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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA,

FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. XV.-_NEW SERIES.

PART. 1.

; PAGE
Articie 1.—Topography of the Punjab Oil Region. By Benjamin Smith Lyman, - = 1
(With a Map.) Read Jan. 19, 1872.

ARTICLE II.— Notes on the Geology of West Virginia. By John J. Stevenson, - ey rneet ay aii)

Read Feb. 16, 1872.

ArticLe IIl.— The Staley’s Creek and Nick’s Creek Iron Ore Region. By Benj. S. Lyman, 33
(With a Map.) Read Oct. 14, 1872.

ArRtIcLE I1V.—On the Topography and Greology of Santo Domingo. By William M. Gabb,- 49
(With a Map.) Read Oct. 18, 1872.

Hhiladetphia;:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,

AND FOR SALE BY

HENRY C. LEA, PHILADELPHIA;

N. TRUBNER & CO., 60 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

PRINTED BY M’CALLA & STAVELY.

Ikitch 76a.

freA NS ACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA,

FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. XV.-NEW SERIES.

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY.

AT
St MUS
Ae ty SEGD
{ sane In”

2) HEC ae ara
Ge fe
é ky Netw 2)

p Seas ut we °
Philatelphia:
WCALLA & STAVELY, PRINTERS.
TANUARY 1,

1881.

ey ee Eek Ce

FROM THE LAWS OF THE SOCIETY RELATING TO THE TRANSACTIONS.

1. Every communication to the Society which may be considered as intended for a place in
the Transactions, shall immediately be referred to a committee to consider and report thereon.

2. If the committee shall report in favor of publishing the communication, they shall make
such corrections therein as they may judge necessary to fit it for the press; or, if they shall judge
the publication of an abstract or extracts from the paper to be more eligible, they shall accompany
their report with such abstract or extracts. But if the author do not approve of the corrections,
abstract, or extracts reported by the committee, he shall be at liberty to withdraw his paper.

3. Communications not intended by their authors for publication in the Transactions, will be
received by the Society, and the title or subject of them recorded ; and, if they be in writing, they
shall be filed by the secretaries.

4. The Transactions shall be published in numbers, at as short intervals as practicable, under
the direction of the Committee of Publication, and in such a form as the Society shall from time
to time direct; and every communication ordered to be published in the Transactions shall be
immediately sent to the printer, and fifty copies thereof be given to the author as soon as printed.

5. The order in which papers are read shall determine their places in the Transactions, unless
otherwise ordered by the Society; priority of date giving priority of location.

6. The expenses of publishing the Transactions shall be defrayed by subscriptions and sales,
aided by such funds as the Society shall from time to time appropriate for that purpose.

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION 1880.

Dr. Joun L. LeConte,
Dr. Dante. G. Brinton,
Pror. Evruvu THomson,
Dr. Cuarites M. Cresson,
Dr. Grorce H. Horn.

GONE ar] On VOL, xv.

Extract from the Laws of the Society relating to the Transactions,

Officers of the Society for the year 1880, . : : : : : :

List of the members of the Society elected since the publication of the Fourteenth volume,
List of the members of the Society deceased since the publication of the Fourteenth volume, .

a BAS Ee) ae necleen
ARTICLE I.
Topography of the Punjab Oil Region. By Benjamin Smith Lyman. (With a map), .
ARTICLE II.
Notes on the Geology of West Virginia. By John J. Stevenson,

f

ARTICLE III.

The Staley’s Creek and Nick’s Creek Iron Ore Region. By Benjamin Smith Lyman. (With a map), .

ARTICLE IV.

On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo. By William M.Gabb. (With a map),

a=) Ne Jey Ab ae eS
ARTICLE VY.
Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America. By Edward D. Cope, A.M.,
ARTICLE VI.

An Analysis of the Life-Form in Art. By Harrison Allen, M.D. (With 185 wood cuts),

de Ns AR OR") ae AG Aas

ARTICLE VII.

On the Contents of a Rock Retreat in Southeastern Pennsylvania. By 8. 8. Haldeman. (With 15 plates), .

15

ise)
(J)

49

OFFICERS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

FOR THE YEAR 1880.

PRESIDENT,

VICE-PRESIDENTS, .

Frederick Fraley,

Eli K. Price,
E. Otis Kendall,
John L. LeConte,

Pliny E. Chase,
; George F. Barker,

SS SS

Address 2017 Delancey Place.

as 415 §. 15th Street.
ee 3836 Locust Street.
ye 1625 Spruce Street.

sf Haverford College.
5 3909 Locust Street.

S) Sh :
a as 1 Daniel G. Brinton, ss 7th and Sansom Sts.
t J. Peter Lesley, sf 1008 Clinton Street.
Hector Tyndale, Died March 19, 1880.
CURATORS, { Charles M. Cresson, «s 417 Walnut Street.
[ Henry Phillips, Jr., Se 804 §. 11th Street.

TREASURER, .

{
in 1878,
CouNCILLORS, elected in 1879, .
| in 1880, .
L

J. Sergeant Price,

{ Daniel R. Goodwin,

W. 5S. W. Ruschenberger,
; Henry Winsor,

L Wm. A. Ingham,

( Alfred L. Elwyn,

' Benjamin H. Coates,
Benjamin V. Marsh,

[ George H. Horn,

f Robert E. Rogers, .
Robert Bridges,

Oswald Seidensticker,
L Richard Wood,

se 709 Walnut Street.

ee 3919 Locust Street.
InSE 1932 Chestnut Street.
ce Pine Street Wharf.
< 16th and Pine Sts.

ee 1422 Walnut Street.
oy 7th and Spruce Sts.
ie 309 Market Street.
a 874 N. 4th Street.

He 1004 Walnut Street.
ee 119 S. 20th Street.
‘¢ 1016 Cherry Street.
Meas 1121 Arch Street.

1689.
1690.
1691.
1692.
1693.
1694,
1695.
1696.
1697.
1698.

1699.
1700.
1701.
1702.

1708.
1704.
1705.
1706.

1707.
1708.
1709.

1710.

1711.
1712.

LIST OF

MEMBERS

OF THE

JMERICAN J HILOSOPHICAL POCIETY,

ELECTED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME.

Elected January 19, 1872.

Wm. C. Kerr, Raleigh, N. C.
LaMotte Dupont, Wilmington, Delaware.
Wm. P. Trowbridge, New Haven, Conn.
Wm. Elder, M.D., Philadelphia.
Francis Bowyer Miller, Melbourne, Australia.
Guillaume Lambert, Louvain, Belgium.
Persifor Frazer, Jr., Philadelphia.
George W. Hough, Albany, N. Y.
Wm. A. Stokes, Philadelphia. Died May, 1877.
Edwin J. Houston, Philadelphia.

Elected April 19, 1872.
Jean Baptiste Léon Say, Paris, France.
Lorin Blodget, Philadelphia.
D. Hayes Agnew, M.D., Philadelphia.
Adolph E Borie, Philadelphia.

1880, et. 70.

Elected July 19, 1872.
Starr Hoyt Nichols, Philadelphia.
Coleman Sellers, Philadelphia.
Robert Peter, M.D., Lexington, Kentucky.
Richard J. Levis, M.D., Philadelphia.

Lilected Octuber 18, 1872.
Alexander Johnston Cassatt, Philadelphia.

Died February 5,

Clarence King, New York City.
Horatio Hale, Clinton, Canada.
Dr. Paul Broca, Paris, France.
Franz Joseph Lauth, Munich, Bavaria.
Isaac Norris, Jr., M.D., Philadelphia.

Died July 10, 1880.

. Sir William Thomson, F.R.8S., London.

Elected January 17, 1873.

. Henry W. Acland, M.D., Oxford, England.

. George Borrows, M.D., London, England.

. James E. Oliver, Ithaca, N. Y.

. Robert P. Frazer, Philadelphia. Died May 1878, et. 59.
. Thomas Clark, Philadelphia.

. Peter F. Rothermel, Philadelphia.

(Present address
Limerick P. O., Pa.)

. Joseph Zentmeyer, Philadelphia.

. A. H. Spofford, Washington, D. C.

. OC. Perey LaRoche, M.D., Philadelphia.
22. Henry Pemberton, Philadelphia.

Elected April 18, 1878.
(Present ad-
dress Glasgow. )

. Alfred R. Wallace, Croydon, England.

. Philip Lutley Sclater, London.

. Sir Henry Thompson, M.B., London.

. Edouard Dupont, Brussels, Belgium.

. Baron Selys de Longchamps, Liege, Belgium.
. Théodore M. Gougain, Bayeux, Calvados, France.
. Henri De Saussure, Geneva, Switzerland.

. Giovanni Capellini, Bologna, Italy.

. Giovanni Battista Rossi, Rome, Italy.

. Luigi Palmieri, Naples, Italy.

. Heinrich Helmholtz, Berlin, Germany.

. Theodor Mommsen, Berlin, Germany.

. Theodore D. Rand, Philadelphia.

. Joseph LeConte, Oakland, Cal.

. John LeConte, Oakland, Cal.

4. Frank Thomson, Altoona, Pa.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

(Present address
Berkeley, Cal.)

(Present address
Berkeley, Cal.)

39. John Fulton, Johnstown, Pa.
. Lloyd P. Smith, Philadelphia.

Resigned Jan. 25,
1875.

. George F. Barker, Philadelphia.

Elected October 17, 1873.

. A. Loudon Snowden, Philadelphia.
3. John S. Haines, Germantown, Pa.
. Matthew Huizinga Messchert, Douglassville, Pa.
5. J. Blodget Britton, Philadelphia.

. John Walter Harden, Philadelphia.

Died Novy. 8,
1870, xt. 63.
Elected January 16, 1874.

. Joseph Miller Wilson, Philadelphia.
. William H. Wahl, M.D., Philadelphia.
. Increase Allen Lapham, Milwaukee, Wis.

Died
September 14, 1875, et. 65.

. Dr. Hermann Kolbe, Leipsig, Saxony.

. J. E. Wootten, Reading, Pa.

Hlected April 17, 1874.

. William Camac, Philadelphia.

(Present address

Philadelphia.)

5. Rev. Robert Ellis Thompson, Philadelphia.
. Joseph Norman Lockyer, London.

. Richard A. Proctor, England.

. Raphael Pumpelly, Newburgh, N. Y.

(Present
address Newport, R. I.)

. Charles Augustus Young, Princeton, N. J.

Elected July 17, 1874.

. Franklin Platt, Philadelphia, Pa.
AA issu

William George Armstrong, Newcastle-on-

Tyne, England.

. Henry Woodward, London, England.

Hlected October 16, 1874.

. Rev. James Freeman Clarke, Boston, Mass.

. Franz Ritter Yon Hauer, Vienna, Austria.

. Rawson W. Rawson, Barbadoes.

. Samuel Philip Sadtler, Philadelphia.

. George A. Kénig, Philadelphia.

. Charles Francis Himes, Carlisle, Pa.

. Robert Stockton Kenderdine, M.D., Philadelphia.
. Alfred R. C. Selwyn, Montreal, Canada.

1771.

1772.

1773.
1774.
177%.
1776.
ae drire
1778.
1779.
1780.

1781.
1782.
1783.
1784.
1785.
1786.

1787.
1788.

1789.
1790.
1791.
1792.
1793.
1794.

1799.
1796.
1797.

1798.

1799,
1800.
1801.
1802.
1803.
1804.
1805.
1806.

Elected January 15, 1875.
Jared P. Kirtland, M.D., East Rockport P. O., Ohio.
Died December 10, 1877, et. 84.
John B. Pearse, Philadelphia. (Present address
Boston.
Elected April 16, 1875.
William A. Ingham, Philadelphia.
Viollet le Duc, France. Died.
John McArthur, Jr., Philadelphia.
Joseph Allison, Philadelphia.
Edward Penington, Philadelphia.
Henry Cadwalader Chapman, M.D., Philadelphia.
Alexander Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass.
Frederick Prime, Jr., Easton, Pa. (Present address
Baltimore, Md.)
Samuel P. Langley, Allegheny City, Pa.
Henry 8. Hagert, Philadelphia.
C. F. Chandler, New York City.
Rossiter W. Raymond, New York City.
Leonard G. Frank, Philadelphia. Died May (?),1876.

William P. Tatham, Philadelphia.
Elected July 16, 1875.

Thomas Messinger Drown, M.D., Easton, Pa.
John Lyle Campbell, Crawfordsville, Indiana.
Elected October 15, 1875.

Stephen Smith, M.D., New York City.

William Blasius, Philadelphia.

Gideon E. Moore, Jersey City, N. J.

Furman Sheppard, Philadelphia.

Russell Thayer, Philadelphia.

James Clerk Maxwell, Cambridge, England.
November 4, 1879, et. 47.

Charles Edward Hall, Philadelphia.

John Franklin Carll, Pleasantville, Pa.

Andrew Sherwood, Mansfield, Pa.

Elected January 21, 1876.
J. Gibbons Hunt, Philadelphia.
ber 17, 1876.
Elected April 21, 1876.
Frank M. Etting, Philadelphia.
Daniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.
P. Cunliff Owen, London, England.
I, Lowthian Bell, Newcastle-on-Tyne, England.
James Geikie, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Thomas C. Archer, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Adolf Eric Nordenskiold, Stockholm, Sweden.
C. Juhlin Dannefeld, Stockholm, Sweden.

Died

Resigned Novem-

1807.
1808.

1809.
1810.

1811.
1812.

1813.
1814.
1815.

1816.
1817.
1818.
1819.
1820.
1821.
1822.
1828.
1824.
1825.
1826.
1827.
1828.

1829.
18380.
1831.
1832.
1833.

1834.
1835.
1836.

1837,
18388.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.

1848.
1844.
1845,

LIST OF -

Elihu Thompson, Philadelphia.
Charles V. Riley, St. Louis, Mo.

Elected July 21, 1876.

Richard Akerman, Stockholm.
John Johnson, Middletown, Conn.
Elected October 20, 1876.
Samuel Davenport, Adelaide, 8. Australia.
Dom Pedro D’ Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil, Rio da
Janeiro.
John F. Hartranft, Philadelphia.
W. Milnor Roberts, New York City.
Augustus Radcliffe Grote, Buffalo, N. Y.

Elected February 2, 1877.

F. Reuleaux, Berlin, Germany.

Rudolf Von Wagner, Wiirtzburg, Germany.

Mariano Barcena, Mexico.

EK. H. Yon Baumhauer, Harlem, Holland.

George Stuart, Philadelphia.

William VY. McKean, Philadelphia.

Charles W. Shields, Princeton, N. J.

Franklin B. Gowan, Philadelphia.

Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

Henry Turner Eddy, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Cyrus Fogy Brackett, M.D., Princeton, N. J.

James Morgan Hart, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Henry Armitt Brown, Philadelphia.
24, 1878, et. 33.

Charles William Siemens, London, England.

M. Russell Thayer, Philadelphia.

Craig Biddle, Philadelphia. —

Thomas Hewson Bache, M.D., Philadelphia.

John Hugh McQuilian, M.D., Philadelphia.
March 3, 1879, et. 53.

George Strawbridge, M.D., Philadelphia.

William Goodell, M.D., Philadelphia.

Thomas Frederick Crane, Ithaca, N. Y.

Elected April 20, 1877.

Henry Draper, M.D., New York City.

J. T. Rothrock, M.D., Philadelphia.

James Douglas, Pheenixville, Pa.

Died August

Died

John James Stevenson, New York City.
George R. Moorehouse, M.D., Philadelphia.
T. B. Reed, M.D., Philadelphia.

Elected July 20, 1877.

H. C. Humphreys, Philadelphia.
J. J. Sylvester, Baltimore, Md.
John Ericsson, New York City.

MEMBERS.

1846.

1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.
1858.

1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.

1864.
1865.

1866.
1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.
1871.

1872.

1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.

1878.
1879.

1880.

1881.

1882.

Vil

Elected October 19, 1877.
William B. Taylor, Washington.

Hlected January 18, 1878.

Tra Franklin Mansfield, Cannelton, Pa.
I. C. White, Morgantown, W. Va.
F, A. Randall, M.D., Warren, Pa.
John Price Wetherill, Philadelphia.
Elisha Gray, Chicago, M1,
Simon Newcomb, Washington, D. C.
Asaph Hall, Washington, D. C.
Theodore G. Wormley, M.D., Philadelphia.
Christian Henry Frederick Peters, Clinton, N. Y.
James F. Watson, Ann Arbor, Mich. Died Nov. 23,
1880, eet. 41.
Francis Andrew March, Easton, Pa.
Burnet Landreth, Bristol, Pa.
Elected May 3, 1878.
C. Newlin Pierce, DDS., Philadelphia.
Robert Henry Alison, M.D., Philadelphia.
William D. Marks, Philadelphia.
Lewis M. Haupt, Philadelphia.
Burt Green Wilder, M.D., Ithaca, N. Y.
Hlected September 20, 1878.
Carl Schurz, Washington, D.C.
Jacob B. Knight, Philadelphia.
1879, et. 48.
Rev. Fred. Augustus Muhlenberg, Philadelphia.
Elliott Coues, M.D., U.S.A., Washington, D. C.
Alpheus Spring Packard, Jr., M.D., Salem, Mass.
(Present address Providence, R. I.)

Died March 10,

Joel Asaph Allen, Cambridge, Mass.
Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Cambridge, Mass.
Rev. William Rudder, Philadelphia. Died Jan.
29, 1880.
Morris Longstreth, M.D., Philadelphia.
Elected October 18, 1878.
Albert H. Smith, M.D., Philadelphia.
Rev. Samuel Longfellow, Germantown (Phila).
Rev. Edward Abraham Foggo, Philadelphia.
M. A. Descloizeaux, Paris, France.
C. Schorlemmer, Manchester, England.
FTilected January 17, 1879.
Charles Benjamin Dudley, Altoona, Pa.
Philip Howard Law, Philadelphia.

Elected April 18, 1879.

William H. Greene, M.D., Philadelphia.
Arthur Erwin Brown, Philadelphia.
Middleton Goldsmith, M.D., Rutland, Vt.

vill

1883.
1884.

1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.

1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.

1900.
1901.
1902.

LIST OF

Carl Seiler, M.D., Philadelphia.
Richard Wood, Philadelphia.

Hlected July 18, 1879.
Charles Martins, Montpellier, France.
Sir George Biddle Airy, Greenwich, England.
Charles M. Wheatley, Pheenixville, Pa.
Andrew 8. McCreath, Harrisburg, Pa.
Ira Remsen, Baltimore, Md.
E. Reneviers, Lausanne, Switzerland.
Benjamin B. Comegys, Philadelphia.

Elected January 16, 1880.

Damiano Muoni, Milan, Italy.
Charies Francis Adams, Boston, Mass.
Henry Wharton, Philadelphia.
Charles A. Ashburner, Philadelphia.
Robert C. Winthrep, Boston, Mass.
Archibald Geikie, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., Boston, Mass.
George Whitney, Philadelphia.

Elected April 16, 1880.
Austin Flint, M.D., New York.
Austin Flint, Jr., M.D., New York.
Robert Bartholow, M.D., Philadelphia.

MEMBERS.

1908.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.

John Vaughan Merrick, Philadelphia.

Ellis Yarnall, of Philadelphia.

George Dana Boardman, D.D., Philadelphia.

Wm. B. Rogers, Sr., Philadelphia.

Ogden N. Road, New York.

Henry Martin Chance, Philadelphia.

Wm. Thomson, M.D., Philadelphia.

Carlisle P. Patterson, Supt. U. 8. C. Survey.

Hampton L. Carson, Philadelphia.

Joseph C. Fraley, Philadelphia.

Joseph A. Murray, D.D., Carlisle, Pa.

Horace Howard Furness, Philadelphia.
Elected October 15, 1880.

Alvan Clark, Cambridgeport, Mass.

Alex. C. Outerbridge, U.S. Mint.

Jacob B. Eckfeldt, U. 8. Mint.

Patterson Dubois, U. 8. Mint.

Lewis A. Scott, Philadelphia.

Cadwalader Biddle, Philadelphia.

Thomas H. Dudley, Camden, N. J.

Isaac C. Martindale, Camden, N. J.

Wm. Boyd Dawkins, Manchester, England.

Daniel Draper, Ph.D., New York.

1915.
1916.
ileal
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1928.
1924.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

ARTICLE I.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PUNJAB OIL REGION
BY BENJAMIN SMITH LYMAN.

Read January 19, 1872.

I. Situation. IV. Rock Groups.
II. General Lay of the Land. VY. Useful Minerals.
Il. Special Features. ee Oil,
1. General Height. 2. - Salt.
2. Character of the Hills. 3. Plaster.
a. Square edged. 4. Sulphur.
b. Sharp edged. 5. Alum.
c. Blunt-edged 6. Saltpetre.
3. Change of Shape with time. 7. Coal.
4. Mode of cutting. 8. Gold.
a, Rain. j 9. Copper.
b. Rivers. 10; Tron:
c. Sea. 11. Lead.

d. Frost. ¢. Ice. VI. Map.

I.— SITUATION.

The Punjab oil region is in the corner between Cashmere and Cabul, and lies
wholly between north latitude 32° 31’, and 33° 47’, and east longitude (from Green-
wich) 71° 18, and 73° 5’; a nearly square space about a hundred miles long east
and west by ninety miles wide, north and south.

Just inside the northeast corner of this square is Rawul Pindee, the largest town
of the region, with about twenty thousand inhabitants; just inside the southeast
corner is Pind Dadun Khan, a town of about twelve thousand inhabitants; and just
inside the southwest corner is the ancient uninhabited ruin of a walled town, now
called Kafir Kot. Just within the northwest edge of the region, and less than
twenty miles from its eastern edge, stands the little village of Shah kee Dheree, on
the site of the ancient capital Taxila, where the king Taxiles hospitably entertained

TRANS. A. M. PHIL. SOC.—VOL. XV. A.

2 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

Alexander the Great. The small town of Attok, where Alexander crossed the Indus
into India, is only ten miles north of the middle of the northern edge of the square.
The famous Muneekyala Tope, built by king Kanishka, about the Christian Era, to
mark the spot where Booddha in compassion gave his own flesh to satisfy the hunger
of a starving tiger, stands a little outside the square, fifteen miles southeast of Rawul
Pindee.

The river Indus enters the square about the middle of the northern edge, and leaves
it at the southwest corner. The Jhelum River (the “fabulosus Hydaspes” of the
ancients), one of the five rivers that gives its name to the Punjab, flows across the
southeast corner, past Pind Dadun Khan, southwesterly towards the Indus. The centre
of the region is drained by the Sohan, which rises near Rawul Pindee, and flows west
southwest to the Indus.

The region lies, then, mostly between the Indus and Jhelum, in what is called the
Sind Sagur Doab (two rivers), and it is mainly in the mountainous or hilly part (IXoh-
istan) of the Doab.

IJ.—GENERAL LAY OF THE LAND.

The wide, flat plain of the lower Indus skirts the southern edge of the region, but
the rest (within the Doab) is filled by a somewhat uneven table land, about 750 feet
higher than that plain, with the Salt Range on the south in a very open vee, pointing
southwesterly, and long armed on the east, and with the Choor Hills and a spur of the
Himalayas on the-north, nearly parallel to the Salt Range, but in a still more open
curve, and with two or three much shorter parallel mountains between those two main
‘anges.

This spur of the Himalayas (4,000 feet high above the sea) just enters the northeast
corner of the region, dies down into the plains (about 1,900 feet above the sea) for a
dozen miles, and is continued westerly in the Choor Hills (up to 3,500 feet in height)
as far as to the Indus, followed by a little studied region of higher mountains, west
of the river. The Salt Range, with two ridges 3,000, or even at one point 5,000 feet
high and a valley between of half a dozen miles wide and some 2,500 feet high, passes
just north of Pind Dadun Khan, west and southwesterly, to the southern edge of
the region, and then turns northwest with a single ridge, and afterwards with several
ridges, to the Indus, followed by high mountains west of the river.

The country between the Choor Hills and the Salt Range is a comparatively level
one, about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. A dozen miles southwest of Rawul
Pindee, the mountain called Khairee Moorut rises above the plain, and runs southwest
for fifteen or twenty miles, r 2aching a height of over 3,000 feet. There are also, here

and there, a few lower hills in the plains.

PUNJAB OIL REGION. 3

On the south the Salt Range falls abruptly toa very level plain that spreads far and
wide at about 750 feet above the sea. Inthe very southwesternmost corner of the
region the mountains west of the Indus come close to it at Kafir Kot, and run southerly
with a double ridge, and rise to a height of more than 2,000 feet above the sea.

The Indus flows with a swift current through a narrow, rocky channel (100 to 500
yards wide) with high banks in the country above the Salt Range, but on reaching
the plain below (at Kalabagh) spreads out into many wide channels, with low banks
and irregular islands, and changes its course from time to time. The river falls be-
tween Attok and Kalabagh (110 miles) about two feet a mile; for 350 miles below
Kalabagh about eight inches a mile. The Jhelum likewise spreads out into many
channels in the low country.

As the climate affects the topography, it must be remarked that almost all the rain
of the year takes place, in this region, within two or three months of the summer,
which are preceded by two or three months of very hot, dry weather, with the ther-
mometer sometimes at 120° F’. in the shade. Owing to the summer rains and the
melting of snow in the Himalayas, and other very high mountains, there are great
floods, and the Indus rises about fifty feet in the narrow channel above Kalabagh ;
but in the wide channels below, about eight or nine feet, spreading out into broad
lakes. The stream of the Sohan, and other smaller rivers is, in the dry season, a
mere thread in the midst of a waste of sand sometimes a mile or more wide, which
it wholly covers in the rainy season. Of course many of the smallest rivers are quite
dry before the rains begin. The streams that flow down the southern face of the Salt
Range almost all dry up in the great heat of the low country, and are lost in the sand
before reaching the great rivers.

In the valley on top of the Salt Range is a lake, Son Sukesur Kuhar, that has no
outlet and is salt. On the northern side is another salt lake, Kullur Kuhar, which
has, however, an outlet in high water, and is less salt than the other.

It].—sprEcIAL FEATURES.

In looking into the topography of parts of the region, the chief things to notice will
be (1) their general height, (2) the character of the hills as affected by the steepness
of dip of the rocks, (3) the modification of this character with time, and (4) the mode
of cutting out the valleys.

1. The most striking feature in the topography of any region is the general dif-
ference of height of the different districts. We have, for example, in the region in
question, mountain lands, suchas the Salt Range, the Choor Hills, the Himalaya Spur
and Khairee Moorut; table land, suchas the central part of the region; and low land,
such as the plain south of the Salt Range.

4 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

The causes of such present differences of height are: the height to which the rocks
have been raised to begin with; the length of time that they have been wearing away,
and the general ease with which they wear away, which depends on their general
hardness, firmness, solubility and permeability. The final result of the wearing away
that is going on all over the land is, of course, to bring everything to a dead level,
and that the level of the sea. It might, therefore, be that land as high as the Koh-
istan once stood south of the Salt Range, and has, in the course of many ages, been
worn down to a low, flat plain; as in the course of time the Kohistan must be, if it
should never be pushed upward again. But the low land south of the Salt Range,
is still high enough above the sea to show by unequal wearing away, harder ribs of
rock, if it had them; and it would seem to be pretty uniformly soft to some depth, as
if not long enough deposited to become very hard. It is probable, therefore, that since
the deposit of its present upper surface, it has never been raised so high as the Kohis-
tan, though this surface may rest upon a floor of much older rocks below, that may
be the remnant of land as high as the Kohistan. |

The whoie of the Kohistan, however, seems to have been raised about the same
time and to about the same height ; and its differences of level come in a great mea-
sure from the relative ease with which its rocks have been worn away, chiefly from
their relative hardness. But the table land has been in general wearing away for a
much less time than the mountain land, because it is made up of newer rocks that
were formed in the bed of what was perhaps a great lake in the older rocks that. make
up the mountains. ‘The newer rocks, then, take the place of a great hollow in softer
rocks of the older formation, a hollow that would have been worn still deeper but for
the protection that has been afforded by the covering.

This consideration enables some conclusions to be drawnas to the geology from the
mere topography. ‘The Salt Range is formed chiefly of a thick lime rock (the num-
muulitic) and the softer rocks that it covers; and the Choor Hill Range consists of a
similar probably the same lime rock; and Khairee Moorut most likely of the same;
in short, all the high mountain land of the region seems to be caused by the presence
of this thick lime rock, and it is probable that wherever it once rose above the present
level of the country it has left hills or mountains to mark its place. Now, the dip on
the northern side of the Salt Range is northerly, and it is pretty certain therefore that
the southern dip of the Choor Hills must be southerly; for, if this were northerly,
the lime rock must have risen to the surface somewhere between the two ranges, and
have left a ridge of rocks dipping southerly. Khairee Moorut is too short to repre-
sent so long a ridge as this must have been, and is probably a small saddle of the
lime rock rising above the table land. The rocks, then, south of the Choor Hills as,

PUNJAB OIL REGION. 5

at Gunda, must rest upon the lime rock of those hills, however much steep and
even somewhat reversed dips may make the contrary seem probable. The apparent
dips did, indeed, mislead me at first. But if the Choor Hill lime rock lies really above
the Gunda rocks, then both must be above the Salt Range numumiulitic lime rock ;
and this is possibly so.

2. Looking closer than at the mere height of the land, the forms of its surface have
three different characters according as the rocks (a) lie level, or (4) dip steeply, or
(c) gently.

a. The central table land of the region is mainly made up of rocks of quite late
age, perhaps old alluvium, possibly passing without break into Siwalik (Miocene )
rocks below. ‘These rocks he nearly or quite level, and this fact here, as in other re-
gions, gives rise to characteristic forms. The general slope of the country is com-
paratively level, and the ground is generally flat; but near the streams, high vertical
cliffs are common, connecting the flat tables above with the flat valleys below. ‘This
might be called square-edged topography. The rocks are generally pretty soft or
tender, some of them especially so; and the growth of a narrow gully into a good
sized valley is quite rapid.

b. The surface of this part of the region is not, however, exclusively of this square-
edged character, for it is somewhat affected by the older rocks below, which rise to
to the light in many places both in the valleys and on the higher lands. ‘These rocks
are of nummulitic age, and are generally harder and firmer than those above, and
often remain standing where they may have once been covered by them. In the
northern part of the region the lower rocks generally have also a steep dip, and are
folded into numerous sharp saddles and basins. This makes it not uncommon here
for harder layers of rock to stand up like a knife-edge, so sharp, in fact, that some of
the Cheerpar hills, 150 feet or more in height above the plains, are so thin as to have
holes and long horizontal slits quite through them at some distance from the top.
Such topography might be called sharp-edged. Owing to the great exposure of the
softer layers to the falling rain, they have been much worn away, so as to leave the
harder ribs standing out, and the topography has a skeleton-like, bony look. This
fact often enables the geological structure to be seen very easily from the mere topog-
graphy, and the basins and saddles to be made out from the map. The topography
has this sharp-edged character, in places where the streams have cut down to the
lower rocks, as far south at least as the Sohan River. It is shown by the little, sharp,
narrow, parallel valleys of the small streams that empty into the Sohanon the north.

It is probable that the same sharp folding of the lower rocks continues for some distance

ACR Sse iO, XoVis B.

6 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

south of the Sohan; but the map shows no such sharp-edged topography, owing no
doubt to the thick covering of the newer rocks above, as far as to the Salt Range.

c. In the Salt Range part of the region, the nummulitic rocks rise very high, gene-
rally in a double saddle with a small basin between, but have commonly pretty gentle
dips especially towards the north. Sometimes the dip is so gentle as to give rise to
something like the square-edged topography already noticed; for example, at Chin-
noor, Hungooch and Dooma. But the dip is often too steep for this, and the topog-
raphy is then blunt-edged in character, as in the hills northeast of the Salt Range
at Jaba near Kalabagh and many parts of the Salt Range itself. There are even in
this case often short vertical cliffs, but the shape of the land above them is steeper
than where the rocks lie level, though less steep than where the rocks dip very steeply.
At Aluggud there is a very uniform dip of about 25°, and a nearly corresponding
steepness to the hill on one side; but certain soft thick layers of clay or shales are
so protected by harder layers of sand rock or lime rock as to form vertical walls on
the other side of the hills. Had the dip been much steeper, the clay and shales
would doubtless have been wholly washed away to water level leaving the harder sand.
rock and lime rock layers standing, if these were thick enough to hold themselves up.

3. The progress of the wearing away with time gives rise to varieties of these main
topographical characters. ‘The tendency is to bring the whole country finally to the
level of the sea; but progress towards this end is, of course, more rapid in the water
courses than elsewhere. Little elevation above neighboring drainage levels by les-
sening the force of the streams makes the progress slower.

We have, therefore, in a square-edged district, first, flat land with crooked, mean-
dering, almost aimless streams, as shown in the low country south of the Salt Range
and perhaps in some patches north of Nummul and elsewhere, as well as along some
large streams. Next the country becomes uneven; and if the surface to some depth
is uniformly soft, the land becomes rolling, as perhaps in some large patches north of
the Salt Range; if the surface is somewhat harder, it will so last and shelter the
rocks below, as to give rise to long cliffs and gorges, as near Chinnoor, Hungooch
and Dooma and elsewhere along the northern side of the Salt Range, and at Nur-
singpuhar and other places on the southern side. In the course of time, however,
after the streams have cut down to their lowest level, these cliffs must recede farther
and farther from the streams, though at length with great slowness, and finally the
whole country becomes again a dead level, if it remain undisturbed long enough.

But where the rivers, as in the higher country, flow among rocks that have a decided
dip, their direction is of course much influenced by the strike of the rocks. It is
very plain, for example, that the Sohan follows in general the strike of the lower

PUNJAB OIL REGION. Fe

(nummulitic) rocks; and the same may be said of many of the smaller streams,
especially of the very striking series of small side streams of the northern feeders of
the Sohan.

In a district where the rocks dip gently, their basins, as they are wider than in one
of steep dips, are likely to be longer also and less. decidedly broken up by subordi-
nate folds, and the saddles between less broken upand crushed together. The valleys
are therefore more likely to be long and the ridges unbroken; and in the course of
time, after the first irregularity caused by the comparatively quick wearing down of
the main channels to their lowest level, there becomes great uniformity in the shape of
the valleys, long, narrow, and parallel, and in the crests of the mountains long and
level. The valleys form ravines rather than gorges ; for they are not extremely steep
on both sides for any great distance. The mountains about Aluggud show these
features well. Such mountains in wearing away to the final dead level will become
more and more gently rounded ridges, the country will become more and more open,
and at length quite flat.

Where the rocks, however, dip very steeply and have been much crushed together
and overturned, the small basins are more likely to vary the drainage of the large
ones, there are more chances of cross breaks and numerous cleavage planes ; so that the
valleys are shorter and more irregular, and the mountains rise in peaks rather than in
long crests. So itis in the spur of the Himalayas, in the Choor Hills and in the
western end of the Salt Range about Jaba near the Indus. In wearing away, such
peaks may become more and more rounded, until they sink to the level of the valleys
and the country becomes fiat.

4. The topography is somewhat affected by the nature of the wearing agent,
whether this be the wind, (a) the rain, (6) rivers, (c) the sea, (d) frost, or (e) ice.
But no part of this region would seem to be affected materially by the wearing or
carrying power of the wind, unless it be some light, sandy portions of the low country
south of the Salt Range.

a. The rain of course falls equally on the hilltops and on the plains, and loosens
more or less of the rocks or earth it falls on, according to their hardness, and carries
the loosened particles with it to the streams and towards the sea, more or less accord-
ing to the steepness of the surface. Where a harder bed covers a soft one, this will
be, as already remarked at Aluggud and elsewhere, cut to an upright wall around the
edges of its shelter. The action of the rain is, then, that of washing. Its effect can

=

be seen everywhere through the region.
b. The action of rivers on the other hand is not merely that of washing, in the same

way as rain, but of undermining; for a stream often washes away the bottom of a

Ce)

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

cliff, and lets the upper part fall by its own weight. It may then wash away the rub-
bish formed by the fall and continue its attack on the cliff Such undermining may
be seen in progress a quarter of a mile below the Burra Kutta Oil Springs, where the
brook has formed at the bottom of the cliff a low cavern not yet deep enough to make
the rocks above fall down. A = stream that falls over a bed of rock will often, as is
well known, undermine it especially if there be a softer layer of rock at the bottom
of the fall. The undermined edge of the fall at length comes down, the rubbish is
washed away, the undermining goes on again, and so a gorge is gradually formed
below the fall. A gorge or pair of cliffs facing each other is, then, a mark of river
action; and thisis generally combined with the action of rain. Such a gorge is to
be seen still forming on a small scale at the Chhota Kutta Oil Springs and a few
hundred yards above them, although the greater part of the work was done long ago.
Gorges formed in the same way are to be seen at Nursingpuhar and elsewhere along
the southern face of the Salt Range; they have apparently been made by much larger
streams than now flow through them.

The Salt Range has in the western arm of its vee, near its point, at the village of
Nummul, a right angled bay in its southwestern face; and it looks as if this had
once been the outlet of all the waters north of the range, and as if there had been an
enormous Niagara here that had begun to cut a gorge below for itself, before the
present gorge of the Indus at Kalabagh was cut. Perhaps the great amount of salt
in the thick layers in the mountain near Kalabagh by its readily dissolving and pos-
sibly letting the rocks above become undermined, hastened the completion of the
gorge and gave it the start of the one at Numiul.

c. The wearing action of the sea is almost wholly by undermining the headland of
a coast. ‘Phe waves dash against the shore and wear it into a cliff, undermine the cliff,
the tidal currents carry off the rubbish that falls, the undermining goes on again, and
the sea at last cuts the land down to its own level. But in bays the force
of the waves is lessened, the water is quieter, the earthy matters in the water
drop more readily to the bottom, the rivers bring in such matter from the valley at
the head of the bay, and this becomes silted up. A single long cliff or line of cliffs
looking down on a wide plain is then, the mark of sea cutting. The southern escarp-
ment of the Salt Range, so abrupt and striking, gives the impression of a coast line
formed by the sea; and really seems to have been so formed when the low land to
the south was under water either salt or fresh, though perhaps a little rounded by the
rains since then.

d. The frost, as everybody knows, acts by freezing the water in the small cracks

or pores of the rock, and so by expansion loosening particles or masses of rock or

PUNJAB OIL REGION. 9

breaking them apart, and letting them fall, as soon, at least, as the ice that may still
unite them melts away. Such loosened masses could only fall down a pretty steep
slope. It may be that this action of the frost takes place sometimes, though rarely,
in this region; but it cannot happen often in so hot a climate.

e. Hor the same reason, there is no sign whatever of the action of ice or glaciers,
with their grooving and polishing of the rocks by the pebbles and mud they push
along, and with the heaps of rubbish that they leave behind them meited.

It is plain from what has been said that, as the topography is so far from being
accidental and is so thoroughly modified by the nature and position of the rocks ac-
cording to simple laws, its careful study is of the greatest importance in making the
geology clear; even if not quite so indispensable for the general geology of a large
region as for the geological details of a small tract. A merely shaded or hachured
map shows some of the geological facts along with a part of the topography, but is
very indefinite and imperfect and insufficient for both, as compared with a contour
line map. Such work may sometimes seem too laborious and time-taking, but is
after ail so necessary as to be worth the trouble.

TV. ROCK GROUPS. :

The geology of the region or of large parts of it has been treated of by Dr. W.
Jameson (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1843), Dr. A. Fleming (Jour.
As. Soc. Beng:, 1848 and 1853), Mr. W. Theobald, Jr; (J. A. S. B., 1854), Mr. A. M.
Verchére (J. A. S. B., 1866-67; and as far as it relates to the oil has been dis-
_ eussed in my own “ General Report on the Punjab Oil Lands, Lahore, 1870.” Mr. A.
B. Wynne, of the Geological Survey of India, has spent the two last winters in ex-
ploring the Salt Range and mapping its geology, but beyond a paper or two on special
places in the “ Records of the Geological Survey of India,” his observations have not
yet been made public. ‘To save the trouble of turning to those works it may be
worth while to give here a short sketch of the geology, so far as known, aside from
the structure, which has been already described.

The old alluvial rocks that have been mentioned, as covering much of the table land
are of unknown thickness (more than fifty yards at any rate), and perhaps pass up-
ward in some places without interruption into the newest alluvium or wash. It is
also possible that in places they pass downward without interruption into the rocks
that have been called Sivalik.

We have then this general section of the rocks of the region:

New, little disturbed rocks: Thickness
Alluvium, or wash, - - - - - - - - unknown.
IN 125, SO eh

10 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

Old Alluvium? perhaps much more than ~ - . - - 150 feet.
Older rocks, with more or less steep dips:
Miocene ? Greenish grey sand rock, shales and pebble rock and red
and green clays (Sivalik? Aluggud and table land north
of Salt Range); by some called 10,000 feet, perhaps not
more than - - - - - - - - 3,000 *
Eocene. Gunda rocks; light brown and red sand rocks and shales
with some grey lime rock and shales (south of Choor Hills)
with od, - ~ - - - - - - = (Solera
Nummulitic lime rock (Jaba and Salt Range generally) with o¢l. 1,100 “
Mesozoic. Green sand rocks and shales, cherry lime rocks, and iron
stained sand rocks with bituminous shales ; perhaps - 700
Carboniferous. Lime rock, grey sand rock and shales, calcareous
sand rock and shales, about - - - - - - 1,800 -“
Devonian. Red variegated grits and clays with copper; greenish
sand rocks and shales with grey dilomitic sand-rock ; red
sand and pebble rock; and red marl with rock salt and

plaster, say - . - - - - - - - 2,850 “

10,450 feet.
The three lower formations dre in this region found only in the southern part of
the Salt Range and about Kafir Kot; and this account of them is gathered from the
older writers. But their statements disagree very much; and the age of different
beds often seems to have been determined from quite a small number of their fossils.
Mr. Wynne’s study of these formations has no doubt added much to what was learned
about them nearly twenty years ago, and his report will perhaps change some of the
estimates of thickness or of age. ‘There would seem to be a good deal of variation
in the beds from place to place within short distances. .

V. USEFUL MINERALS.

The following useful minerals are found in the region in greater or less quantity :
—(1) oil, (2) salt, (3) plaster, (4) sulphur, (6) alum, (6) saltpetre, (7) coal, (8) gold;
and in minute quantity ores of (9) copper, (10) iron, (11) lead.

1. Ovl.—The oil has been bored upon at Gunda, and at first fifty gallons of it a
day were pumped from the well; but the yield of course, grew quickly less (like the
ordinates of a parabola), and after the whole amount had reached two thousand gal-
lons (about five months) the daily yield was less than ten gallons. In the region, oil
flows also at five other places from natural springs, from a gill to three quarts a day,

*

PUNJAB OIL REGION, 11

and there are traces of it at yet two other places, making eight in all. Asphalt, or
dried oil, is found in small quantities at four of these places, and at four other places,
at two in notable quantities. At most of the asphalt places there are traces of rock
tar or asphalt melted in the heat of the sun; and at one of them (Aluggud) as much
as 100 gallons. Besides these dozen places where oil or asphalt is found there are
half a dozen places where there are small traces of one or the other, enough to attract
notice in.the minute examination of the country by its inhabitants. About half of
all the places are in the north-eastern corner of the region; about half towards the
south-western corner; and one or two in the north-western corner towards the middle.

The Aluggud oil (now dried to asphalt) seems to have come from rocks of carbon-
iferous age, to judge by their fossils, though other things would rather show that they
were of later age. If they are carboniferous, then the nummulitic rocks are wanting
above them, and have thinned completely away from a thickness of 2,000 feet only
thirty miles distant. This oil is also the only case of oil outside of the older tertiary
rocks anywhere in the whole region.

All the other oil springs or shows of oil in the southern part of the region are on
the northern side of the Salt Range and in the nummulitic lime rock or close above
it. The northern ones are either in the nummulitic lime rock, of the Choor Hills,
the same probably as that of the Salt Range; or in the Gunda rocks (chiefly sand
rocks) that le south of them, also accompanied by numimulites.

In every case the oil seems to come from a deposit of very small horizontal extent,
sometimes only a few feet, seldom as muchas a few hundred yards; only in one case,
that of the Chhota Kutta and Burra Kutta oil springs, near Jaba does the deposit
seem to extend as much as half a mile. Here, too, the oil comes from a thickness of
about a hundred feet, and the natural springs yield at one place as much as three
quarts a day. At all the other places the oil comes from a much smaller thickness of
of rock, from forty feet at Aluggud and twenty at Gunda and Punnoba downwards.
Scarcely do any two oil springs come from the same bed of rock.

The oil is dark green in color, and so heavy as to mark 25° of Beaume’s scale, or
even less. The Gunda oil has been burned a little by the natives with a simple wick
resting on the side of an open dish; but the Punnoba oil is more inflammable, and
needs a special tube for the wick, though the main opening of the dish or lamp may
stay uncovered. The oil generally, however, has been little used for burning except
at Punneba; but has been sought for as a cure for the sore backs of camels. The
asphalt was also highly prized forty years ago by the natives as medicine, taken in
pills, especially for broken bones. It was carried far and wide, and was called
“neero’s fat,” because it was generally believed to have dripped from the brains of a

12 - TOPOGRAPHY OF THE

negro that had been hung up by the heels before a slow fire. It is perhaps
needless to say that there is nothing whatever in the mode of occurrence of
the Punjab oil, to uphold the chimerical belief that rock oil ever passes by dis-
tillation, emanation, or otherwise, from one set of rocks to another, that it origi-
nates in any different rocks from those in which it is found; and nothing to show
that it has been formed by any other method than the very natural and sufficient one
of the low decomposition of organic matter, deposited along with the other.materials
of the rock. Neither is there anything to show that the oil has been driven by the
upward pressure of water, from the lower parts of a bed of rock through its pores to
a higher part of the same bed; on the contrary, as the rocks near most of the oil
springs dip pretty steeply, if such an action of water were possible, all the oil would
long ago have been altogether forced out of the rock at the outcrop. Indeed, such
an idea is quite inconsistent with the fact that even a slight amount of oiliness in the
pores of a body is a complete bar to the entrance of water; much less could water
(without soap) scour the oil from one mass of rock and make it flow into another
mass filled with moisture. If oil wells are more numerous in some regions along the
tops of rock saddles, the reason is clear, that the oil-bearing bed lies too deep for
boring conveniently elsewhere.

Wild hopes have sometimes been entertained that a large amount of oil might by
boring near the oil springs be struck in some cavity below the oil-bearing bed; but
it is safe to say that they are not justified by anything whatever, either in the Punjab
or in any other part of the world, either in the practical experience of oil boring or
in the general laws of physics.

2.° Salt.—In the lower part of the Devonian rocks there are large deposits of salt
from white to brick red in color, in layers of about two feet thick, separated by thin
(half-inch) layers of red marl, amounting in all to a hundred feet or more. It is
mined especially at Keora (in one place in a chamber thirty or forty feet wide and
high,) and at other places near Pind Dadun Khan, and on both sides of the Indus
near Kalabagh. There are other like deposits of salt, perhaps of the same age, west
of the Indus, twenty-five miles north of Kalabagh.

3. Plaster —Gypsum is found in beds as much as thirteen feet thick or more, and
in thin seams in the Devonian salt marl in the Salt Range, especially near the salt
mines; and is commonly light gray and mottled in color, sometimes pure white, pink,
brown or greenish, sometimes crystalline. It is also found in a mass of perhaps
20,000 tons at the Chhota Kutta oil springs, and in one of perhaps 200,000 tons near
the Punnoba oil springs, and in some quantity at Loone kee Kussee sulphur pits
opposite Dundee on the Indus; in each of these cases apparentiy altered from line

PUNJAB OIL REGION. 13

rock by sulphur springs; and there may be other similar deposits in the
region.

4. Sulphur.—tn each of these cases the gypsum is associated with sulphur, which
was dug in some quantities twenty years or more ago, from small open pits, and
afterwards separated from earthy impurities by sublimation. It is said to have been
visible in small yellow particles in the earth, but cannot now be seen in the rubbish
of the old pits. There are other sulphur pits near Nakbund west of the Indus, and
perhaps elsewhere in the region.

5. Aluwm.—Alum shales, which are also bituminous and pyritous, are found in the
Hocene rocks of the mountains near Kalabagh, and are largely mined. They are
burned six or eight months in kilns thirty or forty feet high, and leached in vats of
baked clay ; the liquor is boiled in iron pans and mixed with “jumsan” (a mixture
of sulphate of soda and salt, an efflorescence of the soil in many parts of the low
lands), and left to settle and crystalize in vats; the crystals are washed with cold
water, and melted in an iron pan in their own water of crystallization; the liquid is
poured into earthen jars where it crystallizes, and finally the uncrystallized portion is
poured off, the jar is broken apart, and the alum is ready for sale. About twenty
years ago its manufacture amounted to more than 400 tons a year; and it had been
carried on by one family for eight generations.

6. Saltpetre—Saltpetre is said to be leached from black soil at several places a
dozen or twenty miles south-west of Kalabagh on the west side of the Indus.

7. Coal.—Thin beds of brown coal, with the look sometimes of good bituminous
coal, are found in the Eocene rocks of the Salt Range, especially near Pind Dadun
iXhan ; and in the alum shales of Kalabagh. These last beds of coal are. very thin
and irregular; but the others sometimes reach a thickness of two feet towards the
east, and one of them becomes even three feet thick with good coal at one point
fifteen miles northeast of Pind Dadun Khan. The beds, however, would not seem
to keep of one thickness for any distance, and are on the whole of little value.

8. Gold.—Gold has been washed from the miocene sands along the Indus, near
Mukhud and elsewhere ; and is found in almost invisible scales. Towards the head-
waters of the Indus the scales are said to be much larger. Thirty years ago there
were about 300 gold washers between Attok and Kalabagh, and each one earned
about ten cents a day. They used a pick, shovel, sieve, cradle, wooden platter (for
panning out) and quicksilver. ‘The gold on the Indus is said to be somewhat whiter
than that found further east. The washings are richest after heavy rains, that bring
down fresh sand from the neighboring rocks to the brooks.

9. Copper.—Small concretionary balls of copper ore, chiefly sulphuret of copper
Sa VOL, XV. 1.

14 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PUNJAB OIL REGION.

(copper glance), commonly covered with green carbonate of copper, from the size of a
walnut down, are found in the upper part of the Devonian rocks of the Salt Range ;
but no vein of the ore has been discovered. The ore is thought to contain from
twelve to twenty per cent. of copper; but to be insignificant in amount.

10. Lron.—The ores of iron seem to be almost as small in amount at any one place
as the copper ore just mentioned. Small balls or crystals of magnetic iron ore from
the size of a walnut down, are found in a pebble rock at Aluggud through a small
space; and similar bits of iron are found on the surface of the ground at Gunda, and
doubtless in many other places. But no place has been found to yield enough to
work.

11. Lead.—Galena is found in small crystals in a limestone near the Keora salt

mines ; but is in such small quantity as to be worthless.

VI. MAP.

The Topography of the map that goes with this paper is based on that of Captain
(now Colonel) D. G. Robinson’s admirable map of the Kohistan of the Sind Sagur
Doab, a map on a scale of one mile to the inch with the steepness of the slopes shown
merely by depth of shading, and with numerous levels marked in feet.

As a difference will be noticed in the spelling of the same names in the paper and
on its map, it may be said that the spelling of the map is according to the rules of ro-
manized Hindoostanee (or for reducing Hindoostanee to Roman characters), a system
very convenient for maps, as comparatively brief, and showing the native pronuncia-
tion very perfectly, while the diacritical marks can be made in the manuscript without
trouble. On the other hand the spelling of the names in the paper is according to
the rules for anglicising Indian names, and is more convenient to print, from the ab-
sence of diacritical marks, and is more consistent with the rest of the text, and at the
same time shows passably the common English pronunciation of native words.

The map is printed from a plate electrotyped direct from a photograph of the manu-
script by the process of Mr. Julius Bien, Superintendent of the New York Lithograph-

ing, Engraving and Printing Company.

Transactions Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol. X} —Plate I.

=

mR OWNS |} PREEOQUOCIOA AND TSEC NEON SIGE WClal M/NE OF FHE |

S121 FON aN
PAINGAIS OllL REGION,
Ol” INOGIKS
BY BENJAMIN SmITH LYMAN, FOR THE PUBLIC Works DEpt.Govr. oF INDIA. OcT.1871.
NEWER ROCKS:
{ yh] PTR TRAVERTINE, YIELD:— cats. oll DLY. C.yDS ASPHT. GALS. TAR FRY
Hig! | SINDUP'BLER'CKS RATA OTUR....... O%6..+.. O%... TRACE
BASSALA........., Win oaans O ago" ©
A Sragen EE) LUNDIGAR ......... fo) Bae 4000? ... TRACE
OJLIDISIR IRVOXH “Se GANDA (1870)...... Ome Enver G15) eae = 10)
Ep peek FT SIWALIK? CHHARAT........- TRACE....+ NS soo ©
AOOSFTGRY SIND R'CK, - BORARI........... TRACE..... 6%... TRACE
iit AL Lat eiterare. cts QO onsca “ChArseis WANES
NUMMULITIC:( PANOBA.......... OWA conse o . °
ALAGAD Weenies « One Geese 350 400
10 CHHOTAKATTA.. 03%4..... My roo @
= BARAKATTA.... 0%..... QO coo ©
REDAND GREEN ™, DUMA............. OMe ree Wisse OMA
GR'YCLAYSWITH . 2 angie 4
SRSA GL IN ALL (ROUGHLY) 11254) 138824 100%

THE OTHER LANDS HAVE ONLY we

ROCK LAYERS. 2 +R ACES OF OIL, TAR OR AS-

PHALT. THE OIL IS DARK GREEN

OC AND VERY HEAVY, 25°OF BEAUME ~~

© oR LESS. THE ASPHALT IS EAR- 5 GY

THY, AND WEIGHS IN ALL PER: 3 ‘

G00 CORSE PEBBLER'K.C) HAPS 2098 TONS. THE TAR IS y
)

pj) 84° sanvy LIME RK. = SC MELTED ASPHALT.

ALAGAD O1L. 20 =NOTE:— THE ToPocRA
OSFTGRY SIND RIK. 1. <L py is BASED ON THAT OF CAPT.
Z — D.G. ROBINSON'S SHADED MAP OF

BRINUORYSHALS. 2I<C ONE MILE TO THE INCH...THE

@ conTOUR LINES ARE 250 FEET
1190 pnpaRT IN LEVEL. ROMAN NUME-
RALS SHOW THEIR HEIGHT A- >
BOVE THE SEA; AND ARABIC
THAT OF CERTAIN SUMMITS.

98:

GRAY SAND R'CK E) ALAGa~p crRovp.
WITH AFEW LAY- fit] JABa -

ERS OF PEBBLE CANINE 2
/ROCK, DARK RED 5 OIL L CALLED.

SHALES & GRAY
SHALES.

DUMA,HANGUCH,O \
450CHINNUR (SADI- ©
ALI?) TAR. 5
LIYE CHHOTA KATTA,
ai BARA KATTA OIL. NITRE,,\

BLUE GRAY LIME < (i
ROCK WITH NUM: () Pyisiar<
MULITES. a

(i)

‘ va) y ©MiAN WALI
AN lari
Papa o 3,0"
KA IR kom!
2950

110001 THE GANDAGRP , « SECTION ACROSS TH ASINS IN Ta= lina AS:
1S PERHAPS AT (te a. .
TOP OF JABA GR. ro)

REO SANDROCk 1

a DALLA OIL.
Idee RATA OTUR OIL.
Debs 4 PANOBA OIL.

ANDOWAL p95 YLELZ73

I | AHMADABADl. 4 30:

AND SHALES. ©)
* SEA LEVEL 2+ SEA LEVE
a
a
1450¢anpAon. O

ssosrnswonvs.< SCALE: soo 000 OF NATURE; OR 75000 FEET ©€14¢ MILES) TO AN INCH.

eal WITH NUM’LITES. Q)
Abele b bak bol BORARI O1L Zz
HUH x
p HHARAT OIL.
murat Araceae in erro ) 5 MILESJOM. 20 m. 30 M. 40 M. 50 M. 60M. 70M. 80M 90 m. 100
Seed oestorel (aleySIeD : 25 KILOMETRES. 50 K. 75K. 100 K. 126 K. 150 41LOMETRES.

ARTICLE II.
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF WEST VIRGINIA.

BY JOHN J. STEVENSON,
Professor of Geology in the University of the City of New York.

Read before the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 16, 1872.

In this paper I propose to describe the carboniferous series as displayed in a portion
of Monongalia and Marion counties, West Virginia, the extension of that part of

Pennsylvania described in the reports as the Third Great Basin south of the Ohio,
first subdivision.

Laurel Hill, the eastern boundary, appears to attain its greatest importance in the
neighborhood of Uniontown, Pa., from which point it gradually diminishes southward,
until at the Valley Falls of the Monongahela River, about thirty miles south from the
State line, it becomes so insignificant that the Mahoning sandstone passes over it,
unbroken. The western boundary is the first sub-axis of the third great basin of
Pennsylvania, and was termed Brush Ridge in the report. It is almost parallel with
Laurel Hill in Pennsylvania, but near the line it turns towards the southwest, and
very soon ceases to affect the dip. The breadth of the sub-basin in its northern part
varies little from eight miles. I have chosen to regard this as the average width of
the section to be examined, although the western boundary soon disappears and the
sub-basin as such no longer exists.

Through the whole district the Monongahela river runs with a course irregularly
north and south, cutting through Laurel Hill near Valley Falls. Its numerous tribu-
taries from the east afford excellent natural sections of the lower groups, while those
from the west afford equally satisfactory Ulustrations of the upper coals. Cheat River
runs through the northeastern corner. ‘The village of Morgantown is on the bank of
the Monongahela, about six miles south from the State line; and Fairmount, on the
same river, is twenty miles south from Morgantown. I shall make no reference to the
portion lying north from Cheat river, as that has been fully discussed by Prof. W. B.
Rogers, in his report on property connected with the Pridevale Iron Works.

16 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

The superficial deposits here are very thin. Along the Monongahela, terraces of
limited extent are occasionally seen, but along the smaller streams they are not
readily distinguishable.

The rock deposits belong to the carboniferous age exclusively. In the gaps made
by the Cheat river and Decker’s creek near Morgantown, we find the sandstone, lime-
stone and shales of the Lower Carboniferous, Umbral of Rogers. On these rests the
great conglomerate, which forms the saddle of the mountain, and which may be seen
beautifully curving in the gap of Decker’s creek. On the flank of Laurel Hill the
coal measures begin, from which line they continue without serious interruption to
the western limit of the coalfield in Ohio. The district under consideration shows a
small anticlinal axis, parallel to Laurel Hill, which crosses the Monongahela just at
Morgantown, and has a marked effect on the dip, reducing it from nearly two hundred
feet per mile, near the mountain, to little more than thirty feet per mile west of the
axis. As already stated, Brush Ridge, or the first sub-axis of the third basin of
Rogers, has little effect on the dip.

THE COAL MEASURES.

In describing the coal measures, I have thought it best to adopt the terms used in
the Geology of Pennsylvania and the Virginia Reports, for, though they may not have
been based on scientific grounds, they are most convenient for deseription, as the
rocks are here developed.

The Lower Coal Group extending from the conglomerate to the Mahoning sand-
stone is found on the sides of the mountain, and disappears not far from its foot. It
contains one, or 1A some localities two workable seams of coal and some valuable de-
posits of iron ore. The Lower Barren Group rests on the Mahoning sandstone and
reaches to the base of the Pittsburgh coal. It contains a seam of coal, sometimes
workable, several deposits of ore, and some limestone. The Upper Coal Group
begins with the Pittsburgh coal, and includes the Waynesburg coal, with its overlying
sandstone. It contains four beds of coal, all of large size, and an immense deposit of
limestone. Its eastern limit is within two miles of Laurel Hill, and it disappears
from four to five miles west from the mountain. The Upper Barren Group includes
all above the Waynesburg Sandstone, if I may so term it. Only a small portion is
seen in this district, and that only near the western limit. It is developed chiefly in
the second subdivision. It contains four beds of coal, two of workable thickness, but
all of rather poor quality.

UPPER BARREN GROUP.
This is composed chiefly of shales and sandstones. No satisfactory sections have

been obtained, as the hills are usually rounded by erosion and covered with soil. On

OF WEST VIRGINIA. ie

the Aiken tract, near Dankard creek, thirty-five miles northwest from Morgantown,
the blossoms of several small beds are seen; but of these only one has been examined.
This is eighteen or twenty inches thick. About fifteen miles east of this, at Price’s,
is a four feet seam of moderately good quality, from which coal is obtained for smiths’
use. - Above this, perhaps fifty feet, is another seam of nearly the same thickness,
which is opened at Brown’s Mills. It is slaty and of very poor quality. Five or six
miles east, of Price’s, there is said to be a five feet coal worked near the hill-top. Of
this I know nothing, not having seen it. On Scott’s Run, a small seam, one foot
thick, and perhaps eighty feet above the Waynesburg, was struck by Mr. Lumley in
boring a well at the head of Ramp’s Hollow. Exposures are so rare that it is impos-
sible to determine the dip with any degree of accuracy. Otherwise the distance
between these coals might be calculated. The intervals, as already stated, are filled
with shales and sandstones, limestones being almost wholly absent until the Aiken
tract is reached.

UPPER COAL GROUP.—MONONGAHELA RIVER SERIES,

The approximate section of this group is as follows:

Shales and sandstone,
Limestone and shale,
Sandstone and shale,

10. Limestone,

11. Sandstone,

12. Limestone,

13. Sandstone,

14. Limestone,

15. Sandstone and shales,
16. ‘Shale,

1. Sandstone, ‘‘ Waynesburg,’’ 30-—40 feet.
2. Shale, 1—15 *“
3. Coal, ‘* Waynesburg,” 6—9. “*
4. Sandstone, Lib Se
5. Shale, &
6. Limestone, aC
iis

8.

oF

HO Ora 1

Interval rocks 183 to 207 feet.

Ee — _ C2 0
WO OS -BOUSD St
Sea)
ay. je

1-25

17. Coal, ‘‘Sewickly,’’ 416
18. Shale, o—8. ‘¢

7 66
Be qe OAS ei Interval rocks 40 to 49 feet.
a e a 4
21. Limestone, Rey vice
22. Coal, ‘ Redstone,”’ 4p fe
23. Fireclay, bo Gs)
9 a Q «6s
Be. paene = a ‘“ Interval rocks 18 to 60 feet.
Ue wR ; UD pemmet
26. Sandstone, 0—35 *
27. Coal “ Pittsburgh,”’ 7—14 <“
28. Fireclay, 3

Waynesburg Coal. The eastern outcrop of this bed is about four or five miles
northwest from Laurel Hill. There it caps’the highest hills and dips gently to the
northwest. This dip is retained until the coal approaches the axis or western limit of
our sub-basin, where it is slightly reversed. The bed is everywhere double, which,
as well as the heavy overlying sandstone, has led some local geologists to identify

ACB: S:—-VOk. Kye. E:

18 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

it with the “Pittsburgh,” which, they believe, runs out in the hills south from Brown-
ville, and does not re-appear to the south again until it reaches the neighborhood un-
der consideration.

On Scott’s Run, the first openings are seen high up in the hills about two and one
half miles from the river, where the coal is worked by Core, Aiken and Ira Ramsay.
Mr. Aiken’s bank furnishes the following section; sandstone, very coarse, 50 feet ;
shale, 1 ft. 2 in.; coal, 1 ft. 9 in.; bituminous shale, 1 in.; coal, 4 ft. 10in. At Cass-
ville, one mile and one half higher up the run, the intervening shale disappears and
the whole bed increases in thickness, so that, at Tucker’s bank, it shows full nine feet
of coal. Numerous openings in this neighborhood show no material difference, and
the seam is generally known as the “eleven foot vein.”

On Robinson’s Run this coal is worked near Bowlesby’s Mills, where it shows the
following section:—Shales with some iron, not measured; Shale, very bituminous, and
with thin lamine of coal, 2 feet; Coal, 1 ft.6 in.; Clay 7 in.; Coal, 4 ft. 8in. At this
point, five miles from the river, the bed approaches closely to the axis and dips very
slightly south-east. No other openings were seen. ‘The coal is locally known-as the
“Cassville Coal.”

The development of this bed here is remarkable, and appears to be limited to our
sub-basin. At no point observed does it show less than six and one-half feet of coal,
and at Cassville it reaches nine feet. I have not been able to find it in the adjoining
county of Marion, and so cannot tell howit may hold out tothe south. To the north-
west it shows a diminution in size, giving the following section at Waynesburg,
Penn.: Coal, 1 ft. 8 in.; Clay, 1 ft. 2 in.; Coal, 3 ft.2in. At Wheeling, W. Va., the
thickness is only two feet six inches, and it is single.

In the coal, as seen on Scott’s and Robinson’s Runs, the laminz are coarse and
irregularly prominent, often one-third of an inch thick, giving a ligneous appearance.
Laminze of mineral charcoal are found at irregular distances and of varying thickness,
but preserving the vegetable structure, and looking much like crushed cane. In some
of these fragments of a Cordaites can be recognized. When rudely broken, it fre-
quently resembles an impure cannel. It burns with great readiness, and for the most
part has no considerable tendency to cake upon the fire. As seen on Scott’s Run, the
lower bed is a good coal, very compact, and in high repute. The upper bed shows
numerous thin seams of pyrites, and at times is very slaty. At some points it is a
very bad coal. On Robinson’s Run, the lower bench, if one may judge from the out-
crop, contains a good deal of pyrites, not readily distinguishable, however, in the
sound coal, within the opening. The upper bed tends to run into bituminous shale,
and is not of very good quality.

OF WEST VIRGINIA. 19

Sewickly Coal. In the neighborhood of its eastern outcrop, near Stewartstown,
this coal seems to have suffered so much from aboriginal erosion, during the deposi-
tion of the overlying stratum, as to have lost all economical value, rarely exceeding
one foot in thickness. At that point, one of the highest in the county, it is well ex-
posed; but it does not show itself again, as far as observed, east of the Monongahela
River. West of the river, we find it nearly six feet thick, on Mr. Boyer’s property,
at the mouth of Scott’s Run. At Mr. Newkirk’s, one mile up the run, it is four feet
six inches. At Ira Ramsay’s, one mile further, it is five feet, and a short distance
beyond, where it sinks under the run, is five feet eight inches. It has been opened
at many points along Scott’s Run, and, at all these openings, it is divided near the
middle by a layer of cannel coal varying from two to six inches in thickness. The
lower portion is compact, and contains but little pyrites, while the upper part is softer,
and apparently altogether free from pyrites.

On Robinson’s Run only one opening was observed

about three miles from the
river, a short distance above the school-house. There the bed is four feet six inches

thick, and has a thin clay parting near the middle. The cannel coal is about one foot
from the bottom, and is not so well marked as in the Scott’s Run openings. The coal
is very free from pyrites, but is rather friable. At this opening the dip is southerly.

At Laurel Point, on the road to Fairmount, the coal is six feet thick, and the can-
nel does not appear.

In this coal the laminz of mineral charcoal, though thin, are at short distances apart.
Along the_planes of vertical cleavage it shows a neat, clean surface, brightly polished,
and none of the ligneous structure belonging to the Waynesburg bed. The fracture
is irregular. The coal is remarkably pure. Fifty bushels, which had lain on the
dump for a year, exposed to sun and rain, were still brilliant and compact, showing no
disposition to slack. On the fire it is almost open-burning, having a very slight
tendency to cake. The upper or softer portion on Scott’s Run, is in great favor
among blacksmiths, owing to its purity, while coal from any part of the bed is highly
regarded for domestic purposes. It is undeniably a coal of singular excellence in
every respect. :

Redstone Coal. This coal is seen at many points along the road leading from the
Tee’s Ferry pike to Stewartstown. At the latter piace it is well exposed on many
farms, and shows a thickness of about four feet at its outcrop. The Pittsburgh coal,
below, is so accessible there, and is so much thicker, that no openings have been made
in the Redstone bed, so far as I could ascertain. The coal along the road, referred to,
lies very near the hill-tops, so that the area is quite circumscribed and the quality
vather poor.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

| ne
S:

West of the river it is seen near the mouth of Scott’s Run, on Mr. Boyer’s pro-
perty. It is there about four and one-half feet thick, and was worked somewhat,
many years ago, for blacksmiths’ use, the coal being very pure. A mile and a half
up the run, a little stream comes in, on which this bed is exposed, showing a thick-
ness of four feet. The next exposure is by the side of the road at the “ fill.” The coal
disappears under the run at Stumptown, opposite Ira Ramsay’s house, a little more
than two miles from the river. There is now no opening on Scott’s Run, and it is
almost impossible to speak positively respecting its character there.

On Robinson’s Run, a short distance above Mr. Murphy’s house, perhaps two and
one-half miles from the river, several rude openings have been made. Here the coal
is four feet nine inches thickness, showing a clear bright wall at the end of the drift.
The coal is very brilliant and compact, coming out in large blocks, two feet from the
outcrop, and showing little disposition to disintegrate upon exposure. At these
openings the fireclay varies in thickness at the expense of the coal, sometimes cutting
out afoot. The bed disappears a short distance beyond this locality.

Wherever seen, this is the clearest and purest coalin the basin. It seems to con-
tain a very inconsiderable proportion of pyrites, and it has always been in great favor
among the blacksmiths. Openings in this as well as the Sewickly are not numerous
except inshort distances. The people evidently regard a four or five feet seam too
thin to pay, and the inclination is to depend on the Pittsburgh coal. Along Scott’s
Run there are, however, some who appreciate the excellence of these coals, and use
them in preference to those of the Pittsburgh bed, even abandoning openings into the
latter bed on their own property.

The Sewickly and Redstone coals diminish in thickness toward the south and west.
At Fairmount, twenty miles south from Morgantown, the Redstone is three to three
and one-half feet thick, with a slaty parting. The Sewickly reaches four feet and has
a parting of bituminous shale. ‘They appear to be represented at Wheeling by two
seams, twenty feet apart, and each five inches thick.

Pitisburgh Limestone. Under this term I include all the limestone below the
Waynesburg coal, although I am aware, that it does not rightly cover somuch. The
total thickness is about one hundred feet in three hundred and fifty feet of strata. The
color varies from light blue to almost black, while most of the strata are quite com-
pact. The layers in each stratum are separated by thin calcareous shale. No 12 of
our section yields a good hydraulic lime, which, however, has sufficient tendency to
slack to prevent its being. a cement of high grade. No fossils have been found in any
part of the deposit here; but at Wheeling, a layer of bituminous shale, about two
inches thick, occurs thirty-five feet above the coal, and contains a great number of

OF WEST VIRGINIA. HAE

minute fossils. These are very indistinct. The bivalves resemble Cardiomorpha, and.
the univalves, Spvrorbis. Mr. Meek has informed me that he found a little shell, resem-
bling Pupa, in that locality.

Pitisburgh Sandstone. ‘This rock accompanies the Pittsburgh coal at its easterly
outcrop along the line of strike from the Pennsylvania line to Pruntytown, thirty miles
south from Morgantown, and doubtless further, but my observations terminated there.
At a distance of about three miles from the eastern outcrop, it has entirely disap-
peared. ‘'T’o determine the line upon which it disappears is impossible, as the coal
itself has been removed by denudation to a distance of more than a mile, east of the
Monongahela, and to almost as great a distance west of the river opposite Morgan-
town. After crossing the river below Morgantown, one finds no vestige of the rock,

nor does it re-appear at any point west on the Ohio side of the great basin.

This sandstone is usually coarse-grained, with feldspathic sand, and some pebbles
of quartz, often numerous enough to render it conglomerate, a character which it
shares with the sandstone overlying the Waynesburg coal. Its stratification is very
irregular, and the material is so uneven in compactness that, in weathering, its sur-

face becomes honeycombed. ‘The thickness varies little from thirty-five feet.

Pittsburgh Coal. Along its eastern outcrop, as already stated, this coal is over-
laid by the Pittsburgh sandstone, and where so accompanied the lower bench only is
present. The upper bench was doubtless removed by denudation during the deposi-
tion of the overlying sandstone. A local geologist, residing not long since at Mor-
gantown, erroneously identified this coal with the Upper Freeport, alleging that it
disappears under the Monongahela, about fifteen or twenty miles south from Browns-
ville, and does not rise again until it passes some distance north from Pittsburgh,
where it is supposed to lie one hundred and fifty feet under the river. This locally
prevalent mistake has doubtless arisen from the confusion produced by the frequent
and extensive curves in the Monongahela river.

The most easterly outcrop is on the property of Mr. House, near the Ice’s Ferry
Pike, about a mile west from Cheat River. Not far from this point, it is worked by
Mr. Anderson, and is eight feet thick. At Anderson’s Store, four miles east from
Morgantown, it is worked by M. Koontz, and is about the same thickness. Turning
north at Anderson’s Store and following the road to Stewartstown, the first opening
is Smith’s bank. Here a black shale lies between the sandstone and coal. The coal
is evght feet two inches thick, with numerous thin partings of highly bituminous clay,
quite distinct near the outcrop, but not readily traceable in the solid coal. Some thin
seams and occasional nodules of pyrites are seen, but the quantity does not appear to

A. P..S,—VOL. Xv. F. | |

22 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

be sufficient to injure the coal. Two other openings in the vicinity show the same
characteristics.

In the neighborhood of Stewartstown, seven miles from Morgantown, this coal is
finely exposed in ravines upon the farms of Major Johns and Henry Coombs, two
hundred and fifty feet below the village church. Several openings have been made,
in all of which the bed shows a thickness averaging about eight feet. It is quite
hard, usually somewhat dull in color, showing little pyrites, but evidently containing
some sulphur, as appears from analyses of coal from this locality recently made by
Dr. Newberry. About a mile north from Stewartstown, on a farm belonging to the
Misses Lewellyn, this coal is said to be eleven feet thick.

Returning to the Ice’s Ferry Pike we find, one mile from Morgantown, a number
of openings to supply the village. In these the coal varies from six to eight feet in
thickness. At two of the openings, the sandstone rests directly on the coal, forming
a very irregular surface. To the northwest from these, perhaps, half a mile or a mile,
are several other openings. In the former the coal is very black, of dull lustre, and
of very variable quality. In the latter it is chiefly irised, quite soft, and contains
much less pyrites than the others.

Two miles south from Morgantown, on the west side of the river, Capt. Sears has
opened this coal and finds it about nine feet thick and of excellent quality. No
further exposure known to me occurs to the south until reaching Smithstown, twelve
miles from Morgantown, where it is found in the hills between the village and the
river. From that point it is readily traceable to where it crosses the Kanawha river.
I have observed the sandstone as far south as the Falls of the Valley river. All
along the line the upper layers are wanting, and the average thickness of the bed
varies little from nine feet.

Descending the Monongahela from Morgantown, we first find the coal back of
Granville, west of the river, where it is worked by Dr. Dent. Two miles below, near
the mouth of Scott’s run, Boyer’s old opening gives the following section : Bituminous
shale 1 ft.; coal 3in.; shale 1 ft. 8 in. ; coal 1 ft.; bituminous shale I ft.; coal 9 ft. 6 in.
About a mile further up the run, near Haigh’s Mill, the seam is thicker and shows as
follows: Shale 5 ft.; coal 3 in.; shale 1 ft. 9 in; coal 1 ft. 3 in.; shale 1 ft. 5 in.; coal
10 ft. The coal here is of good quality, with some iron pyrites, and is rather soft.
The shale above the main coal contains numerous vegetable remains, but they are for
the most part indistinct. A newropteris and a cordaztes are the only ones that can be
determined. The upper coal is said to be remarkably pure. The seam disappears
under the run, about two miles from the river. North from Scott’s run, the bed

shows some interesting variations. On alittle stream one mile below, we find: Lime-

€

OF WEST. VIRGINIA. 23

stone 14 ft.; shale 3 ft. 8 in.; coal 45 in.; shale 1 ft. 10 in.; coal 1 ft.; shale 10 in.;
coal 8 ft.3in. Not far from this on Courtney’s run, a tributary of Robinson’s run,
we find the following section on Mr. Davis’ property: Shale; coal, slaty, 1 ft. 9 in.;
shale 3 ft. 5 in.; coal 45 in.; shale 1 ft. 10 in.; coal 1 ft. 4 in. ; shale 10 in. ; coal 8 ft.
8 in. On Robinson’s run, nearly three miles from the river there are several deserted
openings which give a section very nearly like the last: Limestone 14 ft.; shale, dark,
2 ft.; coal, slaty, 2 ft.; black shale 3 ft. 6 in.; shale very bituminous, 10 in.; coal 1
ft.3 in.; shale, very bituminous, 1 ft.; coal 8 ft., exposed.

The variations of this bed are better marked in this district than in any other
known to me. Along the eastern outcrop it has but one layer of coal and one of
shale, the latter being occasionally absent. On Scott’s run we find two additional
layers of coal, with intervening shale; on Courtney’s run a third layer is added, with
shale ; while on Robinson’s run the two upper layers of Scott’s run are together, the
thin 4 in. lying directly upon the lower one, but distinct from it, the two amounting
to 1 ft. 3 in., as above given.

The quality of the coal from this seam varies so much at different banks that no
positive general statement respecting it can be made with safety. The coal is usually
soft, very bituminous, and cakes readily upon the fire. Where not too pyritous, it is
an excellent gas coal, for which purpose it is extensively mined at Fairmont. From
that point Pierpoint & Watson have shipped to the east about 40,000 tons per annum.
Were proper means of transportation afforded, this firm could do three times.as much ;
but the Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. evidently seeks to discourage coal mining west
of Cumberland, as it neglects or refuses to provide enough cars to accommodate the
business. The coal shipped from Fairmont rates hardly so high in the eastern
markets as that from Connellsville in Pennsylvania.

North from Fairmont to the Pennsylvania line the coal has been worked only
for domestic use. No railroad opens up the country, and the Monongahela as a navig-
able stream is too uncertain an outlet. One is surprised to learn that this whole
section is an unknown land to capitalists, that coal adds no value to property, and
that farms with twenty-seven feet of coal, have been offered for sale at twenty dollars
per acre, within a year, without finding a purchaser. Under such circumstances
there has been no inducement to experiment. There can be no doubt, however, that
at two or three banks, near Morgantown, as well as at other localities, the Pittsburgh
seam yields a very superior coal for gas and coke. This will soon be of considerable
value, as two railroads connecting with the Pennsylvania Central are in course of
construction toward Morgantown, and preliminary surveys have been made by U.S.
engineers, with a view to the immediate slacking of the Monongahela.

24 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY
LOWER BARREN GROUP. [BARREN MEASURES.]

An approximate section of this group is as follows :

2: Stentinii pie By es ; Interval rocks 16-18 feet.
3. Coal, 13-2
4. Shale, 3 feet. }
5. Sandstone, Pay Ee
6. Shales, 8) is
7. Limestone, hes UG
8. Shale with iron, 4h“ Tuterval rocks 865 feet,
9. Limestone, 13“
10. Shales and shaly sandstone, Rese
11. Limestone, 13“ |
12. Shale, 18s 226 5
18. Coal, 42 ¢¢
14. Sandstone, 10-25 - *¢ Interval rocks 10—25 feet.
15. Coal, 8 in.-1} ‘*
16. Limestone, Sco
17. Shales olive, 107 *s
18. Limestone, Bie GY
19. Shale olive, 12 + Interval rocks 88—94 feet.
20. Sandstone, 40 ‘
21. Conglomerate, 0—6 ‘“* |
22. Sandstone, ay GE 3!
23. Coal, By-4
24. Shales variegated with some shaly 7
sandstone, B33 “|
25. Sandstone, i—4 «§ Interval roeks 604 to 654 feet.
26. Shale, calcareous and fossiliferous. 2-4 * |
27. Shale, variegated, fossiliferous, 24 “
28. Coal, 4 in.-1} ‘
29. Limestone, ink’ cay
\ jeont, vith ir 9 66
ah char eia oa ea ons et « f¢ Interval rocks 45—60 feet.
32. Shales with iron, 10-15 . “ |

Coals. The coals of this group are, for the most part, of little interest, and none
appear to be of economical importance. No 3 is seen on Robinson’s and Scott’s runs,
reaching occasionally a thickness of two feet, and yielding a coal of excellent quality.
It has been worked in one or two instances where the owner was ignorant of the
proximity of the Pittsburgh coal. Nos. 13 and 15 are never of available thickness ;
though T have been informed that, at one point below the mouth of Scott’s run, along
the river, No 13 expands to twenty inches. No 15 is about as bad a coal as one often
sees, its outcrop, where protected by projecting rock, being coated with crystals of
copperas. .

No 28, which may be the equivalent of the Elk Lick coal, is exceedingly variable
in size and appearance. At the “Hog Back” on Decker’s creek, one mile from Mor-
gantown, it varies from four to twelve inches in thickness within one hundred feet. It
breaks into small blocks, an inch or two each way, and bears much resemblance to an
imperfectly formed cannel. At some points it is slaty, at others entirely free from
any such structure. Many years ago it was opened two miles south from Morgan-
town, near the poor-house. There it is nearly twenty inches thick and of very poor
quality—a richly bituminous shale, of the kind usually termed “ cannel coal,” by cour-
tesy.

OF WEST VIRGINIA, 25

No. 23 in its local development is of some importance. I have seen it only east of
the Monongahela, but it exists on the west side. Thirty years ago it was opened near
Decker’s creek, three miles from Morgantown. At the same time it was opened in
the hill opposite the University, near the village. ‘Two or three years ago it was opened
in a ravine east from the village, with a view to supply the village. The work was
abandoned owing to the thinness of the bed, which made the cost of extraction too
great to admit of competition with the openings into the Pittsburgh. During the
present year it has been opened by Mr. Millar, opposite the University, and also by
Mr. Fordyce, a short distance to the north, merely to supply the owners.

At Mr. Millar’s opening, the seam shows: Bituminous shale six to eight inches;
coal three to three and one-half feet. The general structure of the coal is slaty, and
in some portions its fracture resembles that of impure cannel. In others it is dis-
tinetly conchoidal and of the color of lignite ; while again it resembles the Grahamite
of Ritchie County, or the Albertite of New Brunswick, to a wonderful degree. Near
the bottom, the coal is very hard and brilliant, apparently only semi-bituminous. It
does not ignite as readily as the other coals of this region, but lasts longer on the
fire, and produces an intense heat. In burning, it gives off little scot, not enough to
coat the pipe, “being almost as clean as wood,” as Mr. Millar expressed it. It, how-
ever, contains a considerable amount of free sulphur, which renders it very hard upon
stoves. ‘The ashes are bulky but light, and contain no cinders, as the coal burns up
clean. It is unfortunate that this coal has so much sulphur, as otherwise its very
large proportion of fixed carbon would render it very valuable for manufacturing
purposes here where the available coals contain so much volatile matter. This bed is
frequently cut up by “horsebacks” and ‘mudseams.”

Tron. In the shale No. 1. there is usually found a highly valuable deposit of pro-
tocarbonate of iron, rich and pure, locally known asthe “ Olyphant blue lump.” Near
Uniontown, Pennsylvania, it is well developed, and Mr. Olyphant has worked it sue-
cessfully there for many years, in Fairchance furnace. On Scott’s run, near Haigh’s
mill, the quantity is considerable, and one may work out half a ton of nodules in a short
time with but little labor. According to the Pennsylvania surveyors this deposit is
not found to the north from Redstone Creek; and I have been informed by Hon. F.
H. Pierpoint, who is engaged in mining the Pittsburgh coal at Fairmont, that it does
not appear under the coal bed there. It is said to be found south from Fairmont,
near the Monongahela river. The distribution of this ore is of much economical im-
portance, as it is the most extensive depositin this region. In No. 10, nodules of
large size are common; but the character of the rock is such as to render profitable

mining impossible. No. 30 contains two seams of ore. The lower is irregular in
A. P. S.—VOL. XV. G.

26 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

thickness, averaging about six inches, of moderately good quality, and occasionally
calcareous. ‘The upper is nodular, but seldom of sufficient thickness to prove of
value. Both seams sometimes disappear altogether. The seam of ore in No. 32 is
near the bottom of the stratum—an irregular band of nodules, of low grade. Many
years ago it was extensively taken out to supply the old furnace on Deckevr’s creek,
where, in combination with other and better ores, it was successfully worked. No.
24 contains an irregular band about a foot thick which has never been tested.

The Conglomerate, No. 21, is a curious stratum varying in thickness from a few
inches to several feet. It is made up of fragments of limestone, sandstone, and iron
ore, in size from fine sand to that of a man’s head. These fragments are usually
rounded, as if by currents existing before or during the time of deposition. Thin
layers of homogeneous sandstone or shale may be traced to a considerable distance ;
and at one point there is a layer of iron ore one foot thick. The extent of this
stratum is not known, and I doubt whether it exists west of the river.

The Sandstone, No. 20, appears to be equivalent to the one described at Pitts-
burgh in the Pennsylvania Report. The lower portion is usually compact, affording
a handsome and durable building stone. The lines of deposition are often well
marked, and not unfrequently the iron there deposited gives the rock a yellowish tint.
The upper portion presents a curiously shattered appearance where exposed, due
evidently to the decomposition of nodules of impure iron ore.

Shales, Fossiliferous, Nos. 26 and 27, form an interesting little group with the
following section: Shale, calcareous, blue, gray or black, 3 ft.; dark shale, with many
small ferruginous nodules 12 ft.; calcareous nodules 1 ft. ; olive shale 4 ft. ; brown shale
6 ft. Excepting the brown shale at the bottom, which does not appear to be per-
sistent, all the layers are richly fossiliferous. The following species have been
obtained from this series: Hemzpronites crassus, Chonetes Smith, C. granulifera, Pro-
ductus Nebrascensis, P. Prattenanus, P. semi-reticulatus, Orthis carbonaria, Athyris
subtilita, Spirifer planoconvecus, S. cameratus, Lima retifera, Aviculopecten carbona-
rius, A. occidentalis, Nucula parva, N. ventricosa, N. (?) anodontoides, Nuculana
bellistriata, Yoldia carbonaria, Y. Stevensoni, Hdmondia Aspenwalensis, Astartella
concentrica, Macrodon obsoletus, Solenomya radiata, Macrocheilus primigenius, M.
ventricosus, Huomphalus rugosus, Bellerophon Montfortianus, B. percarinatus, B. car-
bonarius, B. Stevensanus, B. Meekianus, Pleurotomaria Grayvilliensis, Orthoceras
ertbrosum, Nautilus occidentalis Petalodus Alleghaniensis, and undetermined species of
Myalina, Pleurophorus, Edmondia, Deltodus, Lophodus and Ctenoptychius. Fish teeth
are very rare ;a few erinoidal stems and bryozoans have been found near the top. This
seriesis well exposed at several points on Decker’s creek, but the fossils arenot usually in

OF WEST VIRGINIA. 2

very good condition. At another exposure, in a ravine on Mr. Williams’ property,
five miles north from Morgantown, specimens of nearly all the species named above
can be obtained, in excellent preservation. It is a little curious that not a single
specimen of Chonetes mesoloba occurs in any stratum here, its place being taken by
a small variety of C. granulifera. The Productus semi-reticulatus of this region is
very closely allied to P. costatus, and I am inclined to regard it as identical with the
American variety of the latter species. For the most part the specimens of the spe-
cies above given are much smaller than similar specimens from the west, and some
are almost dwarfed. Mr. F’. B. Meek described four new species of shells from this
series in Report of the Regents of W. Virginia University for 1870.

LOWER GROUP. [ALLEGHANY RIVER SERIES. ]

The section is as follows:

* My 1 ater de} nn
i See Mahoning, 12 feet. \ Interval rocks 87 feet.
3. Coal, fdsiet
4. Shales, 125 <*“ Interval rocks 1—25 feet,
5. Coal, 45 ‘
6. Shale, Oy, #93 Interval rocks 10 feet.
"Coat, ee
8, Sandstone, Dee)
9. Shale, NOierea H : oe err
10. Limestone. ‘‘Ferriferous,”’ 4—5 * | Interval rocks 50 feet.
11. Shale, BO} 2s
12. Coal, Bs (2)
13. Sandstone and.Shale, 20-80‘ Interval rocks 20—30 feet.
14. Coal, 2-3 “¢
15. Shale, 15-20 ‘<
16. Sandstone, ‘‘Tionesta,’’ 25-30 ees Interval rocks 65—75 feet.
17. Shale, 201
18. Coal, 1a
19. Sandstone, Are 6 Interval rocks 4 feet.
20. Coal. iL ates
21. Shale. TOE

Mahoning Sandstone. For the most part this is a massive rock, with alternating
coarse and fine layers. The former are sometimes conglomerate, and the soft layers
above them are pitted on the other side, so as to appear covered with rain markings.
In some portions it is flaggy, while in others it is compact and very suitable for
building purposes, as blocks six to eight feet thick can be quarried without diff-
culty. Rude vegetable impressions are not unfrequent, but are invariably too indis-
tinct for identification. This stratum comes down to the level of Decker’s creek
about four miles from Morgantown. The dip at that point is so diminished as to be
almost imperceptible, but is soon reversed and becomes slightly southeast. At the
mouth of Decker’s creek about forty feet are visible. Mere it regains its north-
westerly dip and disappears under the river near Granville, two miles below Mor-

gantown. ‘To the south it rises quite rapidly, and at Beoth’s creek, four miles south

28 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

from Morgantown, it is nearly forty feet above the river. There it shows a bluff of
about seventy-five feet, weathered into large rounded cavities, in some portions, and
in others showing a strangely honeycombed surface.

Tron Ore (fossiliferous). On Decker’s creek there rests under the sandstone a
dark shale, twelve feet thick, and containing near the middle a band of nodular iron ,
about two feet thick. It contains an interesting assemblage of fossils, of which the
following are the most numerous: Lophophyllum proliferum, Zeacrinus mucrospinus ,
Ersocrinus, Cyathocrinus,(?) Hemipronitus crassus, Productus Nebracensis, Pro-
ductus Prattenanus, Athyris subtilita, Aviculopecten carbonarius, Aviculopecten Hert-
zert, Nucula ventricosa, Nuculana arata, Yoldia carbonaria, Astartella concentrica,
Macrocheilus primigenius, M. Ventricosus, Polyphemopsis peracutus, Huomphatus
rugosus, Bellerophon Montfortianus, B. carbonarius, B. percarinatus, Pleurotemaria
Greyvilliensis, P. speciosa, P. carbonaria, P.(?) tumida, Orthoceras cribrosum, Phil-
lipsia Sangamonensis, together with numerous undetermined species of Myalina,
Schizodus, Allorisma, Pleurotomaria, Nautilus and Deltodus. On Booth’s and Co-
burn’s creeks this shale is not present, or, if present, is represented only by a black
band four inches thick, which rests on a thinly laminated shale twenty feet thick,
containing numerous fragments of Nevropteris, Sphenopteris, Annularia and Spheno-
phylium. It seems to be present on White Day Creek, twelve miles south from Mor-
gantown. It is not persistent in Ohio or Pennsylvania.

Coal No. 3 of Section. On Decker’s creek, a small seam of coal, fifteen inches
thick, underlies this shale. Some years ago it was worked near the Point House, on
that stream. The coal is said to have been of excellent quality. This seam does not
appear on Booth’s creek, nor do I know of its existence on White Day. <A coal bed
occupying the same position has been slightly worked at Nuzum’s Mills, seven miles
south from Fairmont, on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It is nearly three feet thick.

Coal No. 5 of Section is the important and persistent seam of this group. It
appears on Cheat river, near Ice’s Ferry, and is there worked on the north side of the
river. It has been worked on Tibb’s run, a tributary of Decker’s creek, on the creek,
and in some of the ravines opening upon it. In these localities it is four feet thick,
divided near the bottom by a thin clay parting. The shale above for several feet is
very bituminous, with a conchoidal fracture, and is sometimes irised. It is undoubt-
edly a cannel coal of inferior quality, and in some places has been worked with the
coal below. The coal is very friable and breaks into rhombic pieces. Traced south-
westerly this bed crosses Aaron’s creek near the Kingwood road, about four miles
from Morgantown, and is worked by Mr. Bell. It also appears at several points

along Coburn’s creek.

OF WEST VIRGINIA. 29

On the Evansville road, about seven miles from Morgantown, it is opened by Mr.
William Howell. Here it lies directly under the Mahoning sandstone, and gives the
following section: Coal 3 ft. lin.; clay shale 2—4 in.; coal 1 ft.3in.; shale 2 in.; coal
3in. Evidently the whole bed is not worked here, for on the other side of the hill
there appears to be a foot or more of coal above. It is not well exposed, but I was
informed that it did not pay to work more than the lower four feet.

Coal (local). ‘Ten to fifteen feet below this coal, on a tributary of Decker’s creek,
there is a small seam about one foot thick. It appears to be exceedingly local, as it
has not been found on Decker’s creek, or to the south.

Lhe Ferriferous Limestone (No. 10) is frequently double, with intervening shale
sometimes several feet thick. ‘Toward the top it contains cavities with ochre, is very
ferruginous, and at one or two localities it has been worked as a caleareous ore. It is
quite persistent for twenty miles south of the Pennsylvania line, but does not appear
in the section at Nuzum’s mill. The rock was used as a flux at the old furnace on
Decker’s creek and at Clinton Furnace on Booth’s creek. It affords a good strong
lime, well fitted for agricultural purposes and for rough work. Little use has been
made of it. One cannot fail to wonder at the lack of enterprise among farmers here,
when he learns that, in a country where limestone shows itself in almost every hill,
lime commands fifteen cents per bushel at the kiln.

Coal, No. 12, (of the main section) I have not seen. It was worked many years
ago on Decker’s creek, a little below the old furnace, but the openings and exposures
have been so concealed by heavy slides that direct information can be obtained only
with great difficulty. It ‘is said by old miners to be from three and one-half to four
feet thick, and to resemble cannel. The shales above it are laminated and highly
bituminous. They burn readily and have been mistaken for cannel coal.

Coal, No. 14, was identified with the Brookville, by Prof. H. D. Rogers. It has
been opened at several points along Decker’s creek and its tributaries, and is in high
repute for domestic use. It is friable, free from pyrites and has been termed locally,
the “ Blacksmith’s Vein.” At an opening near the furnace the coal is beautifully
irised. It was formerly worked near Clinton Furnace; but, after the discovery of the
larger seam above, the workings were abandoned. The openings are now filled up
and no satisfactory information can be obtained. So far as known to me it has not
been worked at Nuzum’s mill.

The Tionesta Sandstone (No. 16), varies in texture from moderately coarse con-
glomerate to fine-grained sandstone. Compact and flaggy layers alternate on Deck-
er’s creek. On Booth’s creek, it is mostly compact. At Nuzum’s mill the texture

is uneven, and it has weathered so as to leave huge chambers. The compact layers
A. P. S.—VOL. XV. H.

30 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY

are very refractory, and some of them have been employed as furnace-hearths. On
Decker’s creek a small seam of coal, three or four inches thick, has been found in
this rock.

Coals, No 18 and 20, seem to represent the Tionesta group of Pennsylvania. As
exposed on Decker’s creek, they are of no importance. No. 18 gives the following:
coal 8 in.; shale 4 in.; coal 14 in.; shale 2 in; coal 1 in.; shale 1 in.; coal 4 in. A
very hard, refractory sandstone lies between the coals, and contains numerous indis-
tinct vegetable impressions. No. 20 is one foot thick, and of good quality. On
Decker’s creek these may be seen near the bridge, below Hagidore’s mill. On Booth’s
creek only one of the seams was seen. Its thickness is 18 inches. At Nuzum’s mill
it is as irregular as the Briar Hill coal of Ohio. Along the railroad cutting, for some
distance, it shows itself about three feet thick, but as it approaches the station, the
underlying fire-clay increases in thickness, while the coal diminishes, until at length
the coal entirely disappears. At this locality the bed has been worked to a slight
extent, and has yielded a coal of excellent quality. The fireclay seems not to be in-
ferior to that of Dover, Ohio, which it resembles greatly.

The /ron Ores of this group are of some importance.—In No. 6, the ore is a rich
hematite, in nodules which frequently contain sharp vegetable impressions. This ore
was extensively used at the old furnace on Decker’s creek, as well as at Clinton
Furnace.—In No. 21, there are two bands, quite persistent. The ore is quite im-
pure, but works well when mixed with better ore. At Nuzum’s mill, a very extensive
deposit rests on this shale. The ore is very good, but is in immediate connection
with the fire-clay, upon which it sometimes encroaches. The nodules are frequently
encrusted with the clay, which may, perhaps, prove a hindrance to successful working.
These ores have been thoroughly discussed by Prof. W. B. Rogers in his report on
property connected with the Pridevale Iron Works, on Cheat River.

THE GREAT CONGLOMERATE.

This formation varies considerably in character, some of the strata being very
coarse, with quartz pebbles, three-quarters of an inch thick, while others are fine-
grained, and resemble quartz, ete. It disappears on Cheat River, near Ice’s Ferry,
on Decker’s creek, near Hagidore’s mill, and on the Monongahela, near Nuzum’s mill.
In the gaps made by these streams the channels are obstructed by huge masses of
the rock, some of them as large as an ordinary log house, and weighing not less than
one thousand tons. At no point is it well enough disclosed to afford satisfactory

measurement or a knowledge of the succession of strata, so that our information is
derived chiefly from borings.

OF WEST VIRGINIA. 31

A section thus obtained on Decker’s creek, is as follows:
>]

BTN. FT. IN.
1. Hard sandstone, with seams of iron ore, 22 4 9. Conglomerate, white, with quartz pebbles, 13 0
2. Shales, 28 10. Shales, red and blue, 10 10
3. Sandstone, with carbonaceous matter, 12 8 11. Sandstone, blue, fine, 23 6
4. Shales, 18 12. Sandstone, white, fine, 25 6
5. Sandstone, white, 90 13. Shales, dark with iron, 6 0
6. Sandstone, black, 18 0 14. Sandstone, blue, fine, very hard, 18 0
7. Sandstone, gray, coarse, 14 0 15. Sandstone, gray, very hard, 15 0
8. Shales, black, 16 6
208 08

The record of the boring beyond this point is lost.

Another boring was made west of the Monongahela, four miles below Morgan-
town. The record was not carefully kept, so that it is impossible to determine the
thickness of individual strata. Yet the section is of interest as showing a marked
change in constitution within a few miles.

It is as follows:

1. Sandstone, white, very hard, 8. Sandstone, white, coarse,

2. Sandstone, blue, 9. Sandstone, black, very coarse,

38. Sandstone, white, 10. Sandstone, white, very hard,

4. Sandstone, blue, softer, 11. Sandstone, white, coarse,

5. Sandstone, white, fine, 12. Sandstone, white,

6. Sandstone, white, coarse, 8. Sandstone, blue, fine and hard,
depth 218 feet, 14. Sandstone, white,

7 Sandstone, blue, very hard, 15. Sandstone, dark, very coarse.

The shales thus appear to be local.

Thin seams of ore occur at various points; but they are unavailable, as the sur-
rounding rock is so hard that mining would be unprofitable. The thickness of the
formation does not vary much from three hundred and fifty feet.

LOWER CARBONIFEROUS.

This period is represented by the Umbral of Rogers, which here shows a division
of shales, limestone and sandstone.

The Shales are not well defined at any point known to me, on the south side of
Cheat river, though, as the land is cleared, and the mountain localities become acces-
sible, they will doubtless be found as readily on this as on that side of the river.

The Limestone, as ascertained by borings, is one hundred and seven feet thick, and
is well exposed in the gaps of Cheat river and Decker’s creek. At the limekiln, on
the latter stream, ten miles from Morgantown, where both the top and bottom of the
rock are concealed, the following section was obtained:

32 NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF WEST VIRGINIA.

1. Concealed, 6. Limestone, dark, impure, upper layers

2. Limestone, weathering, yellowish white, badly shattered at outcrop ; lower
flagey, with fossils, 8 ft. layers more compact, but breaking

38. Concealed, ae readily afterexposure, fossils very

8. Limestone, dove-colored, compact, non- numerous, 10 ft.
fossiliferous, 14 ‘“ 7. Shale, caleareous, lead-colored, Qi“

4. Limestone, dull, dark gray, weathering 8. Limestone, weathering and plastic, 13 ‘
light gray, and breaking readily af- 9, Shales, very calcareous, brown and
ter exposure—with numerous fossils, 6 ‘¢ weathering into mud, 2d <

5. Limestone, very coarse, gray, compact, 10. Limestone, gray, compact, non-fossil-
fossils numerous, and indistinct, GAs iferous. Exposed, 8S

On Cheat river two miles above Ice’s Ferry, about twenty feet of the rock equiva-
alent to No. 1 of this section may be seen.

A list of the fossils obtained from the upper strata on Cheat river was made out
by Meek. The following species are determined; Monticulipora, n. s.; Hemipronites
crassus ; Productus fasciculatus ; Productus pileiformis ; Athyris subquadrata ; Spiri-
fer Keokuk var.?; Pinna Missouriensis? ; Aviculopecten occidentalis ; Allorisma
clavata ; Bellerophon crassus? ; Straparollus planidorsatus ; Phillipsia Stevensoni ;
besides undermined species of Allorisma, Macrocheilus, Naticopsis, Bellerophon, Pleu-
rotomarva and Cyrtoceras. This grouping of species shows unmistakably that the
upper portion of this limestone belongs to the horizon of the Chester group. It is in-
teresting to observe how closely it is related to the coal measures of the West. Zem-
pronites crassus is a characteristic form in the Western coal measures, and never
before was found below them. The Sprrifer hesitatingly identified with S. /veokuk
var. (=? S. Leidyz) is very closely allied to S. opimus of the coal measures. An
imperfect specimen of Lellerophon obtained here cannot easily be distinguished from
B. carbonarius, while the Cytoceras is closely related to C. curtum of the Illinois coal
measures.

As these fossils were obtained from the upper strata of the limestone, I did not
deem it unreasonable to suppose that, lower down, the equivalents of the St. Louis
and Keokuk group might be found; and especially because in Randolph County,
West Virginia, specimens of Zthostrotion occur quite plentifully. Recent examina-
tions have not justified these expectations; for although in No. 6 of the section, the
grouping of species is different from the above, yet the whole has such a Chester
aspect that I am compelled to regard the limestone throughout as of Chester age.
Further study, however, is desirable, as one or two forms closely related to St. Louis
species, occur in No. 6.

The Sandstone is not well exposed, and no satisfactory information respecting it
can be given. It varies in color from light gray to brownish, and is moderately fine
in texture. The thickness cannot be determined.

aks TCH “1 ele
THE STALEY’S CREEK AND NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION.
BY BENJAMIN SMITH LYMAN.
WITH A MAP.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, Oct. 4, 1872.)

The Staley’s Creek and Nick’s Creek Iron Region, near Marion, Smyth County, Vir-
guna; according to a Rough Survey made in 1866 by Benjamin Smith Lyman.

Situation, Thomas Ore Bed.
Lay of the Land. Cole Ore Bed.
Geology. Mode of Occurrence.
Structure. Yield.
Rocks. Wood.
Old Mountain Ore Bed. Tron Works.
Corbet Ore Bed. Map.

SITUATION.

The Staley’s Creek and Nick’s Creek Iron Region (counting in it the whole of
the Thomas 5,000 acre tract and the Campbell Main Tract, parts of which ave strictly
not upon the waters of those creeks) lies in the form nearly of a parallelogram about
two miles and a-half wide from north-northwest to south-southeast and about nine
miles long from east-northeast to west-southwest, containing about twenty-two
square miles and a-half, or 14,300 acres; with the northwestern corner of the parallelo-
gram about two miles south of the village of Marion, Smyth County, southwestern
Virginia. Marion is on the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, 160 miles from Lynch-
burg and 174 miles from Knoxville. The region contains, besides the Thomas tract
of 5,000 acres at the western end: east of that, the G. H. Williams (400 acre) tract
and a ninety acre tract claimed by A. H. Campbell to lie north of G. H. William’s
tract between it and the eastern part of the Thomas tract; still east of these tracts
the Crochett 1141 acre tract on the north, the S. M. Williams 400 acre tract and the

ANG IEG Sik POG OAKS Io

34 THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

Marchant 725 acre tract on the south; east of these, the Campbell 147 acre tract on
the north, the Campbell 4 acre tract in the middle and the Henderlite 1200 acre tract
on the south; east of this last, the Wright 600 acre tract; and eastermost of all, the
Campbell main tract of 3550 acres. There are besides within the region a part or
the whole of a Nichols tract south of G. TH. Williams and some land northeast of
the Campbell 147 acre tract.

LAY OO} THE. AND:

The southern boundary of the parallelogram would be at the top of Brushy Moun-
tain, for the most part about a thousand feet high above the lowest level (in this
region) of the waters of Staley’s Creek. About a mile and a quarter north of this
mountain runs parallel to it through the whole length of the region arange of nearly
the same height cut into three parts by the cross gaps of Staley’s and Nick’s Creeks;
the western part is called Pond Mountain, from a pond somewhere upon it, and the
two other parts are called Chestnut Mountain; but as this last name is also some-
times given to the western part of Brushy Mountain and gives rise to confusion, it
would be convenient to drop it altogether. The Staley’s Creek gap is at about the
middle of the range, and the Nick’s Creek gap at about the middle of the
eastern half. Both creeks fork near the upper (southeast) end of the gaps, and
their forks extend in either direction east and west on the north side of Brushy
Mountain. The West Fork of Staley’s Creek is something over three miles long,
heads near the western limits of the region, and has to the south of its head a
small mountain called Minton’s Ridge betweenit and Brushy Mountain. ‘The East
Fork of Staley’s Creek is a little over two miles long; and one of its branches is
separated only by a low divide from the West Fork of Nick’s Creek, which is but
about half a mile long. The East Fork of Nick’s Creek is perhaps something more
than a milelong. Nick’s Creek flows northerly through the gap towards the Middle
Fork of Holston River, and Staley’s Creek flows into the same river at Marion by a
northwesterly course after leaving its gap in Pond Mountain. North of the Pond
Mountain Range are smaller parallel hills or mountains, amongst which on the north
some of the waters of Staley’s Creek take their rise ; while in the northeast they are
drained by two small streams that run northerly across the northern boundary of the
Campbell main tract. The South Fork of the Holston River flows westerly past the
southwestern corner of the parallelogram; and between it and Minton’s Ridge is
another small parallel ridge called Cave Ridge separated from Brushy Mountain by
a small valley called Rocky Hollow. South of the river, at the southwestern corner

of the ‘Thomas’ tract, is still another small parallel mountain. called Stone House

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 3!

No
WT

Mountain. Staley’s Creek where it enters Marion is about two thousand feet above

the sea.
GEOLOGY—STRUCTURE.

The rocks of the Pond Mountain Range lie in saddle form, and the saddle appears
to sink towards the east from the highest part of the mountain, near the western end
of the Iron Region. At the Nick’s Creek Gap a small basin may be perceived upon
the top of the saddle, and the small southern saddle of the basin may rise eastward
so as to replace the other that is sinking; or on the other hand this southern saddle
may be only a small roll that soon dies out eastward as well as westward. The rocks
of Brushy Mountain form in like manner a saddle, but it appears to have at the western-
most end of the region a double crest, the northern part being the larger; but the
southern part seems to rise eastward and to unite with the northern before reaching
the eastern end of the region; that is, the small basin at the top of the saddle disap-
pears eastward. There are probably more saddles than one just north of Pond
Mountain. Between the Pond Mountain and Brushy Mountain saddles the rocks
lie in basin form of course ; and there is another basin just north of Pond Mountain.

The dips of the Brushy Mountain saddle are, in the western half of the region,
forty-five degrees southerly on the south, and sixty to eighty or even ninety degrees
northerly on the north ; and appear to grow rather less steep towards the east. on the
north side, and to steepen in that direction on the south side. he dips of the Pond
Mountain saddle are forty-five degrees on either side at Nick’s Creek, but steeper
westward, especially on the northern side, so as to become in the Thomas tract
seventy degrees southerly, reversed.

ROCKS.

The rocks of the region are almost: wholly sandrocks and shales ; and seem to be-
long wholly or chiefly to the Formation called in Pennsylvania and Virginia No.
I, corresponding to the lower part of the Lower Silurian System. They are grey at
the bottom, brown in the middle and red at the top. On the top of Brushy Moun-
tain, near the southwest corner of the Henderlite tract, near the middle of the saddle
and consequently among the lowest rocks exposed in the region, are cliffs of a pud-
ding rock made up of rounded pebbles as large as peas and smaller, of white and
rosy translucent quartz, apparently in part if not wholly water-worn crystals. Just
north of the region and just south of it the blue lime rock of Formation IT (also
Lower Silurian) appears; and it is likewise found in smaller patches within the
region in the middle of some of the basins, probably in all the deep portions of the
basins. Between the layers of the lime rock, at least near the bottom, appear to be
Jayers of brown sand rock.

36 THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

There seem to be outcropping in the region at least 3,000 feet, and perhaps 4,500
feet in thickness of the sandrocks and shales, and in the third basin north of Pond
Mountain some fifty feet of the lime rock No. Hl. There are numerous openings
and natural exposures of the outcrops of iron ores, but they seem all to belong to
four beds.

The Day Ove Bed appears to lie about 600 fect below the lowest lime rock.

The Thomas Ore Bed lies about 700 feet below the Day Ore Bed.

The Cole Ore Bed is about 1300 feet below the Thomas Ore Bed.

The Old Mountain Ore Ded is about 400 feet below the Cole Ore Bed.

From that to the lowest rocks cropping out where the top of the Pond Mountain
crosses the west line of the Thomas tract is perhaps 1500 feet.

The ore of all the beds is brown hematite.
OLD MOUNTAIN ORE BED.

The Old Mountain Ore Bed seems not to be opened anywhere strictly within the
region, but is opened at the Old Mountain Ore Bank, close to the southeast corner of
the Wright tract, but on the south side of Brushy Mountain, at the top of its south-
ern saddle, at the divide between Slemp’s Creek on the east and George’s Creek on
the West. At this bank there are two large openings, one, the old one, long since
abandoned, and the other still in use and the larger; and besides them there are three
smaller ones. ‘The thickness of the bed is not apparent, but it must be several feet,
perhaps ten feet, possibly more. It furnishes the favorite ore for bloomary forge use
of all the region round, and is said to make a very tough iron of the best quality,
neither too hard nor too soft, barshire. The ore is a very beautiful, pure looking,
honey-combed but pretty compact brown hematite. At one of the smaller openings,
the ore is of a dark bluish color and is more compact, but looks pure; it is said to
make “exceedingly tough iron in the bloomary, but to free itself less easily than the
other one from cinder. It works finely when mixed with the other ore, but as it was
a little difficult to hit just the right proporden in mixing, the blue ore was wholly
abandoned.” ‘The main opening is some twenty yards across and is fifteen to twenty-
five feet deep according to the slope of the ground. :

The same bed, apparently, is opened at the Barton Ore Bank, about a mile further
west on the same outcrop, and about a quarter of a mile east of the southwest corner
of the Henderlite tract. The opening is on the south side of a small hollow near the
top of Brushy Mountain, and is some forty yards wide and ten yards deep at the
western end. The bed seems to dip forty-five degrees northwesterly and is said to
‘ave shown that dip much more plainly before the sides of the hole had fallen in so

NICK’S. CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 37

much as they had in 1866 after having been abandoned five or six years. ‘The ore is
stated to have been ‘a bed about four feet thick, of very good quality in the bloom-
ary forge, very easily melted and making very excellent tough substantial iron; but
not always perfect, probably red-short, for wagon tires were sometimes ruined while
making.” The good ore is a beautiful compact brown hematite that looks very pure ;
but the rock left unmined just below the ore bed is a pudding rock of white erystaline
rounded quartz pebbles smaller than peas, united by a brown hematite cement, making
also an iron ore but of inferior quality.

The outcrop of the bed is shown also at several places inthe region by beds of ore;
on the road across Brushy Mountain at the west end of the Henderlite tract, near the
top of the mountain, and on the bridle path across Pond Mountain on both sides of
the mountain near the top; so that the bed seems to be persistent over a wide space,
although the thickness is not known.

The bed seenis either to crop out or to come very near the surface all along the
top of Brushy Mountain, and to have in all seven miles in length of outcrop in this
part of the region. On tlie south side of the Pond Mountain saddle its outcrop runs
from the western edge of the Thomas tract three miles and a quarter nearly across
the tract; and then the same outcrop returns westward, on the north side of the
saddle, about three miles to the western boundary again, making for the whole Pond
Mountain outcrop six miles and a quarter, everywhere near the top of the mountain.
North of that the bed seems not to come to the surface again anywhere. The whole
leneth of the outcrop of the bed in the whole region seems then to be about thirteen
miles and a quarter.

The amount of ore in tons above the lowest water level of the region has been
calculated for one foot of average thickness of pure ore. The lowest water level of
the region is taken to be at about a hundred feet above the level of the Staley’s Creek
where it enters Marion, and is about the lowest level of the waters of that creek
where they leave the Thomas tract. ‘These numbers of tons will have to be multiplied
of course by the number of feet that the bed averages in thickness, whatever that may
hereafter prove to be. In the Brushy Mountain part of the bed there seem then to
be above this water level for each foot of average thickness of the bed 7,110,009 tons;
in the Pond Mountain part of the bed in like manner 2,380,000 tons; in all therefore
9,490,C00 tons for each foot of average thickness of the bed.

As for the average thickness of pure ore in the bed in feet (the multipher of this
number for the full amount of ore) the imperfect information as to the thickness of
the bed at the Old Mountain Ore Bank and at the Barton Ore Bank would go to

A. E45 S.—VOL: xy. Als

38 THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

show anaverage thickness of something like seven feet. The outcrop lumps scattered
on Brushy Mountain and on Pond Mountain show the persistence of the bed but give

no clue to its thickness.
COLE ORE BED.

The Cole Ore Bed has been opened apparently at two places in the region, both
on the Thomas tract, and very insufficiently at both, at least for present observation
(1866). The oldest opening on the bed, the Cole Ore Bank, on Rocky Branch, near
the head of the hollow, was made about the year 1820, and afterwards its ore was
used at Nichols’ Forge; but the bank was abandoned some sixteen or eighteen years
later, and there is no longer even any hole there, and it must have been but a small
hole at any time. It is no longer known whether the solid bed was opened or only
the loose lumps at the outcrop. Judging by a few small lumps of ore that still le
about the old opening the ore (brown hematite) was very rich.

At the other opening on the bed, the Pine Spur Ore Bank, on the eastern side of
Pine Spur, near the northwest corner of the Thomas tract, a small hole now all fallen
in was once dug, and lumps of the ore were found, but not the solid bed. To judge by
the little left exposed there the ore is a good deal mixed with angular bits of compact
brown sandstone. It is barely possible that, in consequence of a sinking westward
(as well as eastward) of the Pond Mountain saddle from a high point near the middle
of the Thomas tract, the ore of the Pine spur bank may belong to the Thomas Ore
Bed.

Bits of the Cole ore are also found on the hillsides about a quarter of a mile east
of Pine Spur opening; and on the bridle path already mentioned near the top of
Pond Mountain, on both sides of the summit; on the northern side only a few small
bits, but on the southern side (where the water gullies have exposed it better) the
blocks are abundant and the quality of some of them pretty good, although another
portion of them are merely brown sandstone sprinkled with the ore. It would be
easy and well worth while to make an opening here that would thoroughly test the
value of the bed at this point; a self-draining drift or open cut could be made north-
westward so as to lay bare the whole thickness of the bed. The blocks here are
washed for some little distance down the mountain along the path. Outcrop lumps
apparently from this bed are found also even so far away as on the road across Brushy
Mountain, near the southwestern corner of the Henderlite tracts three miles and a
quarter east of the Cole ore bank.

The outcrop of the bed within the region seems to run for four miles and a-half
on the south side of the Brushy Mountain saddle and for nine miles and a quarter on
the north side, making fourteen miles and a quarter in all for the Brushy Mountain

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 39

outcrop. ‘The outcrop south of the Pond Mountain Saddle seems to run fiom the
western edge of the Thomas tract four miles and a quarter easterly ; then to return
westerly four miles; making for the whole length of the Pond Mountain outcrop a
length of eight miles anda quarter. North of that the bed appears not to rise any-
where to the surface; so that the whole length of its outcrop within the region is
twenty-two miles and a half. It may seem useless perhaps to reckon the outcrop so
long when the bed has not been opened nor even its outcrop observed through a great
part of it, especially at its eastern end; but the measurement serves to show at least
through what space it is worth while to search for the outcrop, although it is possible
that the bed may have thinned out and disappeared in some parts. On the other
hand it may have become enough thicker in the other parts to make up for any such
thinning out.

The amount of ore in tons above the lowest water level of the region has been
calculated for one foot of average thickness of pure ore in the same manner as for the
Old Mountain Ore bed, and gives: in the Brushy Mountain part of the bed, on the
south side 4,150,000 tons; in all 5,710,000 tons. In the Pond Mountain part of the
bed is found in like manner 2,660,000 tons. The whole amount of both parts of the
bed is then 8,370,000 tons per foot of average thickness.

The average thickness of the bed in feet (the multiplier of these numbers of tons
to get the full amount of ore in the bed in this region above water level) is quite un-
known; but from the appearance of the outcrop on the bridle path, as the southern
side of the Pond Mountain, the bed would seem to have at least a couple of feet in
thickness of good, rich ore.

THOMAS ORE BED.

The Thomas ore bed has apparently been opened at several points in the region.
The largest and best opening of all is the Thomas ore bank on the Thomas tract, on
the Ore Knob, a small spur of the north side of Pond Mountain, about a mile and a
quarter east of the northwestern corner of the tract and of the region. The opening
is an open cut some ten feet wide running southeasterly about thirty yards, apparently
almost at right angles with the strike; and there is from the northern end of the
cutting a similar cutting about as long running a little west of south. The ore is
exposed in the sides of these cuttings some ten feet in thickness in two or three solid
layers, and lies nearly flat, with the appearance of being at the gently rounded top of
a saddle; but it is probably only a small saddle or roll upon the northern side of the
great saddle of Pond Mountain. The ore is also said to extend below the bottom of
the cutting and to be covered up there with rubbish, but it looks in the centre of the
saddle as if the ten feet were the full thickness of the ore, and as if there were clay

40 THE STALEY’S CREEK. AND

or something soft below it. The ore is very compact brown hematite, full of angular
grains of white translucent quartz of the size of peas and smaller, so numerous as to
reduce the iron contained in the unwashed ore, perhaps to thirty-five per cent or
thereabouts. * |

About 350 yards east of the Thomas bank is the Hardbarger ore bank on the
same bed apparently. It is a hole about fifteen feet deep and thirty feet wide, east
and west, on the side of a hill, exposing a large surface of the ore at the northern end
of the hole ; but the dip cannot he easily made out. The ledge of ore (brown hematite )
is broken by cracks in every directioninto lumps that are often as much as two or
three feet thick, and all the ore is full of angular bits of fine grained buff sandstone,
making a breccia of it. It is said that some of it was used for making iron in the
blast furnace, and after washing made as good iron as the ore from any of the other
banks of the Thomas tract, contrary to expectation. It is quite likely that the ore
taken from here came only from the top of the bed, or from the bottom of it, and that
a more thorough exploration by digging across the whole thickness of it, would bring
to light ore more like that of the Thomas ore bank. The surface of the ore now ex-
posed is about parallel to the course of the bed, so that nothing can be determined
from it as to the real thickness of the bed.

This bed apparently is opened also at the Roan ore bank at the roan tree corner
of G. H. Williams’ land, only about a quarter of a mile east of the eastern boundary
of the Thomas tract, on the northern slope of the Wolf Pen Ridge (a spur on the
north side of Brushy Mountain), and opposite the eastern end of Minton’s Ridge.
The opening is but a small hole, a yard or two across and about a yard deep, opened
long ago and long since abandoned and fallen in; and there is no evidence whether
the solid ore bed was struck, but it is likely that only the loose lumps near the out-
crop were found. ‘They are still to be seen scattered about on the hillside around the
opening, and show that the ore is a compact brown hematite; but some of it (per-
haps all) is filled with small white translucent quartz grains like the ore of the
Thomas bank, except that the grains here seem to be all nearly as small as a pin’s
head ; and the richness of the ore seems to be about the same as at the Thomas bank,
There is of course no clue to the thickness of the bed.

The same bed too seems to be opened imperfectly on the Henderlite tract by three
small holes about forty yards apart, from which only loose, outcrop lumps were taken,
at the north side of Brushy Mountain, a hundred yards east of the road at the
western boundary of the tract, and three quarters of a mile south southeast of the

a ° ° >
forks of Staley’s Creek. At the two lower openings the ore is a fine honeycombed

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 4]

brown hematite, apparently very pure; but at the upper hole corresponding to the
bottom of the bed, the ore is more silicious from the prtsence in it of small, round grains
of crystalline quartz a little bigger than a large pin’s head.

The bed seems to be opened also on the Wright tract at the Key’s ore bank; like-
wise on the north side of the Brushy Mountain Saddle, nearly half a mile north north-
west of the southwestern corner of the tract, near the burnt ruins of an old cabin
called Key’s Cabin. It is but a very small trial opening, and the ore, found only in
loose lumps, is brown hematite in seams running through a brown, fine grained sand-
rock making a breccia of it; and it was found too sandy for use in the bloomary.
But it is quite likely that a more thorough digging would bring better ore.to light
here, as at the other openinof thebedalready mentioned.

The presence of the bed is also shown by lumps of ore on the ground for more
than a hundred yards, at least, west of the Thomas ore bank (the largest lump must
weigh at least 300 tons); and again at a point a quarter of a mile west southwest of
that bank; and at the bridle path across Pond Mountain, about half way down the
northern slope of the mountain and near the foot of the southern slope. At this last
place the ore lumps are very numerous, and a little pie of them has been gathered
together from a small space ; and the ore seems to be of a very good quality. At
the outcrop in the bridle path on the north side of the mountaln the lumps are also
very numerous and those on the downhill side of the outcrop, corresponding to the
upper side of the bed (here reversed) are mere lumps of sandstone with veins of hema-
tite running through them, something like the Hardbarger ore, but poorer. At all
these natural exposures of lumps from the outerops, of course, the lumps roll and
slide and get washed to a greater or less distanee down the hill; but the position of
the outcrop can be told more or less exactly by the upper Ilmit of the ore lumps,
since they are not carried up hill.

The outcrop of the bed along the southern side of the Brushy Mountain Saddle
seems to run for about a mile, across the southeastern corner of the Thomas ‘Tract
close by the southern boundary; and on the northern side of the saddle for nine miles
and a quarter; making ten miles and a quarter in all. The outcrop south of the
Pond Mountain Saddle seems to run from the western line of the Thomas tract five
miles and three-quarters easterly, then to return westerly on the north side of the
saddle five miles to the same line; making ten miles and three-quarters for the whole
Pond Mountain outcrop. The bed seems to come to the surface again nowhere north
of that inthe region; so that its whole length of outcrop here amounts then to twenty-

one miles.

ING DEG Sida WO) Gis DEMS ka

4? THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

Calculations of the amount of ore in tons above the lowest water level of the re-
gion for one foot of average thickness of the bed, like these made for the preceding
beds, give: for the Brushy Mountain part of the bed 3,330,000 tons ; for the Pond
Mountain part, 1,590,000 tons ; in all, then, 8,020,000 tons per foot of bed.

The Thomas Bank would indicate a thickness of ten feet at least for the bed (e-
quiring these numbers of tons to be multiplied all by ten to get the full amount of
ore in the bed above water level, with a deduction on account of the quartz in the
ore); and it is the only pomt where anything like the full thickness of the bed can
be seen. At the other points mentioned where the loose lumps of the outcrop have
been found on the ground or dug up, the abundance of the lumps is quite consistent
with such a thickness of the bed; but in the absence of any thorough trial pits it is
impossible to tell what the thickness may be at those points. In order to form an
idea of the average thickness of the bed throughout the region, a number of trial
pits should, of course, be sunk along the different outcrops so as to expose the full
thickness of the solid bed.

DAY ORE BED.

The Day Ore Bed also seems to have been opened at several points within the
region. The largest opening is the Day Ore Bank on the Thomas Tract about a mile
northeast of the Thomas Tract. That. bank supplhed Day’s Forge, it is said, on the
South Fork of Holston River, between the years 1790 and 1824, and after that
Nichols’ Forge, further up the same river. The ore has been dug from the outcrop
up along the side of the hill by an open cut a hundred yards long and about twenty
feet wide and fifteen feet deep. At the lower end of the cutting the lumps of ore,
from three feet in diameter down, form a layer about a foot and a half thick, some
three feet below the grass on the northwest (up hill) side of the cutting, and are still
more abundant on the lower side. At the upper end of the cutting the solid, nearly
vertical bed of ore is exposed in part, and measures ten feet in thickness, but the
southeastern surface is indistinct from its being broken up into lumps. The ore is a
beautiful brown hematite, very compact, yet containing many very small cavities ; but
it appears silicious, and in the cavities are small quartz crystals or chalcedony, and
many parts of the ore seem to have fine sand intimately mixed with it; and it is said
that on first working the bank there was a good deal of quartz in the shape of small
round pebbles mixed with the ore. .

This seems also to be the bed opened at the ore bank in the Flat, on the Thomas
Tract, about two-thirds of a mile southwest of the Day Ore Bank. The opening is

a hole about fifty yards long, northeast and southwest, and fifteen yards wide and

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 45

perhaps six yards deep, in a flat piece of ground, and was in 1866 so full of water as
to hide the ore. The solid ore bed is said to have been worked here and to have been
followed as it dipped southwards, and to have been ten or twelve feet thick. This is
reckoned the best of the ore banks on the Thomas Tract, at least for the quality of
the ore; and judging from a few lumps lying about the bank it is really a very beau-
tiful honeycombed brown hematite, not entirely free however from silicious matter in
the form of chalcedony.

_. The same bed, as it seems, is opened at the Williams Ore Bank on the G. H.
Williams Tract, on the other (southern) side of the Pond Mountain Saddle, about 600
yards east of the Thomas Tract, and near the northern side of the West Fork of
Staley’s Creek, at the foot of the Pond Mountain. The bank consists of two old
holes a couple of yards in diameter and about as deep in the side of the hill; and it
would seem that the solid bed was not found here, but only the loose lumps near the
outcrop. Judging by the lumps still lying about the bank the ore is a very compact
brown hematite, inferior to the ore of the ore bank in the Flat, but still quite good.

The same bed apparently is opened 3550 yards southeast of the Williams Bank
on the other side of the basin and of the valley, near the foot of the northern slope
of the Wolf Pen Ridge, at the Nichols Ore Bank. ‘This is likewise only a small
hole in the ground, where probably only the loose lumps of the outcrop were found,
and it has been abandoned for fifteen or sixteen years. The lumps still lying about
it show the ore to have been a very beautiful compact brown hematite, apparently of
the greatest purity.

A quarter of a mile northwest of this on the same hillside is a large opening, long
since abandoned, that .seems to be on the same bed, and is called the Old Staley’s
Creek Ore Bank. Only lumps of ore appear to have been found here, and the real
outcrop of the bed is probably a little higher up hill. The lumps of ore still lying
about show that it is a very fine compact brown hematite, apparently of excellent
quality.

A. quarter of a mile still further west along the same hillside is the Main Staley’s
Creek Ore Bank, on the same bed, a large opening fifty yards long, east and west,
and thirty yards wide and ten yards deep on the deepest side towards the south. It
is said that the solid ore bed was worked here, but the digging has been abandoned
for some time, and is so fallen in as to hide the ledge. ‘There are, however, two large
six foot blocks together here and a third partially uncovered in another part of the
hole, and some of them may be still in place. ‘The ore is a very good brown hematite,
but not perfectly free from silicious matter.

This bed seems also to be the one opened at the Nick’s Ore Bank on the Camp-

44 THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

bell Main Tract, on the steep hillside about three hundred yards southeast of the
forks of Nick’s Creek, and about a hundred yards southwest of the East Fork of that
Creek. The loose lumps that had slid down the hill from the outcrop of the bed were
traced by small holes until the bed itself (it was thought) was opened by a small
digging high up the hill; but the bed does not seem to have been explored thoroughly
as to thickness, and the hole is now fallen in. ‘The ore is brown hematite of very fine
quality, and is so pure in parts as to have the fibrous form, and other parts are
compact.

This seems to be also the bed that is opened at the West Ore Bank on the south
side of Store House Mountain, about a quarter of a mile south of the southern line
of the Thomas Tract and three-quarters of a mile southwest of the point where the
South Fork of Holston River crosses that line. The solid bed seems not to have
been opened here, but only the loose lumps of the outcrop, and the small hole that
was dug is fallen in. The ore lumps still scattered about the hole are of beautiful
finely honeycombed brown hematite, apparently of the best quality.

Besides all these openings, the bed shows itself by bits of ore on the ground in
the bridle-path across Pond Mountain, near the northern foot of the mountain; and
also in the old road across Brushy Mountain, some five hundred yards due south ot
the forks of Staley’s Creek; and loose lumps of ore apparently from the outcrop of
this bed are to be seen on the hillside west of Nick’s Creek, some six hundred yards
southeast of the northwest corner of the Campbell Main Tract.

The outcrop of the bed, on the north side of the Brushy Mountain Saddle, seems
to run from the east side of the Campbell Main Tract westerly eight miles and three
quarters ; then to return eastward along the south side of the Pond Mountain Saddle
seven miles and a quarter; then to run westward again on the north side of the Pond
Mountain Saddle seven miles and a quarter; also on the south side of the next saddle
to the north it seems to run for two miles and a half, and as much more on the north
side; making in all twenty-six miles and a half for the length of the theoretical out-
crop. As the ore has not been found east or west of the Thomas Tract along the last
mentioned small saddle, it is quite likely that the saddle so sinks eastward, and rises
so slowly towards the high ground westward that the ore does not come to the sur-
face outside of the tract, except for a short distance on the west. It should also be
mentioned that, although a former owner of the Crockett Tract made diligent search
for iron ore (without any system to be sure), none of any persistence or on any of
these outcrops was found; so that these beds of ore may, in that portion of them,
have thinned out possibly to insignificance.

The amount in tons for one foot of average thickness of the ore of the bed above

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. 45

the lowest water level of the region, has been calculated as for the aforementioned
beds, and is: On the north side of the Brushy Mountain Saddle 2,840,000 tons ; on
the south side of the Pond Mountain Saddle 3,990,000 tons; on the north side of the
same 3,050,000 tons ; on the little saddle next to the north 930,000 tons ; making in
all, 10,810,000 tons for every average foot of bed.

The bed may be taken, from the exposures of it that have been described, to be
pretty uniformly of good thickness and of fine quality throughout the region. It is
impossible to state, however, without more thorough trial pits, what that thickness is
in feet on the average, and what consequently should be the multiplier of the num-
ber of tons just given, to get the full amount of ore in the bed above water level; but
it would seem to be perhaps ten feet, to judge by the best exposures alone.

ALL FOUR ORE BEDS.—WMode of Occurrence.

The mode of occurrence of these ores has already been discussed in a paper read
at the Burlington meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1867, vol. xvi., p. 114. Three parallel cross-sections show that the thirty or
more ore banks and natural exposures occur at corresponding distances on the
opposite sides of the Pond Mountain Saddle and of the basin south of it, as if they
were the outcrops of four beds of ore conformable to the other rocks. At three or
four of the ore banks the solid beds are to be seen, but at the other exposures the ore
is in solid lumps of irregular shape and of every weight up to three hundred tons or
more, scattered irregularly through brown gravelly loam. The ore (all brown hema-
tite) is sometimes very pure, but often has in it rounded or angular grains or pebbles
of white quartz, and sometimes is merely a cement that binds together angular pieces
of light brown sandstone.

The deposits of loose lumps in this region seem to resemble in every respect those
that are so common throughout the Great Valley of Virginia, and its prolongation
northeastward as well as southwestward. They seem beyond a doubt to be the
broken pieces from the outcrops of solid beds of ore and of the same character as
accumulations of outcrop blocks of any bed of rock or the black dirt of a coal out-
crop, or alluvial deposits of gold or tin ore, due regard had to the effect of the special
hardness, bulk and weight of the iron ore. They do not by any means seem to come,
as has been maintained, from the mere percolation of water through slates impreg-
nated with iron, which is dissolved and carried into the loam and afterwards segre-
gated in a remarkably perfect way.

Of course, the strength of the argument furnished by the ores of the region, de-
pends partly on the exactness of the survey; but although this was only rough, the

Tis 12 5 o-—— WON BOs: AU

46 THE STALEY’S CREEK AND

limits of error in each cross-section are so small, compared with the distances apart
of the different beds, that in a similar case the identity of coal beds exposed at differ-
ent points would be quite undoubted; and the uniformity of those distances over a
space of several miles is even surprising. ‘The correspondence of the beds in the
different cross-sections is, however, in some parts a little less certain. In a section
across Pond Mountain and Brushy Mountain near the road the outcrop of the four
beds are exposed on each side of the northern saddle, and probably the three upper
ones are exposed on the north side of the southern saddle. In a section past the
forks of Staley’s Creek, the three lower beds seem to be exposed on the north side. of
the southern saddle; and in a section past the forks of Nick’s Creek the upper and
lower beds seem to be exposed also on the north side of the southern saddle. The
exposures marked in the sections are almost all very near to the section lines, so that
there can be no appreciable error from any possible slight mistake in the direction
of the strike in projecting the exposures upon the section lines; and with a very few
small allowances for slipping of the observed ore lumps down hill from the true out-
crop of the beds all the known exposures correspond well with the theoretical out-
crops of the four beds.

YreLtp.—Taking the outcrops of all four beds together, there seem to be eighty-
three miles of outcrop in the region. |

In like manner the foregoing estimates give, for all four beds for the amount of
ore in tons above the lowest water level of the region for one foot of average thick-
ness of each bed, 36,690,000 tons.

The average thickness in feet of each of the four beds, taking them all together
(the multiplier of that number of tons to get the full amount of iron ore in the region
above water level), it is, of course, quite as impossible to state, as it is that of the
least explored of the beds. Yet the exposures that have been described would go to
show an average thickness of each bed of something like seven feet. That thickness
would give according to the foregoing calculations over 250,000,000 tons of iron ore
in the region above water level.

Woop.— Within the region there seemed to be in 1866 about 260 acres of cleared
land and 14,040 acres of woodland. The woodland of the Thomas Tract was esti-
mated to bear on the average forty cords of wood to the acre, almost all hard wood ;
and the rest of the woodland of the region would probably yield as much.

A charcoal pit of twenty-five cords of wood, there, is reckoned to yield, when
green, 800 bushels of charcoal; when dry, 1000 bushels. Charcoal at Marion cost in
1866 (it is said) from seven to eight cents a bushel. Just south of the region on
Tron Mountain and southeast of that, are many thousand acres of woodland, and so

NICK’S CREEK IRON ORE REGION. : AT

there are on the south side of Brushy Mountain, or Rye Valley Mountain, south of
the region, and so also east of the region; so that the surrounding country could
yield an immense supply of charcoal.

Iron Works.—The Marion Furnace was, in 1866, the only blast furnace in the
region, and stood at the northern corner of the Thomas Tract, on Staley’s Creek. It
was begun in 1860, and first blew in near the end of 1862. It was run by the rebel
government, and made about five tons of iron in 1862, perhaps 300 tons in 1863 and
275 tons in 1864; or about 600 tons in all. On the 16th December, 1864, it was burned
by Gen. Stoneman’s raiders and the wood-work mostly destroyed, but the stack
seemed.in 1866 to be still in pretty good condition. It was about forty feet high,
three feet across the tunnel head and ten feet across the boshes, with two engines, and
furnished with het-air pipes, though only cold-blast was used. There was also a
cupola furnace alongside.

The Woodlawn Forge, on Staley’s Creek near the middle of the Crockett Tract,
was built in 1857 by Mr. John P. Wright, and is a bloomery just like the others so
common southwestward in these mountains, with one fire and one hammer and water
blast; and run like them, by fits and starts, with a very small yearly yield. Its ore
came chiefly from the Old Mountain Ore Bank. Just south of the: region, on the
South Fork of Holston River, are two other such bloomeries, Nichols’ and Barton’s
Forges.

Map.—A photograph of the map was shown at the Burlington meeting, in 1867,
in illustration of the paper already mentioned. Not only is the shape of the ground
shown by twenty foot contour lines, but the position of the four ore beds is given by
contour lines upon each of them 100 feet apart in level from the lowest water level
upwards. The ore bed contour lines show at the same time the structure of the other
beds of rock, the saddles and basins, the strike and the steepness of the dip.

wh or. tHe
aap EE > (CIPME IE Ike

INCLUDING THE

3 JULY, 1667
\—-- >

NEI) \

SCALE: sodoo or Nature (= 5000 FEET TO AN INCH).

AND Top
pote a OT eg

AND NICKS ©

FROIN IAC MOINE

AN), THE LIME STONE BEDS ABOVE WITH SOME SAND STONE LAYERS BETWEEN ARE AT THE

THE ORE 18 ALL BROWN HEMATITE) I>
OF IRON .... . 7

AGE THICKNESS OF THE ORE BEDS 'S QUITE UNKNOWN, AT THE DAY ORE BANK

BED AT THE BARTON ORE BANK IS SAID TO HAVE BEEN WHEN O-

PEN ABOUT FOUR FEET THICK. AT THE OTHER ORE BANKS

ONLY THE LOOSE LUMPS OF THE OUTCROPS ARE TO BE
rT

is PHOTOORAPH!
Cus oan.

1000. 300
so000r rT. 4B000 FT. a00
a6. rs

—E THOMAS TRACT ARE COPIED FROM A PLOT FURNISHED BY MA. THO!

HE AVER-

Cap \N
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| peor eee NONE TT COUNTY Br?

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oon

AMOUNT OF IRON ORE

ABOVE THE LOWEST WATER LEVEL OF THE REGION. AS SHOWN ON THE MAP,
FOR EVERY FOOT OF AVERAGE THICKNESS OF EACH BED, ALSO LENGTH OF OUTCROPS.
DAY ORE BED THOMAS O.B GOLE ORE B'D O MTN OB ALL FOURO.B
TONS MILES TONS MILES TONS MILES TONS MILES TONS MILES

8360.000 17K 5,780,000 134 5,970,000 15% 6080000 GN 26,190,000 57
2,240,000 7 2,400,000 64 3410,000 3% 1
40,840,000 26% 8,020,000 21

REST OF THE REGION 2A50.000

LES, IN THE LINE AB.
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A Pau}
ror an

Jaa dE Oe Dis Daas Uae
ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF SANTO DOMINGO.
BY WILLIAM M. GABB.

Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 18th, 1872.

INTRODUCTION.

The present memoir is the result of a three years’ reconnoisance of the greater part of the Republic of Santo
Domingo, and comprises. a description of the geology of about 15,000 square miles, or about half of the island, of
which the sister Republic of Hayti occupies the western one-third.

The examinations and surveys were made during the years 1869, ’70 and ’71, by the author, aided by a corps of
assistants varying in number from three to six, besides two draughtsmen, who were employed most of the time in
preparing a series of maps of the topographical portion of the work. The geological work was mostly done by the
author, assisted at times by two of the party.

The origin of the work is perhaps anomalous in the history of geological surveys. The Government, with an
enlightened policy in advance of the majority of Spanish-American nations, felt the necessity of a careful geological
examination of its territory, to ascertain the exact facts in regard to its mineral resources. At the same time, in
“consequence of the numberless revolutions through which the country has unhappily passed during the last three”
quarters of a-century, it was so crippled financially, that it was clearly impossible to find the funds necessary for the
expenses of such an enterprise. It is not necessary to record the details here. Suffice it to say that, finally, a con-
tract was made with some gentlemen in New York, who pledged themselves to pay the costs of the work, receiving
a grant of a portion of land belonging to the government, to reimburse themselves.

In the meantime, the writer was selected by the diplomatic agent of the Government in the United States, and
on the completion of the negotiations, he began his examinations early in 1869. The manner in which he has been
sustained and assisted by both the contracting parties is alike creditable to each, and leaves him nothing to complain
of on either side.

The assistants were at first but three, Mr. 8. Speare, Mr. William Courtis and Mr. C. Runnebaum. Mr. Speare
had been previously engaged in the copper mines of the Nigua, and his acquaintance with the country and the people
made him very useful, especially at the beginning. He continued with the party until the close of the work. Mr.
Courtis, being soon found incompetent, was dismissed in July, 1869, and Mr. Arthur Pennell engaged in his place.
Both this gentleman and Mr. Runnebaum continued to the end of their work, employed in making topographical
surveys. During 1869 Mr. William Barnes and Mr. A. Bonaczy were also engaged. The latter was employed part
of the time with the topographical parties, and for a year assisting in detailed geological labors. Of the former but
little need be said. ‘‘ De mortuds nil nist bonum.’’? At the end of a year he was discharged and went to the United
States, where he died shortly after. It was found necessary for Mr. A. Pennell to do all of his work over again. In
the early part of 1870 Mr. L. Pennell joined the party as a topographical assistant, and remained in that capacity
until the middle of 1871, when a better position in the United States induced him to leave. During almost the

whole of the work Mr. Juan A. Read has been engaged as topographical draughtsman, and during the last half Mr.

Ae 2 Sea VOL XV. MM:

50 INTRODUCTORY.

J. de la Cruz Martinez has also been employed in the same capacity. In 1869 Mr. Charles Ohle was sent to the
country by the contracting parties in New York, but independent of the survey, to examine the gold placers more in
detail than was consistent with the character of our work. I have availed myself of his results in the Jaina region.

For the draughtsmen, the map, photo-lithographed from the manuscript, speaks itself. They need no higher
praise from me than an exhibition of their work. To the Messrs. Pennell, Messrs. Runnebaum, Bonaczy and Speare,
I owe sincere thanks for their hearty cobperation in all of my plans, and for the zealous manner in which they pros-
ecuted their work, often at the cost of great personal inconvenience and discomfort incidental to out-of-door work
in the rainy season of the Tropics. I would be remiss were I to forget to acknowledge our indebtedness to the
various officers of the Government with whom we have been brought in contact. From the President, General. Baez,
and the Minister of the Interior, Mr. Gautier, down to the lowest official, we have experienced, almost without
exception, only courtesy and kindness. Their assistance and attention have materially lightened our labors and
forwarded the work. To mention a few would be invidious, and to name all of our kind friends would be almost
to write a directory of the leading men of the Republic.

The topographical map is based entirely on new surveys over all of that region where our work extended. These
surveys were conducted by triangulations from two carefully measured base lines, one near Bani, the other in the
northern valley between Vega and Moca. ‘All of the principal roads on the north side, all of the passes east of the
Constanza route, and all of the roads on the south side, as far west as Azua, were carefully chained. The coast-line,
from Monte Cristi to Azua was also re-surveyed, as far as practicable, by chaining along the beaches elsewhere by
triangulation. These coast and road lines were used also as bases for triangulations ; One system of work thus
assisting and at the same time checking the other. We also availed ourselves of the local surveys of the British
and American naval officers in Samana and Calderas Bays, as well as of the table of astronomical positions on the
coast in the United States sailing directions, Among the latter, however, there are occasional discrepancies which
render them a little doubtful. It will be thus seen that every precaution in our power was exercised to make the
map accurate, so far as the limited force and time at our disposal would permit. At the same time, it must be borne
in mind that it is but a reconnoisance at best, and that it cannot be more than approximately accurate in the details.
The whole of the Haytien part, as well as that portion west and northwest of Azua and the Constanza road south of
the mountains, is copied from the map of Sir Robert Schomburgk. ss

That each member of the party shall receive the full share of credit or discredit to which he is entitled for the
degree of accuracy of his work I insert the following list: For myself I do not claim any further credit or respon-
sibility in the topographical work than must necessarily attach to the chief of a party, in that he must answer for
the reliability of the employees under his charge. So far the responsibility is mine. Beyond that I take great
pleasure in awarding to them all of the credit.

The Survey of the Province of Santo Domingo was made by Mr. A. Pennell, assisted by Mr. Runnebaum ; that
of Vega, by the same party, with the additional assistance of Mr. L. Pennell; that of the Province of Santiago,
north of the Yaqui, by Messrs Runnebaum and L. Pennell ; that of Santiago, south of the river, Samana and all that
was done in Azua, by Mr. A. Pennell; and that of Seybo, by Mr. Runnebaum. Most of the road and coast surveys
were made by Mr. Runnebaum and Mr. L. Pennell.

Heretofore, the Island of Santo Domingo has been practically a perfect terra incognita, geologically. In 1853
Mr. T. 8. Heneken published a short description of the northwestern part of the Republic, principally noteworthy
on account of its inaccuracies. I have said all that is necessary on this subject in the text and have nothing to add
here. The valuable papers of J. Carrick Moore, George B. Sowerby, and Dr. Duncan, in, the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society of London, made the fossils well known, but threw but little light on the geology of the
country. In the early part of 1871 I published a very short resumé of my results to that date in the American
Journal of Science. The short sketches accompanying the report of the United States Commissioners can hardly

be said to have contributed much to our knowledge of the geology, and beyond these, nothing has been published.

Pesan A:

TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION.

CHAPTER LI.

TOP OIG RASPY OO AE MATING ORCA TN.

The Republic of Santo Domingo is an irregular triangle, covering about two-thirds
of the island of the same name, with its apex at the eastern extremity of the island, —
and its base abutting against the sister Republic of Hayti, which occupies the remaining
western one-third. Its greatest length, from east to west, is about 270 miles, and its
base is about 150 miles north and south. Its area is estimated at a trifle over 20,000
square miles, while Hayti comprises about 10,000 square miles more, including the
whole western coast region and the two long peninsulas which project towards Cuba.
The boundary between the two countries is well defined, being to a great extent a
chain of mountains and hills. This line was surveyed and agreed upon in the last
century between the Governments of Spain and France, when the whole island occu-
pied the position of colonies of these two Powers. Since then there has never been
a formal change of the boundary, although Hayti has persistently attempted not only
to occupy a little more than its share, but also to conquer the whole Spanish portion.
At present the Dominican Government is in peaceful possession of all the area
c:aimed by it, except a narrow strip bordering Hayti, which is abandoned by both
Powers and occupied only by a handful of roving desperadoes, who hold themselves
amenable to no government and are equally willing to rob their so-called friends, as
their acknowledged foes.

The Spanish portion of the island, that of which we have to treat, is irregularly
divided into two parts, by a chain of mountains known as the Cibao range; each
part being again sub-divided by spurs of this chain, or by separate ranges. North
of the Cibao Mountains, lies a long east and west valley called by the same name,
extending from the Haytien frontier to Samana Bay, and bounded on the north by a
range parallel with the first, which borders the coast from Monte Cristi to the extremity
of the Samana peninsula. South of this great central back-bone, the country is a
series of broad level plains and wide valleys, separated from each other by spurs run-
ning nearly parallel with, or at narrow angles from, the main Cordillera. For a better
understanding of the subject, I propose to describe, somewhat in detail, the physical

52 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

peculiarities of each region, before entering on a consideration of the geological
structure.

The great central mountain chain, variously known as the Cordillera, the Sierra or
the Cibao Mountains, extends the whole length of the island, beginning at the eastern
extremity and running out to the end of the northern peninsula of Hayti, sending off
spurs some of which attain to the dignity almost of independent chains. At its
eastern end it is low, rarely acquiring a height of more than a thousand feet. But
going westward it rises until some of its peaks are 8,000 and 9,000 feet high. Its
general direction is a little north of west, although the numerous side-spurs, of
variable length, serve to hide to a great extent the actual trend of the real watershed.

The highest points are not always on the main ridge; some of the side-spurs
bearing peaks which rise two or three thousand feet higher than the mother chain.

The Pico del Yaqui, or “el Rucillo,” as it is oftener called, from its head being
almost always enveloped in silvery clouds, is the culminating point. It is almost
exactly in the centre of the island, and is an immense rounded mass on the main ridge,
said by Schomburgk to be 2955 metres high. I have never been able to repeat the
measurement, although I once spent twenty-four hours on its flank, in the endeavor
to reach the summit. On reaching the height of 5500 feet, I was stopped by thickets
of fern and the absence of water; but the peak, in full view, seemed to be about four
thousand feet higher. The above measurement, if not exactly correct, is at least very
nearly so. From this mountain start two of the largest rivers on the island; the
Yaqui of the north, on the north side, and the Yaqui of the south, sometimes called
the Neyba River, on the south side. Lower Tina, southeast of el Rucillo, is said by
the same authority to be still higher. This point, I have never visited, having only
seen it at a distance. It is in the heart of a great mountain mass, northeast of Azua
and east of the Constanza Pass, nearly inaccessible. The people of the country say
that it is impossible to reach its summit, the route lying through dense forests, every
step impeded by vines and bushes, and on reaching its flanks it must be necessary,
as is the case in all the other high land of Santo Domingo, for the traveller to cut his
way through thickets of fern, often so close that he must crawl on hands and knees
through a tunnel, as it were, scratched by thorns, and blinded by the fern spores at
every step. This peak is neither on the main chain, nor is it on one of the principal
accessory spurs, but seems to be to a great extent isolated, the culminating point of
a group of hills.

From the Pico del Yaqui, and the mountain mass of its vicinity, there are sent
out several long ridges running more or less directly to the northward, embraced
between the streams which form the head-waters of the Yaqui River. The first,

sy

OF SANTO DOMINGO. Vo

adjoining the river on its west side, is a long, very crooked chain of hills, called
“Limpia Nariz,” from a thorny vine which grows abundantly on its sides. West of
this is another ridge culminating in Loma Joca, between 7,000 and 8,000 feet high,
after which it falls gradually into the rolling hills which border the Cibao Valley.
Between these ridges are many pretty little valleys, supporting a scattered population,
such as Humunucu, about 2,500 feet aboye the sea level, Manabao, perhaps 500 feet
higher and the Cienega, almost at the foot of el Rucillo.

West of this region, the spurs which run out between the Bao and Amina Rivers
are not of special importance. Their cations are very deep, very narrow and rarely
penetrated except by straggling pig hunters. An illustration exists almost on the
edge of the village of San Jose de las Matas, which town, although far out of the
main mountains, is on the margin of a cafon 500 or 600 feet deep. Southwest of this
town, making the terminal point of a ridge, is a prominent little peak, el Rubio,
between 4,000 and 5,000 feet high, a good land mark from the east, north and north-
west, but entirely lost sight of when seen in connection with the great mass of Pico
Gallo and its neighbors. Next west of it is one of the largest, if not the largest spur
sent out by the range, on its north side. This is Pico Gallo, a ridge lying between
the Magua and Cenobi, two branches of the Mao River. The main chain averages
here about 7,000 feet high. From it the cross-ridges start very close together, but
most of them fall rapidly, while the present one extends, with very little variation in
height, for ten miles northward, bearing in that distance two higher points, the most
northern and most prominent of which, el Gallo, is nearly 8,000 feet high. From
this peak the ridge falls with many undulations to Punta Lanca, a point about as high
as el Rubio, and fully as prominent a land-mark. In the summer of 1871, accompanied
by two or three companions, I made an excursion into the mountains, penetrating to
the base of the dividing ridge, and obtained not only a good cross-section of the
geology, which will be described in its proper place, but also some valuable notes on
the topography of this almost unknown region. ‘The ridges are innumerable and
remarkably narrow and sharp; the canons are very deep and often flanked by precipices
of naked rock. The outer hills, up to an elevation of say 4,000 feet, are clothed with
a continuous pine forest, carpeted with a scanty growth of grass. Higher up, the
greater moisture of the air produces a belt of trees similar to those nearer the coast,
followed in its turn by a region producing nothing but fern thickets. These last ex-
tend to the summits of the highest peaks, and make it next to impossible to climb
them. It is for this reason that the higher mountains of the island are so inaccessible.

I have been assured by old mountaineers, born at the base of Pico Gallo, that so far

UNG. Jy) Si AO) BIG SONG ING

DA. ON TIE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

as they know, nobody has ever reached its summit. There is nothing to prevent the
ascent except the fern. Its slopes are gradual, and a dozen feasible routes can be
selected from below by an experienced eye. ‘Two men attempted it a few years ago,
and one of them told me that, after struggling all day, chopping every step with their
machetes, they were obliged to sleep on the mountain side, and returned next morning,
giving up the attempt in despair.

West of the vicinity of the Pico Gallo, there are no mountains of note on the
north side of the range except the little hill of Chaquet, west of Saraneta, remarkable
only for being somewhat isolated, and consequently a good land-mark. Across the
border in Hayti, Monte Diablo stands out, a noble peak; and south of the water-shed,
Nalga de Maco, another splendid hill, towers above everything. The latter, as seen
from Saraneta, seems to be a dozen miles or more south of the dividing ridge. It
is a peak of perhaps 7,000 to 8,000 feet high, abrupt on its eastern side and sloping at
an angle of 25° to 30° to the west. The Artibonite River rises far to the noithwest of
it, runs around its north, east and south sides, almost isolating it, and then runs down
the valley towards Hayti. A peculiar feature of that part of the mountain range in-
cluded in the water-shed of the Yaqui River and its tributaries is the extreme tortuosity
of the ridges and the consequent great length of the stream, as compared with what
might be anticipated from a knowledge of the width of the range. ‘Thus the Mao
River sends branches far into the southwest, heading, so to speak, all of the streams
of the vicinity of Saraneta. These ridges are generally high, narrow and very
crowded, their summits often being so very narrow as to well merit the idiomatic
term of “cuchillo” (or knife), which is usually applied to them. It is not a rare
thing to travel for hundreds of yards along a crest hardly more than three or four
feet wide.

The foot-hills of this portion of the range are different from any other part of the
island. They are generally high broad rolling lands, clothed with pine and grass,
almost always with a red gravelly soil and cut up by very deep ravines. As a result
of the loose. gravelly character of the soil and the scarcity of rain it is the most
barren region in the Republic. But little is cultivated on the hills beyond the food —
necessary for the sustenance of the scattered population ; though in the little moun-
tain valleys and in the not infrequent river bottoms good crops of tobacco are raised
for sale. The people are an independent, hardy race of mountaineers, very light in
color, often nearly white, showing a large admixture of Indian and but little trace,
usually, of African blood. In fact many of the men would be mistaken in the United

States for “half” or *“‘quarter-breed ” Indians. The men occupy themselves princi-
1 B

OF SANTO DOMINGO. JO

pally in the raising of horses, cattle, goats and pigs, the cultivation of their little
garden-patches and an occasional hunting excursion into the mountains after wild
cattle and pigs. The women, besides their very simple domestic duties, find abundant
employment in plaiting the leaf of the “ guana” palm into ceroons for tobacco, which
command a ready sale in Santiago.

East of this region is the first pass that is used habitually in crossing the range.
One route does exist, now never used however, from near Saraneta to the Artibonite,
thence to Banica. A second, used very rarely, is along the cation of the Bao, thence
to San Juan. The present one is by way of Jarabacoa, across the head-waters of the
Jimenoa River to the Valley of Constanza, thence down the Rio del Medio to the
valley above Azua. The route is terribly rough, crossing high ridges and deep
ravines constantly. From Santiago, the road first winds over rolling hills, skirting
the Yaqui River, sometimes at the water’s edge, sometimes climbing a steep ascent
or plunging down a rapid slope to the village, or rather neighborhood called Tabera.
Here, scattered over a few thousand acres of nearly level land, is a little world of
itself, shut in by the high mountains behind and the wall of hills in front. From
Tabera, the trail climbs to the top of a pine-covered ridge and winds apparently to
every point of the compass until the traveller suddenly finds himself on the end of a
high hill overlooking a beautiful valley several miles across, backed by an unbroken
range of mountains. In this valley lies the pretty little village of Jarabacoa, the
centre of a population of perhaps a thousand souls, half of whom live in the village
itself. It is directly on the bank of the Yaqui River—here a brawling torrent twenty
yards wide—iis bed strewn with granite boulders, often tons in weight, witnesses of
its prowess during the rains, The Jimenoa River which rises not more than ten
miles southwest of Jarabacoa describes a course of thirty-five or forty miles long,
nearly in a circle, and empties into the Yaqui but half a dozen miles from the town.
A mile out of Jarabacoa, the trail crosses a stream of some size, a branch of the
Jimenoa and then almost immediately commences to ascend the ridge. A climb of
three mites brings the traveller to the top whence he can see on a clear day, not only
the village and valley at his feet, but an interminable sea of mountains, the Cibao
Valley, and beyond it, the north range, indistinct in the hazy distance. ‘To the west,
almost within reach, so close does it seem, stands the noble peak of the Rucillo, its
top almost always enveloped in cloud; while to the south and east the eye becomes
bewildered in trying to reduce the innumerable ridges to some kind of an intelligible
system. he ridge along which the road runs is one of the most crooked I have ever

had occasion to traverse, though even it hardly justifies the very poetical description

o6 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GHOLOLGY

By

of Sir Robert Schomburgk, who travelled over it about 1851.* It winds not only
entirely around the head of the Jimenoa, but seems to take especial pains to double
also all of its tributaries. After nearly half a day’s ride, the road descends gradu-
ally to the Jimenoa, here dwindled to a rivulet hardly three yards across. ‘The water
is beautifully clear, and very cold. A plunge in a shady basin, followed by a
lunch prepared us for the remainder of our ride, and, after a few moments of rest we
mounted again for Constanza, which we reached just about nightfall. From the
Jimenoa, the trail still follows ridges, but neither so high nor so crooked as those
preceding them. Finally we descended into a flat plain or valley, densely
wooded, through which we rode for a couple of miles, at last emerging into a grassy
plain dotted with little tongues and islands of pine timber, and enlivened by groups
of horses and cattle. The village, if it may be so called, consisting of about a
dozen huts, is almost at the extremity of the plain, in the edge of the woods, and on
the banks of the Limon Creek. From the remains still existing, it is evidently on
the site of a former aboriginal village of no small importance. Earthworks several
hundred feet in extent, similar to those found in the Mississippi Valley, are still
visible, in a good state of preservation, overgrown in places by trees two feet
in diameter.

Leaving Constanza, which is on the branch of the Southern Yaqui, the Limon
Creek above mentioned, the trail climbs rapidly to the hill side, and follows down the
valley of the Limon to that of the Rio del Medio, or middle river. At el Rancho de
Limon which, as its name implies, is a single rancho or shed, it descends to the river,
to follow it for a mile or two, and then climb, on the other side, the steepest trail I
have ever seen on the Island. Reaching the summit again the jaded traveller winds
among rolling hills, occasionally catching a glimpse of the yawning gulf he has
just crossed, until again he finds himself descending to the river. Here the climb
is not so steep, although bad enough, the more so since he has a thousand feet of up
hill work before him, on the other side of the stream. This overcome, he begins
another gradual descent, arriving at the little village of five or six houses, called las
Lagunas. Ifrom Lagunas, an easy down hill ride of an hour brings him to the Rio

* See Athenwum, 1852, No. 1291, p. 798, ‘ Narrow deep valleys on each side of the interlacing ridges force the
traveller to continue on their summits, although he is in consequence, obliged to make long detours ; and instead of
advancing steadily to the south-southwest—which is his true course to Constanza—he is often obliged to follow the
ridges to the north and eastward before he is able again to continue to the south-southwest. Our guide had already
told us, that so eccentric are the ways of these mountains that two friends meeting in the morning, the one coming
from Constanza, the other from Jarabacoa, in opposite directions, and having each parted on his several way, might
at noon have another opportunity of saying ‘How d’ye do?’ across some chasm in consequence of the twistings

and turnings which both had to take. We did not understand what he meant at the time, but it became clear

to us now.”’

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 5T

de las Cuevas, when his troubles are practicaily over; since he finds himself’ at last
on the plains, an hour’s ride from Tubanos and a good half day’s travel from Azua.
Nobody who has crossed this pass once will be apt to repeat the trip for pleasure,
even with the reward in view of the picturesque beauties of the mountains south of
Constanza. They are certainly grand, unsurpassed, and hardly rivalled by anything I
have ever-seen in the Sierra Nevada; but not grand enough to warrant a second journey.

East of the country of the Yaqui and its branch, the Jimenoa, the character of
the range changes rapidly. The pine forests disappear almost at once, the hills
just west of Vega and those of. the upper portion of the Maimon River being the last
bearing this class of vegetation. A peculiar feature is, that where pine grows at all
it makes the entire forest, and when it disappears it does so suddenly and along
well-defined lines.

Towards Bonao the range becomes much narrower and the spurs are lower, the
valleys running up between them becoming more marked both in length and width.
The road from Vega to Cotui, running east-southeast, skirts along the extreme outer
margin of the hills, often making long reaches out in the plain far off from them.
From Cotui to Cevico a few of the minor spurs are crossed, although the latter
village is still further to the southward. From Cotui a trail runs to Bonao, thence
up a valley and across the hills where the head-waters of the Maimon and the
Jaina approach to within a few miles of each other. The mountain pass is a trifle,
so far as height and roughness are concerned; though in all ordinary seasons it is a
river of mud, worn into stepping holes by the feet of the animals that have been
travelling it for centuries. The first high point reached on this route, in travelling
from north to south, is a grassy hill-top called the Laguneta Savana; although why
it should be called Laguneta, when the nearest water is hundreds of feet down in
the ravine, can only be explained by the rule of contraries. The view from this
point, in beauty, in variety, in all that goes to make the picturesque, is only equalled
by one point, if any, and is certainly not surpassed on the Island. Its rival is the
“Santo Cerro,” or Holy Hill, a few miles from Vega. From the Laguneta a large
part of the north side of the range can be seen—all of the Vega Real or Royal
Meadow, so called by Columbus; and the horizon is bounded northward by a high
range of ragged mountains. A friend once travelling as a tourist, not accustomed
to “roughing it,” who had reached this point, half dead from a protracted struggle
through the mud of the whole mountain pass, declared to me in his first rapture that
he was fully repaid for the whole journey from New York to the spot. To one who
had been all day in the wet woods, almost out of reach of sunlight, wading through

mud knee deep to his horse, obliged repeatedly to dismount to extricate the poor
A. P. §;—VOL, XV. O,

58 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

brute “mired” belly deep in sloughs, scratched by thorns, cut by the sharp-edged
Yabacoa grass, splashed to his eyes with not over-fragrant mud, and worn out
between unaccustomed fatigue and hunger, the relief of finally reaching at the
same time sunlight, a resting-place, and an exceptionally beautiful view, was
certainly something to remember. But to continue: from the Laguneta the road runs
about three miles through the woods, usually on top of a narrow ridge, almost
always very muddy. At the end of this distance is a resting-place of a third of a
mile of grassy hill side called the Savana de la Puerta. Here the road again enters
the woods, now almost down to the level of the plains, in the valley of a stream
called the Guananitos, following this stream to the Jaina River. Along the whole
distance from the Puerta to the Jaina the road is an almost uninterrupted bog, the
wet mud of a river bottom on which the sun never shines; land which, if cleared
and cultivated, would yield crops of such magnitude that no one having a regard for
his reputation for veracity would dare describe.

East of this pass is another but little used; a mere third trail through the woods, pre-
ferable for its shortness in very dry weather, though nearly impassable in wet seasons.
It has nothing to warrant especial mention except the fact that it winds through very
low hills, crosses almost innumerable small ravines, and finally strikes the head-waters
of one of the branches of the Ozama, reaching Yamasa, on the margin of the southern
plains.

Still another, longer than the two preceding, but much better in every respect, is
that by way of Cevico and San Pedro. Although twenty miles longer, and cross-
ing rougher hills, this route is almost always selected by persons travelling in a
hurry from Santo Domingo to Cibao. Almost immediately after leaving Cevico
the road commences to climb the rolling grassy hills that border the range, and at
the distance of an hour’s ride enters the forest for the first time. It crosses first a
ridge, called the Cuesta Blanea, or “White Ridge,” with some mud and much rock;
thence crosses a pretty level tract pleasantly varied between forest and savana,
watered by three good-sized streams; thence by a gradual ascent climbs a high ridge
the main divide here, known as the “Sillon de la Viuda,” or “ Widow’s Saddle,”
and leaves it by an equally gradual descent, entering the plains near a now almost
deserted grazing station, called San Pedro. From this pass there is no other to the
eastward until we reach the vicinity of Samana Bay, when we find the road running
south from Savana la Mar to Santo Domingo, a trail that enjoys the unenviable
reputation of being, in many respects, the worst on the Island. The mountains in
the intervening distance have no features to render them peculiar or worthy of special
mention. They are low, inconspicuous, and have here dwindled toa single ridge

with a few spurs, all densely wooded.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 59

At San Lorenzo Bay, a little side branch of Samana Bay, the hills reach the
water’s edge, and present an entirely different appearance from any other part of the
range. ‘This is due to their being here composed of horizontal Tertiary rock, very
hard and weathered into the most fantastic outlines. They are from 200 to 300 feet
high and start up, often with precipitous sides, so separated from each other, and yet
so similar as to present at a great distance a rude resemblance to a battlemented wall.
The process of elevation is evidently going on at present, and has been doing so for
a long time past, since the water-face of these rocks is invariably worn into caves of
all sizes, from a mere overhanging ledge to an excavation of two or three hundred
feet or more in depth. Some of these have been occupied by the Indians, as will be
described further on. The eastern shore of San Lorenzo Bay is a sandy plain, con-
tinuous with a savana which borders the whole south side of the Gulf of Samana,
though often interrupted by projecting hills. The only prominent hill in the vicinity
is Monte Redondo, or Round Mountain, a pretty good landmark, from its being
isolated and standing close to the coast, just outside the mouth of the bay. The
forest land of this part of the Republic is always wet from the double circumstance
of a constant and heavy rainfall, and the impossibility of the ground drying when
shut off from all access of sunlight and wind. The road, travelled from time imme -
morial, and never mended, is in such a condition that the ordinary rule of travellers
over this route is to avoid going anywhere where they can see any signs of a road.
It is worst in the part called the “ deshecho de los Franceses,” or Frenchmen’s turn-
out, a region where the road is probably in places a quarter of a mile wide, the
endeavor of each person being to pick a place where nobody has gone recently. It
is a good horse that will carry his rider from Savana la Mar to Pulgarisi across the
range in one day’s journey, barely more than twenty miles. Just before reaching the
bad part of the route the traveller reaches a little settlement of half a dozen houses
called the Valley. Here he enters the woods, crosses the dividing ridge and
flounders along as best he can, gradually descending until he reaches Savana
Grande, a grassy tract of a thousand acres, a breathing spot, and a sort of half-way
station where most travellers either take a meal or spend the night. After this
some more bad roads and a couple of hills, the latter of which, however, the loma
de los Castellanos, is dry and gravelly, bring the unfortunate victim of circumstances
out on the margin of the broad prairies of the south side.

I have made but little mention of the rivers of the central chain, considering
them rather to belong to the region through which they run than to that in which
they take their rise.

60 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

CHUA Raver eer

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE REGION NORTH OF THE MAIN CHAIN.

Owing to the almost complete geological identity of all of the region lying north
of the central mountain chain, it is best to inelude all in a general description,
although one half is valley, the other half mountain. It is true that Samana is in
a manner isolated, both topographically and geologically; but the first is hardly
evident on the map, and the last difference is only a repetition of another exception
in the mountains near Puerto Plata.
called, as a whole, the Cibao, from the range of
mountains adjoining it—is divided into two unequal portions, watered respectively
“by the Yaqui and the Yuna rivers and their tributaries. The former portion, from
Santiago to the Monte Cristi, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago, or of the
Yaqui; while the latter is always called the Vega, or the Vega Real—the Royal
Meadow—a name given to it by Columbus, and one well merited by its beauty and
fertility. This valley occupies a depression between the central or Cibao range on the

The great northern valley

south, and another on the north, which has no distinctive name, but which might be
called, for convenience, the Monte Cristi range. Both extremities of it are low and
marshy. Large salt-water marshes and lagoons occur near the mouth of the Yaqui
River, and other mud flats, similar in every respect, border the mouth of the Yuna.
In the latter region, the same valley or depression is prolonged still further, existing
as Samana Bay, having the same trend, and nearly the same width, as the valley of
which it is the evident continuation.

The valley proper, from the mouth of one river to the mouth of the other, has an
entire length of nearly one hundred and fifty miles, while its average width is about
a dozen miles. In no place is it less than ten, and in perhaps none is it over fifteen
miles wide. The highest point is near Santiago, from which it falls very gradually
towards either end. Between the towns of la Vega and Santiago, that is to say,
between the Yaqui and the northern branches of the Yuna, there is a low range of
hills, which nearly divides the valley into two parts. But these hills do not reach
entirely to the Monte Cristi*range, a narrow interval of land intervening, so that one
can travel on the plain from Santiago to Moca, and from Moca to la Vega, although
the road from Vega to Santiago is rolling throughout almost the entire distance.
This is of importance, since the question of railroad routes in this vicinity has been
much mooted lately; and it is possible that the configuration of the land may have
an important bearing in this connection.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. ol

Santo Serro, or Holy Hill, is one of the most prominent points in this spur, and is
doubly interesting from its having once been the scene of a battle between Columbus
and the natives, when, as tradition declares, the Virgin Mary personally descended,
and, perching on an arm of a cross, turned back the arrows of the heathens against
themselves. The cross has disappeared, but the hole in which it was planted still
exists; and, if further proof of the miracle is required, it can be found in a painting
in the chapel erected over the spot, showing the manner in which the thing was
done. The hole is not likely to grow smaller, since the earth from it has miraculous
healing properties, and is sought for eagerly by pilgrims, who make long journeys
for the privilege of stepping into the hole, and taking therefrom a spoonful of dirt—
at twenty-five cents a head. But to the less reverent or less credulous traveller, this
lovely spot has a greater charm.. But a couple of hundred feet above the valley, it
is so far out from either range of mountains, that it commands a view of both for a
hundred miles of their length, and one glance takes in the entire Vega Real, only
cut off by the dim distance, towards Samana.

East of Vega the spurs that are sent out into the valley by the southern
mountains are without any remarkable peculiarities. They are low and incon-
spicuous in their similarity one to another. A few little valleys run up into the hills,
among which may be mentioned those along the Yuna and Jima Rivers, the Maimon
River, at Hatillo, or about Cotui, Cevico, and the valley of Payabo Creek. But these
are all alike—a meadow of from one to a couple of hundred acres, bordered by forest,
and nestling among trees. On the lower Yuna, below the mouth of the Camu, the
low spurs reach almost down to the river, and many of them are similar to the
peculiarly-shaped hills of San Lorenzo Bay. North of the Yuna, near the hills in
the vicinity of and east of Macoris the plains are rolling and gravelly. <A. little
further down towards the river the soil is more clayey, and in the river bottom it is
a rich black loam, supporting a dense forest growth. At Almacen, where the river
bluffs give an opportunity of examining it, the loam is at least ten or twelve feet
thick, and the river level did not give the means of ascertaining how much deeper it
reaches. West of Macoris the loam widens out at the expense of the gravel, and
nearly the entire distance from Macoris to Moca is over a black mud, bad enough to
travel over when dry, but almost impassable in wet weather. The same description
may be applied to the roads from Macoris to la Vega, from Vega to Moca, or, in
great part, that from Moca to Santiago. :

The road from Vega to Santiago runs also for a couple of miles on the same
black, sticky soil, then crosses some rolling, gravelly hills, then, making three passes
A. P. S.—VOL. XV. P.

62 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOLGY

of the Verde or Green River, it crosses some more hills. Here, the Tertiary rocks
coming to the surface, the road is dry, and the soil usually shallow; but immediately
afterwards, entering again the black loam region, there is a stretch called the
“Laguna Prieta” or “ Black Lake,” a mile or two of road which, during the entire
rainy season, fully merits the name.

There is a marked dissimilarity in the vegetation of the eastern and western ends
of this valley, caused by the difference in the amount of moisture in the air, and the
difference in the rain-fall. The trade-winds from the Atlantic draw into the gap of
Samana Bay as into a funnel, and are conducted by the mountain chains, as between
two walls, directly down the valley, depositing their vapors, either as rain or dew,
over the eastern end, even too abundantly at first. But in their progress they
generally become drier, until just after passing Santiago there is a very appreciable
diminution in the rain-fall, and a consequent change in the character of the plants.
Within ten miles west of Santiago nearly all of the forest trees common in the Vega
disappear; -Acaczas of two or three species take their place, disputing the ground
with Cacte. Of the latter, one of the most conspicuous is an arborescent Opuntia with
a peculiarly flat, narrow leaf, often carrying this tendency to compression to the
extent of having its woody stem of a foot thick of’ a long elliptical section. ‘The
plant not rarely acquires a height of twenty feet, and occasionally one of twenty-
five feet high may be seen. Besides this, a columnar Cereus, rivalling it in height,
and very similar to one known in Lower California as “ Prtahaya dulce,” is equally
abundant. Two other species of Cereus, three or four of Opuntia, one Melocactus, a
little gregarious Mammillaria, and two or three climbing species of Cereus (?), make
up the list. It is not to be understood that this change in vegetation is abrupt. A
straggling little Opuntia or an occasional Cereus may be found even as far east as
Santiago, and the forest of the more eastern type clings to the damp spots along the
river botton almost to Guayubin; but so marked is the style of the plants away from
the river, that in the foot hills north of Guayacanes I could have imagined myself
on the plains of Magdalena. North of the Yaqui the road, very wide and very
level, runs nearly parallel with the river, rarely touching it, usually at the distance of
a mile or two, directly down the valley, through some very good land, now used for
grazing solely, and apparently barren, but which, properly irrigated, could be made
to yield excellent.crops. It is, however, so inferior to other regions in the Republic
that the population must increase many fold before such artificial aid will be resorted
to here. There is another drawback which would doubtless have great influence.
There are but few streams, and these are small, running out of the northern or Monte

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 63

Cristi range, and the fall of the Yaqui is comparatively trifling, so that the difficulty
of obtaining a sufficient supply would be great. The nearer we approach Monte
Cristi, the drier and more parched the country looks, the more abundant becomes the
cactus, and the more scarce and wilted the grass. I was assured by a friend, riding
along the road, that at that spot no rain had fallen for fourteen months previously.

South of the river, the same causes produce like effects, modified, however, to
some extent, by the proximity of the mountains. Outside of the mountains the
country consists of a broad belt of foot hills, a curious basin, bordered by an east
and west range of tertiary hills, outside of which, adjoining the Yaqui, is a flat plain
of variable width. From Santiago to the Amina River most of the ridges of the foot
hills are rather narrow and steep; gradually become broader towards San Jose de las
Matas. West of the Amina, towards Guaraguano they develop into broad rolling
hills, and finally lose themselves in beautiful level savanas at Savaneta. Below the
mouth of the Bao River, adjoinging the Yaqui, and for a distance of half a dozen or
more miles west of Santiago, there is a reasonably level tract, with excellent soil and
and admirably adapted for farming, if the crops in the little “conucos” or garden
patches scattered through it are a criterion. Jfrom this same region runs a range
of low hills extending westward, parallel with the river, to a point beyond Savaneta.
They are cut through only where the rivers Amina, Mao, Gurabo and other southern —
tributaries of the Yaqui have forced for themselves passages. At the eastern end,
these hills are hardly separated or distinguishable from the foot hills proper of the
main range; but from the Amina to the Mao they are separated by a deep though
narrow valley, and from the Mao westward the separation is rendered complete by
the broad savanas of Savaneta and their eastern prolongations. On the Mao River,
at Caiia Fistula and Hato Viejo, the valley which separates the foot hills below
Guaraguano from the Samba Hills, as this range is called, is terraced; four well-
marked levels, making an aggregate of perhaps as much as 300 feet from the river
to the surface of the upper terrace. The terraces seem to indicate that the Samba
range once acted as a dam to the river which thus widened out into a small lake.

About Savaneta the foot hills of the main chain retreat southward, forming, as it
were, a sort of bay and a broad, nearly level tract, clothed with grass and dotted
with trees, makes a pleasing variation in the landscape and furnishes admirable
-erazing ground for numerous herds of cattle and goats. ‘This savana country
extends to the Haytien frontier with very little variation. The soil is gravelly and
the atmosphere, owing to the proximity of the mountains, is more moist than
further out towards the centre of the valley.

64 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

But little need be said about the Samba Hills. They are a low chain of dry
gravelly and sandy hills, two to four hundred feet high, and, as above stated,
occupy an isolated position in the valley. They are composed of the same Tertiary
rock as that underlying the valley itself, and are entirely destitute of water except
where the rivers from the main range have cut narrow channels through them.
They are covered with an almost continuous tangled thicket of thorny bushes, with
a plentiful sprinkling of cactus; and are so nearly destitute of grass as to be almost
useless for grazing and utterly valueless for any other purpose. The narrow strip
of land between the range and the river is barely, if at all better than the hills
themselves. It is equally dry, equally barren and, except along the rivers, it is
entirely uninhabited. Some small spots in the river bottom are cultivated, and
others might be, if irrigated.

In the region just described are the two most important rivers of the Republic.
The Yuna river drains all the region east of Santiago, and receives two or three large
tributaries. The principal of these is the Camu, flowing past the village of La
Vega, itself 70 to 80 miles long, and which drains more than half the valley and
the adjoining hills. The Yuna rises further east than the Camu, and like all of the
streams flowing out of these mountains, first pursues a general northerly course,
afterwards bending abruptly to the eastward. This river is easily navigable at
present for twenty to thirty miles from its mouth, and canoes loaded with tobacco
descend every day, returning with merchandise for the store-keepers of Moca and
Macoris. I have descended it from Cotui to the mouth of the Camu in a canoe,
when the water was more than usually low, and Mr. A. Pennell, on a previous
occasion, ascended to the same point, from the mouth. His report is that large
trading canoes have no difficulty in ascending to El Platanal, just above the mouth
of the Camu, although a few shallow places exist. I found that over my part of the
route, no obstructions exist which cannot be overcome by the simplest of engineering
contrivances. In most cases, all that will be necessary will be an ordinary wing
dam to throw the water into a narrower channel or the occasional rapids. The river
is usually about 100 yards wide and, at the ford at Cotui, is three feet deep in the
channel, with an average of one foot on the rapids, at extreme low water, in the dry
season. I have not explored it in detail above Cotui, but am familiar with much of
it, and my opinion, backed by all the testimony that I have been able to collect, is,
that the same appliances which will be required below Cotui, can be successfully
used above, so as to give at least a hundred miles of navigable river on the Yuna

and its tributary, the Maimon, certainly as far as, and perhaps some distance above,

s

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 65

Hatillo. The advantage that must accrue to the valley by opening this river, is
almost incalculable, giving, as it would, a natural outlet to its products, which in
part pass through Santiago and on pack animals, forty-one miles across the moun-
tains over a very bad road, to Puerto Plata.

The western part of the valley is not less fortunate than the eastern, in having a
large river, which could also be rendered navigable to within a few miles of Santiago.
It is probable that the expense of opening the Yaqui would be greater than that of
the suggested operations on the Yuna. But this is rather hypothesis on my part,
than based on detailed examinations. Some of the rapids I have examined seem to
be much more violent and extensive than any on the Yuna, the fall over at least a
part of its course is greater and difficulties exist at the mouth, which, although easily
overcome, must be expensive. The river has been for ages constantly shifting its
bed, for the last twenty miles of its course. At present, it runs through a series of
shallow lagoons and narrow channels nearly choked up by drift wood and bushes.
The present mouth is at Manzanilla Bay, while one of the old mouths is near Monte
Cristi. Old beds like dry canals show where it ran at one time and another; and
lately, the Government has taken steps, though perhaps on too small a scale, to divert
the water into one of these dry ditches, changing the mouth to Monte Cristi.
Should this be accomplished successfully, even if only a part of the river finds egress
by this route, so long as enough water is diverted to float a canoe, the benefit to the
people of the valley will be far beyond the amount expended. Now, the river is
never used for navigation. The few canoes to be found on it are only kept for
crossing from one bank to the other; not a freight boat of any description exists on
the Yaqui. Mahogany “crotches” are sent on mule or donkey back, from Guayubin,
on the river, to the coast at Monte Cristi.

The tributaries of the Yaqui on its north side are so few and so petty in size, as
not to merit even a mention. On the south side, however, they are numerous and
large. The Jimenoa, rising south of Jarabacoa, and describing three-fourths of a
circle, uniting with the Yaqui north of the same town, is really the longer of the two
branches into which the river divides. The other branch, bearing the title of the
main stream, rises in the peak of the same name, and runs nearly north until it
reaches the middle of the valley, just beyond Santiago, when it suddenly bends at a
right angle to the west. Just above Santiago, it receives the Bao, or Cibao River,
almost as large as itself, which rises in the main range, west of the spur on which is
Loma Joca. West of the Bao, we find successively the Amina, Mao, Gurabo, Canna,
Guayubin, and half a dozen other rivers and creeks of smaller size. The five named

A. P. S—VOL. XV. Q.

66 ° ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

are pretty nearly of the same size, the Mao being perhaps the longest and carrying
the greatest volume of water.

Geologically speaking, the valley just described, and the mountain tract to the
north of it, are identical. The same rocks compose the mountain that underlie the
plain, the elevating forces having acted along but a single anticlinal, and leaving the
valley undisturbed, with the trifling exception of the Samba Hill. These mountains
—for which, in default of a better, I have proposed the name of the Monte Cristi

range—are about one hundred and fifty miles long, and vary from ten to thirty miles
wide. In its lowest part, towards the extreme west, it is but a few hundred feet
high, while a dozen peaks ranged along its entire extent exceed a thousand, and one,

Diego Campo, near Santiago, is nearly four thousand feet high.

The range partakes, to some extent, of the same climatic influences as the valley,
though to a much less degree, as might be anticipated from its lying nearer the
ocean. ‘The eastern end is not unlike its neighbor Samana, while the part from
Isabella west is dry, arid, and much like the valley to the south of it. Standing on
the table-land at the mouth of the Isabella River, the site of the first settlement of
Columbus on the island, the view is cheerless in the extreme. As far as the eye can
reach, nothing is visible but a succession of dry yellow hills, parched and barren.
No green thing is to be seen in the distance, except a rare mangrove swamp,
suggestive of mud and quicksand. To heighten the effect, the spectator sees a
similar growth at his feet, reeking with foul odors, and around him is nothing but
thorn-bushes and cactus. It is difficult to imagine what could have induced the
great discoverer to have pitched on such a spot as this, when the coast of Hayti to
the west, and the entire coast of Santo Domingo, to the east of Isabella, offered so
many more inducements — equally good and better harbors, more accessible and
better water, rich vegetation instead of a desert, equally defensible positions, and, in
a word, all the conditions for the safe establishment of a weak colony in a strange
and hostile country. ‘There are a few fragments of roughly-built stone walls: still
standing, barely more than a foot high; and the owner, who acted as my guide,
expressed his perfect willingness to sell site, ruins, landing, cactus, mangrove swamp
—all, for a hundred dollars.

The appearance presented by the range from Isabella is not belied by a closer
examination. It diminishes rapidly in width and height as it approaches its western
extremity. The scarcity of rain produces not only a desert vegetation, but also a
scarcity of springs and running water. A few small fertile valleys exist on the north
side, and near the base, on the south side, are a very few springs. But two land-

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 67

marks exist in this part of the range; but these are well marked, and, being visible
from the coast, are of great use to seamen. Silla de Caballo is, aS its name implies,
a saddle-shaped hill, and Monte Cristi is a table-mountain, isolated from the range,
of which it is the terminal point. It is but eight Hundred feet high, but its solitary
position and its peculiar shape make it the most marked point in the whole range,
not excepting Mount Isabella de Torres, back of Puerto Plata.

It is not to be inferred that the barren, desolate character just described applies
to any large part of the Monte Cristi mountains. Even in the neighborhood of the
Isabella River a change occurs, and back in the hill, some of the “conucos” (as the
farm patches of an acre or two are called) show proofs of good soil and a sufficiency
of water. The absence of cactus here, away from the coast, is a corroboration not to
be disregarded; this family of plants growing habitually, only where moisture is
very scarce. From Isabella there is a pass across the mountains to Guayacanes,
which follows up the Isabella River to Maimon, a flourishing little settlement ; thence
climbs a very steep hill to the summit and descends a long cation to the plain.
Many other passes exist through these mountains, the principal of which are the
Alta Mira and Palo Quemado routes, between Santiago and Puerto Plata, one from
Moea to Batei, one from Macoris to the mouth of the River Jobo, and from Macoris
to Matanzas. In fact, there is a pass wherever the necessity for one exists, the range
being so simple in structure, that the difficulties of finding a practicable route across
it, almost anywhere, are not great. The Alta Mira pass starts about nine miles west
of Santiago, and after ascending the arroyo of Limon Creek for half a dozen miles
to Limon, climbs the range by a very steep trail to the summit, around the west side
of mount Diego Campo; thence descending a little to the little hamlet of four or five
houses called Alta Mira, it clambers along a muddy ridge, crosses a stream, and

winds along another ridge, more muddy than the first, winding around the western
flank of Mount Isabella de Torres, and reaches the plain about three miles from
Puerto Plata, by a road more muddy still than the mountain pass. It is over this
road, bad as it is, that an annual hundred thousand ceroons, of a quintal each, of
tobacco have to be carried, on horse, mule, donkey, and bull-back, at an annual cost
of about half a million of dollars, and nobody thinks of mending the road. The Palo
@uemado pass is shorter, but so much worse that it is rarely traveled. It climbs a
high ridge, quite near to Santiago, then descends to the head of the Yasica River,
crosses it, then crosses some low hills, emerges into a plain bordering the coast. This
road could be easily improved so as to be reasonably good. Next, east of this, is a
trail from Moca to Batei, twenty-seven miles east of Puerto Plata. This is the worst

68 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

road, if road it may be called, over these mountains, and, in near approach to impassa-
bility, is inferior only to the Savana la Mar trail. It is useless to repeat the same
story of steep hills, rocks, and mud; this route abounds in all; but a pleasant relief
is experienced when the traveler,*emerging from a network of bad road, wood-trails,
and mahogany “drags,” suddenly comes in view of a pretty little valley at his feet,
on the edge of Jamo River, with a neat-looking farm-house and its group of dependent
out-buildings, fields well fenced, and with luxurious crops well cultivated; the
plantain patch, with its trees actually planted in straight lines; abundance of cocoa-
nut and other fruit-trees, and, in short, many unwonted signs of comfort and good
taste. This is the farm of an old Spaniard, Don Narcisso Roca, who has lived in the
country for many years, and who rules his little domain like a prince. His boisterous,
good-natured hospitality is notorious, and the pleasant recollection of it is not soon
forgotten by those who have shared it. From Don Narcisso’s there is one trail down
the river to Puerto Plata, a good half-day’s ride distant, while another crosses a long
ridge, with plenty of mud, as usual, striking the Yasica River, along which it descends
a mile or two to Batei. At Batei is the farm of a gentleman, an American, Mr. C.
Schaffenberg, which, in the appearance of the buildings, fences, gates, fields, and, in
short, everything, betokens more advanced ideas than those held, or even understood,
by his neighbors. The land is excellent, and the manner in which its owner has
arranged his surroundings and availed himself of the natural advantages at his dis-
posal, is not equalled anywhere else in the Republic. An unusual feature in Santo
Domingo is the existence, near the house, of a fine large spring, giving rise to a
good-sized stream of clear, cold water. In this neighborhood is quite a large colony
of American negroes and mulatoes. These were brought to the country from Florida
by a Mr. Kinsley, during the Haytien occupation under President Boyer. Kinsley
made a contract with the Government that, as they were his slaves in the United.
States, they were to remain apprentices for a term of years, and then reach the full-
fledged dignity of freedmen and citizens. Of course the experiment failed. The
to-be citizens became impatient of the delay, and became unmanagable, in a country
where a white man was not as good as a negro, and consequently having no redress.
Kinsley was ruined; died; his sons, also coloured, and his former slaves, now form a
colony, harmonious, industrious, and flourishing, and no persons on the north coast
are more respected or more highly spoken of than the “ Kinsley boys.”

East of Batei, the country is almost without an inhabitant. A few scattered
families occupy the more eligible sites at the mouths of the rivers, or where some
little stream trickles down from the hills, until we reach Matanzas, a little village

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 69

which owes its existence to the fact that it is at the extremity of the pass over the
mountains, between Macoris and Samana, and that there is a little harbor here for
coasters. From the mouth of the Rio Jobo there is a trail across to Macoris, which
ascends the river to the summit, near which is a collection of three or four houses,
called Blanco. From the top of the ridge it descends another stream, emerging on
the plain two or three miles northwest of Macoris.

The route from Macoris to Matanzas has nothing remarkable about it, except the
great number of times it crosses the Rio Magua, a very rocky stream.

The only two streams in these mountains worth mentioning, are the Isabella
River and the Yasica. The former river, south of Puerto Plata, flows northwest,
through a long valley, and empties at the site of Columbus’ first colony, from which
it derives its name. It is too small to be of any practical value. The Yasica takes
its origin in the same vicinity, and flows northeast, receiving several large branches.
It reaches the sea about thirty miles east of Puerto Plata. The lower portion of this
stream is quite deep, and is much used for floating mahogany from the interior to the
coast. =

- The north coast has a number of good harbors. Manzanilla Bay is an excellent
port, but now never visited. Its proximity to the Haytian frontier renders it unsafe
for residence, and there is consequently no settlement there. The mouth of the Yaqui
is so nearly choked by drift and bushes, that there is no river-trade, and Monte Cristi
monopolizes all the commerce of the region. Added to this, the extensive marshes in
the vicinity render it extremely unhealthy. Monte Cristi is a good little harbor, well
shut in, and yet easy of access both by land and sea. Vessels enter easily, and are
well sheltered, while there are no streams or marshes landward to cut it off in that
direction, like Manzanilla Bay. The shore is very shelving; mud flats run out a
long distance, and nearly a mile in width of the shore is subject to overflow at very
high tides. But a causeway and pier will remedy the defect, and the flats can be
turned to good account for the manufacture of salt. Should the Yaqui River be
diverted to this point, Monte Cristi cannot fail to become a place of great importance.

Following the coast eastward, the first harbor of importance is Isabella. This
is an indentation in the coast, open to the north and northwest. There is an abun-
dance of water, and vessels resort there constantly for mahogany, satin-wood, and
fustic. After this follow a number of little bays, like Sufflet, Blanco, and Isleta,
availabie for small coasters, after which we arrive at Puerto Plata, a small but well
sheltered harbor, at present the principal outlet of the tobacco trade of the Cibao. It
is easy of access and egress, and will always be of importance, in consequence of a

DMRS Si NON, NOT

TO ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

a good sugar-country surrounding it, even if the produce of the interior should find
another outlet, a consummation not likely to be long delayed.

East of the Puerto Plata, the harbors are small and but little used. Cabarete,
the headquarters of the Kinsley colony, is a little bay, of but little value, available for
small coasters. But little need be said of Samani. It is a peninsula, or rather island,
about thirty miles long and eight or ten miles wide; separated on the south from the
mainland by Samana Bay, and on the west by the Gran Estero, or Big Creek, one of
the numerous mouths of the delta of the Yuna. Topographically, Samana is a con-
tinuation of the Monte Cristi chain—that is to say, on looking at a map, one would
not hesitate to include it ali under one general term; but geologically, it is
independent, belonging as it does, both by the contained rocks and by the date of
elevation, to the same age as the main central chain. Almost the entire surface is a
mass of mountain-land, with innumerable flats, not only adjoming the coast, but
nestling everywhere among the mountains.

A chain of hills runs throughout the entire length, usually nearer the south than
the north coast, and sends out numerous spurs, especially on the north side. One of
these, near the eastern end, forms the promontory called Cape Cabron, while the end
of the chain reaches to Cape Samand. At the point where the Cape Cabron spur
starts off, there is a high, conical peak called the Sugar Loaf, visible in every direc-
tion, and a good landmark from the sea. Monte Diablo is a smaller, broader, and less

conspicuous peak near the eastern coast, also useful as a landmark.

The soil in the mountains is often thin and stony, but the valleys without number
are exceedingly fertile. Some of the best coffee and cocoa-land in the Republic exists
on Samana. I found in several places in the woods, perhaps forgotten by the owners,
old cocoa plantations, with the trees in full bearing, despite the forest growth which
had sprung up around them. ‘The valley of the little stream called San Juan River
is a type of numerous spots on the peninsula. It is a long, not very wide valley, with
a rich, deep soil, and so completely shut in from all sunlight by the vigorous vegeta-
tion, that it is almost always muddy. Almost the entire course of the stream is
bordered by clumps of bamboo, their graceful stalks bending over and interlacing
from side to side, so that the river runs, as it were, through a living archway of
foliage. ‘Towards its mouth, the land becomes rougher, the cation narrower, the soil
rocky, and its mouth is as wild a spot as can be well imagined; a long sand-beach,
ending abruptly against a high bluff of black rocks, with the broad Atlantic thunder-
ing against it with a ceaseless roar.

At the eastern end, between Puerto Frances and Rincon Bay, there is a broad

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 1

tract of land, admirably adapted for cultivation of coffee or sugar-cane. There are no
streams on it, however, and the occupants would be obliged to depend on weils for
their supplies of water.

Rincon Bay is a good-sized harbor, well protected by Cape Cabron. It is bordered
by a nearly continuous sand-beach, on which grows a forest of thousands of cocoanut-
trees. The whole north coast is nearly without occupants. Port Jackson has a shed or
two, and the same may be said of Limon and Rincon; a few scattered sheds, occupied
by occasional pig-hunters, being the only signs of humanity. A couple of families live
at the mouth of the San Juan, and the next settlement is at Puerto Frances, where
there are two or three houses. Here there is a little nook, in which small vessels can
find a partial shelter. Just south of it, the coast is as wild and forbidding as it can
possibly be. ‘The limestone is worn into sharp points, bluffs, coves, and islets, over
which the surf beats with great violence.

In strong contrast with the wild nature of the scenery on the northern and eastern
coasts is the quiet of the shore of Samana Bay. Every little piece of beach is
crowded with graceful cocoa-palms. ‘The hills are wooded down to the water’s edge,
except where a rocky bluff is too steep to support trees, and then bushes and trailing
vines take their place. The roar of the ocean gives place to a gentle ripple, and
every new picture seems to struggle to excel its predecessor in beauty. The south
coast is a succession of hilly headlands and little bays. Almost every indentation has
its level tract, and even far up on the hill sides are seen the garden patches and the
thatched cabins of the inhabitants. Many of them are American negroes, who
emigrated to Santo Domingo a generation or more ago. Most of the original
emigrants have died, or remain as very oid people. Their children and grand-children
remain, a separate people, who rarely intermarry with the natives; usually speak
English among themselves, and retain a sort of Protestant form of worship; much
more intolerant of the religion of their Roman Catholic neighbors than these same
neighbors are of them. ‘They are quiet; industrious, thrifty, and always well spoken
of as good citizens; but they all look forward longingly to the time when annexation
to the United States shall give them a permanent guarantee of peace. ‘The region
principally inhabited by these people is just around the port of Santa Barbara de
Samana, from Ja Flecha to a point half a dozen miles west of the town.

The little bay of Santa Barbara, which often assumes the name of the larger bay,
is a little land-locked harbor, entirely shut in from all winds, partly by the hills with
which it is surrounded, and partly by a group of small islands lying in front of it.
It is hardly equalled, certainly not excelled, in security or accessibility, by any port

7, ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

in the West Indies. The larger bay itself is an excellent shelter, although opening,
as it does, to the east; it is sometimes disturbed by winds from that quarter; but
once inside of the lesser bay, or behind any one of the numerous points, a vessel is as
secure as if she were docked. West of Santa Barbara, there are five of these points,
forming a succession of little side harbors, some deep, some shallow, but all well
protected. This part of the peninsula is pretty well populated, and the clean, well-
kept houses, nestling along the shore, present a scene of quiet beauty long to be

remembered.

CH A PAV ER, 211k

TOPOGRAPHY OF. THE REGION SOUTH 'OF- THE: MAIN- CHAITIN.

There is a marked contrast between the appearance and topography of the two
sides of the island. South of the central chain, there are broad prairies, immense level
tracts of forest, and long, heavy mountain ranges, reaching, some almost, others
completely, to the coast. The region is naturally divisible into three parts, each
having its local peculiarities, and differing alike in topography, climate, and vegeta-
tion. The first of these includes all the eastern part of the Republic, as far west as
the Jaina River; comprising all of the Province of Seybo, and part of Santo Domingo.
The second may be said to extend from the Jaina to the vicinity of the Ocoa River,
covering the remainder of the Province of Santo Domingo, and overlapping the margin
of the province of Azua; while the third and last region covers the remaining portion
of Azua to the Haytien frontier.

The extreme eastern end of the island, forming the peninsula of Seybo, is made
up of the low, terminal portion of the mountains, and a broad plain. This plain
comprises about one-half, or nearly so, of the width of the tract on its southern
margin, and is in part savana, in part forest. As will be explained in detail in its
proper place, the character of the vegetation is dependent on geological causes, and
the presence or absence of woodland is a certain key to the character of the under-
lying formation. All that portion adjoining the coast, from the Jaina River eastward,
around the eastern end, until the mountains reach the sea, is clothed in trees. This
strip of forest is of pretty regular outline. It is from eight to twelve miles wide, and
west of Santo Domingo City, and gradually grows broader, until, near Higuey, it
acquires a width of fifteen to twenty miles. Immediately adjoming the coast, there
is almost always found a series of terraces. These acquire in all a total height of a
little over one hundred feet ; although they are not always strictly recognizable as

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 6)

terraces, but rather as a series of slopes. Near Santo Domingo City, but three can
be distinctly made out—one on the edge of the river, corresponding to the bluff wall
of rocks of the sea-margin; a second is in the village of San Carlos, just outside of
the walls; while a third is directly outside of the village. A mile back of Santo
Domingo, the land is remarkably level, and about one hundred and fifty feet above
tide water. All the wells are of this depth, while in the city, their average depth is
about fifty feet. On the southeastern coast, this terrace character is well seen from
the sea, one bluff rising behind the other far inland.

In the neighborhood of the Jaina River, where it emerges from the hills, the soil
is a coarse gravel, often containing large boulders. Going eastward, the gravel loses
it coarse character, becomes gradually sandy, and finally almost a clay. All the
region east of this river, from the tree-belt to the hills, is a succession of beautiful
savanas, cut up by occasional water-courses, and, in parts, plentifully sprinkled with
ponds and little lakes. The savanas continue to beyond Higuey, interrupted by
strips of timber along the streams, and a little clump occasionally in low places,
where the drainage of the water supplies a greater amount of moisture than over the
other parts of the plain.

The line of juncture of the prairie and the coast forest supplies some of the
prettiest park-like views that can be imagined. In the vicinity of San Antonio de
Guerra, for example, the first intimation of the proximity of the savana is the
occasional appearance of a liftle grassy opening in the woods. These become larger,
more numerous, and close together, until finally the country becomes one continuous
park, carpeted with green, dotted by clumps of trees, through which the cattle roam
in herds, while here and there may be seen the palm-thatched cottage of a herder,
embowered in a cluster of cocoanuts. On its northern margin the boundary of the
savana is exceedingly irregular. It is encroached on by numerous spurs of the
mountains, and, in its turn, not only sends long tongues back into the hills, but even
surmounts them in places. A very few of the hills are entirely grass-covered, while
many of the outer ones are divided between grass and forest. The peculiar-looking
hills near Bayaguana stand out like islands in the plain, and near Monte Plata are
some smaller spurs, not quite so isolated, but equally naked. About San Pedro and
Yamasa the plain forms deep bays, nearly shut in by the hills, and on its extreme
western edge the Savana of Santa Rosa is a similar extension, reaching to the Jaina
River.

Sierra Prieta is a prominent hill running out into the plain, the terminal point of
a long ridge between the Isabella and the Ozama Rivers. It is a low, conical peak,

Ae PS: VOlis Xo) 8:

74 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

but can be seen for a long distance, owing to its isolation. West of the Sierra Part-
ridge, directly west of the Isabella River, is a very marked mountain range running
south from the central chain, and bearing two or three peaks worthy of notice. The
most northern of these is Siete Picos, or Seven Peaks, so called from the number of
peaks that can be counted on its summit. Directly south of it, not more than ten
miles off, is Mount Mariana Chica, a fine hill with a square top, one of the best
known and most easily recognized mountains on the south side. Isabella River*
rises in the ridge between these two peaks, and running around the east side of the
the latter, it empties into the Ozama. Along the western base of the Mariana Chice
ridge, adjoining the Jaina, is a beautiful and fertile farming country that must some
day attract a thriving settlement. It is pleasantly variegated between savana and
woods, borders a fine river, and in some places acquires a width of upwards of a
mile. It was in this tract that there existed a town in the time of the early Spaniards,
now entirely destroyed, and its name forgotten by the people of the vicinity. Not
having access to any work on the history of Santo Domingo, I hardly feel warranted
in being very positive, though I have an indistinct recollection of having been told
that it was destroyed by an earthquake. It was called Buenaventura, and the spot
is now known as Monte Pueblo. The entire tract is overgrown with large forest trees,
one in particular, two feet in diameter, growing out of the corner of a wall, while
others equally large have sprung up among the ruins. The walls of a few houses,
probably the more important ones, still exist as lines ofgstones, usually rough, though
in one case nicely squared. They are rarely more than a foot or two high, and in one
instance indicate a building of considerable size. One house stood in what is the
line of the present road, and the horse-trail actually winds among the stones that
once formed its walls, and crosses its principal room, the outline of which can still be
made out. Although the town was at a long distance from the river, and, in fact, far
from any considerable stream of water, but a single well has been detected, and that
is now dry, doubtless choked by debris from above. Another excavation exists, in
the shape of a vault, neatly lined with brick, about eight feet square, five or six deep,
and accessible by means of a well-like aperture of two feet square. This is usually
said to have been the treasure-vault of a Government mint, established here to coin
the gold washed in the vicinity. I have never been able to learn if this is a tradition
founded on fact, or if it is simply a theory based on the presence of gold in the

* It must be borne in mind, that many local names are repeated in Santo Domingo, and care must be used not to
confound them. Thus we have this river, as well as the Isabella west of Puerto Plata; we have two Yaqui Rivers,

two towns called Macoris, and, stranger still, two places in the Cibao called by the old Indian name of Hu-mu-nu-cu,
within thirty miles of each other in a straight line!

OF SANTO DOMINGO. T5

neighborhood, and the difficulty of explaining the existence of the cellar in any better
manner. Immediately below Monte Pueblo, on the east side of the Jaina, the savanas
begin, here high rounded hills, which fall gradually into the sayanas of Porto Rico
and Santa Rosa.

West of the river, and entirely across to the Nigua, the hills are of pretty nearly
the same contour; but they are mostly wooded. This tract is well watered by a
succession of pretty little creeks emptying into the Jaina, and most of them are
lined with settlements, a house and its accompanying “conuco” being found at
almost every turn, their presence indicated at a distanee by the inevitable cluster of
cocoa-palm. These hills end rather abruptly in an elevated plateau, where there is a
little cluster of houses: called Cobre, which owes its existence to the effort—unsuccess-
ful, however—to establish here a mining town. The principal condition of success was
unfortunately wanting. Nobody has been able to find a mine of:copper, or anything
else.

Similar attempts, with no better results, have also been made on the Upper Nigua
River, about nine miles above San Cristobal, where a few houses were built and a
trail cut. The houses have nearly fallen to pieces, but the road remains, and, poor
as it is, it is a boon to the scattered mountaineers who live through these hills. The
Nigua River is a small stream with a wide, gravelly channel, often dry, except in
holes, for several months, and again, during the rain, a torrent that nobody dare cross.
At 'Tablasas it forees its way through and over a bed of limestone, forming a fine group
of falls and rapids. Further down the bed is usually a dry gravel beach. The beauti-
ful spring of “ La Toma,” (San Tomas?) three miles above San Cristobal, from which
pours a neyer-failing body of water, that gave me, on measurement, fifteen square
feet of cross section, fully accounts for the phenomenon. This is one of the most
beautiful little spots on the Island. The spring is a basin of over twenty feet across,
eight or ten feet deep, as clear as crystal, and boils out from subterranean channels,
some of them as large as a man’s body. It is at the foot of a steep hill, the part over
the pool being a precipice of white limestone, overgrown with moss, festooned with
vines, and with a graceful cluster of fern springing from every crevice. On one side
is a magnificent clump of bamboo overhanging the pool, while on the other, large
trees shut out the sun, and almost the light of day. The water runs down a narrow
valley for a few hundred yards before it enters the main channel of the Nigua River.
_At a couple of hundred yards below the spring was a fall of some twelve or fifteen
feet, and this was taken advantage of (tradition says) by the Spaniards, to build a fine
dam of mason work. The water was thus carried off by a ditch, partly to a mill, ruins of

which still remain, and part was carried through a hill bya tunnel, of which some traces

76 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

can still be made out. This ditch, after winding around a point of hill, crossed the gravel
bed of the Nigua by means of a channel confined between two stone walls, and then skirted
the left bank of the river for half a mile or more to another mill, the walls of which still
remain pretty well preserved. ‘The foregoing information is derived partly from sur-
veys made by Mr. R. Pennell and myself, and partly from the statements of an old
Haytien, M. la Plene, who assured me that when he arrived in the vicinity with
Touissant ’Overture, in 1801, then a boy of fifteen, the ditch across the river was dis-
tinctly visible, almost intact. The dam is now ruined from want of care. The water
has undermined it in several places ; the greater part finds outlet along the old creek
bed, but during the last year (1871), another channel has opened. The top of the
work, seven or eight feet wide, and as solid as a single rock, forms the only stone bridge
in the Republic! This place is much resorted to by pic-nie parties for the beauty of
the scenery, and the unusually good bathing facilities.

Another spot in the same vicinity, although equally noted, is not so much visited,
partly because of two additional miles of travel to reach it; partly because of the very
rough, rocky trail. ‘This is the group of caves, known as Pomiel, on the same ridge,
but further up the river. The caves are several; two large ones connected by a few
narrow passages, but each having its outlet, form the principal attraction; while the
others are mere indentations in the face of a bluff. These larger caves are several hun-
dred yards in length, excavated through the white limestone of the mountains, and
consist of successions of large chambers, sometimes connected by good-sized corri-
dors, though oftener by passages so narrow as to admit a person with difficulty.
There are but few stalactites, and none of them of any beauty. One of the caves is
frequented by myriads of bats, whose dung forms a coating of a foot or two deep over
the floor; while the other, known as the ‘“ White Cave,” is almost entirely free from
these inhabitants.

From the vicinity of the caves the view out is beautiful. Half a dozen miles of
the narrow valley of the Nigua River can be seen, winding among the hills, while on
each side, the lower foot hills roll off like billows as far as the eye can reach, bounded
by the blue haze, or by the blue ocean. }

The bottom land of the Nigua is wonderfully rich, and the cane fields, small as they
are at present, are an earnest of what could be, if a more energetic race were to take
them in hand. At the mouth of the river, half a dozen miles below San Cristobal,
are the ruins of a very large sugar estate. The walls of the house, built on a stone
terrace, indicate a degree of comfort nowhere found now in the interior; and the re-_
mains of the mill show that there was a time when at least one establishment in Santo

Domingo rivalled the great sugar estates of Cuba.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. ran

West of San Cristobal the long spurs of the higher mountains run down so as to
cut the plains bordering the coast into a series of bays. Immediately adjoining the
river, there is a range of hills reaching almost to the beach; while the most direct
road westward from the town is over a high ridge. The coast here has a strong trend
to the southwest, and the hills run nearly parallel with it, leaving a comparatively
narrow strip of level land on the margin. Most of this land, especially near the hills
is a very rich black mould, unsurpassed for the cultivation of sugar-cane. Further
west, after passing the Nizao River, the soil becomes gravelly and the climate drier,
and near Bani our old friends the cactus begin to re-appear, becoming more abundant
the nearer we approach Azua. Many pretty spots occur along the coast, such as
Savana Grande, Palenque, and Nizao, each with its little settlement, and each is the
centre of a small sugar-growing region, which judged by its capabilities should at
least rival the most productive regions in the West Indies. Since the abolition of
slavery in Santo Domingo the country has been in an almost constant state of anarchy.
The repeated revolutions, each one destroying all the improvements made during the
preceding interval of peace, have completely ruined the people, depriving them of all
hopes of benefit from their labor. Three-quarters of a century of such experience
has almost eradicated all ideas of industry ; and the poor wretches dare not begin any
work on a large scale, for want of guarantee that they will be the better for their
trouble. The last four years of uninterrupted peace have been an epoch almost un-
precedented in duration, and the government certainly seems to be gaining strength,
slowly, but surely.

With this return of peace, there is a marked change coming over the industries of
the country. Clearings are being made, more and more numerous every season; fields
of cane and tobacco are being planted, and the increase in the production of these two
crops is already very perceptible. This change is especially marked in the region in
question, and new fields are rapidly being cleared, and cane planted in almost every
available spot. With continued peace, it is not rash to predict that in a few years
this will be the greatest sugar district on the Island.

About Bani the country is nearly level, the soil gravelly, and the vegetation simi-
lar to that in the Santiago Valley. Near the town there is a very peculiar little hill,
extending about a mile out into the plain, called Loma del Pueblo, and directly west
of this, about eight miles distant, is another, longer and higher, called las ‘Tablas.
The intervening plain, as well as that part to the south is almost perfectly level, and
clad in a good growth of grass among the trees. It supports large numbers of horses
and cattle, and about Savana Buey are not a few sheep. The latter do not seem to

A. P. 8S.—VOL. Xv. T.

78 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

be even as highly appreciated as goats. They are never sheared, and are rarely used
for food. ‘The plain runs up into the hills at Honduras, much less fertile than nearer
this coast, and strewn with large pebbles and boulders, the remains of an old beach.
Below Savana Buey, the plain runs down three miles to Calderas Bay, some parts of
whose shore are mangrove swamps, the remainder sand. On the long sand spit which
serves as break-water to shut the bay in from the ocean are one or two large salt-water
lagoons, communicating with the sea at high tide, and admirably adapted to the
manufacture of salt. The bay itself would be an excellent place for an excursion,
with plenty of gunning and fishing. The clear sea-bottom, a floor of sand on which
the star-fish and mollusk lie side by side, giving place in deeper water to the forests
of coral, through which myriads of fishes, more brilliantly colored than the rainbow,
loiter at their ease, 6r dart like flashes of red, green, or silvery light; the endless
variety of life below as well as above the water would give pleasurable occupation

alike to the sportsman or the naturalist, were it not for the infernal pest of sand-flies,

a very Hgyptian plague, so small as to be nearly invisible, and so painful in their
bite that a Jersey mosquito cannot compare with them.

Between the region just described and the main mountain range is a broad tract
made up of heavy mountains, with small intervening valleys. Hast of the Nizao
tiver is a high mass extending to the Jaina, in which the Nigua River heads. Again,
west of the Nizao, a similar ridge runs southward from the peak of Vanilejo, and
following close to the river it suddenly bends to the westward, carrying some of the
largest mountains visible on the south side of the range. The principal of these are
Manacla!, east of the Nizao, and west of it Barbacoa and loma de los Pinos. These
latter occupy the position of what Schomburgk calls Valdesia, though on what ground
I never could learn. His name is not even known in the neighborhood. Among the
southern spurs of Mt. Barbacoa the Bani River takes its rise, and along the upper
part of its canon is quite a good sized little settlement, called Recol, perched on the
hill sides. The principal occupations of the inhabitants are pig-hunting, and the cul-
ture of coffee, for which their steep hill sides are admirably fitted. ,

In the valleys of the Upper Nizao, as at Rancho Arriba and Rancho Abajo, not
to mention a hundred other spots in this practically unknown region, coffee flourishes
in a manner almost unknown elsewhere. Mr. Runnebaum reported to mea coffee-tree
at Rancho Arriba which he declared had more than a bushel of ripe berries! The
whole of this tract is a mass of sharp ridges, broad sloping hill sides, and beautiful
little nooks on the sides of mountain streams ; a district capable of supporting thou-
sands of inhabitants. The only place permanently inhabited is the valley of Maniel
on its western region, on the Ocoa River. The two spots, Ranchos Arriba and

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 79

Abajo, are simply a house each, used periodically by the pig-hunters. I have seen
flourishing farms in Oregon infinitely worse off in location, soil and accessibility than
the average of this region. In 1869, I spent a week among these mountains in com-
pany with Mr. A. Pennell and a party of natives. There was nobody sufficiently
acquainted with them to serve as guide, and we were obliged to pick our way across
as best we could. Between Maniel and the Nigua there is not a single inhabitant
and hardly a trail. Pig-hunters’ trails penetrate from one side and the other, but
none cross the tract. The Valley of Maniel is a beautiful little spot of but a few
thousand acres, shut in by mountains on all sides, except where the caton of the
Ocoa River gives a pretence of a level road. The road from Honduras to Maniel cross-
es the river only thirty-five times! Of course this means that during the rains this
route is impassable, and the inhabitants of the valley must cross the mountains

towards Azua, if they wish to communicate with the outside world.

West of the Ocoa River the mountains are quite heavy, and send a spur south-
ward which reaches entirely to the beach. This spur is low and is crossed by two
passes, one from Maniel, the other called the Pass of the Numero, a road running
around the north side of Las Tablas hills. Still a third route skirts around the end
of the range, following the coast, often on the beach. ‘This, though longer, is often
used in preference to the Numero on account of its being much smoother. The
vicinity of Azua, that is to say, the tract lying east of the town, could hardly be
more desolate. It is a nearly flat, perfectly dry tract, overgrown with thorny acacias
and cactus, while thickets of the Maya or hedge pine-apple, render it yet more im-
‘passable and unattractive. The whole neighborhood of the town is alike barren, dry
and thorny. But three or four miles to the southwest, at los Conucos, the character
of the country changes suddenly and entirely. This is a level, sandy region, where
from geological causes, the subsoil at a depth of but six or eight feet is permanently
saturated with water. Here is the richest sugar-cane region on the Island, although
it is at same time one of the most unhealthy. In ordinary years, rain is almost un-
known here; but when, as occurs sometimes, it does rain, the whole region becomes
little better than a swamp.

Back of Azua, that is to say, up to the hills, the same acacia and cactus thicket
continues, broken only where a miserable little stream furnishing a narrow strip of
moisture, produces a corresponding change in the trees. On the Agua hedeondo, or
stinking water, there is a grove of Mango trees, and more remarkable still, the only
date-palm I have seen on the Island. Its rough stem and almost solid ball of foliage
looked like an old friend, the more welcome because I came upon it unexpectedly in

the woods. Although so old as to be almost past bearing, its vigorous, healthy ap-

*

80 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

pearance was proof abundant that the climate is not inimical to the plant. This tree
must be of very great age because, not only do its size and general appearance indi-
cate it, but a gentleman now over fifty years old told me that he remembered it an
old tree in full bearing while he was a very little boy.

Directly north of Azua there is a great mass of mountains lying east of the
Constanza Pass and northwest of Maniel, entirely uninhabited and practically un-
known. We have penetrated it for short distances from various directions, but in
the absence of all trails or guides, and in view of the almost impassable character of
the jungle with which it is clothed I have not dared to attempt to cross it. On
Schomburgk’s map are placed several peaks in this region to which we obtained bear-
ings, but I have never been able to ascertain how he obtained the data for the heights
attached to them. So far as I can learn, after careful inquiry, he did not ascend them
or even get so near to them as we did; and I cannot believe that Loma Tina is as
high as his figures make it. So far as an eye estimate will warrant me in the ex-
pression of an opinion, I do not think it so high as the peak of the Yaqui, although
it is certainly a high mountain. It is a long slope ending in a point from which
the opposite side descends precipitously. It is surrounded by many other points
approaching it in height, say over 6,000 feet, so that it is not so prominent, nor so
imposing an object as the silver-capped “ Rucillo,” the father of the two Yaquis.

Unfortunately, the disturbed political condition of the region towards the Haytien
frontier, including all or nearly all of the country to the west and northwest of Azua,
has prevented us extending our investigations in that direction. Accompanied by
Mr. Pennell, I have made a single journey across the Constanza pass, emerging on
the south side, almost in view of San Juan; Mr. Pennell had previously visited the
same part, and afterwards made a boat-journey along the whole coast to the Haytien
line at the mouth of Rio Pedernales, including a visit to Beata and Alta Vela Islands.
There trips, meagre as they were, gave us all the information we possess, beyond what
can be culled from common report and the maps of our predecessors. I have not
hesitated to follow the map of Sir Robert Schomburgk in detail, in this region, as well
as to copy the whole of Hayti from the same source, since I found that this map is
excellent in its main features ; very much better than could have been expected, con-
sidering the circumstances under which it was made; and have consequently availed
myself of it in this, the only region where our own work did not extend.

For information in regard to the character of the San Juan Valley, I am mainly
indebted to His Excellency, President Baez, who has frequently described this region
to me in most enthusiastic terms. From the road between Constanza and Azua, there
can be seen a broad valley extending to the northwest as far as the eye can reach,

®

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 81

bounded by high hills on each side, and occasionally encroached on by a small spur.
This valley seems to be nearly level, and its appearance at a distance certainly war-
rants the glowing pictures painted by all who know it. It is said to be extremely
fertile. It seems that the dry character of the Azua and Monte Cristi regions does
not extend to it, and the “Guinea grass” with which it is clothed perennially is said
to completely hide the animals grazing among it. During the “old Spanish time,”
before the revolt of the colonies, this is said to have been the richest region on the
Island.

Myriads of cattle roamed on the plain where now not an animal is to be seen. The
Government is now gradually resuming its occupation of and jurisdiction over the
valley, and even as I write, news arrives that San Juan has been made a permanent
military post. The significance of this step will be apparent when we consider that
the place has been abandoned since 1868, or only occupied for a day or two at a time
by “raiding” parties. South of this region, separated by a range of high hills, is
another valley which runs uninterrupted from Azua to Port au Prince. This is said
to be narrow, and except at its western end, not so fertile as the other. In it are sey-
eral lakes; two of them of considerable size, neither connected with each other nor
with the sea. Still south of these lakes, is another range of hills, the Sierra Baburuco,
which form a sort of wall cutting off the southern peninsula from the adjacent re-
gions. Mr. Pennell describes this peninsula as a flat region, densely wooded and
well watered. Mr. Luis Durocher, a very intelligent and well educated gentleman,
and one unusually well acquainted with most matters connected with his country,
informed me that this tract is sparsely inhabited by a people most probably the
descendants of fugitive slaves. He describes them as apparently pure negroes,
savage, nearly or quite naked, not living permanently in any one place, and speaking
a language peculiar to themselves,—an almost unintelligible patois of French. It is
said that the peninsula is full of mahogany, and other valuable woods, almost untouched
as yet by the axe.

The south side of the Island is watered by many more rivers than the north side;
but they are smaller and comparatively unimportant. They may be divided into two
classes: those that take their origin in the central chain of mountains, and those
that flow from the spurs and subordinate ridges. To the first class, belong the
Macoris, Ozama, Jaina, Nizao, Ocoa, and Southern Yaqui, sometimes called the
Neyba.

The first two of these are the only ones worthy of special note, since they are
navigable for a few miles from their mouths. The others are not navigable even for
Ay PB. S.—VOl.. XV. U.

82 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

canoes, and are only of interest from the amount of area that they drain. East of
the Macoris are the rivers Yuma, Puiabon and Soco, small streams winding through
the plain. Between the Macoris and the Ozama is the Brujueles, a mere rivulet in
width, but of great length, which has no mouth, but sinks into the plain at a distance
of several miles from the coast. The Qzama receives two branches, the Yabacoa
from the east, and the Isabella from the west, both large streams, the latter coming
out of the mountains near the head of the Jaina. ‘he rivers of the second class,
those rising at a distance from the main water-shed, are the Nigua, Bani, Via, and
others of less note. Although so much of this side of the island is plain, it is all
well watered; the traveller need never suffer from thirst, unless perhaps in the vicinity
of Azua, where streams are scarce.

The principal harbors on the coast are the great Bay of Ocoa, well shut in from all
winds except that from the south; Calderas Bay, an entirely land-locked lake, opening
to the westward, and furnishing as good a harbor as could be desired, and Santo
Domingo, a mere roadstead. Vessels here have to lie a quarter or even half a mile
from the shore, where a good anchorage is afforded, although with but little protection
from storms. Vessels drawing not more than ten feet of water can enter the river,
and tie up at the city front. Besides these, there are innumerable little ports, avail-
able for coasters ; the best one of which is Palenque, near the mouth of the Nizao
River.

Off the coast are a few islands of but little importance and, except Alta Vela,
uninhabited. Saona Island at the southeast corner is nearly crescent shaped, about
fifteen miles long and two or three miles wide. It is flat, densely wooded and abounds
principally in mahogany, goats, logwood, and mosquitoes. Catalina and Catalinita
Islands near it, are much smaller, very similar and even less remarkable. Off the
extreme south point of the southern peninsula is Beata Island, very similar to Saona,
except in size and in being slightly elevated in the middle. It is about three miles
wide by five long, and is covered with a thorny thicket in which the “cat’s-claw ” or
“wait-a-bit ” vine predominates, to the detriment of the clothing of the unfortunate
who ventures to explore it.

Southwest of Beata is the still smaller islet of Alta Vela, a high hill of five or
six hundred acres, looking at a distance like a ship under sail, whence its name. It
is noted for a deposit of hard phosphate of alumina, which has attracted various
persons who have mined here with indifferent success for a number of years. The
island is entirely without fresh water, the supply being either brought from Beata or
distilled on the spot. In its neighborhood is a group of naked rocks known as Alta

Velita, having nothing about them, however, worthy of note.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 83

Ach AY EE:

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.

CHAPTERIVY.

THE SLER RA GROUP.

No formation older than the secondary era, has been found on the Island; the
oldest group, being the great mass of slates, conglomerates and limestones which
form its core. These are uptilted and broken by numerous intrusive masses of crys-
talline rocks which may be, for convenience, grouped under the generic term of syenite,
since they almost invariably consist of the three necessary minerals, quartz, feldspar,
and. hornblende.

Flanking the slates, ete., of the Sierra, there is a broad development of Tertiary
marking all the northern and a part of the southern side of the Island, and this in turn
is bordered by a more recent deposit of limestones and gravels which I shall call the
coast formation.

The Srerra Group forms all of the great mountain mass of the interior, extending
the entire length of the Republic.*

It also constitutes the greater part of the Peninsula of Samana, and appears as a
single little outlier, under the Tertiary, near Puerto Plata. It everywhere shows the
evidence of active subterranean forces, being not only metamorphosed, with hardly a
single local exception, but is everywhere much uptilted, and usually, strongly folded.
Over much of its area, the metamorphic action has been so complete as to destroy the
traces of stratification, or to so nearly obliterate them, that they are apt to be con-
founded with cross fractures. This is most markedly the case in those regions,
especially in the eastern half of the Island, where the rocks take on a serpentinoid
character. Near Yamasa, for instance, I amused myself on the face of a fine bluff in
trying to decipher the lines, and found that I could construe them to suit any theory
of direction of dip desired. The same thing occurs again at Piedra Blanca on the
Maimon River in the Province of Vega.

But enough of the stratification is preserved to show conclusively that these beds

* And it seems to form at least one, if not both the long peninsulas of Hayti; at least the appearance of the
mountains is such that it induced me to draw this inference when, a year or two ago, I skirted along the coast, a mile
or two off shore. The contour and general character of the mountain ranges of Hayti are identical with those of the

central range of Santo Domingo, — high, rough, irregular and heavily wooded.

84. ON THE TOPOGRAPITY AND GEOLOGY

lie in a series of east and west folds, the line of folding and upheaval corresponding very
closely with the axis of the mountains. The thickness of the deposit is very difficult
to determine, since no continuous section exists, where one can be certain of having
all the beds, and of not being deceived by repetitions. On a very rough estimate,
not based on measurements, however, but only on the broadest kind of vague generali-
zation, in the caiions of the Ocoa and Nigua Rivers, and again on what I saw of the
formation in the vicinity of the Pico del Gallo, we might set down the total thickness
at anywhere between 2,000 and 4,000 feet. It must be understood that this broad
margin is not the result of want of care in observation, but arises from the almost
absolute impossibility of finding a reliable section. In one region a group of con-
glomerates occurs ; in another, within forty or fifty miles these same beds are repre-
sented by limestone, without a pebble, and on the same strike within another twenty
miles, neither limestone nor conglomerate is to be found ; all is a semi-talcose slate too
friable to yield a hand specimen, and with no distinguishable stratification. Add to
this the partial obliteration of character by different degrees of metamorphism, and
the sometimes total obliteration of bedding, and the reasons of my cautious statement
must be sufficiently obvious.

In the interior of the mountains, especially in the western two-thirds, the disturb-
ance has been greatest, and the reason appears, in the existence of great masses of
eruptive rock which have pushed up the slates, broken them, and in some cases pene-
trated them by dykes to a distance of several miles from the parent mass. In some
cases pieces of the wall rock are found inbedded in the syenite; and pebbles one-half
syenite the other jaspery slate are not rare.

In its original state, this group of beds seems to have consisted of a series of clay
shales, thinly bedded, others more heavily bedded and with layers of sandstone, con-
glomerate, limestone, and heavy bedded sandstones. The changes produced in these
rocks by metamorphism are almost infinite. On the Ocoa River the shales are so
nearly unaltered that I have repeatedly searched in this region in hopes of finding
fossils. In the canon of the river they are gray and friable, with an occasional bed of
sandstone ; further south they are red, and give rise to numerous salt springs; still
further south they contain more numerous beds of sandstone, and are brown and more
sandy in texture. ‘These same shales are modified at Recol into a granular, greenish-
black material resembling an impure serpertine,* while on the Nigua they appear as
green, gray or brown jaspers with broad conchoidal fractures, gradually changing

* A similar change occurs on the north flank of Monte Diablo, California, where I have followed the same bed of

rock along a series of outcrops ; in one place, simp'e unaltered sandy shale, gradually modifying until it became in
another a nearly pure serpertine. See Whitney, Geol. Report Cal., vol i. p. 22.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 85

again within a few miles to a more serpentinoid form, to reappeat as the same jasper
on the Jaina, and to again change, on the Upper Jaina and in nearly all the moun-
tains eastward, into a whitish rock, more or less talcoid and profusely stained with
iron. -On the north side of the island the modifications of the shale are just as great.
The sandstones also undergo an equal number of variations, appearing of all colors
from black or dark gray sandrock to a white, granular quartzite. In short, nearly
every color is represented; and naturally, all degrees of texture from the coarse
conglomerate of San Jose de las Matas, or Maniel, to the shale above described. In
one place only did I find siliceous segregations like the chalk flints, or more
probably, like the corniferous limestones of the New York geologists. In the hill just
west of Bani the rock is a limestone, and in it are numerous streaks, lying in the
plane of stratification, of a light brownish limestone, very tough and breaking with
an irregular fracture. Near the base of the series, apparently, are strata of con-
glomerate, made up of pebbles very similar to those of the surrounding beds. These
pebbles seem to have been brought from long distances, since they are almost
invariably rounded by attrition. ‘They are largest on the Upper Ocoa, near Maniel,
and on the north flat of the range near San Jose de las Matas; but at these points
they are rarely more than a few inches in diameter. I have endeavored in vain to
find the probable source of these pebbles. They are certainly not from the adjoining
beds, although lithological researches were not wanting. They are not derived from
any deposit encountered by us on the Island, since the conglomerate strata extend
nearly, if not entirely, to the base of the stratified rocks. It is not probable that
further examination to the westward, in the yet unknown portions adjoining Hayti,
or lying within its borders, will develop their origin, since such a discovery would be
foretold by increase in the size and angularity of the pebbles in that direction. They
must therefore have been derived from some land then existing most probably to
the north or northwest of the present island, but now submerged or destroyed. The
conglomerate is variable in its character and the changes take place over com-
paratively limited areas. On the north side it is almost always cemented by a
coarse-grained red sand, the surfaces of the contained pebbles being stained by the
ferruginous nature of the matrix. This is the: rule where the metamorphosis is not
very perfect. In one place, west of San Jose, the whole mass is rendered nearly
homogeneous in texture, the fracture crossing matrix and pebbles alike. In another,
on the Mao River, the whole is changed toa dark olive green, the coloring matter
haying stained even the interior of the pebbles. On the Ocoa, some of the con-
glomerate is cemented by lime instead of sand, and in this case the pebbles are not
DNs DoS Olly ONG NE

386 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

so numerous as to be always in contact. This peculiarity gradually changes to the
eastward, so that the conglomerate is represented on the Nigua by a group of beds
in part pure limestone, in part an impure limestone, containing occasional pebbles.
This last is the stratum from which fossils were obtained.

One bed near Maniel is made up of little grains half as big as an ordinary pea,
almost uniform in size and with little or no cementing sand. On the Nigua River
the limestone acquires its greatest development. Here the metamorphic action has
been unusually well marked and the formation is represented mainly by limestones
and jaspers. The stratification also is unusually well preserved, so that a good
section is attainable. The lime-strata of the Ocoa are apparently all repeated on the
Nigua, and the conglomerates are replaced by beds containing but few pebbles, the
matrix being either a pure, or more usually, an earthy limestone. This latter rock,
at two localities on the river, yields fossils, in a bad state of preservation for
extraction, although occasionally recognizable. The shell substance is completely
crystallized so that it is next to impossible to extract a thick shell in such a manner
as to expose its surface. Of hundreds of attempts to obtain a specimen of a very
common Trigonia I have only succeeded once or twice in obtaining a little piece of
the surface; the fracture always taking place among the crystals of calc-spar into
which the shell has been cemented. ‘The univalve shells invariably break across and,
in a word, the collector has to content himself with the few imperfect fragments
found weathered out. Nowhere else have fossil mollusca been discovered in this
formation in Santo Domingo, and only in one other instance have I found any other
fossil in it. Three or four miles west of San Jose de las Matas I was fortunate
enough to discover two fragments of the same limestone, being of a dark bluish-gray
color, on the surface of which can be detected, faintly marked, the stars of a coral.
Doubtless by means of polishing they can be brought out. These are of especial
value, being the only traces of corals yielded to us by the formation; unless indeed
a stray pebble, found on the surface of the ground near Bani, also containing corals,
may belong to the same group. On the Peninsula of Samana the limestones are
highly metamorphosed, and here occurs a very curious mixture. In some cases the
limestone has a few scattered scales of mica imbedded in it; in others the mica is so
abundant as to form layers, while not infrequently, especially in the eastern part,
mica slate, alternating with the limestone, is not an unusual feature. ‘This is the
more remarkable since it occurs nowhere else on the island, and in only one other
locality is mica slate found and there in hardly noticeable quantities.

With so few data it would seem hazardous to venture a determination of the

OF SANTO DOMINGO. . 87

geological age of the group of rocks in question. But a careful study of the seanty
material at my disposal reveals the existence of a serrated oyster, a Trigonia, a
Turritella, shells resembling Ancillaria, Natica, Pugnellus (?) and Mactra, besides
a Fusoid, one fragment that seems to belong to the group of Pterocera, at least it is
an alate shell, bivalves that may prove to be Cucullewa and Lama, and better than all
else a beautiful little Ammonite in perfect preservation, and a fragment that I think
more careful study will decide to be a piece of a Baculite! From the above list it
will be seen that there can no possible doubt of the Secondary age of the rocks. The
Ammonite restricts it so far. The style of the Ammonite besides confines it to the
two groups of Jurassic and Cretaceous, a determination corrobated by the Zrigonza,
which further belongs to a type much more common in the latter than in the former
formation, resembling 7. Hmoryz, Con., T. Hvansana, Meek, and 7. Mooraena, Nob.
(7. crenulata Roem., not Lam.) In fact Iam not sure but that the second of these
species is also found in New Grenada, whence it was previously described by Mr. Lea
as 7. Tocaimaana,* and that the present one may have to be included under the same
name. The gasteropodous shells are of but little real assistance, although the Ancillaria
belongs to a type as yet only known by one or two species high up in the Cretaceous ;
the oldest members of the family being in that horizon. The Natzcord of course has
but little weight, while my generic determination of the (?) Pugnellus is not sufficiently
sure to warrant me in availing myself of this really valuable aid.

The Mactra is not of any great stratigraphical value, and the other bivalves are
of still less importance. The Baculite, if it should prove to be such, is a little frag-
ment so imbedded in the matrix that it will have to be developed by grinding or
polishing, since any other process would inevitably destroy it. It will be thus seen
that the formation is either Cretaceous or Jurassic, and the preponderance of evidence
is in favor of the Cretaceous. This receives additional weight from the results of
the labors of other geologists in the Caribbean region.

Mr. Robert Etheridge examined a small lot of fossils from the coast of Venezuela for
the Geological Survey Commissioner of Trinidad, with a view of throwing light on
the age of a similar deposit in that island, and reportedt “ Pteroceras, Cerithium,
Turritella, Trigonia subcrenalata,{ Ostrea Coulont, Arca, Cardium and Hchinus ;”
observing that “the Zrigonia may with certainty be referred to the same species
obtained at Bogota.”

The Geologists, Messrs. Wall and Sawkins say of the fossiliferous limestones

* Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., Philadelphia, 1840, p. 255, pl. 9, fig. &.
| Report on the Geology of Trinidad, 1860, pl. 166.
{ Most probably identical with Lea’s Zocaimaanu.

83 i ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

(p. 34): “ Limestones are rare, do not exceed ten to twenty feet in thickness, are
extremely compact, and their fossils usually partially or entirely transformed into
highly crystalline spar.” Had they been describing the Dominican deposits instead,
they might have used the same words.

In 1860 Mr. L. Barrett, then colonial geologist of Jamaica, published a short note
in the Journal of the London Geological Society,* in which he describes the Cretaceous
deposits of that island and mentions the existence of Jnoceramus, Hippurites, Nerinea
and Bulla, but does not attempt to fix the exact age. Still later, Mr. Etheridge pre-
pared a memoir for the geological report of Jamaica,ft in which he discusses all of
the information obtained to date. By a clear and exhaustive examination, he proves
that the Jamaica Cretaceous is most probably on or very near the horizon of the Gray
Chalk. The total number of fossils collected by the Jamaican Geologists is 15 species of
Mollusca, 1 Echinoderm, 5 corals and 1 Rhizopod; but little better luck than we have had.

Dr. P. Martin Duncan has elaborately studied and described the fossil corals of the
West Indies,{ having had large collections from nearly all of the islands at his disposal.
He is quoted by Mr. Etheridge as anticipating the discovery of Cretaceous rocks in
Santo Domingo on account of some corals from the Miocene of the Cibao, which
seemed out of place in that formation.||

From a long familiarity with the “ Nivaje shale,” which is simply the middle part
of our Miocene, I am incline to doubt Dr. Duncan’s specific determination of the coral,
rather than accept his conclusion. All of the Cretaceous debris in the Miocene of

Santo Domingo—and it occurs abundantly—exists as highly metamorphosed pebbles 5

the metamorphic action seeming to have been completed before the deposition of the

overlying fossiliferous strata. In fact Dr. Duncan himself§ is not perfectly sure of
* Loc. cit. Feb. 1860, p. 324.
{| Appendix V. Geol. Report, p. 306 e¢ seg. 1869.
{ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xix. p. 406, and vol. xx. p. 20.
|| Etheridge, Joc. cit. p. 308, says, ‘‘Dr. Duncan has also stated his belief that ‘‘the Hippurite limestone exists in
the neighboring-island of Santo Domingo, basing this opinion upon the fact that corals having very decided lower

cretaceous affinities were noticed in Miocene Strata ’’

in that island. He noticed having found the European lower
chalk coral Astrocwnia decaphyllia in the Jamaican Miocene ; Phyllocenia sculpta, from the Gosau and Uchaux beds,
was also found in the Nivaji shale in St. Domingo, associated with four other species of Turonier affinities in the
same shale.”’

§ P. J. G.S. vol. 19, p. 450. He says : ‘‘In the yellow shale there is a ramose coral which, provisionally is classed
with Phyllocenia. With one exception its structural characteristics agree with a very remarkable coral, which has
been referred to many genera, having been called by Goldfuss, Maudrepora limbata, by Brown Oculina Vimbata, by
M’Coy Gemmastraa limbata, and by Milne-Edwards Stylina limbata. Our species has no columella visible, and
although it is notorious that the little sharp collumelle of Stylénw constantly fall out, still I have considered it
advisable to disregard this and to classify the form with Phyllocenia, and to state the probability that other specimens
will determine the presence or absence of a columella. Another species so closely resembles Phyllocwnia sculptu

(Michelin, Zooph, pl. 71, fig. 1 and 3), that it cun oniy be considered « variety with a tile-shaped corallum.”’ The italics
are mine.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 89

the identification, so his prophecy has received a better fulfillment than it merited. In
saying this, however, I do not wish to be understood as having the least desire to
disparage the really valuable work done by that excellent student.

Before leaving this formation there is another subject that merits at least a passing’
notice. Almost everywhere the metamorphosed slates carry quartz veins, sometimes
barren, sometimes auriferous. These veins are usually small, rarely more than a foot
or two in width, although one instance occurs on the Upper Jaina River, where a
width of over twenty feet is attained. In no case have I had reason to suppose these
masses filled fissures, in the ordinary sense of the term. In every instance where a
good outcrop occurs, so that its nature could be clearly made out, the quartz is found
inter-bedded or inter-stratified with the slate, following its contortions and intimately
united on the sides. In other words they are true veins of segregation. They are
most numerous in the vicinity of the injected masses of crystalline rock. They occur
also quite abundantly in the whitish talcose rock of the main ridge, as for instance,
on the Bonao road, and again in the neighborhood of Yamasa. But one strongly
marked feature has been observed to characterize all of the veins. Those nearest to
the intrusive rocks are always gold-bearing ; and those at a distance from them are
invariably barren. This has been abundantly proven by innumerable examinations.
No vein-mining for goid has ever been undertaken on the island, but I have caused
numerous analyses to be made of specimens from various localities, always with the
above results; and further, as a natural influence, every stream running through the
metamorphic rocks in the immediate neighborhood of masses of syenite carries gold
in its sands, while all of those running exclusively in the syenites, or at a great dis-
tance from them, are without the precious metal. Thus the Nigua and Jaina Rivers
are barren at their heads, but immediately on entering the slates they and all of their
tributaries are gold-producing. The upper waters of the Nizao, Ocoa, and their
upper branches carry gold, while the Majoma, entirely in crystalline rocks, is barren.
Not to multiply examples, the same may be said of all the north face of the Cibao
range, west of Santiago, while east of Vega in the north, and east of the Jaina River
on the south, that is, east of the eruptive rocks, no gold has ever been reported.

It is also in this formation that the little copper of the Nigua and the fine iron
deposits of the Maimon occur. These will be described in detail in their proper
places in connection with the description of the local geology.

Do Worse AG) bigs DGG AY

90 . ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

CHA PT EE. iVi.
INTRUSIVE ROCKS.

The Cretaceous rocks which form the basis of the Island are clevated into a series
of folds and undulations by an immense mass of granitoid rocks, which appear as ¢
“massive eruption”* occupying the heart of the range and forming a belt, sometimes
entire, but more usually consisting of two, three or more parallel lines. Although
the Pico del Yaqui is entirely composed of this rock it is the exception rather than
the rule to find it making up the higher points. It seems to have forced up the meta-
morphosed slates in great masses, and shows itself at their bases or along their flanks,
exposed as often by denudation as by actual outflow. Its general direction is much
more to the northwest, as a whole, than the axis of elevation: of the chain; so that
although its western half coincides with the trend of the mountains its eastern end
bends far to the southward. This eastern end also covers a greater width than any
other part, extending continuously or nearly so from the head of the Jaina to far
down on the Nizao. In the mountains northwest of the Peak of the Yaqui the
eruption has taken place along three parallel lines, throwing up the slates into the
high summit-ridge to the south, and making two marked synclinal axes, on the edge
of one of which is the tall Pico del Gallo. The most northern of these exposures is
quite near the northern base of the range, and it is more than probable that this is
due to denudation, since the slates, although uptilted at high angles, are not raised
to an altitude at all comparable with those further south.

On some parts of the margin of the eruption the overlying rocks have suffered
much fracturing, and the subjacent molten matter has been injected into the fissures,
sometimes to a distance of several miles from the nearest surface exposure of the
parent mass. This is notably the case on the Jaina and Nizao Rivers. On the former
stream, at and even below the mouth of Madrigal Creek, the jaspery slates are seamed
with dykes of all sizes from a mere thread up to many feet across; while the nearest
exposure of the mass is near Catare, eight miles further up the river. So on the
Nizao, dykes occur almost as far west as Maniel, while the western margin of the
main eruption is between the Nizao River and its tributary, the Majoma, which enters
it from the east. |

A remarkable feature of the intrusive rocks of Santo Domingo is that, although
all are of Tertiary age or at earliest, some of them may date back into the latest

* Richthofen, Natural System of Volcanic Rocks, p. 9.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. QI

epochs of the Cretaceous, while the newest. are even more modern than the Miocene,
they are similar in composition and in all their leading features to what have hereto-
fore been considered peculiar to older geological periods. Richthofen* dwells at
length on the idea that granites and “ granitic rocks,” as well as “ porphyritic rocks”
are almost exclusively palzeozoic, quoting as a modern instance of the latter, the
Liassic age of some outflows in the Sierra Nevada of California. +

The same author uses the fact of the eruption taking place during or subsequent
to the Tertiary as one of the characteristics in his description of “ Volcanic rocks,”
from which he strictly excludes all forms similar to those found in Santo Domingo.
The oldest eruptions here must have taken place after the deposition of the Cretaceous;
but since we are not yet able to decide the exact position in the scale for our Cretaceous
strata we are equally unable to determine the earliest possible epoch at which such
eruptions could have taken place. It could not have been earlier than the period of
the White Chalk of Europe (Senonien); and the probabilities are in favor of their
occurrence during the long Eocene period. Ample proof exists that the main range
acquired its present contour and nearly its present height, that the eruptive rocks had
appeared, and that the metamorphism of the Cretaceous was completed before the
deposition of the Miocene began. But another point yet remains not less remarkable
than the first, when examined in view of this theory. The Monte Cristi range is
composed, with one or two insignificant local exceptions, of Miocene Tertiary. Its
elevation could hardly have taken place before the Pliocene, and possibly was not
completed until late in that era. Near the summit of the range, for a distance cast
and west of forty or fifty miles, dykes are not rare, and some of them are of con-
siderable size. These dykes are composed of a rock not, only having a general resem-
blance to that of the Cibao range, but I have collected hand specimens north of
Macoris which would defy the most practiced eye to distinguish them from portions
of the main central mass. Not only do they contain the same minerals, but those
minerals are combined in the same manner and proportion, and the general appearance
of the two are the same. Yet it must be borne in mind that the Cibao rocks cannot
be later than the Hocene, while those in the Monte Cristi range cannot be older than
the Pliocene. The whole Miocene period intervened between the two sets of eruptions,
and still a uniformity of character was retained. Nor can the objection be raised
that the resemblance is only a partial one, due to a second eruption in the Cibao
range synchronous with the dykes further north. It is not impossible that such was
the case, although I have never seen any reason to suppose so; but granting it, all of

* Loe. cit. pp. 9, 35, &e.
+ Loe. cit. p. 41,

92 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the eruptive rocks of the range have so strong a family likeness that the objection
falls to the ground.

The resemblance that runs through all the intrusive rocks of Santo Domingo is
much more marked than would be anticipated over so large an area. Little or no
true granite exists, but in its place occurs syenite, varying in the size of the crystals
and in the proportion of admixture, but in almost every case a compound of recog-
nizable grains of quartz, feldspar and hornblende. Usually the material is so grouped
that one ingredient preponderates but little over the other, and the mass presents the
ordinary mottled-gray appearance. But occasionally one mineral increases at the
expense of the others, or perhaps disappears entirely. On the Jaina there is a locality
where the rock contains large erystals of hornblende, the interspaces being filled up
with smaller ones of quartz and feldspar. In some of the specimens collected by
me the hornblende is almost the only mineral visible. Mica rarely occurs, but in the
same vicinity is another locality where a yellow rock is composed exclusively of
quartz and mica, and yet another which yields a mixture of quartz and feldspar only.
These, however, are very trifling local exceptions and form but a small percentage of
the whole. For more detailed descriptions of the variations which these rocks
undergo, I must refer the reader to the descriptions of the local geology.

Besides the granitoid rocks, there remains one other yet to be described. In the
mountains north of Bani there is an outflow of porphyry, which I have never suc-
ceeded in discovering, although I have at various times encountered, perhaps in all
half a dozen, pebbles and boulders in the river. The rock is a dark-brown or black
paste, in which are embedded crystals of feldspar an inch across. Despite three
years of constant, careful search I have never found this or any other true voicanic
rock elsewhere on the Island.

An instance of the uniformity of the geological phenomena in the Antilles occurs
in the fact that similar rocks ejected at about the same period are found also in
Jamaica. The geological report of that island describes “ metamorphosed secondary
shale, sandstone and conglomerate” underlying undoubted cretaceous beds cut
through by “dykes of intrusive diorite, syenite and granite.”

OF SANTO DOMINGO, 93

CHAPTER VI.
MIOCENE.

All of that part of the Island which lies north of the Cibao Mountains, except a
part of the peninsula of Samana, is made up of Tertiary rocks, usually bordered by
a narrow strip of more modern age. ‘They also form one or two insignificant de-
posits on the south side about San Cristobal and the Nizao, and are said further to
cover a part or all of the valley of the lakes running to Port-au-Prince in Hayti.*
The work of the geological survey not having extended to the latter region I shall
confine my observations to the others.

The district covered by this formation in the north, including its extension into
Hayti, towards Cape Haytien on the west, and into Samana and south of the bay
east, is little less than 150 miles long, although, cutting off these prolongations, it
forms a compact area of about 100 miles long by 380 miles wide, or say, in round
numbers, about 38000 square miles. It abuts against and even overlaps the lower
foot hills of the central chain, underlies the whole valley of the Yaqui and Yuna,
makes up the entire northern or Monte Cristi range, and sends others along both
sides of Samana Bay. In the south it forms a little group of hills extending from
near the Jaina River across the Nigua, and thins out in a few isolated patches
towards the Nizao. Its total thickness in the vicinity of the Nigua River is about
400 feet, and it is made up of a succession of brown earthy and sandy beds, occasion-
ally calcareous, superposed on a thin stratum of conglomerate. The top of the
series is a rather compact calcareous deposit containing corals. The fossils, except
the corals, are usually badly preserved and very meagre in species; a small oyster,
two species of Pecten, and some echinoderms being the only recognizable forms.
Besides these, a few internal casts of gasteropod shells have been discovered. The
corals are so imbedded in their matrix that they can only be collected satisfactorily
when they are weathered out, and this same process of weathering is only too apt
to destroy the delicate structure of their surfaces. They are however nearly all of

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond. vol. IX. p. 116.

Dr. Dickson, of the U. 8. Steamship Swatara, kindly presented me with two or three fossils, too imperfect for
determination beyond the facts that they are new to me, and that they are evidently Tertiary. He brought them
from Azua, but did not know their exact locality.

AC eleven Sele eX Via ING

94 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the massive forms, and are so thoroughly fossilized as to be well adapted for
polishing.

But while the formation is so small in area and so unsatisfactory in general char-
acters on the Santo Domingo side, it becomes, in the Cibao, the most interesting on
the island. Cut through by all the tributaries of the Yaqui the sections are
numerous and exeellent for study. Its local modifications are well illustrated by
sections innumerable, into and across the Monte Cristi range on one side, and into
the southern hills on the other. In short, it would be difficult to find a region where
the facilities furnished to the geologist are greater, or where the results could be
more certainly arrived at. Add to this that a larger part of the formation is highly
fossiliferous, and that the fossils, whether shells or corals, are almost always pre-
served entire and hard; as beautiful as the famous fossils of the Paris basin, or as

the less known though equally beautiful specimens from Jackson, Mississippi.

The entire thickness of the formation in the Cibao is probably over 1500 and
under 2000 feet. It is made up of coarse sandstones at the base, sometimes bearing
veds of conglomerate, which are however rather local in extent. These beds are
best developed between the Bao and the Yaqui, where, being uptilted, their thick-
ness is best seen, and are about 600 feet thick. They gradually merge into gray
shales, which form a transition to the heavy blue shale beds underlying the town of
Santiago, and called by the English Palzeontologists the Nivaje shale. The upper
part of this member is always of a light yellowish brown or buff color and some-
times, especially at its upper part, contains beds of sandstone. ‘The whole of this
shale member may be safely estimated at about 80C feet of average thickness. The
remainder of the formation, say 400 feet more in all, varies locally. It caps the
greater part of the Monte Cristi range, and while, north of Moca it forms high blufts
of a nearly white earthy rock, in which it is doubtful whether the argillaccous or the
valcareous ingredients preponderate, it forms north of Hsperanza sheets of a compact
limestone, which, less pure, forms the cap on the isolated table-mountain of Monte
Cristi. Near Cevico it appears as an impure lime-rock containing corals and

@al

foraminifera, and similar beds occur also on Samana and south of Savana la Mar;
while the caves of San Lorenzo, in the same beds, are in a hard, coarse-grained,
calcareous sandstone. Nor do the variations cease here. Near the mouths of the
ancient Miocene rivers running from the then much smaller islands now constituting
the Cibao Mountains, and among which the Mao was probably the largest, the
gravel debris of these streams was deposited, occasionally alternating with a bed of

coarse sandstone, synchronously with the formation of the coral reefs and beds of

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 95

fine white mud which now glistens in the sun on the top of the Monte Cristi range.
We have thus an ideal section as follows :

White calcareous marl, north of Moca; white or light brown limestone (‘‘Tufaceous a
limestone’’ of Heneken) ; light brown calc sandstone, San Lorenzo Bay ; gravels of | a
Mao and Savaneta; limestone of Samana, San le Mar, Cevico and the north face of a
the Samba Hills; oyster beds of Samba Hills, south of Guayubin. iS

Brownish or yellowish shale of Guayubin; conglomerate of Angostura of the i
Yaqui; sandstone strata near Santiago; dark blue shale of Santiago; gray shale fy

| with beds of sandstone of Rio Verde and in the hills north of Moca. =)

| (oa)
|

} gs

Coarse gray sandstone with some conglomerate; seen best in the hills south and a
southeast of Santiago ; also in a few places in the north range. 2

SoS
oOo

These three members are so intimately united that their separation is purely
arbitrary. Beds of sandstone are found in the shale; and beds of shale extend far
down into the lower member. Very few if any fossils have been found in the sand-
stone, though the gravels of Angostura yield shells abundantly, in connection with
fragments of fossilized wood. The same species of fossils occur in all parts of the
series, and I have collected from a bed of sandstone at the very summit of the Mao
gravel a series of shells identical with those imbedded in the rocks of the “non-
fossiliferous sandstone” plain* east of Guayubin, and which are found abundantly
in the blue shale of the Gurabo, Amina or Verde.

* All the information previously possessed in regard to the Santo Domingo Tertiaries was derived from a Mr. T.
S. Heneken, who sent to the Geological Society of London a valuable collection of fossils, which formed the basis of
some excellent papers by J. Moore, Geo. B. Sowerly and Dr. Duncan. Unfortunately the notes accompanying the
specimens were not so valuable as the collection, and for the reputation of their author had better have been omitted.
It would be a thankless task for me to attempt to discuss in detail the paper (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., voi. 9, p. 115,
et seq.), which is the most extraordinary tissue of incorrect observations and false deductions I have ever encoun-
tered. A reference to the sections accompanying this memoir will show that his ‘‘red sandstone”’ existed only in
his imagination. It seems to have been made up of the heavy beds of Miocene sandstone south of Santiago, which
however are gray, not red ; of the nearly horizonal beds of Mao gravel which cover the plains about Savaneta and
perhaps also of the low-dipping strata of metamorphosed cretaceous conglomerate near San Jose de las Matas. At
least I can find no better explanation after a two years’ search. It is very certain that the strata forming the middle
of the valley, given in his sections as ‘‘non-fossiliferous red sandstone, underlying the Tertiary,’’ are usually high up
in the series ; blue shales at Santiago, light-brown shales between Esperanza and Guayubin, and his ‘ Tufaceous

limestone ’’ at some points south of the river!

96 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Fossils are not regularly distributed either vertically or laterally, but seen to occur
in colonies. The blue shale bluff under the city of Santiago, sixty feet high from the
level of the river, does not show a single streak where they are ever abundant enough
to repay the trouble of hunting, although isolated shells occur throughout. At Pumtal
but a few miles off near the Rio Verde shells and corals abound. 'The same irregu-
larity exists throughout, and although there is but little change in the species of the
mollusea in their vertical range, there is a marked difference between the eastern and
western ends of the basin. Shells that are absent or scarce on the Verde are common
on the Gurato and westward, and vice versa. ‘he corals found in the shale are almost
always of the cup forms, while the massive corals are almost exclusively confined to
the upper beds and are particularly abundant on the north flanks of the Samba hills.
Tn all the shale beds and to the extreme top of the series foraminifera occur, and in
some places are found in great numbers. They are not very numerous in species,
probably not exceeding half a dozen. The Orbztoides ranges throughout all the
strata and is not only found wherever any other fossil occurs but is often, especially
in the higher beds the only recognizable organic remains. It has more than once
proven of great value to me in distinguishing these limestones from the overlying
Post Pliocene calcareous beds.

With one or two small exceptions all these rocks are entirely unaltered. On the
southern limit in contact, or nearly so with the underlying cretaceous in the vicinity
of the Bao River and on the Yaqui, the coarse sandstones are slightly modified, though
still retaining their stratification and mechanical structure unchanged. Onthe Yaqui
at Tabera this rock is highly uptilted and slightly contorted as will be seen by refer-
ence to the description of the locality. Also in the northern range a similar slig
metamorphism occurs southeast of Puerto Plata.

The geological age of the West Indian Tertiaries has been so thoroughly and ably
discussed, and by such competent authorities that it might seem unnecessary for me
to reopen the subject. J.C. Moore,* Geo. B. Sowerly,t Dr. P. M. Dunean,{ R. J.
L. Guppy,§ Robert Etheridge,|| and Sir Robert Schomburgk,{ have all contributed to

the general fund of our knowledge, and have unanimously agreed in placing the

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. IX., p. 129, and previously in 1850, loc. cit., p. 39.

+ Loc. cit., p. 44, et seq.

t Quart. Jour., Vol. XIX., p. 406, and Vol. XX., p. 20.

§ Id., Vol. XXII., p. 281, et seq.

| Geological Survey Report, Trinidad, App. J., p. 161, and Geological Survey Report, Jamaica, App. V., p.311.

{| Hist. of Barbadoes, p. 531, et seg. See also Nelson in the Bermudas; Trans. Geol. Soc., 2 Ser., Vol. V., part
1, p. 103 ; and on the Bahamas, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. IX., p. 200.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. OF

greater part of the fossiliferous strata, including all the Santo Domingo beds in the
Miocene Tertiary.

Shortly after the appearance of the joint paper by Moore and Sowerby, Mr. Conrad.
published a short note,* having more particular reference to the Vicksburg deposit in
Mississippi, asserting that he found an “analogy,” and even adding “ whether all the
forms in this group in St. Domingo are synchronous remains to be proved, but the
probability is that they are.” He claimed to have identified three species as occurring
in the two regions; his determinations being based on Sowerby’s figures. My own
camparison of specimens completely disproves even this. There is not more than the
ordinary generic resemblance. But I have found-a single species in common—his
Ficus Mississippiensis. Even were there a dozen it would be poor proof of synchro-
nism. He explained the small number of common species by the geographical
dissimilarity.

But still later he repeats the assertion of the Eocene (‘‘ Oligocene”) age of the
Santo Domingo beds in such a categorical manner as to demand an equally pointed
refutation,t the more especially since Mr. Conrad is the oldest and best informed of
the authorities on the American Tertiaries.

In view of this expression of opinion being so evidently only a mere guess, I
should have disregarded it and have quietly acquiesced in the opinions of my pre-
decessors were it not for the numerical richness of the collections I have been able to
make, and which have doubled the number of species known to exist in the Dominican,
if not in the West Indian Tertiaries.

In 1849 Mr. Heneken sent his first installment of fossils to London consisting of
‘fishes’ teeth, a crab, 84 species of Mollusca, an echinoderm, 18 species of coral,

99

numerous foraminifera, dicotyledinous wood.” ‘The mollusca on being critically
examined by Messrs. Moore and Sowerby, and compared with recent and fossil species,
gave 13 living species, 2 doubtful, and the remainder extinct ; or a percentage of 17
to 19 with a greater resemblance to the European than to the North American
Miocene. ‘The other remains also corroborated this result at the same time. ‘ Mr.
Sowerby was much struck with the resemblance of many of the shells to recent species
inhabiting the seas of China, Australia and even the western coast of America.” In
‘1853 Mr. Heneken added another collection to the first which raised the number of
known species to 163 mollusea, of which 127 were gasteropods, and 36 bivalves.

* Proc: Phil, Acad. 1852): 198:

+ See Smithsonian Check List, Eocene and Oligocene fossils of N. A. (Sm. Misc. Collection, No. 200), p. 37, where

he simply says: ‘‘The Oligocene has been found in St. Domingo, We.”

INS ARS, TSE NY On \YV- NEA

98 ON THLE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

This collection confirmed the results derived from the previous one, except that the
percentage of living species was reduced to 8 or 9 per cent. according to Mr. Moore,

who sums up the results as follows:
“Ist. These beds contain Mollusca of which from 8 to 9 per cent. are now living.
“2d. The recent species are principally living in the adjoining seas.

“3d. Many bear a strong resemblance to shells now living in the Indian seas and

the Pacific, and one or two appear to be identical.

“Ath. None are identical with American fossil shells, except two, both of which

are also recent.

“5th. The fossils which present the nearest analogies as a group are those of
Malta and Bordeaux in Europe, and the Upper Hocene beds of South Carolina.”

In Trinidad the collections were made incidentally and apparently with little care.
On being submitted to Mr. Robert Etheridge, the able Paleontologist of the British
Surveys, that gentleman found 8 species of corals, 1 echinoderm, 2 annelids, 3
cirrhipedes, 2 crustacea, 64 mollusca (88 gasteropods, 25 bivalves, and 1 polyzoon)
and 5 fishes. Of these, 15 species are in common with the formation in Jamaica. It
is to be regretted that Mr. Etheridge did not make out a specific as well as a generic
determination, as a comparison with the Dominican series would have been instructive
and interesting. He says of the “ Newer Parien” which includes the above ‘“ Caroni
Series ;” “the fossil remains of this deposit resemble those of the Falunien or Miocene
age.”

In 1866 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy published a valuable paper on the Miocene fossils of
Jamaica,* in which he describes 61 species, many of them previously unknown. My
collections show that of the 61 species, all but 4 are also found in Santo Domingo.t
Mr. Guppy acquiesces in the general results arrived at by Mr. Moore, but differs from .
his fourth proposition so far as to identify the Petaloconchus, with Lea’s species, sculp-
twratus. He says “among the new facts brought to light is the very remarkable
resemblance of a portion of the West Indian Miocene fauna to that of the Maltese
beds.” A resemblance which however had been noticed before by Moore. His most
important generalization is a provisional classification of the Caribbean Tertiaries.
“From my examination of the Jamaica fossils I am of opinion that with the middle

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXII. p. 281.

{| I have not yet found Cyclostoma bicarinata, Neritina Woodwardi, Venus Woodwardi, nor Cardium incon-

spicuum.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 99

Tertiary beds of Santo Domingo and Cuba, those of Cumana (Venezuela), and the
Caroni series in Trinidad, the Miocene of Jamaica is to be considered as representing
the upper or later part of the West Indian Miocene as at present known; while the
chert formation in Antigua, the Anguilla beds, and the beds exposed at San Fernando
in Trinidad belong to the lower or oldest part of the Miocene.” Or as tabulated by
Ktheridge* it stands thus :—

‘Middle Tertiary Series of St. Domingo )
66 66 oe

Cuba
3G ce Gh Cumana Later or Upper Miocene.
Caroni ab Trinidad
Miocene ‘ Jamaica ;

Chert formation of Antigua
Anguilla beds ee } Older or Lower Miocene.’’
San Fernando beds, Trinidad

“Not,” as Mr. Guppy observes, “that these divisions should be received as being
absolutely equivalent to the lower and upper Miocene of Europe, but merely as marking
what seems to be the relative antiquity of the Middle Tertiary or Miocenes of the
Western or Caribbean area ;” and “the connection between the formations found in
all the localities mentioned could only be shown by a general table, including all the
known species from those localities.”

The next author who wrote on the subject was Dr. Duncan, in the 21st and 22d
volume of the Geological Society’s Journal. Beyond the mere describing of species,
his results are mainly valuable in confirming the middle Tertiary age of the forma-
tion, and in corroborating the synchronism of the various deposits.

For the Geological Survey report of Jamaica (1869), Mr. Etheridge contributed
an article (Appendix V.) by far the most elaborate and valuable contribution yet
made, to our knowledge, of the subject in question. He availed himself fully of all
the information accumulated by. his predecessors, and appended a table of the dis-
tribution of all the known fossils of the Caribbean area, and their correlation with
those of Hurope. Exclusive of crustaceans, radiates, etc., this list contains the
names of 152 species of Mollusea and exhibits their geographical range and geological
position at a glance. The Santo Domingo beds have yielded us more than twice
that number, and, practically, all that have been found in Jamaica, thereby establish-
ing beyond controversy the identity of the formation in these two islands at least.
The present collections have so materially changed the correlation between the fossil
and living faunze that it is necessary to do the greater part of the work over again.
With the object of showing these relations in as intelligible a form as possible, I
have prepared the following table.

* Jamaica Report, p. 312.

100

ON THE TOPOGRAPHY

AND GEOLOGY

LIVING. LIVING.
2 E Pe g
tS) — : 2 4 :
‘3 ale 2 ia a | & &
B4|.2 | = 3 Gal 2|e B
GENERA. pale Aye . GENERA, a-8| 3 | a =
wy Bl A cS ® 7 gy | A Ss ©
Sale | & a Slee lee a
Zee eee Zo Geese,
WiACHIAL ack. core i Worries cance 1
Balantiwim, <2. caste 1 ‘ ? 1 loc. ?
Sbyliola.<.c.as02a=22|' 1 CONUS. «+++ sree eee 9) SF 2 ' 1 Miocene Europe.
Planorbellaceccnes. i> LLOMMDUS..c ste re tes 3
ATIONUA sane eae 2 | Onthvalax... enn .cree al
ANOS sve ts toSuretelcunterene)| Dolophanes........ ‘
ThoKnes Eyciavarne tots tei 16 : : 6 Z i on ‘ | f 1 Pacific. dP: ifi
Atha ee 3 | (CYprea ves e eee 3 U1 Atlantic and Pacific.
ERY PHS: <.cscrseaeicne | 2 | Pustularia. 1..2-... 1 Pacific.
USUS secniormirte te | 2 | Caneellaria......... 3 1 2
Hemifusus......... 1 | Cerithimme:... 2s. peal
Melongena......... Everywhere 1. | Cerithidea.......... 1
Mietilassc scccsten es 5. 1 MEYILOLISse. cists ate Aa Ss
Metulella............] 2 SUGUIIIMs arenciee eres 3
MULT Gran gti cesar WA GG) Modulus: <:..<4....-- 1
Glyphostoma....... 1 Turritella:.<s:. ssciss 2:| 1
Cordicraycstss.ce 2 Vermetus.......... 1
Borsoniays..cects pac 1 Petaloconchus...... 1 fossil U. 8.
Mangelia is. ae: 4 CCUG fee cfevaie asic 2
TPIHIFONUM: :ere1< ereerae iL 2 1 ONUSCUSiiece caine ic al
DIStONbION 4. ios. a oe 1 PIONS cies ereteracets 1
IB UTS Ai pepcaye tecsepo cree 1 'Crucibulum......... 1
WPINOSs meters ve suerte 3 1 Mrochitar vec. 5 ce ?
INASSATIOs/\<ce 5 | cee 1 Cytatonieeiios ee al
Ketracheliza........| 1 Capua: se, ¢ civcieet ovecs|| a
Cy clopsieteences sa 2 (UNG ribiniay ce crrserrciecet 1
CUMAS emis sepia ett 1 ; Hutropla.: 1.3.3 1
TAA a teases eye sieick- 1W. C., Africa. ATU Ove ceepaieeereaete (cigs fe al
Oliv aie .0 ote nee ail 1°? Pacific. Astralium ........... il
Plochelea ..........% 4. 1 : Cyclostrema........ 2
Fasciolaria.......... 2 (1? West Indies. || Adeorbis........... 1
NGatitUS ns ereec et 4 al Wimbonium.).. 60... 1
Murbinella. ee. wes 1b 1 Calliostoma.........| 1
WiaS times pete o.--e,gee 3 Omphalius......... 1
WASEDA. syecn eco sens 1 Margarita...........] 1
Scapha.z.....5.:.¢:. al [Gucapina: . cisjeccos.ee4 1U.5.
Lyria 1 Dentalium.........| 5
IMinGials vert veered ies 6 Gadustin ence: il
Marginella......... 2) 1 DCUPTIA: sve scien sas 1
Strombina.......... 6 INE CC Ei sae ee oe ?
assistance ae nseee: 1 IACERON =e sacs cscs t 2 1 also fossil inEng-
Cassidaria.......... 1 | Actzonidea......<..| 1 land.
Cyprecassis........ ) 4 @ylichnay. 2. . ce. 0 1
Cassideaiinicsoers ccs. 1 | Cylichnella ........ 1
MOOV Gn svete che 1 TMOmatinas as. sta’ | 1
IM ALCO secs rejsn, cvetes oes ab Molvula sea. cea 1
NICU Senter ee erorsa eek fia] ak? wlan eee 2
INFch A Ror arses ce eee 2 iNaTCEST as ec cetoroene ?
Mammilla.......... aL Kuphus:io..esereee if
TATMAUT A ss eae tied crete 1 TROCEM ALIS wa. seice teks ?
Scalartaese sete: 2 1 North America. ||Siliqua............ 1
iRereDralsce-ts aaeear. 2 BI ies ea “ Bothrocorbula...... 1 |
Obeliscusi.. of) 2. 1 1 Corbulaae cn. tsetse nites
Ringicula..:. 253% 4. Neteromya...-....- if
Turbonilla../.4....1 4 ISNiesetale eee 2
PANITICUIING oe 1 WAN OFA sos crises orcue eel,
NCHS ee eee 1 Mactrellaa. 20st se. al
MUM ae eee eee 3 Rae balveiss ees. ceetacae 1 y fi
Menestho...+...... : | =i |G@ale Ne “AY
ne he eu ery . (Relinainte oc casena eda! , 1S. A:
WopsiSt..a.s-.one fe: al | Stripillateiseacssess ce"
Architectonica......' 1 “Nei haere apenas 1

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 101

LIVING. LIVING.
Saae | [aces
ee | 8 ie | 8
GENERA. i 2 i ae ia = ! GENERA. [I 2 | 1S | eS | E
Slo ie 2 pa SB = 2
<2! nm |< is [Pal be a
IS je ls Series. lea
Pes = < a Ee a
IDX Ss Goénoboueee 1 || Lithophagus:.......| 1 1
IVIOINIGH ei ciae erasers 1 Pacific. WASvacull aici sc cisree irs ce: 1 Brazil.
Cloner. tees. ial) WANG Avay piscine se tecctlie 1Belh 1D
Wallis tajnctisa sents 2 JEACKATI ED Ae tes ssiseseiors sieilh oe 1 it |
Wanyatisiecteicsmece nc 2 EIN OPSISEs: cececseretvere||) al
Cy climayaatrieecieisiave:s 1 IN ADK DUE rereronnennpa teal lor
@arclittmle sans scacie: By [eeal WEA cco tancetiserevele
(Chamianeienccs.c as. \eaae MOL G1 aise siete ese susie! oll
IDS es canines 1|-5 1ofWi.-T. fossilains)|)|,Pecten.. 20.6055 0. 6 1 1 Europe.
MOVIPESe ccc oss nes Hf U. 8. Miocene. Alenonbe ya, eee era eae 1
IMMey Siapepsems 2 ale secyeess 2 | Pleuronectes.......... i |
lO OliE onacnnbe eee L | | SpoOndylus vase et 1} 1
Gouldiaygce: t02i8- iba Plicatula.ce ics sc.e's iL |
Crassatellav.cs. 4 ccc 1 SATO MNT AS hearers ersiseor 1
C@anclitaeisivactsecx)relencl | OStreaishe a. /ctrsie ve os 1 2
Crenellaicc. cs ien « il

It is but just to myself to add-here that all of this memo except the Paleon-
tology, was written in Santo Domingo, and that this table, the last part prepared of
all, has surprised me with the very unexpected results it offers. According to the
rule proposed by Lyell, I should pronounce the fossils Pliocene. But the presence
of several antique types among the genera disinclines me to the step. With two
hundred and.seventeen supposed extinct species and ninety-seven known to be living,
the only change that can take place in our proportion is the transfer of some of the
former to the latter category. Many of the new species are minute, and they may
yet be discovered living. Should such detailed examinations of the coast of Santo
Domingo ever be made as that in Cuba, of which we have the results in La Sagras’
fine work, doubtless many of our small fossils would be discovered. On the other
hand, students less conservative than I have endeavored to be, may find real or
fancied specific differences between the fossils and the recent species with which I
have associated them, thereby modifying the proportion in the opposite direction.
But in either case, the change cannot be a large one. We will always have about
30 to 33 per cent. of living forms. Lyell fixes from 35 to 50 per cent. as the pro-
portion of the Pliocene, and says of the standard Miocene :—that of the Loire and
Gironde contains but 17 per cent. We are therefore at or near the top of the
Miocene. J do not yet know how far a study of the fossil-radiates of the collection
would influence these results, but, numerically, they are comparatively unimportant.

I have not thought it necessary to repeat the tabulation of the distribution of

fossils among the various islands. Exeept that I would imelude nearly all the
A. P. 8.—VOL. XV. .Z

102 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

known species of Jamaica, as stated above, and a few of the later-described specics
of Trinidad, there would be nothing to_add to the table of Etheridge and Guppy.
The most striking feature of the above table is the large number of species it con-
tains which have survived from the Miocene seas, only on the west coast of the
Continent. Another feature which it does not show is that already noted by
Sowerby, of the marked Oriental type of many of the extinct species. The resem-
blance between many of them, like Metula cancellata, Onustus imperforatus, Lyria
pulchella, and others, to their congeners in the Eastern seas is at least very
suggestive.

So much has been said about the coal of Santo Domingo that it is necessary to
refer to it more explicitly than circumstances would otherwise warrant. ‘Throughout
the country, wherever the upper parts of Miocene are found, there are small beds of
an exceedingly impure lignite. It occurs in the brown shales at a number of points
along the Cibao Valley, at Garabitos near San Cristobal, and on the peninsula of
Samana and in the Mao gravel near Savaneta. In no case do the seams exceed
three or four inches, and im no case is the material more than an imperfect lignite,
earthy and crumbling readily on exposure to the air. In a country like Santo
Domingo, where the demand for fuel is so limited and the supply so extensive, a
coal must be of extraordinarily good quality to warrant mining. In that case it
might be made available for sea-going vessels or for export. It could never be
much in request for home consumption, and unless sufficiently good for export it is

necessarily valueless.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. ; 103

CHAPTER -V It.

PAO Seen OC ENE. OR C.O.A ST F.O R WA Th. ON.

A. large proportion of the coast is fringed by a formation much more modern than
the preceding, usually as a narrow strip, though in some places extending back several
leagues. West of Azua only does it run into the interior, covering in this case at
least a part, possibly the whole of the San Juan Valley, and not improbably a portion
of the valley of the lakes. This, which may be called the coast formation, consists of
limestones, the debris of old coral reefs, shore gravels brought to the coast by rivers
still existing, beds of conglomerate resulting from the solidification of the last member,
and lastly, argillaceous and sandy beds haying the same origin but owing their finer
texture to the greater distance from their primary source.

Along the whole north coast the formation is represented exclusively by the lime-
stone, usually horizontal, though occasionally having a very low seaward dip. This
inclination is most marked east of Puerto Plata, and especially about Cabarete where
reefs and shoals run out many hundreds of feet, striking parallel with the general
trend of the coast and dipping at angles often not higher than 5°, and rarely as high
as 10°. At the eastern end of Samana, at Puerto Frances, there is a little horizontal
patch raised but a few feet above the sea level and bearing the brunt of the Atlantic
waves. It is honey-combed, caverned and worn into points and pinnacles so sharp
that it is difficult to walk on the parts left bare by the waters. At one or two points
on the northern coast of the same peninsula, as for instance at point Cabron, the blue
Cretaceous limestone is broken down into angular fragments, such as would fall from
the face of a cliff, and are recemented by a stalactitic cement of this formation usually
of a pinkish color, making a pretty contrast. In the same vicinity wherever this
breccia does not occur the whole rock is more or less of the same color, although on
the southeast coast between Puerto Frances and Cape Balandra it forms bluffs inland
of a nearly pure white rock.

Beginning at the end of the hills of the central chain where they reach the east
coast, the same limestone commences again and borders the entire southeast coast of
the Island to a point between the Nigua and Nizao Rivers. Here it is so nearly
horizontal that no perceptible dip occurs. The whole mass seems to have been
elevated bodily. No foldings or even undulations can be detected. The lithological
character is also exceedingly constant. The rock is evidently the bottom of a coral
sea. It contains a few corals, almost always of the massive forms, though these are
not generally disseminated, but occur rather in spots on the sites perhaps of pieces of
ancient reef. Occasionally in these collections a branching species may be found, but

104 ON ‘THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the small solitary forms are almost unknown. Again, a mass of madrepore is some-
times seen inbedded in the matrix and isolated from all companions. But the great
bulk of the rock is a very soft light cream-colored chalky material, the comminuted
debris of coral, &c., such as is forming at the present day among the coral reefs of

e

the Bahamas and Bermudas.* The local name of this material in Santo Domingo is
“Caliche.” It has the peculiarity that it hardens on exposure to the atmosphere,
though not always to the same extent. Usually in natural exposure this -hardening
takes place to a depth of from two to four feet, though often the crust is not more
than a foot thick. ‘The indurated portion is sufficiently solid for building purposes,
although it is almost invariably penetrated in all directions by small cavities, caused
partly by the decay of the enclosed fossils. In some cases this shell is so tough that
the pick hardly makes an impression on it, and it is necessary to use powder in
quarrying it. It makes an excellent lime and is burnt in kilns of about three hun-
dred barrels capacity, the loose surface blocks being preferred for the purpose, the
softer material not having sufficient consistency for the kiln. Almost the entire city
of Santo Domingo is built of this rock, and buildings of three centuries old attest
alike the durability of both the stone and the mortar.

The soft “ caliche” hardens rapidly on exposure and although as soft as clay when
quarried makes an excellent road material. It makes a hard, smooth road, not wearing
easily into ruts, but liable to be cut by running water. Hven the harder material
soon grinds down under wheel and hoof to an uniform surface, whose only objection is
that its nearly white color is too dazzling to be pleasant to the eye, though it is not
so bad as the painfully brilliant glare of the streets of Nassau, where at mid-day
‘only strangers and dogs are to be seen in the strect.”

The origin of this rock is at least in part sufficiently obvious. The whole deposit
seems to be homogeneous. No signs of stratification or differences in degrees of
hardness being pereeptible below the above-mentioned crust. There can be no
question but what the greater part is derived from the corals and the few shells which
lived, died, and decayed on the spot. Nelson after several years of investigation in
the Bermudas, arrived at this result, attributing the origin of the Bermuda “ chalk”
entirely to this cause.t

* See Nelson, Quart. Jour. Geol. Society, Vol. IX., p. 207, 208, also Trans. Geol. Soc., Vol. 5, part 1, p.104 & 105.

+ Trans. Geol. Soc., Vol. 5, part 1, p. 114, * * *. “But from all that I have seen during different examinations of
decomposing zoophytes and shells * *.*, [ have no more hesitation in attributing the existence of the Bermuda chalk
to such a source than I have for asserting that the obvious material of the Bermuda stone is derived from. the same
origin ; with, however, this difference that in the latter instance the fragments are the result of mechanical subdivision,
while in the former the elementary particles are due to the decay by long submersion of the membranous tissue,
which pervading their whole structure, releases the constituent calcareous matter dispersed through the texture,

when it is ruined by decomposition.”’

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 105

Iam not willing to go to so great a length as that author in believing that the
decay of the animal tissues whether of corals or shells, is the principal means of their
destruction and the consequent formation of the semi-pulverulent rock derived from
them. His Bermuda “chalk” is a small local deposit compared with the greater mass
of “Bermuda Stone,” which from his description corresponds in character with the
rock making up the Bahama group and the Dominican coast limestone. Later the
same author, then Captain, now Major-General Nelson, R. E., in his memoir on the
Bahamas* suggested additional sources for the material, but he does not in my
opinion lay enough stress on what must have been the main cause, the triturating
effects of wave-action aided doubtless, but not replaced by the various means that he
suggests.

It is a misnomer to call this material “chalk.” True chalk whether derived from
the English cliffs or elsewhere, is microscopically considered composed of hollow
grains. “It is made by accumulations of Rhizopod shells, and not of coral or shell
sand.”+ The West Indian rock 7s coral and shell sand, and is composed wholly, or
nearly so of amorphous solid grains. In external characters to the naked eye it
certainly resembles some varicties of chalk. Its nearly white color, softness, absence
of “grit,” and its chemical constitution ally it closely to that mineral while its origin
and microscopic structure separate it. In view therefore of this difference and since
no name has ever been suggested to distinguish it, I suggest that of Antillite.

As intimated above the “coast limestone” (our new Antillite) was formed as a
fringing reef at a considerable distance from the then coast line. This is beautifully
illustrated on the south side of the island, but more particularly in the region lying
north and northwest of Santo Domingo City. The mouth of the Jaina River was
then at what is now the base of the higher hills at the back margin of the low-rolling
savanas. ‘his stream as well as its neighbor the Isabella now a branch of the Ozama,
brought down great quantities of gravel and even large boulders, which were of
course deposited immediately along the coast and formed a gravelly beach. The
gravel was carried out to a distance of several miles from the mouths of the rivers
and made a sea-bottom of sand with pebbles, constantly diminishing in size as the
distance from their source increased. The current evidently came from the west and
carried this debris eastward along the ancient coast, so that the deposit extends from
each old river mouth in a marked manner in that direction. The then insignificant

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. IX., pp. 208, 212. ‘This calcareous mud is derived not merely from the commi-
nution and decomposition of corallines and corals, and from the exuvice of Foraminifera, Mollusca, Echinoderms,

bP)

Crustaceans, &c., but also from the feeal ejectamenta of Echinoderms, Conchs and Coral-eating Fish (Sear/, §¢c)
+ Dana, Manual of Geol., p. 753.

A. P. §S.—VOL. XV. 2a.

106 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

stream the Nigua produced but little effect, and judging from the absence of gravel
in its vicinity must have been even more unimportant than one might have mferred.
The Nizao brought down its quota which is distributed as far east as the Miocene
hills of San Cristobal. But still more marked is the immense sheet of gravel, a
hundred feet thick, and with boulders of half a ton furnished by the Southern Yaqui,
and which covers all the plain on which Azua is built, and aided by contributions from
the Ocoa which extends eastward along the coast, almost to the Nizao. East of the
Isabella the hills suddenly retire to the northward and the larger rivers like the
Ozama and Macoris run almost entirely in the plain, so that at that period only their
upper branches existed ; streams too unimportant to produce a marked effect in the
formation or modification of the sea-bottom.

But to return to the Jaina as an exemplification of the whole. The gravels are
spread over the low-rolling hills and the plains of the Porto Rico and Sta. Rosa
savanas, every pebble telling its own story of its origin,—the beds, except in the
presence of a larger proportion of sand, being a repetition of the river bars of their
parent stream. But as the distance from the ancient coast increases the pebbles
become scarcer and smaller and the finer portions more abundant, until in the Savana
la Venta the beds are almost entirely sand and clay with a few straggling pebbles,
such as might have been transported by floating roots, &c. And here a new element
begins to come in. In the Venta the deposit begins to exhibit a distinct calcareous
character. ‘This increases, and within the distance of a mile or too the sand and clay
strata are entirely replaced by the deeper water deposit of the coral reefs. But in
going eastward it will be seen that the current carried along with it the finer particles
of the river debris and spread it like a ribbon, parallel with the old coast line, receiving
trifling contributions from the smaller streams until the supply became exhausted, and
then the coral deposits approached the coast until they came in contact east of Higuey.
It is not necessary to suppose that the limestones were deposited in very deep water,
the presence of considerable quantities of fresh water from the rivers with the accom-
panying mud would account fully for the absence of corals near the coast. Besides
the presence in two or three spots of abundance of shells of Ostrea, Lucina and of
Veneride, and the additional fact that casts of Strombus are nowhere rare, indicate
that at least a part of the rock must have been deposited in comparatively shallow
water, probably as an encircling reef similar to those existing around the eastern end
of the present island and elsewhere. Liyell* devotes several pages to the discussion
of the theory of coral reefs and atolls, and quotes the objection of Mr. Maclaren
that no reefs have ever been elevated above the surface of the sea. That gentleman

* Principles of Geology, 9th Ed.,- p. 798, e¢ seq.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 107

says: ‘“ Nor in the West Indies, nor in any other region yet explored, has a bed or
formation of coral even five hundred feet thick been discovered so far as we know.”
Although the coast limestone of Santo Domingo does not reach even half the specified
thickness, it is not. less a refutation of the objection and a proof of Darwin’s theory
of barrier reefs.

The change from gravel through sand and clay beds to this chalky rock in the
Jaina country is repeated in all of its details in the vicinity of Azua. The gravels
of the Southern Yaqui form high hills at las Lagunas on the Constanza trail above
the mouth of the Rio de las Cuevas, spread over the plain and extend eastward to the
Ocoa River. But as soon as a sufficient distance from the old shore was attained, to
allow the current to carry off the mud and fresh water to the eastward, the barrier
reef rose to the surface, and its remains exist as a horizontal structure of white
earthy limestone, almost entirely non-fossiliferous, and hardening, on exposure to the
air, to a rock which breaks with a conchoidal fracture. In this condition it forms the
great southern peninsula and the little neighboring Island of Beata.

The little Peninsula of Samana is a complete epitome of the geology of the who!e
island. Hxcept the syenitic intrusions it exhibits every phenomenon discovered and
every formation that exists on the main land.

The same change from gravel to limestone described above occurs on the southern
coast from the vicinity of Santa Barbara to the eastward. About the port of Santa
Barbara, and especially for a mile or two west the coast hill and the little islands
adjoining, are made up of horizontal beds of a coarse gravel with pebbles and even
boulders of the metamorphic rocks of the interior. In fact these beds are a perfect
index to the geology of the Peninsula. The gravel deposit extends but a mile cr
two east and west, and penetrates inland to a very inconsiderable distance. But, as
has been before stated at Puerto Frances, we again find the coast limestone.

The coast formation, although it covers such a wide area equal to if not greater
than the underlying Miocene, is nowhere very thick. From the fact that it is every-
where horizontal, if is somewhat difficult to arrive at an accurate estimate of its
thickness. Nowhere along the coast is its base visible, and a vertical measurement
inland must necessarily be unfair since it must be made on the thinning out shore-
margins of the deposit. Even where it is most elevated above the sea-level a fair
measurement cannot be obtained for this reason. At Santo Domingo City the bluff is
about 40 feet high, and the wells in the city average 50 feet deep. They consequently
reach the level of the sea but do not reach the base of the formation. Further back
where the surface rises in a series of terraces, the wells still reach the same level
before yielding water, but in no case is the underlying rock reached. My well two

108 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

miles northwest of the city, has a depth of 158 feet, and one on the farm of President
Baez, distant perhaps a fourth of a mile is a dozen feet deeper, a difference due to

undulations in the surface of the ground. Near the mouth of the Rio de las Cuevas

7

northwest of Azua, where the gravel is seen lying on the upturned edges of the
Cretaceous shales, clean sections of about one hundred feet can be seen; and in
Samana the gravel hills are all of two hundred feet high. It may therefore be safely
assumed that an average thickness for the whole deposit is not far from two hundred
feet, and in the limestone it may be even greater.

The peculiarity exhibited by all of the wells in the coast limestone that at what-
ever elevation begun or wherever placed with reference to the coast, their bottoms
must always reach approximately the same level before reaching water, recalls forcibly
a similar circumstance noted by Nelson in the Bermudas and Bahamas in the same
formation.* That author explains that in those islands the calcareous rock is per-
meated by sea water, and that the surface waters float above the dense salt water,
which is distinctly affected by the tides. In Santo Domingo although the wells all
reach tide level, it does not appear that the sea water penetrates to any distance
inland, and although the wells nearest the coast are usually more or less brackish, it
seems that the sea acts only as a dam preventing the complete drainage which takes
place at higher levels. It is at least certain that the tides do not affect the wells
here, and even that at the house of General Cazneau, within a hundred yards of the
sea, shows no signs of their influence.

Almost wherever it occurs the coast limestone is covered by a peculiar red soil,
neither very deep nor remarkably fertile though aided by the moisture of the trade
winds and the constant warmth of the tropics, it supports a dense forest vegetation.
This is without doubt derived from the underlying rocks and is clearly the result of
their decomposition. No further proof of this proposition is required than the fact
that at least in the Provinces of Santo Domingo and Seybo, that is to say, on the
whole south coast east of the Nizao River, the red soil and the limestone are exactly
coextensive. [dwell on this fact because Nelson notices the existence of a “red
earth ” in the Bermudas, as making the ordinary soil of the islands,f and again in
his account of the Bahamas not only refers to it, but advances the theory that it
originates as a sort of guano.f I infer from the remark quoted in the subjoined note

* Trans. Geol. Soc., Vol. 5, p. 120, and Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. IX., p. 205.

+ Loe cit., p. 105 and Bahama Memoir, p. 208.

} In speaking of a ‘“‘red earth”’ from a cave in the Bahamas, on microscopic examination it ‘appeared as a mass
of insect remains, the rejectamenta of bats living in these caverns. Specimens of the earth from another part of the
same cave, however, were so much altered in character that they resembled the Bermuda ‘red earth,’ and afforded a
complete clue to the characters of this substance.”’

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 109

chat the author considers all of the red soil of the Bermudas, the “ five strata of Ireland ”
island in the Bahamas, equally with this cave-soil, to be a guano deposit. If these
“earths” are similar to the red earth of the Dominican coast limestones his theory
is certainly false.

In Trinidad the “ Newer Parian” rocks, the “Nariva Series,” probably the
equivalent more or less of the formation under consideration, are said to be ‘“ com-
posed of stiff ferruginous clays with occasional limestones, constituting an undulating,
almost even surface, and affording soils of a more or less red color.”* In Jamaica
the ‘‘ white limestone ” yields a soil identical with the Dominican, and the description
given by the colonial geologist would apply equally well to this island,t except that
the “honey-combed” character is not so marked here as the description would seem
to imply in Jamaica. In Santo Domingo there are large tracts where not a single
stone is visible through the soil, and again there are regions where the ‘soil only fills a
few crevices among the projecting points and ridges of the underlying limestone.

The underlying rock and consequent soil produce a marked effect on the vegeta-
tion.{ This is further modified by the access or deficiency of moisture in the air, so
as to produce a difference between the rainy and the nearly rainless ends of the Island.
But where the amount of moisture is the same on the plains of Seybo, for instance,
the limestone of the coast carries dense forests of tall trees with tangled undergrowths
of bushes and vines, while the sands and gravels nearer the hills are clothed only
with grass.

There can be but little doubt as to the geological age of the coast formation. It
lies unconformably on the Miocene and consequently must be either Pliocene or later.
Its fossils are in a miserable state of preservation, but a single locality yielding
mollusca in a recognizable state. In some localities internal casts are not rare, but
while a few can be detected like the Lucinas by their well known form, or like the
giant Strombus by their size, the majority are entirely unrecognizable. Their only
value is to prove that many species existed, all identifiable traces of which are now

lost. :

* Trinidad Report, p. 74.

+ Jamaica Report, p. 22. ‘The white limestone formation seems to originate two descriptions of alluvia—one
white, resembling a chalky marl; the other red, free from carbonate of lime, the color being due to oxide of iron
combined with the arzillaceous residue of the pre-existing limestone. This formation seems particularly susceptible
of disintegration and removal, which is due to the solvent action of the rain-water under the high temperature of
this climate, and being probably also charged with free carbonic acid. The surface of the rock is thus worn into
holes which become larger with each successive shower, resulting in the well-known ‘honey-combed’ appearance
which renders the rock so difficult to traverse.’? ‘‘The red variety of soil is so distinctive as to have originated the
appellation for the surface in several localities, as the ‘Red Hills’ in St. Andrew’s, &e.”’

}{ See a note by myself, Amer. Jour. of Science, 1871, p. 127.

NPs V Oly Xavi

110 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Between the Nigua and Nizao where the Azua gravel shades into the calcareous
beds, there is a small deposit of a recent Oyster, and near Macoris at the mouth of
the river of the same name, Mr. Bonaczy collected a series of thirty-three species of
mollusca, besides corals and echinoderms. A list of these fossils is appended.

Tuse Lyell’s names for the divisions of the Tertiary as has been already very
aptly said by Mr. Guppy, not as implying that the various formations are exactly
synchronous with the Miocene, Pliocene, or Post Pliocene of Europe, or even of the
United States, but that they bear a relation among themselves similar to that borne
by those divisions in Europe and North America, and that they approximate more or
less nearly to those divisions in point of time.

The coast formation of Santo Domingo is extensively represented in most if not
all of the other West Indian Islands. In Jamaica as the “white limestone ” it
“covers more than three-fourths of the island, and may be computed at 2,000 feet in
thickness.””*

It was at first considered by Mr. Sawkins as Miocene, but in the section at the
end of the book it is put down as Post Pliocene.t It makes all of the Bahamas as
well as the Bermudas. It exists in Trinidad as the “ upper part of the Newer Parian
series,” covering (if we include under this title only the “ Moruga series”) about a
fourth of the island. But the colonial geologists do not seem to be very certain
whether “the different series of the Newer Parian,” “ were deposited each during a
special epoch” or whether two or more members were not being “ deposited in distinct
localities at the same period.”{ In the latter case a much larger area is occupied by
the formation. Schomburgk devotes a dozen pages to a description of this formation
in Barbadoes,§ whence from amidst some remarkable theories, we can gather that
about six-sevenths of the area of that island is covered by it. Wehave no geological
accounts of the other islands except Antigua, and my own experience is not very
extensive. I have seen no recent formation on St. Thomas, although I only know
the immediate vicinity of the port. It is probable that the rock “containing Nerineas,
&e.” (Cretaceous?) at or near the east end is the most modern deposit. Doubtless
between St. Thomas and Trinidad there is much coral rock, the more especially since
we know the great part that the late Tertiaries play in the latter island and in
Barbadoes. Dr. Nugent|] published an account of Antigua which is quoted by Dr.
Duncan.4| From the description given of the “marl” and from Dr. Duncan’s tables
of the fossils of the different beds,** it seems probable that this marl be!ong's to the

* Jamaica Report, p. 307. + Loe cit., pp. 23 and 341. t+ Trinidad Report, p. 59.
§$ Hist. of Barbadoes, p. 534, et seq. | Trans. Geol. Soe. Lond., 1st Ser., Vol. 5, p. 459.

*| Quart. Jour. Geol. Soe., Vol. XTX., p. 408, et seg. ** Loe cit., pp. 410 and 411.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 111

group in question. A strong argument against this opinion is that, although but one
of the included corals is common to this and the underlying chert beds, “in Antigua
there is not one West Indian recent species.”* Dr. Duncan considers the entire
fossiliferous deposit of Antigua, Miocene.t By a series of careful cross-questioning
of non-scientific persons who are familiar with Porto Rico, and from some few
observations which I have been enabled to make, I have reason to believe that a large
part of that island is Post Pliocene, and I have observed extensive bluffs on the east
end of the Island of Cuba, especially on the south coast identical in appearance with
the blufts about Santo Domingo City. A large part of the Peninsula of Florida is
known to be of very recent origin, and the meagre accounts we possess of Yucatan
with its level plains of limestone rock seem to point to a similarity with parts of
Jamaica and Santo Domingo.

Parts of the south coast of Santo Domingo east of the Jaina, and more especially
the extreme southeast corner, exhibit proofs of irregularity in the process of upheaval
in a series of well-marked terraces. At Santo Domingo City the terraces acquire a
total height of about one hundred and fifty feet, one traversing the suburbs in the
village of San Carlos, the other lying just back of the town. Looking eastward
from the city one terrace can be distinctly seen running along the coast. This
extends uninterruptedly to the Quiabon River, beyond which are three terraces, one
behind the other on the broad little peninsula which runs down towards Saona Island.
A similar terracing of the surface is noted by Schomburgk in Barbados,{ which
doubtless took place at the same time; and the geologists of Trinidad§ note com-
paratively recent raised beaches and other proofs that the elevating action is still
going on. <A geologist cannot sail among the little islands of the Bahaman group,
without being forcibly struck by the idea that these islets are the remains of much
larger bodies of land, which once probably covered a large part of the “banks,” and
that they have been separated and wasted away by the lateral encroachments of the
waves. ‘There is no evident reason for the theory that has been advanced, that they
are the remaining hill-tops of a sinking land. Their horizontal stratification, their
flat surfaces, their precipitous coast bluffs and the extreme shallowness of the water
between many of them all point to a broad, gentle upheaval and wave-action as the
principal agencies which have been at work among them. .

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., loc cit., p. 454. + Same paragraph.

+ Hist. of Barbadoes, p. 554, ef seq. § Report, p. 66.

112 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

PARTI,

LOCAL GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER VILL.

GEOLOGY OF THE CENTRAL MOUNTAIN CHAIN.

It is hardly necessary to say anything more about the physical features of, the
great central chain. A reference to the first chapter, aided by the map, will give the
reader all the details necessary to a clear understanding of the following description
of its geology. Covering a length of at least 200 miles, with an average width of
not less than 30 miles, its area may be roughly estimated at a little over 6,000 square
miles, or practically a third of the Republic. Including the spurs running down
towards the coast near Bani, the actual area is really greater than the above estimate,
which is near enough, however, for all practical purposes.

The chain is composed of a central core of eruptive rocks, which have upheaved
and contorted the sedimentary strata overlying and flanking it. ‘This core does not
extend the entire length of the chain, but begins near the middle as a great, irregu-
larly-shaped mass lying obliquely across the axis of the range. Its eastern end
is abruptly cut off in the region of the Jaina River, but to the west it stretches out
in a series of parallel ribbons at least to, and perhaps beyond, the borders of the
Republic. Overlying this rock, pushed up, folded and broken by it, is the great
series of slates, conglomerates and limestones belonging to the Cretaceous formation.
These cover the greater part of the area, not only of the mountain mass, but of
the Island, and are the oldest formation yet discovered within its limits.

The foldings of the Cretaceous beds and the lines of exposure of the eruptive rocks
correspond almost exactly with the trend of the chain. This is not exactly the same
throughout, although the amount of variation from a straight line is very little, and
the average direction is about N. 70° W. It is worthy of remark that the eastern
half of the range, or that part east of the intrusive rocks, is nearly due east and west,
while the remaiming portion turns up quite abruptly to the northwest from Mount
Vanilejo. This eastern half is much less disturbed; the foldings are not so compli-
cated nor numerous, the absolute elevation is much less, and the upheaving force was

evidently expended, in great part, towards the centre of the Island; the portions

OF SANTO DOMINGO, 113

towards Seybo and Samana Bay being lifted hardly a fourth as high as those at the
head of the Yaqui River and its upper branches.

Both this chain and the smaller one of Samana furnish us with excellent keys to
the dates of their upheaval ; Samana being simply a repetition on a small scale, as has
already been said, of the larger Island. Santo Domingo probably first made its
appearance above the water either during the era of the white chalk of Europe, the
green sand beds of New Jersey, or in the Eocene period. It then consisted of this
central chain, probably extending out to the whole length of the present northern
peninsula of Hayti, accompanied by a group of smaller islands forming the southern
Haytien peninsula and possibly some of the other high lands of that region. To the
northeast lay Samana, a long low rocky islet, but slightly elevated above the sea, and
to the south of it, a little archipelago, which now constitutes the hills of Seybo.
During the Miocene period these islands were fringed with coral reefs, the fragmen-
tary remains of which still exist as patches of limestone, lying now as horizontally.
as when they were deposited on the upturned edges of the Cretaceous slates. The
elevating force had not ceased to act, and at the end of the Miocene, after having
been probably sueceeded by a period of subsidence during that era, it was resumed
and has lifted the latter formation horizontally 200 feet in the middle of the Santiago
Valley, about 300 to 400 in the hills south of Samana Bay, and still higher in the
foot hills of the range at Cevico and west of the Upper Yaqui. In the latter case
the sandstone beds of the Miocene are highly uptilted. But these upheaving forces,
while they acted so gently on this occasion at Samana, in the main range and in the
adjoining Valley of Santiago, were much more violent a little further north, and
pushed up the formation along a line an hundred miles long, in some cases to a
height of 3000 feet or more, making the Monte Cristi chain where, until the end of
the Miocene, had been a level sea-bottom covered with white calcareous mud.

The Pico del Yaqui, more commonly called El Rucillo by the people living near
its base, is at the same time one of the highest, if not the highest point on the Island,
one of the most central and an excellent starting point for our detailed description of
geological features of the range. As stated in a previous chapter, its height is per-
haps a little over 9000 feet. It is a sharp ridge, very narrow, but about a mile long,
a broad rounded curve, with a little sharp peak at its eastern end, lower than the top
of the curve. From the eastern end a long ridge runs to the eastward continuing
the water-shed and separating the waters which ran north from those which empty
into the Neybo River. From the same point a long spur runs out to the north, on
both sides of which rise streams which unite to form the longest branch of the Yaqui

A. PB) S.—VOLa xv. 20.

114 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

tiver. These streams, mountain torrents, roll and tumble over boulders, some of
immense size and continue their course receiving numerous tributaries until, half a
dozen miles below Jarabacoa, after receiving the Jimenoa, the Yaqui seems fully as
large as it is at Santiago. The trip from the valley to the mountain is one well worth
taking, giving one a new set of experiences, hardly to be obtained in any other part
of the Island so easily, if at all. I started in June, 1870, accompanied by several
persons, and eventually added guides and porters until we numbered, myself and
eight others—servants and employees. We started from the house of Col. Jose
Antonio Placencio, at Tabera on the Yaqui, a pretty spot, shut in among the hills, at
the foot of a high ridge; almost at the southern border of the Miocene rocks. The
road commences to ascend the ridge within a few hundred yards of the house and
almost immediately entered into a region of metamorphosed Cretaceous slate standing
almost vertically. A climb of a mile, varied with an occasional descent, took us to
the summit of the ridge, along which we rode, through an almost unbroken forest of
large trees, past a settlement consisting of two or three houses in an opening, called
Aguacate, thence we descended to a pretty little mountain valley in a bend of the
Yaqui, called Humunucu, where a half dozen families live comfortably raising a few
pigs and cows and cultivating a little tobacco. | Up to this point the slates had con-
tinued, sometimes magnesian, a little micaceous, but more usually jaspery; but they
now gave place to syenite, and in the crossing of a rivulet in the valley, I detected
the first crystallic rock, very much decomposed by exposure, but unmistakeable. As
is everywhere else the case, the slates, near the crystalline rocks were rich in quartz
veins, and Placencio informed me that women collect a little gold occasionally in the
streams. From Humunucu, we climbed another high ridge called the Loma de los
Caracoles, or Snail Hill, and descended a very steep trail again to the cation of the
river. On the south face of the hill, I found outside of the trail a mineral of rare
occurrence in Santo Domingo—a little concretionary mass, the size of a double fist,
of iron pyrites, bright and crystalline on fresh fracture, but so oxydized on the sur-
face as to have lost all structure and to appear a mere lump of iron rust. From
Humunucu, the entire region is a mass of syenite, all stratified rocks being left
behind. On reaching the caiion we found a little flat of less than a hundred acres
through which the river runs, here a brawling stream, a dozen yards wide, tearing its
way over and among gray boulders or spreading out in sandy pools, but always in a
hurry, always running with a rapid current.
This little valley retains the Indian name of Mana-bao* and is inhabited by two

* These two syllables are frequently repeated in Santo Domingo, and as well as I can recall, always in connection
with streams—thus, Mana-guallata and Mana-Matuey, near Santo Domingo, and Bao or Ci-bao, the river from

which the valley and range seem to haye taken their name.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 115

or three families, the last settlement back in the mountains. ‘These people, like most
of the others of this region, raise a little tobacco, which they press into cylinders
three or four feet long and a little over an inch thick, rolled in a palm leaf and known
as “ Andullo.” It is made by winding the tobacco, after being enveloped in a, palm
leaf, with a cord, which is taken off every day or two and wound tighter, until eventu-
ally the mass becomes as solid as the pressed tobacco of the American manufacturers.
These andullos are sold at an average price of a dollar a-piece and two or three car-
goes of forty andullos make a good crop, and supply the family with the greater part
if not all the money with which to buy clothing, and such other outside necessaries
as can only be obtained with cash. In addition to their tobacco, they sometimes
manage to eke out a little by the sale of the dried meat of the wild pigs and beef cattle
which roam everywhere in the less frequented mountain forests. At Manabao there
are two small sulphur springs, the water running out of a little rock bluff, in the flat
close to the river. It is not strongly tinged with sulphureted hydrogen and is
slightly tepid, hardly blood-warm. Coming out of the syenite, and being the only
warm or sulphur springs in the country, it is doubtless due to some purely local
cause, probably the decomposition of a deposit of pyrites, similar to the piece found
on the opposite hill. Obtaining guides and additional servants, making eight in all,
and leaving our horses, we left Manabao on foot, and after following the river-bottom
for half a mile, through a piece of nearly flat land, covered with large trees and with
but little undergrowth, we climbed over a spur of hill covered with a mixed growth
of palm and pine and carpeted with long grass, and pine leaves, among which grew
many bushes and plants new to us, never to be seen out in the lower lands; and most
unexpected of all, an abundance of an old friend from home, blackberry bushes, with a
few ripe berries. The plant is so little known, growing as it does only in the high
mountains, that the people did not know that the fruit was eatable, and were not sufli-
ciently reassured by my actions to join me in my unexpected feast. On descending
from this hill, we entered a much larger valley than the preceding, the greater part
occupied by a marsh, covered with grass, but so soft that a man can hardly cross it.

A large band of cattle was browsing in the valley, but when they saw our pafty,
tossing their heads and switching their tails as only wild cattle can, they started off
bellowing with alarm and plunged across the marsh, belly deep in mud and water.
We camped aside of the river, @short distance below the “Cienega,” as the marsh is
called; and hanging our hammocks between the trees we managed, by dint of several
“smudge” fires to get the better of the musquitoes and sleep comfortably. Next

morning we resumed our march, following up the river as far as the width of the

116 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

cation would permit, climbing over boulders and fallen pine trees, until we were forced
to take the hill-side. By this time we were so high as to be on the margin of the
pine woods, but weil into an undergrowth of tall fern. This plant is so tangled that
the trail must be cut, every foot of the way with “machetes.” Sometimes the whole
party would climb over the top of it, bearing it down by main force; oftener we had
to crawl under it, through tunnels cut by the big “machetes ” or wood-knives of the
servants, and whenever we could we gladly availed ourselves of the fallen trunk of a
dead tree, crawling along it like a troop of monkeys, hands and feet alike doing duty.
The march was doubly toilsome because we all carried loads. Myself with a bag
and hammer, and worse than all a mountain barometer, that had to be guarded against
blows, and all of the others loaded down with hammocks, blankets, provisions, ete.,
we learned, if never before, why the Romans called baggage “ ¢mpedimenta.” On
leaving the river we, left all running water behind and when our canteens were ex-
hausted, were fortunate in finding on top of the ridge, in every sheltered place, a little
clump of trees. On most of them were numerous orchids, and in the caps, formed _
by their leaves, which envelope like those of a pine apple, we found a small quantity,
from a half ounce to an ounce, of dirty water. But old travellers are not fastidious
and we escaped serious thirst. Late in the afternoon it became evident that we
would not reach the summit that day, though the clouds that enveloped us would not
permit us to see how far we were from our destination. It was decided however to
stop where a clump of small pine trees offered the means of making a partial shelter
from threatened rain. Our shed was hardly completed and covered with water-proof
clothes and overcoat before a heavy shower came up. A palm leaf that had served
as wrapper for our cassara bread, was hastily made into a receptable for water, and
by industriously collecting from all the drips with coffee-pot and tin-cups, we accu-
mulated more water than we needed for night and next morning. Just before night
the clouds broke and there stood the grand old peak of the “* Rucilio”—the silvery
headed—directly in front of us, but at least four thousand feet higher. It was all of
a hard day’s climb off yet, judging from our experience; my men, discouraged by
the hard. labor and dreading thirst from the certain absence of water higher up, were
grumbling, ready to mutiny, and I was forced to admit that if I went, it would prob-
ably have to be alone. I was therefore obliged reluctantly to announce that next day
we would turn back. At 6 p.m. the barometer read 24.542, with the attached ther-
mometer at 60.5 and the detached 61, and before morning we had the unwonted
temperature of 47° on the night of June Ist. The night before, at the Cienega, the
barometer had_recorded 26.758, with both thermometers at 71, showing that we had,
in a whole day, climbed only a trifle over 2,000 feet, besides crawling a couple of

OF SANTO DOMINGO. at Wg

miles along the top of a ridge, a distance that should have been made in three hours
easily in reasonably open ground.

Throughout the entire distance from Humunucu, the rock is a gray syenite, so
uniform in character and appearance that one hard specimen would almost seem as a
sample of the whole. It is usually of a light color, moderately coarse grain and with
the hornblende in small crystals. No mica was noticed anywhere. I have been
thus detailed in the “personal narrative” of this particular journey for the purpose
of conveying a clearer idea of the character of the higher interior mountains of the
Island, and to show that mountaineering in Santo Domingo, though not dangerous,
is quite as difficult as climbing over snow fields.

From Humunucu, a trail crosses a comparatively low ridge, also in the same
syenite throughout, and strikes the Yaqui again, just opposite Jarabacoa.

Returning again to Tabera, whence we started, we find the highly uptilted sierra
slates are overlaid by dark gray sandstones, with occasional pebble beds belonging
to the extreme base of the Miocene. This Miocene, though much disturbed, is
decidedly unconformable with the underlying Cretaceous. They are slightly meta-
morphosed so far as to show signs of alteration, but not sufficiently to lose their
sandy structure. The most. marked effect of the metamorphic action is visible in
their stratification. The river bluffs are here very high and abrupt, and one section,
about half a mile from the house of Col. Placencio, shows an amount of contortion
nowhere else observed in the Dominican Tertiary. The alteration of the sand and
pebble-beds is visible along the same line of strike for a distance of three or four
miles to the westward, and the strata, which usually dip at high angles to the north,
vary in their strike all of the way from N. 80° W. to N. 20° W., the former being
about the normal direction. These are the “secondary rocks (perhaps of the Car-
boniferous system), which consist of dark sandstone flags, alternating with black
bituminous shales in narrow seams, dip N.N.E. < 33°.”* The rock is usually a dark
gray sandstone, and where the southern road from Santiago to San Jose de las Matas
crosses the Bao River, it is a conglomerate of the same. color, with a calcareous
cement, and dips as high as 50°. From the top of the hill west of the Bao, the
succession of strata can be seen almost uninterruptedly to the steep bluffs on the
Yaqui at Angostura. The dip gradually becomes lower, until at the latter place it
is nearly horizontal, varying from 5° to 10° from north to south along the extent of
the exposure, and at Santiago, still farther north, is reversed, dipping at a low ang'e
to the south.

* Heneken, Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc., vol. Xx. p. 12°.

A. P. 8.—VOL. XV. 2D.

118 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

From the west end of the ridge of the Rucillo, there starts out a spur as heavy
as the parent mountain. Ata distance of about ten miles from the main chain it
culminates in a noble peak, Loma Joca, called on Schomburgk’s map “'The Peak.”
This mountain sends out a radiating series of ridges which extend far out towards
the valley, and give rise to most of the branches of the Bao River, the principal of
which are the Guanajuma,* the Baguati, or Boguaci, and the Jagua. Like the main
ridge, all of the region of Loma Joca is syenitic, the rock extending on the Baguati
to within a dozen miles of its confluence with the Jagua. At this point on the
former stream Mr. Speare collected a peculiar coarse-grained dark-colored syenite,
with small scales of a shining mineral which seems to be mica. Almost immediately
north of this spot, the Cretaceous beds appear as dark-colored heavy-bedded clay
shales. On the same line of strike on the Jagua, about ten miles from its mouth,
the rock is somewhat calcareous, and varies in color from gray to greenish, while
nearly in the same line, perhaps a little further north on the Bao, the shale is black
and earthy, alternating with beds of lighter color, and although not specially cal-
careous, containing streams of calc-spar. The amount of disturbance to which the
rocks of this vicinity have been subjected is so great, that while a general tendency
to a nearly east and west strike can be made out, the dip is practically vertical.
Occasionally a lower incline may be observed, but it is extremely local, and it is as
often in one direction as another.

Approaching San Jose de las Matas, the rock changes its character to a gravelly
sandstone, often full of pebbles, and occasionally giving way to distinct beds of
conglomerate. Here almost all the beds are more or less red, stained by oxide of
iron; the soil is a loose red gravel, unusually barren, and the surface is clothed with
grass and occasionally a patch of pine forest, interspersed with the “ guano” palm, a
slender litile fan-palm, growing twenty feet high. The barren soil, with its consequent
pine and palm-growth, seems to follow closely the metamorphic slates, from San
Jose to the west. Its barrenness is due in part to the scarcity of rain. In the
western part of the valley showers are rare, and when they do fall are Jess violent
than in its eastern end. South of San Jose the country, as far as we penetrated, was
made up of slates—red, brown, black—vertical or dipping slightly to either side of
the perpendicular. In the side of the hill below San Jose, there is a cliff of dark
reddish-brown sandy shale standing almost vertically, and with broad surfaces
cleared clean in the line of stratification. The town itself is very peculiarly and
beautifully situated. It occupies a little basin, nearly level, surrounded by rolling

* This must not be confounded with the Guanajuma which rises in the Pico Rubio and empties into the Amina.

Much confusion arises from the constant repetition of local names.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 119

hills, but perched on the summit of a ridge which, like all the others in the vicinity,
is usually very narrow. The traveller, approaching it from either side, rides along
miles of mountain crests, generally surrounded by forest, but with little occasional
glimpses of deep cafions on either side; the black sierra to the south, a labyrinth of
peaks piled one above the other, and on the north the broad expanse of the Yaqui
Valley, not even shut off by the Samba Hills, which, too low to impede the view, lie
stretched along in the middle-ground of the picture. If approaching from the east,
the scene gradually changes to open grassy hills, with one ridge beyond another,
over which the red line of the road can be seen winding like a ribbon over the green
surface. Suddenly he finds himself in full view of the village, hardly a quarter of a
mile distant—a city set upon a hill, and yet completely hidden. Almost adjoining
the town is a branch of the Amina River, its cation three or four hundred feet deep,
and so narrow that a man can be heard distinctly calling across from hill to hill. A
trail winds down the hill-side, disclosing at the bottom a pretty little stream of
twenty feet across, of clear, cold mountain water. ‘The pebbles in its bed show only
slates; but in the main Amina, pebbles and boulders of syenite predominate. At
Los Corales, southwest of San Jose, there is much slate, here altered to a coarse,
semi-jaspery structure. From San Jose a but little-used trail crosses the mountains
by a pass at the head of the Bao River. No member of the survey has been across
this route, although I once attempted it. From the stories of copper mines near the
summit of the mountains, it is probable that a tongue of the sedimentary rock extends
eastward that far, or possibly the southern border of the eruptive mass may here bend
to the north. The former is the more probable hypothesis. The tradition exists
that nearly half a century ago, when the country was subject to Haytien rule, a
party of Haytiens spent a number of months at the head of the river working a
copper-mine. A fatal epidemic breaking out among them they abandoned the spot
for a time, and before they were able to resume operations political changes, or some
other insuperable obstacle, interposed and prevented them. A few old men still
remain who, as boys, accompanied the party, and from one of these I obtained the
story.

From San Jose north, the trail crosses the Amina, and then winds along the
summit and side of a long ridge west of the river to its end, descending at Bohio
Viego to the Guanajuma, where it strikes the Camino Real or main road. Along
this route, the gravelly beds of San Jose very soon give place to shale of a more or
less magnesian or taleose character. The soil is usually red, and the surface is
covered with heavy pine timber, with no undergrowth except grass. In one place

the shale is white, though usually it is stamed by oxide of iron. A little gray sand-

12) ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

stone was found interstratified with the talcose slate, and occasional quartz veins are
to be seen; but nowhere does this quartz carry gold. A little north of San Jose, a
perceptible northern dip occurs, after which the rocks again become vertical; but at
Bohio Viego, where I had a good opportunity for measurement, [ found a due E.
and W. strike, with a dip to the S. of from 65° to 70°. At this point the margin of
the Miocene covers up the older formation, and it does not reappear.

At the crossing of the Amina and again on the hill side, two miles west of San
Jose, there is an exposure of a dark bluish-gray limestone, so little altered that on
the hill I found a very faint trace of a coral on a weathered surface. This is the only
case where fossils of any kind have been found in the formation on the north side of
the island. The beds are not very thick, and dip into the hill in such a manner that
the angle could not be determined with any degree of accuracy, but so far as I could
determine, they have a strong northern dip. These limestones are intimately as-
sociated with and overlie the conglomerate beds found east of San Jose, and which
are again repeated on the next ridge west, there dipping at comparatively low angles
northwards.

The road from San Jose to Magua runs west until it crosses the Guanajuma, after
which it mounts a ridge, and follows its summit southwest to the arroyo Magua.
Here for the first time it enters the eruptive rocks. One dyke, or perhaps it should
rather be called a streak in the mass, which extends from this point west to beyond
the Jicome Creck, being encountered at several points along the line, is characterized
by rather large crystals of feldspar, having a peculiar greenish tinge, and by the
presence of small quantities of mica. At the crossing of the Magua, there were also
found other syenites differing from this, the most marked being a white variety, with
slender crystals of hornblende sometimes two inches long. This intrusive mass,
which may be called the first or outer belt, is not wide on the Magua, but widens out
and extends as an irregular strip to beyond Savaneta, disappearing under the Tertiary
gravels.

Southwest of the little settlement at the crossing of the Magua, there is a road
across the hills to Dajao, following which we find ourselves very soon on sedimentary
rocks again. Here, at the “ Loma de los Minas,” is a well-marked synclinal axis.
The above-mentioned dyke has formed an anticlinal, and another belt, No. 2, crossing
south of Dajao, forming another, the country between the two is bent into a basin,
The dip on this hill is at high angles to the south, and the most common rock is the
same limestone as that just described as being found on and west of the Amina. It
is all more or less gray ; some is identical with that from the Amina, some is earthy,

with white streaks of cale spar. Under the limestone is a peculiar-looking brown

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 121

rock, apparently a conglomerate, but so far altered that the pebbles have lost their
individuality, and seem to be fused into the mass. Further to the south is a belt of
earthy, semi-talcose slates, rarely silicious, and lithologically identical with those
found at Guaraguano, in both cases overlying the limestones. In these slates, as at
that locality, quartz veins are abundant, and occasional copper stains are apt to
mislead the ignorant into the fallacious belief that the metal may be found. It was
probably this that caused the execution of some old mining work on this hill, the
history of which is now forgotten in the vicinity; or the mine might have been
worked for gold-quartz. - The excavation is eighty feet long and about thirty feet
deep; the width is from three to five feet, and a number of small pillars left standing
have served to keep the walls perfectly apart. No definite vein structure could be
detected either in the “ country rock ” or even in the pillars. We descended to the
bottom of the work by means of the long cable-like roots of the Higuey trees grow-
ing on the rocks, but failed to discover any trace of metal.

The Magua drains the whole east side of the ridge of the Pico del Gallo, receiving
the waters of the arroyo del Gallo, the stream which runs down from the peak itself.
At the point where this creek empties into the Magua we find the dividing-line between
the southern edge of the second belt, to be described further on, and the sedimen-
tary rocks which form the whole mass of the peak. In reality, the mountain owes
its prominence to the fact of its being the entire thickness of the Cretaceous system,
pushed up bodily by the syenitic rocks which reach the surface in broad belts both
north and south of it. Just at the mouth of the creek we found a light-colored
syenite, with small slender crystals of hornblende and large white crystals of feldspar,
and almost in direct contact, south of this, we encountered the Cretaceous beds
changed to a soft brown mica slate, and a little further on, where the action had
not been so marked, they were a greenish slate, which, according to my notes, was
“seemingly micaceous.”

Still further south, along the Magua, on the third and last belt encountered, and
which crosses the spur of Pico Gallo between the peak and the main ridge, there is
a great variety of rocks all occurring in the same mass, often haying a considerable
longitudinal extension ; that is to say, in an east and west direction, but very limited
in a direction across that of the dyke. A marked illustration of this occurs in
the rock with greenish feldspar at the crossing of the Magua. Although the whole
syenitic mass of this belt appears to have originated in one intrusion this particular
strip can be traced from an unknown distance east of the river to beyond the Jicome.
So, in the present case, a specimen of a white laminated, gneissoid rock, containing a

little black mica arranged in layers, brought me by Mr. Speare from southeast of
Neri Se ViOlien XeVin ai,

199 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Pico Gallo, is in every respect undistinguishable from one collected by myself in the
cafion of the Cenobi southwest of the peak. Besides this, we found a bluish-gray
granitoid rock, very fine grained, without mica; and another, of coarser grain, with
comparatively large crystals of white feldspar. Quartz veins are not confined to the
metamorphic rocks. In this region, as on the Nizao, there are segregations of that
mineral forming well-marked seams, often of considerable extent. On the Magua it

is usually white and milky, though in one case it was found of a greenish white.

Dajao is a little settlement on the end of a long spur from the Pico Gallo—a
dozen houses, scattered in little dells or flats on the hill sides, from the banks of the
Mao River to the top of the ridge. The little community is made up of people,
almost all ramifications of one family, who show, perhaps as markedly as any, the
strong Indian type which still lingers in the fastnesses of the hills. An imnocent,
peaceful tribe they are, intelligent far beyond the average of their countrymen of the
same social level, and, strange to say (in the woods of this country), almost all have
some sort of a rudimentary education transmitted from one to another, for schools
do not exist; and a better field for the true missionary, the schoolmaster, could
probably hardly be found. He would be welcomed with open arms, and bright-eyed
youngsters enough could be found to keep a pretty active man busy. It must not
be understood that this applies solely to Dajao. ‘Twenty other communities of these
mountaineers—equally intelligent, equally desirous to be taught, and equally needy—
are scattered through the hills. More real good could be accomplished by sending
to each a schoolmaster, than by sending fifty missionaries to the South Seas or to the
Indians of the Plains.

But this is not geology. Half way between this place and the crossing of the
Magua is the Jicome Creek which descends from the direction of the peak and runs
about half of its course in the slates, the upper half in the second belt of the Syen-
ites. Near the mouth are various beds, some of earthy brown slate, others of greenish
talcose material, both abounding in specks and microscopic crystals of pyrites. These
shade into each other, while again the latter become more magnesian, greenish in
color and loses the pyrites. Again, this last assumes the more usual type of a white
rock, evidently talcoid, though but slightly so, and profusely mottled with great
stains of oxide of iron so as sometimes to become entirely red. In these shales the
seams of quartz are not rare, and vary from white, either translucent or opaque and
very compact, to spongy masses stained by iron as if originally filled with pyrites
which had decomposed. These latter are invariably auriferous and may one day
pay a profitable return to the miner. Further up the stream, as before mentioned, its

course runs through the eruptive rocks. In one place, a fine-grained dark gray syen-

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 123

ite, with no trace of mica, makes up the mass, while in another we found a coarse-
grained rock with large crystals of feldspar, and in place of hornblende a greenish
mineral, possibly chlorite. ‘The mouth of the Jicome is in the outer or first belt of
Syenite; and here is repeated the material already mentioned at the crossing of the
Magua and elsewhere, a rock so peculiar as to be immediately recognized, although
here it has undergone a slight modification, in that the feldspar is white and some
parts of the mass are finer grained than usual.

Abundant proof exists of the origin of the quartz veins here. ‘They never show
well-defined walls, and whenever mica is found in the country rock it is almost
always entangled in the quartz also.

In the Cretaceous belt between the Jicome and Dajao the slate is all more or less
serpentinoid and of various shades of green and gray. In some cases it is nearly a
pure chlorite; and by following the same line of strike to Dajao it can be seen to
change gradually to a claystone varying in color through all the shades of black,
gray, green, brown and rusty. Some beds are almost identical with the rock from
the Bao and the Jagua, but everywhere it bears an abundance of quartz veins, not
infrequently stained with carbonates of copper. Although the Mao River, which
here takes a turn to the castward, runs during that part of its course along the
centre of a synclinal axis ; the fact could only be ascertained by a detailed examination
of a much larger region than the immediate area in question. As has been demon-
strated above, the limestones of this part of the country overlie the conglomerates
and are in turn overlaid by the shale; the whole having been pushed up by the syen-
ites which have found egress to the surface in nearly parallel east and west lines.
The stratification has been so nearly obliterated that only here and there, as in case
of the more compact limestones, can any dips be demonstrated. Both south and
north of Dajao there are intrusive belts. The southern appears within a couple of
miles of the settlement and extends more than half way to Pico Gallo. ‘The northern
makes its appearance as ‘a comparatively narrow strip on the ridge towards Guara-
guano, just after reaching the summit from the river. On the southern flank of this
latter the limestone abounds without recognizable dip, and small outcrops of lime-
stone also occur a mile south of Dajao. Between the two limestone exposures the
country is a mass of clay and _ talcose-slates, whose principal characteristic is that
they all seem to be “on end,” no exposure showing a dip that can be depended on for
measurement; though the quartz veins and all other collateral signs that occur seem
to indicate a vertical position, or are approximately so. A full half of the width of

this synelinal axis is occupied by the Mao canon, and there being no exposures on

124 ' ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the grassy slopes of the hills, nor in the “bottom,” the position of the rocks over this
space is of course uncertain.

The belt of intrusive rocks (No. 1) between Dajao and Guaraguano has little to
call our attention except some small patches where the syenite is of an unusually fine
texture. The quartz and feldspar in these specimens are unusually brilliant in lustre,
both being remarkably glassy, but the texture is so fine as to resemble in the mass a
fine black sandstone. North of this, almost without the intervention of sandstone or
conglomerate, we have the same limestone repeated ; here the strike bemg continuous
and easily traceable to that near Las Matas. The dip also in this case is easily dis-
tinguished as a low one northward. Over the calcareous beds the shales dipping at
30° north extend northward and full of narrow seams of white quartz until they are
overlapped by the horizontal strata of a coarse sandstone, the latest known member
of the Tertiary of the valley, and which will be more fully described in connection

with the Mao gravels, of which it forms a part.

The Mao River furnishes one of the best opportunities for a geological section of
any line running southward into the mountains in this vicinity. At’ Latoma, oppo-
site Dajao, on the west side of the river, the greenish talcose slates and claystones
are remarkably full of quartz veins, and some stains of copper occur. A few years
ago, a Mr. Heneken (the same who published the remarkable description of the
geology of the Cibao), spent some time and considerable sums of money in searching
for copper here, with the success that is clearly predicted by the surface indications.
It is said also that he attempted to work some of the quartz veins for gold ; but while

I encountered some of the “ copper mines” I could find no traces of his gold mines.

Quite close to the quartz-bearing shales, south of Latoma and almost opposite
Dajao, the syenite reappears, and resembles that north of Dajao in some respects.
The quartz and feldspar are both unusually glassy, and in this case the hornblende is.
disproportionately abundant, reminding one somewhat of the rock on the Jaina. Some
of the rock, on the other hand, is nearly pure quartz, and veins of quartz are also
abundant here, as everywhere else. Other of it is dark gray, moderately coarse-
grained with the quartz, feldspar and hornblende in nearly equal proportions, and in
still other places, especially on the Cenoba River, it is gray with little or no horn-
blende, with peculiar small white grains of feldspar, somewhat laminated, and contains
a little pyrites.

From Dajao there is a trail, much used by the hunters of wild pigs and cattle,
which runs nearly south, following the summit of the ridges on the end which the
Dajao settlement is perched. About a mile back in the woods, and perhaps two from

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 125

the river, in a little basin on the hill top, there is a single house, beyond which there
is not another inhabitant nearer than the banditti on the Haytien frontier. Very
soon after leaving the house the trail enters the region of gray syenite, usually fine-
grained and showing much hornblende. ‘This continues for a couple of miles to the
crossing of the arroyo Cenoba, where the northern margin of another synclinal of
quartz-bearing slate makes its appearance. The change in the underlymg rocks is
almost always obvious on the surface by a change in the soil. ‘The slates are usually
covered with a red open soil, retaining but little moisture and bearing a growth of
large pines with a carpeting of grass, and sometimes an undergrowth of fern. The
syenite, by its decomposition, produces on the other hand, a coarse sand, or perhaps
more properly speaking, a fine gravel in which the pebbles are the less easily-decom-
posed ingredients of the parent rock, such as grains of quartz and occasionally crys-
tals of feldspar, though the latter mineral generally disintegrates rapidly. This soil
also bears pine, but the little ravines on the hill sides and the low places where a little
richer soil is accumulated by the rain washings are characterized by thickets of
various dicotyledonous trees, mixed with the Canna and guano palms, two species
belonging to the “fan palm” group, and even the manacle, one of the “ cabbage
palms.”

After crossing the Cenoba, the route winds along a high narrow ridge, the tall
pines forming a constant shade, so thick do they grow, while the wind playing through
their branches, reminds one of the distant roar of the ocean. Every few moments
the traveller catches sight of the deep canon of the Cenobi on one side and the
Cenoba on the other, hundreds of feet deep, so far off that the river looks like a silver
wire, and tall trees are dwindled to little bushes. ‘The slopes are often precipitous,
and generally at such high angles that it is difficult, or nearly impossible, to climb
_them. But wild as are these solitudes, the part that most surprises a foreigner is the
absence of wild: animals. These black ravines look as though they ought to be the
favorite haunts of the grizzly bear and panther, and one who has been in their homes
ean hardly divest himself of the undefined expectation of meeting one or the other.
Not even a deer is seen, timidly dashing through the trees, and the noblest game is
the long-legged, long-nosed, slab-sided porker, who, with ears and bristles erect, and
the last kink taken from his corkscrew tail, makes his way with a rush and a grunt
through the bushes; or perchance a bull, not less timid, dashes ‘bellowing across a
grass-grown flat, with a speed that has to be seen to be believed. The agouti, a
little animal the size of a hare, but allied to the guinea-pig, is the noblest wild quad-
ruped on the island, and it is so rare that in three years I have met but a single one.

Ne TDs Laois Saye

126 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Nearly opposite the mouth of the Arroyo Canna the road crosses the Cenobi and
mounts another ridge, in every respect a repetition of the first, except that much of
this part of the route is over the synclinal axis lying between the second and third
intrusions. The rocks are as varied as might be anticipated from the previous

descriptions—dark-gray calcareous claystone, black serpentine, green talcose slate
with quartz veins, often full of pyrites, greenish-gray clay shale, and brownish
magnesian slate succeed each other between the southern edge of the syenite and the
‘anon of the Cenobi, while beyond nearly the same features are repeated, until the
northern edge of the third belt is reached. A peculiar change was here noticed in
the vegetation. As the route penetrates further into the heart of the mountains,
while the pines still continue to make up, with patches of palm, the greater part of
the forest, many other trees, natives of the valley, reappear, and here the wild /uchsia
and the blackberry grow side by side in the thickets, while the brilliant flowers of a
dozen unknown species mingle with the most familiar forms of the moist lands of the
valley. The great variety of the orchids is apt to strike the observer, but unfor-
tunately most of the Dominican members of this family are more gaudy than pretty.
The most remarkable one has a great bunch of dark purplish-red leaves, like a
maguey, stuck on the side of a pine-tree or lodged in the crotch of a limb, its awkward
spike of dull reddish flowers on a long stem the reverse of pretty. Others are more
graceful, but none show the brilliant-colored and variously-formed flowers so charac-
teristic of the family in other places. The absence of water is also noticeable in these
hills. Streams are abundant and their volume is always great, but there are almost
no springs in the low places among the hills, and wherever one does occur it is so
rare a thing that a little shed is built near it for the accommodation of benighted
hunters. One such spot occurs in a place so out of the way on this ridge that it can
only be detected by the unwonted sign of a side trail starting off from the main route.
There is nothing peculiar about it. It is simply a little pool from which issues a
trickling stream; and yet perhaps the great majority of travellers turn out to it. The
trail past it is more worn than the direct one. From this spring the ridge ascends
somewhat, winding past the peak of the Gallo until, when nearly southwest of the

mountain, it widens out into a little grassy prairie—a perfect park, studded here and

there with noble pines, and walled in by high mountains on all sides. The name of
the spot is Savana de las Lagunas. I was for a long time at a loss to ascertain why
“of the lagoons,” until I discovered near it, in a depression, two or three dried up
mud-holes, hardly fifty feet long, into which a little surface-water drains in times of
heavy rains.

The spot is a favorite camping-place for the hunters, who can easily bring pack

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 127

animals this far, but are prevented by want of trail from penetrating more than a
mile or two further. The abundance of grass, belly-high to a horse, also attracts
wild cattle, and the hunter is occasionally rewarded with an unexpected supply of wild
beef. Their custom is to bring into the mountains a supply of salt, and then stay,
killing wild pork and beef and drying the meat so long as the salt lasts, or until they
reach the full carrying capacity of their animals. ‘The water is, as usual, scarce, but
a supply exists, and of pretty good quality, in the rocky basins in the bottom of a
little ravine on one side of the savana. The rock exposure here was the more
welcome because rare. The red soil indicated slate, but here the slate itself appeared,
laid bare by the currents of the rainy season, souvenirs of which are preserved along
the channel during even the driest years. It must be borne in mind that this is at
least a couple of hundred feet above the little cafion that drains these hills, and
tumbles down a steep bed into the main river. I spent a couple of days in this lovely
spot exploring the neighborhood. Mr. Speare, to whom the gold pan was intrusted,
as usual, ‘“ prospected the gulches,” and found almost everywhere a ‘ color,” and
sometimes discovered a dozen “ colors” to the pan. And here I may as well repeat
what has already been said in more general terms at the end of the chapter on this
geological formation: wherever the slates occur in the neighborhood of the eruptive
rocks, there gold occurs in most, if not all, of the included quartz veins, and the
streams are always more or less auriferous. I do not wish to be understood as stating
that there is sufficient inducement to bring foreigners here with the exclusive object
of mining gold. Usually the gravels are not rich enough intrinsically, or where they
are, the quantity in any one spot is so limited that mining on any large scale is not
likely to be profitable. Nor, again, do I wish to discourage the detailed examination
of the quartz veins. They are numerous; and some of the pieces I caused to be
examined that did not show free gold, and that were collected by myself as fair
specimens, gave returns that would be considered very encouraging in California.
Occasionally a vein can be found that, on account of its thickness, extent, general
appearance, and the results of assays of its quartz, would certainly be opened in
California. I know of no reason why it should not be in Santo Domingo.

The trail from the Laguna Savana winds around the head of a little cafon and
climbs a long ridge covered with a great variety of trees, of which pine is one of the
least common, until, reaching a greater height, the pines return, but now very slender
and stunted, reminding one forcibly of the pine woods on the summit of the Cascade
Mountains of Oregon, on the ridge of Mount McLaughlin. A fire that had recently
passed through the woods had rendered good service in burning out the dead branches

and rubbish, disclosing to the view a grand solitude. Not a level tract of an acre’s

128 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

extent was visible in the entire radius of from ten to twenty miles. To the northeast
the noble cone of the Gallo stood out pre-eminent—a mountain whose summit, albeit
at the top of a reasonably gentle slope, has not been stood upon by man during the
memory of the “oldest inhabitant.” Two of the most famous mountaineers of the
region, named Durand, father and son, pig-hunters, who spend nearly all their lives
on these mountain sides, and to whom climbing is no hardship, essayed the ascent
from motives of curiosity some four or five years ago. They say they chopped their way
through fern thickets nearly all day, and near nightfall one ascended a tree to ascertain
their whereabouts. They were not a third of the way up. They slept at the root of
that tree, and next day went back. They declare that to reach the apex pioneers
would have to chop for a week to open a trail, and this where the nearest water is at
the base of the mountain. South of the Gallo, and but very little lower, a rounded
knob on the middle of the ridge is called the Corral de Mateo. Between these two
the Senador cajion runs southwest to join the Cenobi, while other branches of the
same stream drain a breadth of a dozen miles of the north face of the main range.
The Canna drains the southwest face of the ridge on which we stood, a narrow cation
crowded in between the Cenobi and the Cidra. This river takes its rise in a peak
hardly less marked than the Gallo. It is on the main ridge, and perhaps ten miles
southwest of that mountain. After diligent inquiry I could find no name for it among
the people, so I have ventured to propose for it the name of an honored friend, and
a gentleman who has worked hard and successfully for his country’s good. It is
designated on the map as Pico Baez, and is the only mountain in the country to
which we have attempted to give a name. The Cidra runs nearly parallel with the
central ridge, receiving many little tributaries from the south, though but few from
the northern side. In its course it passes also Loma Jalapa, and shortly after bends
north, receiving numerous branches from the west, and empties into the Mao. On
the Cidra, fifteen miles from its mouth, we found the third or most southern intrusive
belt ; and here we met another instance of the repetition of a lithological character as
a streak in a “ massive eruption.” The white gneissoid rock found by Mr. Speare on
the Magua, and rediscovered by myself on the upper Cenobi, is again seen on the
Cidra. Its mechanical peculiarities are perfectly reproduced. Its laminated struc-
ture, found nowhere else on the Island, is marked enough to catch the eye at first
sight ; but in this last case there is a change in its ingredients. I could detect no
mica; and hornblende arranged along the lines of lamination is so abundant as
sometimes to make up a half of the bulk. I shall not attempt to theorize as to
the cause of this stratification, so to speak, in what are indisputably eruptive rocks
I content myself with calling attention to it.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 129

It will be noticed that I have, in the foregoing description of the region of the
upper Mao, repeatedly mentioned the magnificent pine forests that clothe these
interior mountains. With an energetic and industrious population, every stream in
these mountains would float down “ saw-logs,” and rafts of pine boards floating down
the Yaqui, destined for export, would be one of the commonest sights on the river.

As it is, [have repeatedly paid one dollar apiece for ordinary—nay, worse than
ordinary—boards, hand-sawed, in one of the largest towns in the valley, and in full
sight of where the tree grew. In Santo Domingo City I have paid (the regular price)
$50 per M. for very inferior white pine boards, rough, full of knots, and half of them
split or otherwise faulty; and as a special favor I got second-class yellow pine
tongued and grooved flooring for $60 per M., the ordinary price; that first asked of
me being $75. Here is a chance for American enterprise.

West of the Mao River the mountains lose their importance very rapidly. The
main ridge continues as high and as prominent as ever, but the spurs dwindle both
in height and length. The streams that run from them are, with one or two excep-
tions, quite insignificant, the Guayubin being the only one of any note, although the
Gurabo and several others exist in the region. The outer belt of eruptive rocks
continues its course until it is covered up and disappears under the gravels near
Savaneta; but the other belts continue towards and into Hayti. Since it is not my
purpose to deseribe Savaneta in this connection, there remains but little naore to note.

There is a trail crossing the Mao from Dajao, running past Gurabo and thence down

8
into the plain of Savaneta. Another runs likewise from Guaraguano and joins with
the first in the little collection of houses known as Gurabo; but except the trail in
from Savaneta to Almacigo, no routes penetrates the mountains. The broad flat of
which Latoma forms a part, and which is really a broad-topped ridge bounded by
deep caiions, is called Meseta, or the Little Table-land, and is made up of slates, &e.,
the synclinal of Dajao. Its open park-like groves of pine, with their thickets of two
or three species of fan-palm, and their green and brown carpets of grass and pine
leaves studded with flowers, form pictures incongruous in their mixture of tropical
and northern types. In some parts of this region the palms are so abundant as to
form the most marked feature, but usually they are in the minority. The ridge from
Guaraguano has but little to distinguish it from the Meseta. Both on this part of
the route and on that west of Gurabo pines and palms make up the greater part of
the vegetation, and the red gravelly soil indicates that below there is either a
magnesian ora clay shale. This proves to be the case; and examinations of the
scanty outcrops show that, except where the “second belt” crosses the ridge, the

A. P. S.—VOL. xv. 2a.

13 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

rock is almost always a chloritie or taleose shale. In one place it is nearly white,
almost a steatite; in another its color is barely different, but it is more argillaceous
and has a sort of oblique cleavage in addition to the lamination of the strata; again,
it is light-gray, very talcose, and contains little nodular grains of quartz, is dark-
gray and without the quartz, or the common red-and-white siliceo-magnesian shale
that makes up so much of the eastern end of the chain. All of this is full of quartz
veins, frequently not more than an inch thick, and generally milky white. These
veins are probably barren of gold, at least so the appearance of the quartz would
seem to indicate.

A dozen miles further west is another little collection of houses, Almacigo, a
village often without inhabitants in consequence of the never-ceasing predatory
incursions from the Haytian frontier. At the time of my visit to Savaneta the
Commandante urged and finally almost prevented us by force from visiting the then
about to be deserted hamlet. He gave as a reason that the region was full of out-
laws, and that I would be taking an unnecessary risk of my life. I can only, there-
fore, avail myself of the scanty information derived from one of my assistants who
had previously been there and brought me specimens of the rocks. Almacigo is on
a river of the same name, and about a dozen miles back in the hills from Savaneta.
It is but a short distance east of the long ridge that runs north from the main range
to the peak of Chaquet. It is clearly in a slate-belt, although a part of the route
was described to me as being over “ granite.” The specimens of rock brought, and
said to be a fair specimen of the region, are a white, highly metamorphosed shale,
breaking into rhomboids not unlike cale-spar in shape, though more oblique and of
course more irregular. Old gold washings are said to exist in these hills, and my
informant, whose experience was unhappily much greater than his reliability, pro-
fessed to have found the old ditches and other signs of placer-mining. It is to be
hoped that the time is not distant when somebody more fortunate than I have been
will be enabled to investigate this matter in the manner it deserves.

But little can be seen of the structure of the mountains from Savaneta. From
conversation with the most expert mountaineers and others that I could find, I learned
that, as it appeared from the town, the high peak of Nalga de Maco which towers
above everything, sticking heavenward its peculiar-looking summit (not inaptly called
by the whimsical name of “'Toad’s Rump”) perhaps seven or eight thousand feet
high, is not on the central ridge, but is on a side spur to the southward, similar to
those which run northward to Chaquet, Gallo, Rubio, and Joca, It is said that the
Artibonite River rises far to the northwest of this peak, runs southeast around its

base, and then, as is well known, strikes westward, running out through Hayti.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. ibs ah

The same causes that prevented us from obtaining more details in regard to the
little corner lying between Savaneta and the frontier also debarred us from visiting
the south side of the range about and to the west of San Juan. Repeated efforts
were made to cross the range south from Savaneta or from San Jose de las Matas by
way of the head of the Bao River, but our friends the military chiefs in the Cibao,
not less than the civil authorities, combined to prevent what they considered so
hazardous an undertaking. Commandantes, Governor, and Vice-President united
in such a thorough course of “ masterly inactivity ” that all our efforts to procure
guides and escort were unavailing, and we were reluctantly obliged to abandon the
project and content ourselves with a section no farther west than the Constanza Pass.
This is the more to be regretted because, while there are three broad strips of intrusive
rocks further west which unite in the great mass around the Pico del Yaqui, and
another intrusion scarcely less great east of the route, there is so little encountered
on the pass that it leads us to believe that equally unexpected changes might take
place to the south of where our more western explorations extended.

Although Jarabacoa is underlaid by slates, the margin of the syenites of Humu-
nucu is just back of the town in the bottom of the pretty little valley in which the
town is built. The slates are highly uptilted, dipping northward at high angles, and’
often standing vertically. They are nearly in every case more or less talcose, though
beds of sandstone occur occasionally. The Jimenoa River empties into the Yaqui
half a dozen miles below the town, the two streams coming together in such a manner
that it seems as if the former were the main river and the upper part of the latter the
tributary. The stream, after the confluence of the two, continues in the direction that
the Jimenoa was flowing, while the Yaqui enters at an angle of perhaps 60°. On
the bluff facing the entrance of the latter there is a fine exposure of highly metamorphic
slates containing some pyrites. The decomposition of the mineral produces the
efflorescence of large quantities of a greenish and yellowish alum, which is periodi-
cally collected by the people of the vicinity and sold to the apothecaries of Santiago
and Puerto Plata. This natural laboratory is the only one of the kind I have seen
in the country. The little basin of Jarabacoa is in some parts flat, though in greater
part made up of low rolling ground. Directly behind rises the steep face of the hills,
and the dark round knob of the Mogote frowns down directly over the village. A mile
out of the town the trail crosses the River Baguati, and immediately begins to ascend
the hill. The climb is a very steep one and about three miles long in all, zig-zaging
up the face of a hill, the path sometimes cut into steps by the feet of the animals.

From the top of this spur it winds, with very little change of level, back of the Loma

132 ON THE TOPOGRAPHLY AND GEOLOGY

Barrero, thence back of the Mogote, and doubles on itself, bending to almost all points
of the compass until, descending a comparatively short distance, it enters a muddy
little river-bottom, the cafion of the Jimenoa, south or southwest of Jarabacoa.
Almost as soon as the traveller leaves the town he finds himself passing over a hard
coarse-grained syenite, not unlike “Quincy granite ” in its general appearance. It is
a part of the same eruption as the peak of the Yaqui, and forms also the Mogote
Mountain and a few of the ridges, but has dwindled here to a comparatively small
streak. South of it the slates reappear, but along the trail on the summit of the
ridge there are exceeding few exposures, and the slates being soft there are but few
pieces in the soil. It seems to be mostly of a semi-talcose character and usually of a
reddish color, though occasionally the familiar greenish-gray was observed. The
Jimenoa at the crossing had abundance of syenite pebbles and comparatively few of
the slate, the latter being much softer. After crossing the river the trail follows the
bettom a short distance and then climbs another ridge, but not so steep or crooked
as the previous one. Following this summit, the whole being in pine forest except
in the depressions where other trees make their appearance, the trail crosses the 'Tireo,
the longest branch of the Yuna, here a little rivulet, and then crossing another low
“ divide,” descends into a long flat valley clothed with grass. Just before reaching
the valley, there is a good exposure on the hill side of a dark red conglomerate, the
color of an over-burnt brick. This is the more striking since it is the only bed con-
taining pebbles along the whole route, the slates everywhere else being of very fine
grain. The valley of Constanza must be two or three miles long and is as flat as a
billiard table. It is without doubt the bed of a now dried-up mountain lake, that
emptied itself through the cafion of the Limon River. The greater portion of the
drainage entered it at the southern part, while the upper end was rather “ back
water.” As a consequence, the soil of the lower part is more gravelly, while that of
the northern end is a finer sand and clay. The upper end is entirely grass-grown
except on the margin; but towards the middle it is covered with scattered clumps
and tongues of pine timber, which clothe the entire southern portion. Near the
southern edge the Limon River flows across the valley, cutting its way between
bluffs of coarse gravel twenty feet high, made up of pebbles of syenite and sandstone ;
some of the boulders are more than two feet across. The Cienega, near the head of
the Yaqui, was another such lake at a comparatively recent period, and even yet it
has not drained itself completely. Ifthe Yaqui River, which there runs to one side
of instead of through the marsh, were to lower its bed a foot. or two—if it were to be
deflected so as to run through it, or if a comparatively small channel should be
opened from the marsh to the river—in a little while it would empty itself of its

e

9

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 133

surplus of water, and would become, on a smaller scale, a repetition of the Constanza
Valley. The resemblance would be perfect, even to the matter of a deep channel for
the stream through coarse gravel beds on one side, with a finer soil on the other side
of the basin; and on the gravel there is a growth of forest trees, while the present
marsh would, judging from analogy in the other cases, doubtless continue a grassy
tract.

There is not a spot in Santo Domingo less tropical in appearance than the Valley
of Constanza. The settlement of a dozen houses is in the midst of the woods. ‘There
is not a palm, plantain, or other tropical-looking plant in sight. The frowning
black mountains, shutting in the valley on all sides; the tall columns of the pine
trees, with the prostrate trunks and yet solid stumps of their fallen brethren ; the
little houses, encircled with split rail-fences and bar-gates; the browsing cattle,
horses, and sheep, and above all the crisp morning air, so co!d as to condense one’s
breath into visible vapor, all point rather to the heart of the Sierra Nevada than to
the interior of an island under the Cancer.

Directly in the Valley of Constanza, crossing its lower part, is a very narrow
dyke of a cross-grained syenite, strongly mottled white and black by the large crystals
of which it is composed. Owing to the depth of the gravel deposit, I could not
ascertain its width. It crops out on the hill side at one edge ef the valley, and
extends under the soil. At most it seems hardly possible that it is over a few
hundred yards, and I may have largely over-rated it. It is the more worthy of
notice since it is the only eruptive rock encountered in crossing-the mountain on this

route, after leaving the narrow strip near Jarabacoa.

From the houses the pass continues to the southwest, leaving the valley within a
mile of the settlement, and, climbing over a little low divide, it crosses a branch of
the Limon, and then winds for several miles along hill sides by a trail cut into the
slope. Although over very rough ground, the trail is good ; and although no repairs
have been attempted for years, it shows that it was made with considerable labor
and at no little expense. It is said to have been cut for military purposes by the
Haytians, who seem to have considered Constanza a point of strategic value, despite
its difficulty of access. After winding along for several miles, almost always on the
steep hill side, it descends the point of a spur several hundred feet to the back of the
river, where a little flat furnishes the necessary space for a herder’s shanty and cattle-
pen. The half-acre enclosure was full of grass and supplied abundance of fodder for
our animals. The descent of the hill was rendered the more difficult from the fact that
it was not only so steep as to necessitate a zig-zag trail, but the rocks were laid bare

A. P. S.—VOL. Xv. 2H.

134 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

by the washine away of the surface, and the foothold of the horses was extremely
insecure; at the same time this denudation furnished a splended section of a couple
of hundred feet at least of a dark brownish, nearly black argillaceous slate, dipping
south about 35°. From the “ Rancho de Limon,” as this place is called, the route
follows the left bank of the river two or three miles to Hondo Valle, where, on the
nearly flat points of two or three hills, level enough to perch a house or two,
there are three houses, occupied by as many families. What possib'e reason
there is for people to live m such a place as this does not appear to the passing
traveller. The country is not so over-populated that they should be driven here
for want of room elsewhere. They can cultivate little or nothing, and it would
seem that cattle or pigs would ruh wild if turned loose in these hills. Still there
must be some inducement, for the settlement is an o!d one, and the people inhabit
it constantly. The river caton is so narrow that there is hardly room for a
trail, and the old one was destroyed by encroachments of the river but a short
time before our visit. Another, however, high up on the hill side, formerly used
only in times of freshets, is now used constantly, and although much rougher and
in most cases more dangerous, is by far the more picturesque. At every turn one
ean look down into the foaming river, rushing past precipices or between narrows of
nearly black slate; and in one place, where there is a little grassy flat, the river has
washed away the softer slates, and left reefs of sandstone strata hundreds of feet
long projecting through the grass and running east and west, dipping south as high
as 60° to 80°. Again the road descends one steep hill to cross the river and ascend
one still steeper, where one has to be guilty of the meanness of helping himself to
climb by holding on to his poor horse’s tail ; and arrived at the top, the least enthu-
siastic will be forced to stop to admire the grand scene behind him. Perhaps nowhere
on the island is there a finer mountain prospect than from this spot. The heart of
the island looms up in full view; peaks eight and nine thousand feet high shut in the
picture. The Rucillo on one side and Loma Tina on the other rival each other in
height, while a dozen others, hardly their inferiors, stud the interval. The mountain
slopes are so steep that it would seem that nothing but a goat could traverse them.
The river is a mere thread of white foam, so distant that its roar is no longer audible,
and the houses of Hondo Valle, dwindled to the size of pebbles, would not be dis-
tinguishable but from a little cloud of smoke ascending from the flat. To heighten
the effect and add interest to the view we saw two or three vagrant rain-storms
travelling about among the hills, and one coming towards us caused an abundance
of anxious speculation as to whether we would be able to avoid it or not. Of course
our luck took us directly into it, and we had the fun of descending a thousand feet

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 135

of steep hill side, where we were forced to dismount, and in the face of a pelting
shower. But before this we rode two or three miles over ridges, coming in one place
to a little marshy spot called Cafiitas, in a depression where broken-down pasture-
fences and a couple of dilapidated shanties told of former occupation. This seems
to have been a military post, now abandoned as unnecessary. From this, one trail
runs southwest to San Juan, while the other, our route, goes south to the Rio de los
Cuevas, and thence via Tubanos to Azua. Very soon after leaving this spot,
unusual from its having a spring from which runs a permanent stream of water, the
route following the ridge descends the spur to the Rio del Medio, which it crosses
through and over boulders of hard sandstone, derived from beds interstratified with
the shale. Here palms again begin to make a marked feature in the vegetation, and
in fact on the hill side are the most abundant trees. A climb of a mile and a half,
with an ascent of perhaps more than a thousand feet, took us to the summit over the
edges of slate dipping south almost verticaily. Crossing the top of the ridge, we
descended through woods whose conifers had nearly disappeared, and from which
they soon became entirely absent, and in which the familiar cabbage or “ royal ” palm
soon became common. ‘This encouraging sign was soon followed by the appearance
of three or four houses—the hamlet of Lagunas, so named from a pond or two, prob-
ably the rain-water drainage of the surrounding hills. From Lagunas a gentle though
long slope runs down to the broad gravelly bed of the Rio de los Cuevas. While
slates of all the forms described in the preceding pages make up all of the region
just described, they are so up-tilted that no order of sequence could be made out
among them; and although a southern dip predominates, it is not possible that all of
this distance is made up of a succession of regularly superimposed beds up-tilted.
There has been much folding, and since all of the dips are high, it is not impossible
that there may have been some inversion, some folds tilted backwards. Unfortunately
the entire absence of beds of limestone in this section deprives us of the most valuable
key we have found for unravelling the problems of stratification elsewhere. We only
know that the same high dips continue out under the plain, and even beyond Tubanos
the shale is vertical. Below Lagunas, on the southern face of the hill, the upturned
edges of the slate are overlaid by horizontal beds of a coarse shingle deposit of Post
Pliocene age, the margin of the coast formation. This will be referred to again in
the description of the geology of the south side of the Island.

Returning to Jarabacoa, the only road leading out from the valley, except that to
Humunucu, is the camino real to Vega over a ridge. It crosses a mile or two of

valley over the Jimenoa and the Yami. The former has a broad sandy bottom, in-

136 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

terspersed with many large boulders of the syenites of the belt just south of the town
and through: which it flows a little further to the southeast. Its banks show jaspery
and clay slates cropping out in the bluffs. A couple of miles northeast of Jarabacoa
a gray claystone crops out, though the greater part of the rock is talcoid. In the
vicinity of the Yami River there are numerous quartz veins, and the river itself
yields a little gold, this being the only locality in the neighborhood where the metal
has been found. After crossing the Yami the trail climbs to the top of a high ridge
and follows along its summit through a beautiful open growth-of pine timber, and
over a bright red soil, almost all of the way in view of the Valley of Vega. The
rocks are nearly everywhere a light-colored greenish-gray talcose slate, often with
the soapy feel of steatite. Ina few spots I found beds of sandstone interstratified
with the slates. These beds, nearly vertical, have a dip towards the valley near the
south end of the ridge. At the other extremity no dip could be made out with
certainty, although in more than one case I thought I could detect a lamination,
that seemed to point to a rather low dip southward. At the northern end of ihe
ridge, just as the road commences its descent towards the Camu River, there is a
little seam of an asbestus-like mineral, which has not yet been submitted to the
examination of a competent mineralogist. Although the vein is hardly an inch
thick, the fibres, running longitudinally or a little obliquely, are some of them three
inches long. ‘This is almost the only case where a mineral specimen of scientific
interest has been discovered during the progress of our work, unless the little alum
efflorescence at the mouth of the Jimenoa can be included in the list. At the foot
of this same ridge the rock changes into a brownish-black serpentine, with oblique
curved cross-fractures showing sufaces like “ slicken-sides.” ‘This makes a part of
the bed of the river and changes into a little different color in the bank on the opposite
side. Here the cleavage surfaces are smeared, as it were, with a lighter color, while
fractures show the interior to be nearly black. A couple of miles of nearly level
ground in the valley, and two more crossings of the river, with occasional outcrops
of light gray taleose slate, takes us to the village of Vega, spread out on a beautiful
plain on the verge of the Camu River.

The debris of the Camu is instructive as illustrating the geology of the nearly
inaccessible and entirely unfrequented hills through which it flows. I found a black-
and-white coarse-grained syenite coming from the belt near Jarabacoa, very similar
to some from the. Jaina. Other pebbles of finer grain are not rare, and among the
usual varieties of metamorphic slates and sandstones, including those just mentioned
above, I found peces of a dark-green metamorphic conglomerate, with small pebbles,
almost identical with a bed in the Ocoa just south of Maniel.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. V3%

Vega is the radiating point of all the usually-travelled routes across the sierra .
The Jarabacoa and Constanza Pass is continued by a “camino real” to this town,
while all other outlets to Jarabacoa are simply mountain trails. Irom here the
Boneo road sends one pass across by Mount Vanilejo and another down the Jaina,
while the Cotui road also sends off two branches, one to Yamoso, the other across
the Sillon de la Viuda. The route past Vanilejo to Maniel was explored by Mr. A.
Pennell, whose notes furnish me with all the information I possess as to that part of
it lying between Aguacate on the north side and Rancho Arriba on the south. The
others I have crossed repeatedly, having been over the last twenty-six times, and
over the Jaina ten or eleven. Although the San Pedro route (as that by the Sillon
is called) is twenty miles longer, it is so much better in the absence of mud that,
except in the driest weather, most travellers prefer it to the Jaina Pass. This should
not be; the latter is far the best in the matter of grade, and at a trifling expense could
be made a very fair wagon-road, while the heavy hills of the Sillon and Cuesta Blanca
can only be crossed comfortably by horse-trails. The road from Vega runs at the margin
of the hills for seven miles before it branches, when one part starts nearly south to
Bonao, and the other branch runs east-southeast to Cotui. The latter road skirts
along the extreme outer margins of all of the hills, and is almost without exception
level, while the former though by no means mountainous crosses occasional spurs.
Four miles southeast of Vega on this road, before reaching the fork, there is in the
middle of the road a little outcrop of a rock found nowhere else on the north side of
the Island, although it has been observed in several places on the plains of the southern
slope. It is an impure earthy peroxide of iron, and seems to be a replacement, a
_pseudo-morphism, so to speak, of the slates. It is by no means extensive, and is too
impure to be of any economic value. The neighboring rock is not peculiar in any
respect. It is slate of various kinds, usually more argillaceous than magnesian, and
with occasional beds of fine-grained sandstone.

Beyond the fork, the road to Bonao runs through a series of sayanas and over
low rolling spurs, climbs over the red taleose slate hills of Mas-si-puede (‘More if
you can”) and then crosses the Yuna River, with its pebbly bed full of slate
and sandstone boulders from the metamorphic rocks of the immediate neighborhood,
and of hard syenite from further back in the mountains. Still further south, crossing
more savanas, beyond Bonao, it ascends other hills clad with pine and covered with
the usual red soil. The rock is a serpentinoid shale, not unlike that described in the
Jarabacoa road, and contains numerous streaks of quartz; but so far as I have been
able to ascertain, both by “ prospecting ” the stream—that is, washing the sand in a

OP k= VOle XxVe LE

1338 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

gold-pan—and by careful inquiry, I have never been abie to learn of the existence of
gold in the region. After crossing the hill, which is not very long, the trail crosses
a little cafion principally remarkable for the great size of the rounded sandstone
boulders in its bed. Some of these, of tons weight, are as rounded as if they had been
rolled for many miles, though their source is in the hill sides that flank the ravine.
The sandstone is a light gray, and the size of the boulders indicates a heavy bedding,
only equalled in the formation by the thick strata of the Tablas Hills west of Bani.
After crossing the caiion and climbing over rough rocks to the summit, the traveller
finds himself on a narrow ridge of slates, bounded by deep cafons and often with no
forest. growth—rolling savanas, or, as they would be called in the United States,
“ prairie hills,” alternating with open pieces of pine woods. In the bottoms other
trees take the places of the pine, and in the low-lying savanas the “ ohancha” (hojo
ancha, or broad leaf) predominates—a tree remarkable for its rounded leaf, often more
than a foot in diameter, and for its straight trunk of hard wood, much used in building
or wherever posts have to be planted in moist ground. ‘The soil is of a bright red
throughout these hills, and in some places furnishes an excellent clay, used, however,
only for making the coarse pottery or the red earthen pipe-heads used universally by
the people of the country. The underlying shales are nearly always talcose. At
Piedra Blanca there is a fissile gray slate that has a decidedly semi-crystalline look,
Dut it is limited in extent. The same slates and same red soils continue, with a rare
bed of sandstone, across the Aguacate Creek to the hill of Laguneta. In the last-
mentioned stream is found the usual mixture of a few slates and many sandstone
pebbles that would be very apt to deceive a careless observer. ‘The softer material
is so promptly triturated to sand or mud that it does not make a due proportion of
the pebbles, while the little quartz—certainly not half nor quarter of a percentage of
the rock in place—in some parts makes the greater bulk of the stones in the streams.

The trail across by way of the Maimon River, Mount Vanilejo and the Upper
Nizao to Maniel, breaks off at Piedra Blanca, and follows up the bottom of the Mai-
mon, constantly crossing the stream until it reaches the foot of the mountain. Mr.
Pennell describes it as being a rough mountain trail, difficult at all times, but probably
almost impassible during the rainy season. He says that the syenite belt, with
which he is familiar, near Jarabacoa, comes down the Maimon, almost to the fork of
the road. I have observed the debris in the Maimon to be composed almost wholly
of this rock, but never saw the line of division. He further describes it as extend-
ing from there past the head of the river and across the mountain, making up the
whole of Vanilejo peak, disappearing under the slates on its southern slope, near the
base.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 139

From there, the heavy bedded sandstones of Nizao Arriba, and the jaspery slates
extend to near Maniel. A specimen of the rock brought on from the north face of
Mount Vanilejo is a black granitoid material, containing much black hornblende,
very little feldspar, some quartz, and some light reddish-brown mica. From the
south side I received a very fine-grained gray syenite, and from the neighborhood of
Rancho Arriba, high up on the Nizao River, Mr. Pennell brought reddish brown,
fine-grained sandstone with lime seams; bluish-grey jaspery slate like that of the
Nigua, and a white quartz sandstone, full of small crystals of pyrites. The last rock
is entirely unlike any other encountered by us, but Mr. Pennell reports that the grains
of pyrites are by no means a rare feature in the beds of this vicinity.

The Bonao pass, as it is always called, continues south from Piedra Blanca, across
low rolling ground to Aguacate, crosses the creek of the same name, and a short
piece of rather level ground and then ascends the hill of the Laguneta. At Agua-
cate, is a little settlement which extends, straggling along both sides of the road, to
the Maimon River. The inhabitants cultivate a little corn and tobacco, and raise a
few pigs which run wild in the surrounding forest. The place owes its only impor-
tance, perhaps its existence, to the fact that it is the last spot with inhabitants ; really
the last spot comfortably habitable before crossing the mountains. The hills of La-
guneta are too steep and the caions too narrow to give a good site for occupation,
and, although the savanas on the summit of the Laguneta ridge are broad enough for
a good-sized village, the nearest water is hundreds of feet down in the bottoms. This
ridge is made up of a gray to greenish semi-talcose slate, and is full of quartz veins,
some of them four and five feet thick. The quartz is so abundant here as to make a
very large part, possibly as much as a third of the mass. I have already alluded to
the fine views obtained from this point. Half a mile of these grassy hills take us to
the edge of the woods of the main ridge, and here the scattered pine trees give way
along a sharp line of demarkation to a forest in every respect tropical. ‘The under-
lying rock is a white shale, very soft, easily decomposing on exposure, stained every-
where with peroxide of iron, and making a clay soil of a brick red color that is almost
impervious to water. It is covered with a dense growth of an infinitude of species
of large trees, tangled and tied together by long vines, some of them with trunks as
thick as the trees that support them, climbing to the tops of the tallest trees and
hanging in festoons or loops across every open space. Nor is the undergrowth less
dense. The young trees, with their entanglement of smaller vines, the bushes and
shrubs are all overgrown with the terrible yabacoa grass, a climbing plant, jointed

and leaved like a grass, every leaf with a notched edge that cuts like a knife. The

140 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

traveller who sees a branch of it hanging from some projecting limb, puts up his
hand to defend his face and finds it, not scratched, but cut so as to draw blood; the
wound being the more painful because made by a rough instead of a sharp edge. The
forest. continues along and over the summit of the mountain which is nowhere
very high, though rising in higher peaks on both sides of the pass. Within a
mile after passing the highest point the forest ends as abruptly as it began, and
the savana de la Puerta, into which the road opens, is a grassy hill side, bounded
on all sides with trees, a beautiful rolling slope of prairie of two or three
hundred acres. Near the upper end there are many outcrops of quartz, and pieces
of milky white quartz are not rare inthe red soil. The Guananitos Creek, which rises
in the main ridge and flows along the eastern and southern margins of this savana, con-
tains a little gold, though probably not enough to warrant any attempts at mining ;
although its body of water would be amply sufficient for such a purpose. Immedi-
ately on leaving the Puerta, the road becomes a mud-hole ; it runs for some dis-
tance through clay that is hardly ever dry, and is usually knee deep to horses ; it
crosses several small streams, in the beds of which angular quartz pebbles make the
greater part of the bottom, and runs down the valley of the Guananitos, a rich river

bottom, where the soil is of unknown depth—a black muck, always wet, and through
which the poor horses have to flounder often belly deep in mud. But this region

belongs more properly to the southern district, and will be described in that chapter.

After leaving the fork, the Cotui road passes one or two points of hills made up
of clay slates and the white and red talcose slate which often look like a thoroughly
decomposed granite. But few other rock exposures occur until near the crossing of
the Yuna, when a range of low hills is encountered, made up of hard clay slate. These
show no outcrops, except little ones in the road where travel has worn away the thin
soil. The spurs to the west of the road, bordering the savanas, are almost all low,
long points, wooded to their bases, and with long tongues of grassy land running up
between them. Some few are isolated and very steep and of fantastic forms. Before
reaching the Yuna, a little grey limestone crops out as flat exposures in the valley,
and one other such crosses the road about six miles from Cotui. After crossing
the river, there is a long hill a mile wide bordering its southern shore, made
up of gray talcose and magnesian slate, but with no ascertainabie dip. From the
limestone outcrops, a strike can be deciphered running, as usual, nearly east and west.
A. little cross trail through the woods, follows up the valley of the Yuna to the
Maimon, up its valley to the Hatillo de Maimon, and thence across the hills to Piedra
Blanca. This gives an excellent opportunity of ascertaining the geology of the

OF SANTO DOMINGO, 141

space between the two roads, not only along the trail itself, but of alk the region
around the Hatillo. The section along the River is not very perfect, showing only
here and there a slate outcrop, covered with a thick soil of the usual red clay, a con-
dition of affairs that is repeated on the grassy and pine covered hills, and across the
“Ohancha” (or /Toja Ancha) savana between Hatillo and Piedra Blanca. But,
while there is no limestone seen on the Bonao road, large hills of it occur on both
sides of the Maimon at Hatillo. Possibly this absence may be accounted for by its
passing under one of the numerous savanas on the road, but this explanation will
hardly hold good if applied to the road between Cotui and Yamasa, or still further
east on the San Pedro road via Cevico.

The Hatillo is destined to become prominent in the future, should the country
ever arrive at such a stage of development as to improve its water-ways, and give
cheap transportation to the coast for its natural products. “Slack-water” naviga-
tion can be practiced successfully on the Yuna and Maimon to, or beyond this point,
with less difficulty and expense than on the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania. True,
there are no great coal fields to be opened, but the iron deposits of the Maimon, if
not so valuable as the Schuylkill coal basin, are yet important enough to pay for im-
proving the natural outlet that exists for them to the Bay of Samana. The agricul-
tural interests of the Veja Valley would fully warrant all the expense of opening the
Yuna to beyond Cotui, and the iron mines of the Maimon would readily repay the
additional outlay required on the remaining fifteen or eighteen miles on that river to
the Hatillo. And I would not dare to say that they might not warrant the entire
expense, were there no collateral advantage to be derived from the undertaking.
The Maimon is deep enough to float a flat-boat everywhere except on its rapids, even
in the driest seasons, and the rapids are simply gravel banks, that could be rendered
deep enough by confining the stream in a narrower channel, possibly aided by occa-
sional dredging. There is not a single rocky reef along the whole stream, and no
descent so difficult to overcome as the rapids of the Ohio. None that could not be
ascended by an ordinary steamboat, towing its barges, as is practiced on the streams
of the Mississippi Valley, or on the Feather River of California.

The [ron Mountain of Hatillo is on the south bank of the Maimon. It is a rounded
hill over a hundred feet high, several hundred feet long and, in all, about three or
four hundred feet across, from the savana on one side to the base on the other, almost
touching the river bank. The side nearest the river is a solid mass of semi-crystal-
line limestone, more nearly resembling marble than any other rock on the island ; while
the southern half is an equally solid mass of very compact magnetic iron-stone, com-

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 235.

142 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

posed of between 67 and 68 per cent. of metallic iron, according to the analysis of
Professor Chandler, of the Columbia College School of Mines, of New York. Thou-
sands of tons lie scattered over the surface or embedded in the soil, only requiring to
be picked up. There is no section exposed whereby its character can be ascertained,
and without excavation it would be hazardous to venture an opinion as to whether
it is a vein or simply a lenticular mass. The latter seems the more probable
hypothesis, since the outcrop is so limited longitudinally, and judging from
analogy with similar masses in the United States. Beyond the hill, all signs
of metal disappear on the surface, except such stray blocks as can with a greater
show of probability be attributed to the hill itself. But for all practical purposes,
the Iron Mountain is an inexhaustible mine. Its advantages are enhanced by
its proximity to a navigable stream, the nearness of limestone and by its being in the
heart of a great forest where unlimited supplies of hard wood can be made to yield
all the fuel required for furnaces. Nor is this hill the only deposit of the mineral in
the vicinity. I visited one other about three miles distant, where the quantity of iron
was still greater but, though equally well situated with reference to flux and fuel, its
facilities for extraction are not so good. It is on the opposite (north) side of the
Maimon Valley, in the hills, and where a railroad could be made without difficulty to
the river; but the three miles, more or less of land carriage, though trifling, is a com-
parative disadvantage. It is a curious sight to see, as in that case, a mountain stream,
tumbling and splashing down a steep ravine, under, around and over great boulders,
many of them several feet in diameter, and all of them solid, black ironstone of the
finest quality. Although I was told that other equally valuable “ iron mines,” to the
number of three or four, were known in the vicinity, I could obtain no guides to
them or reliable information concerning them. I spent a couple of days in fruitless
search, accompanied by persons who professed to know them, and finally abandoned
the hunt, with the impression that they did not exist. It is not impossible however
that I was purposely misled by my guides, good hearted but ignorant people who,

not understanding the object of my visit, may have become suspicious.

In the same vicinity are some “ copper mines ” which have been known for genera-
tions. They are two or three miles to the southeast of the Hatillo, on top of a bare,
erass-covered hill from which an excellent view of the north flank of the range can
be obtained. The rock is a taleose slate of a light yellowish brown color and is
stained everywhere with copper. Little grains and sometimes even good sized lumps
of green and blue carbonates of copper fill cavities, but not the most remote

approach to yein structure exists. Here have been the most extensive mining

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 143

operations in the Republic, except those in the copper mine of Monte Mateo, on the
Nigua. Many surface-pits have been dug, numerous cross-cut ditches excavated
evidently in search of an outcrop, and one shaft is said to have been sunk. But the
caving in of the shaft, accompanied by a fatal accident, the death of the father of
my guide, many years ago, led to the abandonment of all further prosecution of the
enterprise; but none too soon for the pockets of the miners. There is no possible
chance for the discovery of a vein on the spot. In many of its features it is most
curiously like the hundreds of copper mines of the California coast range, and like
them, the little “copper stain” has sufficed to delude one party after another. I see
no reason to disbelieve the stories told me, of nests of copper ore being found and
smelted, and of ingots of the metal having been obtained. This frequently occurs
under similar circumstances elsewhere. At the “Osos” mine near San Luis Obispo,
California, the superintendent informed me that the mine had yielded up to the time
of my visit about $5,000 worth of copper, and at a cost, as I learned on a little cross-
questioning, of about $5,000 worth of gold. But neither of us could then see any
very encouraging prospect of more copper; though he apparently thought that so
much copper gives a pretty good earnest of more gold from the pockets of the stock-
holders. |

A. mile or two from the “copper mine” there is a high grassy hill made up in great
part of a coarse-grained brown sandstone, with an unusually low northern dip. It is
less altered than is usually the case in this vicinity, and is a point of considerable
interest in the neighborhood, on account of an efflorescence on the face of a sand-
stone bluff} near its summit, of a whitish alkaline substance. The “alkali” occurs as
a powder, too fine and too small in quantity to be collected successfully ; but on
applying it to the tongue, I could detect no recognizable difference between it, and
the snowy abomination of the Nevada deserts.

The pass across the mountains from Cotui to Yamasa runs through low hills almost
all of the way in full view of this point. It winds southwestward, branching off
from the Cevico road within a mile of Cotui, and winds its way across rolling savanas,
crossing innumerable little streams and without crossing any hill of note strikes the
upper waters of the Ozama. Although the easiest pass in very dry weather, it is bad
when rains have swollen the streams or softened the soil. But it is capable of being
very much improved; and except for its greater length, it is not impossible that this
might not only be made much better than is possible with the Bonao route, but might
become the best pass across the mountains. The low rounded hills and long stretches

of valley which characterize the route, give it an advantage which is now counter-

144 ON THE TOPOGRAPITY AND GEOLOGY

balanced by the great number of streams to be crossed and by the sticky mud _ that
hardly ever dries, shaded as it is by the dense forest. Rock exposures along the road
are very few and unsatisfactory, but, wherever found, they show invariably a shale,
magnesian or argillaceous and without determinable dip. None of the limestone of
Hatillo was seen.

Very different from this pass is the road that passes through Cevico and crosses
the Sillon de la Viuda. After crossing some small savanas and rolling hills to the
arroyo Chaquey, with the usual red soil on all the hills, and occasional outcrops of
white and red taleose slates and some sandstones it crosses a bold hill, the Loma de
los Palos. It has been observed that Mahogany is found only on calcareous soils,
and, although no limestone has ever been encountered on this road, there is quite an
extensive “ mahogany cut” on the west side of this hill. I have never been able to
decide whether this is indicative of a little outcrop of Sierra limestone, or is, as is
more probably the case, due to the presence of an outline of Miocene sandstone, such
as is found a few miles further east. The latter theory is the most plausible. The
hill itself is quite stony, though few outcrops occur except at its eastern base where
coarse sandstone blocks are quite numerous, although most of the little rock visible,
in place, is the soft shale so characteristic of this region, and that differs but little
from the superposed clay in consistency. After passing a little beyond the base of
this hill, in the bed of the first stream, there is a good exposure of the highest mem-
ber of the Dominican Miocene, a light-colored limestone, lying horizontally on the
shales, amorphous, almost crystalline in appearance, though not in reality, and contain-
ing a few, but unmistakable, foraminifera—principally the little nummulite-like
fossil so useful everywhere else in identifying the formation, and which is found
throughout the formation from the blue shale to the top of the series. ‘This commences
about three miles west of Cevico and continues uninterruptedly to a mile south. At
Cevico I detected in addition, corals and a few mollusea. After passing beyond the
region of Tertiary, which extends back between the hills of the range like a bay, the
road rises gradually over a succession of low-rolling savanas to a point five miles
from the town where it enters the forest, and almost immediately begins to climb the
high spur of the Cuesta Blanca, or white ridge; the horse-trail winding between and
over. blocks of coarse sandstone, some of them two and three feet across. Just be-
yond the summit on the southern slope, where the ridge is but a few feet wide, the
trail is pinched so narrow that a horse can hardly squeeze through between the an-
gular masses of a couple of beds or dykes of a whitish rock, which gives its name
to the hill. I admit my inability to decide the character of this rock. Even under

OF SANTO DOMINGO. : 145

the glass, I could not determine, after many examinations, whether its whitish, granu-
lar appearance. is due to the crystals of a fine-grained granitoid, or to the grains of a
metamorphosed sandstone. ‘he masses, whether beds or dykes, are so nearly verti-
cal that I could make out no inclination to either side in the small outcrop exposed.
As I have stated elsewhere, twenty-six times have I crossed this trail, and as I write,
I am no nearer a satisfactory solution of the problemn than the first time I saw the
rock and knocked off a couple of specimens.

Between the Cuesta Blanca and the main ridge, there is a broad valley watered
by the three branches of the Arroyo Payabo, and dotted by little hills, mere -undula-
tions of the surface. The region is a pleasantly varied country of little iain
savanas, separated by stretches of forest, through which roam wild cattle and pig
and although on the principal thoroughfare of the Republic, without a human ee
tant for twenty miles from Cevico to the one house at San Pedro on the southern
savana. Nothing so strongly impresses one with the sparseness of the population as
to see a tract like this, capable of furnishing comfortable and healthy towns to thou-
sands entirely unoccupied. It sounds like “ vain repetition” to say that here again,
the white shale, usually stained red with iron and easily decomposed, showing no
large outcrops and no determinable dip, makes all this valley and all of the mountain
of the Sillon de la Viuda. This applies, almost w rithout modification to the remainder
of the range eastward, with the little exceptions which will be noted. Almost all of
the streams wash out a few pebbles of sandstone and occasionally, as in the Arroyo
Vermejo, south of the range, near San Pedro, the shale is a little harder than
usual. ‘There is no change in the character of the hills about Monte Plata and Boya_
except a diminished height. But on the northern edge of the range, the Miocene
limestone of Cevico gains importance eastward; and sometimes as beds of limestone
with a sufficiency though nowhere an abundance of characteristic fossils; sometimes

a sandstone, it borders the range or caps the summits, always however horizontal.

The best exposure of these sandstones is in the peculiar little hills of the west
side of San Lorenzo Bay. The same hills border all of the south side of Samana
Bay west of this point and form a very marked range inland. I ean only describe
its outline as one of which all of the highest points are on a level, and which is made
up of a series of lwmps of pretty nearly uniform size. Closer inspection shows, that
these lumps are exceedingly steep hills, evidently formed by denudation, but so close to
each other that no level land exists between them. Where they reach the shore of
the bay, they usually terminate in precipitous walls, undermined by the “wash” of
the tide to a horizontal distance of three or four feet. This same excavating force

ING 12) Oy dO) g e

146 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

has also quarried out innumerable caverns of no mean size. I spent a week investi-
gating this region and visited many of the caves, but found them so numerous that
the task became at last somewhat monotonous. A few of the caverns are now far
out of reach of the water, and in one of them I made my headquarters. The entire
length of this cave is about 200 feet. It is by no means the largest; one in an ad-
joining’ hill being at least twice the size. This cave occupies almost the entire in-
terior of one of the hills, the entrance being on one side, while at the extreme back
end a window-lke opening in the roof overlooks the water on the other side. Below
the mouth is a broad piece of smooth sand beach covered with mangroves and cocoa-
nut trees, from which a gentle slope of a dozen feet or more leads up the entrance.
Inside, the floor is level throughout, while the roof is worn into a series of broad
arches. Very few stalactites, and none of any beauty, occur in this or any of the
other caves; an occasional opaque white fringe along a creek, or a massive shapeless
column being about the only productions of this class. In no case did I find the
slightest trace of stalagmitic floor. These caves give us one of the strongest proofs
that exist of the recent and yet continuing uplifting of the land. Some of them are
twenty feet above tide-water, while the arched-roofs of others are more than twice
that height. Others are at lower levels, while still others are in process of formation
or only just begun. The excavating action seems to take place only about the sur-
face level of the sea. In all cases the bluffs are undermined a few feet, while occa-
sionally the cavity extends a much greater distance, but so low as not to permit the
entrance of a boat—an incipient cavern. Where the ordinary undermining only is
taking place the excavation does not occur higher than the splash of high tide; a
fact well proven by live mangrove oysters growing in great clusters under the shelves.
The largest cave is in part open yet to the sea, which washes through a dozen doors
or under low arches. The floor of the lower chambers is a beach of calcareous sand-
stone pebbles strewn with drift-wood and covered at high tides by the sea. At one
end of this hall, so to speak, a little opening hardly large enough to crawl through,
gives access to another series of large chambers at a higher level. The walls are all
creamy-white, except where defaced by the smoke of the few candles and torches
that seem to have entered here. These dark recesses do not seem to be favorite
places of resort.

Careful search was made in all the caves where any depth of deposit existed over
the rock-bottom, in hopes of finding some remains of cave animals, such as those
described from Anguilla, but none seem to exist. In the cave where I slept there
is an extensive and interesting kitchen-midden divisible into two eras; the older

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 147

marked only by shells and a few turtle and fish bones, resting on the rocky floor, and
through which I excavated to a depth of nine fect. Over this is a thinner layer of
ashes with bones of birds, agouti, fish and turtles, and an abundance of pottery eyi-
dently of the immediately pre-Columbian era. Over this, liberally intermixed with
bat guano, is a modern deposit of broken earthen and iron kettles and beef and pig
bones, indicative of a higher, or at least, more modern civilization, though justice re-
quires us to admit that the pottery is inferior in workmanship, in elaborateness and
in beauty of design to the preceding era. It is a remarkable circumstance, that
although the Indians of the pottery period manufactured polished stone hatchets and
other implements equal in degree of finish to the finest ever discovered, and they are
not rare, not a stone instrument was discovered in the cave, unless we except some
rough rounded pebbles found among the shells, and which seem to have been used as
hammers for extracting the mollusca. I may also mention, although irrelevant, that
no arrow or lance heads have ever, so far as I can learn, been found in the country,
notwithstanding that the jaspers of the Nigua, of which the hatchets were made, are
admirably adapted for this purpose. The absence of any mammal larger than the
timid little agouti, and of any birds fit for food, except the pigeons, equally difficult
of approach, probably rendered the use of arrows for the chase nearly unnecessary ;
while not improbably fragments of shells, or the innumerable varieties of hard woods,
much easier to prepare than stone-tips, may have answered the required purpose in
warfare. ‘This explanation is of course purely hypothetical.

The Bay of San Lorenzo is bounded on the west by these hills and the little out-
lying islands, while its eastern side is a flat sandy plain, with little patches of wood
and broad savanas. Savana-la-Mar, a few miles further east, is at the base of the
first piece of elevated land on this plain, a little low hill of Cretaceous shale, whose
outcrops in the bluff are barely large enough to enable one to identify the formation.
There is no pass across the mountains further east than this, and this road is so
muddy at best of times that it has the reputation of being the worst on the Island.
It is so bad that experts prefer to travel it when it is wettest, because the mud, al-
ways soft, is then less sticky, and although the horses sink perhaps a trifle deeper,
they have less difficulty in pulling their feet owt of the mud. The constant rains
maintain a vegetation so dense that the sun never penetrates to the ground, little
evaporation takes place and the wet soil completes the circle by stimulating to greater
rankness the already too dense forest. Open places, like Savana Grande for instance,
are not unpleasantly wet and prove that, the woods cleared away, the whole range
could be rendered habitable; while the rains due to the trade-winds would diminish

but little in quantity and would maintain a degree of fertility difficult to surpass.

148 ON TIE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

On the level lands north of the hills there is but little mud, except in a few
places where the road runs through strips of woods, but south of a little settlement
called el Valle, the road enters the forest. At first the rolling ground underlaid by
alternating strata of shales and thin-bedded sandstones, is not remarkably wet, but
as soon as the hills proper are entered the quantity of mud must be seen to be be-
lieved. The summit of Loma de los Muertos, half a dozen miles in a direct line south
of Savana-la-Mar, is capped with a not very thick horizontal deposit of the Miocene
limestone similar to that near Cevico, in which I found corals identical with those
from the Samba hills, and fragments of the tubes of an undeseribed Awphus which
abounds in the yellow shales between Esperanza and Guayubin. These fossils,
though not abundant, amply suffice to fix the age of the formation. The belt, which
is a mere cap, is very narrow, and although it apparently unites, across the trackless
hills with the same rock at San Lorenzo and on the margin of the Yuma Valley, I
was able only to draw my deductions by their appearance at a distance. It evidently
does not extend very far to the eastward. Its southern margin is soon reached and
the clay slates and thin bedded sandstones reappear wherever the unsatisfactory
little outcrops show themselves. The two or three miles between the base of this
hill and the Savana Grande, are through a swamp of black mud where every traveller
avoids, so far as he can, the tracks of his predecessors, and where, by the configura-
tion of the surface, he is forced into the “road” his poor horses flounder belly-deep
inmud. Savana Grande is a rolling prairie covered with abundance of grass and
inhabited by half a dozen families who live by “taking in” travellers. But where
everybody carries his own bed and _ board, hotel-keeping is not a “paying” business,
Horse-feed is their principal source of revenue; for even the most careless are hardly
content to let their horses forage without an extra feed with such a journey before or
behind them. Beyond this place a succession of little savanas in the woods, with
the regular accompaniment of dry and muddy places, over Cretaceous rocks, takes the
traveller a couple of miles, after which he crosses another strip of Miocene similar to
the first, except that it here fills the basin instead of capping a hill. It is also very
narrow and but a few feet in thickness, as if it were the thinning-out edge of the
deposit. After this, the ground becomes more rolling and drier, and the red and
white shales, so often described, appear, bringing with them a different looking
country. ‘These continue to a high ridge, the Loma de los Castellanos, where the
shales are much harder, some of them almost jaspery. Although the exposures are
large and the shales project in many places, especially on the south face of the hill,
IT have endeavored in vain to decide on a certain measurement of the bedding. Ex-

cept the vague statement that the strike, as usual, seems tobe nearly east and west,

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 149

T could obtain no apparent dip that was not immediately contradicted by another as
well marked in another direction. The metamorphic action has almost completely
destroyed the stratification of the rocks.

My personal explorations did not continue beyond this point eastward, but Mr.
Runnebaum, who explored the outside of the range, both on the coast and inland
(there are no roads across it.except a few pig-hunter’s trails), reported that no
changes occur. The same slates, with ill-defined bedding, occasional pieces of sand-
stone in the creeks and a little barren quartz, make this region a mere repetition of
that already described ; while the absolute absence of inhabitants and means of com-
munication render the obtaining of any information extremely difficult.

CHAPTER IX.

GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN VALLEYS AND FOOT-HILLS OF THE MAIN, CHAIN.

The preceding chapter has been devoted, with one or two trifling exceptions, to a
description at the same time of the central Sierra, and to the rocks which from being
almost exclusively confined to it, I called provisionally the “Sierra Group.” Except
part of the Peninsula of Samana, and a little outline near Puerto Plata, all of that
portion of the Island lying north of these mountains is made up of the two members
of the Tertiary described in preceding chapters. ‘The long depression of the Cibao,
including the valleys of the Yaqui on the west and the Yuma on the east, is under-
laid by the older or Miocene group, which also constitutes the Monte Cristi range,
while the more modern coast formation sumply borders the sea as its name implies.

The base of the Miocene at Tabera has been already described, consisting of
heavy beds of a coarse gray sandstone, highly uptilted and lying on the flanks of the

retaceous slates at Tabera, on the Yaqui south of Santiago. From there an exce!-
lent natural section extends to the Angostura (or narrows) of the Yaqui near Santi-
ago, the dip becoming gradually lower until at that place it falls as low as 5° to the
north. The dark sandstones dip under, and the beds at Angostura are higher in the
series; being made up of dark-colored shales, with seams of a dark-bluish conglome->
rate full of fossils from which I extracted with great difficulty some few species, all
identical with those from the blue shale. -This conglomerate is a very shallow water

or perhaps beach deposit, being made up of rounded pebbles, broken shells and con-

A. P. Si—VOl. Xv. 20.

150 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

taining much fossilized wood, sometimes showing tubes of teredos. Over the dark
shale there is a bed of the yellow shale similar to that near Guayubin, and at the top
of the section a little white limestone, similar to that which caps so much of the
Monte Cristi range, and the equivalent of that of Cevico and elsewhere. A broad
depression in the strata, almost too shallow to be dignified by the name of a synclinal
axis, causes the older beds to nearly disappear; but in the bluff at Santiago, cut
through by the Yaqui on one side and by the little gully called the Nivaje which
empties into it, a good section is obtained again, here entirely in the blue shale. The
term “ Nivaje shale” is ill chosen, the little stream after which it is named being a
mere gutter, while Santiago, immediately adjoiming the stream, is a place of import-
ance and much more worthy of applying its name, should a distinctive title be con-
sidered necessary; or a dozen localities could have been selected whose names would:
have been equally distinctive and much more suitable.

At the mouth of the Bao (or Cibao) the dark shales are seen in contact with the
underlying coarse sandstones just mentioned.

At Santiago, a vertical section of sixty feet through the blue shale shows its
bedding perfectly. It is rarely horizontal in the valley, but the dips are invariably

so low that they are hardly worth noting. Here it is a few degrees to the south.

In the valley of the Yaqui, after leaving the immediate vicinity of the town
where the low hills run down to the river bank, there are very few exposures. At
some distance from the river occasional outcrops can be seen, some in the beds of
streams, others peeping through the soil; but in the foot-hills of the mountains and
through the Samba range we have excellent opportunities of studying the formation.
A rare circumstance in this country occurs in the existence of a few terraces south
of the Yaqui. Those on the Mao will be noticed hereafter, and bordering the river
on the “outer” Savaneta road, within a few miles of Santiago, the terraces are
extremely well marked with bluff faces of river debris, which I estimated at eighty
feet in height. The banks of the river are made up of pebbles and gravel derived
from the rocks of the sierra and from the sandstone strata of the Miocene ; but no

exposures occur of beds.in situ.

South of this, far back m the hills at the crossing of the Bao, the conglomerate
beds of Angostura reappear, here of a dark red color and with the pebbles usually
very small, cemented by a calcareous matrix. While these conglomerate beds and
the adjoming sandstone strata have a high northeast dip, the overlying beds further
north repeat the condition of affairs along the Yaqui, and fall gradually to nearly a

horizontal.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 151

The Samba hills, ending eastwardly in the loma Caracoles and loma Seboruco, are
a low range, in part isolated from the main chain, and le midway between its foot-
hills and the river. They are made up entirely of Tertiary rocks, and afford some
excellent sections for study. The last-named are low and are separated from the
foot-hills only by narrow cafions. The road runs along the north base of the latter,
and shows it capped with white limestone and calcareous limestone, dipping north at
low angles, and abounding in corals of the massive forms. Very few mollusca were
discovered in this vicinity. The soil between the hills and the river is a black mud,
similar to that found opposite, at Ponton, and resembling that of the vicinity of
Moca. Along the entire northern face of these hills, east of the Mao River, corals,
more especially of the more solid kinds, are strewn over the surface or project from
the decomposing rocks. Usually they are so weathered as to show no distinctive
characters; but occasionally, especially where the matrix has been moderately soft, they
are as well preserved and the surfaces as sharp as recent specimens. A great mass of
Meandrina before me, picked up by myself, weathered out thus on the top of the
ground, is as perfect as pieces I have fished up on the coast. The Amina River cuts
through the range between these two hills, and exposes a bluff of blue shale, rich in
fossils, dipping, as is always the case in these hills, at a low angle north. The strike,
if such can be said to exist, with a dip never exceeding 10°, is strictly coincident
everywhere with the direction of the hills, while the dip is equally constant towards
the valley. At this point the Tertiary is seriously encroached on by the Cretaceous
rocks which extend northward, their upturned edges being but thinly covered by the
later formation. On the Guanajuma the two formations are in contact, but a few
hundred yards south of the road that crosses at Bohie Viejo. The slates of the
Sierra strike due east and west and dip south from 65° to 70°, while the nearly
horizontal Miocene, here represented by the gravel beds of the Mao, overlie them at
various levels. I found some little patches of this gravel a quarter of a mile south
of the boundary, filling depressions but a few rods across.

Although the limestones continue for a little further west on the outer face of the
range, they thin out gradually, and south of the Samba Hills they are represented
by beds of gravel which bear the same relation to them that the Azua gravels bear
to the coast limestone. In the hills covered with grass and guano-palm, over which
the road runs between Bohio Viejo and the settlements on the Mao, these gravels
first come in as an important matter of the formation ; and here they consist of beds
of coarse gravel, alternating with strata of coarse and fine sandstone, and a peculiar,

very soft, earthy shale. This latter rock is especially well developed towards the

152 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Mao, in the upper part of the hill above Naranjo and Caia Fistula, but elsewhere the
sandstone is abundant. I hadan excellent opportunity of examining the deposit in a
section cut by a litle stream running north, between the Guanajuna and the Mao.
On the road, beds of gray sandstone alternate with the above claystone, both, but
especially the latter, abounding in little Pectens. North of the road, following the
spur, the sandstone forms a cap to the entire hill, but has been denuded away to
different levels, presenting sometimes an appearance of a series of two or three steps,
one above the other. Below this the gravel is exposed to the nearly vertical walls of
the ravine, cut through to a depth of about fifty feet. I found an appearance of
unconformability here that I have never been able to detect elsewhere. A little
exposure of bluish shale in the bottom in one place seemed to dip slightly while the
gravel was horizontal. ‘The outcrop of shale, however, was too small to be depended
on, and the apparent dip eastward is so unusual as to throw a grave suspicion on its
reliability. The grayel shows, by its included pebbles, whence it came. All of the

rocks of the Sierra—syenites, slate, jasper, quartz—are represented, and as might be
anticipated a little gold is also found. No fossils occur in it, but the sandstone with
which it is capped contains numerous specimens of some of the most characteristic
species. On the hill I found Conus, Plewrotoma, Pecten, Oliva, and other genera

identical with species from the blue shale.

On reaching the Mao River a series of four terraces is seen. These are best noted
from the top of the ridge above Naranjo; those on the west side, above Hato Viejo,
being better preserved and more marked than those on the east side. Their aggregate
height is between two hundred and three hundred feet, and they are composed
entirely of this gravel, which rests northward on the shale in the Samba Hills and
south at the Angostura or narrows of the Mao, it meets directly upon the upturned
edges of the highly metamorphosed. green jaspery slates and conglomerate of the
Cretaceous.

The gravel here acquires a development seen nowhere else, its total thickness
being probably not less than three hundred feet, while at Cercado, a few miles further
down the river, it dwindles to less than twenty feet. The little creck called the
arroyo Guaraguano, emptying into the Mao from the southwest at Hato Viejo, has
cut a section in these beds more marked than that on the Mao. The beds are there
shown to be perfectly horizontal, and are made up from top to bottom of river debris,
brought down by the Mao from the interior hills. South of this the gravels cap the
ridge which runs west of and parallel with the Mao, gradually thinning out, but

eontinuing’ horizental, the lower beds disappearing first, abutting against the rising
continuing horizontal, the | beds disappearing first, abutting against the rising

s OF SANTO DOMINGO. 3

surface of the underlying rock. ‘They continue thus almost to Guaraguano, and the
top layers are always the same coarse sandstones, from which I have collected eight
species of mollusca, all of which are common in the blue shale.

Down the Mao below Hato Viejo, where the river cuts through the Samba range,
we have a section which is practically a repetition of that on the Amina, except that
here the gravels overlie the shale. ‘The section is an instructive one, as illustrating
the relation between the gravel and the other members of the formation. The dark
shale with its characteristic fossils forms the base, becoming lighter in color towards
the top. Over it is the gravel, in this case unmistakably conformable, and above
this the beds of claystone, described as capping the hills east of Naranjo, but here
more calcareous, form the summit. These last beds, which in some places are in-
terstratified with the upper part of the gravel, become more calcareous northward,
and are really the equivalent of the limestones of the Monte Cristi range and Cevico.

Beyond the hills of the Mao this gravel widens out westward and covers nearly
all of the little interior valley behind the Samba Hills. It covers the rolling plain to
the Gurabo, and is there again seen on the margin of the hills overlapping the
Cretaccous exactly as at the Angostura of the Mao. Where the Gurabo passes the
Samba Hills the same section is repeated, with the trifling local variation that the
dip is about 15° to the north. I here collected some species of fossils not found further
east, and Mr. Bonaezy obtained for me a fine series, including many of the large
Cassis, which is quite rare elsewhere. One may here tire himself picking up cones
of a dozen species which weather out from the bluff by hundreds, and Plewrotoma,
Fusus, Turbinella are almost as well represented, while the other shells, though not
so numerous, are still so abundant that literally a good collection may be made here
in a few minutes for the mere trouble of picking it up.

The lower part of the Rio Canna, the next stream west, yields fossils; but the
exposure, while showing no new facts, is much less important than the preceding.
Its course before reaching the hills is across the low rolling plains of the Mao gravel,
which is here horizontal, and is underlaid by the brownish sandy shales so often
referred to occurring near Guayubin and elsewhere. In some places these underlying
shales are exposed in the bed of the stream. The back or southern boundary of the
gravels is reached approximately where the stream issues from the foot-hills of the
main range, the road crossing it in the slates.

From the crossing of the Canna to Savaneta there is a flat plain of beautiful
prairie, with little rolling hills, the whole interspersed with groves or open growth of
trees and a little cactus. It is underlaid by horizontal beds of the same gravel, in

IN, 3. Ch AON Gyn eM een

154. ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY ¥

the upper part of which are occasional strata of a caleareo-argulaceous shale, abound-
ing in fossils, among which the commonest are Arca grandis and Pleurotoma virgo.
The formation is well exposed in numerous sections cut by streams, and in some of
them beds of lignite occur similar to the Samana coal. Near Savaneta, at the point
where the road crosses the Yaguajal, the following section was obtained, mainly
interesting as illustrative of the relation that the gravels bear to the underlying shale

beds :
|
|
|
|
GRAVEL.
| 20 feet.
(Surface denuded. )
YELLOW Sanpdy CLay SHALES. 12 feet,
: s ~ Lienrre. | 24 inches.
|
YELLOW Sanpy CLay SHALES. | 7 feet.
LIGNITE. 34 inches.

BLUE SHALES. | Depth unknown.

There is little doubt but the yellow beds which are interposed between the gravels
and the “ Nivaje,” or blue shale, are the equivalent of the yellow shales of Guayubin
and Samana, and which in those cases also carry equally insignificant seams of
lignite, which there, like here, is impure, earthy, semi-laminated, and shrinks, cracks,
and disintegrates on exposure to the air. It is not necessary to add that it has no
possible economic value, despite all that has been said about “Samana coal.”

Although I carried my own examinations no further west than Savaneta, some
of my assistants have been beyond there, and Mr. Arthur Pennell conducted a
detailed survey of Dajabon, on the boundary of Hayti. He reports the same gravel

OF SANTO DOMINGO, 155

to extend all of the way, and describes the little hill of la Gorra as being a trifling
gravel elevation, capped by horizontal sandstone similar to the ridges between

Guaraguano and Hato Viejo. He says this also applies to Loma Jacoba.

South of Savaneta, almost adjoining the town, the outer or “ first” eruptive belt is
observed covered by the southern margin of the gravels. Going north across the
plain to Guayubin, by way of the little hamlet of Martin Garcia, nearly parallel with
the Guayubin River, no large outcrops occur, but there are several little exposures
in the woods and in one savana just south of the above-named village. The route
lies over the beds of the above section, but on top of the gravel there are some small
deposits equivalent to those in a similar position on the hill east of the Mao River,
and closely resembling them lithologically. In the savana the horse-trail is worn
sometimes a foot deep into the ash-gray calcareous claystone, here occasionally
seamed with white streaks of earthy lime. Little bluffs of two or three feet high, of
the same beds, are also exposed along the margins of dry water-courses, and every-
where fossils are so abundant and so beautifully preserved that it is impossible to
resist the temptation to dismount every few minutes to pick up some little gem of
a -shell too perfect to be left: behind, until overflowing pockets warn one to desist.
The trifling thickness of the upper part of the formation in this region is worthy of
note. The gravel-beds are hardly a tenth part as thick as on the Mao, and the
underlying yellow shales have sufiered a similar if not so great a loss. A correspond-
ing difference also exists in the height of the Samba Hills, whether caused by a
deficiency of material or by a diminution of the elevating force. They are barely
fifty feet high immediately adjoining the Guayubin River, though twice that a mile
or two east, and they almost entirely disappear very soon after crossing the river.
The horizontal beds continue to their southern base undisturbed, and where the road
first reaches rising ground, it climbs a few feet up the face of a sort of bluff, the
exposed edges of a nearly horizontal sandstone, full of Oysters and Spondylus.
Crossing the hills it is seen that this rock, which doubtless originally extended
further south over the plain, and which is the equivalent of the sandstones overlying
the gravels elsewhere, is bent into a broad curve, and its northern margin is thinned
out and denuded away. I know of no case where it occurs except in the hills directly
back of the town of Monte Cristi. Here a coarse sandstone forms a little tract of
rolling ground overlooking the town; and although I could not connect it along any
section with other outcrops, I consider it from its position to be high up in the series
and most probably the equivalent of these oyster-beds, which it resembles closely in
color and lithological character. . -

156 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Before proceeding to a description of the north side of the valley, it is probably
advisable to investigate the relation of the gravel beds and their accompanying sand-
stone and clay strata to the limestones and white marls which cap the Monte Cristi
range, and which form the southern border of the formation near Samana Bay. As
has been demonstrated, Ist, wherever the gravels occur they invariably constitute
the top of the series ; 2d, when in contact with older members of the same forma-
tion they always overlie brownish or yellowish shales which generally carry beds of
lignite, and in turn rest upon darker-colored (usually blue or bluish) shales ; 3d, they
are never found in the same area with the limestones; and finally, they are a shore
deposit, the origin of which can still be distinetly recognized in the Mao and lesser
heighboring mines, and in the contained pebbles and even gold, which alike point to
the present central Cordillera, then simply a smaller island, as their source. ‘The
whole area covered by the deposit is a long narrow triangle, its base opening like a
fan to the westward and its apex between the Mao and the Amina Rivers, perhaps
not more than fifty miles long and averaging ten miles wide, unless we include the
sandstone about Monte Cristi, which widens it at that point to nearer twenty. About
the Mao the pebbles are often angular and boulders of great size are very common ;
but as the distance from this point increases, the large boulders become more rare,
and there is a marked diminution in the average size of the pebbles, facts which
clearly point to the Mao as the great source of supply, and to a current from east to
west as the means of distribution. Its southern edge is everywhere in contact with
and overlies horizontally the upturned edges of the Sierra slates, while its northern
margin either thins out, as near Cercado on the lower Mao, or changes to a finer sand

without pebbles, as on the Guayubin River.

On the other hand, the limestones (in which term I desire to include the true
limestone-like parts of the north face of the Samba Hills, the rocks on the summit of
the Monte Cristi range on the Alta Mira and Isabella Passes, those of Samana and
south of Savana-la-Mar, the calcareous sandstones of San Lorenzo, and the white
calcareous marls north of Moca) will be found to be equally amenable to the above
laws, first and second; by changing the titles of the rocks the third rule applies, of
course ; and although about Samana Bay they are really shore deposits, these deposits
were made in clear water, where no river brought down sediment or diluted the salt-
ness of the sea. it is a fact not less ¢urious than interesting, that in the same area
there should be two formations whose whole history should be so perfectly preserved
and of which one should be so perfectly a repetition of the other, as is the case
between the gravel and the lime-beds of the Dominican Miocene and Post Phocene.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 157

There is but little to describe in the sixty miles of valley between Monte Cristi
and Santiago. The sandstone strata—light gray, semi-calcareous, and containing
oysters and a few corals—in the hills back of Monte Cristi have been already men-
tioned. After crossing the trifling elevation caused by these beds, the road runs
along a clay flat in the river bottom, occasionally passing the point of a low hill
made up of the sandy beds in the yellow shale. About two miles west of Guayubin,
little exposures in the road show the yellowish shale, with a few yellow sandy clay
beds, nearly horizontal and with an abundance of fossils. I collected several species
of Pleurotoma, Husus, Natica, Conus, Cassis, Oliva, Septaria, Arca, Nucula and
corals identical with species from the blue shale of the Samba Hills; and three miles
east of the town, where a little road-cutting of a couple of feet deep showed an
exposure, I found all of the same species in abundance. The great Arca patricia
was especially abundant; and this fossil, with the oyster and spondylus, with their
thick nearly indestructible shells, resists the disintegration which destroys the smaller
species, and lie scattered over the surface or mixed with the soil at a hundred points
along the valley. But here it was found in place and in good condition, associated
with little flakes and scales of imperfectly crystallized selenite. The selenite is doubt-
less derived from the decomposition of shells, and where it occurs I have usually
noticed that fossils disappear entirely. Here they abound, though some are coated
with glistening crystals of the mineral, showing the change actually taking place.
Hast of this point very few fossils were found; but this is easily accounted
for by the fact that the deéris from the mountains covers the valley on its northern

margin, while the river deposit hides nearly everything near its shores.

About Hatillo de la Palma the bottom is so low that at times the river overflows
its banks. The soil is consequently marshy but exceedingly rich, and the forest-
growth is like an island in the midst of the barren-looking acacia and cactus plains.
But this does not continue very far, and soon the traveller emerges in the open sandy
ground again. On approaching Guayacanes, the cactus becomes more numerous and
the acacia-trees more dense until when the little village is reached. But a single
house of its dozen or twenty is visible from the road. The remainder are scattered
over a space of a mile, and usually one or two hundred yards from the road. The
resemblance of this region to the arid plains of Lower California is very striking.
The same dry soil covered with a scanty carpet of grass, the same low, straggling-
limbed, open-foliaged acacia-trees: the same tall columnar cactus, with its under-
erowth of opuntias ; even the same cloudless sky, make the likeness complete. Near
the cemetery, about three miles east of Guayacanes, a little dry water-course shows

A. P. S.—vVvon. Xv. 2N.

158 ON THLE TOPOGRAPHY AND GHOLOGY

that the yellow shale continues, and at Esperanza the weathered-out shells of Arca,
Oyster, Venus, Cassis and Spondylus, although mixed with surface pebbles, show
that their source cannot be far distant; and Mr. Bonaezy reported to me the blue
shale at Ynamagado, south of the river and but a couple of miles distant, dipping
north at a very low angle.

From the little hill, hardly more than a roll in the plain, near Esperanza, and just
off the road, one of the finest views in the valley can be obtained. The valley is so
level that the hill commands a prospect over everything both east and west, while
there is probably hardly a better spot in the whole region from which to see the high
central mountains. It is directly in front of the Rucillo, and the whole range can be
taken in at one view.

From Esperanza to Santiago but one or two trifling little exposures occur, and
there, while showing a little more sandstone in the shale and a little more undulation
in the beds than further west, give us no additional facts. The whole valley, from
Santiago to Monte Cristi, and from side to side, is made up entirely and only of
Miocene strata, and usually the more modern parts only of these beds can be seen in
the valley, except where the rivers have cut through the Samba Hills. I make this
categorical statement as a summary, because it has been asserted to be otherwise.*

Santiago lies at about the highest point of the valley, at a height carefully
ascertained by barometer of 570 feet above the sea. It lies between the Yaqui and
the base of a range of low hills which project from the south and nearly divide the
valley into two parts. ‘The water-shed between the streams emptying into the.
Yaqui and the Yuna is formed in part by these hills and in part by the nearly level
parts of the valley north of them. ‘Two roads run out from Santiago eastward, con-
“necting it with Moca. The most northern running in the valley is entirely on level
ground, hardly an outcrop being visible over its entire length. South of it a more
direct route cuts across the hills, separating from the Vega road a mile southeast of
the town. Along the former route, wherever rocks were observed they always proved
to be a rather loose-grained, soft, shaly sandstone, the equivalent of the Guayubin
shale, but more sandy, and not unlike some beds observed on the Canna River.
Fossils were not detected, but its stratagraphical position above the blue shale is
indisputable. In some places near the northern hills an argillaceous limestone
appears. The dip is indifferently both north and south and constantly varies, but
never rises higher than 8° or 10°.

La Vega lies close to the foot-hills of the Sierra in a beautiful fiat plain on the

* Heneken. Quart. Journ, Geolog. Soc., London, 1858, p. 115, ¢¢ seg.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 159

south bank of the Camu River, and is connected with Santiago by a road running
partly in the valley, partly over the hills back of the latter town. This road furnishes
some opportunities of examining the upper part of the formation, here a little peculiar
in that it contains an unusual amount of sandstone.

As has already been described, the bluffs under Santiago are composed entirely of the
blue shale, a cross-section of which is exhibited by the cutting of the Yaqui and a lesser
one by the arroyo of Nivaje. The suburb of Nivaje on the south side of that creek
extends along the road towards la Vega, gradually rising on the flank of the bill. In
the village, but more especially just beyond it, beds of sandstone crop out in the bed
of the road and in the banks on each side, their dip being conformable with the
subjacent shale. In many places they show fine examples of ripple marks, and in one
instance I observed the peculiar surface called by D. D. Owen “mud _ furrows,”
similar to the figures in the Report of Geological Survey of Iowa, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota, Table 1 D., fig. 1, though hardly so sharply defined. Some beds of the
usual yellow claystones occur, interstratified with the harder rock, and some of the
sandstone contains large pebbles. From this fact, as well as that the conglomerate
beds of Angostura lie above dark shale and below limestone, it follows as an almost
inevitable inference that those conglomerates are the equivalent of the yellow shale of
Guayubin.

Very soon the sandstones become horizontal and even dip in the opposite direction,
and about two or three miles from Santiago they show only a surface in the road-bed
of a pebble-bearing calcareous sand seamed with soft streaks of lime. Beyond this
they disappear under a soil of black loam, so soft when wet as to well merit the name
of the “Laguna Prieta,” or black lake, given to a couple of miles of road north of
Punal Creek. Where the road crosses the bed of the creek the bluffs show small
outcrops of the brown shale so like the surface earth as to be hardly distinguishable.
In fact it is not improbable that the latter owes its origin in great part to the dis-
integration of the former. Its dip seems to be to the northeast, though nearly
horizontal south of the Pufal. The low hills of Caimitos, which unite Santo Cerro
with the higher hills on the Verde, are made up in great part of a still higher set of
beds, here a yellowish-white caleareous claystone or marl, with a marked northern
dip; and on the Rio Verde itself, although the brown shales occur in the low bluffs
where the road crosses it, the gravel in its bed contains corals like those from the
north face of the Samba Hills, and which have evidently been washed out of limestone
beds to the west.

Up the Verde from this point the section is not unlike a part of that up the Yaqui,

160 ON TIE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

except that the heavy dark sandstones of Tabera are not reached. They dip under
the sources of the river. The brown shales and sandstones form most of the hills
from the Verde northward, with doubtless a little limestone on top from-which the
corals were derived, although I never found it in place. Below this are gray and
blue shales, and at their base some sandy beds, all more or less abounding in fossils.
The bluff below the house of the Alcalde on the upper Verde is the counterpart of
those in the Samba Hills on the lower Gurabo, Mao, or Amina; and a similar but
smaller bluff on the upper part of the Puial shows an equally good exposure of the
blue shale with many sandy beds evidently well down in the series, where the numerous
and perfect fossils richly reward the collector.

From the Rio Verde to the Camu the road is in part over a few low rolling
hills of gravel, which cover the line of junction between the Tertiary and the meta-
morphic slates. This gravel is extremely local. Its origin is evidently in the hills
directly west, but its age is not so clearly established. One little circumstance may
throw some light on it. The Verde River is the only stream in this vicinity in which
gold is found, and the Verde could not, with the present configuration of the surface,
throw its debris over this area; but during the era of the Mao gravels that would
have been possible, since the mouth of that stream was not far from the then shore-
edge of the deposit, which is also very slightly auriferous. I am therefore inclined
to suspect a synchronism between the two gravel basins, which, however, I am not
inclined to sustain as a positive determination. Were the gravel not gold-bearing,
or were there gold any nearer than the head of the Verde, I should not have even

proposed the hypothesis.

The road across the hill from Santiago so Moca differs but little from the first
part of the Vega road. Very soon after they separate, the Moca road leaves the hills
and thence runs the remainder of the distance over flat plains of black muddy loam,
In the dry season this bakes and cracks in the sun, and is as difficult for horses to
travel over as a rough rocky surface. The same may be said of the route from Vega
to Moca. Except that for a very short distance it runs over the margin of the base
of Santo Cerro, it is entirely in the loamy valley. Santo Cerro is, as it were, surrounded
by the two roads running out of Vega and a third which unites the two on its northern
flank. It is a low hill running nearly north and south, the last spur of the range
jutting out into the valley. It has already been referred to in the topographical
description of the region, and nothing mere need be said here of its position or the
beautiful prospect it commands. It is made up of the brown shales and the sand-
stones of the vicinity, here dipping a little higher than usual to the northeast. On

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 161

the summit I found, in a bed somewhat more calcareous than the others, Septarva
and corals very similar in their mode of occurrence to that of the same species near
Guayubin.

North of Moca no other rock exposures occur. The valley is flat to the base of the
hills, and the black soil makes this vicinity one of the most productive agricultural
districts on the Island. The region east of Moca and Vega is equally uninteresting
to the geologist. A broad plain runs east between the two ranges of hills; the river
bottom is a sheet of black alluvial soil of almost incredible fertility, while near the
hills the gravel and sand washed down from their sides makes a porous soil which only
supports grass and which is thus admirably fitted for cattle-raising. The sluggish
Yuna winds its way through the middle of the valley, its banks, mud bluffs, support-
ing an almost unbroken forest, while its more lively tributaries, the Camu and the
Jima, as well as the upper part of its own course, hurry between the banks of shingle
brought down from the mountains of the far interior. But a single exception to this
monotony exists. Near the mouth of the Camu, on the south side of the Yuna above
Platanales, I found a single outcrop of white limestone in the side of the river bed.
It is partly under the water, partly in the bluffs, and is very similar lithologically to
some of the Miocene limestone of Samana. It is Miocene, and is the most northern
point at which the Cevico belt crops out. Doubtless the same rock would be found
to underlie a great part of the valley if excavations were made.

The eastern end of the valley for a dozen miles from the mouth of the river is a
tract of marsh. Part of it is almost constantly overflowed, while the more western
portion is grass-covered and dry, except in cases of extraordinary ireshets or remark-
ably high tides, when it is temporarily covered with water. It is intersected by in-
numerable creeks which divide with the principal mouth the task of discharging the
waters of the river into Samané Bay. The bay is simply the prolongation of the
ralley, and the marsh is now in process of being elevated into permanent dry land.
The Gran Estero which separates Samana from the main-land was a century ago a
navigable channel, but is now entirely closed. It is said to have been closed by
drift and mud from the Yuna. May not this elevation, which we have every reason

to believe is yet going on, have something to do with the obstruction ?

Ne 12, Ries Xa, 20)

162 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

CoE ACR ARE sexe.
GEOLOGY OF THE MONTE CRISTI RANGE.

The Monte Cristi range occupies about half the area covered by the Miocene
rocks, and although it shows these strata bent and eut through in innumerable places
by deep cafions, it gives us no new facts relative to them. Deposited further off
shore, although probably not in much deeper water, its rocks are nearly devoid of
fossils, and except in the highest bed where a few foraminifera serve to identify
them, they might be searched from one end of the range to the other without yielding
positive evidence of their geological age. This is partly due also to the fact that the
blue shaie from which the greater part of the fossils is obtained changes its lithological
character somewhat, and does not seem to have been at the time of its deposition so
favorable to the existence of mollusea life. But this can only account in part for the
absence of fossils, because the superjacent beds, lithologically identical with those
nearer the ancient shore, are equally or almost as barren. Among the large collections
of these objects made during the progress of our work, almost the only ones obtained
north of the valley were a few corals and mollusca from the hill of Monte Cristi and
from the little adjoining island of Cayo Publico. I found a few very imperfect
fragments of small crustaceans in the shale near Limon; but elsewhere over the
more than a thousand square miles examined, no other fossils were discovered by
either my assistants or myself.

Fortunately the rocks retain their general lithological characters so well preserved
that there is no difficulty in identifying any part of the formation, and the structure
of the chain is so simple that the labor of deciphering the various sections is com-
paratively trifling. Although there is no heavy folding or great disturbance in the
range, there is a marked difference in all the sections I have been able to make out
across it. There is no one well-defined anticlinal axis or single line of upheaval. The
elevating force seems to have acted simultaneously under the entire mass, but with
various degrees of intensity in the middle or at either margin. Monte Cristi is raised
vertically almost a thousand feet. Thirty or forty miles east all of the force was
expended on the northern margin; north of Santiago it acted most markedly near the
middle, while north of Moca the southern edge alone is disturbed; and again north
of Macoris, the greatest upheaval took place north of the summit of the range. West

of Puerto Plata the metamorphosed cretaceous slates reach the surface, lifting the

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 163

entire thickness of the formation undisturbed on their upturned edges. Most of this
has since been denuded away, but Isabella de Torres still remains, an ancient beach-
mark, its level top of white limestone 2,530 feet above the sea. This is the only case
where the entire thickness of the Miocene can be estimated by a vertical section. But
unfortunately the flanks of Isabella are so covered up by talus that the only rock
accessible in place is the cap of hard limestone. Deducting the probable elevation
of the cretaceous base, the thickness is approximately 2,000 feet, or a trifle over my
estimate in the theoretical section given elsewhere. If, however, we were to take the
thickness of every member of the formation where it is most freely developed, we
could run up the figures much higher than 2,000 feet. My object was rather to give
a reasonable average.

The above deductions will, I believe, be found to be fully warranted by a con-
sideration of the details of the range as developed by the half dozen sections which I
have made across it. For the accuracy of my observations, where my statements
differ from those of my predecessor, whether in this case or in my preceding descrip-
tion of the adjoining valley, I must simply beg the indulgence of the reader, remind-
ing him that I can have no object in disparaging the labors of a dead man whom I
never saw, and that I commenced my work and carried it on with a full knowledge
of his published account of the region.. A due regard for truth and for my own
reputation as a geological observer oblige me occasionally to contradict his assertions
but I do so in no spirit of antagonism—rather with a feeling of regret that so in-
experienced an observer should have been tempted to “rush into print.” I make this
statement to clear myself of any unfair imputations and to avoid future discussion of
the subject with any of his surviving friends, should such exist.

Monte Cristi, the extreme western point of the northern range, is a narrow flat-
topped hill a trifle over 800 feet high, entirely isolated from its neighbors by a broad
belt of salt marsh cut through by tidal creeks communicating with the sea. Its
summit is capped with a hard limestone containing foraminifera, and which has im-
peded to some extent the action of the denuding agencies which separated it from the
main ridge. This limestone has so completely resisted atmospheric influences that
its surface is nearly naked. Possibly its purity is so great that it is all soluble, and
unlike the coast limestone, it contains too little aluminous matter to leave any soil after
the lime is dissolved by the rains. Whatever be the reason, the dense crest of thorny
bushes which it bears finds nourishment only in the crevices where a soil so scanty
as hardly to merit the name has accumulated. Below the limestone the Guayubin

shales come in, their upper part pebbly like near Santiago and Angostura. These

164. ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

gradually shade into the bluish shales of the valley in exactly the same manner as the
change takes place in the centre of the valley, and the lower part of these blue shales
bear occasional beds of sandstone, probably on the same horizon as those near the
mouth of the cafion north of Moca, or those near Limon on the road to Puerto Plata.
The mountain gives on a small scale, that is, with all of the members considerably
thinned out, a section from the top, nearly three-fourths of the way to the base of the
formation. The little island lying in front of the bay of Monte Cristi, called Cayo
Publico, is made up of the upper part of the shale series, and both there and in the
mountain itself we collected casts of corals and a few familiar mollusca, but all ina

poor state of preservation.

The barren character of the Monte Cristi chain and the almost entire absence of
human occupation, with the consequent scarcity of roads, combined with the fact that
in this part of the range no results of economic value could possibly be hoped for,
prevented me from devoting any further attention to it than sending through it a
topographical party to make a hasty reconnoisance. Mr. Runnebaum obtained its
principal features by a rapid triangulation, and reported to me that the only rocks he
encountered were the shales and limestones of the upper part of the Miocene series.
His limited experience, however, did not permit him to make observations of the
details of structure sufficiently accurate to record here.

I myself followed its southern base in the valley several times, studying it from a
distance, and have examined its northern face in the same manner from the prominent
point at the mouth of the Isabella, which commands a view almost to Monte Cristi.
Judging from the very imperfect data thus furnished, from its diminished height and
width as well as from the structure of the hill of Monte Cristi and from what infor-
mation Mr. Runnebaum was able to give me, it is probable that only the upper
members of the formation occur there, and that the amount of disturbance has been
comparatively limited. Ma. Runnebaum found it in the main a dry barren series of
hills badly watered, but with a few little fertile spots where the natural irrigation
supplied the deficiency of rain. The coast is almost impassable on account of
thickets, mangrove-swamps, and quicksands, and he was obliged to go from Monte
Cristi to Estero Balsa in a boat in consequence of his inability to force his way
through the thorny brush over the hills. he bad trail from Guayubin to Estero
Balsa is the only road across the range between Monte Cristi and the Isabella Pass.
From this another trail branches off at Tibureio in .a central valley and runs east,
uniting with the latter route, and is sometimes used by the people of Guayubin in
going to or from Puerto Plata.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 165

The Isabella or Bahabonito River rises near the centre of the range north of Santi-
ago in the vicinity of Alta Mira, and its upper branches cross the pass that runs
through that place. Thence it flows northwest along a valley in the middle of the
range, and empties into the sea about twenty-five miles in a direct line west of Puerto
Plata. At its mouth is a little bay, a mere rectangular indentation in the coast,
opening to the northwest. The southern shore of the bay, a nearly east and west
line, is bordered by a sand-beach and mangrove-swamps, behind which rise the yellow
barren Tertiary hills scantily covered with cactus and acacias. Among the latter,
one species, the ‘ divi-divi,” abounds. This tree yields a seed very rich in tannin,
which is collected extensively for export, and might be made with industry an im-
portant article of commerce, Further back in the hills satin-wood and Guayacan
(lignumyite) are not rare, and the little settlement near the mouth of the river, owes
its existence, I dare not say its prosperity, to the export of these two woods. ‘The
eastern side of the bay is formed by a high bluff of horizontal coast limestone, the top
forming a table, running back with some trifling undulations a couple of miles to the
low miocene hills of the range. ‘The surface of this table-land is strewn with blocks
of the same limestone and fragments of corals weathered out, and is covered with a
scanty layer of the characteristic red soil always found over this formation. It sup-
ports a tangled “monte ” or brush-growth of nearly all the species of cactus found in
the Island, interspersed with acacia and thorny vines, as forbidding a thicket as it
was ever my unhappy duty to force my way through. To the geologist one look at
the place would suffice; but the temptation to visit the spot where Columbus made
his first settlement was too great to be resisted, and I yielded, to the great risk of
torn clothes, scratched face, and ruffled temper. He must have an angelic disposition
who can walk a mile through bushes covered with the “ cat’s-claw ” or ‘* wait-a-bit”’
vine and emerge in a serene frame of mind. In the heart of such a tract Columbus

founded the first colony.

The valley of the Isabella is, as compared with that part of the Santiago Valley
immediately south of it, comparatively fertile. There is a succession of houses for
several miles from its mouth and, while there is nothing very attractive in the beauty

5)

of the little ““conucos ” along the road, they show an amount of fertility in the soil

and a rich green of their crops which indicate that the dews must here supply in part

the searcity of rain. The further back one goes into the mountains the better is the

appearance of things, and the thick carpet of grass at Laguna and the good size of

the plantain trees prove that in this part moisture is not deficient. From Laguna

the road divides—one part runs wp the valley joining the Alta Mira Pass, while the
A. P. 8.—VOL. XV.—2r.

166 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND. GEOLOGY

other continuing south commences at once to ascend the hill. For some distance it
continues over rolling ground, past one or two groups of houses, and then suddenly
climbs a steep ascent to the summit of the range. At the base of the hills where the
trail first leaves the valley there is a little exposure in the bed of a rivulet where the
sandstone beds near the bottom of the series stand vertically. On ascending the hill
we find more modern strata coming in, although the shale is but poorly represented,
its place being taken by their bedded sandstones. These first dip at very high angles
to the south, but gradually assume lower dips, and the higher one climbs the hill the
lower he finds. the dip of the strata, until near the summit the limestone is found
capping the hill and dipping southward at low angles. I was not able to measure it
with certainty, but it is not far from 20°. The limestone shows only its edge on the
north face of the mountain, and although it is unusually compact, differs in no other
important respect from the same beds elsewhere. On the south face of the range it
is cut through by the stream along which the road runs, and near the base it is seen
to be underlaid again by the same rocks as on the north side.* Beyond the base of
the hill a long gradual slope of gravel, the wash from the arroyo, borders the valley
and is, as usual in this region, densely overgrown with cactus and acacias. The high
angle to which the sandstones are uptilted on the north side of the mountain, while
unusual in this range, is not entirely peculiar; nor does the disturbance necessarily
extend to a great distance. A similar upheaval will be described north of Moca which
not only does not affect either side of the range greatly, but is actually reversed in
both the adjoiing sections.

The next pass east of the one just described is the one most travelled in crossing
the mountains. It begins nine miles west of Santiago, at Limon, crosses the range
west of the high peak of Diego Campo, and passing Alta Mira and the head-waters
of the Isabella River, crosses the lower spur on which is perched Mount Isabella de
Torres, and descends to the plain near Puerto Plata. Its entire length, including the
nine miles in the valley, is forty-one miles, and the thirty miles of mountain section
is one of the most interesting in the chain. Near the base of the mountain in the
canon of the Limon Creek it is evident that there has been some disturbance even
where the surface configuration does not indicate it. While the shales in the valley
are usually undulated, dipping in all directions at angles of from 5° to 10°; here they
suddenly pitch northward as high as from 30° to 50°, and bring to the surface the

* T desire particularly to call the attention of the reader to my section along this route and then to the section
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1853, p. 119, fig. 3) of Mount Murass which immediately adjoins the road or its east side,
and which of necessity must have identically the same structure. Beds No. 10 and No. 1 of that section are in

reality identical ; Nos. 2 and 38 are the equivalents of No. 9, which shall be under instead of over No. 10; Nos. 4 and

5 equal No. 11; and the No. 10 on the north flank does not exist !

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 167

gray shales with intercalated strata of sandstone belonging to the lower part of the
blue shale series. ‘This upheaval is not extensive and the base of the outcrop near
Piedra Gorda shows a marked curve, the beginning of a synclinal axis. Near Lima
I found a dark gray conglomerate with broken fragments of shell very similar to the
conglomerate bed of the Angostura of the Yaqui; but directly on commencing the
ascent of the hill the brown shale of Guayubin appears, and dipping to the south
extends to the top of the pass. Near the summit the higher hills on both sides are
seen to be capped with the usual white limestone, apparently nearly horizontal; but
it is not encountered anywhere on this part of the road. In the shale ascending the
south side of the hill near the summit, although fossils were nowhere seen, I found
white earthy concretions rarely more than an inch or two in length, very irregular in
form, and usually more or less botryoidal. They seem to be a little more calcareous
than the surrounding mass. On breaking them open I could not detect any fossil
around which they might have segregated, as is sometimes the case in these bodies.
They are perfectly homogeneous in structure. Hast of the road the sharp peak of
Diego Campo rises, according to barometrical measurement made by Mr. Pennell,
3,855 feet above the sea, the highest point in the Monte Cristi range. That gentle-
man reports its summit to be of limestone.

From Alta Mira to the little streams which form the head of the Isabella the road
runs along a very muddy clay ridge, where nothing can be seen of the geology; but
further on, the shales with occasional sandstone beds are seen to have dipped north-
ward again, and only pebbles of these sandstones are found in the beds of the water-
courses. A little further along a coarse, soft, grayish-brown sandstone occurs, dipping
at a very low angle northward, and full of the characteristic foraminifera, especially
Orbitoides, which have so often proved useful in identifying the formation. Still
further north on the summit of the last ridge the limestone occurs capping the ridge
as a brown or coarse-grained gray or even white rock, in almost every case full of
foraminifera. In one place it is of a pinkish white and without these fossils.

On descending the north face of the ridge about four or five miles back of Puerto
Plata a marked change takes place in the rocks. The absence of good outcrops here
makes it difficult to be very certain about this part of the section. A series of
metamorphic sandstones, some of them micaceous, crop out on the road. They are
nearly horizontal, dipping slightly to the north. A more extensive study of the
surrounding region leads us to believe that these are the base of the Tertiary, altered
by contact with the Cretaceous, which has pushed them up and which crops out very

near here. Their dip and even their lithological structure help to corroborate this

Pan)

theory; and thus we have here a repetition of the state of affairs at Tabera, on the

168 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Yaqui. No outerops occur on the plain, but the bluffs about Puerto Plata are made
up of the ordinary coast limestone.

Although where the road crosses the ridge which forms the base of Mount Isabella
the oldest rock found is the metamorphic sandstone just described, a little west of
the town where this ridge reaches to the coast a very different condition of affairs is
discovered. It is here found to be made up of the magnesian slate of the Sierra,
lithologically identical with the typical localities in the central chain. Its most usual
character is the ight greenish-gray semi-tale similar to that in the ridge between
Vega and Jarabacoa, or to that of many of the localities around the peak of the
Gallo. Its metamorphism is so complete that no stratification is discernible, though
the semi-lenticular flakes into which it usually breaks are more generally “on edge ”
than horizontal in position, as if the dip was probably vertical or nearly so. As is
intimated in the preceding paragraph, the presence of this intrusion of Cretaceous
under the nearly horizontal Miocene is sufficient to account for the alteration of the
latter, when we bear in mind that. similar causes have produced like effects at
Tabera, and that in going east from the locality in question on the Palo Quemado
route the metamorphism gradually dies out. Mount Isabella de Torres, the best land-
mark on the north coast, after losmg sight of the headlands of Samana on one side
or Monte Cristi on the other, is a flat mountain which gave to Mr. Pennell a height
of 2,530 feet. Schomburgk marks it in round numbers at 700 metres. One or the
other is evidently in error. The latter, in his account of his visit to Constanza, in the
Atheneum Journal, speaks of his having used on that trip an aneroid barometer, and
it is not improbable that in this case his measurement may have been made with an
equally unreliable instrument. Mr. Pennell’s observations were made with one of
Green’s best mountain barometers of the Smithsonian pattern, an instrument which
the extensive mountain work of the Californian Geological Survey has proven to be
without a superior. By comparison with my office standard it was proven to be in
perfect condition both before and after the observation, so I can hardly imagine the
possibility of an error. There is certainly none in the computation of his observations.
This mountain is capped with a thick bed of white limestone, below the edge of which
the talus covers up all outcrops, so that the details of its structure are not accessible ;
but we are bound to infer that the highest member of the formation being found at
its summit and the oldest being seen at the level of its base, the intermediate strata
are in all probability represented at their various levels in its interior. We have thus
a pretty good criterion for judging of the thickness of the formation at this point, as
stated in the preliminary observations on the range.

West of Puerto Plata ‘a narrow strip of coast limestone borders the sea, making

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 169

bluffs of from forty to sixty feet high, in some cases forming bold headlands. No-
where is it very wide, and the encroachment of the sea is slowly but surely under-
mining and wearing away the little remainder. I traced it as far as I went, to Isabella ;
but from the contour of the surface beyond that, as seen from that point, I do not
think it makes a notable feature in the geology.

While the Alta Mira Pass crosses the head of the Isabella River and skirts around
the west side of Mount Diego Campo, the Palo Quemado Pass running around the
east side of the same mountain, crosses the upper part of the Yasica River. The
upper part of the yellow shales, occasionally calcareous, are seen in the valley before
reaching the hills, rolling with a general east and west strike and dipping north or
south indifferently. The trail runs up a long spur of the Palo Quemado mountain,
showing first the yellow shales with a little limestone dipping towards the valley and
exhibiting their edges on the crest of the ridge. At the summit of Palo Quemado
Mountain a little yellowish limestone remains; but on descending on the north side
the rocks are encountered in a regularly descending series to the bed of the Yasica
River, here a stream of half a foot deep and twenty to thirty feet wide. In its bed
gray shales with a little sandstone form nearly fiat ledges, with little dip in any
direction. Mixed with the pebbles of these sandstones are very numerous boulders,
some of them over a foot in diameter, of a tough coarse-grained syenite, undistinguish-
able in any of its characters from similar rock in the Cibao range. This syenite was
not seen here in place, and I might have been tempted to have considered it as
derived secondarily from a conglomerate had I not seen it elsewhere forming large
dykes cutting through the Tertiary rocks. The large size of the boulders and their
great number, not less than the comparatively short course of the river, prove that
the dyke from which they were derived is not far off. A little settlement, called
Yasica Arriba, of four or five houses occupies a pretty little open spot, comparatively
level, bordering the river. The people, as is usual among these mountaineers, earn a
scanty livelihood from the herds of half-wild pigs that roam through the woods; a
not very remunerative occupation, but one that involves plenty of healthy out-of-door
exercise in capturing their property when they desire to avail themselves of it. From
the crossing of the Yasica the trail crosses another high ridge composed of similar
shales and sandstones with a constant east and west strike and with alow but
marked northern dip. ‘Towards the northern base the rocks become entirely sand-
stone and show evident marks of metamorphism, though not so strong as those near
Puerto Plata. About four miles from the town I found a brown sandstone with
minute specks of mica, as it were an intermediate stage between the unaltered sand-

A. P. S.—VOL. Xv. 2Q.

170 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

stone and the fine-grained silver gray mica slate of Corozal, which is doubtless derived
from the same formation.

The coast limestone of Puerto Plata extends eastward along the sea, nowhere,
however, so important a formation as it becomes on the south side of the Island.
Instead of forming a great rocky bluff hiding everything under it, it modestly skirts
little patches, sorietimes barely shows itself through the sand of the beach, or is
covered up under the high sand dunes, or again appears as broad shelving reefs
extending far out to sea with an almost imperceptible seaward dip. In some cases,
however, as hear the little River Susua, it makes low hills of limited extent, being
pushed up alone with the older Tertiary that forms their bases. It also most pro-
bably underlies the numerous little “ flats” and valleys which border the north side
of the range, and which make sonie of the prettiest farming sites in the country.
Among these may be named as pre-eminent Batei and Caberete. West of the latter
place there is a peculiar spot, different from any other I have seen on the Island. The
low-lying coast and the constant beating of the winds and waters of the Atlantic
render the north side much more liable to be covered by sands drifting up from the
beach than the south side.. Sand-dunes are the exception rather than the rule where
the forest does not reach to the water’s edge. On the other hand, the greater exuber-
ance of vegetation in this tropical region acts as a partial check to the drifting sand,
and the forest crawls seaward about as fast as the sand dips inland. From this
never-ending struggle there results many small dunes, their windward face smooth
from the renewing influence of the wind, while the leaward side is almost always
covered with brush, whose growth keeps pace with the growth of the hill, and by
opposing a wall to the wind, eddies back a large part of the sand that would other-
wise creep inland. But at the Palmal tens of thousands of the Canna palm, young,
forni a grove of two or three miles in extent, with but little undergrowth except
trees of the same species, their roots firmly knit into the crevices of the under-
lying limestone, and the soil a shifting layer of beach sand which drifts into the
grove, but with the force of the wind so broken by the innumerable tree trunks that
it is spread out evenly instead of being piled up in the familiar ridges. The sand is
as loose and shifting as a dry beach, and so barren that hardly a blade of grass or a
bush ean find nourishment in it; but the palms thrive admirably.

The next opportunity for the study of the range that exists east of the Palo Que-
mado route, is the road from Moca, by way of Jamao to Batei. This pass ascends
the side of a cation in which the dark gray shales and beds of sandstone of the lower

part of the shale series dip first as high as 50° north. Great exposures, some of them

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 171

two hundred feet high on the hill sides, show beautifully the bedding of the strata,
and prove that in the spaces between the edge of the hills and the present site of the
town of Moca the upheaving forces must have had full play. But the limited extent
of their influence is proven alike by the nearly undisturbed condition of the forma-
tion between Moca and Santiago, and by the southern dip of the beds on the south
flank of Palo Quemado Mountain, hardly a dozen miles distant to the west, and on
the Macoris Pass, barely more than twenty miles east. Ascending the mountain the
dip continues to the north, gradually becoming lower, while the rocks are passed in
the usual ascending series until near the top, instead of the white limestone heretofore
found capping the ridges, we find a white highly calcareous marl with casts of fora-
minifera and a few very rare mollusca of species abundant in the blue shales of the
valley and more common still in the brown shales of Guayubin. Here the dip is so
low as to seem horizontal, though from finding the same rock further north at lower
levels it is probably at very low angles northward.

Descending the hill to Jamao we again descend in the section and find sandstones
and brown shale cropping out in the valley. After crossing the river there is a low
ridge of the same brown sandstones and shales with very low northern dips, suc-
ceeded by a nearly horizontal very thick bed of cream-colored limestone forming the
outermost foot-hills at Batei. In this, I found a fragment of a badly preserved
Pecten, too imperfect for specific determination. Here this limestone is worn into a
well-marked ancient terrace apparently of the era of the coast limestones which abut
against its base.

At Batei I picked up in the soil a whitish granitoid rock composed of white quartz
and feldspar, and small but remarkably distinct crystals of a silver-gray mica. It
was but slightly rounded on the angles as if not transported very far. But I have
never seen a similar rock on the Island. It is probably from same small dyke in the
mountains.

From Batei to the Rio Jobo is a continuous sand beach after leaving the vicinity
of the houses of the former place. But on the east side of the Jobo a new style of
coast begins and continues almost uninterruptedly to Samana. The hills come down
to the coast and the trail runs along strips of sand, then over a hill through bushes and
over rocks to repeat again the same story of sand, bushes and rocks, until the weary
traveller is heartily glad to reach the miserable little hamlet of Matanzas. The last
route eastward where a trail crosses the range and consequently where a section can
be obtained is from the north of the Jobo River, up its canon and across to Macoris.

The trail from Macoris to Matanzas is of no geological value since it runs almost ex-

172 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

actly along the strike of the rocks, and further, except crossing a very low ridge
almost its whole length is in the bed of a creek, which it crosses, stumbling among
sandstone boulders so many times that one gives up counting in despair.

The rocks on the Jobo trail while striking as usual about east and west, show a
more than ordinary amount of disturbance. Near the mouth of the river, heavy
bedded sandstones and conglomerates are found which continue to and beyond the
little settlement of two or three houses called Blanco. 'The resemblance of some of
these coarse-grained sandstones to those near Puerto Plata, which are more or less
metamorphosed, is so striking that I could not resist the impression that they are the
same beds. Nowhere else, beyond the north face of this range, unless it be on the
south edge of the formation on the Bao and Yaqui, have I observed the peculiar
appearance possessed by them. It is one of those intangible characteristics that one
recognizes but cannot describe. It is nothing remarkable; nothing more than a
similarity in “grain” and in general appearance. The dip changes constantly ; some-
times it is north, sometimes south, and its angles are also sometimes quite high. At
Blanco, which is but a short distance north of the summit, there are thick beds of
sandstone studded full of large pebbles which dip about 25° south. Above this
point, the more recent members of the formation appear regularly with gradually de-
creasing southern dips until at the summit we find the white earthy limestone capping
the range and nearly horizontal. Further south, descending towards Macoris, the brown
shale is again met under the limestone dipping south and passing under the valley.

About five miles south of Blanco, on the trail, is adyke of syenite about 200 yards
wide, cutting directly across the road. The exposures at its sides were so small and
so covered up by the soil that I was not able to ascertain whether its presence pro-
duced a local metamorphism of the adjacent shale. Like the boulders in the Yasica,
it bears a remarkable resemblance to the intrusive rocks of the Cibaorange. Where
I crossed it, it was coarse-grained and composed of white feldspar, but little quartz
with black hornblende, and contained a green mineral resembling augite. A mile or
two east it is cut by a stream running down to Macoris, from the bed of which f col-
lected specimens much finer-grained and without the green mineral. If these speci-
mens were mixed with the Sierra series they would defy the most expert petrologist
to find a distinguishing character. And yet the Sierra slates were upheaved by these
intrusive rocks, and the Tertiary deposited indiscriminately over them and over the
upheaved edges of the slates. If further proof of the pre-Tertiary, or rather pre-
Miocene age of the Sierra syenites is required, the presence of pebbles of these rocks
in the conglomerates at or near the base of that formation furnishes it. And here
we have similar syenites cutting through these very beds of conglomerate.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. Lis

From old Cape Frances the extreme northeastern corner of this range, which I
have never visited, Mr. Pennell brought me a rock identical with that which occurs
on the point of Cape Cabron, and which indicates the probable existence of the Sierra
group in that neighborhood. Some of the Sierra limestones of Samana are of a pecu-
liar dark blue, semi-crystalline in structure, like an imperfect marble. At both of
these places such a rock has been broken down into small splinters and angular frag-
ments and re-cemented by a yellowish stalactitic deposit, making a coarse breccia
with numerous cayvities.. The resemblance between specimens from these two locali-
ties is perfect, and since the blue rock from which the fragments are derived at Cape
Cabron is in place, the deposit being a sort of talus, I infer that a similar condition
of affairs exist at Cape Frances. How much of this part of the range may consist
of this formation we do not know. ‘This is one of the problems for future geologists
to solve. Mr. Pennell found it at all of the points from Punta Laguna Gringrisa to
Cape Amaras. It must be understood that all of this region goes by the name of
“Old Cape Frances,” which is not applied to any one particular point. From the
topographical structure, and from the fact of the rock being only found on this one
spur, it is probable that it will not be found to extend much beyond a line drawn
from Cape Amaras to the north of the San Juan. But he is not to be envied who
shall settle the question. The interior region is entirely uninhabited, there is not a
road or trail through it, and it is practially impenetrable. It consists of a broad mass

of low, heavily wooded hills, never visited except by a few pig-hunters.

CHAPTER XI.

GEOLOGY OF SAMANA.

In studying the geology of Samana we find a repetition of all the phenomena of
the larger island, with the exception of the eruptive rocks. I call it island rather than
peninsula since it is separated from the mainland by the Gran Hstero, formerly a
navigable stream, now partially closed. Cretaceous rocks highly metamorphosed
and uptilted; Miocene Tertiary deposited on their edges or flanks, these elevated
horizontally almost to the highest summits of the hills, and the whole flanked by
Post Pliocene coast formations consisting of limestones and gravels constitute the
summary of the geology. No syenites whatever have been found either in place or
even in the coast gravels.

A. P. §.—VOL. XV. 2R.

17-L ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

The elevation of Samana is unimportant, resembling in this respect the castern
end of the main chain, to which it also bears a greater resemblance in the details of
its structure than to the more central portions. ‘The highest points and the region of
greatest disturbance are alike at and near its eastern end, and the fact of the Cre-
taceous strata approaching a more nearly horizontal position towards the west,
together with the greater development of the Tertiary in the same direction, seem to
indicate that in the yet unexplored eastern end of the Monte Cristi range at most but
a trifling amount of the older formation will be discovered.

Immediately adjoining the Gran Estero the land is low, much of it is marshy,
and the rocks are covered with river alluvium; but approaching Port Jackson,
‘Tertiary hills came in, and the only rock found is a very compact limestone more or
less nearly white, usually with a pinkish tinge, and containing Orbitoides. It is
nearly horizontal, with a trifling northern dip. Only in the higher hills between this
point and Canitas are any of the older rocks discovered, and here they form but a
narrow belt. Hast of Port Jackson this limestone gradually narrows and finally runs
out to a point on the coast underlaid by the uptilted Cretaceous; but in the interior
it forms a series of basins more or jess interrupted and flanking the northern face of
the highest ridge. It is there horizontal and occasionally fossiliferous. Along the
south coast the formation is continued around the west end of the hills and borders
their southern base, past Canitas and los Robalos almost to Punta Mangle. Here it
is represented by a narrow strip, but instead of the limestone, an older member makes
its appearance. The Guayubin shales with all of their ordinary characteristics form
all of the flat or low rolling land between the base of the hills and the shore of the
bay.

Owing to the roughness of the surface and the scanty population there is no road
across the island between the Canitas trail and one which crosses from the mouth of
the Limon nearly south to los Robalos. At the former point the rock is a dark blue
limestone, semi-crystalline, and dips north about 380°. Unlike the Cibao range, the
greater part of Samana is made up of limestone and mica slate, both of which rocks
are rare elsewhere and the latter is especially exceptional. Abundant proof exists
that the mica slate is always sedimentary in origin. It is always interstratified with
rocks of that class, and one curious instance occurs east of Santa Barbara where in
the ‘same block the transition occurs from this to limestone within a couple of feet.
But to return to the section. In following up the ridge parallel with the river the
dip of the strata becomes higher and beds of sandstone and mica slate appear, gradu-

ally becoming vertical and then assuming a southern dip. Passing the anticlinal, a

OF SANTO DOMINGO. nes)

dip of 35° south is seen, and directly afterwards the horizontal edges of the white
Miocene limestone present themselves, the beds containing occasional corals of well-
known species. This continues to the base of the high range. Ascending the ridge,
Cretaceous limestones again appear with low southern dips. These form the whole
range, and are seen cropping out continuously along the canon down which the road
descends towards the bay. Near the base they lie as low as 10° and finally dip under
the horizontal Miocene shale. ‘This is less than half a mile wide at los Robalos and
contains some seams of lignite which from time to time have induced explorations
for coal. During the last Spanish occupation of the country, before 1866, an attempt
was made to open a mine in the bed of a stream near this point. The water course
was deflected and a pit sunk, which resulted in the exposure of a five inch vein; but
nothing more was found. Still more recently, in 1870, a Mr. Kell, an English mining
engineer, spent considerable time and money in opening a pit at another spot. “Al-
though he jealously refilled his excayation, enough signs remained there and at out-
crops in the vicinity to show that his success had been no better than that of his
Spanish predecessors. The “coal” differs in no important respect from that at the
Angostura of the Yaqui or that of the Yaguajal near Savaneta.. It is a very impure
soft material, of a dull earthy black, and shrinks, cracks and eventually crumbles on
exposure to the atmosphere. from the number of outcrops known it probably ex-
tends continuously alone the whole of the western half of the north shore of Samana

Bay.

Hast of the Limon is the Arroyo Salado, or salt creek, which rises in a spring near
the middle of the Island. About twenty yards below the head, the stream is fifteen
feet wide and a foot deep in the middle. The water can hardly be called salt, but is
decidedly brackish. It empties into the sea midway between the Limon and the
Canfas. From the Salado to the San Juan the coast is an almost continuous sand
beach ; the hills retiring a little inland. But the trail from Limon parallel with the
sea to the Salado is one of the roughest and rockiest so-called horse-trails in the
country. Nothing but a mountain horse or a goat would dare to cross it without risk
of broken legs. It is over the usual blue limestones such as that found at the mouths

and along the courses of either the Limon or the San Juan Rivers.

The sand beach reaches to the mouth of the latter stream, ending there abruptly
against a high wall of nearly black limestone, which dips about 40° to the north.
Following up the river the same rock is observed in the hills on both sides witha
regular east and west strike, but with a constantly diminishing northern dip, becoming

almost horizontal on the summit. Mixed with the limestone is a little mica slate and

176 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

four or five miles northwest of Santa Barbara a bed of white limestone of the same
age occurs. On descending from the top of the pass and entering the lower hills,
they are found to be composed of horizontal strata of gravel, apparently of the
coast formation, made up entirely of debris of the limestones, mica slates and tal-
cose slates which form the higher range. ‘This gravel, like the Miocene to the west
of it, makes a belt adjoining the coast and extends about a dozen miles east and west,
forming in some places high bluffs with nearly vertical faces overhanging the bay.
It also constitutes the little islands that lie in the neighborhood of Santa Barbara.
Although a comparatively modern formation it is so solid as almost to merit the
name of a conglomerate ; and it resists the encroachment of the waves almost as
well as the neighboring points of limerock. To the west it extends as far as Los
Corosos, where it first appears as a steep hill.

Between the San Juan and the Arroyo Salado, on the Arroyo Cafias, in addition
to the limestone so common in this region, there is a peculiar yellowish-gray talcose
slate. It is very fissile and is nearly pure tale. The deposit is quite limited and is
almost the only one in Samana. In the same neighborhood, on the Rio Pito,a branch
of the San Juan, but further south, there is a gray mica slate cut up by numerous
milky-white quartz veins. Both these rocks have low northern dips.

The gravel beds continue for two miles east of Santa Barbara, where the lime-
stones and mica slates of the interior first come down to the coast. At this point
occurs the curious mixture of lime with mica referred to above. A series of gray
limestones crop out on the beach, striking about due east and west, and dipping north
from 65° to 80°. Interstratified with these are beds of mica slate; but one stratum
of two or three feet thick particularly struck my attention. On examining a block
of it on the beach, fallen from the bed, I found one side pure limestone; further in
there were little scales of mica regularly disposed in layers, the lines of deposition ;
and this mineral became regularly more abundant until the opposite side of the same
block was a pure mica slate, showing no sign of lime to the eye. East of this point
the rocks become vertical; still further east, a high northern dip returns, but at La
Flecha they fall almost to a horizontal and become mpre micaceous. Near Punta
Cacao, the rock is a silver-gray very fissile mica slate. Similar rocks and some clay
slates continue past Punta Balandra, where with a northeast dip they disappear under
the horizontal Tertiary which forms a little basin back of Puerto Frances. This is
an isolated deposit of horizontal rocks, limestone and sandstone, always white, al-
though in some places, the former has a pinkish tinge. The omnipresent Ordbztordes
fortunately appear in some places and thus saves us from the uncertainty that might

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 177

hang around the age of so exceptional a group of rocks. Until its discovery, I was
inclined to consider the beds as belonging to the coast limestone. This basin extends
from Point Grapin to the base of Cape Samana, and runs back forming almost a
plain to within a couple of miles of Rincon Bay. Here it abuts against the edges of
the Cretaceous shales which are elevated nearly vertically and which are represented
in this ridge by brown and gray clay slates, dipping at very high angles to the north
west. These slates run out to the eastward and constitute the bold headland of Cape
Samana; while Cape Cabron, running north on the west side of Rincon Bay is made
up of the mica slates and dark blue limestones such as have been described from the
San Juan and Limon. On Cape Cabron, on the trail crossing the ridge, the dark
blue limestone is broken into a coarse angular breccia and recemented by a yellowish
calcareous infiltration sometimes leaving cavities unfilled. I cannot determine
whether this is a recent deposit or whether it dates back as far as the coast limestone.

Although the gravels about Santa Barbara have been referred to the “coast forma-
tion,” I have detected no other locality of this group except a trifling little outline,
bordering the coast at and near Puerto Frances. Here it makes bluffs about twenty
to twenty-five feet high, worn into the most irregular forms by the action of the sea,
which beats against it-with more than usual violence. The deposit is very small, ex-
tending a mile or two along the coast and perhaps nowhere more than half a mile
inland.

CHA PDE Re XII.
GHOLOGY OF THE REGION SOUTH OF THE MAIN RANGE,

The southern slope of the Island divides itself naturally into two distinct and well-
marked portions—the mountainous or hilly region and the plains. The latter extends
east from the vicinity of the Ozama and its tributaries, or more properly it may be
said to include all the country east of the Jaina, while the former comprises all to the
west of that river, including the region about the upper half of its course.

Although the district east of the Jaina covers an area of over 1,500 square miles,
it furnishes but very few items of interest for the geologist. It has already been
described in the chapter on its topography as a plain, nearly level, ov at most gently
rolling, in part open grassy savanas varied by long lines of trees bordering the water-
courses, or in clumps scattered over their surface and coyering every depression.

(Ne St —=ViO ba kaviaaSc

178 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

The portion adjoining the coast, whether on the southern or eastern margin, is a dense
forest. These peculiarities of the vegetation are strictly dependent upon and con-
formable with the subjacent geological structure. The coast limestone forms a belt
varying from five to fifteen miles wide, its sea side ending invariably in a steep rocky
bluff usually vertical and not seldom deeply undermined by the waves—a pitiless
wall, with hardly an opening or a harbor, nearly a hundred and fifty miles long, with-
out a lighthouse or a buoy, the scene of many a shipwreck. The little bays sparsely
scattered along this coast are barely better than roadsteads, available only for the
smaller class of coasting vessels. The bluff is usually forty or fifty feet high, though
in some cases higher points run out to the coast. A line of terraces borders the
beach and occasionally the sea-margin is a little piece of sand-beach with a low line
of rocks but a few feet above high tide. This is especially the case west of Santo
Domingo City, where, however, the limestone begins to thin out. East of the mouth
of the Ozama as well as directly west of it, although the bluff is in places forty feet
high, there is a long terrace, parallel with the sea, bordering the regular level of the
plain and over 100 feet high. Immediately back of the capital the plain is perfectly
level and about 150 to 160 feet above tide level. This elevation is almost always
attained by a varying number of these terraces. At the southeastern corner of the
Island, in front of the little island of Saona, three of these terraces exist one behind
another, the first far back from the sea. An additional elevation equal to the average
height of one of these terraces would unite Saona and Catalinita Islands with the
mainland, and bring the neighboring reefs to the surface.

The limestone contains numerous caverns. One or two of considerable size ex-
tend under the City of Santo Domingo, while the caves of Sta. Ana a couple of miles
from the city, now occupied as a goat-pen, are of historic interest as the scene of the
unprovoked massacre of the last remnant of the Indians inhabiting the vicinity under
the pretext that they were clandestinely celebrating some heathenish religious rite.

Having already described the causes which produced the differences between the
coast limestone and the gravel and sand deposits of the savanas, it is not necessary
to recur to that question again. At the eastern end of the mountain range the
streams are so small, and during the era of the deposition of these strata must have
carried seaward such a small quantity of debris, that their influence is entirely lost in
the region east of Higuey. There the limestone as a consequence reaches up to the
old coast-line, the present base of the hills, where the local earthy modifications are
too unimportant and too limited in extent to be taken into account; but about
Higuey and thence westward the absence of forest adjoining the hills indicates even

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 179

to the casual traveller that the limestones have disappeared, and the nearly continuous
savanas are a sure index of the presence underneath of the more porous earths, sands,
and gravels. In a formation thus varying in its lithological characters, of course the
transition from one form to the other must be gradual, and an equally easy gradation
between pure forest and pure prairie is to be seen along the line of junction. The pure
limestone bears a continuous forest ; the uninterrupted grass region is as strictly con-
fined to the sands ; and where the underlying beds vary from an earthy limestone to a
calcareous sand or earth, there the country is clothed with a beautiful succession of
open glades separated by lines and clumps of trees. The boundary separating the
Savana from the coast deposit, may be defined as running, more or less, midway
between the coast and hills bending north around Higuey. The pretty little town of
San Antonio de Guerra, or Guerra as it is more generally known, lies in this line in
one of the innumerable prairies, the view cut off in every direction by the clumps
and “tongues” of timber which surround it. The softer impure limestone of this
part of the plain seems to be better adapted to the retention of surface water than
either the more compact but fissured coast rock on the one hand or the porous sand
and gravel on the other. This results in the existence of innumerable little ponds
and lakes, scattered in every direction, never large, but many of them perennial.
They add greatly to the value of the region for grazing purposes, because the streams
though reasonably abundant, are still widely separated, and many tracts would be
otherwise without water. The drainage of the hills unites into a few comparatively
large rivers which cross the plain in very direct lines to the sea, and the local rainfall

either sinks into the soil or drains off immediately through usually dry channels.

Adjoining the hills occasionally little outcrops of the Sierra slates peep up through
the soil, but they belong rather to the mountain region already described than to the
plains under consideration. In some cases, however, the rolling ground continues
miles from the base of the range proper, and usually more or less of the slates are
found wherever the surface is at all uneven. Five miles south of Monte Plata, I
found a little exposure in the bed of a rain-water channel, where the rock was a black
and green serpentinoid shale breaking into semi-lenticular masses by oblique cross-
cleavages and with all of the surfaces polished, resembling somewhat “ slicken-sides.”
West of this on the San Pedro road clay slates crop out in numerous places, alterna-
ting with the often-mentioned red and white semi-talcose shales which never show a
positive stratification. The former, however, as well as could be determined from the
very small exposures, seem to always have a high southern dip. The same rocks

occur around and south of Yamasa, and the latter is not infrequently seamed with

180 ON TITLE TOPOGRAPITY AND GEOLOGY

little veins of white opaque quartz. I examined in detail several of the streams in
this vicinity, washing the sand in the usual manner, but found no trace of gold any-
where. A fact that can be fully explained by the distance to the nearest locality of
eruptive rocks.* Between San Pedro and Yamasa there is a long tongue of hills
ending at the Ozama River at a place called La Luisa, and which separates the narrow
valley of Yamasa from the broad plain to the eastward. San Pedro-is on the outer-
most of the little elevations at the base of this range, a spot that has every facility
required for the establishment of a large grazing farm, and one where the beauty of
the surrounding scenery would almost compensate for the want of neighbors. It
overlooks mile after mile of a tree-dotted prairie shut in by the haze of distance on
one side and on the other by an evergreen range of high mountains. Perennial pas-
tures and never-failing streams insure cattle against risk of either famine or drought ;
while its midway position on the best road between Santo Domingo and the towns of
the Cibao would secure it an ample market for all its surplus stock. It is now occu-
pied by an aged couple and their children, who earn a scanty livelihood by selling a
few eggs, a chicken, or a bundle of fodder to an occasional traveller. I do not
mention this spot because of any pre-eminent advantages it possesses. Innumerable
other sites occur, scattered all over the valley, many of them possibly better. But
in the frequent journeys I have made across the Island I have become familiar with
it, and I cannot avoid regretting to see such an opportunity neglected.

Sierra Prieta is a not very high but from its semi-isolated position is a very promi-
nent hill jutting out into the plain between the Isabella and Ozama Rivers, the ter-
minal point of a low range. Its regularly sloping sides render it easily recognizable,
and it forms an excellent topographical station for triangulations. It is made up of
clay and talcose slates, with a little earthy iron ore, too impure to be of economic
value. ‘The same iron ore of every degree of purity, or rather of impurity, down to
simply highly ferruginous shale extends over the savana as far east as the San Pedro
trail, crossing the road to Yamasa above Savana Grande, and cropping out wherever
a little rain-gully cuts through the soil and even sometimes lying scattered over the
surface.

The Sierra Prieta ridge is a spur from the high mountains lying directly east of
the Jaina River, starting off in the vicinity of the two high peaks of Mariana Chico
and Siete Picos. The intermediate region is so closely connected in its geology with
the Jaina country that it is most convenient to consider them as a whole.

In the description of the route across the mountains by the Laguneta Pass I left
the subject just before reaching the Jaina River. The route was described across

*See pp. 89 and 127,

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 181

the mountains as passing entirely over slates which also extend down the Guananitos
Creek. The heavy river deposit in the Jaina and its valley covers up whatever rocks
may exist at this part of its course; but its head, which lies far to the northwest of
the mouth of the Guananitos, is up a steep, narrow, and exceedingly rough cation, and
entirely in syenite of constantly changing lithological characters. This is the broad
mass which is alike encountered on the Maimon River east of Mount Vanilejo, on the
Majoma, the Upper Nigua, and even sends dykes across the Nizao almost to
Maniel.

The exact point where the pass enters the syenite on the river is not certain on
account of the river deposit above mentioned, and which consists of gravel and
boulders of intrusive rocks exclusively. Near los Matas Mr. Speare found two rocks,
the more peculiar because of the large amount of hornblende in most of the syenite
of the Jaina. They were not in place, although fragments of them were so abundant
as to imply that their source, most probably a dyke, was not far distant. One is a
soft yellow mica slate, the mica which makes the greater part of the mass being of a
light brownish-yellow color; the other is a compound of white quartz and yellow
feldspar, in which I am unable, with the glass, to detect any other mineral. South-
west of this, five miles above Cataré to the west of the road, and northwest of Mount
Basimo, he obtained a dark-colored actinolite slate. This is not far from the syenite.
In this same region a little gray limestone is found dipping northeast, and just north
of Mount Bassimo a brown earthy shale occurs seamed with cale spar. This moun-
tain, which is a western spur of the Mariana Chica ridge, is traversed by a heavy
dyke of syenite, some of which is made up of white quartz, white glassy feldspar,
and little black specks of hornblende, while other parts seem to approach a porphy-
ritic structure, consisting of large crystals of glassy feldspar and large grains of
quartz imbedded in a matrix of a finer material of smaller quartz grains mixed with
minute specks of hornblende. A similar material was found on Upper Nigua, where
the feldspar is of a flesh-color. It differs from a true porphyry in that the matrix is
resolvable even to the naked eye into its component minerals, and the included
crystals are both quartz and feldspar. The high range east of Bassimo which sepa-
rates the waters of the Jaina from those of the Ozama and its tributaries and which
give rise on its eastern side to the Isabella, is made up of clay slates rarely talcose
and sometimes jaspery. They are much traversed by quartz veins, some at least of
which are auriferous. A little gold has been found in the bed of the Isabella, though
not enough to be of importance. In the latter river a greenish-gray fissile claystone
‘s the prevailing rock. On the summit of Mariana Chica the same rock is jaspery,

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 27.

182 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

while at its western base, at Novillero, it is brownish, much cracked, and with the
surfaces stained with oxide of iron. Further south, at Arbol Gordo, it is sometimes
a little magnesian and is usually much more slatey. A little further south still, in
the woods of Monte Pueblo and on Madrigal Creek, it varies from a clay to a taleose
slate covered with a heavy red soil, the rock traversed by innumerable little quartz
veins rich in gold. The whole surface of Monte Pueblo is auriferous—the greater
part.if not all the soil would “ pay ” for washing—but unfortunately the deposit is
too shallow to warrant the expensive ditching necessary to carry water from the
Jaina to a height of perhaps forty feet above its level, opposite that point, to reach
the required level. The aggregate quantity of gold is probably not sufficient to cover
the expense of a ditch of two or three miles long that would be necessary. I have
obtained from an average of a dozen to a maximum of forty “colors” or specks of
gold from a single panful of dirt over the greater part of this area. Up the Madrigal
Creek, on the eastern margin of this tract, I found jaspers, clay-slates, sandstone, and
a peculiar serpentinoid rock in place. The latter, a dark gray, contained little con-
cretionary grains scattered through it of a lighter color and a little harder; so that
weathered surfaces took on an appearance, except in color, similar to that presented
by mica slate studded with garnets. The rocks on the west side of the Jaina, above
the mouth of Madrigal Creek, differ but little from those already described, the
most common form being claystones varying from brown or gray to nearly black.

At the mouth of the Madrigal, on the southern edge of the Monte Pueblo or
“ Buenaventura” tract, the slates are all highly jaspery and are here penetrated in
every direction by syenitic dykes of all sizes, often less than an inch in width and
occasionally many feet. The syenite here is composed of nearly equal parts of the three
usual constituents and is of a light gray color, sometimes containing little masses of
the same material of a finer grain, and not rarely pieces of the enclosing jasper. It
is perfectly cemented at its walls, so that no amount of force or blows will separate
the two rocks along the line of juncture; fractures crossing from one material to the
other perfectly. I collected numerous hand specimens here and elsewhere, in part
green or blackish jaspery slate, the remainder syenite.

While at Madrigal I availed myself of the rich assortment of boulders in the bed
of the river to collect a characteristic series of those syenites in which the hornblende
predominated. This form of the rock seems to be peculiar to the Upper Jaina. I
never saw it in place, but from the fact that it forms perhaps ten per cent. of all the
pebbles in the river, it is not probable that it owes its origin to a single dyke. In
some of the specimens the hornblende exists as rather isolated crystals sparsely

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 183

scattered through a gray mass, while in others there is hardly enough quartz and
feldspar together mixed through the mass of black hornblende crystals to separate
them one from another. In some cases the crystals are over an inch long and a third
of an inch thick, while the white minerals are in grains hardly coarser than sand.

In the savana of Arbol Gordo and among the ruins of the old town of Buenaven-
tura I found pieces of bog iron ore in the form of a granular limonite. At the
former place I found it as loose pieces in the soil, especially in a narrow strip of
woods on the northern edge of the savana. Among the ruins I encountered squared
blocks of a cubic foot and a-half, which had been used in building one of the princi-
pal walls. Although my party was camped in this vicinity for weeks, and all were
specially charged to search for the original deposit, we failed to find it. It must be
of considerable extent to have yielded the above blocks, but it is probably hidden
by surface soil. The absence of limestone in this vicinity would act as a serious
drawback to its exploration, should it be discovered even were the inducements for
working it otherwise good.

The Mano River, the largest branch of the Jaina, enters that stream from the
west a short distance above Madrigal. Except near its mouth its whole course is
through a solid mass of syenite, the pebbles from which form a broad shingly bed.
In time of unusually heavy freshets the water spreads over the whole width, but at
other seasons it is confined to a narrow crooked channel. It adds no new facts to
our knowledge of the region, except the one that the great intrusive belt which sends
so many dykes across the Jaina at this part of its course and through which the
upper part of the main river runs approaches bodily very near it, although it does not
quite reach it. Below the mouth of the Mano the Jaina channel divides ; one por-
tion carries all the water of the river in ordinary seasons, while the other runs on the
west side of an island and is only filled in times of extraordinarily high water. On
excavating two or three feet deep into this bed, water is reached at all times percola-
ting through the gravel. Here there is a little piece of flat river bottom made up of
sand and pebbles, and in 1869, Mr. Ohle “prospected” it thoroughly with a view to
beginning mining operations. He found gold in almost all of his pits, but did not
seem to discover sufficient in any one place to warrant further proceedings.

South of the Madrigal on the eastern side of the river, although the hills still re-
tain for some distance a height of two or three hundred feet above the river, the
grassy surface of the savanas begins to encroach on the forest. The slates continue
cropping out to the surface in a few places for four or five miles here with a recog-
nizable high southern dip, until in the Porto Rico Savana, they are finally hidden by

184 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the gradually thickening margin of the savana gravels made up entirely of debris of
the rocks of the Upper Jaina. Still further south in the savana of Santa Rosa these
gravels with their red sand, angular fragments of quartz and the little streaks of
black iron sand in every little rain-wash remind a Californian irresistibly of the foot-
hills of the Sierra Nevada. They are in places slightly auriferous, and though not
probable, it is yet not impossible, that here if any where spots may be found where
“hydraulic mining” might be prosecuted with success. I say not probable, because
the small amount of gold in the present bed of the river seems to indicate that the
quantity would be proportionately still less when spread over so wide an area. And
yet the “black sand” although often found by itself, nevertheless the invariable
accompaniment of placer gold, is by no means scarce.

South of the savana of Santa Rosa the red sandy matrix of the gravel becomes
gradually calcareous and though pebbles are yet occasionally found they are more
and more isolated until they also finally disappear, and the coast limestone is reached
just below the savana of La Venta or south of Managuallaba Creek.

West of the Jaina, below the mouth of the Mano, is a hilly region of slates,
bounded on the west by the syenites which extend across to the Upper Nigua. ‘These
hills are traversed by numerous dykes and are full of quartz veins. The slates are
an inextricable mixture of green, gray, brown and black claystones variously colored
jaspery slates and some more or less taleose. Among the first I found a couple of
miles below the mouth of the Madrigal, a black rock slightly arenaceous, very com-
pact and full of white grains. This is certainly a metamorphic shale, and yet, from
its appearance in hard specimens, might be mistaken for a porphyritie rock, A
similar material was found not rare on the Nigua River. The quartz veins are usually
very small, hardly ever over a few inches in width and seem to be limited also in
horizontal and vertical extent. A few however can be measured by feet rather than
inches, and Mr. Spear spent some weeks in making an experimental opening on
one of nearly three feet wide to ascertain its character. The result of his exca-
vation was to disclose a vertical vein with well-defined margins intercalated in the
shale. The quartz yielded a little gold by the ordinary miner’s test of grinding
in a mortar and washing the powder. It is doubtful, however, whether the quantity
would have been sufficient to warrant earnest mining.

On the ridge overlooking the mouth of the Mano at the head of two streams,
called the Anones and Caballo, which unite and run into the Jaina a mile or more
below the mouth of the Madrigal, is the largest quartz vein I have seen on the Island.
It crops out on the top of the ridge and its down-hill side is so covered with soil and

.

u

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 185

~

great blocks of quartz that it is impossible to-ascertain its exact width from a mere

surface inspection. It is certainly from twenty to thirty feet thick and may be much

more. Fragments of the quartz are found the whole length of both streams.

Gold is found in every eddy in their cafions and I obtamed it by washing even the

dirt from the hill sides. The quartz as it appears on the surfaces is more or less-
cavernous, the cavities lined or filled with peroxide of iron. On crushing it in a

mortar and washing it I obtained bright gold in little flakes. I caused an assay to

be made in New York of a portion which I took with me in 1869, but the returns of
the chemist were so high that I shall not record them here, preferring to believe that

either my specimens were accidentally an unfair sample or that the chemist made

some mistake. Apart from this enough is known to prove that the vein is gold-

bearing, and I believe sufficiently promising to warrant further examination.

Not only is this vein auriferous but many of the smaller ones must contain their
share of the precious metal. Over an area of several square miles of this vicinity
not only do the streams yield gold but the earth on the hill sides, and even on their
summits contains it. About La Horea we found gold everywhere, and throughout
the woods are innumerable pits often twenty or thirty feet in circumference and
many feet deep whence the Indians mined the clay and gravel, and carrying it to the
nearest stream washed it. It is doubtful however if placer mining could be made
profitable ona modern scale. Not but that the “dirt” is rich enough, but its quantity
in any one place is not sufficient to warrant the construction of expensive ditches,
and the slow process of carrying the earth to the water in the Indian style is too
laborious and costly to be thought of. Although innumerable little streams intersect
the hills, none carry sufficient water for sluices. Possibly some of the larger creeks
like the Caballo, Anones, Jirand, &., might pay moderately to wash their channels
but they would be exhausted too quickly to make them an object of attention alone.
‘The women constantly wash gold in the creek beds and also in those of their tributaries,
using the well known “batea” or wooden bowl. But they are content with a return
of three or four reals (874 to 50 cents) a day. Ihave myself obtained in the Jivana
grains worth as much as ten cents in the ordinary gold pan, and I have seen lumps
weighing a quarter of an ounce obtained by women in the same manner.

There can be no doubt as to the sources of this gold. It is true that it is usually
more or less rounded, but a very little transportation among hard stones will suffice
to produce this appearance. It is never found far away from or up-stream above the
quartz veins. Where quartz is most abundant the gold is also found in the greatest
quantities, and where the one is absent the other does not occur. On the hill sides

PGS: —ViOlua XaVe LU.

186 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the auriferous earth is clearly derived from the decomposition of the underlying
slates; and finally gold is nowhere found in those parts of the streams running only
in the eruptive rocks, unless a belt of slate crosses still higher up. Nor is it ever
found in the earth overlying the syenites. Throughout this region syenitic dykes
are constantly encountered, and the upper half of the Jivana runs through the parent
mass, while veins of the same rock crop out in several places in lower part of its
course as well as at the mouth of the Anones, and in the bed of the neighboring part
of the Jaina. We have thus a further proof of the theory already enunciated* that
the proximity of eruptive masses, is the cause of the presence of gold in the quartz
veins of this country.

On the Jivana there is a more than usual variety in the appearance of the syenite.
In every place I found it flesh colored owing to a pinkish feldspar; in another it is
dark gray and very fine-grained ; and in still another it is white with acicular crys-
tals of hornblende. Near there in the Jaina near the mouth of the Anones, there is
a little dyke made up of white quartz, white and pink feldspar and with little isolated
grains of a black mineral which I could not determine with certainty ; and between
the Anones and the river is another in which the materials are very unevenly dis-
tributed, hornblende occurring both in irregular masses and in isolated crystals.

South of this region the quartz veins still occur in the slates and on the Susua
and Medina Creeks some gold is found, but the eruptive dykes here disappear and
the quantity of gold rapidly dimishes. It is said to be found as far south as the
Cuallo but this requires corroboration. If it does occur there it is in very small
quantities.

This range of hills terminates to the southeast in a prominent point running out
into the savanas on the nearly flat summit of which is a little cluster of houses.
Here the rocks are more than usually metamorphosed, some of the beds being a black
mica slate in which occasionally there can be seen small white grains of quartz.
Throughout this rock are stains and an occasional little thread of copper ore. I dis-
covered green and blue carbonate, a little silicate and some purple sulphuret. Nothing
approaching a vein structure has ever been detected, but Mr. Heneken, who seems to
have been possessed with a mania for copper mining commenced operations here, dug
innumerable little pits all over the hills and founded a settlement to which he gave the
name of Cobre. Since his time one or two other but less energetic attempts to de-
velop the “mines” have been made, but with no better success than he attained. He
also made similar essays at copper mining on the Arroyo de las Platanas, a little
tributary of the Nigua west of Cobre. Here he found more copper but no veins.

* See pp. 89, 127.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 187

In one of his excavations I found an approach to a vein structure, ina seam of quartz
and slate, the vein swelling and narrowing very irregularly. In the quartz are nests
of purple sulphuret of copper, some of them as large as one’s fist, and little streaks and
threads of the mineral are not rare. On crushing and washing a sample of this quartz
I found a minute trace of gold. The country rock is a greenish gray claystone often
much cross-fissured and in places slightly taleose. In one place it is dark gray and is
spotted with small yellowish grains. It is about on the strike so far as can be deter-

mined between Cobre and the copper deposits of the Nigua at Monte Mateo.

Although the slates on the Nigua are so highly metamorphosed that it is next to
impossible to discover their dips over a great. part of the distance, yet from the al-
most continuous exposures along the cafion of the river the section is one of the best
that occurs through these rocks. I have traversed the entire width of the metamor-
phic belt many times and while the main features are easily distinguishable have
almost always arrived at different conclusions about the dips of the jaspery slates
between Tablasas and Pomiel. There is no question but that they all dip more or less
southward, but in one or two places the strike twists around to the north and south
and the dip is nearly vertical. My main conclusions are confirmed by the limestones
which retain their bedding well marked, and in a few places between the two above
named points I believe I have found the true position of the slates, though I have been
obliged to reject the greater part of my observations as based on too uncertain data.
The slates have regular systems of fissures often extending entirely throughout an
outcrop, and frequently so regular as to appear certainly the stratification ; but others
equally well-marked cross these in entirely different directions, and not rarely several
of these systems occur together. Another source of confusion exists in the color-
ation of the rock. It is usually a dark brown or green, but bands of color, a foot or
more wide, often extend entirely across an exposure. ‘This looks as if it originated
in some trifling difference in the original constitution of the beds, now consolidated
into a homogenous mass, but closer examination develops the fact that these bands
are not of uniform width, they sometimes end abruptly, taper out, or widen and en-
close masses of the predominant color of the surrounding rock; in short they possess
all of the irregularity of mineral veins. At first I was misled by them, but on meas-
uring a great number I found that they must have had their origin in some other
cause than the original stratification.

The eruptive rocks extend southward to just below the mouth of Jamei Creek,
their eastern margin, a nearly north and south line, cutting across the heads of most

of the tributaries of the Jaina. On the southern margin they are often of unusually

188 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

fine grain and dark in color. At the mouth of the Jamei I observed spots where the
quartz was unusually clear and glassy ; in another place I found a little mica. Some-
times the syenite is flesh-colored or salmon-colored, owing to a more or less pinkish
feldspar; but usually it is some shade of gray or even nearly white. In the river I
found a gray rock resembling the peculiar porphyry-looking syenite already described
from Mount Basimo, on the Jaina, but differing in the smaller size of the enclosed
crystals of feldspar and quartz. The Majagual Creek, which empties into the Nigua
a mile below the Jamei, also runs through these rocks, there usually of a dark color,
though sometimes almost pure white. About a mile from its mouth there is a fall,
at the line of juncture between the slates and syenites, where excellent examples of
the contact can be obtained. Here, as on the Jaina, the two materials are completely
fused together so that they cannot be separated by the hammer. In ascending the
hill from this point the sedimentary rocks are found overlying the eruptive, limestone
capping the summit, with a low southern dip. Fragments of the latter are very
abundant both on the hill side and in the cafion, as well as parallel with this point in
the Nigua, and although I obtained fossils abundantly here and in the debris in the
main river, I could never find the fossiliferous bed in place on the latter stream. For
a mile or more below the line of contact dykes cut through the jaspery slates, which
are here very much disturbed and seem to be more or less vertical. Approaching
Monte Mateo the limestones are found to dip northward at high angles, forming a
narrow synclinal. ‘They are here all highly altered and vary in color from dark gray
to pure white; a sure criterion of the amount of alteration of this rock on the Nigua
is to be found in its color. When nearest its original condition and full of fossils it is
brick-red, and breaks with an earthy fracture. The fossils, it is true, are so far
changed that they are reduced to a highly erystallized spar, rendering it next to
impossible to extract them; but the rock shows no signs of change. But as the
metamorphism progresses, the material becomes lighter in color and more compact and
varies through dark flesh-color to all the shades of pink or gray, and the most
thoroughly altered specimens are perfectly white and even traversed by little seams,
like threads, of cale-spar. In no case, however, are they granular, or do they approach
even remotely to the structure of marble.

In this vicinity there are numerous signs of minerals. A little goid, hardly worth
mentioning, is found above Monte Mateo. On the Majagual, near the syenite a little
vein of magnetic iron ore, containing a small quantity of copper and some gold, was
opened a few years ago under the belief that the iron was gray copper! Several

little copper veins crop out in the bluffs of the river above the mouth of that creek,

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 189

and at Monte Mateo there is a good-sized vein, which five or six years ago was opened
quite extensively as compared with any other mining operations ever undertaken in
the country. “The mineral shows itself on the face of a high bluff on the margin of
the river where the slates are discolored by oxide of iron for a width of 120 feet.
Throughout this surface considerable quantities of iron pyrites are found, and in one
place some copper stains can be detected. An excavation of about fifty feet was
made in the most promising spot, which had afterwards closed up by the rotting of
the timbers and the fall of debris. Mr. Speare, who was employed at the mine, informs
us that towards the surface the streaks of ore, a yellow pyrites, were comparatively
small, but as the works increased in depth these streaks converged and promised to
unite. He considers that there was a fair prospect of eventually finding a compact
vein. His experience in copper mining elsewhere entitles his opinion to respect.
Unfortunately, before the character of the deposit could be thoroughly proven, failure
of funds and the bankruptcy of the company put a stop to the operations, which have
never since been resumed. Numerous assays of the ore were made, and General
Cazneau, in whose possession they were, exhibited to us the certificates of the
chemists. Some of them are here given. The names of Secor, Swan & Co., of
Baltimore, and Adelberg, Raymond* & Co., of New York, are sufficient guarantees
for the accuracy of the analyses, which were however made doubtless from the choicest
specimens found in the mine. Adelberg, Raymond & Co. give —

Ist. 2d. 8d. average of five others.
COppPerls IAA AL ce RAN hevchae Dies CE eae twee ens 26.73 26.08 15.5 21.17
(GONG LES Dik BEI SaL ATO tats Sit PORN CERCLA COPE Oar crema ES trace $23.6) per ton.
SUV OL eee eee ccmreunterc erie soph aeateis Suave ai ciaife cisteus s andusSes trace
POUL URI eerepene ise seal hacceersvan cialis Gacnelohwaarce sie teus cel ellaisi acs: caster 33.16

Secor, Swan & Co. found—
1st. 2d (100lbs.) 3d. 4th (9 tons).

Coppertre cea ern Sal tos ae es Ph UG AL NEE TY 20.5 19.0 20.50 12.5 per cent.
(CxO GL Rioiao BGG SACO OM OCIO DOD CO STITS at ORO DE Torrens Dam Pathe) $10.00 $5.00

c per ton.
SS Ulverecnca geese tie ret ey stoners ion obeys ci meor sewstsi yee eerie ee $10.40 $13.08 $1.23 §

SUDAN so oososbiom oe oooRbobe Us oceN uO apoE rooGeaAbe 25.60 per cent.

An examination of the abové results show that while the hand specimens and even the
100 Ibs. lot gave usually very good results, the fairer working test of nine tons brings
the character of the ore down to a doubtfully profitable grade. So much for the mine
in the abstract. Its position is very unfavorable for successful working, even if the
vein and the ore should eventually prove good. It is nine miles up the Nigua above
San Cristobal, following the ordinary horse-trail, or six miles to the nearest point

* Dr. R. Raymond, now United States Commissioner of Minin

Ng 12 Che |\o Gs Dea, ta

r Statisties.

oO
>

190 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

whence a practicable outlet can be obtained from the caiion towards Santo Domingo,
and that over a high hill, Loma Cristina, fifteen miles from the city. This, which is
the shortest route to an available shipping point, would necessitate twenty-one miles
of land-carriage at least; or, in case of the very improbable contingency of a railroad
being built to San Cristobal, the ore would have to be carried nine miles on horse
or mule-back before it could reach the nearest point of the road. :

At the mine the country rock, which is a semi-jasper, strikes N. 30° W. with a
northeast dip of 54° nearly conformable with the position of the limestone further up
the river; but very soon there is an anticlinal, and the strata towards Tablasas dips
to the southward. The jaspers are various shades of dark green and brown, and
wherever not too much fissured break with broad conchoidal fractures, but with
earthy, never perfectly smooth surfaces. In some parts they present peculiar appear-
ances, resembling porphyry. One green specimen before me is mottled with minute
black shining specks ; others show similar marks, but gray, yellow or white in color.
These are certainly altered sedimentary rocks, although hand specimens might be
mistaken for eruptive in origin. Except in these colored grains they differ in no
respect from the other jaspers. It seems that a similar character is exhibited by some
of the metamorphic rocks of Jamaica. The geologists found that near the dykes
some of the beds were “ converted into semi-crystalline masses resembling porphyry
and sometimes trachyte.” These changes are also accompanied by an incipient
development of crystalline minerals.”* I found one loose piece of gray jaspery slate
in the bed of the Nigua, of which nearly a fourth of the surface was made up of flesh-
colored grains, apparently feldspar crystals, averaging over an eighth of an inch
across. Barrett describes from the southeastern part of Jamaica “porphyries and
hornblende rocks interbedded” with cretaceous strata, and compares them with Dar-
win’s account of localities in the. Andes, “ where porphyries which had flowed as
submarine lavas alternate with conglomerates composed of the same rocks, and are
overlaid with beds containing cretaceous fossils.”+ No such condition of affairs exists
in Santo Domingo.

At Tablasas the limestone is again encountered striking east and west and dipping
on its southern margin south 25°. At its base it is divided into recognizable beds,
from which I obtained the measurement ; further south it becomes so massive that
no stratification can be detected either in the bed of the river or on the hill sides.
For several hundred yards it makes the bed and banks of the river in great masses

their bases, usually so surrounded with sand that it is not possible to determine

* Jamaica Geological Report., p. 27.

+ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvi. p. 324.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 191

whether they are in place or fallen from the overhanging precipices. Some of these

are doubtless derived from the cliffs, but an occasional ledge or little waterfall shows

the rock to be in place. The sides of the caiion are usually so overgrown with brakes,

trees, and vines, that though very steep the stratification could not be deciphered

even if there were lines between the heavy beds; but at the southern edge the top of
the deposit crops out in a low bluff, the strike remaining the same but the dip only

15° south. Throughout, this rock is nearly or quite white and shows no signs of
fossils, although at this point I obtained from some boulders derived from the beds

further up some of my most perfect specimens. South of the limestone the same

jaspery slates come in again with varying strikes from east and west to N. 35° W..,
and with all dips up to 80° south. At the base of the hill of Pomiel the dip is south

50°, while at the summit there is another outcrop of limestone. I have tried ineffectu-
ally to connect this with the rock of Tablasas, but its dip is southwest 30°. Between
the two exposures there is no corresponding northern dip of limestone, and all of the
exposures at the latter place show southern dips, as well as do all of the localities

intervening where a reliable measure can be obtained in the slates; nor could I find
any spot where a probable fault by causing a dislocation of the strata again brought
the lower beds to the surface. It seems therefore that this is possibly a second
deposit and more modern than that of Tablasas, although the rocks of the two locali-
ties resemble each other so closely in every respect, that I would prefer considering
one a repetition of the other, could I find any reasonable pretext for doing so. The
only one would be an enormous fault, but I have examined the interesting space very
carefully without finding any trace of it. Another explanation might suggest itself
theoretically, but I can find nothing to warrant such a supposition. A reverse folding
of the beds would not be incompatible with the appearance of the slates; but it would
imply an amount of elevating force, exercised to the south of this point, which the’
configuration of the surface does not permit us to consider probable. There has been
an unusual amount of disturbance at and immediately south of Pomiel, but directly

beyond that, the Cretaceous finally disappears, hidden by the Tertiary. On top of
the hill the strike is N. 45° W., with a southwestern dip of 30°. In the adjoining

low hill of Latoma the limestone strikes N. 40° E., and dips 45° southeast ; while,

within a quarter of a mile northeast of this point, it strikes directly north and south,

and stands vertically. This is on the edge of the river, and the rock thus forms as it

were, a rounded cap, covering a good part of the southern face of the high hill, of
which Latoma is only a small spur. Directly across the river in the hill of Calaboso,

a little outlier of the limestone again occurs, after which all finally disappears under

beds of the Miocene and coast formations. <A little deposit of Miocene also forms

192 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

the extreme point of Latoma hill, covering the tract known as Yerba Buena. This
is an outlier of Loma Cristina, and strikes about north and south, dipping west 25°.

Near the summit of Pomiel are numerous caves in the limestone, some of them
of considerable extent. The one most visited consists of a succession of chambers,
perhaps 200 yards or more in length. Its floor is nearly level and is covered with
little or no deposit of any kind. Adjoining it is another of nearly equal extent, in+
habited by myriads of bats, very few of which are found in the first. Their dung
forms a layer over the floor varying from a few inches to several feet in depth, mixed
only with a few elytra of insects on which they feed. Other caves, but smaller than
these, occur in Calaboso. At Latoma is a beautiful spring welling out from the base
of a limestone bluff, probably through a similar cave. The water of the Nigua for a
mile or two above this hill disappears under the sand of the river bed, and doubtless,
on reaching the limestone percolates through fissures to find vent finally at this point.
The quantity of water issuing here is about equivalent to that in the river bed at
Tablasas.

A little Miocene Tertiary is found above this spring on the south flank of Pomicel,
more occurs on Calaboso, but the whole of Loma Cristina is made_up of beds of
conglomerate, sandstone and calcareous claystone. The dip varies at low angles
from west to south; the most prevalent being about 15° southwest. The base of this
deposit is everywhere a coarse conglomerate covered by sandstone while the earthy
and calcareous beds form the upper part. I found but few fossils and these in very
imperfect condition but sufficient to prove the synchronism of this with the rocks of
the Cibao Valley.

In the flat land south of Calaboso and just east of San Cristobal, one or two very
small outcrops of the conglomerate occurs, and over these are beds of coast limestone
which extend to the sea. In one spot I found the phenomenon of coast limestone so
full of pebbles as to form a true conglomerate, and with pieces of branched corals, not
water-worn, mingled with the stones. But the explanation of the circumstance ex-
hibits itself in a bed of Miocene conglomerate, underlying the limestone in an adjoin-
ing little hill side. The pebbles were washed out of one formation to be immediately
re-imbedded in the other. While the Isabella, Jaina, Nizao, and other streams brought
down large deposits of gravel during the Post Pliocene period, the quantity carried
seaward by the Nigua must have been very small. All of these rivers deposited their
loads at and east of their mouths. But east of the mouth of the Nigua, the gravel.
mass is very inconsiderable, both in area and thickness, and the limestones come up
almost to the ancient coast line. It was probably then, as now, a nearly dry stream.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 193

West of its mouth the limestones, while they continue almost to the Nizao, become
gradually more earthy, and begin to show signs of the coast influences which acted
so strongly to the eastward of the mouths of the (southern) Yaqui, Cuevas and Ocoa.
The Nizao bore its part in the work, but deposited most of its debris further north,
to the west and even northwest of San Cristobal behind the Miocene hills, then proba-
bly low islands, barely if at all elevated above the water. The limestone belt con-
sequently is quite narrow a@bout here, and instead of being a tough rock on the
surface, loses the property of hardening on exposure. It gradually merges into a
gravel, and beyond the Nizao towards Bani, loses all of its caleareous character.

In one place near the mouth of the Nigua, I found in it a bed of small oysters.

The Miocene rocks of which Loma Christina may be taken as a type make a little
range of hills west of San Cristobal, extending nearly to the Nizao. Wherever I
have examined them, they have proven to be the same earthy, brown beds of an in-
termediate character between clay and limestone, alternating with beds of sandstone.
In the more calcareous strata corals are not rare. ‘These are almost always of the
massive form, and occur abundantly as pebbles in all the streams running down
from the hills. The strata are a little disturbed, but the dips are, while low very
variable. Little outliers of the same formation, remains of probably a much larger
deposit now denuded away, are found in the hills further west. I have discovered
rolled pebbles of Miocene corals in the Paya Creek, four miles east of Bani, and Mr.
Speare obtained another rolled fragment of well-known form in the neighborhood of
Savana Buey. Back of these hills between them and the base of the main range, the
Post Pliocene shingle of the Nizao covers all of the lower land, large rounded pebbles
extending to the base of the hill just west of San Cristobal. An excellent oppor-
tunity of observing this, exists along the inland road from San Cristobal to Bani, by
way of Estancia del Rey, while the coast road shows the parallel transition westward,
from the limestone at Don Gregorio, near the mouth of the Nigua through its earthy
stage, caused by the finer debris of the Nizao, to the similar shingly product of the
Ocoa on the plains of Bani.

Parallel with this outer belt there is a high range of mountains, bearing several
peaks nearly as prominent as those of the main chain. But one of these lies east
of the Nizao River, Mt. Manaclal over 4,000 feet high. West of it are two others of
still greater altitude, Mts. Barbacoa and los Pinos. This mountain mass is visible at
a great distance, and forms an excellent landmark at sea. The first of these was
visited by Mr. Pennell, who reported it to be made up largely of limestone and grani-
toid rocks. It lies near the southern edge of the great intrusive mass, and the latter

A. PP: §—VOL. XV. 2W.

194 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

rocks are probably dykes extending from it. I cressed the country behind, or to the
north of it to Maniel from the head of the Nigua, a distance by the route followed of
about forty miles, although the entire distance in a direct line is hardly more than
half that. The eruptive rocks extend uninterruptedly from the mouth of the Jamei
across the ridge to the Majoma, and crossing that stream at its mouth, continue across
the Nizao for a short distance, when their margin suddenly bends northward, running
along the ridge which divides the tributaries of the Majema from the Nizao, and con-
tinues to Mt. Vanilejo previously described. Beyond this western margin as on the
eastern side of the mass, dykes run out into green and brown jaspery slates, making
a perfect repetition of the condition of affairs on the Upper Nigua and Jaina. The
syenites have been so thoroughly described already, that it is hardly necessary to say
more than that they show no new features. On the Arroyo Botiguela, a little branch
of the Nizao, dykes exactly like those at Madrigal on the Jaina were encountered,
and specimens from the one place, showing the contact between syenite and slate, are
undistinguishable from those from the other. At this place there is a beautiful fall
over the green jasper, the water giving a clear leap of eighty feet. The country is
entirely uninhabited, and except on its margins is never penetrated even by the pig
hunters. It is entirely without trails, and we were obliged to chop our road through
the primeval forest, with its dense undergrowth all of the way. The settlements on
its western margin extend but‘a mile or two east of Maniel; while the last houses on
the Nigua are at Jamei. Rancho Arriba further north is the only spot in all the
tract where there is any kind of a house; and that is about one-half ruined, and used
only occasionally by hunters, or as a stopping place by the very few persons who
cross the mountains by the Vanilejo route.

Maniel is a thriving little town on the west bank of the Ocoa, the centre of a good
sized settlement in a valley 1,554 feet. above the sea, according to the measurements
of Mr. Pennell. Around it there is an unusually great variety in the rocks. Ten
miles above on the river we found drab-colored argillaceous limestone, with other
beds of a darker color with seams of white cale-spar. There is also much clay slate
and coarse sandstone, and near the town we found the same rocks repeated and
associated with conglomerates. Some of this is barely more than a very coarse
sandstone, the grains being almost uniformly of from an eighth to a quarter of an
inch in diameter. In other places it is similar to specimens found near la Veja, a
green highly metamorphosed rock with small pebbles; while again to the east of the
town, towards the Loma de los Ranchos, it is a coarse sandy limestone, very full of
pebbles and resembling some of the fossiliferous limestone of the Nigua in this

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 195

respect, though differing in the absence of organic remains. In the whole region
there is but little of the talcose slate so common on the north side and in the eastern
half of the range.

South of Maniel along the cation of the Ocoa River, the hills show a succession of
broad, rounded undulations of dark-colored strata of shale and thin bedded sand-
stones. They are so little metamorphosed that I searched them carefully in hopes of
finding fossils. I do not consider my total want of success as proof that they do not
exist. With more time to devote to the search I might have been more fortunate.
Just before the river emerges from the hills on the east side, there is a little creek
called the Arroyo Salado, the water of which is so saline that when it evaporates in
the dry season it leaves little incrustations of salt in the rocky basins. The rock
which yields the salt is a red shale, the same as that found further north in the hills,
differing only in color. I found in it a few concretions of nearly black, semi-crystal-
_line calcareous matter. At the lower part of the same creek, the shales crop out
with beds of sandstone, the latter forming long reef-like ridges, projecting above the
softer material. Here a few springs similarly but less saline trickle down the banks,
and leave a white incrustation over the surface. All of the rocks of this vicinity about
Honduras, and even out in the plain about Savana Buey, dip at moderately low
angles southward. At the latter place argillaceous and sandy shales of a brown
color crop out through the soil of the plain, and on the margins of a high terrace
bordering the Ocoa River. But in the Loma de las Tablas, a nearly isolated hill, a
little east of the line of the section, heavy bedded sandstones but slightly altered
seem to be locally upheaved and striking nearly north and south dip east as high
as 50°.

A similar local upheaval occurs just west of Bani in the Loma del Pueblo, but
here the rock is a cream-colored limestone with siliceous streaks. I did not attempt
the ascent of either Mount Barbacoa or los Pinos, but ascending the caiion of the
Bani River approached near to the south base of the former. Far up this stream
there is a little collection of houses called Recol, perched on the hill sides and strag-
gling along the cation. The people cultivate a little coffee, for which the soil is un-
usually well adapted. At Recol I found a very solid black claystone, and a dark
greenish porous shale, both of them characterized by minute white grains scattered
through the mass. They are highly metamorphosed forms of the same shales as those
seen on the Ocoa, having a corresponding east and west strike.

Further down the cajion a few small streaks of pyrites have given rise to the
opinion of the existence of copper deposits. I found nothing beyond a little sul-

phuret of iron.

196 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Tf have stated elsewhere that with a single exception all of the eruptive rocks of
Santo Domingo are granitoid, and usually well-defined syenites. That exception was
found in the Bani River in the form of a few pebbles of an unmistakable porphyry.
It is apparently from a small dyke, judging from the few pieces found. I was not
fortunate enough to detect it in place. It is a nearly black matrix of fine grain, filled
with tabular crystals of white feldspar an inch across. s

The plains about Bani have been referred to above as being covered with the
usual Post Phocene formation in the shape of a deposit of coast gravel. Although
this extends uninterruptedly to the westward, the greater part in this region was
probably derived from the Ocoa River. At Honduras where the river first issues
from the hills, it is very coarse and contains great quantities of large boulders, some
of which are but partially rounded; but further out on the plains, both south and
east there are fewer and smaller, and the preponderance of sand greater. Between
the hills of the Pueblo and las Tablas the deposit forms a broad gravelly plain, covered
with grass and overgrown with thickets of acacia and cactus. Scattered over it are
a few lagoons, or rather small ponds which furnish a perennial supply of water for
animals. On the margin of two of these are collections of houses known respectively
as Cafia Fistula and Matanzas, while near the foot of the hill of las Tablas is another
settlement of the same name. ‘The latter is on a small stream running down from
Honduras. ‘Three roads connect this region with that to the west. One crosses the
Ocoa River at Savana Buey and follows the coast to Azua. The second passes
through las ‘Tablas and crosses a high hill called the Numero, uniting with the first
a few miles east of Azua, while the last runs southwest across the mountains from
Maniel.

The coast road after crossing the broad shingly bed of the Ocoa and a few low
gravel hills, traverses some salt mashes adjoining the beach, and then follows the
coast around the east side of the Bay of Ocoa. On passing some low hilly points it
shows slate cropping out on the beach with southern dips, but most of the way is
either on the sea beach or immediately inland on the drifted sea sand.

Approaching Azua the Post Pliocene gravel is soon encountered, but there is
nothing to distinguish it from that now in process of deposition. In fact, there is
little doubt, but that its formation has gone on uninterruptedly; and if it could be
examined, that of yesterday would be found continuous and conformable with the
most ancient portions inland.

The road over the Numero runs around the north side of the Tablas hill, crosses

the riyer, and then mounts the slope of the hill. The rocks are coarse sandstones and

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 197

sandy shales not much altered, but more so than those about Savana Buey or on the
Upper Ocoa.

The region towards Azua suffers from the same deficiency of rain, as occurs in
the western part of the Santiago Valley, and the nearly bare soil of the Numero,
with its thin growth of cactus and thorn bushes, fully attests the great influence that
moisture exercises over the fertility of the tropics. On reaching the plain, but little
raised above the sea level there is a greater proportion of moisture in the soil, though
no more in the atmosphere ; and even here a notable difference is to be seen. Larger
trees among which the Guayacan or Lignum-vite is not rare form forests near the
coast ; and further inland, although various species of acacia and cactus make up the
thickets, their denser growth and more flourishing appearance attest more favorable
conditions.

I know the pass west from Maniel only from the report of Mr. Pennell, who
represents it as very similar to that of the Numero, except that the vegetation is more
dense owing to its greater proximity to the high mountains and consequent greater
rain-fall. He brought in hand specimens of a coarse sandstone and of a red highly

metamorphosed shale, both identical with rocks about Maniel. He obtained them
near the summit of the pass.

West of the junction of these roads, and just east of Azua, the coast gravels are
somewhat disturbed, being elevated into two or three low hills; but along the road
there is no outerop of older formations. Near the town, however, on the Rio Bia, the
- same coarse sandstone found near Maniel on the pass, and in Loma de las Tablas crops
out in the bed of the stream, and further up a gray limestone with white calcareous
seams forms low falls. Associated with these is a little red jaspery claystone, the
whole having a southern dip. North of the town, and west of the river, the sandstone
and limestone are again encountered at Higuereta. Near this place, and near the
upper edge of the gravel is a stream almost always dry called the Agua Hedeondo
or stinking water. About its upper part there is a group of little petroleum springs
which make their way to the surface through the gravel. The underlying rock is
nowhere visible, but the material probably originates in the Cretaceous shales or
sandstones below, and which cannot be very far from the surface. A few little pools
occur in the nearly flat ground near the arroyo, and the earth and sand in its bed are
cemented by the bituminous matter into a compact mass, in the same manner as
occurs in a hundred places in California. A few years ago an attempt was made to
work the deposit. Some pits were sunk now filled with water, on the surface of
which there floats a thin seum of viscid oil. Besides these an artesian well was com-

die JEG, 1S

NCO) Ey OA PANG

198 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

menced, but soon abandoned, and the rusting tools and a broken engine lie scattered
around. The tube of the well is filled with oil and water through which an inodorous
and non-inflammable gas bubbles to the surface. Near the well there is a shallow
depression on the hill side entirely bare, probably from the escape of the same gas,
which seems to be deleterious to vegetation. It, however, does not affect the surface
beyond the margin of the depression, which is simply a little basin a few feet deep
and a dozen yards across. ‘The spot is interesting, mainly because it is the only one
where this mineral occurs in Santo Domingo. The Jamaican geologists do not men-
tion it, while Taylor,* as quoted by the geologists of Trinidad, says “the entire chain
of the West India and Windward Islands present similar phenomena of petroleum
springs, beds or veins of asphaltum and accumulations of mineral pitch,” mentioning
particularly Cuba and Barbadoes. The last-named authors also quote deposits in New
Grenada, while the extensive outflows of Trmidad are perhaps without a parallel.
Schomburgkt also describes in detail the petroleum springs of Barbadoes, which
although not numerous seem to be of large size.

Beyond Azua our knowledge of the geology is necessarily very limited. Both
Mr. Pennell and I made excursions as far to the northwest as Tubanos on the Con-
stanza trail, and that gentleman penetrated eastward from this route some distance up

the river of las Cuevas, and made a boat excursion to the southwest along the coast
to the boundary at the north of the Rio Pedernales.

I have already described the sierra slates as extending to Tubanos, where they
finally disappear under the Post Pliocene beach deposit. Further back in the hills,
however, just below las Lagunas, these gravels elevated a couple of hundred feet lie
horizontally or with an almost imperceptible southern dip, on the upturned ‘edges of
the slates and are cut through by the caiion adjoining the road. This portion of the
deposit contains boulders often more than a foot in diameter, derived from the Neyba
or Southern Yaqui River. It spreads all of the width of the San Juan Valley to the
base of the mountains on the other side, and must be found at least as far up as the
town of San Juan. Just west of this town there is a little “divide,” beyond which
the streams run into the Artibonite. My hearsay information in regard to what lies
beyond is too unreliable to be recorded here. Suffice it that all evidence unites in
representing the valley as the best grazing land in the Island, an evergreen plain, a

” that never suffers from either droughts or

continuous prairie of “ Guinea grass

floods. What underlies it we do not know. From Tubano the same gravels extend

southeast, reinforced by the supplies derived from the Rio de las Cuevas, and cover
* Statistics of Coal, p. 247.

+ History of Barbadoes, pp. 553 and 571.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 199

the plain to, and beyond Azua. In some spots near Azua there are small, very local
patches of coast limestone more impure than that deposited further seaward, and
overlaid not by the usual red earth but by a dazzling whitish calcareous soil.

In the mountains on the river Cuevas Mr. Pennell found the gray sandstones of
Maniel, Higuereta and las Tablas, gray clay shales similar to those on the Ocoa below
Maniel, interstratified with limestone, a brownish serpentinoid rock and a_ pinkish,
scoriaceous-looking shale with dark grains. He took no notes on the positions of the
strata. A similar sandstone to the first mentioned was also brought from the moun-
tain of Higueros, in the same vicinity. From the mountain of el Curo west of Azua,
the same gentleman obtained a white limestone apparently identical with that from the
Nigua, indicating the cretaceous age of that range also.

We know of the existence of a large deposit of mineral salt in the hills fifteen or
twenty miles northwest of Barahona, but the disturbed condition of the region has
never permitted us to visit it. Specimens brought in from time to time are not rare.
The mineral is as clear as glass and cleaves into large blocks. ‘The mine is said to be
ona high hill side where it could be mined with perfect facility, while from the base of
the hill, a gently descending plain, a natural railroad grade extends to the coast,
terminating in a good port. It must be understood that I obtain my information
from interested parties, although it is pretty well confirmed by common report.

The results of Mr. Pennell’s excursion along the southwestern coast are a corrected
map of the coast line, and the information that all of the southern peninsula is a
nearly level plain of coast limestone, apparently extending back to the Baburuco
mountains. It is densely wooded, and resembles in every respect the coast east of
Santo Domingo City. Beata Island off its extreme point is an outlier of the same
rock, nearly level, but with a trifling elevation in the interior.

The island of Alta Vela is doubtless interesting, from the presence there of the
large phosphatic deposit now being mined by an English company. I am unable to
say anything about it, however, on account of the jealous policy exercised by the
parties. ‘Their agent informed me soon after they began operations, that he would be
pleased to extend to me their hospitality, an offer that has been repeatedly made since ;
but he then made the condition that [ must pledge myself not to publish anything
about it. Being thus bound in honor not to avail myself of such facts as I might
obtain, and having my time fully occupied in obtaining data that I could use with
propriety, I have never felt warranted in accepting the otherwise kind inyitation.
Mr. Pennell touched at the island during his last trip, but the restriction applies with

equal force to my assistants as to myself.

200 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

AR lV.

PAL EZONTOLOGY.

CHAPTER XIII.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE FOSSIL MOLLUSCA.

PTEROPODA,

DIACRIA. Gray.
D. bisulcata. Gabb, n. s.

Shell allied to D. trispinosa, Lesueur in general form; lateral spines broader and shorter ; apex straight, broad,
compressed vertically, lateral margins carinate ; body sub-compressed ; aperture short, upper lip much more curved
than the lewer, producing a rather gaping mouth ; both lips bordered by a reflected margin. Surface of both upper
and lower sides marked by two long lengitudinal depressions, which converge towards the base of the apical spine,
producing a broad elevated median portion.

This shell is less gibbous than D. trispinosa, and more so than D. mecronata.
From the former it differs also in the shape, and from the latter in the direction of its
lateral spines. ‘The sulcation on the back also leaves the median space wider than in
(Quoy and Gaimard’s species, and the reflexed lips of the aperture are different from

any described species.

BALANTIUM. Leach.
B. undulatum. Gabb, o.s.
Shell sub-cylindrical, tapering convexly towards the apex which is slightly arched downwards. Transverse
section elliptical ; aperture as wide as the shell, but slightly compressed vertically. Under surface broadly undu-
lated by a few transverse wrinkles ; marked on each side near the apex by a faint marginal groove.

Nearest to B. australe, V@Orb., as figured in Amer. Merid. but without the lateral

ridges. It also differs in being distinctly curved instead of straight. The figure

given by Chenu in his Manual is entirely unlike that of d’Orbigny.

, STYLIOLA. Lesueur.
S. suleifera. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, regularly conical, straight ; marked on one side by a longitudinal groove.

This species can be at once distinguished by its groove. It is not unlike S. striata,
Rong., in the width of its apical angle, but differs from that species in not possessing
its curve nor its transverse striations. |

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 201

PLANORBELLA. Gabb, n. gen.
Shell minute, vitreous, sinistral, apex sunken as in Planorbis.
This genus from its distinctly sinistral character is evidently allied to Limacina,
from which its planorbiform mode of growth distinctly separates it.

P. imitans. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, resembling a broad Planorbis ; apex sunken, whorls two or two and a-half, partially enveloped.

Except for its sinistral character this pretty little shell might readily be mistaken
for a very young specimen of the common Planorbis trivolvus, so nearly does it copy
the external form of that species.

ATLANTA. Lesueur.

A. rotundata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, dextral ; spine minute, sub-globular and obliquely imbedded, nearly enveloped and hidden by the
the last whorl ; body volution showing a very minute trace of a keel, barely amounting to more than an obscure an-

gulation on the median dorsal line. Umbilicus very shallow and showing but a single volution; aperture trans-

versely elongate ; one end being emarginate by the encroachment of the preceding whorl.

Its rounded form will serve to distinguish this from all other known species, and
seems to necessitate a probable extension of the generic definition, as given in the
books, so as to include round-backed, as well as angular or carinated forms. The
present species is not absolutely round on the dorsum, but the keel being rudimentary,
shows that such a transition may be expected, and that a generic division on this
character alone would not be valid.

A. cordiformis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, compressed, sharply angulated on the dorsum and with a thin elevated keel. Apex depressed,
not projecting above the body volution. Whorls three; one and a half being visible in the broad flat umbilicus ;

aperture heart-shaped ; dorsal fissure deep. Sides of the mouth arched forwards in the middle, retreating back-

wards with a regular curve to the outer margin.

Not unlike A. Perrondi, L. but with a distinctly heart-shaped aperture; broad on
the inner and acute on the outer margins. From A. Kerandreni, L. it differs in
being-a similarly shaped, but much smaller*mouth, and in wanting the lateral angles ;

the lines of growth being regularly curved.

MUREX. Linn.
M. domingensis. Sby. Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc. 18.
A. species approaching austellum in its almost entirely non-spinous varices. It
can be recognized by its comparatively short and crooked canal.

M. recurvirostris. Brod. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1882.

Living on the West Coast from Mazatlan to Central America. Its straight
canal, larger than the preceding, and the few spines on the varices serve to distin-
guish it from the preceding.

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 2Y. ;

202 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

M. antillarum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell broadly fusiform, whorls eight, rounded, varices three, small, having small, sharp spines variable in number ;
body whorl inflated, rounding in broadly to the suture, without any marked angle above, below tapering convexly
to a nearly straight, short canal; spire elevated, about as long as the mouth, less the canal. Surface ornamented
by numerous, more or less alternating, acute, revolving ribs, with concave outer spaces; crossing these are rather
indistinct longitudinal ribs, four or five between each pair of varices. These ribs are better marked where they
cross the revolving lines, than in the interspaces. Nuclear whorls polished, rounded and without ornament.
Aperture ovate, constricted in advance, canal about equal in length to that of the mouth proper. Inner lip expanded,

showing transverse striations ; outer lip more strongly striate internally. Length 1.15 in.; width .75 in.

A rare shell whose rounded form, thinner structure, more delicate varices and
sculpture, and smaller size will all serve to distinguish it from the two preceding.

M. (Chicoreus) megacerus. Sby. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1845. Rve. No. 24.

Living on the coast of Santo Domingo.

M. (Pteronotus) textilis. Gabb. n. s.

Shell compressed triangular ; whorls eight, the first nuclear, the next three cancellate and showing little or no
trace of varices, which show themselves on the next (fifth) distinctly for the first time, suture deep, caused by the
great convexity of the whorls. Body whorl broad and flat above, then very convex near the top and tapering very
gradually in advance. The three varices are thick at their bases, broad, acute and slightly recurved on the margin.
Between each pair of varices there is one large prominent node, placed longitudinally, too broad to be called a rib.
The entire surface is covered by about a dozen revolving ribs, except on the faces of the varices, where correspond-
ing grooves take their places. Crossing these, the lines of growth are developed into minute erect plates, placed at
equal distances and arching over all the ribs and intermediate, alternating lines, so as to produce under a lens, the
effect of a lace, or loosely woven web. Aperture small, ovate; inner lip acute ; outer lip faintly grooved internally ;

canal about twice as long as mouth and nearly, or entirely arched over. Length 1.4 in.; width .8 in.

M. (Pteronotus) compactus. Gabb. n.s.

Shell short, thick, robust; spire about two-thirds as long as body whorl. Whorls eight; the first two nuclear,
suture impressed. Body whorl broad above, tapering in advance, top sloping, very slightly concave. Varices three,
short, robust, fimbriated or toothed on the margins, but bearing no spines or other elongate processes. Between
each pair of varices, on the shoulder of the whorl, is a broad, blunt node. Surface ornamented by numerous large
revolving ribs, between which are many smaller lines, all crossed by distinct, subsquamose lines of growth. Aperture
smal], sub-oval, inner lip with a faint tooth posteriorly ; outer lip internally striate ; canal short, blunt. Length
2.3 in.; width 1.4 in.

The spire is much higher in the preceding species, and this is altogether a much
heavier and more compact shell.

TROPHON. Montf.

T. dominicensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, broadly fusiform, thin; spire three-fifths the length of the mouth, turriculated ; whorls eight, the
first three nuclear, round and increasing very little in width, the other five widening more rapidly and angulated.
Body whorl truncated above, with a rounded rib on the angle; above this the surface sinuous, convex nearest the
suture and concave adjoining the angle; below the angle it is convex in the middle and rounds coneavely into a
moderate canal. Surface marked by from six to seven blunt varices, each bearing a single spire on the angle of the
whorl. Between the varices the surface is shallowly excavated. Crossing both the varices and interspaces, below
the angle, there are a few small revoiving ribs. Aperture bi-angular posteriorly, narrowed gradually in adyance ;

canal moderate in length, open ; outer lip denticulated internally. Length .8 inch.

A very rare shell. But two specimens were found.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 203

MURICIDEA. Swains.

M. corrugata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short, broad, robust; spire about equal in length to the mouth. Whorls, including the nucleus, seven ;
rounded and increasing rapidly in diameter; suture well marked ; eight large rounded longitudinal ribs, with broad
regularly concave interspaces. These are crossed by numerous revolving lines, sometimes alternating in size.
Aperture broad, canal short and recurved ; inner lip slightly encrusted and strongly ribbed transversely, especially
in advance ; outer rib also strongly ribbed internally. This character of the mouth will distinguish the species from
the following. Length .65 inch, width .4 inch.

M. lata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short, broad, and robust; spire and aperture about equal. Whorls seven (?) (the apex is corroded away);
broad, angulated, obliquely truncated above. Body whorl very short and sloping with nearly straight lines to its
anterior end. Surface bearing nine broadly-rounded longitudinal ribs, crossed by numerous closely-placed and
rather large elevated revolving lines. Aperture broad and rounded behind, narrowing regularly in advance ; canal
short and nearly straight ; columella slightly encrusted, polished, and with no teeth or ribs on either inner or outer

lips. Length .45 inch, width .8 inch.

From the preceding species this shell can be distinguished not only by the inside
of the mouth, as stated above, but also by its sub-angular form, sloping tops to the
whorls, and nearly straight converging anterior end, and by the closer-placed revoly-
ing sculpture and straighter canal.

M. striata. Gabb, n.s.

Thinner and proportionally longer than either of the two preceding. Spire elevated about equal to the aperture;
whorls eight, including the nucleus ; angulated. Body whorlsloping nearly straight above, convex below, the angle con-
stricted in advance. Surface ornamented by seven large ribs on the widest part of the whorls, which become obsolete
above and below. Crossing these below the angle are half a dozen linear ribs with broad smooth interspaces. These
latter ribs are well developed where they cross the others, but are much smaller in the concave spaces. Mouth
subovate, constricted in advance. Incrustation of the inner lip heavy, smooth, and with a projecting free edge ;

outer lip faintly striate internally. Canal twisted, with a broad imperforate umbilicus.
Although about the same size as the two preceding species, this shell can be at
once recognized by its thinner structure, its more slender shape, its more twisted

canal, and by the paucity of its spiral ornaments.

TYPHIS. Montf.

T. alatus. Sby. Quart. Jour., Vol. VI.p. 48, pl. 10, fig. 4.
Very rare. Close to, but distinct from 7. acuticosta, Con. of the Vicksburg

HKocene.

T. obesus. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short, broad; spire very low ; whorls eight, sharply angulated ; concave above the suture, sloping convexly
below ; varices four to each whorl, acute-angular on their margins, and ending in a blunt process on the upper angle
of the whorl ; tubes moderate, pointed laterally, below each tube the surface of the shell is greatly swollen, and two
lines pass anteriorly, one being the margin of the old mouth, the other, in advance of the tube, being similar in
character and indicating another arrest in growth. Surface polished, marked by faint lines of growth, and crossed
below the angle by a few irregular transverse lines, not ribs. Aperture small, oval, bordered by a prominent, acute
raised margin ; canal closed, short, recurved ; front face of terminal varix marked by five small ribs radiating from

the outer lip. Length 1. inch, width .75 inch.

204 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

With the same general surface ornaments and the same number er whorls and
varices, the shell has a very much lower spire and the body whorl is a third wider
than Sowerby’s species. The great variety of both species prevents a comparison of
a series, but, [ can hardly believe, despite their similarity in some respects, that two
shells of such different form can be specifically related. 7. alatus is a long slender
fusiform shell, with a long straight canal and a slender spire. At the same time the
resemblance in the ornaments, number of the varices, and of the whorls, and in size
render it possible that they are only varieties of one species. My only specimen of 7
alatus has not the aperture perfect, so in that respect I am compelled to use Sowerby’s
figure for comparison. The mouth of my oehesus is much more elongated than
Sowerby makes it, and it is sub-angulated instead of being round in advance.

. FUSUS. Lam.
F. Henekeni. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI. p. 49.
Common.

F. quadratus, Gabb, n.s,

Shell very small, elongate-fusiform, spire nearly twice as long as the aperture; whorls eight, the first two,
nuclear, round and plain; the next three bearing a number of tubercles which diminishes on each succeeding whorl;
suture linear, impressed ; body whorl most prominent in the middle, sloping up with but slightly converging sides
to the suture. Canal short, broad, Aperture broad, columella slightly curved, outer lip simple. Surface of the
body whorl marked by four very large rounded longitudinal ribs, with nearly flat interspaces, making an irregular
quadrangular prism. On the next two whorls the ribs, which ave not perfectly coincident from one volution across
the suture to the other, become more ntimerous, so that in the middle of the spire there are five, and still further up,
on the first ornamented whorl below the nucleus, there are eight or nine little tubercles. Length .35 inch, width
about .15 inch.

This peculiar little shell, of which I have seen but a single specimen, has some-
what the surface characters of Mangelia, but its straight lines of growth show that
it cannot belong to that family. It is a Musus in all of its characters except its
unusually short canal.

F. Haitensis. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI, p. 49.

Among the many thousands of shells collected I have found nothing correspond-
ing with the above queted description. May it not be only an individual variation
of FL. Henekent ?

HEMIFUSUS. Swains.

H. Antillarum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short fusiform, moderately broad ; spire about half as high as the length of the aperture ; whorls eight,
angulated, sloping, and slightly concave on the upper surface, bearing about ten rounded nodes on the angle, slightly

convex below ; suture impressed. Surface ornamented by numerous revolving lines. Aperture broad ; outer lip
internally striate ; canal moderately produced, slightly twisted. Length about four inches.

Allied to ZZ. colosseus, Lam., but proportionally broader, with a lower spire, less
sloping on the shoulder of the whorl, and the nodes are larger and rounder.

OF SANTO DOMINGO.

ho
=)
Or

: MELONGENA. Schum.
M. melongena. Linn, sp.

Murex melongenca, Linn.

Pyrula melongena, Lam. An. 58. V.

Cassidulus melongena, H. and A. Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll. p. 81.

Pyrula patula, Brod. and Sby. Proc. Zool. Soc. Vol. IV. p. 377,

C. patulus, H. and A. Ad., loc. cit. a

Pyrula consors, Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI. p. 49.

No further proof of the above synonymy is needed than an examination of the
series of over a hundred specimens collected in the Santo Domingo Tertiary. The
fact that JZ. patula is from the Pacific, while WM. melongena is West Indian, loses all
weight when we study the common Miocene ancestors of the two. The two figures,
18 and 20, of Reeve in Icon, Conch: do not exhibit the extreme variations traceable
among our fossils. The thickening of the body whorl adjoining the suture varies,
sometimes amounting to the deformity observable in Clavella, and sometimes being
entirely absent. The rows of tubercles on the shoulder as well as those in advance
also vary greatly. The normal or most common condition is one row in each series,
but two are not rare behind; three occur occasionally, and in some cases, especially
up to middle size, the shell is entirely devoid of any signs of prominences. The
anterior row may be entirely wanting, or the tubercles, always large when present,
may be close to each other or distant. One or two half-grown specimens occur in
the series entirely devoid of tubercles, while a small shell before me, undoubtedly of
this species, is squamose adjoining the suture, has two rows of tubercles above, a
large row below, and is covered with strong revolving lines.

This species is not rare in the European Miocene, where it has received a series
of specific names. Jor a list of half a dozen, see Hornes, Foss. Moll. Tert. Wien. in
the Abhandlungen der K. K. Geol. Reichsanstalt, p. 274, plates 29 and 30.

METULA. H.and A. Ad.
M. cancellata. Gabb, ns.

Shell long, regularly curved-fusiform ; spire a very little shorter than the mouth ; whorls eight, body whorl
long, slender, sides gently curved ; suture bordered by a thickened rib. Mouth long, narrow, peristome continuous
posteriorly ; inner lip covered with a thick smooth callus, outer lip thickened, sub-acute, and faintly reflexed on the
margin, faintly denticulated internally. Surface marked by small but equal longitudinal and reyolying ribs. One
or two of the latter nearest the suture are a little larger than the others,

About the same size as M. clathrata, but has finer sculpture and is more slender.
My specimens resemble more nearly the figure of that species in Gen. Recent Moll,
than the original in the “ Voyage of the Samarang.” It also has one more whorl
than is attributed to that species in the description.

eA. P. S.—VOL. XV. 22:

206 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

METULELLA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell fusiform, canal more or less produced ; inner lip covered with a thickened plate, continuous posteriorly
with the outer lip. Interior of both inner and outer lips strongly denticulated or transversely striated. Surface

cancellated or costate. ;

This genus is more distinctly fusiform than Metula, and has the additional char-
acter that the thickened inner lip is covered throughout its length by a series of
prominent denticles not corresponding with the covered-up surface ribs.

M. venusta. Sby., sp.

Columbella venusta? Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI. p. 46, pl. 9, fig. 6.

The absence of all trace of a notch in the lip proves that Sowerby’s reference of
this shell to Columbella was incorrect. Its fusiform shape, its canal, and the straight
lines of growth place it in the /usine, and I have been obliged to institute the genus
to receive it and the following species.

M. fusiformis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell fusiform, spire high, slender, a third longer than the mouth ; whorls nine to ten, Founded. Surface regu-
larly cancellate, except on the canal, by equal longitudinal and revolving ribs. On the canal the former are absent.
Aperture long and narrow ; canal produced, slightly recurved ; inner lip covered bya thin callus posteriorly, thick-

ened in the middle, denticles as prominent as the external ribs and placed transversely. Outer lip thick with an

acute margin with eight or ten teeth on the inner face. Length .7 inch, width .25 inch.
Not common.
TURRIS. ~ Bolt.

T. (Surcula) virgo. Lam., sp.

Pleurotoma virgo, Lam.

Turris virgo, H. and A. Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll.

Pleurotoma virgo, Moore. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Vol. IX. pp. 129, 180.

P. Haitensis. Sby. Id., Vol. VI. p. 59.

P. Barretti, Guppy. Id., Vol. XXIT., 290, pl. 17, fig. 6.

P. Jelskii, Crosse. Jour, Conch. 1865, p. 34, pl. 1, fig. 8.

P. Antillarum, Crosse. (Nat. d’Orb.) Loe. cit. fig. 6, 7.

A. common shell, found living in the West Indies and on the coast of Mexico, and
one of the most abundant fossils throughout the Dominican beds, occurring over
their whole extent both stratigraphically and geographically. It varies very much
in. the number, relative size, and arrangement of the ribs, although the general form
is quite constant. While Mr. Guppy’s figure represents a not infrequent variety,
those of Mr. Crosse are not less characteristic. In some cases the ribs are all of the
same size, or they are alternate, or even have three or four fine thread-like lines in
the interspaces. In one specimen the whole surface is covered by large ribs only
separated by acute channels, from which form a regular gradation can be traced to
the other extreme, in which the body of the last whorl has but one very prominent
ridge on the angle and but one or two below. The identity of all of these forms is
amply proven by a study of over 500 specimens coliected and a comparison with

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 207

recent shells. There is one constant character, apart from the form. The notch of
the outer lip is broadly sub-angular and is only coincident with the most prominent
of the ribs when they differ in size. This rib occupies the posterior angle of the body
whorl. Mr. Guppy’s figure of P. Barretti represents the size of the largest specimen
found by Mr. Bonaezy. . |

T. (Surcula) Henekeni. Sby. sp.

Pleurotoma. Id., Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI., p. 50, pl. 10, fig. 6.

T. (Surcula) Jaquensis. Sby. sp.
P. Jaquensis. Sby. Loe. cit. p. 51.

Not a very common species but easily distinguished by its robust fusiform shape
and unusually heavy longitudinal ribs. In the young stage it is proportionally more
slender. I have before me a few smaller specimens, so nearly like the typical form
that I dare not separate them, though they show some small points of difference.
The longitudinal ribs are a little more oblique and the revolving ribs are smaller and
more numerous, but my experience with Z. virgo renders me timid in attaching
great importance to these characters, unless proven by a larger series than I yet
possess.

T. (Surcula) rara. Gabb, n. s.

Shell elongated fusiform ; spire high, whorls numerous (number unknown), slightly convex on the sides ; body
whorl rounded in the middle, sloping upwards nearly straight to the suture, concavely tapering in advance ; suture
impressed. Surface marked by a large number of equal revolving ribs, crossed by well-marked, irregular lines of

growth. Mouth long, narrow ; canal long; inner lip smoothly encrusted; outer lip acute. Sinus distant from the
suture, broadly sub-angular. Length between 2 and 3 inches.

A single specimen which has lost both the apex and the end of the canal. It is
most nearly allied to 7. Carpenteriana, Gabb, from the later Tertiaries of California,
but is much more slender, with a proportionally longer spire and canal, and the notch
of the outer lip is sub-angulated instead of being broadly concave, as in that species.

T. (Sureula) Parkeri. Gabb, n.s.

Shell slender fusiform ; spire high, longer than body whorl and canal. Whorls eleven prominent in the middle.
slightly concave towards the suture, which is linear and undulated. Surface ornamented by about ten very promi-
nent acute longitudinal ribs, with broad, smooth, concave interspaces. Aperture long, narrow; canal straight ;
inner lip rather heavily encrusted, sinus broad, rounded, moderately deep and placed near the suture. Length about
one inch.

A rare little shell, with ornamentation resembling that of Mangelia.

T. (Drillia) militaris. Hds. sp. :

Clavatula Id., Hds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1848, Vog. Sulph., p. 16, pl. 5, fig. 10.

Driiltia. Id., H. & A., Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll.

Pleurotoma consors. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI., p. 50.

Id., Guppy. Loc. cit. Vol. XXIL., p. 289. :
With very similar sculpture to Drillia venusta, Sby., this shell can be distinguished

at all ages by its more slender form. Described by Hinds as living at Panama.

208 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

T. (Surcula) longicaudata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell long, slender fusiform ; spire elevated, somewhat shorter than the body whorl; whorls ten, the upper ones
prominent in the middle, slightly concave near the suture. Suture impressed, bordered by a thickened margin.
Body whorl long, slender, outlines gently sinuous. Canal long, tapering, very slightly recurved ; aperture long,
narrow ; columella slightly tortuous, inner lip encrusted by a very thin callus; sinus small, deep, adjoining the
suture. Surface marked by numerous acute, revolving ribs, with concave interspaces and crossed by longitudinal ribs
following the direction of the lines of growth which, by their intersection, produce a semi-clathrate appearance. Near

the suture, over the space occupied by the sinus, the revolving ribs are replaced by fine lines. Length about an inch.

This species is not unlike 7. consors in its sculpture; but it differs in form. In
this, the spire is shorter than the body whorl; in that, it is much longer; in this, the
canal is straighter and the notch is nearer the suture than in that; and, finally, this
does not possess the heavy revolving rib just below the suture, which is one of the
most constant characters of 7. consors.

T. (Surcula) humerosa, Gabb, n. s.

Shell elongate fusiform, spire high, turriculated ; whorls ten, prominent and angulated on the sides, broadly and
deeply concave above. Suture bordered by a thickened line. Body whorl broad in the middle, concave above, con-
vexly narrowing below and suddenly constricted at the base, beyond which projects a long, slender, straight canal.
Surface marked by revolving ribs showing more or less tendency to alternation in size ; above the angle, these ribs
are smallerand more uniform. On the angle is a series of flattened tubercles, about a dozen to a volution. Aperture
wide and bi-angular above, narrowed in advance. Inner lip but faintly encrusted. Sinus deep, oblique and placed

between the suture and the angle of the whorl. Length about an inch.

A. peculiar shell unlike any other Turrvs, in the formation. It looks like a small
Fusus. One specimen, on account of an injury during its growth, has the body
whorl rounded, instead of angulated on the shoulder.

T. (Bela) Dominicensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, turriculated ; spire about twice as long as the mouth; whorls eight, the first two nuclear, the
others angulated, straight and sloping above, convex below. Body whorl convex in the middle, concavely tapering
below. Suture linear, bordered by a slightly thickened line. Surface ornamented by small, revolving ribs, crossed
by minute but distinctly prominent lines of growth. On the angle is a series of tubercles, about eight to a volution,
which sometimes extend above and below as broadly rounded ribs or undulations. Aperture moderately broad,
regularly tapering in advance. Canal broad, short. Inner lip polished. Sinus very broad and shallow, the deepest

part immediately above the angle. Length .2 inch.

T. (Drillia) gibbosa. Chemn., sp.
Pleurotoma gibbosa, Chemn. Conch., Vol. XI. p. 190.
Drillia gibbosa, HW. and A. Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll.

T. (Drillia) venusta. Sby., sp.
Pleurotoma venusta, Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI. p. 59, pl. 10, fig. 7, dd. Guppy, Quart. Jour. Vol. XXII. p. 289.

T. (Drillia) squamosa. Gabb, n.s.

Shelllarge, heavy, turriculated ; spire about 1} times the length of the mouth. Whorls ten, prominently convex
in the middle, concave or laterally flattened immediately below the suture. Suture bordered by a thickening of
the succeeding whorl. Surface covered by prominent oblique ribs, about ten to a volution. These ribs are laterally
flattened in the young shell, but develope to an elongated tubercle in the adult. The whole surface is transversely
striated by minute, broken, elevated, thread-like lines, which .are in turn crossed or interrupted by the lines of

growth, which in places, especially adjoining the suture and on the large ribs, stand out as squamose plates. Mouth

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 209

sub-quadrate ; canal short, twisted ; inner lip covered with a heavy plate, of which the free edge projects somewhat;
outer lip heavy, margin acute ; sinus large, deep, and adjoining the suture. Length 2.5 inches, width 1 inch.

CLAVATULA. Lam.

C. labiata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell regularly fusiform, spire nearly as long as the aperture; whorls nine, angulated above, concave and sloping
from the angle to the suture, bearing about nine or ten broad rounded oblique tubercles on the outer side of the
angle. Surface of the upper whorl faintly striate by revolving lines ; body whorl marked only by the coronal tubercles
and lines of growth in some specimens ; in others faintly striate like the spire. Aperture narrow, canal moderately
produced, very faintly twisted ; inner lip simple; outer lip irregularly rugose internally, prominent in th2 middle,
acute on the margin, and thickened behind ; sinus deep, adjoining the body whorl, margin internally thickened,
Length .85 inch, width .4 inch. E

DEFRANCIA. Millet.

D. gracilis. Gabb, ns.

Shell elongate slender-fusiform ; spire longer than the mouth, whorls eleven, of which three are nuclear,
slightly rounded on the sides; suture bordered by a thickened line. Surface marked by numerous rounded longi-
tudinal ribs extending to the suture and crossed by two sets of revolving lines, one series prominent and somewhat
distantly placed, the interspaces filled with minute threads. This revolving sculpture varies somewhat in degree.
Aperture narrow ; canal moderate, broad ; columella encrusted, slightly tortuous, a broad low tooth near the sinus ;
outer lip very thick, with an acuce slightly reflexed margin and a faint notch anteriorly ; posterior sinus deep, close
to the suture. Length 1.2 inch, width .3 inch.

A rare shell, remarkable for its long slender form.

D. fusiformis. Gabb, n.s. ;

Shell elongate, fusiform, spire a little longer than the mouth; whorls twelve, the first one or one and a half
nuclear, the others convex in the middle and strongly carinated ; suture bordered by a thickened rib. Surface
ornamented by a few large longitudinal ribs (about eight), crossed by prominent revolving ribs with broad inter-
spaces in which are fine revolving lines. There are usually three of these larger revolving ribs on the upper whorl,
the upper one of which is generally accompanied by a smaller one placed above and close to it. Mouth broad above,
narrowed and produced in a long canal, the end of which is slightly expanded. Inner lip heavily encrusted ; outer
lip very thick with a thin margin, internally grooved, the grooves corresponding to the external revolving lines.
Sinus deep, widened a little at the bottom, placed above the angle. Length 1.5 inch, width .5.

_ A shell resembling /usus in external form and with the large ribs of 7. Jaquensis
eombined with nearly the same revolving ornaments as D. gracilis. Its spire is pro-
portionally much higher than 7. Jaquensis, and its whole form is unlike the other
species.

D. paupercula. Gabb, n.s. :

Shell small, compact, elongate ; sides curved ; spire one and a half times the length of the mouth ; suture well
marked and bordered by a raised line; whorls about seven; sides gently curved, forming a nearly continuous line
from the apex to the anterior end. Sarface prominently clathrate. Aperture narrow, canal short and broad ;
columella arched ; outer lip thickened, sinus moderate, near the suture. Length .35 inch, width .1 inch.

Very rare. A single specimen found. Distinguished by its small size, its curved
sides, and its strongly cancellate sculpture.

GLYPHOSTOMA. Gabb, n. Gen.
Shell like Defrancia, but with the entire length of the inner lip strongly crenulated or transversely rugose.
This genus bears the same relation to Defrancia that Metulella (ut supra) bears

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 3A.

210 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

to Metula. The inner lip of the only known species is thickened and is crossed by a
number of prominences, intermediate in character between teeth and transverse folds.
At the same time they are not like the one fold of Borsonza or the two or three of
Cordiera, which in those genera are very similar to those of Mhtra. A better com-
parison would be with the teeth of Cyprea.

G. dentifera. Gabb, n.s.

Shell réunded, fusiform ; spire elevated, nearly as long as the mouth; whorls eleven, rounded on the sides,
slightly excavated near the suture, which is bordered by a little thickening of the succeeding whorl. Body whorl
convex, gracefully concave, and prolonged in advance into a straight canal. Surface cancellated by nearly equal
longitudinal and revolving ribs. On the upper whorls the former are proportionally larger, giving the spire a
slightly nodose appearance. Aperture narrow, rather suddenly constricted in advance. ' Canal moderate in length ;
inner and outer lips equally dentate ; outer lip very much thickened by a prominent rib, margin acute ; sinus deep,
narrow, and near the suture. Length 1.35 inch, width .5 inch.

CORDIERA. Rouault.
C. magnifica. Gabb, n.s.

Shell large, elongate, fusiform ; spire a little longer than the mouth, turriculated ; whorls thirteen, straight on
the sides, concave and sloping above; body whorl slender, sides sinuous, angulated above. Surface ornamented by
moderately large revolving ribs, somewhat alternate in size ; these are smaller above the angle, while below it they
are broken or crossed by undulations following the direction of the lines of growth, so as to present a distinctly
cancellated appearance. Suture bordered by asmallrib. Aperture long and narrow, narrowed but not constricted
in advance. Inner lip not thickened, bearing four mitraform folds ; outer lip simple, broadly convex in the middle,
retreating above ; sinus broad, shallow, placed above the angle ; canal twisted. Length 2.9 inches, width .6 inch.

Very rare. The sculpture and general form of this species approach 7. consors,
Sby., but it is a larger, thinner and more graceful shell, the cancellation of the sur-
face is more marked than I have ever observed in a series of over 150 specimens of
that species and the folds on the columella show that the resemblance is only one of
imitation and not of relationship.

C. varicosa. Sby. sp.
This shell has the characteristic notch of the family distinctly developed,
coincident with the angle of the whorl.

BORSONIA. Bellardi.

A. genus established for a shell from the Miocene of Turin, is represented in our

collection by a beautiful little shell with the characteristic fold on the middle of the
columella. :

B. recurvirostris. Gabb, n. s.

Shell small, fusiform ; spire turriculated, as long, or a trifle longer than the mouth ; whorls nine, two nuclear, the
others angulated, excavated above, suture bordered by a rib. Surface ornamented by a series of tubercles on the
angle (about a dozen to the body whorl) ; below this there are large revolving ribs. Inner lip with a single large

nearly transverse fold ; outer lip simple ; sinus broad, oblique and close to the suture ; canal produced, strongly re-
eurved. Length about .4 inch, width about .15 inch.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 211

MANGELIA. Leach,
M. heptagona. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, spire elevated, about three-fourths as long as the mouth; whorls eight, nuclear. Body whorl
rounded above the middle, sloping up to the suture and tapering nearly straight in-advance. Surface marked by
seven angular ribs with shallowly concave interspaces ; the whole crossed by minute, impressed lines. Mouth linear,
canal straight, outer lip thick, straight, acute on the margin; sinus very small. Length .6 inch, width .25 inch.

The largest of the four species, and easily recognized by its seven prominent ribs.
M. polygona. “Gabb, n. s.
Shell a little smaller, but nearly of the same shape as the preceding, slightly more slender; surface marked by

about seventeen slightly sinuous, longitudinal ribs, with shallow, concave interspaces, crossed by numerous small
closely placed, revolving ribs. Aperture narrow; sinus small with a small internal tubercle in advance.

Distinguished from MZ. heptagona by the numerous ribs and by the revolving
sculpture.

M. elevata. Gabb, n. s.

Shell minute, sub-fusiform ; spire elevated, a little longer than the mouth ; whorls seven, flattened on the sides;
sub-truncated above ; body whorl tapering sinuously in advance. Surface marked by about nine or ten large longi-

tudinal ribs with deeply concave interspaces and crossed by fine, thread-like revolving, elevated striz. Aperture large,
canal broad ; sinus deep, rounded, obliquely placed. Length .25 inch, width .1 inch.

Recognizable by its size, not half as long as the two preceding; by its nearly equal
spire and mouth, and by the heavy longitudinal ribs.

M. elongata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, very slender, spire twice as long as the mouth ; whorls eight, nearly flat on the sides ; body whorl

broadly convex, slightly narrowed in front. Surface marked by six large longitudinal ribs with broad shallow inter-
spaces. Mouth narrow, canal short. sinus deep, narrow, oblique.

Size about the same as that of M. elevata, but distinguished from it by the much
higher spire and the smaller number of ribs.

All of these species, except M. polygona are very rare, and even that species can-
not be called common as compared with many of the other shells in the formation.

TRITONIUM. Link.
T. (Lampusia) lineatum. Brod. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 6; not T. lineatum, Sby. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 72,

The Santo Domingo fossils differ only from Galapagos specimens in that one of my
shells has larger varices than I find in the recent ones with which I compared it. The
two series agree exactly in sculpture, form, size and, in short, all of the details except
the individual difference noted.

T. (Cymatium) femorale. Linn. sp.

A. few well characterized specimens, the largest about five inches long.

T. commutatum. Dk.

My shell agrees perfectly in all its details with specimens of this species in the
Museum of the Academy, marked from the West Indies.

Y12 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

T. (Ranularia) Domingense. Gabb, ns.

Shell small, spire high, as long or longer than the mouth j apex blunt ; whorls eight? (the last nuclear wheris are
broken inall my specimens) ; below the nucleus there are three whorls which are caneellate, but do not bear recogniz-
able varices, while the last three whorls have large varices. Whorls convex, the upper ones distinetly bi-angulated,
and sloping above, Surface marked by four large tubercles on the angle of the whorls, between each pair of varie
ces; the whole surface crossed by revolving ribs crossed by more or less strongly marked lines. Aperture oval ;
lips slightly produced ; inner lip rugose ; outer lip strongly costate internally ; canal moderate. Length 1 inch.

Not unlike 7. antillarum, VOrb., but with a much higher spire and shorter canal.

*

DISTORTIA. Bolt.
D. simillimus. Sby. sp.

Triton, id. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI, p. 48.

Persona, id. Guppy. loc cit. Vol. XXII, p. 288, pl. 17, fig. 13.

Closely allied to Trvton constrictus of the West coast, but differs in having more
numerous revolving ribs.

BURSA. Bolt.

B. crassa, Desh.

Ranella crassa; Desh.,; Rve. leon. Cench., sp. 18. i?)

id, Guppy, Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc. v.22; p. os pl. 18, fig. 9.

PHOS. Montf.

P. Veraguersis. Hds. Am, Nat. Hist., vol. XI, p. 256,

Id, Hds. Voy. Sulph. p. 87%, pl. 10, fig. 13, 14,

P. Moorei; Guppy: Quart. Jour; Geol. Soc., Vol XXII, p. 290, pl. 16, fig. 11.

P. elegans. Guppy. loe. cit. fig. 13.

After a careful study of about 130 speciniens, I feel forced to differ with both
Messrs. Moore and Guppy in regard to this shell, That Guppy’s two species “are
based on different ages only of one I have clear proof; and I can find no character on
which to separate this from the shell described by Hinds, and admirably well figured
in the report of the voyage of the Sulphur.

P. Guppyis Gabb, a. s,

Shell elongate, spire high, larger than the aperture ; whorls regularly convex on the sides; term or eleven in
number. Surface marked by a few broad longitudinal ribs, prominent on the spire, less distinct and occasionally
obsolete on the body whort, and crossed by numerous very small revolving lines ; aperture broad, inner lip with but
a single fold in advance ; cuter lip internally striate.

P. semicostatus, Gabb, n. s.

Shell robust, spire longer than the mouth ; whorls nine; suture well marked: Surface ornamented by numerous
large rounded longitudinal ribs on the apical whorls; which suddenly become fewer on the penultimate, and are
represented by but one; or two at most, on the body volution. These latter are almost as prominent and noticeable
as the varices of Triton. 'Yhe whole surface is crossed by numerous prominent reyolying ribs with usually a distinct
alternation in size. Besides these and replacing the large radiating ribs, or rather placed between them, are more
or less distinct longitudinal lines crossing the transverse series. Inner lip thickened posteriorly ; outer lip internally
striate.

P. costatus. Gabb, ns.

Shell short, robust, spire longer than the mouth ; whorls nine; very conyex; suture deep. Surface covered with

OF SANTO DOMINGO. Diss

very prominent longitudinal ribs, about nine to a volution, and very uniform in size, with regularly concave inter-
spaces. These are crossed by small revelving lines, most prominent where they cross the ribs. Aperture broad ;
inner lip heavily encrusted, the margin of the encrustation rising beyond the surface of the whorl as a stout plate ;

internally it is strongly rugose in advance. Outer lip internally striate in advance.

It would seem rash to attempt to separate shells so nearly allied as the above four
species, were it not that I had in all over 1300 specimens. Of these, the first was
represented by 130, the second by about 50, the third by over 600, and the last by
over 500. In not a single instance did I find a specimen that I could not assign with
certainty to its proper species, so that I feel well convinced of the validity of my
determinations.

The diagnostic differences between them may be briefly stated as follows: LP.
Veraquensis is evenly sculptured by small, uniform longitudinal ribs, and crossed by
still smaller lines; ?. costatus has very large round ribs of uniform size throughout,
crossed by very small lines ; it is also by far the most robust of the four, and is the
only one that possesses a rugose columella. ?. semi-costatus is not markedly unlike
P. costa.us in the upper whorls, except that the cross sculpture is much stronger, in
which last character it excels all the others ; but in the presence of the few varix-like
ribs on the body whorls, it is at once distinguishable. And finally, P. Guppy? can
be recognized at a glance by its very slender form, the four, large irregular ribs and
the delicate cross lines. The last is much the prettiest species of the four, and I
dedicate it to Mr. J. M. Guppy, whose name occurs on almost every page of the
present paper.

NASSARIA. Link,

Hinpsia, H. & A, Ad.

N. brevis. Gabb, n.s,

Shell short, broadly fusiform ; spire as long as the mouth ; whorls eight, the first nuclear, convex; suture deep ;
whorls covered by about nine prominent ribs, extending from the suture, and on the last volution ending below the
middle. Surface crossed by strong revolving lines with concave interspaces. Aperture broad; inner lip encrusted
and transversely rugose, especially in advance ; outer lip internally striate ; canal short, recurved. Length .8 inch ;
width .5 inch.

ECTRACHELIZA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell acuminately oblong, spire elevated (always truncate in the only species known). Surface compressed near

the suture ; inner lip encrusted, columella sinuous, short, outer lip produced in advance.

This genus seems to be allied in many of its characters to Cominella and Trun-
carta. Like them it is compressed adjoining the suture. It shows no trace of
umbilicus as is seen in most of the Buccinéde ; but its most distinctive character is in
its obliquely sub-trunecated columella, which does not reach the anterior end of the
shell. It differs from Zruncaria in haying no fold on the columella, and in the aper-
ture not being emarginate posteriorly. Whether the truncated apex will be of generic

A P. S.—vVOL. Xv. 3B.

214 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

or only of specific value, can only be determined on studying other species, should
they be found.

E. truncata. Gabb, ns.

Shell acuminately oblong, spire high, whorls nine or ten at least; apex always truncated, so that usually not
more than two whorls are preserved ; surface of whorls broadly rounded, slightly concave near the suture which is
linear and distinct. No ornaments except some obscure revolving lines, not always present. Aperture acute behind,
inner lip sinuous, encrusted, simple; outer lip simple straight, produced in advance; anterior sinus broad, shallow

and oblique. Length of body whorl of an average specimen 1.15 inch ; width .8 inch.

The truneation of the apex is not an accidental character, but one of at least
specific value. Very young shells, only one-fourth of an inch long show it in the
same manner as the adults which, with the spire, would have a length of two inches.

CYCLOPS. Montf.

C. angulatus. Gabb, n. s,

Shell minute, translucent, discoidal, whorls rounded above and below and having an angle or carina in the mid-
dle, which becomes ebsolete in the adult shell on approaching the aperture. Body whorl enveloping the others above,
the suture being carried to the apex, but leaving it in the mature shell, so that the top of the shell shows the suture
as a straight line bent at a right angle in the middle, and running from the apex across the body whorl to the margin.
Aperture laterally expanded; umbilical callus small and slightly concave. Surface minutely striate by fine revolv-
ing lines.

A. peculiar shell recognizable by its covered top and carinate body whorl.

C. depressus. Gabb, ns,

Shell very small, discoidal, spire flat, whorls rounded, increasing rapidly in size ; body wherl enveloping the
others, the suture running in a straight line from the apex. Aperture large, callus small ; surface polished. ;

It differs from the preceding in the whorls being regularly rounded, instead of
earinated, and in their increasing more rapidly in size. The top of the shell also is
flatter.

CUMA. Humph.

C. tectum. Kieneyx, sp.

Pyrula tectum. Wiener. ‘

Buccinum tectum, Gray. Weods. Ind. Test., Supp.

Turbinella tectum, Rve. Icon. Conch. Turbinella, sp. 40.

This well known Panama shell is very common in the Dominican beds, and goes
through an astonishing series of variations. I have it with a rounded body, without
a tubercle, and varying from that to a broadly angulated and umbilicated form, with
six immense tubercles on the angle. Between these, and other extremes, I fortunately

possess complete series connecting them without question.

HARPA. Lam,

H. resea. Lam.
A single nearly full-grown specimen of this African species, has all of the charac-
ters possessed by recent shells of corresponding size in the Academy’s collection.

OF SANTO DOMINGO.

bo
|
Or

OLIVA. Brug.
O. cylindrica. Sby. Quart. Jour. V. VI, p. 45.
O. reticularis, Lam., Guppy. Jd. V. XXII, p. 288.

After a study of nearly 600 specimens I am decidedly inclined to agree with Mr.
Guppy in referring this shell to the Lamarckian species. The only ground for a
separation that I can discover is that the fossils are usually heavier than the recent
specimens and sometimes acquire a greater size. I have them 2.5 inches long.

With these shells are two specimens isolated by their size and differing from each
other in such a manner that, were they more numerous, I should be tempted to name
them. As it is, I dare not risk making useless synonymy. One 4 inches long has
a comparatively low spire and is decidedly tapering in advance; the other 3.3 inches
long, is quite high-spired and unusually slender. They are most probably aberrant
forms of this species.

O. oryza. Lam.
Quite abundant and differing in no respect from recent specimens.
0. muticoides. Gabb. n.s.

Shell elongate-ovate, spire elevated ; whorls seven ; suture deeply channeled ; inner lip encrusted with a heavy
callus and distinctly transversely plaited ; four or five large folds in advance extend over the end of the body whorl.

About the size of large specimens of O. mutica, this species is more slender, has
a higher spire and differs essentially in the inner lip. While that species has a
peculiar thickening, built up, as it were, on the inside margin of the lip and running
longitudinally on it, and has very few folds (or even none in some cases), this has no
such thickening, and is almost as strongly plaited as O. reticularis.

O. gradata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell resembling in size and shape O. ¢sp/dula, but with a higher spire ; whorls seven; deeply channeled ; sur-
face marked with a sharp offset or break in the continuity of the surface about a tenth of an inch below the channel.
Inner lip but lightly encrusted and marked by a few very prominent transverse folds.

A. very rare shell, but one that can be at once distinguished by the break in its
surface similar to but stronger than that observed in some species of Ancillaria.

O. brevispira. Gabb, u. s.

Shell elongate-oval, spire very small, body whorl sub-cylindrical, very slightly tapering in advance, convexly
tapering in its upper one-third or one-fourth towards the suture; suture channeled; aperture rather heavily en-
crusted and transversely striate by numerous small teeth ; anterior folds large. Length one to one and a-fourth
inches.

Distinguishable by its comparatively slender form and by the very small spire.

O. canaliculata. Gabb, n. s.

Shell robust, sub-cylindrical, spire moderately elevated, deeply channeled; whorls seven or eight. Aperture
linear ; inner lip heavily encrusted, crossed by numerous fine transverse striz ; internal surface excavated (by absorp-
tion) so as to produce an angulated ridge. Length .8 inch.

Nearest to O. fimbriata from which it can be at once distinguished by its more

cylindrical form, lower spire and entirely different aperture.

bo
—

ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

PLOCHELEA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell olivee-form, suture faint ; aperture linear deeply and obliquely notched at the base ; outer lip thickened in
the middle ; inner lip encrusted and bearing several transverse folds of which the upper ones are smallest ; columella
strongly recurved at the base.

From its form and general appearance I feel inclined to consider this genus to
belong to the Olivide although its details of character are strikingly like those of
Dibaphus. Tt seems to form in a manner a connecting link between the true Olives
and the genus Monoptyyma of Lea (not of HW. & A. Adams).*

I have before me specimens of Dibaphus edentulus and Mauritia Barclayz, the
typical species of their respective genera. There is no possible room for doubt that
D. edentulus is, at least sometimes, supplied with mitra-like folds. My specimen has
seven or eight and well-developed. Consequently Mauritia is synonymous with
Dibaphus; and it seems to me that the genus should be placed rather with the
Mitras than with the Cones. The differences between the present genus and Dv-
baphus are small, and it is possible that the two should be placed side by side, although
I strongly suspect that the resemblances are rather those of imitation than of true

relationship.

P. crassilabrum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate-oval, slightly tapering in advanee in old specimens; spire low, acuminate, whorls eight, suture
obsolete, its end, at the mouth, bent upwards ; body whorl rounded above, nearly straight on the sides. Aperture
linear, contracted in the middle by the encrcachment of the outer lip, which is very much thickened in the middle ;
inner lip encrusted, crossed by about eight slightly oblique folds, the most anterior of which are largest ; columella
strongly recurved, sinus deep and oblique. Length about 1 inch.

On one specimen are faint traces of the color pattern which seems to have been
small, more or less triangular light patches on a darker ground.

This shell is unlike either D. edentula or Barclay? in its low spire, its olive-hke
shape, in the end of the columella being bent directly backwards instead of laterally,
in the folds on the inner lip being arranged in an order the reverse of that of Mitra,

and in the posterior elongation of the mouth.

FASCIOLARIA. Lam.

F.semistriata. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI, p. 49.
Id. Guppy, loc cit, Vol. XXII, p. 288, pl. 16, fig. 12.

Differs from beth J”, tulipa and /’. distans in being intermediate between them in
color pattern. It seems nearest to /. tulipa in shape, but is more slender and has a

*See Lea, Contributions to Geology. The genus Monoptygma is described and figured by Mr. Lea as an olive
with a very large single fold on the middle of the columella. The author adds that he has received a little shell from
tue East Indies which he considers should be added to the genus. Authors of recent conchology have all assumed this
little shell as the type of the genus, ignoring alike the generic description and the excellent figures of the typical
species. H. & A. Adams have monographed the recent shells of this unnamed genus in the Proc. Zool. Society,

referring them incorrectly to Monoptygima of Lea.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 217

much longer canal. At the same time it differs in being more grooved near the
suture, making a distinct shoulder whorl. It is not impossible that all of these forms,
together with /. rhomboidea, Rogers, of the North Carolina Miocene, should all be in-
eluded under the Linnean name of tulipa.

F. intermedia. Sby. Quart. Jour. 1849, p. 49.

Very close to the young stage of J”. gigantea, which it resembles much more
closely than /. papillosa. The papillary apex is simply the single nuclear whorl,
which is rather larger than usual.

LATIRUS. Montf.

L. infundibulum. Gmel. Lam. A.5§. V. (Desh. Ed.) Vol. IX, p. 386.
Id. Rve. Icon. Sp. 3.
Id. Guppy. Quart Jour. Vol. XXII, p. 288.

L. elongatus. Gabb, n. s.

Shell very elongate, slender-fusiform, spire high, many whorled ; whorls rounded in the sides; suture distinct.
Surface marked by a series of broad, rounded, longitudinal ribs, about nine to a volution, crossed by simple revolving
lines, larger on the canal than on the body of the last whorl ; canal very long, straight ; inner lip with four or five

small, slightly oblique folds. Length about three inches.
Easily distinguishable by its very elongate fusiform shape, and its long, slender
straight canal.

L. exilis. Gabb, n. s.

Small, elongate, slender, spire longer than the aperture and canal; whorls numerous, suture bordered by a rib;
surface marked by a very few large longitudinal ribs, five or six to avolution. These are crossed by strong revolving
lines, of which about three appear on the upper whorls. Mouth small, oval, extended into a long slender, slightly
curved canal; inner lip encrusted, the plate extending so as to make a raised sharp border to the mouth; internally
marked by two strong transverse folds. Length 1.5 inch.

Differs from the preceding by its coarse sculpture, the laterally-bent canal and the
details of the mouth.

L. fusiformis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, fusiform, spire a very little shorter than the mouth; whorls nine, subangulated and slightly con-
cave above ; surface marked by about eight or nine longitudinal ribs crossed by revolving lines. Aperture broad ;
inner lip with three oblique folds ; canal long, straight. Length 1.7 inches.

In sculpture, this is nearest to Z. infundibulum, but it differs in being more finely
sculptured, and being more regularly fusiform, with a long straight canal, and in not
being umbilicated. From ZL. elongatus it differs in being more broadly fusiform, shorter

and broader, in being sub-angulated above, and in the columellar plications.

L. angustatus. Gabb, n.s.

_ Shell elongate, slender-fusiform ; spire many whorled, longer than the aperture ; whorls convex, suture well
marked. Surface marked by a dozen long rounded ribs with regularly concave interspaces and crossed by small re-
volving lines. Aperture elongate ; inner lip with two or three small oblique ribs; canal moderately elongated,

slightly twisted. Length 1.4 inches.

A. P. S.—VOL. xv. 3¢.

218 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

A comparatively small shell, with a rather short canal and distinguishable by its
more numerous and nearly straight ribs, and fine cross sculpture.

TURBINELLA. Lam.
T. valida. Sby.

Turbinellus validus, Sby., Quart. Jour. Vol. VI., p. 50.

Differs from Z. scolymus in its greater number of tubercles. ‘The specimens
differ also among themselves somewhat, in the character of the inner lip. In some
cases it is hardly encrusted, while in others it is covered with an enormous plate with
a free edge.

T. ovoidea. Kiener. Icon. Coq. viv. p. 7, pl. 17, fig. 7.

Not rare. It is reported from the coast of Brazil, and I am not aware that it

occurs now inthe West Indies.

VASUM. Bolt.
V. Haitensis. Sby., sp.

Turbinellus Hattensis. Sby. Quart. Jour. Vol. VI., p. 50.

Closely allied to 7. muricata, from which it differs in one constant character. In
that species the suture is considerably below the angle of the preceding whorl; in this,
the suture always follows the extreme outer angle.

V. tuberculatum. Gabb, ns.

Shell large, ponderous, broad ; spire elevated, half as long as the mouth, whorls about eight or nine; broadly
angulated, concave and sloping above, bearing a few very large tubercles on the angle ; body whorl tapering rapidly
below the angle and strongly ridged in advance. Surface covered with afew revolving lines. Aperture broad behind,
narrowed in advance and expanded at the termination of the anterior ridge. Inner lip with four or five large folds.
Length 4 inches, width 8 inches.

Allied to 7” caestus, but differs in having but six very large tubercles on the angle
instead of many, as in that species.

V. Dominicensis. Gabb, n. s,

Shell small, very robust ; spire about as long as the mouth in old shells, not so long in the younger stages , whorls
10, concave above, angulated ; body whorl convex in the middle, concave in advance and broadly umbilicated :
surfaces marked by about 7 larger slightly oblique longitudinal ribs, more or less tuberculate on the angle and crossed by
numerous revolving ribs, the whole rendered more or less squamose by lines of growth; there is a larger revolving
rib or row of tubercles in advance. Aperture elongate-oval; inner lip covered with a heavy plate, with four trans-
verse folds. Length 2.5 inches, width 1.5 inch.

The high spire and small size -of this shell render it entirely unlike any other
with which I am acquainted in the genus.

LAGENA. Schum.*

L. rhomboidea. Gabb,n.s.

* IT have elsewhere expressed my disapproval of the use of names of such authors as Klein, who were only by accident binomial; who only used a
single word for a specific name occasionally, and whose names are not seldom a whole phrase or eyen a sentence. H. and A. Adams use for this genus
Leucozonia of Gray since Klein had used Lagena elsewhere. But if we follow Gray and Adams in adopting Klein’s names, we must, with the latter
also use those of Aldroyandus; and since he quotes Aristotle, to be consistent we must imitate him. Malacology is sadly in need of an index expur-
gatorius and Lain by no means sure that it ought not to contain with these polynomial authors, the anonymous writers of Museum Colonnianum,
Museum Boltenianum, et id omne genas. Since, however, through the endeavors of Swainson, Gray, Morch and Hermannsen, we now haye the
names of Humphrey , Bolten and Link (who were binomial though defective) applied to definitely recognized genera, and since conchologists are very

generally agreed on their use, they may be retained: but no good argument has yet been adduced to support the use of names, derived from those
authors who were habitually polynomial,

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 219

Shell short, broadly fusiform ; spire and mouth equal ; whorls seven, the first nuclear, the other regularly sloping
above, obsoletely nodose on the angle and tapering in advance. Surface marked by fine revolving strie. Aperture
broad, contracted in advance ; columella bent in the middle, carrying three folds, slightly twisted in advance.

SCAPHA. Gray.

S. striata. Gabb, n.s.

Two very young shells, evidently of this genus, occur in the collection, and I
venture to name them despite their immature condition. Although the largest is
barely over an inch long, they have both lost their nuclei and have the usual promi-
nent but blunt apices. The larger is elongate, rather slender, the shoulder bears a
series of short laterally compressed nodes which form a coronated angle. The
suture is well marked and the whole surface is crossed by fine revolving striz:
Below the angle, the sides are nearly straight and narrow sinuously in advance.
Columella with the two prominent oblique folds.

I have compared these evidently immature shells with all the known species and
cannot identify them as belonging to any one of them.

LYRIA. Gray.

L. pulchella. Sby. sp.

Voluta pulchella. Sby. Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 45, pl. 9, fig. 4.
2? V. soror. Sby. loc. cit., p. 46.

I have both the varieties of the species mentioned under the first of the above=
quoted descriptions, and by an examination of about 200 specimens, which show
great variations in the number, size and characters of the ribs and in the height of
the spire, Iam strongly inclined to suspect that V. sorer is only another of these
variable forms. Among 7 ‘shells I have one variety almost undistinguishable from
LL. Delessertiana. The strongest difference is that some of the specimens of that
species are more slender than our shell.

MITRA. Lam.

M. Henekeni. Sby., Quart. Jour. Vol. III., p. 46, pl. 9, fig. 5.
Id. Guppy. Loe. cit., Vol. XXIII., p. 288.

Distinguished by its slightly convex sides and by the small number of columellar
folds ; but more especially by the shallow channels, or, more strictly speaking, by the
truncation of the upper margin of the whorl, adjoining the suture.

M. longa. Gabb, n.s.

Shell very attenuate, spire as long, and in old specimens much longer than the mouth; whorls about twelve,
nearly flat on the sides ; body whorl very broadly convex in the middle; suture distinct ; surface marked by large

and acute revolving ribs, with occasionally smaller ones interposed. In the interspaces, fine longitudinal and revoly-

ing lines form a distinct cancellation. Aperture long, slender, narrowing very little inadvance. Inner lip with four

distinct and one or two faint folds.
Distinguished from the preceding by its very slender form and the greater number

of columellar plaits.

220 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

M.rudis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short, broad robust, sides curved ; spire about equal to the mouth ; upper whorls nearly flat on the side ;
suture bordered by a slightly thickened margin; surface marked by a few large rounded revolving lines crossed by
irregular lines of growth, soas to produce a semi-cancellate appearance. Aperture broad, not contracted in advance ;
inner lip with four folds of whieh the most posterior is very prominent and the anterior is very indistinct ; outer lip
serrate, the notches corresponding to the superficial ribs. Length 1.4 inch, width .6 inch.

The short, thick form and rudely cancellate surface sufficiently distinguish this
rare shell.

M.titan. Gabb, n.s.

Shell very large, elongate spire a little shorter than the aperture; whorls about ten or eleven (apex broken),
silghtly convex on the sides, suture linear or bordered by a very faint thickening of the margin of the succeeding
whorl. Surface nearly smooth, marked only by a few faint revolving impressed lines in the adult. In the young
shell these are more marked, and are broken by the traces of the lines of growth which are hardly perceptible
except in the depressions. Anteriorly there are sometimes traces of indistinct revolving ribs. Aperture long and
narrow, slightly narrowed in advance ; columella encrusted, especially in front, where it is gently twisted, carrying
one very faint and four distinct folds. Outer lip thick and rounded on the margin, not striate. Length 6 inches,
width 1.75 inch. .

This shell, which rivals JM. episcopalis in size, resembles in its younger stages
M. Isabella in form, but can be distinguished by its smooth surface, which also
separates it from all the other fossil Mitras of Santo Domingo. .

Not unlike WZ. scrobiculata, Broce., of the N. Italian miocene, but proportionately
more convex, with a larger body whorl and with the columellar folds more transverse.

M. symmetrica. Gabb,n.s.

Shell slender fusiform ; spire and mouth about equal; whorls ten, slightly convex on the sides, suture, distinct.
Surface marked by numerous, closely placed, flattened revolving ribs, the interspaces crossed by prominent lines of
growth which do not appear on the tops of the ribs. Aperture moderate, narrowed slightly in front. Columella
with four well marked plaits.

From M. Henekent and M. longa this can be readily distinguished by its flat ribs ;
from the first by its more numerous columellar folds and from the second by its more
rounded form. It is not impossible, however, that it may prove to be the young of M.
titan, from which it differs in having a straight canal, and in its ribs; two characters
which are not always unalterable as shells grow older.

M.tortuosa. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, sub-turretted ; spire about as long as the aperture ; whorls flat on the sides, convexly truncated
adjoining the suture ; body whorl narrowed in front and produced into a tortuous canal. Surface marked by about a
dozen longitudinal ribs, acute on their summits and with concave interspaces. These ribs begin at the suture, and
on the body whorl cover all of its convex portion. Between these are revolving impressed lines of variable
intensity, which never cross the summits of the ribs. LGeyond the termination of the longitudinal ribs, and espe-
cially on the canal, these lines are stronger. Aperture long and narrow, contracted into the canalin advance ; colu-
mella twisted, bearing four prominent folds. Outer lip faintly notched neay the suture. Length 1.3 inch, width
45 inch.

This species belongs to the group of Costellaria, Sw., but the contraction into an
anterior canal is more marked than in any other species known to me. It is nearest
in style to M. semifasciata, Lam.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 221

MARGINELLA. Lam.

M. coniformis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI, p. 45.
Id. Guppy, loc. cit. Vol. XXII., p. 288, pl. 17, fig. 2.

A very variable species which I have failed to divide after a careful study of its
modifications. It is sometimes broad, sometimes slender ; the spire is sometimes ele-
vated, sometimes depressed, and some of the mature shells are twice as large as
others. Still, the gradations between all of these variations are so numerous and so
complete that I am forced to consider them all one species.

M. (Glabella) Sowerbyi. Gabb, n.s.

Shell volutiform, spire high, whorls five ; body whorl regularly tapering in advance. Aperture linear, inner

lip with four folds, the last one terminal and all slightly grooved on the summits ; outer lip with numerous small
teeth, one or two at the posterior end, larger than the others. Length .6 inch, width .45 inch.

Easily recognized by its high spire and by the sulcate columellar folds.

M.chrysomelina. Redf. Am. N. Y. Lyc., N. Hist., Vol. IV, p. 492, pl. 17, fig. 2.

M. pudica. Gaskoin, Proc. Zol. Soc., 1849, p. 18.

Rare—Living in the West Indies.

is STROMBINA. Mérch.

S. gradate. Guppy.

Columbella id. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 288, pl. 16, fig. 10.

In a note Mr. Guppy refers this species to Strombina and suggests relationship
with Pleurotoma. The shell is characterized by two or three prominent tubercles of
variable size on the upper part of the body whorl, which give it a triangular form. These
are variable ; sometimes very prominent, in other cases almost wanting.

S. ambigua. Guppy, loc. cit., p. 288, pl. 16, fig. 8.
Has not been found in Santo Domingo.

S. inflata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, spire elevated, whorls eight, convex on the sides and truncated adjoining the suture. Surface of
the body whorl transversely striate in advance. Aperture narrowed in advance, canal somewhat recurved ; inner lip
encrusted and transversely striate ; outer lip but slightly thickened and interiorly striate, but not denticulated,

In size and general appearance, this shell is not unlike S. gradata, but it differs
from that species in its much broader body whorl, shorter spire, in the absence of all
ornament except a few revolving striz in advance and in the outer lip being slightly
thickened and striate internally instead of being denticulated.

S. Haitensis. Sby., sp.
Columbella Haitensis, Sby., Quart. Jour, Vol. VI., p. 46.

S. Caribra. Gabb, n. s.

Shell small, robust, spire high, whorls nine, minutely truncated on the upper margin ; body whorl marked by a
few revolving striz in advance and with a thickening opposite the lip, making a sub-elliptical cross-section. A per-
ture broad ; outer lip very thick, with a few teeth internally, the internal notch remote from the posterior angle.
Tnner lip encrusted and with four or five minute teeth. Canal very short and recurved.

A. P. §.—VOL. XV. 3D.

92? ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

About the size of S. Hattensis, and not unlike it in general form, but differs in
entire absence of longitudinal ribs and in the presence of the ranella-like flattening.

S. exilis. Gabb.n.s.

Shell minute, slender, spire a little longer than the mouth; whorls seven; marked by small longitudinal ribs 5
anterior end of body whorl crossed by a few revolving lines. Inner lip encrusted ; outer lip slightly thickened, with
the characteristic internal notch, and with three or four teeth in advance. Length .15 inch.

In size and form this is not unlike the immature shells of S. /Zaitensis, but a dozen
or twenty specimens prove it to be mature, independent of the perfect mouth. It also
wants the thickened suture margin of that species.

I have two fragmentary specimens, indicating a fourth species larger than S. Hai-
tensis, more regularly gibbous and with strong longitudinal ribs. Unfortunately,
in both cases the anterior half of the body whorl is broken away.

CASSIS. Lam.

C. sulcifera. Sby., Quart. Jour, Vol. VI., p. 47, pl. 10, fig. 1.
id. Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 286.

Sowerby’s specimen, as figured, is an unusually round one. The inner lip is gen-
erally expanded far beyond the body whorl, so as to make the under face a rude right-
angled triangle. In old specimens there are three rows of tubercles, and the middle
one of the upper row is generally very prominent.

CASSIDEA. Brug.

C. granulosa. Brug, Enc. Meth. Vol. I, p. 421.

Buccinum cassidcun tessélatum, Chemn. Conch. Cab., p. 76.

B. inflatum, Shaw. Nat. Misec., Vol. XXII, pl. 959.
Cassis monilifera, Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII, p. 287, pl. 17, fio. 8

Reeve says that Shaw’s name antedates that of Brugicre ten years; but by a
reference to the original authors, it is certain that it should bear a later date than
1795 (that of both Conch. Cab. and Ene. Meth.), since Shaw not only refers to the
fieure of Chemnitz, but his illustration is evidently from Conchylien Cabinet, very
badly made and sinistral.

CYPRAICASSIS. Stich,

C.testiculus. Linn.

Not common; half a dozen specimens found,

CASSIDARIA. Lam.
C. laevigata. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 47, pl. 10, fig. 2.
C. sublaevigata, Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXIT., p. 287, pl. 17, fig. 10.

A. study of 160 specimens proves that Mr. Guppy’s separation of his species is
not based on sufficient grounds. The spire varies more than the difference between
the two figures, the striation is a pretty constant juvenile character occasionally
retained on adult shells, and I have devigata much larger than Guppy’s specimen.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 223

-

This is not the same species as described by Conrad, from Vicksburg, although
(Proc. Phil. Acad., 1852, p. 199,) he states that he considers them identical.

MORUM. Bolt.
M. Domigensis. Sby., sp.

Oniscia Domigensis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 47, pl. 10, fig. 3.
Very different from Oniscia harpula, Con., from the Vicksburg Hocene, although
Mr. Conrad has asserted their indentity.

MALEA. Val.
M.ringens. Swains.

Cassis ringens. Sw., Bligh. Cet.

Malea. Id., H. and H. Ad., Gen. Ree. Moll.

Dolium. Id., Rve. Icon., sp. 5.

Malea latilabris. Val.

M. camura, Guppy. Quart. Jour., Geol. Soc. Vol. XXII, p. 287, pl. 17, fig. 9.

Both the typical form and Valenciennes variety occur fossil in Santo Domingo.

FICUS. Bolt.
F. papyratia. Say.

Pyrula papyratia, Say. Jour. Phil. Aead., 1 ser., Vol. IL., p. 228.
Sycotypus papyracea, Stimpson, Sw. Check List.
Id. Ti. and A. Ad., Gen. Rec. Moll.

A. single good and one poor specimen found.

F. Mississippiensis. Con., Jour. Phil. Acad., 2 ser., Vol. I., p. 117.
~ Fiecula Carbasea, Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XVIL., p. 530, pl. 26, fig. 7.

Ihave compared Mr. Guppy’s shell with Mr. Conrad’s original specimens from
Vicksburg, Mississippi, and find them indentical in form and sculpture. Iam by no
means sure that this should not be considered the same as J’. decussatus (J. Ven-
tricosus) the common west coast Mexican form.

NATICA. Linn.
N.canrena. Linn. Mus.. p. 674.

A common West Indian shell. The callus in the umbilicus seems smaller in the
recent specimens, but not sufficiently different to warrant a separation.

N. sulecata. Born., Mus. Ces., pl. 17, fig. 5, 6.
Jd., Guppy. Quart.-Jour. Vol. XXII., p. 290, pl. 18, fig. 14, 15.

T have both shell and operculum of this and the preceding species, besides a
third species of operculum about which I am in doubt.

MAMMILLA. Schum.

M. mamillaris. Lam. sp.; Natica id., Lam., A. 8. V., Vol. VIII., p. 628.
Id., Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIT., p. 291.
N. subclausa, Sby. Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 51.

ft cannot find sufficient grounds for separation of suwbclausa from the Lamarckian
species.

294. ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

AMAURA. Moller.
A. Guppyi. Gabb, n.s.

Nautica phasianelloides, Guppy, (not d’Orb.) Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIT., p. 219, pl. 47, fig. 1.

Shell subglobular, spire high, two thirds as long as the mouth ; whorls rounded, neither flattened nor channeled
near the suture. Aperture broad, regularly rounded in advance ; inner lip thinly encrusted, thickened and bordered
by avcarina in advance of the umbilical region. This carina forms a flattened margin to the mouth and unites in

advance with the outer lip.

Guppy’s figure is a little smaller than the average of the full grown Dominican
specimens, but the shell never attains a quarter of the size of the Cuban shell. It is
quite common in Santo Domingo.

SCALARIA. Lam.
8. denticulata. Sby.

One or two imperfect specimens of this species were found.
5S. minutissima. Gabb, n. s.
Shell elongate, slender, spire high; whorls nine, convex, suture deep; surface marked by prominent plates,

about twelve to a volution, denticulated on the upper angle. SGetween these plates are minute revolving lines.

Aperture subcircular with a continuous thickened lip. Length .2 inch.

This species differs from S. wuncinaticosta, VOrb., La Sagra’s Hist. of Cuba, pl. 11,
fig. 25, 27, in having a more slender form and in the interspaces between the ribs
being marked by smaller and more numerous revolving lines.

S.ampla. Gabb, n. s.

Shell short, broad, robust ; spire a little higher than the body whorl; whorls about seven (apex broken), very
convex, and having about ten larger, robust sub-squamose plates, angulated, or sub-denticulated above ; body whorl
with a few faint impressed lines and a ridge at the lower angle. Mouth circular, bordered by a heavy lip. Length

.6 inch, width .45 inch.

Characterized by its short, very broad form and by the varices which are built up
of numerous layers and are so thick that they unite at the base. I found but a
single specimen weathered out of the brown shale east of Guayubin. It is of the
same type as S. expansa Con., of the Maryland Miocene, but is hardly a third as

long as that species.
TEREBRA. Brug.

T. robusta. MHds. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1848, p. 149.
. Id. Rve. Ieon. sp. 10.
T. suleifera, Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI, p. 47.

I can find no difference, on a critical comparison, between the fossils and recent
Panama specimens.

T.inewqualis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 47.
Id. Guppy, loe. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 290.

Very similar to the preceding in its young state, this shell continues slender at all
ages and retains its sculpture, while Z robusta widens more rapidly as its grows

older, and the sculpture becomes obsolete.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 225

T. bipartita. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 47.

Distinguished by the usually finer sculpture and by the single impressed line.

T.-dislocata. Say., sp.

Certtium, Id. Say., Jour. Phil. Acad., 1 ser., Vol. IT., p. 236.

Terebra, Id. Rve., Icon., sp. 32.

T. Petitti. Wiener.

A. common shell and agrees perfectly with specimens from the coast of Georgia
and South Carolina.

In addition to the typical form, I have another differing from it in being very
much more alternate. In sculpture and other details, apart from this, it agrees
perfectly.
: OBELISCUS. Humph.

O. canaliculattus. Gabb, ms.

Shell elongate, slender, many whorled, umbilicated ; spire high, whorls flat on the sides, truncated on the upper
margin adjoining the suture, soasto produce a deep revolving channel ; at the lower angle of the whorl there is some-
times a corresponding channel, at other times a mere angle, and in still other cases only arounded surface. When this
channel is present, it always, in the upper whorls, assists in forming the revolving groove. Under surface of body
whorl convex with a rib surrounding a minute umbilicus; aperture broad, columella straight, with one transverse
fold above and two, more oblique, below; the anterior of these two, borders the internal channel. Outer lip with two

or three transverse internal plates. Length .5 inch, width .15 inch.
RINGICULA. Desh.

R.semistriata? d’Orb., LaSagra, pl. 21, fig. 17, 19.

I refer my little shell to @Orbigny’s species, although it seems more elevated than
his figures. It has all of the details of the other characters, as well as I can make
them out in so minute an object.

TURBONILLA. Risso.

T cannot understand why Herrmannsen and others place the large cretaceous Chem-
nitzias as congeneric with the little polished delicate forms for which Risso proposed
the above generic name.

T. Dominicensis. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, subulate, whorls numerous, flat on the sides ; apex small, placed vertically ; surface crossed by

numerous fine longitudinal ribs and very minute revolving lines. Inner lip twisted, but without a distinct fold.
Length .28 inch.

Distinguished from the others by its broader form and by the revolving sculpture.
Nearest to “ Chemnitzia” ornata V@Orb., but more slender.

T. angusta. Gabb,n.s.
Shell small ; spire many whorled, whorls flat on the sides; surface ornamented by longitudinal ribs which do

not run over the base of the body whorl. Aperture rounded in front, inner lip simple, straight.
About the same size as the preceding, but more slender and without any trace of
the revolving lines. It differs also in the mouth.

oO, VOIDS SO ROP

226 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

T. pertenuis. Gabb, n.s.
Shell small, very slender, polished, whorls numerous, nucleus large, vertical; surface of whorls flattened on the
sides and with comparatively large ribs ; base simple ; aperture small sub-quadrate.

Distinguished from both the preceding by its very slender form and more promi-
nent ribs.

T. turritelloides. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, slender, elongate, whorls about 14, the first placed vertically, the others regular, flat on the sides
and truncated above ; suture bordered by the top of the sueceeding whorl; base of body whorl] sub-angulated on the
margin and rounded below; aperture quadrate. Surface polished and marked by microscopic revolving lines.

Length .85 inch.

This shell can be distinguished by its form which is exactly like that of a minute
Turritella. The sides of each volution are parallel, the top is truncated, and only
three or four of the primary whorls show any convexity. ;

AURICULINA. Gray.
A. alta. Gabb, n.s.

Shell slender, spire elevated, about three times as high as the mouth ; whorls six elongate, convex on the sides,

curving in abruptly to the suture ; surface plain ; aperture sub-elliptical, lips simple. Length .1 inch.
A little shell unlike any other in the formation. It can be at once recognized by
its few semi-flattened whorls and elongate aperture.

ACLIS. Loven.
A. polita. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, polished, subulate ; whorls seven, flattened on the sides ; suture channeled, sides of spire con-
vex ; base of body whorl elongate-convex, aperture small, acute behind, rounded in advance ; lips simple; surface
without ornament. Length .1 inch.

In its polished surface and channeled suture, this shell is not unlike Obeliscus
canaliculatus, but its short form, convex sides and simple rounded mouth will distin-
guish it at a glance.

MENESTHO. Moller.

Pyramis, Couth., not Schum. Bolt., e¢ a.

Monoptygma, H. and A. Ad., Sby., e¢ a. not I. Lea.
Monotygma, Gray. ;

See note under Plocheld, with reference to the curious misapprehension under
which most of the English authors have labored with reference to the true meaning
of Mr. Lea’s genus.

If we restrict the name Menestho to these species without a columellar fold, as is
done by H. and A. Adams, then the Monoptygma Ad., &c. (not Lea), is without a
name. The present species has a fold, and I agree with the Adams’ in making at
most but a sub-generic separation.

M. clathrata. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, elongate, spire high, whorls eight ; the first two polished, the other six marked by regular longi-
tudinal and revolving elevated lines, sides of the whorls rounded, suture strongly marked. Aperture elongate oval,

sub-acute behind ; columellar fold strongly marked.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. D2

The species is most like AZ. spirata, but is not more than a third of its length, is
less tapering, and is at once distinguishable by its strongly clathrate sculpture.

EULIMA. Risso.
KE. acicularis. Gabb, n, s.
Shell elongate, slender, sides straight, surface polished, whorls numerous, elongate ; last whorl produced in ad-

vance, mouth long narrow, acute behind. Length .6 inch.

Distinguished by its very elongate form. Not unlike /. b/fasciata, VOrbigny,
but larger and more slender.

E. robusta. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, elongate, widening much more rapidly than the preceding; sides straight, whorls numerous, short;

suture very transverse ; base of body whorl moderately produced ; aperture small. Length .15 inch.

From the preceding, this can be distinguished by its much smaller size, its
transverse suture and short mouth. From Z. subcarinata, d’Orb., it differs in being
more slender and in being less angulated at the base.

E, crassilabris. Gabb, n.s.
Shell short, robust, spire elevated, nearly three times as long as the mouth, whorls numerous, surface polished,
base of body whorl elongated ; mouth long, acute behind, produced in advance, outer lip thickened and very promi-

nent at its anterior lateral margin. Length about .1 inch.

Niso. Risso.
N. grandis. Gabb,n.s.
Shell large, subulate; whorls numerous, short; surface gently convex, polished ; suture well marked ; body whorl
rounded on the basal margin, base sloping, gently convex ; umbilicus moderate, bordered by carina on the inner face

of the angle. Aperture small, acute behind, rounded i in advance.
A single fragment showing the last fine whorls is .8 inch in iene th, with the body

whorl .5 inch wide. Its unusually short volutions will serve to distinguish it from
any other known species.

N.minuta. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, broad, spire elevated, whorls numerous, apical angle wide, sides straight, surface polished; base of
body whorl sub-angulated, lower surface slightly convex ; umbilicus moderate, bordered by an angle. Aperture

broad, sub-angulated in advance. Length .07 inch.
It is possible that this may be a young shell, but its specific characters are so

marked it cannot well be mistaken. ‘
e

IOPSIS. Gabb, . gen.

Shell Eulimoid, polished, spire elevated, sutures obsolete, apex dextral, non-umbilicated columella twisted and
produced into a short, lip-like canal.

This ivory-like surface, obsolete suture and whole general appearance of this shell
prove its close relationship to Hulima; while its faintly twisted columella, extended
to such degree as to produce a short, (though not notched canal), distinguishes it from
the other genera of the family. Named from its resemblance in form to the fresh

water genus /o.

228 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

I. fusiformis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, short-fusiform, spire twice as long as the mouth, whorls seven, flattened on the sides, apical angle
wide, suture obsolete, surface polished ; body whorl sub-anguiated below, slightly convex and produced in advance.
Aperture sub-angulated, lips simple, columella slightly twisted, anterior end produced so as to form a small but well
marked lip-like canal. Length .08 inch, width .04 inch.

ARCHITECTONICA, Bolt.
A. quadriseriata. Sby., sp.
Solarium, id. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI, p. 81, pl. 10, fig. 8.
Id. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII, p. 291.

Common.

TORINIA. . Gray.
T. rotundata. Gabb,n.s.

Shell moderate in size, spire elevated, apical angle rounded; as also the outer margin; base of body whorl convex ;
outer margin marked by two large ribs with a smaller one between ; upper surface with four ribs, under surface with
five or six, of which one forms the umbilical margin and is strongly crenate ; umbilicus broad, inner face of the whorl
marked with two large and three linear alternating ribs; the whole surface crossed by strong lines of growth
breaking the revolving ribs and producing a cancellated appearance. Aperture nearly circular. Diameter .5 inch,
height .35 inch.

Rare. In the sculpture of the upper surface, this is not very unlike the preceding
species, but its rounder form sufficiently distinguish them.
CONUS. Linn.

It is with decided reluctance that I have taken up the enumeration and separation
of the Cones of Santo Domingo. I am safe in asserting that I have never undertaken a
more difficult task,and while I have almost suffered under an embarrassment of riches
in the great numbers of specimens I have had to study, that same profusion is
rather the source of the difficulty than a means of relief. With a few shells, a fictitious
division can easily be made; but in series of hundreds, nay thousands, where opportunity
exists for the study of all the varieties, this labor is not so easy. I have based the
following arrangement on the careful and prolonged examination of over 2,300 good
specimens, and believe that, in the main, [ am more correct than my predecessors
could have had the means of being. Since I have been obliged in most cases to work
in this difficult genus without the advantage of the color patterns, and therefore to
depend almost entirely on form, my results cannot have that certainty which accom-
panies the study of recent shells. Still I have had this assistance in part, and have
availed myself of it. By comparison of the larger suites at my disposal, I have
learned that the apical angle, within certain. limits is, of itself of little value; the
presence or absence of spiral stris on the tops of the whorls is not always a safe
character, but the most variable one of all is in the surface strize or grooves on the
sides, more especially at the anterior end of the shell. In recent specimens, where

the colors are so marked, this latter character is but little noted: but in the fossils it
S

Ei

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 229

becomes of the greatest importance to ascertain how far it can be depended on. I
find that.the character of this spiral ornament, when present, is of much greater
value than the fact of its actual presence or absence. Again, in many species, espe-
cially in young specimens, the whole or a part of the surface may be marked by
raised ridges or simple stris. These may be smooth, or they may bear small
tubercles. | The presence or absence of these tubercles is usually of no importance
in specific determination. But raised ridges never widen so as to produce flat ribs ;
that is to say ribs proper are never interchangeable with regular impressed grooves.
In a shell which is sculptured in its young stage and smooth when old, or ina
variable species, sometimes sculptured and sometimes plain, it is an invariable rule
that the sculpture disappears first from the part nearest the angle, and almost always
some trace of it, albeit very faint, is discernible at the anterior end. In the variably
sculptured species, there seems to be no connection between the disappearance of the
strie on the side and on the top of the whorl. The latter may be used guardedly ;
but a determination of cones, without the colors must be rather an adjustment of
averages than a dependence on fixed specific characters. Of course there are some
marked forms to which this statement will not apply, but it is true with reference
to the greater majority of the species.

C. pyriformis. Rve., Icon. Conch. sp. 70.

C. solidus, Sby. Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 45.

OC. solidus, Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 287, pl. 16, fig. 1.

C. soiidus, Sby. Conch. M., fig. 76.

C. recognitus, Guppy. Proc. Sci. Assn. Trinidad, 1867, p. 171.

A. very common fossil, found living at Panama. I have compared excellent fossil
specimens retaining their color pattern with the recent shell and find them indentical
in every respect. The shape is variable, the sides of the spire are always more or
less concave, but the elevation of the apex changes greatly as the shell grows older ;
the young specimens being usually much more elevated than old ones. The species
can be distinguished from all of the others by the rounded angle of the body whorl;
though in two or three cases a slight angulation could be detected.

C. consobrinus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 45.

C. granozonatus, Guppy. Loe. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 287, pl. 16, fig. 5.

Sowerby notes the variations of this shell. I have young specimens that are
crossed over the entire surface with beaded linear ribs, and every intermediate stage
to entirely smooth shells. The species can be recognized by its elevated, coronated
spire, and the general resemblance of its form to that of C. cedo-nulle ; C. granozo-
natus, Guppy, is the young costate form of the species.

Pst —=Ni@h ex Vicon:

230 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

C. catenatus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 45, pl. 11, fig. 2.
C. interstinctus, Guppy. Loe. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 288, pl. 16, fig. 3.

Sowerby’s description is from a young shell and Guppy’s from an adult. I have
duplicates of both figures, and a full connecting series. It is not impossible that
this may also include the form described by me as C. Mloridanus, in the American
Journal of Conchology, although none of the fossil specimens agree exactly with my
recent shell. The points of resemblance are—general form and details of surface,
but the only specimen I have seen of C. Floridanus is perfectly straight from the
angle to the anterior end, while all of the fossils are slightly curved.

C. stenostoma. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI, p. 44.

id., Guppy. Loc. cit., Vol. XXII., pl. 287, p. 16, fig. 2.

Approaches C. tornatus, Brod. in form.

C. Orbignyi. Audouin, Mag. de Zool., 1831, pl. 20.
C. plunicostatus, Sby. Conch , Il., No. 15.
C. gracilissimus, Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 288, pl. 16, fig. 4.

Varies slightly in proportionate height and width; young specimens being more
slender than older ones. The number of the revolving ribs is also variable;
one of my specimens showing nearly twice the usual number, while in a fragmentary
specimen, having all of the other characters, of size, shape, elevated and coronated
spire, number of whorls, &c., the surface is nearly plain, being only marked by faint
revolving ribs, showing a marked beading.

The locality of the recent shell has been heretofore in doubt. Audouin says his
specimen probably came from China, and a recent specimen in the Museum of Phil-
adelphia Academy is also without a local label. But finding the species fossil in the
West Indies would induce us to look for its living representations either in the Carib-
bean or Panama region, rather than in the Eastern seas.

C. marginatus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 44.

A well-marked species having no close allies. Its broad short form, deep revolv-
ing sculpture and high non-coronate spire at once distinguish it.

C.mus. Huass, Enc. Meth., Vol. L, part 2, p. 630.

Four specimens only were found, but they are unmistakably members of this well
known West Indian species.

C. planiliratus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 44.
Id, Guppy. Loe. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 287, pl. 16, fig. 7.
(. Stearnséi, Con.” Amer. Jour. Conch., 1869, p. 104, pl. 10, fig. 1.

A long narrow species, characterized by revolving impressed sculpture. The tops
of the revolving ribs are smooth, but in the intervening grooves the lines of growth

are clevated, producing a tendency to punctate character similar to that observable

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 231

in some species of Actzeon. In some of the specimens the sculpture is faint or wanting
near the posterior angle. I have compared my fine series of fossil with Mr. Conrad’s
type specimens of C. Stearns from Florida and find no difference except that in his
shell, which is very young, the sculpture is only visible on the anterior half. ‘The
shape, the angle and character of the spire, the character of the sculpture, in short
all of the details agree perfectly. ;

Compare C. minutus, Rve. Conch. Icon., No. 259, apparently a very young: shell.
Reeve describes his species as having entirely different colors from Conrad’s, espe-
cially in that it has two revolving bands on the middle. The angle of the whorl is
dotted with reddish brown as in C! Stearnsit and the surface is smooth. The resem-
blance therefore between C. minutus and CL Stearnsii, are these of form and of the
red spots on the angle; the differences are the general color and the smallness of
Reeve’s species, while Conrad’s is sculptured over half of its surface. But this
sculpture is not an essential character since I have a series showing that the whole
or only half of the surface may be sculptured, and if this much difference is demon-
strated to exist, why may not a very young specimen, the size of Reeve’s vary still
further. While not prepared to assert their specific identity, I consider their resem-
blance sufficiently near to warrant a critical examination.

C. Haitensis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 44.

C. symmetricus, Sby. Loe. eit., p. 44, pl. 9, fig. 1.

C. Domingensis, Shy. Loe. cit., p. 45.

T have studied over 700 specimens of species and have tried by every test known
to me, to divide it into two or more groups, but without success. | Sometimes it is per-
fectly straight and regularly tapering on the sides, sometimes gently convex ; the spire
varies from flat to elevated, the whorls being flat or grooved above, and striated or plain,
with a rounded or sharp angle ; the surface of the body whorl is either smooth or marked
over a part or the whole, by ribs which may be in part or in whole, plain or beaded ;
and the shell varies from thin to massive. I do not wish to be understood that these
characters run in groups. On the contrary, they are so intermixed that there is no
possibility of separating them. But in this otherwise protean species there is a single
character which, when obtainable, is constant. The color pattern is fortunately
preserved in a large number of specimens and irrespective of their form, density or
surface is invariable. It consists of a dark ground, with light cloudings elongated
transversely and more or less connected by dashes and lines. The pattern is not
unlike that of Q. testudinaria, but the shell, in ayerage specimens is more in form like

C. purpurescens.

232 ON TILE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

2?C. proteus. Hwass, Enc. Meth., Vol. 1, part 2, p. 682.

T have a series of eight shells before me, having the shape and size of this species,
and differing only in color pattern. Seven of the series show more or less traces of
color. In two of them the marks are slightly confused, although they are rather
closely placed and distinctly spiral; but the other four have dark spots with well-
defined margins and arrayed in regular revolving rows. These rows are about seven
in number although one specimen shows but five, while another eight.

C. Berghausii. ? Michelotti, Descr. Foss. Terr. Miocene de 1’Italie Sept., p. 342, pl. 13, fig. 9.
Id. Wornes, Foss. Moll. Tert. Wien., p. 19, pl. 1, fig. 3. z

I refer this species doubtfully to the Italian form on the strength of a single
specimen. My shell seems to have all of the characters of ferm as figured by both
the above authors, except a slightly higher spire. In colors, it agrees with Hornes’
figure in the arrangement of the elongated spots on, and above the angle, but those

on the sides of the whorl are much more numerous and smaller.

C. cedo-nulli. Brug. Enc. Meth., Vol. IL, part 2, p. 601, pl. 316, fig. 1-9. :

I have 847 specimens of this one species, and in only two of the entire series, have I
been able to detect the faintest trace of color. In both cases it consists of broad,
badly defined longitudinal bands of dark color more or less broken.

C. furvoides. Gabb, n. s.

Shell elongately turbinated, narrow, nearly or quite smooth, striated in some cases anteriorly by a few wavy

lines; spire acuminate but not very elevated ; the first whorls elevated and sloping on the top, acute-angulated ; the
later whorls more or less deeply channeled and sometimes striated on top. Aperture linear. Color pattern unknown.

About the size of C! furvus, Rve., and similar in the form of the body whorl. The
spire, however, is much lower and the tops of whorls are markedly grooved in all the
specimens I have seen. An unusually broad specimen before me is not unlike a very
narrow example of C. monzlis, which it also resembles in the concave sides of its spire.

C. strombiformis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell large, rather thin, turbinated, spire elevated, convex ; whorls numerous, rounded on the angle, rudely nodose
and sloping to the suture, which is sharply cut but irregular. Body whorl curved above, pretty regularly tapering in
advance. Surface marked by a few distant revolving ribs, which are most prominent, and most closely placed at the
anterior end. Aperture moderate, outer lip broadly, but not deeply, emarginate posteriorly. Length 2.6 inches
width 1.5 inch.

In general appearance this shell is not unlike an incomplete Strombus, but on close
examination it proves to be a true Cone. Its blunt rounded spire and the imperfect
tuberculation especially of the upper whorls separate it not only from the fossil cones
of Santo Domingo, but from all the species of the genus, with which I am ac-
quainted.

C. aratus. Gabb, n. s.

Shell turbinated, apex acuminate, spire varying from nearly flat to elevated; the angle of the elevated apical

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 933

volutions minutely crenulated ; top of whorls flat or very slightly sloping, covered by well-marked striz ; outer edge
sharply angulated. Body whorl straight on the sides or very faintly convex near the angle. Surface covered by dis-
tant, well marked impressed lines. At the anterior end these lines become confused and the shell marked by a series
of wavy ribs. Aperture linear.

Nearest to C. sulcatus, but differs in the straighter sides and more regular sulca-
tion. In size and general form this shell is so like C. Haytensis that in view of the
variable nature of that species, I could not have dared to separate it, were it not that I
find the sulcation very constant in 19 specimens before me, and have not found it in |
the hundreds of examples of Laytensis. This seems to be a good distinguishing
character.

C. Bonaczyi. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, convexly turbinated, sides curved, tapering gradually in advance; posterior angle rounded, spire
low, apex acute, side of spire concave ; surface marked by a variable number of revolving grooves, which are dis-
tinctly interrupted by lines of growth ; the intervening ribs are flat, or faintly sulcated and show no traces of the
growth lines. op of the whorls very slightly concave, not striated. Length .9 inch, with .5 inch.

This shell has almost exactly the sculpture of C. planiliratus, the ribs being some-
what more numerous. But unlike that species it is a short, broad shell with curved
sides. Its proportions of length and width are not unlike those of C. mercator.

C. Yaquensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell robust, broad, turbinated, spire low, angle rounded, top of whorls grooved, sides convex below the suture
and regularly tapering in advance. Color a dark ground regularly tessellated by light spots arranged in close revolv-
ing series.

In size and form, this species is almost identical with C. cedo-nulli, but its colors
are so entirely different from anything I have ever seen in that species that I have

ventured to name it.
STROMBUS. Linn.

8. bituberculatus. Lam., A. 8S. V., (Desh. Ed.), Vol. IX, p. 690.

S. Haitensis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 48, pl. 9, fig. 7.

An examination of over 100 specimens proves that the tubercles, on which Sowerby
depended to distinguish this shell from S. ¢nermis, Sw. (= 8. accipitrinus, Lam.), are
not only variable in disposition, but as sometimes entirely absent. he surface is some-
times marked by broad, flat, revolving ribs alternating with fine lines. In other cases
only seven or eight broad low ridges occur. ‘The smallest specimens are usually the
most close ribbed.

8. pugilis. lLinn., Syst. Nat. (12 Ed.) p. 1209.

S. ambiguus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI, p. 49.

S. provimus. Sby., loc. cit., p. 49, pl. 9, fig. 8.

S. bifrons. Sby., loc. cit., p. 49. pl. 9, fig. 9.

S. pugilis. Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXII, p. 287.

T admit myself a little surprised that Mv. Sowerby should have been betrayed into
making three synonyms for the best known shell of the West Indies.

6)

Xs VES ISIE — VO, SOVGr Oren

234. ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

8. gigas. Linn., Syst. Nat. (12 Ed.) p. 1210.
Two or three good characteristic specimens found.
ORTHAULAX. Gabb, x. gen.

Shell rounded-fusiform, canal moderate, straight and regularly tapering, adult shell enveloped over the whole
spire by an extension of the inner lip, posterior canal fissure-like, formed by the continued edge of the outer lip ard

running directly to the apex. Outer lip apparently sharp and simple, anterior notch oblique and broad.
The discovery of this genus fills an important break in the Rostellarias, uniting
*the true genus, Rostellarva with Conrad’s Calyptrophorus. Unlike both of these
genera the canal is not styliform, but robust and comparatively short, and its terminal
notch is formed by an almost rectangular truncation of the anterior portion of the
outer lip. Like Rostellarda, it has a straight posterior canal, prolonged however,
further than is common in that genus. The canal is similar in structure to that of
Calyptrophorus, being formed by a squamose plate; but in the latter genus it curves
over backwards, behind the spire, which it ascends to about half its height and then
bends down to near the suture of the body whorl. Unlike the first, and like the
second of its congeners, it has the whole spire enveloped in a plate which should more
properly be described as a posterior extension of the body whorl, carrying the suture
to the extreme apex. The lines of growth run from the top of the spire to anterior end
of the shell. It carries none of the tubercles seen in Calyptrophorus and Tessarolax,
and seems, unlike most of the other genera of the family, to have had a simple outer
lip, neither digitate nor notched. ;

O. inornatus. Gabb, n.s.

Shell broadly rounded-fusiform. Young shell with the spire a little shorter than the aperture, suture impressed,
whorls numerous, nuclear whorls three, the subsequent ones showing faint traces of occasional thickenings disposed
like the varices of J7'riton ; surface smooth ; anterior end of body whorl marked by a few faint revolving lines, no
posterior canal. Adult shell more distinctly fusiform, the spire covered by a longitudinally striated incrustation
covering the sutures and extending to the extreme apex. Aperture elongated, acute behind and prolonged into a very
narrow posterior canal running straight tothe apex ; in advance it is gradually narrowed, the anterior noteh broad and
shallow ; inner lip thinly encrusted ; outer lip thin in all my specimens, and apparently thin, straight and entire in the
perfect adult. Size of largest specimen, length 3.75 inch, width 1.5 inch.

DOLOPHANES. Gabb, 7. gen.

Shell elongate oval, spire elevated ; showing a minute imperforate umbilicus; aperture semi-oval ; inner lip

slightly encrusted, outer lip acute, sinuous ; anterior end of the aperture terminating ina short, not emarginate canal.

The first impression produced on looking at this little shell is that it is probably
a Melania ; but apart from all of its three hundred associates being marine, which
would render such a reference improbable, it has a grouping of characters which ally
it so closely to Séruthiolaria, that T am convinced that it is most probably a nearly
related genus. Its spire is very like that of many species of Strombdde and, in the

details of its mouth it differs from Struthiolaria in having a thinly encrusted inner

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 235

lip, an acute outer lip and an obsolete umbilicus, instead of the thickened margins
and no umbilicus of that genus.

D. melanioides. Gabb, n. s.

Shell oval, spire elevated, whorls ten, the first three nuclear, the others rounded on the sides, angulated above and
flattened and a little sloping near the suture. Surface marked by numerous minute longitudinal ribs reaching over
the angle to the suture and becoming obsolete on the middle and anterior portions of the body whorl. On some
specimens there are very minute revolving strix. Umbilicus minute, imperforate and bordered by a small ridge or
angle. Aperture sub-oval; inner lip thiniy encrusted, continuous behind with the outer lip which is acute and
slightly sinuous, most prominent in the middle. Canal very short, not emarginate.

I have tried to identify this species with the shell described by Guppy as Melan-
opsis capula,* which it seems to resemble somewhat in form and size. But that author
gives his shell but seven whorls, and does not describe or figure the flattened tops of
the volutions, which are a marked character of the present species. There are also other
differences which, however, might be explained by want of care in the artist, but which,
nevertheless, lead me to believe that, while there may be a generic relation between
the two shells, they are most probably different species.

CYPRAIA. Linn.

C. Henikeni. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 45, pl. 9, fig. 3.

A. very variable species ; sometimes the tubercles are entirely wanting, and distor-
ted specimens are occasionally found. The colors are light spots on a dark ground,
_ similar to those of C. reticulata and C. cervus, but proportionately larger, contracting
the dark parts to the net-work of thick lines.

C. Isabella. Linn., Syst. Nat., (12 Ed.), p. 1177.
A few specimens were found which, in the absence of color, I cannot separate from
this well known species. They agree in all the details of form, teeth, &e.

C. spurca. Linn.. Syst. Nat., (12 Ed.), p. 1179.

My shells agree perfectly in form, size and detail with the recent forms, but two
of them show a color pattern which may possibly warrant a separation. They are
covered with round spots of different sizes, about as numerous and as variable in size
as those of C. argus

C. spurcoides. Gabb, n.s.

Shell similar in form to C. spurea, but somewhat broader and more narrowed in advance. Callous broad, convex

below, and slightly expanded laterally, not crenulated above as in C. spurea. Crenulations of both lips well defined,

more numerous on the inner than on the outer lip. Color pattern mottled irregularly. a
In color and size, this not unlike C. bicallosa, but it differs from it in form and in
the absence of the two ecallosities. It wants entirely the marginal pitting’s of C.

spurea, which it approaches nearest in form.

* Quart. Jour., Geol. Soe., Vol. XXII, p. 580, pl. 26, fig. 14°

236 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GHOLOGY

C. Dominicensis. Gabb, n. s.
Shell very similar to C. luréda in form, sides sub-paralilel, anterior end tapering more than the posterior, base

slightly flattened ; inner lip flexuous in advance ; teeth small, very numerous and not extended over the base.

This shell is closely allied to C. lureda and C. pulchra, but differs from both in that
its teeth are small, regular, uniform and end abruptly along a straight Hine. This last
character at once separates it from the latter, while the size of the crenulations equally
distinguish it from the former. The largest specimen is 1.5 inch long.

PUSTULARIA. Swains.
P. nucleus. Linn,, sp.

Cyprea, td., Linn., Syst., (12 Ed.), p. 1181.
Four good specimens were found.

e

CANCELLARIA. Lam.

C. reticulata, Linn., sp., Syst. Nat., (12 Ed.), p. 1190.
C. Barretti, Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 289, pl. 17, fig, 11,

C. Moorei. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 289, pl. 17, fig. il. -
C. levescens. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 289, pl. 17, fig. 12.
C. brevis. Sby., Proc. Zool. Sec., 1832, p. 52.

. tessellata. Sby., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1882, p. 51.

Q- -@

-Guppyi. Gabb, n.s.

T|

hell sub-globose, spire elevated, about three fifths as long as the aperture; whorls eight, the first two nuclear ;
suture slightly channeled. Surface finely cancellated by nearly equal revolving and longitudinal ribs; umbilicus
small. Inner lip covered with a strong plate bearing three prominent folds, the lower terminal. These folds are dis-
tinetly grooved on top.

Allied to the C. reticulata, this shell can be at once distinguished by its short sub-
globose form its channeled suture, its finely sculptured surface and by the columellar
plates being broad and grooved on top, instead of being thin and acute.

All of the above species of Cancellaria are rare; C. Mooret being the only one of
which a really good series has been found.

CERITHIUM. Brug.

C. prismaticum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell large, robust, elevated, whorls numerous, suture deeply impressed ; surface marked by a deeply square-cut
groove below the suture, and one less distinct adjoining the suture; below these there are a few very large tu-
bercles, five or six to a volution, the whole crossed by a few revolving lines, most marked on the upper whorls.
Aperture with a single large fold on the pillar lip.

I have but a single fragmentary specimen of this species. It is 2.5 inches long
and possesses but five volutions. Originally it must have been considerably over 3
inches in length. Its immense tubercles and the deep groove below the suture are
unlike any other known species.

C. microlineatum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell large, turreted, many whorled, sides of whorls flattened, suture linear undulated ; surface marked by a row

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 23

of indistinct nodes adjoining the suture, and a large number of very fine, closely placed revolving lines covering the
entire surface. On the body whorl there is a single obsolete varix. Aperture broad, canal slightly twisted, inner lip
without folds, but bearing a tubercle posteriorly.

About the size and shape of C. fasczatum, but distinguished by its different surface,
by the absence of columellar folds and by the less deflected canal.

C. dentilabrum. Gabb, n. s.

Shell large, heavy, spire elevated, suture distinct, whorls flattened on the sides, bearing a few very faint varices.
Surface marked by not very strong longitudinal ribs or undulations ; these are crossed by four or five strong revolving +
ribs, flat on top and with concave interspaces, giving the surface a coarse but pretty regularly cancellate appearance.
Aperture sub-quadrate, with two strong folds on the columejla, one in the middle, the other behind ; outer lip with
one large tubercular tooth in the middle and one in advance. These folds and teeth are absent in the young shell.
Length 2 inches width 0.7 inch.

Hasily distinguished by its coarse cancellated appearance and its dentate mouth.

C. suprasuleatum. Gabb, n.s. 3

Shell broad, spire moderately elevated, whorls numerous, increasing rapidly in width flat on the sides ; suture chan-
neled. Surface plain or marked by a few lines in advance and by a deep revolving groove a short distance below the
suture. Aperture sub-quadrate, canal very small, no folds ; outer lip strongly produced on the base, adjoining the
canal. Length about 1.5 inch, width .7 inch.

Hasily recognizable by its broad form and its smooth sides with a single groove
near the suture.

C. obesum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell short, broad, spire about one and a half times as long as the aperture, apical angle very variable, suture
linear. Surface very variable. The most usual character is a series of tubercles near the suture. In some cases
these form an angle, in others they are obsolete or entirely wanting while in one specimen they are prolonged into
short ribs, with a secondary series adjoining the suture. The entire surface is always covered with minute revolving
lines. . Aperture sub-ovate, canal very short, not reflexed, a tubercle on the inner lip behind ; outer lip effuse, inter-
nally thickened. Length 1. inch, diameter .5 inch.

_ The short robust form with rounded outlines of this shell, its revolving thread-like
striz and its expanded lip, are unlike any other species I have ever seen. In the
great majority of cases it bears a series of small rounded prominences a short dis-
tance below the suture.

C. uniseriale. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 51.

I have studied Sowerby’s description of this species carefully and am not certain
whether I have been successful in fixing the name to the proper shell. It might
apply with some propriety to the immediately preceding species, but seems to agree
more nearly with the one before me. This is much more slender, with an elongated
spire, bearing a series of small tubercles on the angle, and crossed by pretty strong,
and somewhat alternated revolving lines. The canal is elongate, moderately twisted,
with the ordinary terminal fold and with a posterior tubercle. Length about one
inch.

AGP ws—VOl, XV. oHk

238 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

C. turriculum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, slender, spire high, whorls numerous, with their sides almost parallel, ornamented by a series of
elongate tubercles, laterally compressed and not so wide as the intervening spaces. These tubercles reach the
suture and are shouldered, producing a more or less marked superior angle to the whorl] which however does not exist
in the interspaces. Crossing the whole surface is a series of small revolving lines. Canal moderately long, but
slightly twisted. Length about an inch.

From the preceding species, this can be distinguished by the rib-like tubercle and
the entire want of convexity in the whorls, as well as by the peculiar “shouldered”

‘appearance of the tubercle.

C. Dominicense. Gabb,n.s.

Shell robust, turreted, spire high, whorls numerous, the upper ones cancellated, the last two or three with a row
of large round tubercles on the angle and revolving lines, usually alternating in size. In some specimens, three or
four of the largest of these on the body whorl, are granular. Aperture small, canal moderately twisted. Length
about one inch.

Distinguished by the cancellate upper whorls and the round tubercles on the last
two or three volutions. One or two of my specimens retain traces of brown color
and look like bleached beach shells.

C. plebium. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VIL, p. 51.

fd. Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXIT., p. 290, pl. 16, fig. 9.

A. well-marked species, easily recognized by its straight ribs, usually alternating
with an equal number of thread-like ribs in the interspaces. I have a shorter and
broader form with the same sculpture which I consider a variety of the same species.

2?C. venustum. Gabb, ns.

Shell slender, very elongate, whorls numerous, flat on the sides; suture linear, bordered both above and
below by a thread-like ridge surface bearing a few obscure, rounded varices and ornamented by obscure longitudi-

nal ribs crossed by about four revolving ribs making a small tubercle at each intersection. Between the latter ribs

are a few minute lines. Aperture unknown, Length nearly 1.5 inch,
The shape of this shell is not unlike Zurritelia while its sculpture and the faint
varices seem to ally it to Cerithium. I have seen but a single specimen.

C. simplex. Gabb, n. s.

Shell broad, spire elevated, whorls eleven, rounded; suture linear. Surface ornamented only by fine revolving
impressed lines. On seme, especially of the upper whorls, faint traces of varices can be detected. Aperture broad,
sub-oval, canal short, slightly twisted, inner lip not encrusted ; outer lip simple, nearly straight. Length 1 inch, width
-5 inch.

The round whorls, almost without ornament, and the naked inner lip and nearly
straight outer lip show this to be a decidedly aberrant form in the genus, while its
columella and canal forbid a generic separation.

C. Yaquensis. Gabb,n.s.

Shell minute, spire elevated, whorls numerous, rounded, bearing occasional rounded varices or irregular ribs;
upper whorls most expanded on the lower side near the suture, narrowing gradually upwards. Surface marked by
a few large ribs extending from the suture to the base and crossed by fine revolving lines. Canal short, carved, wide ;

outer lip internally striated. Length .35 inch, width .1 inch.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 239

A very small shell, recognizable by the rounded body whorl and slightly angular
upper volutions, and by the short, open canal.

C. Maoénsis. Gabb, n. s.

Shell minute, whorls rounded, with a few obsolete rounded varices ; upper whorls smooth, others crossed by
fine regular revolving lines; aperture broad, canal very short, columellar twisted, outer lip prominent in front, simple.
Length .6 inch.

Most nearly allied to C. simplex, of which I was at one time inclined to consider
it the young. But its more slender form forbids such a reference. The apical angle

of that species is double that of the present, and both are very constant.
CERITHIDHA. “Swains.

C. minuta. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, stout, spire about twice as long as the aperture, whorls seven or eight, very slightly convex on the
sides, suture linear. Surface marked by numerous fine longitudinal ribs covering the spire and extending to the mid-
dle of the body whorl. These are crossed by finer revolving lines, most marked in advance. Canal nearly obsolete, not
emarginate, inner lip encrusted, outer lip thickened and produced in advance. Aperture acute behind. Length .2

inch.

Very rare; but a single example found.

TRIPHORIS. Desh.
T. nigrocinctus? Adams, sp.

Cerithium, id. Adams, Best. Jour., N. Hist., Vol. IL., p. 286, pl. 4, fig. 11.
Triforis, id. Stimp., Sm. Check List.

Tam by no means sure of my identification of this species ; my only specimen being
immature and barely more than .05 inch in length. But it seems to agree as nearly
with that, as with any other species; and I should not venture on more than a pro-
visional determination with such imperfect material.

BITTIUM. Leach.

B. asperoides. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, slender, whorls convex, marked by numerous longitudinal ribs, crossed by from three to five sharp
filiform ribs, sometimes with finer lines interposed ; base striate ; aperture sub-quadrate.

Close to B. asperum of the coast and late Tertiaries of California, but more robust,
with more longitudinal ribs and with a shorter mouth.

B. canaliculatum. Gabb,n.s.

Shell elongate, slender, spire high, whorls eleven, slightly convex, suture channeled, surface marked by numer-
ous, fine closely-placed longitudinal ribs, crossed by obsolete revolving lines. Aperture rounded sub-quadrate.
Length .2 inch.

Differs from the preceding by its channeled suture and by the absence of cancel-
Jation on the surface. Irom the following species it is distinguished by its smaller
size, more delicate structure, by the presence of the channel and by the much more
numerous whorls.

B. costatum. Gabb, n. s.
Shell minute, robust, whorls seven or eight, flattened on the sides, suture linear. Body whorl produced in ad-

vance. Surface marked by numerous large longitudinal ribs which begin at the suture and cover the whole surface,

240 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

extending even over the base of the body whorl. Aperture elongated and rounded in advance. Length about .15

inch.
A very solid species recognizable by its uniform, large ribs and produced aperture.

LACUNA. Turt.
L. punctata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, spire elevated, variable in height, as long, or longer than the mouth ; whorls six, convex, widening
towards the base; base rounded, umbilical groove bordered by a sharp margin; aperture nearly round. Surface
smooth, covered by minute colored spots, arranged in pretty regular quincunx.

The original color seems to have been more or less a light brown or reddish, with
dark spots ; but usually in the fossil the dark spots are preserved as an opaque white

or a semi-translucent ground.
This shell is living in the West Indies, but I cannot find it described.

TURRITELLA. Lam.

JT. tornata. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 580, pl. 26, fig. 12.

A very slender species, recognizable by its beaded ribs. Mr. Guppy’s description
applies very well to a single variety. Besides it, there is one form, with the same
Jarge ribs, but beaded all over; another with the upper rib double; and still a third
with the lower rib much the more prominent of the two. In addition to these, there
are several less marked variations.

T. planigyrata. Guppy, Proc. Sci. Soc. Trinidad, 1867, p. 169.

Shell elongate, many whorled ; whorls convex, the nearer ones flattened in the middle, marked with three or four
larger, and a great many smaller ribs covering all of the sides and base. Aperture sub-quadrate, inner lip encrusted
and reflexed.

With a much wider apical angle than 7" tornata, and convex sides. This species
differs from both of the preceding by the nearly uniform size of the ribs which are
all nearly thread-like and cover alike the sides and base of the shell. It is not unlike
T. ungulina in its surface, but differs in having a quadrate mouth, instead of its being
elongate.

T. exoleta. Linn.,, sp.

I have the specimens of this species, showing quite distinctly the squamose lines
of growth.

VERMETUS. Cuv.
V. decussatus. Gruel.sp., p. 3745.

V. decussatus. Mérch. Vermet., p..26.

T have a single specimen of only the regular part of this shell. It seems to agree
with the figures and descriptions, as well as with labeled specimens in the museum

of the Philadelphia Academy.
PETALOCONCHUS. Lea.
P. sculpturatus. H.C. Lea. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. IX, p. 230.
P. Domingensis, Sby- Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 51, pl. 10, fig. 9.
A. comparison of extensive suites from both localities, proves beyond a doubt, the

identity of the species.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 241

I have specimens which correspond with the description, though not with the
figure of Vermetus papulosus, Guppy, loe. cit., Vol. XXIL, p. 292, pl. 17, fig. 6. The
illustration does not show the tubercles arranged “in regular longitudinal rows” nor
does it exhibit the striz. My specimens do, however, and I believe them to be the
large terminal end of the tubes of P. sculpturatus.

The internal plates of Petaloconchus are by no means constant in either the
straight or the spiral portions of the shell. In fact I find them to occur rather in a

c
°

minority of my specimens. May they not have rather a sexual value? The genus
can always be distinguished from Vermetus by the irregularity of its spiral. In the
latter genus, the spire is as regular as that of Yurritella; in the present one it is

never uniform.
CACUM. Flem.
C. annulatum. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, arcuated, rather thick, covered by transverse ribs, becoming finer and more closely placed near the

aperture. In the interspaces between the ribs are minute longitudinal lines.
More robust and less areuated than C. trachea, and differs from it in the details of
sculpture.

C.constrictum. Gabb, n. s.
Shell minute, slightly curved, tapering slightly toward the truncated apex ; septum prominently convex ; aperture

distinctly narrowed. Surface smooth.
’ With the smooth surface of C. glabrum, this little shell differs in the constricted

aperture.
ONUSTUS. Humph.
O.imperforatus. Gabb, ns.

Shell broad, trochiform, moderately elevated, whorls seven, convex above, margins squamose, suture minute,
not undulated; upper surface covered by fine oblique irregular lines, sometimes dichotomous; under surface
marked only by lines of growth. Umbilicus small, almost entirely covered by an expansion of the inner lip, its
margin regularly rounded. Aperture sub-elliptical, outer edge acute.

About the size of O. exustus, but differs in its markedly smaller umbilicus with
rounded margins, and in the non-stellate character of the squamose plate.

PHORUS. Montf.
P. agglutinans. lLam., sp.

P. onustus, Rve. Icon. Conch., No. 3.

Trochus agglutinans, Lam.

Seventeen specimens were found, and on the largest, which is nearly naked, are
several fragments of Petaloconchus.

CRUCIBULUM. Schum.
C. spinosum. Sby., sp.

Calyptrea spinosa. Sby., Gen. of shells, sp. 6.

Crucibulum spinosum. Wve., Icon. sp. 10.
Very rare, but shows several varieties, as is usual elsewhere. I have it spinous,
striate, smooth; very high, nearly flat ; thin and thick, round, oval, and irregular,

Ny =O, Oey Pdi

242, ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

TROCHITA. Schum.
T. Sp. indet.

A single young specimen, smooth and rather high.
CRYPTA. Humph.

C. foruicata. Linn., sp.

Petella, id. Linn. Syst., p. 1257

Crypta, id. H. and Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll.

Rare.
CAPULUS. Montf.

C. inornatus. Gabb, ns.

Shell thin, expanded, nuclear whorl distinctly ineurved ; mouth irregularly sub-circular, surface marked by
lines of growth and by obsolete radiating lines. Length .6 inch, height .4 inch.

A thin simple shell, with little of tangible characters except its small incurved
apex and barely visible radiating lines.

: NERITINA. - Lam.

_N. viridis. Linn., Syst., p. 1254.
A. dozen specimens, all showing more or less of their color.
EUTROPIA. Humph.

H. altispira.. Gabb, n.s,

Shell small, spire elevated, about as long as the aperture, whorls six, very convex ; surfac3 polished, aperture
rounded, inner lip slightly encrusted. Length .15 inch.

A beautifully formed little shell, which can be recognized by its very round

whorls and nearly circular aperture. My unique specimen shows no trace of color.
- TURBO. Linn.

T. Dominicensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell sub-globular, spire elevated, base imperforate, whorls about six or seven, round; suture bordered by a
beaded rib. Entire surface marked by rounded revolving ribs, of which two on the side and one adjoining the
suture are generally larger than the others. All of these ribs, but more especially the large ones, are more or less
broken up into rows of beads. Mouth round, callous of the inner lip, thick and rounded ; outer lip simple. Height
and width about 1 inch.

Nearest in general character of the surface to Senectus Spenglertanus, but dis-
tinguished from it by the closely-placed beaded ribs and the presence of a strong
beaded rib adjoining the suture instead of a groove. The inner lip is different, and
the aperture is rounder and not expanded in front.

ASTRALIUM. Link.

A. longispinum. Lam., sp.

Trochus longispinus. Lam., A. 8. V., Vol. UX., p. 122.

Astralium, td. Adams.

A single mould, fortunately in determinable condition.
CYCLOSTREMA. Marryatt.
C. striata. Gabb, n. s.
Shell small, discoidal, spire depressed, umbilicus broad, perspective ; whorls about five, round, slightly flattened
near the suture. Aperture nearly circular; surface marked by numerous fine revolving lines.

Nearest to CO. cingulifera, Ad., but more discoidal and with finer surface strie.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 243

C. pentagona. Gabb, n. s.

Shell minute, discoidal, spire moderately elevated ; umbilicus perspective ; whorls five, cross section rudely
pentagonal, flat on top, with three keels on the outer surface, one at the upper and one at the lower angle, and the
third in the middle ; the umbilical margin is faintly angulated ; except these keels the surface is polished, and with-

out ornament.
ADEORBIS. 8. Wood.
A. carinata. Gabb, us.

Shell depressed trochiform, whorls five, rounded above and below with a prominent raised keel in the middle ;
umbilicus narrow, perspective, margin faintly angulated ; aperture elliptical, outer lip produced into a short tongue-
like angle in the middle at the end of the rib.

A peculiar little shell, of which the whorls are a little broader than high, and bear
a keel in the middie. This is visible only on the body whorl, being coincident with
the suture in the upper volutions. This may be the shell figured by @Orbigny (La
Sagra, pl. 18, fig. 26-28) as Rotella carinata, but its open umbilicus forbids the
reference to that genus or even the family. It is clearly an Adeorbis.

UMBONIUM. Link.
U.vitreum. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, vitreous, spire moderately elevated, whorls three, round, sutural edge slightly thickened, surface

polished, mouth round, inner lip thickened and slightly expanded ; callus narrow, surface polished.
Nearest to U. semistriatum, VOrb. (Lia Sagra, Cuba, pl. 18, fig. 20-22), but with
9 o 9 y) ?) 2
a higher spire, rounder mouth, and without the striee of that species.

CALLIOSTOMA. Swains.
C. conica. Gabb, n. s.

Shell small, conical, spire high, whorls numerous, sides flattened, so that there is an uninterrupted straight line
from the apex to base of the body whorl; sides ornamented by about seven simple, rounded, revolving ribs with
narrow interspaces ; base covered with ribs smaller than those above. Aperture sub-quadrate.

My single specimen may be young. It is .25 inch in height, but its characters
are different from any other species I know. It is nearest C. zizyphinus, but differs
in the much narrower apical angle and in the uniform size of all of the ribs, wanting
the characteristic large rib on the angle. In shape it is very near to C. gujubinus.

Ne OMPHALIUS. Philippi.
O. viridulus. Gruel. sp.

Trochus, id. Gruel., p. 8574.

O. viridulus. WH. and A, Ad. Geo., P. P. Carp. Mozat. Moll. p. 234.

I have compared the specimens with authentic West Coast shells, and find them
identical in all their details.

: MARGARITA. Leach.

M. tricarinata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell minute, spire elevated, whorls three or four, the upper ones rounded, body whorl bearing three strong
carinations, top of the whorl bearing one or two ribs, and crenulated adjoining the suture, base slightly convex,

umbilicus large, margin bordered by a crenulated rib. Aperture rounded, simple.

A very minute shell, about equal in size to Cyclops depressus and Umbonium
vitreum, at once distinguished by its high spire, open umbilicus, and tricarinated
whorls.

244 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

LUCAPINA. Gray.
L. alternata. Say., sp.

F, alternata. Say., Jour. Phil. Acad., 1 ser., Vol. II., p. 224.
L. alternata. HH. and A. Ad., Gen. Rec. Moll. 5

Half a dozen specimens were found, the largest not quite an inch in length.

DENTALIUM. Linn.
D. dissimile. Guppy, ‘Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 292, pl. 17, fig. 4.
I have a shell answering to Guppy’s description and figure, except that it seems
more robust than the latter.
Another form, probably a variety, differs from this in being smooth but with six
sharp longitudinal ridges, not, however, like D. hexagonum. In apical angle and
curve it agrees with the above.

D. affine. Gabb, n. s.

Shell rapidly tapering, gently curved, marked by six or eight large ribs, with a variable number of smaller ribs

interposed. Besides these the shell is sculptured by minute longitudinal lines, crossed by equally small lines of

growth, giving the surface a finely woven appearance. Length about 1.5 inch.

Differs from D. dissimile in the amount of curvature and in widening much more
rapidly towards the mouth; also in being sculptured over the entire surface. Nearest
to D. elephantinwn, but smaller, less curved, and with finer sculpture.

The large ribs are not uniform in pattern, sometimes being as few as six, while in
other specimens the whole surface is covered with ribs of pretty nearly uniform size.

I have two specimens which seem to indicate a larger species, in which the longi-
tudinal ribs are of uniform size; and while the minute sculpture described above does
not occur, it is replaced by the lines of growth being finely squamose. In the absence
of more material, I do not feel warranted in naming it.

D. Haytensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, nearly straight, increasing very gradually in size, surface polished.

This little shell differs from the preceding by its straighter form and entirely -
smooth surface, as well as by the nearly parallel sides.

?D. rudis. Gabb, n. 5.

Shell long, straight, slender, massive ; widening very gradually. Surface sculptured by longitudinal ribs,
coarse, undulated, and sometimes broken by transverse wrinkles. Length 2.5 inches.

This shell has the general form of a straight Dentaliwm, but its thick substance
and its rough sculpture seem to indicate a generic difference. Its surface is not
unlike that of some species of [/ippurcte in the style of ornament.

D. ponderosum. Gabb, n. s.

Shell elongate, slender, very slightly arcuate, the greater curve being at the tip ; surface with a few longitudinal
ribs at the apex, which become obsolete as the shell grows older; beyond these there are no ornaments except the
faint lines of growth. Internally the shell is thickened by deposition of shelly layers so as to reduce the internal

diameter to a fourth of the external.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 245

In external appearance this species approaches D. dissimile, Guppy, but its thick
walls will distinguish it. It differs in this respect only from other species in the

genus.

GADUS. Rang.
G. Dominguensis. D’Orb. sp.

Dentalium Dominguense. D’Orb., La Sagra, pl. 25, fig. 7.

Not rare.

SCURRIA. Gray.
8. mitra. Esch. sp.

Acmaa mitra. Esch. Zool. Atlas, 1833, p. 18, pl. 23, fig. 4.
S. mitra. Gray, Genera 1855.

A. few specimens, which I cannot separate from this familiar West Coast form.
NACELLA. Schum.

2? N. sp. indet.

A single little shell, which seems to belong to this genus.

ACTZON. Montf.
A. tornatilis. Linn.

A. single specimen.

A. Cubensis. Gabb.
Tornatella punctata. D’Orb., La Sagar, pl. 17, fig. 10-12.
Not A. punctata, Lea.

A variable species. Insome specimens the sculpture is nearly absent, in others it
covers half, and in others the whole of the whorl.

ACTAONIDEA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell long oval; aperture narrow, outer lip simple ; columella slightly encrusted, bearing one large transverse
fold in the middle and truncated in advance. Sculpture revolving ribs.

The genus is an Actwon, except that it has a single large fold on the middle of the
inner lip and the columella is truncated as in Achatina.

A. oryza. Gabb, n.s.
Shell small, slender oval ; spire elevated, whorls five, regularly rounded above and below flattened in the middle ;
surface marked by about 30 flat, revolving ribs with punctate interspaces. Size about equal to a large grain of rice.

CYLICHNA. Loven.
C.sulcata. D’Orb., sp.
Bulla suleate, @’Orb., La Lagra, Cuba, pl. 4 bis., fig. 9-12.

This species has not the anterior fold of Cylichna.

CYLICHNELLA. Gabb, n. gen.
Shell sub-cylindrical, spire sunken, mouth narrow behind, widened in advance. Columella with two folds,
This genus has the external form of Cylichna, but it has two distinct folds, the
upper one is sharp and prominent like that of Actwon, while the lower is more oblique

and winds around the collumella in the same manner as that of Cylichna.

A. P. S.— VOL. XV. 3J.

246 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

C. bidentata. D’Orb., sp.
Bulla bidentata, V'Orb., La Sagra, pl. 4, fig. 13-16.
Utriculus bidentata, Chemn. Man. Conch., Vol. IL, p. 388.

TOMATINA. A. Ad.
T. recta. D’Orb., sp.

Bulla recta, VOrb., La Sagra, pl. 4, bis., fig. 17-20.

VOLVULA. A. Ad.
V. cylindrica. Gabb, n. s.

Shell minute, sub-cylindrical, anterior end rounded, posterior produced, acuminate ; surface with a few fine revolv-

ing striz in advance ; aperture narrow, linear, widening in advance ; anterior end of inner lip thickened, reflexed.
Allied to V. (Bulla) acuta, VOrb., La Sagra’s, Cuba, pl. 4, fig. 17-20, but more
slender and cylindrical. That species narrows sensibly in advance.

BULLA. Linn.
; B. granosa. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VL, p. 51, pl. 10, fig. 10.
B. paupercula. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 52.
A. shorter, broader and thinner shell than B. amygdala, (striata), to which it is
most nearly allied.
In addition to the above I have about a dozen species of undetermined Gasteropods,

mostly minute.
ACEPHALA.

MARTESIA. Leach.
M. Sp. indet.

A. single imperfect little shell, showing no trace of the accessory valve.

- TEREDO. Linn.
? T. Sp. indet.

A. mass of tubes which may belong to a Teredo or to one of the allied genera.

KUPHUS. Guett.

Furcella, Septaria. Lam.
K. incrassatus. Gabb, ns.

Tube large, cylindrical, irregular, surface covered by lines of growth, substance thick ; apex often twisted or
otherwise distorted ; divided by a longitudinal septum into two tubes, often of unequal size.

Fragments of this species are very common in the brown earthy shale east of
Guayubin. The largest I have seen is a little over an inch in diameter, and they
usually occur in pieces of two or three inches in length. —-Dhave_never-seen it-firom-
other localities. The shelly walls are often so thickened that the internal diameter is
not over half that of the outside.

ROCELLARIA. Belley.
R:' *Sps i?

A pair of minute- valves, nearest to A. cuneiformis in shape, found boring a large
shell. They are too small for satisfactory specific determination.

e

OF SANTO DOMINGO, 247

SILIQUA. Muhlf.

S. subequalis. Gabb, n. s.
Shell small, translucent, narrow, beaks central, base straight, ends nearly equal; surface polished; internal rib
small, oblique. Length 1 inch.

Ditters from S. costata in being more slender and in the beak being central.

BOTHROCORBULA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell like Corbula in form and hinge, but differing in having a deep lunular pit in advance of the beaks, pene-

trating and almost passing through the hinge plate.

I have carefully examined almost all of the living and many fossil species of Cor-
bula, and can find in none the slightest trace or rudiment of a lunule; while this
shell has it deeper than it occurs in any other form except in LHere (Nob.) of the
Lucinas.

B. viminea. Guppy, sp.

C. viminea. Guppy, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXII., p. 293, pl. 18, fig. 11.

CORBULA. Brug.

C. disparilis. D’Orb., La Sagra, Cuba, pl. 27, fig. 1-4.
C. vieta. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIT., p. 580, pl. 26, fig. 8.

C. contracta. Say., Jour. Phil. Acad., 1 Ser., Vol. IT, p. 312.

C. Dominicensis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell large, thin, nearly equivalve, beaks central, valves moderately convex, no lunule, posterior end produced
into a sharp angle ; a narrow flat space rfinning from the beaks tothe angle. Surface marked by numerous moderately
fine concentric ribs. About the size of C. viminea, this species is without the lunular pit, is much more finely
sculptured, flatter and more produced posteriorly. In this latter character it also differs from C. crassa, which seems
to be its nearest ally.

C. Lavaleana. D’Orb, La Sagra, Cuba, pl. 27, fig. 9-12.

Abundant.
NEAROMYA. Gabb, n. gen.

Shell thin, translucent, in shape approaching Pholadomya, ends closed ; hinge with a prominent tooth in the
right valve, articulating behind a smaller similar one in the left valve. An anterior and posterior lateral tooth in

each valve. Mantle margin without a sinus.

This genus, in its thin character and minute hinge, is closely allied to Pholadomya,
Thetis and Necera, but differs from all in the details of the hinge. Necera has no
y) o
cardinal tooth, but in its place a cartilage pit on each valve. It has a single posterior
tooth, while this genus has the anterior equally well developed. In having corres-
ponding teeth in both valves it differs from Thetis, while its well specialized hinge

and its closed ends distinguish it from Pholadomya.

N. quadrata. Gabb, n.s. '

Shell small, rounded, sub-quadrate ; beaks posterior; anterior end produced, rounded, and slightly narrowed ;
posterior end broadly rounded; base nearly straight. Surface polished, marked only by minute lines of growth.
Length .3 inch, height .23 inch.

A beautiful little translucent shell which looks like a small Pholadomya.

248 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

NERA. Gray.
N. alternata. D?Orb., sp. :

Sphena, id. D’Orb., La Sagra’s, Cuba, pl. 27, flg. 17-20.

Newrea, id. H. and A. Ad. Genera Rec. Moll, p. 369. Ps

N. ornatissima. D’Orb., sp.

Sphena, td. D’Orb. loc. cit., pl. 17, fig. 18-16.

Neera, id. TH. and A. Ad., Gen. p. 369.

Despite the differences in D’Orbigny’s figures quoted, I am hardly prepared to
admit the validity of the two species. My specimens certainly run into each other,
so that although I can lay out the typical forms, it is not so easy to draw the line
across the ‘gradation. ‘The more common form is one finely costate behind and
with one or two large ribs in advance.

PANDORA. Brug.
P. inconspicua. Gabb. n.s.

Shell small, inequivalve, very inequilateral; beaks small, about one-fourth of the length from the anterior end ;
cardinal margin gently sloping, straight behind; base broadly convex. Right valve convex, witha sharp angular ridge
running posteriorly from the beak, and sometimes a faint groove above it. Left valve concave, angulated on the

posterior cardinal margin. Length .8 inch, width one inch.

The smallest species of the genus with which I am acquainted. It is almost -
always found in a denuded or otherwise injured condition, where the other fossils
are remarkable for the beauty of their preservation. It belongs to the true genus
Pandora as restricted by Carpenter. See

MACTRELLA. Gray.

M. alata. Spengl., sp.

Mactra alata. Spengl., Skriv. Nat., Vol. V., part 2, p. 99.

Mactrella, id. Gray, H. and A. Ad.

A few small specimens which agree perfectly with recent shells in the Academy’s

collection. It is stated by Reeve to be a West Columbian species.

RAETA. Gray.
R. canaliculata. Say. sp.

Lutraria canaliculata. Say., Jour. Phil. Acad., Vol. IL., p. 311.
Raeta, id. Gray, Adams.

A single half-grown specimen, which seems rather broader posteriorly than is

common in this species.
TELLINA. Linn.

T. (Peroneoderma) punicea. Born, p. 33, pl. 2, fig. 2.

A common shell on both sides of the Isthmus. My specimens are broader and a
_ little more rounded posteriorly than the recent form. It is possible that they may
constitute a distinct species. They agree in size and sculpture.

T. (P.)alternata. Say., Jour. Phil. Acad., 2 ser., Vol. IL., p. 274.
Agrees perfectly in form, size and sculpture with the recent shell.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 249

T. (P.) minuta. Gabb,n. s.

Shell small, sub-oval ; beaks central ; anterior end and base broadly rounded ; base sloping up behind very slightly
sinuous ; posterior margin arched and uniting with the base by an angle ; surface polished, convex and without a pos-
terior ridge ; hinges with two strong lateral teeth in right valve ; none in the left; primary teeth small.

About half the size of Z. Guadalupensis, very much rounder and without the
posterior ridge of that species.

T. (Mera) cuneata. D’Orb., La Sagra, pl. 26, fig. 21-23.

T. (Arcopagia) fausta. Donov., Vol. III., pl. 98. i

T. (Macoma) constricta. Brug., Mem. Soc., N. H., 1792, p. 126.

Living from U. 8. to Brazil.

STRIGILEA. Turton.

§. pisiformis. Linn., sp.

Tellina, id. Linn., Syst. Nat., p. 1120.

Living in the West Indies.

TELLIDORA. Moérch.

T. crystallina. Chemn,, sp.
‘Tellina, id. Chemn., Vol. XI., 210, fig. 1947, 1948.

Living in the Panama province.

DONAX. Linn.

D. equalis. Gabb,n.s.

Shell small, triangular, beaks central, the two sides sloping equally to the ends ; base broadly and evenly convex ;
truncation of the anterior end broad, bordered by a rounded angle ; surface polished, obsoletely sculptured by radia-
ting lines ; inner margin of base and anterior end crenulated, the teeth on the basal margin being larger than those
above. Length .25 inch, width .2inch. -

A. single valve still more regularly triangular that the larger D. deltotdes. Its
central beaks will distinguish it from all known species.

VENUS. Linn.

V. magnifica. Hanley, Thes. Conch., Venus, p. 704, pl. 153, fig. 5.
I have compared my fossils with authentic recent specimens of the Philippine
Island shell, and can find no difference between them. :

CHIONE. Megerle.

Ww
C. papp ia. Linn., sp., Syst. Nat., p. 1129.

C. Guppyana. Gabb, n.s.

Shell sub-circular, swollen beaks anterior, base and extremities regularly rounded ; posterior cardinal margin
arched and bordered by a narrow flat space; lunule surrounded by an impressed groove ; surface sculptured by
numerous equal radiating ribs, crossed by rather closely placed concentric waved lamella.

The form of this shell is nearest to V. torewma. In its sculpture it resembles

L
Walk, and C. Woodwardi of Guppy, but can be at once distinguished from them by
its round form.
A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 3K.

250 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
C. circinata. Born, sp.
Venus, td. Born, Test. Mus., p. 61, pl. 4, fig. 8. - rf
1 Ax

Cytherea juncea. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIT., p. 582, pl. oe fig. 18. i
Reeve is probably incorrect in referring this species to Mazatlan. There are West
Indian specimens in the Mus. Phil. Acad., which I have used for comparison..

CALLISTA. Poli.
C. planivieta.. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 292, pl. 18, fig. 3..

C. acuticostata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell rounded sub-triangular, beaks pointed, about athird of the length from the anterior end which is excavated
above and prominently rounded below ; base regularly convex ; cardinal margin gently arched ; posterior end narrow ;
lunule minute, slightly sunken, internal margin entire. Surface covered with closely placed, acute, erect plates.

In form this shell approaches M. juncea, but it is less convex, the lunule is very
much smaller, it is more acutely pointed behind and the concentric ribs are more
numerous and have not the intermediate striation.

C. Carbasea. Guppy, sp.

Cytherea (Circe) Carbasea. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL, p. 292, pl. 18, fig. 18.

C. Tryoniana. Gabb, n. s.
Shell rounded triangular ; beaks anterior ; cardinal margin arched ; base deeply convex ; anterior end narrowly
rounded, straight in the lunular region ; lunule large not sunken, bordered by an impressed line; surface smooth in

the young, in the old covered by numerous small, rounded concentric ribs.

A very little smaller than AZ juncea, this shell differs markedly in its lunule and
surfaces and slightly in outline. It is more produced in front and more narrowly
rounded ; in that species the lunular region is concave.

CYCLINA. Desh.
C. cyclica? Guppy, sp.
Dosinia, id. Guppy. Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 582, pl. 22, fig. 15.

I have a single shell about half the size of the one figured by Guppy, and which
differs shghtly from his in outline. It is possibly a different species but I do not feel
warranted in proposing a new name on such insufficient material, especially since
I cannot get at the hinge.

CARDIUM. Linn.

C. (Trachycardium) sub-elongatum. Sby., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1840.

C. sub-clongatum. Rve. Icon., sp., 57.

C. linguwa-leonis. Guppy, Quar. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 293, pl. 18, fig. 7.

The Santo Domingo specimens agree perfectly with living shells from the sur-
rounding waters.

C. (T.) Duminicense. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongate, cordiform, convex, thin; umbones prominent ; surface ornamented by nearly 60 small sub-squa-
mose ribs, the lateral ones bearing minute tubercles ; edges serrate.

Of the size and form of Cl sub-elongatum, this species differs in being much

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 251

thinner and in having twice as many ribs. It is possible that perfect shells may show
tubercles over the entire surface, the middle of my single specimen being somewhat

worn.

C. (Serripes) bulla. Gabb, n. s.

Shell sub-circular, thin, compressed, umbones small, posterior side a little more produced than the anterior.
Surface marked only by lines of growth. Diameter 1.7 inch.

Not unlike C. CS.) Grenlandicum, but flatter and more circular.
C. (Levicardium) venustum. Gabb, n. s.
Shell oblique cordiform, convex ; umbones larger ; anterior end rounded ; posterior obliquely produced ; surface

marked in the middle by very numerous minute radiating ribs ; anterior and posterior ends smooth. Length about

1 inch.
Nearest to C. oblongum, but much shorter, more expanded posteriorly and with
much finer ribs.

C. (Fragum) Haitense. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 52, pl. 10, fig. 11,
C. Haitense. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII, p. 298.
Like C. media, but with much fewer ribs.
CHAMA. Brug.
C. macrophylla. Chemn., Conch. Cab., Vol. VII., p. 149, pl. 52, fig. 514, 515.
C. arcinella. Linn., Syst. Nat., (12 Ed.), p. 1139.
The fossil specimens are peculiar in that their spines are always small, amounting
hardly to more than tubercles.
LUCINA. Brug.

L. Jamaicensis. Chemn., sp.
Venus, id. Chemn., Conch. Cab., Vol. VII., p. 24, pl. 38, fig. 808, 309.

L. Antillarum. Rve., Icon., sp., 37.

L.tigerina. Linn., Syst. Nat., (Ed. 12), p. 1133.
L. costata. D’Orb, La Sagra, pl. 47, fig. 40, 42.

L. dentata. Wood, Gen. Conch., 195, pl. 46, fig. 7.

For the abundant synonymy of this species, see Tryon., Pr. Phil. Acad., 1872, p. 85.
L. crenulata. Con. Foss. Med. Tert., p. 39, pl. 20, fig. 4.

Fossil in the miocene of Virginia and living on the coast of the United States.

L. Yaquensis. Gabb, n.s.
Shell minute, convex, sub-translucent ; beaks central, prominent ; hinge line deeply excavated under the beaks,
sloping, slightly convex behind ; base and ends regularly rounded ; hinge thin, teeth well developed ; internal margin

minutely crenulated. Surface marked by small concentric lines.

About the size of LZ. crenulata, this shell is much thinner and more globose. It is
less excavated in front of the beaks, and the internal edge is ornamented by much
finer crenulations.

LORIPES. Poli.

L. edentula. Linun., Mus. Ulric., p. 74.

252, : ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

MYSIA. Leach.
M. capuloides. Gabb, n.s.
Shell small, thin, globose, anterior nearly circular, slightly compressed across the hinge margin ; beaks small, in-
curved; umbones very large, giving to single valves a form not unlike that of shells of Capulus. Surface polished

and ornamented by minute concentric striz. Diameter about .2 inch.

M. sub-quadrata. Gabb, n. s.
Shell small, thin, moderately convex ; outline rounded stib-quadrate, length and width about equal, beaks small,

prominent, hinge line sloping equally on both sides. Surface smooth.
About the size of the preceding, but distinguished by its comparatively square

form and the absence of the enormous umbones.

ERYCINA. Reel.
E. tensa. Guppy, Quart Jour., Vol. XXII., p. 582, pl. 22, fig. 6.
GOULDIA. Adams.
G. Martinicensis. D’Orb, sp.
Crassatella, id. D’Orb, La Sagra, pl. 27, fig. 21-28.
Gouldia, id. WH. and A. Ad., Genera, Vol. Ii., p. 435.

CRASSATELLA. Lam.

Cc. Antillarum. Rve., Zool. Proc., 1842, p. 44; Icon. sp., 8.

T have a single valve, well preserved and which differs from recent specimens in
being straighter in the lunular region, and more obliquely truncated behind. It is also
regularly marked with concentric furrows. The sculpture is not constant in this
genus, and the differences of outline are not sufficient to permit me to separate it on
a single specimen. If however, these differences should prove to be constant, the
fossil form might be separated under the name of C. Reever.

CARDITA. Brug.

C. scabricostata. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIT., p. 293, pl. 18, fig. 10.

The figure does not partake of the usual excellence of Mr. Guppy’s illustrations.
The shell is placed in a false position, and the correct number of ribs is not given.
The blame, however, can hardly rest upon the author since he was probably in 'Trini-
dad when the plate was drawn in London. I mention the inaccuracy in no spirit of
hypercriticism, but that other students may not be misled by it.

CRENELLA. Brown.

C. divaricata. D’Orb., sp.

Nuculocardia divaricata. D’Orb., La Sagra, pl. 27, fig. 56-59.
Crenelia, td. WH. and A, Ad. Gen. Rec. Moll., Vol. II., p. 515.

MODIOLA. Lam.
M. sp. ?

Two minute specimens, too small for satisfactory determination.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 253

LITHOPHAGUS. Miunhlf.
L. corrugatus. Phil. sp.
Modiolo corrugata. Philippi Abbild., Vol. II., p. 147, pl. 1, fig. 1.
Lithodomus, id. ve. Icon. sp. 1.
Lithodomus Antillarum. D’Orb,, La Sagra, pl. 28, fig. 12, 13.
Not L. Antitlarum. Philippi.

Found boring coral at Cevico and elsewhere at the extreme top of the formation.
I have never found it in the shales of a lower horizon.

L. nes.

A. second species, about an inch long, apparently nearly cylindrical, regularly
rounded at the posterior end and without transverse corrugations, occurs in the corals
west of Santiago. I have never succeeded in breaking it out in sufficiently perfect
condition for description.

AVICULA. Brug., Lam.

A. inornata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, oblique, convex ; anterior ear small, triangular, posterior moderately long, acuminate ; surface
smooth, without ornament. Length 1 inch.

In shape and in the character of its ears, this shell is nearest to A. Turentina, ex-
eept that it is not so produced below. The anterior margin is also a little less convex
immediately below the ear.. There is a similar shell in the Museum of the Philadelphia
Academy, without a name, labelled “Coast of Brazil.” It is probably this species,
but I cannot find it in any of the books. From A. cornea, Rve., it can be distin-
guished by its smaller posterior ear, its less obliquity and its more convex form.

PINNA. Linn.

PAispee

A. single little fragment, only sufficient to recognize the genus.
ARCA. Linn.

A. (Anadara) grandis. Brod. and Sby., Zool. Jour., Vol. IV.

A. Patricia. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 52.
Area, very like grandis, Moore, Quart. Jour., Vol. TX. :

In his description, Sowerby dwells so carefully on the difference between the fossil
and Panama shell that I have taken the pains to make a very careful comparison
between the two. The species is exceedingly common, and I have it of all sizes from
that of a pea to six inches in length. The base is net more convex than the recent
shell; there is no difference in the hinge more than occurs between individuals of
different ages ; and on carefully counting the ribs in a series of each, I can find no
difference in their number, form or arrangement.

A. (Anadara) consobrina. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 52, pl. 10, fig. 12.

Anomalocordia Floridana. Con. Am, Jour. Conch., Vol. V., p. 108, pl. 18, fig. 12.

There can be no doubt of the above synonymy since I have used Mr. Conrad’s
A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 3L.

254 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

original specimen in the comparison. We have therefore another supposed extinct
species brought to light on our Gulf coast.

A. imbricata. Brug., Enc. Meth., 1789, p. 98.
A. Americana. D’Orb. (not Gray), La Sagra, pl. 28, fig. 1-2.
A, Now. Guppy (not Linn.), Quart. Jour., Vol. XXIL., p. 293.

Brugiere’s species is said by Reeve to come from the Hast Indies. There are
recent specimens of this species in the Museum Philadelphia Academy, labeled St.
Thomas, and on comparing them with the description in Icon. Conch. (the figure is
valueless), they agree in every detail. D’Orbigny’s name is preoccupied by Gray, so
the species must either be cailed by Brugiere’s name, or there is an opportunity for
somebody to propose a new one. I do not feel warranted in separating it from A. am-
bricata, unless the West Indian shell should prove different from the Oriental.

A. (Anadara) Pennelli. Gabb.

Shell sub-quadrate, widening posteriorly, very oblique ; beaks a little less than a third of the length from the
anterior end, approximating ; area very narrow, wider in front of the beaks than behind; base convex, sloping up-

wards continuously with anterior end; posterior end broadly rounded sub-truncate ; surface marked by about 35
square ribs, slightly beaded in the young shell. Length 1.4 inch, width 1. inch, diameter 1.05 inch.

The most abundant of the Santo Domingo Arcas, this species can be at once dis-
tinguished by its oblique and very convex form. It is nearest to a shell which I find in
the Museum Philadelphia Academy, labeled A. lobata, Rve., but which I cannot find
in the books. It is more oblique and more convex than that species, with the beaks,
more anterior. That has 28 ribs, while this has 35. In this the ribs are of uniform
size, while in that species the posterior ribs are broader than the others.

Named after Mr. A. Pennell, the chief topographical assistant in the survey.

A. multilineata. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, obliquely oval, very convex, length and breadth about equal; beaks small, anterior, approximate,
hinge line a little shorter than the shell, area broad in advance of and under the beaks, very narrow behind ; posterior
end broadly rounded ; base convex and curving upwards regularly to the anterior end ; surface ornamented by about
60 small square ribs, slightly erenulated by sub-squamose lines of growth. Hinge composed of regular transverse
teeth, those of the two ends radiating outwards. Internal margin not crenulated.

A little less than a half inch in diameter, recognizable by its thin globose shape
and its numerous ribs. In this latter character it approaches A. centenaria among the
recent forms, but it differs from that in its rounder form. It is also allied to some of
the Cretaceous species.

BARBATIA. Gray.

B. Bonaczyi. Gabb, n.s.

Shell elongated, compressed ; very inequilateral ; beaks barely more than a fourth of the length from the anterior
end ; approximating ; umbones broad ; hinge line moderately long ; anterior end rounded ; posterior end produced,
sloping above ; base undulated, area tong and narrow. Surface marked by numerous small radiating ribs ; more or
less grooved and sometimes minutely beaded. WLength 1.5 inch. *

|

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 255

Nearest to B. barbata, but with the beaks much nearer the anterior end; and with
the posterior end more produced and sloping.

AXINAA. Poli.
A. acuticostata. Sby. sp.
Pectunculus acuticostatus. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VIL, p. 58, pl. 10, fig. 13.
Id. Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXIT., p. 293.

A. pennacea. Lam. sp.
Pectunculus pennaceus. Lam., A. 8. V. (Desh. Ed.) Vol. VI., p. 490.
id. Guppy, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXII, p. 293.

A. approximans. Gabb,n.s.

Shell small, obliquely sub-circular, posterior basal region slightly produced ; beaks small, almost in contact ;
area very small, not more than half as long as the shell and very narrow; surface marked by about forty square ribs,
crossed by prominent lines of growth. Hinge strong, arched, teeth few; basal and lateral margins crenulated, the
teeth corresponding with the external ribs. Diameter .4 inch.

Recognizable by its slightly oblique form, numerous ribs, and unusually small

area.

LIMOPSIS. Sassi.
L. ovalis. Gabb, n. s.

Shell obliquely oval, posterior portion of the base produced; beaks central, small, area moderate in size, smooth,
ligament pit deep. Surface crossed by concentric ribs and finer radiating lines. Internal margin smooth ; hinge
strong, teeth few.

About the size of the preceding species. This shell is remarkable for its oblique
form. Young specimens are nearly circular, but as they grow older the increase is
greater on the posterior side and base, so as to render the adult outline decidedly

oblique.

: NUCULA. Lam.
N. tenuisculpta. Gabb, n.s. °

Shell minute, obliquely rounded triangular ; surface marked by very numerous minute radiating lines, barely

visible on some specimens ; inner margin minutely crenulated. Length 1 inch.

N. (Acila) tuberculata. Gabb, n. s.

Shell obliquely rounded-triangular, convex; anterior end nearly straight, base convex; surface marked by
radiating strie and by small tubercles arranged in regular quincunx ; on both the anterior and posterior ends these
tubercles are replaced by rounded ribs which curve upwards to the margins. Anterior end occupied bya large lunule
bordered by an impressed line.

This peculiar little shell is distinguished by its remarkable sculpture. The

5D
tubercles seem to be produced by the decussation of two sets of oblique ribs, under
all of which lie a series of finer strize radiating from the beaks to the base.
LEDA. Schum.

L. acuta. Gabb, n. s.

Shell elongate, convex ; beaks central; anterior end rounded, base broadly convex ; posterior end acute, hinge
slightly concave from the beaks to the posterior end. Surface marked by regular rounded concentric ribs. Length
.80 inch,

YOLDIA. Moll.
Y. ovalis. Gabb, n.s.

Shell small, compressed, sub-clliptical ; beaks slightly in advance of the middle ; hinge line sloping gently, base

256 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

and ends rounded ; surface smooth or bearing a few faint impressed concentric lines on the anterior part near the

base. Length .85 inch, width .15 inch.

PECTEN. Linn.
Pi operculazris, -Linn:, gp.

Ostrea, id. Linn.

Pecten, id. Lam. Rve. Icon. sp. 54.

Some worn specimens, with the sculpture eroded from the ribs, agree in all acces-
sible details with this common European species.

This fossil is found, not only in the usual! localities in the Cibao, but also occurs
near San Cristobal.

P. inequalis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VIL, p. 52.

Id. Guppy, Quart. Jour., Vol. XXII, p. 204, pl. 18. fig. 6.
Slightly inequivalve, ribs rounded.

Common in the Cibao, and found by Mr. Bonaczy at Loma Cristina on the south
side of the Island, near San Cristobal.

P.oxygonum. Sby., Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. VI, p. 52.

P. exasperatus. Guppy, loc. cit., Vol. XXITL, p. 204.

This species may be, as Mr. Guppy thinks, a variety of exasperatus, but it seems
to me rounder, with smaller ears, and with two or three more ribs.

P. thetidis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VII, p. 52.

Two varieties of this shell occur, with the same form and number of ribs. The
first has the ribs square, with a longitudinal groove, or the angle of the rib is ex-
tended into a roughened ridge which stands erect. The other variety has the rib
also flat or grooved, but the angular ridge is well marked and stands out laterally.

P. eccentricus. Gabb, n. s.

Shell slightly inequivalve, sub-circular, oblique, ears small, surface covered with twenty-two flat ribs, sometimes

slightly grooved, and with concave interspaces. Diameter 1 to 1.5 inch.
Nearest to P. irradians, Lam., but more oblique, and with broader, flatter ribs.
P. augusticostatus. Gabb, ns.

Shell small, elongated sub-circular, equilateral ; ears small; base and sides regularly curved ; surface marked
by about twenty-three prominent, very narrow and acute ribs.

Of the size and general style of P. oxygonum, this shell is distinguished by its
peculiar ribs, which have a narrow, almost knife-like edge.

+

P. interlineatus. Gabb, n. s.
Shell slightly convex, nearly equilateral, base and sides evenly rounded ; ears large, radiately ribbed ; surface

marked by about eighteen round or sub-angulated ribs, with a single small line in each interspace. Length 1 inch.

About the size of the preceding, this shell is longer and flatter, with a marked
difference in the character of the ribs.

P. magnificus. Sby., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1835, p. 109.

A single specimen was found by Mr. Bonaczy. I cannot find any difference
between it and the Columbian shell.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 257

JANIRA. Schum.
J. soror. Gabb, n. s.

Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral, very inequivalve; ears nearly equal; right valve very convex, left valve
concave ; surface marked by about twenty-two square radiating ribs, crossed by fine squamose lines of growth.

Length 1.9 inch.

Allied to J. Jacobeus, J. maxima, and J. media, but different from them all in the

greater number and minutely squamose character of its ribs.

PLEURONECTIA. Sw.
P. papyracea. Gabb, n.s.

Shell discoidal, sub-circular, very slightly longer than wide ; slightly inequivalve ; ears nearly equal; surface
perfectly smooth, or marked only by faint lines of growth ; internal surface marked with small double radiating ribs.

Length from beak to base 2.2 inch, width 2 inches.
A very distinct species, without any of the radiating lines of the living West

Indian smooth Pecten.
SPONDYLUS. Lam.

S. Americanus. lLam., A. 8. V., Vol. VII., p. 185.
My specimens agree perfectly with those from the coast of Florida, and usually

the lower valve is immensely developed, the spines small and frequently equaled in
size by transverse squamose plates. The upper valves usually bear long spines, not
much expanded.

S. bostrychites. Guppy, Proc. Sci. Assn., Trinidad, 1867, p. 176.
S. bifrons. Sby. (not Goldf.), Quart. Jour. Vol. VI, p. 53.

A beautiful convex, almost equivalve, Pecteniform species with remarkably narrow

areas and a thin shell.
PLICATULA. Lam.

P. cristata. Lam., A. S. V., Vol. VI., p. 185.

A single specimen in excellent condition and the valves yet in contact.
ANOMIA. Linn.

A. ephippium. Linn., Syst. Nat., p. 1150.

A. single large specimen, nearly two inches in diameter.

OSTREA. Linn.
O. Virginica. @rtels

This species is not rare, and usually grows to a length of about five inches.
O. Haytensis. Sby., Quart. Jour., Vol. VI., p. 53.

O. Veatchti. Gabb, Pal. Cal., Vol. II., p. 84, pl. 11, fig. 59; pl. 17, fig. 21.
O. Virginica. Guppy (not Gruel), Quart. Jour. Vol. XXII, p. 57

Mr. Guppy is certainly wrong in considering this species even closely allied to
Virginica. Hardly any two species in the genus are more remote from each
other. He must have confounded a plicate variety of O. Virginica, which is not
rare, with Sowerby’s description. Thanks to an excellent lithographer, my figure in
Pal. California, pl. 17 of Vol. IL, gives a very clear idea of the species. Although

A. P. 8.—VOL. XV. 3M.

258 ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

living in the Tertiary seas which divided North from South America, it is now, so
far as we know, extinct. At the time of writing my second volume of the California
reports, I was not acquainted with Sowerby’s two-line description, and thus, un-
fortunately made a synonym.

In addition to these two species there are valves indicating two or perhaps three
other species of small oysters, among which one appears to be the common Mangrove
oyster, O. frons L. (limacella, Lam.)

I have also two or three undeterminable species of Mactras and Tellinas.

List of the Post Pliocene Fossils from the Antillite or “ Coast Limestone” Beds near
Macoris. Collected by Mr. Bonaczy.

Murex recurvirostris. Brod., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1832.

M. pomum. Gruel., Syst. Nat., p. 3527.

M. hexagonus. Lam., A.S. V., Vol. IX., p. 585.

Tritonium commutatum. Dhr.

Lagena cingulifera. Lam., A.S. V., Vol. IX., p. 384.

Columbella mercatoria. Linn,, s. p., Gmel., Ed., p. 3446,

Cyprea spurcoides, Gabb, supra.

Cyphoma gibbosa. Linn.

Cerithum pictum. Wood, Ind. Test. Supp., pl. 5, fig. 4-5.

Turritella exoleta. Linn. sp., Gruel., Ed., p. 3607.

Petaloconchus sculpturatus. Lea.? Tr. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. LX., p. 230.

Attached to the Certthium is a partially spiral tube with the external sculpture of
this species.

Lucapina alternata. Say. sp., Jour. Phil. Acad., 1 Ser., Vol. II., p. 224.

Scurria mitra. Esch. sp., Zool. Atl., 1833, p. 18, pl. 23, fig. 4.

Rocellaria. sp. ?
A broken specimen; indeterminable.

Corbula carinifera. Gabb, n.s.

Shell sub-quadrate, convex ; beaks central, anterior end sloping above, rounded below, base slightly sloping
upwards posteriorly ; posterior end obliquely sub-triangular ; a sharp erect rib running from the beaks to the base
onthe umbonal angle, with a less marked one behind it, becoming gradually obsolete as the shell grows older ;
surface marked by small regular concentric ribs.

Nearest in size and form to C. Lavaleana, d’Orb., from which it can be distin-
guished by its being much less produced posteriorly, and by the peculiar erect rib

on the umbonal ridge.

OF SANTO DOMINGO. 259

Tellina (Arcopagia) fausta. Donovan, Vol. III., p. 98.

Semele variegata.

I find a shell in the Mus. Phil. Acad. marked by this name, from the Coast of
Brazil, identical with one of my fossil species, but have failed to find it in the books.

Venus multicostata. Sby., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 22.

VY. (Lioconcha) hieroglyphica. Con., Jour. Phil. Acad., Vol. VII., p. 253, pl. 19, fig. 22.

VY. cancellata. Linn., Syst., 12 Ed. p. 1130.

Cardium (Liocardium) serratum. Linn., Syst., 12 Ed., p. 1128.

C. (Trachycardium) isocardia. Linn., loc. cit. 8249.

C. (Hemicardia) medium. Linn., loe. cit. 1121.

Chama macrophylla. Chemn., Conch. Cab., Vol. VIL, p. 149, pl. 52.

Lucina imbricatula. C. B. Ad., Proce. Boston, Vol. II., p. 9, fig. 514, 515.

Lithophagus corrugatus. Phil. sp., Abbild. Vol. If., p. 147, pl. 1, fig. 1.

L. appendiculatus. Phil. sp., loc. cit. p. 159, pl. 1, fig. 6.

Arca Now. LL. Syst. Gmel. Ed., p. 3306.

Barbatia velata. Sby., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1833.

Axinea sericata. Rve. sp., Proce. Zool. Soc., 1843.

Spondylus longitudinalis. Lam., A. 8. V., Vol. VII, p. 190.

Ostrea Virginica. Gmel.

The typical long variety, showing a few radiations on the beaks occasionally,
occurs not only at Macoris, but also at one or two localities in the province of Seybo
along the ancient Post Pliocene shore-line. Beds of a small thin-shelled oyster,
probably a local variety, occur on the Bani coast road, just west of the Nigua River,
where the coast gravels merge into the old border reef of calcareous matter. The
oyster-bed was evidently on the shore flank of the reef.

O. rhizophore. Guild., Zool. Jour., VoL IIIL., p. 542.

O. folium. Gmel., Syst. Nat.

This species, like the other two, is still abundant on the coast. I believe it to be
identical with O. frons.

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Prepared. and Published. br erdar of
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Mansstor of the Iatarier

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VOL. XV.-NEW SERIES.

PART IL.
PAGE.
Articte V.—Supplement to the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of North America. By
. Edward D. Cope, A.M. SO tare eerie ended ea Sane eo OI.

Articte VI.—An Analysis of the Life-Form in Art. By Harrison Allen, M.D. - - 279

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ARTICLE V.

SUERPLEMEN T
TO THE

EXTINCT BATRACHIA AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA.

I. CATALOGUE OF THE AIR BREATHING VERTEBRATA FROM THE COAL MEASURES
OF LINTON, OHIO,

BY EDWARD D. COPE, A.M.

Read before the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 6, 1874.

4

In the last descriptive catalogue of the species of the character here considered,
that contained in the author’s “Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, ete., of North
America,” nine only were described; the number is now increased to twenty-six.
This addition, as well as the creation of the original collection, is due to the attention
of Professor J. S$. Newberry, now Director of the Geological Survey of Ohio, for
whom an extended and illustrated report is now in course of preparation.

The result of the newer investigation into their structure confirms the opinion to
which the author was originally led, that all the air-breathing vertebrata of the coal
measures were Batrachians, and that. true Reptiles did not then exist. Any gene-
ralization to this effect extending to the whole earth is premature, and scarcely likely
to be verified ; nevertheless, it is still applicable to the localities with which we are
now acquainted. ‘The Batrachians from Linton present the most varied forms; some
are broad and stout bodied, others lizard-like ; some exhibit heavily mailed surfaces,
and others are slender and attenuated as snakes. They are here referred to twelve
genera. These may be arranged as follows, in accordance with their general appear-
ance and structure.

Group I. Snake-like forms without limbs: Phlegethontia, Dolichosoma, Molgophis.

Group II. Elongate forms with limbs and lanciform heads ; Oéstocephalus, Pty-
ontus, Lepterpeton. ;

Group III. Lizard-like forms with limbs and broad frog-like heads: Pelion,
Sauropleura, Tuditanus, ?Leptophractus.

ALP: S.——VOlk. XV. ON.

262 SUPPLEMENT TO TILE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

‘Group TV. Ambulatory limbs and unossified vertebral column: Colosteus, Am-
phibamus.

Group V. Vertebral column osseous, the branchial hyoid bones well developed:
Cocytinus.

The locality from which these fossils were procured is near Linton, Columbiana
County, near Yellow Creek, and is thus near the Pennsylvania State line, and the
Ohio River. They occur in a smal! basin near the middle of the series, in the lower
part of the “diamond bed,” which is eight feet in thickness, on the slate which is in
contract with the lower three to six inches of the seam, which is cannel coal.

It is to be observed that the specimens are, in some cases, quite obscure, and
although little or nothing of a doubtful nature has been introduced into the following
descriptions, yet the elements are sometimes covered by a thin layer of carbonaceous
matter, which prevents their entire definition.

PHLEGETHONTIA, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, 177.

This is one of the most interesting genera of the present series. It rests chiefly
on a single specimen of one species, which is vot perfect, but which displays the fol-
lowing character.

Head elongate triangular; body and tail extremely elongate, the dorsal vertebrae
without ribs, and the caudals without dilated spines. No ventral armature nor limbs.

As a great portion of the length is preserved and no ventral rods nor scales are
visible, and as this character is confirmed by a second species, it probably belongs
truly tothe genus. The pectoral shield is also wanting in the specimen, but, as there
is a considerable hiatus behind the skull of the specimen, it may be that these were
lost with other parts. Chevron bones are not observable on the caudal vertebre.

This form is a true batrachian snake.

PHLEGETHONTIA LINEARIS, Cope. Sp. Nov.

In the only specimen, the dorsal vertebra are much involved anteriorly, so that the length is not readily ascer-
tained. The entire outline of the skull is preserved ; it is elongate triangular in form, with the angles of the man-
dibles produced backward and the outlines of the rami a little convex. Nothing definite remains as to sculpture or
dentition. The vertebrae have longitudinal diapophysial keels, and have a zigzag interlocking of neural arches,
probably by an external zygosphen above the zygapophyses. The latter are distinctly turned outwards. The ver-
tebre are very numerous, and the tail very attenuated. The total length of the coils unwound is about m .295 or 11
in. 8 lines; but there are interruptions not measured, and some confusion not unraveled. The number of dorsal
vertebra in .005 m., two; of distal caudals, three and a-half. Length of cranium, .022; with behind .009. Its size
is about that of the skull of Ptyonius marshii, Cope. The slenderness of the body may be estimated from the
diameter of the dorsal vertebre, m, .0023; and of the caudals .0014. The whole number of vertebra preserved
is fifty-six.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 263

Another specimen embracing fifteen vertebra without processes or ribs or other parts, resembles this species.

There is nothing additional to be learned from it.

PHLEGETHONTIA SERPENS, Cope. Sp. Nov

This batrachian is much larger than the last, approaching nearly in its dimensions the Molgophis macrurus.
It is represented by a‘series of twenty-two vertebrx, which like those of P. linearis, are devoid of ribs, abdominal
armatures, dilated neural spines, etc. The series when complete must have been very long, as there is little differ-
ence in size between the first and last of the twenty-two. They are emarginate fore and aft, and much contracted
medially, owing to the transverse expanse of the diapophyses. There may be indeed a diapophysial element beneath
these, but if so, the two are undistinguishable. They are connected by longitudinal impressions, indicating the
existence of the tendiuous bands in the longitudinal muscles seen in Amphiuma, or the osseous spicules seen in the-
same situation in birds. Tbe neural spines, as indicated by their narrow bases, occupy the length of the neural arch,
and remind one of Amphiuma. Width of one of the vertebra, three lines.

This species appears to be rare at Linton.

MOLGOPHIS, Cope
Proceed. of the Acad. of Nat. Sci., 1868, 220. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV., 20.

The characters of this genus are: Body long serpentine, without dermal arma-
ture, so far as known. Vertebrze large and broad with very prominent zygopophyses
and moderate neural spines; ribs large, convex.

No limbs nor cranium can be ascribed with certainty to the type of this genus.

The ribs are long, and though the head is not bifurcate, there appears to be both
tubercle and head on the dilated extremity. Where crushed, they display a large
median vacuity.

This genus differs from Ophiderpeton, Huxl., in the character of its dorsal verte-
bree, which in their projecting zygapophyscs resemble those of Amphiwma. ‘The lack
of ventral armature distinguishes it from Oéstocephalus, while its well developed ribs
separate it from Phlegethontva.

MOLGOPHIS MACRURUS, Cope.

Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, XIV., p. 21 (part).

MOLGOPHIS WHEATLEYI, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Established on a specimen which exhibits about twenty-five vertebra, with ribs, and the posterior portion of
the cranium. No traces of abdominal scales or rods, thoracic shields or limbs are visible. By such negative char-
acters it is referable to the genus Molgophis, although the definition of the latter is as yet incomplete. The present
batrachian may indeed be ultimately found to be an Ophiderpeton, to which it also bears resemblance.

The specimen is that of an animal of very much smaller size than the M. macrurus. The vertebra are of
moderate length, with a low neural spine, and centrum angular at the sides and truncate at the articular extremities
when in place. The ribs are rather short, slightly curved, and apparently hollow. Althougb the vertebral centra are
ossified, the elements of the cranium have a larval appearance. These consist of two parallel flat bony plates,
which resemble the frontoparietal bones of a frog; they are slightly separated from each other, but do not enclose a
fontanelle. A wedge-shaped bone extends from the outside of the front of these, acuminate behind and widening
anteriorly, in the position of a post frontal bone. In front of the posterior border of each (?) parietal, on its outer

side, a bony enlargement arises, which contracts outwardly and forward into a narrow element which curves for-

204 SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHIA
wards beneath the (?) post-frontal. These look like an anteriorly directed quadrate with articular bone, such as are
seen in larve and some adults of existing batrachians. These determinations will require confirmation from addi-

tional material. In the meanwhile it is evident that the present specimen cannot be referred to any of the species
herein described.

Measurements. M.
Total length of specimen, 0:0650
ee cs Saamiiby 0050
se “« parietal and post-frontal bones, 0085
Width of head at (?) quadrate, .0080
Length of a vertebra, 0020
Depth ‘* fs 0025

This animal is dedicated to Chas. M. Wheatley, A. M., of Pheenixyille, Pennsylvania, one of the original in-
vestigators of the deposit in which it occurs.

PTYONTUS, Cope.

Genus novam. Sauropleura part. Cope, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1868, 217. Oéstocephalus
part. Cope, Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV, p. 20.

Form elongate, with long tail and lanceolate cranium. Limbs weak, a posterior
pair only discovered. Three pectoral shields present ; abdomen protected by packed
osseous rods which are arranged en chevron, the angle directed forwards. Neural and
heemal spines of caudal vertebrae expanded and fan-like. Ribs well developed.

This genus is the most abundantly represented by species and individuals, among
those found at Linton. These are almost snake-like in their proportions, and vary in
length from three to ten inches. The muzzles of the known species are acuminate,
and the upper surfaces of the cranium in the three species, where it is preserved, are
sculptured by rather distant crests and tubercles. ‘The squamosal is evidently more
expanded than in recent Batrachia either of the tailless or tailed orders. In P. pecti-
natus and P. vinchellianus it is a broad plate concealing the quadrate, and apparently
readily separated from it, as it is loose in some of the specimens. This is an inter-
esting point, as the homology of the squamosal with the preoperculum of the fishes
has been proposed by Parker and the writer,* and the view is confirmed by the re-
semblance of the former to an operculum in these the most fish-like of the Batrachia.
The teeth are numerous, small, and some of them apparently simple; others appear
to be grooved. Ina cranium (No. 140) perhaps of P. pectinatus, they extend to the
tip of the slender jaws, are rather stout, acute, and evidently marked with a few
strong grooves on the shank. The form of the head is a curious miniature of
Ichthyosaurus.

Remains of limbs have only been observed in the position of the posterior pair,
and that in several individuals.

*See Proceed. Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. XIV., p. 222.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 265

The present genus resembles Lepterpeton, Huxl., of the Irish coal-measures, in
the form of the cranium and in proportions of body, but that exhibits divided abdomi-
nal rods, or “oat-shaped scales” and the caudal vertebrae have not the fan-like
processes. In the last point they agree with Urocordylus, Huxl., but this genus is
not represented as possessing ribs, and the abdominal rods are also divided, forming the

b)

‘‘oat-shaped scales.” I formerly referred the species of Ptyonius to Oéstocephalus,
but in that genus no pectoral shields have been observed. ‘The vertebra in O. remex
are of rather more elongate form than in the species of Ptyonius. Should, however,
the pectoral plates be found in O. remex, this genus must be united with that one.
_ Four species have been detected by the geological survey of Ohio.
I. Vertebree shorter; fan-like processes of caudal vertebrae broad, equilateral.
«a Abdominals rods coarser, not more than ten in .0O05 m.
Pp Median pectoral plate broad, radiate ridged. P. MARSHII.
az. Abdominals rods hair-like, fifteen or more in .005 m.
Pp Middle pectoral shield with radii from the centre, the principal forming a
cross ; form wider. P. VINCHELLIANUS.

P Middle pectoral with pits at the centre and few or no radii; form narrow.
P. PECTINATUS.

P Middle pectoral shield narrow, closely reticulate medially, and radiate
towards the circumference; size half that of the last. P. seRRULA.

PTYONIUS MARSHII, Cope.

Colosteus marshii, Cope, Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV., 1869, p. 24; Oéstocephalus marshii, Cope, Proceed.
Amer. Philes. Soc. 1871, p. 177.

PTYONIUS VINCHELLIANUS, Cope.

Oéstocephalus vinchellianus, Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1871, 177.

Represented by the opposite halves of a single specimen, which includes only the cranium and anterior half of
the body. The fan-shaped neural spines commence but a short distance behind the line of the pectoral shields ; they
are low, and with a few coarse ridges; the margin entire. The abdominal rods are delicate and hair-like. The
pectoral shield is an oval, with a few radiating crests which originate at the centre ; in the areas between these there
are a few scattered tubercles. The lateral shields are ridged near the margin.

The cranium is lanceolate in form, and the bones of the superior walls are marked with a few raised points and
ridges. There is a thin bone which I have already alluded to as the squamosal or preoperculum, shaped like a right-
angled triangle separated from the outer posterior angle of the head, which exhibits a few similar.marks.

M.
Length of cranium, 0.020
Width ‘ ss 008
Length median pectoral plate, 0042

This small species is about the size of P. pectinatus, and should be especially compared with it. In specimens

Ay By RAO, DEES BIO)

266 SUPPLEMENT TO TILE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

of that species in which the cranium has the same size, the median pectoral plate is narrower and more prolonged
longitudinally, and exhibits tubercles and a few ridges near the circumference, but no cross-like figure.
Dedicated to Prof. Alexander Winchell of the New York University, at Syracuse, author of the ‘‘Sketches

of Creation,’’ etc.
PTYONIUS PECTINATUS, Cope

Sauropleura pectinata, Cope, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1868, 218; Oéstocephalus pectinatus, Transac.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, XIV, p. 20.

PTYONIUS SERRULA, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 177. (Oéstocephalus )

Represented especially by a single almost complete specimen, and perhaps by another originally referred to
the P. pectinatus. It is only half as large as that species, but displays a more complex sculpture of the pectoral
shields, indicating tnat it is not immature. The tail is relatively longer.

The remains of the head indicate a trigonal outline ; but the muzzle is lost. The pectoral shieids are narrow
and elongate, both median and lateral a little wider behind. The median has a considerable smooth anterior pro-
longation. Its surface is near the middle sharply reticulate-ridged, then closely radiate-ridged to the margin. The
lateral shield is reticulate-ridged behind and sends out radii, those on the anterior part sub-parallel. The triangular
hemal spines begin far forward; with the neurals, they are rather elongate-deltoid in form without the distinct
peduncle seen in P. pectinatus, but instead, a short concave or cresent shaped base from the concavity of which the
sculpture rises. This consists of ridges which extend beyond the intermediate spaces, like teeth. Abdominal rods
hair-like. Ribs distinct. Remains of limbs not discernible.

In the second specimen alluded to, weak limbs are seen on each side of the posterior part of the abdominal
cavity. On the right a moderately stout femur is given off, which is followed by a broken tibia and fibula, and then
by five closely appressed metatarsals. The last are 2-5 as long as the space between them and the femur, beyond
them a few slender phalanges are moderately distinctly defined. The tibia is more distinct on the left, but there are
no tarsus nor phalanges; some of the metatarsals remain. Leagth of limb to end of metatarsals equal to five juxtaposed
vertebrae measured along the edge of the neural spines. The limb, especially the foot, is sleuder. In this specimen
there are ten neural spines included in a length of half an inch.

In the typical specimen twelve neural spines are included ina half inch. The dorsal vertebrae are somewhat
dislocated in the anterior region, nevertheless it appears that the length from the front of the pectoral shield is
contained twice in the length of the tail ; in the smallest example of S. pectinata, it enters the same .75 of a time,

though perhaps a very little should be added for the missing extremity.

M.
Length of type from anterior edge of pectoral shield, 0.085
Length of median pectoral plate, 0.006
Width of neural and hemal spines at first caudal vertebra, 0045
a a se “¢ at middle of tail, .0040

OESTOCEPHALUS, Cope.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1868, p. 218. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV., p. 16. Sauropleura, pt.
Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philada,, 1868, p. 217. Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1871, p. 41.

Another genus resembling in its fan-like hemal and neural spines of the tail,
the European form Urocordylus, and differing from it as Ptyondus does, 7. e. in the
rod-like abdominal scales, and the well developed ribs. Its form is long and snake-
like, and it thus resembles Ophiderpeton, Huxl. But in the latter there are no limbs,

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 267

and the cranium is very differently constructed; in Oéstecephalus it is much as in
Ptyonius and Lepterpeton. The characters then are as follows:

Form slender and snake-like; caudal vertebree with dilated and sculptured neural
and hemal spines. Cranium lanceolate. ‘Teeth numerous, of nearly equal size. No
pectoral shields; abdomen protected by very numerous bristle-like rods, which con-
verge forwards ; seales none. A pair of weak posterior limbs ; branchihyal bones
present.

In the only well-preserved species, the cephalic bones exhibit no sculpture from
the parietal region forward. The angles of the mandibles are prolonged backwards
as in Apateon and the Anuwra, and the well developed ribs commence but a short dis-
tance behind the head. The vertebree are slender and furnished with well developed
diapophyses. The neural spines of the dorsal vertebrae in O. remex are flattened and
antero-posteriorly expanded and weakly grooved to their superior margin.

The character which separates this genera from Ptyonius is the absence of the
three usual pectoral shields. In two specimens the pectoral region is presented, and
no trace of the shield appears; on the contrary the.ventral armature of bristles or
rods extends to the head.

A. pair of symmetrical bones, whose impressions are seen posterior to the occi-
pital bone, I once thought might belong to rudimental limbs. They however appear
to be the elements of the second or third branchial hemal arch ; the first or heemal is
followed by a second element which is probably the inferior pleural segment of the
arch. A third piece follows, which is the superior pleural element of the same. The
other branchial arches are lost, but some impressions are visible.

Before I was fully acquainted with the structure in this genus, I referred some
of the species to Sauropleura, which is quite distinct. The name is from dioro-, a
javelin or dart, in allusion to the form of the head. My friend, Dr. Benjamin H.
Coates, informs me that this Greek word retains the diéresis in composition, and
should not be spelled with a dipthong.

I am acquainted with one species from more or less completely preserved skele-
tons, with portions or wholes of crania, and another species from cranial remains alone.

They may be distinguished as follows :

I. Vertebre elongate; fan-like caudal processes narrower. Size large; mandi-
bular teeth of unequal lengths, with the apices turned backwards. O. REMEX.

II. Species only known from cranial bones with teeth; teeth equal, erect, with
acute conic apices, eleven in .005 m. O. RECTIDENS.

.

268 SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

OKSTOCEPHALUS REMEX, Cope.
Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV, 1869, p. 17.

OESTOCEPHALUS RECTIDENS, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Indicated by a left dentary bone with its teeth and external surface preserved. The latter is nearly smooth
and without sculpture. The outer face is convex, and the general form is slender, but not curved upwards at the
extremity. Teeth straight and conic, apex acute; no visible grooves of the surface ; eleven in m. .005, closely
placed, and of equal lengths. The extremity of the dentary does not exhibit teeth, but they may be concealed.

M.
Length of dentary, 0,022
“tooth line, 0152
Depth dentary at last tooth, .0027

This represents a smaller animal than does the skull of O. curvidens, and differs much from the latter in the
more closely placed and perfectly straight teeth.

I describe here a specimen which is closely related as to size to the O. rectidens, and is probably a member
of this genus; but the specific reference will remain uncertain tilt other portions of the skeleton are discovered.
Those preserved consist of twenty-five caudal vertebr, probably from the anterior part of the column. There are
therefore no ribs nor ventral armature. The centra are rather elongate and expanded at the extremities. The neural
arches have a close union. There are no diapophyses, but the fan shaped and striate neural and hzemal spines are
present. They are, however, shorter thafi in O. remex, and not so expanded as in the species of Ptyonius. The
bases are quite narrow. Their reduced size may be derived from the following measurements. Length of three
centra, m. .0086; extent of neural and hzemal spines, .0087. The same dimensions in 0. vemew are .012; extent of
spines, .02. While this species is smaller than the latter, it is larger than any known Ptyonius, its elongate vertebra
are most like those of Odstocephalus.

BRACHYDECTES, Cope
Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1868, 214. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1868, XIY., p. 14.

This genus is indicated by two rami of a mandible and a portion of a premaxil-
lary only. These, when compared with those of Oéstocephalus and Dendrerpeton,
from the same locality, and with others described by authors, are so much stouter, @. e.,
shorter and more elevated, that they evidently belong to a peculiar genus. The
genus further differs from Oéstocephalus in having the teeth of equal size to the
posterior parts of the series, that is, to the base of the elevated coronoid process.
The teeth are elongate cylindric cones, with their acute tips turned a little poste-
riorly. The fractured ones display a large pulp cavity. The three premaxillaries
preserved are similar, but without curvature of the tips. They do not exhibit striz
or any other sculpture.

So far as the remains known go, the genus is nearer Hylerpeton than any other.
According to Dawson that genus is provided with a large canine-like tooth, at the
anterior extremity of the maxillary, on the inner row, which is inserted into a dis-
tinct socket. No such tooth appears among those of this genus. The latter does

not give any indication of the very elevated coronoid process of Brachydectes, though

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 269

the external portion of the dentary bone in that region being lost, little can be said
about it. Professor Owen’s plate indicates a. ramus whose depth at the last tooth
enters 85 times the total length. In our species this depth enters about 5 times.

BRACHYDECTES NEWBERRYI, Cope.
Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1868, p. 214. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XIV., 1869, p. 14.

PELION, .Wyman.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1868, p. 211. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, p.9. Raniceps,
Wyman, Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, 1858, p. 158, not of Cuvier (Pediculati).

Three genera are here indicated as pertaining to a lacertiform type of Stegoce-
phalt. In one of these there are abdominal chevrons and no thoracic shields
(Sauropleura) ; in another (Tuditanus) no abdominal chevrons, and thoracic shields
present. These genera are doubtless well defined, but one or the other of them may
possibly, not probably, be identical with Pelion. The only specimen of the only
species of the latter exhibits an inferior view of a portion of the skeleton, and the
obverse, on which the thoracic and abdominal armor could have been preserved, has
not come under my observation. The specimen however, does not exhibit any ribs,
although the vertebrae are well preserved ; in the two genera above mentioned, well
developed ribs are preserved.

As observed by Prof. Wyman, the genus presents some points of similarity to
the Anura. The prolongation of the angles of the mandible is of this character, as
well as the general form of the head. ‘The bones of the forearm may be united as in
frogs, and the length and curvature of the femur, are seen among these animals rather
than the Salamanders. The form of the femur is different from that of Amphibamus
grandiceps, which also differs in the unossified condition of the vertebrae and presence

of dermal seales.
PELION LYELLII; Wyman.
Loci citati.
SAUROPLEURA, Cope.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1868, p. 215. Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, 15.

Vertebre and ribs well developed, no fan-shaped processes of the former. Limbs
four, well developed and elongate. Ventral armature of slender rods arranged en
chevron, the angle anterior. Probably no thoracic armature.

This is the most lacertilian of the Carboniferous genera, and might almost be
suspected to be a reptile were it not for the ventral armature, which is precisely that
of O&stocephalus and other genera. It appears to lack the thoracic shields* of those

*When I state, Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, 16, that Sawropleura lacks the ventral armature of Oéstoce-

phalus, thoracic armature, is intended.

No 2, SNOW BOA BID,

270 SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHTA

genera, for no trace of them can be seen in two specimens and their reverses of S.
digitata and S. longipes, though the thoracic region is well preserved in both.

Unfortunately the structure of the cranium in this genus is quite unknown, the
part preserved in S. longipes being too much injured to furnish characters. The only
genus with which it can be compared in the structure of the skeleton remaining, is
Tuditanus, and it is possible that some of the species of the latter in which the
cranium only is known, should be placed in Sauropleura. The type however, 7
brevirostris, has thoracic shields and very weak limbs, so that the genera are well
distinguished. As to species, the only one of Tuditanus which could, by reason of
size, belong to either of those of Sauwropleura, is T. mordax ; the T. radiatus and T.
obtusus being larger than either S. digztata or S. longipes.

The vertebre are not elongate and the ribs are quite well developed. In S.
longipes the neural spines of the dorsal vertebre are vertical laminz, subquadrate in
outline. The tail is elongate, being proportioned in S. longipes much as in lizards of
typical forms. Of scapular arch I can find nothing, but in S. longipes the iliac bones
are preserved. ‘They are short flat rods slightly narrowing towards the base, which
is a transverse expansion, with the distal margin presenting two faces separated by an
angle. The limbs are well developed, the ulna and radius separate. In S digztata
there is no osseous carpus.

The sizes of the species known are about. that of our medium and larger lizards.
The S. digitata is the larger, and of shorter body and more robust limbs than the S.
longipes. While the former has thirteen pairs of ribs, the latter has nineteen, perhaps
twenty-one.

The dermal abdominal rods are arranged en chevron with the angle anterior, and
are separated by interspaces.

SAUROPLEURA LONGIPES, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Body long, slender, with long neck and long tail, ribs 19 or 21 pairs, moderately curved, the anterior stouter,
and with widened extremities, the posterior slender, and drawn out to a fine point. Dorsal vertebre 1.5 times long
as wide, with well developed neural spines. These are rather narrower than high, the height about equalling the
length of the centrum. They are rugose with small tubercles which are sometimes confluent into ridges.

The humerus is longer than the ulna and radius, which are of equal lengths, that is about as long as four
dorsal vertebre. The ulna and radius are not widely separated, and expand at the carpal region. The humerus is
rather more slender, and is distally expanded. The digits are not all preserved. One metacarpal is seen at an
interval beyond the forearm, and series of phalanges extend beyond the metacarpal. The latter is about half as
long as the forearm, and a little larger than the first phalange, which is, like the former, very slender. Parts of two
or three phalanges of perhaps other digits appear along side, as though turned backwards. The femur is about as
long as the humerus, equalling six and three quarter posterior dorsal vertebra. Proximally it is enlarged gradually

and terminates regularly so far as can be seen, as it is partially concealed beneath the distal extremity of the ilium.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. Paral

Measurements. M.
Length of vertebral column between pelvis and humerus, 0.070
aG Oi G5 Gs in front of humerus, 0235
as ‘* caudal series preserved, 070
cy “ humerus, about 0185
Gt ‘* ulna and radius, .012
ay “* part of fore limb in line, 0455
os ‘ jlium, : 007
ss *¢ femur, 020

Number of chevron rods in .004 ; seven.

A single specimen of this Batrachian was obtained by Prof. Newberry, at Linton; it is in a good state of
preservation.

SAUROPLEURA DIGITATA, Cope.
Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, XIV., p. 15.

TUDITANUS, Cope.
Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, 177.

Cranium broad flat, orbits anterior, bones more or less sculptured. Teeth on
premaxillary and maxillary bones of nearly equal sizes. Three pectoral shields sculp-
tured externally. Form lizard like ; two pairs of limbs of medium proportions.

This genus is established on two species of which the collection contains nearly
entire specimens. In these no chevron abdominal rods or scales can be discovered,
and it is not probable that they exist. The presence of the pectoral shields distinguishes
this genus from Dendrerpeton, Owen, while the thoracic plates and lack of ventrai rods
separate it from Sauropleura. The plates may, however, be found in the latter;
should the rods be found in Zuditanus, which is not probable, these genera must be
united. J associate with the Z! punctulatus, and JT. brevirostris three other species
known only from crania, a reference to be finally criticized when more is known of
them. They are all evidently allied. The largest is Z’ hualeyi ; the next, T. radiatus,
is named from elevated radiating ridges of the cranial sculpture, Z. mordax has a
strongly sculptured cranium, and large premaxillary teeth, while in Z’ obtusus the
orbits are less anterior, and the teeth small. I formerly described it as a Dendrer-
peton.

TUDITANUS PUNCTULATUS, Cope, Sp. Nov.

This amphibian is known from a single individual well preserved on the opposite halves of a block of slate.
The head, fore-limbs, and twenty-three consecutive vertebre with ribs are well defined, but of pelvis and hind limbs,
nothing is visible.

The cranium is less exposed posteriorly than in the other species referred to the genus, and has a triangular
outline with narrowed but obtuse muzzle. If I do not mistake the outline of the left orbit, it is near the transverse
line which divides the head equally. The surface of a considerable portion is preserved, and is sculptured by small
pits placed closely, the intervals in a very few parts assuming the form of ridges. The sculpture is thus more minute

272 SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

than in any other species. The under jaw of the right side is partially preserved, and displays longitudinal grooves.
The ramus is stout and straight, and approaches the form seen in Brachydectes newberryi. Its teeth are not pre-
served, but the extremities of the opposing maxillaries remains They are small and acutely conic; both they and
the ramus are much less robust than in the above mentioned species, and the enamel preserved is smooth.

The three pectoral shields are preserved, and as the exposed surface is the interior it is smooth. The laterals
resemble imperfectly, spherical triangles. The outer margin is thin and convex, and the anterior angle curves round
the apex of the median shield and joins that of the opposite side forming a coarse interlocking suture. The median
scute is formed like some of the patterns of ancient mirrors. It is a wide oval excavated on each side behind, and
produced from between these concavities into a long flat sternum-like process. The latter thus resembles the
xiphisternal production of frogs and of some lizards ; as in the former, the ribs having no hemal elements, have no
connection with it. Its extremity is simple and obtuse. :

The humerus originates at the outer posterior angle of the lateral thoracic scutum. It is relatively as large as
that of a frog, is contracted medially, and much expanded distally. It is followed at a short interval by a shorter
ulna, which is also expanded at the ends and contracted at the middle. Then succeed numerous well developed
phalanges, which are so scattered as to render it impossible to ascertain the number that compose the digits and
how many of the latter existed.

The vertebre are osseous and with slightly concave extremities on a lateral view; they are subquadrate in
outline ; their spines are not distinguishable. | There are 22-3 pairs of osseous ribs, which are slender, rather short,
and strongly curved backwards.

Measurements. M.

Length of specimen as preserved, 0.097

ee “ head, 024
Width of head posteriorly, .020
Depth of ramus mandibuli, 004
Eight apices of teeth cover, 005
Length of 238 vertebre. 062

«« median pectoral scute, .010
Width < us sf 005

‘¢ of the three scuta, .010
Length process of median scute, 005

‘¢ humerus, 009
Width ae 004
Length ulna, 006
Width * 002
Length phalange, 008
Expanse of longest ribs, ° 015
Length of a long rib, ; 009

Besides the generic characters already pointed out, this species differs from the Sawropleura longtpes, to which
it has some resemblance, in the much shorter fore limbs, and shorter vertebral column in the anterior region of the
body.

TUDITANUS BREVIROSTRIS, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Represented by two individuals and probably by part of a third. Those with the cranium show that this part
is large in comparison with the size of the body, and is as wide as long, with broadly rounded muzzle. The orbits
are large, and situated for the greater part in front of a line marking the anterior third of the length of the head.
The bones of the head are coarsely sculptured with radiating ridges, and with some tubercles posteriorily ; the
supratemporal exhibits radii which extend outwards. The teeth are in two rows on that part of the maxillary arch
anterior to the orbits ; they are of equal sizes ; the outer row appears to be directed more obliquely outwards than

the inner. ‘The former number five in .002 M. The thoracic shields are rather large, and have coarse radiating
ridges.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 273

Vertebral centra and arches are not well distinguished in two individuals, but instead, an axial mass which
may represent chorda dorsalis. In one, three diapophyses are distinctly developed at the sacral region. In a third
individual without head or thoracic region, but in which the ribs and hind limbs are similar, as well as the general
proportions, the vertebre are distinctly ossified ; but its reference to this species is uncertain.

Remains of both fore and hind limbs are preserved. They are rather stout, not large, and with short pha-
langes. The number of these is not distinguishable.

Measurements of Limbs. M.
Length femur, No. 1 0.060
te tibia and fibula, No. 1, 050
# anterior phalange, No. 1, obverse, 0285
“ femur, No. 2, 060
s¢ tibia and fibula, No. 2, -070
ee femur, No. 8, 052
af posterior phalange, 026

The deficiency of length of the tibia:in No. 1, is probably due to imperfection of the specimen. There are
bones of the fore limbs in No. 2 which are not determinable. The ribs are rather long and rather curved. The cau-
dal extremity is not complete, but was evidently well developed.

M.

Length from head to femur, 0.0356
a head, 20154
Width “ behind, 0175
ie “¢ jnterorbital, 0042
Length of orbit, 0040

TUDITANUS RADIATUS, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Represented by crania of several individuals, one of which is nearly perfect, and is selected for description ;
otheis are more or less complete ; and present the prominent peculiarities of the species.

The marked character of this form is seen in the very anterior position of the orbits and contraction of the
muzzle. The orbits are large and separated by a little more than their own diameter ; the posterior border is in
front of a line measuring the anterior third of the length to the supra-occipital crest, and nearly at the line marking
the fourth of the length to the quadrate region. The posterior outline of the skull is deeply concave, the quadrate
angle projecting beyond the occipital condyles, which are themselves quite prominent. The osseous segments com-
posing the cranium are from the orbital region posteriorly, three median, and four lateral on each side. The supra-
occipital is rather small, and is broader than long. Its posterior border is straight, as are the short lateral margins.
The anterior suture presents an obtuse angle forwards. A large rhombic plate occupies the parietal region, which
is probably divided longitudinally by a suture, and represents the parietal bones. It extends narrowing, nearly to
the orbits, when the middle line is occupied by the much smaller frontal. The suture between the two is obscure,
but seems to form an emargination of the parietals. There is a subtriangular post-frontal which expands posteriorly
and is succeeded by a supra-temporal which narrows and becomes acute posteriorly, being wedged between the
parietal and what may be an anterior production of the plate representing the epiotic. A very large jugal plate
extends from the orbits two-thirds the distance to the extremity of the quadrate, the remaining third being covered
by a quadrato-jugal. After the jugal the epiotic is the largest of the cranial shields or bones, and sends a prolonga-
tion forwards between the parietal and supra-temporal, as well as on the outer side of the latter.

There is no trace of mucous canals. The sculpture consists of strong ridges radiating and inosculating.
Radiation is more uninterrupted on both jugal, supra-temporal and anterior part of epiotic ; in the first, they origi-
nate in front of the middle exteriorly ; on the supra-temporal, near the anterior part. The inosculation is honey-
comb. like on the parietal, supra-occipital and posterior parts of the epiotic.

A. P. 8S.—VOL. Xv. 3Q. z

274. SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

Measurements. M.

Length to middle of supra-occipital, 095
as “* angle of quadrate, O11
Width at ee co: 069
«orbits (approximate), 031
Interorbital width, 0085

No teeth are preserved with this cranium. A second specimen exhibits nothing more distinctly than the

one described.
TUDITANUS OBTUSUS, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 177. Dendrerpeton obtusum, Cope, Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869,
XV <5. ps 12s

TUDITANUS MORDAX, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Represented by a partially complete cranium and some other fragments.

The muzzle is broadly rounded as in 7. obtusus, and the premaxillary teeth are relatively much larger. The
bones are sculptured with delicate acute radiating and iaosculating ridges. The maxillary bone is preserved for the
length of an inch; its teeth are smaller than those of the premaxillary bone ; I count four in a line, which have a
simple conic crown. The external surface of the maxillary is not very strongly sculptured. The orbits and nares

are not well defined in the specimen.
TUDITANUS HUXLEYI, Cope, Sp. Nov.

Represented by a considerable portion of the face and muzzle of a single individual. A portion of the left
mandible, supporting three teeth remains in place, and almost the entire boundary of the right orbit is preserved.

The fragment indicates a much larger species than any other referred to the genus, and next to the Lepto-
phractus obsoletus, the largest of the Batrachians of the Ohio Coal Measures. Without more complete remains it is
not easy to determine its generic relations finally. It differs from the Leptophractus in the absence of the symmetri-
cal scutellation of the cranium.

The form of the head is probably elongate and the muzzle neither very obtuse nor elongate. The orbit is
rather small and near the middle of the length of the specimen, which is, however, incomplete at both ends. The
sculpture of the surface of the head posterior to the orbits, as well as round their borders and for some distance in
front of them, consists of a rather coarse pitting. On the middle line between the orbits and on the muzzle, the
intervals become narrower, and are confluent. into transverse ridges or a delicate reticulation. The surface of the
mandible displays a coarse reticulation.

The teeth are stoutly conic, and with delicately striate grooved cementum. They are slightly recurved.

This species differs from the 7. radiatus and T. obtusus, in the absence of the segmental areae into which the
sculpture is thrown in them. :
Measurements. M.

Longitudinal diameter of orbit, : 0.019
Length of alveolar border supporting three teeth, 018
Diameter of basis of tooth, 003
Hight pits in, -010

Dedicated to Professor Thomas H. Huxley, facile princeps among English systematists, and an important con-
tributor to the knowledge of the extinct Batrachia.

LEPTOPHRACTUS, Cope.

Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1873, 340.

LEPTOPHRACTUS OBSOLETUS,~ Cope.
Loc. cit., 1878, p. 341.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 275

EURYTHORAX, Cope.

Established on a large thoracic shield of peculiar form. It is a median, and
exhibits broad smooth surfaces for the contact of the overlapping margins of the
lateral plates. The form is subround with a large excavation from the posterior mar-
gin on each side. The narrowed portion left has a convex outline. Sculpture none.
The form resembles remotely the corresponding scute of Tuditanus punctulatus, the
posterior narrow face representing the xiphisternal process of that species.

EURYTHORAX SUBLAVIS, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, 177.
The specific characters expressed by this shield are best perceived in the measurements :

M.
Length, 0715
Greatest width (imperfect), 078
Width of lateral concavity, .0389

Some delicate radiating grooves are seen on the exposed surface, but they are very shallow. They are not
visible on the faces of contact.

This represents one of the largest species of this fauna, having pertained to an animal of probably four feet in
length, perhaps longer. It will be desirable in future to compare it with the corresponding part of the Tuditanus
hualey?, though the latter, so far as known, is the smaller species.

COLOSTEUS, Cope.
Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, XIV., p. 22.

COLOSTEUS SCUTELLATUS, Newberry.

Cope, Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 41. Pygopterus scutellatus, Newberry, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci.,
Philadelphia, 1856, p. 98. Colostews crassiscutatus, Cope, Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., XTV., 1869, 23.

COLOSTEUS FOVEATUS, Cope.
Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1859, XIV., p. 24.

COLOSTEUS PAUCIRADIATUS, Cope, Sp. Nov

Established on median and lateral pectoral plates of two individuals, the latter of which I formerly referred
to the C. scutellatus. It belonged to a larger specimen than either of the preceding, and is distinguished by the
paucity and weakness of its ridges. These are entirely transverse on the posterior third of the length, but are inter-
rupted and irregular on the median portion; the anterior third is almost smooth.

The lateral shield is little larger than the largest of C. scutellatus, but resembles the median plate in its low
and distant carine. An are drawn at about the middle of a radial line from the outer angle crosses about eleven of
these ridges ; in C. scutellatus, twenty in the same space.

The median plate is pyriform with the posterior angle little produced, and the anterior not narrowed and

rather short. The lateral shield is a right angled triangle, the inner or thin edge concave posteriorly, the posterior

convex.
M.
Length of median, 0.063
Width ‘ es 040
GG “ lateral behind, 0242

Length of lateral, 045

276 SUPPLEMENT TO TIIE EXTINCT BATRACHIA

COCYTINUS, Cope.

Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 177.

Vertebra and ribs osseous; anterior limbs, thoracic shields and abdominal arma-
ture apparently wanting. ‘Teeth on the premaxillary bone, none on the maxillary.
Hyoid elements largely developed. An axial hyal with basihyal on each side, closely
united with the corresponding ceratohyal, at the end of which is an element in the
position of a stylohyal. Heemal or basal branchihyals three, the anterior two each
supporting one pleural branchihyal, and the third supporting one also, The first or
anterior hemal branchihyal on the inner side of the ceratohyal, approaching the
median line, and with elongate pleural element. Urohyal not seen.

Such are the characters of a genus, whose affinities are interesting but somewhat
obscure. The hyoid apparatus is better developed than in any other here described,
but it is by no means certain that it was branchiferous at maturity, nor does this
character on the other hand render it certain that the animal is the larva of one of the
other forms here deseribed. ‘The well ossified ribs and vertebree are favorable,
though not conclusive evidence for adult age, while the structure of the hyoid appa-
ratus is more like that of the gilless genera Amphiwma and Pro onopsis, than it is
like the branchiferous genera Siren and Necturus, or the branchiate young of Sala-
manders. Thus it differs from Proteus in the presence of the first axial hyal and the
two first basihyals, from this genus and Necturus in the possession of four distinct
pleural branchihyals. In this it agrees with Amphiuma, as it does also with Pro o-
nopsis, in the three hemal branchihyals.* Szren has only two of these elements, the
first and second without the third. As a consequence in Szren the third and fourth
pleural elements have no corresponding heemal support, an arrangement totally different
from that of Cocytinus. The arrangement in larval Aimblystoma and Triton is quite
similar to that in Stren, excepting that in Triton, the small basihyals are present.

The question as to whether this genus was in life branchiferous or not, is not
easily decided, since the hyoid apparatus is about equally developed in the branchi-
ferous genera Stren and Netturus, and the air breathers Amphiuma and Protonopsis.
Some considerations however point to an air breathing type, like the last two, though
the individual may possibly have been immature. In the gill-bearing genera, as well
as in the larvee of Amblystome, Tritons, ete., the branchial arches approach nearest
to archetypical perfection. Thus in the Stren lacertina, two of the four superior
branchihals are supported by corresponding inferior or hemal branchihyals, and these
in turn are articulated each to its proper axial hyal. The absent elements are the two

“For the nomenclature of these bones, I follow Fischer’s Ueber die Perennibranchiaten und Derotremen:

Hamburg, 1864.

AND REPTILIA OF NORTH AMERICA. 214

axial and two hemal elements which exist as supports of the posterior two inferior
brachihyals in the fishes. | In the branchiferous Necturus maculatus a considerable
modification ensues. ‘The four superior branchihyals are present, but according to
Fischer, the first and second hemal elements are confluent. A third inferior branchi-
hyal is added. If we now turn to the air-breather Protonopsis horrida, we observe
a marked peculiarity. The third hemal branchihyal remains, while the second is
confluent with the corresponding superior element, and the first is similarly confluent
or, as Fischer interprets it, the first branchiyal of the superior series extends to the
axialhyal. In Murenopsis (Amphiuma), a greater divergence from the archetype
exists. With all the peculiarities of Protonopsis it further almost loses the second
hzemal element, which appears at maturity as a process on the first pleural element.

These characters may be tubulated as follows:

A ‘Third hzmal branchihyal present.
« First and second hemal branchihyals free and distinct.
| COCYTINUS.
ua First and second hemals separate from each other but confluent with their
pleural elements.
PROTONOPSIS.
AMPHIUMA.

waz Hirst and second distinct from pleurals, but united with each other.

NECTURUS.
Ad ‘Third hamal element wanting.
_x Second hemal element reaching the axis.
SIREN.
AMBLYSTOMA.
Larvee, TRITON.

SALAMANDRA.

x. Second hemal element reduced, not reaching axis.
PROTEUS.

Now it has been pointed out that Cocytenus agrees with the air-breathing genera
in the larger development of the first ,pleural and hemal branchihyals, and that it
agrees with them both in the presence of the second and third hemal elements. But
these are more distinct than in either of these genera, and the third is larger, and
supports the fourth as well as its own pleural element.

The presence of the maxillary bone furthermore excludes this genus from near
affinity to either the Zrachystomata and Proteida, and allies it to the Amphiuma and

INS 1 SAO NOS BI

278 SUPPLEMENT TO THE EXTINCT BATRACHIA, ETC.

Protonopsis. It differs from both these genera in the absence of teeth from this bone
as well as its apparently small development. ‘This may indicate that the animal was
not fully grown. In the hyoid region it differs from these in the apparent absence of
the second axial hyal, and in points of the hemal segments. Thus the second is con-
fluent either with the Ist or 2d pleural element in those genera, and the third hemal
element is much reduced and does not support the fourth pleural in either.

The present genus is then to be referred to the neighborhood of Amphiuma and
Protonopsis, but as forming the type of another family. The branchial apparatus is
more fish-like than in either of these, in (1) the three distinct and well developed
hemal branchihyals, (2) the four distinct pleural elements of the same; (3) the
distinct ? stylohyal.

Its weak maxillaries have a larval aspect, but the ossification of all the bones and
the small size of the pleural branchihyals as compared with the rest of the cranium,
render it probable that the form is no more larval than the genera to whose neighbor-
hood it is referred. .That it passed a portion of its existence as an aquatic branchi-
ferous animal is no less certain.

COCYTINUS GYRINOIDES, Cope, Sp. Nov.

The only specimen of this batrachian, embraces the inferior bones of the cranium in a complete state of
preservation, with the muzzle with its teeth ; also the anterior eight vertebrve with their ribs. The condition of the
hyal elements is as follows: The hemal element of the first branchial arch is partially concealed on both sides by
the ceratohyal. An expanded truncate face of attachment to the axial element is visible on both sides, but the
body of the bone is flat, and presents the edge in the specimen. The first pleural element proceeded from just behind
and within its extremity ; it is longer than the other pleural elements. A slender bone is visible extending from the
space between the ceratohyal and mandibular angle ; it may therefore pertain to the suspensiorium of the jaw as
well as to that of the hyoid arch, or be squamosal as well as stylohyal. The second hmal bone is slender, but with
enlarged axial extremity ; that of the right side is not so well preserved as to be safely determined. The third hemal
elements are the smallest, and originate immediately in front of the occipital condyles and diverge outwards and
backwards. They are little curved, subcylindric and slightly expanded at the extremities.

Of the pleural elements the first and second are little curved, the first is marked by a pit or foramen on the
under side near the distal end, which is clearly visible on both sides of the specimen. The third and fourth pleurals
are more curved, and the outer ends slightly expanded and directed backwards.

The obverse of the specimen shows that the anterior axial hyal is wedge-shaped. The lateral basihyals are
massive. The second hemal branchihyal is dilated fan-shaped distally, and supports two pleural elements.

The muzzle projects over the lower jaw, and was rather broadly truncate. The premaxillary teeth are cylin-
dric and six in number on each side. The maxillary bones represented by a lamina at each lateral extremity of the
premaxillary. The mandibular rami are very stout, as are als the ceratobyals. The vertebrz have possessed some
apophyses, apparently keel-like diapophyses. The ribs are slightly curved.

Length of head and eight vertebrae, M. .0335; of head .0152; expanse of mandibular rami .013 ; length of left
ceratohyal .0085,

ARTICLE VI.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE LIFE-FORM IN ART. —
By Harrison ALLEN, M. D.,
Professor of Comparative Anatony in the University of Pennsylvania.

Read March 6th, 1874.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Section 1. The Imitative. We are informed on the highest authority* that
the language-character of primitive people is largely if not entirely composed of signs,
which are either direct copies of familiar objects, or can be shown to be derivatives of
them.

A language or letter-type and an art-form have thus much in common, although
the processes are different by which they are evolved. To produce the letter-type, a
series of abridgments must be practiced for a long time, with the result of simpli-
fying the form by the elimination of non-essential attributes. Of course the resem-
blance to the original design is, by such treatment, sooner or later lost. ‘To produce
the art-form the rude outline becomes in time a reasonably faithful copy of the
natural model, and from this realistic stage may pass under favoring conditions to
an art-type capable of expressing the highest culture.

From among the innumerable objects surrounding man, those selected by him
for delineation have been relatively few in number. He appears to have been
influenced in his choice by his necessities, both real and imaginary. Among the
first may be placed the objects he sought for food, and those he dreaded as enemies.
Thus we meet with figures of birds, fishes and the grazing animals, as well as those
of rapacious and venomous creatures. Next in order may be placed representations
of the heavenly bodies and the signs of the elements, indicating his dread of the violent
phenomena of the earthquake and thunder-storm, or his appreciation of the benefits of
rain and favoring winds. Outlines of his own form are often of great antiquity.

* Eeypt’s Place in Universal History, London, Chey. Bunsen, I, 383. Five Ancient Monarchies, ete., London,

Geo. Rawlinson, I, 81. Dissertation on the Nature of, and Character of the Chinese System of Writing, Phila., 1838,

XV, Duponceau.

280 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

They are for the most part, expressive of an anthropotized deity, or of himself in
heroic action.

With such simple factors many secondary figures may arise by specialization of
the details of the more complex. The human figure yields the head, and its separate
parts, the eye, mouth, ear and limbs, particularly the hands and feet. The house
with the gable and door is appropriated, each with its special significance ; and as
the use of weapons and household utensils become gradually adopted, a system of
picture-signs is elaborated sufficient for the purposes of the people inventing it.

The difficulty of identifying the objects of such a system is apparent. Apart
from the rudeness of the execution, we find objects closely resembling one another
having diversive significances. Many figures, for example, are circular in form, which
we cannot, from that fact alone, place together. Upon the monuments of Central
America the circle is often used to designate both the human eye and the ear drum
of reptiles. It also represents the moon,* mamme, and a variety of other things.

Section II. The Inventive. But many designs can by no force of ingenuity
be included in the list, either of organic objects, of implements, or their derivatives.
Some of these are inventions. This is a natural result of human effort. As earthen
pottery could easily have been suggested by the gourd, or hollow stone, so the
designs upon fictile implements may have arisen from the minor accidents oc-
curing during manufacture. The unintentional imprint of the finger tip may have
passed into the ornament adopted in the pottery of the stone age of Europe.+ In the
same manner the stamp made by the end of a hollow reed{ may have originated the
circular ornament, as the impress of a fibrous cord created the almost universal spiral
border.

Excluding this group of objects, there yet remain many markings such
as those seen upon early pottery, which cannot be so explained, and are probably
examples of inventive design. Such are the herring-bone patterns and chevrons, and
the numerous crossed lines, which do not form determinate figures. What the
ultimate shapes would have been, originating from a basis so meagre, it is difficult to
surmise. There are many elaborate examples of carvings among the South Sea
Islanders in which the simple repetition of the lines above mentioned is never de-
parted from. The result is pleasing, but without other interest.

* According to Lt. Simpson (Reconnoissances in New Mexico, Texas, ete, 1850), the circle, among the Pueblo
Indians, means the sun and moon,—the half-cirele, clouds,—the zigzag, lightning, etc.

| Prehistoric Times, Sir John Lubbock, p. 469. It is asserted by Wm. Chaffers (Keramic Gallery, IT, 1872,
185), that the gourd, pumpkin, or the fruits with a lard rind or shell, were in England the most primitive vessels.

t Antiquity of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgian Tribes, Charles C. Jones, Jr., New York,
1878, 459.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 281

When an attempt to produce symmetrical designs upon the same supposed
inventive basis is recognized, it is doubtful whether at some earlier stage of its
development a class of natural objects had not been the original source of inspiration.
In the later examples only of the ornamentation of the so-called Iron Age and the
Saracenic styles, namely at the time of approaching decadence, do we find engrafted
upon them imitations of the life form. In the former, it is of an animal type, and in
the latter, it is a vine-like tracery.*

But even here it is not by any means certain that imitation did not form the
basis of design. Worsae. claims that the embellishment of the ornaments of the Iron
Age was derived from the Roman taste,t while for the Saracenic, it would be very
difficult to prove that at the time of the rapid development of this style, much was
not unwittingly copied from the ancient monumental ornamentation constantly before
the Moslem people.

The ease with which designs, either apparently or really the outgrowth of man’s
ingenuity, rather than direct copies from nature, run into set figures, endlessly re-
peating themselves, is very noticeable. The time at which a given people will adopt
a pattern holds a direct relation to the tendency of their art. If the art inclines to
invention, the patterns will appear early; if it inclines to imitation, they will appear
late. We have seen that primitive man copies the animal forms about him; now of
these the serpent is the only one which is facile to the purposes of the pattern-maker,
if we exclude that exceptional accessory, the feather. As a result, the animal form
is excluded from the arabesque, which is noted for its involved and apparently arti-
ficial ornamentation; and towards its decline when its typical expression has been
modified, the vegetable form is introduced instead of the animal. It is, indeed, almost
a necessity that the animal, or at least the footed form of it should be so excluded,
both from the style of the Iron Age and Islam. It is interesting to compare these
examples of traceries with the elaborate entwinings of Celtic ornament. The labors
of the Celtic artist to construct monograms and mouldings from the animal form,
ended in a tangle of eccentric lines; and in order to make the four-footed shape in
any degree obedient, it has been stript of all characteristic proportion and made as
snake-like as possible.

* The Arabian Antiquities of Spain. J.C. Murphy, 18138.

+ ‘‘The characteristic ornamentation of the iron period are symmetrical windings and arabesques. As they not
infrequently terminate in a rude representation of the head of some fantastic animal, these symmetrical winding
ornaments have been regarded as the figures of snakes, whence they have been called snake ornaments. * te ve
These occupy the place of what were originally leaves.”’ J. A. Worsaz. The Primeval Antiquities of Denmark,
Lond., 1849, 72.

¢ For a good example see Grammar of Ornament. Owen Jones, London, 1856, pl. Lxiil.

282 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Seotron III. Zhe ethnic value of Design. Waving defined two distinct bases
for design, the natural and artificial, and concluding that the former is by far the
more frequent, it would yet be unsafe to deduce the tempting theory that peoples may
be graded by the choice of one or the other of them. Prescott* truly says “ coinci-
dences naturally spring up among different nations under the same phase of civiliza-
tion.” May we not go farther and say that coicidences spring up as well under differ-
ent phases of civilization? Tribes upon the same level may differ widely in thei art
methods, as well as in the love for the art performance. Wallace} found the Papuans ex-
cellent carvers in wood, yet living in a state little better than Andamanders—proba-
bly the lowest of men. The Tahitians when discovered by Cook were found using
none but stoneimplements. Lubbock considers that we have in this people a fair ex-
ample of one living in an age of stone. Now among the remains of the people of the
stone age in Hurope have been found fragments of bone covered with etchings. In
instituting a comparison of the art-products of these two races so far removed in time
and location, yet restricted to the use of the same tools, we find striking contrasts.
The Tahitian was content to repeat indefinitely a simple pattern composed of oblique
lines, zigzags and lozenges, a thing over-wrought and tasteless, without a trace of the
gracefulness of the life-forms which were so abundant about him; while the pre-historic
designer drew what he saw so accurately that his limnings have scientific value.
Prof. OwenS informs us that some of the characters of the horse, employed by zool-
ogists to distinguish this animal from its congeners, to wit: the small pointed ears, the
bushy tail, the beard-like hairs in the stallion, are all faithfully represented in etchings
on bones found in the cavern of Bruniquel. The same authority says that the reindeer
is recognizable among similar pre-historic drawings. See also the deer (Fig. 1).

Surely, while we should make every allowance for the differences in motive, these
two people were far removed in their inclinations as well as their ability to execute.
But how could it be shown which was the more advanced ? In no way we think with
certainty, though conceding the accuracy of the statement, that picture-painting leads
to alphabet making, a tribe early evincing a tendency to copy accurately from nature
possesses a higher capacity for development than another in which such tendency ts
imperfectly manifested.

Many illustrations have been given by travelers of the dullness of perception of
the savage to artistic forms, a defect brought out in strong contrast to the well-known

* History of Conquest of Peru., I, 175.
+ TheMalay Archipelago, A. R. Wallace, New York, 1869, p. 21.
{ Lubbock, Ibid, 1865, 372.

§ Description of the Cavern of Bruniquel and its Organic Remains. Phil. Trans., Lond., 1869, Part IT, 553.
Thid, Part T, 1864. : A it c

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 2833

e

acuteness of observation he shows in the trail, and the remembrance of the human
face. “Of the Alfouras (New Hollanders), Oldfield narrates that on being shown a pic-
ture of one of themselves, one said it was a ship, another a kangaroo, not one in a dozen
identifying the portrait as having any connection with himself.’* Other examples
to the same effect could be quoted. This peculiarity evidently could not apply to the
Indians of the northwest coast of North America, who long before any European in-
fluence was possible among them, produced elaborate carvings of animal forms on
pipes, tent posts and other objects.

Realistic pre-historic design. +

It is highly probable, that a tribe might be proficient in shaping a mass in the
round, and yet be defective in appreciating it in the flat. Wincklemann{ has given it
as his belief, that “art began with the simplest shape and by working in clay, conse-
quently, with a sort of statuary; for even a child can give a certain form to a soft
mass, though unable to paint anything on a surface, because”—he continues, “merely
an idea of an object is sufficient for the former, whereas for the latter much more
knowledge is requisite.” Herbert Spencer§$ would lead us to the opposite conclusion.
He traces the gradual evolution of sculpture from painting, and infers that in advancing
from the rude outline on the wall, rock, or slab of wood or stone to a perfect statue,
the painter has in time became a sculptor. We recall the fable of the Siscyonian
potter’s daughter, who drew her lover’s profile on the wall, and therewith began the
art of sculpture, and wonder whether after all it may not be true. We are in no po-
sition to decide which of the positions cited be the correct one, although we would
not be surprised if both hypotheses prove correct within definite ranges of art-growth.

* Lubbock (/. ¢.), 348.

+ Mortillet Matereaux pour Il’ Histoire de ’ Homme I, 73. Also, Man’s Origin and Destiny. J. P. Lesley, Phila.
1858, 259.

{ Ancient Art, I, 193, Wincklemann. Trans. by G. Henry Lodge, M. D.

$ First Principles, 165. Dr. J. T. Rothrock has informed us that he has actually traced such a transition among

the art-products of the people of the northwest coast of North America, from the interior country westward to the sea.

284 AN ANALYSIS OF TUE

In some parts of the world art may have arisen from the making of clay images, in
others from outline drawings.

Section IV. The Realistic. Without entering into disputations of the origin
of the art-form, it is more to our purpose to analyze those designs which have origi-
nated from models found in nature. The art-record of an autocthonous race—
particularly that including the manner of representing animals and plants—is a fair
subject for study, entirely apart from the origin or meaning of the outlines, or the
bearings they may have on ethnological questions.

It will at once occur to the student that the natural productions of a country be-
ing given, we are in the best position possible to study its art. But such a proposition
can have a very limited application. It is true that with an isolated people the
images must of necessity be confined to the fauna and flora of the surrounding
region; but if we are correct in the statement that a race with whom the artistic
faculties are as yet dormant, who are driven (if we may so express it) to etchings or
paintings by the combined forces of superstition and hunger, will secure but very
general likenesses in their results. We may be satisfied, indeed, if we can assign even
as much as the class to which the animal represented may belong. A fish, a serpent, a
bird, a quadruped—these are seen, and was probably all that was intended. No dis-
tinction could be expected between serpents and serpent-like fishes, or between
cetaceans and fishes. But when the shape is especially striking we are enabled to
identify it more exactly. The kangaroo,* the manatee,; turtle,* shark,* trepang,* and
star fish,* have been repeatedly delineated by savages. Acquaintance with the
remains of more enlightened races, such as the Aztecs, Incarians, Egyptians and
Eastern Asians, yield numbers of highly specialized shapes which can with ease be
assigned to the genus and even to the species intended. In illustration of this remark
we may refer the student to the box-lid of Inearian designing figured by Dupaix.{
Here can be recognized, through the veil of conventionalism shrouding many of the
representations, figures of the lizard, alligator, capuchin monkey, opossum (Fig.
20) and bustard (Fig. 2). The Aztecs|| although less noted for their exactness of
rendition, make the distinction between the tortoise and the turtle ; and are particular
in preserving the carination upon the scales of the rattlesnake. It must be remembered,
however, that this people used the same character to form the shaft of the feather in their

* Lubbock, loc. cit., 847.

+ Prehistoric Man, Danl. Wilson, London, 1862.

¢ Kingsborough Coll., ITV. See also Dupaix, 2, 1, 4; Voy. Pittoresque et Archeologique dans la Province
ad’ Yucatan pendant 1834 et 1836, F. de Waldeck, Paris, 1838, pl. xi.

|| Kingsborough, Ibid. TV, Fig. 23.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 285

Fig. 2. Fig. 3
Cod
Bustard of Incarian design. Didelphian Mammal of Incarian design.

delineations of plumage. Fishes are so well delineated on Chaldean remains, that two
closely allied forms, the carp and the barbel, can be distinguished.* In Egyptian
art, noted for its realistic tendencies, we have animals so truthfully portrayed that
naturalists have been enabled to identify many of them.+ We also find well-
defined realisms in the early stage of Assyrian art.f It is not our purpose to
enumerate the examples of realistic art to be met with in the more familiar monu-
ments of Greece and Rome; but may mention in passing the really fine representa-
tations of crustacea,§ (such as crabs and lobsters) and mollusca,|| in the Pompeian
style.

The figures of animals and plants upon coins are often rendered with great
fidelity. We may direct special attention to the tunny upon Spanish-Roman coins.§]

Palissy, in his Rustic Figulines, gives realistic examples of frogs, fishes, serpents,
ete., while his representations of fossil shells from the Paris beds are so faithful, that.
in many instances the species can be given.** In marked contrast to the average
Polynesian designs may be mentioned the admirable figures of terns, cetaceans, and
sharks, carved on a beam of a hut at Uji, one of the Solomon Group of Islands.++

Section V. The Conventional. (a.) General Remarks. By far the greater
number of designs adopted by man are not of the realistic type. It is a tendency of
the mind to cling to a model when it has been once removed from nature. The entire
fabric of society is made up usages, the origin of which is either forgotten or
ignored. “Ubi homines sunt modi sunt. It is the deepest law of man’s nature ;
whereby man is a craftsman and a ‘ tool-using’ animal; not the slave of impulse.” ft
Since art is in no wise exempt from the operation of such influences, we find

* Rawlinson, Five Ancient Monarchies, I, 107. | Selections from Egyptian Ant. in British Mus., Birch.
+ Botta. Mon. de Ninive, pl. 95, A, fig. 17.

§ Museo Borbonico, Vol. TV, 29; Vol. VI, 388; Vol. XV,

| Agancourt, History of Painting, Tab. 4, fig. 4.

4] Archeeologia.

** Morley’s Life of Palissy, Boston, 1853, I, 202. (Also, Keramic Gallery, Wm. Chatters, I, pl. 60.)

++ Jottings during a Cruise of the Curacoa, Lieut. J. 8. Brenchley, London, 18738, Frontispiece.

tt Carlyle, French Rey., IT, 178. ;

A. P. §.—VOL. XV. 38

286 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

mannerisms early appearing; and persisting to a degree varying with the general
character of the people maintaining them. We have found that primitive people
are realistic in their tendencies; early art being the purest so far as faithful-
ness to the model is concerned. We are informed by Dr. Brinton* (who is speaking
of the construction of language), that ‘fidelity to form is everywhere the test of
excellence.” This must be true of all systems dependent on the purity of types—
whether it be of word-roots or of life forms. It is especially noticeable that nations
just emerging from darkness into the light of civilization, when they have attained
sufficient mastery over their material to satisfactorily produce what they intend, that
their art is more vigorous and truthful than at any subsequent period.t

But in time, the figures are distorted by conventionalities, or encumbered with
the attributes of an obscure symbolism. They no longer reflect the grace of untram-
meled motion, but the formalities of national prejudice. In some phases of art, as for
example that seen in Egypt, it is said development was stunted by the enactment
of rigid laws. But no legal restrictions are needed to fix the customs of workmen.
They are a law unto themselves. It would have been a more difficult task, we be-
lieve, to induce an Egyptian artist of the later dynasties to change his method by
force of law than to restrain him within the familiar limits which had been handed

down to him through many generations.
2 ts)

(b.) Conditions Favoring the Conventional. Glancing at the conditions which
appear to favor the conventional, we find, first, a rapid growth in the arts of design
without a corresponding development of the perceptive powers. Numerous examples
of this fertile course of formalism are met with in Central America and in Budd-
histic India; secondly, the acceptance of a given form as a symbol; thirdly, deca-
dence in art: of the last mentioned we have two varieties, either an abrupt descent
from excellence incident to the influence of the schools, in which the style of the
master is lost in the mannerism of the disciple, or where art becomes tainted by the
whims of uncultured patrons; fourthly, the gratification of the ssthetic sense at the
expense of the form. This is easily derived from the preceding, and is either char-
acteristic of it or is indicative of its approach.

(c.) The Fantastic. Thus when we see a sphinx delineated in the cincquecento
style (it is furnished, let us say, with an enormous tail volute, the basis of which is
the acanthus leaf and stem), we are convinced that the artist has deliberately
deserted his model for one of those “hazardous caprices sure to please.” Equally

* Myths of the New World. D. G. Brinton, M. D., New York, 1868, 8.
+ Layard. Nineveh and its Remains, II, 222. The author makes the same application to Egyptian Art, p. 223.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 287

beautiful is the combination of the man and dolphin, from the ruins at Athens ”*
(Fig. 4), and that of the woman and fish of the popular myth of the mermaid.
We copy a curious figure (Fig. 5) of a mermaid-like outline (possibly its prototype),

which is suggestive of a strictly natural origin of this form.

SS

= SSS

S\

> yy):
Sil " aul
AN

Man-Dolphin, from Athens.

Mermaid-like form, after Richter.

It is easily seen that with the changes incident to the development of an esthetic
taste, conventionalities will present many varieties. With luxurious people they
merge into travesty and caricature, where may be grouped those fantastic figures
derived from Greek symbols, seen in Roman and Etruscan Artt [ Fig. 6].

Fig. 6.
ts » IN
x

USN

Fantastic form of Pompeian design.

* Antiquities of Athens, I, Chap. ix, pl. 22. Jas. Stuart, Lond., 1762.
+ Icthyology, Joh. G. O. Richter. Leipzig, 1754, pl. 1.
t Mus, Borbonio, X, tab. 8.

288 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

(d.) Ethnic significance of the “Fantastic.” Selections of objects for their beauty,
or for their power of effecting fanciful combinations indicate an elevated position of
the people so employing them. Their appearance in the record is evidence of im-
proved facility in execution (hereby implying an advance in the use of implements),
since a primitive people are too much occupied with the vulgar necessities of living
to perpetuate a design for its shape alone.

What is vaguely called “grotesque” and “ fanciful” are often the “reading of our
own ideas into the labors of others.” We may, without violence, assume that a peo-
ple who, while portraying animal and vegetable forms with a conscientious regard to
detail, occasionally produce a beautiful shape of a more or less whimsical character, are
rapidly attaining perfection in design. Were all other evidence wanting to prove the
culture of the Peruvians under the Incas, the single figure of a deer, whose body
furnished with wings terminates in the tail of the dolphin* (Fig. 7), would in our
judgment do much toward re-establishing the claim. The representation of Quet-
zacoatl of Aztect (Fig. 9), in its boldness and grace illustrates the same idea. We
have found the Incarians prone to realisms ; and it is worth while in passing to insti-
tute a comparison between this “ half-civilized ” race, and the Chinese and Japanese.
Both the realistic and the fantastic tendencies of the Incarian is found in the Chinese
art. We find here, copied with slavish fidelity, figures of fishes, birds and mammals,
side by side with monstrous “ grotesques.”

We may say, in conclusion, that, should the above proposition be received, its

application to the study of pre-historic remains may ultimately prove useful.

Fig. 7.

Composite of Incarian Design.

* Kingsbqrough, Coll, Il, Codex Vaticensis, pl. 44.
{| Kingsborough. Dupaix,

t Kingsborough, LY, Dupaix,

LIFE-FORM IN ART 289

Composite of ancient Mediterranean design. (*) Composite of Aztec Design.

(e.) The Grotesque. The grotesque forms, so-called, are always inventions or
rather composites suggested by natural models. They conform to our standard of
what is ugly or bizarre more by accident than intention. Had the conceptions of the
designers of the startling and hideous been in consonance with our own, such forms as
the toad and the bat—those traditional sources of metaphors of the ugly—would be
more frequently seen. But these animals are rare inart. The toad occasionally makes
its appearance in Aztec and Peruvian records, while the bat is met with, so far as we can
recall, but in four instances,y and each of these is simplicity itself compared to the
creations from their own art resources. Had the native Mexican sought in nature
for examples of ugliness, he must have been a poor observer to overlook the Centuriot
(Fig. 10), whose claims to a position among the ugly things of this world must be
conceded

Centurio.

(f.) Tendencies of the Conventional. Let us glanee at some of the common

*Inehrami, If, pl. 138.

+ Galindos, account of Mon. about Lake Yashau, Archzologia, xxv, pl. 60; Kingsborough, IV, Dupaix ; Bollaert,
S. Ant. of A,, 1860, Frontispiece ; Waldeck, F. de. l. c. See also Whipple, q. v., p. 45.

t Voyage of the Sulphur, Mammalia, pl. 7. Brasseur de Bourbourg identifies a profile serpent-head as a bat’s.
See ‘‘ Manuserit Troano,’’ 1859, 209.

290 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

tendencies of conventionalisms before passing to the considerations of the mythie and
symbolic forms.

One of the most common features of conventionalisms is to repeat the normal
lines of the model—the proportions being accurately preserved. We notice this in
Assyrian art, where the tendency to multiply and make prominent the lines of the
muzzle and brow of the lion—their favorite animal—is very noticeable (Fig. 11). Ex-
travagant at best, it becomes eccentric to a degree when applied to other animals (Fig.
12). In the front-faced view of the Egyptian figure* (Fig. 15), we find the entire
space between the eye—and the brow occupied by a number of lines drawn parallel
with the edge of the upper eye-lid, whose multiple they represent. Examples o:
the same tendency exist in some rock markings of North America. As another
example we may refer to a pre-columbian maskt (Fig. 14), where such lines pass
entirely round the eyes and mouth. See also Fig. 1 of the Aztec skull variants, (q. v.)
for multiplication of the malar line.

Full-faced Egyptian head. Pre-Columbian mask, from the Mosquito shore.
* Birch, l. c. + Archeologia, Chas. Rogers, VI, pl. 11, 10%.
t The Mouments of Nineveh. A. H. Layard, Lond., 1829, pl. 10, $ Ibid, pl. 152.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 291

Another, and a very beautiful class of conventionalisms result from an oppo-
site process, viz., by diminishing the number of the lines of the model,—thus pre-
serving all that is essential to the artistic form without violence to nature. ‘The
figures of the torpedo* (Fig. 15) on some of the Greek vases may be mentioned in
this connection. Nothing can be more simple than the lines composing this pleasing
form—yet all the essential parts of the animal have been retained.

Fig. 15.

Torpedo from Greek amphora.

(g.) The Symbol. The most interesting conventionalisms, however, are those
arising from a symbolic basis. The forms of ancient symbolism with which we are
most familiar, are those belonging to the history of the Indo-Germanic branch of the
human race, including some engrafting received from the Chaldean stock.t Since
much of the interest in studying symbols is inextricably connected with the meanings
originally attached to them, we will begin our remarks with the consideration of
one concerning which much is known—the griffin. We made the acquaintance of
this form comparatively late in its development, when it is reasonable to suppose
that it may have undergone many modifications in form, if not in significance.
The griffin has been traced to an Assyrian source,{ whence it appears to have
passed westward to Greece, and southward to Persepolis and Babylon, if indeed it
may not have passed from the latter place primarily. M. Roulin§$ endeavors to
trace the griffin to an Indian origin, and asserts that its natural prototype is the
tapir (1!) (Fig. 16). We are informed by Dennis,|| that the Etruscans symbolized

* Die Gattung Torpedo in ihren naturhistorischen und antiquarischen Beziehungen. J. F. M. y. Olfers, Trans,
Berlin Academy, 18381, pl. 3, fig. 3.

+ Rawlinson, Five An. Monarchies, etc., 1. ¢.

¢ Layard, the Monuments of Nineveh, 1. c.

§ Roulin, M.—Ann. Sci. Naturelles, 1829, vol. XVIII, pl. 5.

) Etruria, I, 220.

292 AN ANALYSIS OF TIE

Fig. 16,

Roulin’s Tapir-Griffin.
destructiveness in the griffin, and that its several parts were representative
of aérial with terrestrial rapacity. After the same manner the hippichthys,
was held to be a union in the flesh of the earth and the sea—an amphibious
art-form denoting a soul in a state of transition. However much the spirit of
speculation may enter into our attempts to interpret such symbols, of this, there
can be no doubt, that many of them in their purer forms clearly expressed complex
ideas.* Ferguson in speaking of the Turanians (7. ¢., the central western Asian
races), remarks: “With them it is not sufficient that a God should be colossal,
he must be symbolical; he must have more arms and legs, more heads, than
common man; he must have wings and attributes of power, or must combine the

99

strength of a lion or a bull with the intellect of humanity.” “ We cannot,” says
Montaigne, “ couple common faculties, such as our own, with the other faculties that
astonish us, and are so far out of our sight. Therefore itis, that we give such savage
form to demons; and who does not give Tamerlane great eyebrows, wide nostrils,
a dreadful face, and a prodigious stature, according to the imagination he has con-
ceived in us, by the report of his name?” Here is the motive which accounts for
much apparent extravagance. As closely allied to the foregoing, may we not find in
the wild and otberwise almost expressionless combinations of the Aztec paintings a
faint meaning suggested by clearer methods? The curious composition of a death’s-
head and insect might resolve itself into a symbol of the leaf-devouring locust.

(Big. 17).

Composite of Aztec design.

* Hist. of Architecture, Ferguson, I, 51. + Codex Viennensis, Kingsborough Coll., pl. 1.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 293

The hypothesis of Ehrenberg* that the Sphinx-head was derived from that of the
baboon is ingenious if not in full harmony with the theory of Birch; that this mystic
form is of Indian origin—and is part of the primeval stock of “dzemons of terrific
form, who roam as bears and lions through the vast forest, or rest in the mountain’s
caverned sides.” The figure of a leonine monster, common among Chinese wood-
carving, is undoubtedly a lion, as can be seen by comparing it with the Sinhas of
the Hindoo-Buddhistic ornament. It is a noteworthy fact that the flank of this image
is marked by a stellated figure, almost identical with an ornament similarly placed
in the Hindoo Sinhas, in the Assyrian lion (Layard, pl. 131), in the Moslem animal
figures (Murray, xlviii), and in the Egyptian lion (Lepsius, A, vol. IT, pl. 89).

(h.) The Zoo-Myth. Jt would be an error to suppose, however, that ‘“ monsters,”
either by addition of parts like unto themselves, or of combinations of diverse natures,
are of necessity symbolical. Many of these have doubtless originated. through miscon-
ception of the shapes of little known animals.

What we may term fabulous animals in the proper sense of that term, that is
those drawn up from fabulous accounts,—may be placed in this division of conven-
tionalisms. We can readily explain their appearance in art by one word—ignorance.

A migrating people no longer content with the products of their own land, and
endeavoring to secure advantages by incursions into another, would naturally
encounter many novel forms of life. The more striking of these would be accredited
to the miraculous or the monstrous. Shapes when thus once established, might
persist for an indefinite time and serve in their turn to furnish models for yet another
series. When we recall the narrow limits which sometimes separate faunz, as for
example the deep channel of but fifteen miles in width, which flows between the
islands of Bali and Lombok, and serving as the boundary between the Indo-Malayan
and the Austro-Malayan faune,{ or what is better known, though less distinctive,
the narrow Dardanelles, which divide the Asian from the Mediterranean life,—it is a
matter of surprise that figures of exotic forms are not more frequently seen in the
primitive art record.

What will apply to the invader is true of the invaded, conceding of course that
a people thus encountered, is sufficiently advanced to embrace the opportunity of
enriching its own designs. In an HEsquimaux drawing in the National Museum of
Washington, we find recognizable figures of the reindeer, along side of a monstrous
outline significant of nothing that is on the face of the earth, or in the waters under

* Ueber den Gynocephalus und den Sphinx der Egyptien, ete., Trans. Berlin Acad., 1834.

+ Birch, Egyptian Antiq., I, 226.

+ The Malayan Archipelago, Wallace, 45,

A. P. §.—VOL. XV. 3T.

294. AN ANALYSIS OF THE

the earth. Lubbock,* in speaking of similar outlines, ascribes their origin, very
happily we think, to the figure-head of some vessel which had been seen by the
native artist.

The ship itself may become a part of the mythic system, if we are to credit
the following,—which is thought to refer to the first remembered appearance in
the Euphrates, of ships from a civilized country, and of the introduction into
Chaldea of the arts of civilizied life:t ‘In the first year there appeared an animal
destitute of reason, by name Oannes, whose whole body was that of a fish with
feet also similar to those of a man.*** This being was accustomed to pass the day
among men, * * * and when the sun was set “ * * retired again to the sea, and passed
the night in the deep.” We have abundant evidence that ships have at all times
impressed coast-haunting tribes with wonder. The Aztecs called the vessels of
Cortez “ water-houses,” and faithfully recorded after their fashion, every particular
concerning them.§

As an illustration of the difficulty encountered by an artist in representing an
object with which he is not familiar, we may cite the following :

It is well known] that when the Spaniards under Cortes landed on the coast of
Mexico, they were subjected to delays prior to their march to the capital. During
this time some of the natives hovering about the invaders, were observed sketching.
Fac-similes of these drawings are to be found in the Kingsborough Collec-
tion.4] We find among them figures of the soldiers, priests, ships, horses, ete.
The artists had apparently no difficulty in representing the warrior and the priest, for
they differed from their own people only in color and costume. But the horse had
evidently puzzled them. It was a novel shape, and their conventional lines were not
mobile enough to receive it. It was natural, under the circumstances for them to
represent it as a puma (Fig. 19), for this figure they had repeatedly drawn. This
puma-headed horse might well have stood for some such expression as the following,
had written language been employed: ‘The soldiers are in part mounted upon -
strange animals, whose necks and tails are furnished with long hair, and whose single
toe-nail of each foot is encased in a stone-like shoe.” Afterward the horse was more

* Prehistoric Times, p. 570, new edition.

{ Prehistoric Nations, Baldwin, p. 186.

{ Conquest of Mexico, Prescott, I, 304.

§ Sir Walter Raleigh, following the prevalent belief of his times, thought that dog-headed men inhabited E1
Dorado, 7. ¢., the Valley of the Amazon. Humboldt says of this statement, ‘that it was a gigantic lie.”’ Kingsley
(Miscellanies, Ticknor & Fields, 1859, p. 81) remarks that they were probably Indians, wearing animal masks,

probably from the Aguara-head.

| Conquest of Peru, Prescott, I, 304, { Codex Reminensis, pl. 32¢

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 295

a SS

75
DUS,

Mounted Spaniards of Aztec Design.

accurately drawn (Fig. 20).* Now let it be supposed that the Spaniard immediately
after this incursion had withdrawn from the coast—is it not possible that the puma-
headed figure would have passed into the traditions of the Aztecs as a fabulous visi-
tor? Nor is it asserting too much to say that under similar circumstances a Centaur-
like myth might have thus sprung into existence ; for we are told that the horse ex-
cited great alarm in the minds of the Peruvians upon witnessing the Spanish cavalry
dismount ; “these simple people thinking that the rider and the horse were one.”

(.) The Errors of Naturalists in depicting Animals. In proof of the manner
in which figures of exotic animals may undergo modifications, even when drawn for
zoological purposes, we may allude to the history of the Walrus as given by Grayt

(Fig. 21). Surely this figure is no more than the merest dream-portrait of Z'rechetus,
Fig. 21.

7 Saws
SOFA
een

Figure of Walrus, after Olans Magnus.

yet it was at one time, no doubt, a fair diagrammatic expression of what was
known of its proportions.
Pare$ has given us an illustration of a combat between an elephant and

* Codex Bodleian, Kingsborough Coll, pl. 41.
+ Conquest of Peru, Prescott, I, 254.
+ Attitudes and Figures of the Morse, J. E, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. of Lond, 1853, p. 112.

& The works of that famous chirurgeon, Ambroise Pare, (Trans.) London, 1649, p. 40.

296 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

a rhinoceros. The animals are placed in most amusing attitudes. The elephant
with tusks pointing upward as in the above figure of the walrus, advances with
lowering head, using his proboscis as a weapon of offense.

The description and figure of the opossum* (as we interpret it) given by the

Didelphian Mammal from Incarian design.

same writer, is worth mentioning in this connection. The absurdity of the elaborate
figure of Gesner, from whom Pare quotes, is only equaled by the fidelity to the
idea preserved in the rude and unembellished outline (Fig. 22), of the opposum-like
animal drawn by a native artist. One of the most curious of all mal-constructions
is found in Aldrovandus.t It is the figure of a saw-fish, given as a cetacean, with
the saw in the position of a horn projecting forward from the middle of the head
(Fig. 23). It is an easy task to explain these absurdities. They are all dependent
Fig. 23.

5

\

7
ZA \
AN

>,
o,

SSeS
Soe

: PD Why,r
CHWS

STS

Be es
COATES

ih

Ah ok .)
‘ ae SN . nN

i,

CE MIN
Figure of Saw-Fish, after Aldvovandus.
upon attempts either to reconstruct an entire figure from a fragment,—or in endow-

* Kingsborough Coll., TV, (Dupaix), (Inearian box-lid.)

+ Aldrovandus, Pisces, p. 695,

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 297

ing an animal which is of unknown habits with functions in harmony with those
familiar to the writer. The walrus and elephant tusks, and the saw-fish’s maxillee
doubtless found their way to Huropean museums long before the illiterate traders
who brought them, could give any other accounts than those into which their
imagination largely entered. The naturalist would draw the tusks of the walrus
and elephant in the position of the wild boar, the only animal he had ever seen which
possessed such appendages.

Akin to the above are the numerous examples which crowd the zoological
record of errors of identification of actual forms. For the explanation of the fact
that Aldrovandus* described the shriveled skin of a plagiostomatous fish as the
remains of a dragon (Fig. 24), we have only to look over the distorted specimens

Zit SW

Z ig {|
Cn

At

Figure of Ray, after Aldrovandus.

of every ichthyological cabinet. We could fill many pages with this kind of illus-
tration, but will content ourselves with referring to one of the most curious of them.
Leibnitz, who was gifted with a marvelous intellect in which it has been said,
“mathematics and moral philosophy, history and philology for the first time found a
common seat,” was so far led astray as to describe the bones of a rhinoceros as those
of a unicorn, and to attempt to restore them in normal position (Fig. 25). The
tusk in this figure evidently did not belong to the rest of the skeleton. ‘‘ This skele-

99

ton of the unicorn was found,” says he, “ with the hind part of the body reclining as

is usual with animals, but the head elevated, bearing on the front a long extended

horn of nearly five cubits, of the thickness of the leg of a man.’+ That a fossil

unicorn had existed in past times, when, in common with all cotemporaries, the

author believed that a unicorn was to be found in Abyssinia, was after all a natural
* Aldroyandus, Pisces, 316.

+ Physieam Generalem, Chymiam, Medicam, Botan, Ilistor, Natur. ete., 1778.

298 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 25.

A restoration of the Unicorn, after Leibnitz.
inference. . It is the first step that costs ; once having accepted the existence of the
unicorn, the rest was easy.

Even when an actual animal is described,—often figuratively, never faultlessly,
—is there not a wide margin left for error to roam over? Inascientific sense, the hip-
popotamus described by Herodotus,* as having the hoof of an ox, and the mane and
tail of a horse, is of course absurd; in an artistic sense, a quadruped thus hoofed and
maned would be simply monstrous. The intention of Herodotus to convey the notion
that the hippopotamus was an animal combining ox and horse-like characters was cer-
tainly successfully carried out by the use of figurative expressions, which, so far
from suggesting a portrait of the creature itself, would directly mislead.+

* Swayne’s Herodotus, 50.
+ There is a curious example of this kind of misinterpretation in Retsch’s outline drawings of Goethe’s Faust. In
the first scene with Mephistopholes a poodle (which contains, asa ‘‘nucleus,’’? the essence of the demon) undergoes

transformation,
“Faust. Er hebt sich mit Gewalt !

Das ist nicht eines Hundes Gestalt /
Welch ein Gespenst bracht’ ich ins Haus !
Schon sieht er wie ein Nilpferd aus,
Mit feurigen Augen, schrecklichem Gebiss.’’
Retsch draws as appearing before the eyes of the astonished Faust, not a hippopotamus, (Nilpferd) but an

CHOMNOUS poodle.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 299

Section VI. Zhe Dragon. The myths which have been grouped under the
name of “dragon,” are of such diverse character, and have been through so many
ages associated with popular fancies, that we have thought it of interest to give some
account of its possible origin and meaning.

The Asiatic dragon is evidently a very different form from the European. At
least the “fabulous animal” of Chinese and Japanese ornament, is based apparently
on the salamander type of body, with bird-like feet. This is well shown in recent
examples of this design upon Japanese bronzes. The heads are more nondescript,
and are furnished with some piscine characters, such as barbels, and an outline sug-
gesting the catfish-like fishes found in the waters about Japan. The early form of
the European dragon, according to Aldrovandus (J. ¢.), is probably based upon the
lizard type. It is scaled, and has a well-marked lacertilian body, and, it may be a
mammalian head. The tail and neck are often those of a serpent. The artistic
interpretation of the dragon varies from the realistic forms of Durer, who, in his St.
George, favors us with a very fair zoological figure of a lizard, through the humanized
bat-winged outlines of Giotto, to the curious compound of owl and serpent of Lucas vy.
Leyden, and the equally odd combination of man and insect of Martin Schcen. 'There
is no doubt that much of this kind of work is purely whimsical. It is quite impossi-
ble to surmise with any nearness to truth what the models were like from which they
sprung. ‘he combination of parts sometimes suggests that rapacity was always in-
tended ; and at least in the latter forms of the myth it has been the symbol of oppres-
sion and cruelty.

In a very curious pamphlet* preserved in the library of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, an elaborate effort is made to prove that the dragon was
extant at the latter part of the last century. From a vast amount of evidence the
author favors us with the following description of this animal: “The dragon is from
eight to nine feet long, rarely more. Its color varies ; commonly red, it is at times of
a black or ash color. The heads of some individuals are crested, and the jaws are
furnished with sharp teeth. ‘he mouth can be opened to an extraordinary extent.
The wings, which are without feathers and resemble those of a bat, maintain flight
with some difficulty. The body is covered with scales of such strength that they
have resisted balls. The strength of the dragon is such it can engage the eagle and
the elephant to advantage. The tailis no less feared than its mortal bite. It is used
with success in squeezing the prey, or striking it when thrown to the ground.”

The congruity of parts expressed in such a creature, which is “ neither fish, flesh,
fowl, nor good red herring,” was probably prominent with those who have a lingering

* On the History of the Dragon. C. I. M. Dorfeuille.

300 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

belief that the origin of the dragon is to be found in the remnants of the paleozoic world

> in the language of Thackaray, “mighty monsters floundered through the

“‘ where,’
ooze—and dragons darted out of the caves and waters before man was made to slay
them.”* Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, the well-known scientific artist, entertains the be-
lief that the dragon is a reminiscence of an extinct reptilian shape, noticeably the
Pterodactylian type. We cannot agree with him in such a conclusion. The form or
the dragon is not a fixed one, and its varieties can better be accounted for by reference
to familiar models than in seeking figures among such absolute novelties. Amid all
the combinations making the dragon, the idea is cramped and limited. He is a mere
piece of of patch-work—a monster by addition—each portion, when dissected, turns
out to be an old acquaintance—here a bird-foot, there an owl’s head, or a serpent’s tail.
Indeed who could expect man to have reconstructed to such suggestive forms the im-
pression of a Pterodactyl, possibly received from a fossil! Surely after the blunder of a
Leibnitz, we may well declare the average man of the Middle Ages, if not of an earlier
time, disqualified to testify on such a topic. To say that by coincidence man may
have invented a “fabulous creature” like unto those that have lived in the past, is to
make an assertion which cannot be supported. Man has never invented a single artistic
figure. He has analyzed and infinitely re-arranged the integers of organic form,
but he has never in all his vagaries or in his groupings after truth struck out a new
form.

fos)
il

Fig.

22
Os NC ee S:
DS S Se a. yen

SSF yi
SS P= inno,

Wy

Dragon, after Aldrovandus.

*Prof. E. D. Cope (Synop. of the Batrach. and Reptilia of N. A. Trans. Philo. Soc., Phila., 1870, 182) remarks
that the ‘‘restored figure of Mosasaurus is not badly represented by old Pontoppidan’s figure of his sea-serpent, and that
in this group of reptiles we almost realize the fictions of snake-like dragons an] se2-serpents in which men have been
ever prone to indulge.’’

LIFE-FORM IN ART, 301

PAA le
Tun Srupy or VARIANTS.

Secorion I. General Remarks. Mr. Tylor in his work on Primitive Culture has
treated of the several articles composing the armamentarium of early man as species.
Thus the hatchet is a species, so are bows, arrows, etc. We have taken a hint from
this and believe it to be instructive to call the forms of life of the art-record “ species.”
The range within which they are encountered may be termed the limits of distribu-
tion, and the forms in this way included, as the faunz or flore respectively. The
Asio-European lion, for example, has a distribution from Chaldea to Western Europe.
Its varieties have established themselves along the route of man’s migration and are
seen to vary in style from the Chaldean to that of the modern stone-cutter. It is
convenient to push the comparison between an archeological and a zoological pro-
cess yet farther and name the ways by which a given species: may be represented
as variants of that species, adopting a term already employed by Bunsen in his re-
searches among the Egyptian ideographs, and by Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg
among the Aztec.

This history of an art-species is in some cases almost as definite as that of the people
of whose remains it constitutes a part. It is evident, therefore, that the study of variants
should go hand in hand with chronology. With it, we can trace with ease their muta-
tions and prove the order of their succession; without it—the premises falsely as-
sumed—imagination may select the forms and specious reasoning determine their
positions.

But are we on that account to restrict our studies to cultured races ? No, if we can
find standards of comparison among the forms themselves ; and as the zoologist seeks
for standards by which to classify living objects, so the student of art, we hope to
show, can secure in the art remains of a given people certain types of construction.
These may be in-harmony with chronology ; and if so, their value is doubtless in-
creased. But even without this aid we believe they can be made interesting. In
proportion as the material for the elimination of such types is more or less complete,
so will the types themselves be more or less accurate, a conclusion agai in exact
harmony with the results of the naturalists’ method. Ina word we propose to study
the animal form in art as though it were a natural form, employing chronology, when
we can, as an accessory of acknowledged value.

In studying variants we propose the use of the following terms :

The primitive designs found in painting, ete., we term primals.

INo 125 SL—S\VOy SAMs OOH

302 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

The final forms resulting from a series of variants starting with the primals we
term ultemates. By divergence of variants from the primal stock (one to the letter
type, and the other to the realistic) we must have to every primal two ultimate forms.

By a radical is meant that figure which preserves the essential lines of a natural
series of variants. It is best seen in forms leading to an ideographic system. The diffi-
culty of distinguishing a primal from the equally naked and unsuggestive letter-ulti-
mate is apparent, and without aid from another source is often impossible.

Radicals will necessarily vary according to the method of execution. The parts
which are produced with the greatest ease are naturally those which persist in the
process of reducing a complex form to its simplest expression. In drawing, stress will
be laid on the lines; in moulding, the lines will be subordinated to the general figure,
as shaped by the figures. The picture radicals will thus differ from fictile radicals, as
also will architectural and numismatic radicals. Neither should it be forgotten that
to the females of many tribes has the work been allotted of ornamenting the pottery
and other articles, while the recording of exploits, etc., has been reserved to the males.

In presenting a number of variants from a few types of life we propose the follow-
ing method :

A radical will be taken, which has been developed through many variations from,
a primal form. The time required to have accomplished this is, in every instance,
unknown. We must assume from what we see in the art of savages that in figure-mak-
ing,as in everything else of man’s creation, there has been an ever-active though gradual
process of evolution at work; and that in the primals of an art series this has but
begun. Neither can we form any idea from contemplating the ultimate expressions
of forms belonging to old and cultured races what their crude primals may have been.
Such imperfections of the art-record compel us to take the radical as it is presented
and trace from this the most probable ultimate rather than to take the ultimate and
trace it back to its radical.

Let us accept A to be a primal, and B an ultimate, and Ca radical. We cannot

conceive the Egyptian lion at B, to have sprung at once into a realistic ultimate,
but rather that it has been evolved from the unknown primal at A. And we infer
that C is a letter-type abridgment of B, a descent from the completeness of the

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 303

artistic figure, but nevertheless a sequence of it. The natural order of the compari-
son would be from B to C, the chronology being given. But we think it may prove
more interesting in reviewing the entire range of art—in many portions of which we
have no literary complement —to present the problem and seek the solution rather
than to give the solution and create the problem.

From the study of variants, the following conclusions may be drawn:

(1.) That the conditions determining the forms of variants must be exceedingly
diverse. A full series may be confined within the space of a sheet of manuscript—
as is often the case in the Dresden Codex, or (as may be seen) in the ornamentation
of a batch of earthen pots of the same baking. On the other hand, a series may
extend through the entire art-range of a given people—and taken many years to have
completed.

(2.) That it is necessary to remember that in some phases of variants, a single
feature will be selected from a complex form and serve as the basis of a distinct series
of changes. Thus the curve of the open mouth of the serpent seen in profile, and the
rattle at the end of its tail, are often dismembered from the rest of the trunk, as
though they were parts of a mosaic, and allowed to exist separately. The occurence
of this dismemberment proves that the type is not concrete. One cannot imagine
the Egyptian sign SC (priest) being rendered by either or S) for one
is as essential to / =) the other as a cross is t» the ee letter,é,
When, in speaking of a form, like the genus Hydra, which permits self-division,
a likelihood exists of the severed parts surviving, a low type of organization is
thereby implied.

(3.) As one in studying the water-lily, finds the petals gradually turning into
stamens as he passes in observation from the margin to the centre of the flower, so
we find strange transitions occuring in the many-times repeated objects of early art ;
transitions so strange that unless we carefully observe them we would haye declared
them to be improbable.

(4.) In Aztec design so vast is the labyrinth of shifting form, so slight the
thread of consistency that guides us through it, so cumbersome, whimsical and
tasteless, is much of its ornament, that it is no wonder that we are occasionally
puzzled, and sometimes defeated in our attempts to identify its objects. The outline
for example, may stand for a human leg, a hand, and a human face seen in
profile. In some instances we have been unable to name outlines, and guessed
only at others. The latter we have withheld from the series illustrating Aztec
design, and can conscientiously say of such what Prescott* would say of the whole,

* Conquest of Mexico, T, 104.

304 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

that “the fantastic forms of hieroglyphic symbols may afford analogies for almost
anything.”

Associated variants of parrot, Dresden Codex.

(5.) The often repeated signs of apparently the same value, so common in Aztec
art, must express a repetition of the same idea. Were it otherwise, the ideographs
would degenerate into the figures of a pattern. We must acknowledge that repeti-
tion is often a law of force. Such expressions as “ Hail, hail, hail, Macbeth!” and
“Holy, holy, holy, art thou Lord of Hosts!” are strengthenings,—the result of unions
of simple factors. After the same method the parrot-head sign fe of the Dresden
Codex is emphasized by -<@=1 as though the meaning were : a “Great, great,
is this symbol.” But in a zoological sense repetition of similar parts—or, as
it is technically termed, “ vegetative repetition,’—is an evidence of low organiza-
tion. An idea when repeated through its symbol is thereby emphasized, but when a
form or part of a form not symbolic, is repeated, it remains the same, or exists with
impaired vitality. Should this reflection prove true, we may determine the value
of certain variants by their positions and number as well as by their form.

Before entering upon the subject of variants, a series of ultimates may be sought
for among the higher phases of art-portraiture, the members of which may be termed
“types.” Thus the following ultimate forms of lion-heads of Asia, Egypt and

Europe, are presented as art-types, many of which have never sat as models for
lineal abridgments, or radicals.

The full-faced Lion Head with muzzle lines. This series is designed to exhibit the
style of lion-head marked by pronounced labiate or muzzle lines.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 305

LioN WITH MUZZLE LINES.
Fig. 28. (4) Fig. 29. (4)

Roman. _ Roman.
Fig. 30. ($) Fiv. 31. (|) Fig. 33. (**)

Etruscan. Greek. Egyptian. Egyptian.
Fig. 34. (+4) Fig. 30. (4) Fig. 36. ($$)
—

Assyrian. Assyrian. Persian.

* From a Roman sarcophagus.

+ From an Etruscan bronze at the Campodoglio.

t Mus. Borbonico, VIII, tab. 61.

§ L’ Italie avant la domination des Romains, M. J. Micali, Paris, 182¢, pl. 92, 2.
| Mus. Borbonico, LXII, fig. 2.

4, Hirt. Trans. Ber. Acad., 1821, pl. 4, fig. 35.

** Birch Selections of Egyptian Art in British Museum.

++ Botta, Monuments de Ninive, IV, pl. 151.

t{ Botta, Monuments de Ninive, IT, pl. 47.

$$ Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse, pl. 102.

306 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

(4

The Profile Lion Head, Ina series of profile heads confined to Western Asia,
it is probable that Fig. 87 was derived by abridgment from a model such as Fig. 41,
or even 42, permitting Fig. 40, an Etruscan form, to come between. The pertinence of
an Etruscan outline in a series of this kind, may be doubted by many. Is the
resemblance between these heads any less exact than between many figures of
Etruscan and Persian, and even Mesopotamian art, as seen in Micali and Lajard ?

Fig. 42. (4)

Fig. 37.(®) Fig. 88. (}) Fig. 39. ()) Fig. 40. (8) Fig. 41. (|)

VAS
=

In a second series of profile heads selected from Persian and Etrurian sources,

we hope that the order of the figures, and the references at the bottom of the page

will serve for sufficient explanation. It is highly instructive that the ultimate (lig.

49) is the source of the abridgment (Fig. 43). At first sight, it would appear absurd

to associate a Persian outline with another in Etruria. But a comparison between

many figures of Inghrami, Micali and Lajard, must convince the observer that more
than a superficial resemblance exist between Persian and Etruscan figures, however,
the historian may explain it. And we assume from what we have seen in the
lion heads (Figs. 28 and 50), as well as from the series to be presented, that the art-

forms of Etruria were moulded upon types which originated in Asia and Egypt.

* Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Babylonia, &c., Sir R. K. Porter, Lond., 1821, opp., p. 424.

+ Culte de Mithr, F. Lajard, pl. 37.

t Lajard, .¢., pl. 25, fig. 6.

& Micali, J. ¢., pl. 24.

| Rawliuson, Anc. Mon., U. ¢., ITT, 334,

{ Layard, U.:c.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 307

Fig. 43. (*) Fig. 44. (+) Fig. 45. (t) Fig. 46. (8)

Fig. 47. (|) Fig. 48. ({]) Fig. 49. (#*)

The transition is from hair-tuft 43 to Fig. 46, and from that to the horn of
unicorn-like figures, Fig. 47 to 49.

The Greek Lion-Head. It is very evident from the above groupings of lion-
heads, both full-faced and profile, that it would be a difficult matter to select any one
head from the forms of a given art-fauna and proclaim for it representative features.
Thorwaldsen, we are informed by his biographer, M. Theile, in modeling the lion-
head for the Lucerne monument, carefully studied the antique form and the modern
styles derived thence. (Fig. 50.) In another design of the same animal he as

* Lajard, J. c., pl. 27.

+ Lajard, J. ¢., pl. 19.

¢ Flandin et Coste, Voyage en Perse, Paris, 1844, pl. 69.
§ An. Mon., Rawlinson.

|| Lajard, 0. ¢., pl. 48.

{ Lajard, 7. ¢., pl. 12.

** Inghram’, J, ¢., II, pl. 128.

308 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Thorwaldsen’s lion, after the antique. Thorwaldsen’s lion from nature.

carefully studied the natural model. (Fig. 51.) These two heads, therefore, are

very fair examples of a conventionalized and natural art-form. The distinctions pre-
sented in the two figures are so great that comment is unncessary. We allude to

the subject to contrast Thorwaldsen’s conception of the antique head with that of
Ruskin’s.. (Wig. 52.)

Fig. 54. (|)

Modern Lion-head. Lion-head, after Caylus. Lion-head, after Hamilton,

This critic claims for Fig.52 (to condemn it), that it represents a modern conven-
tionalized lion-head treated after the Greek method. It surely belongs to the variety
of the lion without muzzle lines which is not the typical Greek head, but rather an
aberrant expression not often seen (Fig. 53), and is best marked: on the vases
—the source perhaps of the “ reconstruction,” criticised by Mr. Ruskin.

Tor PaumM-TREE.

Section II. The Palm-Tree. The palm-tree is one of the most conspicuous
figures in the art of Western Asia, and the countries bordering upon the Medi-

* Thorwaldsen and his works, edited by J. M. Theile, Trans. by Sindling, N. Y., 1869, IT, pl. 108.

+Ibid, II, pl. 158.

{ Lectures on Art and Painting, John Raskin, 1834, pl. 11, fig. 18.

$ Recueil d’ Antig. Egyptienne, Estrusques, Greques, et. Romaines, Caylus, Paris, 1761-67, I, pl. 56.

| Hamilton, Sir W. A collection of Etruscan, Greek and Roman Antiquities, London, 1797.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 309

terranean Sea. Among the variants we have ventured to assign to this origin, there
are at least six, which at first sight have no connection with one another :

Fig. 55.
AE Ne ree ‘
NX ae

AC BG Cs.) DiG) E. ({) F. (1)

(A.) The Sacred Tree of Assyria.

The first is seen upon the head-dress of Babylonian figures, and would appear

from the following sequence to be a miniature representation of the Assyrian Sacred
Tree.

Fig. 56. (**) Fig. 57. (tt) Fig 58. (tt) Fig. 59. (§§)

iB fA

(B.) The Palm-Tree proper.

The second is a figure of the entire tree found upon a cylinder and securing for
us through two variants, an origin in the conventional palm of Persia.

* From dress of Babylonian king, Rawlinson, Five An. Monarchies, ITI, 400.
_ + From Babylonian cylinder, Sabzean Researches, John Landseer, Lond. 1823.

¢ Egyptian hieroglyphic ‘‘ Bunch of Dates,’ Bunsen, I, 521. This figure has not been faithfully rendered, In
the main features, however, it is correct.

§ Persian figure upon coin. Wilson, Antiquities and Coins of Afghanistan, pl. 15, f. 28. The central shaft
should unite all the transverse pieces. Prof. Lesley believes this to be of Egyptian origin.

|| Greek honeysuckle ornament. Hope’s Ancient Costumes, I, 72.

{| Ornament upon Etruscan tablet. Dennis, Etruria, I, 52.

**_++ Same as fig. 1, from lower border of the king’s dress.

t+ From Layard, J. c., Rawlinson, ibid., II, 235.

$$ The Assyrian Sacred Tree, Layard, Nineveh and its Remains, IT, 233.
A. P, S.—VOL. XV. 3V.

310 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 60...) s Fig. 61. (tH)

(C.) The ‘‘ Bunch of Dates.”’

The therd bears in many respects resemblance to the above figures. It, how-
ever, is from an Egyptian source. It stands alone; no forms intervening be-
tween it and the Mesopotamian model aid us in its identification. Chronology
here comes to our assistance. It is described by Bunsen as the bunch of dates.

(D.) The Greco-Persian Palm.
In the fourth, found upon a Persian tomb, we have an ultimate which may have
originated in the transverse lines of Fig. 61. Development of this feature of the

palm-tree illustration is conspicuously seen in Fig. 64; also of a Persian source,
Fig. 65. (J)

Fig. 68. (§) Fig. 64. (|)

acquaintance with which introduces us to the elaborate and characteristic ornament
of ancient Persia, Fig. 65, where the model is much disguised by Greek accessories.
It is interesting to notice that this development, based as it is upon the acanthus leaf

* Same as B. Fig. 55 (enlarged).

+ Persian palm-tree. Rawlinson, ibid., III, 842. See also Rawlinson I, 433.

{Persian palm-tree. Rawlinson, ibid., 1V, 322.

§ Wilson, J. c.

| From Persian ornamentation. Travels in Persia, Porter.

{] [bid., pl. 62. For the sake of convenience, but one half (the left) of this symmetrical design has been figured.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 311

and bud, is here engrafted upon a purely Eastern stock, and yet preserving a curious
mimetic relationship with the florid leaf and vine design so common in our own
decorations, and which, as is well known, is almost exclusively of acanthian origin.

The remaining ultimates, fifth and sixth, find their respective models as por-
tions only of the conventionalized palm. Thus the objects of Fig. 65 are derivative
of the foliage of the Assyrian palm, while those from 65 to 73 inclusive are obtained
from the so-called “ram’s horn” of the Assyrian Sacred Tree.

(E.) The ‘‘ Honeysuckle.”’

Fig. 66.
a \\|Z
(*) (t) (t) ($) aD)
(7)
a, transverse bands ; b, 6, **ram’s horn ;” C, YAys 5 d, base of rays.

The first four of these outlines are examples of the honeysuckle ornament which
is so largely represented upon articles of Greek workmanship, and from these copied
into later European art. No one design is more frequently seen. Under many
graceful modifications we meet with it over our door-ways and upon the cornices of
our dwellings and public buildings. It enters into our patterns of woven stuffs and
wall papers. It is well nigh the universal basis for symmetrical design. One of the
most striking of its modifications is the shell and acorn ornament abundantly used by
Michel Angelo, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at Rome.

We are indebted to Layard** for our knowledge of the influence exerted upon
Greek design by the Assyrian monuments. According to this writer, the “similarity
between the Assyrian and Greek ornament is not accidental. * * * It seems to be
proved beyond a question, by the alternation of the lotus or tulip,++ whatever this
flower may be, with the honeysuckle. * * * The same ornament occurs in India on
a lath erected by Asoka, at Allahabad (about B. C. 250); but whether introduced
by the Greeks—which, from the date of the erection of the monument, shortly after
the Macedonian invasion, is not improbable—or whether derived from another source,

I cannot venture to decide.”

*Ormament on cuirass, Hope’s Anc. Cost., I, pl. 72. | Layard, from Allahabad. J. ¢., 232
} Ibid., I, pl. 75. “| Rawlinson, J. c.
¢ Layard, Nineveh and its Remains, II, 231, ** Layard, J. c., IL, 282.

§ Ibid., II, 231. ++ We have ventured to call this caliciform.

312 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

(F.) The “ Ram’s Horn.” While found together with much that is of Greek
origin in Etruria, the honeysuckle variant of the palm is less frequently determined
than that of the figure of the ram’s horn. The point of greatest constancy here
presented is the transverse band uniting a pair of horns which are so arranged that
their convexities are opposed. In the model 4] Fig. 66, this is conspicuous. In Figure
69 a single band is seen, as is also the case in the simple forms, Figures 67 and 68.
The upper and lower portions of the horn-like figures are given in the last two of
these ; but the upper half of the design is absent in Figure 67.

Fig. 67. (*) Fig. 68. (+) Fig. 69. (4) Fig. 70. (S) Fig. 71. (|)
Sy G

Wigs fe C1) Fig. 73. @*)

ten man IM Ge ZA
} j

) ! iy J \\

WY z FH

The lettering of Figs. 68 to 75 to be same as {| Fig. 66.
* Dennis, Etruria, I, 52.
{+ Dennis, Etruria, I, 52.
t Dennis, Etruria, 1, 52.
§ Micali, 0. ¢., pl. 73.
| Micali, 7. ¢., pl. 28.
“| From ornament found at Praeneste. R. Garrucci, Archeologia, XLI, pl. 10, 206.
** Bone spoon found in Isis tomb. Dennis, Etruria, I, 424.
t+ Ornament upon the head-dress of lion, found at Praeneste. R. Garrucci, Archeeologia, LXI, pl. 5, 206.
tt Ibid., with Fig. 21.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 313

Figure 76 might also represent the lower half of either this (Fig. 70) or the one
following, Figure 71. But here we are forced to remember the shape of the calici-
form design found at Allahabad, Fig. 77, more particularly since no connecting

band is seen in Figure 76.
Bi geatite

N17

vy

Were the Asiatic model ever represented as duplicated above and below a given plane,
which would thus serve as a base for both, we would feel inclined to refer Figure 70
to such. The absence of this band is in our judgment sufficient to prevent such
reference. Were further defence of the position we have taken necessary, we could
refer to the bisected ram’s horn at base of Figure 58, which is almost an exact
inverted counterpart of ultimate F. Fig. 55.

We conceive that the continuous ornament presenting the palm-tree foliage, so
frequently met with in the remains at Nineveh, (Fig. 78,) is composed of the pro-
duced crescents of the ram’s-horn figure turned upward from the vertical to a more
horizontal position, while the upper of the three bands is alone retained.

In another variety of this ornament found at the same locality, we find that the
fruit branches have been selected to give emphasis to the design. Thus Figure 79

is complete without the ram’s horn appearing in any guise.
Now it is highly probable, judging from the designs here selected, that the
Greeks choose for their continuous ornamentation (Fig. 80) the latter of these,

314 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

viz., the fruit branches, while the Etruscans favored the former, viz., the ram’s horn.
(See especially Figs. 72 and 73.) In the first of these the larger crescents are appa-
rently derived from an Asiatic source, while the smaller would claim for themselves

a Greek origin.

Section III. The Serpent. We have abundant evidence that the serpent
is an universal object of design with rude people, and a frequent one with advanced
races. For consideration of this interesting subject we would refer the reader to the
works mentioned below.* ‘The radicals we have selected have been met with among
the monuments of Central America and Peru. The motive which we assign to the
artists of these countries for reproducing so frequently the ophidian shapes is easily
found in their religion. Prescott} tells us that the serpent was an emblem common
in sacred sculpture in Anahuac. The image of one of their deities was remarkable
for the “huge folds of a serpent, consisting of pearls and precious stones which
coiled round his waist.” In the Aztec calendar the serpent typified time.t ‘The most

common representation of Quetzalcoatl was that of the serpent.

In Peru, in addition to the figure of the serpent being associated with
images of the human form as attributes,§ it was at times of votive significance.
‘When unable to procure an animal for sacrifice, such for example as the puma or

serpent, the Peruvians offered a golden or silver image of the same.||

We have in these statements sufficient reason for attempting to bring into a
series of derivatives a few outlines which we may term the radicals of the profile
serpent-head.

We find its variants scattered over tropical America in isolated inscriptions, in
the florid picture-records, in the yet more obscure so-called hieroglyphic system, as
well as discerned among the confusing elaboration of carved images.

*The Serpent Symbol, etc., E. G. Squier, New York, 1851; Myths of the New World, Brinton, J. c.; Tree and
Serpent Worship, etc., Jas. Ferguson, Lond., 1868. Many other authorities might be quoted in this connection.

+ Conquest of Mexico, IT, 142.

tIbid., I, 92.

§ Antiquities of Peru, Rievero, 107.

|| Conquest of Peru, Prescott, I, 523.

LIFE FORM IN ART. 315

THe RADICALS OF THE PROFILE SERPENT-HEAD.

Fig. 81.

16 G = & ۤ BRP

w —

AG). > Co) DS) EE (oe Ee CI)G.*) Let)
Radicals of the Serpent-jaw from Aztec and Incarian sources.

Among these nine ilustrations which we have selected from the large
number apparently of the same significance, we detect considerable dissimilarity.
Yet they possess the common feature of presenting two more or less curved lines
Joined at an angle. Each of the outlines could be written without the pen leaving
the paper. The angle is the result of a union between a vertically inclined member to
one nearly horizontal. We will endeavor to show (in absence of a chronology, or
the nomenclature of the artists themselves) that these signs represent the two main
lines of the open jaw of the serpent-head seen in profile, and that they are as near
letter-types, as it is impossible to be with figures derived from a protean model.{f{

Fig. 82. (88) Fig. 83. (||) Fig. 84. (7) Fig. 85. (3%) Fig. 86. (+4)
er ay

*Stephens, J. §., Yucatan, etc., 1843. =

} Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Monuments, etc., E. G. Squier, New York, 1852, IT, 66.

tIbid., 1852, IT, 66.

§ Ibid., II, 66.

lHtt From the Musca Alphabet, Humboldt, Vue de Cordilleras.

tt Figure A of the above series although distinctive it is thought of the Aztec ophidian profile, is a natural curve
and is seen elsewhere, in the art of various people, when it is desired to represent the open mouth of an animal. We
find the same horizontal line representing the lower jaw joined to a curved upper jaw (the convexity of the curve
standing for the fold of the upper lip overlying the tooth-line of the upper jaw) in Europe and Asia, See Archzologia
XLII, pl. 17, 312, for the head of a panther or lion of the Saxon period.

$§ Incidents of Travel in Central America and Yucatan. Stevens, I, 1848, 309.
||| Kingsborough Coll. (Dresden codex, 3d column.)

44 Kingsborough Coll. (Dupaix.)

*** From photograph of Palencque cross ; see also Stephens, J. ¢., IT, 1842, 345.
tt+ Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex.)

316 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 89. (})

=

(Fig. 92. (1)

ean 2
:

Comparing the above series with the radicals we find that the first is evidently

intended for the head of an animal, and that this figure gradually assumes a more
snake-like expression until, in Fig. 92, we see an indubitable rattle appendage. That
all the signs of Fig. 81 are derived from reduction of similar figures to those
just given must of course be probable only. ‘In our judgment it forms a probability
that lacks but one degree of proof, namely, that derived from a fixed chronological

status. This of course cannot be furnished.
Fig. 93. (#*) Fig. 94. (+t)

* Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex.) (1)

+ Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex. )

} Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex.)

§ Voy. Pittor. et Archzol. dans la Province d’ Yucatan, etc. Waldeck, Paris, 1858, pl. 15.
| From photograph of ruins at Monjas, Uxmal.

4] Kingsborough Coll. (Dresden Codex, Col. 57).

** Six Months Residence and Travel in Mexico. W. Bullock, London, 18384, pl. 18.

tt Squier, Nicaragua, @. ¢., 52 (from Zipatero).

(*) In proof of the Crotalian significance of this form we add the caudal appendage : ECAC

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 317

In Figures 93 and 94 (examples of a common variety in Aztec remains), we
see the curves of the open jaw traced upon the side of a solid mass. There can be
no reasonable objection to the conclusion that there is a close resemblance between
Figure 93 of these series and the second of the radicals marked E, or between radical
D and Fig. 94.

It is also more than suggestive that the apparently arbitrary design and others

Fig

(op Ay.

¢

SS

found among an embarrassing fullness of illustration in the Borgian Codex (Fig.
95), represents the profile head of the serpent with the mouth partially closed. And
may not the following figures have been suggested to a people who have been thor-
oughly acquainted with the profile lines already given?

Fig. 95. (*) Fig. 97. (t) _ Fig. 98. (4) Fig. 99. (8) Fig. 100. (|)

agen

—T4

ik

tt
I

il

Symmetrical Snake Ornament, from Squier’s Ancient Mon. of North America,

a, lower jaw ; b, upper jaw; c, eye; d, rattle.

Kingsborough Coll. (Tellerian Codex.)
+ From portion of elaborate full-faced human head, Stephens, I, 1843, 170.
¢ Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex,) p. 7 (human hand).
§ Stephens, J. ¢., I, 171 (Architectural Ornament).

Kingsborough Coll. (Borgian Codex), p. 12 (pattern along a border).

A. P. S—VOL. Xv. 3w.

318 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Another serpentine form is seen to be the radical of the following sequence,

Fig. 102.

IE
US

Gp) (t) (t) ($) (I) (1)

which may be called the series of the bound serpent. A third form belonging to the
same group may possibly be indicated in the coiled serpent, which leads us to the
figure found by Squier (Fig. 104) on a rock in Nicaragua,*

Fig. 104. (4)

Fig. 103. (**)

J

/@ B

The Man.

Section IV. (A.) Zhe Head. If among the forms capable of but a few
expressions we find such variety, we may expect to meet in the human face with
its increased motility a yet larger number. ‘Tio understand their analyses, it is
necessary to make ourselves familiar with the structures entering into the human
face. The “ countenance” of popular language answers to the facial region of the
anatomist. The skull gives the main boundaries of this region, as well as valuable
hints for its subdivision. It is clothed with muscles, which, surrounding to move the
eyelids, nostrils and mouth, are conveniently arranged into the palpebral, nasal and
oral groups. ‘The main acts of expression pertain to the first and last of these; for
the nasal group is composed of insignificant muscles both in form and function. Now
itis a noticeable fact that the action of the palpebral muscles is one almost in

* Bartlett, I, 196. (From a rock carving in the Gila region. )

+ Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)

¢{ Kines. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)

S$ Troano Manuscript.

| Kangs. Coll. (Dresden Codex, Col. 28.)

4 Troano Munuscript.

** Senate Ex. Doc., Ist series, 31st Congress, No. 64, pl. 35. (Reconnoisance in New Mexico, Texas, ctc).
Report of Lt. Simpson.

t+ Squier’s Nicaragua, /. ¢., I, opposite p. 406.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 319

common with the muscles of the forehead. When the latter muscles contract the
brows are raised, and when the palpebral muscles act, the brows descend and move
toward the middle line of the face. This act, the result of the depression and
a noble one

adduction of the brows, gives a severe expression to the countenance,
when moderately pronounced, and to this end employed in the Jove-like heads of
Greek art* (Fig. 105); but when exaggerated, leads to the grotesque, an advantage

not neglected in many ancient ornaments and the tragic masks (Fig. 106).

Head of Apollo Belvidere. Head from late Roman ornament (+)

The muscles about the mouth tend chiefly to draw the oral angle from the
median line ; hence any change, no matter how small at the angle, materially modifies
the expression. ‘ Give me a mouth,” says Thackeray,{ “with no special expression,
and pop a dash of carmine at each extremity, and there are lips smiling.” The inner
extremity of the brow and the angle of the mouth may be called the centres of ex-
pression. The main face variants, in which these centres of motility have been
recognized, are seen grouping themselves into the frowning set and the leering set,
either with the mouth closed and the angles slightly elevated, forming “ the eternal
rictus ” of the archaic “Greek” head (Fig. 107), or the lips parted and the teeth
displayed, or the lower jaw depressed, with the tongue protruded. The so-called
grotesques of Leonardo da Vinci (Fig. 108), and Durer (Fig. 109), appear to us to
be experiments in facial motility, both in myology and general proportion. They are
mere curiosities in construction. It is interesting to observe from the point of view

* Wincklemann, J. ¢., II, 80.

+ Mus. Borbonico, XT, tab. 28.
} Roundabout Papers, 375,

320 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Phoenician Head from Cyprus. De Cesnola. (*)
we are now erecting, viz., the relations between an inventive and an imitative art,
how exceedingly different these scholastic studies are from conventional art-types.
Fig. 108. Fig. 109.

Grotesque from Leonardo. (+) Grotesque from Durer. (t)
The lines of the inferior border of the malar bone also serve as the basis of a series
of variants both in Egyptian and Aztec art. In addition to these, we have in Aztec
art the full-faced skull as a distinct model from that of the countenance.
In conclusion, we may say that the chief variants of the full-faced countenance
are as follows :
The brow lines ; the mouth lines, and the malar or transverse facial lines.§

* Harper’s Mag., Vol. XLV, 195.

{ From photograph.

{ Four Books, etc., on Art Anatomy, Book III, 85. Trans. in French, 1557.

§ Tartoorne. That the object of tattooing is to represent clothing is an idea commonly believed. That the
objects employed for this purpose should have been patterns we can readily conceive. We have endeavored in vain to
detect a relationship between the lines of tattooed skin and the normal folds and depressions of the face. The nearest
approach to it known to us, is the head of the Feejian, figured in Owen’s Grammar of Ornament, in which a symmetry
of ornamentation has been preserved, suggesting the muscular structure of the face. But this is evidently a coincidence;
for had natural lines been copied by the artist, the wrinkles would have appeared rather than the unrevealed fleshy
masses beneath the skin. Now if this were the case the wrinkles would be placed transversely to the line of action of
many muscles. We accept with some reservation, the statement of Lubbock (i. ¢.), that the inhabitants of Formosa

““impress on their skin various figures of trees, flowers and animals.’’

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 321

a

We propose to trace in the following order a few of the variants of the face.
Many of them that relate to expression are found in the best examples of Greek and
Roman art, as well as in a few specimens of Aztec carving.

(a.) THE FULL-FACE.

(1.) The Gorgoneion. ‘The radical of this series would appear to have no
connection with the figures placed after it; yet we have ventured to hold as
the ultimate the figure from which it is the probable abridgment,—the head of
Phthah. In the absence of a corroborating prompter in history, these figures would
teach us that the Gorgoneion was common to Hgypt, Greece and Etruria. The
symmetrical curved ornament at the lower portion of Figures 110-112, and the head-
dress of Figure 118, are derived from the skin of the head and fore-feet of the lion.
Can we go farther and trace from these derivatives the tongue-protruding heads of
the Gothic style, or the Buddhistic Sinhas? It is difficult to answer these questions
satisfactorily in the absence of all connecting links. More especially since we have
no proof that they may not have originated in other countries. The New Zea-
lander* carves a head with a lolling tongue on his temple column; the Aztecs}
have repeated the same figure in stone. See also Fig. 126.

Fig. 110. (4) Fig. 111. (8) Fig. 112. (||) Fig. 113. (4)

Etruscan. Etruscan. Greek. Etruscan.
Fig. 114. (**) Fig. 115. (tt) Fig. 117. (§§)

Etruscan.

Greek. Egyptian (Phthah).
* Natural History of Man, Wood, II, 180.

+ Waldeck, J. c. ; Squier, J. ¢., I, 204 and 313; figure in centre of Mexican Zodiac.

t Micali, 1. c., pl. 46, Fig. 24. § Micali, J. ¢., pl. 102, Fig. 10. | Hamilton, Vases, 7. ¢., III, 60.

“| Micali, 7. c., pl. 22. ** Dennis, Etruria, J. c., II, 244. ++ Hope’s Ancient Costumes, 225.

t+ Handbook of Archeology, Westropp, 126. The tongue has been by an oversight omitted.

88 Hirt. Trans. Berl. Acad., 1821, 115.

3 ee AN ANALYSIS OF THE

It is certain, however, that the Gorgoneion is very ancient. We suspect that
the remarkable head from Nebbi Yunas (Fig. 118), may have had an origin from the
Egyptian Phthah, the tongue being the only essential feature absent. A comparison
of the Greek face (Fig. 112) with that of the Assyrian relic, points strongly
to the conclusion that it has been wrought under the same influence that gave shape
to the others; but the absence of the protruding tongue prevents us from giving: it

a place in the series.

Fig. 118. (*)

Assyrian.
(2.) The Transverse Facial Line. With regard to the series of the transverse
facial line we present the following:

Types of Full-faced Human Head, with Transverse Facial Lines.

Fig. 119. (4) Fig. 120. (t) Fig. 121. (8)

Etruscan. Etruscan. Egyptian.

From Mediterranean design.

* Layard, J. ¢., pl. 95, Fig. 3 and 4. The treatment of the eye by numbers of concentric lines and an exag-

gerated internal canthus, is notably like the method of drawing this organ on Greek vessels.

+ Hope’s Ant. Cost. (from Caylus, VI, I, 44.) The repetition of the malar line is here conspicuous, see p. 290

of this memoir.
$ Micali, 0. ¢., pl. 41, Fig. 4.

§ Birch, J. ¢., in British Museum.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 325

ic. 122. (*) Fig. 128. (H Fig. 124. () Fig. 125. (8)

From Aztec design.

The radical-like head (Fig. 119) succeeds to the fantastic head (Fig. 120), and
both would appear to be derivatives of the Egyptian head (Fig. 121). The Aztec
_ architectural (glyptic) radical (Fig. 122) is the ultimate abridgment of the full-faced
human skull of which Fig. 125 is the fullest development. There remains no doubt
that in this series the line of the lower border of the malar bones has been the line
characterizing the variants of the Aztec skull as a similar line will describe the most
prominent feature of the Egypto-Etruscan heads.

(3.) The Radical of the full-face. But it is in the lower stages of art where we
must seek for the best examples of face radicals. Large number of primal forms are
found etched upon rocks, and have never passed beyond rude attempts at realism.
Of these we do not now speak. But rather of the most persistent lines seen in an
abridgment of a more elaborate model, itself an ultimate of unknown transitions
from the primal shape. Thus in the comparatively modern attempt to depict the
human countenance in metal, we may have face radicals rapidly eliminated.

ale
|

The outline here presented we claim to be the most constant form in the follow-
ing sequence of figures obtained from Celtic metal ornamentation (Fig. 126).

* Views of An. Mon. in Central America, etc., 1844. IF. Catherwood, pl. 9.
+ Ibid., pl. 9.
¢{ Kingsborough Coll. (Dupaix.)

$ Stephens, J. c. (Capan), I, 185, 1841. The author supposes this to be a monkey’s skull.

324 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

9) ®) (I) (1) c) Hh)

Full-fece Human Face, from Celtic design in metal.

We have in such an arrangement the united brows forming the upper member of

the radical, the vertical member of which is the nose.

In the same manner we may accept the outline of the above figure as one of the
Buddhistic face radicals, judging from the following series of figures (Fig. 127), from
East Indian coins. In this less perfect illustration, the brow line is separated from
the nose, and the cruciform outline given is the result of changes in the nostrils.

The figures |4 § © db | are all nose radicals, as well as | <b | Can it be doubted that
—

they have had their origin in the same natural model? Does not this simple contrast
between the constant brow and nose radical of the Saxon series, and the varying
separation of the brow and nose lines in the Indian series, as well as the variable
shape of the nose in the latter group, indicate widely remote tendencies of art-growth

in these two races ?

Fig. 127.

it
ci ‘ ah

BOR

(S$) (UID (17) Gs)

Human figures of East Indian design, in metal.

*From a fibula found at Fairford, C. R. Smith, Archeologia, XXXIV, pl. 10, 82.

{+ Found in a cemetery of the Anglo-Saxon Period. J. Y. Akerman, Ibid., XXXVII, pl. 3, 9%.
t-++ Same as *.

{{ Figure upon a fibula found in Berkshire, Ibid., XIX, 352.

S$ Asiatic Researches, 1832, XVII, pl. 4, Fig. 89, H. H. Wilson.

||| Wilson’s Afghanistan, pl. 25, 26.

“| Ibid, pl. 25, 26.

#4 [pid, pl. 25, 26.

+++ Ibid, pl. 24, 26.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 325

In looking through the radicals of the full-faced head in Aztec art and the
sources tributary to it, we find a number of rudimentary outlines, many of which have
had doubtless strictly limited significances attached to them. ‘The majority of these
we have selected from the Dresden Codex,—so remarkable among Aztec remains for
the conciseness of outline, and relative absence of non-essential elements. The out-
line as seen in this Codex is proposed (+) as the radical of the front view of the
human face. It is essentially the same as the Asian radical enclosed in a circle.

We present the following as a demonstration :

Fig. 128.
pay CB Gao
@) (+) (1) (§) (I)
———————

sO NM
Sas

)

Full-faced skull radicals from Aztec design.

May we not assert, assuming the correctness of the above sequence, that these are
but varieties of the full-faced symbol ?

The radicals to be next described are those dependent upon the union of others.
These are comprehensive types and are of unusual interest.

We are informed by Dr. Brintont; that many of the designs of the American
races have reference to the cardinal points. We hope to show that the cardinal
points are often represented by four full faces, and that each face is represented
by a well-defined radical. It might be expected that the radical already given, (+)
would be the basis of this more complex design. Such, however, does not appear
from the sequence here given.

*-|| Kingsborough Coll. (Dresden Codex).

** Stephen, Yucatan, I, Frontispiece (Capan).

§ Catherwood. J. ce.
+} Myths of the New World, J. ¢.

A. P. S—VOL. XV. 3x.

326 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

In the Landa (0. ¢.) alphabet there is a comprehensive figure E39 sionify-
ing “space.” In the Algonquin Song of the Creation* there is seen the fol-

which is interpreted, “‘ First being, Omnipotent ;”

“ All beings are friends.” Arranging these in order, we have:

Fig. 129.

representing the radicals of the same composite type.

Now Dupaix figures a design attractive from its symmetry (Fig. 130) :

Fig. 130. (Hh

We cannot fail to recognize here a figure suggestive of the cardinal points, and
the resemblance borne by each of the four component parts to Figure 131 is so strik-

Fig. 131. ()

0,

Vy

My

ing that we are led to conclude that the Fig. 150 is a composition, resulting from the
arbitrary use of face-radicals, alike to those of Fig. 131.

This point having been gained we are encouraged in believing that the radical

* Traditions of the Algonquins (pamphlet), E. G. Squier.
| Kings. Coll. (Dupaix.)

{ Ibid. (Dresden Codex.) Many others similar to this could be given from North American design. See

particularly Dresden Codex, and a rock near the Susquehanna river, Pennsylvania,

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 327

may be significant of the cardinal points, and to have a history something like the
ensuing :

Figs. 182
( TENS
| Clip ©
@) (t) ($) Aberrant. (|)

Composites suggesting the cardinal points, from Aztec design.
These are by no means rare signs in the Dresden Codex.
The use of the full-face radical as the head of the human figure, as seen in a
column of the Codex (see Fig. 133) is almost conclusive as to its real significance.

Fig. 133. ()

We thus see that the full-faced Aztec radical may be either a Greek cross with-
out eye and mouth dots; the latter, without the former, or both, or with the presence
of the cross with dots placed in radii from its re-entering angles.

: In illustration of the architectural radical being the result of a process different
from one leading to a hieratic character, we present two representations of what we

have interpreted to be full-face human head from the Aztec temples:
Fig. 134. (**) Fig. 135. (++)

Full-faced human countenance in stone, from Aztec design.

* From squatting figure of a man in Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)

{ Kings. Coll. (Dupaix.)
t Ibid (Dresden Codex. ) § Ibid.

|| Schooleraft, J. c. VI, 576.
4 Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.) ** Catherwood, /. ¢. tt Ibid. 7. c.

328 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

We give here an example (Fig. 136) of a series of variants in pottery. The speci-
mens were obtained at San Domingo, by Mr. William M. Gabb, late geologist to
the San Domingo Government. The originals are in the National Museum at
Washington. Our drawings were kindly made by Mr. Gabb. ‘The first we accept

as the radical of a full-faced human head, and proceed as follows :
Fig. 136.

Ceramic variants from San Domingo design.

(0.) THE PROFILE.

(6.) The Profile. 'The profile human head has: an entirely distinct history from
the full-faced. We see some races very fond of reproducing it, as for example the
Kgyptians with whom the front view in drawings was phenomenally rare. The Assyr-
ians also repeated the countenance in profile. With the North American Indians the
profile is looked upon with contempt. Father Garnier of the Huron Mission, in writing
home for supplies, says of certain pictures he needed, “they must be full face, and
they must look directly at the beholder.”* Mr. Catlin informs us that the Indians
consider a profile as representing but “half aman.” The Aztecs evidently enter-
tained very different notions concerning the profile, and we find a fair sprinkling of
its variants throughout their art. In marked contrast to the Aztec full-faced radical
the profile is rarely or never inverted or otherwise changed in position. As in the case
of the full-face we find the richest sequence of profiles in the Dresden Codex.

The radical (x) is here presented, and the probable sequence constructed thus :

* Parkman, Jesuits in North America.

LLIFE-FORM IN ART. 329

Fig. 137.
: 6) Ts
©) od Ls L
(*) (t) (t) (§) (|!)

The above is a short series selected from the Troano manuscript.
Asan instance of the difficulty of the study of variants we select the following (Fig.
139) from the Dresden Codex, where the profile-face passes into a semblance of the

full-face.

i Fig. 189.

G2)

Or as is occasionally seen in the Troano manuscript, the oblique line of the

profile ay passes into horizontally one =< These are examples we take it of
G on

carelessness in drawing. Yet we nowhere find so violent a

. The outlines CP and &) never merge.

In reviewing the human face and its variants we can readily see why the full
face should be represented by the Greek cross and figures growing out of it, and the
profile by the cross of St. Andrew’s, viz., by the repetition of the essential lines of
both full-face and profile.

In the first place it is not the crossing of lines which is as essential as their posi-
tions. A vertical and a horizontal line are equally distinctive of a face whether crossed

simple

a change as

* Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)
+ Ibid.

+ Ibid.

§ From Dresden Codex.

|| Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)
4] Ibid. (Borgian Codex.)

** Kings. Coll. (Dresden Codex.)

330 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

or not, as we have represented. So the oblique line is suggestive of the profile,
although it may be isolated. But the vertical line of the nose needs but to be pro-
duced to cross the horizontal line of the teeth to give a radical notion of the most
conspicuous facial lines; and thus serving as a model to the profile, which probably
came later, and produced from the single natural line of the profile an artificial com-
plement crossing it at the centre.

That the line drawn from the top of the occiput to the mouth is a true line of the
profile can readily be seen by producing the corner of the mouth. The natural direc-
tion of the angle, as we have already seen, is upward and backward. Archaic types
tend to emphasize this elevation, and primitive art to notably exaggerate it. Witness,
for example, such variants as the following from the Troano Manuscript: (Fig. 140.)

Fig. 140.
@) (t)
Let us suppose that in the first outline of this group the line had been extended
to the crown we would have had the © of the Landa Alphabet and the Dresden

Ce]
Codex.

The architectural profile head, composed for the most part of peripheral exag-
i ’ i I i gS

gerations, is given with the following figures:

Fig. 141. (4) Fig. 142. (8) Fig. 144. (4)

(
if

i) = 1

i Human profiles from Aztec (glyptic) design.
* Troano Manuscript.

+ Ibid.

t+ Troano Manuscript, pl. 23.

§ From Casa del Cober Nador, Catherwood, J. ¢.
|| Ibid.

4] Stephens, Yucatan, 1849, II, 292.

**_tt Kingsborough Coll. (Dupaix.)

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 331

(B.) THE RADICAL OF MAN,

As a cosmopolitan form the human figure presents features which are every-
where recognizable. One of its most ancient expressions is a linear vertical ending
superiorly, either simply or by a rounded knob, and joined below the knob and at
the lower end of the vertical, by two transverse bars completes the outline.

Let us compare a few of these from widely remote localities :

Fig. 147.

©) ) (f) ©

+t+O

Are not these sufficiently alike to lead the observer to conclude that a kind of
sequence in time might bé traced from the Asiatic forms to the American? It is
certainly curious that the figure from Pallas is a constant, invariable shape, which is
often repeated on the rocks of Siberia, while that of the South American figure is
equally distinetive of those found on the rocks of the valley of the Amazon.4]

Among other anthropoid radicals figured by Spix, is the following (Fig. 148),
marked by the curved extremities of the vertical line as in Fig. 147.

* Lesley, 7. c., see also Sylvester’s Paleographie, pl. 1, showing characters of ancient Chinese dialect of similar
construction.

+ Reise aus Siberien zuritck an die Wolga in 1873. Pallas, Th. ILI, Zw. Bueh., pl. 6.
{ Whipple, 7. ¢., from rock at Arch Spring, near Zuni, New Mexico.

§ Bartlett, J. R., Personal Narrative of Expl. and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, ete., New
York, 1854, Sculptured rocks on the Gila, pl. 1, Vol. II, p. 196.

| Reise in Brasilien. Spix und von Martius—Atlas. Sculpturen auf Felsen am Rio Lapura.

“| See also Journal of the Anthropological Institute, London, IIT, 114, pl. 10, J. Whitefield. In this paper a
number of linear signs are given from Ceara, Brazil.

332 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 148,

foLSel

Without the aid of the one it would have been very difficult if not impossible
to have determined the significance of the other. But with it and that of the
variant of the human face, the determination becomes easy.

Of radicals in which the inferior extremities are marked by oblique lines, we
have a large number of illustrations. The vertical may or may not be produced

below the lower pair of divergent lines.

The apparent likeness announced in the above, forces us to ask ourselves the fol-
lowing question: Is the resemblance between outlines, selected from rocks scattered
from Norway to South America, merely accidental ? There is a drawing in Morillet
from a rock in Norway* (Fig. 149); another group in Siberiaf (Fig. 150); a third,

Fig. 149. (*) Fig. 150. (+)

Sculpture on rock in Norway.

belonging to rocks of our Western plains{ (Fig. 151); a fourth series is seen in the

* Morillet;. 1. 62; Vis580,
+ Pallas, Reise, 1. ¢.

{See also Journal of the Anthropolozical Institute, London, ITI, 114, pl. 10, J. Whitefield. In this paper a

munber of linear signs are given from Ceara, Prazil.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 333

Fig. 151. Fig. 152. Fig. 152
rh OF
: + oe
©) (+) (f) (§) (I) (1)

Aztec manuscript (Fig. 152); and a fifth, upon the rocks of Nicaragua and South
America (Fig. 153).

It is decided at first sight that these resemblances are nothing but the natural
results of simplifying the easily-copied human form—and that rude artists could
with difficulty avoid producing figures which would closely resemble one another.
Thus the Asiatic, Huropean and American tribes must have produced results such
as those represented above. The lamentable instance of the Abbe Domenick, who
mistook a German school-boy’s copy-book for a collection of pictures by North
American Indians, to say nothing of the more magnificent follies of Brasseur de Bour-
bourg, are calculated to warn the student against any attempt at generalization even
from genuine material. We, however, doubt whether any other than a South American
aborigine could have told what Fig. 148, was intended to represent, much less could we
expect an Indian, or a school-boy to draw such a form for man. The very shape of
such an outline is proof of its being an ultimate modification from a pre-existing form.
Its presence at once suggests experience as a necessity to its existence. No child
could possibly conceive of it—and no adult trace it unless be had become acquainted
with the traditions and conventionalities of which it is the result.

Again, such a radical as is seen on a photograph of a rock in the Western
United States to represent Ss
(Fig. 154): :

‘man, as can be shown in the following sequence

* Report of the Indian Tribes of New Mexico, Lt. A. W. Whipple. From rock at Ojo Pescado. Lt. Whipple
in speaking of this says, ‘‘ the figure might be pronounced to be centuries old.”’

+ Simpson’s Report, J. ¢.. pl. 25, fig. 2. See also in this connection a photograph of a rock opposite Parawan,
Utah, in series published by U. 8. Government (Wheeler’s Expedition, 1872). Thesign _| from Painter Creek,
New Mexico, figured by Whipple, loc. cit., has the lower part, recalling the figure from ae Brazil (see Spix
and von Martius). It is described as being very old and much effaced. May not the transverse lines have been obliter-
ated in time ?

{ Kingsborough Coll. (Dresden Codex.)

§ Troano Manuscript, Paris, 1869, pl. 35. This sign is represented in the manuscript as inverted.

| Squier, Nicaragua and her People, IT, pl. 1, 24. .

{| From original drawings by A. Fendler, in library of Acad. of Natural Sciences of Phila. The rocks are near
San Hsteban, 8. A. (See Smithsonian Rep., 1857, 218.)

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 5Y.

304. AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 154.

Bs

Now if the last of the series be man, it is highly probable that the preceding
three have been derived from it, and that the first is its radical. Ifit be so, the following
Figure 155, will be composed of two anthropoid outlines on either side of a central

object.
Fig. 155. (+)

Squier.
Let us take this object of Fig. 155 and endeavor to fix its value.

Fig. 156. Fig. 157. (+) Fig. 158. (8)

Figures 157 and 158 are probably representations of man, and we are lead to
believe that Fig. 156 and the central portion of Fig. 155 have the same value. We
have already seen the probable bearing of the cross marking within these two figures.

Assuming the correctness of the conclusion that the figure is anthropoid, we have
to explain the connection between it and the two inclined figures on either side.

* Simpson, J. ¢.
+ Squier, Nicaragua, 1. ¢.
t Ibid. 7. ¢.

§ Spix, und v. Martius, 0. ¢.

LIFE FORM IN ART. 335

This may be done, we think, by fixing the concrete symbols representing, it is thought,
the cardinal points. We would place the figure in the same category with the
symbols there figured, and present in the same connection such forms as Figure
159, interpreting the side pieces as human faces with chins directed to the side of the

BA

full-faced countenance: *

Anthropoid outline with symmetrical face-radicals, of Aztec design.

Could any of the above lines be accidental? Could any of them have been
forgot by the dishonest, or imitated by novices? Or, could any school-bred
scrawler, boy or man, have made them? May we not place in the same connection
this piece (Fig. 160) of Haidah (Babine) carving ?+ In speaking of this, Mr. Wilson

Fig. 160,

Full-face human countenance with complex lateral face radicals, of Haidah design.
aptly remarks: “I was struck with a certain resemblance to the peculiar style of

ancient Mexican and still more of Central American art.”
Fig. 161. (4)

Symmetrical composite of Aztec design, showing an arrangement of full-face and profile radicals.

* Squier, J. c., I, 406. + Prehistoric Man, Daniel Wilson, Lond., 1862, II, 21. + Humboldt, Vue de Cordilleras.

306 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Algonquin sign of man.

The above outlines (Fig. 162) are copied from an authentic Algonquin song,
figured in the pamphlet already noticed, by Mr. Squier, by whom they are termed
“mnemonic symbols.” Mr. Squier, who is an eminent authority, believes the figures
trustworthy. He states (page 7), “that with a view of leaving no means
unemployed to ascertain its (the manuscript’s) true value, I submitted it without
explanation to an educated Indian Chief (Kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh), George Copway, who
unhesitatingly pronounced it authentic, in respect not only to the original signs and
accompanying explanations in the Delaware dialect, but also in the general ideas
and conceptions which itembodies. * * * TI feel I am not obtruding the coinage
of a curious idler, nor an apocryphal record, but presenting matter deserving of
attention, and of important bearings upon many interesting questions connected

ee

with the history of our aboriginal nations.”

There can be no doubt, therefore, that these figures represent the Algonquin
method of representing man. In no one of them do we recognize the linear radical
already considered, nor any outline which would be liable by abridgment to run
into it. When we remember the fact that the song is entitled The Creation, the
figures employed in illustrating it were probably of fixed value and of considerable
antiquity. Mr. Schoolcraft informs us that the Indian picture-characters were,
among the Ojibways, “taught to the young as carefully as our alphabet.” We have
no reason to suppose but that they have preserved their present appearance for a long
time. Is it assuming too much from our premises to suggest that the outline a (Fig. 163)
is an Algonquin sign of man, and that ¢ is an imperfect form of the same? If this be
conceded and internal evidence given that the drawings were made at about the
same time, may we not call the inscription Algonquin, and that the signs have
some relation to Fig. 162?

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 337

SS
IWS

Paz
oN

vege
SS

An Algonquin Rock-carving .*

a—Algonquin sign of man.
b—Anthropoid (?).

c—Anthropoid of the type-figured.
d—An unfinished, or an effaced figure.

e—Turtle.
g—Hand.
A—Unknown.
Fig. 164.
(1)

If such be granted the above sign (Fig. 164) from a rock in Kansas will be placed
in the same group. ‘The entire absence of Aztec-like signs in such a series of
pictographs and inscriptions is suggestive.

The same cannot be said of some other inscriptions, as for example the Parowan
inscription in Utah. Here amid signs suggestive of influence which the Aztec people,
or the unknown South American tribes had in common, appear others such as Fig.

Fig, 165.

Ere

165, which so intimately resembles the genuine Algonquin, that we can have no
doubt of their identity. Here we have, we may say, a modern savage making
* Squier’s Ancient Monuments, Smithson. Cont., vol. I, 298.

{Indian Inscription Rock at Indian Cave, on Mulberry Creek, Kansas. (From photograph, by A. Gordon,
Washington, D. C.)

3338 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

his mark among the ancient signs that attracted his attention, as a modern tourist
might scratch his name upon a slab of Egyptian hieroglyphies.

This marking of new signs over and among older ones must always remain a
confusing element to the student of inscriptions. Man is inherently a scrawler and
something among his attempts at artistic outlines must be attributed to that
same desire which marks certain uncultured persons who cannot resist the tendency
to carve rude figures, or write their name at noted localities.

In the Dresden Codex we have a sequence of the squatting human figure (Fig.

166) unlike anything yet seen.

Squatting Anthropoids, of Aztec design.

The difficulties attending the study of the human figure are very great. We
will present two of the more prominent of these. What is to prevent, for example,
some of the outlines marked by the produced vertical axis representing a tailed

quadruped ? (Fig. 167.)

)

This is not a little puzzling, particularly since we are informed of the value
attached to the reptilian batrachian forms in Anahuac chronology. While acknowl-
edging the suggestiveness of the produced vertical, we nevertheless find the figures
of quadrupeds to be such as of Pallas. Thus proving the absence of quadru-
pedal type comparable to an me anthropoid type, and also that although it is not
impossible that the produced vertical line may at times mean *tail,” it is not probable
that it meant anything of the kind.

* Kingsborourgh Coll. (Codex Vaticensis. )

+ Bollaert, 0. c.

t. Pallas, ¢. c.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 339

Fig. 168. (*)

Sas
ie

This figure (Fig. 168) from Bartlett is here given to show the radical of man,
as we have determined it, in the act of driving an animal.

In some outlines from the Gila region, by the same authority we have a man-like
figure with produced vertical associated with one in which it is absent. If, as may be
suggested, that the line has a sexual significance, its absence would indicate the com-
panion figures to represent female forms.

Another great difficulty, determining the man-radical is that in countries, where
the inhabitants have been under Christian influence, the vertical and transverse lines
have originated in crude imitations of the Latin cross. Such influence undoubtedly
exists in the design of our Indians, especially among those who have been brought in
association with Jesuits. The following signs from Jonathan’s Cave, near Fife,
Scotland, are certainly very suggestive of the series on p. 333, and we are only
deterred from so placing them from the other evidences in the same locality of

modern influences. >
Fig. 169. (+)

a 4

As has already been observed, the position of accessory signs more than their
shape determine their significance.
Of the sign

(fh)

it would be difficult to prove that it was not a face, and the symmetrical dots eyes,
except by comparison with the following from a rock in the same country (Fig. 170) :
* Bartlett, J. c., I, 206.

t Simpson, J. Y., Archaic sculpturing of cups, circles, ete., Edinburgh, 1867,
{ Near Colonia Touar, A. Fendler, J. c.

340 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 170. (*

aD

when it is at once shown that the entire figure is represented, and the symmetrical

markings are not eyes but mammz.

EAI (NES
A curious figure in the Borgian Codex, showing the produced vertical and transverse lines of the ancientradical of man.

Section V. Other variants from the Dresden Codex and other sources, of North
American design.

The Breastplate.

Fig. 173,
de Be
AL

God

The Lizard,

* From Roek on Rio Lapuna, Spix tnd v. Martius, i. ¢.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 341

Fig. 174.

<ehiay aa

An unknown animal.

Fig. 175.
f

© ©)

« w)

The Ear-ring.

Fig. 176.
C) }

OS O “he
© ois
(8) () I)

‘‘The Three Balls.”’

Section VI. Dvfficulties met with in analyzing the Life-form. We have now
given a number of examples of the plan proposed for the study of variants, suffi-
cient we hope for the demonstration of the object in view. The reader has
doubtless observed that the fields from which the figures in the different series have
been gleaned have varying degrees of probability. In some, as in those from
the Dresden Codex, we find all the outlines secured from a single manuscript. In
others the radical may be found in the manuscript, but the intermediate-forms are
scattered in the sculpture and rock-pictures of Central America. In another group
again these shapes are sought for on the rocks of Utah—the carvings of the Frazer

* Ribeiarao (Bolivia), Harp. Mag., Vol. XLIV, 502.
+ Kings. Coll. (Dupaix).
+ Stephens, J. ¢.

§ From U. 8. photograph, rock opposite Parowan, Utah. Wheeler’s Expedition.
|| Jones, Southern Antiquities, 378.

4] Squier, Traditions of Algonquins and Song of Creation.

A. Tey R—SVrO, Sar, BVA

342 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

River natives—or even, as in the first mentioned human-figure-series, from Asia and
Europe. We have in every instance simply placed the objects in the order they
appear to make for themselves, indifferent to the localities in which the objects have
been found. In many instances, as with Central American design, the sequence of
the outlines are promptly confirmed by our knowledge of chronology. In others this
chronology has not been made out. With such we leave the forms to speak for
themselves. We certainly are not anxious to establish any theory, and have pur-
posely placed all material which would appear to point to any definite lines of migra-
tion in the form of queries.

As may be readily seen the entire study is fraught with difficulty. Particularly
is this the case in the field of Central American design. Fancy is here continually
dulling the ear of judgment; and the student, as he turns the pages of the Kings-
borough volumes, is more often tempted to weave little fictions about the gaudy
“ orotesques” before him, than remain content to be guided by the truth that so
evidently underlies them. We have endeavored to keep free from all weakness of
this kind, and to leave to others the interpretation of the grinning skeletons, the
priestly sacrifices, the murderous assaults, the mysterious pot-boilings, that so plenti-
fully bestrew the Codices.

A difficulty of another kind is met with in the variants of art-forms of older and
more cultured races than the American. The higher the art and more concrete the
style the less satisfactory becomes the interpretation of variants. Cardinal Wiseman*
has justly said: ‘“ Great caution should be used in judging characteristic form from
works belonging to the higher department of art. No nation long possesses the art
of representation, without forming to itself an ideal, abstractive type; and the
caution to be used should necessarily be doubled, where the art and their types are
borrowed.” The fact that scarcely a single art-form in the entire range of Indo-
Germanic art—nay even within that larger area of Mesopotamia and Egypt—can be
quoted, which does not exhibit in its history the traces of mutual influence, is some-
times sufficient to cast a doubt upon the arrangement of form in a supposed succes-
sion, even when the chronicles of the nations yielding them have been fixed.

Let us, forexample, suppose that a cylinder has been found at Babylon, which
is determined to belong to the late Babylonian empire. Now the Assyrian influence
upon the art of this empire is conceded, and we should seek for the source of the
conyentionalisms upon the cylinder to their associated variants among the
alabasters of Khorsabad or Nimroud. Could we stop here the search would be easy.
But we are informed by Rawlinson that Assyria itself is a northern branch of the

* Science and Revealed Relie‘on, I, 251.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 343

Chaldean stock, and although its art is in a great measure indigenous, its germs were
imported from the ancient Babylon, and in some instances have simply returned to
that source after undergoing changes due to their prolonged expatriation. If in addi-
tion to this the influence exerted by Egyptian form upon the later Assyrian figures
be acknowledged, it makes the task of arranging in a chronological sequence a series
of Mesopotamian variants an exceedingly difficult one. We think that the internal
evidence furnished by the objects themselves is a much easier and in the end as
satisfactory a guide.

That archeologists have not studied primitive art-form by this internal evidence,
or, as a naturalist would express it, by seeking for a standard of grouping by com-
parisons of the actual forms, can be at once seen by quoting a few examples.

The first we propose mentioning is the attempted interpretation of the Landa
Alphabet. Dr. D. G. Brinton, in an interesting pamphlet entitled “The Ancient
Phonetie Alphabet of Yucatan,”* has printed this alphabet which, as we are informed
by Dr. Brinton, “was unearthed in a library in Madrid—that of the Royal Academy
of History,” by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. It was contained in an unpub-
lished description of Yucatan, composed by Diego de Landa, the first bishop of the
country. This alphabet is given below (Fig. 177) with indications of the objects
by ourselves.+

Fig. 177.
la 2a 3a 4a ob 6
: 0 CP
p (\ 89
Parrot. Parrot. Profile. Parrot. Unknown. Full-face.
ic 8 ca 9 10 t Lie. - 12h
Wy 3 2) (> - mn
Full-face. Brow. Profile Face. Comprehensive sign. Full-face. Plant.
13 h 14 ha 15 i 16k 17 ka 18 1
5 Q =
e) 3
Plant. Face profile. Full-face. Profile. Animal. Profile.

* New York, 1870, J. Sabin & Son.

} It is necessary to mention that we had not seen the Landa alphabet until this essay had been nearly completed.

344 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

Fig. 177— Continued.

19 1 20 m 21 n 22 0 23 0 24 p
Go Gx Sa ee Bee
P 5 ‘ ay we, Be
: 7 5 a =
Profile. Profile. Serpent. Inyt’d human fig. Rattle of serpent. Profile.
25 pp 26 x 27 x 28 u 29 u 30 z
WD o) | By | y ta
2
Profile. ~ Hand. Profile. Crotalian curve inverted. Unknown. Vase.

According to this interpretation, out of the thirty figures composing the alphabet,
18 are from portions or combinations of portions of the human frame, viz., Nos. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16,
18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27.
are from birds, viz., Nos. 1, 2, 4.
from serpents, viz., Nos. 21, 23.
is from unknown animal, 17.

am KSB DW OO

are from plants, viz., 12, 18.
1 isa vase, 30.
3 are from unknown objects, viz., 2, 5, 29.

30

According to Dr. Brinton, /. ¢., the meaning of the objects of this alphabet should
be something as follows :

a. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are representatives of the heads of some animals; No. 2 being
evidently the head of a bird, with a long curved beak, probably a species of parrot.
No. 3 has been supposed to represent a leg or a boat of some kind, but is probably
also a rude figure of a head.

b. Both these letters are supposed to represent a path or way bearing the marks
of foot prints indicated by the small figures inside the circle.

c. This letter * * * * is imagined to represent a mouth displaying sharp teeth.

ca. Is explained as the jaw of an animal thickly set with teeth; but a careful
examination of its variations leads to the belief that it is a representation of an eye-
lash.

cu. This has never been identified.

t. Signifies space, the four marks leading toward the centre, representing the
four cardinal points.

é. Probably a front view of the human face, surmounted by the hair, the dots
marking the eyes, nose and mouth.

h. Nos. 12 and 13, variations of the same, represents a joint of bamboo. No. 14

represents a flowing stream around some objects.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 345

2. No satisfactory analysis has yet been offered of this letter. It seems formed
after the analogy of ¢.

k, ku. The kis beyond doubt derived from a head seen in profile. The upper
figure within the circle is the closed eye with its lashes (compare No. 8) ; that below
on the right is the ear (compare No. 28); that on the left is the mouth. The kw is
supposed to be a drawing of the sacred “ medicine bag.”

l. Neither of these have been resolved.

m. This also is the figure of a head. It is distinguished from the & from the eye
being open, from the p by the absence of dots around the mouth.

n. Possibly the figure of a serpent.

o. Variations of the same, of uncertain origin.

p, pp» Again the face in profile.

x. The figure is easily recognized as the human hand, the second as a face in
profile emitting breath from the mouth.

u. The first sign represents the ear, the second is of uncertain derivation.

z ‘This seems to be a vase of some kind.

We think we can fairly claim to have improved upon the above identifications ;
how much, we must leave to others to decide.

For another example we will take that of the Palenque cross. We have already
indicated that the ornament on the ends of the horizontal bar of the cross are profile
rattlesnake heads. The object (Fig. 178) (evidently of animal origin) upon which
rests the vertical bar, has been called by Dr. Brinton* a rattlesnake head. Our com-
parisons lead us, however, to conclude that the object is not a rattlesnake head but a
full-faced human skull. With this opinion, Dr. Brinton informs us he now concurs.

ial MN
seg

‘‘Full-face’”’ rattlesnake head, from Aztec design.

* Myth of the New World, J. c.

346 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

In Mr. Gabb’s collection of fragments of San Domingo pottery already mentioned,

occurs the following :
Fig. 179.

Front. Profile.

This has been denominated by Mr. G. and others, a “bird head.” “We, however,
conclude from associated fragments that it was not a bird head but a variant of a

monkey head, thus :*
Fig. 180,

Section VIL. Method of studying Rock Inscriptions and Pictographs. Applying

* For rather free identification of Polynesian forms, see the hieroglyphics of Easter Island, Journal Anthro-
pological Institute of London, IIT, 870, pl. 20.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 347

the conclusion we have attempted to educe that before naming an object of primitive
art, it is necessary to prove its identity by intelligent comparison, rather than to
guess at it, we submit a few specimens of rock carvings, and propose to name their
several outlines.

Inscription at Zipatero, Nicaragua.*

a. Is composed of a pair of circles, one enclosed in the other. We have
mentioned on p. 280 our reasons for doubting the exact indentification of this and

analogous signs as the one at e. They may be representations of the innumerable
roundish natural objects.

b. However, is much more definite. Referring to the variants, these are observed
to be like a pair of brows; the enclosed objects probably answering to eyes.

c. Is probably serpentine.

d. Unknown.

JF. The modified crotalian curve.

h. Forehead ornament.

vz. Unknown, probably an ornamentation about an eye.

j. A variant of the crotalian curve.

Fig. 182.

Inscription in New Mexico. (Gila Region. )+

a. Ancient sign of man. (Turanian distribution ?)
b. More modern sign of man.

* Squier, Nicaragua, II, 69.
+ Bartlett, 7. c., IT, 216.

~ 348 AN ANALYSIS OF THE

c. Probably derived by imitation by some nomad who has seen the sign of
human profile on an Aztec monument.
~d. Modern sign of quadruped, mounted by man.
é. Quadruped sign.
J. Unknown.

An inscription showing examples of the ancient anthropoid sign. *

A. knowledge of Central American design has rendered the task easy of proving
that the markings (Fig. 184) had been made by some one under the influence of the.
art of the region in which they were discovered, and we have no hesitation in
naming it Aztec.

Aztec Inscription. (+)
a. Profile crotalian jaw curve.
b

. Upper member of a variant of same.
Closed variant of the same.

d. Probably a bifid tongue protruding from a Crotalus head.
e. Unknown.

se

Jf. Same as 6.
g. Simplified crotaliai curves.

* Kmory’s Report, 1848, p. 90. (Near Gila River.) | Stephens, 7. ¢.. 1849.

LIFE-FORM IN ART. 349

h. Rattles of rattlesnakes. The letter is placed between two figures of the same

value.
zt. Unknown.
j- Unknown.
Mouth with teeth.
Human foot with rattlesnake
n. Serpentine curve.
o. Unknown symmetrical design.

SNS
°

rattle ornament as anklet.

Such are some of the conclusions to-be derived from the study of the life-form
in art! We pause in the midst of an endless theme, with the mind thronged with
strange shapes that arrange themselves into groups of imperfectly-defined limits.

As we acquaint ourselves with these attempts of man to record his thoughts in
carvings and painted images, we are partakers of the pleasures of the naturalist.
Man in establishing fashions of love-making and house-building is an object of the
same sort of interest as the bird or the bee. The method of study adopted in each
case should be the same, however we may be influenced by importance of the results

thereby obtained.

Fiy. 185.

> (2]
be sn ee)

eves 1)

Specimen of the characters of the Dresden Codex.

ERRATA.

Fig. 2, p. 285, is most probably the Odontophorus of Tschudi.
For Mephistopholes on p. 298, read Mephistopheles.

For Thackaray, p. 300, read Thackeray.

For Fig. 25, p. 300, read 25a.

For figures on twelfth line, p. 302, read fingers.

For Palencque, p. 315, read Palenque.

For to on fifth line, p. 315, read and.

For émpossible, ninth line, p. 315, read possible.

The illustrations of this Memoir have been executed by the photo-electrotype process, by Messrs. F. A. Wen-
deroth & Co., of Philadelphia, from drawings by Mr. Hermann Faber.

A. P. S.—VOL. Xv. 4A.

Section I.

cee ie

Se Liar,

al IY

66 We

so Will.

Sxerron I.
oe ails

oor Ube:

SOS KLE

(350)

CO AS aE Eee

PART 1:

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

PAGE,
Phe Tmnitathivies osc cise sua ticsere weatoie o qiote wipe oe See e hu ete cuca yere putes ie eas suetiiienco Sieh elsyacels aac Meret as Mesa 279
The: Lnventiviessis'ssi. sea Ade eicserspersls, era cya teres teyas opera ates er ero etewsictaie alos cep cretete mrokctclela clare a nel ae karsaereiogs 280
The: Ethnic. Value*of Designs tix:.pieis eves cect sree pete ete tela eekepelote ls nics om ery stetkt see iterate 282
The Realisticn:fcc.t: se scjet estes sudstuvnelirs archaptec tera eset eie CVO a Care ACR To ESL eee GEE Cent oct toes 284
TheeConventional. fi oiecined alec waht ae Seeds eerie eee EO oe Ee ee Eee 285

(a.) General Remarks ; (.) Conditions favoring the Conventional ; (c.) The ‘* Fantas-
tic ;’’? (d.) Ethnic value of the Conventional; (¢.) ‘‘The Grotesque ;’” (f.) The
tendencies of the Conventional; (g.) The Symbol; (h.) The Zoo-Myth; (.)
Errors of Naturalists in depicting Animals.
TVS DTA OM ai. 5shovotatessts ielerates eketshett coasdrars oer tateysterctone ewe oy etecel sre easiaie acter term tos ferans later nk ey ey toa er stake 299

PART. If.

Tue Stupy orf VARIANTS.

General Remarks, imelidine themaromy Weed .t5r1o0. je ete sjepchel enere’etes ototen ual ctehtee staged. vet actalesoy Palen ee Sees Bil
AM ivca at: Hitsie UiYon eran ner se ran nee men ars aa ans a cOROUdS CoS OE RA AGAd cen noes UGdEd 40000 308
The Serpent. sii eisiecn Gass ara Soecevdes a eteld onan ovetecsteteus. sfevareeiave wae oie vieealaie athens acto el eeatcleioeente eto 314 .
Whe. Mais. .2ee onsctuac casneoe enema eeueine aeeiei ee Head atin vie Mavala nig Ris oe eee ete TE 318

A. The Head. (a.) The Full-Face. 1. The Gorgoneion. 2. The Transverse Facial

Line. 3. The Radical of the Human Face. (b.) The Profile.

B. The Radical ofMan:..... Lavetdiaielacs waa, piel slepaleidibalt a ideale) omatesetenuite Cave rctaiietarttereledeun mie meme ions 331
Other Variants from American Design THRE DORE DED An OEM en ATO KOM toa SARE ot S cor nas 340
Difficulties met with intanalyzine. they TifeWormiy. cs camcysieteennce ctaneteyelelaceaisetds ceeseeeteceeee aes ieee 341
The-Study of Inseriptions:and Pictooraplase sess steccrtecte telat eeagene eter eee ~346

In Article IV, Volume XV, Part I. On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo, by William M. Gabb.

a Je IR Ie IN EN

Page 55, 7th line Saraneta should read Savaneta.
SOC wel Stipe: echpales third ef blind.
«59, «8th ‘ from bottom Pulgaris? re Pulgarin.
OG (0B Guaraguano s¢ Guaraguand.
BG yl ehh, OF sf es channel 07 the ss channel on the.
a0 ey, Oh, “top, probably like a properly like.
i souls OLN oe a €¢ brownish /¢mestone se brownish hornstone.
“86, middle of page, has been cemented s has been converted.
** 87, 16th line from top, gasteropodous of gasteropod.
ee Sek OU ieee ‘* bottom, commissioner oe commission.
<¢ 88, last line (note), tile-shaped Ue lily-shaped.
*¢ 112, 15th line from bottom, erystallie oe erystalline.
ella elOthe 36 es ‘< outside of the trail “ aside of the, &e.
G6 ALG, aaa SC senbODs caps ee cups.
SO MG. aes tdor-” 8C ‘* bottom, cassara ss cassava.
Bo shally, = nat 99 6 top, hard O6 hand
SS URXO eftelb 96 “* pottom, Loma de los Minas ze de lus
sertltsoame ey Ulemecs CoN tops cross grained ee coarse grained.
CONST SO othe: pete whose conifers ef where conifers.
HG law, tO OE aC Yamoso ES Yamasd.
CSS ehethy ce a NG hojo ae hoja.
GS Ue, 2ol — G ans brought on ss brought me.
COA AAG hee GB G0 Miocene sandstone <e limestone.
AO lathe aoe Boa towns s homes.
See AO en tla “* bottom, little outline iy outlier.
BO" USI? doi O° <¢ top, calcareous limestone es sandstone.
«¢ 154, last line, of Dajabon $e to.
*¢ 163, 2d line from top, beach-mark se bench-mark.
“166, note, Mount Murass s Muraso.
‘¢ 177, 15th line from top, little owtline : as outlier.
Goel Soscul4blnas ics Soares exploration of exploitation.
3G = ety Bin “ bottom, Jivana fe Jivana,
GG aeXo, ab, 0 «top, every place sf one place.
Camel Os Clune “* pottom, lus Platanas a6 los Platanos.
OG. I. Cun. “ <6 top; dips uy dip.
ClO Cine ro sainen SS brakes ms bushes.

we CS. OS ipbt — OC “ bottom, betng a similarly shaped as having.

Ca ae OA ist; 26 «top; number 07 whorls oe of.
lies COE we Bole catia eee a great variety uf rarity.

AOS PNG Weta, 3e “« bottom, among 7 shells ce among these.

eA SS Bil Strombina gradate ss gradata.

— & 226, 11th line from bottom, Plochela GG Plochelea.

AOE Bt itm | SE" sr last fine whorls ot five.

246, 6th & ith/I inadvertently say, ‘‘I have never seen it from other localities.’’ This is incorrect.
T have collected it on the Savana la Mar Pass, as will be seen in the text.

~ 249, 8th line from bottom, C. pappia should read paphia.

NOTICE.
Preceding Volumes of the New Series can be obtained from the Librarian at the Hall of
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Address, J20P IES BY). Lenoeuaie tae

Rach ait rs
ties

pee

gee

Wr es
ad

ARTICLE VII.
ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA,

BY 8S. S. HALDEMAN.

Read before the American Philosophical Society, June 21, 1878.

The retreat or shelter in question is in the anticlinal axis at the base of a cliff of
Potsdam Sandstone (quartzite), fronting the river Susquehanna at the iron manufac-
turing village of Chickis, named from a stream (the Chikiswalungo), which enters
the Susquehanna at this point, about 390 yards north of the retreat. See Plate XV.

A. traveler by the railway, which passes in front, may observe a vaulted recess
open to the light of day, where formerly the occupation of arrow-making was fol-
lowed. It is about seven feet high in the middle of the arch in front, whence it
slopes north, south, and east, to the ground, much as an oven declines in all direc-
tions from the mouth, the space occupied by the recess being about ten by fourteen
feet in extent, and here most of the implements were found; but some from the carth
a few feet beyond the opening have been included as pertaining to the general
deposit, for a fragment of pottery occurring within the recess would be matched by
one or more pieces from the outside. The cavity is due to the falling away of stones
forming the anticlinal curve, several of which were removed in clearing the space,
and, to prevent accident, one which seemed ready to fall was detached from the roof.
No stalagmitic material was present.

This paper being devoted chiefly to a detailed illustration of the implements
found, the reader is referred to a preliminary sketch of the retreat and its contents,
sent to the Société des Américanistes in 1877;* and to a verbal communication made
to the Academy of the Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, in March 1876, from both of
which, necessary material will be reproduced, adding the results of later researches.

Such stone implements as are found singly on the ground, or are turned up by
the plow, are regarded by Sir John Lubbock (Prehistoric Times, 1875, p. 105), as of
“comparatively little scientific value: it is only when they occur in considerable
numbers, and especially when associated with other remains, that they serve to throw
much light on the manners and customs of ancient times.” The Chickis retreat has

* Published 1878, in the Compte-rendu, vol. 2, pp. 819-327, with a figure of the Retreat.

A. P. S—VOL. Xv. 4B.

52 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

we)

these advantages, the relics being numerous, varied, and illustrative of a restricted
locality, occupied perhaps not less than two thousand years, if we may judge from
the thirty inches of black mold formed by decaying vegetation,* and the corroded
condition of many of the arrow-heads and chisels occurring at various depths.

The place was adapted for the residence of savages. The base of the cliff at the
river margin left a defensible passage-way ; on the north the land spread into arable
soil; a large spring about 170 yards north of the shelter offered good water, and near
it was a trap (dolerite) bolder of the drift of several tons weight (from the Conewago
Hills ten miles to the north)—with a depression adapted for grinding corn—perhaps
in part artificial, or deepened by use. Here then were shelter, defense, convenience,
planting, hunting, boating, fishing in two streams, and forest.

Residing at the locality, it had been my intention for more than forty years to
search the recess for relies, and at length, in January, 1876, I began scraping with
a garden hoe, and soon turned up five fragments of pottery from the depth of a few
inches. The next day a workman dug for me, but objects were scarce, the first being
an unbroken pebble adapted for throwing

2?
occurred, either entire, or with a chip broken off (Pl. 12, Fig. 8), as if to try the

of a kind of which many afterwards

texture for arrow points. An idea soon spread that the search was for money, which
caused a rush and prevented the proper investigation by strata. However, as there
was about the ordinary type of Pennsylvania forms, the result has not been mate-
rially altered.

Although hammer-stones were possibly the first stone implements, yet from the
importance of a cutting edge, we may be allowed to surmise that the choosing of a
sharp fragment, the forming of a sharp margin, at first by blows, subsequently, by
rubbing, and (not. to lose the result of his labor or the independent use of his hands)
the supplying it with a pocket, suggested proprietorship to the savage, and made the
fiscal idea the first condition of civilization.

CHAP TERR. lL.
KNAW BiSkaPre e.

C1 ° ° ° ° ° °

Stone implements which require a cutting or scraping edge, whether knives,
chisels, scrapers, borers, or arrow-heads, are of several kinds; the first includes
naturally sharp fragments, of which Fig. 16 may be an example; the second variety

*The stain of the black mold is still visible upon the rock, and I have indicated its limit by lines of red paint, for
future reference. Dr. Abbott (Am. Naturalist, Feb., 1876, p. 67) estimates that it requires thirteen centuries to accu-
mulate ten inches of vegetable mold.

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 353

has the form and edge roughly shaped by a few blows (Fig. 15,17); the third
raviety includes such as have an edge formed by fine chipping, as in Fig. 4, the left
side of which is a cutting edge, and the base a scraper; Fig. 5, delicately chipped on
one side, the other flaked into a bevel at the same angle; and Fig. 14, with a cutting
and scraping base, the edge transversely curvilinear. (Figures 13-17 represent
specimens made of white quartz.) ‘The fourth variety is made up of flakes struck
from a hard material, such as porphyry (Fig. 1, 11), trap (Fig. 3), indurated clay*
(Figs. 6, 7, 8), jasper (Figs. 4, 9), or cherty limestone (Fig 5). Finaily, the fifth
variety is due to rubbing or grinding (PI. 2, Fig. 4), and polishing (PI. 2, Fig. 8).

As the rock of the locality is a dense quartzite with occasional large veins of
white quartz, any unworked specimen of either, occurring in the Retreat, might be
due to a fall from above, or other accident, even after the inhabitants had ljeft, and on
this account I have collected but few of such doubtful specimens. On the other
hand, as there is no sign of a drift deposit in the retreat (except perhaps the unmixed
yellow sandy clay of the foundation), human occupants must have introduced stones
of other material, such as indurite, jasper, sandstone, chert, siliceous slate (Hig. 12),
and. limestone, the last being vicinal, but as it does not take a good edge, it was not
much used.

The sharp edges of the examples figured indicate that they were knives; the
obtuse and transversely curvilinear edges indicate scrapers; Figs. 1, 2, 3, seem to
have been pointed for the additional function of boring; and the grayish-white quartz
specimen Fig. 13, 13a, has been carefully chipped into a concavo-convex form
narrowing to a lateral point; with an edge on each side, constituting a kind of knife
(perhaps used with a handle), the curvature of which suggests that it was a skinner.
Compare Evans, Stone Implements, p. 317, Fig. 268.

In the knife, Fig. 12, the inferior or convex margin forms the edge, which con-
tinues to the narrower end, the upper, concave margin being obtuse, and at right
angles with the sides: material gritty slate.

The bur which often appears at the point where a sudden blow is given in
breaking off a flake, is seen at the upper or narrow end in Fig. 10; and curved forms
from the same cause appear in the trap specimen, Fig. 3, in the porphyritic specimen,
Fig. 11 (a point of which I have polished to exhibit the material), and in the indurite
Gndurated clay), examples Figs. 6,7, 8.¢ The last mentioned material pertains to
the Drift, and came from the Conewago Hills ten miles north. The name indurated

* for convenience, this rock will be called indurdte in these pages. It stil include baked (but not vitrified) clays,

often due to the vicinity of trap masses, and usually hard enough to scratch glass.

+See Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, p. 85-89, on similar forms, and the mode of making them in Australia.

354 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

clay might imply lack of hardness, but the material has been metamorphosed by the
Conewago trap, which seems to be present in the flake, Fig. 38. This indurated clay
is black when fractured, and gray when weathered.

Some of the knives figured exhibit great age, particularly the trap or dolerite,
Fig. 3. Of Figs. 6, 7, 8, the first has the sharpest lines, while they are least distinct
on Fig. 8, representing probably one of the oldest of the specimens found, as it
occurred not only below the thirty inches of black mold, but below the surface of the
yellow clay. Occurring with cognate forms and material, and among the results of
human skill, its reference to the hand of man rests on a different basis from that of a
chance specimen from field or shore.

CHAPTER II.
CHISELS! PTO 2

What are here called chisels are also known as Celts—a term which should be

restricted to the people who bear this name.

Figure 1 represents a rude implement of gray sandstone, probably from the
mountains north of Harrisburg. Apparently shaped from a river pebble; one end
has a straight edge suited for cutting, the other is obtuse and curved, adapted for
scraping, both ends coarsely shaped by hammering, and inefficient from the first,
unless spoiled by use. Greatest thickness about an inch, and the thickest specimen
of those figured. Hard enough to scratch glass.

Fig. 5, a hard, fine-textured, pale, bluish, siliceous shale, flake-shaped by ham-
mering ; margined with a sharp but irregular edge. Less rude than Fig. 1; average
thickness about half an inch.

Fig. 6, a well-finished chisel of ruddy quartz; without polish, but the marks of
chipping scarcely apparent: edge in good condition; sides sharp; base truncate. It
has no indication of age, and I think it occurred about a foot from the surface.

Figs. 2 and 7, apparently of Conewago dolerite; each originally finished with a
rubbed or ground edge, which, with the entire surface, has become roughened and
eritty by long corrosion. In 2, the edge surfaces are slightly convex.

Fig. 3, of indurite; the rubbed or ground edge of its early state, and the entire
surface, have become harsh (but not gritty) from corrosion, which has removed part
of the original surface, leaving fine veins and small nodules of a harder material to
project from the new surface. When similar objects occur in fields or along rivers,
the wear of the surface is attributable to friction and erosion; here, the action is not
mechanic but chemic.

Fig. 4, sandstone; some evidence of the rubbed edge remains.

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 355

Fig. 8, a rather regular chipped chisel; terminal edges and a medial portion
from end to end polished: one edge in good condition, the other battered. Although
the edge surfaces seem too convex for serviceable cutting, the skill of the workman
appears (as in modern axe-grinding) in the uniformity of the surface. A dense in-
durated clay, scratching glass, and admitting of a fine polish: no indication of age:
thickness about two-fifths of the width. ‘

CHAE TER ELL.

SiGIRPASE AE RISis Sb Lranos

We must not suppose that primitive utensils were restricted to special uses, like
the varied contents of a modern workshop, a primitive axe being at hand to do duty
for a hoe, a net-sinker to act as a hammer—* yet knowing the habits of modern
savages, and judging the capabilities of an implement, we will seldom fail in assign-
ing it to its proper use. While many knives and scrapers may be used indifferently,
in most cases we may be allowed to separate them—hence the present section.

Higs. 1, 2, represent what I suppose to be natural spalls of quartzite, of which
sharp fragments were always procurable at this locality.

Figs. 5, 6, of indurite, with little or no work after being severed: both marked
with yellow clay.

Figs. 4, 16, white quartz, the latter one from the black mold. The edge of No.
4 is thin and sharp, it includes the rounded extremity, about half the convex and one-
third of the concave margin. :

Fig. 10, thick at base, thinner towards the point, chipped from a black chert
pebble.

Figs. 11, 15 (both from the black mold), and 19 are of hard cherty stone. In
No. 11, the convexity of the edge is slight, in others much greater.

Figs. 3, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, red jasper of various tints. A remarkably large bur
(“bulb of percussion”) appears on No. 3, which has a perforation due to a drusy
cavity.

Fig. 7, a beautiful, bright, polished, red flake, beveled by chipping along the
right margin: a Jess abrupt bevel on the narrow part of the left side: inferior or flat
surface slightly concave. Compare Reliq. Aquitanice, A, Pl. X, Fig. 5; and Evans
(Stone Implements, Fig. 397), who remarks that, “Such scrapers also occur in most
of the caves which have furnished implements in France and Belgium, and usually
in much greater proportional abundance than has been the case in Kent’s Cavern.

* “T admired the cleanness and flatness of all their yards. The ground is first covered with a soft wrought clay,
and smoothed hy rolling hard clay vessels over it.’”-—Rey. John Campbell. Travels in South Africa, vol. 1, p. 244,

1822.

356 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

x si Me M
x *« Me

They appear to me to have served for other purposes besides that of
dressing skins—one of the uses to which such instruments are applied by the Esqui-
maux of the present day.” p. 455.

Fig. 8, reddish-brown, jasper flake; flat surface (upon which it probably reposed)
retaining some of the natural polish of the fresh fracture, which is scarcely present on
the upper side. Probably from the yellow clay.

Fig. 9, yellow jasper retaining polish; chipped on both sides: apex adapted for
boring: lateral notch seemingly for scraping sinews, intestines, and arrow-shafts.
(See my “Gleanings,” in Peet’s Am. Antiquarian, July, 1878, p. 81, and Reliq.
Aquitanice, A. Pl. 35, Fig. 4.) Found June 1, 1876.

Figs. 11-15, all show marks of chipping; 14 probably required a handle, it re-
sembles an arrow, blunt arrows having been in use. (Am. Antiquarian, 1878, p. 79.)
Fig. 11 has one edge beveled by chipping; from the black mold.

Jasper occurs sparsely among the pebbles of the Susquehanna, and seems to
have been selected as much for its beauty as for its utility.

Figs. 17, 18, chipped from small black flints of which part of the original sur-
faces remain. They bear some resemblance to gun-flints.

Fig. 21, represents one of the best finished objects found. It is of gray chalce-
dony, and might be regarded as a gun-flint, such flints being sometimes found at
localities occupied by the former natives. The present object is neatly chipped into
convexity on both surfaces, but not the short truncate base; the margins have cut-
ting edges, that in front being concave and adapted for scraping -objects like arrow-
shafts.

Hig. 20, a thin piece of gray shale, the edge of the wider portion retaining the
general thickness, and polished as if by scraping a concave surface—hence judged to
bea pot-scraper. Another example occurred which resembles the wider half of this one.

Wig. 22, pale chalcedony with a rose tint: well finished, base abruptly chipped ;
inferior surface flat; scraping edge straight. See Rau, Archeological Collection of
the U. 8. National Museum, 1876, Fig. 38.

Fig. 23, impure limestone; probably combining the functions of arrow-scraper,
borer, and small fish-spear.

Fig. 24, apparently quartzose limestone: chipping coarse: thickness nearly one-
fifth of the length.

The Retreat has not afforded specimens of scrapers formed of broken arrow-
heads by adding a new edge, although they. oceur in the vicinity.*

*Mr. Amos IT. Gottschall has sent me a Dakota scraper he found in use (April, 1878) for removing fat and flesh
from hides ; it is a semi circular stone flake about 12 inch Jong and 2} wide, resembling the base of Dr. Abbott’s Smith-

sonian Figure 88, but the surface and edge worn smooth. The skin to be cleaned is spread and fastened between two

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 307

CHAET HR ork Y, :
BORERS. PL. 4.

Some of the specimens here figured as borers (as Fig. 1-9) may be regarded as
equally representative of primitive arrow points, before these took regular forms.*
(Compare C. C. Jones, Pl. 9, Figs. 31, 32.)

Of the borers represented, Figures 1-5, 12-15, 20, 24-26, are of white quartz (12,
14, 20, are marked with the black mold); 6, 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 32, are quartzite of the
locality, some of each material being mere spalls, but the points of 11, 14, 17, 18, 21,
show marks of sharpening or use. Compare Reliquie Aquitanice, of Lartet and
Christy, Figs. 23, 52, 55, 56, and A Pl. II. 1875.

Fig. 7, yellow jasper; 8, black chert; 9 pale argillaccous chert.

Fig. 10, indurite, with the surface soft from decay: probably from the lower or
yellow clay stratum.

Fig. 16, a spall of red sandstone, but with an artificial notch on the right side.

Forms like Figs. 11, 12, 31, 32 (without a broad base), were probably provided
with a handle of bone or wood. (Compare Sven Nilsson, Habitants primitifs de la
Scandinavie, Pl. 2, Fig. 25.). Akin to these are the neatly chipped specimens, Figs.
22, 23, 27, of which Fig. 22 represents a common form, inasmuch as it is a fragment
without a base—a part inferrible from that of Fig. 23, which has a sharp chisel-
shaped edge—or from Fig. 30, which has an edge dulled by decay, and basal projec-
tions. A second specimen like Fig. 23 was found.

In Figures 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, the base has been left more or less wide for easy
manipulation.

In Figs. 18 and 21, a short point is suddenly contracted from a wide base, left in
its rough condition as ahandle. (Compare Evans, Stone Implements, Figs. 227, 229 ;
Jones, Pl. 16, Fig. 5.)

The white quartz specimens, Figs. 20, 24, 25, 26, and the slaty examples, Figs.
30, 33, 34, have the base more or less widened on one or both sides, as if to form a
handle. (Compare C. C. Abbott, Smithson. Report for 1875, Figs. 142, 148, 149-
153; and Evans, Stone Implements, Fig. 230.)

Fig. 28, has two lateral and tapering projections near the base, perhaps intended
for additional borers. (Compare Jones, Pl. 9, Figs. 11, 12; and Pl. 16, Fig. 4.)

upright poles sunk in the ground, and having a cross-pole above. The Rev John Campbell (Travels in South Africa,
2, 72), saw natives making various kinds of skin thin for cloaks, by scraping them with a small iron adze. Heckewelder
(Indian Nations, 1876, p. 202), says hair was removed with the ribs of deer, &c. ‘Even now, they say that they can
clean a skin as well with a well prepared rib-bone as witha knife.”’

*Some of these could be used in tattooing, for which, according to Heckewelder (p. 206), ‘‘sharp flint stones’’

or “sharp teeth of a fish’? (perhaps the pike or the lucioperca) were used.

358 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

Fig. 29, I take to represent a borer, probably intended to be inserted in a handle.
(See Abbott, Fig. 145.)

Figs. 35, 36, represent flattened awls, both sharply pointed when found, the blunt
extremity polished, apparently by being held between the fingers in some such use as
sewing.

Figs. 37-40, awls of bone, of which Fig. 40 shows scratches of the implement
used in shaping it.

(CLES ANP PSH. Ri, Vaz
ACK RO: Wi- He AD'S. | ePilie OleOle

Arrow-heads seem, upon both continents, to be the most common of all definite
stone implements. ‘The Chickis Retreat furnished about four hundred entire or frag-
mentary examples, excluding mere spalls and counting the many worked fragments
which belong to this type.

The material used includes quartzite (Pl. 5, Fig. 15, 16; Pl. 6, Fig. 31), and
white quartz (Pl. 5, Figs. 17, 18, 21; Pl. 6, Figs, 1,°2, 7, 8, 16, 18, 20, 21), both min-
erals of the locality; limestone of the vicinity (rarely used); and minerals selected
from the pebbles and fragments along the shore and bed of the Susquehanna, such as
red jasper (Pl. 6, Fig. 10), yellow jasper (Pl. 6, Fig. 22), chert, trap, indurite (indu-
rated clay); and siliceous shale (Pl. 5, Fig. 22, 23, 25, 26; Pl. 6, Fig. 13, 23, 29, 32),
hard enough to scratch glass.

The numerous broken specimens and the abundance of chips, suggest that the
retreat was occupied by generations of arrow-makers ; and it might be expected that
four hundred specimens from the same work-shop, would exhibit many stages of the
manufacture, and Plate 5 represents such an illustrative series. A pebble having
been selected, and perhaps tried as to texture by detaching a chip, as in Pl. 5, Fig. 1,
the next step is to break it in two, as in Fig. 1 and 2, of which the opposite half was
possibly used, as the surface seems to present a favorable texture, particularly that of
Fig. 2, which retains the fractural gloss, and the edge of both is sufficiently sharp to
allow them to be used as scrapers. In Fig. 3 and 4, part of the unwrought surface
of the stone or pebble remains, and a slight advance is made towards the final arrow
form, an advance which appears in most of the figures. Fig. 5 may be a mere chip
whose irregularity of fracture would have caused its rejection.

Figs. 11 and 14, may have been intended for borers.

Vig. 12, may represent the head of a fish-spear: with a good outline, the form is
thick, and the work coarse.

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 359

Fig. 13, represents a flake of hard reddish-brown indurite, with a pale brown,
decayed exterior, and harder resisting points projecting on the inferior flat surface :
upper surface with the two rectilinear margins beveled, apparently by rubbing, but
the lines marking the limits of the beveling are obsolete from decay: base broken.
An interesting specimen.

Figures 15 and 16, represent quartzite points judged to be of great age from the
dull surface and weather-beaten aspect in so hard a mineral.

Most. of the specimens here figured indicate that the point was the first part
finished; and in the quartz example Fig. 21, and siliceous shale, Fig. 22, an unre-
moved mass of the material remains at the base. Figures 24 and 25 indicate that
the basal notches were the last parts made.

The form of Fig. 25 is unusual, but it occurs in Pennsylvania. Dr. Rau (Archeeol.
Coll. 1876, Fig. 47), figures a specimen from Georgia.

ARROW-HEADS. PUL. 6.

Figures 1, 2, 7, 8, 16, 18, 20, 21, white quartz, all seemingly from the black mol
except the leaf-shaped, Fie. 16, with which compare Jones, Pl. 9, Fig. 3; Abbott,
Fig. 101; Rau, Fig. 4.

Fig. 2, has a good outline, but each surface has a rough medial projection indi-
cating an unfinished condition: the surface has lost most of the fractural gloss.

Figs. 3, 17, chert or black flint: glossy and neatly finished. Compare Abbott,
1875-6, Fig. 83; Jones, Pl. 9, Fig. 26; Rau, Fig. 6.

Fig. 4, chert: marked “ Chickis? recess, March 26, 1877.” I have several New
Jersey specimens of this form from Mr. Wm. Klingbeil. Rare in Pennsylvania; less
rare in Georgia, whence I have examples from my friend Dr. J. L. LeConte, of
various sizes (some more slender), with the base more deeply emarginate than in Fig. 4.

Figs. 5 and 6, chipped from hard gray quartzose material: fracture glossy. See
Abbott, Fig. 82.

Fig. 9, pale bluish-gray chaleedony. Arrow-heads of this material occur rarely
in the vicinal fields, also in the next County of Chester, and in East Tennessee.

Fig. 10, dark-red chipped jasper with a fresh surface: a handsome specimen
found in the earlier period of the excavation—probably about ten inches from the
surface.

Fig. 11, edges serrulate; material cherty, surface dull.

Figs. 12 and 23, have the lozenge shape, which is rather rare in the vic‘nity.
Compare Evans, Stone Implements, Figs. 296-7.

Fig. 14, bluish, resembling a cherty, shaly limestone: scarcely hard enough to

A. P. 8.—VOL. XV. 4c.

360 * ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

scratch glass. Rudely made by the removal of flakes, as in the hard shale specimen,
Big. 29.

Figs. 11, 12, 18, 25, 26, 32, are of a black cherty material without gloss.

Fig. 19, light brown jasper; neatly chipped ; unsymmetric.

Fig. 20, base bifurcate, adapting it to a corresponding part in the terminal notch
of the shaft, to prevent lateral motion, as shown in recent stone-tipped arrows from
Utah, Form widely spread, but not common.

Fig. 22, a delicate thin specimen of yellow jasper; the slight gloss upon one
surface is due to brushing. Found March 6, 1876. I have the form from New
Jersey, Hast Tennessee and Texas, from the size of a small arrow-head (about 15 inch
long, 2 wide, sides sub-parallel), to that of a spear-head.

Figs. 24 (blackish), 35 (black), 34 (yellowish), apparently of indurite, have the
appearance of great age; surface of 24, 54, much corroded.

Figs. 25, 26, 27, 32, cherty, without lustre: 26 is obtuse-angled, the sides being
unequal—a form of which white quartz examples occur in the next County, Chester.

Fig. 28, a broken specimen, pale bluish, resembling cherty limestone; shape of
the base unusual.

Fig. 30, of black gritty stone: old and irregular.

Fig. 31, quartzite of the locality, of two colors, pale gray and pale ferruginous:
presumed to be old.

Fig. 55, represents a thin regular metallic arrow-head of a coppery appearance,
but yellow on a new surface, and presumed to be Huropean brass, therefore within
the historic period, with brass dishes occurring in graves. It was found outside of
the retreat.

CH APT ERCV'T.
SPEAR-HEADS. PL. 7%.

Except in size, there is little difference between spear-heads and arrow-heads ;
and there is probably no difference between the heads of spears, whether used for
thrusting or for throwing.* Certain broad, triangular forms (as Figs. 11, 12), seem
intended for fish-spears, the barbs being sufficiently broad to hold in the soft muscle
of fishes.

Of the specimens illustrated, Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5,7, 11, show marks of age and decay.

*Dr. Abbott distinguishes between a lance and a spear, assigning to the spear-head ‘‘a notched or stemmed base,
or both, which features singularly or together characterize the spear-head proper, which, also, are smaller as a class

than lance-heads, but too large to be of use if placed at the end of an arrow.’’—Stone Age of New Jersey, Smithsonian
Report for 1875, p. 269.

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 361

Figs. 1, 4, indurite; surface pale greenish, with hard projections left by decay ;
a chip from No. 4, shows a black interior. When entire, the length of this specimen
may have been about five inches.

Figs. 3, 9, 15, resemble cherty limestone, but do not effervesce with acid: No. 9
and 13 are pale bluish, No. 18 darker.

Fig. 5, dark indurite, gritty from decay and having several projecting nodules,
like No. 1 and 4: surface greatly decayed.

Fig. 6, a pale brown grit; robust, chipped coarsely but with skill; lines of frac-
ture distinct, a sharp medial ridge on the inferior surface, extending about three
inches from the point: length 4, greatest thickness 2 inch.

In Fig. 7. the surface is like that of No.5: robust; length 4, breadth 13, greatest
thickness { inch, due to a bulge on the upper surface.

Fig. 8, material cherty, black, without gloss (resembling Figs. 11, &c. of Pl. 6):
edges finely chipped and somewhat serrulate towards the apex: ridges or fracture
distinct: length 4 3-16, greatest thickness 3 inch. A second example was found.

Fig. 9, thin and delicate, inferior surface flat, upper surface shaped with a few
flat chips: length 33, greatest thickness less than 2 inch, due to a bulge near the
base.

Fig. 10, a black glossy chert or flint, but less glossy than Figs. 3 and 17 of PI.
6: both sides neatly worked ; ridges of fracture low but distinct: length 2%, greatest
thickness ¢ inch. A well finished and rare specimen, one of the finest found, which
might, perhaps, be classed with arrow-heads. I have seen a specimen very like it,
found in Ohio.

Fig. 11, pale bluish, surface roughened and lines of fracture lost by decay.

Fig. 12, a coarse specimen of rough grit; old, but lines of fracture apparent.

Fig. 13, represents the apical portion of a broken lance-head somewhat resemb-
ling No. 7, but of a kind wider and flatter, leaf-shaped or oval, with a rounded base,
of which Dr. Abbott’s Fig. 38 (1875) is an average form on the Susquehanna, and of
which the Retreat furnishes a fragment (rather more than the basal half) which
scarcely differs from the corresponding part of Abbott’s figure. Its material is that
of Figs. 3 and 9; its greatest thickness about # inch.

362 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

GBA; PDE Rie Vata:

HOES AND DIGGERS. PL. 8, 9.

As the arrow-head passes into that of the spear, so when the form classed with
spear-heads is regarded as too large for this weapon, its function is, with probable
reason, considered to be that of a hoe. But the Retreat has not yielded an example
of the lance-head form (such as Abbott’s Fig. 37), large enough to be classed as a
hoe, although the form occurs in the vicinity, and on the Forge islands seven miles
above. .A specimen was found about 170 yards north of the Retreat.

Fig. 1 (PI. 8) is adapted for digging, and may be termed a hoe: it is formed of
a gritty flat river stone; upper and lower surfaces nearly parallel; left margin flat
and vertical ; right margin coarsely chipped to a medial edge; point similarly chipped:
part of the base wanting; present length about 62, thickness 1} inch.

Fig. 2 (Pl. 8), a flat oval sandstone pebble; one edge broken as if for a handle ;
ore end apparently broken by use; greatest thickness about 1} inch.

Fig. 3, described at the close of the chapter on hammers.

Pl. 9, Fig. 1, represents the only distinctly grooved implement found, a river
pebble with an original thickness of about two inches: groove pecked in the upper
surface, not reaching the margins: edge narrow and flat, formed by removing a few
large chips from both surfaces: a very large spall has been split from the basal por-
tion of the lower surface, leaving a plane about 4 inches long and 3 wide. The spall
may have been split off intentionally for the purpose of adapting a handle at right
angles to the cutting edge.

Pl. 9, Fig. 2, dolerite, rough and gritty from decay, exterior particles so slightly
attached as to be removable in handling, showing the absence of abrasion during the
period of decay in the soil of the Retreat. There is some appearance of a notch and
groove, which point to a war club. Base 13, narrowing to 2 inch thick at the
opposite extremity ; no edge remaining.

Pl. 9, Fig. 3, a quartzite digger, the handle trimmed and well adapted for hold-
ing: greatest thickness 17, inch. Probably intended for taking up roots.

CHA PER {V1 Ids
SINKERS. PL. 10.
It has been customary to regard certain notched stones as net-sinkers, and at the

Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, there was a wide-meshed seine (I believe
from Northern America) made of narrow thongs, the lower edge of which was

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 363

weighted with such stones. Some of the larger examples of these stones may
have been used as weights to the vines with which streams were swept to drive the
fish into weirs, or as anchors to long lines (out-lines) set during the night, with at-
tached shorter lines or links bearing the hooks.

Figures 1, 3, 5, represent rough specimens made of the quartzite of the locality.

Fig. 1, is distinctly notched upon one margin, the other being nearly in its
natural condition: margins with a sharpness seemingly due to natural fracture,
except that which forms the top of the figure, which has the appearance of being
artificially rounded and provided with the cutting edge of an axe, of which it may
be a rude specimen. Thickness 1% inch.

Fig. 2, a river pebble with a rough notch on each lateral margin: thickness 1?
inch: might pass for a hammer: found January 17, 1876.

Fig. 3, a single notch broken from the thin edge of a natural fragment.

Fig. 4, flat, gritty slate; the commoner form in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
—rare in the vicinity. The specimen occurred in digging outside of the Retreat,
May 26, 1876. Compare Abbott, Fig. 204; C. C. Jones, Pl. 19, Fig. 11; Rau, Arch.
Coll. Fig. 112.

Figs. 5-9, probably fishing-line sinkers, of which 6, 7, 9, are made of river
pebbles.

CH-A P-T ER xX.
HAMMER-STONES. PL. 11.

The Retreat furnished about fifty stones, mostly river pebbles, varying in form
and size, some marked, others unmarked, the latter of which, if found with river
gravel, would not be entitled to mention here, but being placed by human hands in a
human habitation, they are to be classified as implements. All of the specimens
figured except Fig. 2, are of sandstone, and all have marks of adaptation or use.

Fig. 1, was probably at first intended for something like the chungkee stone of
the Cherokees and other tribes, and afterwards broken in being used as a hammer:
both faces have the central depression for the thumb and middle finger: the edges of
the cavities left by the removal of several marginal chips above, have lost their sharp-
ness and the depressions have the dullness of the general surface, but a later chip
from the lower surface exposes a fresher fracture with a well-defined margin. Brown
sandstone: greatest thickness 1? inch.

Fig. 2, resembling a fine-grained graywack; much decayed: apparently from
the yellow clay.

364 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

Fig. 3, a brown ferruginous sandstone pebble: upper, or less convex surface,
with a slight depression formed by pecking: lower end broken, lines of fracture sharp.

Fig. 4, a pecked spot on the upper surface: marks of usage at three or four
points of the margin: a chip removed from below, leaving a sharp margin: greatest
thickness about 1% inch.

Fig. 5, subtriangular, with marks of usage: a single, coarsely made, medial de-
pression: greatest thickness 15 inch. Compare Abbott’s figure 217. :

Fig. 6, an irregular ball, each extremity slightly roughened as if by pecking, or
by use as a hammer. Balls of stone occur in the vicinity, and among the Western
and Southern Indians. A sandstone specimen from a field in the vicinity of the
Retreat, is about 2% inch in diameter, and another of quartz is about 3 inches; a
third from the Forge islands seven miles north, of a siliceous material, measures 2+
inches, and is the most regular of these. More nearly spherical is a small one (12
inch) from Hast Tennessee, sent to me by Mr. F. A. Stratton. Probably from the
absence of better material, balls of burnt clay were made in Florida, of which I have
fragments indicating a diameter of about two inches.

Pl. 8, Fig. 3, represents a brown sandstone muller or paint grinder, as shown by
the red material in crevices at the base. |

The Retreat furnished no pestles, but a neatly finished brown sandstone example
was found about 170 yards north of it; length 102, diameter 12 inch.

CH AST hi ox.

I. TOMAHAWKS OF HONOR. PL. 12, Fias. 1-4.

Parts of five examples of these light, perforated tomahawks (banner-stones,
sceptres, or badges of authority) were found in the Retreat (Figs. 1-4), of which two
of the halves (Fig. 4) belonged to one implement.

Fig. i, siliceous slate with minute micaceous specks: hard enough to scratch
glass: surface retaining some polish: ridges of fracture sharp: a small biconic per-
foration countersunk from each side. It retains some of the yellow clay in which it
was buried, its position having been pointed out to me by the boy who found. it,
February 19, 1876, and unless his account was false, this is one of the oldest objects
found. What is left of the perforation for the handle, has the striz marking the
boring, and some gritty projecting particles.

Fig. 2, material a yellowish steatite.

65

(oy)

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA.

Fig. 3, of black slate: a doubly countersunk perforation from face to face (as in
No. 1), through the thickest part of the fragment. These perforations are rather
common, and seem adapted for dressing bow-strings.

Hie. 4, of black slate: the medial part is flat and angular on the side figured, and
curved on the other: the margin of the right wing has one notch above and two be-
low, the left wing three above—probably mnemonic. The half of a nearly similar
specimen was present.

These implements usually occur broken at the eye, where the material is thin.
The breakage may be due to a tightly fitting handle, to wedging a loose one, to its
expansion from moisture, or to the fact that in some cases the perforation was made
after the completion of the exterior.

io Peps: Pane clics =RULGS)..-0— 6).

Fig. 5, represents a taper steatite pipe, flat below and convex above: bore mostly
uniform, but funnel-shaped at the larger extremity, and about as wide as the dimen-
sions admit: a V-shaped excision at the larger end of the flat surface, and a fragment
broken from the end of the convex surface. Resembles a modern cigar-holder, and is
judged to be a smoking pipe, of which the figure probably represents about the
original size.

Fig. 6, part of a pipestem of clay, slightly burnt: from the upper part of the
black mold.

ILS COINS Xara SoMscauIo ay aA ariy ILA aCe yy ter

Fig. 7, represents a gray indurite, of which the fresh fracture is black, an object
which may be termed a core, as it shows that several fiakes or chips have been re-
moved from it of the kind which furnish cutting edges. -

As part of the business of the Retreat was making stone implements, par-
ticularly arrow-heads, an abundance of chips and. spalls occurred, many of foreign
material, and with delicate points and edges indicative of manufacture on the spot,
and subsequent repose.

TV EER BBS fy) Pa adler Eee Ga 8

In Chapter V, allusion is made to trying the texture of pebbles selected for
making arrow-heads, by striking off a chip, and such a one is represented in Fig. 8.
The chips varied in size from one-fourth of an inch to half the pebble, and sometimes
the marks of two or three appear: in most cases the line of fracture is sharp, but in a
few the sharpness has disappeared. ‘The size of the pebbles is from about 13 to 2 or 24
inches; the form approaches to oval or spheric, but is sometimes round and fiat,
adapted for throwing, and perhaps collected (together with the smaller hammer-

366 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT

stones) for defence as well as for other purposes, but they did not occur in masses.
Omitting doubtful specimens, the Retreat has furnished 455 of these pebbles, of
which 160 are entire, the large number of 295 being chipped. Other chipped and
unchipped examples, also some probable hammer-stones, borers, and scrapers, occurred
from ten to thirty yards beyond the Retreat, and chiefly south of it.

Pebbles about half an inch in size (larger and smaller), perhaps collected for
rattles, or due to ice; but river gravel does not appear in the soil, which has been
recently (May, 1878), dug up for twelve yards in front of the Retreat to form a
garden, the chief mineral present being small angular fragments of the quartzite of the
vicinity, with an occasional entire or chipped pebble of the kind already mentioned.

A smooth flat river-stone, with vertical sides and rounded angles, occurred in the
recess, and may have served for preparing food, for a baking-stone, or for a seat : 144
inches long, 3 thick, 74 to 8 wide.*

V-. SHEL DS. + prs 1-2) rred Or

Several species of Unio inhabit the Susquehanna, and the shells occurred sparsely
in the Retreat, mostly fragmentary and in a state of decay (as in Fig. 9, probably U.
radiatus), but a more recent valve of Unio complanatus was found. The molluscs
were probably eaten; the shells used for scrapers and tweezers ;+ and fine fragments
are visible in the clay of some of the pottery found. Neither perforated specimens
nor univalve species were observed.

VI. BoNES. PL. 12, Fie@s.10-16.

Bones in various stages of decay or conservation were rather abundant; the
hollow ones, such as Figs. 14, 15, are split, according to the habit of modern savages,
who eat marrow.{ Several of the specimens figured (Fig. 10-14) have been selected
as probable awls, in addition to those of Plate 4. The originals of Figs. 13 and 14
are much decayed, and the latter is slightly notched on both sides, as if for the at-
tachment of a string.

*Ihave from Mr. A. H. Gottschall a lenticular pebble, about 63 inches across and 2} high, which he found in
use by Sioux as a base upon which to pound flesh with a stone hammer.

+ Heckewelder, Indian Nations, Hist. Soc. Penna., 1876, p. 205.

{ My friend, Prof. E. D. Cope, finds remains of the following species in the Retreat : Ouriacus virginianus (com-

mon deer), bones abundant ; Seiwrws hudsonius (red squirrel) ; Didelphys virginiana (possum) ; Tortoise, species not
determined ; Meleagris gallopavo (turkey, a beak) ; and perhars the domestic dog and sheep.

IN SOUTH-EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA. 367

CHAPTER:
PLO AD TB ARY. f00P Ts) sdt3), SAAS,

About 300 fragments of pottery were found within, or outside of the Retreat, and
in some cases a piece apparently thrown out when a vessel was broken, could be fitted
to another found inside; the finest example (PI. 14, Fig. 9), was in four pieces, one
from the inside and three from the earth outside.

The kinds are ali more or less burnt; in some the burning from the inside is
blackened for some depth, when the outside is reddish or yellowish, like a slightly burnt
brick. Brown of various shades is a common color, and seems to belong to the more
highly burnt, the thinnest, and most delicately made variety.

The material is clay alone, or clay mixed with finely broken. mussel shells (PI.
13, Fig. 1 and 21), or with grains of broken quartz (PI. 14, Fig. 1).

In a few cases the exterior is smooth (Pl 13, Fig. 1), but the upper part of most
of the vessels was marked with impressed lines and dots variously arranged for orna-
ment, drawn before drying, apparently with the end of a small stick, quill, or bone ;
or impressed at right angles as with cords and knots (PI. 14, Fig. 2), giving a netted
appearance ; also with a row or several rows left standing on an ear of maize (Pl. 14,
Figs. 3, 4), or perhaps with the cob or spike. The inside of the margin or lip is
rarely marked or ornamented (PI. 14, Figs. 8), 9), and when the extreme edge is
thick enough to admit of it (as in PI. 13, Fig. 22, Pl. 14, Figs. 3, 4, 5, 7), this part may
have ornamental impressions.

‘When a fragment wants the original margin, its upper part can be sometimes
told by a curve indicating a widening towards the mouth, as in Pl. 13, Figs. 1, 3, 4,
5, 6, 8, 10. 11.

The margin is present in Figs. 9, 12, 18, 16, 19, 20, 22, of Pl. 13; and in 1,.2,.3,
4,5, 7,9, of Pl. 14. The presence of part of the margin shows the direction of the
lines in P]. 13, Fig. 20, but nothing remains to indicate that they were horizontal in
the fragment Fig. 21.

The external impressions on the specimen Pl. 13, Fig. 12, resemble the row on
the inside margin of Fig. 2a, Pl. 14.

The thickness of the pieces varies from 4 to about 2 of an inch: the somewhat
irregular curve of a large fragment indicates a vessel 13 inches in diameter—a size
which Pl. 14, Fig. 1, 2,10, may have reached. PI. 14, Fig. 6, represents a pot about
7 inches in diameter, and Pl. 14, Fig. 9, one of about 54 inches.

PLATE 14.

Figure 6, represents a piece of reddish, under-burnt pottery, with two perforations
countersunk from the outside, and being intended for the reception of carrying-strings,

A. P. S.—VOL. XV. 4D.

368 ON THE CONTENTS OF A ROCK RETREAT, ETC.

they are frequently or mostly placed at a different level, to divide the strain and pre-
vent the separation of the rim—as shown in modern practice. In most cases they
seem to be bored after the vessel has been burnt.

Figures 1, 7, 9, represent an uncommon style of ornament, consisting of a row of
small cylindric holes near, and around the margin, pushed almost through the mate-
rial, and appearing in elevations or pimples on the opposite side. In some vessels the
holes are impressed from the inside (Fig. 1), in others (Figs. 7, 9) from the outside.
In Fig. 5 the surface is ornamented with circular holes irregularly distributed.

The lip of Fig. 2a has the inside marked with a row of impressions: Fig. 8 is
marked outside (a), and inside (6): the section of Fig. 9 appears at (a), and the in-
side of the lip is represented at (b.) The flat lip of Fig. 7 (@) is ornamented with a
series of transverse lines resembling the impressions made with a string of several
small beads, both string and beads being impressed. The surface ornaments have
this bead character. The pattern is composed of a series of horizontal lines alterna-
ting with others at an angle of 45 degrees, disposed thus:

TEE NN,

The lines of some specimens are zigzagged vertically, as in Pl. 14, Figs. 3, 4, 9;
others horizontally, like the large one referred to as having had a diameter of about
thirteen inches.

The Retreat furnished a single rough fragment of steatite pottery about four

inches across and one inch thick—perhaps brought in its broken condition to cut into
ornaments. About 175 yards north of the Retreat an old steatite dish was found,
with a projecting ear at each end: length of the interior 45, breadth 4, depth 25
inches. I*ragments and vessels of steatite are widely spread, occurring in California.

Besides the brass arrow-point mentioned (PI. 6, Fig. 35), the connection with the
historic period is marked by a leaden rifle bullet, and four glass beads found outside,
three greenish, spheric and corroded, the other blue, cylindric and polished.

Some fragments of two kinds of mineral paint were present, one red, the other
black.

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