at oa be Oonr' ee ee ee Pee anne + % + eee eee eee ++ Rear Ss peer 2660 2 bee om i a eal - - wee . assent eaen et ee end het Bet arnt eS Sinead nih eerie > rarer SS on Rte nl ete te Oh aot Oe ke 1 Oe Ok hee + mene © wee sooo Pe ee ah owe eee sew eh atenre Renee o oeny « Coe xe ene tees +>.0-4-« Pe PRS Pe ye & Be aa tow en ve toe > — Hos ne + a ee nal a adlee = at A Ve TRE OO we: o how tit oe 24 Bes © 456 Oe oe oan eee eee oan; tba Aw 26 eee he . rh oye se, oboe te ra * wee® © 2 vee Te eel a a enraPodt he St OA Oe Oe - 2 renee SS ee oe ee a eae Sad > -e- negra ant Bne ne ee nenmeiasel Cok SPE GO -600 Smt OO Oe he ee eee onde Baw te = > tw Sate br preted le pret Pet tt ae ee 6 nina baw Hee — ee Teen ered ere ® ee ee “Sea npsve 2 - ee oe ote ere ee ree a eT eral ware Sng oie on eee SO a We Be fp ed Oriel ADO 8 OF POO ie Oo -8 - 2 oss oR AWS ae < obne ooene © + meewe se ad . ee teat tee ea ea ee aad “9 ee Shee ph Oe Oe eee ee S46 ae) oe Gaeta oe knenee C ee tid Sor O06 hes eeeeee ° , “ . 10 a arr edna 4 Oe OSH K LH - 2 Pe ln tTe Fat ene oe oe naar hee oe ue ee eral a ET ee > re ate ite dearly au aed a wear Ang Aim: hoa Aner a CN ae Dar peer sraesrerer i urarwee Tee ‘prt et Coven ere tar & ' —— aed oe! 7 o+€ sete Sea ee ee ot Ot Ate tre FT 8 ee 2 tab «se re ‘= nent ee verry ye de ard -* Py oe a ad wo) eres NE Te a Pate ee Oe ee Pe heh Oey nnd 430 Rent 5 te ate oo . * a MO 8 OPO net Se Arg tee a miami re eS AT J ’ cenane > ~ eae ee aree-@-8 seg se oe pelea ee ey prereie yr Othe Bonet Moet — hate bh & : * ee Aw is ee sae Ptr io! + “ Pr ee ee ene “oe ~ qe peeeggn de ons =? ae eee - . 8 kee OR ya a8 eee ne oe ee ee nn ee 5 abe Sg see oF . aes tee eee Se - ’ “ eb Ene Oe Oe : Rte $e t YOO HP® ae eee meee at atta ret oe aor es eee a bts en Oe ee o« << NS a Penne ae a ae a) ~s rw 2 a2 2-8 ho Pree a on @ <0 > - nee - 5 ee ee eee ~ one The : * ‘ ~ w* a st dete “ le FO a ak Fe et 6 Re ee eee ae oon ee ee 128-0 : ‘ “6 o6 ye aa eda e-t . a 7s hn a Poa: ACC TOONS OF THE — AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. VOL. XVII.—NEW SERIES. UE LS Dy BY THE SOCPETY. \ / Luar’ A Philadelphia: MACCALLA & COMPANY, PRINTERS, 1893. ee Nee aN ea Oo Be ViOm SV EL. dy ae dS oR) Ae ARTICLE I. Description of a Skull of Megalonyx leidyi, n. sp. By Josua Lindahl, Ph.D. (With 5 plates) . ARTICLE II. On the Homologies of the Posterior Cranial Arches in the Reptilia. By E. D. Cope. (With 5 plates) . ARTICLE III. A Synopsis of the Species of the Teid Genus Cnemidophorus. By E. D. Cope. (With 8 plates) Be PASsEe sy seas. ARTICLE IV. The Tribute Roll of Montezuma. Edited by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., and Dr. J. Cheston Morris. (With 6 plates) . ; 4 j F ‘ : Part I.—The Written Language of the Ancient Mexicans. By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D., LL.D. Part Il.—The Tribute Roll. By Henry Phillips, Jr. Part I1[.—Physical and Ethnographical Characteristics. By Dr. J. Cheston Morris. A= J dey Sh SESE Ace ARTICLE VY. The Saprolegniaceze of the United States, with Notes on Other Species. By James Ellis Humphrey, Sc.D. (With 7 plates) . : j ‘ : : 5 ; : ARTICLE VI. Researches upon the Chemical Properties of Gases. By Francis C. Phillips, Ph.D. (With 3 cuts and 2plates) . : ; ; ‘ lhe ‘ , ‘ 5 i 11 27 53 63 149 ARTICLE I. DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL Of MEGALONYX LEIDYI, nsp: BY JOSUA LINDAHL, Pu.D., SPRINGFIELD, ILL. Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 2, 1891. The specimen to be described on the following pages belongs to Bethany Col- lege, Lindsborg, Kansas. It was placed in my hands for description, three years ago, by Prof. J. A. Udden, at that time holding the chair of Natural History in Bethany College, and I wish herewith to express my obligation to the President of the said institution, the Rey. C. A. Svensson, for having allowed me to retain it so long, no less than to Prof. Udden, who first offered me this opportunity, and who, at my request, has communicated a geological sketch of the locality where it was discovered. This is his letter: Dr. J. Linpaut, Springfield, I. : Dear Sir :—The fossil skull of Megalonyx, which I sent you three years ago, was found by a man in excavating a sand pit near the southwest corner of Harper township, in McPherson county, Kansas. The watershed between the Kansas and the Arkansas systems runs through McPherson county from east to west. Near the centre of the county it crosses at right angles a shallow trough about ten miles wide, which contains a series of small, undrained basins, and is known by well diggers in the county as the ‘‘old river bed.”’ This trough has for- merly been one hundred and twenty five feet deeper than it now is, being filled to that extent by sediments burying the red shales into which itis cut. Taken in ascending order, these sediments consist of (1) gravel and sand, contain- ing rolled boulders of clay and angular fragments of cretaceous shales of various sizes up to a weight of a ton and more (from near the bottom of this gravel the skull was taken) ; (2) a stratum of clay, observed only in two places, and not known to be continuous over any considerable area; (3) a stratum of volcanic dust several feet in thickness, seen at six different localities, extending twelve miles in a line across the trough ; (4) a fine dull orange-colored loam, up- wards of seventy-five feet in thickness, and occasionally resembling loess. Awe. Si VOll. -Xeville At 2 DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL OF From the gravel and the sand have been taken the following fossils, determined by Profs. E. D. Cope and R. Ellsworth-Call : Equus major DeKay. Spherium striatum Lam. Spherium suleatum Lam. Pisidium abditum Haldeman. Anodonta, sp. Valvata tricarinata Say. Gammarus, sp. 5 Beds like these are found at various places on the Western plains, but they have suffered greatly by erosion. Their occurrence in McPherson county is at a point marking the crossing of a line of minimum erosion (the water- shed) over another line of maximum development (the trough). A study of the region and the deposits, in my opinion, shows that (1) previous to the deposition of the Pleisto- cene, the country was traversed by drainage channels considerably deeper than at present; (2) the time of the making of the gravel and the sand was probably coincident with a period of increasing humidity ; (3) the gravel and the volcanic dust were deposited in waters that did not cover the cretaceous ledges in the vicinity ; (4) floating ice was present as an effective transporting agent, when the sand and gravel were being laid down. In the gravel, a small boulder was found containing fossils, which have been identified by Mr. E. O. Ulrich as belonging to the Lower Carboniferous. Large boulders are common, consisting of a pure white aggregate of micro- scopic crystals of carbonate of lime. . Specimens of this material have been examined by Mr. George P. Merrill, who says he has seen similar material from the Cretaceous of Texas. Both of these occurrences point to a southern extension of the water in which the deposits were made. Yours, most sincerely, J. A. UDDEN. AUGUSTANA COLLEGE, Rock IsLAND, Inu., Dec. 10, 1890. The specimen has not the appearance of haying been exposed to violence or to the vicissitudes of long transportation previous to its discovery, its present defects evidently being caused by careless handling afterwards. Prof. Udden had, therefore, good reasons for his hopes that the balance of the skeleton might be found in the same gravel pit. These hopes proved futile, notwithstanding his energetic labors, but he was rewarded by recovering the only missing portion of the right zygoma, and also a dorsal vertebra which may or may not have belonged to the same individual. The original discoverers of the skull, ignorant of its value, removed both the canine molars, to keep them as curiosities, and, for the same purpose, broke off the protruding ends of five of the other molars, leaving only the 2d in the left maxilla and the 2d and 4th in the right. In this operation they also removed portions of the alveolar walls of the Ist and 5th molars and of the palatine and pterygoid bones (Pl. IIT). The left canine molar was afterwards returned, though short of its pulp end ; also, the inner half of the piece removed from the 3d right molar. The descend- ing ramus of the left zygoma as well as the intermaxillary bones were not found. Prof. Joseph Leidy (in his Memoir of the Extinct Sloth Tribe of North Amer- ica, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Dec., 1853) described two skulls of Megalonyx jefersont Harlan. One of them, originally belonging to Dr. D. D. Owen’s MEGALONYX LEIDYI, N. SP. 3 collection, is now the property of the Indiana State University at Bloomington, Ind. I will here refer to that specimen as the Owen specimen. The other, discovered by Dr. M. W. Dickeson, belongs to the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. I will call -it the Dickeson specimen. These two skulls and the Kansas specimen now before me are, as far as known, the only Megalonyx skulls hitherto preserved in any collection. The Kansas specimen is specifically distinct from the other two, and has also in other respects a particular value, in so far as it shows the structure of the entire zygo- matic arch and of the turbinals, which bones were nearly destroyed in the specimens described by Dr. Leidy. This paper will, therefore, supplement his as a memoir on the genus Megalonyx. For easier comparison with Dr. Leidy’s figures, the figures illustrating this paper have been drawn, with few exceptions, to the same scale as his. They were executed by my old friend, Mr. A. M. Westergren, for twenty-five years the able artist in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, in Stockholm, now with Prof. Alexander Agassiz, of Harvard. Judging from the more perfect obliteration of the sutural connections in the ‘Dickeson specimen, Dr. Leidy has demonstrated that it belonged to an older indi- vidual than the Owen specimen. The same argument places the age of the Kansas specimen between the other two. The sagittal and occipito-parietal sutures are less open than in the Owen specimen, but more so than in the Dickeson specimen. The temporo-parietal sutures are entirely obliterated, and so is the suture between the basi-occipital and the basi-sphenoidal bones, both of which sutures are distinct in the Owen specimen. Lateral view.—The obvious difference in the sagittal contour in the three skulls (compare Pl. I with Leidy’s Pl. I and Pl. 1V) may be explained as owing to differ- ence in age, and would then confirm the conclusion derived from comparing the sutural connections. The still more striking difference in the facial contour in the two specimens of M. jefferson is most likely a secondary sexual character. May it not be that the males of these animals, like those of the recent cystophorine seals, had some special adaptation of their nose for vocal purposes? The Kansas specimen agrees in this contour more closely with the Dickeson specimen than with the Owen specimen ; the latter having the nasal vault raised higher than the cranial portion, which is not the case in the other two. It may thus be inferred that these two are females, the Owen specimen a male. As stated above, but little remains of a zygomatic arch in the two specimens of M. jeffersoni. A special interest attaches to this arch on account of its extreme diversity of form in the different genera of Edentates. Reinhardt* inferred from the * Prof. J. Reinhardt : “ Kempedovendyr-Slegten Calodon ;’’ Copenhagen, 1878, pp. 329, 326. 4 DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL OF strongly developed sagittal crest and temporal fossa that the zygomatic arch in Mega- lonyx may, not unlikely, prove to be completely closed. Our specimen shows that he was correct in his conclusion. I will here give a detailed description of this structure. The zygomatic arch.—The zygomatic process of the squamosal bone projects outward and forward, asin MZ jeffersont. Its upper border descends first in a concave curve for about 8 cm. from the inion (thereby differing from M. jeffersonz, in which the corresponding line is strongly convex, Leidy, l.c., P). 1); along the following 4 cm. it deviates less from a horizontal direction; and, finally, in its last 4 em., it rises gently upward to meet the border of the malar bone, about 15 cm. from its origo on the border of the inion. ; The glenoid fossa is curved outward and forward, measuring 5 em. in length and 2.5 cm. in greatest width. There is but a rudimentary postglenoidal process, but the antero-exterior margin of the fossa is expanded into a horizontally flattened exglen- oidal process. The inferior border of the bone extends 4 em. in advance of this pro- cess, and there meets the postero-inferior process of the malar bone. The space between these two processes is more or less roughened. The external surface of the zygomatic process, viewed from above, is sigmoid ; but between its upper and lower margins it is more or less concave throughout. Its least vertical diameter is 82 mm. The anterior end of the zygomatic process slants upward and forward with a gentle curve and finally makes a sudden turn upward and backward. ‘The corre- sponding emargination in the malar bone does not describe a similar curve, but passes, in its upper portion, with a beveled edge, behind (inside of) the edge of the zygomatic process. The sutures are entirely obliterated in the arch of the right side, but the left arch has been fractured accidentally, and the suture cracked open. However, even on the right side (PJ. I) the location of this suture may be seen as a line, from both sides of which the faces of the two bones slope in different directions. There is a rough semicircular ridge on the inside of the zygomatic process, pass- ing from its infero-anterior point to a point perpendicularly above the same. In front of this ridge is a broad shallow fossa extending over a considerable portion of the malar bone. Leidy’s description of the malar process of the maxilla in M. jeffersoni (1.c., p. 9) applies also to M. letdyz, except in the latter having the infra-orbital canals double, a horizontal septum dividing each into two canals, one immediately above the other. This individual presents, also, an asymmetry in these canals, for, whilst that of the right side has but a rudimentary septum forming a complete partition only fora short MEGALONYX LEIDYI, N. SP. 5 distance, a little behind the middle of the canal, the septum in the canal of the left side is complete through its entire length, and is 6 mm. thick in the centre of its anterior border. The anterior orifices are vertically oval, that of the right side meas- uring 13.5 x 9 mm.; the upper orifice on the left side measuring 8 x 5 mm., and the lower, 11 x 9 mm. Resting on the zygomatic process of the maxilla, the root of the malar bone pro- jects outward, backward, and downward, its antero-posterior. diameter being 12 mm., the intero-exterior 21.5 mm. in its narrowest place, about 12 mm. below the summit — of the curve of the said process. About 9 mm. further down, on the interior side, is a tuberosity forming the superior termination of an area for muscular attachment. This area, 10 mm. wide and 41 mm. long, twists itself around the border of the bone, so that its lower end faces directly forward. It is divided by a low, median longi- tudinal ridge into two facets. From the border, bearing this area, the external surface of the bone turns out- ward and backward, and at the same time expands both upward and downward ; the anterior border of the upper expansion forms the exterior border of the orbit, and terminates about 5 cm. above the inferior orbital border in a postorbital protuberance; whilst the downward expansion is prolonged into a free descending ramus, terminat- _ ing abruptly, 96 mm. below the inferior border of the orbit. A low ridge passes from the infero-posterior corner of this ramus, on its exterior face, diagonally upward and forward, dividing that face into two concave facets, of which the antero-inferior is triangular in form, the other somewhat rhomboidal. The inferior as well as the posterior borders of the ramus are attenuated to sharp edges; its anterior face is triangular, and by a sharp ridge set off from the exterior face; its interior face is smooth and convex. Posterior to a line, which may be drawn from the postorbital protuberance of the malar bone to the posterior margin of the descending ramus, the exterior face of the bone bends more strongly backward, and the corresponding line on the interior face is the anterior margin of the broad shallow fossa which extends to the semicircular ridge near the distal end of the zygomatic process of the squamosal. The free pos- tero-inferior margin of this laminar body forms a sharp edge, and, on the external face, bordering on this edge, is seen a semicordate muscular impression, pointed behind, oval in front, and reaching nearly half way towards the inferior margin of the orbit. A line drawn from the postorbital protuberance of the malar to the nearest point of the zygomatic process of the squamosal, may be regarded as the base of the ascend- ing ramus of the latter. Below this line the external face of the bone slopes down- 6 DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL OF ward and forward; above the same line the ascending process slopes upward and inward. It also points strongly backward. Its free borders are nearly straight, except near the apex, where they suddenly converge, and near their bases, where the anterior border gently curves convexly upon the postorbital protuberance, whilst the posterior border makes a concave curve towards the superior margin of the zygomatic process. The internal face of the ramus is strongly convex. The entire span of the zygomatic arch is 25 cm., from inion to the farthest point on the anteorbital margin, and 11.8 cm. from the inner curve of the zygomatic process of the squamosal to the inner curve of the corresponding process of the maxilla. The distance between the apices of the two rami of the malar is 18.4 em. Superior view.—One of the most obvious differences in the three skulls is. pre- sented by the divergence of the temporal ridges. A comparison of Plate II with Leidy’s Plate II will tell this at a glance. The angle between these ridges is acute in the Owen specimen, but broadly obtuse in the other. But the Dickeson specimen has the same angle still more obtuse, and no specific value can therefore be attached to these differences. Posterior view (Pl. [V, Fig. 2).—Here the differences are more important. In M. jeffersoni (L.c., Pl. VI, Fig. 3) the outline of the inion is semicircular; in ML lerdyz it is decidedly polygonal, though with rounded corners. The upper portion of the inion is in M. jeffersont flattened, and bordered below by a transverse crest. In M. leodyi the corresponding portion bulges out to form a broad tuberosity, bordered below by two transverse fossz, one on each side of the vertical crest. foramen magnum is transversely oval, its horizontal and vertical diameters respectively 48 mm. and 84mm. In M. jefersoni this foramen is circular, its diam- eter 34 mm. (“16 lines,” Leidy). Anterior view.—In comparmg Leidy’s Pl. VI, Fig. 2, with our Pl. IV, Fig. 1, it should be remembered that the specimen figured by Leidy has the intermaxilla- ries preserved, which ours has not. Other differences are such that it is hard to tell what is of really specific importance or may be due to age or sex. The nasal cavity.—The internal structure of the nose is much better preserved in our specimen than in either of the skulls described by Leidy. A brief description will therefore be in place here. Behind the incisive foramen the anterior end of the hard palate is turned upward and slightly inclined backward between the alveolar walls of the canine molars, to a height of about 25 mm. Its upper edge is centrally produced in a triangular process with acuminate apex. A nasal crest of the maxillaries commencing about 65 mm. behind its anterior border, and resting on the median line of the floor of the cavity, MEGALONYX LEIDYI, N. SP. 7 abuts on the front wall just described and participates in forming the apex of its triangular process. The upper bony septum of the cavity is formed by a perpendicular lamina, 48 mm. high and 2 to 4 mm. thick in its anterior margin. This lamina, which extends 115 mm. backward, has its free edge grooved for the attachment of the cartilaginous septum. The distance between the antero-inferior corner of this lamina and the apex of the triangular process below is 26 mm. The anterior margins of the nasal bones project about 25 mm. beyond the perpendicular lamina. Attached to the intero- inferior margins of the nasals, and about 30 mm. behind their anterior margins, ap- pear the anterior margins of the ethmo-turbinals as vertical lamine, until in the postero-superior recesses of the cavity, they expand their convoluted portions. _ The mazillo-turbinals are very large. ‘Their anterior extremities show them to be borne on the lateral walls of the cavity, near the proximal extremity of the canine - molars, and thence to extend both upward and downward. The upper portion bends around the alveole and bulges out externally, following, with a small interspace, the form of the wall of the cavity. The lower portion extends into the cavity between the maxillary wall and the nasal crest. The inner side facing the narial septum is flattened. The vertical height of the whole maxillo-turbinal is at least 8 cm., the upper portion being the higher; the antero-posterior diameter is about 9 em. At the anterior margin of its root on the maxillary wall is seen a circular foramen with raised borders, appearing as the projecting end of a tube. Capacious air sinuses extend backward in the root of the pterygoid (PI. IiI), and branch off from there forward into the alveolar wall of the maxilla. Inferior view, and sections of the skull—The distinctive characters of MZ. lecdyi are best expressed in its proportions. Leaving out measurements and plates from Leidy’s “Memoir,” his description would exactly fit to our specimen, as well. Per- haps the most striking peculiarity of the latter is the far lesser prominence (depth) of its maxillary portion. This will be most readily appreciated by comparing the sections, Pl. V, Figs. 1-6, which were constructed with great care, Figs. 1, 3 and 5 from the Kansas specimen, and Figs. 2,4 and 6 from a plaster cast of the Owen specimen. Sections 1 and 2 were taken vertically and longitudinally through the sagittal erest. The vertical distance between the base of the cranium and the most projecting point of the hard palate in the specimens measured, is respectively 34mm. and 60 mm. Sections 3 and 4 are transverse, nearly vertical, sections of the same specimens, immediately in front of their 2d molars and anteorbital margins. Sections 5 and 6 are also transverse and vertical, passing through the anterior 8 DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL OF borders of the foramina rotunda |the locations of these foramina are indicated by asterisks (**)], and thus at or near the narrowest portion of the cranium. The pterygoid processes converge more rapidly forward in MW. jeffersoni (Lc, Pl. II) than in M. lecdyz (Pl. 11), their most approximated points in the former being just below the said foramina, but in the latter, at least 5 cm. more forward. Their roots bend more outwardly, their horizontal interior portions are narrower, and the anterior end of the basi-sphenoid, exposed to view between their inner margins, is broader in the line of the section in M. jefferson¢ than in M. leidyz. The area be- tween the root of the pterygoid process and the inferior border of the temporal fossa, in M. jefferson, overhangs the said process, sloping upward and outward about 30°, and extending as a plane in that direction about 3 em., when it suddenly bends ver- tically upward, and finally makes a sudden turn inward and upward to its margin on the sagittal crest. The same surface in MW. leidyi rises at once from foramen rotun- dum more than 60°, and curves gently up to the crest without any sudden bend. Sections 5 and 6 will show these differences plainly. Dentition—The left canine molar, as much as is left of it, as well as the alveoles of these molars, are but very slightly curved and are of uniform diameter. This species thus belongs to Group “B,” in Cope’s Synoptic Table (E. D. Cope: Pre- liminary Report on the Vertebrata discovered in the Port Kennedy Bone Cave, Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. xii, 1871, p. 85). The group comprises but two other known species, viz., M. wheatleyi Cope, and M. dissimilis Leidy. Cope makes the following dis- tinction between the two: “ Molars triangular ; canine molars less compressed—M. wheatley?.” “ Last molar oval; canine molars more compressed—M. dissimilis.” The third species of the group should be characterized thus : Last molar ovato-triangular ; the others quadrangular; canine molars less com- pressed—M. levdy. It might be added that the exterior dentine layer, in both of the former species, is thinnest at the bulge, whereas in JZ leidyi it has its maximum thickness at the bulge. The figures of the teeth (Pl. V, Figs. 7-9) are drawn with particular care. It should be remembered that the triturating surfaces are preserved only of the Ist and 2d molars in the left maxilla, and of the 2d, 8d (partly), and 4th in the right maxilla, and that the two 5th molars are broken off so high up as to expose their pulp cavities (compare Pl. III). Even regardless of this, the teeth are not perfectly symmetrical. In naming this species for the venerable paleontologist, Prof. Joseru Lerpy, M.D., LL.D., of the University of Pennsylvania, I make but a small acknowledg- MEGALONYX LEIDYI, N. SP. 9 ment of his admirable work on the osteology of the fossil Edentates—one of the numerous fields in which his master mind has illuminated the way on which humbler servants of Science endeavor to follow his lead. Comparative Measurements of the Skulls of Megalonyx jeffersoni: and WM. leidyi. MW. jeffersont. MW. leidyt. Owen Spec. Dickeson Spec. Kansas Spec. Length of skull from occipital condyles to anterior margin of Ist mm. mm. mm. molar alveoli............ jocgousesscoosoaneagesaserssodce os 306 396 348 Length from inion to anterior margins of nasals.................. 311 2ooc 309 Length of temporal fossa to postorbital protuberance ............. 197 197 199 Depth of temporal fossa in a straight line.....................0.. 102 114 108 Length of face from postorbital protuberance ..................-. 119 112 115 Heishitiot face toymiddilelof hardipalatezeccya- ee tele ee ere slols 153 146 136 ie OC Dib PUNO GRUNT. ne coododacosnoacs0nsnde oO ae 127 101 ° Breadth << MG WG | BSiposokosocoscoondNedson sauer 95 95 83 a SG DM OSS OH Us wnOler Mh aco 4oscoscqnogecsscKE 114 114 101 iG SaecuiePOStOLbIta laprotulberanGesem cp eee) ace ae 127 138 123 IDIMTGICr Cl CHING OF WN WOECs so5qq0sccoanssesonGccogseddaudcuc 89 89 OY Breadth of intermaxillaries, across their centres...........ssecees 85 * rite 453 Breadth of hard palate between ist molars ...................... 60 + oe 40 Length of interval between 1st and 2d molars.................... 50 + one 40 Length of face from ist to last molar alveolus ................... 178 ital 150 Length of maxilla from 2d to 5th molar alveoli, inclusive......... 95 + SB) 5 80§ Breadth of cranium at narrowest part of the temporal region ..... 89 102 91 Length of sagittal crest............. Be a rarerulsrmreieye pice neta eis eee 127 127 144+ Height of inion from inferior margin of foramen magnum.......- 110 110 107 Breadth of inion at mastoid processes..........-..------+------- 159 165 165 Capacity of brain cavity, 448 cu.cm. This indicates the weight of the brain to have been 16 oz. (according to Owen’s rule: Comp. Anat. and Physiol. of Vertebrates, Vol. iii, p. 144; the footnote). 1 According to Leidy (J.c. p. 18), unless otherwise stated. His measurements, in inches and lines, have here been reduced to millimetres. X 2 This measurement is taken in a vertical plane passing close in front of the anteorbital borders. 3 Although the intermaxillary bones are missing, the areas of their attachment to the maxilla are well marked. 4 The anterior terminus of this crest is determined somewhat arbitrarily, the parietal bones leaving a wide fissure between their margins, which gradually diverge and pass over into the ridges curving outward and forward to the postorbital protuberances. * Measured on Leidy’s plates. + Measured on a plaster cast. § Estimated. Jo 125 SH—\VOI, BQYVIOI, 1835 10 DESCRIPTION OF A SKULL OF MEGALONYX LEIDYI, N. SP. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate J. Lateral view—two-thirds natural size. late =i Superior view—two-thirds natural size. Fate Ae: Inferior view—two-thirds natural size. Plate IV. Fig. 1. Anterior view—two-thirds natural size. Fig. 2. Posterior view—two-thirds natural size. Plate V. Figs. 1, 3 and 5. Sections of skull of W. lecdyi Figs. 2, 4and 6. Sections of skull of IL jeffersoni Fig. 7. Dentition—natural size, and arranged on the plate in natural position. (see page 7). Figs. 8 and 9. Views of exterior side and triturating surface of left canine molar; natural size. P. 8.—Prof. E. D. Cope, in letters to Prof. Udden, determined the teeth of Hguwus major, found in the same bed as this skull, and also determined the age of the formation as belonging to the Hguus beds. He afterwards referred to the skull, in Am. Nat., Vol. xxiii, p. 660, as ‘only found in the Ticholeptus formation of Kansas.’’ This was a lapsus calamt which had escaped his notice until after the above was in type, and, at his request, it is hereby corrected. His figures, Pl. xxxi, were reproductions of three photographs made in Kansas. The photographer had placed the broken left canine-molar upside down in the right (the wrong) alveole.—J. L. Ua sepuepouy, eee LLOLTYOS “Ny 1 ul “uapamg 'u[0yH2015 ai csi ge case ceicenmnanniee” NESE oi Tid Se TIAX TOA S2MeS Man ‘90S T1Yq wy sued, ci Abas ’ ‘a ; ‘ , ns er me /. fp , ea T i . rar Wiley Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. New Series. Vol. XV SN arnoceaaisie ieee ae ee Ce ee) nn scale W. Schiachter, Stockholm, Sweden G.Tholander lith. A.M, Westergren del. MEGALONYX LEIDYI Lindahl. er ri ’ i 7? ‘i ae ee > ¢ 4 f é to =P we fi, i ~ ' bake " 7 mn 5 J i t = f ~ ; H : \ e . *% , F * ¢ ey , * 4 ¥ F ry ssf : i 7 3 ' ( ty 7 c | Pai ‘ 5 i j i “y : : ‘ i zt ‘ , # ' ee ze be . f é c £ 4 Je ; vt =) : Be 7 sy F t é ' ' f CG 7 < a ‘ke » v7 ays ~~ % * ‘ vf s # i i 2 - P \ s aia 2 | 5 “= < - Pwty * * : i *.. % j : . “ 5 +4 Oa ee Week . “ ‘ 4 ‘ ’ £, ¥ 4) i * e ( te 5 1 ‘ & . f ¥ ¥ ‘ i ys ti if ¥ y re | :. * , * . ns ‘ - . ‘ . A ’ ~ sd i > r x " i ‘ , j : v : ~ rf . w ” 1 . "a," . y aM of . ee , x * ’ > 1 1 f so) 3 \ - * bf s L > ; “e Gas tk . by * Z r - f = ¥ As F ‘ a dn +, a= : ’ reiki « 5 4 z ’ , a ‘ ‘ar ‘ ' ithe t © i i . 4 5 . . i ‘ %, - » ‘ 5 *. \ ‘“ ’ i ‘ . q ¥ Te ’ , a" 'h q < : aD vs - ae 7 t F Ay as wil.) r : vw ie iw in 1. — oe. 2 7 L 3 OEE Im, Sweden W. Schlachter , Stockhe Lindahl. G.Tholander lith. MEGALONYX .LEIDYI Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. New Series. Vol. XVII. A.M. Westergren del. Trans.Am. Phil. Soc. New Series. Vol. XVII. A. ML. Westergren. del. MEGALONYX G. Tholander Iith. LEIDYI Lindahl. W. Schlachter. Stoc ir Trans. Am. Phil. Side Wem Serica Vale fig. 8 port nr cco ------ - ------ hg. G G.Tholander lith W.Schlachter, Stockholm, Sweden. A.M Westergren del, Lindahl ligs 1.3,5,78,9 MEGALONYX LEIDYI A JEFFERSONI Harlan 24,6 uw ARTICLE If. ON THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES UN M800) leidled NIA BY E. D. COPE. Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 5, 1892. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Troy, N. Y., in 1870, I presented the result of my studies of the arches which distinguish the posterior part of the cranium in the Vertebrata, and especially in the Reptilia. Three arches were considered, which were named, commencing with the inferior in position: the quadratojugal, the zygomatic and the parietoquadrate. Of these the only arch recognized as occurring in the Mammalia was the zygomatic.* In the determination of this arch I followed Cuvier,+ and for the following reason. It was supposed that the quadrate bone represented one of the ossicula auditus. As this element in the Mammalia is intracranial, and does not give support to an arch, the zygomatic arch of that class could not be homologous with the arch which it (the quadrate) supports in the Reptilia (the quadratojugal). The zygomatic arch of the latter class would be, on the contrary, that one which originates at the proximal extremity of the quadrate, which would remain on the supposed withdrawal of the latter within the skull as one of ossicula auditus. Prof. Peters has, however, shown that the quadrate bone is probably not one of the ossicula auditus, and he is followed by Dollo, Albrecht and others. In a study of the osteology of the Permian reptile, Diopeus leptocephalus Cope,{ I came to the conclusion that the quadratojugal arch of that reptile is the zygomatic arch of the * Proceedings Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., XIX, 1870, p. 197. + Ossemens Fossiles, X, Ed. 1836, 14. + Clepsydrops leptocephalus Cope. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1884, pp. 30-42. Diopeus, gen. nov., described on a later page. ; 12 POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES Mammalia, thus coinciding with the opinion as to the homologies of that arch held by Hallmann, Owen and Peters, and as described by Gunther in Sphenodon. On further study of the Permian reptiles contained in my collection, and comparison of them with recent orders, I am more than ever convinced of the correctness of this view, and I propose in the present paper to show the evidence on which it rests. It follows, moreover, that if this interpretation be correct, the bone ordinarily called quadratojugal must be called the squamosal or zygomatic, while the bone to which that name is ordinarily applied must receive another name. The element immedi- ately above the true squamosal, which roofs the temporal fossa in the Stegocephali and Cotylosauria, is the supratemporal of Owen,* first described by him among reptiles in Ichthyosaurus. The element immediately above the supratemporal in the Stegocephali, Cotylosauria and Ichthyopterygia is the mastoid of Cuvier and Owen. As it is probably not homologous with the part of the Mammalian skull called by that name, some other one must be found for it. The numerous names given to bones in this region of the skull all apply to the squamosal or supratemporal, so I propose to name this one the supramastord. Posterior to the supramastoid in the Stegocephalian and in some of the Cotylo- saurian skulls, is an element which frequently projects in an angle in the posterior outline, and which corresponds with the element present in the fishes, which Cuvier termed the intercalare. The relation of this piece to the paroccipital of -certain rep- tiles remains to be ascertained. It is evident that the correct classification and phylogeny of the Reptilia will not be completed without the determination of the homologies of these segments, and the homologies of the arches to which they contribute. In the endeavor to accomplish this analysis I have been much aided by a suggestion made by Dr. George Baur, which has been fertile of valuable results. In a recent papert he says: “Tn the oldest Batrachia, the Stegocephalia, we find a continuous dermal covering of the upper and lateral parts of the skull; * * * the number of these dermal ossi- fications is nearly constant. * * * The complete covering of the skull is for the first time interrupted in the Ichthyosauria and Aétosauria{ by the appearance of a supratemporal fossa, which develops between the parietal, squamosal and the upper posterior border of the orbit. The bony arch below the supratemporal fossa, which connects the orbit with the quadrate, is now affected in two different ways: I. The *Suprasquamosal of Owen is the same; see Paleontology, pp. 168, 174, 198. Seeley uses the term supratym- panic for the same. y+ American Journal of Morphology, 1889, p. 471. } Or Pseudosuchia. IN THE REPTILIA. 13 broad single arch remains single, but becomes more and more slender and can be interrupted. Plesiosauria, Theromora, Mammalia, Squamata (Lacertilia, Pythono- morpha, Ophidia). II. In the broad single arch appears another opening, the infra- temporal fossa, forming an upper and lower arch which connects the orbit with the quadrate ; Rhynchocephalia; the whole Archosaurian branch (Crocodilia, Dinosau- ria, Pterosauria); birds.” Dr. Baur then proceeds to identify the postorbital arch of the Lacertilia with the quadratojugal or zygomatic arch, expressing the belief that the ancestors of that order never possessed any other quadratojugal arch, and that the present elevated position of the arch in the Lacertilia is due to reduction at the inferior border. ‘Thus the supratemporal of the lizards (squamosal Auct.) would be the equivalent of the quadratojugal of Sphenodon. In the endeavor to reach a definite conclusion regarding these questions, I have examined my specimens of the Reptilia of the Permian formation, as being most likely to furnish essential facts. I now give the results of this examination. I. Tue ReptriviA oF THE PERMIAN. I have well-preserved crania which display sutures of the following species: Chilonyx rapidens Cope; Pantylus cordatus Cope; Pariotichus megaloys Cope; Edaphesaurus pogonias Cope; Clepsydrops natalis Cope; Naosaurus claviger Cope; Diopeus leptocephalus Cope. The genera Chilonyx, Pantylus and Pariotichus have the temporal fossz entirely roofed over, thus belonging to the Cotylosauria,* to which must be probably referred the genus Pariosaurus Owen, of the South African Karoo formation, and the Phane- rosaurus of the German Permian. The other genera, excepting Diopeus, belong to the Pelycosauria, which is probably the same as the Theriodonta of Owen. CuILoNyYxf agrees with the Stegocephalia, and with other Diadectidz in pos- sessing a distinct os intercalare. The component clements of the cranial roof are equal in number and similar in position to those of the Stegocephalian skull, except that the supramastoid extends between the parietal and intercalare to the posterior border of the cranial table (Fig. 2, Sm.); and the supraoccipital does not extend onto the superior face of the skull, except as a narrow border. The quadrate bone is directed forwards instead of posteriorly, which causes an anteroposterior abbreviation of the supratemporal and squamosal elements. The elements of the temporal roof * Cope. American Naturalist, 1880, p. 304; October, 1889. Pariosauria Seeley. Philos. Transac., London, 1889, p. 292. + Cope, Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1883, p. 631. 14 POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES are not exclusively tegumentary, but are identical in character with the bones of the brain case, and the sutures are visible on the under as well as the upper side. PANTYLUS* agrees with Chilonyx in the composition of its cranial roof with the exception that the suspensorium is vertical and is not directed forwards. The position of the supraoccipital and intercalare cannot be ascertained, owing to the condition of the specimens (Fig. 4, Plate I). PaRioticuus Cope} agrees in the main with Chilonyx, but the supraoccipital is divided medially and is reflected onto the superior face of the skull as in Stegocephali. The intercalare is reduced to a small element, of which a small part appears on the superior face of the skull immediately behind the exterior part of the supramastoid (Fig. 3, Plate I). It is then these three genera which, according to Baur’s theory, represent the type from which the reptiles with posterior cranial bars have been derived by the development of foramina in the temporal roof. Let us see how this has been accom- plished in the different types. I commence with the Permian genera. The Theriodont genus, from the Permian of which I possess the best preserved cranium, is Naosaurus Cope (Fig. 7). It is, unfortunately for our purpose, the most extremely modified. The orbit is in the posterior part of the skull, and the muzzle is greatly elevated and compressed. The zygomatic (quadratojugal) is greatly decurved posteriorly, and the supratemporal is accordingly decurved also. The postfrontal (Fig. 7a) is a narrow bone, wider than long, and it has connection with the frontal, parietal and postorbital only. The postorbital is an L-shaped strue- ture, of which the shorter limb is inferior, extending to the jugal, while the longer limb is posterior, extending to the supratemporal, in contact with the parietal. It encloses no foramen with the latter; but it encloses a larger foramen with the jugal, zygomatic and supratemporal at the other boundaries. This is the infratemporal foramen of Baur. Posterior to the parietal is a small transverse element, which appears to be merely adherent to the former. Its determination is not easy at present. The supratemporal is elongate vertically, and narrow anteroposteriorly. Beneath and towards the middle line of the skull is a part of another bone, which may be the paroccipital, or even exoccipital. The pineal foramen is distinct. No parietoquad- rate arch. In Cxiepsyprops{ the structure is apparently the same, although the form is much less modified. ‘The quadrate articulation is nearly in line with the maxillary dental series (Fig. 6, Plate II), and the jugal is nearly horizontal; its inferior border *Cope, Bullet. U. 8. Geol. Survey Terrs., 1881 (8vo). | Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1878, p. 508. + Cope, loc. cit., 1878, p. 509. IN THE REPTILIA. 15 being concave upwards. No bar extends posteriorly from the postorbital, which joins the supratemporal, enclosing with it the infratemporal foramen. No indication of the supratemporal foramen can be found in the rather mutilated specimen. I think it was not present. In EpApHosaurus Cope (Fig. 5, Plate IT), the skull is of a more depressed type than in the preceding genera. The postorbital is mainly preserved, and it is in con- tact with the frontal (postfrontal) proximally, and sends out no bar posteriorly. There was apparently no supratemporal foramen, but a very large infratemporal, which extended well upwards. There is no parietoquadrate arch. An element, perhaps supraoccipital, terminates in a free appressed apex on each side of the median pos- terior region. This may be homologous with the small free bone described in Naosaurus, in nearly the same position. The stapes is very large, and is at least partially perforated near the expanded proximal extremity. It is probably fully per- forated, as I have described it in the Diopeus leptocephalus Cope. In DiorEus Cope, the supratemporal is elongate in the vertical direction, and as elsewhere, it overlaps the quadrate at the distal extremity. Anteriorly, it sends forwards a process probably for union with the postorbital bone, which is, however, entirely free from the parietal, and encloses a foramen with it, precisely as in Sphenodon. It further resembles the corresponding element in Sphenodon in send- © ing upwards a branch for union with the parietal. Thus there are in this genus two posterior bars and two foramina, thus differing widely from the other Permian genera of this or any.other country known to me. Whether it has a free parietoquadrate arch I do not know, but it is probable that the genus should be referred to the Rhynchocephalia, in the neighborhood of Paleohatteria Cred. It differs from Sphenodon and resembles closely the Theriodonta in the absence of an obturator foramen, and in the character of its dentition.* The zygomatic bone is not excavated below, but has a straight outline to its junction with the jugal. The quadrate con- dyle is double like that of Sphenodon and the Clepsydropide (Fig. 8, Plate II). The THERIODONTA described by Owen appear to have the single cranial arch constructed in the same way as I described above as characteristic of the American forms. I gather this from Owen’s figures of the genera Kistecephalus Ow., Galesau- rus Ow., Scaloposaurus Ow., Anthodon Ow., and apparently Lycosaurus Owen. The ANOMODONTA appear to have a differently constructed posterior cranial region. In my study of the skull of Lystrosaurus Copet (Proceeds. Amer. Ass. Ady. Sci., 1870, XIX, p. 205), I showed that this genus possesses an extensive supra- * Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1884, p. 33. + Ptychognathus Owen (preoccupied) ; Ptychosiagon Lydekker, 1889. - 16 POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES temporal foramen, and that the bone which bounds it externally consists posteriorly of the supratemporal bone, and not the zygomatic. Anteriorly this bone joins the postorbital, postfrontal and malar. Jn the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1889, p. 244, Prof. H. G. Seeley analyzes the structure of the skull of Dicyno- don, which he shows to resemble closely that of Lystrosaurus, and his analysis of the posterior arch and foramen is the same as my own in the latter genus. It is evident then that the Anomodonta differ from the Theriodonta in the absence of a zygo- matic arch, and in the presence of a supratemporal arch, which is separated from the parietal bone by a supratemporal foramen (Figs. 1-2). Fie. 1. Fre. 2. Fig. 1. Lystrosaurus frontosus Cope. An Anomodont from South Africa ; skull from above, Fig. 2, do., from right side. The lower Sq is the supratemporal. The South African genus ProcoLopHon Ow. has been analyzed by Seeley* in an admirable manner. The orbit is greatly enlarged, so that the region of the bars is contracted. However, there is a zygomatic arch, an infratemporal foramen, and no supratemporal foramen, thus agreeing with the Theriodonta, and not with the Anomodonta. In conclusion it appears that there are four types of crania represented in the Permian Reptilia, which are distinguished as follows: Demporal root Wminterrup ted! cicjejererstcreteteteleieerssielelelele sreieieteiteetieieiat atest eerie Cotylosauria. A zygomatic arch, but no distinct supratemporal or supramastoid arches........... Theriodonta. 4ygomatic and supratemporal archesic\. sass sss seid ¢ bestanieiiee ee eee ee eee . Diopeus. No zyeomaticha/supratemporall archieacetece cerieieiesaeieee een eaneaen ieee Anomodonta. * Philos. Trans. Roy, Soc., 1889, p. 269. IN THE REPTILIA. 17 Il. Tae Mesozoic REPTILIA. We may now examine how far the cranial types above described continued into Mesozoic time, and ascertain whether any new forms appeared. In the first place, AzTosAuRuS Fraas presents a single foramen perforating an otherwise continuous roof of the temporal fossa. This foramen is bounded below by the postorbital and supratemporal bones. The postfrontal bone is closely joined to the parietal, and has no posterior extension except to the postorbital. The zygomatic arch is present and is continuous with the supratemporal and postorbital bones, there being no infratemporal foramen. These details are derived from Faas’ figures copied by Zittel in his Handbuch der Paleontologie.* In this figure no distinct zygomatic (quadratojugal), or supramastoid, is visible, but whether they are wanting or fused with adjacent elements, examination of specimens will best show. This genus is made the type of a suborder of Crocodilia by Baur (Pseudosuchia), but it appears to me to be typical of a special order (Pl. IV, Fig. 2). The genus IcHTHYOSAURUS presents especial features. Here we have a zygo- matic arch, and no infratemporal foramen. ‘There is a superior foramen, however, which is bounded below by the postfrontal bone in front, and the supramastoid be- hind; which are themselves in contact below with the postorbital and the supratem- poral. This foramen I call the supramastoid. A paroccipital bone is present in this genus,’but no intercalare. See my memoir of 1870 above referred to (Pl. V, Fig. 1). The DinosauRiA may be represented by Diclonius, of which I have a complete skull before me (PI. III). Here there are superior and inferior foramina which isolate two arches, of which the inferior is the zygomatic. ‘The superior arch consists of the supramastoid bone posteriorly, and apparently the postfrontal anteriorly. The supra- temporal, small in Ichthyosaurus, has now disappeared. There is a distinct paroc- cipital lying seale-like on the exoccipital. In Diclonius the supramastoid is fused with the parietal, but in Iguanodon, according to Dollo, it is distinct.{ The fact that the postfrontal and postorbital are not distinct from each other in the Dinosauria with which I am acquainted, makes the determination of the character of the supe- rior arch somewhat difficult. This is probably the case in Diclonius, and is so repre- sented by Dollo in Iguanodon. Ina fine cranium of the Laramie Lelaps incras- * Page 644, Fig. 569. +Cope. Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1883, p. 110, Pl. V. In this description and plate the sutural lines supposed to separate the postfrontal from the postorbital and ‘‘squamosal”’ are of doubtful existence in the specimen. + Bulletin de Musée Royale d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, I, 1888, p. 235, Pl. II. A. P. S.—VOL. XVII. C. 18 POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES satus Cope,* I find the bone in front of the arch to form two limbs of a nearly right- angled triangle, one of which is supraorbital, and the other postorbital. No suture divides it. It may represent the fused postfrontal and postorbital elements which we have in some Lacertilia. There is, however, a small free bone horizontally placed at the internal side at the posterior extremity of the supraorbital limb, which may be a postfrontal bone. In this case the anterior connection of the supramastoid bone will then be with the postorbital. This must however be clearly proven before it can be accepted, since it is the postfrontal bone ¢ which articulates with the supramastoid posteriorly. If we suppose the long perpendicular postorbital process of the bone in question to represent the postorbital bone of Ichthysaurus, the question is simplified, but it is not certain that such is the case. The figures given by Marsh of the “Ceratosaurus” nasicornis represent a struc- ture similar to that of Laelaps, and similarly indecisive. The figures of Hypsirhophus stenops{ (Stegosaurus Marsh) exhibit distinct postfrontal and postorbital bones. They show the postorbital produced upwards and backwards to form the horizontal bar with a posterior element. Between this element and the parietal is represented on one side of the figure another element, but this entire region is left undescribed in the text. The appearance given by one side of the figure (3) is that the supramas- toid and supratemporal are both present, and that the latter is the posterior element in the bar. In that case the structure is that of the Theriodonta and Lacertilia, and not that of the Ichthyosauria. The situation in the CRocoDILIA appears to be the same as in the Dinosauria. Nothing satisfactory can be learned from the recent members of the order; and even in the skull of an Alligator mississipprensis one inch long, the postfrontal and post- orbital bones are not distinct from each other: The Jurassic forms of the Teleosau- ridz show the same character, and give the appearance of a postorbito-supratemporal arch.§ In the Triassic Belodon the structure seems to be essentially similar. The appearance in the PrrrosAurRIA, as figured by authors, is the same as in the Dinosauria, but I cannot pronounce decisively in the lack of specimens. It is not unlikely that all the members of the Archosaurian series resemble each other in this respect, and I suspect that it is to be explained by reference to the Theriodonta. Here the postfrontal and postorbital are distinct, as already pointed out, but the for- mer is small and is crowded by the adjacent elements. Its fusion with the post- * Which I owe to the Geological Survey of Canada. + Including the supposed squamosal of my description of Diclonius (J.c.). + Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts., 1887, Pl. VI. $See Eudes Deslongchamps Notes Paleontologiques, 1863-9, IN THE REPTILIA. 19 orbital would be probable. The arch is then supratemporal, and this element may be fused with the supramastoid in the Dinosauria. If the RayNcHocEPHALIA of the Mesozoic had the same structure as Spheno- don, we may ascribe to them an infratemporal foramen and a zygomatic arch. The former is bounded above by a bar which consists anteriorly of the postorbital, and posteriorly, in all probability, of the supratemporal. Hence the postfrontal and supramastoid do not communicate as they do in the Ichthyopterygia; and the large foramen above the superior bar has different boundaries below from that observed in Ichthyosaurus, but is like that of the Anomodonta. Hence I call this foramen the FIG. 3, Fic. 3.—Mosasaurus sp., suspensorium of 0s quadratum of right side, one-third nat. size; from Greensand of New Jersey. A, from front; B, from behind; 0, fractured end of proximal half seen at fracture, a-b ; Hxo, exoccipi- tal ; Pe, petrosal; Pao, paroccipital ; Sts, suture for supratemporal; QA, articular surface for quadrate ; #0, fenestra ovale; VIZ, foramen for eighth nerve; a 3, line of fracture. supratemporal foramen, and the bar the supratemporal bar. In Sphenodon the par- occipital and supratemporal are fused together. The supramastoid is fused either with the supratemporal or the parietal (Fig. 9, Pl. II, and Fig. 3, Pl. IV). In the PytHonomorPHA and LacertiLiA the zygomatic arch of the Rhyncho- cephalia has disappeared, leaving the superior or supratemporal arch only. That this is truly the supratemporai arch and not the supramastoid is shown by the fact that its anterior connection is with the postorbital as in Sphenodon, and not with the post- 20 POSTERIOR CRANIAL ARCHES frontal. I cannot agree with Baur that this arch in the lizards is the zygomatic arch of the other Reptilian orders. The supramastoid bone is, in the Lacertilia, wanting, but whether by atrophy or by fusion with the parietal, forming the supramastoid pro- cess of the latter, I do not know. An element intervenes between the supratemporal bone and the parietal above and the exoccipital within, which Dr. Baur regards as the supratemporal. With this I do not agree, and for the following considerations : In neither adult nor young Lacertilia is there present any other element which can be regarded as the homologue of the paroccipital of Ichthyosaurus, the Testu- dinata and Dinosauria. In the Pythonomorpha this element is deeply embraced be- tween the petrosal (prootic) and exoccipital, precisely as is the paroccipital (Fig. 3). In the Lacertilia it is carried on the extremity of these elements. Moreover the supramastoid is a purely roof-bone, and has no connection primitively with the petrosal, and very little with the exoccipital. It cannot be identified with the supra- temporal because it exists contemporaneously with that element in Ichthyosaurus,* as well as in the Cotylosaurian genera Chilonyx and Pariotichus above described. I therefore maintain the homology of this bone with the paroccipital as I presented it in my paper of 1870, where I used for it Huxley’s term “opisthotic.” (PI. IV, Fig. 5). Parker, in his paper on the Development of the Skull in the Lacertilia,; did not dis- cover a distinct ossification in the position of paroccipital, although he finds a portion of the exoccipital marked off by a shallow groove, which he calls opisthotic. The true paroccipital he calls the “ second supratemporal.” In the Opuipia there is no zygomatic or supratemporal arch, and the supratem- poral as well as the supramastoid bones have disappeared. The paroccipital is the only one of the suspensors of the quadrate remaining. ‘This element had been gen- erally homologized with the “squamosal” (supratemporal) by authors, but in my paper of 1870 I identified it with the paroccipital of the Lacertilia (“‘ opisthotie ;” supratemporal of Baur), with which Baur agrees. In the more specialized snakes its squamosal attachment to the cranial wall resembles that of the squamosal bones of higher Vertebrata, and its general position is that of that element. When, however, the lower snakes, e.g., Ilysia, are examined, it is found to have the same position in the embrace of the exoccipital and petrosal bones, as in the Pythonomorpha, and to be clearly homologous with that element which I have thought to be the paroccipital GSE Bicc6): In the TrsTUDINATA, as pointed out by Baur, no foramina have been devel- *The process of the parietal which joins the supramastoid arch in Diclonius (Plate IIJ) may represent the supra- temporal. + Philosophical Transactions Royal Soc., 1879, p. 631. IN THE REPTILIA. 21 oped, but the primitive roof has suffered diminution by absorption from the inferior edge, or from both the inferior and the posterior edges. In Chrysemys, where a bar has been produced (PI. V, Fig. 5), it consists of the unseparated zygomatic and supra- temporal, the anterior elements of which are the jugal and postorbital ; and the poste- rior, the zygomatic and supratemporal. The supramastoid is wanting even in the genera (Hydraspis e. g.) with a parietoquadrate arch. The postfrontal and post- orbital are not distinguished. In genera, where the posterior excavation is very deep (e. g., Trionyx), the connection between the postorbital and the supratemporal is interrupted, and a zygomatic arch remains (Pl. V, Fig. 6). It was comparison of this type with the Lacertilia that led Baur* to conclude that the bar of the latter order is the zygomatic. The SAUROPTERYGIA possess but a single arch, and this is the zygomatic accord- ing to the description of Nothosaurus given by Yon Meyer. The supratemporal has no anterior connections according to this author, and the supramastoid is not described. From all that I can gather from Owen’s descriptions and figures of Plesiosaurus the structure is the same; which is confirmed by observation on such imperfect specimens as are accessible to me. ‘The postfrontal is not continued above the large temporal foramen; nor is the postorbital continued posteriorly. In the latter point the structure differs from that of the Theriodonta. The type of the Sauropterygia may be derived from that of the Theriodonta by the extension of the infratemporal foramen upwards to the parietal bone, thus cutting off the posterior connections of the postorbital and postfrontal bones. In this respect this type resembles the Testudinata (PI. V, Fig. 4). The Mesozoic reptiles (including the existing orders) present us then with the following types of postorbital structure : I. One foramen; generally a zygomatic arch. No supramastoid bone ; postfrontal and postorbital fused ; a paroccipital............ Testudinata. iPostirontialandepostorpitalidistinChas= screenees ssc ines ee tce acc Wescc esac ss: Sauropterygia. Tee AC supramastoid foramen only. Supramastoid and zygomatic arches not distinguished from each other ; a paroccipital, Ichthyopterygia. III. A supratemporal and infratemporal foramina. SU pLaMmaspoOmsand ayecomatie ALC MES. apa seers inaiet fee valesi vem . be . bs j 1 3 j Pay ae J vi. daleaieniiian 4 ORNS nc e. ¢ i ‘ » , _ . é r 3 3 Le nf , " rye oe ee ae . : 7 | ¥ } é a . * ; 4 ; , i * . ; 7 2 1 ° ‘ 4 a0 ; | | . r : : : ‘ i i | , S | . i ) i ’ re = ¥ si fy aS Aes Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. _ eee Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate III (Cope). = Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate IV (Cope). Types of Reptilia, ) “i S—S—s VOT Tox, Sm ot Types of Reptilia. Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate V (Cope). ARTICLE III. A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF THE TEID GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. BY E. D. COPE. Read before the American Philosophical Society, January¥1, 1892. CNEMIDOPHORUS Wagler. Natur. Syst. Amphib., 1830, p. 154 partim; Wiegmann, Herp. Mexic., 1834, 9; Dum, Bibr., Erp. Gen., V, 1839, 128 ; Gray, Catal. Liz. Brit. Mus., 1 Ed., 1845, 20; Boulenger, 2 Ed., II, 1885, 360. Sealy portion of tongue cordate behind, and non-retractile. Tail rounded. Teeth longitudinally compressed. Head large, regular; ventrals large; frontoparietals and | parietals distinct. A collar-fold and femoral pores. This genus embraces many species of the Neotropical realm, exclusive of the West Indian region, where it is replaced by Amiva.* Five species enter the Nearctic realm, and all but one of these are restricted to the Sonoran region. The C. sealin- eatus Linn. ranges the entire Nearctic excepting the Hudsonian and Alleghenian districts, and the northern parts of the Central and Californian. The following are the characters of the species: I. Nostril between the nasal plates. Males with a spine on each side the preanal region. A, 10-12 longitudinal rows of ventral plates. Brachial shields small, no post-antebrachials ; 5 parietals; 4 supraoculars ; femoral pores 29-35 ; Ol @, WBE NOVI 4 263545 aod cus poo ded 7 OODOS DO DUC CO GH EAOS OD COCOO SR aOneeS C. murinus. AA. Ventral plates in 8 longitudinal rows. Large brachials; no post-antebrachials ; 5 parietals ; 4 supraoculars ; femoral pores 19; olive ADOVe wit maviehter dank-edmed (dorsal PANG s cc... cli. cele as oes -oeice ss cee cine. C. espeutit Large brachials ; no post-antebrachials ; 5 parietals ; 4 supraorbitals ; femoral pores 18-24 ; olive RA UDVO— OM at ON PIP DIEStTLP ES etaratatafelatya)-bapetcle!sts|eialer=\ elOuealn smc iea tira cioarie mite sieie faces oie slelsiclejercinie es siaeiaiaiet= etal ees .024 LGD 1 COMER cb cos5sbc9scbosncaangoan ou sasnoosoUgOD Dab SOceNeSa0RN DasOc0nSaoRpOND 034 HENAN ID Wit, cooaseoubosoodacocespbcnoade Go ppDodadUONHODOEOLoToDoUHbaKSoRQdoumBoD 100 Lema OP Woe MIND. 6 cecossoopcoocaccooo coo cuNDONg0D Ue cENnUnODdcOnUnUODdODoCBaOOOOOEC 035 LGR OP ING! WT. 6 snescnoseadagbad0cq0c5b0 co0opCobODODOD b0bt NOOOODNBODDDOOSOHOGU0O 072 MELEE Lene OOb=rtae mateietelelelelstaleleicieleveletal=tolela(elaieleloiaieie\e(«la(cic« »\sivielele [sin lele/oleielela[e\siain/s/s[eleie\a,e 036 Cnemidophorus tessellatus rubidus Cope. | Catalogue Number. | Number Specimens. Locality. Whence obtained. 15,149 1 7) 50 1 1 1 5 ~ sate 5 { St. Margareta Id., Lower Cali- | U.S. Fish Commission Steamer fornia. Albatross. 3 1 4 1 5 1 J | 38 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF Cnemidophorus tessellatus multiscutatus Cope. Onemidophorus tessellatus tégris B. & G., Cope, Proceeds. U. 8. Nat. Museum, 1889, p. 147; not of Baird and Girard. Represented in the U. 8. National Museum by four specimens of medium size. The muzzle is rather acute, and moderately elongate. The extended hind leg reaches to the orbit. In two larger specimens there are six plates of the infralabial row, and in two smaller but five. Four large anals, two on the middle line in front of the marginal pair. These four are surrounded by a series of smaller plates as far as the vent. Scales of the tail with the keels slightly oblique throughout. The peculiarity of the subspecies is seen in the large number of rows of brachial scales (7-8 rows), and femoral scales (8-9 rows). The former are not quite constant, however, one of the smaller specimens having but six rows. Femoral pores 20-22. The scales are smaller than is usual in C. tessellatus, measuring .33 and .25 mm. in diameter. The color is generally of the C. tessellatus tessellatus type, but the black ground color is more persistent. The light stripes are most broken up posteriorly, and the communicating pale cross-spots are widest and most numerous. On the sides the pale spots are of irregular shapes, being both longitudinal and transverse on a black ground. Belly black and light olive in varying proportions. Gular region and collar with transverse black spots or bands. Fore limbs black with light olive spots; hind limbs brown with blackish reticulation. Tail brown above, black-spotted below. Measuremenis. M. Motalilenty ther ceteris cialaleeielesseeiisiaciel eee eerie wae obanodocodsns so Saas Noso0¢ 275 Length to meatus auditors ns «0 js\jciselteo-eleeincinceeeieeee iene ee ee eee eer 021 Bengt to collar. i cescyereieieis « «eve olelaseroaleleialelfeteieletelerslateleterstcie veils tele ie ieicetets ieteerte teeta .030 Wen'g thitosventt.\nrciciercisiciefoteielererverereieleisteieiers Dretcisineltteieeieieiciaeie Snacdb asoccatcasacas abshoasas .085 eno thiofstore lim Dreaicler-revelsrslelinic eieenice cet eerie Sralelefakeciercietelstets Syoretsieelcisteleietelaras .032 Tene thor Wind Vim be oyeye.cle)ojosoiel-lareleroleralolereieiere steyumralereteleretetetereintatetetslittaialetciel stalin teteteistet iene .065 Length of Wind £006: .<<:<,-/-crreieyeievesersercisetstsieictaisieteriereleisteteleieeieternieieis coboadcocqdanses steceo | ABH Cnemidophorus tessellatus multiscutatus Cope. Catalogue Number. Number Specimens. Locality. Whence derived.. a. ean 15,160 1 ) 1 1 Cerros Island, west coast of | U.S. Fish Commission Steamer 2 1 Lower California. Albatross. 3 1 THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 39 CNEMIDOPHORUS VARIOLOSUS Cope. This species exhibits the general scale characters of the C. tessellatus, but pos- sesses some peculiarities. The interparietal plate is twice as large as either parietal. Infralabials five. The scales of the brachinm and of the femur are smaller and more numerous than in the C. tessellatus. There are six rows of the former, four being the usual number in the latter species ; and eight of the latter, six or seven being the usual number. Brachial rows three; tibials three. Anal scuta with the lateral scales rather larger than usual, giving four large and six small ones in all. Femoral pores more numerous, twenty-five on each side. This species is especially character- ized by the length of the hind leg, which reaches, when extended, to the postnasal plate, instead of to the meatus auditorius only. The scales of the mesoptychium extend all the way across, and are not interrupted at the middle by smaller ones as in the C. ¢. perplezus. The marginal scales are smaller. Posterior gular scales are smaller, bounded in front by the larger scales of the anterior gular region. Total length 250 mm.; of head and body to vent 65 mm.; of head to angle of mandible 10 mm.; to collar 24 mm.; to axilla 31 mm.; length of fore leg 27 mm. ; of fore foot 12 mm.; of hind leg £5 mm. ; of hind foot 30 mm. The typical specimen is of a size which would be fully striped if it belonged to the C. maximus or C. tessellatus, being that of the eastern C. sealineatus. ‘There are, however, no stripes, but the olivaceous ground of the superior surfaces is marked with numerous rather small yellowish oval spots. Those of the sides are irregularly disposed, but those of the superior surfaces are arranged in six more or less irregular series. Of these the two external on each side correspond with the two external stripes of the young of the C. tessellatus. On the nape the series lose their regu- larity, and on the nape region they are more frequently transverse. The hind legs are olivaceous, marked with numerous irregular oval yellow spots. No stripe on the posterior face of the femur. Head without spots or stripes. Gular region dark olive; thorax blackish ; belly yellowish, the scales with black bases. Tail olive with scales above yellowish at the base, brownish beyond; below brown except the basal fourth, which is yellowish with black spots on most of the scales. Posterior limbs with oval yellowish spots on an olivaceous ground. Femur not striped behind. This species resembles the ©. maximus in the increased number of its femoral pores and femoral and brachial scales, but is distinguished by its much longer hind leg, spotted coloration and much smaller size. 40 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF Cnemidophorus variolosus Cope. Catalogue Number. | Number Specimens. Locality. | Where obtained. | Nature of Specimen. 3066 1 Parras Coahuila, Lieut. Couch, U.S.A. | Alcoholic. CNEMIDOPHORUS OCTOLINEATUS Baird. Proceeds. Academy Phiia., 1858, p. 255. U. 8. Mexic. Boundary Survey, II, 1859, Pt. II, Reptiles, p. 10. Cope, Check List Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1875, p. 45. This species differs from the young specimens of the C. tessellatus of equal size, in the small number of its femoral pores, and in the absence of spots on the hind limbs and sides, as well as in the additional pair of median longitudinal stripes. The single known specimen is apparently adult, and is about equal in size to a half-grown C. tessellatus, and smaller than the C. variolosus. CNEMIDOPHORUS INORNATUS Baird. Prozeeds. Acad. Phila., 1858 (Dec.), 255. Rept. U. S. Mex. Bound. Survey, II, 1859, Pt. II, Rept., p. 10. Cope, Check List Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1875, p. 45. This species is distinguished by a combination of characters. The rough scales are peculiar to it, and it is the only species known to me in which the rows of brachial plates exceed the femoral in number. It is the smallest species, and yet shows no indication of stripes. CNEMIDOPHORUS SEPTEMVITTATUS Cope. Scales of collar large, in three transverse rows, the largest row on the edge; scales of mesoptychium small, flat, those of gular region longer. Head narrower than in any other species, the first and second supraorbital plates longer than wide, the fourth well developed. Interparietal plate twice as long as wide, considerably nar- rower than the parietals; both bounded posteriorly by some small plates. Loreal much longer than postnasal ; no frenoorbital. Infralabials six on each side, the first pair in contact throughout. Dorsal scales coarse, round, projecting upwards at their posterior border. Brachial scales in six rows, antebrachials in three. One row of very large post-antebrachials, bounded by smaller ones. Femorals in eight rows, tibials in three. Femoral pores 16-18. Anal plates only three, separated from vent by a wide granular space, and surrounded anteriorly and laterally by one row of small flat THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 41 scales. Legs rather short, hind foot reaching to half way between humerus and auricular meatus. Size above medium for the genus. Length of head and body to vent (tail in- jured) 110 mm.; length of head to angle of mandible, 26 mm.; do. to collar 34 mm. ; do. to axilla 42 mm. ; do. to fore leg 31 mm.; do. of fore foot 25 mm.; do. of poste- rior leg 71 mm.; do. of hind foot 35 mm. Color above light olivaceous brown, transversed by seven longitudinal broad black stripes, three on each side and one on the middle line. On the lumbar region the median band disappears, and the pale intervals are wider than the black ones ; anteriorly the pale ground assumes its normal relation of stripes on a black ground. The inferior commences at the orbit and passes over the tympanum; the next begins above the anterior border of the orbit and marks the external borders of the supra- orbital plates. The next issues from a parietal plate. Anteriorly the black inter- spaces have a few small spots; posteriorly they become undulate through lateral emarginations, and more posteriorly the first and second stripes are broken up into quadrate spots, the third remaining unbroken. The hind legs are very indistinctly marbled on an olive-gray ground. The fore legs are coarsely reticulated with black on an olive ground. The lateral dark stripes extend to the orbit, and there is a blackish shade on the side of the muzzle, just below the canthus rostralis. Lower surfaces everywhere yellowish, unspotted, except a few black specks on the inferior labials and sides of the gular region. ‘Tail olive above, yellowish below. This species belongs to the C sexlinzatus series, as indicated by the scales of its collar, but it has the coarse scales of the C. fessellatus. Its six infralabial scales are found only in the former series. Its coloration resembles in some degree the stage of the C. tessellatus tessellatus, called by Baird and Girard C. tigris, but it has seven stripes instead of four, and the lateral stripes are broken up and not the median, as is the case in the latter. It also differs from the latter in the marking of the fore leg, and nearly uniform coloration of the hind leg; the reverse being the case in the C. tessellatus. The striping of the head is also not seen in the latter. The head is also narrower in proportion to its length. This, perhaps the handsomest species of the genus, is represented in the collec- tion by an adult female only. It represents the C. sexliéneatus in California. Cnemidophorus septemviitutus Cope. Catalogue Number. Number Specimens. Locality. Whence obtained. | Nature of Specimen. 2872 1 El Dorado Co., Cal. Dr. C. C. Boyle. | Alcoholic. AN5 Js (SS =—WOlis yale 19h 42 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF CNEMIDOPHORUS SEXLINEATUS Linn. Gray, Catal. Brit. Mus. Liz., 18, p. 21. Dum. Bibron, Erp. Gen., V, p. 1381. Cope, Check List Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1875. Bocourt, Miss. Sci. Mex. Rept., 273, Pl. XXe, 11. Boulenger, Catal. B. M., II, 1855, 364. Lacerta sexlineata Linn., S. N., I, p. 364. Amivu sealineata Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., 63, Pl. VI; 2d Ed., II, 109, Pl. XV. Seales of collar large, in few rows, the largest at the border, larger than the median gular scales. Scales of body minute, .033 mm. in diameter. Large gular scales with abrupt posterior border extending entirely across throat. Four supra- orbitals. Frontoparietals large as parietals, truncate in front. Interparietals nar- rower than parietal, parallelogrammic. Labial scales five to below orbit; infralabials five or six, the anterior pair in contact throughout. Brachial seales in six to eight rows ; antibrachials in three; femorals in from six to eight. Femoral pores 15-17. Anal plates three large ones; two posterior, one anterior. Longest toe of extended hind leg reaching to meatus auditorius. The young have six longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground, which persist in adults; the dark interspaces being never marked by light spaces as in the C. gularis. The limbs are pale spotted on a darker ground and there is a longitudinal light stripe on the posterior face of the femur. This is one of the smallest species, and it retains the young coloration every- where. It is also distinguished by its short and high muzzle, and the absence of postantebrachial scales. It covers the Austroriparian region of the Nearctic realm and the eastern as far as the range of the Carolinian district, extending to Maryland and Delaware, but not New Jersey. In the Central region it reaches north to the Sand Hills of the Loup Fork river of Nebraska. Its southwest limit is in Texas. Two specimens from Florida (one of them from Key West, No. 15,336) display the anomaly of a fusion of the three large anal plates into one. All other Florida specimens are normal. CNEMIDOPHORUS GRAHAM Bd. Gird. Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1852, p. 128, Baird, U. 8. Mexican Bound. Surv., II, 1859, p. 10, Pl. XXXII, Figs. 1-6. Cope, Check List Batr. Rept. N. Amer., 1875, p. 45. A distinct species which resembles in coloration the partly crossbanded forms of THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 43 the C. tessellatus-tessellatus. But two specimens are known, and one of these has five and the other six infralabial plates. They are from Western Texas, between San Antonio and El Paso. CNEMIDOPHORUS GULARIS Bd. Gird. Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1852, p. 128. Baird, U. S. Mex. Boundary Survey, Reptiles, Pl. XXXIV, Figs. 1-6. Cnemidophorus guttatus Hallowell, Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1854, p. 192. This species is allied to the C. sexlineatus, but is distinguished by the presence of postantebrachial plates, the more numerous femoral pores and the longer muzzle. It is very variable as to size and color, but the dark spaces between the light stripes are always marked, interrupted or completely broken up by light spots or spaces, except in the young. The color variations are similar to those already mentioned under the head of the C’ tessellatus but they are more numerous. Specimens from Western Texas come nearest in character to the C. sexlineatus. It takes the place of that species throughout Mexico, also replacing the C. ¢essellatus in the drier parts of that country. Besides the characters already cited, this species differs from the C. tessellatus in its finer scales. These measure from .25 to .33 mm. in diameter, while those of the C. tessellatus measure .6 mm.; but this character does not always hold good. The subspecies of the Cremidophorus gularis differ as follows: Stripes persistent, narrow, defined ; no black spots; femoral scales in 6-8 rows; hind legs yel- - low spotted, and with a stripe behind ; smaller........... FR OD ODDO SO OCB ADOORE -C. g. gularis. Stripes persistent, wide, ragged ; spots in interspaces irregular ; parietal plate very narrow ; muz- zle elongate ; legs neither spotted nor striped ; large ; 8 rows femoral scales ; 6 infraiabials, C. g. angusticeps. Stripes vanishing, their interspaces with black crossbirs ultimately joining crosswise ; femoral scales 8-10 ; hind legs spotted ; infralabials 5-6; large..... Dicfelsieleletsieleretore -. CG. g. mariarum. Stripes broken up into rows of spots ; interspaces with yellow spots ; hind legs with or without yellow spots ; no posterior femoral stripe; a frenodrbital ; 5-6 infralabials ; large, C. g. communis. Light stripes traceable anteriorly only ; black bands broken up into transverse spots by orange spots on body ; hind limbs pale spotted ; femoral scales 7-8 rows ; infralabials generally 6; TLC CII evavevere’ a oraieleie c's; cist cleletsio siove sieisielctoielclalsievers ciciaisioisls mite retetevelni= oie iainlolaisielorelaietale C. g. scalaris. Anal plates 3-4; femorals in 8-9 rows ; femoral pores 21; 6 infralabials ; large scales of collar equal ; stripes posterivrly obsolete ; interspaces in front spotted ; medium..... C. g. sericeus. No light stripes ; olivaceous with three rows of black spots on each side on anterior fourth of body ; femorals 8 ; infralabials 6; muzzle elongate ; limbs unspotted ; medium, C. g. semifasciatus, 44 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF No light stripes ; olivaceous with black bars on sides which cross back on lumbar region ; rump and hind legs yellow spotted ; femoral scales 8 rowed ; infralabials 6; muzzle elongate ; me- GH GanoadoaddDoogoseonCCcS eee leleieiotalelelatetefeleiatetcteta staretetatstetaelatatateiaetatsters eeeee O. 9. costatus. The geographical distribution of the subspecies is as follows: C. g. gularis, Sonoran region. C. g. angusticeps, Yucatan. €. g. maritarum, Tres Marias islands. . g. communis, S. W. Mexico. C. g. scalaris, Chihuahua and southward. C. g. semifasciatus, Coahuila, Mexico. C. g. costatus, Mexico ; locality unknown. These forms may be compared with those of the C. tessellatus in color charac- ters as follows. I have already remarked* that this series of variations follows quite closely those pointed out by Huropean authors to exist in the Lacerta muralis. These have been made the subjects of especial study by Prof. Eimer of Tubingen, from whose paper} I extract the following points of comparison (see Plate XII). Lacerta muralis. L. m. campestris. Cnem. tessellatus. Cnem. gularis. | Other Cnemidoph’i. 1. Longitudinally striped............ C. t. perplexus. C. octolineatus. C. sealineatus. 2. Dark interspaces pale spotted......|C. ¢. tessellatus a. |C. g. gularis a. C. labialis. 3. Dark interspaces divided by light C. septemvittatus. COWS socassosce cecccecccceeeee (CO. t. tessellatus B. \C.g. scalaris a. |C. grahamii. L. m. albiveniris. 4. Dark spots confluent transversely, ae bie forming crossbars ..............+ C. t. tessellatus y. |C. g. scaluris Bp. wa rbteenae 5. Light spots not confluent; light C. g. costatus. L. m. tigris. stripes broken up ; pattern reticu- lated epmttencee o covcecccecssces |C. t. melanostethus. C. variolosus. L.m. punctulatofas- 6. Dark spots separate and ona brown ciata. LOU eletecisteeslelsteieteeie eens C. t. rubidus. C. g. semifasciatus There are some color forms in the Lacerta muralis which are not repeated in the North American Cnemidophori, particularly those which result in a strong contrast between the dorsal colors as a whole and the darker lateral colors, as a band. The color variety, No. 6, of the Cnemidophori is not reported by Eimer as oceurring in the Lacerta muralis. * American Naturalist, Dec., 1891. +Archiv. f. Naturgeschichte, 1881, 239. THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 45 Cnemidophorus gularis gularis B. & G. Onemidophorus gularis Bd. Gird., Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1852, p. 128. Baird, U. S. Mex. Bound. Surv. Rept., Pl. XXXIV, Figs. 1-6. Onemidophorus guttatus Hallowell, Proceeds. Acad. Phila., 1854, p. 192. This form resembles the Sexlineatus more than any other, but always possesses the postantebrachial plates, and more numerous femoral pores, which range from eighteen to twenty-two. Occasional specimens are, however, intermediate between the two. Its range is the Sonoran region. Under this subspecies must be placed four of the series of forms which I de- scribed in my paper on the Reptilia of Chihuahua as subspecies of the C. sealineatus,* in the following language; two of the forms (Nos. 5, 6) being the C. g. scalaris M.: “1. Six longitudinal narrow stripes with unspotted interspaces.........e.2+00-C. g. gularis (young). 2. Six stripes as above, the dark interspaces with small white spots...... 2000 U. g. gularis verus. 3. Six stripes as above, wider and very obscure ; small obscure spots .....C. g. gularis obsoletus. 4, Six stripes as above, but wider, and the spots enlarged so as to be confluent occasionally with Hoe Disots SUMTOEE GoGo nooo nce ncdcacKDODD OC hodecaoagodo0boc afetelelelelelelare _ “Of the above forms all are numerously represented in the collection. The modi- fication of the color pattern described, is not entirely due to age, as some of the largest specimens belong to Nos. 2 and 3. Nevertheless small specimens predomi- nate in the No. 1, and No. 4 presents a good many small specimens.” The speci- mens enumerated are as follows: + Subspecies No. 1; Nos. 14,236-41-49-69 ; 14, 305. Subspecies No. 2; 14,231-41,305-308. Subspecies No. 3; 14,231-50-308. Subspecies No. 4; 14,241-50-302-5. These forms are not sexual, as several of them include both sexes. Not having been fully persuaded of the distinction between the C. tessellatus and C. sexlineatus series, I used the name C. s. tigris for a “sixth subspecies” of the above table. The name was however misapplied, although the color pattern is identical with that of the C. tessellatus tigris B. & G., with the exception that there are traces of six stripes instead of only four. The smaller specimens referred to the C. s. sex- lineatus differ from that subspecies in having well-developed postantebrachial scales. The gradation in the color characters given is complete, so that no subdivision into subspecies can be made. The case is exactly parallel with that of C. tessellatus * Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., (1885) 1886, p. 283. + The numbers are attached to lots, by the recorder, and not to individuals, and are hence sometimes duplicated. 46 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF tessellatus, except that there are here no individuals with the stripes entirely oblit- erated, and complete transverse stripes posteriorly. (Such specimens are the C. g. scalaris ; see below.) The femoral pores are generally eighteen, but some have six- teen, seventeen and twenty. In eleven of the specimens now before me, seven have five infralabials, and four have six. These numbers do not coincide with the color types. Cnemidophorus gularis angusticeps Cope. ss Boulenger, Catal. Liz. Brit. Mus., II, 1885, p. 366. Cnemidophorus angusticeps Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1877, p. 95. This large form is easily recognizable by its peculiar coloration, and by the very narrow parietal plate, which is about three times as long as wide. Four specimens are in the U. 8. National Museum from Yucatan. Cnemidophorus gularis martarum Gthr. Cnemidophorus mariarum Giinth., Biologia Centr. Amer. Rept., p. 28, Pl, XX. This also large form is distinguished from the other subspecies by the larger num- ber of rows of its femoral plates, and by the coloration. In the young the dark spaces between the light stripes are crossbarred with black instead of a light color as in the other forms, and the result is crossbars on the sides in the adults, on the disappear- ance of the stripes. The hind legs are covered with large round yellow spots. The color pattern of this form corresponds with the Lacerta muralis maculostriata of Eimer. Two specimens are in the U. S. National Museum, one from the Tres Marias islands, the typical locality, and the other of uncertain origin. Cnemidophorus gularis communis Cope. Cnemidophorus communis Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Sec., 1877, p. 95. This subspecies reaches a larger size than any of the others of the C: gularis, and its peculiar coloration of small (or sometimes large) yellow spots on a dark olive ground, gives it a very distinct appearance. This form is identified with doubt with the Cnemidophorus mexicanus of Peters by Bocourt. What Peters’ species is I have been unable to ascertain. About forty specimens were sent to the National Museum from Colima, Western Mexico, by J. Xantus. THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 47 Cnemidophorus gularis scalaris Cope. American Naturalist, 1891, p. 1135 ; (published March 1, 1892). Cnemidophorus sezlineatus tigris ‘‘ B. & G.’’ Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886, p. 2883; not ©. tigris B. & G. Muzzle moderately acuminate in adults ; frenal plate about as high as long ; fre- nodcular plate generally wanting. Brachial scales small, in eight rows ; antebrachials in three; postantebrachials in two or three rows. Femorals in eight rows. The three large anal plates are bounded by several small plates laterally and in front. Fe- moral pores nineteen; in one eighteen, and in one seventeen. Longest toe of extended posterior leg reaching to front of auricular meatus. First and fifth toes measuring opposite to each other. Ground color pale, on the sides posteriorly light rosy orange. The dark color only remains as narrow transverse black stripes which do not cross the middle line, which is occupied by a longitudinal series of spots. This is due to the fact that in the adults the black ground is completely broken up by the transverse extensions of the light stripes, which are quite traceable in the young. In some specimens the black spots do not fuse on the sides into transverse stripes (No. 14,302). All the dark markings fade out on the limbs and sacral region, leaving a gray ground (in alcohol) which is marked with rosy orange spots. ‘The lateral ventral plates and all those of the thorax with the posterior or concealed face of the anterior leg, are black or blackish in the adult. : Measurements of adult (tail injured): Length to vent 93 mm.; do. to angle of mandible 25 mm.; do. to collar 29 mm.; do. to axilla 26 mm. Length of anterior limb 30 mm.; do. of fore foot 14 mm. Length of hind limb 67 mm.; do. of hind foot 37 mm. . Several specimens of this form are contained in the collection, and they agree closely in all respects. In coloration it is perhaps the most ornamental of the genus. It is well distinguished from the C. grahamii in color characters, as well as in the presence of the well-developed postantebrachial scales. In the C. gularis it corre- sponds exactly in color characters with the tigris form of the C. tessellatus tessellatus, designated in the plate of colors (XII) as D and E. Cnemidophorus gularis scalaris Cope. Catalogue Number. | Number of Specimens. Locality. From whom oltained. Nature of Specimen. 8,319 5 Mexican Plateau 8S. of J. Potts. Alcoholic. Chihuahua. 14,302 2 City of Chihuahua. |Edw. Wilkinson. Alcoholic. 48 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF Cnemidophorus gularis sericeus Cope. Scales of the collar moderate, subequal, in four or five rows, marginal scales equal to the others. Mesoptychial scales considerably smaller than the gular scales, which are large, and extend from one ramus to the other. Scales of the back rounded, not prominent, small, measuring .033 mm. Supraorbital plates wider than long except the anterior, and not separated from the frontoparietals by scales. Inter- parietal large, not twice as long as wide; parietals subtriangular, as wide as the inter- parietal, but much shorter. Frontoparietals remarkable for their small size, and from their terminating each in an angle anteriorly, which receive between them the pos- terior apex of the unusually narrowed frontal. They are smaller than the parietals, which are smaller than in other species. If these characters prove constant, I shall regard this form as a true species. Infralabial plates six on each side, the last one small; the first pair separated at the posterior angle. Brachial scales in six rows ; antebrachials in four. Femorals in eight, tibials in three rows. Femoral pores twen- ty-one. The hind limb extended reaches the posterior border of the orbit. Size medium. Length of head and body (tail injured) 81 mm.; length to angle of mandible 22 mm.; to edge of: collar 26 mm.; to axilla 31 mm.; to fore limb 26 mm.; of fore foot 14 mm.; of hind leg 60 mm.; of hind foot 32 mm. Ground color above anteriorly black, posteriorly olive. This is marked by six narrow lines of a paler olive, which represent the lines of the C. sealineatus, with an additional median dorsal one. These fade out or become very indistinct on the lumbar and sacral regions. The interspaces black anteriorly, are marked at first by small olive spots, but these enlarging, break up the black ground into spots, but these fade out on the middle of the length. The superior sur- faces of the limbs and tail are olive, the latter unspotted; the hind limbs faintly spotted with paler above and posteriorly, and the forearm reticulated with black posteriorly. The dorsal stripes, except the three median, extend as far as the orbit. Rest of head olivaceous. Lower surface of head, limbs and tail, yellow, the first named with a bluish transverse patch across the gular region. This species has various peculiarities. It differs from the other members of the C. gularis series in the larger number and more equal size of the seales of the gular fold, approaching in this way the C. tessellatus, but not agreeing with it, since the marginal scales are not smaller. It differs from all the species in the small size of the interparictal and parietal plates. Its posterior legs are longer than in any species except the C. variolosus. No species has four rows (or three at the narrowest part) of THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 49 antebrachial seales; the usual number being 3-2; and the femorals are more numer- ous than in the Cg. gularis. The coloration is also quite distinctive. But one specimen is known, and that is from Southwestern Texas. The discovery of other specimens will determine whether this is or is not a true species. In the obsoles- cence of the color pattern posteriorly it resembles the C. g. semifasciatus, following. Cnemidophorus gularis sericeus Cope. | l | Catalogue Number. Number of Specimens. Locality. | Whence obtained. | Character of Specimen. | 15,650 | 1 San Diego, Tex. ‘Wm. Taylor. | Alcoholic. Cnemidophorus gularis semifasciatus Cope. Muzzle compressed, rather elongate ; frenal with frenoocular, longer than high. Large scales of the collar confined to the middle portion, smaller scales appearing on each side, and granules on the edge of the collar laterally. Posterior supraorbital small and divided on both sides, perhaps abnormally. Interparietals as wide as pari- etals, and extending farther posteriorly. Larger scales behind parietals few in num- ber. Brachial scales in six, femorals in six rows. Postantebrachials in three or four rows. Femoral pores twenty. Dorsal scales minute. Anal plates three large ones with eight to ten smaller ones on the sides and in front. The hind leg a little short, the longest toe, when extended, not reaching the meatus auditorius by the diameter of the latter. Total length 300 mm.; do. to angle of mandible 25 mm.; do. to collar 32 mm. ; do. to axilla 42 mm.; do. to vent 100 mm. Length of fore limb 30 mm.; do. of fore foot 13 mm.; do. of hind leg 64 mm.; of hind foot 36 mm. The color is uniform olivaceous above and below, with the following black marks: There are three rows of black spots on each side of the middle line above ; the superior small, subquadrate, the second larger and transverse, the inferior forming short crossbars. The superior row extends from the interscapular region to the mid- dle of the length of the back; the second row extends farther and the inferior row extends nearly to the groin. Limbs, head, belly and tail unspotted. This form has various peculiarities which entitle it to be regarded as a subspe- cies, and possibly as a species. But two specimens are known to me. In No. 38033 the black spots are smaller, and are restricted to the anterior fourth of the length of do JE (Sh = OI, MBN IG (Ere 50 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF the body, being most distinct in front of the scapular region. Here traces of the original six stripes are visible between the spots. It is possible that it may be demonstrated that the C. serzceus is established on a female of this species with abnormally reduced frontoparietal plates. The colora- tion is much like that of specimen No. 3033. Cnemidophorus gularis semifasciatus Cope. Catalogue Number. Number of Specimens. Locality. Whence derived. Nature of Specimen. 9248 | iL \Coahuila, Mex. Lieut. Couch. Alcoholic. 3033 | 1 Patos Coahuila. Lieut. Couch. Alcoholic. Cnemidophorus gularis costatus Cope. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus costatus Boulenger, Catal. Liz. Brit. Mus., II, 1885, p. 366. Cnemidophorus costatus Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1877, p. 95. This form is totally distinct from all others in coloration. There are six infra- labials and eighteen femoral pores in the only known specimen. ‘This is about the size of a large C. s. gularis, or less than the C. s. angusticeps and communis. Exact habitat unknown, but it is Mexican. CNEMIDOPHORUS OCELLIFER Spix. Peters, Monatsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1877, pp. 412-14. Boulenger, Catal. Liz. Brit. Mus., Il Ed., 1885, p. 372. Tejus ocellifer Spix, Spec. Nov. Lacert. Braz., p. 28, Pl. XXYV. Cnemidophorus hygomti Rhat. et Liitk., Vidensk. Meddel., 1861, p. 231. Bocourt, Miss. Sci. Mex. Rept., Pl. XX¢, Fig. 12. Brazil. CNEMIDOPHORUS MULTILINEATUS Philippi. Archiv f. Naturgesch,, 1869, p. 41, Boulenger, Catal. Liz. Brit. Mus., 2d Ed., II, 1885, p. 373. From Mendoza, Argentina. Unknown to me by autopsy. THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. 51 CNEMIDOPHORUS LABIALIS Stejneger. Proceeds. U. S. Nat. Museum, XII, p. 643. This is the smallest species of the genus, and is well characterized by its scutal peculiarities. Cerros Id., coast of Lower California. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Each plate includes the following figures: Superior, inferior and lateral aspects of head; superior view of arm and inferior view of forearm ; inferior view of hind leg, with anal region; scales from side of body, with borders of ventral plates. The figures are natural size except Nore.—For the greater part of the material on which this paper is based, I am indebted to the U. S. National Museum, and its distinguished directors, Profs. 8. P. Langley and G. Brown Goode. Plate VI. Fig. 1. Cnemidophorus tessellatus perplecus B. & G.; Specimen No. 3060 U. S. Nat. Museum. Fig. 2. Cnemidophorus tessellatus tessellatus Say, a; Spec. No. 3041 U. S. Nat. Museum. loie Vid: Fig. 3. Cnemidophorus tessellatus tessellatus Say, 2; No. 4113 U. S. Nat. Museum. Fig. 4. Cnemidophorus tessellatus tessellatus Say, y; No. 3048 U.S. Nat. Museum. Plate VIII. a JS, 1 . Onemidophorus tessellatus melanostethus Cope; No. 3067 U. 8. Nat. Museum. Fig. 6. Cnemidophorus variolosus Cope; No. 3060 U. §. Nat. Museuni. Plate IX. Fig. 7. Cnemidophorus sealineatus Linn.; No. 4878 U. S. Nat. Museum. Fig. 8. Cnemidophorus septemvittatus Cope ; No. 2872 U. S. Nat. Museum. Plate X. Fig. 9. Cnemidophorus gularis gularis B. & G.; No. 3039 U. Nat. Museum. Fig. 10. Cnemidophorus gularis scalaris Cope ; No. 8319 U. S. Nat. Museum. 52 A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS. Plate XI. Fig. 11. Cnemidophorus scalaris sericeus Cope ; No. 3066 U. S. Nat. Museum. Fig. 12. Cnemidophorus gularis semifasciatus Cope ; No. 9248 U. S. Nat. Museum. Plate XT. Color variations of Cnemidophorus tessellatus and of Cnemidophorus gularis. A. Young of C. tessellatus (C. gracilis B. & G.); No. 9270. B. C. tessellatus perplecus B. & G.; No. 3060. C. C. tessellatus tessellatus Say, (2; No. 3048. D. C. tessellatus tessellatus, 7; No. 4113. EF. C. tessellatus tessellatus, 0; No. 3048. FP. C. tessellatus rubidus Cope; No. 15,149. G. C. gularis gularis ; young ; No. 14,249 ; and adolescent (sp. from Rio Grande, Capt. Livermore). H. @. gularis gularis B. & G.; adult ; No. 3039. I. C. gularis scalaris Cope, a; No. 14,302. K. C. gularis scalaris Cope, 8 ; No. 8319. L. C. gularis semifasciatus Cope ; No. 9248. Plote XIE Color variations of Lacerta muralis copied from Eimer. . Lacerta muralis 3; young; from Karst. m. campestris De Betta. m. albwwentris Bonap. . maculata Kimer. SSawh SESS 8 S . tigris (reticulata) Eimer. *D snjzeTossey “4 °O ‘g ‘“snxerdied snyvijossoy snioydoprm1euy ‘T a ‘009 ‘sOllUd ‘Aewy suooOVsuB.y, TIAX “TOA ‘I wed ‘TA 99?1d % oye Oe gees “7 » Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate VII. 3, Cnemidophorus tessellatus tessellatus @. 4, C. t. tessellatus 7. *e “SnUJOqSOUvoUL SsngyvT[esse snxoydoprureug ‘¢ "SNSO[OIIBVA *C) ‘9 ee , ‘00 ‘SO[IUd ‘lewy suoyovsue.sy, ‘TIAX “1OA ‘I weg THA 9981d “snyvoul|xes snioydoprmmeuy ‘, “snyeqgiAmeqdes “9 ‘8 ‘009 ‘SOlIUd “louly suoyoesuvay, ‘TIAX “TOA I qaBq “XI 97810 an z f : & [us stiv[ns snioydoprmoeug ‘6 “SIIe “SLIv[eos °S "CG ‘OT ‘009 ‘SOTIYd ‘19uMIy SUOTJOBSUBLY, IT Med “WAX 1lOA “XX 948Id 11, Cnemidophorus gularis sericeus. Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. 12, O. g. semifasciatus. Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate XI. "snye[[osso} snioydoprusug ‘7-WF ‘stiv[ns "9 “7- ‘009 ‘SOlIUd ‘lewmYy SuOTOBSsUBI, TIAX “1l9A ‘I weg TIX 998Id el . 5 dats Pa { Feet r x “ = id : . | ae = aS = w ae ‘ Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XVII. Part I. Plate XIII. A-E, Lacerta muralis. t a a Saat ———_ SE Oe rm ~ ) +H wi . vf = ‘ xt ae Pius Me, mee é ARTICLE IV. THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. EDITED BY Dr. DANIEL G. BRINTON, Chairman, HENRY PHILLIPS, Jr., and Dr. J. CHESTON MORRIS, A Committee appointed by the American Philosophical Society, November 16, 1888. Part I. THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE OF THE ANCIENT MEXICANS. BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, M.D., LL.D. There are scarcely any tribes, however rude, who do not aid their memory by some objective device. The savage Australians have tally sticks, and in some locali- ties depict figures on the walls of caves in honor of some important event. A hand- ful of sticks of different lengths was the simple mnemonic device of the [roquois ; while knots tied in strings led in Siberia and Peru to a complicated system of thought recording. The arts of drawing and coloring lent themselves with peculiar facility to this purpose. They were by no means late or limited acquisitions of the human intellect. Far back in Paleolithic times we find evident traces of them, as we also do amongst savage peoples in every continent. The man of the mammoth and the reindeer epoch depicted these animals with singular fidelity by scratching their outlines on bones ; and the paint pots and masses of ochreous earth found on the sites of his dwellings prove that he was also a colorist, though his canvas may have extended little beyond his own skin. On this he probably drew and painted, as does the savage to-day, A. P. S.— VOL. XVII. H. 54 THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. some signs or marks which designated to what clan he belonged, or of what deeds he was proud. If his family was that of the bear, he would draw the outline of a bear ; if he boasted of his hunting exploits, he would depict the outlines of a man spearing an animal. Just such devices do we find on fragments of bone and stone dating from the Magdalenian epoch in France. They are the beginnings of recorded language, the primitive examples of writing. In such instances of picture writing, the outline of the bear recalled the concept, bear, and this is the utmost that any form of writing can do. Picture writing was familiar to almost all American tribes. It is the simplest and first step to all stages of recorded thought ; but it is cumbrous, and inapplicable to many ideas. We cannot directly depict what is abstract, or a general term, or a complex conception. This deficiency led to the employment of symbolic characters. In these, a part is taken for the whole of a picture, as a foot of a rabbit for the rabbit itself; or the figure of the sun, the life-giver, for the abstract idea of life both which symbols occur in the native Algonkin writing. In time, the symbol be- came conventionalized in form, so that the connection which originally existed between it and a concrete conception was lost from sight and memory. The figure of forgotten origin represented an idea, and this was all that was known about it. Thus arose ideographic writing, such as we find in singular development among the Chinese. Still, it will be observed, there is no relation of any of these signs to the sound of the language. All of them—pictorial, symb olic and ideographic—bear no more relation to the spoken word than do the Arabic numerals to us. An ideographiec text, like an algebraic formula, can be read by all who have once been taught the mean- ing of its elements. It is a universal language. This immense advantage is more than counterbalanced by the enormity of the task of committing to memory the necessary number of ideograms requisite for the purposes of life. It is said that in China at least five thousand characters are needed to conduct a business of ordinary extent ; and that a man of learning should be able to recognize twenty to thirty thousand. Few men in life require a knowledge of more than three languages; while the great majority have no use for more than one. Hence a method which represents all the concepts in a language by the combination of thirty or forty characters is incaleulably more time-saving, and therefore better for the vastly greater number, than one which demands thousands of characters. This obvious advantage made itself felt early in the history of writing. The most ancient Pyramid texts of Heypt, the oldest Cuneiform of Syria, indicate the THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. 55 effort of the human mind to seek a way out of the cumbrous fetters of thought- writing into a freer air, by having the sign no longer refer to the thing or the thought but to the sound, the spoken word. These general remarks are not out of place in this connection; they are in fact necessary, for the method of writing developed by the ancient Mexicans, in the stage in which it existed at the time of their subjection by the Huropeans, embodied, curi- ously enough, every one of these elements, pictures, symbols, ideograms and phonetic signs; and it is only by keeping this fact constantly in mind, and by seeking to ren- der each according to the special system which it represents, can we hope ever to untangle the labyrinth of the Aztec codices. It is because this essential fact has been overlooked that the syllabaries and lists _ of Mexican hieroglyphs hitherto published have proved almost worthless for the decipherment of the manuscripts which have been preserved. It must also be ob- served that the same sign may have a phonetic value in one place, and a purely ideo- graphic in another; and it would be obviously absurd for any scholar to attempt the construction of such a syllabary unless he is familiar with the sounds of the Nahuatl as a spoken tongue. Otherwise the phonetic elements would escape him. The presence of all these various methods of writing in the same document can readily be demonstrated. No one will question that in the tribute rolls, such as the - Codex Mendoza, published in Lord Kingborough’s collection, the picture of a feathered coat, or some such definite object, followed by the well-known signs of the numerals, means that a certain number of such articles were due from a certain district. Here the coat is in picture writing, while the numerals are ideograms. Again, where in the year signs, the rabbit, tochtli, is represented by his head only, we have a symbol. There has been no dispute among students of Mexican hieroglyphs that signs of these several characters occur; but when it comes to the alleged presence of purely phonetic elements, the divergence of opinion has been considerable. Some writers have claimed that a large proportion of the figures refer to sounds rather than thoughts, while others have gone so far as to deny all evidence of phoneticism in the codices. ‘Much of this discrepancy has arisen from the tendency of students of the latter class to look in the Mexican writing for an alphabet, like that to which we are accus- tomed. Nothing of this kind existed, or could exist in the stage to which the Aztecs had developed their plan of recording thought. The material out of which an alphabet might have evolved was indeed present, but it was submerged in much extraneous and traditional rubbish. 56 THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. The line of research which I believe will give us the clue to a correct interpreta- tion of the phonetic elements in the Mexican codices I have set forth and exemplified with a number of illustrations in some articles published several years ago and col- lectively republished in my “Hssays of an Americanist” (Philadelphia, 1890). A brief statement of the method there advanced may appropriately be introduced here. It is agreed among those who have most carefully studied the subject that there is but one path by which the human mind could have originally proceeded from ideo- graphic or thought writing to phonetic or sound writing. This was through the existence of homophones and homoiophones, that is, of words with different meanings but the same or nearly the same sound. The same sign would come to represent two different ideas, not that it represented them both pictorially, but because both were expressed in the language by the same sound. This is the seeret of the first intro- duction of the element of sound into writing. An illustration of this may be offered from the Heyptian writing in its early stage. The word nefer meant a lute, and in the early texts when the writer wished to convey the idea of a lute he simply drew the picture of one, and all understood it and read it nefer. But this sound nefer had in Egyptian another meaning, which was “door;” just as in English the sound Juée has also the meaning booty or plunder (loot). It was discovered therefore that by reference to sound the picture of a lute could also stand for “door” and thus save the trouble of having a separate sign for that concept. Proceeding on this line the same figure would come to be employed for a number of ideas expressed in the spoken tongue by the same or closely similar sounds; as in fact the sign of the lute in Egypt came to signify not only a lute ora door, but a soldier, a colt and the adjective “ good.” When the word thus represented was a monosyllable, the sign for its sound would apply not only to it but also to all words in the language where this syllable occurred; and thus a syllabic alphabet began to be developed. Again, when this monosyllable coincided with one of the phonetic radicals of the language, that is, with one of the letters of its natural alphabet, we perceive the beginning of the true alphabetic writing. A simple example of this would be in English the picture of a bee, which in sound represents the second letter of the English alphabet. The discussion of these distinctions is not irrelevant to the present theme. On the contrary, the student must have them constantly in mind, for as he investigates the phonetic elements of the Mexican codices, he will] find that sometimes they represent the whole of a polysyllabie word, at other times a syllable only, and more rarely, that a true phonetic radical had been evolved and was employed just as we employ a let- ter of our alphabet in writing a word. I believe it may be averred with safety that THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. 57 of the five vowels and fourteen consonants which make up the Nahuatl alphabet, three vowels and three consonants had reached the stage where they were treated as true letters. The vowels were a for which the sign was borrowed from the term adi, water in composition a ; e was represented by a bean, edd, in composition e; and o by a footprint or path, oti. The consonants were p, represented by a flag, pan, or a mat, petl; t by a stone, fetl, or the lips, tentli; and z by a lancet, zo. As in the case of p and ¢, several signs were employed for the same sound, no uniformity having been established in this respect. This is especially true for the syllabic characters, where there was a still wider range of variation, much depending on the caprice or the habit of the scribe. These variants offer difficulties enough to the student; but they are light compared to what is further in store for him. When the whole name of an object or most of it was used as a phonetic value, and several such pictures representing sounds are brought together to form a sentence or compound word, the script remains truly phonetic, but becomes a regular puzzle, in all respects of the character of that which we call a Rebus. This principle is also that which is seen in the “canting arms” of medizeval her- aldry, and is at the basis of most of that play upon words which we call “ punning.” - So far as I am aware, there is no term in science which serves to express it, and for this reason in the articles above referred to I gave it the name zkonomatic writing, that is, a method of writing by means of the names of the figures or objects repre- sented. Jt resembles in appearance, but differs radically in principle, from picture writing, for although it is composed of pictures, these in ikonomatic writing are used solely with reference to the sound of their names, and not with any relation to the objects which they portray. Since my publications on this subject, Dr. Morris Jastrow, Jr., has called atten- tion to a number of examples probably of the same character, in Assyrian inscrip- tions ; and it would appear to have been one of the stadia through which human art passed in its efforts to develop a true alphabet. Its undoubted presence and exten- sive employment in the Mexican system of writing [ have abundantly shown in the articles to which I would refer the reader who would desire further evidence. While it is my conviction that the above principles, judiciously applied, will result in the decipherment of the ancient records of the Nahuas, such as that which is here presented, all who are conversant with the subject will acknowledge the pro- priety of calling to our aid the widest range of comparisons possible before proceed- ing to the interpretation of a particular manuscript. The mass of unexcelled mate- rial for this study which was originally collected by Boturini, and which through 58 THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. many perils is at last in a fair way to be rendered accessible to the scientific world, will add so much to our knowledge that it would be time lost to seek definite conclu- sions from the fragment here presented. The object of the Society which publishes it is accomplished when this testimony to a past culture is thus laid before the students of human development with such brief words of introduction. or oO TILE TRIBUTE ROLI. OF MONTEZUMA. Part IT. THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. BY HENRY PHILLIPS, JR. The manuscripts here reproduced came into the possession of the American Philosophical Society in the year 1830, having been presented, together with about twenty-five hundred objects of Mexican antiquities, by Hon. Joel R. Poinsett, who had been Minister of the United States at Mexico. The colored pictures will be found engraved [uncolored] in Lorenzana’s Historia de Nueva* Espana, Mexico, 1770. They are numbered in that work respectively as 1, 2, 27, 28 and 30, and are designated as the catalog of the tributes paid to Monte- zuma, their amounts and species and the peoples by whom they were paid. The tributes as paid consist of various manners of dresses, military and civil, arms, banners, etc., cotton, gums and spices, ornamented vestments and other arti- cles, [even as it is said, lice and ants], precious stones, apparently cut, and necklaces of similar objects. The pictures now presented will be found absolutely correct. Upon comparison : with those in Lorenzana it will be seen that there are many discrepancies in form, shape, size and position; that in the printed volume some written matter is inter- polated as explanations on the plates, and in other cases there are inscriptions omitted from the roll. The plates represent the tributes paid by Tlateluleo (Pl. 1), Tepetlap- lalco (Pl. 2), Tlauhquitepee (27), Tuxpa (28), Tazco (30) and others. Part IIT. PHYSICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS. BY DR. J. CHESTON MORRIS. The fragments of the tribute roll are four in number, those of the calendar, two. They are all of maguey paper, made from the fibre of the Agave americana by a very simple process: A section of the stem is shaved or cut so as to give a long thin strip which is macerated and rolled into the required density, texture, smoothness and thickness; in this case the width of the sheet was between eight and eight * Cordillera de los Pueblos que antes de la conquista pagaban tributo & el Emperador Muctezuma yen que especie y cantidad. 60 THE TRIBUTE ROLL OF MONTEZUMA. and a half inches. For the tribute roll a greater width was obtained by placing strips of two and a half inches wide on one side, while still moist, and causing them to be rolled or pressed into imperfect unity with the main strip; or, as in No. 4, by similarly uniting two sheets of full width and cutting off the edges. They then seem to have been cut into pages of seventeen inches long for the tribute roll. The outlines of all the figures have been carefully made with an ink resembling sepia, and then the various colors, probably of vegetable origin, filled in. These are shaded with much accuracy. The ethnographic features of the pictures are very interesting and suggestive. Thus on No. 2, Tlatilulco, are four heads each surrounded with a very light yellow circlet rising into a point above, and fastened with a red bow or sash behind; the face is white with slight pink hue, the nose straight and pointed, eyes black, as also the long hair which covers the ears; the expression is that of command. Very different is the head on No. 30, near the foot of the page, the face of which is of a yellowish color, the hair represented as twisted in two coils which are intertwined around the head and terminate in horn-like projection above the rather high forehead, while the nose is aquiline, almost gibbous, with thick lips and prominent chin. On the first of the two calendar sheets we see two heads without color, but sur- mounted by what may represent a cap or helmet with two horns; then a face which recalls in its outline those of the first fragment of the tribute roll. Then follow others, nearly all with very long straight noses, some of them however slightly gib- bous. About midway on this sheet (which is forty-two inches long) is a representa- tion of two square huts or houses, with roofs rising to a flat peak in the centre; in the line below that of a man seated in a curule chair, wearing a sombrero and plaited doublet, with a long straight sword held in front of his left hand. It would seem as though this were a narrative which was soon after abruptly terminated, as the illustrations above the circles which I take to stand for days are only three in number. It is worth noting that the faces are all turned in reverse directions in the alternate lines, thus making them advance first from left to right, and in the line below from right to left. The circles indicating days are usually ten in each row, sometimes eleven, once nine. Some bear a svastica symbol and are colored red; others at irreg- ular intervals have a red face, with a gibbous pointed nose and very full lips, partly filling a white circle not concentric with the main one, which is otherwise always yellow. I believe these faces represent the phases of the moon. The other calendar fragment, which is thirty-two inches long, is of inferior workmanship, has the day circles (some of which are colorless, others green and ereenish yellow) arranged on the right side. On this again, near the lower end, is THE TRIBUTE ROLL’ OF MONTEZUMA. 61 seen the Spaniard, with long thin features, seated in his curule chair and carrying his two-handed sword, while on the last line are represented three figures with hats having doubly curved rims and full bonnet-like crowns, the first seated in the curule chair holding the sword resting on its point; they all have thin beards, and the two others look as though advancing on a march of exploration. The Nahuatl words look as if made by a pencil, style, or short brush similar to that used in delineating the figures, and with a sepia-like preparation; while the Spanish ones have evidently been made with an ink containing iron, and an instru- ment which disturbed the gloss of the paper, as is shown by its penetration to fibres adjacent, giving the lines a sort of hazy margin occasionally. = = ~~ SORES TORRE PTR TE Ts 2 tS +i A ae ees Transactions American Philosophical Society. New Series. —_ =) Transactions American Philosophical Society. New Series. Vol. XVI. Part I. bara Te, DIU. « x. 0 Pe “ -_ = — > hahaa Screener belonereeeeeeeentemmermpeceseemine-sememeeneeeeeeteeee ee — _ —— aa 7 er = ote eatin coal SOS Ry eee ner pe aE ORG NYT RES Lets ME LS a ell i a Pena? PEP a ge > ~~ ae" SaQnee i ae ray “ . 7 ee ———- — rene ce 7 . a " ~ . , ~ 4 ‘ m : ¥ 1 ¥ y Fy Tiny . Transactions American Philosophical Society. New Series. i Vol. XVII Part II. | + eo emmes I ee : ae oe Mi a A ‘Transactions American Philosophical Society. New Series. Tribute Roll 27. (tLaunHaquitepec.) =} y ‘Transactions American Philosophical Society. New Series. a ee Gir yh Mr) ee mY oie Al gee Tribute Roll 30. ctazco.) a ] ee oi Riu wan ¥ S00es@00000 ng Vol. XVII. Part II. , . ee ‘Vol XVM Part i \ t — aera eae PI Sr ee rer ARTICLE V. THE SAPROLEGNIACEA OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. BY JAMES ELLIS HUMPHREY, SC.D. Read before the American Philosophical Society, November 18, 1892. In spite of the attention which most families of Thallophytes have received in | the United States during recent years, the aquatic fungi have been hardly noticed. Although their resemblances to the Algze on one hand, and to the Fungi on the other, give to their study peculiar interest, it is perhaps to this twofold affinity that the neglect is due. Their habitat is not such as is explored by the student of fungi, and the phycologist passes them by as not of his group. The following pages contain the results of studies of American Saprolegniacec, earried on during the past two years in the intervals of other botanical work. The materials on which they are based have been largely procured by myself in and about Amherst, Mass. ; but I have to thank the kindness of friends and correspondents in other parts of the country for considerable material illustrative of the Saprolegnia- ceous flora of their respective sections. Of these, I am indebted to Dr. Ida A. Keller, of Bryn Mawr College, for cultures from the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and for a single one from Kentucky; to Rey. A. B. Langlois, of St. Martinville, Louisi- ana, for cultures from that:vicinity; to Prof. G. F. Atkinson, formerly of Auburn, Alabama, and to Mr. J. M. White, of Agricultural College, Mississippi, for speci- mens from those localities. I am also under especial obligations to Prof. William Trelease, of the Missouri Botanic Garden, at St. Louis, who has most generously placed in my hands without restriction all the preparations, notes and drawings made during his too brief study of the family, carried on chiefly in eastern Massachusetts Doren. VOlay. SoVillenl. 64. THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, in 1881. I am also indebted to Prof. Roland Thaxter, of Harvard University, for specimens from Mt. Washington; and I owe to Mr. A. B. Seymour, of Harvard University, references to the few published exsiccatw of this family and the exami- nation of one of them. The others I have not been able to examine. While neither the amount of material examined, nor the variety of sources from which it has been drawn, can justify any generalizations, they yet afford a basis for some preliminary ideas concerning the distribution and relative abundance of some of our species. The material has also been utilized, in part, for the study of several questions relating to the morphology of the group, on which it is hoped to shed some light. Physiological questions have not reccived the attention which they deserve, and which it is hoped to give them in future studies. Their discussion is, therefore, restricted as much as possible in the present paper, which is concerned chiefly with the morphological and systematic aspects of the family. A pretty careful review of the literature has led to some conclusions concerning the synonymy of certain species not yet known to be American which have not previously been suggested. Therefore, it has been thought worth while to include in the systematic account of the family all published names, with an indication of the standing of each, so far as it can be determined from available data. The appended bibliography makes no pretensions to completeness, but it is believed to contain the titles of all works of present value, or of much historical interest, relating to the morphology and classification of the Saprolegniacew, as well as those of certain other papers which are quoted in the following pages. Papers by American authors are marked with a dagger (+). The titles of the few papers included which I have not been able to examine are preceded by an asterisk (*). For access to many of the remainder I am indebted to the various libraries in Amherst, Boston and Cambridge, and to Prof. W. G. Farlow, of Harvard University. Hach of the works is cited in the body of the paper by its abbreviated date, which is prefixed to its full title in the list. This method has the advantage of doing away with cumbersome footnotes, and of giving, in the briefest possible form, the date of the work with the reference to it. The last point is one of much con- venience and economy in the citation of synonymy. WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 65 INTRODUCTORY. The greater simplicity or apparent primitiveness of structure which is usually associated, among the simplest plants, with life in the water, together with the fact that various theoretical considerations point to the water as the probable habitat of the earliest forms of life, lends to the study of the aquatic Thallophytes the highest interest. Leaving out of consideration the natural and fairly circumscribed group of the Schizophyta, the great body of these forms is made up of plants containing chlorophyll, belonging to the algal stock, and presenting various lines of relationship and descent. From this stock must undoubtedly have been derived the great collateral chlorophyll-less groups of fungi. Most of the latter have been so modified to meet the conditions of aérial life, that the absence of chlorophyll has become of minor importance as a distinguishing character. A few, however, which cling to the ancestral habitat have preserved so many of the essential algal features that it becomes difficult to separate them from the Algwe except on the basis of their acquired saprophytic or parasitic habit and consequent loss of chlorophyll. All of the characteristically aquatic groups of fungi belong to the most primitive or alga-like division—the Phycomycetes—and they are all probably to be regarded as primitively aquatic. Several interesting cases of transition from aquatic to aérial life are, however, presented by species immediately related to some aquatic ones and referrible to natural groups which may, in general, be called aquatic. The aquatic Phycomycetes may be grouped under five heads, as follows: 1. Chytridiacee. 4, Saprolegniacee. 2. Ancylistacee. 5. Pythium. 3. Monoblepharidacee. The Chytridiacee constitute a heterogeneous group of considerable size and of much variety of structure. Its members are regarded by some writers as the most primitive of the fungi, and by others as degenerate forms derived from the higher Phycomycetes. They possess a very rudimentary mycelium or none at all, and commonly produce both sporangia, with zodspores, and resting spores. An evident conjugation precedes the formation of resting spores in a very few cases; but, for the most part, the group presents no traces of sexuality. A considerable number of the species are parasitic upon terrestrial Phanerogams, usually such as grow in wet places; but the aquatic species constitute the larger part of the group and are also chiefly parasites. Their hosts include Protozoa, Anguil- lule and Fotifera ; Saprolegniacew, Alge of every group, various spores and pollen 66 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, grains ; in short, a large part of the minuter organisms of fresh waters, to which they are chiefly restricted. A few species, however, are marine. The Ancylistacee include a few species, chiefly parasitic upon Conjugate and Anguillule. The young plant is mycelium-like, but is entirely consumed in the formation of the reproductive organs. These are sporangia, oogonia, and antheridia. From the union of the protoplasm of the last two, there results in each case a single odspore. While clearly related in their vegetative structure and habits with the Chytridiacee, these plants may be regarded as forming, in their reproductive organs, a transition to the higher Oomycetes. The Saprolegniacee are to be discussed later. Closely related to them, but differing in essential particulars, is the single genus Monoblepharis which forms the type of a distinct family. It has been studied only by Cornu, who has described three species. According to this author, the plants have sporangia with uniciliate zojspores; and the odspheres, formed singly in the odgonia, are fertilized by motile uniciliate antherozoids, produced in a cell cut off just below the odjgonium from its supporting filament, which gains access to the odsphere through an opening at the apex of the ojgonium. These plants are saprophytes. The Peronosporacee are represented among aquatic fungi by some of the mem- bers of a single genus, Pythium. Like the rest of the family, the members of this genus have an abundant mycelium from which are developed the sexual organs, antheridia and odgonia. Hach of the latter produces a single odsphere from a portion of its protoplasm, the rest remaining as “ periplasm,” and ultimately forming an outer coat about the spore. There appears to be an actual passage of protoplasmic substance from the antheridium to the oisphere, constituting a real act of fertilization. In Pythium, as in some of the Ancylistacec, the zoispores are formed outside of the mouth of the sporangium from the contents of the latter, after it has been extruded ina single mass. The aquatic species of the genus are parasitic on water plants or saprophytic on organic remains. One or more species attack terrestrial Phanero- gams. The American literature of these various groups is confined to a few scattered notes in addition to that quoted in the present paper, with the exception of Prof. Farlow’s account of the genus Synchytrium of the Chytridiacee. Its members are, however, not aquatic. This brief preliminary account may suflice to indicate the near relationship of all the aquatic fungi and to suggest the great morphological interest which attaches to them; while it may suitably preface the detailed discussion of the family which forms the subject of the present contribution. WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 67 SAPROLEGNIACH A. The vegetative organs of these plants consist of usually branched tubular fila- ments without dividing walls, and therefore with a single continuous cavity. The filaments are of two sorts—the internal threads, which penetrate the substratum, branching freely, and tapering rapidly to their pointed ends (Fig. 2), and the external ones, which arise from the latter and radiate outward into the surrounding medium (Fig. 1). The following description refers chiefly to the latter. In general, there are no sudden changes in the calibre of a filament, but only a gradual decrease from one end to the other; but the Leptomitee are characterized by abrupt constrictions at intervals, marking off the hyphze into segments, but not completely closing the cayity (Fig. 6). The hyphe are usually largest at their bases; that is, where they arise from or give rise to threads of the other kind. From this point the external threads decrease slowly in size. Those of Zeptomitus, however, decrease abruptly with each successive branching, so that their apical seg- ments become reduced to an eighth of the diameter of the basal ones. The different species present very wide extremes in the size of their filaments, whose diameter may. vary from 5, in Aphanomyces to more than 100, in S. Treleaseana. The length of the filaments in any given species or individual is considerably affected by the amount of available nourishment; but in vigorous specimens of Aphanomyces it may not exceed two or three millimeters, while in some Achlye it may reach more than twenty millimeters. The hyphal walls of the members of this family are composed, unlike those of almost all other fungi, of unmodified cellulose, which reacts readily and charac- teristicaliy with chloroiodide of zine. Within this wall is a layer of protoplasm which lines it closely and forms a hollow cylinder. At the centre is a wide vacuolar space, across which run, especially in the younger parts of the filament, strings of proto- plasm connecting opposite parts of the parietal layer. This layer is densest and most granular in the youngest or apical part of the filament, and in the older parts the granular protoplasm forms a network of anastomosing threads or bands, with somewhat. wide interstices (Fig. 4). In the threads of this network a constant circulation is kept up, towards the base in some and towards the apex of the hypha in others. It is worthy of remark that when young threads are cut off in water their death does not necessarily result. Very little protoplasm is lost from the tube thus opened, but a new cellulose wall is very quickly formed across the cut end (Fig. 3), and the hypha remains capable of normal development if nourishment be again sup- 68 THE SAPROLEGNIACEA OF THE UNITED STATES, plied, or even of developing until its protoplasm is exhausted, without further nour- ishment. Scattered through the protoplasm without order, but commonest at the nodes of the granular network, are the nuclei, normally ellipsoidal in form, and each with a distinct central mass which stains more deeply than the rest of the nucleus (Fig. 4). These central masses have been generally termed nucleoli, but they seem clearly to correspond rather with the chromatin bodies of more highly organized nuclei, and will, therefore, be better designated as chromatin-masses. Between the chromatin- mass and the nuclear membrane is a considerable space occupied by a substance which stains very slightly with hematoxylin. The nuclei are most abundant in the young parts of the hypha, where the protoplasm is densest. They increase in num- ber, with the apical growth of the thread, by fission. The division of the nucleus is preceded by the division of the chromatin-mass, and commonly occurs in a plane at right angles to its long axis (Fig. 5). I have observed some eases, like one shown in Fig. 4, where two nuclei lie close together, with their long axes parallel, but have never seen preliminary stages to convince me that they haye resulted from the division of a nucleus in the plane of its long axis. Hartog states (’89) that he has observed karyokinetic phenomena in some cases, but I have been unable to find evidence of any other than direct division. The growth of the hyphe takes place at their blunt or somewhat pointed tips. Data as to the rate of growth are very few. Pringsheim (’51) reports a rate of 400, (= .4 mm.) per hour in a new filament of Saprolegnia, growing into an emptied sporangium. Hine (’78) records having observed a growth of 70 to 90, per hour during three hours’ observation of a filament of Saprolegnia ; and I have measured a growth of about 100, per hour in a vigorous hypha of Aphanomyces, while the germ- tube from a zodspore of the same species grew at the rate of about 40, per hour in water. The purely vegetative branching of the hyphe is sometimes dichotomous at the principal divisions of the larger ones, but commonly of the monopodial type in the small branches. In most species the branches may arise from any point and develop by apical growth at acute or right angles with the main axis. In the genus Leptometus, as here limited, branches arise only from the acroscopic ends of the segments, close to the origins of the next segments of the axial series (Fig. 6). They are separated by constrictions from their parent segments; but when the segment next below a sporangium gives rise to a branch, it grows out for a short distance without con- striction, and then produces a new segment (Fig. 116), as Pringsheim has pointed out (’60). WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 69 The internal hyphe, whose office is the absorption of nourishment from the sub- stratum, may properly be termed rhzzozds, whether from a morphological or a physio- logical point of view. DeBary states (81, p. 95) that the external hyphe may send ~ down rhizoidal branches which penetrate the substratum. Well-developed threads, when cut off from their basal portions and brought in contact with fresh nourishment, will attach themselves to it by new rhizoids and continue their growth. In addition to the protoplasmic contents and the food material diffused through it, the hyphe of the Saprolegniacee contain more or less generally certain bodies as yet unrecognized in other plants. They have been called by Pringsheim (’83 5), cellulin granules (Fig. 6, c). They occur in the filaments or in reproductive organs formed from them, as discoid or lobed bodies, those of the latter form arising by fusion of several disks. When young, they are homogeneous and rather strongly refractive ; and when old they often become distinctly stratified. They are, perhaps, most abundant and conspicuous in Leptonitus lacteus, where they were early described by Pringsheim (’60) as nuclei. In this species they often become lodged in the constrictions of the hyphe and may completely close the passage. Prings- heim has shown (’83 6), that the substance of these bodies is neither a proteid nor a carbohydrate, although it is in some respects related to cellulose and starch. He. regarded them as waste products of metabolism rather than as reserve materials, since he saw no evidence of their solution or transformation. But Rothert has shown (88) that they probably contribute to the formation of the separating wall of the sporangium, since they seem to disappear during that process. It may also be suggested that cut hyphe may owe their power of promptly repairing injury to the presence of this material. Should this be shown to be the case, they may be regarded as a soluble form of cellulose available for use in forming and repairing cellulose walls. NOn-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. After they have become well grown, the external hyphz begin to produce the organs of reproduction, which are of two sorts, sexual and non-sexual. We will con- sider these as they are developed in the order of time, examining first those of non- sexual or vegetative reproduction. Only a single organ of this sort is common to the entire family ; namely, the zoosporangvum. Within this organ are produced the agents of the rapid propagation of the species concerned, the zoospores. The phe- nomena of the development and individualization of the zoispores within the sporangium appear to be essentially the same in most of the genera, at least. But the manner of their release from the sporangium and their subsequent history 70 THE SAPROLEGNIACE4# OF THE UNITED STATES, undergo various modifications so characteristic and so related to each other that they furnish the basis for the grouping of the species into a natural series of genera. We pass to a detailed examination of their production and fate. The first account to give an approximately correct description of these phenomena was that of Hannover (’42), followed by that of Unger (43). Subsequently Prings- heim (51) and DeBary (’52) extended their observations, and the subject has been a favorite one down to the present. The formation of a sporangium begins with the gradual cessation of the apical growth of a filament. Now commences an accumula- tion of protoplasm in the terminal portion of the filament, which usually becomes more or less swollen. No increase in size occurs, however, in the hyphex of Aphanomyces. Finally the end of the hypha is filled with a very dense mass of protoplasm with numerous nuclei, which passes rather abruptly into the thin proto- plasm of the lower part. In the narrow intermediate region between the dense and the thin protoplasm, is formed a clear disk of hyaloplasm, seen as a band in lateral view. Its hyaline character is due to the withdrawal of the microsomes from the originally granular protoplasm of that region. Across the lower surface of this disk is developed a cellulose wall, beginning at the wall of the hypha as a ring and pro- gressing rapidly inward from all sides until the central opening is closed, and a solid wall separates the terminal portion of the thread, as a sporangium, from the remain- der. It has been said that this basal wall of the sporangium is different chemically from the other cell walls of the plant. Not only is this improbable a prvorz, especially in view of its common fate in Saprolegnia, but careful examination shows that it reacts like the other walls with chloroiodide of zinc. As before remarked, Rothert (788) has observed the occurrence of abundant cellulin granules in the region of the forming wall. Later these cannot be recognized and he suggests that they may furnish material for the wall. The hyaloplasm which thus at first lines the spo- rangial surface of this wall soon becomes again granular by the return of its micro- somes. The sporangium thus formed was regarded by earlier writers—Naegeli (47) and others—as a free cell enclosed in the end of the filament. It differs widely in form in the different species, and even considerably in the same species. Commonly it is approximately cylindrical, and may be swollen most at its apical end (Saprolegnia), or in the middle (Achlya), with a length from six to twelve times its greatest diameter. In Pythiopsis, Thraustotheca and Apodachlya pyrifera, the length is so reduced that it becomes short-clayate or pyriform; and in some sporangia of Pythiopsis and in Apodachlya brachynema, the form is quite globular. These con- tracted forms occur also among more typical ones in S. forulosa. On the other hand, WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. oo the sporangia of Aphanomyces often reach a length of more than a hundred times their diameter. In rare cases, the quantity of protoplasm contained in the sporangium may be sufficient to completely fill it, but usually it forms a parietal layer of greater or less thickness, with a vacuolar space extending through the middle. If this layer be very thin, or if the sporangium be completely filled, that condition will induce certain modifications in the usual course of development of the zodspores, but in a great majority of cases the process is as follows. In consequence of the greater turgidity of the sporangium than of the lower part of its hypha, its basal wall becomes convex towards the base of the filament (Fig. 7, a). The first indications of the formation of zodspores then soon follow. The phenomena attending this process have been the subject of much study and of widely different interpretations, most of which cannot profitably be detailed here. The most important contributions to the discussion have been those by Strasburger (’80), Biisgen (’82), Ward (’83), Berthold (’86), Hartog (’87), and Rothert (’88) ; and their papers may be consulted for the details of the various views put forth. Repeated studies of several species have satisfied me that Rothert’s account, which is corroborated in most details by Berthold and Hartog, is practically correct. Therefore the following account is a combination - of the descriptions given by those writers with personal observations. The descrip- tion may best be based, as has been said, on the commonest form of sporangium, that with a parietal laver of protoplasm of considerable thickness and an axial vacuole. At first, irregular rifts begin to appear in the protoplasm, extending out- ward from the vacuole. They soon become more definite and more numerous, and connect with each other in such fashion that the protoplasm is marked off into a number of irregularly polygonal masses, as seen from the surface (Fig. 7, a). It is probable that the number of these blocks, which finally become spores, corresponds to the number of nuclei originally shut in by the basal wall, since the zodspores are always uninucleate, and there is no evidence that any nuclear division occurs within the sporangium. The clefts are at first quite narrow, and the protoplasmic masses, or “spore origins,” as they have been called, are frequently connected by threads of protoplasm. The somewhat irregular outlines and the granular structure of the origins, together with the appearance of the connecting threads in surface view, have led Strasburger, Biisgen and Ward to very different interpretations of these clefts from those here adopted. They have regarded them as “ cell-plates,” separating the spores, and consisting of layers—lines in optical section—of granules. But it is FAG Se VOI. SX VAL. Jie 72 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, clear that Rothert’s explanation is the correct one, since, as the clefts broaden, the granules disappear, or separate with the origins. At about the same time, with the appearance of the first signs of the segregation of the spore origins, there is formed, if the sporangium belong to a species of Achlya or Saprolegnia, normally at its apex, an outgrowth or papilla, from whose tip the zoospores will finally escape. Its formation begins with the accumulation at that point of a mass of hyaloplasm which presses the wall outward. After its formation, the hyaloplasm becomes granular, except a thin layer which remains intimately con- nected with the apex of the papilla (Fig. 7, a). This apical wall is always less sharply defined and more highly refractive than any other part of the sporangial wall, and these characteristics become more and more prominent until the escape of the spores. The clefts between the spore origins rapidly widen and deepen, causing the con- necting threads to become broken and withdrawn into the bodies of the origins. In view of subsequent changes, and of what seems the most reasonable explanation of them, it does not appear probable that the clefts extend at once completely to the outer wall, although it is often very difficult or even impossible to detect with high powers and excellent material any protoplasmic lining of the wall at this stage, when the spore origins are most widely separated. Another good reason for believing that the origins are still connected by a delicate parietal lining may be found in the fact that the whole surface of an origin next to the wall remains closely applied to it throughout this stage, and does not become rounded off at the corners, as happens on the other sides of the origin, and on this side at a later stage. After the separation of the spore origins has become nearly complete, there fol- lows suddenly and without warning the so-called “homogeneous” stage of Biisgen, the “stage of swelling of the spores” of Rothert. The spaces between the spore origins disappear by the apparent swelling up and fusion of the separate origins, and the contents of the sporangium appear less opaque and less granular than before. In spots corresponding approximately to the middles of the spore origins are to be seen clear, bright spots, and throughout the whole protoplasm are numerous vacuoles which appear and disappear, shifting about rapidly (Fig. 7, 6). At the same time with the beginning of this stage, there is a very sudden decrease of turgidity in the sporangium, which is shown by the flattening of the terminal wall of the apical papilla, previously convex outward, and by a complete change in position of the basal wall (Fig. 7, 6). This wall has been until now, as before stated, convex downward, on account of the greater turgidity of the sporangium than of the lower part of its hypha. These relations evidently now become reversed, for the wall suddenly OO eee ee aS -—- 9 bee ee ee = ee WITH NOTES ON OTHER: SPECIES. 73 becomes convex upward, indicating a marked and instantaneous loss of turgescence by the sporangium. All the characteristic phenomena of this stage are much more strongly marked in the species of Achlya (A. Americana and racemosa) than in those of Saprolegnia (\S. ferax and sp. indet.) which I have studied. The change may come over a whole sporangium simultaneously, so far as the eye can detect, or it may begin at either end and extend, wavelike, to the other in two or three seconds. While the spore origins seem ordinarily to be quite fused together, careful examina- tion will not seldom show; here and there in the protoplasm, narrow cracks which are the remnants of separating clefts not quite completely closed by the swelling of the origins. Rothert’s explanation of this phenomenon seems to accord well with the ob- served facts and with what we know of cell structure in general. He believes that, until the beginning of the stage of swelling, the sporangium wall is lined by a contin- uous protoplasmic layer, and therefore, as in living cells generally, there can be no transfer of liquids between the cavity of the sporangium and the surrounding water. The final extension of some of the dividing clefts between the origins to the wall breaks the continuity of this “primordial utricle,” and there is an escape of fluid through the pervious wall and a consequent loss of turgidity. This fluid is distinctly attractive to some forms of Bacteria which may be present in the surrounding water and is, doubtless, the cell sap. Its loss is due, Rothert thinks, to the contraction of the walls which have been distended by their dense lining, but now become free to assume their natural positions. Measurements show a reduction in the volume of the sporangium amounting in some cases to as much as thirteen per cent. After this loss, water is probably taken up by endosmose, and the mixture of cell sap and water in the cavity of the sporangium is absorbed by the spore origins, whose bulk is so increased that the separating spaces are practically obliterated. The successive absorption and expulsion of this fluid gives rise to the shifting vacuoles. My obser- vation that sometimes in S. ferax the swelling of the spore origins begins perceptibly later than the incurving of the basal wall, distinctly corroborates this view. A very few minutes after the swelling up of the origins, the vacuoles disappear, and the granular appearance returns. They begin again to contract, separating from each other on the old lines, as consecutive observation always shows. The contraction goes on rather rapidly, and the masses become definitely separated as independent spores. While this contraction is going on, small portions of proto- plasm may become cut off from the different spores; but each is soon taken up, as a rule, by the same spore to which it originally belonged. The significance of this phenomenon will be discussed in connection with the sexual spores, during whose formation it also occurs. - The gaps between the spores are widened by their contrac- 74 THE SAPROLEGNIACE OF THE UNITED STATES, tion and the rounding of all their corners so that they come to lie nearly or quite free from one another. In Achlya racemosa, and perhaps in some other species, the con- traction is much less pronounced than is usual, and its spores do not commonly appear distinctly separate in the sporangium. Up to this point our account may apply equally to all the species that have been carefully studied. But we must now distinguish between those genera whose spores normally escape from the apex of the sporangium and those of which this is not true. In those of the former class (Achlya, Saprolegnia, and allied genera), there may often be seen some spontaneous movement among the spores, especially among those near the tip. In case of the two genera just named, the apical papilla becomes markedly more transparent and less sharply outlined, as to its terminal wall. As the spores acquire more exactly their ultimate form, the motion increases and the termi- nal wall fades out until it is ruptured, and the spores rush through the opening (Fig. 8). Sometimes the wall seems to soften gradually until it yields to pressure from within ; or again, the spore nearest the apex may be seen to enter the papilla and apparently to force its way through the partly softened wall, thus making an opening through which the rest rapidly follow. Other modes by which the opening is made have been detailed by Rothert (’88), but need not be further discussed here. Some figures concerning the rapidity of the development of the zodspores have been given by others, and I have made notes of the process in the four species chiefly studied. Ward (’83) gives some observations on A. De Baryana (‘“ polyandra”) and A. wpiculata, and these accord with my own on A. Americana and racemosa as closely as could be expected. There is considerable variation in the time occupied, depending on the age and vigor of the culture, and doubtless on various undetermined conditions. A general statement may, however, be based on the data at hand. The first appearance of the clefts, which mark the beginning of the formation of the zodspores, usually occurs twenty or thirty minutes after formation of the basal wall. From their appearance to the escape of the zodspores the time may be from twenty- five minutes to an hour, but it rarely exceeds forty-five minutes. The emptying of the sporangium is ordinarily accomplished in from forty-five to one hundred seconds. The zodspores are. ovateor pyriform, and their protoplasm is hyaline at the smaller end, while in the rest of the spore it is very granular, and contains two or three contractile vacuoles (Fig. 8, z, and 9). The zoispores of the species of Sapro- legnia (Fig. 8, 2) and Pythiopsis (Fig. 68, 2), and of some, probably of all, species of Achlya (Fig. 9) are provided with two cilia attached to the smaller, hyaline end of each. The presence of these organs in the first-named genus has been recognized since they were demonstrated by Thuret (’50), but Cornu was the first (772) to assert —— WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 15 their presence in Achlya. Hartog (87) later corroborated his statement for A. polyandra and recurva. I have several times recognized cilia on the zodspores of A, Americana, at the instant of escape, by adding to the water on the slide support- ing tke specimen a few drops of a one per cent. solution of osmic acid in water, and then staining 7 situ with a solution of equal parts fuchsin and methyl violet in strong alcohol. This treatment, recommended by me (’91) in a previous note on the subject, demonstrates the presence of cilia unmistakably. In an exceptionaily favorable specimen of A. Americana I have seen the cilia on the living zodspores, both before and after their escape from the sporangium ; and in A. polyandra one can hardly fail to notice the very marked ciliary motion within the sporangium during the escape of the spores. It is not improbable that the zodspores of Aphanomyces are also cili- ate, but this has not been shown, and the genus needs more careful study than it has yet received. Sometimes the spores escape with the ciliate end directed forward, but it appears to be much more usual for them to pass out in the reverse position. The first spores to leave do so very rapidly, and are closely crowded together, as though strongly impelled from behind or attracted from before. In the species of Achlya all the spores press outward in a close column, but in Saprolegnia there is a gradual decrease in the rapidity of their escape, and the last spores may linger for some seconds or even minutes, swimming aimlessly about, and sometimes never finding the exit. The zotspores of Saprolegnia, Leptolegnia, Pythiopsis and Leptomitus escape separately into the water, and swim about freely by means of their forward-pointed cilia. After a short time, varying from a few seconds to fifteen minutes, each spore ceases to move about, but continues for a time longer to whirl and rotate, assuming mean- while a spherical form. Sometimes a few whirls are followed by complete quiet, but often the spore continues to struggle for ten minutes or more, as if in vigorous pro- test against giving up its activity.* Finally, it becomes quite spherical and motion- less, though the cilia may occasionally be seen to wave slowly for a time longer, and then to disappear by degrees, being apparently withdrawn into the protoplasmic mass. ‘The spore now becomes encysted by the secretion of a cellulose wall, and so, for the first time, constitutes a closed cell. Huxley has stated (?82) that the spores * A curious phenomenon, calculated to arouse speculation as to the nature of the changes of relations and tensions which take place while the zoéspore is coming to rest, has been observed by me in a spore of an undetermined Sapro- legnia. After swarming normally, the spore had nearly come to rest, though with prolonged and vigorous struggles, when suddenly it burst with much force, scattering most of the granular protoplasm to a considerable distance, and leaving where it had been the nucleus with a small part of the protoplasm. There was, as yet, no trace of a membrane. 76 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, of the Saprolegnia of the salmon disease become motionless and encyst without swarming on leaving the sporangium. The zodspores of Achlya, Aphanomyces and Apodachlya only reach the water just outside of the sporangium, and there become encysted, each one, as it leaves the mouth, slipping into its place and rounding off at once, so that all the spores from a sporangium form a hollow sphere or hemisphere, into which the tip of the sporangium projects slightly (Figs. 10,11). In other words, their cilia serve to carry the spores only through the mouth of the sporangium. In Achlya the escaping spores form a column so compact that considerable space is left between it and the wall, and they. cling closely together during the entire emptying of the sporangium. It is always - noticeable that the spores in this column keep their long axes parallel with each other. In Aphanomyces, each of whose sporangia produces but a single file of zovspores, the spores are compelled by the narrow space in which they are formed to take a cylindrical shape. They pass in slow succession down to the mouth, and there become encysted (Fig.11). There is no crowding or clinging together, and the com- plete emptying of the sporangium requires a much longer time than in the genera already described. Hartog attributes this encystment of the spores at the mouth of the sporangium to a mutual attraction between them which he terms adelphotaxy, and which is also shown in their pressing closely together during their escape, in Achlya. it may well be that in Aphanomyces they are prevented by their narrow quarters from showing the same peculiarity inside of the sporangium. If we accept the existence of such an attraction, we must believe that it is stronger than the power of the cilia to carry the spores apart, or else that it is concomitant with a very transient development of cilia. In the present state of our knowledge some assumption is necessary to account for the phenomena which have been described. The spores are held together by no material connections, and, at least in some species, are provided with cilia. That these phenomena are dependent upon the life of the spore is shown by the fact that, if a solution of osmic acid, which instantly kills and fixes the spores, be added at the moment of escape, not only is their accumulation into a sphere stopped, but they are freely separated and carried about by diffusion currents in the surrounding liquid. It is hardly necessary to add that osmic acid would so harden any accompanying mucus from the sporangium that the spores would be held firmly fixed if such sub- stance were present, as some writers have believed. Hartog’s assumption of a mutual attraction between the spores seems as little open to objection as any that can be suggested, and should be so stated as to include a tendency to place their long axes parallel. This tendency, combined with the effort to secure as much expo- a a nF WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. Fa sure as possible to the surrounding medium, may account for their arranging them- selves in a hollow sphere. We may ask here what causes lead to the emptying of the sporangium. The existence of a special expulsive substance which swells strongly on absorbing water was assumed by earlier writers, Strasburger (’80), Biisgen (’82) and DeBary (’84). It was believed that the supposed “cell plates” of the first separation stage swell into an intermediate substance enclosing the spores and expelling them by its rapid and enormous increase in volume when water enters the sporangium. But the exist- ence of this hypothetical substance has been sufficiently disproved along with that of the “cell plates.” The only species in which an intermediate substance appears to exist is one in which it could be of no service in expelling the spores, as will be seen later; namely, Thraustotheca clavata. Since this species was the one which Biisgen studied in most detail, the reason for some of his views becomes evident. In general, there can be little doubt that the spores of the genera now under discussion leave the sporangia automatically. The preliminary changes in the wall, normally at the apex of the sporangium, which render the escape of the spores possible, involve inter- esting physiological questions which will not be discussed at present. But the nature of the stimulus which causes the spores to avail themselves as quickly as. possible of the means of escape provided, may be briefly discussed. It frequently happens in Achlya and Saprolegnia that the spores do not leave a sporangium which has opened normally, but become encysted within its interior. This failure to leave the sporangium must evidently be due to the absence of the usual stimulus. Hartog (87), and before him Cornu (’f7), has held that the presence of free oxygen in the water is the determining factor. Rothert (’88) disputes this view, as well as Hartog’s statement that such sporangia appear chiefly in poorly aerated cultures. And Hartog has more recently (’88) suggested that the spores may vacate the sporangium to find purer conditions than prevail within it; in other words, to escape from the products of their own metabolism. In the first place, it may be remarked that it is much less probable that the hereditary phenomena of spore development within the sporangium should vary than that differences should occur in the external conditions of different cultures, or of the same culture at different times. Since there is no evidence that the formation of the spores presents any abnormality in those sporangia which fail to discharge their con- tents, we cannot suppose that the need of purer conditions exists less in one sporan- gium thanin another. But some sporangia with normally developed mouths fail to discharge their spores when others are wholly emptied, though it is more common to find most of the sporangia formed at a given time in the same condition in this 18 THE SAPROLEGNIACE® OF THE UNITED STATES, respect. This points strongly to some attractive and variable constituent of the sur- rounding medium as the cause of the normal exit of the spores.* The aimless wan- dering and frequent failure to escape of the last few spores in a Saprolegnia sporan- gium may be attributed to the fact that the water from outside has so far filled the sporangium that the difference between the media within and without the sporangium has become practically neutralized by their mingling. That the attractive force is normally very strong is shown by the following observation. A sporangium of Achlya Americana had developed abnormally three escape papille, one near the apex, one near the basal wall, and one midway between the others, all on the same side. The middle mouth was the first to open, and the spores rushed out in normal fashion until about a third of them had escaped. Then the other two mouths opened almost simultaneously, and the spores nearest them broke away from the column of which they formed a part, and crowded out through the new openings. Thus the force causing their exit was stronger than their tendency to cling together, and drew those within its range away from the main body. Whether the attraction is due wholly to the presence of free oxygen seems still open to doubt, although Hartog’s experi- ments (’88) show it to be a factor of prime importance. It is true that failures of the sporangia to empty normally occur often in old cultures in which the oxygen may well be largely exhausted, and very often in cultures which have become overrun by Bacteria, Infusoria, and other foreign organisms. But cases occur which do not seem explicable on this basis alone. For example, in cultures on the slide with a compara- tively small quantity of water, though quite sufficient for the swarming of zodspores, sporangia often fail to become emptied, yet here there can be no suspicion of any lack of oxygen, but rather an unusual abundance of it. In spite of the great differences in the size of the sporangia in different species of Saprolegniacee, and even in the same species, the size of the zodspores, as measured after their encystment, varies but little, except in S. an7sospora, which is not yet known to be American. ‘The encysted spores are quite exactly spherical in all the American species studied, and are almost always between 8 and 12, in diameter. Those of a given species may show a tendency toward one or the other of these extremes, but they present no constant characters in this respect, and are of abso- lutely no diagnostic value. Each spore contains a single nucleus, one of the original nuclei of the sporangium, of a nearly globular form, but otherwise like those of the * On the other hand, the mouths of some Saprolegnia sporangia often resemble very exactly the opening formed in a glass tube with one closed end, by forcing air into the open end while a small area on the wall is softened in a flame. The likeness is so striking as to suggest at once the action of an impulsive force from within the sporangium (see Fig. 50). SS a > = WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 79 growing filaments (Fig. 12). The number of spores formed in a sporangium depends, then, on its size and the thickness of its protoplasmic lining. In an undetermined species of Saprolegnia I have estimated as nearly as possible the number of zoospores produced in each of two sporangia of different sizes, with protoplasm of about average thickness. One 270, long by 26, in average diameter gave rise to about 120 spores, while from one 873 X 32, about 250 spores escaped. A compari- son shows that the volumes of these two sporangia bear almost precisely the same relation to each other as the numbers of zodspores formed in them. After remaining encysted for a few hours, the zodspore begins to show renewed activity. -A small, circular perforation is made in the enclosing wall, and the con- tents begin to emerge in the form of a small papilla, which gradually enlarges until finally the entire protoplasmic mass lies outside of the cast-off membrane (Fig. 11). The mass soon takes the form of a biciliate zodspore, and after some preliminary efforts, darts away and swims freely about. In this second active stage the spore has exchanged its original form for that of a kidney bean, its cilia being attached at the lateral depression which corresponds to the hilum of the bean (Fig. 11, 2’). At the point of attachment the protoplasm is, as in the first form, hyaline. The cilia are of unequal length, and the shorter is directed forward, the other backward, during the swarming. It is an interesting fact that this form of the zoospore corresponds with those of the related Peronosporacew, and with those of some of the Axncylistacew. It would seem that this must be regarded as the primitive zodspore of the Phycomy- ceics, as Ward has suggested (’8:3), the form with apical cilia being a secondary one acquired within the limits of the present family. After half an hour or more of activity, the spore again settles down and becomes encysted as before. In most of the genera now under discussion, this double swarming or diplanetism of the zoospores is the rule, although in exceptional spores the second swarming may be omitted without apparent influence upon their germinating power (Fig. 11, a). It would seem that the object of the first swarming is the emptying of the sporangium, and that of the second the distribution of the spores, to enable them to reach new sources of food supply; since, as Pfeffer (84) has shown, they are strongly attracted by various organic substances. Although the first swarming accomplishes both ends to a considerable degree in Saprolegnia, it does not permit the wide distribution which the longer second period allows. The zoospores of the second form also seem to range over a much wider region and to be more actively locomotive than those of the first. The condition which is exceptional in most of these genera has become permanent in Pythiopsis, which may represent a reduced Saprolegiia, that, 2A. IPS SiS WAO IE, SOWA LE 80 THE SAPROLEGNIACE® OF THE UNITED STATES, finding its first swarming period sufficient, has dispensed with the more primitive second one. Pringsheim states (60) that the zoospores of Leptomitus lacteus germinate after a single period of activity. I have seen, however, in pure cultures of this form, abun- dant empty membranes with every appearance of having been cast off by a diplanetic zoospore (Fig. 118) ; but unfortunately, I have not observed the actual escape of the spores from them. H After its final encystment the spore may germinate at once, if conditions are favorable; or may remain for a short time capable of germination. In germination the wall of the encysted spore grows out at one or more points into as many slender tubes (Fig. 11, a-z), which may reach a Jength equal to several times the diameter of the spore without nourishment. They soon exhaust the nourishment contained in the spore, and, if more be not supplied, cease growing and die. If, on the other hand, food is accessible, growth becomes more rapid and the tubes develop into vigorous hyphe. At the very beginning of germination, the nearly spherical nucleus of the spore takes a more elongate form and divides into two (Fig. 13) ; and by the repeated bipartition of these nuclei and their descendants arise all the nuclei of the hyphe derived from the spore. Some observations on the rate of growth of a germ tube of Aphanomyces sp. may be worth recording here. The tube was produced by a spore which remained encysted in the head after all the rest had passed into the second swarming stage, and was growing, therefore, without access to food (Fig. 11, a). At ten a.m. the tube was just visible as a slight protuberance from the spore (Fig. 11, a); at eleven it had reached a length of 37, (Fig. 11, g); and at twelve it was 52, long (Fig. 11,7). The effect of the absence of a supply of food is plainly shown here. While the growth during the first hour under the stimulus of the reserve materials contained in the spore amounted to 35,, that of the second hour, when this supply was becoming exhausted, fell to 15y. We pass now to a comparison of the genera T'hraustotheca, Dictyuchus and A planes with those already described. It has been said that the zodspores of Sap- rolegnia and Achlya sometimes become encysted within the sporangium. This con- dition is the normal one in the genera above named, but in these the development of a mouth at the apex is wholly suppressed. In Zhraustotheca the entire wall of the sporangium, except a narrow basal ring, breaks up after the encystment of the spores and leaves them free or slightly held together by an intermediate substance. After a time, they swarm in the laterally biciliate form, encyst again, and germinate. The sporangial wall of Dictyuchus, on the contrary, does not break down, and the eneysted WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 81 spores press each other so closely that they become irregularly polygonal. Finally they escape separately through circular perforations of the sporangial wall, just as the spores of Achlya escape from their cysts, and swarm in the usual second form. The close compression of the spores within the sporangium leads to a complete fusion of the encysting wall of each one with those of the others which it touches and with the sporangial wall. This must be, at least, the morphological explanation of the struc- ture, although the membrane separating two spores may probably arise as a single one. After the escape of the spores, as above described, there is left in the sporan- gium a network of the apparently single walls which separated them (Fig. 112). Their escape, like that of an Achlya or Saproleynia spore from its cyst, is a slow operation. The time from the beginning to the completion of the escape of the pro- toplasm of a single spore may be half an hour or even more, and several hours may be occupied in the complete emptying of the sporangium. The separate spores follow no order in their escape, but several in all parts of the sporangium may be escaping together (Fig. 16). After its emergence the roughly globular mass contracts and becomes more ellip- tical, while cilia appear and slowly lengthen. At length, twenty or thirty minutes after escaping, in case of the undetermined species studied (Fig. 16), only four or six. minutes after in D. monosporus, according to Leitgeb (’69), the spore darts away. In Aplanes, according to De Bary (’83), both swarming stages are suppressed, and the spores, encysted within the sporangium, produce their germ tubes, which pierce its wall and so reach the water, and perhaps fresh nourishment. But it must be observed that their loss of the power of locomotion greatly diminishes the prob- ability of this result. This lessened value of the sporangia as organs of propagation may explain in some measure the fact that they are rarely developed in this genus. In Saprolegnia and Achlya those spores which encyst within the sporangium may escape and swarm in the second form, or they may germinate in situ. It is evident that the former condition corresponds to a sporangium of Zhraustotheca with a permanent wall, or to one of Dictyuchus in which the spore cysts have remained separate, while the latter is just that which is normal for Aplanes. Abnormal sporangia of genera whose spores are normally diplanetic may therefore be desig- nated as ‘‘dictyosporangia,” or as “aplanosporangia,” according to the degree of abnormality shown. Species of Dictyuchus may bear aplanosporangia. After the emptying of the first sporangium formed from a filament, which may be termed a primary sporangium, a second one is very commonly developed from the same hypha, and after it often a tertiary one, and so on for a variable number of gen- erations. The sporangia of the second and later generations arise by one of three 82 THE SAPROLEGNIACE® OF TINE UNITED STATES, different modes, in a given species. In Leptomitus, they are formed in basipetal suc- cession, each segment of the hypha becoming in its turn a sporangium (Figs. 115- 117). In Saprolegnia and Leptolegnia, the new sporangium begins by the upward growth of the basal wall of the old one, which continues so that the new fills the cavity of the old more or less completely (Fig. 14). It may even grow out through the mouth of the latter for some distance. It is not uncommon to see several suc- cessive sporangia thus “nested” (Fig. 15). Rarely in most species of the genus, but often in S. monilifera, according to De Bary (’88), the renewal of sporangia by the third mode, now to be described, occurs. The genera Pythiopsis, Achlya, Aphanomyces, Thraustotheca, Dictyuchus and Apodachlya are characterized by the cymose branching of their hyphez in the production of new sporangia. Just below the basal wall of the primary sporangium arises a lateral branch which, after a period of growth, develops a secondary sporangium at its tip. Successive repetitions of this sympodial branching on alternate sides of the apparent axis produce a scor- pioid cyme, which is usually developed with more or less regularity (Fig.10). In Pythtopsis there is a more pronounced tendency to the development of a one-sided or helicoid cyme (Fig. 62). Variations from perfect regularity are, however, the rule in most forms. It often happens that a branch remains short, and forms a single sporangium with a part of the axis (Fig. 10, 3). Less often a secondary sporangium is formed below the primary one, as in Leptomitus. In Aplanes the sporangia are so sparingly developed that the formation of secondary ones has not been observed. Hartog has stated (88) that the sporangia of Aphanomyces are renewed as in Sapro- legnia, but this is certainly not true for A. scaber, in which eymose branching occurs (Fig. 17); and the same condition probably exists throughout the genus. The name resting sporangia has been applied to sporangium-like structures which, after being cut off from their filaments, remain unchanged for a time, but which may, under suitable conditions, develop and discharge their zodspores in the, usual way. They are evidently sporangia arrested in their development, probably by external conditions. Their simplest form is that of the ordinary sporangium, but frequently they are shorter and broader, and formed in series from the hyphe. Chlamydospores. Many of the species of Saprolegniacee may produce other structures beside the sporangia, that are organs of non-sexual propagation and may be termed chlamydospores, in the sense in which Brefeld uses that term. They are usually developed in series, as swellings at the ends of the hyphx (Fig. 18), and WITIL NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 83 in their completest development are globular in form (Fig. 19), with dense protoplasm and slightly thickened walls. The connection between the members of a series becomes very slight, and they easily fall apart. They may germinate soon after their formation or after a longer time, but constitute essentially a resting state of the plant, as compared with sporangia. Their germination consists in the production of a germ tube or hypha, from which is formed a sporangium with zoospores after a brief growth. This distinction should be emphasized, that whereas the zoospores are formed within the “resting sporangia,” the chlamydospores produce them in a distinct germ tube, although the interior of the chlamydospore is often included in the cavity of the sporangium (Fig. 20). Schroeter (69) has described the formation of “ gonidia” in Achlya, but what he saw appear to have been rather “resting sporangia” than true chlamydospores. Walz (70) observed and figured the latter in a species of Saprolegnia, and Brefeld describes (’31) similar structures. They occur also in Aphanomyces according to Sorokin (76), and Zopf finds bodies of this nature to be constant and characteristic in Apodachlya pyrifera. But in the last case they are sometimes lateral in position, are never produced in chains, and appear to be the normal resting form of the plant. Well-developed organs of this sort have appeared in a culture of Achlya Americana - (Fig. 18); and in one from a tank for tropical plants under glass they were abundantly produced by plants with the sporangia of Achlya, on which they completely replaced the usual sexual organs (Figs. 19, 20). In comparing the organs of non-sexual reproduction in the Saprolegniacee, we observe that they do not differ in any essential feature of their origin and formation. They are, in other words, morphologically similar. But, while the office of the sporangia is the rapid propagation of the species, the chlamydospores have acquired the resting habit, and the spore character in the development of a germ hypha. ‘The “resting sporangia,” in their more specialized forms, constitute an evident link between normal sporangia and chiamydospores. When considering the generic relationships within this family, and the best arrangement for indicating these relationships, one is forced to the conclusion that, notwithstanding the similarities in structure which have caused Pringsheim (60) and Hartog (’87) to consider the differences of minor importance, yet the constric- 84 THE SAPROLEGNIACE OF THE UNITED STATES, tion of the hyphe, the absence of sexual organs in most species, and their peculiar- ities in the single species in which they are known, with minor variations, of little weight individually, which distinguish the species of Leptomitus and Apodachlya from the others of the family, justify their separation as a distinct subfamily. The discovery of sexual organs in one of these plants, on the other hand, confirms the indication of the zoospores that they should be included in the present family. Set- ting them aside, then, as Leptomitee, we may examine the genera constituting the Saprolegniec. It is evident that the most primitive condition as regards the zoospores is pre- sented by the typically diplanetic form, as found in Saproiegnia. But the renewal of sporangia occurs most commonly, and apparently most typically, by lateral, cymose branching. Assuming as the primitive form an hypothetical one combining the two characters above indicated, we must place first in the series Saprolegnia and Leptolegnia, differing from it only in respect to the second point. Pythiopsis has economized by suppressing the second swarming stage, and stands alone on this line of development. In Achlya the first swarming has been reduced to a minimum by — the mutual attraction of the spores, a newly acquired feature, and Aphanomyces seems best regarded as a degenerate Achlya rather than as a primitive one. In the remaining genera the reduction of the first swarming stage, begun in Achlya, is carried to complete suppression. The condition presented by a dictyosporangium of Achlya is in the direct line of development from the normal type of that genus, and that of the aplanosporangium is a further step on the same line. The former condi- tion becomes modified in two ways—in Thraustotheca, by the early breaking up of the sporangial wall; and in Dictyuchus, by the coalescence of the encysting walls and the development of numerous secondary mouths instead of the original primary one. The latter condition becomes permanent and typical in Aplanes. | : WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 85 These ideas concerning the relationships of the genera may be graphically expressed as follows: 8. Aplanes. 7. Dictyuchus. 6. Thraustotheca. = ——— “ Dictyosporangium.” 4. Achlya. 5. Aphanomyces. 3. Pythiopsis. 2. Leptolegnia. | | | 1. Saprolegnia. | SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. The reproductive organs of the second class are morphologically sexual, though, as will be seen later, they are not physiologically so in all cases. In the fol- lowing account they will be described as sexual organs without reference to the occur- rence of a definite sexual act, which will be subsequently discussed. Since they are the morphological equivalents of the truly sexual organs of related fungi, there is no occasion to change the names which they received when believed to be also their functional equivalents. All of the described species of Saprolegniew produce sexual organs, usually after the maximum development of sporangia has been passed ; indeed it is impos- sible to distinguish the species except by their sexual organs. None of the Lepto- 86 THE SAPROLEGNIACE OF THE UNITED STATES, mitece has been known heretofore to bear them, and their peculiarities in the single form in which these have been seen will be discussed in connection with the deserip- tion of that species (Apod. completa). The special office of these organs is the pro- duction of bodies which, like the chlamydospores above described, may in some cases germinate at once, but ordinarily constitute a resting condition of the fungus. The conditions most favorable to the development of the sexual organs are not yet fully understood, and the readiness with which they are produced varies much with the. species. The species of Saprolegnia, for instance, produce their sexual organs less freely and less certainly in cultures than do those of Achlya. The sexual organs are produced, like the sporangia, from the main hyphe or from branches, and are commonly terminal, though sometimes intercalary, in position. The female organ, the oogonium, develops as a swelling of the thread which bears it, which may be termed, when not a primary filament, the oogonial branch. The swell- ing increases as the protoplasm accumulates, until its definite form is reached. If the o6gonium be terminal, its form is most commonly globular (Figs. 52, 71), though often with a cylindrical basal-portion (Fig. 43), and sometimes ellipsoidal (Figs. 87, 99). When the extreme tip of the hypha is not involved in the swelling, it forms an apiculus to the odgonium (Figs. 27,57). Intercalary odgonia are oftenest barrel- shaped (Fig. 59). After the form and size of the odgonium has been determined, it is separated from its hypha by a transverse wall, or, if it be intercalary, by two such walls. The formation of the walls is characterized by the same phenomena which are observed when the basal wall of the sporangium is formed. The wall of the odgonium has meanwhile been thickening by the deposit of new material upon its inner surface. In the simplest cases this deposit takes place evenly, producing a smooth wall of equal thickness throughout (Fig. 81). A somewhat less even deposit produces a roughened inner surface (Fig. 77) ; or the thickening may be wholly lack- ing on certain definite areas more or Jess numerously scattered over the wall of the oogonium, causing the pitting of the membrane which is a constant and characteristic feature of certain species (Figs. 43, 72). Instead of presenting a smooth outer sur- face, the whole membrane may be, from a very early stage, raised at intervals into outgrowths of varying height and frequency, giving it a warty or spiny appearance (Figs. 55, 104). While the membranes of the vegetative filaments and of the sporangia always give the characteristic cellulose reaction with chloroiodide of zinc, those of the fully developed odgonia take with this reagent * a beautiful Indian-red shade, showing that *This was prepared by dissolving Griibler’s solid chloroiodide of zine in its own weight of water, or somewhat less, and then adding metallic iodine until the dcsired sherry-brown color was obtained. WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 87 some chemical change has taken place. Since the pits are marked by colorless areas in the otherwise deeply colored wall, the original membrane must have become so changed, at those points at least, that it remains uncolored by the reagent. It seems probable that the whole outer membrane assumes this character, and that the color is produced entirely in the secondary deposit. The male organs, or antheridia, are, when present, almost always borne on slen- der lateral antheridial branches. In some species they ave very rarely or never devel- oped (Figs. 43,104). Where they are present, they are not necessarily found in connection with all the odgonia (Figs. 40, 75, 76), though they may be invariably so (Figs. 52, 71, 105). The number of antheridia attached to a single o6gonium shows very little tendency to definiteness, except in A. racemosa (Fig. 94). The most that can be said is that in a given species there is a general tendency to an abundant pro- duction of antheridia, or the reverse. The antheridial branches arise from the main filaments or from odgonial branches, sometimes exclusively from one or the other, in other species from both. They may be very short and simple (Fig. 98), or long and much branched (Figs. 51, 71). From their tips antheridia are cut off by transverse walls, and rarely are intercalary also. The antheridia are cylindrical or clavate in form, somewhat thicker than the branches, and with slightly denser protoplasm. Their form is very constant for a given species and, in connection with their position and origin, affords important characters for specific diagnoses. Their walls show in a less marked degree the reaction of the odgonial walls. The same primary filament may give rise to both odgonial and antheridial branches, or it may produce only those of one sort. Since it is practically impossible to determine in ordinary cultures whether two filaments belong to the same plant, and since definite cultures from a single zodspore have not been made, we cannot say whether species whose hyphe are unisexual are truly dicecious or not. It is safe, however, to apply to them the term used by DeBary, diclinous (Figs. 51, 88). The same author calls species with bisexual filaments androgynous. Among species of the latter kind, which constitute the large majority of the Saprolegniew, the anthe- ridia may attach themselves to oogonia from the same or from other filaments. Most of them reach odgonia from the same hypha, probably because these are nearer. In one species not yet met with in America, S. hypogyna, a single branch is bisexual, the antheridium being formed from a cell cut off by a second wall immedi- ately below the oogonium. This is the only known case in this family of antheridia without antheridial branches. PNG TRS SS WO SOAS 1h 88 THE SAPROLEGNIACE# OF THE UNITED STATES, In case of the androgynous species, the antheridial branches begin to appear soon after the odgonial ones (Fig. 21); but the antheridia have usually been formed and come into contact with the cégonium before the basal wall of the latter has appeared. Commonly they are applied by their sides to the odgonial wall, but in a few species (Figs. 54, 94) they present their ends, so that their longer axes are nearly at right angles with the wall, instead of parallel with it, as in most species. When a certain stage in the differentiation of the contents of the odgonium has been reached, as will be described later, the antheridia give rise, in most cases, to slender tubular outgrowths from the sides applied to the odgonial wall. The tubes pene- trate this wall and grow into the cavity within, remaining simple or branching. These structures are, morphologically at least, fertilization tubes. In species with pitted odgonia the antheridia are often, but not always, applied to the thin places, and the fer- tilization tubes can thus penetrate more easily. But the old view that the pits are perforations of the membrane for the admission of these tubes is untenable from any point of view. The sexual organs are, then, specialized branches; but their special character does not prevent their showing occasional reversional features, recalling their primi- tive nature. The odgonial branch may subdivide and bear an odgonium on each di- vision (Fig. 22). It is not uncommon to see a young odgonium which has ceased its normal development and produced one or more smaller odgonia by proliferation from its surface (Fig. 23); and I have seen in A. Americana a fully formed odgonium, which, after the formation of its basal wall, had reverted to the vegetative condition, so to speak, and had given rise to an odgonial and an antheridial branch which had reached their full normal development (Fig. 24). The production of an antheridial branch from the very body of an odgonium occurs so commonly as to be normal in A, racemosa (Fig. 96), in which the branch arises as often above the basal wall of the oogonium as below it; but the antheridium is probably cut off from its branch before the odgonium is cut off. Further proof that there is no fundamental difference between the two kinds of sexual branches may be found in the fact that antheridial branches may produce at their ends small, though abortive, ojgonium-like swellings, even after giving off branchlets with normal antheridia (Fig. 25). I believe I have also seen the formation of a spore-like body in a similar swelling, as observed by Zopf (90) in Peronospora calotheca, but have not been able to feel certain on this point. Having now traced the origin of the sexual branches and the formation of the sexual organs in general, we pass to the detailed examination of the fate of their pro- toplasmic contents. The dense mass of protoplasm which fills the ojgonium when it has attained its final form, contains, like that of the sporangium, very numerous WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 89 nuclei irregularly scattered through it. The protoplasm is at first pretty evenly dis- tributed through the cavity of the odgonium, and encloses irregular vacuoles. But it soon forms a definite parietal layer which is densest next the wall, and the vacuoles fuse into a single large central one. The nuclei are still indefinitely arranged (Fig. 30). They vary considerably in size, and in structure are identical with those of the vege- tative filaments from which they are derived. After the growth of the odgonium has ceased and the protoplasm has become parietal in position, the outer walls thicken and the basal wall is formed, as already described. After an interval the parietal protoplasm begins to undergo changes preliminary to becoming collected into one or more globular masses. We owe our first exact knowledge of these phenomena to DeBary (’81), who studied them in several species. The figures here given of the later stages of the process in a species not studied by him, A. apiculata, may serve at least to corroborate and supplement his account and illustrations (Figs. 26,27). The first change observed consists in the appearance in the protoplasm of numerous light spots, approximately circular in surface view, which may be seen to slowly shift their positions and eventually to disappear. ‘These spots were thought by Pringsheim (’58) to mark the positions of future pits in the wall, which he regarded as perforations formed by resorption. Reinke (’69), Cornu (’72), - and DeBary (81), showed that the spots are much more numerous than the pits and that they occur in all species without regard to the structure of the wall. It is undoubtedly true that they are much more numerous than the pits in pitted oogonia and that they bear no relation to them. DeBary’s explanation (81) of their nature is supported by their appearance in section (Fig. 32). They are doubtless the expres- sion of vacuoles in the parietal protoplasmic layer, formed by accumulations of cell- sap, and finally empty into the central vacuole. Thus the central cavity becomes gradually larger and the wall-layer correspondingly thinner and denser (Fig. 33). The upper vacuole in Fig. 32 has united with the central one in Fig. 33. After the vacuoles have disappeared, the proper degree of density having been reached, as we may suppose, the protoplasm begins to flow towards certain regions and away from others, causing a heaping up at the former and a thinning at the latter places. These accu- mulations increase at the expense of the surrounding material until there are formed a number of pretty distinct masses connected by a thin parietal sheet of protoplasm, which is still a continuous lining of the wall (Fig. 26,a@). This layer now breaks and its rupture is followed by a large increase in the volume of the protoplasmic masses, corresponding to the stage of swelling in the sporangium. At the same time, the basal wall, previously convex downward, becomes reversed in position, indicating a loss of turgescence, as in the sporangium ; and the fragments of the parictal lining 90 THE SAPROLEGNIACEH OF THE UNITED STATES, are absorbed into the masses, which we may call, following the homology of the spo- rangium, odsphere-origins (Fig. 26, 6). If the rapidly shifting vacuoles present in the sporangium at this stage are also formed here, the protoplasm is too dense to per- mit their recognition. The odsphere origins, which, when numerous, may nearly fill the ojgonium at their period of greatest swelling, now contract rather rapidly, ap- proaching more and more nearly to the spherical form. During this process there are separated from the origins small masses of protoplasm which may moveaway a short distance and may remain detached for some minutes (Fig. 26, c) ; but they appear to be always taken up again by the same origins from which they were separated (Fig. 26, d). The rounding off is soon completed, and the odgonium contains a number of fully formed odspheres. All the odgonia of some species, and the smallest of most others, produce only a single odsphere in each. The formation of these follows the same course as that above described for the polysporic oogonium, with certain necessary simplifications. As has been intimated, the odspheres are normally spherical, but they may assume an ellipsoidal or cylindrical form when compelled to do so by the size and shape of the space within which they are developed. The separation of protoplasmic fragments from the zodspores and odspheres during their final contraction and rounding off, and their subsequent reabsorption by their parent masses, constitute phenomena of peculiar interest. They were first observed by DeBary (’81) in connection with the odspheres, where they are the more conspicuous ; and their formation has been regarded as analogous with that of the polar bodies of the animal egg, while their reabsorption has been explained as compensating for the absence of an act of fertilization. But the fact that the nuclei of the odspheres are reduced to one or a very few at the time of their formation makes it certain that these fragments are non-nucleate and therefore not analogous to polar bodies; while the fact of their separation from the zoospores also removes the possibility of their sexual significance. They probably represent in their formation the persistence of some inherited phenomenon of no present functional significance, as Hartog (’92) has sug- gested. It will be seen that, omitting the preliminary formation of vacuoles, the changes which characterize the formation of the odspheres are identical with those observed in the development of the zoospores. But the time required for the former is much longer, for the zojspores may escape an hour after the cutting off of the sporangium, while the odspheres may require eight hours or more for their formation. As soon as the odspheres are differentiated, the antheridia, when present, begin to produce the fertilization tubes, which soon reach and come into more or less close contact with the former. The tendency of the tubes to grow towards the odspheres WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 91 and to attach themselves to them is clearly marked, but does not appear to be so strong and invariably active as it has been said to be by most writers. Hach odsphere now secretes about itself a delicate cellulose wall, which gradually increases by successive deposits until it attains a considerable thickness. From the time of the appearance of the wall these bodies are no longer oéspheres, but odspores. The fertilization tubes soon begin to fade and finally quite disappear, as do also the antheridia and even the antheridial branches, in some species. By the earlier writers it was assumed from the fact of their presence and from the analogy of related fungi, that the tubes are functional organs of impregnation and that an actual fertilization occurs. Some, especially Pringsheim (’55, 58, ’60), argued for the necessity of fertilization. This author at one time (’60) regarded cer- tain peculiar filaments, whose peculiarity was really due to Chytridiaceous parasites, as male filaments of species which have no antheridial branches; but later (’74), he gave up this view and considered plants of the latter sort as parthenogenetic forms of sexual species. Reinke (’69) described uniciliate spermatozoid-like bodies as the fer- tiizing element in S. monoica. These were probably zodspores of Chytridiacee. Cornu (72) assumed and argued for the necessity of fertilization, and maintained the ina- bility of unfertilized odspheres to form ripe odspores. Doubt of the existence of functional sexuality in these fungi was first expressed by DeBary (81) and was based on his failure to observe any passage of material from tube to odsphere, or even any opening in the tube. Pringsheim (82) opposed these views very strongly with argu- ments and with an account of observations of the penetration of the odspheres by amoeboid swarmers—“ spermamcebe ”—developed in the fertilization tubes and set free from them. Zopf (’82) described ameeboid parasites of Saproleyniacee and attributed Pringsheim’s spermamcebe to this source. Ward’s observations (783), while not extensive, confirmed DeBary’s. The further discussion of the subject con- sisted simply in the maintenance of their former positions by those engaged, and may be followed in subsequent papers of DeBary (’83), Pringsheim (’83, ’83a), Miller (83), and Zopf (83). The result has been that the conclusions of DeBary have gen- erally been adopted and made the basis of discussions of the group. The writer has attempted to investigate the question independently in connection with the cytol- ogy of the sexual organs, to which we may now turn. The structure and nuclear changes of these organs have been studied chiefly in the genera Saprolegnia and Aphanomyces by previous writers, and by the present one chiefly in Achlya Americana and A. apiculata. The method employed in these investigations has been that of serial sections. Flies well covered with hyphe of the species to be studied, bearing abundant sexual organs in various stages of develop- 92 THE SAPROLEGNIACEH OF TUE UNITED STATES, ment, were fixed with a saturated aqueons solution of picric acid for twenty-four hours, in the earlier part of the work. Later, this treatment was replaced by expo- sure for fifteen or twenty minutes to a hot saturated aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate (HgCl,). This reagent fixes the cell contents without even the slight dis- tortion caused by picric acid, and is strongly to be recommended for such work, as has been done by Hartog (89a). The whole specimen was, after fixation, washed and soaked in fifty per cent. aleohol, and then stained for twenty-four hours in Grenacher’s or Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin. After being washed again and passed through graded alcohols and chloroform into paraffin, in the usual manner, the fly with attached fungi was imbedded in paraffin and cut into sections about 7 in thick- ness by means of the Minot microtome. The sections were then mounted serially in balsam. The very numerous nuclei carried into the young odgonium with the protoplasm exhibit the structure of the mycelial nuclei, as has been said (Fig. 30). The num- ber of these nuclei bears no relation to the number of odspheres to be formed, except as both are controlled by the amount of protoplasm in the odgonium. In nine sec- tions, including the whole of a young odgonium, about 60. in diameter, of A. apzcu- lata, I have counted 175 nuclear structures. With liberal allowance for the presence of parts of the same nucleus in two sections, it is not probable that the odgonium contained Jess than 100 nuclei; yet this species rarely produces more than five odspheres in an odgonium. The nuclei remain passive during the formation of the central vacuole, and finally lie distributed through the parietal layer (Fig. 30). I have never been able to see any evidence of division in odgonia! nuclei, and believe, with Hartog (’92) and Dangeard (’90), that it does not occur. After the formation of the parietal layer, the nuclei appear to migrate towards each other and to fuse in pairs (Fig. 31); and a little later they are seen to be much less numerous and larger, as well as far less deeply stained by hematoxylin (Fig. 32, 33). Indeed, a careful search with well-managed illumination is necessary for their detection. This is due to the fact that their chromatin masses largely lose their characteristic power and are masked by the granular protoplasm, while the nuclear membrane becomes barely recognizable. The space between the membrane and the chromosome, occupied by the hyaline part of the nucleus, is proportionally larger than in the vegetative nuclei ; and it is probably this fact, combined with the faintness of the other parts, that has led Hartog (?39) to attribute to these fusion-nuclei the vacuolated appearance of the young odjgonium. That the two conditions are quite distinct, though occurring simultaneously, as Dangeard (’90) has maintained, may be seen in Fig. 32. The observed reduction in the number of the nuclei is plainly due to nuclear fusions (Fig. WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 93 31), probably many times repeated, but whether all the original nuclei are involved in these fusions, or whether some of them degenerate and disappear like those of the periplasm of Peronospora, as described by Wager (89), is uncertain. When the protoplasmic layer reaches its greatest density and regularity of arrangement, the nuclei are in this indistinct condition (Fig. 33). Just when and how they regain the vegetative structure, I am not yet able to say, having unfortunately failed to obtain sections of odgonia at the stage of the formation of the odsphere origins and of the rounding off of the odspheres. It is certain, however, that, as Hartog has said (89), and contrary to the statements of Dangeard (’90), the young odspores contain but a single rather large nucleus (Fig. 35). This is commonly true also of the fully formed odspheres, but sometimes these contain two nuclei which have not yet fused, though usually lying near together (Fig. 36). Hartog (’92) states that in Saproleg- nia the reduction of the number of nuclei to that of the future odspheres is completed as early as the beginning of the formation of the origins, while in Achlya it may be delayed until the young odspore. My observations agree with these so far as A. Americana is concerned, but I have not examined any species of Saprolegnia. The single nucleus, or the two which are to form it, shows the structure and reactions of the vegetative nuclei. Although its protoplasm is little denser than that of the vegetative threads, the antheridium is plurinucleate (Fig. 34, a). When the fertilization tube is formed, most of the protoplasm and usually all of the nuclei of the antheridium pass into it (Fig. 34, a). Hartog states (92) that the nuclei of the tubes are derived by divi- sion from those of the antheridia ; but, so far as A. Amerzcana is concerned, I have seen no reason for supposing that nuclear divisions occur here more than in the other reproductive organs. The number of nuclei in different antheridia of this species does not vary widely, and the number in a tube corresponds pretty closely, as a rule, to the number in an antheridium (Fig. 34, a); and as the growth of the fertilization tube is accomplished apparently by the migration of the protoplasmic contents of the antheridium, and not by any increase in its amount, there is no @ priorz reason for nuclear division, under the circumstances. After passing into the tubes, the nuclei undergo no change. It is occasionally possible to find a fortunate section through the sexual organs and odspores, like that figured in Fig. 34, a, which shows well their relations and the fate of the tubes. And one always finds that, in whatever stage of development the odspores may be, the tubes are completely closed, as was stated by DeBary (’81), and show their walls sharply defined throughout ; and that their pro- toplasm and nuclei are in essentially the same condition until they begin to degener- ate after the complete ripening of the spores. One sometimes observes a nucleus in 94 THE SAPROLEGNIACEA OF THE UNITED STATES, the very end of the tube after the wall of the ojspore has become thick and dense (Fig. 34, a). Since it is impossible to accept any view of fertilization which does not involve the passage of a nucleus from the tube, these facts must remove all pos- sible doubt of the correctness of the belief expressed by DeBary that these fungi are no longer truly sexual, in spite of their fully developed sexual organs. After the thickening of its wall, a period of a few days is necessary for the com- plete ripening of the odspore. The visible sign of this process lies in the separation of the fatty material, which has been until now scattered in small globules through the protoplasm, into one or a few large and more or less spherical masses. While in certain species it characteristically remains in several portions (Fig. 68), it is com- monly fused into a single drop (Fig. 111). This generally continues surrounded by protoplasm and nearly central (Figs. 95, 111), although it may be so much displaced as to leave only a thin film of protoplasm over one side. Odspores of this type are called centric, to distinguish them from those of excentric structure, in which the oil globule or globules and the protoplasmic mass occupy opposite sides of the spore, and are in contact only by their margins (Figs. 68, 73). After a period of rest which varies greatly in different species, the ojspores may germinate. Preparation for this process consists in the breaking up of the oil glob- ule and its rediffusion through the protoplasm. The inner membrane of the spore now grows out through a rupture in the outer one into a short thread similar in structure to a vegetative hypha (Fig. 29, a). If this thread comes at once into con- tact with available nourishment, it may develop rhizoids and branch, and so grow directly into a new plant. But if nourishment be not immediately at hand, the hypha, after a brief growth, forms a sporangium at its apex in the manner typical of its genus. There can be no doubt that the numerous nuclei of the germ-hypha arise from the division of the single nucleus of the odspore, but how early the division begins is not certain. Dangeard (’90) maintains that the odspores are always multi- nucleate, and it may be that this division begins, at least in some species, quite early, and that therefore he has overlooked the uninucleate stage. He suggests that a dif ference may be found between odspores which germinate at once and those which require a considerable period of rest. But there is no doubt that the odspores of A. apiculata, which, according to DeBary (’84), germinate as soon as they are ripe, are distinctly uninucleate. In comparing the chlamydospores and the odgonia of the Saprolegniacee, we may assume what is probably true, that no nuclear changes occur within the former. If WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 95 so, then the only real differences between these two organs are found in the concen- tration of the protoplasmic contents of the latter into one or several separate masses and the fusion of the nuclei of these masses into one, to be restored by subsequent division. These differences are of purely physiological and sexual significance and are inheritances from the truly sexual ancestors of these plants. But on the other hand, it is evident that sporangia, chlamydospores, and o5gonia are strictly homolo- gous organs. It is easy to speculate upon the relationships of the present family to various other groups of Algw and Phycomycetes ; but this would be of little profit. Until our knowledge of some details of the development of the plants concerned, especially of their cytology, is more complete, it seems well to refrain from further conjecture. OcCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION. The Saprolegmacee are found more or less commonly in all fresh waters, but prefer such as are pure and clear. They occur most abundantly and develop most Juxuriantly in such waters as contain and favor the growth of the pure-water Algze, Conjugate and Chlorophycee. In stagnant waters or those which are polluted by organic matter, they may be found, but their development is usually slow and - feeble, and is often quite arrested by the swarms of Bacteria and Infusoria which find their congenial conditions in such places. The most striking exception to this general statement is afforded by Zeptomitus lacteus, which grows especially in waters containing considerable organic impurity ; and the same is perhaps true of the other Leptomitec. These plants are usually saprophytic and grow upon animal and vegetable remains. ‘The latter may include dead, woody or herbaceous parts of vascular plants or even decaying Algz. On the last I have found ZL. lacteus growing vigorously. But it is on animal remains that they flourish best; and of these the most favorable appear to be insect bodies. The reason for this fact probably lies in the circumstance that these bodies, being protected by a chitinous skeleton, are not so exposed to the attacks of putrefactive Bacteria, and therefore decompose slowly and cause little pollution of the surrounding water, as compared with a bit of naked flesh of the same bulk. The Saprolegniaceew, too, undoubtedly act as scavengers in appropriating for their own growth the more readily available organic compounds of the dead body. In cultures in a small volume of water, the evidences of decay disappear after a few days, coincidently with, or even before the cessation of active growth in the fungus, consequent upon the exhaustion of available nourishment. A. P. 8.—VOL. XVII. M. 96 THE SAPROLEGNIACEH OF THE UNITED STATES, One or more species of the group are facultative parasites which can attack liv- ing fishes and Amphibia, and cause serious disease which usually results in death. Under certain conditions which are not yet well determined, the disease may become epizoétic and cause great mortality in a lake or stream or in some restricted part of it. Notices of such cases occur throughout the literature from the time of Hannover (739) and Unger (’43) to the present. The most famous outbreak, and the one best studied, was that on salmon and some related fishes in the rivers Esk, Eden, Nith, and others in England and Scotland. The details concerning this attack and con- cerning the pathology of the disease may be found in the papers of Smith (’78), Stir- ling (78, 79, °79 a), Brook (79), Buckland (’80), and Huxley (’82). It is sufficient to say here that Huxley was convinced that the disease was caused by a truly para- sitic Saprelegnia, called by all writers on the disease, S. ferax. The only reference to the occurrence of a similar epizodtic in America which has come to my notice, is a brief note by Gerard (’78), who reported severe mortality among fishes, from this cause, in the Passaic river in New Jersey. Murray (’85) and Schnetzler (57) have found that the zodspores of “ S. ferax” cultivated on flies can attack living fishes and frog-tadpoles and produce a growth of the fungus which kills the victim. Some facts concerning the effects of A. racemosa in a fish-hatchery will be discussed in connection with the description of that species. Owing to the absence of suitable substrata for their development in mass, and the brief time required for the completion of their life-cycle, these plants are not often found growing spontaneously; and this fact has led to the belief that they are some- what rare or difficult to obtain. But the writer’s experience in the United States fully agrees with that of DeBary in Europe that this is by no means the case. The Jast-named author has given (’88) very practical hints for obtaining and cultivating them which it will not be superfluous to repeat here, with some additions drawn from personal experience. For reasons above stated, the most prolific source of supply is water containing green Algz, and the best substratum is afforded by insects such as common house-flies or meal-worms. For material, a handful of Algz may be taken from the stream, pond, or pool in which they are growing and placed in a collecting bottle or other vessel which will protect them from drying. In the laboratory, these are placed in a vessel of water from the public or private water supply, and the cul- ture insects are thrown upon its surface. The collection of a mass of Algz without water, except that retained by the mass, reduces the bulk of specimens, which is of importance when they are taken at a distance from the laboratory, and largely excludes aquatic organisms which might make trouble in the cultures; while experience shows WITIL NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 97 that the zoospores and odspores of the Saprolegniacew are carried with the Algz to a large extent. If it is desirable to avoid any possible infection from other sources than the mass of Algze concerned, the water may be filtered, heated to boiling, and then cooled, before the specimen is placed in it. DeBary found that, in practice, the water supply of Strassburg never produced any of these fungi in cultures made with water from its pipes alone; and I have had the same experience in repeated trials with that of Amherst. But water from the Cambridge pipes, and doubtless that from others, will yield them at certain seasons, at least. The insects used may be freshly killed, and their chitinous covering should be broken as little as possible ; but I have found that, for winter cultures when fresh insects are not. readily available, an excel- lent substitute may be found in dead house-flies, collected in the fall and kept dry and exposed to the air, but protected from dust. Since the dry surfaces of insects are not readily wetted by water, it has proved useful to moisten them, whether fresh or dried, with alcohol, and then to soak them in water for a few minutes to remove the alcoho]. They will then, when thrown into the culture vessel, sink until their bodies are mostly below the surface and so present a much larger area to the swimming zoospores of Saprolegniacew than if dry and floating largely above the surface. Since the zodspores depend for their activity on a sufficient supply of oxygen we may expect them to be most abundant near the surface of the water, and since they are chemotactic, being strongly attracted by nutrient substances, they must readily reach the floating insects and germinate upon their bodies. An average time for the appearance of the young hyphe is perhaps two days from the beginning of the culture, but one day is ample time, as a rule, for the zodspores to have effected an attachment to the substratum. The insects should now be transferred to a vessel of fresh, clean water, and here the development of the fungus may be followed. The water should be carefully changed daily or less often, as may be required, until the maximum of vegetative activity is past. For superficial examination, the whole insect with attached fungi may be floated upona slide. For more thorough study, parts seen by this preliminary method to be in the desired condition may be cut off and mounted under a cover, or used for a hanging drop culture. Rothert (’88) has pointed out that well-grown filaments with reproductive organs continue to develop normally after being cut off, until their protoplasm is exhausted. It is not easy, although it is usually possible, to obtain from a mixed culture of several species, pure cultures of each. This may be accomplished by using sterilized water, fresh, clean insects, well-soaked in alcohol and distilled water, and a very small quantity of the fungus, preferably zodspores from a single sporangium. reterolslelerelcieclelel= sieretelelictatcistesiets doadeAdo oo KOO OD AdUSsOUNSEOS é. é. Q6gonial branch short and straight..................... 2aoaKo0000 sre dete eletenedstntetetafefelor-teretetcvelersteieiecaeteiete S. MONOICA. Oégonial branch usually helically coiled..............++-+00. SOU OCSOCT GHOGHO COCA OIRATOC GEO ceoGne S. spiralis. me AatheridialabrancHeswotten:d evel Oped taratererrtelsyoi clcisie cise «iv)sieie's se cieis n. Odspores averaging less than five ; antheridial branches very short.............. A. RACEMOSA var. STELLIGERA. OGspores averaging more than five; antheridial branches long...............22-.eeeeeeeseeeeees A. oligacantha. Omenors Sa2, MANE BODO. ce ohodoqgsg00500G0s0000 00 00 000bDbb0DODDGOGGdOb0GERnE srerate\els ateie A. PAPILLOSA. OGdspores 1-3, often elongate.............0e.-005 Lifebeat tale Acieteie oie relsieia elevate a ata teretesehcyaseracarete BA Mane cheers A. spinosa. Odgonia with rather sharp spines ; odspore Single....... 2-2. sees e ee rece reece cee sreeeeeneeeseeseeee A, stellata. Oégonia with blunt spines ; odspores one tO thre€......... 2. cere eee nee e eee eee tee e eee cece eeee A. CORNUTA. 116 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, Achlya prolifera (Nees ab E.) DeBary (752). Ill.: DeBary, ’52, Pl. VII, Figs. 1-28. DeBary, ’81, Pl. II, Figs. 1, 2, and IV, 1-4. This is the commonest European species, but it is doubtful if it has been seen in this country. Hither it or the almost equally common A. DeBaryana appears very frequently in cultures, there: It is clearly distinguished by the abund- antly pitted walls of its ojgonia, which resemble those of the next species, and by its numerous and long antheridial branches of diclinous origin. Fungi reported under this name in American catalogues have belonged probably to the next or to other species. From the fact of its abundance this species is rather more likely than any other to have been the one which Nees studied and called A. prolifera, although we have no means of knowing if this is actually the case. Under these circumstances there was no obligation to continue the name, but DeBary has chosen to do so by restrict- ing it to this species; and, since it is the first name applied to the species, definitely recognized as such, and has been applied to no other recognizable species, it must stand. It is true that DeBary did not clearly characterize the species in the modern sense until 1881; yet in his earlier paper (52) he described the pitted — or, as he then thought, perforated — walls of the ojgonium; and as this is the only known European Achlya of that character, his description sufficiently marks the species, and the earlier date should be quoted for it. ACHLYA AMERICANA sp. nov. il. : Pl. XVI, Figs. 69-73 (also on Pls. X[V-XVI). Hyphe stout, not very long. Zodsporangia very abundant, rather short and thick, slightly fusiform. Odgonial branches short, erect, racemosely arranged on the hyphe. Odgonia terminal and globular, or rarely interealary, their walls much pitted. Antheridial branches numerous, branching, arising from the main hyphe between and near the odgonial branches. Antheridia very numerous, cylindric or somewhat clavate. Odspores from one to fifteen in an odgonium, usually five to nine, excentric, their average diameter about 22,. Massachusetts—Amherst: Pennsylvania—Philadelphia, Keller: Alabama— Auburn, Atkinson: Louisiana—St. Martinville, Langlois. It is rather remarkable that our most abundant member of this genus, and indeed WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. Vales of this family, so far as the writer’s observations go, while closely resembling the two commonest European species, combines their characters in a peculiar manner. Like A. prolifera, our form has o6gonia with abundantly and invariably pitted walls; but, like A. DeBaryana, its antheridial branches are of androgynous origin; and, like both, its odspores are of excentric structure. The pits of the odgonial walls are not conspicuous as in the Saprolegnie of the ferax group, although they are usually of considerable size; but treatment with the chloroiodide of zine always brings them out, as numerous transparent areas in the elsewhere deeply colored membrane. The antheridial branches are not so long nor so luxuriant as those of A. DeBaryana, as figured by DeBary (81). They usually arise quite near the odgonial branches, very rarely even from the latter, which is said by DeBary never to happen in the last-named species ; and the antheridia are rather shorter and envelop the odgonia less than is the case with the other. These rather slight, but very constant, differences seemed at first to invalidate the distinction between the species called by DeBary A. prolifera and A. polyandra, and to indicate that they, with the present, are forms of a single variable species. But the very positive statement of so reliable an observer as DeBary as to the constancy of the characters of his two forms,* and the abundant evidence of repeated cultures from widely separated sources of the fixity of the present one, have left no alternative | but to consider the three as distinct, though closely related, species, forming a series whose middle member is our American representative, and which may be termed the prolifera group. I have met with this species in no less than twenty cultures from clean waters of every description, and from various parts of the country. It is the form referred to by the writer in an earlier note (791) as “‘a form related closely to A. polyandra (perhaps that species) ;” and is that in which I first convinced myself of the pres- ence of cilia on the escaping zodspores of Achlya. Achlya DeBaryana nom. nov. Syn. : A. polyandra DeBary (81). Ill. : DeBary, ’81, Pl. IV, Figs. 5-12. Ward, ’83, Pl. XXII, Figs. 1-14. This is, as already stated, one of the commonest European species, but it has not been recognized in America. It has smooth, unpitted odgonia and long, branched * J am indebted to Prof. Alfred Fischer, of Leipzig, who has had the opportunity of studying DeBary’s material, for a full confirmation of that author’s statements concerning these species. 118 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, antheridial filaments of androgynous origin, but agrees very closely in other respects with the two preceding species. As above indicated, it is the A. polyandra of DeBary, but it is clearly not the species to which that name was given earlier by Hildebrand (’67). DeBary appears to have believed that his species was that intended by Hildebrand; but, as will be fully shown later, this is not the case. And, since Hildebrand’s species was pretty carefully described, it is perfectly recognizable. Hence the name A. polyandra belongs to it alone, and DeBary’s species is left with- out aname. I therefore propose for the latter the name A.De Baryana, in honor of the profoundest student of the Saprolegniacee, to whom so large a part of our knowl- edge of the family is due. ACHLYA MEGASPERMA Sp. Nov. Ul: Pl. XVII, Figs. 74-77. -Hyphe stout, long. Zovdsporangia thick, fusiform, freely developed. Odgonial branches short and straight, racemosely arranged. Odgonia terminal, globular, with smooth and unpitted walls which are strongly thickened. Antheridial branches often arising near the odgonial branches, but apparently never from them, much branched, often producing no antheridia. The latter absent from many odgonia, from one to several on others, short-clavate. Odspores two to eight, commonly four to six, in an odgonium, centric, very dark when young, their average diameter 45+. Massachusetts—A mherst. Cultures from Spzrogyra, dead leaves, ete., taken from a boggy spot by a small brook, are the only ones which have yielded the present well-marked species. The sporangia recall, in form and abundance, those of A. Americana, but the hyphez are rather stouter and more vigorous than in that species. The very thick-walled oogonia, often without antheridia, and the very large odspores, the largest known in this family, sometimes exceeding 50, in diameter, distinguish it clearly from any other form. The thickening of the odgonial wall is not perfectly even, but its inner surface is somewhat irregular (Fig. 77) from unequal deposits of material. The pro- toplasm of the young odgonia and the odspheres formed from it is very dense and dark colored, surpassing in this respect even that of A. apiculata. The plant is androgynous, but many of the smaller branches, which resemble in every other respect antheridial branches and strikingly suggest those of A. DeBaryana, fail to develop antheridia, and remain unattached to odjgonia. Branches which do bear WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 119 antheridia are otherwise similar to these. The antheridia which attach themselves to a given odgonium may or may not arise from the same hypha with it, though such is perhaps more often the case. The precise systematic position of the species is perhaps open to discussion, but it presents points of resemblance and probable relationship with both the last and the following species. ACHLYA POLYANDRA Hildeb. (’67). Syn.: A. gracilipes DeBary (88). Ill.: Hildebrand, ’67, Pl. XVI, Figs. 7-11. DeBary, ’§8, Pl. X, Figs. 2 and 6. Pl. XVII, Figs. 78-81. ° Hypheze stout, long. Zodsporangia often not abundant, secondary ones rare, nearly cylindrical. Odgonial branches usually very long and often recurved at the tip, racemose. Odgonia terminal, globular, with smooth and unpitted walls. Antheridial branches arising chiefly from the odgonial branches not far from the odgonia, often branched. Antheridia one to several on each odgonium, short-clavate. Odspores five to twenty-five, usually ten to fifteen, in an odgonium, centric, their average diameter 27,. Massachusetts—Amherst. Europe. First obtained in spring from Algze from a temporary rain-pool in a depression in a grassy field, this species appeared later in a culture from Conferve and Vau- cherie, taken from a running brook. Its numerous odspores, very long odgonial ‘branches, usually recurved at their tips, with the branched antheridial threads arising from them and bearing small and short antheridia, distinguish it from related forms. It appears to be rare with us, as I have never seen it from any other locality than Amherst, and only twice there. It is especially interesting as having been the subject of a misunderstanding which has led to a confusion in synonymy that I have here attempted to correct. It was undoubtedly this species which Hildebrand described (’67) as A. polyandra. As has been already pointed out, DeBary gave the same name (’81) to a distinct species which he recognized as differing from Hildebrand’s description, but thought to be probably his species. At the time of the completion of the paper quoted, DeBary had probably never seen this form, as his Jater paper (’88) states that he first obtained it in January of 1881, the year of the publication of the earlier one. ACESS. VOl. Vil. P. 120 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, And while he did study it, he failed to notice its correspondence with Hildebrand’s figures and description, and therefore named it anew iA gracilipes. But no one who will carefully compare the figures given by both authors will, I think, seriously ques- tion that they represent the same species. Again, Hildebrand states that secondary sporangia are not produced in his A. polyandra, a statement that DeBary (81) dis- putes as untrue for his A. polyandra. But in his description of A. gracilipes (’88), DeBary says that secondary sporangia are only sparingly developed, a statement which I can corroborate for American specimens. ‘The two descriptions agree in all other essential points, so far as they are comparable; and the evidence seems completely satisfactory that the correct synonymy of this distinct species is as above given. ; The species shows as many points of affinity, perhaps, with A. DeBaryana and A, megasperma as with any others, but differs from them too widely to permit us to suppose any very recent common ancestry. ACHLYA APICULATA DeBary (88). Tll.: Ward, ’83, Pl. XXII, Figs. 15, 16. DeBary, ’88, Pl. X, Figs. 3-5. Pl. X1X, Figs. 82-86, and XV, 26, 27. Hyphe stout, often long. Zodsporangia fusiform, abundant. Odgonial branches somewhat elongate, usually hooked or recurved, racemose. Odgonia terminal, globu- lar or oval, oftenest with a distinct apiculus, rarely intercalary, their walls smooth and unpitted. Antheridial branches rather stout, mostly unbranched, from near the base of the odgonial branch, or sometimes from that branch. Antheridia one to several on each oogonium, short-clavate. Odspores one to ten, commonly three to five, in an odgonium, centric, their average diameter about 36y. Massachusetts—Amherst: Alabama—Auburn, Atkinson. Europe. So far as Amherst is concerned, this species is the most abundant after 4. Americana. It has appeared in several cultures from various pools and ditches, and is not to be confounded with any other species. Its sporangia are often more strik- ingly fusiform than those of most Achlyw, as is well shown in Ward’s figures (783) and in our Fig. 82. The apiculate odgonia which contain, when young, a very opaque, dark-colored protoplasm, and, when old, a few large odspores, are very char- acteristic and easily recognized. The odspores are surpassed in size and opacity WiTH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 121 only by those of A. megasperma, and may reach, in extreme cases, a diameter of rather more than 40,. I have not observed the tendency towards the excentric type of odspore said by DeBary to be sometimes shown by this species in the one-sided position: of the oil-globule. This plant shows some striking affinities with A. megasperma and A. polyandra ; and, while in some respects intermediate between them, seems to take the position here given it with less violence to all considerations. ACHLYA OBLONGATA DeBary (’88). Tl. : DeBary, ’88, Pl. X, Figs. 7-9. Pl. XIX, Figs. 87-89. Hyphe stout. Zodsporangia slightly fusiform, not abundant. Odgonial branches short or rarely somewhat elongate, straight, racemosely arranged. Odgonia occasion- ally intercalary, usually terminal, and elliptical, ovate, or obovate, rarely globular, with smooth, unpitted walls. Antheridial branches slender, of strictly diclinous origin, sometimes branched. Antheridia on every odgonium, numerous and small, short-clavate. Odspores from one to twenty, usually seven to nine, in an odgonium, centric, their average diameter about 27». Massachusetts—Amherst: Louisiana—St. Martinville and Bayou Tortue, Langlois. Europe. The elongate odgonia and diclinous hyphe readily separate this type from all other Achlye, no other diclinous species being known except A. prolifera. It has occurred in cultures from Mill river, in Amherst, and from the aquatic room of the Plant-house of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, as well as in two cultures from Louisiana. The odgonia, which are typically rounded at their apices, show a tendency to a pointed form in some Louisiana specimens (Fig. 88); while in all cul- tures some of them are of a distinctly globular form, especially such as terminate principal hyphe. The odspores commonly do not occupy the whole interior of the ojgonium, but are collected into a group at one side, leaving an empty space. I do not, however, find them “ viel kleiner als die aller Verwandten,” as they are said by DeBary (’88) to be. In the form and size of its antheridia and the delicacy of its antheridial branches as well as in its strict dicliny, the species strongly recalls S. diclina, but the resem- blance goes no further. 122 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, Var. GLOBOSA var. nov. Ill. Pl. XIX, Figs. 90, 91. Odgonia] branches very short; odgonia globular; odspores reaching twenty-five in number, averaging ten to fifteen; otherwise as in the type. Pennsylvania—Philadelphia, Keller: Alabama—Auburn, Atkinson. While not sufficiently different to be considered specifically distinct, this is cer- tainly a well-defined variety of A. oblongata, marked by the very constant distinctions above indicated. It has been received from two widely separated localities, and appears to remain constant in culture. The odgonia are commonly larger than in the type and the space unoccupied by spores is much more marked (Fig. 90), sometimes amounting to more than half of the cavity. The antheridia correspond completely with those of the type, and furnish the best grounds for regarding the differences as of only varietal value. This species shows no marked affinity with any other single species of Achlya, and its insertion at any particular point in the series is comparatively arbitrary. No real indication of affinities is possible in a linear arrangement of these species. ACHLYA RACEMOSA Hildeb. (’67). Syn.: A. lignicola Hildeb. (’67). Il].: Hildebrand, ’67, Pl. XV, Figs. 1-9, and XVI, 1-6a. Cornu, ’72, Pl. I, Figs. 2-8. Pl. XIX, Figs. 92-95. Hyphe robust. Zodsporangia nearly cylindrical, sometimes tapering. Odgonial branches racemosely arranged, short and straight. Odgonia globular, their walls smooth and unpitted, somewhat irregularly thickened within, brownish-yellow when old. Antheridial branches very short and simple, arising from the oégonial branches near the basal walls of the odgonia, either above or below them. Antheridia one or two, rarely three or four, to each odgonium, short-clavate, usually bent, and applied by their apices to its wall. Odspores one to ten, commonly two to six, in an 06go- nium, centric, their average diameter about 25,. Massachusetts—Amherst. Europe. The typical form of the species, which was studied by Hildebrand, has appeared in two cultures in Amherst, one from dead leaves and slime from the outlet of a WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 123 spring, and the other from a few Ulothrichacee taken from an open cask sunk in the soil of a pasture and apparently filled only by rains. It does not seem to be com- mon. The species is readily recognized by the very characteristic antheridia, which are quite unlike those of any other species. The color of the old odgonial wall and its irregular thickening are also constant features. At the points of application of the antheridia hardly any secondary thickening occurs, so that it remains thin there. There can be no doubt that Hildebrand’s A. lagnicola is merely a depauperate form of the present species, probably due in part to its growth on vegetable remains. There seems to be no reason for giving it even varietal rank. But we may distin- guish clearly the Var. STELLIGERA Cornu (772). Syn.: A. racemosa var. spinosa Cornu (772). Ill.: Hine, ’78, Pl. VI, Figs. 1-14. A. colorata Pringsh. (’82). Pringsheim, ’74, Pl. XIX, Figs. 1-15; XXI, 1-3, 13; and xox 1st Pringsheim, ’82, Pl. XIV, Figs. 12, 15-81. Pringsheim, ’83b, Pl. VII, Figs. 10-20. Pl. XIX, Figs. 96-98. Oégonial walls more or less abundantly producing short, rounded outgrowths, more deeply colored when old. Odspores very rarely exceeding five in an odgonium. Otherwise as in the type. Massachusetts—Amherst and Northampton: New Jersey—Glassboro’, Keller : New York—Ithaca, Mine: Louisiana—Bayou Tortue, Langlois. Europe. This form seems much more abundant with us than the type. It was first recorded as American by Hine (’78); for although it was not definitely identified by him, his figures are unmistakable. I have observed it in cultures from three different sources in Amherst and its vicinity, including a swamp pool, a fish hatchery, and a river; also from a cedar swamp in New Jersey and from a Louisiana bayou. Though the degree of development of the spines may vary considerably in different specimens from the same culture, I have never seen a wholly smooth odgonium in a culture of the spiny form, or a spiny one among those of the typical form. And it is this fact which has seemed to indicate the propriety of characterizing the spiny form as a distinct variety. The two spiny varieties named by Cornu (’72) are appar- ently based on specimens with the spines respectively more and less developed ; and, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, must be regarded as representing extremes 124 THE SAPROLEGNIACE# OF THE UNITED STATES, of development within the limits of a single variety. The name STELLIGERA has been chosen of the two used by Cornu, to avoid confusion with A. spinosa DeBary, which is a very distinct species, in spite of the fact that it is quoted in Saccardo’s Sylloge (’88) as a synonym of A. racemosa var. spinosa Cornu. Besides the spiny odgonia and the fewer odspores, one observes that in this variety the antheridial branches are, on the whole, even shorter than in the type-form, and more frequently arise from the wall of the odgonium itself than in the latter. In February, 1891, I received, through Dr. J. B. Paige, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, some trout eggs from the Northampton fish hatchery, which were evidently attacked by a fungus of this family, and were dead. The hyphe failed to develop sexual organs, but fresh cultures, obtained by throwing flies into the vessel containing them, produced a new crop, bearing the sexual organs of this form. I was unable to visit the hatchery, but am informed that it proves necessary to remove dead eges very frequently, since the infection spreads rapidly, and all the eggs in the hatching trays are killed unless this is done. After the eggs are hatched, the young fry appear not to be injured by the fungus. If this be true, the present species would seem to possess less parasitic capacity than the fungus of the salmon disease. It is probable that, in case of the eggs, the fungus can attack only the non-living egg- membranes, and that the death of the living cells of the egg is an indirect and not a direct result of its attack. This variety may represent a transitional form between some smooth and spiny species of Achlya, not only as regards their ojgonial structure, but also in the reduc- tion of the antheridial branches, which is carried even to their entire disappearance in some spiny species. Achlya oligacantha DeBary (88). Til. : DeBary, ’88, Pl. X, Fig. 1. The present species has delicate hyphz which bear globular odgonia with rather few spines, and commonly four to eight odspores each. Antheridia are developed on all the odgonia from rather elongate, simple branches of androgynous or diclinous origin. It has been observed by DeBary in a single culture from Baden, but not yet elsewhere. It may be regarded as representing a spiny form of the polyandra type, and in this respect differs from the spiny species to be described, which do not resemble closely any of the smooth-walled species, but constitute a distinct group of forms. WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 125 ACHLYA PAPILLOSA sp. nov. Iil.: Pl. XX, Figs. 99-102. Hyphe rather slender, long. Zodsporangia sparingly developed, cylindrical, little larger than the hyphe. Odgonia terminal on main threads or on short lateral branches, or sometimes intercalary, oval or ovate, rarely globular, thickly studded with short, blunt, wart-like outgrowths of their unpitted walls, often with a marked apiculus. Antheridial branches usually developed with each oogonium, fine and branch- ing, arising near it from the main thread, or rarely from the odgonial branch. Anther- idia imperfectly formed. Odspores as many as twelve in an odgonium, oftenest four to six, centric, their average diameter about 25). Massachusetts—A mherst. This plant, which seems to be sufficiently distinct from previously described spe- cies, has been obtained in several cultures, but. from only a single source ; namely, the very prolific mossy pool in Amherst, already mentioned. It may be recognized by its long hyphe, finer than those of most Achlyc, and its odgonia with warty, rather than spiny, walls, and several odspores in each. I have never seen well-differentiated antheridia or fertilization-tubes, although the ends of the antheridial branches are | applied to the odgonia. While bearing no near resemblance to any species heretofore figured, this plant may be somewhat closely related to the next, if the latter is well founded. Achlya recurva Cornu (72). _ So far as the incomplete account published by its author enables one to judge, this is a distinct species from the last, and is separated by its longer and recurved odgonial branches, on which the odgonia are usually borne laterally, and by its better developed antheridia, often digitately branched. Aside from the original observations of its author (’72), this species has been recognized only by Hartog (’88). Achlya spinosa DeBary (’81). Ill.: DeBary, ’81, Pl. IV, Figs. 13-18. Its author’s latest description of this species (’88) does not fully agree with his earlier figures (’81), especially in that he states that the odgonia are never intercalary, 126 THE SAPROLEGNIACEZ OF THE UNITED STATES, while he has figured several such. It should be, however, readily enough recognized by the usually barrel-shaped odgonia, with numerous blunt, and often broad or even forked, outgrowths, each containing one or two odspores which often take an ellipti- cal form corresponding to that of the cavity of the odgonium. The principal hyphz commonly produce very abundant closely set, short, lateral branches that give to the whole plant a densely woolly appearance ; and reproductive organs are often produced only when these branches reach a new food-supply and give rise to fruiting hyphe. The species was obtained by DeBary from a lake in the Black Forest, known as the ““'Titisee.” ACHLYA CORNUTA Archer (’67). Ill.: Archer, ’67, Pl. VI, Figs. 2-6. Pl. XX, Figs. 108, 104. Hyphe of medium size, short. Zodsporangia rare, cylindric. Odgonial branches rarely long, straight or flexuous, racemosely arranged. Odgonia terminal, globular or elliptical, densely beset with rather long, blunt outgrowths of their unpitted walls, the apical one often larger and forming an evident apiculus. Antheridial branches and antheridia wanting. Odspores from one to four in an odgonium, globular or slightly flattened, centric, their average diameter about 29y. Massachusetts—Amherst. Europe. The same culture which yielded A. megasperma for the first time contained a small amount, all I have seen, of this form. It has been referred with some doubt to Archer’s species, since it fails to show at all a feature which one would suppose, from that author’s account and figures, to be very characteristic of his plant; namely, the development of several o6gonia in a series from a single hypha. In other respects, however, it corresponds too closely with his description to justify one in regarding it as distinct. Archer saw no sporangia, probably not, as he thought, because he found it too late, but because of their rarity. In species which produce sporangia abund- antly, one can always find empty ones on plants with mature odspores. In the limited material at my disposal, I have been able to find but a single one, and that only long after it was emptied. From below its base arose a branch bearing an odgonium. This, so far as it goes, supports Archer’s conclusion that the plant is an Achlya, which seems almost certainly correct. The odgonial branches sometimes show the incurving mentioned by Archer, and are often less definitely bent. This writer states WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES. 197 that an odgonium may contain as many as eight or ten odspores; but I have never seen more than four, and his figures show no more than three. He describes no special antheridial branches, but says that the antheridia are like those of A. dioica Pringsh. As these latter are not antheridia at all, one would expect to find, as is the case with American specimens, that the species has no true male organs. As will be seen from the figures, the spines could hardly be more closely set, and their form is more eylin- drical than conical. This and the next species seem to be closely related, the more so if the Ameri- can form here described proves to be more typical than Archer’s. Achlya stellata DeBary (’88). Iil.: DeBary, ’88, P1.X, Figs. 10, 11. Like the last, to which, indeed, it seems almost too similar, this plant has no antheridia. Its globular or elliptical odgonia are covered by rather less numerous spines that are shorter and sharper, therefore more conical, than those of A. cornuta. The odspores are always single and sometimes correspond in form with the cavity of | the odgonium, instead of being always globular. It is known only from a single locality near Gottingen. SPECIES INQUIREND®. Achlya contorta Cornu (?72, Pl. I, Figs. 9-15), with smooth odgonia, containing on an average eight odspores, and borne on long, spirally twisted branches with peculiar local swellings, and with branched cylindrical antheridia; and 540. Figs. 96-98. ors ——— i iba Se = SS a SS SS a = SS SS SS SS ES SS eS Sa ea Aes Di SSS SS Tron oven used in experiments upon oxidation temperatures. fraction of a degree Centigrade. Nitrogen-filled mercury thermometers were used up to 300° in the following experiments, and in order to measure higher tempera- tures, metallic salts of known fusing point were employed. A few grains or crystals of the carefully purified salt were placed in a fine glass tube previously drawn out to a point. Such a tube was placed in the side neck of the iron oven and plunged into the iron turnings. The temperature of oxidation of the hydrocarbon gas could then be ascertained to occur between the melting points of two salts. This method, which is simply an adaptation of the process commonly used for the determination of melting points, proved very satisfactory. It was not possible to employ an air thermometer, as this would have necessitated an inconyeniently large oven. The following list of substances, with their melting points, includes those which were used in the experiments detailed below. COPASSIUITIU ITU AUCH Nee Sec tctat crore ievare aie altro cle eletctetonchel aie fotar ele tello, stala, olegeid elaseiniave eich ais » sibkatew dereaiat wale sigs 339° PLOLASSIUIMMC HI OLALENsetterersierere arco lave aielataiaicrole clare uc erctereteiahersiolevs aialalacolaicre creiatetstalefalsteicteleveisaileieieictescpidars 359° banal TOG, shoaathiows SoSEO NOCD OCG OO OSI HO doco UOC CCU SOI ZO TROD OCIS OUUICOr In DOO UDB COG OOCIn SAE ei Ets 3839 Ce LCUTIANLITTIE BIO CHA ERE ecetyae tates ts sare oieiexs o's«1n ratni@ere nielalsalele.s'e/erelalel clots) share’ wiufeloiciens/ote’sisieve.e ele; tierarsieicrs'elwle.c ea « 404° SRI MCMC ALCP Ret Tee Riera ca hrclore Giclee ah selai ic etareohetdaotmics Giecaoteottae alaalelale oiate caste nW cid acishialele cpicior 414° 156 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. "Thallium: 1Odide 2 «5 .35;0\5 evaiaveia ofe'erelereitie.sum etre cone eke peinrer sibel tis ataisie eisicieiaia vias aise piste sietsisiieis Steers aioe 439° Tread CHIOIde o aie x sreiccierth parcrereretereieis aja) ole ce evettelotsteletsiner heise intele ersisleeieseieie ce Siecle aie eee meee ae eeenee 498° Silver Dromide 2.15 caioe oie siete cies Aioiciere wovarolerereleletarte: Moker eve ic leisekereleraievetereincr set nena ele reer eee ee 527° Potassiwin’ 10d ates 3. eas Aceatien siscie re detendis tain trols Sieidie aie wie ae eielnie ie ayeiicictee eye late elo ae ee ere eae 582° Bamitam, “itr ate icaye as cue 3. ocoB ake 2 0c lo: anya sd jarstete le ates arcana opate aye tebohavsreferete aise ie ene atthe Sitar eerie eat ere eas 598° (Landolt and Bornstein’s Tables and J. Ch. Soc., 1888, p. 63.) The following general method was used in studying oxidation temperatures of hydrocarbons: ork | Air containing a small measured percentage of the hydrocarbon was agitated with caustic soda solution to remove carbon dioxide. It was then caused to flow through the bottle (G) containing lime water. This served to show whether the gas had been completely freed from CO,. The gas then traversed the palladium asbestos, or other reagent contained in the glass tube in the oven, and finally a second bottle of lime water (H). On heating the oven, the temperature of oxidation of the hydro- carbon could be recognized by the precipitate of carbonate of lime in the second lime water bottle. As an indicator for CO, in the oxidation experiments, solutions of baryta strontia and lime were all tried. The solubilities of the carbonates, accord- ing to Fresenius, are as follows: JoPK CO Raoniay aonb aco UUoodooun OCU ouSodoo OCOD CORD a udo OL Hida dboncoeababec one part in 14,137 parts water. ISLC Oa iveter etehetare efelerererelcfatel fel stefelerele/aieierel=tatel sinter eatetencferatefole rete t=taletetalctetetetstsiciets $e ES a 8 045 ges occone Goudanscoeo Senocane Slowly reduced, the silver appearing as a black powder LACH CNlONCBosaoscdcacodoocondcods opaguoaceudé.oo de Unchanged. Innarelinnbin Mois sagocoas cooco cs suo anouaanscadnonc Unchanged. IRONS ichen MMI NEQUE. so 5cqcococoCe co ob spodooosncpeS Slowly reduced. The orange color of the fiuid disappears and metallic ruthenium is precipitated as a black | powder. Cerium dioxide dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid...... Unchanged. Potassium permanganate,} neutral ..........-.eee see Extremely slow reduction, the purple color changing to brown. * Mendeleeff, Principles of Chemistry, Vol. II, p. 353. + Meyer and Askenasy (Ber., 1882, p. 410, R) find that electrolytic hydrogen reduces potassium permanganate. 176 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES, Permanganate, acidulated with sulphuric acid......... Bleached slowly. Permanivan dite) alle ins Corer teteccteteterseteletetoteiat=ietettoletetete ita Slowly changes to brown. Potassium bichromate, acidulated with sulphuric acid.. Unchanged, cold or at 100°. WIG TIO ONO. .Ghoaccdescosdedsosason ens wasocace Unchanged. OSMiIC Wacid cccs5u0ssooaocopoggeoododooNSDS Unchanged. Comments.—Russel (J. Chem. Soc., 2, Vol. XII, p. 3) states that hydrogen reduces silver nitrate solution, nitric acid being at the same time reduced to nitrous acid. Pellet (Compt. Rend., LXX VIII, p. 1132) finds that this reduction is due to the silver salt containing Ag,O in excess, but that perfectly neutral silver nitrate is not altered. Jn a series of experiments I have obtained results corroborating those of Pellet. Silver nitrate containing a minute trace of free nitric acid is not altered by hydrogen. If some freshiy precipitated and washed silver oxide is digested with solution of silver nitrate, and the liquid then filtered, it will have an alkaline reaction towards litmus and is slowly reduced by hydrogen. Boiling the solution with silver oxide increases its alkalinity and also its sensitiveness towards hydrogen. As a reagent for the recognition of hydrogen, it is better that the solution of silver nitrate should be slightly basic (alkaline). As regards the action of hydrogen upon ferric chloride, it should be said that mere traces of ferrous chloride are produced, as indicated by a faint change of color upon addition of potassium ferricyanide. Free hydrogen has, therefore, a considerable reducing power for some of the more easily reducing metallic salts, which is intensified in some cases by heating to 160°. It is convenient to distinguish between three classes of gas reactions as regards intensity. Reactions of the first class, in which a change is prompt and quantitative in its results, e. g., when carbon dioxide is brought into contact with soda solution. Reactions of the second class, in which a change is slow but no less complete in a somewhat longer interval of time; e. g., the reduction of platinum chloride solution by hydrogen. Reactions of the third class, in which a change is not recognizable until after a considerable interval of time, and the products appearing then are only found in traces, such as the reduction of ferric chloride by hydrogen. * Winkler, Zeit. Anal. Ohem., 1889, p. 269. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 177 None of the preceding reactions of hydrogen appear to fall under the first class. Nearly all are of the second class. That reactions such as I have called the third class should occur is difficult of explanation, and it is questionable whether a parallel is to be found in the case of ordinary reactions of metallic salts, e. g., precipitation of traces of ferrous sulphide in ferrous chloride solution by hydrogen sulphide, or calcium oxalate by ammonium oxalate in dilute acid solution, where a change in the proportion of free acid or alkali may cause the precipitation to become complete. The reduction of ammoniacal silver solution by hydrogen cannot be materially accel- erated by increase of ammonia or other change in the conditions, and thus remains a typical reaction of the third class, no matter how it is carried out. 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. The heat of formation of hydrogen chloride being high (22 calories), it seemed probable that hydrogen should reduce the chlorides of many of the metals at mod- erate temperatures. Small quantities of metallic chlorides were heated in a slow current of hydrogen in a glass tube in the iron oven. The following reactions were observed: TEMPERATURES OF REDUCTION. nuthenium) chloride; anbydrouss.. << -\\-s sic ose Gold chloride (obtained by evaporation of a solution of gold in aquaregia to dryness). Platinum chloride (obtained by evaporation of the solu- tion of platinum in aquaregia to dryness). Healt ime MOTI Cxeratere\<. srsie tale! iasne wre © cislels at -\ No change cold; until after prolonged contact or on heating to 100°. SHIGE LVRS 5 oo goacgon boone no boDN soo vodCDanGUDDDS OA Unchanged. Silver nitrate in ammoniacal solution .............-.0. Unchanged. iridium: chil onides: seeenereeeetenieecitcer S iste dae tetas Unchanged, cold or at 100°. IMMINENT, CUOMO. 5 concascon codotpeoooonDDDOCAS OC Se Unchanged. INJAOCh IN ONKOWICEs ascanacissdece Prcelelorerereeiel rene ciekerietote Unchanged. Potassiumeriiheniaterretecttitereeiieeietiae eit ieee Traces of reduction after twenty-four hours. Cerium dioxide in dilute sulphuric acid............... No change, cold or at 100°. Potassium permanganate.............seceeens S0008060¢ Slowly turns brown. Potassium permanganate acidulated with dilute sul- Quickly bleached. phuric acid. Potassium permanganate crystals in concentrated sul- Prompt oxidation to carbon dioxide. phuric acid. @hromiicraci dye rcyeiasecreevsetelleeleli aera eeesciretere Unchanged. OMG COC, ch aadoomneauucagd aoe subsigieke ote oqeveretonetn hee et Quickly reduced, with precipitation of metal asa black powder. WOME ONO sooso0anccosnsns000D8000 j0d09G808S600C Unchanged, cold or at 100°. IBYOMMIN ES “WALEL+1< cieieye chore severe tyeietaele) ciclo talon ehoretersevetoleber eretete Incomplete absorption, even after prolonged contact. Peroxidesofehydrocentereererytiet coerce No carbon dioxide formed. Ferricyanide of potassium ...... pono goosaooodoroeROOn Unchanged. Not reduced to ferrocyanide. Calcium hypobromite containing excess of lime water.. Unchanged. Propylene is not absorbed by sulphuric acid in the cold. 2. Feactions at High Tenperatures. As regards reducing action upon metallic oxides, no important properties dis- tinguishing propylene from ethylene can be named. Propylene conducted over crystals of iodic acid contained in a glass tube heated in the oven undergoes oxidation, yielding iodine vapors and carbon dioxide at a tem- perature approximating that of dissociation of the iodic acid. Comments.—Towards reagents in solution, propylene appears in some cases to possess slightly greater stability than ethylene. This is especially the case with gold chloride and potassium rutheniate. Like ethylene, it is not oxidized to carbon dioxide by any of the reagents used in solution, with the exception of potassium permanganate in concentrated sulphuric acid. HEXxperiments with bromine water have led to the same results as in the case of ethylene. The absorption is decidedly incomplete. ISOBUTYLENE. This gas was prepared from isobutyl iodide by the method described on p. 167. The reactions were in the majority of cases perfectly similar to those of ethylene and propylene. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 187 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. Palladium Chl Once rerseeimeio se eteriehy-lrieieieielsinie me kill Quickly reduced. No carbon dioxide is formed. Je bina OMCs Soon ocoocapaGoco»oogsabobe0 bouCUbOS Unchanged. Gold@ehloride ere syc.c cece ie cee teinicee wisalerecieieeneasiotss Quickly reduced. No carbon dioxide is evolved in the cold or at 100°. Silver nitrate..... Jdbocguud uu ddousoopcdacboosuaboanaae Unchanged. AMTMMAOA EG! GihyOe WITS coon canoe doscsugnsneouHOnoOL Unchanged. Eurrodimmiechlori dey). iiiel-\o\selsiercialsVorel viele steel veieisiecicr=eroin)> Unchanged. Potassium rutheniate ................ Doobodonvoounoedes Quickly reduced. Cerium dioxide in dilute sulphuric acid............... Rapidly bleached. Potassium permanganate, neutral................eeee0. Turns brown. Potassium permanganate acidulated with dilute sul- Quickly bleached. phuric acid. Potassium permanganate crystals in concentrated sul- Prompt oxidation of the gas to carbon dioxide. phuric acid. CROWNS BOC! KOUIOMN So5snoooGodtodb odes dou bGanDAOde Unchanged. OSmic acid. = ./. 22m SCS OCISO COCR Ae DO OP Se RCC Ene Quickly reduced, metallic osmium being precipitated. IMGH®: CHOC. Sood eduqoagns nade saadnsHeaEACOnSe aor Unchanged. HIROMI) WaALCD aie estes oslo cere teisie sielare niesieaicicly wese se sieielk oie Promptly but incompletely absorbed. PEROIGE OF ImyGhwoyen 54500 GonpsodndousoonGs on0deo000 No formation of carbon dioxide. AO UASSIMMMS ELL CY AMI Crete) oretoiehe <6) =I! stele els syeicleteieyeistevel~/cl eh « Unchanged. Calcium hypobromite containing excess of lime water.. Unchanged. Iodine dissolved in iodide of potassium solution....... Quickly bleached. WIGREMEROUE: THENICs coadane cooooaeanOoeTeanuOboOOUDOGdD Precipitation of a gray powder which consists of (or changes into) metallic mercury. Sulphuric acid of 1.8 specific gravity...............00. Does not absorb isobutylene in the cold. 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. Experiments upon the reducing action of isobutylene upon metallic oxides at high temperatures did not develop any characteristic differences. Iodic acid was reduced by isobutylene at 89°, with formation of carbon dioxide and free iodine. Comments.—Isobutylene prepared by Puchot’s method from isobutyl alcohol causes a white precipitate in ammoniacal silver nitrate solution, while that prepared from isobutyl iodide and potash exerts no such action. The reaction towards mercurous nitrate (of the second class) distinguishes be- tween isobutylene and the olefines lower in carbon. In its bleaching action upon iodine dissolved in iodide of potassium solution, isobutylene differs from both ethy- lene and propylene and also in the fact that it bleaches cerium dioxide in sulphuric acid solution. It is not oxidized to carbon dioxide by any of the reagents in solu- tion, with the exception of permanganate of potash in strong sulphuric acid. 188 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. TRIMETHY LENE. This hydrocarbon was prepared from trimethylene bromide by the action of zine (see p. 166). The gas was purified by sulphuric acid and by digestion with dilute potassium permanganate solution. 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. Palladnimlrch] onidenyeeeeeeiteetre 50056 seamen es Reduced with extreme slowness. No carbon dioxide is formed. The reaction requires a much longer time than in the case of the olefines proper. Platimumichlondensy-eecseeecenerre e\ena iahere wibve.sveletetelaters Unchanged, cold or at 100°. Goldchloride 2x. civetres meters erctsie breve ole seen ele AD AAMOSS Unchanged, cold or at 100°. UVR SM ItLAate) creretsre/njcisiaisteraterslale eiieeetetel: Caclehterore cere ete Unchanged. AMMOoniacalesilver MittAtellac ciel eee heee eee Unchanged. Iridinmiyychlorid evensjeetr-eciicee ecitee eerie Unchanged, cold or at 100°. HHO diam Chori dee eretarpereteclevoverawvelefetereiele relate teaetereiers Unchanged, cold or at 100°. Potassium rutheniate......... save se,aets oteletalersinias- memiate sete Traces of reduction after prolonged contact (reaction of : the third class). Cerium dioxide dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid...... Unchanged. Potassium permanganate, neutral...... Sobddsa520002000 Unchanged. Potassium permanganate acidulated with dilute sul- Unchanged. phuric acid. Potassium permanganate crystals in sulphuric acid.... Immediate oxidation to carbon dioxide. ChromichacidQacericciseesinceeee ere eee eerie 300006 Unchanged. Herricuchlond ener eeereeee aeferiorer telelenete/etets sete teherteierieiers Traces of reduction to ferrous chloride after twenty- four hours (reaction of the third class). Bromine Waters -. istics overcome eteietotekeeielorsteretere terre Extremely slow absorption. iPeroxidesojshy dro vente eer nee reee errs AIOdOHOCoS Unchanged. Potassium ferricyanid ey-)jeacil)eeti eer ieeiseiteiieniacele 50 Unchanged. Calcium hypobromite in excess of lime water......... Unchanged. Iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution. ........ Unchanged. Sulphuriciacid) 128) specific eravit yee eee ree The gas is not absorbed in the cold. 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. Iodic acid in crystals was reduced with formation of carbon dioxide at a tem- perature closely approximating: the temperature of dissociation of the acid. Comments.—The olefines are characterized by great stability towards oxidizing influences at temperatures below 100°, so that carbon dioxide is not evolved except in the case of the action of potassium permanganate in concentrated sulphuric acid. In several cases where destructive oxidation might be expected to occur, the olefines are converted into glycols (e. g., in the case of dilute potassium permanganate). Trimethylene yields reactions similar to those of the true olefines but is decid- edly more stable towards many reagents. It does not reduce osmic acid, potassium RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. — 189 permanganate or gold chloride. By these three reagents it is best distinguished from the true olefines. It may be mentioned that ether vapor, which so frequently contaminates the olefines, does not reduce palladium chloride solution. CARBONIC OXIDE. This gas was prepared by heating a mixture of pure oxalic acid and sulphuric acid and purified by caustic. soda solution. 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. alain Chloride) svete selsisicles eeie'e jc sere eisrt ale viele sisls ers Platinum Chloride@m. sc ssisecnce sane ee CIO PROC eS rere BO fassiumMe mu then atelerercic sve eteisrctersteleiete cieleiotare sieversisiarse ote Cerium dioxide in dilute sulphuric acid............... POtASST My PETMAN PANAtes am -jelelelelelselelelalsicisieias -lsieleis eee WOM CEA CI yarereyereieielevatel ciel ets nivvetevetcisrer Pilevchatenehunchttaonniays Osmic acid: = ie. enoracs tere avetarals elsjes\eisierese,evesvele epteverere Ferric chloride....... Se ie raraletmiert hava seis, tsi ielerversratovaletataraG Hydrogen peroxide..............-.. Rfetelotettotereisiie So00c¢ Po TES ISIE VOLE, SONANIG NEC REACTIONS. Quickly reduced, with oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. The reaction is very delicate in strongly acid solutions or in solutions of the pure, dry chloride in water. Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, cold or at 100°. A reduction of the platinum salt to a lower chloride occurs, the solution assuming a darker color. After prolonged contact (several days or even weeks) an incomplete precipitation some- times, but not always, occurs. Quickly reduced to metallic gold in form of a brown powder, the carbon monoxide being rapidly oxi- dized to carbon dioxide, cold or at 100°. Immediately reduced. Very delicate reaction (of the first class). Unchanged. Slow reduction to metallic silver, which separates as a black powder. The filtrate from the precipitated silver was found to contain nitrous acid (as a result of the action of the carbon monoxide on silver ni- trate in ammonia) when tested by Griess’ reaction- Slowly reduced to metal. Unchanged cold; slowly reduced at 100° (reaction of the third class). Rapidly reduced. Metallic ruthenium separates as a black powder. Unchanged, cold or at 100°. Quickly reduced, whether in neutral, alkaline or acid solution. No change of color occurs, but a trace of carbon diox- ide is formed (reaction of the third class). Quickly reduced. Ferrous chloride is produced in traces after prolonged contact. No oxidation to carbon dioxide, 190 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. HemacyanideyOfspotassi Dal verratatcleteletet telat tetetseteleal st reraets Unchanged. Calcium hypobromite containing excess of lime water. . Unchanged. INDENT THITMO AOGls sooo 000099 ono DN DO anDOAONGOCODNOEE Oxidation to carbon dioxide. 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. Todic acid in crystals is reduced by carbon monoxide, yielding carbon dioxide and iodine vapors at 90° (De La Harpe, Pres. Zeitschr., 1889, p. 391). De La Harpe recommends this method for the recognition of carbon monoxide in air. As higher olefines reduce iodic acid at about the same temperature as carbon monoxide, it would be necessary to remove them. According to my experiments, it would be necessary also to remove acetylenes, benzol and alcohol vapors, inasmuch as these substances exert an action similar to that of olefines. The lower paraffins are with- out action up to temperatures at which iodic acid dissociates. Potassium iodate in crystals is not reduced by carbon monoxide at the melting point of barium nitrate (593°). Carbon monoxide undergoes a decomposition in presence of certain metals at high temperatures, according to the reaction: 2C0O=C0,+ ¢. Nickel causes such a change to occur at 350°, a very small quantity of the metal serving to decompose a large volume of the gas (Mond. and Quincke, Chem. News, 1891, p. 108). Iron is said to cause a similar decomposition at 227° (Bell, Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting, pp. 80, 7 I have made the following experiment with palladium : Palladium asbestos was heated in a porcelain tube in a slow stream of pure carbon monoxide, air having been expelled from the apparatus previous to the heat- ing by means of the carbon monoxide stream. At a moderately high temperature (it was below redness) carbon dioxide was produced in such quantity as to cause a strong reaction in lime water. Carbon monoxide reduces oxide of iron at 240°, according to Bell. Howe (ng. and Min. J., L, p. 426) states that incipient reduction of iron oxide by carbon monoxide occurs at 141°. The temperature of reduction of oxide of iron by carbon monoxide is unques- tionably much lower than in the case of methane and ethane. Carbonic oxide is absorbed by soda lime at a temperature of 200°-220°, yielding sodium formate. Moisture promotes the reaction (Merz and Weith, Ber., 1880, p. 718). The reaction is as follows: NaOH + CO = HCOONa. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 191 The change is checked at higher temperatures, hydrogen being liberated at 300°. The volatile formic acid easily liberated from the sodium formate (by decomposition and distillation with tartaric acid) may be recognized by its reducing action upon ammoniacal silver nitrate solution. The purest caustic soda obtainable often con- tains substances of a reducing nature, and it is necessary to use soda free from such impurities. If the formate of soda extracted by water from the soda lime be acidu- lated and distilled, the formic acid obtained in the distillate may be tested for by silver solution. . Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide by steam alone, at 900° (Nau- mann and Pistor, Ber., 1885, p. 2724). Action of Carbon Monoxide upon Methane (Natural Glas) at High Temperatures. According to Odling ( Watts Dic, Vol. I, p. 1111), the following reaction occurs when methane and carbon monoxide are passed through a heated tube: CH, + CO=H,0 + 0,5, Natural gas from Murrysville, Pa., having the following composition, was used in the experiment detailed below : MVM ethan chewsveneperercharrevereectererarcuecs sak siarreies av cota ane erorey catzaus fave Lavairatavwia overcast siioke Wieigsdvate alovavaie’ basdleie.e wile ewisiescele 95.40 Caroll OX Le Meee Ppa ets ater Pe io eteti sieve cove yor ahanistave Glove oteralsl ee Botaislat ovcrotn Veiol cietievelsvaeteras ei svarateve oaretes 0.20 INET. Coe Merete areca tenors rstetererecerercterctey crete Toveiavsreue stay Pers tala cetet sete areels lorseistoteuay als, aval a wotesbis wistedsreloietise! oiaelaca;n aie 4.40 100.00 Natural gas mixed with carbon monoxide in the proper proportion (both being carefully freed from CO.) was passed through a porcelain tube filled with bone-black (previously purified from lime salts by muriatic acid). The tube was heated by a coke fire with a strong draft to a temperature which finally caused softening of the porcelain tube. The escaping gases were passed (1) into lime water, (2) into ammoniacal cuprous chloride. No trace of a red pre- cipitate appeared in the cuprous chloride solution such as would have formed if acetylene had been produced. On replacing the cuprous chloride solution by bromine water, no oily drops collected in the fluid such as would have formed if an olefine had been produced. I have failed, therefore, to show that methane in contact with car- bon monoxide at a high temperature gives rise to the formation of an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Comments.—The best reagent for the recognition of carbon monoxide is palla- dium chloride. The reaction towards this salt in solution forms the basis of the well- ° known method for the quantitative determination of carbon monoxide. Although 192 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. slow, the reaction is extremely delicate. It is accelerated by warming to 100°. Minute quantities of carbon monoxide in air may be recognized by the precipitation of metallic palladium from palladium chloride solution. The precipitation often appears in the form of a lustrous metallic film of dark brown color coating the glass. My experiments upon the action of olefines show, however, that it is essential to the identification of carbon monoxide that the formation of carbon dioxide by the action of the palladium chloride be proved by means of lime water or other indicator, as otherwise the reduction of the palladium salt may be due to a member of the olefine group. The air may be caused to flow slowly through palladium chloride solution and then into lime water. The tendency to undergo oxidation to carbon dioxide on the part of carbon monoxide, and the absence of such tendency on the part of the olefines when exposed to oxidizing influences at a temperature of 100° or below, serves aS a most important criterion for the purpose of distinguishing between CO and the olefine group. Winkler (fres. Zezt., 1889, p. 269) has called attention to the value of palladium chloride as a reagent for the detection of carbon monoxide and has made many valuable suggestions. (For a very convenient form of apparatus for the quantitative determination of carbon monoxide by palladium chloride, see Ellen Richards, Am. Chem. Jour., Vol. VII.) Platinum chloride is also a valuable reagent for the detection of carbon monox- ide. Although oxidation to carbon dioxide occurs, no metal is precipitated unless the exposure to the gas be continued for several days, when traces of platinum appear. The solution assumes a darker color and a partial reduction results. Gold chloride solution is as energetic as palladium chloride in causing oxidation of carbon monoxide. The reduction of ammoniacal nitrate of silver solution by carbon monoxide has been described by Berthelot (Compt. Rend., CXII, p. 597). Although chromic acid produces minute traces of carbon dioxide at 100° when carbon monoxide is conducted through its solution, my results do not confirm the statements of Ludwig (Ann. Ch. Pharm., CLXII, p. 47), according to whom carbon monoxide may be determined by oxidation to carbon dioxide caused by chromic acid solution. The interesting compound formed by the direct union of carbon monoxide and platinum chloride (Pullinger, J. Ch. Soc., 1891, p. 598) is not likely to prove of importance in connection with the study of gas reactions. Among the reactions I haye studied, the most important for distinguishing be- tween olefines and carbon monoxide are the following: (1) The action of palladium chloride, which in the case of carbon monoxide RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 193 yields carbon dioxide and in the case of ethylene yields no carbon dioxide. In both cases reduction of the palladium salt occurs. (2) Ammoniacal silver nitrate is unaltered by olefines up to and including C, but is reduced to metallic silyer and ammonium nitrite by CO. (3) Platinum chloride yields carbon dioxide, but is not immediately reduced to metal by CO. With C,H, no change occurs. (4) Rhodium chloride is slowly reduced by CO, but is unaltered by C,H,. (5) Ruthenium chloride is bleached by carbon monoxide without reduction to metal. Upon ethylene it exerts no action in the cold, but at 100° is slowly bleached. No precipitation occurs in either case. Like palladium chloride, it converts ethylene into aldehyde, especially on warming to 100°. Among olefines, isobutylene is distinguished by its reducing action upon cerium dioxide and by its absorption of iodine in solution, the color of the latter being bleached. Trimethylene, which is a saturated hydrocarbon, cannot be properly included among olefines although isomeric with them. It is especially distinguished from the olefines proper by its stability towards neutral potassium permanganate and towards osmic acid. In almost all cases the reactions of trimethylene are much slower and less complete than those of the olefines. ACETYLENE. This hydrocarbon was prepared by the action of alcoholic potash upon ethylene dibromide (see p. 167). The method of preparation proposed by Berthelot (Ann. Ch. Phys. (5) X, p. 365), by causing a Bunsen burner to “strike back,” although appli- cable for coal gas, has not given satisfactory results when natural gas was used. 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. all adie Chl Onid everr. sstareletester ster) cteretciatcia: sie lacie ee 0000 Reddish-brown precipitate. No reduction occurs. Very sensitive. latina chil orid ety yarererere srelevelare olelereisiaisainte) sisistetefeieieel acs aia Unchanged, cold or at 100°. Goold Chloride) cris:creteractoraiz avs syetorers cis sieve lo/avevale.as/ejote eielcia c's s Immediate reduction. Intensely black precipitate of gold. No carbon dioxide formed. Goldichlondevinwexcess) Of potash). cle) )is-slel-lele telsi> No change cold; trace of reduction at 100°. SHV ENTE ALE pias sae neiw te oietelelevowtciis ercesiarsls a Ones oo White precipitate. Very delicate reaction. Ammoniacal silver nitrate......... sfolelenisisiond cats aieisvarerass White precipitate, which is so gelatinous that a 10 per cent. solution of silver nitrate becomes nearly solid, like boiled starch. IbGhinin CrlOnclhs néacoonGeb bs JOG ODe ceo odan foaboones No change cold ; reduction after one week, or on boiling. VRodiumiyehlOride ser cielelers'ele) )e1-1= steleleaisloleletsvevoveteteoToionetaT oye Unchanged. EOLASBIUMMAECUAEINIDLE s\sjPisvcis cinicls cists cies, s /eleiere) miotole ciate ove Very slow reduction. 194 Cerium dioxide in dilute sulphuric acid............... Potassium! permanganate merits toitetleste ele tetas Potassium permanganate in dilute sulphuric acid...... Potassium permanganate crystals in concentrated sul- phuric acid. Potassium bichromate acidulated with sulphuric acid.. (OHM HOGI56 Go ancoocgaasqoboudanoopaCHooCRUOOOCGASS0¢6 Copper sulphate in neutral or ammoniacal solution.... Menrresc hil oridemeersceeneeteei ieee mrcrecie iterate soon0¢ Calcium hypobromite containing excess of lime water. Hydrogen peroxide and lime water...... spoon 00000 30° Bismuth pentoxide in excess of caustic potash solution Potassiumistennicyanide santero eerie eeieercets Iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution.......... Yellow oxide of mercury..... BEAEOCH aOUAG Hs Od3.00 Con WIETHTOOS. TONES on oa on oo ano agsngdduD Sooa0GeO0000005 Chromous chloride (CrCl,)................ sosyocodsodr Mercuric chloride...... Dicdrw abate bia seca oresa rolnre sleereletareteeiae RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Slowly bleached. Turns brown at once. Quickly bleached. The gas is immediately oxidized to carbon dioxide. The color is unchanged, cold or at 100°. Quickly reduced, turning black from precipitated metal. Unchanged. Decided reduction to ferrous chloride, in twenty-four hours cold. a Acetylene is slowly oxidized, yielding CO,, the lime water becoming milky. The fluid remains clear. Unchanged. Unchanged. Unchanged. The color is not bleached. Unchanged in color. White precipitate. Deep red precipitate, the well-known ‘‘copper acety- lide.”’ Is said to absorb acetylene (Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Viol ih Pisin. 60). White precipitate. Very delicatereaction. This reagent converts acetylene into acetone (Ber., XVII, p. 28, and XXI, p. 3344). 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. Todic acid in crystals was found to be reduced by acetylene at about 90°. In this reaction iodine vapors and carbon dioxide appeared. Aside from the experi- ments on oxidation by finely divided metals already detailed, no other reactions at high temperatures were tried. Comments.—Ammoniacal cuprous chloride, the absorbent commonly recom- mended for acetylene, although a very delicate reagent for the recognition of the gas, is at the same time slow and its action is liable to be incomplete. A single bubble of the gas will cause a decided red precipitate, but acetylene may be passed slowly through a series of Woulfe bottles containing the ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution and yet be very incompletely absorbed, so that it may still cause | precipitation in the same reagent. The bright red precipitate dissolves easily in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of acetylene on boiling. This affords a convenient and well-known method for the purification of the gas. Hxposed to the air, how- ever, the red compound changes to a deep brownish black and becomes insoluble in acids. Consequently, in preparing and washing the red copper acetylide, with a RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 195 view to its decomposition by hydrochloric acid which liberates the pure acetylene, great care is necessary to avoid exposure to the air (Keyser, Am. Chem. Jr., 1892, p- 285). According to Berthelot, the copper compound is vinyl oxide in which copper has replaced hydrogen. H H Cu | | Cu NN YA | N Va Cc = C—O—C = C | Ya IN A S ; Cu Cu (Bull Soc. Chim (2), VY, p. 191). According to Keyser, the copper and silver compounds are Cu,C, and Ag,C,. Silver nitrate is probably the most sensitive reagent tried. Moreover, as the silver compound does not appear to be susceptible to oxidation, it may be used in testing for acetylene in the presence of air or oxygen, while the copper compound, on account of its strong tendency to undergo oxidation, is far less easily recognized in deeply colored copper solution. Potassium permanganate in concentrated sul- phuric acid, calcium hypobromite and osmic acid are the only reagents which cause direct oxidation in the cold of acetylene to carbon dioxide. As an unsaturated hydrocarbon, its indifference towards iodine solution was somewhat unexpected in view of the avidity of isobutylene for iodine (see p. 193). The prompt reduction of gold chloride forms a singular contrast to the indiffer- ence of platinum chloride towards acetylene. The color of the gold when precipi- tated by acetylene (usually blue or blue-black) is quite different from the brownish- yellow color so often observed when gold salts are reduced. This difference in color of the precipitated gold is probably not due to rapidity of reduction. ALLYLENE. This hydrocarbon was prepared from propylene bromide by the action of alco- holic potash. The gas resulting was washed by boiling alcoholic potash solution and absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride. The yellow precipitate resulting was washed and afterwards decomposed by hydrochloric acid, allylene being then set free in a pure state. 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. leleyeliian, OmilowiGlOs5 oondadadocsndodpdasboncobode eanoe Dark-brown precipitate, which may be preserved with- out decomposition. Closely resembles the precipi- tate produced by acetylene. Pian OuiloOMmel.>50 daa sts os adopeebaso0sb0Obeacebeod Unchanged. Cle GMOs ccacobodoconpacdesnndueoodoDbo ddan Gant Slowly reduced. The color of the precipitated gold is very dark. 196 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Silver nitrate.......... oaconnannd ApoDOUODUdUaoEOdSKCOS A 10 per cent. solution quickly coagulates to a white, curdy mass. The precipitate dissolves on boiling or on addition of ammonia. A very delicate reaction. AMM OEKCRY | EMAVEP WNUK 5 Coad coop Dano angocmonne7506 Unchanged. midramy ich OLid eayettaetey totter eee Unchanged in the cold ; at 100° iridium is precipitated. TRA ehihen, COMO soogno50n nods soo0oNNaasonSegCDNDNRC Unchanged. IPOS SHONEN TONING MVS 5 50 0c og0GdDoSdoK Saab DBC o0gRa0Rn Slowly reduced. Black precipitation of metallic ru- thenium. Cerium dioxide dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid...... Unchanged. Potassium permanganate............. sareeotartieiehniee oeisteite Potassium permanganate in dilute sulphuric acid,..... Potassium permanganate crystals in concentrated sul- phuric acid. Quickly turns brown. Quickly bleached. Prompt oxidation to carbon dioxide. Miereuric’ ChlOridere aires crore ovelersvelelereiele’ey sister ictehels tierclercieiete Dense white precipitate. Very delicate reaction. Potassium bichromate acidulated with dilute sulphuric Unchanged in color. acid. OMME AGC osacocacccone000 cbasonDAC opb0 sao uODORC5 Reduced. Metallic osmium is deposited as a black powder. errie chloride oy.tacyieciea ects eee cieieielcoitereeeiee escent Decided reduction to ferrous chloride. Caleium@by po brome yereretetletretttetttetsteteitelel renee Allylene is oxidized to carbon dioxide. The fluid grows milky. Lime water and hydrogen peroxide...............+0.. Unchanged. Potassium ferricyanide.......... Sob dHboOONs LOUD dO000C Unchanged. Iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution..... dacad Unchanged. Cuprous chloride in excess of ammonia.......... Sieteler= Canary-yellow precipitate, changing slightly to greenish yellow on contact with air. Soluble in acids, with liberation of allylene. Mercurous- mitrate...cc.. ose ccek eee aeeerioceiiee none White precipitate. 2. Reactions at High Temperatures. Experiments were tried in the reduction of certain metallic oxides, but the re- sults are not of sufficient importance to be detailed here. Comments.—The reactions of allylene closely resemble those of acetylene. As regards intensity, scarcely any difference can be found. The colors of the palladium compounds of acetylene and allylene do not differ materially. Towards ammoniacal cuprous chloride the two gases exhibit very characteristic differences as regards the color of the resulting compound. The copper allylide is easily soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Ammoniacal silver nitrate yields a gelatinous precipitate with acetylene but is not changed by allylene. Oxidation of allylene to carbon dioxide, as in the case of acetylene, is not easily effected except by the most powerful oxidiz- -ing agents, such as calcium hypobromite or potassium permanganate in concentrated sulphuric acid. Although the allylene copper compound is rapidly formed in an ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution, the absorption of the gas is singularly incom- RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 197 plete. Agitation with the solution is quite necessary in order to insure complete absorption. Wagner (Ber., 1888, p. 3343) has shown that the higher acetylenes, like the olefines, are converted by neutral potassium permanganate solution into hydroxyl compounds. The various classes of hydrocarbons of the fatty series possess in common a high resistance to destructive oxidation by oxidizing agents, yielding in some cases hydroxyl compounds but rarely CO,. This is true also of benzene, which is changed by potassium permanganate into oxalic acid and formic acid (Bernthsen, p. 326). SULPHUR COMPOUNDS. CARBON OXYSULPHIDE. This gas was prepared by the method of Klason (Ber., 1887, p. 55 R, and J. Pr. Ch., Vol. XXXVI, p. 64). Toa cold mixture of 290 c.c. sulphuric acid and 400 ¢.c. of water, 50 c.c. of a saturated solution of sulphocyanide of potassium was - gradually added, the mixture being warmed to 30°. The gas was evolved in a steady stream and was purified by passage (1) through 20 per cent. potash solution, (2) through 25 per cent. solution of aniline in alcohol, (3) through broken ice. COS was also prepared by the action of carbon disulphide on alumina at a high temperature (Gautier, Compt. Rend., CVII, p. 911). The gas, if dry, may be pre- served over mercury. Contact with water causes a change into carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Caustic soda solution is changed into a. mixture of sodium sul- phide and carbonate. The constant tendency to decomposition renders it impossible to preserve the gas over water without loss. In trying its reactions, it was found necessary to conduct the gas immediately before use into some substance specially adapted to absorb hydrogen sulphide. For the absorption of HS, Fresenius recom- mends pumice saturated with copper sulphate solution and dried (Fresenius, Quant. Analyse, bte Auflage). In a series of trials with this and other absorbents, precipi- tated oxide of mercury was found to answer best. Dampened absorbent cotton is coated with the yellow powder by rubbing with a large pestle. This preparation, used dry in a long glass tube, completely removes H.S but exerts no action upon COS. 1. Reactions in Solution. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. : len lbohinimn GnOWtOsgocncasadoso0q0obdaunbodseboneboac Prompt precipitation. Precipitate is brownish black and flocculent. Fibra, CMOMGE: 6scadococosondbecdsoopUaDoDoLUNeac Black precipitate. Gol dmchtorid eyes cis sesc = ele sss ve sine aictere) siclotelsitte ate) sies'oe Rapidly darkens. An olive-brown precipitate collects. WOpPPENESU Mate rteterelelcteteciaiviey-la'e cieisicieisis\eisie nelntetalelfelotee)s Black precipitate, which forms very slowly. Ammoniacal copper sulphate........--.eeeereeeeeeeree Black precipitate, forming promptly. ING 1e5 Sh AOI QA 198 ArTsenious ‘Chloride. 35. .ccco as cinco ewes Geeteionte Potassium permanganate acidulated by hydrochloric acid. Mercurie ‘nitrater stents cece nae ete Site stac aco eee nen neTe Nickel@hydratesiny waters ccrrteisereicisieiattetererecestotare Merric chlorides saci ols were cieisio ele le eee ae ot okaeteeeieite RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Voluminous, brownish black precipitate. Prompt precipitation. Precipitation is slow and incomplete. Rapid and complete precipitation ; bright yellow. Yellow precipitate, forming very slowly. Rapidly bleached. rium chloride, so that oxidation to sulphuric acid The solution then precipitates ba- has occurred. No separation of sulphur is observed. Black precipitate. Prompt oxidation to sulphuric acid. No sulphur is separated. Turns milky white and darkens gradually to black. Darkens slowly to black. Decided but incomplete reduction to ferrous chloride. Potassium’ fernicyamide- se) cs se s cierelellslelelei sie Sasdudaocacadee Ac Silver nitrates... ss ccicices ss sie Rislolois afeiataeleieleusialere everest REACTIONS. Cinnamon-colored, flocculent precipitate in strong or weak solutions. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, aquaregia, ammonia and caustic soda, in the cold or at 100°. Extremely delicate reaction. Yellowish-brown, flocculent precipitate in dilute or con- centrated solution. Insoluble in the strong acids and alkalies, and in this respect similar to the pal- Jadium compound. Yellow precipitate, resembling in appearance the plat- inum compound. Light yellow, very voluminous precipitate, changing gradually to white as the passage of the gas is continued, and finally redissolving to a clear solu- tion. White, flocculent precipitate. Darkens slightly on expos- ure to air and light. Extremely delicate reaction. Straw-yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonia. Dark- ens rapidly. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid solution of the precipitate con- tains cuprous chloride. Yellow precipitate like the preceding. Soluble in hy- drochloric acid to cuprous salt. Rapidly darkens. White, flocculent precipitate, changing to crystalline needles. More stable than the preceding compound. Yellow precipitate, resembling in appearance the cop- Rapidly per compound. Insoluble in ammonia. blackens. 202 Ammoniacal: silver nitrates: .cccccss cles ssacce Beare ce Ammoniacall cadniumechlonidesmaericcdceiee tice eee Arsenious chloride in dilute hydrochloric acid......... Zine sulphate in excess of caustic soda solution....... Potassium permanganate, 6 per cent. solution acidulated by hydrochloric acid. Mead@acetaticns- creer ccm cle pode buds aodencaacspoos Potassium bichromate acidulated by hydrochloric acid. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Yellow precipitate, similar in appearance and properties to the preceding. White precipitate in flocculent masses, somewhat solu- ble in the reagent and in water. Permanent, if protected from the air. By oxidation is converted readily, in the cold, into yellow cadmium sulphide. The fluid grows milky from floating oil drops, which gradually collect as a very heavy oi] at bottom. Unchanged. Rapidly bleached. Becomes heated from the intensity of the reaction. No sulphuric acid is produced. Straw-yellow precipitate, insoluble in acids and alkalies. Rapidly blackens. Promptly reduced. to green chromic chloride. No sul- phuric acid is produced. BOMINE Swat elyarmetewtersicve ielteYor ee rtvevetarsreler=telere erections 5006 Rapidly bleached. No sulphuric acid is produced. WIG HOMO S. MIMICS cooop ooc4a00000cD a nadcsDG0DOODO DROS Grayish-black precipitate. IISA TMUTMIS cas coc anon nodes naosase sodad00000nF OOM Slowly forming black precipitate. Nickel hydroxide in water....... Soca oDOOSengNobotaos Slowly blackens. Ferric hydroxide in water..... bocoDODDOHNOODONS BOCS00 Unchanged. WEION7 OFGCO OF WOH. ocuncooonocoocugnausnocooene Turns slowly gray and finally black. IMFHS CMCC oosocoqacanscgcacagogvgcanosgsess cond Rapidly reduced to ferrous chloride. No sulphuric acid is formed and no sulphur liberated. i Potassium ferricyanide...... sooveadoconn 9 SsoS5anonads ' Reduced to ferrocyanide. ORVMHNO BKC oooococcecancoooueDcDGKOGRRCS MOO OOULS BOS Rapidly blackened. Potassium rutheniate............... Saanotoanqoossonos Extremely slow and incomplete reduction. chy dro sens Pero xdd eerie lettered et eter No oxidation to sulphuric acid occurs. Cerium dioxide in dilute sulphuric acid............... Quickly bleached. itharcebandiawhitemleadtnrateryreetettetestetelere REN eiretersrerer Quickly changed, yielding a voluminous yellow powder. Copper carbonate........... poOooSooODOERGONOOOSO RODS The resulting mercaptide is similar in appearance to that obtained in the preceding reaction. The mer- captides of lead and copper are very stable. IIL VET MOM a poletelelelelelslelnl=feletslels é5od00000 ogonuscosoDoODoanE Ts not changed, dry or in water. After three months the silver appeared slightly darkened in color. Comments.—In the remarkable diversity of its reactions, methyl hydrosulphide probably excels every other known gas. The stability of many of its metallic com- pounds is often nearly as great as that of the corresponding sulphides. The reagents employed include many substances of high oxidizing power. It was not possible, however, to detect in any case a trace of sulphuric acid. Under the influence of oxidizing agents, the tendency of the mercaptans is to produce oxygen compounds, such as the sulphonic acids. CH,SH + 0, = CH,SO0,H. Hence the failure to form sulphuric acid. The following experiment illustrates the remarkable stability of methyl hydrosulphide: The gas was passed in slow stream through a glass combustion tube containing RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 203 a fused mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium bichromate, but no sodium sul- phate was produced. Moreover, the gas escaping from the tube possessed the char- acteristic odor of the mercaptan. The same experiment was tried with a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium nitrate with a similar result. On account of its numerous reactions towards the various metallic salts, a separation of methy] hydro- sulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen is a difficult matter. As it acts slowly and incompletely upon yellow mercuric oxide, this substance may be used to absorb sul- phuretted hydrogen. Although methyl hydrosulpkide attacks and combines with the mercuric oxide, sulphuretted hydrogen gradually expels it, the yellow color grad- ually changing to black, owing to the formation of sulphide of mercury. The yellow copper compound changes into copper sulphide. The same is true of the yellow compounds of lead and silver and the white cadmium compound. This change into sulphide is in every case promoted by exposure to air, especially in presence of ammonia. In an aqueous solution of methyl hydrosulphide containing neither acids nor alkalies, the various compounds are more stable. The mercaptides are easily produced in many cases by the action of a solution of the mercaptan in water upon the oxides, hydroxides or carbonates of the metals, and when so formed they are easily preserved unchanged. It is of importance to note that sulphuretted hydrogen expels methyl hydrosul- phide from many of its metallic compounds. The reactions of CH,;SH towards gold chloride and arsenious chloride are especially remarkable. In the former case the production of a precipitate, gradually changing from yeliow to white and finally dis- appearing, distinguishes this gas from sulphuretted hydrogen. The formation of an oily liquid insoluble in water, in the case of arsenious chloride, also serves to distin- guish between the two gases. METHYL SULPHIDE. This compound may be prepared by the action of methyl iodide (or, preferably, methyl chloride) upon potassium sulphide in alcoholic solution. Gaseous methyl chloride may be led into an alcoholic solution of potassium sulphide contained in a flask heated over a water bath and connected with a reversed condenser. The vapor of methyl sulphide thus formed may be freed from sulphuretted hydrogen by oxide of mercury or by passage through warm soda solution. In the process of Klason, already described, methyl sulphide is produced simul- taneously with the hydrosulphide. The process yields, in fact, a larger proportion of the former than of the latter. It may be readily separated, as already stated, by means of soda solution, which absorbs and combines with the mercaptan but exerts 204. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. no action upon the sulphide. On warming the soda solution, therefore, the sulphide, condensed and floating upon its surface, may be expelled in vapor form. In the fol- lowing experiments methyl sulphide, prepared by the action of methyl chloride upon potassium sulphide and also by the method of Klason, was used. Methyl sulphide is a colorless liquid, boiling at 37° C. The compound formed by mercuric chloride with methyl sulphide is (CH;).SHgClL. The yellow precipitate produced in platinum chloride solution is PtS,(CH;),Cl, On standing or on warming, the powder changes to a crystalline, isomeric form (for an important discussion of this and other alkyl sulphide com- pounds, see Enebuske, J. Pr. Chem. (2), XX XVIII, p. 358). - Bromine combines directly with methyl sulphide, yielding a erystallizable, vola- tile compound, (CH;).SBr... Oxygen unites directly with methyl sulphide, yielding (CH;).SO and (CH;).SO,, and it appears, as already stated, to be impossible to oxidize the thioether to sulphuric acid by reagents in solution (see Richter, Organic Chemistry, trs. by Smith). Reactions. In the following experiments the vapor was caused to pass into the various solutions. REAGENTS. REACTIONS. Palladium chloride nettles tee ieee eerste od0¢ No change in highly dilute solution. In a 2 per cent. solution of palladium chloride, an orange-colored, ~ pulverulent precipitate occurs, soluble on boiling. As the solution cools, the substance is redeposited in beautiful, orange-colored crystals. These crys- tals are apparently monoclinic and, although none were obtained sufficiently large for measurement, they resemble strongly the usual forms of selenite. Platinum chloride.............. Hoda Sno HOUR USoONNE Precipitate of a lighter yellow color than the preced- ing. Somewhat soluble on heating, but less so than the palladium compound. The precipitate becomes distinctly crystalline on standing. GoldichlomGeyrererrrccicierieuasyactettele stele tateteretetotereaccietefectatoiets Yellow precipitate, which becomes white and finally redissolves on continuing to pass the vapor through the solution. Mercuric chloride......... teteleleictoteve Sociocanbopobodoos White precipitate. Very delicate reaction. When highly magnified the precipitate is seen to consist of trans- parent crystals, apparently monoclinic. Copper Sulphate yai-foiote.c sv sicie/ete oisiure crore stotevelo sate rre ner rersete Unchanged. Ammomiacalicopper, Sulphate’. —$—$__——_> Previously purifiod $y NaOH ) and dried by CaCl, . b] Hy Ct, Sot. FS SOs Sol Sol, Sol. Hz S04 : | Fe 804 R80, ‘ Sot Sod RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 211 but that the intermediate products CH.Cl, and CHCl; are only formed in relatively small quantity. The manufacture of chloroform from natural gas, so far as these experiments indicate, is likely to prove of difficulty. The gas escaping from O has the odor of methyl] chloride from methyl] alcohol, is readily soluble in water and in alcohol, and burns with a green flame. The gas, after leaving P, passed into a solution of potas- sium hydrosulphide in R and then on into a solution of mercuric chloride in X. An immediate and copious precipitation occurred in X. Methyl] chloride from methyl alcohol, as is well known, is characterized by the property of forming a solid crystalline hydrate when conducted into icewater. The gas, prepared by the method above described, was passed through the bottle P con- taining broken ice while the ice was slowly melting, but no trace of a crystalline hydrate appeared. It was not attempted to analyze the gas, for the reason that an analysis of a mixture of methyl chloride with some unaltered methane and traces of intermediate chlorides would lead to very uncertain results. The odor, the solubility in alcohol, the green color of the flame and the reaction with potassium hydrosulphide, all tend to show that it was methyl chloride. The failure to produce the crystalline hydrate with icewater I cannot explain. It has long been considered a settled fact that only one methyl chloride is pos- sible, Berthelot having shown (Ann. Ch. Pharm., CY, p. 241) that when methyl chloride from methane and chlorine is treated with potash, saponification results with production of methyl alcohol, just as in the case of methyl chloride from woodspirit and hydrochloric acid. Beyer (Ann. Ch. Pharm., CVU, p. 269, and Watts Dic., III, p. 987) states, that methyl chloride prepared from methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid is different from the methyl chloride obtained by the action of chlorine on methane in the fact that the chloride from the latter source fails to form a crystalline hydrate when led into icewater, and that there are, therefore, two compounds isomeric, but not identical, having the formula CH;Cl. Roscoe and Schorlemmer (Vol. III, Pt. I, p. 203) explain the failure to form a crystalline hydrate by the methyl chloride from methane on the ground that other chlorinated substitution products occur with the methyl chloride. My experiments lead me to think that this does not satisfactorily explain the difference. CH,Cl, and CHC, do not occur except in traces in the gas which was produced, while CCl, was easily condensed in F and G (as it boils at 78° and cannot contaminate the methyl chloride). 212 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. The methyl chloride formed in the apparatus above described was caused to pass through a second combustion tube heated in a furnace, and through a side tube a stream of chlorine was passed directly into this second combustion tube. ‘The methyl chloride supposed to have been formed by the action in the first furnace re- ceived, therefore, an additional quantity of chlorine before passing through the com- bustion tube in the second furnace. It seemed possible that in such a case the formation of higher chlorinated derivatives might be better controlled taus : CH,-22 Cl Cr Cha Her This equation represents the reaction probably occurring in the first combustion tube. The gases were then passed through water to remove hydrochloric acid. They were then dried by sulphuric acid and received the additional volume of chlorine, as above mentioned, before entering the second heated combustion tube. This reaction might then occur: CH,Cl-p 2Cl— CHCl, Her In the second tube the results were hardly different from those originally obtained. The methane tends constantly to produce methyl chloride or carbon tetrachloride, and there is little or no probability of obtaining intermediate products except in rela- tively very small proportions. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 213 IV. PREPARATION OF HALOGEN COMPOUNDS OF ALKYLS AND OLEFINES. The alkyl iodides serve as the most convenient source for the preparation of the paraffins by the Gladstone and Tribe reaction, to which reference has already been frequently made, e. g.: CH, 4+ Zn + H,O = Ane ae oR), The same compounds find application in forming the olefines by the action of KOH in alcoholic solution. Thus: C,H,I + KOH = 6,8, + KI + HO. The olefine dibromides are of service in the preparation of olefines by means of zine which abstracts the halogen, liberating the olefine. The acetylenes are most conveniently produced from the olefine dibromides, by the action of alcoholic potash, according to the reaction: C,H,Br, + 2 KOH = C,H, + 2 KBr ++ H,0. Henee, the selection of convenient methods in forming these iodine and bromine compounds has become a matter of much importance in the study of gas reactions. The alkyl iodides are most easily formed by the action of iodine upon a mixture of red phosphorus and alcohol. Chancel (Ber., 1883, p. 2286 R, and Bull. Soc. Chim., XX XIX, p. 648) has given a very convenient method for the preparation of propyl iodide and similar compounds. 127 gm. iodine, 60 gm. propyl alcohol and 10 gm. of red phosphorus are mixed in a flask, and, after the reaction, which at once sets in, has subsided, the flask is to be heated for an hour, connected with a reversed condenser. After cooling, the oily liquid is decanted, washed with soda solution and dried by calcium chloride. On distilling, nearly 90 per cent. of the theoretical yield is obtained. This method gives very satisfactory results, and is applicable in the case of CH,I, C.H;I, C;H.I, ete. The process commonly recommended for the preparation of ethyl bromide by the addition of bromine to a mixture of ethyl alcohol and red phosphorus, yields a small and impure product and is difficult to control. Erlenmeyer (Jahresb., 1878, p- 538) has given an excellent method for the preparation of ethyl bromide by the distillation of a mixture of potassium bromide, sulphuric acid and alcohol. Both of these processes yield a product largely contaminated by ether, which, although not A. P. S.—VOL. XVIL 2B. 214 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. removable by fractionation, may be completely separated from the ethyl bromide by digestion with sulphuric acid in the cold (as recommended by Riedel, Ber., 1891, p. 105 R). The olefine dibromides can be most easily prepared by the direct union of olefine with bromine. Meyer (Ber., 1891, p. 4248) has, however, shown that in presence of iron (wire) as an “ itbertriger,” bromine attacks ethyl bromide, producing the reaction: C,H;Br + 2 Br = C,H,Br, + HBr. s This process, which requires heating in sealed tubes, in the case of ethyl bromide yields propylene dibromide in the cold from C,H,;Br. The method is open to the ob- jection that large volumes of HBr gas are necessarily evolved. Moisture wholly arrests the reaction. : Experiments tried in this laboratory with other metals (palladium, magnesium, aluminium) as “‘ bromubertriger” and at varying temperatures, have failed to give satisfactory results in preparing ethylene dibromide. Not only heat, but pressure in sealed tubes is also necessary. Allyl iodide, which has served as a more conyenient material for the preparation of propylene than propyl! iodide, was made by the action of iodine upon glycerine in the presence of both red and yellow phosphorus, by the excellent method described — by Behal in Ber., 1887, p. 693 R. Jodides are to be preferred to bromides in all cases where KOH is used to pro- duce a reaction, as KI is more soluble in alcohol than KBr. For this reason a larger quantity of KOH is necessary for a given reaction (formation of olefine from alkyl bromide) than in case of the iodine compound, RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 215 V. COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. The gas used in the following trials was that supplied to Allegheny by the Allegheny Heating Company, and is the product of wells scattered over a consid- erable gas-producing area. It may be said to represent the average composition of an enormous volume of gas.. No important differences have been observed during the period from 1886 to 1892 in the heating or illuminating power of the gas as supplied to the city, except that the odor of petroleum (7. e., of higher paraffins) has been occasionally stronger. Tests have also been made of gas from various localities in Pennsylvania, New York and Indiana, and Vancouver, British America, and also at Cleveland, O. In all cases where possible the tests were made at the wells. When this could not be done, it was necessary to use samples brought in glass vessels to the laboratory. ‘In such cases, the samples were examined for oxygen before being subjected to the tests. As a leak in a sample vessel invariably causes an interchange of air and gas, so that air enters in proportion as an escape of gas occurs, much dependence is to be placed on the presence or absence of air in a gas sample as a criterion of its purity. HYDROGEN. Hydrogen is almost always mentioned in the published analyses of natural gas I have made the following chemical tests: The natural gas, as supplied to Allegheny by the Allegheny Heating Company, was caused to flow through a solution of palla- dium chloride for periods varying from ten days to three months. Five hundred cubic feet have been used in a single experiment. Similar tests have been repeated at various times between January, 1836, and May, 1892; but in no case was a trace of precipitation observed in the palladium chloride solution. Natural gas was found likewise to be without action upon solutions of platinum chloride and ammoniacal silver nitrate. A stream of natural gas has been passed through dry pure palladium chloride. This extremely delicate test has failed to show the presence of hydrogen even in traces, although tried repeatedly during the period from January, 1886, until May, 1892. As already stated, the results of my study of gas reactions show that palladium chloride produces very different effects according as it is used dry or in solution. Palladium chloride dry is reduced promptly by dry hydrogen when the gas is used in a free state. 216 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. The same salt in solution is slowly and incompletely reduced by hydrogen, although it is rapidly reduced by olefines and carbon monoxide. Similar tests with palladium chloride, both dry and in solution, made at the wells, in the cases of all the localities mentioned in the table No. I, from 1 to 14, have led to similar results. Natural gas from Vancouver and from Kokomo, Ind., could not be tested at the wells. Tests made in the laboratory, of the samples received from those localities, gave the same negative results. ; Another method of testing for hydrogen has been employed. As is well known, a jet of hydrogen is immediately ignited by platinum asbestos. Natural gas under similar conditions is not ignited, even when the gas jet and the platinum sponge are mounted in an oven kept at a temperature approaching 300°. In order to ascertain the effects of different proportions of hydrogen and natural gas, a gasometer con- taining the gas mixture to be tried was connected with a jet in form of a drawn-out glass tube, above which some platinum asbestos was fixed. The gas pressure could be so regulated as to produce a pointed flame one inch long. By momentarily shut- ting off the gas by pinching the hose, the flame could be extinguished, and the gas,. being turned on again, played against the platinum asbestos. The length of the flame when the gas stream from the jet was ignited was therefore a measure of the gas flow. The gas was ignited by the platinum asbestos or not according as the proportion of hydrogen in the natural gas was greater or less. The ignition of the gas was also dependent upon the temperature of the oven in which the jet and the platinum asbestos were fixed. . Mixtures of hydrogen and natural gas produced glowing of the platinum and ignition of the gas at the following temperatures, when the experiment was made in a large iron oven whose temperature could be readily measured. The gas pressure was the same in all trials. PROPORTION OF HYDROGEN AND NATURAL GAS. TEMPERATURES OF THE OVEN AT WHICH THE GAS INFLAMES AS IT STRIKES THE PLATINUM ASBESTOS, Natal (838 Sei eee eee ee BD 2g 6 ig tie as fp tet ah fea Hes ete eee 40°-50< ER CO PONS ayetarete tins ayeleiietalae merase oie ieieaiete 5 MAbaPe CBS 9 oi A 2 ee eee Ores Cece tra TEN Ser cs cots: 809-909 ERY Groene cia. te pteiel= wlolelecielelot= etetalstetetatteretey ater 2.5 Natarall B88. sis ts asic Seki Nee a ae BO eal StU sies aU RRR Ua aint ge 180° FLY GTO POD. cle aisreleisisie caine ecaiaiter-ieieigiotstefeietatets 1 Natural (gagi cise. creremtcierelersisteineeineeretrteisiets DODO he Ne ee Ren, ee eee 9100-2200 Ely Gropen s Setetetecic'> cleieie cisis == siniei sere teinteretatcrete 0.5 Natural agreiesie. »aj0is einem olay eteyateleleieiniets Setar O93 ir AC Ree age ERE TO ES. 9'790 EDV ATOR ONG.) Soiesareiaiclclcle cleleinretatals sieieisieietstaratalets 0.25 Plire) Mattiral PAS... a..\.cismiiere wets es vin clerecelelerereteteieletniarniele/atletny eieteterasctetatete ta istetnterste tela] tiareteiereterctenetats 270°9-290° The observed temperatures naturally vary with the pressure, size of jet, etc., RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 217 but trials with different pressures showed greater constancy than could be antici- pated from a method so rough in appearance. The results corroborate those obtained by the more delicate tests. Experiments have also been tried with mix- tures of air and natural gas which were exposed to palladium asbestos contained in glass tubes heated in the iron oven described under “Oxidation Temperatures of Hydrocarbons.” It has been repeatedly shown that, under such conditions, moisture is only produced at temperatures approaching or higher than the melting point of cadmium iodide. _ The absence of free hydrogen has interfered with the use of natural gas in gas engines. The prompt, sharp explosion of coal gas, so necessary for these motors, cannot be produced in the case of natural gas which requires a higher temperature for its ignition, and explodes with less suddenness owing to the absence of hydrogen. The electrical devices for the igniting of coal-gas jets in dwellings by the spark of an induction coil, have not been so successful where natural gas is used, owing to the higher temperature of ignition of a gas consisting of paraffins and containing no hydrogen. In laboratories where natural gas is the fuel, chemists have experienced the inconvenience that Bunsen burners and blast lamps do not produce the high tem- perature easily obtained when coal gas is used. Ordinary glass combustion tubing cannot be softened by the employment of natural gas in a Berzelius blast lamp. A coal-gas flame owes its steadiness and “ stiffness” to the hydrogen which the gas contains. Natural-gas flames are much less steady and more easily extinguished by air currents. ; ~ During May, 1892, a change occurred in the composition of the natural gas supplied to Allegheny City. The gas since that time and up to November, 1892, has been found to contain hydrocarbons which reduce dry palladium chloride. These hydrocarbons are removed completely by digestion with fuming sulphuric acid, so that the gas after this treatment does not reduce palladium chloride. ‘The nature of these hydrocarbons I have been unable yet to determine. OLEFINES. Palladium chloride, iridium chloride, cerium dioxide in sulphuric acid, osmic acid, all remain unchanged by natural gas, cold or at 100°. Potassium permanga- — nate is attacked with extreme slowness. Bromine water has been repeatedly tried. The solution was in some cases cooled by ice to check evaporation of the bromine and in others the bromine was added slowly, drop by drop, to compensate for its evaporation. In no case were any oily drops produced. Prof. Sadtler, of Philadelphia, has in one instance obtained a considerable amount of heavy oil by the action of bromine on natural gas. 218 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. My experiments seem to prove the absence of ethylene, propylene, isobutylene and trimethylene from the gas supplied to Allegheny. The same is true of gas from the localities mentioned in the table from No.1 to 17. Tests could not be made at the wells in the case of gas from Kokomo, Ind., and Vancouver, British Columbia; but samples brought to the laboratory gave similar results. The very low illuminating power of natural gas of Western Pennsylvania is a further evidence of the absence of olefines which, as is well known, are remarkable for the brilliancy of the light which they produce. By the kindness of Mr. J. W. Patterson, gas inspector of Allegheny county, Iam able to give the following data as to illuminating power. The gas supplied to Pittsburgh by the mains of the Philadelphia Company, November 3034. 92, possessed an illuminating power equal to 10 84-100 candles per five cubic feet of gas burnt per hour (mean of ten determinations). On the same date the illuminating power of the natural gas supplied by the People’s Natural Gas and Pipeage Company was 10 77-100 candles. Mr. Patterson’s tests were made with a thirty-six-hole Argand burner, haying a chimney seven inches long. ACETYLENE AND ALLYLENE. Palladium chloride solution is unchanged, as already stated. Cerium dioxide, mercuric chloride, gold chloride, silver nitrate, ammoniacal cuprous chloride and — osmic acid are all unchanged. Hence, in the gas I have tested, it may be said that no hydrocarbons of the acetylene series occurred. I have found no reference to acetylenes in any published analyses to which I have had access. CARBONIC OXIDE. Carbonic oxide is nearly always stated to occur in the published analyses of natural gas. In my experiments, palladium chloride, gold chloride, silver nitrate in ammonia, iridium chloride, rhodium chloride, osmic acid, all used in solution, were unchanged. Experiments have been made with Allegheny City natural gas in the following way: Gas has been caused to bubble for five weeks through ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution. This solution was then largely diluted with water and boiled. The gases expelled were collected and tested by palladium chloride solution ; but no car- bon monoxide was found. It is true that, since the absorption of carbon monoxide in cuprous chloride has been shown to be a case of mechanical solution rather than chemical union, and that the absorbed CO can be expelled by a stream of other gases, RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 219 the use of cuprous chloride for the absorption and recognition of carbon monoxide cannot be implicitly depended on. Still, the direct tests above named lead me to the conclusion that no carbon monoxide occurs in our natural gas. PARAFFINS. _ That the lower paraffins occur in natural gas needs no proof. Methane is the chief constituent. Small quantities of higher paraffins are usually present. SULPHUR COMPOUNDS. Pennsylvania natural gas does not contain recognizable quantities of either COS, CH,SH or (CH;).S. Towards the western boundary of the State it is possible that minute traces of sulphuretted hydrogen occur. The quantities of all such com- ‘pounds are far too small to allow of their being easily identified, even in the case of large volumes of gas. The extreme delicacy of the reaction of methyl mercaptan towards palladium chloride would render it possible to detect exceedingly minute quantities of this compound should it occur. I have not had an opportunity to test the gas from the Western Ohio territory, which is said to contain sulphur compounds in considerable quantity. NITROGEN. Natural gas, dried by calcium chloride and phosphorus pentoxide, was passed over strongly heated magnesium powder. The magnesium was partly converted into a nitride, easily recognized by its reaction towards moisture, yielding ammonia in considerable amount. Repeated trials have been made of natural gas in the following way: A measured volume of gas was passed over ignited oxide of copper contained in a porcelain tube, the entire apparatus: having been previously filled with pure car- bon dioxide, which was caused to flow in a continuous stream for several hours in order to expel all traces of air. The escaping gas was collected in a eudiometer over mercury and the carbon dioxide absorbed by soda. ‘There was left invariably a residue of gas unabsorbed by the soda and having no action upon palladium chloride solution. This residual gas was evidently nitrogen (see Table of Analyses). In the gas found in an artesian boring at Middlesborough, England, nitrogen was found in large proportion (see Table of Analyses). OXYGEN. By the use of pyrogallol and soda, and by the oxidation of manganous hydrate in water, I have frequently been able to detect traces of oxygen, although on other 220 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. occasions no oxygen could be found. It has only been recognized when the gas had bubbled continuously for many hours or days through the reagent. It cannot be said that oxygen is a constant constituent, although it does unquestionably occur in much of natural gas in minute traces. CARBON DIOXIDE. Carbon dioxide is present in all natural gas, as is easily proved by its action upon lime water. AMMONIA. . In the case of a gas well near Canonsburg, the following result was obtained: Gas was caused to bubble directly from the main at the well through water for sey- eral hours. On applying Nestler’s reagent to the water, a feeble reaction was obtained. Ammonia was not found elsewhere in the trials I have made. Mr. 8. A. Ford, of the Edgar-Thompson Steel Works, reports a very interesting case where masses of solid ammonium carbonate were blown out from a gas well by the pressure of the gas. Natural gas appears to consist chiefly of methane, with traces of higher hydro- carbons of the paraffin series. Nitrogen is probably always present, together with a little carbon dioxide. The absence of free hydrogen, of olefines and of carbon monoxide is, I believe, clearly shown in the case of the natural gas I have examined. If natural gas as found in the wells of any one gas region is derived from one vast subterranean reservoir, approximate uniformity in composition should be looked for. It is often noticed, however, that gas from adjacent wells possesses a different odor. A carbon dioxide determination was made in the case of samples of gas from six wells near Tarentum, Pa. These wells were situated nearly on a straight line less than one mile in length. The samples were all taken within an interval of three hours. The determinations were made by a7 per cent. soda solution in a eudiometer over mercury. WELL. CARBON DIOXIDE, WELL. CARBON DIOXIDE. Nol Fecitiesteine cre cinmieiteeiteenete 0.42 per cent. IN@y LS sbGC Spaereveltainiore crcrads ietatetels 1.47 per cent. ES, G52 Ta aterolelernieisvertaleiste etelclereitelstete 1.25 Os BONS Gdn Scoouno od sant Ibocaone 1.28 “ $6 TBS fave « sisieielsierereie’ imelaeiraeerere 0.25 << HE Ss qodsue 65 oie desis ieeiers 1.28 ss The differences in the proportion of carbon dioxide, a constituent determinable with great precision, would be difficult to explain if the gas flowing from these dif- ferent wells is derived from one subterranean reservoir, . Plate XXII. Transactions Amer. Philos. Soc, Vol. XVII, Part II. 2 sep u7%o xh Oh — S a UsboiqIny ¢08 *H Ww wa boagiyy Rinzsaiay ‘SVD IVUOLVN WO SISA TYNY WAILVLILNVA) WO SALVUVdLYy "°0S*H 59 w OHO OKO ul X S \y 4 CERES Ub : ea . x p BB aomuiny RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 221 VI. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF NATURAL GAS. It is not possible to determine the proportion of the individual paraffins in a gas mixture by the Bunsen method of explosion of oxygen unless it can be positively asserted that only two paraffins occur. This may be readily shown by an example. If a mixture of one volume each of marsh gas, ethane and propane is burnt, the vol- umes of oxygen required, carbon dioxide and steam produced will be as follows: OXYGEN REQUIRED. CO,. H,O VAPOR. Levol, methane... ../- ds Codobson HOCUS een ASE CUD EME OUUROOE 2 vols. 1 vol. 2 vols. il “9 GURRPG nossa coonioconsdeduse dn uscacubeousobDEauce 33‘ ee By ace Ul ¢o DIGI cecouoansnécc basocudeeognpoesatonpoAcadt Diora: one Ais & 105 « 6 « lope: Three volumes of ethane require for combustion ten and one-half volumes of oxygen, and yield six volumes CO, and nine volumes of steam. Hence a mixture of three gaseous paraffins could not be distinguished, in the case of a volumetric analysis, from the intermediate paraffin. Moreover, the heat of combustion of three volumes of the intermediate paraffin is almost exactly equal to that of a mixture of one volume each of the three. From the fact last stated it follows that, as regards the calorific value of a mix- ture of paraffins, an exact determination of the character of the individual paraffins is not required. A saving of time, the possibility of using a larger volume of gas, the avoidance of a volumetric determination of water vapor, are some of the advantages gained by a combustion over copper oxide. The application of gravimetric methods for the examination of gas is not new. Winkler (Handbook of Technical Gas Analysis, p. 87) has described such a process for the analysis of mine gas. — Description of Method.—The process employed was, with some slight modifica- tions, the same as described in the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania for 1886. Glass cylinders having stop-cocks at both ends, accurately calibrated by mer- cury and of 300-400 c.c. capacity, were filled with natural gas. Where possible, this was done at the well. Before filling with gas, finely drawn-out threads of glacial phosphoric acid were inserted through the stop-cock into the vessel. After twenty-four hours the gas sample could be considered dry. Glacial phosphoric acid, on softening in the flame, may be readily drawn out A. P. 8.—VOL. XVII. 20. 222, RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. like glass into rods of almost hairlike fineness. The quantity required was not suffi- cient to cause error in the gas measurements, inasmuch as the gas, as it flows from the wells, is in most instances remarkably dry. The cylinder was then connected with a porcelain combustion tube, C, contain- ing copper oxide. The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in the accom- panying sketch. | Before the communication was made between the tube C and the glass cylin- der A, air was expelled from C by pure nitrogen dried in the tubes M. The com- bustion tube was intensely heated during the passage of the nitrogen. After expulsion of air by nitrogen, the natural gas was caused to flow over the copper oxide previously heated for some time. The movement of the gas through the combustion tube was controlled by means of mercury, which flowed from the funnel D into the gas cylinder, and was so regulated that two hours were required for complete combustion. Experiments showed that there is no danger of production of carbon monoxide or unsaturated hydrocarbons when the gas stream is slow. After the gas had been expelled from the cylinder A, it was rinsed by lowering the mercury funnel so that nitrogen passed down into the cylinder, to be again driven out by raising the funnel. After the gas had been fully burnt, air (purified by the lower system of drying tubes in the sketch) was passed through the apparatus till the nitrogen and moisture had been fully displaced and the process was then complete, the CO, and H,O being determined by weight. The method, as is seen, gives merely the proportions of car- bon and hydrogen. | As the exact percentage of the paraffins in the gas mixture cannot be ascer- tained by analysis, an approximation alone is possible. The composition by weight of some of the lower (gaseous) paraffins is as follows: PARAFFINS. CARBON, HYDROGEN. Meth ames sajarc ois amiereins vioiata sieteleueneiernlets! sacar oie teletoetcie shisinre re tareaterel cietete 74,97 per cent. 25.03 per cent. TYG ATC sy cfo\c\oc-2s1>\ aye fopsrn’ fons ole ofacelloventatetpiaaavaleistctopirialeietelaieetstioleter eet tee tarete 19. 96 ae 20.04 < IDO OING aoandsogooogadooccdaes afolelefeiesehelsfo(eratelatein siclelecoletnieleleaeieteiatensiers SiS ame LeIea) eo Bit rerierelereretereveroreveloleresteleltnfeteiche sratalstcietetsisrel- tater spalsheraatalsioterafeeiteae ofc eee ORaheienee LGE28 F=-'<* In the following table, the calculated composition by weight of various mixtures of methane and ethane is given (the atomic weight of carbon being 11.97): MIXTURE OF METHANE. ETHANE. CARBON. HYDROGEN. 1 vol. AL WO] Siasere ore iolui)eraiciepenatepote epsiararonecerareteintrerehetercreke feteteter siete tetets 78.22 per cent. 21.78 per cent. Bees i sin cin eins oiwjviejefosatelayeln/aratevclase,aiefatole/atuteueteletetaiererdetateiststetats LELETG Is OU 22.27 = ees NE AEGS Hab, wv sheielytareinete! de visipiale,b eleisielelv estate o/tis Shevipe te ceanen Glace meme a2.62 < RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 223 5 vols aN, Sealetayaietareenretottetotatekal teat- pateial dete agai cialotatenal eletctetarei alepaisep me 77.11 per cent. 22.89 per cent. oe ft IL aR Boot SUDO E G0 JUC Ca AMOI LOM EIGER AODIGOn ma CACAO Uo) San <6 Uh ost MON ONG BIBS HOB BE Enon BE COORG DEUCSpEs rho oaoe 16.00) = <6 23.30 “ te 1 oe Ad OG OLE COLE OBO GC COCR OO CET SMOMinci Anos aaObdC (RO a 23.44 “« Tye Mgt ASUS rare cnsciar se treicioke Tera slows oleae a ae eis wie mise eames HAG) = PY (Ve eG Ges: Lei ceietafaietatetaiciotelwrslelelclaieicieisierels ole Weraptstel en aistere inte eee eae T(dsttaye 9G 23.86 << os Dee Marae ervete heir toto tea lasevole piniel pisses hip al oleis:euige iste ees lSS 75.82 « PEAS: «5 From a gravimetric analysis of natural gas, it is easy to determine the relative proportions by weight of carbon and hydrogen in unit volume, and from these the composition may be stated volumetrically in terms of ethane and methane, by the use of the preceding table, and with a fair approximation to the truth. It is probable that minute quantities of propane and perhaps higher paraffins occur, but these cannot be identified. The nitrogen and carbon dioxide being deter- mined, the yolume of CiEnSe (CHER ENON ls Gea tie is obtained as a difference. The error involved in such a method may then be exactly defined as follows : The hydrocarbons may consist of methane with traces of propane or of methane with ethane or butane, but the analysis will be stated volumetrically in terms of methane and ethane only. As regards the question of fuel value, I have endeavored to show (see Report of Geol. Survey of Penna. for 1886) that the above method will give closely approx- imate results when certain factors relating to available heat of combustion of par- affins are used. The gravimetric method affords at the same time a means of control, for it is not only true that in a given volume of a particular paraffin, or of a mixture of paraffins, the hydrogen and carbon will occur in definite quantity, but the ratio © is a constant and will be greater as the proportion of higher to lower paraffins is greater. These considerations will serve to show the limits of accuracy of the method. Nitrogen was determined by passing a measured volume (100 c.c.) over ignited copper oxide contained in a porcelain tube, and then into a eudiometer containing soda solution. By means of a stream of carbon dioxide continued for several hours, the air was expelled from the apparatus previous to the combustion of the gas. In presence of large excess of carbon dioxide, combustion by copper oxide is greatly retarded, and the process must be conducted very slowly to effect complete oxidation. Oxygen, as already stated, occurred in too small proportion to allow of a quan- titative determination. Carbon dioxide was determined by soda solution in a eudiometer over a mercury trough. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 224 Cd ‘0 ‘a Aq opeut o10M sosk[eue omy [[y) “(eAnoouvA) ssumpomy “WO “AW pus (owoyoy) siaut0g ‘Om ‘tn Aq popavmsop PUB Toye} A[[NJorvo A1OA O1OM So[dURS sotyI[RO0] OMY OSOT]] JO OS¥O OY} UT ‘“AOANOOUBA PUT OWOYOY Suryjdaoxo SO8BO [[B Ul S[[AM ot} 4B apvUL a10M ssa, ‘9881 “nuuag fo harungy joap fo q0oday Worl payto ore FT ‘Q ‘L ‘9 ‘CG “F ‘ge “YT ‘SON Sah pe Sa aa TT | { | 6h FS \0G' FS |09' ES |09' FS |C8' FS |OE'°SS \8E°ES FO LS |68°SS BP's |Gs'°Rs |TE°ss 98°16 Me ge Rane OOS OLD ATT TQ°Gh j08°SL \OF'94 JOP’ SL |ST°SL \89°9L |G OL \9G°TL [TL LL \eG°9L |LL°9L |69°94 hase) alia =) toss ge gegen ene OC LBS) :4ys1om Aq uortsodmoo Sur -MO[[OJ 94} VAVY so[dues sv aso} UL pourejuoo suyyeaed oy, = ——_ —— a aoe = es Se | (SS y | | 00° 001 00° 00T 00° 001 00° 001/00 001|00° 001/00 °00T/00° 00T/00' 001 00° 00T 00° 00T 00° 00T 00° 001 00° 00T 00° 00T,00° 00T'00° 00T a ee a 99°86 |09°26 oe LB LB |06°86 |96°96 \09°E6 |81'S6 |OF'S6 9S'FS 60°06 OL LG FF'S6 88°06 |10°06 9°06 0°06 ro Tie a, er et yc aakges VEGA G Te | 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9081) 90 0 0 0 0 0 [rrr tts -uasompsy payjornyding | | | 0 0 0 0 0 OORT] | 9OBI} | 9ORIY | ORI} | OOVI] | DOBIY | 9OBI} | VOVI} | 9081 GOA seep rere per eee teaearie verano eee a. 8 ‘ wasAxQ 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 | 0 } 0 0 | 0 0 fae tie ope eae eegne 2820S TET OTL ULL, OE Oph OOO oo Oe PON Om ew Oe See OmeieeO= 1s <0) 0 0 | | 0 Ce ee cers esse eee sees see uesoipATy | } | FLO \08'0 OF 0 \TF'0 |0F'0 |F9'E |06'0 (68°0 |0¢'0 +F0 90Bl} '8Z"°0 |c0'0 160 |06°0 (08°0 70 GR icf tae Tat Nabe = ttn OPIXOIp ToqIey) | | | | 0g§°9 |OT'L (00°9 \38°@T j0L°0 | 0 \08°9 08h OFF (O08 ST |16'6 60'S IG? |\I7'6 |64°6 |90°6 \Vo°6 pee aoc ea ee enchesche 2 9 UO J OFATAT : | |_| S| +| oar 4 ese | | | | | LI Oia ecae las Sl GL HE | OE Cea Beeld ¢ | v Ciao en nel < > | bi ts Ww | 9 ous Pals Scie oa ofall mete Nims oe a | wo] om | = | i «| nO = | } ~ e io 45 5 is oy aa | | @ 5 za 5 46 pls} 7 4 Q = | PS eevee (Sve eee a Sale | eae Owe eos len | Sale ey Sr | c Ze S| ti he Melb oma dl ey ete] : = Bee I Seale renee leae eiblomtaee tla s Glia Clee sins alias aeyi ae BU eed eli Levering | S Ie] ky | = “ va | i E e 2 iy P |g e | g 218 = BS e (yale JER | shea he 5 eres “‘SLNFOALILSNOO < S| Qo 4 » eer Se es 5 Fak Nest Sat bec te Q ; qo ~ Coe aire Geena SI Br eee Z A a eB Cee as Sobol eh oales Ponds z Deel ea Qe. ayers rd 5 ix > EB real ee ry g Bea lees |e Se lee ‘ 5 | ‘ 4 w | > --) : Y | | chee | SI = La ; 2 [een ie = | A 3 c a leer e SF lee eae ite tbe Si ise) | - | i) | 1 | ee ist ys | : 7) | | i i) ‘SV9 TVEUQLVN WO SHSATVNV RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 225 Vil. ORIGIN OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. Soon after the early discoveries of oil and gas in Pennsylvania, the geologists proposed a hypothesis to account for the origin of these remarkable substances. Remains of the marine vegetation of the Devonian inland sea, as they were grad- ually buried under the later accumulations of sediment and exposed to gentle heat from below, underwent a slow process of destructive distillation. In this way, all the varieties of petroleum and natural gas were produced. This view, adopted from a purely geological standpoint, seemed so plausible that for a long period no other was thought of. Mr. J. F. Carll, of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, has discussed the hypothesis very exhaustively in his various official reports. If this view is correct, oil and gas are probably stored products, and are not being con- tinuously generated at the present time. Opposed to this view is the more strictly chemical hypothesis of Mendeléeff, who, in 1876, expressed his belief that petroleum and gas are of igneous origin. On account of the high value assigned by astronomers for the mean density of . the earth as compared with that of the surface rocks, it follows that the heavy metals are mainly accumulated at great depths where a temperature of fusion may be as- sumed. Many of these metals combine readily with carbon to form carbides. Iron, in form of a carbide, when exposed to steam at high temperatures, is rapidly oxidized, the hydrogen of the water then combining with the carbon set free and producing hydrocarbons. Citing experiments of Cloez, who produced mixtures of hydrocarbon oils by the action of hydrochloric acid upon ferromanganese, Mendeléeff concluded that such reactions have occurred at great depths below the earth’s surface by the contact of steam with incandescent metallic carbides. “During the upheaval of mountain ranges, crevices would be formed at the peaks with openings upward, and at the foot of the mountains with openings down- ward. ‘Thus there was opportunity for the water to penetrate to great depths and for the hydrocarbons to escape. The situation of naphtha at the foot of mountain chains is the chief argument in my hypothesis” (Mendeléeff, Principles of Chemistry, Vol. I, p. 365). | According to this view, oil and gas are being contynuously generated, for there is no reason to suppose that the masses of metallic carbides in the earth’s interior are exhausted ; such, in fact, seems to be Mendeléeff’s view. 226 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Mendeléeff points especially to the absence of large quantities of nitrogen com- pounds in petroleum as an argument in favor of the hypothesis. The objection has been urged against this hypothesis, that petroleum, if thus produced, should be abundant in the primary rocks from which it is usually absent. The originally heated condition of these rocks would have prevented the condensa- tion of oil, however, and, although the vapors may have passed through the earlier rocks, there is no reason to expect that condensation should have occurred before reaching much higher strata. While on geological grounds difficult to prove or disprove, it meets with one fatal objection. The composition of natural gas in Pennsylvania does not justify the sup- position that superheated steam and carbon have been concerned in its formation. We should certainly look, in such a case, to find natural gas composed mainly of free hydrogen containing small quantities of paraffins, olefines and carbon monoxide. When it is considered that paraffins alone cannot under any known circumstances be produced from the oxidation of carbide of iron by steam, the hypothesis does not seem to be tenable. It is true that varying conditions of temperature might have produced a great variety of hydrocarbons, but no evidence has yet been obtained that paraffins alone result from such a reaction. In an experiment made with ferromanganese and dilute sulphuric acid, the gas evolved was found to contain 6 per cent. of olefines.* It is further to be noticed that this hypothesis requires that water should take part in the process, yielding up its hydrogen, while, according to the older geological hypothesis, the water may have served mainly to cover and give protection from atmospheric oxidation, if it has been concerned at all in the reaction. Water contains dissolved oxygen, and in descending to the iron carbides, must have given off its dissolved oxygen long before reaching the region at which actual formation of hydrocarbons could occur. Hence, on this hypothesis, oxygen should be found in natural gas in larger quantity than the chemical tests indicate. In fact in rocks of moderately high conducting power, a wide interval would exist between the depth at which water boils and the much greater depth at which water vapor could oxidize metallic iron in quantity. It is doubtful whether water could have traversed this interval so as to reach the latter depth at all. Engler (Ber., Vol. XXI, p. 1816, and Vol. XXII, p. 592) has published the results of interesting investigations upon the distillation products of menhaden fish oil. By conducting the distillation at a high pressure (25 atmospheres), this author produced a mixture of hydrocarbon oils from which a large number of normal * Experiments by F. C. P. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 227 paraffins was obtained, compounds not found elsewhere in nature than in pe- troleum. This has led to the revival of an older theory as to the origin of petroleum and gas, ?. é., that they have resulted from the distillation under pressure and at low tem- peratures of the accumulated remains of marine life buried under the sediments of the ancient Devonian seas. Much has been written in support of the hypothesis of Engler, and it may be said to have gained very general acceptance in Europe. Ochsenius (Chem. Zeitung, 1891, p. 936) has summarized many of the argu- ments usually adduced in support of the hypothesis. This author says, ‘Concerning the origin of petroleum, there is now no doubt that, with a few exceptions, animal remains (mainly of marine life) have yielded the raw material.” Originally the opinion was held that it was derived from vegetable matters, be- cause the accumulation of animal remains sufficient to account for its formation by any distillation process in the rocks could not be explained. Distillation of vege- table matters would, however, have left greater deposits of coal (as a residue in the Devonian rocks). But petroleum occurs in rocks of marine formation where coal is ~ uncommon. Rocks in which plant remains are found do not contain bitumen (petro- leum). If animal remains are associated with those of plants, then bitumen is usu- ally found. The objection urged against the hypothesis of Engler, that nitrogen does not occur in petroleum, is easily overcome by the fact that nitrogen of animal tissues tends finally to produce ammonia, and this in the case of petroleum may have been carried away in solution by water; hence, the absence of nitrogen compounds. From Engler’s experiments, it appears that animal fats are the chief source of petroleum. It is true that fatty matters do not ordinarily sink in water, although Von Guembel, in the voyage of the Gazelle, found fat globules in dredgings from the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, in water 15,000 feet deep. Putrefactive changes would tend to yield considerable quantities of ammonia and carbon dioxide. These in presence of salt water would produce alkali bicarbon- ate and ammonium chloride. Hence, alkaline waters might be looked for in the neighborhood of petroleum. ‘The petroleum at Pechelbronn is associated with water containing 0.5 per cent. of alkaline carbonate. (In Western Pennsylvania, many cases are known of water having a decided alkaline reaction in the neighborhood of gas wells. In the Murrysville gas territory, water of alkaline reaction was so abun- 228 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. dant as to seriously interfere with gas development. Note by F. C. P.) Such alkaline waters are not known in archean rocks, and are not, therefore, likely to be derived from greater depths than the rocks in which they are found. Probably no cases can be cited where fatty tissues alone of buried animals haye - yielded oil or gas. The presence of strongly saline water is apparently needed. Great differences occur in the chemical character of petroleum. Caucasian oils are mainly composed of olefines or substances related to the olefine group. The German oils are mixtures of paraffins and olefines, while the American are chiefly parafiins. Such differences may be attributed to the character of the rock in which the distillation has occurred. Sandstones would probably prove without action ; while limestones, by reason of their basic character, would tend to strongly influence the products. Such are some of the arguments of Ochsenius in favor of Engler’s hypothesis. If this view is accepted, it follows that the generation of petroleum and gas must be considered as a finished process, so far as all existing productive gas and oil regions are concerned. , Engler has analyzed the gas evolved when (1) menhaden oil and (2) when oleic acid are distilled under atmospheric pressure and under a pressure of 25 atmospheres. MENHADEN OIL. OLEIC ACID. 1 armos. 25 ATMOs. 1 aTmMos. 25 ATMOS. Methane s:i:iscciiva cars otic onle heccleloar eee een SR eee 25.2 38.3 9.3 4.36 Ol eA MES se Ss stale usin lerarsiaina’s eval sts Oaverlervetelereretatekereteletetiere tee 11.4 7.8 12.5 2.9 Carbon 'dioxider..)/ 2 \siisjeepleterscleie ciowrse ee iaiehe eterna eerie reversions 26.7 17.4 37.2 26.0 Carbon, MONO e%<\s:ciwseietareie strcioeieloeioeeeicioe eee ee eaneeee 34.9 34.5 38.6 25.5 Iincombustible sresiduer.cccrerviacrt-rleeieloets ceeteier ieereoet eee 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.0 (Ber., 1889, p. 592). The liquid distillates produced at the same time that these gases were evolved were rich in the normal paraffins and their isomers. | 100 parts of menhaden oil yielded 8.9 parts of gas and 63 parts of liquid oils. A strong argument in support of the Engler hypothesis is found in the fact that by distillation of fish oils, besides methane, several of the lower paraffins are pro- duced in large quantity. Hydrocarbons of the paraffin series are not obtainable in such proportions by the distillation at high temperatures of other organic material under ordinary conditions. It should be noted as a fact of much interest as regards the results of Hngler’s researches, that in the distillation at higher pressures the proportion of olefines con- tained in the gases evolved is considerably less. This is also true of carbon monox- ide when oleic acid was distilled. It is to be regretted that Engler’s experiments RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 229 were not repeated at still higher pressures, in order to ascertain whether these same constituents of the evolved gases diminish progressively with increased pressure. Engler was the first to show clearly that the problem of the origin of oil and gas must be studied from the chemical rather than the geological standpoint. The hypothesis advanced by this author has been very generally accepted. Nevertheless, my examinations of natural gas have led me to doubt some of his conclusions, well founded as they seem. The most careful tests, carried on during a period of six years, have failed to show the presence of either olefines or carbon monoxide in the natural gas of Western Pennsylvania. Some of the constituents of gas are soluble in water. This is notably the case with carbon dioxide, butane, hexane, etc. If ethylene and carbon monoxide have been produced even in much smaller proportion in the rocks than Hngler finds in menhaden oil gas, these substances would now occur in the natural gas of Pennsyl- vania. Hthylene would give to the gas such illuminating power that there would be no occasion for the use of coal gas in any town in the Western Pennsylvania gas region. Asa matter of fact, natural gas is almost useless as an illuminant, its light being equal to 5 to 11 candles per five feet of gas consumed per hour. Mr. Robert McKinney, formerly gas inspector of Allegheny county, found as a mean of forty trials of natural gas supplied to Pittsburgh an illuminating power of 6.5 candles. Mr. J. W. Patterson, the present gas inspector of the county, states that the illuminating power of natural gas as supplied to Pittsburgh in November, 1892, is a little less than 11 candles per five feet per hour. The reason for this is that natural gas, as found in Pennsylvania, does not contain olefines. If carbon monoxide occurred in gas, there would have been innumerable cases of poisoning among workmen at gas wells. It is common to find such leaks of gas about the majority of gas wells that no one could strike fire at a well without risk of fatal consequences. Although inhaling the escaping gas for much of a lifetime, a gas-well driller will usually maintain that no bad effects to health come from exposure to the gas. Air containing 0.2 per cent. of CO is known to produce dangerous effects upon health. According to Wyss (Zeit. Ang. Chem., 1888, p. 465), air containing 0.1 per cent. of water gas is poisonous to breathe. - It is hardly probable, moreover, that CO or C,H, occurring in gas could have been absorbed or removed at low temperatures by any natural process in the rocks. Unlike carbon dioxide and ammonia, their slight solubility in water would preclude the supposition that they had been dissolved away. Muck (Grundziige und Ziele der Steinkohlenchemie, 1881) cites analyses of fifty-seven samples of gas from coal mines A. P. 8 VOL, XVI. 2D, 230 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. and of gas occluded in coal. In only one case is carbon monoxide mentioned, but it is distinctly stated that its occurrence was not proyed. Ethylene is mentioned in six cases, but Muck states that more recent analyses have failed to demonstrate its presence usually in gas from coal. The absence of hydrogen in all the analyses is especially noticeable. In the case of gases from the Caspian region, the presence of ethylene and carbon monoxide is to be anticipated, as, from all accounts, subterra- nean heat has been concerned in their production (see Table of Analyses). Thomas ( Watt’s Dic., Third Supp., p. 529) gives analyses of fourteen samples of gas occluded by coal and also of gas from blowers in coal mines in New South Wales. The analyses showed the presence of methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen; but no carbon monoxide, hydrogen or ethylene was found. Franke (J. Pr. Chem. (2), XX XVII, pp. 101, 113) gives analyses of mine gases, according to which only carbon dioxide and methane were found. Winkler (Jahresb., 1882, p. 1063) found no hydrogen in nine samples of mine gas. Many similar statements might be cited, all tending to prove that hydrogen, ethylene and carbon monoxide do not occur in gases occluded in coal. The occurrence of gas consisting of nearly pure nitrogen, such as that obtained at Middlesborough, England (see Table of Analyses), in a region therefore where gas similar to Pennsylvania natural gas might be looked for, may perhaps be ex- plained by the action of subterranean water upon deposits of coal or bituminous shale. ‘The dissolved air in such waters, by causing slow oxidation, might lead to CONSTITUENTS. | 1 | P) as 4 5 | 6 | 7 8 Carbonsmonoxid en. reine ener | 0 | 0 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 0 Carbon dioxide gevecenceacnnereeee | » 0.95 | 2.18 3.50 | 0. ls paar 4.44 | 0 0.3 Olefines........ Mn ashe ae | adit) aoe |. salen esa fo| Mao 0 Methane: rata.(ais)cdtoieaae tigen inne ees | 92.49 | 93.07| 92.24 95.39 | 97.57] 95.56] 1.90 | a Hydroventscoc.crue aan sence nee | 0.94 | 0.98 Oc a4 y AU gee Bete eh ie laren ae WN itropeniet wisest Si mate | 213} 0.49 ae ee nee vase] OGG |) Sie OXY EDI orate raisreijelere atrereisssrejasieleey Dee | Aor | Siete diel’ Sistus siatate weet 1.53 | 2.9 ——— IE ose Bs ; : e -—| —~—.|--—_ 100.62 | 99.98) 100.00 .... | 100.04 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | | Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, natural gas from the Caspian region. Communicated by letter from Mr. M. Belianing, of Nobel Bros., St. Petersburg. No. 4 is the result of a partial analysis. Nos. 7 and 8, gas obtained by deep borings at Middlesborough, England (Bedson, J. Ch. Soc., 1888, p. 662). the production of carbon dioxide and the consequent removal of oxygen from the RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 231 water. The carbon dioxide produced would lessen the solubility of the water for nitrogen by causing the water to dissolve carbonate of lime, ete. Gentle heat from below would tend still further to the expulsion of the nitrogen, and thus a consider- able but limited quantity of nitrogen might be obtained as a sudden outburst from a drill hole. It may be said that varying conditions of temperature and pressure, and kind of rock, have modified the products, so that perhaps the carbon monoxide and ethylene resulting from a laboratory experiment have, in nature’s workshop, given place to - paraffins. But, if the chemistry of the reaction supposed to occur is to be considered at all, the fact that distillation experiments have produced from fish oil certain bodies found in natural gas (paraffins), should not count more forcibly as geological evi- dence than the other fact, that such distillation yields bodies which are foreign to natural gas as usually found in Pennsylvania. I have failed to find any data tending to show that organic matter can be sub- jected to destructive distiliation in such a manner as not to yield carbon monoxide and considerable quantities of olefines, together with hydrocarbons of still less sat- urated character. As a rule, the acetylenes and benzol series appear. Engler’s hypothesis involves the supposition that a process of distillation has occurred at moderately high temperatures and at pressures measured by great depth of rock strata. The carbon dioxide evolved in this destructive distillation must have come continuously into contact with the vast quantities of carbon, which in its various stages of transformation from vegetable tissue to anthracite is so widely distributed throughout the rocks. The reaction CO, + C = 2 CO, which proceeds rapidly at a strong heat and also slowly at lower temperatures, would then probably have oc- curred, wherever the temperature was sufficiently high. Prolonged contact of carbon dioxide with the carbonaceous residue of the dis- tillation would perhaps be sufficient to increase considerably the final yield of carbon monoxide. According to I. L. Bell (Chemical Principles of the Manufacture of Iron and Steel, p. 101) the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide by carbon in the form of soft coke begins at 427° C. This is about the temperature at which Engler’s distillation experiments were conducted (360°-420° C.). Engler has shown that distillation of animal fats at very high pressure (25 at- mospheres) may yield gas containing less of carbon monoxide and olefines than when the process is conducted under atmospheric pressure. No data are at hand as 232 RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. to results at still higher pressure. If it is conceded that the proportion of carbon monoxide and ethylene in the gas evolved during destructive distillation decreases progressively with increase of pressure, and that these two constituents vanish alto- gether at sufficiently high pressures, it would still seem necessary to suppose that the pressure must have been at least twice as great when the process occurred in the rocks, as in the case of Engler’s experiments. Taking the specific gravity of the rocks to be about 25, it may be assumed that twelve feet of rock strata represent a pressure of 1 atmosphere, six hundred feet of solid rock would then be required to produce a pressure of 50 atmospheres. This would be considerably less than the depth of the same quantity of rock material in the form of loose sediment, before its consolidation. No case can be cited in recent times where sediment six hundred feet deep has been so suddenly accumulated as to bury unchanged the vast quantities of animal remains necessary to account for the production of oil and gas upon Engler’s hypothesis, that oil and gas have resulted from the action of pressure and moderate heat upon animal matters. There is probably no reason to suppose that the gaseous olefines have, under the influence of pressure, given place to others of higher boiling point, by a process of polymerization. Should the possibility of such a change be proved, the absence of olefines from natural gas and their presence in petroleum might be explained. The possibility of secondary reactions among the constituents of a complex gas mixture at high temperatures and under pressure, adds difficulty to the problem, and caution is needed to avoid the error of overestimating the importance of any given reaction. It is generally true, however, that under such conditions secondary changes are probable, and that unsaturated compounds—olefines, acetylenes, carbon monoxide— are likely to result, especially when water vapor and carbon dioxide are present. It is a well-known fact, that when petroleum is distilled, considerable quantities of unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced which did not exist in the original crude oil. This is shown by the bromine absorption of the different products. The pro- cess of “cracking” or breaking up by heat of the hydrocarbons in petroleum into simpler and less saturated compounds, is familiar to all oil refiners. Chemically speaking, “cracking ” means the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The fact that Engler has, in his extremely interesting and important researches, produced by distillation of animal matters, so great a variety of paraffins, constitutes by far the strongest argument in favor of his hypothesis. Sorge, in an article which has been reproduced in numerous journals (J. Ch. Soc., 1888, p. 31, abstract), has stated, that a strong resemblance exists between Pennsylvania natural gas and gas manufactured from Westphalian coal. Similarity RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. 233 in composition between natural gas and coal gas would greatly simplify the problem of origin, and the fact of such similarity would prove of great interest. In this con- nection, the following analysis of gas from Westphalian coal, carried out in the lab- oratory of the Westphalian Berggewerkschaftskasse in Bochum, will be of interest. I am indebted to Mr. Bergassessor H. Krabler, of Bochum, for the figures which he has kindly communicated by letter. it, 2. lebyehocnnooms, Calbls ocacoadonedosnoanc oo p0nb00d 00g oUGuGO0 D000 DUo0 Dou DonuGHODODOOD DOO OOOD 5 4 Ie (han eh actacs joo n as hoccares PR Nee Oe ett otaeremiaiale ateee ala eicate nie ate data seis Gina lelanasdie wa te Ay eso ISUVOROBER » ooo oc0g do sop eo obo dDOoONA TODOS OONADOOU DoagUDAOOSA oC GOUsODSOCDDMOOOODOREDDOSOGOC 40 50 CO scccorwoa dove ccoocndagsaduoodocouabodose 6 loedodobnodne dodeadnn dhe roonoo coon oUOrenOnOsC 5 OO), sccoccastddcusoomeddoodnodondvebuheddonnsacusoudasbe gag cdeaddo. dao Snond tI sednae Deb Odd 1 3 INMTPOGEM p oanoavandbodegoodsconutunnad oo nopHOdooDoCGu ad UNO MOU Boson DDoODDd OUD OSONOOUURDOO + 3 The large percentage of hydrogen and the proportion of CO in this gas illustrate at once the results of high temperature in the production of the coal gas, but a similarity between this coal gas and natural gas can hardly be said to exist. When vegetable remains are buried under water, as is well known, decomposi- tion occurs, yielding gas in considerable quantity. Tappeiner (Ber., 1883, p. 1734) has studied the products of this change very exhaustively. Pure cellulose (filter paper) was found, under the influence of a microbe which was supplied with nutritive fluids, to dissolve in water, yielding gas mixtures of two different types. UNDER WATER OF NEUTRAL UNDER SLIGHTLY ALKA- REACTION. LINE WATER. AT BEGINNING. AT END. (Chidoem CHONG. codccr euaoocadadod9GQNNeS Beds uericenit: #08 par cent: Ba9/ per cont Elividro genus tll p hid @yajl-y-1iteieiel«loleleletalelsie)sievere EWG GEM a5 oaccana00005 b00bonedc0DGR005000 0.0 ne 0.0 ss 42.71 ut MICO AG. 5 oonas0590HoAsdoscOSbORoSONRbOGGGS 11.86 se ZENO 0.0 as INNO NS Jo's odapocobosee acon ot eeecoboas 2.73 oe 0.0 sf 1.90 ae From these experiments it appears that, by the action of a microbe, either methane and carbon dioxide (neutral fluid), or hydrogen and carbon dioxide (alka- line fluid) may result. Hoppeseyler (Ber., 1883, p. 122) found that gas evolved in the decay of cellulose under the influence of a microbe (marsh-gas fermentation) contained : 234. RESEARCHES UPON THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES. Popoff finds in a gas from decaying vegetable matters : Marsh. 2 a8'6.aisse.die ie ovouese) waved Wartecovetere aye sos fecal nsselale orelerale vetoes cetera ie teretal oleretsreleGeeseicietererateecaetere 68 56 per cent. Carbon dioxide... ic ejects p:daieebais ners bila eiere ercierl Mors etioiererey aletere lovee tle reo ne eRe Ere 31.44 * Berthelot states that hydrogen is produced in the vinous fermentation of man- nite. In very careful experiments which I have tried I have failed to find hydrogen in the gas evolved during the fermentation of 200 gms. of sugar. Chemical changes of this type are not likely to be of importance, however, as regards the hydrogen question. GASES FROM SEA WEEDS. The following experiments were tried in order to study the nature of the gases evolved in the decay of sea weeds: A quantity of a large fucus kind from Santa Barbara, Cal., was used. 50 gms. of the air-dried plant were soaked in water and then introduced into a flask filled with water, which had been previously boiled (in order to expel air) and cooled. The flask was connected with a belljar over a mercury trough. After setting up the apparatus, no gas appeared until the third day; then a strong evolution of gas began and continued in slowly diminishing quantity for ten days, when the process ceased. In all, 803 c.c. of gas were collected. Analyses weré made (1) of the first portion of 300 ¢.c., (2) of a second portion of 300 ec., and (3) of the last portion of 203 c.c. The results are tabulated below. FIRST PORTION. SECOND PORTION. THIRD PORTION. Carbon dioxides eer secre eerie eee ee eerne 18.23 per cent. 32.47 per cent. 53.44 per cent. Carbonsmonoxides ene ete eee eeereerern 0 és 0 fs 0 “s Mihylene VOL. XVIL—NEW SERIES. PART I. RTICLE I.—Description of a Skull of Megalonyx leidyi, n. sp. (with five plates). By Josua Lindahl, Ph.D., te ee : L j : : f ber Sahat Amicus II.—On the Homologies of the Posterior Cranial Arches in the Reptilia ad Jive plates). By B.D. Cope, . : : . , ; : : ; ALE RTICLE IIL—A Synopsis of the Species of the Teid Genus Onemidophorus (with eight n plates). By H, D. Cope, ...-: : j : ; mere : .- 27 pene Coca, [A 45198 es 17 19> PHilatelphia: PUBLISHED BY: PHAR SOCIETY, AND FOR SALE BY THe AMERICAN PuitosopHicat Society, PHILADELPHIA : N. TRUBNER & 00,57 & 59 LUDGATE HILL, LONDON. PRINTED BY MAC CALLA & COMPANY. 1892: EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS. CHAPTER XII. OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND. Section 1.’ John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year 1786 ‘ offered to the Society, as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas, to be by the vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in premiums, to be adjudged by them to the author ot the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Nat- 2 ural Philosophy (mere natural history only excepted); and the Society having accepted © of the above donation, they hereby publish the conditions, prescribed by the donor ane d agreed to by the Society, upon which the said annual premiums will be awarded. ~ CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMIUM. 1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement, addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society, free of postage or other charges; and shall distinguish his performance by some motto, device, or other sig ture, at his pleasure. ‘Together with his discovery, invention or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter containing the same motto, device or pare and subscribe d with the real name and place of residence of the author. o 2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall ee admitted as | c an. : didates for this premium. re 3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this prem nium, which hath been already published, or for which the author hath i pabiicly rewarded ade | = . The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or improvement it Bek in the English, French, German or Latin language. ae 5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the sacle some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the day of adjudication, am shall at all times be open to the inspection of such members as shall desire it. But 1 7 member shall carry home with him the communication, description, or model except the officer to whom it shall be entrusted; nor shall such officer part with the same out ¢ of his custody, without a special order of the Society for that purpose, ~ ae 6. The Society, having previously referred the several communications from can- didates for the premium, then depending, to the consideration of the twelve counsclael de ue ors and other officers of the Society, and having received their report thereon, shall, at one of their stated meetings in the month of December, annually, after the expira- tion of this current year (of the time and place, together with the particular occasion of which meeting due notice shall be previously given, by public advertisement) pro- ceed to final adjudication of the said premium; and, after due consideration had, a vote shall first be taken on this ‘question, viz.: Whether any of the communications then under inspection be worthy of the proposed premium? Tf this question be determined in the negative, the whole business shall be deferred till another year; but if in the afirmative, the Society shall proceed to determine by ballot, given by the members at ator oo a be large, the discovery, invention or improvement most useful and worthy; and that. discovery, invention or improvement which shall be found to have a majority of con- curring votes in its favor shall be successful; and then, and not till then, the sealed letter accompanying the crowned performance shall be opened, and the name of the author announced as the person entitled to the said premium. * 7. No member of the Society who is a candidate for the premium then dependifig, — or who hath not previously declared to the Society, that he has considered and weighed according to the best of his judgment, the comparative merits of the several claims then under consideration, shall sit in judgment, or give his vote in awardihg the said premium. 8. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate publication, or in the next suc- ceeding volume of their Transactions, or in both. 9. The unsuccessful performances shall remain under consideration, and their authors be considered as cafdidates for the premium for five years next succeeding the time of their presentment; except such performances as their authors may, in the meantime, think fit to withdraw. And the Society shall annually publish an abstract of the titles, object, or subject matter of the communications, so under consideration ; such only excepted as the Society shall think not worthy of public notice. 10. The letters containing the names of authors whose performances shall be rejected, or which shall be found unsuccessful after a trial of five years, shall be burnt before the Society, without breaking the seals. i1. In case there should be a failure, in any year, of any communication worthy of the proposed premium, there will then be two premiums to be awarded the next year. But no accumulation of premiums shall entitle the author to more than one premitim for any one discovery, invention or improvement. 12. [he premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold of the ie of ten guineas. On one side thereof shall be neatly engraved a short Latin motto suited to the occasion, together with the words: “The Premium of John Hyacinth de Mageilan, of London, established in the year 1786; and on the other side of the ‘ plate shall be engraved these words: “Awarded by the A. P. S. for the discovery of A.D, .’ And the seal of the Society shall be annexed to the medal by a ribbon passing through a small-hole at the lower edge thereof. SECTION 2.- The Magellanic fund of two hundred guineas. shall be considered as ten hundred and fifty dollars, and shall be invested a eeately from the other funds be- longing to or under the care of the Society, and a separate and distinct account of it shall be kept by the treasurer. The said fund shall be credited with the sum of one hundred dollars, to represent the two premiums for which the Society is now liable. The treasurer shall credit the said fund with the interest received on the invest- ment thereof, and, if any surplus of said interest shall remain after providing for the premiums which may then be demandable, said surplus shall be used by the Society for making publication of the terms of the said premium, and for such purposes as may be authorized by its charter and laws. The‘ treasurer shall, at the first stated meeting of the Society in the month of December. annually, make a report of the state of said fund and of the investment thereof. : I—XVI. Price, eighty dollars. Address, Sy’ v.. TRANSACTIONS OF THE HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. VOL. XVIT.—-NEW SERIES. PART Il. ZPI3A 9S | pede See eat (FUN 27.1892 - So ARTICLE IV. ‘The Tribute Roll of Montezuma (with six plates). Edited by Dr. Daniel G. * Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr.,; and Dr. J. Cheston Morris. Opaae 1.—The Written Language of the Ancient Mexicans. By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D., LL.D. Parr UL—The Tribute Roll. By Henry Phillips, Jr. PART TIl.— Physical and Ethnographical Characteristics. By Dr. J. Cheston Morris. é —_—_ Philadelphia: FUBTISHED BY THE SOCIETY, AND FOR SALE BY Tue American Puirosopuicar Society, PuHirapeLputa : N. TRUBNER & CO. 57 & 59 LUDGATE HILL, LONDON. PRINTED BY MAC CALLA & COMPANY. 1892. EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS. THE HENRY M. PHILLIPS PRIZE ESSAY ape — Miss Emily Phillips, of Philadelphia, a sister of Hon. Henry M. Phillips, ie od, presented to the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia for Promotiag a Useful Knowledge, on October 5, 1888, the sum of five thousand dollars for the esta lishment and endowment of a Prize Fund, in memory of her deceased brother, 1 si was an honored member of the Society, The Society, at a stated meeting, held Oc cto. o- ber 5, 1888, accepted the gift and agreed to make suitable rules and regulations to to carry out the wishes of the donor, and to pret the duties confided to it nh a stated meeting held on the seventh day of accu s A.D 1888234 x . First. The Prize Endowment Fund shall be called the “ Henry M. Phin B Essay Fund.” be Second. The money constituting the Endowment Fund, viz., five te dollar ar shall be invested by the Society in such securities as may be recognized by the “a Pennsylvania, as proper for the investment of trust funds, and the evidences of such investment shall be made in the name of the Society as Trustee of the Henry } M. . Phillips’ Prize Essay Fund. fe we ee. <7 Third. The income arising from such investment shall be appropriated as wee (z) To making public advertisement of the prize and the sum or amount in | United States gold coin, and the terms on which it shall be awarded. _ ; (+) To the payment of such prize or prizes as may from time to time be swathed “2 is by the Society for the best essay of real merit on the Science and Philosophy of Juris 5 ate prudence, and to the preparation of the certificate to be granted to the author of any so successful essay. Fourth. Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto or name (not the proper name of the author, however), and when the essay is forwarded to the Society, it shall be accompanied by a sealed envelope containing within the proper name of the author, and, on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay. fifth. Ata stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the advertisement, all essays received up to that time shall be referred to a Committee.of Judges, to consist Stath. All amounts of interest accruing and unexpended on each and every occa- ~ sion on which no prize shall be awarded, shall be considered and taken as accretions to e principal of the said fund. | ay . “Seventh, All essays may be written in English, French, German, Dutch, Italian, ‘ panish or Latin; but, if any language except English, must be accompanied by an Paes » English translation of the same. prize, or profit, or honor, of any nature whatsoever. Ninth. All essays must be clearly and legibly written on only one side of the ; Tenth, The literary property of such essays shall be in their authors, subject to the tight of the Society to publish the crowned essays in its Transactions or Pro- ceedings. | Eleventh, A Standing Committee, to consist of five members appointed by the ” President, and ex officio, the President and the Treasurer of the Society, shall continue in office during the pleasure of the Society, and any vacancies that miay occur in said _ Committee shall be filled by new appointment by the President. | Twelfth, The said Committee shall have charge of all matters connected with the management of this endowment and the investment of the same, and shall make such be ak general rules for publishing the terms upon which said prize shall be competed for, and the amount of the said prize, and, if it shall deem it expedient, designate the sub for competing essays. It shall report annually to the Society, on the first Friday December, all its transactions, with an account of the investment of the Prize Fi andl of the income and expenditures thereof. | : The first prize to be awarded by the Society will be the sum of one thousand « | lawful gold coin of the United States of America, and all treatises competition t ‘ Sor must be in the possession of the Society before the first day of Fanuary, 1893. The prize will be awarded for ‘* The best Treatise on the History and Gro the Phitosophy of Furisprudence, dinded into Ancient, Medieval and Modern | presenting a complete conspectus of the literature, bibliography and Rees pertai the icin NOTICE. Preceding Volumes of the New Series can Ee obtained from the Libraria Hall of the Society. — Price, five dollars each, A Volume consists Be three Parts separate Parts will not be disposed of. . A few complete sets can be obtained of the Tisdehede New Series, | I—XVI. Price, eighty dollars. Address, ‘THE LIBRARIAN. _ TRANSACTIONS _ AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. VOLUME XVII—NEW SERIES. PART III CLE V.—The Saprolegniacer of the United States, with Notes on Other Species (with seven plates), % By James Ellis Humphrey, Sc.D. RTICLE VI.—Researches upon the Phenomena of Oxidation and Uhemical Properties of Gases (with three cuts and two plates). By Francis C. Phillips, Ph.D. #hilavelphia: We ee boN PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, Nee AND FOR SALE BY THe AMERICAN Puitosopnican Society, PHirapeLPHIa N. TRUBNER & OCO., 57 and 59 LUDGATE HILL, LONDON. PRINTED BY MACCALLA & COMPANY. 1893. EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS. THE HENRY M. PHILLIPS PRIZE ESSAY FUND. Miss Emily Phillips, of Philadelphia, a sister of Hon. Henry M. Phillips, deceas ed presented to the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia for Prom oti : Useful Knowledge, the sum of five thousand dollars for the establishment and er do we ment of a Prize Fund, in memory of her deceased brother, who was an honor - member of the Society. The Society accepted the gift and agreed to make suita rules and regulations to carry out the wishes of the donor, and to discharge # . duties confided to it. In furtherance whereof, the following rules and regniang 7 eo . re were adopted by the Society : First. The Prize Endowment Fund shale peceailed cae Henry M. ae rize Essay Fund.” %. Second. The money constituting the Endowment Fund, viz., five chicane shall be invested by the Society in such securities as may be recognized by see Pennsylvania, as proper for the investment of trust funds, and the evidences of s investment shall be made in the name of the Society as Trustee of the ica Phillips Prize Essay Fund. “3 Third. The income arising from such investment shall be appropriated as follows : ii: (a) To making public advertisement of the prize and the sum or amount in United a States gold coin, and the terms on which it shall be awarded. | ve: (4) To the payment of such prize or prizes as may from time to time be awarded . . by the Society for the best essay of real merit on the Science and Philosophy of Juris- } Ben inted, or for which rhe author has received aia, any be in the possession of the Society before the first day of Fanuary, 1895. The 3 Y - upon which essays are to be furnished by competitors are as follows - I. Ihe sources, formation and development of what 1s generally deSienated the — Common Law of England. 2. The theory of the State, treated historically and upon principle, with a discus- sion of the various schools of classical, medieval, and modern thought upon the subject. 3. ' The historical and doctrinal relations of the Roman Law and the English Law, illustrated by parallels and contrasts. five hundred dollars lawful gold coin of the United States, to be pard upon the aware of the Prize. The essays must be sent, addressed to Frederick Fraley, President of the NOTICE. Preceding Volumes of the New Series can be obtained from the Librarian at t 1e Hall of the Society. Price, five dollars each. A Volume consists of three Parts ; but — " separate Parts will not be disposed of. A few complete sets can be obtained of the Transactions, New ‘Series, Vols. 4 I—XVII. Price, eighty-five dollars. , Bess ah THE LIBRARL “464 a rf La 7 § K wae oe ee 7 eS a PLS eh ME Ee Oe r Pe a . ‘ i i) i ; Z = > S tt A + . i = rf « 4 i ; : \ ; Ht i f ‘ m 4 ‘ i " f te — sae ; ao ers =; . SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES AOAC 3 9088 01302 9582 eT blale ae here oe ss se sles sie se a 8