + 0°.18 C.
on each side of the normal mean value This is scarcely greater than the degree of
correlation which we should expect to be shown from our omission to correct the nor-
mal tables for the sun-spot inequality, and from the systematic deviations of the .
annual temperature brought out in §9. The evidence is therefore rather weak in
favor of very minute fluctuations in the sun’s radiation for periods greater than one
month and less than several years. If they exist, they are too small to produce any
noticeable meteorological effect.

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 363

CHAPTER V.
Srupy oF Trn-pAy TERMS.
§ 13. Stations and Material Used.

The term of ten days was chosen because it has been extensively adopted, espe-
cially in the Dekadenberichte of the German Seewarte. Mean temperatures for this pur-
pose being available in a number of cases, the labor of forming them for the entire
work was not necessary. A term of one fourth or one fifth the sun’s rotation would
have been better adapted to bringing out fluctuations having the period of that rota-
tion ; but a lesser period than ten days would be subject to the drawback that small
fluctuations in the radiation require time to produce their full effect upon the tem-
perature, so that little indication of their effect could be expected.

Strictly speaking, the period is not ten days but one third of a month. When it
was necessary to form independent mean temperatures from daily records, the year
was divided into thirty-six parts as nearly equal as possible. There were, therefore,
thirty or thirty-one periods of ten days each, and five or six of eleven days in each
year. But when the ten-day means had been taken on a different system, the month
for example being divided into three parts, | adopted these means without modifica-
tion, deeming slight defects in coincidence not sufficiently important to be taken
account of.

The period chosen for the research commenced with the year 1872, because
although observations of the United States Weather Bureau date from 1871, when
they were commenced by the Army Signal Service, the data for that year were insuf-
ficient. This consideration was paramount in preparing the work because, in first
planning the work, it was not intended to include any stations but those for which
uniform records were readily obtainable. It was also intended to include as many
regions as possible in the investigation, but the circumstances mentioned in § 6 led to
the omission of several regions which might have been included had the data been
available. It was also believed that definitive results would be obtained by confining
the discussion to those regions where the data were easily accessible and undoubted.

The regions and stations finally chosen were as follows :

1. The United States East of the Rocky Mountains, Called U. S. I.—In order to
lessen the effect of accidental fluctuations at a single point several stations as widely
separated as possible are preferable. Guided by the consideration that stations near
the tropics were to be preferred, the four finally chosen for this region were Washing-
ton, Key West, Galveston and Saint Louis.

2. The United States West of the Rocky Mountains, or U. S. II. —The best station in
this region was San Diego owing not only to its southern position, but to its compara-

364 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

tive steadiness of temperature. The peculiar climate of San Francisco seemed to ren-
der it inadvisable to adopt it as a station. The interior points of Salt Lake City and
Phoenix, Arizona, were also selected and used as stations, although the observations
at each point have suffered some interruption.

3. The Argentine Republic.—The main source for this region has been, as men-
tioned in Chapter II, the publications of the Officina .Meteorologica Argentina.
The number of stations that could be used was different in different years, and fell off
to a single one in 1898.

4. Samoa.—The Deutsche Uberseeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen contain
meteorological observations at a number of coast and island stations, but, for the most
part, the observations were not pursued continuously through a sufficient period to be
well adapted to the present work. The best station for our purpose proyed to be Apia,
where the record is nearly complete since 1890. ‘The unpublished results for this
station up to 1904 were courteously communicated by the director of the Deutsche
Seewarte at Hamburg.

As no general principle is illustrated by the process of forming means and finding
deviations from them by simple subtraction, the writer conceives that the purpose of the
present work will be best subserved by omitting these merely routine details. If, as
he earnestly hopes, some authority fully equipped with the necessary computing
assistance shall in the interest of meteorology reconstruct the work in question, it can
now be more thoroughly done than the author has succeeded in doing. Data contin-
ually accumulate from year to year and the results of the present work will, it is
hoped, be found useful in any such reconstruction. As one of the special purposes
now in view is to show the method of determining correlations, that purpose will be
best subserved by excluding details not peculiar to the work itself. Some remarks on
a few special points may however be made.

After the means were taken for the regions U. 8. I, it was found that the acci-
dental deviations at St. Louis were so much larger than at the other stations that
the means would be more accordant if this station were omitted entirely. Its weight
was therefore reduced to one third and new means taken.

After the definitive means had been formed, it was found that the fluctuations of
temperature at Galveston, which were in general quite small, sometimes showed
abnormally negative values. When this anomaly was specially noted, and the
correctness of the record ascertained, it was too late to modify the work. The most
plausible explanation which I can assign for these anomalous temperatures is that
they are produced by the “northers’”? which are known to occasionally come down
from the Rocky Mountain region into Texas, but which I did not suppose extended

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 365

so far south as Galveston. The further examination of this point must be left to
meteorologists.

$14. Tabular Exhibit of Ten-day Departures During the Period 1872 to 1904.

The original departures are shown in the following tables in the form which
seemed best adapted to facilitate a critical examination and working out of the results.
The means are the unweighted ones of the several regions, and are therefore the values
of 7 to be used in the formule of § 4.

The regions are: Eastern United States, Western United States, Argentina
and Apia.

At the bottom of each annual column is given the algebraic sum of the departures,
which will be useful in any test to which the work may be submitted. By dividing
these terms by 36 we have annual deviations for the different regions, which should
not differ much from those used‘in chapter III.

The comparison of the sum of the means with the mean of the sums may be used
to test the accuracy of the computation. .

Below each sum is given the sum of the squares of the 36 departures. ‘These are
used in the formule of § 4.

A. P.S.—XXI. XX. 14, 1, 708.

366 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TABLE XI.

Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions in °C.

| 1872 1873 1874 1875

| 7 al ]
J. 8.(U | J See | SU.
febes v.s.| Arg. Mean (ee: was Arg. Mean tes eae Arg. Mean ve ue Arg. |Mean
Jan. a | +12|—12! +03) + 021 || —0% | +1°9| +04] + 0.6 ||+ 2°3|-+-0:1 |— 04! +07 ||— 26|— 0:1] 4.0.3 | —08
b | +04/—03)—14 — 04] —03)42.1/414|/+4 11 |— 1.0, 414|— 11 —02 |— 24/4 06] +0.5 |—0.4
¢ |—4.1/—1.6} 0.0|— 1.9|/—2.7|+0.5|+0.9|— 0.4 ||4+ 2.7;—0.1|— 1.2 +0.5 ||+ 1.8|— 0.4] +0.7| +0.7
Feb. a |—28|/+04|+0.2 — 0.7 ||+0.8|+02|—21|— 04 ||— 1.2|—06|— 09 —0.9 ||— 2.9|— 0.2) +1.6 | —0.5
6 |—1.6|+0.3|—0.2|— 05 || +1.0]—2.0|—0.9| — 06 ||+ 2.2|—0.8|+ 0.4 +06 ||— 2.2/4 0.4) +1.6|—0.1
e |—02|—1.1|—35)— 1.6|/—1.0]—04] 0.0|— 05 ||+ 2.0|+22|4 20 +06 ||+ 1.1|— 04)—11}—01
Mar. a | —28|+0.7|+0.6 — 05 | —14/+0.1 —1.8|— 1.0 ||4-.2.0| 25 |— 32] —12 ||— 12|— 1.9|—02)|—11
6 |—14|—02|—21)— 12|/413|41.4|/+0.3!/+ 1.0 ||+ 21)-24/— 2.1) —08 |} 0.0|— 2.9] -0.7| —12
e |—0.7|+0.3|—32/— 12] 0.0)+14|—1.7|— 01 |+ 12/—13|— 06 —02 ||+ 0.6\— 1.2) 12) —0.6
April a | +22|/—2.0/ 41.0 + 04] +1.5/—08]—0.7| 0.0 ||— 0.9] 0.6 |— 0.5 —0.7 |+ 0.6|— 2.8) +0.9 | —0.4
6 |+416|—1.5|+3.5|+ 1.2|/—1.6|+41.3]—1.0|— 04 ||— 1.0}—2.3|+ 0.6, —0.9 ||— 3.4/4 1.7) 0.3 | —0.7
e |+17|—02|—26|— 04||—1.9|+09|—0.1|— 04 ||— 20/+08|— 1.5 +412 ||— 28/4 1.4] 1.5 |—10
May a |+1.0|+0.8|+02|+ 0.7 ||—12]41.1}+0.9|+ 0.3 ||— 12}—0.2|+ 13 0.0 |— 0.3/+ 1.2| +18] +0.9
6 | +1.3|—2.5|—2.6|— 1.3||/+02|—0.1|+0.6)+ 02 [4 0.3/41.8/— 2.1 0.0 ||— 0.7/4 1.8|—1.1| 00
e | 413/404) 40.6 +4 08|)+1.9|+0.1|+1.5|+ 12 |l+ 0.9) +0.9|— 21 —0.1 || 1.0/+ 0.8) +3.2| +17
|
June a |+0.9|+03|—0.1|+4 0.4|| +1.0|+0.1|+1.2|+ 08 |/-4+-1.9] 0.1 |4 2.3} +14 ||— 0.414 03; 0.0 0.0 -
6 |+0.8|+1.0|+4.1|+4 2.0]] +0.7|—0.4|—08]— 02 ||+ 02|+0.6|— 1.9} —04 ||— 0.3/4 1.1|-26 —06
e |+12|+2.9|—22|/+ 06||+0.9|+0.2|+22|+ 1.1 ||+ 14/4021 05] +0.7 ||+ 1.4/4 1.2| -3.2| 02
July a |+14|—0.1|—02|+4 04||4+0.7|—0.2|—15|— 0.3 ||+ 0.4) +2.9|— 14) +06 |]+ 0.1|— 0.2) +1.5/ +05
b \412|+0.5|+22|+ 1.3|) +05|—09|—12|— 05 ||— 04/413 |— 02 +02 ||+ 0.2/4 0.6|—19 —0.4
¢ | +1.0 —02|—0.6|+ 0.1|| +0.4|+0.9|—0.5|+ 0.3 ||— 0.1) +02'+ 0.3 +0.1 ||— 0.3/4 0.3/+0.1| 0.0
Aug. a | +12) 40.2}+419]+4 1.1]/+05|—0.3)—1.1/— 03 ||+ 0.1]—02|+ 44 41.4 ||— 0.9/4 28) +0.7 | +09
» | +20 —1.2|—04|/+ 01] —0.1}+4+04|—06/— 0.1 |4+ 08) +0.2/— 10| 0.0 ||— 0.3|+ 1.3/1.9 —03
¢ |+14/+18! 0.0|+ 1.1] +1.0/+0.7|+41.6}+4 1.1 ||— 08/—0.2|+ 28 +0.6 ||— 1.1|— 0.6] +0.2 | —0.5
Sept. a | +13) +0.1|—0.1|+ 04] +0.4|—0.3|+28|+ 10 |+ 04)—1.0/— 0.5, —04 |+ 14/4 1.6/—15 +05
6 |—01|+06|—0.1}+ 0.1 || —09)+18|+412]+ 07 ||+ 0.8|—2.3|/+ 0.6) —0.3 ||— 2.4/4 1.3)4+2.5 +0.5
¢ |+17|—1.0|+0.6|+ 0.4|| 4+1.0|+0.3|—0.5|+4 0.3 ||— 0.4/+0.9|— 0.6) 0.0 ||— 2.6/4 1.6|41.4 +01
|
Oct. a |-+0.6|+02|+3.0}+ 1.3 |] -0.9|—08|—0.8]— 08 ||— 0.4) +41.8|+ 18 +1.1 ||— 04/4 3.3) 0.0) +10
b |—14|)—0.4|+24|+ 02] +0.3|—0.1/+0.5/4 0.3 ||— 18) +14|— 34) —13 ||— 2.5|+ 4.6) +08 +1.0
¢ |—01|—06] 0.0|— 02] —28|—0.6|+1.1]— 08 ||+ 2.1) +0.4|— 2.1] +0.1 ||-+ 11/4 1.8] 1.2) +06
Nov. a |—03|/—0.4|—0.6]— 04|/—03] 0.0/+0.9/+ 02 ||+ 1.2|—0.7|— 2.8] —08 |/— 1.7/+ 0.5] +0.2|—03
6 |—38|+0.9|—1.3]— 1.4||-23/+27|+414]+4 06 ||4+ 04/—04|+ 02) +0.1 ||+ 15/4 1.1)41.4| 413
¢ |—15|~—04| 0.0/— 06] —07|+0.6|+08|+ 0.2 ||+ 0.1) +1.7|+ 0.3) 40.7 ||+ 0.5|+ 1.1) +02 | +06
Dec. a |—0.4|+0.7| 0.0}+ 0.1] +2.6|—08|+0.7/+ 08 ||+ 0.9|+0.8|+ 1.2| +1.0 ||— 0.1/4 18 +14) +10
b 1.9|—27|—0.5|— 1.7||+22|—1.7/—05| 0.0 ||+ 06] —1.7|+ 0.8] —0.1 ||+ 0.6|— 0.1| —3.3 | —0.9
e |—49/4+12|—04|— 14|/—14/+403/+41.1] 0.0 ||-+ 22! —1.4|— 0.4) +0.1 ||+ 5.5)4 1.2] +0.2/ +23
Sum | -9.6|—4.5|—1.5|— 2.6]] -12|+9.8|+5.7|+ 5.0 ||+17.9| —3.6 |—10.5] +1.2 ||—14.1|+24.6] —0.5 | +3.5
Lv 120 | 44 | 97 | 41.42 || 62 | 38 | 48 | 1289 || 70 | G4 | 102] 18.15 |] 114] 96 | 81 | 24.01
| |

|
|
|

et

ee

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TABLE XI.— Continued.

Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions in °C.

1876 1877 1878 1879
| ede a Le oem ee

Ue He Arg. | Mean \\ ¢ a ae Arg. | Mean y a ee is ees hg ae Arg

eee a || : bs eae (aise

_ 2 SS | ee ee

° ° °o °o | ° il °o o o
Jan. a |+48/+414| +05] 422 || 47/4 o8|+ 121] — 0:9 ||— 3°38] 28 —01| 9 || 53 |— 1%| —s%
b | 41.7) —1.0} —1.5| —0.3 || +1.4|+ 05/4 1.1)+ 10 ||+ 1.3) +0.7|—0.6| +0.5 || —1.1|— 1.7| +02
é |+42)—0.9|—1.7| +05 |] +1.0/— osi+ 3:2] + 1.1 |/+ Sayfa aes +0.1 || +2.6|+ 1.8] —0.5

| | |
Feb. a |+0.4/+0.9|—08}| +0.2 || +2.7/+ 1.2/— 0.6|+ 1.1 0.0] +0.9| —1.5] —0.2 |] —0.9|— 1.1] +0.6
6 | 428/414] —1.1| +1.0 | —0.6/+ 12|— 0.3) + 0.1 | + 03) +12)—0.5| +0.3 || —1.4/+ 2.6) 0.5
¢ | +0.7)+0.1)+1.0) +0.6 |—0.7|+ 2.7|— 0.4|+ 0.5 ||-+ 2.0/—0.1|+0.2| +0.7 || 1.6 |+ 3.5) —1.6
Mar. a |-+2.0)—1.2/+0.1| +0.3 || —0.3/+- 1.8/4 1.3] + 0.9 ||+ 1.4) —0.4] 42.1] +1.0 || +2.0|+ 2.4! +04
b |—0.3|—1.8]—0.5| —0.9 | —1.2/+ 4.0/4 2.9|+ 1.9 ||4+ 2.5] +3.0] +0.6| +2.0 || —0.6|+ 1.7) —0.1
ce |—21|—12) 4-21) —0.4 || —0.7|+ 3.0]-+ 1.5} -+ 1.3 ||+ 1.9] +0.2|—0.4| +0.6 || +1.8/+ 3.4] —0.1

I |

April a |—0.5]—0.9|+0.4] —0.3 |—0.1|+ 0.9|— 0.7) 0.0 |/+ 1.2) +1.8]—1.9] +0.4 || —1.2/4+ 1.2} —0.7
b 0.0} +0.6| —0.2| +0.1 || —0.4/4+ 0.2/4 1.7)+ 0.5 ||+ 2.0) —2.4|+0.1| —0.1 || —0.8!+ 0.2) +0.2
e |—01)+3.4|—0.2] +1.0 || —0.6|— 1.3/4 1.0] — 0.3 ||+ 2.0 —0.8|}+0.8] +0.7 || +1.0|+ 1.6] +1.0

| | | |
May @ |—03/+41.3/+42.3| +11 |—3.3|— 0.1)— 0.6)— 1.3) +4 0.9) +11) +01) +0.7 |—04 + 22 +09
B | +0:3)—0.8!+1.7) +0.4 || -+03|— 22/— 1.2!— 1.0||\— 0.7] 00! —25) —1.1 141.7 |+ 1.0! +12
e |+02]+0.6|+0.5| +0.4 || +0.1|— 0.7/+ 0.1) — 02 |+ 0.4/0.9 +2.9) +08 || +0.2 — 1.7 +0.1
June a |+06|—02|+1.1| +05 || 0.3/4 0.3/4 1.6]+ 0.7 ||+ 0.1] +1.0) —08| -+0.1 || —0.3|+ 1.8 —22
’ |+04)+28)—18| +05 ||+0.3|/+ 20/— 1.1)+ 0.4 ||— 0.3) 41.2) +25) 41.1 || 0.0|— 1.4) +2.0
e |+1.0}+41.3| +1.0} +1.1 || +0.4]/— 0.5/+- 1.9]+ 0.6 4+ 0.4] +1.4| —3.3| —0.5 || —0.3 |+ 0.7/ +0.1
July a |414/+416|+0.6| +12 || +08|+ 1.5/4 241+ 16 |]4+ 0.9|+1.7|-25| 0.0 || +07 |_ 0.1) +1.4
6 |}41.3|4+0.7)+43| +21 |] —0.1|+ 2.8/4. 6.4] + 3.0 ||4+ 2.0] +1.0/ 41.3] +1.4 |} +0.7 |+ 0.6) +1.7
e |—08|+0.6|+3.1] +1.0 | -+-0.7|+ 0.2|— 2.5|— 0.5||+ 0.8] +0.8|+0.8| +08 || 40.3 |4+ 1.2) +0.7

| | | |
Aug. a |—0.5|—0.1|—0.1| —0.2 | +0.5/+ 0.6|— 3.0)— 0.6 ||+ 1.0] +1.6, +3.0| +1.9 || +0.6/+ 0.6 —18
6 |+05|—01|—24| —0:7 || +-0.3|-+ 1.6/-+ 1.8] + 12 ]|+ 0.7] +1.7|—2.6| —0.1 |] —1.2/4 1.4) +12
e |4+04}—1.1|+0.7] 0.0 || +1.4/4+ 05/+ 0.4/+ 0.8 ||4+ 0.2) +0.5| —1.5| —0.3 || —0.1 |— 0.1) +2.8

| |
Sept. a |+0.6|—0.7/40.2| 0.0 | +0.1/+ 1.0/4 1.1)+ 0.7 ||+ 0.9) —1.5 41.3] +02 || —0.2|+ 1.6) —1.7
’ |—0.9|—03)|+0.7| —o2 |) +0:7|— 04|+ 0.5] + 0.3 ||— 0.9] —0.2| —0.1| —0.4 |] —1.6|+ 2.1) —0.1
e |—0.3}+12|+42.6| +1.2 | +0.7|+ 0.3\— 2.0) — 0.3 ||+ 02/12) —0.4| —0.5 || -0.4/4+ 1.0 41.1
Oct. a |—2-1|+2.9| +21] +1.0 || 0.2/4 0.4/+ 1.0] + 0.4 |I4 0.6/—0.1| 0.0) +0.2 || +3.3|— 0.3) +2.4
Bh |—1.6)--0.1 | —2.4| —13 || +1.2|— 0.6/4 0.3| + 0.3 ||/+ 1.7] —0.6 | —0.3| -++0.3 || +2.7|— 0.6) —1.1
¢ |+08| 0.0|—1.2| —O.1 ||-+0.8|— Lol+ 1.5|+ 0.4 ||— 1.4 loge Ser |==1S ie es] 20

|

Nov. a |+0.1|+0.2|—2.1} —0.6 || —1.2|— 0.8|— 1.1]— 1.0 ||— 1.0] +0.5| +0.2| —0.1 || —0.4|— 0.6, +1.0
b |—0.7|+0.3|—2.8| —1.1 || +0.5|+ 0.4/+ 2.0] + 1.0||+ 0.7}+0.1 | +2.1} +1.0 |} +3.0|— 1.4 1.7
¢ |—1.5|+0.5|—1.1| —0.7 || —0.3|— 1.3/— 0.2] — 0.6 ||+ 0.3] —1.0|—0.3| —0.3 || 0.0|— 2.0) —0.2
Mega 5.91210) | 12) — 210 ||_—2°2 | oa 0.6) — 17 ll— 0. loin —1.0 || +3.6 |— 0.7) —1.1
b |—1.6|—2.9|—2.7| —24 || 43.3|4 2.2|4+ 18/4 2.4 ||— 1.9] —4.4|—0.3) —2.2 || +0.7|+ 1.3) +0.0
e -|—3.7|—0.3|—0.6] —1.5 || +2.3|— 0.4\— 0.7|+ 0.4 ||— 4.5| 3.0) —1.5| —3.0 || +1.1|— 3.2 +1.0
Sum 41.3 |+9.4| +0.6| +3.7 || +-3.1 |4-17.6|4-21.6] +-14.2 ||4+-13.2 +12|—9.9| +1.6 || +8.0|+19.1) +48
xa? 124| 58 | 96 | 37.61 || 76 | 81 | 113 | 41.18 || 84 | 89 | 97 | 40.83 || 101] 98 | 63

367

. |Mean

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+ 0.7

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32.92

368 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

Taste XI. — Continued.

Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions in °C.

| 1880 1881 1852 | 1883
idem te ag PR? l : ;
S.|U.§ | 5 Jee) Was
licen us Arg. | Mean ues v8 Arg. | Mean ue US Arg. | Mean a a8 Arg. | Mean
; | ° ° Wie i ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ; ° is °
Jan a |+ 5.8/4. 0.1) —0.6| +1.8 ||— 3.6] —2.8 | —0.7 | —2.4 |/4+ 1.0\— 1.2) —0.7) —O0.3 || —1.1 | —0:4 | 3.6 | +-0.7
6 |+ 4.3/+ 1.6] —1.6] +1.4 \|— 1.3) +0.4 | —2.6| —1.2 ||+ 2.6/— 3.9) +1.1 |) —0.1 || —1.3 | —2.9 | —1.7 | —2.0
c + 4.0\— 1.6) 0.0) +0.8 ||— 1.8) —0.7| —0.4| —1.0 ||\+ 0.9 — 2.8) +0.4| —0.5 || —0.7 | —0.9 | —0.9 | —0.8
Feb. a |+ 0.9/— 4.2) +1.1/ —1.3 ||— 15/429] 0.0] +05 ||+ 2.0/— 2.8] 23] —1.0 || —0.2/—3.9|—0.1 | —1.4
iPS De ea) ore |S ||) SS ey EE As a Sunes) Sera) |) 44293 | ay || Oye || Sep
e |+ 3.7/— 1.7|—1.3| +02 |— 0.7) +2.7| 41.1] +1. ||+ 1.6|— 1.3]-4+0.4] +0.2 | +03] +0.2| +0.7| +0.4
Mar. «a + 3.4|/— 1.6) —2.2| —O0.1 ||— 1.0) —1.1 | +0.1 | —0.5 |/+ 2.6)— 2.8) —1.1| —0.4 |) —0.7 | +2.0 | +1.6| +1.0
b |— 1.1|/— 5.0) 0.0] —2.0 ||+ 0.7) —3.8 | +2.7 | —0.1 |/-+- 1.9)/— 1.0) —0.5| +0.1 || —0.1 | +-1.9 | —0.8 | +-0.3
e |+ 0.2/— 1.9/+0.3| —0.5 ||— 2.5] +1.8}+0.9] +0.1 |/+ 0.9/+ 1.4] —0.2| +0.7 |] —2.0| +1.8 | +2.0| +-0.6
|
April a |+ 1.3/+ 0.8] +0.7/ +0.9 |/— 3.9] 41.9] +0.2| —0.6 ||-+ 2.9/+ 0.4] 1.3] +0.7 || +1.2] —1.0| +0.6 | +-0.3
6 |+ 12/— 18/406] 0.0 ||— 1.2)40.7/—06| —o.4 ||— 1.2|— 2.6} -1.9| —1.9 || +0.9 | 2.5 | —0.2|—0.6
e+ 0.6-— 14) —1.5] —08 |/+ 18) +27] +10) +18 ||— 02\— 0.7) —1.3) —0.7 || 1.1) —2.0 | —2.6| —1.9
May a + 1.9)/+ 0.3) +0.2|} +0.8 ||+ 0.7) +2.1 | —0.3| +0.8 ||+ 0.2)-+ 0.5} —0.8 0.0 || +0.9 | —1.6 | +1.9 | +0.4
6 |+ o9l— 04/+03! +03 |l+ 1.6 +02|/+13! +10 ||— 2.7/4 08|+05| —o5 || 0.4] —1.8| 413] —03
¢ \-F. 1.8)-- 0:5) --1.0)| 1-1 )-- 13) E13 | —-0:8 |) er 1.2/4 0.2) +-2.0 +0.3 | —1.3} +0.9 | —1.0) —0.5
June a |+ 0.4/+ 0.7] 43.4] 41.5 ||+ 0.4] 41.0] +0.1] +0.5 ||— 0.6/4 1.7] —2.0| —0.3 || 4+-0.9] +1.0] 42.1] 11.3
6 4.0.54 1.0 41.6) 41.1 + 14) 40.7) +02] +08 ||+ 0.7, — 1.3) 0.0) —02 | +0.8| 40.6 | +2.4| +13
¢ |+ 06 + 14] +20) +13 + 0.7) +1.0/—1.1} +02 ||-+ 1.6/4 0.1) +11) +09 | +0.4|+41.7|—0.7| +05
| |
July a |+ 05\+ 0.6) +03} +05 ||-+ 0.7|+0.1|-+0.1| +0.3 ||— 0.5|+ 1.3} 41.4] +0.7 || 40.6] 412] 42.1] 413
6b J+ 1.0\— 1.4 =-2:0'| --0:7 “|= 1-0) —0-2)| —'6) —0:3)|—"0:4|— 0-1) —0:2)), —0-2 ; 0.0| +0.4 | +2.0| +0.8
me NE OG OO oe Sore IES Ono) S|) Sor = one 0.5) 27 —1.1 | +0.1] —0.6 | —4.2) —1.6
Aug, a |— 1.3\/— 1.3| +0.4| —o.7 + 12] 00]/—3.8|—o.9 ||— o7i-+- 1.8] -£1.5] --0.9 || —0.5| —0.6/—0:8| —0.6
b — 0.2-+ 0.1) +1.8) +0.6 |+ 0.2) —1.0 —0.3} —0.4 ||— 0.2+ 0.2) +0.7 | +0.2 || —0.1 | —0.1 | —0.6 | —0.3
c + 14— 1.7 +2.3 +0.7 |+ 1.7) —0.9 +3.6| +1.5 |= oO + 0.1 +0.1 0.0 | +0.1 | +2.0 —0.3 |) +0.6
Sept. a — 0.2 -+4 0.1) —0.5 | —0.2 ||+ 2.8) —2.3 —1.0} —0.2 ||+ 0.2 + 1.7) —1.9 0.0 || —0.9 | +2.8 | —2.5 | —0.2
— 0.1)— 0.8 —5.8 2.2 + 0.4) +0.4 +0.3) +0.4 ||+ 0.8 — 1.9) —0.3| —0.5 || +0.3) +0.3 +0.2 | +0.3
+ 0.2\— 0.5 +1.0| +0.2 |+ 2.1) —2.6 —0.8} —0.4 ||— 0.9+ 0.2) -+1.8| +0.4 || —0.4 2.6 +0.8 | +1.0
Oct. a = 0.6|— 0.1 —2.6) —1.1 |+ 2.7) +1.4 +1.2) +1.8 |+ 1.5 — 2.7) +2.2| +0.3 || +0.8 | —2.0 | +2.4/ +0.4
— 0.1/— 2.6 —2.1 | —1.6 ae 2.3) —2.9 +1.6} +0.3 ||+ 1.6/— 1.6) +1.2] +0.4 || +1.3 | —2.7 | +1.3 0.0
c — 15+ 0.8 —1.7} —0.8 |+ 1.3) —1.9 —1.1] —0.6 |)+ 1.6/+ 1.0) +2.8) +1.8 || +1.1] —1.7 | —2.6} —1.1
| } | |
Nov. a |— 02|— 08 41.7] —02 ||+ 14/23, 0.0] —0.3 ||+ 1.9/4 0.6) +0.8| +1.1 || 41.6] —0.1 | 42.1] 41.2
— 3.0 — 5.0 —1.2; —3.1 |+ 1.7) —2.7 +1.2} +0.1 0.5|— 3.7, —0.3 1.5 |) —2.1 | —0.2| —0.7 | —1.0
c — 3.2\— 4.3 —0.8) —2.7 |— 1.0) —2.3 —0.2| —1.2 ||— 2.0\— 0.1) +0.2| —0.6 || +1.4| —0.8 | —0.4| +0.1
| | | |
Dee. a — 0.7 — 2.3 +2.7) —0.1 ||+ 1.8) +0.9 +2.0|} +1.6 I— 1.8 + 2.0) —0.3 0.0 || +-0.7 | —0.6 | +1.6 | +0.6
b |+ 0.3/+ 0.4) +0.4] +04 ||+ 2.3) 0.3) +1.8| +1.3 ||— 0.7/4 2.7/ 1.3] +-0.2 |] —0.8| +-1.4| 41.5] +07
c — 58+ 1.6 —0. 3) —1.5 |+ 0.2) +0.6 +1.3| +0.7 + 0.3;— 1.0) —1.5}| —0.7 |} +1.6| +-0.6 | —0.8 | +0.5
Sum +16.6 —34.7, +0.4| —5.9 |4+13.3) —7.6> +7.8 | +4.3 ||--17 .6|—17.3| —1.9| —0.6 | +3.9 | —6.7 | +8.5 | +2.1
zA2 172 | 149 109 51.52 104 113 70 | 31.69 I 9] 114 62 19.76 || 40 99 | 108 | 28.65

|

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 369
Taste XI.— Continued.
Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions in °C.
1884 1885 1886 1887
$6.10. 8: ..8./U. § J. 8.|U. 8 | |U.8.|U.8

iit | oI Arg. Mean ce nae Arg. Mean U ‘ia ik i Arg: | Mean U.S. a Arg. Mean

— | ~ |

° | ° ° o, ° ° o | ° ° ° ° | ° ° ) 2 c
Jan. a |— 2.3) +1.1/—0.5|) —0.6 |/+ 0.94 0.3/+0.1| +04 — 273 —3’9|+0%| —1% || 44 4+ 127 — of8| —1°2
6 |— 1.0 —1.2})+2.7) +0.2 |/+ 02+ 0.2) +04) +03 — 32 +0.7 | +0.9) —0.5 |— 03+ 2.0 1.6) +1.1
e |— 1.5) +1.0)+42.5| 40.7 ||— 2.2— 1.0) +23) —03 |— 18\+4.9/+05| +12 |/+ 3.014 124 14) +19
| | | |
Feb. a |+ 4.0 +1.0)—0.9 > +1.4 ||+ 0.5/+ 2.0) +0.7) +1.1 |— 42 +4.3 —0.3 | —0.1 ||+ 28+ 2.3 — 0.4) +1.6
b [+ 2.2 —38/41.6) 0.0 ||— 2.34 0.4/1.6] —1.2 ||— 0.4) +2.9| 2.3] +0. |/+ 3.4 — 0.3'— 0.2) +10
e |— 13 4+2.2}+05) +0.5 ||— 35+ 12 —0.9) —1.1 |— 1.4) +1.7| +3.2) +1.2 |+ 0.6— 14— 0.8 —0.5
Mar. a |— 1.5 +3.1}+1.4|} +1.0 }/— 1.1/+ 1.9) —0.5)} +0.1 |— 2.6) —2.0 +1.6) —1.0 ||+ 19+ 2.5 — 0.1 +144
b |+ 1.2; —0.3) +2.3) +1.1 ||— 3.9/4 2.2} 0.0) —0.6 + 0.8) —1.8 +13) +0.1 ||+ 0.9+ 2.04 0.9 +1.3
e |+ 2.4 —1.9|]+2.1) +0.9 |i— 19+ 1.7; 0.0) —0.1 |— 0.9) —1.1 0.0; —0.7 |\— 24+ 11+ 14 0.0
April a |— 1.3 +0.6| —2.2| —1.0 |/+ 1.0\+ 3.6) —04| +1.4 |— 2.6 —0.3) +14) —0.5 ||— 0.7 + 14— 0.5 +0.1
6 |— 13 —0.8)—1.0) —1.0 ||— 0.94 1.9 +42 +1.7 |+ 0.4) —1.3 0.0, —0.3 0.0 — 18 — 1.0 —0.9
e |— 14 —1.4|+2.0| —0.3 ||+ 14+ 0.1) —0.4) +0.4 |+ 0.9) —0.9| —1.5| —0.5 ||— 0.4— 0.3 — 1.0 —0.6
|
May a |+ 0.6 —04/—3.6 —1.1 ||— 04+ 2.1) 0.0) +05 0.0) —0.1 | —1.4| —0.5 ||+ 16+ 10— 2.3 +0.1
6 j+ 04 4+1.1}—1.2 +0.1 |\— 04— 1.0 —1.6 —1.0 |— 0.9) 0.0 —0.6) —0.5 |+ 0.4 0.0 + 0.3 +-0.2
ce |— 0.2 +0.1| +0.4) +0.1 ||-+ 0.4— 0.4. —1.0) —0.3 ||— 0.4) +2.8 | +2.6) +1.7 ||+ 0.14 1.9+4 18 41.3
June a (+ 04 +07 1.8 | +1.0 ||+ 0.2— 1.1 +0.3 —0.2 = 83 +1.1, —0.6} +0.1 ||— 0.6+ 0.2 + 3.6 +1.1
6 |— 0.6 —0.2 | —2.3 |) —1.0 ||+ 0.7 — 1.2, —44 —1.6 ||/4+ 0.3) +1.1|—0.9} +02 |— 054 08+ 3.8 +14
e |+ 0.1 +1.2|—4.6 —1.1 |/— 0.1 — 0.2) +0.2 0.0 |j}— 0.7) +1.3 | —0.5 0.0 |— 17+ 10+ 1.1 +0.1
July a (+ 0.2 +0.9 0.0 +04 |+ 03+ 0.9 +0.9 +0.7 |— 0.3) +1.0 —2.6) —0.6 |— 0.14 08 — 1.5 —03
6 |— 04 —0.4;)—0.8 —0.5 es 0.8 + 0.4, —3.5 —08 |— 0.9) 4+2.2)—1.6!) —0.1 /+ 0.8 — 1.1— 08 —0.4
e |+ 0.4 —0.8|—14 —0.1 !|4+ 13 — 0.1)—3.0 —0.6 ||+ 0.4) —0.6)+1.9| +0.6 ||+ 0.7 — 0.3+ 1.9 +0.8
| |
Aug. a |— 0.7 —0.3/+3.6) +0.9 ||+ 0.2 — 0.4) —3.5| —1.2 ||— 0.4) —0.2| —0.4| —0.3 ||4+ 0.2 — 1.4 + 4.9 +1.2
6b |+ 0.1 —0.8|+2.4 +0.6 ||— 0.24 2.6)—0.7) +0.6 ||+ 0.2) +0.9 | —0.7} +-0.1 ||-+ 0.3 0.0 + 4.7 +1.7
e |+ 0.9 0.0) +3.0) +1.3 |/+ 0.4 — 0.5)+41.8, +0.6 ||+ 0.6) +1.7|+1.0} 41.1 ia 1.0— 1.2— 0.4 —0.9
Sept. a |+ 13 —3.7|+1.0 —0.5 ||— 0.3 — 0.6)/+0.5 —0.1 0.0) --1.7 | +-2.4| --1:4 ||— 0.3 — 14 — 1.9 —1.2
6 |+ 05 —1.8)+0.3) —0.3 0.7\-+ 0.3) +2.8 | +1.3 |/-+ 1.0) +0.8 | —0.7| +0.4 = 0.1 + 0.2;\— 1.4, —0.4
m HE 24 —0.6| —1.2| +0.2 ||— Ol + 1.4] —0.6] +02 ||-+ 0.8) —0.4| —3.2] —0.9 ||— 1.64 1.6/4 1.6 +0.5
Octme cn tO ell — Os Ost sells Dalit o/o) er = y'g|\--0.2)| 1.1] —0.6 4. 13+ 0.2/+ 1.0 +08
6 .|+ 15 +18) +04) +1.2 ||\— 0.1 — 0.1) —0.3) —0.2 ||+ 1.6) —2.0 +0.8) +0.1 I= 1.2/+ 02/— 0.7| —0.6
e |+ 1.6) —0.1/—0.8| +0.2 ||— 14+ 0.8)/+0.2 —0.1 ||— 0.2} —1.0 —1.1| —0.8 |— 23+ 0.9— 1.7 —1.0
Nov. a |— 0.5 +0.3/—0.1 —0.1 || 1.0/4 1.0) --3.9 | +2.0 |/-+ 0.6) —2.3| +0.9| —0.3 ||— 0.2\4 2.2;— 0.6) +05
6 |+ 0.6/+403/+0.7| +0.5 ||+ 08/+ 1.3]—0.6) +05 ||— 0.5) —4.6|—0.3} —1.8 |/+ 0.24 1.3\+ 0.8 +08
+ 0.3 +0.6 0.0 | +0.3 ||— 1.4/+ 1.1) +1.9} +0.5 |/+ 0.4) —2.7| —0.1| —0.8 ||+4 0.2|— 0.2;— 0.8; —0.3
|
Dec. aq |+- 2.3) —1.6| +04; +0.4 ||— 1.7/— 0.3} +0.3| —0.6 ||— 4.0) —0.7 | +1.0) —1.2 ||+ 0.9\— 0.4\— 0.2; +0.1
6 |— 14 +2.6|+0.6) +0.6 ||— 1.2— 0.8] —0.8 —0.9 ||— 0.9) +1.2) +24} +0.9 |— 0.1— 1.6-+4 1.2 —0.2
e [+ 04)+14 —0.1) +0.6 ||+ 1.5/4 4.7) +02) +21 |— 0.1) 42.7) +21) 41.6 ||— 22— 14/— 1.1 —16
|

Sum +11.4 —3.0) +8.9 +6.5 |\—11.9 +26.5)—0.9 +4.6 |—22.1 +7.3 +5.9 | —2.6 ||— 0.8 +:13.7)-+ 3.8) +8.9
zA2 76 87 115 | 19.45 64 85 120 29.98 | 80 154 | 85 | 25.40 83 58 119 31.94

370

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

TaBLE XI.— Continued.

Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions wm °C.

| 1888 1889 1890 | 1891
U. S.| U.S. U.S./U. S. | U.S.|U.S Sa- | 4, |/U.S./U.S.|,° | Sa-

lita Il Arg. | Mn T Il Arg.) Mn.|| “7 Il Arg. iio Mn. I | Ir Arg. ae Mn.

- a | ° z ° ° oO ° ° ° : ° ° Oo ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Jan a + 1.4)— 3.5/+ 0.5/—0.5||+0.9\— 1.6/+1.4 +-0.2)) 5.9/— 2.4 : -+1.0)|—0.1 +-0.6 +-1.1|--0.6)+-0.6
6 |— 29\— 5.9|4+ 3.1)—19||+24/4+ 1.3|—0.1|412)4 44— 3.3\— 2. —0.5|—1.3 —0.3 +0.4 +0.8|—0.1

c ee 1.9)+ 2.8)+ 2.5)+1.1)+0.1/— 2.9\—0.8 —1.2)+ 3.4/— 0.1 0. -3|-+-0.9]|+-1.9 +1.7 —0.6 realy
Feb. a lat 1.1)+ 1.6)+ 0.2)41.0)/—1.2/— 0.9 —1.0\—1.0 + 4.0)/+ 5.0 1. .1|+-2.5|)-+2.2 —2.6 +1.1| 0.0)+0.2
b |+ 0.1/-+ 2.4|+ 0.5|+1.0}|—0.7|— 1.4/—0.5|—0.9||/-+ 2.2|— 0.4 0. .2|-++0.6]|+2.6 —0.6+1.1| 0.0)+-0.8

e {+ 0.3)+ 1.7/-+ 1.9/+1.3]/—2.9|4 2.7/—0.2\—0.1|/4+ 1.9)— 4.2 2. 0} —1.1])-+0.2 +0.4 +1.9 +-0.3) +-0.7
Mar. a — 1.2/— 1.7 0.0}—1.0)'—1.6|+ 3.4,+1.1 41.0 — 2.9|— 0.4/— 1.0)/+-0.5|—0.9 —1.1 —1.7 +3.8 —0.1|-++0.2
b — 2.2/4 1.0/4 1.5]/+0.1|/+0.3/-+ 1.8|+0.4/++0.8||+ 0.1/-+ 0.2;\— 1.3/+-0.3|—0.2)|—1.4|--1.1|—1.1|+-0.5)/—0.2
c lee 1.7/— 0.3|+ 0.6]—0.5}|—0.5|+ 2.4/4-1.1/41.0|/+ 2.1/— 0.2/— 1.9 +-0.6/+-0.1)|—0.8 —1.9 +-0.8 ee
April a late 2.2|+ 0.8/+ 0.7/+-1.2)/+-0.2/4- 3.0 +1.8/4+1.7)|+ 0.9/+ 0.4\— 1.1 —0.7|—0.1|/—3.4'—0.7 —1.9'+-0.3 —1.4
b — 0.2\+- 44/4 1.6/+1.9|/+0.4/+ 0.1|—3.3|—0.9)|— 0.1/— 0.2\+ 1.5/—0.8/+-0.1]|--1.6 —0.7 +1.2/—0.1)-+-0.5

c |— 0.8/4 2.2 + 1.2/\+0.9)|—0.3|4 3.1/—0.9 +0.6|— 0.6)-+ 0.8 + 3.0)/+-0.2 +0.8}/-++-0.8 +1.4 —0.4|—0.1|+-0.

May a + 0.1/4 0.1/4 2.2/40.8||—0.7|— 0.6 +0.9 —0.1|— 0.3 + 12+ 14\—0.1|-+0.6|—0.9 +2.1 —1.4/—0.2|—0.1
6 |— 16|+ 14/— 2.1/0.8) +0.9|— 0.7|—-1.9,—0.6— 0.44 0.4 — 2.0|-+0.4|—0.4||—1.6 0.4 —1.8|-+0.1|—0.7
e |= 0.5/— 0.3|— 1.0 —0.6||—0.3 4+ 1.9|42.3 4+1.3)/— 0.4 + L1)— 1.5\—0.1|—0.2)|—1.5 —0.7 +0.8)-+0.3/—0.3
June a (fe 1.0|+ 0.4 — 2.7 —1.1)|—1.6/ + 0.7|-+-1.5)--0.2 i= 0.6+ 0.7 0.0 +0.6)+0.2/|—1.0 —1.1 0.0/+-0.7|—0.4
b + 0.1/4 1.8/— 2.7)—0.3||—0.4|+ 1.2)—2.6/—0.6||+ 0.3|— 0.9'— 4.0|—0.2|/—1.2)|+-0.3 —1.3 +1.2|+-0.2/+-0.1
e | 0.1/+ 10\— 2.2 —0.4||—-1.6 + 1.0404 —0.1/+ 0.7\— 1.2, — 2.6) 0.0|—0.8||-+0.1 +1.8 +0.8|—0.7|+0.5
Toy § CQO Oat talgos| oot acoolgo1 (+ ost 04% ost s\%0al|—03—0013!—o9l—on
— 1.0/— 0.2 .7|+0.2 ! -1/—0. 1 |— 0. . 5 —1.3}—0.2||—0.3 —0.9 —1.2\—0.9|—0.
e |—o7/+ o6|4 08|-+0.2||—0.6|-+ 1.7/+1.4/+0.8|— 1.4/4 1.7|4 2.5|—0.6|+-0.6||—0.7 +0.9 —1.6|—0.7|0.5
Aug. a + 0.8)— 1.0)+ 4.6/+1.5}|—1.3)+ 1.1)-++0.6/+0.1 |— 0.1 — 0.3,— 1.6/—0.8|—0.7||—0.2 —0.7|\—2.0|—0.2|—0.8
b — 0.2)/— 0.5|— 1.5|—0.7 —1.3)+ 1.5|—4.8)/—1.5 |— 0.7,— 0.1|— 1.7|+0.5|—0.5}| 0.0 +1.2 —0.3|—0.8} 0.0
c 0.9|+ 1.2/4 0.7|+0.3]|—0.5/+ 1.4/—1.2|—0.1|— 0.8'— 0.2,\— 2.3/—0.2/—0.9)/—1.4 4+2.2 41.5|—0.1}-+-0.6
Sept. a 2 1.3)4+ 1.7/4+ 4.1/41.5)|—0.1/— 0.1/—1.9 —0.7|— 0.1 — 0.8|— 1.5|-++-0.9/—0.4/|—1.3 +3.7|—3.8 +0.1'—0.3
b — 0.2|+ 2.0/4— 1.2|+-1.0}|—0.4|— 0.61.3 +0.1|— 0.5\+ 0.8'— 2.4)/-+-0.1 —0.5)|-+1.0 +-0.6 —0.2)+-0.6 +0.5
c — 1.9)/+ 2.3|— 2.3)—0.6||—2.1)\+ 0.4/—0.4/—0.7 |— 2.0-+ 2.5|— 0.9|+0.8/-+-0.1 +1.3\—0.9 +3.1|—0.6/+0.7

Oct. a — 1.9)+ 0.6/— 0.2 —0.5 —1.9/+- 2.3)+-2.4;+0.9 ae 1.0|— 2.2|++ Paiciag 0.0 |\—0.9 —1.8 +2.6/+-0.5 +0.1
b — 0.8)/+ 0.9/+ 0.7|+0.3 —1.3/+ 0.1)+1.4)+0.1 |+ 1.2 — 2.0/4+ 1.6) 0.0)+-0.2),—1.8 —0.1/—0.9/—0.1|—0.7
c — 0.1/4 0.3/+ 0.3|+0.2)|\—0.5|4+ 1.2;—0.4/+0.1 |— 18+ 2.1)/— 1.2)\+-0.5)—0.1) —0.6+-3.0 +1.2)-71.2 +1.2
s
Noy. a + zh — 1.4/+ ce aie eu — 0.7 ry —0.8|/+ 0 Zar 0.8)+ ae +0.8 +-0.9) —0.4 +19 nee +0.6 —0.2
+ Me — 0.4/— ae —0.9 |= -O-1| 0.0/-+-0.4) +0.1 jt 1.9 0.0;— 2 aud = 0:3 —1.0 pave 2.2)+-0.6 +-0.3
c — 2.9/4 1.2/-+- 0.9|—0.3 \+0.4\+ 2.4\+1.4)+1.4 |+ aie 3.9\+ 3.5) +0.2)+2.1) —0.3 +-2.3)/+-0.3|—0 8 +0.4
|
Dec. a — 1.1/4 0.8/4 0.5|+0.1 +1.8)/+ 3.0|—1.2 +12 — |] 0 of 1.2 + 3.0 +0.1 +0.8) +1.1 —1.6|—1.0|-+0.2 —0.3
B |—o5l+ 1.9|-+ 1.6|-+1.0|/4+-3.0|+ 3.4|-1.4/4+1.7||— 0.6/4 3.3|+ 2.6|+0.5|+1.4] +1.2 —0.9|—1.0|—0.4|—0.3
c | on 0:7 4 07 soo ree 4+ 0.7|—0.6|-+1.8||— 0 Wt 3.6|-+ 0.8|-+0.5|-+1.2] +3.1 —3.7|—1.8|-+0.7|—0.4
|

Sum —19.3|+21.1|-4-23.2/+-8.4 |—7.2,+33.7/—8.0,-+-6.2 jt 16.5|+12.5|—10.3 +2.3) +5.3) —6.5 +2.6 +2.8|/+-2.6)-+0.4
A? 64 131 136 seo 80 | 116 | 93 /29.34) 126) 127 | 132 7 |27.35} 69 96 | 100} 5 {11.09

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. ot

TaBLE XI.— Continued.

Simultaneous oe e eure im Regions in °C.

1892 | 1893 1894 1895
i = —. : :
U.S. |U.S. Sa- U.S. U.S. Sa- U.S,| U.S. Sa- "U.S. | U.S. Sa-
to) Arg. | noe Mean I Tr |4™8 | moa | Mean | i Tr |4"8:| moa Mn. | 1 | a {A | moa Mn.
ae 'e ed | ee ~9 A _il 4 ss | |
| : : 1 =|
Jan. “a |— 13+0.1/+ 06/+0.1'— 0.1 Ls + 22/4 0.6\— 0.8\— 0.2)|-+27— 3.5+1.0 +02 +01)|— 08/+ 13 — 1s —0-4!—o-4
6 |— 3.0 —1.6|+ 1.4\—0.8 — 1.0|—5.8|— 0.2\— 1.2\— 1.1 — 2.1/3.3 — 0.9—2.2—0.1 0.0)|+ 0.4/4 2.6 — 3.4 —0.2 —0.2
e |= 0.7 +0.2|— 2.00.1 — 0.6) —0.1|-+ 0.3/+ 0.5 — 0.2+ 0.1/0.4 + 12.4+2.2.—0.7 +0.6) — 0.7|— 3.0 — 0.3 +0.2—1.0
| | | |
Feb. a |+ 18—1.0/+ 2.8)/+0.6+ 1.0)+0.5|— 1.0\— 2.1/— 0.2\— 0.7|+1.5|— 2.3'+.0.7 —0.6 —0.2)— 5.8|— 0.9 + 1.1—0.9 —1.6
db |+ 0.5 —0.3/+ 1.74044 0.6) +0.7 — 1.0 — 1.5\— 0.8, — 0.6 —0.1 — 3.6 +0.7 —0.5 —0.9) — 7.5|— 2.3 — 12 —1.0—3.0
e |+ ae 0.2/-+0.2|+ 0.6//—0.4|— 1.8|— 1.6|— 0.6|— 1.1/|—2.8|— 3.: 3|—0.2 —0.1 —1.6) — 11jJ+ 1.8/+ 1.9\—1.2|+0.4
Mar. « |— 0.9/+1.9\— 0.8 +0.7 + 0.2) +0.3\— 1.6— 02+ 0.6 — 0.2/+3.3 — 24 —18 —1.1—0.5 — 064+ 04+ 14—08 40.1
Bb |— 4.7|+1.7|— 2.0.+-0.5|— 1.1]|—1.0|— 2.1|— 0.6|— 0.8\— 1.1|+3.2|— 0.8|—2.1+0.2 +0.1/— 1.3\— 2.6/+ 0.9 —0.3\—0.8
oS ee — 0.4 +0.8'— 0.5] —0.6\+ 04+ 0.4)— 0.5 — 0.1|—2.6-+ 1.0 —0.4 $0.4 —0.4) + 0.34 0.9 + 2.2 +0.7|-+1.0
| |
April a |-+ 1.3|—0.5]— 0.5/+-0.3|4+ 0.2|/+2.7|— oal— 28\+ 02! 0.0/\—0.2\— 0.4/-+1.0-+0.2'+0.2| — o2|— 04'+ 0.9 +0.2-40.1
ye 19 —08 — 1.6/+-0.5|— 0.9||—0.1/— 2.2\— 0.2|— 1.1/— 0.9||-+0.7|— 1.2/—0.6 40.9] 0.0|— 1.2/4 1.0/4 2.1/4-0.1/40.5
oe |= al 0.0\—0.1|— 0.5) —0.5|— 1.3/4 1.3|— 1.4 — 0.5 +1.0— 0.8 —0.4 40.3 0.0 + 04-4 0.74 1.5 40.2/40.7
[el }
May a |+ 08|—24|— 04 —0.7\— 0.7|—0.8\— 1.1| 0.0\— 0.8 — 0.7/+1.8|— 0.7/44.5 —0.2 41.3 + 1.9/+ 1.2\— 2.1405 +04
b |— 0.1|—0.3|— 1.3\—0.1|— 0.4||—0.7/+ 18] 0.0|— 1.1] 0.0/|+-0.5|+ 0.8/-+-4.9 —0.1/+1.5||— 2.7/4 1.4/4 1.6 41.0/4+0.3
e |— 1.9|+0.9\— 2.6\—0.3\— 1.0/|02|— 2.6|— 42+ 02— 1.7|—1.7\+ 1.0\—3.5, 0.0\—1.0/— 0.6\— 2.2'-+ 4.0 +0.9)-+05
June «a |— 05 —1.2/— 1.5|—0.1|— 0.8||-+0.1|4 0.1|— 2.9|— 0.3\— 0.8||—1.9|+ 0.1|—0.4' +0.2'—0.5| + 0.7|— 2.4/4 4.2 +0.1|40.7
b |+ 0.3 —1.9|— 3.6 +0.6— 1.2] 0.2/4 0.5|— 3.9— 0.1 — 0.9|—0.1 — 2.63.4 0.4 —1.4— 0.4|— 1.64 5.4 —0.1 +08
ce |— 0.2\+0.6|— 1.5|+-0.1\— 0.2||—0.9|— 0.7/— 3.1|4- 1.3\— 0.8] 0.0\— 2.0/+-1.7/40.2) 0.0||+ 0.4|+ 0.1/+ 0.3+-0.5|+0.4
| i
July a |— 230.3} 0.0+40.4\— 0.6)—0.1/+ 0.3 — 18— 08— 0.6/—04 0.0422 40.5 +0.8 — 1.0\— 1.14 1.6408 +0.1
6 |— 1.1/—0.3|— 1.8|—0.6|— 1.0]|+0.1| 0.0/+ 0.9|4- 0.4/-+- 0.4/|—0.5|— 1.4|-++0.7|—0.6 —0.4||— 0.9|— 2.2/4 2.1/-+-0.7|—0.1
e |— 12—0.6|+ 1.0, —0.2'— 0.2/+0.1|\— 0.4/+ 1.1] 0.0/4 0.2/—0.6 — 0.6 —8.3/—-0.9 —14 — 1.0\— 08/+ 2.4,—0.2'+-0.1
| | |
Aug. a |— 0.1 +0.1|— 3.0\—0.5|— 0.9|/—0.6| 0.0.— 2.9 + 0.1/— 0.8 |—0.9|— 1.3|—1.8+0.6 —0.8| — 0.6\— 12/4 6.8 —0.4 +12
— 0.1 +0.7|— 1.9 +0.3 — 0.2) —0.3\— 0.1\— 0.6|+ 0.5 — 0.1|—0.5\— 0.9 +2.0|+0.8 +04) + 0.74 0.9 — 2.5 +0.1 —0.2
e |+ 08—0.7/— 1.9+0.8\— 0.2|/+-0.1|— 0.2|— 4.3 — 0.9|— 1.3|—0.3|4+ 1.7,-2.040.4 0.0) + 0.8|— 0.6/+ 0.3—0.3 0.0
|
Sept. a |— 1.3+40.1|— 14—09— 0.9|/—0.6) 0.0\— 16 — 0.6 — 0.7 /41.3|— 2.2, —3.1 40.8 —0.8) + 0.6 — 0.1 — 3.7 —0.5 —0.9
b |— 08/+0.8|— 0.5 +0.1/— 0.1) +1.2/— 1.7|— 3.6\— 0.1|— 1.0|+0.2|— 1.1/1.4 +0.5 —0.4) + 1.84 1.6 — 1.2—0.7 +04
ce |+ 0.7/4+2.7/— 1.6] 00+ 0.4/—0.3/— 1.4|— 3.7\— 0.1\— 1.4|+0.1|— 0.3/+0.8,+0.2 +0.2)+ 1.3\— 0.6/4 2.7, 0.0+0.9
Oct. «a |— 0.4/+2.7/4 0.1/+-0.8/4+ 0.8] -+0.9|— 0.7/— 2.1|— 09/— 0.7|+0.1/— 1.3/—0.8 +0.9 —0.3) — 2.0/4 0.2/+ 0.6 +-0.3 —0.2
*h 1.9|—2.7|— 1.2|—0.6|— 0.7|—0.9|— 0.8|— 2.3|— 0.7|— 1.2)|—0.3|4+ 1.2|—2.5 +0.6 —0.2|— 1.0|4+ 2.5|— 3.8 —0.6 —0.7
¢ 1.4\—0.6|+ 1.7] 0.0/— 0.1||—0.1|-+- 0.9|— 2.5] 0.0|— 0.4|+-1.4/+ 0.9|—2.0 40.4 +0.2)— 1.3/+ 0.9/+ 0.6 +0.4 +-0.2
Noy. a |— 0.1/-+0.3|— 1.3\—0.8/— 0.5||+-0.2/+ 0.1/— 2.8/4 0.1/— 0.6)|—1.0|+ 0.9|—0.6 02 —0.2| + 0.6\— 14 — 4.0 —1.1—1.5
ai 65\-+1.6|4 0.9\—0.9!4 0.3|\—0.6|— 1.5|— 24) 0.0|— 1.1|—1.3/4 0.7/+1.1—0.7| 0.0) — 0.8\+ 1.7 + 0.2 —0.2 402
e |— 0.6\—1.6|— 0.2\—0.4\— 0.7|| 0.0|/+ 0.1\— 1.2|— 0.2\— 0.3)|+1.6/+ 1.6 +0.7 —0.4 +0.9, — 0.2,— 2.0/4 0.1 0.0 —0.5
Dec a [+ 2.0—1.7|— 28|—1.0\— 0.9\|—1.7|+ 3.4|— 1.2|— 02|+ 0.1//+1.8|— 0.9\-08,—12) —0.3||— 2.5\— 0.54 1.4 +0.2\—0.4
ME + 0.1/—5.7|— 1.4 40.1|\— 1.7||-+0.9|4+ 1.4)+ 3.4\— 0.3/4 1.4/+2.0\— 1.0\—12+40.5 40.1) — 0.6\— 2.24 1.2 +05 —0.3
e |— 38+14|+ 12—0.3/— 0.3)|+3.3\— 0.4/4 1.2— 03+ 1.0|—23\4 O4-+14 +04 0.0) + 1.8/— 4.2|— 0.8 +0.4 —0.7
Sum —20.1 —9.5|—25.6|—0.9|—13.9 |—8.1|—11.4|—47.9|—11.5| —19.4| + 8.6|—24.0|—-8.9 +2.2 —4. o— —23.1|—12.1|-+-22.7|—1.1|—3.5
342 85 | 96] 97 | 8 | 18.49 | 71 | 61 | 187| 14 |27.02)| 191] 90 | 149 7 /1844) 136 98 | 226) 8 25.00
' i ' } |

Feb.

Mar.

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Noy.

Dee.

ca

1896 1897 1898 1899
U.S.)U. S Sa- U.S. U.S Sa- |U.S.| U.S. | Sa U. s.|U. S.| Sa-

I | ir | 478 | moa Me ai i “Ang. rari ecteallp re 4p due | | moa| | II | moa 2

a = —— = | Se || S| eS =) = —>|- ————w } =
oO °o ° o ° ° °. | - ° o.}) ° | ce] °o °
—2.0} 0.0;— 1.0/+-0.2,— 0.7||4-0.6 —0.2'—1.7/—0.4|—0.4||—0.1/+-1.8/4- 0.8 —1.1)-++0.4//+-0.1/—0.7|—0.4|—0.3
—0.1)+- 2.3/\— 0.2 —0.1 + 0.5||+1.0 +0.6 +-0.3/—0.5|-++0.4|/+-3.0 —3.4/— 0.4 —0.5|—0.3 |+-1.2)-+1.6 —1.5)-+--0.4
+1.1)4 2.8) 0.5 —0.6 4+ 0.9 |—4.9 +1.6 —0.1/+4-0.1/—0.8)/4-1.9/—3.0/+- 1.7 —0.3)+-0.1)|—0.6 +-3.1|—0.5/--0.7

| | | |
+1.6-+ 0.8)/+ 0.3,—0.4 + 0.6 |—1.5 +1.3'+0.5|—0.4 0.0) —2.0/+-1.5|+ 1.5 —0.2/-+-0.2 _4.0\-3.7 0.0|—2.6
—1.6\ 2.5 0.0/—0.8 + 0.4 |+1.2 —1.6 —0.5 —0.6|—0.4||+2.3 +1.0/— 0.2 —0.9|+-0.6) —7.1 +-0.9|—0.7|—2.3
+0.5|+ 2.4/— 0.9)-+-0.1/+ 0.5 Feat leat oi +0.3) 0.0)/\—0.9 +1.9|+ 3.0 —0.7 +0.8) +1.1 0.5) ... +0.8
—0.1/— 1.8/+- 2.6 —0.3 + 0.1)|--2.8'—2.4/+-1.7|4-0.8|--0.7)||—0.i|-4-1.6)4- 1-7/—0.9)4-0.6)|—0.6|4-1.2) +0.3
—3.7\+ 1.3)— 0.8, +-0.3 — 0.7 |+-2.7|—3.7|4-3.3 | +-0.2|-++0.6)|/4-4.4) —3.3/— 1.6 —0.9|—0. 4'|+-0.8 —1.6/—0.4|—0.4
—0.6)+ 1.7);— 0.6/+-0.2 + 0.5 el +3.1) 0.0/-+-0.3}|/+-0.5,—3.1)/— 2.4 —0.7,—1.4 ran ae —0.1|—0.4
—2.5\+ 0.6/4 1. 0:0\— 0.2 eee +0.8|+-0.3||—2.4 —0.2)+ 0. 4'\—0.3|—0: 6, —3.1 -+-0.7|\—1.4\—1.3
+3.2|— 3.4/— 1.9|—0.3 — 0.6|—1.3 +-2.2)+-2.1|—0.1!--0.7)|--0.2|--2.2|— 2.2! 0.0) 0. 0, —0.6 1.8 +0.4 +-0.4
+1.2|— 1.7/4 4.1;—0.4 + 0.8 |+-0.2 —0.1|-+-2.3)—0.4|-+-0.5||—0.7|-+-2.5|— 1.7 —0.7|—0.2 |-+-0.6|—1.3|--0.7| 0.0
| fr. Se ig ae

=+-1.6|— 2.6|— 3.9/1.1 + 0.9 |—0.6 +1.0 +3.6/—0.1|/+1.0} —1.7 —0.8|— 0.3 —0.6,—0.8 41.0|—3.1 —0.2|—0.8
(+2.3)/— 3.3/+ 1.8)+0.4+ 0.3 |—0.3 +-1.9)/4-3.2) 0.0/4-1.2) +0.6 —1.0/4- 1.8 +-0.1 +0.4)|+-0.6|—1.2 0.0|\—0.2
Loz 17\+ 1-7/-+0.3\+ 1 1 —1.7|-++1.9|—2.1|—0.1|—0.5||-+0.3/—0.8|4+ 2.8'—0.5|-+0.4! —0.1}-24 —0.3'—0.9
+0.3)+ 0.6/+ 1.5 +-0.1 + 0.6 |—1.8)-+-0.2 +3.4/-+-0.5/+-0.6 +0.3)-++0.4)4- 2.1 +-0.1 +-0.7||+-1.7|—2.7|—0.4|—0.5
—0.8/+ 3.9|— 2.8)—0.3 0.0 |+-0.3, —0.4 +1.7|+-0.6 +-9.6 —0.1 +-0.8/-+- 4.6 —0.5 +1.2)/—0.4 +0.8/—0.8 —0.1
+0.1)4+ 1.0\+ 0.8/—0.9 + 0.2 |—0.1/—0.5 —3.0)/—0.3/—1.0) +-0.2 +0.9/+ 0.5 0.0 +-0.4}|—0.9 +-0.6)—0.7|—0.3
—0.8/+ 1.2)+ 5.2;—1.6+ 1.0 |+0.6)/—1.0 —3.5/—0.3)\—1.0| —0.1 0.0/— 3.6 +1.1 —0.6)|—0.6 +1.2 +0.4'+0.3
—0.6/+ 0.1\+ 2.0/\—1.9 — 0.1 |—0.8/—0.3/—0.9)-+-0.3/ —0.4) —0.1 +-0.6,— 1.4-+-1.0 0.0)/—0.2 —0.2 +0.4; 0.0
+0.3)— 1.3/4 3.3/+-0.1 + 0.6 |+-0.1/—1.5 —1.1;—0.2/—0.7) +-0.7 +-0.9|+ 0.4 --0.4 -+-0.6)|—0.2 ies 3| 0.0;—0.2
+e 7.6\— yal} TL) serene + 0.8 |—0.2'—0.4|—0.6|—0.1|—0.3||—0.2 +0.2|— 1.2 —0.5|—0.4||-+0.1 I-92 4 —0.1 —0.8
OBI Lol 4s] 222 + 2.0|—0.7 —0.3 —2.7 +0.7|—0.8 /—0.1 +3.0 — 4.3 +0.4 —0.2) 40.1 —1. 9|—0.1|—0.6
—0.3)-++ 0.6/-+ 5.1) 0.0/+ 1.4 |—0.1|+1.4'—2.0/—0.1 —0.2) +1.0 +-0.4)— 0.7 -+0.1/-++0.2)/4-0.8/—0.1] ........ +0.4
—0.2/-- 0.7|-+ 0.7|+0.6'+ 0.4||+0.3/+0.5|—2.4|—0.7 —0.6||-+0.8 +0.9 — 1.2 +0.6 +0.3)/+-0.7 +-0.6 +-0.8|-+-0.7
)+1.0/+ 1.3/4 1.7|/-+-0.1/+ 1.0}}4-1.0)+-0.2/-+-0.7|—0.4|+-0.4)| 0.0 +-2.1— 3.0 +-0.3/—0.2//—0.3|-+-0.9) 0.0/+-0.2
= 0.7\+ 4.8/+0.1 + 0.8|/—1.1/+2.7\—1.4/—0.3) 0: 0} +1.5 +1.2\4+ 0.7 —0.4 +0.8 —1.6 +2.6 +0.5 +0.5
—1.6 + 1.5 — 2.0 +0.4 — 0.4||-+0.2'+0.5 +3.5 —0.9|-+0. s||-+2.8 —0.7|— 2.402 —0.1||—1.7| 0.0|+0.1|-05
1.64 1.6/4 2.0/41.14 0.8]|-+2.5|—1.0+1.2/+0.3|+0.8 |—0.7 +.0.5|— 3.9 —0.3 —1.1]|4+2.8|\—2.8/+0.1| 0.0
+1 ple 0.3 2.2/+-0.2 + 0.9|/-++0.7|—1.0/—1.8] 0. 0|—0.5 || —2.8 +1.3/— 1.2 —0.2|—0.7||+-1.7,+0.3) 0.0,+-0.7-

|
+0.8)— 1.6|— 1.0/—1.1 — 0.7||+-0.9|—0.7|—2.5)-+-0.1|—0.6)|+-0.5 +1.8|\— 1.3 —1.0) 0.0/)—1.5 +2.6)/-+-0.8 +0.6
\+2.6/+ 3.2-+ 0.9\—0.4 + 1.6}|/+-0.9|4-2.4' 4-2. Oe 2}+-1.0}|—0.3 —0.6/— 3.5 —0.3/—1 .2}|+-2.6 -1.8/+1.0/+1.8
+2.1)— 1.7/4 0.9) +03 + 0.4}|+-0.8|+-2.1/—1.2|—0.9|+-0.2||—2.6—1.7|— 1.7 —0.6/—1.6| +0.7;41.7 —0.6 +0.6
0.3/4 0.6\— 0.5402 0.0 40.5 —1.8 +14 +0.3 +0.1) 2.9 0.2, +0.8 +0.2 —0.5/+0.5 —0.1|—0.4) 0.0
j+1.1)-+ 1.4,\— 2.3/-+1.0/+ 0.3}|+-1.2|—2.5)|-+-0.4|—0. 5|—0.4||—2.2 —1.7|— 1.4 —0.1/—1.4)|1.7 —1.2|—0.2|+-0.1
|-98/+ 2.4 + 1.5 -+0.3 + 0.8/|—1.0 —2.3|+0.6 +0.5|—0.8 | +1. 4—0.8/+ 0.4 —0.3'+0.2||—2.6 +0.8|+0.2|—0.5

| | } | |
+5.1/+17.7}+33.9 —2.0 +16.8/+4.4) —7.5 +9, 9 —3.0|+1.0||-+2.4 +6.2|—16.4 —8.4|—3.8||—7.7|—2.6|—3.4|—4.2
77 | 129 | 206 | 12 | 21.941) 70 | 93 148 | | 5 {13.70} ! 95 | 99 | 163 7 /17.00|| 124) 101} 8 /22.96

|

A STUDY

Sip liam co pee a Oe im HENLE m ae:

OF CORRELATIONS AMONG

TABLE XI. — Continued.

TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 373

TABLE XI.— Concluded.

Simultaneous Departures of Temperature in Regions in °C.

1900 1901 \ 1902 1903 1904
| 7 | = = j
U.S./U. S.| Sa- U.S.|U. S. | Sa- U.S.|U.S.| Sa- U. S.| U. S.} Sa- | U. S.| U. S.] Sa-

I Il | moa Mn I Il moa| Mn. | I II | moa Mn. I IL | moa} Mn. I IL | moa} Mn.

Jan. a_— |—1-0|+ 3.0 40.7/+ 0.9] + 1.0|-+ 0:7|-40.5,+0.7| —1.0 43.6 +0.8|-+1.1| — 12|+ To] 40.8 +0.5||— 24|— 01s

b |42.5|4 4.3'--0.1|4+ 2.2/4 0.7 4+ 2.7|+0.7|+1.4)|—0.8 +2.3 0.3 +0.4! — 1.7|-+ 0.3/+0.6 —0.3))— 0.9\-4+ 1.6} .
e |—0.4/+ 2.2'+1.0/+ 0.9|/+ 0.9/+ 2.9|-+0.1/-+1.3]|—1.7|—3.0| 0.0|\—1.6] + 2.3/4 2.7/+-0.8|+-1.9]|— 2.2|— 1.8
|

Feb. a. |—0.1|+ 1.5|-+0.8/4+ 0.7||— 1.4|— 0.4|-+0.6|—0.4| —4.6 —0.8) 0.0/1.8) + 2.4)+ 4.4/+-0.74+2.5)/+ 0.1) 0.0/—0.1) 0.0
6 |—26/+ 0.1|\—0.1\— 0.9||— 1.0\+ 0.1\—0.4\—0.4||—4.0 43.3)41.2|40.2)— 1.1\— 4.9|4+0.4)—1.9||— 3.3/+ 0.7|—0.5|—1.0
ce |—28!+ 2.6'+0.7/+ 0.2)\— 4.2/+ 5.2)/+0.3 +0.4)|—0.1|+0.9|+0.7|+0.5)— 0.8|— 1.3 Fo fae — 0.2|+ 3.3|—0.7/+0.8
Mar. a |—0.2)+ 3.5—0.9\4 0.8|— 0.64 2.1) 0.0,40.5 |—0.5|—0.2|—0.5|—0.4||+ 2.2|— 0.8) 4-0.2|+0.5||+ 0.7|4 2.3) 0.0|+-1.0
b |—2.4|/+ 2.9) 0.0'+ 0.2)|— 0.2|+ 0.5+0.6|+0.3)|+0.6|—0.8)+1.2|+0.3)|+ 3.6|— 0.1)-+0.8|+1.4) + 0.6|+ 0.9\—0.2|40.4
e |—0.9/-+ 1.6+0.1|+ 0.2)|+ 0.7\— 2.0.0.2 —0.5 |4+2.4—3.4) 0.0 —0.3) + mt 1.9/0.9 ak + 1.1/— 2.2'—0.4|—0.5
April a |—1.0|— 1.0/+-0.2/— 0.6 — 1.4|— 3.3'+-0.8 —1.3||—1.7/-+-0.9]—0.3|—0.4||-+ 1.3|— 0.1/+-0.7'-+0.6]|— 0.1/4 0.6'—0.4] 0.0
b |—0.8/+ 0.4/+0.1/— 0.1||— 2.4|— 0.3/0.4 —0.8||—0.8|-+1.6|—0.1|-+0.2||— 0.8|— 1.7|+0.2 —0.8||— 2.1/4 3.0 —0.2|+-0.2
0.7\— 2.4|—02!— 0.6)|— 1.6]+ 2.3/-+-1.3 +-0.7||4+-1.5|—0.7/-++0.1|-+-0.3]|— 1.9/4 0.7|—0.4—0.5]|— 1.4|— 2.3\—0.6/—1.4

e |+ | +0.7| | | re | eee?
May a |—0.2|+ 1.4]-+0.6/4+ 0.6|— 0.1/-4+ 0.5)+-1.5 +0.7/|+1.3 +1.2|4-0.8/+1.1|/— 1.9/4 0.9|+-0.1/—0.3||— 0.3|— 0.2'+0.6| 0.0
b fama, wakog), Sac Sac il Sa-taaltaaisudtoatbnal= eule Satan taal oat os(ourent
c |—0.6/+ 1.9/—0. .1)|— 2.2|— 0.4|—0.2'—0.9)|-+0. .4|-+0.4|-+0.4||— 0.1/— 2.0/—0.7 —0. .4|— 0.1|—0.1/-40.

i} |
June a |+0.1/+ 0.1/+0.2|+ 0.1)|— 0.9|— 0.6|—0.4 —0.6||+-0.4 +:0.7 +021404 1.4|-+ 1.9]+-0.7,+0.4|,— 0.2) 0.0/+.0.6/+40.1
b |—1.0|+ 0.8|—0.8|— 0.3 |— 0.5\— 1.7|—0.7 1.0 |+0.6 +0.3 +0.1)-+0.3 — 3.0/+ 0.6/+0.6 —0.6) — 1.4.4 1.8 +0.2|+0.2
e [4044+ 3.2|—1.1/4+ 08|+ 1.3)+ 0.5/+0.5 +08) —1.7 +15 —0.3|—02 — 1.7|+ 0.7/4+-0.4|—0.2||— 0.9|+ 02-10 —0.6
July a |+0.3\— 0.4|—0.1|— 0.1/+ 0.6/+ 1.0|+1.5 +1.0 40.2 —3.5|+0.3 —1.0/+ 0.2|— 0.8/+0.2\—0.1) — 1.0\— 0.3 —0.2|—0.5
b |+0.1/+ 0.8\—0.5|+ 0.1|+ 0.2\+ 1.9|—0.2 +0.6)|—0.2 +-0.2'+0.2|+0.1||— 0.9/4 0.6/+0.1/—0.1| — 0.8|— 0.4 —1.1|—0.8
¢ |—08|+ 0.7|—0.5\— 0.2/+ 02+ 0.9|4-0.3 +0.5 |—0.7 +0.2,+0.4 0.0||— 0.6\— 0.6|-4+0.2\—0.3]|— 1.9|— 0.8 +0.2|—-0.8

| | |
Aug. a j+0.1|+ 0.4|+0.7|4+ 0.4|— 0.1/+ 0.7/0.7 +04) 40.1 +1.0—0.1 +0.3])— 1.4)\— 0.6|-+0.6 —0.5) — 1.3/4+ 0.4 —0.7\—-0.5
in| se1S ae | e + 0.3/4 0.4 — 0.4|+0.3 +0.1|—0.8 —1.0 +04 —0.5)|— 1.3/4 1.4|+0.0) 0.0) — 1.2/4 0.4 —0.3\—0.4
e |+1.2|— 0.2|4-0.1|+ 0.4||— on 1.4/—1.2| 0.0|—0.2 +0.6—0.9,—0.2||+ 0.7/4 1.6|+1.0/+1.1|— 0.9|+- 0.3\—0.4 —0.3
Sept. a |+1.8|+ 0.3/+0.6/+ 0.9|— 0.5\— 0.3 40.2 —0.2 —0.3 +1.6 40.1 +0.5)|— 0.2|-+ 1.2|+0.5 +0.5) — 0.3/+ 1.8 —0.3)40.4
b |412|— 0.7|+0.1|+ 0.2|— 0.6\— 0.3-+0.1|—0.1)|—2.4 +0.1|—0.8 —1.0]|+ 0.4|— 2.2|—0.8—0.9)|+ 0.3/4 1.7\—0.4|+0.5
ec |42.4|— 2.2/4+-0.9|4+ 0.4||— 0.3|— 0.7| 0.0\—0.3 |-+1.7,—0.6 —0.3 +03 — 0.8)-+ 0.6)—0.6|—0.3)-+ 0.9|— 0.1) 0.0/-+0.3
Oct. a |+1.9/+ 0.4] 0.0/4 0.8|—°0.7,4 0.2|\—0.2 —0.2|—0.1 —0.1402 0.0'|+ 0.9/— 0.6, +0.7 +0.3) + 1.2)4+ 1.7 —0.2/+.0.9
b |+0.4\+ 1.6|+0.5/+ 0.8\|— 05+ 1.8\—0.5+0.3 |+0.9 +1.6,—0.3 +0.7||— 0.8|+ 1.3} 0.0+0.2) + 0.2|— 0.2 +02 +0.1
ee = $3.5|— 0.5/0.5) 1.2)|-+ 1.3 + 2.0|—03 +1.0 41.2424 +0.3 +1.3)|— 1.5|-+ 1.4 —0.1)—0.1)— 1.7|+ 1.8)-+0.2 +0.1
Nov. a |+09/4+ 3.7/—o2/+ 1.5||— 08/+ 22/405 +0.6 +2.0 +2.0+0.6 +1.5||+ 0.2/+ 0.9 —0.5 +0.2)|— 0.8|+- 2.4 —0.4 40.4
b = 40.5/+ 2.8\—0.1/4 1.1]|— 2.1/4 1.4\-0.5|—0.4/+4.0| 0.0-+0.2 +1.4|\— 0.3/4 0.8, —0.2/-+0.1||— 1.5|+ 1.6 +0.2 +0.1
©} 6+2.6\+ 1.8/+0.1/-+ 1.5|/— 0.9 + 3.8|—0.1+0.9|+1.8 —1.6 laa = 3.7\-4 3.1/+-0.2|—0.1||+ 0.3/4- uy 0.0 +1.3

} | | |
; —0.7|4+ 3.3|+1.0|+ 1.2||— 0.6/4 2.1|40.1)+0.5|—0.6 +0.6| 4+0.5|+0.2/|— 3.3|— 0.6 —0.2|\—-1.4)— 1.3/+ 0.4, 0.0 —0.3
Bee 3 —0.3|+ 1.6|—0.3|+ 0.3||— 3.9\— 2.6|+-0.6\—1.8)|+1.0 —1.8|+0.2|—0.2||— 2.4|— 0.1|—0.5|—1.0)|— 3.6|-+ 1.4 —0.1—0.9
e +1.3\— 0.3|—1.4|— 0.1] — 0.7, + 1.0|+0440.2|—1.9+0.9 41.0, 0.0|— 0.8|+ 0.2 -+0.2\—0.1) + 0.4/— 0.1 +0.5 +0.3
Sum ‘48.0 4-38.4!41.3|415.9||—21.1/+28.1|+7.1|+4.9||—3.4| +-9.5| +7.1 44.3 |—19.2|+413.0|+-9.0|+-0.6| —27.2| +23.7|—5.5 —4.2
} | |

SA? | 73 | 13.6 | 10 |21.93|| 68 | 131 | 8 19.90 100/100) 7 19.05, 99 | 100 | 7 |26.14)) 68 | 88 | 2 (18.27

A. P, S.—XXI. YY. 15, 1, 708.

374 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

What we have next to do is to sum all the squares through the whole period of
33 years. This summation, with the partial values of A which result from it, is shown
in the next table. The most noteworthy circumstance here brought out is the com-
plete absence of any systematic value of the residual A. This may be shown by
dividing the series into three parts during each of which the stations remained
unchanged. The result is as follows:

Summation of Squares for Ten-day Deviations.

is

=~ = > ke : a = == — =. —— = —

Years ah lake iS af te Bahalls oS? pa ay - | 4

=U; | =U, =V;

1872 1220 | 44 97 414 373 261 +112
73 62 | 48 48 12.9 116 | 148 = on
74 70 | 64 102 18.2 164 | 236 | — 72
75 114 | 96 81 24.0 216 | 291 1G
76 124 58 96 37.6 338 | 278 + 60
Vital tS 81 113 41.2 371 | 270 | +102
78 84 89 97 40.8 367 | 270 | + 75
79 101 98 63 32.9 296 262 | + 36

1880 172 149 109 51.5 464 450 eea36
81 104 113 HON coke] 285 | 287 3
82 91 114 62 19.8 178 267 — 90
83 40 99 108 28.7 258 247 Jb Tp
84 76 87 115 19.5 176 278 | —102
85 64 | 85 120 30.0 270 269 0
86 80 | 154 85 25.4 229 319 | — 90
87 83 | 58 119 31.9 287 260 | + 27
88 64 | 131 136 32.2 290 331 = oF
89 80 116 93 29.3 264 289 | — 24

Sum | 1605 | 1674 | 1714 | 549.0 | 4942 , 4003 | — 66

n=4

Years | ea if y S ATE pe Dire ictal ee 4

=v; - Uy =v; - UY,

1890 | 126 127 132 7 27.4 438 392 | + 48
91 69 96 100 5 lll 178 270 | — 96
92 85 96 97 8 18.5 296 286) | 8
93 71 61 187 14 27.0 432 333 | +100
94 91 90 149 7 18.4 294 337, | — 40
95 136 98 226 8 25.0 400 468 | — 68
96 77 129 206 12 21.9 350 424 | — 72
97 70 93 148 5 13.7 219 316 | — 96

1898 95 99 163 7 17.0 272 364 — 92

Sum | 820 | sso | 1408 | 73 | 180.0 | 2879 | 3190 | —308

n=s
| |

Years f iy ; y Ms pence | Se Wa | Nac sy* 4

aX) 2, 2u

1 2 3
1899 | 124 | 101 8 92.2 | 67 200 233 | —33
1900 73 | 136 10 21.9 | 66 197 219 —2)

01 68 | 131 8 | 19.9 60 179 | = 207 —27

02 | 100 100 7 19.0 57 171 | 207 —36

03 | 99 100 7 | 26:1 78 | 235 | 206 +27

04 68 8s 2 1833" 0 65.9 |alap 1s | +6

‘Sum | 532 | 656 | 42 | 1274 | 383 | 1147 | 1230 | —84

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 375

It is not necessary to compute the value of 7 from these data because it is evidently
evanescent, the mean coming out with an imaginary value. In fact the values of A
as they come out in the last columns of the table are less than their probable errors
by amounts smaller than could be expected, except as the result of chance. There
is therefore no evidence of any irregular fluctuation having a period between ten
days and several years.

$15. Search for Variations Synchronous with the Swn’s Synodic Rotation by the Method of

Time-correlation.

Granting the existence of variations in the solar constant it is extremely improb-
able, and indeed almost inconsistent with any theory of what is going on in the sun,
to suppose them to take place simultaneously over the entire photosphere. We should
expect them to be mostly confined in each case to some limited region ; then, when this
region became visible from the earth, we should experience a change in the solar heat,
which would reach its maximum or minimum when, in consequence of the sun’s rota-
tion, the meridian of the hot or cool region of the photosphere passed the middle of
the sun’s disc as seen from the earth. After this the effect would diminish, and would
disappear entirely as the region disappeared from our sight on the sun’s western limb,
to be renewed when it reappeared on the eastern limb. Thus we should have a fluc-
tuation in the terrestrial temperature having the period of the sun’s synodic rotation.

Were the period of the rotation a well-defined constant, and were the excess of
temperature in any region of one hemisphere permanent, the effect could be deter-
mined in the same way that we have determined that of the solar spots, by forming
equations of condition for the coefficients expressing the amplitude of the resulting
fluctuations. But there are two conditions which would render this method illusory.
The first-is that, owing to the different periods of rotation in different parallels of solar
latitude, there would be no one invariable period of the phenomenon. ‘The other
impeding condition is that we must expect such deviations of temperature within any
region of the sun to be temporary, lasting only a few weeks or months, and then dis-
appearing, to reappear in some other region of the sun. Then the effect would appear
entirely non-periodic if followed during long intervals of time, and could be detected
only by the statistical methods already developed. If the change of solar temperature
ordinarily disappeared before a rotation was completed, the effect would be entirely
irregular and non-periodic. But if it continued through one or more solar rotations,
as would probably be the case, then the effect would be temporary fluctuations of
temperature haying the period of the synodic rotation, but changing their epoch from
time to time, and thus annulling each other if we treated them as continuous through

376 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

long periods of time. We have shown how a phenomenon of this kind can be
detected, even if it lasts in each special case through little more than a single rotation
of the sun, by the method of time-correlation. The following considerations may
guide our course of thought on the subject.

Let us grant that on any occasion a region of the sun extending to, at least near
the equator, and hotter than the photosphere in general, is carried past the apparent
solar meridian by the sun’s rotation. During a period of ten days it will be sufficiently
near the meridian to produce a rise in terrestrial temperatures. Then, as it disap-
pears, the temperature will begin to fall until the region reappears on the sun’s eastern
limb. Then there will be another rise in the temperature, showing a rhythmical
movement of the latter. What we have to do is to inquire into the fluctuations of
temperature with a view of determining whether there can be found any rythmical
tendency among them to recur at the end of about 26 days. This is most completely
and rigorously done by searching for correlations between terrestrial temperatures at
any one epoch, or through one term, and during the following terms up to 26 days or
more. ‘To discover the effect it seems desirable to take terms as short as five days, and
to carry their study continuously forward. It is then certain that, if any exceptionally
hot or cool region of the photosphere has been carried past our solar meridian, the
effect will be at its maximum during at least some one term. A study of the temper-
atures during the five terms following will then show what changes in terrestrial tem-
perature have taken place while the special region was moving around and returning
again to the solar meridian.

I have chosen for this research the temperatures at San Diego because they are
fairly steady, and it chanced that the data for 5-day terms were available through a
period of more than 30 years, and therefore nearly 400 synodie rotations of the sun.
The research was confined to this station more through practical considerations than
because it was absolutely the best. If the clearest result is to be brought out, stations
in some continental interior, where the temperature is little affected by the ocean, and
where the irregular fluctuations are as small as possible, should be preferred. More-
over, as the effect sought for is common to the whole globe, the mean of the largest
practical number of such stations should be used. But the writer conceives that a
fairly certain result can be derived from San Diego alone.

The method by which the periodicity is to be detected is that developed in § 2.
We take the departures of temperature during a number of consecutive five-day terms,
as great as we choose. In the present case we have chosen six, making a period of
thirty days. The departures during the six terms of this period are designated as

Dig ear ean clay) Surge

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 3

Beginning with the first five-day term, we now multiply a) into each of the fol-
lowing five departures, and write their products in a horizontal line. A new period
is then begun with a, of the preceding term so that the departure which appears as
a, in the first line becomes a) in the second, after which it is not used. Thus each
individual departure enters into six consecutive periods.

It does not seem necessary to encumber the work by giving the-individual depar-
tures, 2376 in number, in detail. The following commencement of the table will show
how the individual products were formed.

It being usual to designate the ten-day terms of each aan as a, b, and c, we
designate the five-day terms as a, (, by, ete.

The column a of the table gives the five-day departures of the normal temperature
as determined from the records of the Weather Bureau. The method by which the
six products in each line are formed will be readily seen, as the factors are all given
for the first two lines, and can be readily understood for the lines following.

1872 ay ay aay aa, aya, | aa 4,4,
|

Jan. ay —3.0 9.0 +4.2 +7.8 — 45 } —0.9 —12.0
as —1.4 2.0 +3.6 —2.1 — 0.4 —d.6 + 04

db, 2.6 6.8 39 —0.8 —10.4 | +0.8 — 42

b. +1.5 2.2 +0.4 +6.0 — 04 +2.4 + 1.2

Cy +0.3 0.1 +1.2 —0.1 + 0.5 +0.2 + 0.2

C2 +4.0 16.0 —1.2 | +6.4 + 3.2 | +2.0 — 52

Feb. ay —0.3 0.1 —0.5 —0.2 — 0.2 +0.4 + 0.8

Instead of showing at once the sum total, the addition has been grouped, the
period of 33 years being divided into terms of 5 years each, except the last, which
includes only 3 years. The results of the separate summations are as follows:

Period [a,] ; [a,a,] [a,a, ] [a,a,] [a,a, } [a,a,]
1872-76 2029 906 592 333 235 211
1877-81 2810 1506 | 660 895 897 921
1882-86 2664 1209 652 584 616 500
1887-91 2891 1249 716 416 625 732
1892-96 2790 1032 568 346 313 434
1897-01 2655 1141 673 487 505 547
1902-04 1639 826 570 492 353 275
Sum 17478 7863 4431 | 3553 3544 3620

a; +0.450 | +0.254 | +0.205 | +0.203 | +0.207

In the bottom line of the table are given the coefficients of correlation found
by dividing the several sums of the products in the last five columns by the sums ao.

The values of x thus found may be regarded as non-periodic. Were there any
tendency toward a recurrence at the end of 25 days there should be a marked increase
in the values of the 4th and 5th products, because the 5th corresponds to a completion

378 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

of the sun’s synodic rotation. It is true that there is a minute increase of 0.004
between the 4th and 5th terms of the set. But an examination of the several separate
sums through which this is formed shows that the increase is too small and uncertain
to be regarded as the effect of periodicity.

But a quasi-periodicity is still possible, the persistently positive sign of « indicating
a tendency of the departures to persist through a period of more than 25 days. The
exact general fact brought out by the correlation is as follows :

Whatever be the departure of temperature at San Diego during any 5-day term
we may expect the subsequent departures to lie in the general average in the same
direction for more than a month, the ultimate amount at the end of the month being
about one fifth that of the departure taken as the initial one. ‘This persistence cer-
tainly seems singular, and it may be that had the correlation period been extended,
periodicity would have been brought out.

As a further illustration of the method, without expecting to reach definitive
results, I have made a similar time-correlation of the general mean temperatures for
each decade as given in Table XI. preceding. The correlation-products were carried
through periods of four terms, or 40 days each, counting from the middle of the
initial to the middle of the last term. The actual period included is 50 days between
extremes. The result, summed by terms of three years, is as follows:

Years ay aa, | aja, aa, Aya,
1872-1874 | 654 | +132 | +141 + 8.2 + 42
1875-1877 | 103.77 | + 367 | +105 +25.8 +11.5
1878-1880 124.7 + 51.9 +19.0 +26.3 +33.3
1881-1883 806) |) ee + 0.4 — 5.6 — 5.3
1884-1886 Toa) =) $85) Exod +10.9 — 9.4
1887-1889 95.6 + 29.2 | + 62 — 88 —10.3
1890-1892 | 55.5 + 19.4 +11.3 +10.4 + 7.3
1893-1895 | 68.6 + 25.7 +16.4 +13.6 +12.2
1896-1898 53.4 +185 | --+1ll4 | --168 + 7.7
1899-1901 66.7 +258 | +01 + 17 +10.1
1902-1904 64.4 + 12.3 — 0.5 — 2.9 + 2.2

Sum 854.0 +253.4 +89.3 | +96.4 +63.5

X; O2OG |) POL0bN S|) sons 0.074

A general tendency is here shown in the departures of temperature to continue in
the same direction for a period of at least 50 days. The time required for them to
disappear entirely can be determined only by continuing the products through a
longer period, which requires little more than a work of routine computation.

What is striking in the present case is the small increase of the fourth sum,
following the rapid diminution of the first three sums. This is what we should expect
from temporary inequalities in the temperature of the two solar photospheres. If

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 379

this is really the case we may estimate the change in question as affecting terrestrial
temperatures by two- or three-hundredths of a degree. A more exhaustive inquiry
nto this question certainly seems of scientific interest, but I must, as with the contin-
uation of the present work generally, leave this in other hands. The main point
reached is that the influence of any such inequality in the sun upon meteorological
phenomena is so nearly evanescent that it can be brought out only by the most
refined methods of investigation, and cannot be of practical import.

CHAPTER VII.
Discusston oF ReEsuvts.
$16. Summary of Conclusions.

The general results of the preceding discussion, so far as concerns fluctuations in
the sun’s radiant energy, may be summed up in the following propositions.

1. A study of the annual departures of temperature over many regions of the
globe in equatorial and middle latitudes shows consistently a fluctuation correspond-
ing in period with that of the solar spots. The maximum fluctuation in the general
average is 0°.13 C. on each side of the mean for the tropical regions. The entire
amplitude of the change is therefore 0°.26 C., or somewhat less than half a degree of
the Fahrenheit scale. As this fluctuation has ample time to produce its entire effect
on the earth, we conclude from it that the corresponding fluctuation in the sun’s
radiation is 0.2 of one per cent. on each side of the mean.

2. Additional to this periodic fluctuation there is some rather inconclusive évidence
of changes requiring generally about six years to go through their period, which can
be most plausibly attributed to corresponding changes in the sun’s radiation. The
phenomena may be expressed in the briefest way by saying that, during the years
1871-1904, there seem to have been periods of two, three or four years warmer than
the normal, followed by similar periods which were cooler than the normal. But
although the general tendency is toward changes in this period of about six years,
they show no such correspondence with the solar spots as justified their being attributed
to the sun-spot period. Moreover, they do not appear in any marked way before 1871.
The average departure from the mean being less than 0°.10 C. prevents a more exact
statement of their law, and still leaves open the question whether they are real. ‘This
can be settled only by a more complete discussion of meteorological data than the
writer has attempted to make.

3. Apart from this regular fluctuation with the solar spots, and this possible more
or less irregular fluctuation in a period of a few years, the sun’s radiation is subject to

380 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

no change sufficient to produce any measurable effect upon terrestrial temperatures. ‘The
only admissible changes are such as going through their period in 10 days or less,
would produce no effect upon 10-day mean departures. Whether any sueh fluctua-
tions exist, except those arising from the irregular changes of the spots and facule,
is a question to be judged by the probabilities of the case. }

4. There is a certain suspicion, but no conclusive evidence, of a tendency in the
terrestrial temperature to fluctuate in a period corresponding to that of the sun’s
synodic rotation. If the fluctuations are real they affect our temperatures only a small
fraction of one tenth of a degree. “af

5. To facilitate the criticism of the preceding conclusions, and their comparison
with those reached by other investigators, we must point out what may be considered
a limitation upon their scope. <A careful study of the statistical method developed in
$4 will show that the primary intention is not to determine specific fluctuations, and
attribute them to changes in the sun’s thermal radiation, but only to find a general
criterion for determining whether, as a general rule, the fluctuations have any other
cause than the accumulation of accidental vicissitudes of temperature in the regions
studied. Repeating once more in a condensed form the fundamental principle itself;
when we determine the mean temperature of the globe by comparing the actual with
the normal temperature at a great number of places through a number of time-terms,
— we may determine the general world fluctuation by taking the mean of the depar-
tures in the separate regions during this term. This world-departure will have a certain
probable deviation, arising from the probable deviations of the individual departures,
the magnitude of which is easily computed. ;

If the world-departures are in general markedly greater than this probable devia-
tion, we should have no difficulty in concluding that at the times of the greater depar-
tures the solar radiation was probably greater or less than the normal. Now the statis-
tical method here applied is not intended to solve this easy problem should it arise (which
it does not), but the more difficult one which arises when the actual departures do not
ordinarily exceed their probable value, and when therefore we must be in doubt as to
their arising from a cosmical cause. No sound method of research will enable us to
formulate a conclusion on insufficient data, and the logically best method is that which
will enable us to formulate all the conclusions that can be drawn. In the present case
this is shown to be the probable value, during each time-term, of the square of a cer-
tain quantity 7 expressive of the increment of the solar radiation during that term.
This quantity will have its probable accidental error, and therefore, if its objectively
true value is evanescent, may still come out with a certain value, which is then as likely
to be negative as positive. Having found this value through all the various terms, if

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 381

the total sum comes out with a positive value markedly exceeding its probable value,
we may infer with a corresponding degree of probability that some at least of the
departures are real. If the excess is not great, then what we should conclude is that
there is a greater or less probability, in a general way, that the sun’s radiation is
variable, but not that it had a definite variation at a definite time. To draw the latter
conclusion from tbe data would be fallacious, not from any defect in the method but
from the very nature of the case. But, if the well marked excess were a general rule,
then we could fairly infer that, as a general rule, the fluctuations of temperature indi-
cated corresponding fluctuations in the solarenergy. For example, referring to the col-
umn vin Table VI, which shows the residual departure of the annual temperatures after
eliminating the effect of the sun-spot period, we may say that the temperature appears
to have been above the normal in 1871, again in the years 1881-83 and againin 1896-
97. It seems to have been below the normal in 1874-84, 1887 and 1892, and 1893.

Although these fluctuations, even if real, are so small that we cannot expect to
trace them in any other meteorological phenomena than the temperature, the question
of their reality is of scientific interest. This can be determined only by more
extended researches.

To state the limitation in a more condensed form, the proof of general invari-
ability does not positively establish the negative proposition that the sun’s heat has
never, on any one occasion whatever, undergone a perturbation during the period
covered by our researches. In the absence of better positive evidence than is yet
available, the assumption of such a perturbation would be a purely gratuitous one, to
be refuted by a consideration of its improbability rather than by positive evidence.

§17. Relation Between the Solar Radiation and Meteorological Processes.

The preceding studies being primarily of fluctuations in the temperature of the
air at the earth’s surface, the question arises how far, from the steadiness of tempera-
ture we have established, we are justified in affirming that the sun’s thermal radiation
is steady in a corresponding degree. ‘The consideration of this question will be facil-
itated by calling to mind certain points bearing upon it. A general proposition
which, the writer conceives, needs no enforcement, is that so far as our science can
show, the earth receives an appreciable supply of heat only from the sun. We may
safely assume that the minute amount of heat reaching the earth’s surface from the
stars or other bodies in the celestial spaces, or by conduction from the earth’s interior, is
too minute to materially affect the temperature around us. This temperature is
determined in a general way by the condition that it is such that the earth shall
radiate into space as much heat as it absorbs from the sun’s rays.

A. P.S.—XXI. ZZ. 15, 1, *08.

382 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

The radiations which reach the earth or its atmosphere from the sun are of two
great classes. We have first radiance properly so called by which I understand
radiant energy in its ordinary acceptation. This includes not only the rays commonly
called light, but all other rays of the same class which differ from light only in wave
length. It may here be remarked, parenthetically, that the use of the word “light”
in physics is rather unfortunate, since the distinction of light and dark rays is not an
objective one, but rests only upon the property of affecting the optic nerve. Thus,
when we use the word light, we have one word for radiance between certain limits of
wave length and no special term for radiance of the same kind of wave length without
the visible limits.

Besides radiance as thus defined, we have abundant evidence that the sun sends,
at least to the confines of our atmosphere, certain emanations which affect the magnetic
needle, and which do not reach us in a steady stream, but fitfully, at irregular inter-
vals. These emanations have, up to the present time, eluded all direct investigation.
They are made known only by their effect upon the terrestrial magnetic force, as
shown by magnetic storms. It therefore seems probable that those which reach the
atmosphere are entirely absorbed in its outer envelopes.

The preceding study is practically limited to radiations of the first class. It is
still questionable whether the magnetic or radio-active emanations, whatever they may
be, appreciably affect the temperature. The recent researches of Maunder seem to
show that they come mainly from the solar spots. Now, it is known that the radi-
ance from the spots is less than from the rest of the photosphere. It follows that, if
the emanations in question convey an appreciable amount of thermal energy, it does
not reach the earth, but is absorbed in the upper regions of the air, perhaps almost at
the surface of the atmosphere itself. But, were this the case, the extreme rarity of
the air at high altitudes would result in a proportionately greater rise of temperature
through a given radiation of thermal energy. Ina word it seems highly improbable
that emanations having radiant energy in considerable quantities could be absorbed
by so rare a medium as the air at great heights above the earth.

The evidence afforded by the frequency of magnetic storms shows that the emana-
tions in question are greatest at the period of sun-spot minimum when the terrestrial
temperature is least. This affords an additional ground for believing that the thermal
effect of the magnetic radiation is too small to produce any directly observable
meteorological effect.

So far as research has yet gone, the balance of evidence would seem to favor the
view that the phenomena of atmospheric electricity, especially of thunder storms, so
far as they are changeable, arise mainly from terrestrial causes, and are but slightly

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 383

o

influenced by solar emanations. Still, the question whether there is any relation
between magnetic storms, which afford us the best available evidence of the emana-
tions in question, and thunder storms or other exhibitions of movements of atmos-
pheric electricity, is an interesting one, well worthy of investigation by rigorous
statistical methods, and offering no difficulty. The main point to be enforced in the
present connection is that our investigation includes the effect of all cosmical causes
affecting the terrestrial temperature, and therefore of the emanations in question so far
as they produce any thermal effect.

Dropping the consideration of magnetic, electric or radio-active emanations as
belonging to another branch of the subject, because they do not cause appreciable flue-
tuation in terrestrial temperatures, we return to the main question now under consid-
eration — that of the relation between fluctuations in the sun’s thermal radiation and
the corresponding changes in temperature. Accepting the fourth-power law of radia-
tion, fluctuations in the general temperature of the globe of 0°.2 C. on each side of the
mean would produce corresponding changes of 0.3 of one per cent. in the radiation of
heat by the earth into space. We have found that the fluctuations of world-tempera-
ture, if any at all occur, which is doubtful, do not exceed + 0°.20 C. We may there-
fore assign three tenths of one per cent. as the ordinary limit of fluctuation of the
sun’s radiation in lower periods. But the lag of temperature behind insolation is to
be considered in the case of short periods.

Speaking in a general way, it is an observed fact that the maxima and minima
of temperature in the temperate regions do not occur until about a month after the
maxima and minima of radiation. But, admitting that a month will be required to
produce the completed effect through the entire atmosphere and on the surface of the
ground and ocean, it does not follow that the effect would be negligible in a shorter
period. It is also an observed fact in regions of middle latitude that the rays of
the sun between its rising and 2 p. m. elevate the temperature of the air at the earth’s
surface as read by the thermometer, by an amount ranging from 8° to 10° ©. every
day. Now, to fix the ideas, suppose that the sun’s thermal radiance were increased
by one per cent. of its whole amount through ten consecutive days. The result would
be that the daily rise would be increased by an amount between 0°.06 and 0°.10.
This rise would be in part lost during the night by increased radiation and transmis-
sion to the earth and upper air. But, as the earth and air grew warmer day after day
the loss would be smaller and smaller, while the gain would continually accumulate.
It follows that we should not have to wait more than a week for the change of one per
cent. in the sun’s energy to produce an effect exceeding that which our study of tem-
peratures shows can be actually found in the world-temperature. But this does not

384 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

preclude the possibility of much larger fluctuations in shorter periods, because it
would take time for temporary increase in the sun’s radiation to produce its full
effect. The shorter the time that we suppose an increase or decrease to last, the
greater it must be. It is mainly a question of judgment and probabilities whether
changes of such very short period in the radiation can exist. The probabilities against
them are based mainly on the fact that it is scarcely conceivable that any cause affect-
ing the totality of the sun’s radiation should act simultaneously over the entire photo-
sphere. The most plausible cause of such fluctuations would be looked for in the
faculee and spots. These, and the phenomena connected with them are mainly local,
never covering any important fraction of the sun’s disc.

A yet more plausible source of change is found in possible fanecieniont in the
transparency of the solar envelopes. But these would take a long time to extend
themselves over the entire photosphere. By allowing them a period of several weeks
to spread over the sun, we bring them within the range of the present studies which
then seem to establish their non-existence, except within the limits already several
times mentioned.

A collateral question which is not included in the present research is whether the
conclusions which have been drawn as to the constancy of the sun’s radiation can be
applied to other meteorological changes than those of temperature. ‘The writer con-
ceives that fluctuations of temperature are the primary cause of changes in precipita-
tion, rainfall or great movements of the air, and fluctuations of the barometer. Con-
fining ourselves within the limit of reasonable probability, the totality of rainfall
must in the long run balance the evaporation. The rate of evaporation is, so far as is
known, not influenced by electrical or magnetic conditions of any kind, but dependent
solely upon the temperature and physical condition of the evaporating surface, and the
temperature and motion of the air in contact with it. If the motions of the air are
not affected by changes in the sun’s radiation it would therefore follow that the rate
of evaporation is determined solely by terrestrial conditions. This being granted it
follows also that the total rainfall is determined in the same way. The total mass of
the atmosphere being a constant, the integrated barometric pressure through the whole
globe must also be a constant. Fluctuations in its amount in any region must there-
fore be balanced by opposite fluctuations in other regions and must be due to motions
of the air which are determined only by conditions of temperature. If these views are
correct it follows as the final result of the present investigation that all the ordinary
phenomena of temperature, rainfall and winds are due to purely terrestrial causes and that

no changes occur in the sun's radiation which have any influence upon them.

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES, 385

$18. Comparison with Results of Langley’s Work of 1903.

Although the writer deems it appropriate for the most part to leave the farther
discussion of his results, and their comparison with the views of others, to other
investigators, an exception may well be made in the case of the very suggestive paper
of Langley.* It should be premised that Langley does not present his results as con-
clusive, but only as showing seeming correlations between temperatures and bolometric
measurements of the sun’s radiation, the results of which should be tested by further
researches. He gives the following general summary of his conclusions :

“A series of determinations of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere (the
solar constant), extending from October, 1902, to March, 1904, has been made at the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory under the writer’s direction.

“Care has been exercised to determine all known sources of error which could
seriously affect the values relatively to each other, and principally the varying
absorption of the Earth’s atmosphere. Though uncertainty must ever remain as to
the absorption of this atmosphere, different kinds of evidence agree in supporting the
accuracy of the estimates made of it and of the conclusions deducted from them.

“The effects due to this absorption having been allowed for, the inference from
these observations appears to be that the solar radiation itself fell off by about 10 per
cent., beginning at the close of March, 1903. I do not assert this without qualification,
but if such a change in solar radiation did actually occur, a decrease of temperature
on the Earth, which might be indefinitely less than 7°.5 C., ought to have followed it.”

The present writer understands that not only Langley’s work with the bolometer,
but observations by actinometriec methods showed a remarkable diminution of the
solar radiation, extending from some time in 1902 through a considerable portion of
1903. But as such observations are made only on the radiation which reaches the
earth’s surface the results still leave open the question whether the change was in the
sun itself or was caused by increased absorption in the earth’s atmosphere. The
apparent diminution during the period in question has been plausibly attributed to
the absorbing matter thrown up by the eruption of Mount Pelée on May 8, 1902.
If the diminution of radiation was only apparent, being due to the absorption, we can-
not, in the present state of science, decide whether there would be any effect upon
terrestrial temperatures. While less heat would reach the earth directly, more would
be absorbed in the middle regions of the atmosphere ; and this would apply both to
the absorption of the sun’s rays and of the heat radiated from the solid earth. The
vapors of Mount Pelée, if they had any influence whatever, might, so far as we know,

* ‘On a Possible Variation of the Solar Radiation and Its Probable Effect on Terrestrial Temperatnres,’’ Aséro-

physical Journal, June, 1904.

386 A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.

have resulted in either a rise or a fall of the temperature of the earth in general.
Hence even if we accept as unquestionable the correctness of the bolometric measures,
it does not follow that there would be any corresponding change in the terrestrial
temperature.

But Langley has brought forth what seems to be very strong evidence of a corre-
lation between the temperatures in widely separated regions of the globe, using a
method identical in principle with that of the present work, but including only the
year 1903. His material was derived from the Dekadenberichte of the Deutsche Seewarte
which gives ten-day temperatures in a great number of regions in various parts of the
globe. The latter was divided by Langley into seven great regions and the mean
departure found in each, on the same general plan that has been followed in the pres-
ent work. The fluctuations in the seven regions were expressed in the usual way by
curves, from a study of which the conclusion that there was a marked synchronism
between the curves of temperature inter se seems quite plausible. The bolometric
measures suffered so many interruptions that the curve representing them is frequently
doubtful but, so far as it ean be compared, there seems to be some correspondence
between it and the temperature curves. Yet, the method of eye estimates through
curves is one in which there is too much room for bias, and which does not admit of
sufficient precision of determination. The correlation thus exhibited is quite at vari-
ance with the general conclusions of the present work, though these would not preclude
the possibility of a marked chance correlation through any one year. But even for
the special year 1903, it will. be seen that the criterion of correlation is only

A=78 —69=9

Which does not rise above the expected result of chance accumulation of accidental
deviations.

In view of the fact that, in the present work, the year 1903 does not show any
well-marked correlation among ten-day temperatures, it will be of interest to trace out
the cause of the seeming divergence. It would be better that this should be done by
another ; but some comparisons by the present writer may serve at least as suggestions
on the subject:

We remark at the outset that there is no inherent necessity that the fluctuations
in the seven regions selected by Langley should show any close relation with those of
the three regions chosen in the present work. Such a relation can only be regarded
as more or less probable according to circumstances.

The question now presents itself how far the seeming divergence arises from
accidental fluctuations in the special data made use of, and how far to differences

A STUDY OF CORRELATIONS AMONG TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. 387

in the method of investigation. The methods of treatment are different in that
the present work includes only regions of low or middle latitudes, while those chosen
by Langley include northern regions also, especially Siberia. Thus a seeming dis-
cordance in the course of any one year is not surprising. I have not made a careful
comparison of the two results except in the most striking case. The most important
decade of comparison in the work is the first of 1903. The Dekadenberichte show an
extraordinary rise of temperature during this term, while by reference to Table XII,
1903, of the present work, it will be found that the general mean deviation here found
is only + 0°.5. Considering this decade individually the evidence afforded by the
Dekadenberichte is vastly more complete for the world at large. The positive departure
was best marked in European Russia and Siberia, reaching its maximum at Orenburg,
where the temperature was 12°.1 C., or more than 20° Fahr. above the normal. But
it covered the whole of Europe, Scandinavia excepted. Now, these regions I have
mentioned are not included in the present work because the effect of any admissible
change in the sun’s heat on their temperature would be very slight through a ten-day
term, especially in January. Although the general mean for the equatorial region is
positive, it is not at all accented as in the wider range of regions used by Langley.

For our present purpose the important question is whether we can attribute this
remarkable rise of temperature to an increase of the solar radiation. The reply is that,
if there was such an increase during the decade in question, its effect would have been
felt mainly in the equatorial regions, and but slightly in northern Europe and Siberia.
We therefore conclude only that great fluctuations of temperature occur which we
cannot attribute to changes in the sun’s radiation, because they do not extend to
the regions where such changes would have their greatest effect.

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q American Philosophical
11 Society, Philadelphia
P6 Transactions

n.s.

v.21

Physical &
Applied Sci,
Serials
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