HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

fH-c

Jybu^l, M(TO_cttu^aJLa2-3; ^r/

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OF ST. LOUIS.

VOL. X.
JANUARY 1900 TO DECEMBER 1900.

PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.

ft

1

^' ST. LOUIS:
NIXON-JONES PRINTING CO.

}

FEB 23 1901

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Table op Contents iii

List of Members. Revised to December 31, 1900:

1. Patrons v

2. Active Members v

3. Corresponding Members xii

Exchanges xix

History of the Academy (Abstract) xliii

Record. January 1 to December 31, 1900 xlvii

Papers Published. January 1 to December 31, 1900:

1. T. J. J. See. — On the temperature of the sun and on

the relative ages of the stars and nebulae. — Issued
February 5, 1900 1

2. Charles Robertson. — Some Illinois bees. — Issued

February 21, 1900 47

3. Stuart Weller. — Kinderhook faunal studies. II. The

fauna of the Chonopectus Sandstone at Burlington,
Iowa. — Platesi.-IX.— Issued February 24, 1900 57

4. A. S. Hitchcock. — Studies on subterranean organs.

11. Some dicotyledonous herbaceous plants of Man-
hattan, Kansas. — Issued April 3, 1900 131

5. Hermann von Schrenk. — A severe sleet storm. — Plates
"X.-XL— Issued April 12, 1900 143

6. Francis E. Nipher. — On certain properties of light-

struck photographic plates. — PlatesuXII.-XVII. —
Issued May 16, 1900 151

7. Mary Klem. — The development of Agaricocrinus.. —

Plates' XVIII.-XXL — Issued May 30, 1900 167

8. Adolf Alt. — Original contributions concerning the

glandular structures appertaining to the human eye and
its appendages. — Plates" XXII.-L VII. — Issued July

12, 1900 185

9. Francis E. Nipher. — Positive photography, with

special reference to eclipse work. — Issued October
24, 1900 209

10. Francis E. Nipher. — The f rictional effect of railway

trains upon the air. — Issued November 12, 1900 215

11. Title-page, prefatory matter and index of Vol. X.

Record, January 1 to December 31, 1900. Papers con-
tained in first ten volumes. — Plate A. — Issued Janu-
ary 31, 1901.

List of Authors 229

General Index .»- 230

Index to Genera 232

Classified List of Papers Contained in Volumes I-X 235

CORRECTIONS.

i= n i = i

P. 9.— For 2' read 2'

P. 15, equation (23). —For (fif+i — 12?), read (#i— .R?_i).
P. 28, equation (53). —For 244, read 2.44.

P. 32, last line. —For l^\ read (Q\\

P. 34, line 11. — For compounded, read compound.

i = 1 i = i

Equation (61). — For ^], read 7*,.

t = U i = 0

P. 36, last line but one. — For from, read for.
Foot note. — For 458, read 455.

P. 70, line 16 from top. —For 6, read 8.

P. 77, line 3 from bottom. — For I, read II.

P. 128, line 5 from top. — For Posidomya, read Posldonomya.
Last line but one. — For Bucanopis, read Bucanopsis.

P. 218, line 21 from top. — After evidence, insert improperly
admitted.

P. 226, line 10 from bottom. — Before locomotive, insert the.

M E M B E R S .

1. PATRONS.

Harrison, Edwin 3747 Westminster pi.

2. ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Adkins, James Park and Vandeventer avs.

Alleman, Gellert Washington University.

Alt, Adolf 3036 Locust st.

Andrews, William Edward Taylorville, 111.

Bain, Robert Edward Mather 900 Locust st.

Bailey, Liberty Hyde Ithaca, N. Y.

Baker, Carl F Normal and High School.

Ball, David C 27 William st., New York City.

Barck, Carl 2715 Locust st.

Bartlett, George M 215 Pine st.

Bauduy, J. K 2810 Olive st.

Baumgarten, Gustav 5227 Washington av.

Becktold, William B 212 Pine st.

Bernays, A. C 3623 Laclede av.

Biebinger, Frederick W 1421 S. 11th st.

Bixby, William K 13 Portland pi.

Boogher, John H 4034 Delmar boul.

Bouton , Charles Leonard 503 Craigie Hall.

Cambridge, Mass.

Brannon, Melvin A Grand Forks, N. Dak.

Bremer, Ludwig 3723 West Pine boul.

Brennan, Martin S 1414 O'Fallon st.

Brookings, Robert S 5125 Lindell av.

Brown, Daniel S 2212 DeKalb st.

Bryson, JohnP 209 N. Garrison av.

Budgett, Sidney Payne 1806 Locust st.

Burg, William 1756 Missouri av.

Burnett, E. C University Club.

Busch, Adolphus 1 Busch pi.

Busch, Aug. A Busch pi.

Bush, Benjamin Franklin Courtney, Mo.

vi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Calvert, Sidney State University, Columbia, Mo.

Carpenter, George O Russell and Compton avs.

Carter, Howard Webster Groves, Mo.

Carver, George W Tuskegee, Ala.

Chaplin, Winfield S 3636 West Pine boul.

Chase, E. C. 3325 Morgan st.

Chauvenet, Louis 5501 Chamberlain av.

Chouteau, Charles P 918 Security bldg.

Chouteau, Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Compton,P. C 4156 Washington boul.

Comstock, T. Griswold 3401 Washington av.

Conklin, Harry R Joplin, Mo.

Coulter, John M University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

Cramer, Gustav c/0 G. Cramer Dry Plate Co.

Crandall, George C 3558 Lindell av.

Crunden, Frederick Morgan Public Library.

Curtis, William S St. Louis Law School.

Cushman, Allerton S. Harvard University,

Cambridge, Mass.

Dameron, Edward Caswell Clarksville, Mo.

Davis, H. N 56 Vandeventer pi.

Davis, John D 421 Olive st.

Diehm, Ferdinand 1834 Kennett pi.

Dodd, S. M 415 Locust st.

Douglas, Archer W 9th and Spruce sts.

Drake, George S 64 Vandeventer pi.

Duenckel, F. W 3634 Russell av.

Durant, George F 9 Benton pi.

Eggert, Henry 1001 Collinsville av.,

East St. Louis, 111.

Eliot, Edward C 5468 Maple av.

Eliot, Henry W 2635 Locust st.

Engler, Edmund Arthur Washington University.

Erker, AdolphP 608 Olive st.

Espenschied, Charles 3500 Washington av.

Euston, Alexander 3730 Lindell boul.

Evers, Edward 1861 N. Market st.

Ewing, Arthur E 3333 Washington av.

Fischel, Washington E 2647 Washington av.

Forbes, Stephen A Urbana, 111.

Members. vii

Fordyce, John R 3634 Washington boul.

Forster, Marquard 2317 S. 13th st.

Francis, David R 4421 Maryland av.

French, George Hazen Carbondaie, 111.

Frerichs, Frederick W 4608 S. Broadway.

Frick, John Henry Warrenton, Mo.

Fruth, Otto J 3066 Hawthorne boul.

Fry, Frank R 3133 Pine st.

Funkhouser, Robert Monroe 3534 Olive st.

Gazzam, James Breading... 514 Security bldg.

Gerling, H. J 4320 Cook av.

Glasgow, Frank A 3894 Washington boul.

Glasgow, William C 2847 Washington av.

Goetz, Victor 129 Market st.

Goldstein, Max. A 3702 Olive st.

Goodman, Charles H 3329 Washington av.

Graham, Benjamin B 3500 Morgan st.

Graves, William W 1943 N. 11th st.

Gray, Melvin L 3756 Lindell boul.

Grebe, E 3839 Russell av.

Green, John 2670 Washington av.

Gregory, Elisha H 2525 Lucas av.

Gregory, Elisha H., Jr Harvard Medical School,

Boston, Mass.

Grindon, Joseph 509 N. Theresa av.

Grocott, Willis H 1812 Coleman st.

Gurney, James Tower Grove and Magnolia avs.

Guy, William E 4380 Westminster pi.

Haarstick, Henry C ■. Main and Walnut sts.

Hambach, Gustav * Washington University.

Hardaway, W. A 2922 Locust st.

Hartmann, Rudolph 14 S. 2d st.

Herthel, Adolph 1739 Waverly pi.

Herzog, William 3644 Botanical av.

Hirschberg, Francis D , 3818 Lindell boul.

Hitchcock, Albert Spear Manhattan, Kas.

Hitchcock, Henry 709 Wainwright bldg.

Holman, M. L 3744 Finney av.

Holzinger, John Michael 207 W. King st., Winona, Minn.

* Elected a life-member January 3, 1882.

viii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Hough, Warwick 3877 Washington av.

Hughes, Charles Hamilton 3857 Olive st.

Hugunin, F. U 1025 Pendleton av.

Huiskamp, John E 5554 Cabanne av.

Hume, H. Harold Lake City, Fla.

Hunicke, Henry August 3532 Victor st.

Hurter, Julius 2346 S. 10th st.

Hyatt, Robert J Weather Bureau.

Ives, Halsey C Museum of Fine Arts.

Jackson, Clarence M 110 Dorsey st., Columbia, Mo.

Jacobs, Arthur 1 2824 Clark av.

Jester, E. T 2342 Whittemore pi.

Johnson, J. B 4244 Washington boul.

Johnson, RenoDeO Desloge, Mo.

Jones, Breckinridge 4010 Lindell boul.

Keiser, Edward H Washington University.

Kennett, A. Q 2916 Lucas av.

Keyes, Charles R 944 Fifth st., Des Moines, la.

Kinealy, John H Washington University.

King, Goodman 78 Vandeventer pi.

Kirchner, Walter C. G 4234a Easton av.

Kline, George R 215 Pine st.

Kodis, Theodore 1806 Locust st.

Krall, George W Manual Training School.

Lackland, Rufus J 1623 Locust st.

Langsdorf, Alexander S 403 Huestis st., Ithaca, N. Y.

Lazell, Ellis W Spencer, Mass.

Lee, James W 223 N. 2d st,

Lefevre, George State University, Columbia, Mo.

Leighton, George B 803 Garrison av.

Leighton, George E 803 Garrison av.

Lemoine, Edwin S 3526 Washington av.

Letterman, George W Allenton, Mo.

Lichter, John J., Jr 5305 Virginia av.

Loeb, Hanau Wolf 3559 Olive st.

Ludwig, Charles V. F 1509 Chouteau av.

Lumelius, J. George 1225 St. Ange av.

Lyon, Hartwell Nelles 3910 Russell av.

Macbride, T. H Iowa City, la.

Mack, Charles J .113 N. Broadway.

Members. ix

Madill, George A 4140 Lindell boul.

Mallinckrodt, Edward 26 Vandeventer pi.

Markham, George Dicks on 4961 Berlin av.

Marx, Christian Wili-am Box 73, Columbia, Mo.

Maserang, Joseph, Jr Washington and Leffingwell avs.

Mason, Silas C Berea, Ky.

Matthews, Leonard 300 N. 4th st.

McElwee, L. C 1113 N. Grand av.

McMillan, William 25 Portland pi.

Meier, Theodore G 3938 Washington boul.

Merrell, Albert 3814 Washington boul.

Michel, Eugene H 2721 S. King's Highway.

Miller, Charles F 1751 Missouri av.

Monell, Joseph T Flat River, Mo.

Moore, Robert 61 Vandeventer pi.

More, Louis Trenchard University of Cincinnati,

Cincinnati, O.

Morton, I. W 9th and Spruce sts.

Mottier, David M Bioomington, Ind.

Mudd, Harvey G 2604 Locust st.

Muegge, Aug. H 2712 Franklin av.

Mueller, Ambrose Webster Groves, Mo.

Nagel, Charles 3969 Washington boul.

Nasse, Aug 209 N. 2d st.

Nelson, Aven Laramie, Wyom.

Nelson, N. 0 8th and St. Charles sts.

Niedringhaus, George W 3747 Lindell boul.

Nipher, Francis E Washington University.

Norton, J. B. S 4159 McRee av.

Oelfcken, Ernst W 3207 Olive st.

Oglevee, Christopher Stoner Box 37, Lincoln, 111.

Olshausen, Ernest P 1115 Rutger st.

Olshausen, George R 19 Artillerie st., Berlin, Germany.

O'Reilly, Andrew J 326 City Hall.

O'Reilly, Robert J 3411 Pine st.

Outten, W. B Mo. Pacific Hospital.

Overstolz, Herman 100 N. Broadway.

Pammel, Louis Hermann Ames, la.

Pantaleoni, Guido 415 Locust st.

Parker, George Ward 417 Pine st.

Parsons, Charles 2804 Pine st.

x Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lovis.

Pauls, Gustavus Eureka, Mo.

Pegram, George H 195 Broadway, New York City.

Pettus, W. H. H 2834 Chestnut st.

Pike, Sherman B American Central bldg.

Pitzman, Julius 1900 S. Compton av.

Poats, Thomas Grayson Clemson College, S. C.

Post, Martin Hayward 3015 Lucas av.

Preetorius, Emil 2013 Park av.

Prewitt, Theodore F 4615 Westminster pi.

Primm, Alexander T., Jr c/0 J. Kennard & Sons.

Pritchett, Henry Smith Institute of Technology,

Boston, Mass.
Pulsifer, William H Newton Centre, Mass.

Quaintance, A. L Experiment, Ga.

Randall, John E 1910 Olive st.

Ravold, Amand 2806 Morgan st.

Reverchon, Julien Box 229, Dallas, Tex.

Robert, E. S 1105 Union Trust bldg.

Roberts, HerbertF Washington University.

Robertson, Charles Carlinville, 111.

Roever, William Henry 1000 N. Grand av.

Rogers, Herbert F c/0 Provident Chemical Works.

Rolfs, P. H Clemson College, S. C.

Runge, Edward C Supt. Insane Asylum.

Russell, Colton.... 1814 Coleman st.

Sander, Enno 129 S. 11th st.

Sargent, Charles Sprague Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Schmalz, Leopold 2824 Shenandoah av.

Schneck, Jacob Mt. Carmel, 111.

von Schrenk, Hermann Washington University.

Schroers, John 1730 Missouri av.

Schwab, Sidney 1 2602 Locust st.

Schwarz, Henry 1723 Chouteau av.

Schweitzer, Pa*ul .Columbia, Mo.

Scott, Henry C 64 Vandeventer pi.

Seddon, James A 1637 Indiana av., Chicago, 111.

See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson Naval Observatory,

Washington, D. C.

Selby, Augustine Dawson Wooster, O.

Senseney, E. M 2829 Washington av.

Sheldon, Walter L 4065 Delmar av.

Members. xi

Shepley, John F 60 Vandeventer pi.

Simmons, E. C 9th and Spruce sts.

Simmons, W. D „.... 9th and Spruce sts.

Sluder, Greenfield 2647 Washington av.

Smith, Arthur George 422 N. Dubuque st., Iowa City, la.

Smith, D. S. H 3646 Washington boul.

Smith. Irwin Z 87 Vandeventer pi.

Smith, Jared G U. S. Dept. Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Soldan, F. Louis 3634 Flad av.

Spiegelhalter, Joseph 2166 Lafayette av.

Starr, John E 258 Broadway, New York City.

Staudinger, B 3556 Lindell boul.

Stedman, John Moore Columbia, Mo.

Stevens, Charles D 1749 S. Grand av.

Stevens, Wyandotte James 1175 Grand av., Carthage, Mo.

Stocker, George 1 2831 Victor st.

Stone, Charles H City Hall.

Strauss, Julius C 3516 Franklin av.

Stuart, James Lyall 5346 Maple av.

Sutter, Otto 3035 Bell av.

Taussig, Albert E 2318 Lafayette av.

Taussig, William 3447 Lafayette av.

Teichmann, William C 1141 Market st.

Terry, Robert James 2726 Washington av.

Thacher, Arthur 4304 Washington boul.

Thiele, Albert 2746 Park av.

Thilly, Frank 601 Hitt st., Columbia, Mo.

Thorn, Charles 806 Conley av., Columbia, Mo.

Thomas, John R 420 N. 4th st.

Thurman, John S 416 Lincoln Trust bldg.

Timmerman, Arthur H 2633 Park av.

Tittmann, Harold H 3726 Washington boul.

Trelease, William Mo. Botanical Garden.

Tyler, Elza Edward State University, Columbia, Mo.

Tyrrell, Warren Ayres 3620a Folsom av.

Updegraff, Milton 2505 Wisconsin av.,

Washington, D. C.

Valle, Jules F 3303 Washington av.

Van Ornum, John Lane Washington University.

Vickroy, Wilhelm Rees 2901 Rauschenbach av.

xii Trans. Acad. Sci. of £>£. Louis.

von Schrader, George F Wainwright bldg.

von Schrader, Otto U Carleton bldg.

Wall, L. J. W 4532 Virginia av.

Walsh, Edward, Jr 4341 Westminster pi.

Warren, William Homer 1806 Locust st.

Watts, Millard F 4362 Morgan st.

Weller, Stuart University of Chicago,

Chicago, 111.

Wrstgate, J. M Manhattan, Kas.

Wheeler, H. A 3124 Locnst st.

Whelpley, Henry Milton 2342 Albion pi.

Whitaker, Edwards 300 N. 4th st.

Whitten, John Charles Columbia, Mo.

Whittier, Charles Thurston 92 St. James pi., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Widmann, Otto .Old Orchard, Mo.

Winkelmeyer, Christopher 3540 Chestnut st.

Winslow, Arthur. 104 W. 9th st., Kansas City, Mo.

Wislizenus, Frederick A 3628 Cleveland av.

Witt, Thomas D 6th and Olive sts.

Wood, ObadiahM 3016 Caroline st.

Woodward, Calvin Milton 3013 Hawthorne boul.

Zahorsky, John 1460 S. Grand av.

3. Corresponding Members.*

Agard, A. H. 1867.

Agassiz, Alexander. 1866. Cambridge, Mass.

fAgassiz, Louis. 1856.
fAnguiano, Angel. 1885.

Aughey, Samuel. 1876.

Ayres, W. O. 1857.

* This list contains the names of all persons elected to corresponding
membership since the organization of the Academy, with the date of election
in each case, and, where it can be given, the present address of living mem-
bers. Where the Academy has not been in communication with a member
for a considerable number of years and has failed to receive a response to
communications mailed to his last published address, the latter has been
omitted. Persons who can do so are requested to communicate with the
corresponding secretary of the Academy concerning errors and omissions in
the list.

t Deceased.

Members.

xm

fBache, A. D. 1856.
fBaird, Spencer F. 1860.
fBandelier, Adolph F., Jr. 1860.
fBarcena, Mariano. 1875.

Barnes, G. W. 1876.
fBarrande, Joachim. 1861.

Barris, Willis H. 1857.
fBeebe, Edward H. 1857.

Behr, Hermann H. 1856.
fBent, Silas. 1857.

Berchon, Ernest. 1865.

Bigelow, John M. 1863.
fBigsby, John J. 1863.
fBillings, E. 1858.

Binney, W. G. 1857.

Blake, James. 1861.

Blatchford, Thomas W. 1857.

Bosquet, J. 1862.

Broadhead, Garland Carr. 1858.

Brown, B. B. 1856.

Bryan, Francis T. 1856.
fBunsen, Albert. 1863.
fBunsen, Charles. 1856.
fBunsen, George. 1856.

fCapellini, Giovanni. 1863.

Case, Francis M. 1863.
fCase, Theodore S. 1885.

del Castillo, Antonio. 1875.

Cli fford J. C. 1871.

Cochrane, J. 1878.

Copes, Joseph S. 1873.

Coues, Elliott. 1864.

Culbertson, Alexander. 1856.

fDall, Charles H. A. 1857.
fvon Danckelman, A. 1885.

Daniels, Edward. 1857.
fDavidson, Thomas. 1858.

Dawson, Alexander. 1856.

Deming, C. M. 1856.
fDowler, T. Bennett. 1856.

San Diego, Cal.

San Francisco, Cal.

Burlington, N. J.

Columbia, Mo.

Mexico, Mexico.

Havana, 111.
New Orleans. La.
Washington, D. C.

t Deceased.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Budding, Richard. 1857.
fDunglison, Robley. 1856.
Dyer, F. M. 1877. Charleston, Mo.

Ehrenberg, Hermann. 1859.
tEmmons, Ebenezer. 1857.
-fEngelmann, Henry. 1859.
jEvans, John. 1856.

fFendler, Augustus. 1867.
fFlagg, Willard C. 1857.

Fleming, R. B. 1857.

Foster, Mrs. Abner. 1878.

Fry, Carey H. 1856.

Gale, Horace B. 1891.

Galpin, Charles. 1856.

Gill, Theodore N. 1866.
tGiroux, A. 1856.

Goodnow, Isaac T. 1865.
fGoodrich, Hiram P. 1856.

Green, Samuel M. 1877.

de Gregorio, Antonio. 1885.

-fvon Hagenow, Frederick. 1860.
tHaidinger, Wilhelm. 1860.
fHall, James. 1856.

Hann, Julius. 1881.
fHarney, William S. 1856.
fvon Hauer, Carl. 1881.
tHawn, F. 1858.
fHayden, F. V. 1856.

Henry, F. C. 1856.
fHenry, Joseph. 1856.
|Higginbotham, John. 1857.

Hilgard,EugeneWoldemar. 1860. Berkeley, Cal.

Hilgard, Gustavus. 1877. Belleville, 111.

Hinrichs, Gustavus. 1876.*

Hitchcock, Charles Henry. 1860. Hanover, N. H.

Hitchcock, George N. 1876. San Diego, Cal.

fvon Hochstetter, Ferdinand. 1881.

Hodgkiss, H. 1856.

Beardstown, 111.

Natick, Mass.
Washington, D. C.

Cape Girardeau, Mo.
Palermo, Sicily.

Vienna, Austria.

* Resigned.

f Deceased.

Members.

xv

fHolden, Edward. 1856.

Holden, Edward Singleton. 1881.

Holmes, Nathaniel. 1868. 1883.
fHoltzmann, Adolph. 1860.

Horine, Solomon. 1860.

Hough, Daniel. 1875.

Hough, Warwick. 1856*.

Howland, H. R. 1877.
tHoy, Philo R. 1857.

Huguet-Latour, L. A. 1857.
fHunt, Thomas Sterry. 1857.

flrving, Roland Duer,
Irwin, J. T. 1861.

1877.

fJackson, Charles T. 1861.
fJackson, John B. S. 1856.
-j-James, John. 1858.

Johnson, D. M. 1860.

Johnson, H. 1873.

Jones, John P. 1874.

-j-Kane, Elisha Kent. 1856.

Keates, Charles.
fKing, Henry. 1856.

Kipp, A. 1856.

Koelle, John. 1877.
fde Koninck, L. G. 1877.

Lane, E. 1857.
fLapham, Increase A. 1857.
fLeConte, John L. 1856.

Lee, W. J. 1873.
fLeidy, Joseph. 1856.
fLindheimer, Ferdinand. 1856.
tLocke, John, Jr. 1857.
f Logan, Sir William E. 1857.

Lyon, T. Gallatin. 1867.
fLyon, Sidney S. 1860.

fMarcou, Jules. 1860.
fMarcy, R. B. 1857.

New York, N. Y.
Cambridge, Mass.

Indianapolis, Ind.
St. Louis, Mo.
Buffalo, N. Y.

Montreal, Canada.

Keytesville, Mo.
Keytesville, Mo.

Birkner, 111.

Iron Ridge, Mo.

t Deceased.

* Elected, at his request, to active membership, December 6, 1897.

XVI

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Marsh, George P. 1857.

Mayer, Martin. 1865.
tMcAdams, William, Jr. 1859.
jMcClellan, George B. 1857.

McGregor, A. L. 1857.
fMcMasters, S. G. 1858.
fMeek, F. B. 1856.

Meline, James F. 1865. Washington, D. C.

Morerod, E. R. 1860.

Mosblech, P. W. 1859.
tvon Mueller, Baron Ferdinand. 1883.

fNewberry, John Strong. 1861.

Norris, Benjamin. 1857.
tNorwood, Charles J. 1875.
f Norwood, Joseph G. 1856.

tOwen, Richard. 1862.

Parker, J. C. 1876. San Diego Ca.

tParry, C. C. 1861.
tPatrick, John J. R. 1876.
tPavy, Otto. 1880.
tPeter, Robert. 1862.

Phillips, Henry, Jr. 1881. Philadelphia, Pa.

|Pope, John. 1856.
tPratt, George C. 1881.
tPratten, Henry. 1856.

Price, R. B. 1860.

Putnam, F. W. 1877. Cambridge, Mass.

Rau, Charles. 1880.

Rauch, John H. 1856.
fReuss, Adolphus. 1856.
fRiddell, J. L. 1856.
fRiddell, W. P. 1859.
tRiley, Charles Valentine. 1880.
fRobb, James. 1863.
tRobin, Charles. 1861.

Russell, John. 1857.
tRyland, Kirtley. 1856.

t Deceased.

Members.

xvn

Macon, Mo.
Mt. Carroll, 111.

Sartwell, Henry P. 1866. Penn Yan, N. Y.

Sawyer, Amos. 1874. Hillsboro, 111.

fvon Scblagintweit, Robert. 1869.
fSchoenich, Henry. 1857.
tSchultz, C. H. 1860.
fSeemann, Berthold. 1857.
fSeyffarth, Gustavus. 1877.

Sharswood, William. 1859.

Sheldon, D. S. 1857.

Shepard, Charles U. 1860.

Shepherd, John. 1879.

Shimer, Henry. 1864.
tShumard, George G. 1857.

Sloan, William J. 1860.

Snyder, John F. 1856.

Snyder, William. 1856.

Spencer, Joseph William Winthrop. 1884. Washington, D. C.
tSquier, E. George. 1860.

Stanton, Fred. J. 1875.

Steele, George. 1856.

Stone, George C. 1881. New York City, N. Y.

Suess, Eduard. 1858. Vienna, Austria.

tSwallow, George Clinton. 1856.

Teft, Jonathan E. 1874.
•fTrecul, Auguste. 1856.

fVasey, George. 1861.
tVaughan, A. J. 1856.
Veatch, Charles. 1868.
tVom Rath, Gerhard. 1884.

Wadsworth, John L. R. 1880.
tWarren, G. K. 1856.

Warriner, Henry A. 1862.

Weber, J. 1877.
tWeiss, Adolph. 1861.

Wells, Lemuel T. 1860.

Wheeler, G. H. 1856.

Wheelock, L. P. 1867.

White, Charles Abiathar. 1860.

White, George. 1857.

Keytesville, Mo.
Collinsville, 111.

Belleville, 111.
Washington, D. C.

t Deceased.

xviii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

fWhittlesey, Charles. 1856.

Williams, Doctor. 1857.
fWilson, George. 1884.
fWinchell, Alexander. 1860.

Woodruff, William T. 1861.
tWorthen, Amos H. 1859.

fYandell, L. P. 1856.
Yoakum, F. L. 1870. Larissa, Tex.

t Deceased.

EXCHANGES.*
Africa.

Mauritius.

Port Louis.

Royal Alfred Observatory.
North America.

Canada.

Halifax {Nova Scotia').

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.
Hamilton (Ontario).

Hamilton Association.
Montreal (Quebec).

" Canadian Record of Science."

Natural History Society.

Royal Society of Canada.
Ottawa (Ontario).

Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada.

Institut Canadien Francais.

Literary and Scientific Society.
Quebec ( Quebec) .

Entomological Society of Canada.

Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.

Universite Laval.
St. John (New Brunswick).

Natural History Society of New Brunswick.
Toronto (Ontario).

Astronomical and Physical Society.

Canadian Institute.
Winnipeg (Manitoba).

Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
Costa Rica.
San Jose.

Central Office of Statistics and Meteorology.

Museo Nacional.
Guatemala.
Guatemala.

Secretaria de Fomento.

* Conformed, as far as practicable, to the International Exchange List
of 1897, of the Smithsonian Institution.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Mexico.

Mexico.

Ministerio de Fomento, Colonization, etc.
Museo National.

Sociedad Cientifica u Antonio Alzate."
Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica.
Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural.
Tacubaya.

Observatorio Astronomico National.
San Salvador.
San Salvador.

Observatorio Meteorologico y Astronomico.
United States.

Albany (N, T.).

New York State Library.
New York State Museum of Natural History.
Ann Arbor {Mich.).

University of Michigan Library.
Auburn (Ala.).

Agricultural Experiment Station.
Austin (Tex.).

Geological Survey of Texas.
State Library of Texas.
Texas Academy of Science.
Baltimore (Md.).

" American Chemical Journal."
Johns Hopkins University, — Biological Library.
Johns Hopkins University Library.
Maryland Academj' of Sciences.
Maryland Geological Survey.
Peabody Institute Library.
Baton Rouge (La.).

State University Library.
Boston (Mass.).

American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Massachusetts Horticultural Society.
Public Library.
Society of Natural History.
Brooklyn (N. T.).

The Brooklyn Library.
Brookville (Ind.).

Society of Natural History.

Exchanges.

xxi

United States — Continued.
Buffalo {N. T.).

Society of Natural Sciences.
Cambridge {Mass.).

Entomological Club.

Harvard College Library.

Harvard College Observatory.

Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology.
Chapel Hill {N. C).

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.
Charleston {S. C).

Elliott Society of Science and Art.
Charlotteville ( Va.).

University of Virginia Library.
Chicago {III.).

Academy of Sciences.

Field Columbian Museum.

Historical- Society.

John Crerar Library.

"The Monist."

Public Library.

University of Chicago Library.
Cincinnati (0.).

Society of Natural History.
Cleveland (0.).

Geological Society of America.
Columbia {Mo.).

State University Library.
Columbus (0.).

Ohio State University Library.
Davenport (7a.).

Academy of Natural Sciences.
Denver {Col.).

Colorado Scientific Society.
Des Moines {la.).

Iowa Academy of Science.
Geneva {N. T.).

Agricultural Experiment Station.
Golden {Col.).

State School of Mines.

xxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

United States — Continued.
Good Hope (III.).

"American Antiquarian."
Granville (0.).

Denison Scientific Association.
Hanover (N. H.).

Dartmouth College Library.
Houston (Tea;.).

State Geological and Scientific Association.
Indianapolis (Ind.).

Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Re-
sources.
Ithaca (N. T.).

Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.

Cornell University Library.
Jefferson City (Mo.).

State Geological Survey.

State Library.
Kansas City (Mo.).

Academy of Science.
Knoxville (Tenn.).

East Tennessee University Library.

University of Tennessee Library.

University of Tennessee Scientific Magazine.
Lawrence (Kan.).

Kansas University Library.
Lincoln (Neb.).

Nebraska University, — Department of Zoology.

Nebraska University Library.
Louisville (Ky.).

Public Library of Kentucky.
Madison (Wis.).

Washburn Observatory.

Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters.

Wisconsin Historical Society.

Wisconsin University Librar\\
Meriden (Conn.).

Scientific Association.
Milwaukee ( Wis.).

Natural History Society of Wisconsin.

Naturhistorischer Verein.

Public Museum.

Exchanges. xxiii

United States — Continued.
Minneapolis {Minn.').

Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota.

Minnesota Academy of Natural Science.
Mount Hamilton (Col.).

Lick Observatory.
New Brighton (N. Y.).

Natural Science Association of Staten Island.
New Brunswick (N. J.).

Agricultural Experiment Station.
New Haven {Conn.).

" American Journal of Science."

Connecticut Academy of Science.

Yale University Astronomical Observatory.

Yale University Library.
New York (N. Y.).

Academy of Science.

American Geographical Society.

American Museum of Natural History.

Botanical Garden.

Chemical Society.

Linnaean Society of New York.

Mathematical Society.

Public Library.

Torrey Botanical Club.
Northfield (Minn.).

Carleton College Observatory.
Oberlin (0.).

Oberlin College Librar}\
Pasadena (Cal.).

Academy of Sciences.
Peoria (III).

Scientific Association.
Philadelphia (Pa.).

Academy of Natural Science.

American Entomological Society.

American Philosophical Society.

Commercial Museum.

"Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery."

" Journal of Pharmacy."

Library Company.

Numismatic and Antiquarian Society.

xxiv Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

United States — Continued.

Philadelphia (Pa.) — Continued.

Pennsylvania Woman's Medical College.

Pharmaceutical Association.

" Polyclinic."

Wagner Free Institute of Science.

Zoological Society.
Pittsburg (Pa.).

Carnegie Museum.
Portland (Me.).

Society of Natural History.
Poughkeepsie (N. Y.).

Vassar Brothers Institute.
Princeton (N. J.).

Museum of Geology and Archaeology.
Rochester (N. Y.).

Academy of Science.
Holla (Mo.).

Missouri School of Mines.
Salem (Mass.).

Essex Institute.

Peabody Academy of Science.
San Diego (Cal.).

Society of Natural History.
San Francisco (Cal.).

Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

California Academy of Science.

Geographical Society of California.

State Mining Bureau.

Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
Santa Barbara (Cal.).

Society of Natural History.
South Bend (Ind.).

Northern Indiana Historical Society.
Springfield (III).

Geological Survey of Illinois.
Springfield (Mo.).

Drury College Library.
St. Louis (Mo.).

"Journal of Ophthalmology."

Mercantile Library.

Missouri Botanical Garden.

Exchanges. xxv

United States — Continued.

St. Louis (Mo.) — Continued.
Public Library.
St. Louis University Library.
Washington University Library.
Stanford University (Cal).

Leland Stanford Junior University Library.
Topeka (Kas.).

Kansas Academy of Science.
Trenton (N. J.).

Natural History Society.
Urbana (EL).

State Laboratory of Natural History.
Urbana (0.).

Central Ohio Scientific Association.
Washington (D. C).

Philosophical Society.

Smithsonian Institution.

United States Bureau of Education.

United States Bureau of Ethnology.

United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

United States Department of Agriculture.

, Division of Entomology.

, Weather Bureau.

United States Fish Commission.
United States Geological Survey.
United States National Museum.
United States Naval Observatory.
United States War Department, — Engineer Depart-
ment, U. S. A.
Wooster (0.).

Agricultural Experiment Station.
Worcester (Mass.).

American Antiquarian Society.
Society of Antiquity.
West Indies.

Gordon Town (Jamaica).

Public Gardens and Plantations.
Kingston (Jamaica).

Institute of Jamaica.

xxvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

South America.

Argentine Republic.
Buenos Aires.

Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.

Sociedad Cientifica Argentina.

Departamento Nacional de Estadistica.
Cordoba.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias.

Observatorio Nacional Argentino.
Brazil.

Rio de Janeiro.

Instituto Historico, Geographico y Ethnographico.

Museu Nacional.

Nautical Observatory.
Sao Paulo.

Commissao Geographica e Geoiogica.
Chile.

Santiago.

Deutcher Wissenscbaftlicber Verein.

Soeiedad Cientifica de Cbile.
Uruguay.

Montevideo.

Museo Nacional.

Asia.

India.

Bombay.

Natural History Society.
Calcutta.

Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Indian Museum.
Japan.

Tokyo.

Deutsche Geseliscbaft fur Natur-und Volkerkunde Ost-

Asiens.
Imperial University of Japan.
Netherlands Indies.
Batavia {Java).

Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory.
Straits Settlements.
Singapore.

Royal Asiatic Society, — Straits Branch.

Exchanges.

XXVll

Australasia.

New South Wales.
Sydney.

Australian Museum.

Geological Survey of New South Wales,— Department

of Mines.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Royal Society of New South Wales.
Queensland.
Brisbane.

Geographical Society of Australasia, — Queensland

Brancb.
Queensland Museum of Natural History.
South Australia.
Adelaide.

Royal Geographical Society,— South Australian Branch.
Royal Society of South Australia.
Tasmania.

Hobarton.

Royal Society of Tasmania.
Victoria.

Melbourne.

National Museum of Victoria.
Royal Society of Victoria.
Europe.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Bistritz (Transylvania).

Gewerbeschule.
Briinn. (Moravia).

K. K. Mahrisch Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft.
Naturforschender Verein.
Budapest (Hungary).

" Ethnologische Mittheilungen aus Ungarn."
K. Magyar Termeszettudomanyi Tarsulat.

(R. Hungarian Society of Natural Sciences.)
K. Magyar Tudomanyos Egyetem.

(R. Hungarian University.)
K. Ungar. Geologische Anstalt.
Magyar Nemzeti Museum.

(Hungarian National Museum.)
Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia.

(Hungarian Academy of Sciences. )
Ornithologische Gesellschaft.

xxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Austria- Hung akt — Continued.
Graz (Styria).

Naturwissenschaf tlicher Verein fur Steiermark.

Steiermarkischer Industrie und Gewerbe Verein.
Hermannstadt (Transylvania).

Siebenbiirgischer Verein fur Naturwissenschaf ten.

Verein fiir Siebenbiirgische Landes-Kunde.
Klagenfurth (Garinthia).

Naturhistorisches Landesmuseum fiir Karnten.
Klausenburg (Transylvania).

Medicinische Naturwissenschaf tliche Section des Sie-
benbiirgischen Museum Vereins.
Krakau (Qalicia).

Academie des Sciences de Cracovie.
Laibach (Carniola).

Krainsches Landesmuseum Rudolfinum.
Leipa (Bohemia).

Nord-Bohmischer Excursions-Club.
Lemberg (Oalicia).

Societe Scientifique de Chevtchenko.
Linz (Upper Austria).

Museum Francisco-Carolinum.
Prag (Bohemia).

K. Bohmiscbe Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.

Naturwissenschaf tlicher Verein " Lotos."
Pressburg (Hungary).

Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Reichenberg (Bohemia).

Verein der Naturfreunde.
Salzburg (Salzburg).

Stadtisches Museum Carolino-Augusteum.
Trencsin (Hungary).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Trencsiner Comi-
tates.
Trieste (Istria).

Museo Civico di Storia Naturale.

Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali.
Wien (Lower Austria).

Anthropologische Gesellschaft.

Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.

K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erd-Mag-
netismus.

Exchanges. xxix

Austria-Hungary — Continued.

Wien {Lower Austria) — Continued.
K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft.
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt.
K. K. Naturhistorisches Hof Museum.
K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft.
Niederoesterreichischer Forst-Verein.
Oesterreichischer Touristen-Club.
Oesterreichischer Reichs-Forst-Verein.
Verein zur Fbrderung des Landwirthschaftlichen Ver-

suchswesens.
Verein zur Verbreitung Naturwissenschaf tlicher Kennt-

nisse.
Belgium.

Bruxelles.

Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des

Beaux Arts de Belgique.
Observatoire Royal.
Societe Beige de Geographic
Societe Beige de Microscopie.
Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Societe Malacologique de Belgique.
Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
Societe Royale Linneenne de Bruxelles.
Societe Scientifique de Bruxelles.
Societe Scientifique Flammarion d'lxelles.
Liege.

Societe Geologique de Belgique.
Louvain.

Universite Catholique.
Denmark.

Kjobenhavn [Copenhagen].

Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
France.

Abbeville (Somme).

Societe d' Emulation.
Alais (Gard).

Societe Scientifique et Litteraire.
Amiens (*Somme).

Academie des Sciences, Lettres, et Arts.
Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France.
Angers {Maine- et- Loire).

Societe des Etudes Scientifiques.

xxx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

France — Continued.

Arras ( Pas-de- Calais').

Academie des Sciences, Lettres, et Arts.
Autun (Saone-et-Loire).

Societe d'Histoire Naturelle.
Auxerre (Yonne.).

Societe des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles.
Avranches (Manche).

Societe Academique du Cotentin.
Bar-le-Duc (Meuse).

Societe des Lettres, Sciences et Arts.
Bastia (Corsica).

Societe des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de a
Corse.
Bayeux (Calvados).

Societe d' Agriculture, Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
Bayonne (Basses- Pyre"n4es).

Societe des Sciences et Arts.
Besancon (Doubs).

Societe d'Eraulation du Doubs.
Bordeaux (Gironde).

Acaderaie Nationale des Belles-Lettres, Sciences et
Arts.

Societe Linneenne de Bordeaux.

Societe des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles.
Caen (Calvados).

Academic Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-
Lettres.

Faculte des Sciences de Caen, — Laboratoire de
Geologic

Societe Linneenne de Normandie.
Chalons-Sur-Marne (Marne).

Societe d' Agriculture, Commerce, Sciences et Arts
du Departement de la Marne.
Charabery (Savoie).

Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts deSavoie.
Cherbourg (Manche).

Societe Academique.

Societe Nationale des Sciences Naturelles et Matbe-
matiques.
Dijon (Cote-d'Or).

Academie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.

Exchanges. xxxi

France — Continued.
Draguignan ( Var).

Societe des Etudes Scientifiques et Archeologiques.
Elbeuf (Seine-Infe'rieure).

Societe d'Enseignement Mutuel des Sciences Natur-
elles.
Epinal (Vosges).

Societe d'Emulation du Departement des Vosges.
Evreux (Eure).

Societe Libre d'Agriculture, Sciences, Arts et
Belles-Lettres du Departement de I'Eure.
Grenoble (Isere).

Academie Delphinale.

Faculte des Sciences.
Lyon (Rhone).

Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts.

Bibliotheque Universitaire.

Societe des Sciences Industrielles.

Societe Linneenne de Lyon.
Marseille (Bouches-du- Rhone).

Academie des Sciences, Lettres et Arts.

Societe Scientifique Industrielle.
Montauban ( Tarn-el- Garonne) .

Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts du
Departement de Tarn-et-Garonne.
Montpellier (He'rault).

Academie des Sciences et Lettres.
Nancy (Meicthe-et-Moselle).

Academie de Stanislas.

Societe des Sciences.
Nevers (Nievre).

Societe Nivernaise des Letters, Sciences et Arts.
Nice (Alpes-Maritimes).

Societe des Lettres, Sciences et Arts des Alpes
Maritimes.
Niort (Deux- Sevres).

Societe de Statistique, Sciences et Arts desDeux-Sevres.
Paris.

Academie des Sciences.

Association Frar^aise pourl'Avancement des Sciences.

Ecole Normale Superieure.

Ecole Polytechnique.

XXXI 1

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

France — Continued.
Paris — Continued.

" Feuille des Jeunes Natura!iste3."

Institut National Agronomique.

Institut Pasteur.

Journal de Mi orographic1.

Musee Guimet.

Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.

Revue Archeologique.

Revue Geographique Internationale.

Societe Academique Indo-Chinoise.

Societe d'Anthropologie.

Societe de Biologie.

Societe Entomologique de France.

Societe d'Etbnograpbie.

Societe Zoologique de France.
Pan ( Basses- Pijre'ne'es).

Societe des Sciences, Lettres et Arts.
Perpignan ( Pyre'ne'es-Orientales).

Societe Agricole, Scientifique et Litteraire des Py-
renees-Orientales.
Reims (Marne).

Academie Nationale de Reims.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles.
Rouen (Seine- Inftrieure).

Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts.

Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles.
Saint Brieuc (G6tes-du-Nord).

Societe d'Emulation des C6tes-du-Nord.
Saint Die ( Vosges).

Societe Pbilomathique Vosgienne.
Saint Dizier (Haute- Marne).

Societe des Lettres, des Sciences, des Arts, de l'Agri-
culture et de 1' Industrie.
Toulouse (Haute- Garonne).

Academie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

Association Pyeneenne, et Union des Societes Savantes
du Midi.

Bibliotheque de la Faculte des Sciences.
Vend6me (Loir-et-Gher).

Societe Arcbeologique, Scientifique et Litteraire du
Vend&mois.

Exchanges. xxxiii

France — Continued.

Vitry-le-Frarxjois (Marne).

Societe des Sciences et Arts.
Germany.

Altenburg (Saxe- Weimar).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlands.
Augsburg {Bavaria).

Naturwissenschaftiicher Verein fiir Schwaben und
Neuburg.
Bamberg {Bavaria).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Berlin {Prussia).

Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg.

Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft.

Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft.

Deutsche Landwirthschaftliche Gesellschaft.

Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.

Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde.

Kaiserliches Gesundheits-Amt.

Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Konigliches Botanisches Museum.

" Naturae Novitates."

Verein zur Beforderung des Gartenbaues in den Ko-
niglich Preussischen Staaten.
Bonn (Prussia).

Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande,
Westfalens und des Regierungsbezirks Osnabriick.
Braunschweig (Brunswick).

Verein fiir Naturwissenschaften.
Bremen.

Geographische Gesellschaft.

Naturwissenschaftiicher Verein.
Bre9lau (Silesia).

Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur.
Chemnitz (Saxony).

Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Danzig (Prussia).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Darmstadt (Hesse).

Verein fiir Erdkunde.
Dresden (Saxony).

Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und Heilkunde.

xxxiy Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Germany — Continued.

Dresden (Saxony) — Continued.

Kbnigliches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch-Eth-
nographtsches Museum.

Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft " Isis."

Verein fiir Erdkunde.
Diirkheim (Bavaria).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein " Pollichia."
Elberfeld (Prussia).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein von Elberfeld und
* Barmea.

Emden (Prussia).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Erfurt (Prussia).

Akademie Gemeinniitziger Wissenschaften.
Frankfurt-am-Main (Prussia).

Physikalischer und Aerzlicher Verein.

Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Verein fiir Geographie und Statistik.
Frankfurt-an-der-Oder (Prussia).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Regierungsbe-
zirkes.
Freiburg-im-Breisgau (Baden).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Giessen (Hesse).

Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde.
Gbrlitz (Prussia).

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Gottingen (Pmssia).

Konigliche Societat der Wissenschaften.
Greifswald (Prussia).

Geographische Gesellschaft.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein von Neuvorpommern
und Riigen.
Halle-an-der-Saale (Prussia).

Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akad-
emie der Naturforscher.

Landwirthschaftliches Institut der Universitat.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Verein fiir Erdkunde.

" Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammten Naturwissenschaf-
ten."

Exchanges.

XXXV

Germany — Continued.
Hamburg.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Hamburg- Altona.
Hanau (Hesse).

Wetterauische Gesellschaft fiir die Gesammte Na-
turkunde.
Hannover (Prussia).

Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Heidelberg (Baden).

Naturhistorisch-Medicinischer Verein.
Jena (S axe- Weimar).

Geographische Gesellschaft fiir Thiiringen.

"Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Medizin und Naturwissen-
schaften."
Karlsruhe (Baden).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Kassel (Prussia).

Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Kiel (Prussia).

Konigliche Sternwarte.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein.

Universitats Bibliothek.
Konigsberg (Prussia).

Konigliche Pl^sikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft.
Landshut (Bavaria).

Botanischer Verein.
Leipzig (Saxony).

Dr. Felix Fliigel, 39 Sidonien Strasse.

Koniglich Sachsische Gesellschaft der Naturwissen-
schaften.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Verein fiir Erdkunde.

" Zoologischer Anzeiger."
Liineburg (Prussia).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Magdeburg (Prussia).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Mannheim (Baden).

Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Marburg (Prussia).

Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der Gesammten Natur-
wissenschaften.

xxxvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Germany — Continued.
Metz (Lorraine).

Academie de Metz.

Societe d'Histoire Naturelle.

Verein fiir Erdkunde.
Miinche n ( Bavaria ) .

Deutscher und Oesterreickischer Alpen-Verein, — Sec-
tion Miinchen.

Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Miinster ( Westphalia).

Provinzial- Verein fiir Wissensclmft und Kunst.
Niirnberg (Bavaria).

Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Offenbach (Baden).

Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Osnabriick (Prussia).

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Passau (Bavaria).

Naturhistorischer Verein.
Posen (Prussia).

Historische Gesellschaft fiir die Provinz Posen.
Regensburg (Bavaria).

Historischer Verein fiir die Oberpfalz.

Koniglich Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft.

Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Rostock (Mecklenburg).

Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklen-
burg. (c/0 Mincralogisches Museum.)
Stettin (Prussia).

Entomologischer Verein.
Stuttgart ( Wiirtemberg).

Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Wiir-
temberg.

Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirtem-
berg.
Thorn (Prussia).

Copernicus Verein fiir Wissensckaft und Kunst.
Wiesbaden (Prussia).

Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Wiirzburg (Bavaria).

Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft.

Exchanges. xxxvn

Great Britain and Ireland.

Alnwick (England).

Berwickshire-Naturalists' Club.
Belfast (Ireland').

Naturalists' Field Club.
Bristol (England).

Naturalists' Society.
Dublin (Ireland).

Royal Dublin Society.
Royal Irish Academy.
Edinburgh (Scotland).
Geological Society.
Royal Physical Society.
Royal Scottish Society of Arts.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Glasgow (Scotland).
Geological Society.
Natural History Society.
Philosophical Society.
Halifax (England).

Yorkshire Geological and Polytecbnical Society.
Kew (England).

Royal Botanic Gardens.
Leeds (England).

Philosophical and Literary Society.
Liverpool (England).

Biological Society.
London (England).
British Museum.
Entomological Society.
" Nature." (c/0 The Macmillan Co.)
Royal Geographical Society.
Royal Microscopical Society.
Royal Society.
Manchester (England).

"Journal of Conchology." (c/0 Owens College.)
Literary and Philosophical Society.
Microscopical Society.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne (England).

Natural History Society of Northumberland, Dur-
ham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
York (England).

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

xxxviii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Italy.

Bologna.

Accademia delle Scienze dell' Istituto di Bologna.
Catania.

Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali.
Firenze [Florence].

Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale.

" Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano."

R. Accademia Economico-Agraria dei Georgofili.

R. Istituto di Studi Superiori.
Genova [Genoa].

Accademia delle Scienze, Letter e ed Arti.

Museo Civico di Storia Naturale.

Societa Ligustica di Scienze Naturali e Geografiche.

Societa dei Naturalisti.
Milano [Milan].

Fondazione Seientifica Cagnola.

R. Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere.

Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali.
Modena.

R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
Napoli [Naples].

Accademia Pontaniana.

R. Accademia delle Scienze e Belle Lettere.

R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Mathematiche.

Societa di Naturalisti.
Padova [Padua].

R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.

Societa Veneto-Trentina di Scienze Naturali.
Palermo.

Orto Botanico.

Societa d'Acclimazione e di Agricoltura in Sicilia.
Pisa.

Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.
Roma.

Biblioteca Nazionale Vittotio Emanuele.

Istituto d'Igiene Sperimentale dell' Universita.

R. Accademia dei Lincei.

R. Comitato Geologico d' Italia.

R. Stazione Chimico Agraria.

Societa Italiana delle Scienze.
Siena.

R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici.

Exchanges. xxxix

Italy — Continued.
Torino [Turin] .

Accademia Reale delle Scienze.
Club Alpino Italiano, — Sezione Torino.
Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R.
Universita.
Venezia [Venice].

R. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere et Arti.
Luxemburg.

Luxemburg.

Institut Luxembourgeois, — Section des Sciences
Naturelles.
Netherlands.
Amsterdam.

Genootschap ter Bevordering van Natuur- Genees-

en Heelkunde.
K. Akademie van Wetenschappen.
K. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap.
K. Zoologische Genootschap "Natura Artis Magistra."
's Gravenhage [The Hague].

Die Triangulation von Java.
Haarlem.

Fondation de P. Teyler van der Hulst.
Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen.
Leiden.

Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging.
Rijks Observatorium.
Middelburg.

Zeeuwsch Genootschap van Wetenschappen.
Rotterdam.

Bataafsch Genootschap der Proefondervindelijke
Wijsbegeerte.
Utrecht.

K. Nederlandsche Meterologisch Instituut.
Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen.
Zwolle.

Overijsselsche Vereeniging tot Ontwikkeling van Pro-
vinciaale Welvaart.
Norway.
Bergen.

Bergens Museum.

xlii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Switzerland — Continued.
Basel.

Naturforscliende Gesellschaft.
Bern.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Scbweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Chur.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubiindens.
Frauenfeld.

Thurgauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Fribourg,

Societe Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Geneve.

Institut National Genevois.

Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle.
Lausanne.

Bibliotheque Cantonale et Universitaire.

Musee d'Histoire Naturelle.

Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Neuchatel.

Societe des Sciences Naturelles.
St. Gall.

Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Zurich.

" Concilium Bibliographicum."

Eidgenossensche Polytechnische Schule.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Schweizer Alpen-Club.

Schweizerischer Forst-Verein.

THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF ST. LOUIS,

ORGANIZATION.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on the
10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public
Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first president.

CHARTER.

On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporating
the Academy was signed and approved, and this was accepted
by vote of the Academy on the 9th of February, 1857.

OBJECTS.

The act of incorporation declares the object of the Academy
to be the advancement of science and the establishment in St.
Louis of a museum and library for the illustration and study
of its various branches, and provides that the members shall
acquire no individual property in the real estate, cabinets,
library, or other of its effects, their interest being usufruc-
tuary merely.

The Constitution, as adopted at the organization meeting
and amended at various times subsequently, provides for hold-
ing meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific
subjects; taking measures to procure original papers upon
such subjects ; the publication of transactions ; the establish-
ment and maintenance of a cabinet of objects illustrative of
the several departments of science, and a library of works
relating to the same ; and the establishment of relations with
other scientific institutions. To encourage and promote special
investigation in any branch of science, the formation of special
sections under the charter is provided for.

MEMBERSHIP.

Members are classified as active members, corresponding
members, honorary members, and patrons. Active member-

xliv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ship is limited to persons interested in science, though they
need not of necessity be engaged in scientific work, and they
alone conduct the affairs of the Academy, under its Constitu-
tion. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis,
who are disposed to further the objects of the Academy by
original researches, contributions of specimens, or otherwise,
are eligible as corresponding members. Persons not living in
the city or county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary mem-
bers by virtue of their attainments in science. Any person
conveying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars or
its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron.

Under the By-Laws, resident active members pay an initia-
tion fee of five dollars and annual dues of six dollars. Non-
resident active members pay the same initiation fee, but
annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons, and honorary and
corresponding members, are exempt from the payment of
dues. Patrons and all active members not in arrears are
entitled to one copy each of each publication of the Academy
issued after their election.

Since the organization of the Academy, 904 persons have
been elected to membership, of whom, at the present time,
286 are carried on the active list. One patron, Mr. Edwin
Harrison, has been elected. The present list of corresponding
members includes 205 names.

OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT.

The officers, who are chosen from the active members, con-
sist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording and Cor-
responding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian, three Curators,
and two Directors. The general business management of the
Academy is vested in a Council composed of the President,
the two Vice-Presidents, the Recording Secretary, the Treas-
urer and the two Directors.

The office of President has been filled by the following well-
known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have been
eminent in some line of scientific work: George Engelmann,
Benjamin F. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus, Hiram A.
Prout, John B. Johnson, James B. Eads, William T. Harris,

Abstract of History. xlv

Charles V. Riley, Francis E. Nipher, Henry S. Pritchett,
John Green, Melvin L. Gray, and Edmund A. Engler.

MEETINGS.

The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its rooms,
1600 Locust Street, at 8 o'clock, on the first and third Mon-
day evenings of each month, a recess being taken between
the meeting on the first Monday in June and the meeting on
the third Monday in October. These meetings, to which
interested persons are always welcome, are devoted in part to
the reading of technical papers designed for publication in
the Academy's Transactions, and in part to the presentation
of more popular abstracts of recent investigation or progress.
From time to time public lectures, calculated to interest a
larger audience, are provided for in some suitable hall.

LIBRARY.

After its organization, the Academy met in Pope's Medica
College, where a creditable beginning had been made toward
the formation of a museum and library, until May, 1869,
when the building and museum were destroyed by fire, the
library being saved. The library now contains 13,624 books
and 9,869 pamphlets, and is open during certain hours of the
day for consultation by members and persons engaged in
scientific work.

PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

Ten thick octavo volumes of Transactions have been pub-
lished since the organization of the Academy, and widely
distributed. Two quarto publications have also been issued,
one from the Archaeological section, being a contribution to
the archaeology of Missouri, and the other a report of the
observations made by the Washington University Eclipse
Party of 1889. The Academy now stands in exchange rela-
tions with 560 institutions or organizations of aims similar to
its own.

xlvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

MUSEUM.

Since the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Academy
has lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a public
museum, and, although small museum accessions have been
received and cared for, its main effort of necessity has been
concentrated on the holding of meetings, the formation of a
library, the publication of worthy scientific matter, and the
maintenance of relations with other scientific bodies, through
its active membership, which includes many business and
professional men who are interested in the work and objects
of the Academy, although not themselves investigators.

December 31, 1900.

RECORD.
From January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1900.

January 8, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present.

The nominating committee reported that 122 ballots had
been counted, and the following officers for 1900 were de-
clared duly elected : —

President Edmund A. Engler.

First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith.

Second Vice-President M. H. Post.

Recording Secretary William Trelease.

Corresponding Secretary. . . .Joseph Grindon.

Treasurer Enno Sander.

Librarian Gustav Hambach.

Curators Gustav Hambach,

Julius Hurter,
Hermann von Schrenk.

Directors Amand Ravold,

H. W. Eliot.

The President delivered an address on the condition of the
Academy and its work during the year 1899.*

The Treasurer submitted his annual report, showing invested
funds to the amount of $4,400.00 and a balance of $2,239.13
carried forward to the year 1900, of which $2,000.00, derived
from a former investment, awaited reinvestment. f

The Librarian submitted his annual report. {

Part II of a paper by Dr. T. J. J. See, on the temperature
of the sun and the relative ages of the stars and nebulae, was
read by title and referred to the Council.

Mr. A. S. Langsdorf described the methods of determin-
ing the rates of vibration of sounding bodies, with special

* Transactions 9 : xxvii. t Transactions 9 : xxxi. % Transactions 9 : xxxi.

xlviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

reference to the calibration of tuning forks, illustrating his
remarks by the use of the apparatus employed.

Professor E. A. Engler discussed the locus of the inter-
section of a line through the focus making a constant angle
with the tangent to a parabola.

Dr. William H. Warren, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

Nine persons were proposed for active membership.

January 22, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, fifty-four persons present.

The resignations of Messrs. F. F. Gottschalk, G. C. Kins-
man and A. T. Terry were reported by the Council, which
further reported that Dr. O. Widmann, for some years treated
as a corresponding member, had at his request been added to
the list of non-resident active members, and that at the
request of a committee of the Engineers' Club of St. Louis
the President had appointed a committee of three* for con-
ference with said committee and other committees which
might be appointed by representative bodies to consider the
action necessary to secure the filtration of the water supply
of St. Louis.

A paper by Mr. Charles Robertson, entitled Some Illinois
bees, was presented and read by title, and referred to the
Council with a view to its publication.

Mr. William D. Denton addressed the Academy on But-
terflies and their mimicry, illustrating his remarks by a
series of beautifully prepared and mounted specimens.

Mr. Gustav Cramer, Dr. E. H. Gregory, Mr. E. J. Hyatt,
Dr. Charles F. V. Ludwig, Dr.E. W. Oelfcken, Mr. Herbert
F. Roberts and Mr. James Lyall Stuart, of St. Louis, and
Professors T. H. Macbride, of Iowa City, Iowa, and Louis
Trenchard More, of Lincoln, Nebraska, were elected to active
membership.

Seven persons were proposed for active membership.

* The members of this committee were Mr. I. W. Morton, Dr. Amand
Ravold, and Dr. E. H. Keiser.

Record. xlix

February 5, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, about two hundred and fifty
persons present.

A series of microscopic objects showing some of the tech-
nical applications of the microscope, was exhibited under the
direction of Dr. H. M. Whelpley, with the assistance of Dr.
R. J. Terry (anatomy), Dr. Amand Ravold (bacteriology),
Dr. Ludwig Bremer (blood examination), Mr. H. F. Roberts
(botany), Dr. H. von Schrenk (diseases of forest trees), Mr.
O. H. Elbrecht (drug adulterations), Mr. Victor Goetz (flour
inspection), Mr. C. F. Baker (insects parasitic on man), Dr.
Otto A. Wall, Jr. (living protoplasm), Mr. Robert Benecke
( microphotography and photographic dry plate testing), Dr.
G. Hambach (mineralogy), Dr. Adolph Alt (photomicro-
graphy), Dr. Hartwell N. Lyon (physiology), Mr. F. W.
Maas (seed adulterations), Mr. William K. Ilhardt (spice adul-
terations), Mr. Peter J. Weber, Jr. (textile fibers), and Dr.
G. C. Crandall (trichina). Through the courtesy of the
Historical Society, the rooms of that Society were thrown open
to the members of the Academy and their guests, and the
Society's important collections were examined with interest
while the special demonstration of the evening was in progress.

Mr. George W. Niedringhaus and Professor F. Louis Sol-
dan, of St. Louis, were elected to active membership.

February 19, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, forty-three persons present.

The acceptance of the resignations of Dr. M. A. Bliss and
Mr. Alfred Clifford, and the addition of the following institu-
tions to the exchange list of the Academy, were reported by
the Council : Carnegie Museum ; Leland Stanford Junior
University; Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Verein,
Stuttgart; Medicinisch-naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft,
Jena; Nord Bohmischer Excursions-Club ; Northern Indiana
Historical Society ; Ohio State University ; Royal Geographi-
cal Society of Australia, South Australian Branch ; Uni-

1 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

versitj of Pennsylvania, Free Museum ; University of
Tennessee Scientific Magazine; Upsala Universitet, Miner-
alogisk Geologisk Institutionen.

Professor Patrick Geddes, of University College, Dundee,
delivered an address on a plan for increasing the educational
value of expositions, in which he traced the increasingly com-
plex relation of the world to science and the rapidly increas-
ing need of co-ordination of the sciences, and then gave a
concise account of the purposes which it is hoped to realize
and the methods to be adopted by the International Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Art, and Education,
which grew out of the meetings of the British and French
Associations for the Advancement of Science last autumn, and
which is to hold its first international assembly at the Paris
Exposition in the course of the present year, the purpose of
the Association, — recognizing the wealth of instructive
material brought together by the great transient museums,
the world's fairs, — being the fullest possible utilization of
the educational facilities so brought together. Honorable
D. R. Francis spoke further on the subject presented by
Professor Geddes, especially in its bearing on the World's
Fair which it is proposed to hold in St. Louis, in celebra-
tion of the centennial anniversary of the Louisiana purchase.

A paper by Dr. G. A. Miller, on the primitive substitution
groups of degree ten, was presented by title.

Professor J. L. Van Ornum, late of the United States
Engineer Corps, spoke on the sanitary cleaning of a city, as
exemplified by Cienfuegos, Cuba, explaining the conditions
found by the United States Army on taking possession of
that city, and the thoroughness with which the streets, court
yards and cesspools were cleansed by the Engineer Corps,
which also charged itself with the betterment of the city water
supply. A diagram which the speaker had prepared showed
that in addition to a very marked lowering of the death rate
which attended the supply of an abundance of wholesome
food, on the occupation of Cienfuegos, there had been a
decrease of considerably over fifty per cent, in the weekly death
rate, directly attributable to the sanitary cleansing of the city ;
and he further stated that since this work had been done,

Record. li

yellow fever, which before that time had been endemic in
Cienfuegos, had been absent from the city.

Mr. Arthur I. Jacobs, Mr. Joseph Maserang, Jr., and Mr.
George Ward Parker, of St. Louis, Mr. H. R. Conklin, of
Joplin, Missouri, and Professor C. W. Marx, of Columbia,
Missouri, were elected to active membership.

Four persons were proposed for active membership.

March 5, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, forty-three persons present.

The death of Mr. Hugo Kromrey and the resignations of
Mr. George W. Flersheim and Mr. Carl Kinsley were reported
by the Council.

A paper by Professor A. S. Hitchcock, entitled Studies on
subterranean organs. II. Some dicotyledonous herbaceous
plants of Manhattan, Kansas, was presented and read in
abstract by Mr. J. B. S. Norton, and was illustrated by an
abundance of specimens, which were passed about for the
inspection of the audience.

Mr. J. S. Thurman addressed the Academy on liquid air.

Dr. J. K. Bauduy, Dr. E. Grebe, Mr. William E. Guy and
Dr. John Zahorsky, of St. Louis, were elected to active
membership.

Five persons were proposed for active membership.

March 19, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, fifty-eight persons present.

Dr. H. von Schrenk exhibited some burls on the white
spruce (Picea Canadensis). The burls, unlike most of those
so far known, are almost round, and are covered with smooth
bark. They grow of various sizes, and occur on the trunk
and branches of a group of spruces limited to a small area.
The wood fibers are arranged in annual rings ; they differ
from normal wood fibers because of their thinner walls and
greater internal diameter, giving the wood a spongy character.
Long rows of secondary resin passages occur in each ring.

Hi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The largest burls, which are from one to three feet in diam-
eter, have rows of long holes within each ring. These
holes are diamond-shaped in cross-section, the longer diameter
extending radially. Between the holes the wood fibers are
compressed tangentially. The speaker explained that the
holes must have resulted from an excessive radial pressure
exerted from without, probably by the bark. No holes were
found where the bark pressure had been released, i.e., where
the bark had burst. These results were not in harmony with
the findings as to bark pressure reached by Krabbe. The
speaker described the way in which these burls form by
excessive growth, induced by a wound or branch stump.

Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited stereopticon slides made
from a large number of photographic negatives which had been
taken by the electric spark from a Holtz machine. The neg-
atives show a complete picture of the object acted upon by
the spark, and also show the electrical radiations in the field
around the object photographed.

The plates were greatly over-exposed to light before they
were used. They were allowed to lie fully exposed in a well
lighted room for from one to nine days. The best results are
obtained by darkening the room when the electrical image is
produced. Light is found to counteract the electrical effects
when their action is simultaneous and also when it follows
the electrical exposure. The pictures are developed in the
dark room, by the light of an incandescent lamp. When the
negative begins to fog, it is taken nearer to the lamp, and it
at once clears up. All of these methods are in total disregard
of all ordinary photographic procedure. Cramer's crown
plates were used and the developing solution is that in
common use in photography.

The result which is most interesting from a scientific point
of view is shown on twelve negatives which reveal ball
lightning effects. Ball lightning is to the electrician what
the sea serpent is to the zoologist. It has often been seen,
but never by those who are most competent to study and
describe it, and all efforts to produce ball lightning effects by
artificial means have hitherto failed. But these twelve neg-
atives show with perfect distinctness discharges of this

Record. liii

character. They could be seen while they were being photo-
graphed. They looked like little spheres of light, which
traveled over a non-conducting plate, formiug the insulation
of a condenser. They traveled very slowly among the sparks
of the ordinary disruptive discharge. Their speed was usually
at the rate of an inch in three or four minutes. Their tracks
showed with the greatest sharpness among the more indistinct
flashes of miniature lightning. They sometimes jump for a
quarter to a third of an inch, with such quickness that the
eye can hardly follow them. Five or six such spheres of
light sometimes appear at once, each following its own
track. Sometimes one will cross a track previously traoed by
another, but it never follows the track of another.

By proper illumination of the room, the effects of the
spark discharge can be nearly obliterated in the negative, but
the paths of the ball discharges are not materially affected.
One negative thus treated had been exposed for thirty-five
minutes, and the ball lightning tracks were most elaborate.
The branching network of lines must have been produced by
hundreds of these little spheres.

The same result can be attained by fixing the negatives
without any developing process. Everything then vanishes
from the plate but the tracks of the ball discharges.

Professor Nipher stated that this phenomenon could not be
identified as the same thing as ball lightning, since the latter
had not been studied. But it responds to the same de-
cription in many ways. As soon as the ball lightning effects
appear, the behavior of the machine changes in a very re-
markable way.

Mr. Koch exhibited an electric fire annunciator.

Mr. Victor Goetz and Rev. James W. Lee, of St. Louis,
Professor George Lefevre and Mr. Charles Thorn, of Co-
lumbia, Missouri, and Professor C. S. Oglevee, of Lincoln,
Illinois, were elected to active membership.

Six persons were proposed for active membership.

liv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Apiul 2, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-six persons present.

The resignations of Mr. W. P. Eberlein and Dr. Friedrich
Meier were reported by the Council.

A paper by Dr. H. von Schrenk, entitled A severe sleet-
storm, and relating to a study of the injury to trees and shrubs
by an unusually severe recent ice storm, was presented and
read by title.

Dr. W. H. Warren delivered an address on recent investi-
gations with reference to the production of perfumes, giving
an outline of the progress in the chemistry of these prod-
ucts. For the most part these substances are high boiling
oils. Formerly these oils, which are complex mixtures of
several compounds, were obtained exclusively from flowers,
but recently some of the essential principles have been pro-
duced by chemical means, whereas other artificial perfumes
are mere imitations. With a few exceptions the essential
principles, which give the perfumes their value, belong to a
complex class of organic compounds known as the terpenes.
The terpenes are the reduction products of cymol. The
molecule is characterized by the presence of an atomic linking
such as is found in the hydrocarbon ethylene, and the deter-
mination of the exact location of these ethylene linkings con-
stitutes a difficulty in studying the terpenes.

It is found also that nearly every substance having the
properties of a perfume has in its molecule certain atomic
groups whose presence exerts a marked influence on the odor.
Among the more important of these may be mentioned the
aldehyde, ketone, ester, ether and alcohol group.

Besides those terpenes, which have the ring-structure in
the molecule, there are substances which have long chains of
carbon atoms. Apparently such products should be classi-
fied with fatty compounds, but so closely do they resemble
the terpenes in their properties and chemical behavior that
they are placed with them instead. Citral or geranial, an
aldehyde found in largest quantity in oil of lemon-grass, is
such a substance. Citral is of importance because it is the

Record. lv

starting point in the synthesis of ionone, the artificial violet
perfume.

The wonderful progress in our knowledge of the terpenes
and of their derivatives is the work of scarcely more than ten
or fifteen years. There is great activity still, and among
those chemists who have taken a prominent part in the labor
should be mentioned Wallach, Baeyer and Tiemann.

Dr. Sidney I. Schwab, of St. Louis, Professor S. Calvert,
of Columbia, Missouri, Professor George Hazen French, of
Carbondale, Illinois, Professor David M. Mottier, of Bloom-
ington, Indiana, Professor W. J. Stevens, of Carthage, Mis-
souri, and Professor Frank Thilly, of Columbia, Missouri,
were elected to active membership.

Eight persons were proposed for active membership.

April 16, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-three persons present.

Mr. Herbert F. Roberts addressed the Academy on the
structure and physiology of the cell in the plant organism.
The history and development of cytology as a special field in
biology was traced, and the origin of the various theories of
cell organization was indicated. The development of various
theories respecting the centrosome and its role in cell division
was discussed, the homologues of the centrosome to be found
in ciliated cells and spermatazoa being indicted. After a
review of the processes of cell division and their attendant
phenomena, the methods of study of mitoses in plants and their
proper illustration was considered. A great need exists for
more accurate processes of reproduction than is afforded by
plates made from camera lucida drawings. The latter are
always more or less diagrammatic, and are apt to be modified
by the personal bias of the investigator. Unconsciously the
personal equation enters in. This is seen in recent work on
the existence of the centrosome in higher plants. The diffi-
culty referred to can be overcome by the employment of
photomicrography. This has been made use of to a limited
extent by zoologists in the study of mitoses, but apparently
scarcely at all by botanists. The speaker showed forty prints

]vi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

from photomicrographic negatives showing mitoses in
rhizomes of Erythronium albidum, and in microspore mother
cells and microspores in Lilium Philadelphicum and Pinus
laricio, and megaspores in Lilium Canadense. The possi-
bility which photomicrography affords, of giving structural
details with relative fidelity, was illustrated by these photo-
graphs and by lantern slides.

Mr. Guido Pantaleoni, of St. Louis, Professor L. H.
Bailey, of Ithaca, New York, Professor M. A. Brannon, of
Grand Forks, North Dakota, Professor C. M. Jackson, of
Columbia, Missouri, Professor S. C. Mason, of Berea, Ken-
tucky, Professor Aven Nelson, of Laramie, Wyoming, Mr.
Gustavus Pauls, of Eureka, Missouri, and Professor A. G.
Smith, of Iowa City, Iowa, were elected to active membership.

Four persons were proposed for active membership.

May 7, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-three persons present.

Mr. Charles Epenschied presented an address on modern
flour milling, tracing the history of the preparation of grain
for human food, the developments since 1865, when it was
discovered that "middlings," when properly cleaned, could
be resround to the best of flour, and the introduction of chilled
steel rolls to replace the older millstones, so that to-day a
good mill separates practically all the flour in a grain of wheat
in its most perfect form, and is always automatic in opera-
tion. It was stated that while larger mills are in operation,
the most economical mill in use at the present time is that
having a daily capacity of about one thousand barrels of
flour.

Dr. H. von Schrenk made some remarks concerning the
propagation of fruit trees, particularly the apple, illustrating
by a large number of specimens the methods of budding and
root-grafting which are used for commercial purposes, and
discussing at some length the question of the quality of the
root system obtained for the new plant by the various modes
of propagation.

Professor F. E. Nipher exhibited some photographic nega-

Record. lvii

tives on glass, and spoke briefly on the relation between
negative and positive in photographic plates, showing that
there is a certain relation between intensity of actinic light
acting on the plate during exposure and during development,
as a result of which a greatly overexposed plate may be de-
veloped into a positive instead of a negative, by allowing
access of a limited quantity of light during development,
while a plate which has been very briefly exposed may in the
same manner be developed into a positive by a proportionate
increase in the light allowed to fall on it during develop-
ment,— a neutral or zero point, in which the plate is com-
pletely fogged, being passed in each instance.

Mr. G. Pauls exhibited a number of beautiful caterpillars,
the larvae of Euphydry as phaeton, which does not appear to
have been hitherto recorded as occurring in Missouri, although
Scudder reports it from adjoining States. The food plant on
which these were found was a species of Gerardia.

Dr. H. von Schrenk exhibited a burl on the branch of
Mississippi scrub pine, caused by a rust fungus, Peridermium
cerebrum, which was in excellent fruit.

Mr. Pierre Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre Chouteau and Dr. W. B.
Outten, of St. Louis, and Professor John H. Frick, of War-
renton, Missouri, were elected to active membership.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

May 21, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, twenty-four persons present.

A paper by Dr. Adolph Alt, entitled Original contributions
concerning the glandular structures appertaining to the human
eye and its appendages, was presented by title and referred
to the Council.

Dr. M. A. Goldstein read a paper on the physiology of
voice production, in which he discussed three essential factors
in the production of voice, the motor force, the organ of
sound, and the resonators. The essential features presented
may be summarized as follows: (1) All elements carefully
considered, the best form of breathing applicable to voice
production and singing is the rational combination of the

Ivih Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

costal with the diaphragmatic type. Reserve force in breath-
ing is best attained by deep inspiration, fixation of the dis-
tended diaphragm and thorax, and control of these muscles
while tone is produced. (2) To facilitate vocalization, the
larynx should never be tightly contracted by the muscles of
the throat, especially in the production of the registers. (3)
On the resonating cavities, their proper conformation and
position in relation to the vibrating cords and larynx, depend
the quality and timbre of the voice, so that the careful and
proper placing of tones is perhaps the most essential factor
in voice production.

Professor F. E. Nipher read a short communication on the
zero photographic plate, to which reference was made at the
meeting of May 7 and in his paper published as Volume X,
No. 6, of the Academy's Transactions.

The zero plate is one upon which a photographic image has
been made, but which will develop no image in a bath placed
in light of given candle power, at a distance of one meter
from the source. For example, if the developing bath is
twenty centimeters from a sixteen-candle lamp, a Cramer
isochromatic plate, such as is called »« instantaneous," held
for ninety seconds at a distance of one meter from the lamp,
will be a zero plate. With an opaque stencil over the plate
when placed in a printing frame, during the exposure, there
will develop a positive of holes through the stencil if the
exposure is longer, and a negative if the exposure is shorter.

If a fresh plate is exposed in our camera, with full opening,
to a brilliantly lighted street scene for one minute, it will
develop as ,a positive in that same bath. This time can be
somewhat reduced, but the least time needed has not yet been
determined. It is evident that part of this minute is used in
producing a zero plate. It is furthermore clear that different
parts of the plate will arrive at the zero condition at different
times. The exposure may be arrested at a time when the
strongly lighted white background of a sign-board will develop
white as a positive and when the black letters will also show
white as a negative.

It has been found that when a plate is uniformly exposed
over its whole surface to the extent that nothing would have

Record. lix

developed had it been covered by a stencil, this plate may then
be placed in a camera and exposed in the ordinary way, and a
perfect positive will develop in the bath to which it has been
adapted. This preliminary spoiling of the plate for develop-
ing a negative is a very advantageous preparation for taking
a positive. It shortens the time of exposure, and insures
that a positive shall be obtained over all parts of the plate.
It is not yet known how short the camera exposures may be
made, but the present indications are that they will be as
short as those now made in the taking of negative pictures.

It is currently believed by photographers that in a positive
plate the object has "printed its picture" upon the plate.
This is an entire misconception of the process. It is true
that in an exposure of long duration an image shows on the
plate before it is placed in the bath. But this image is
blackest where the light has acted most. It is a negative.
This picture disappears in the developing bath when illu-
minated. The plate becomes perfectly clear. The positive
picture then develops, exactly as a negative would under
ordinary conditions.

Mr. J. B. S. Norton presented some notes on the flora of
the southwestern United States. Maps were shown indicat-
ing the parts of this region and others not well represented
in herbaria, as compared with other sections of the country.
Among: other interesting features of the Southwest was men-
tioned the production of many different forms or closely
related species in the isolated mountains surrounded by
deserts. This was compared with insular conditions and
illustrated by the mountain forms of Euphorbia. Specimens
of some new species from Southwest Missouri were also
shown.

Mr. Walter C. G. Kirchner, of St. Louis, and Professor
William Edward Andrews, of Taylorville, Illinois, were elected
to active membership.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

Ix Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

June 4, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, sixteen persons present.

Dr. Warren B. Outten addressed the Academy on the true
interpretation of sound, presenting what he believed to be a
new principle in acoustics, and describing a method of
re-enforcing sounds by means of various membranes.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

October 15, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, sixteen persons present.

The addition of the Department of Zoology of the Univer-
sity of Nebraska, and Naturae Novitates, of Berlin, to the
exchange list of the Academy was reported by the Council.

The Secretary laid before the Academy a portion of a
femur [supposed to be that of a bison], presented by Mr.
E. A. Hermann, Sewer Commissioner of the city, who
reported that it had been found in a four-foot gravel seam
under twenty- two feet of clay, in the excavation now being
made for the Tower Grove storm sewer, between the Frisco
and Missouri Pacific railways, 1,934 feet east of King's High-
way. On motion, the thanks of the Academy were extended
to Mr. Hermann for this addition to the Academy's collec-
tions.

Mr. William H. Roever discussed the subject of the estab-
lishment of the method of least squares, in an exhaustive and
masterful manner which does not admit of brief abstract.

A paper by Professor F. E. Nipher, entitled Positive pho-
tography, with special reference to eclipse work, and a paper
by the same author, entitled The frictional effect of railway
trains upon the air, were presented and read by title.

Mr. C. F. Baker exhibited a collection which he had pre-
pared for the National Museum, representing nearly all of
the species of fleas thus far known to science.

Dr. Hartwell N. Lyon, of St. Louis, Professor John M.
Holzinger, of Winona, Minnesota, Mr. Ambrose Mueller, of
Webster Groves, Missouri, and Mr. Julien Reverchon, of
Dallas, Texas, were elected to active membership.

Four persons were proposed for active membership.

Record. Ixi

November 5, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present.

It was reported by the Council that in accordance with
Articles XII and XIII of the By-Laws the following names
had been canceled from the list of members: H. C. Frank-
enfield, W. H. Hammon, John M. Holmes, John A. James
James, John Pickard, and William J. Seever.

Dr. T. Kodis delivered an address on electro-chemical
theories of animal electricity, analyzing the theories which in
the present state of knowledge seem possible as accounting
for the origin of electrical currents in animal nerve tissue,
and reaching the conclusion that the only tenable theory is
that of chemical differences in the contents of the components
of the body.

Messrs. Marquard Forster, A. Nasse and Herbert F. Rogers,
of St. Louis, and Professor T. G. Poats, of Clemson College,
South Carolina, were elected to active membership.

Three persons were proposed for active membership.

November 19, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, nineteen persons present.

Mr. C. F. Baker exhibited a large amount of living and
preserved material, including microscopic preparations, illus-
trative of American Isopods and Amphipods, accompanying
the demonstration by a short resume of the work thus far
done on Crustacea, particularly on these two groups, and
making some interestingly suggestive remarks on the peculiar
affinities of a number of the species found in deep wells or
hot springs.

Dr. Amand Ravolcl presented an abstract of the results
reached in some recent bacteriological examinations of water
from the Illinois, Mississippi and Missouri rivers, particularly
a series of cultures made under aseptic conditions from the
contents of the digestive tract of sixty-eight fish of thirteen
species and the soft-shelled turtle, from points in the Missis-
sippi and Illinois rivers a short distance above Grafton. In
sixty-nine per cent, of the fish examined, the Bacillus coli-
communis, which is commonly accepted as an index of the

lxii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

presence and amount of sewage contamination in potable
waters, was present in the digestive tract in quantity, and cul-
tures showed that this Bacillus thrives and multiplies greatly
in these contents in cultures kept at the normal body tem-
perature of the fish. The fact that this species, which does
not multiply freely in river water at similar temperatures,
appears to multiply in this way in the intestines of fish and
reptiles, was pointed out as introducing into the biological
analysis of the water of rivers and lakes a new factor, of un-
certain quantity but tending to destroy confidence in the
occurrence and abundance of Bacillus coli-commuuis in water
as an indication of the degree to which it has been contamin-
ated by the faecal discharges of human beings and domestic
animals. Dr. Ravold stated that in each of the examinations
made, the Bacillus, when isolated, had been carried through
all of the cultures by which coli-communis is differentiated
from related species with which, in the absence of these
tests, it might easily be confused.

Mr. George I. Stocker, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

December 3, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, fifteen persons present.

The resignation of Mr. Henry Branch and the addition to
the exchange list of the Society Scientifique de Chevtchenko,
Lemberg, Austria, and the Indiana Department of Geology
and Natural Resources, Indianapolis, Indiana, were reported
by the Council, which also announced its authorization of
the purchase of the paleontological collection of the late Dr.
L. P. Yandell, containing many types, and of particular value
as complementary to the Shumard collection now the property
of Washington University, it being the expectation of the
Council that payment for this collection could be made by
means of contributions from members, without encroaching
on the current or reserve funds of the Academy.

Mr. William H. Roever, of Washington University, read a
paper on brilliant points and loci of brilliant points. The

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate A.

LOCI OF BRILLIANT POINTS.

Record. Ixiii

paper gave the analytical conditions which define the brilliant
point of a surface, the brilliant point of a space curve, the
brilliant point of a plane curve and the brilliant point in space
of two dimensions, when the source of light is such that the
incident rays are normal to a given surface and the recipient is
such that the reflected rays are normal to another given sur-
face. Formulae were also given for the important special case
in which the source and recipient are points. The paper also
contained a general method for finding the equations of the
locus of the brilliant points of a moving or variable surface and
curve, together with a number of applications. Such loci
may often be perceived when an illuminated polished surface
is rapidly moved, as when a wheel with a polished spoke is
rapidly rotated. Another interesting example in loci of brill-
iant points is that of a circular saw which has been polished
with emery in a lathe and thus received a great number of
concentric circular scratches. The locus of the brilliant points
of this family of scratches was shown in this paper to be a
curve of the fourth degree. In the special case when the
point, source of light, and the eye of the observer (the point
recipient) are in a plane through the axis of the saw, the
curve degenerates into a circle and two coincident straight
lines. Accompanying the abstract is a photogram of the saw
curve. In this case the optical center of the camera lens is
the point recipient. Other interesting facts and a number of
geometrical constructions were also given in this paper.

Messrs. Green, Baumgarten and Nipher, were elected a
committee for the nomination of officers for the year 1901.

Mr. Joseph T. Monell, of Flat Kiver, Missouri, Mr. Elza
Edward Tyler, of Columbia, Missouri, and Mr. J. M. West-
gate, of Manhattan, Kansas, were elected to active member-
ship.

One person was proposed for active membership.

December 17, 1900.

President Engler in the chair, forty-six persons present.
The nominating committee reported the following list of
candidates for 1901 : —

lxiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lottis.

President. Edmund A. Engler.

First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith.

Second Vice - President M. H. Post.

Recording Secretary William Trelease.

Corresponding Secretary Hermann von Schrenk.

Treasurer Euno Sander.

Librarian G. Hambach.

Curators G. Hambach,

Julius Hurter,
Robert J. Terry.

Directors H. W. Eliot,

Adolph Herthel.

A paper by Mr. F. C. Baker, entitled A revision of the
Limnaeas of northern Illinois, was presented and read by
title.

Dr. O. Widraann read an interesting account of the great
St. Louis crow- roost, in which were embodied many facts
concerning the life-history and habits of the common crow.

Professor F. E. Nipher gave an account of some of his
recent results in positive photography. He has now found
that hydrochinone baths of normal strength may be used.
The formula given in each box of Cramer plates yields good
results, if the mixed bath is diluted with water to one-third
strength. The potassium bromide may be left out, and one
drop of concentrated hypo solution must be added for each
ounce of diluted bath. The hypo has a most wonderful
effect. With the same bath, plates may be developed as
positives, in the dark room or in direct sunlight. He had
even started the developing of a plate in a dark room, where
it progressed very slowly, but very satisfactorily, continued
the operation in diffused daylight in an adjoining room, and
finished the operation in direct sunlight. The process was
accelerated by the light, but did not appear to be otherwise
changed by the change in illumination. The resulting pic-
ture could not be distinguished from those produced by ordi-
nary methods. This picture was shown by means of the
lantern.

A box of Cramer's "Crown," "Banner" or " Isochro-
matic " plates may have the plates individually wrapped in
black paper, in the dark room or at night, and all the re-
maining work may be done in the light. A plate is taken

Record. lxv

from its wrapping into the lighted room and placed in the
slide holder. After exposure, it is taken out into the light
and placed in the developing hath, and the picture is then
developed in the light, and may be fixed in the light. Of
course during the changes the plate should be shielded from
the light as much as is feasible, and the fixing bath may
always be covered. But all of the operations may be carried
on without any dark-room conveniences that may not be
secured even in the open fields.

When weak hydrochinone baths are used, the picture, when
developed in strong lamp light, or in sunlight, has at first a
golden yellow color. When left in the lighted bath for an
hour and a half, it slowly darkens to a nearly normal shade,
as the details come out more sharply. If the exposure has
been correctly made, there will be no trace of fog. With
stronger baths, the picture comes out in the normal time, and
has the normal shade.

If the pictures are too dense, the remedy is to reduce the
strength of the sodium carbonate solution, or to increase the
amount of hypo in the bath. Very fine results are obtained
with the sodium carbonate solution at half the strength given
in Cramer's formula.

When the plate has been sufficiently exposed, a negative
of the object can usually be seen upon the plate before
development. With long exposure this image is very distinct.
It fades out in the bath, and the plate becomes clear. The
shadows appear strongly but indistinctly at first, and of a pink
color, and the high lights still appear white. The solution
remains clear. Too much hypo will cause turbidity and a
loss of detail.

When the plate is exposed in a printing frame under either
a negative or a positive, an exposure of half a minute to dif-
fuse daylight is ample, with an ordinary negative. The
plate may be overexposed by placing it for a long time in
direct sunlight, and it will then appear on development some-
what like an overexposed negative. This has not yet been
tried with hypo in the bath.

Professor Nipher showed a preliminary diagram in which
exposure and illumination of the developing bath were taken

lxvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

as co-ordinates. The zero condition was represented by a line,
and the conditions for producing direct and reversed pictures
were represented by areas.

He also exposed and developed > in a common bath, in the
lighted audience room, negatives printed from negatives, and
positives printed from positives.

The value of radio-active substances acting upon the
developing plate in place of or in addition to light was
referred to as a most promising field for study.

Professor Nipher stated that he had done no work with the
plates of other makers, since he found on trial that one such
plate did not give good results with the treatment that had
succeeded with the Cramer plates.

Mr. H. J. Gerling, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

Three persons were proposed for active membership.

Reports of Officers for the Year 1900.
Submitted January 8, 1900.

The President addressed the Academy as follows : —

Members of the Academy: In rising to accept the honor which you have
again conferred upon me in electing me President of the Academy, I would
take the opportunity to make a few remarks upon the work which the Acad-
emy has attempted to do during the past year.

It is needless for me to say that the general policy of the Academy which
has been followed for several years past has also been followed during the
year which has just closed. No new departures have been attempted, partly
because the policy which we had been following was thought to be a good
one, ;md partly because we were restricted in our facilities and opportuni-
ties for attempting new work.

All of the meetings of the Academy which have been assigned by the
Council at the beginning of the j-ear have been held upon the dates appointed,
to the number of sixteen. The record shows that the attendance at the
meetings has been better than in any previous year. I think this fact is
siguiiicant in showing that the Academy is gradually beginning to interest a
larger constituency, and it is important that such means should be taken by
the Council as to continually enlarge that constituency, because it is from
those interested in the Academy's work that we must expect to derive our
sustenance.

Record. lxvii

Papers and addresses of scientific interest have been presented at each
meeting of the Academy. The value of these papers it is, of course, very
difficult to estimate, but the estimation in which they have b« en he d is in-
dicated to some extent by the comments which have been made upon them
in the scientific press throughout the world, and also by the attention which
they have attracted not only in St. Louis but elsewhere in this country and
in Europe. A number of the papers presented have been thought by the
Council worthy of publication in the Transactions, and I am again happy to
announce that the Council has been able to follow out the plan inaugura ed
a year or two ago, of publishing a volume during each year. During the
past year we have publ shed a volume of the Transactions, numbering ap-
proximately three hundred and fifty pages, illustrated with a large number
of plates, and containing ten numbers. The present volume, which is the
tenth of the Academy's publication, will contain, besides the usual matter,
a classified table of the contents of all the ten volumes which have already
been published, which will serve to make the contents of the earlier
volumes more easily accessible.

We have before us many of the problems which were before us at this
time last year. The Librarian has informed you of the increase in the
library, which we consider one of our most valuable assets at present.
The library now numbers 13,624 volumes and 9,869 pamphlets. It is
housed, as you know, in the upper floor of this building: it should not be
housed there. The necessity for a fire proof building in which the lbrary
can be preserved becomes y< ar by year more imperative. It would be a
disgrace to the city of St Louis if by any accident that library were to be
destroyed. Yet we find it at present impossible to make other provision
for the storing of the library, because of lack of funds. Any effort, there-
fore, which can be made on the part of members of the Academy to enlist
public interest in securing a fire-proof home for the Academy and its col-
lections should be encouraged, and should be put forth at every opportunity.
Another thing which the library is in need of is a catalogue. At present
the knowledge of the contents of the library is contained only in
the head of the Librarian, so far as I am able to ascertain, and,
while the books are reasonably accessible, it is impossible to ascertain what
the library contains on any particular subject without going through a con-
siderable amount of labor. Now. the making of a catalogue will involve
considerable labor, and consequently consid' rable expense, and I desire to
urge upon the Council the consideration of ways and means by which this
can be accomplished, even if we do not find it feasible to move the library
to a safer place.

We have, as you have heard, made an addition to the collections of the
Academy, this year, which is quite exceptional. We have thought it best
to purchase the Yandell collection of crinoids, corals, mollusks, Crustacea
and other fossil specimens. This collection, I may say, was made by Dr.
Yandell, of Louisville, Kentucky, who was an associate of Dr. Shumard,
whose name the St. Louis Academy always delights to honor as one of its
early Presidents and one of its most enthusiastic workers. The collection
consists of several thousand specimens, of which perhaps one third are
crinoids. It is especially rich in crinoids of the Devonian age and many rare
types contained in the collection are described in Volume I of the Trans-

Lxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

actions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis in an article by Yandell and
Shumard, and others in the Contributions to the Geology of Kentucky, pub-
lished somewhere about 1847; and I am informed by persons who are
capable of judging of the scientific value of the collection that it is prob-
ably one of the best of its kind, if not the best, in this country. It is also
an interesting fact, in connection with the acquisition of this collection,
that the Shumard collection, to which this is complementary, is in the
possession of Washington University, thus making both collections ac-
cessible in St. Louis to any student in that line of research. The acquisi-
tion of this collection again emphasizes the need of a flre- proof building.

I desire to state, for your information the terms on which the collection
was secured. It was purchased from the widow of Dr. Yandell, for $1 ,000.
Of this amount, a quarter, that is, $250, was paid as a cash payment, and this
$250 has already been subscribed by members and friends of the Academy.
Three notes were given, authorized by the Council au'l signed by the officers,
payable respectively in one, two and three years, for $250 each. It is earn-
estly hoped that the members of the Academy will interest themselves in
securing subscriptions during the year to enable the Academy to pay these
notes as they mature, without encroaching on the current funds of the
Academy, which are needed for current expenses, of which we have only
too many.

I have very little more to say with reference to the actual work of the
Academy. I do, however, wish to congratulate the Academy upon the quality
and the quantity of the work which it has been doing during the past year,
under great difficulties and with very limited means. It is very desirable
that the membership of the Academy should be largely and speedily incr ased.
The increase in membership during the past year has been considerable.
You have heard from the report of the Treasurer that 59 new members have
joined the Academy. The present membership is 286, an increase over the
membership a this time last year of 33. I will call your attention again to
the remarks which I made at the last annual meeting of the Academy, which
you will find published at the end of the last volume of the Academy's Trans-
actions, with reference to the persistence of the members in the Academy's
list. We find by studying the record that, while new members join in con-
siderable numbers, on the average they do not remain with the Academy a
very long time; consequently, unless we have a continuous flow of new
members, the supply is likely to be soon exhausted, and, since we are com-
pelled to depend almost wholly upon the dues which members pay in order
to meet our current expenses, it is easy to see that, unless effort is made to
keep the membership up, it will not be possible to continue very long the
work of publication of the Transactions on the scale on which it has been
undertaken. On the other hand, I am happy to be able to say that we have
more members of The Academy of Science of St. Louis to-day than ever
before in its history, and I think that with the same effort that has been
made that number will continually grow. I only wish to urge upon you the
necessity of earnest and continuous effort in this direction.

Record. lxix

The Treasurer reported as follows: —

RECEIPTS.

Balance from 1899 #2.239 13

Interest on invested money 347 07

Membership dues 1,565 00

Invested capital returned 1,400 CO

$5,551 20

EXPENDITURES.

Rent $337 50

Current expenses , 230 46

Publication of Transactions 1,053 05

Reinvestment of capital 3,479 S3

Balance to 1901 450 26

$5,551 20

INVESTED FUND.

Invested on security $6,500 00

The Librarian reported that during 1900 exchanges had
been received from 274 societies, of which 17 were new; and
three of the institutions formerly carried on the exchange list
were reported as extinct. In all, 848 numbers were reported
as having been added to the library, an increase of 103 as
compared with the preceding year. It was reported that
during the year the Transactions of the Academy had been
distributed to 552 societies or institutions, chiefly by way of
exchange or donation.

Ln

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. X. No. 1.

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN AND ON

THE RELATIVE AGES OF THE STARS

AND NEBULAE.

T. J. J. SEE.

Issued February 5, 1900.

MAY 1 1900

ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN AND ON
THE RELATIVE AGES OF THE STARS AND
NEBULAE*

T. J. J. See.

Part First.

on the gravitational theory of the sun's heat.

1. The Theory of Helmholtz for the Condensation of a
Sphere of Uniform Density.

On the occasion of the Kant Commemoration at Konigs-
berg, Feb. 7, 1854, Helmholtz delivered a popular address on
the Interaction of Natural Forces, which contained the first
application of the mechanical theory of heat to the radiation
of the sun. In such a public discourse obviously nothing but
the results of the calculations could be announced, as the
mathematical methods involved are much too abstruse for
a general audience ; and hence in the Populare Vortrage
there are no indications of the processes by which the com-
putations were made. This justly celebrated address was
deemed worthy of translation and republication in the Philo-
sophical Magazine for 1856, p. 516; and fortunately in this
English edition the great physicist was induced to give the
rigorous formulae used in deriving the numerical results.

The problem is: To find the heat developed by the condensa-
tion of a homogeneous sphere under the influence of its own
gravitation.

The potential of a homogeneous sphere upon a unit mass at
its surface is

4 i?3

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, March
30, 1899.

2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The mass of a spherical shell of density a and thickness
dR is

tiroffldR.

The potential of the sphere upon the matter of the sur-
rounding shell of thickness dR, is therefore

dT = | 7r<rR2A7rffR2dR ( 2 )

Now suppose we regard i? as variable, and find the integral
of the successive elements of the potential of the sphere upon
itself, when the radius changes from 0 to R. This will give
the potential of each succeeding sphere upon its surface, or in
the limit the potential of the sphere upon itself.

r = ^r ( <j*B*dR. (3)

~0

As the attraction of a homogeneous spherical shell with re-
spect to points within is zero, we may disregard the action of
any layer upon the inclosed sphere, and consider merely the
action of the successive spheres upon their surfaces ; the re-
sult will be the potential of the sphere upon itself, and cor-
respond to the total energy given up by the particles in
condensing from infinity. Accordingly when a is constant,
Ave have

-^-vj«a-!e— )(S~f)-S?- W

Hence the theorem : The potential of a homogeneous sphere
upon itself is equal to three- fifths of the square of the mass
divided by the radius.

If masses are expressed in grammes instead of in astronom-
ical units, equation (4) must be multiplied by the gravitation
constant r, the value of which may be determined in terms
of any special case of attraction. Thus let g be the accelera-

See — Temperature of the Sxtn and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 3

tion due to gravitation, or the weight of a gramme, at the
earth's surface, let m and r represent respectively the mass

and radius of the earth ; then a = r— . The value of F from

r2

this equation in (4) gives

3 M2 r*g

5~R~^nT' (5)

which is an equation of great importance.

Although the figures of the planets of the solar s}'stem and
doubtless of the stars in general are probably spheroids of
revolution, we may here treat them approximately as spheres.
If we suppose the particles of the sun or of a planet to be
scattered throughout immensity, and to condense gradually
into a small globular mass such as we now observe, it is evi-
dent that the work of condensation for any particle of the
globe will be equal to the potential of the corresponding con-
centric sphere upon a particle at its surface. Thus the total
work of condensation is equal to the potential of the sphere
upon itself. For any planet we have

3 M'* r2g

]' ~ 5 ~W^m~ (6>

Comparing (o) and (6) we get

v w M2 M'2

1 ■ } = R'1F (7)

Therefore the potentials of two homogeneous spheres upon

themselves are to each other as — to - — r. Accordingly, in

R R

the solar system the potentials of the planets upon them-
selves are very small compared to that of the sun upon itself.
Thus in the case of the largest planet, Jupiter,

M' = 1047J57 M> R = W aDd

= 10 (1047.37) ' ~ 109708.4 r*

4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

And hence we see that in condensing from a state of infinite
expansion the planet Jupiter has developed less than TooVmrth
part of the heat produced by the condensation of the sun.
From this it is obvious that the sum of the potentials of all
the other planets upon themselves is very much smaller than
that of Jupiter alone ; and as the potential of the sun upon
itself is uncertain b}r at least twice the potential of Jupiter
upon itself, we may regard the potential of the sun upon
itself as furnishing sensibly all the energy developed by the
solar nebula in condensing from a state of infinite expansion.
Accordingly, having shown that (5) will give the total work
of condensation of the solar nebula, we may now express the
resulting energy in heat units.

To elevate the temperature of a mass M of specific heat C,
0 degrees centigrade, we require an amount of heat M^0.

We shall express the mechanical equivalent of the unit of
heat by Ag, in which A is the altitude through which a kilo-
gramme must fall, and g is the force of gravity. In French
measure Ag will be 424 Kilogrammeters. Then the resulting
heat developed by the falling mass will correspond to the
work, and we shall have

W=M:dAg. (8)

We may put Y for W, and then for the condensation of
the sun we shall have

3 M2 r2g
r=M!0Ag = sfit <9>

Accordingly,

3 M rl 1 ,tA,

d=5RmA! (10)

To determine 0 numerically, we make use of the following
values : —

M = 330,000,

7)1 = 1 ,

A = 424, (metres)

r = 6,378,190,
72 = 697,235,650, "
C =)1 (water).
Then

0 = 27,246,740° C. (11)

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 5

Hence we conclude that in condensing from infinity to its
present dimensions the total heat developed by a homogene-
ous sun would raise the temperature of an equal mass of
water about 27 million degrees centigrade. As the mean
distance of Neptune is equal to about 6570 of the present
radii of the sun, we see by formula (10) that in condensing
from infinity to the orbit of the outermost planet, only ^nth
part as much heat was produced as has been developed since.

According to the best available authorities the masses of
the planets are as indicated in the following table : —

Name.
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

Mass in Units

of the Sun's Mass.

Authority.

i

7 6 3 6 4 4 0

Von Asten.

1
4 0 18 4 7

Leverrier.

1
3 3 0 0 0 0

Newcomb.

1
3,0 9 3,5 0 0

Hall.

1
10 4 7.37

Hill and Newcomb

1

3 50 1.6

Bessel.

1

2 2 8 0 0

Hill.

1

1 9 4 0 0

See.

If we add all these masses together we shall find the total
to be YTini th that of the sun. The masses of the comets and
asteroids are so small that we might neglect them altogether.
For according to a determination recently made by Mr.
Rossel of the Johns Hopkins University the combined masses
of three hundred or more of the larger asteroids is less than
one-eighth that of our moon. Taking therefore the nearest
whole number we may assign the sun 746 times the mass of
all the other bodies of the planetary system. Thus if we
desire to find out the temperature to which a mass equal to
the whole solar system would be raised we must multiply the
value of 6 in (11) by -fff, which will produce only a slight
change.

If instead of supposing the particles of the sun to condense
from infinite expansion we take a large primitive exterior
radius i?0, the formula for the elevation of temperature
becomes

6 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

where Ii0 and R1 are the successive radii to which the mass
has shrunk. This may be put into the form

6' ~ 5 m A

1 *o*

(12)

For the case of a nebula filling the orbit of Neptune and
then shrinking to the present dimensions of the sun, we note
that i?0 = 6570 7?; and hence we may conclude that if the
primitive nebula extended only to the limits of the planetary
system the above value of 6 in (11) would have to be dimin-
ished by about one six-thousandth part. Therefore we see that
nearly all the heat of the sun has been developed since the
primitive nebula attained the dimensions of the solar system .
The following table shows the amount of heat developed by
the solar nebula (assumed to be homogeneous) at different
stages of its contraction.

Planetary orbit to
L which the nebula
has shrunk.

Radius in units of
the sun's radius.

Tomperature 0 to
which aqueous
globe of same
mass as the sun
would be raised
by the heat.

Part of total energy
developed by the
homogeneous
solar nebula.

6570.

4200.

2089.

1139.

606.

334.

219.

158.

85.

50.

40.

30.

20.

10.

5.

2.

1.

4,147.

6,487.

13,043.

23,923.

44,960.

81,577.

124,410.

172,440.

320,550.

544,934.

681,168.

908,224.

1,362,336.

2,724,672.

5,449,344.

13,623,360.

27,246,720.

-6570

-4200

- 2089

- 1139

-606

-334

- 219

- 158

-85

50 Radii

-50

40 "

- 40

30 "

- 30

20 "

- 20

10 •<

10

5 »<

- 5

2 "

- 2

1 "

- 1

The table shows clearly that the principal part of the sun's
heat was developed at a late stage of its contraction. Thus

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 7

the amount of heat developed before the nebula came within
the orbit of Mercury is only -girth part of the total produced
up to the present time. We see by this example an emphatic-
indication that nebulae radiate very little heat compared to
that given out in the stellar stage of evolution ; and hence it
is easy to infer the production of a vast amount of heat in
the last stages of contraction. If in (11) we differentiate d
with respect to R we shall have

dd

3 M r2

1

dR

IW m

AZ

dd

a

dR

E*

or

(13)

7/3

By this formula we see that when R is very small, — - be-

dR

comes very large ; and the production of heat for a given

change of R becomes a maximum when R is a minimum.

As no physical mass can have a radius infinitely small, it

follows that the output of heat for a given change of R

can never become infinite.

If we apply formula (12) we may determine the amount
of heat generated by the sun in contracting one ten-thou-
sandth part of its present radius ; and we find 6' — 2725° C.

Thus a contraction of To,"o-oofch Pai't m the radius of the
sun supposed homogeneous, or 69723 metres, would produce
an amount of heat sufficient to elevate the temperature of a
corresponding mass of water 2725° C.

Some sixty years ago Pouillet found by experiments on
solar radiation that the amount of heat annually lost by the
sun would raise the temperature of such a mass of water
1.25 degrees centigrade. On this basis a shrinkage of one
ten-thousandth part of the radius would sustain the present
radiation for 2180 years. More recent determinations of
solar radiation, especially those made by Langley, increase
the amount of heat by one-fourth or one-fifth, and hence it
is probable that the above duration should be multiplied by
% or f . If in like manner we divide 27246740 by 1.5, which
seems to be a fair modern estimate of the temperature through

8 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

which an equal mass of water would be elevated by the heat
annually lost by the sun, we shall obtain about eighteen mill-
ion years as the past duration of the sun's heat, computed on
the hypothesis of homogeneous density and uniform radia-
tion.

It will of course be understood that the heterogeneity of
the actual sun renders this result merely an approximation to
the phenomenon of nature. The potential upon itself of a
sphere whose density increases towards the center is greater
than if the mass be homogeneous by an amount correspond-
ing to the potential energy given up by the particles of a
homogeneous sphere in falling towards the center to produce
the heterogeneous one. Thus the past duration of the sun is
really much greater than is indicated by the hypothesis of
homogeneity, as will be shown in the next section.

Let us now consider the energy of the motions of the
planets. The vis viva of motion of revolution about the sun

1

of any body of mass m', is ~ m' v'2, where v is the velocity;

and hence if Ek denotes the kinetic energy of a planet we
shall have Ek= ~ m'v'2.

If Ep be the potential energy, and the system be supposed
to be a conservative one, as if composed of rigid bodies re-
volving in empty space, we shall have a constant C ' = Ep-\- Ek.
In the planetary system the orbits are of course somewhat
eccentric. It is evident that for any planet Ek is a maximum
at perihelion and a minimum at aphelion, while the potential
energy is just the reverse at the two points. The general
formula for the velocity of a planet * is

where k is the Gaussian constant, r' the radius vector, and ar
the semi-axis major of the orbit. From this formula we see
that if r' — 2a', the velocity is zero, and all of the energy of

* cf. Watson's Theoretical Astronomy, p. 49; or any work ou Celestial
Mechanics.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 9

the planet becomes potential energy. Thus the velocity at
any instant is equivalent to that which would be produced
by letting the planet fall to its position from rest at a dis-
tance 2a'.

Substituting this value of v', we have

Mt=\mV (l + »') (p—s) <15>

In astronomical units k2 expresses the mass of the sun and
Wm' the mass of the planet. Using M for k2 in this formula
we may write

B. = M* 0, - l~a) + »" 0 - £p) (16)

Now suppose the planet at perihelion to touch the surface
of the sun ; then r = R, and Ek will become a maximum.
The second term of ( 16) is very small on account of the factor
m'2; and therefore may be disregarded. In the remaining

term the part depending on — is small compared to that de-

a
1

pending on „, and thus we have approximately

Mm'
~R

Ek = ^ (17)

Comparing this expression with (4) we see that

Ek: r=5m' : ZM. (18)

But Ek is the vis viva of a single planet only, and hence we
shall have

» =* -F-l - * = n K 1

i= 1 * = 1

and thus for the solar system

i = S

yi. = -Lr (19)

^ kl 447.6 v }

i — 1

10 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

We conclude therefore that if all the planets fell into the
sun they could not maintain his heat for a great length of

time, since ^^ Eki is small compared to Y. We may observe

i = I

that by the previous suppositions E ,. has been made to assume
very nearly the value of C, as the neglected value of Ep is
very small.

But in order to estimate the total kinetic energy we should
take account of the rotations of the sun and planets and of the
orbital motions of the satellites.

The energ}' of rotation of the satellites and of their orbital
motions is relatively insensible, and we may also disregard the
rotations of the planets ; but an accurate estimate of the en-
ergies of the planetary system would require us to consider
the energy of the sun's rotation. The moment of inertia of
the sun depends upon the law of density, and unfortunately
this can be inferred only approximately from certain hy-
potheses resulting from the theory of gases. Accordingly, it
does not seem worth while to pursue further the subject of
the energy of solar rotation.

We have seen that a contraction of 69723 metres in the
sun's radius, the mass being supposed of homogeneous den-
sity, would maintain the observed radiation for 2180 years,
or that an annual shrinkage of 35 metres per year would
account for the observed output of light and heat.* Such a
rate of contraction would affect the diameter of the sun less
than a tenth of a second of arc in a thousand years, and
would be wholly inappreciable during the period covered by
exact observations. The fact that ancient and modern eclipses
are sensibly of the same duration, taken in conjunction with

* Ritter has computed this annual shrinkage on the supposition that the
mass is heterogeneous and in convective equilibrium; and finds a value of
about 90 metres. If, therefore, the density follows the laws treated in the
next section, the shrinkage in the sun's diameter would be less than six-
tenths of a second of arc since the days of Hipparchus. Were even the
most refined measures available for the whole of this period, there would
still be no hope of confirming the shrinkage by observations made within
historical time.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 11

the substantial constancy of the moon's mean distance, assures
us that no considerable alteration in the diameter of the sun's
globe has occurred within historical time. The essential con-
stancy of solar radiation for the last two thousand years is
well established by the observed conformit}' of the modern
distribution of plants and animals with those recorded by Pliny
and Theophrastus. It seems reasonable to assume that no
cause but gravitational shrinkage as explained by Helmholtz,
would be adequate to secure this perfect uniformity of light and
heat for so great a period of time ; and hence we need not dis-
cuss the other hypotheses which have been proposed to account
for solar radiation, and which are now generally abandoned by
astronomers.

2. An Extension of Helmholtz 's Theory to the Case of a
Heterogeneous Sphere made up of Layers of Uniform Density,
witlt Considerations respecting the Age of the Sun .

We have seen that when the sun's globe is taken to have a
uniform density, the total available energy supply could
not maintain radiation at its present rate for more than some
18 millions of years. Though the actual radiation of the sun
has undoubtedly been more or less variable, we shall for the
sake of measurement consider it to have gone on uniformly at
its present rate, and investigate the past duration of the sun's
heat on the supposition that the density of the mass increases
towards the center in accordance with the curves found by
our countryman Lane, just thirty years ago, from the hy-
pothesis of a gaseous mass in convective equilibrium. As a
careful examination of the theory of Lane has disclosed no
appreciable defects, it will be permissible to adopt the curves
which he has given in the American Journal of Science for
Jul}7,* 1870. These curves are reproduced in the accom-
panying plate.

* On the Theoretical Temperature of the Sun on the hypothesis of a gaseous
mass maintaining its volume by internal heat, and depending on the laios of
gases as known to terrestrial experiment, by J. Homer Lane, of Washington,
D. C. Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Apr. 16, 1869.

12

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

m

m

mwmmmmmm'mmwwmmm
M®mmmmmmm%mmmmw m
m^mmmmmmmmmmmmmm

m

mm

Km

Bkmmmmmmmmmmwmmmm
m\

SS^iln^iiuiisiB«Eiffii

■npiBUiauUHH!!

CO

Explanation. — Atm., Assumed theoretic upper limit of atmosphere;
Phot., Photosphere; C.T.K. = If, Arbitrary Curve of temperature for k =
15; C.T.K. = 1*4, Arbitrary Curve of temperature for k= 1-4; C.D.K. = 14,
Absolute Curve of density for A; = 1*4 ; C.D.K. = 1|, Absolute density for
*=1|.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 13

Lord Kelvin has computed these curves by a process differ-
ent from that employed by Lane, and finds the density of the
center of the sun about 32 times that of water. This result
is based on the supposition that k = 1.4, as in common air,
and most terrestrial gases. The rise in temperature near the
center of the sun is quite as remarkable as the increase in
density. If all the radiation comes from the photosphere,
which Lane assumes to have a depth equal to one twenty-
third part of the radius, the central temperature would be
about 32 times that of the radiating layer ; and if the effective
temperature of the photosphere betaken at 8000° C. (as found
experimentally by Wilson and Gray, Phil. Trans., 1894), we
shall be led to conclude that the central temperature is ap-
proximately 256000°C. Though a temperature of a quarter
of a million degrees at the center of the sun is not improbable,
we find it very difficult to appreciate its physical significance.

We shall now investigate the effects of an increase of
density towards the center on the potential of the sphere
upon itself. The surrounding shell is supposed to have the
density X, and hence the element of the potential is

4 B3
dY = ^Tr<j fi-4ir\R2dB (20)

The density of a gaseous heavenly body which has attained a
state of bodily equilibrium undoubtedly increases rapidly
towards the center, and in general is a function of the radius.
It thus happens that the bodies of gaseous stars and planets
are made up of successive layers of uniform density. And
since a spherical shell of uniform density exercises no attrac-
tion upon the particles within, the determination of the
potential upon itself of such a heterogeneous sphere requires
us to consider merely the action of each successive sphere
upon its surface layer. If therefore we integrate equation
(20) we shall find the amount of energy given up by the
particles of a heterogeneous sphere in falling together from
infinite expansion.

M

16tt2 C

XR'dR (21)

0

14 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

In the general ease we have a = 'I'' ( R), X = tp (/?), but as
the forms of these functions are very complicated it is not
easy to evaluate this integral except by some convenient pro-
cess of mechanical quadrature. In his paper on the Theoreti-
cal Temperature of the Sun, Lane has developed X in a con-
verging series which enable us to find its numerical value for
any argument with moderate facility. It is evident that at
the center of the sun X0 = <r0, and at the surface \= 0.

Now suppose we express the density of the shell in units
of the mean density of the sun, which is about 1.4 that of
water, and from a table of X; in which R, is the argument.
Then Lane's work shows that X} will vary from XQ = 20.06,
at the center, to X; = 0, at the theoretical upper limit
of the solar atmosphere. On the same basis *, will vary
from 20.06 to 1. The function a^ is therefore finite and
continuous from R — 0, to R = Rt, at the surface of the
sun. If the sun's radius be divided into i equal parts, the
functions ^ may be computed by the formula:

%\ + °i\ + °A + •••• + 0i\

_ /0/v0 -r v^ t "2/*a -r t "t"t ^ 22 )

where 00, 0x0iy. .0i2xe the volumes of the central nucleus,
and of the successive shells by which it is surrounded ; X* be-
ing their several densities and Vi the volumes of the corre-
sponding enclosing spheres. In the case of the sun it was
deemed sufficient to divide the radius into forty equal parts ;
the following table gives the values of these several functions
as determined by computation.

See — Temperature of the Sim and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 15

R'i

0\

'i

0{k{

*i

log <r, /}

log (i^-i?U)

r 15

0.25

0.0156

20.06

0.3129

20.06

2.604562

4.989700

0.4

0.50

0.1094

19.80

2.1661

19.83

2.594032

2.481062

11.9

0.75

0.297

19.32

5.7380

19.47

2.575408

1.313981

77.5

1.00

0.578

18.52

10.7046

18.92

2.544399

1.882351

267.1

1.25

0.953

17.62

16.7917

18.29

2.508134

0.312126

661.1

1.50

1.422

16.47

23.4203

17.52

2.460254

0.657245

1310.7

1.75

1.984

15.20

30.1568

16.66

2.403565

0.945437

2233.6

2.00

2.441

13.88

33.8811

15.40

2.329809

1.192760

3330.9

2.25

3.390

12.45

42.2055

14.52

2.257120

1.409347

4639.5

2.50

4.235

10.95

46.3732

13.55

2.171417

1.601961

5934.4

2.75

5.171

9.60

49.6416

12.57

2.081583

1.775397

7194.2

3.00

6.204

8.40

52.1136

11.61

1.989160

1.932727

8354.0

3.25

7.328

7.33

53.7142

10.70

1.894380

2.077695

9377.2

3.50

8.547

6.42

54.8717

9.85

1.800737

2.211198

10278.6

3.75

9.859

5.56

54.8160

9.05

1.701418

2.335170

10870.0

4.00

11.266

4.77

53.7388

8.28

1.597143

2.440903

10915.5

4.25

12.765

4.05

51.6982

7.69

1.487472

2.569404

11139.8

4.50

14.360

3.40

48.8240

6.93

1.371986

2.661540

10802.5

4.75

16.056

2.82

45.2779

6.31

1.250405

2.759991

10195.2

5.00

17.839

2.33

41.5649

5.75

1.126577

2.849372

9461.3

5.25

19.703

1.93

37.8298

5.22

1.001264

2.936195

8658.6

5.50

21.672

1.56

33.8083

4.75

0.869472

3.018907

7733.5

5.75

23.734

1.28

30.3795

4.31

0.742036

3.097826

6916.1

6.00

25.891

1.04

27.9666

3.92

0.610973

3.173325

6085.5

$.25

28.140

0.84

23.6376

3.57

0.476973

3.245701

5280.5

6-50

30.485

0.68

20.7298

3.25

0.344310

3.315155

4565.3

6.75

32.920

0.56

18.4352

2.96

0.219701

3.381978

3996.5

7. CO

35.455

0.45

15.9548

2.70

0.084883

3.446281

3397.5

7.25

38.078

0.35

13.3273

2.47

9.936220

3.508318

2783.2

7.60

40.797

0.27

11.0162

2.25

9.784404

3.568199

2262.2

7.75

44.609

0.21

9.3679

2.06

9.636795

3.626120

1832.0

8.00

46.516

0.16

7.4426

1.89

9.480683

3.682123

1454.8

8.25

49.515

0.13

6.4370

1.73

9.353294

3.736410

1229.4

8.50

52.610

0.10

5.2610

1.59

9.202794

3.789044

981.4

8.75

55.796

0.08

4.4637

1.47

9.070091

3.840124

813.8

9.00

59.079

0.06

3.5447

1.35

8.910009

3.889776

630.6

9.25

62.453

0.046

2.8728

1.25

8.760181

3.937998

499.1

9.50

65.922

0.033

2.1754

1.16

8.582145

3.984956

369.1

9.75

69.484

0.020

1.3897

1.07

8.331424

4.030661

230.2

10.00

73.141

0.008

0.5851

1.00

7.900754

4.075183

94.6

176868.

The potential of the solar sphere upon itself * is given by

16tt2 f ™,„ 16tt2
-y- I aXRhlR = -g-

^V^X. I R*dR
7?

^0X0i?05 + rr1X1 ( R* - i?e5 ) + *2X2 ( Rj> - R* )

+

+ <7

M&i+i-**i)}<**)

* Cf. Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3586.

16 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

When i = oo this approximate expression becomes rigor-
ously exact. In the simple case of homogeneity considered
by Helmholtz, namely,

R

■fi

tto1—. liraRHR = - ^,
R h R

0

we have shown that all the energy developed by the falling
together of the particles of the sun would raise the tempera-
ture of an aqueous globe of the same mass 27,246,720° C.
The above integration for the heterogeneous sun shows that
it has given up energy greater than that of a corresponding
homogeneous sphere in the ratio of 176,868 to 100,000. As
the development of energy found by Helmholtz would main-
tain the observed radiation for about eighteen million years,
it follows that if we suppose the sphere investigated by him
to have afterwards passed into the actual sun by most of the
particles falling towards the center, the energy thereby de-
veloped would have maintained the observed radiation through
an additional period of 13,936,240 years. This considerable
augmentation of the sun's past longevity diminishes corre-
spondingly the duration which may be set for his future supply
of light and heat.

Shrinkage of the sun's radius to one-half and one-third its
present value respectively, would, by the theory of Helmholtz,
double and treble the amount of heat produced in condensa-
tion. If the actual sun were homogeneous and had already
lost but eighteen million years of energy measured by the
present standard output, it would follow that when the diam-
eter has shrunk to one-half and one-third its present value,
the total resulting output would last thirty-six and fifty -four
million years respectively.

Those who have studied the physics of the sun incline to
the belief that contraction can hardly continue unchecked *

* Molecular forces may resist compression, yet they do not diminish the
total energy given up by the condensation of the mass. If the resisting
forces become so strong that the body no longer behaves as a perfect gas ,
the shrinkage might go on so slowly that cooling would take place.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 17

by molecular forces after the radius has shrunk to one-half its
present value, which would give an average density of 11.2,
and certainly not after the radius has shrunk to one-third of
its present value, which would give a mean density of 37.8.
From these considerations it seems certain that if the total
available supply of energy exceeds the output of thirty-six
million years, measured by the present standard, it must
necessarily fall short of one extending over fifty-four million
years.

The calculation of an energy supply furnishing uniform
radiation at the present rate for thirty-six million years, seems
to the author a just estimate of the total available energy
of the sun.

It this be adopted, it will follow from the above calculation
that light-ninths of the sun's available energy has ah'ea<ly
been expended. This conclusion is based upon the assump-
tions —

(1.) That the sun's mass is gaseous and the density follows
the curve found by Lane.

(2.) That shrinkage will essentially cease when the globe
has attained the average density of 11.2.

(3.) That the ratio of the specific heat of the solar gas
under constant pressure to that of the gas under constant
volume is 1.4, as in common air and most terrestrial gases;
and moreover that the average specific heat of the sun's mass is
not enormously great, so that the latent heat of cooling would
become a great source of energy after shrinkage has entirely
ceased.

The justice of all these hypotheses may not be perfectly-
obvious, yet it is difficult to see how the first two can be
called into question.

The matter composing the body of the sun is much above
the critical temperatures of all known substances and thus is
necessarily in a gaseous state, though in the nucleus it may
be so far condensed under the enormous pressure to which it
is subjected as to act like a solid or fluid of great viscosity.
On the other hand even though the central density be 28
times that of water, while the photosphere is rarer than the
terrestrial atmosphere, it is hardly conceivable that appreci-

18 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

able shrinkage can go on after the average density of the
globe has increased to eight times its present value. For the
resistances due to molecular repulsive forces must tend to
overcome gravitational pressure, and at length render further
contraction impossible. If this state be not completely real-
ized when the sun's radius has shrunk to one-half its present
value, it must yet be so fully attained in the greater part of
the body of the sun that what further shrinkage is possible
in the external layers will produce little available energy for
maintaining the sun's heat. As to the specific heat of the
sun we can only say that, with one unimportant exception,
water has the greatest specific heat of all known terrestrial
substances ; and it is not probable that the average specific
heats of the dense gases comprising the body of the sun can
be enormously greater than those of the corresponding gases
found upon our earth. Wherefore it is not easy to imagine
how our sun can long maintain its radiation after shrinkage
has entirely ceased.

Hitherto we have assumed that k = 1.4, as in common air
and most terrestrial gases. Though this value is based upon
the study of man}' gases under widely-varying conditions,
there are theoretical reasons for supposing a larger value
to correspond more closely with the state of things
existing in the body of the sun, where it is not improb-
able that many of the gases, disassociated by great
heat, behave as if monatomic. In such monatomic gases
where the energy is applied in the form of transla-
tional kinetic energy, and none goes to work done upon
the internal structure of the molecules themselves it is known
from Clausius' theory of the gases that h attains a maximum
value 1.66. In one well-known case this has been experi-
mentally confirmed by Professor Kundt, who found for the
vapor of Mercury, which on chemical ground is known to be
monatomic, the experimental value 1.66. In contrast to this
large value of le. some substances of complex molecular
structure give experimentally a very small value. Thus in
oil-of-turpentine vapor & is only 1.03. But it is not probable
that substances of such elaborate structure exist in the body
of the sun, where the intense heat necessarily renders com-

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 19

plex molecular structure difficult of formation. The curve
of density for k = 1.66, has been drawn by Lane, and the
corresponding integration for the potential of such a mon-
atomic sun upon itself is given in the following table : —

R{

0i

*i

OiXi

°i

log ffj X-x

Iog(^-i2i_x)

r 15

0.25

0.0156

5.08

0.0792

5.08

1.411464

4.989700

0.0

0.50

0.1094

5.07

0.5547

5.07

1.410119

2.481062

0.8

0.75

0.297

5.06

1.5028

5.06

1.408582

1.313981

5.3

1.00

0.578

5.04

2.9131

5.05

1.405704

7.882351

19.4

1.25

0.953

5.00

4.7650

5.03

1.400149

0.312126

51.6

1.50

1.422

4.94

7.0247

5.00

1.391782

0.657245

112.0

1.75

1.984

4.85

9.6224

4.94

1.379279

0.945437

211.2

2.00

2.441

4.72

11.5215

4.75

1.350446

1.192760

349.3

2.25

3.390

4.56

15.4584

4.69

1.330322

1.409347

549.1

2.50

4.235

4.37

18.5070

4.61

1.303685

1.601961

804.7

2.75

5.171

4.16

21.5114

4.50

1.271740

1.775397

1114.6

3.00

6.204

3.93

24.3817

4.36

1.234329

1.932727

1469.1

3.25

7.328

3.69

27.0403

4.22

1.192392

2.077695

1862.5

3.50

8.547

3.46

29.5726

4.07

1.148555

2.211198

2289.6

3.75

9.859

3.25

32.0418

3.92

1.104705

2.335170

2753.4

4.00

11.266

3.05

34.3613

3.76

1.059881

2.440903

3168.0

4.25

12.765

2.86

36.5079

3.61

1.014256

2.559404

3746.8

4.50

14.360

2.67

38.3412

3.46

0.966157

2.661540

4243.2

4.75

16.056

2.49

39.9794

3.31

0.917189

2.757991

4733.5

5.00

17.839

2.31

41.2081

3.17

0.865377

2.849372

5185.0

5.25

19.703

2.14

42.1644

3.04

0.812459

2.936195

5606.0

5.50

21.672

1.98

42.9106

2.89

0.758586

3.018907

5991.0

5.75

23.734

1.82

43.1959

2.76

0.701364

3.097826

6297.8

6.00

25.891

1.67

43.2380

2.63

0.642919

3.173325

6550.0

6.25

28.140

1.53

43.0545

2.50

0.583418

3.245701

6747.1

6.50

30.485

1.39

42.3742

2.38

0.519741

3.315155

6837.5

6.75

3-2.920

1.26

41.4792

2.26

0-454640

3.381978

6864.6

7.00

35.455

1.14

40.4187

2.14

0.388329

3.446281

6833.0

7.25

38.078

1.02

38.8396

2.03

0.316647

3.508318

6682.9

7.50

40.797

0.91

37.1253

1.92

0.243250

3.568199

6478.1

7.75

44.609

0.79

35.2411

1.82

0.157573

3.626120

6077.1

8.00

46.516

0.69

32.09 0

1.72

0.073584

3.682123

5697.8

8.25

49.515

0.58

28.7187

1.62

9.972034

3.736410

5110.3

8.5u

52.610

0.47

24.7267

1.52

9.853480

3.789044

4390.6

8.75

55.796

0.37

20.6445

1.42

9.721326

3.840124

3643.0

9.00

59.079

0.27

15.9518

1.33

9.554993

3.889776

2784.6

9.25

62.453

0.19

11.8661

1.24

9.371971

3.937998

2041.6

9.50

65.922

0.10

6.5922

1.15

9.061381

3.984956

1112.6

9.75

69.922

0.04

2.7794

1.07

8.630818

4.030661

458.6

10.00

73.141

0.01

0.7314

1.00

7.996092

4.075187

117.8

Z= 128990.

It will be seen that the density at the center is very much
smaller than in the case where k= 1.4, and of course the
potential of the whole mass upon itself is correspondingly less
exhausted. Thus the monatomic sun occupies a mean place

20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

between the Helmholtz homogeneous sun and the heterogene-
ous one already treated, in which k = 1.4. It appears that
the relative ages of the three suns, or the periods of time
during which they would furnish heat at the present rate, are
in the ratio of the numbers : —

100000: 128990: 176868.

(18,000,000): (23,218,200): (31,836,240).

On the supposition that k = 1.66, the sun could have sup-
plied light and heat at his present rate for over 23 million
years.

As this represents a less exhausted condition than that of
the heterogeneous sun first treated, it is clear that it has a
greater future duration. Thus the futures of the several suns
are as follows : —

( Homogeneous ) ( Heterogeneous ) ( Heterogeneous )
18,000,000: &=1.66 k =1.4

12,781,800: 4,163,760.

If we imagine that the density follows different laws accord-
ing to the temperatures in different parts of the sun, that
near the center agreeing approximately with the curve for
A =1.66, that near the surface conforming more nearly to
the curve for k = 1.4, we shall be led to conclude that the
future duration of the activity of the sun lies between four
and twelve million years. In no case can the available energy
furnish heat for a period exceeding twelve, while it probably
will not fall short of four, million years.

It thus appears that the sun may have radiated for thirty-
two millions of years ; but under no hypothesis of uniform
radiation can the age of the sun exceed some fifty millions
of years.

These conclusions necessarily curtail in a very marked de-
gree the periods hitherto assigned by geologists to the forma-
tion of the earth. Even if we suppose that the output of
solar energy in early ages was enormously less than that now
given out, and the period of time required for the expenditure
of the total amount correspondingly increased, we shall still

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 21

find it very difficult to imagine such a reduction in the output
as will give to the earth a Geological History approximating
500,000,000 years. Indeed it is hardly conceivable that the
period in question can surpass one-tenth of this figure, 50,-
000,000 years; and a shorter period for terrestrial Geological
History is to be anticipated. Since eight-ninths of the avail-
able energy of the sun is probably already exhausted, and
our future supply must be based upon the remaining ninth,
together with the latent heat of cooling, it seems fairly cer-
tain that the future of the sun's activity will be limited to a
few million years. Thus it is not likely that life such as now
exists upon our globe can be maintained by solar radiation
after the lapse of three million years.

Part Second.

on the theoretical distribution of density and tempera-
ture for a gaseous sun in convective equilibrium and
on the fundamental law of temperature for gaseous
celestial bodies.

The great pressure and temperature existing in the body of
the Sun naturally suggest to us interesting questions regard-
ing the physical condition and behavior of the matter of which
it is composed. As all experiments upon the earth are con-
ducted under conditions limited by the comparatively small
pressure and low temperature at our command, it is not easy
to infer from our experimental knowledge, obtained under
very restricted conditions, just how any kind of matter would
behave under the extreme conditions existing in the Sun.
Yet it is found that all bodies, however hard, and whether of
homogeneous structure, or made up of heterogeneous granula-
tions embedded in a matrix, under great pressure tend to
behave like fluids of great viscosity; and that with high
temperature all bodies become either liquid or gaseous. It
seems probable that the whole mass of the Sun is still gas-
eous ; for if any portion be liquid or quasi-solid like the lava
which issues from our volcanoes, it can only be that part
which is near the Sun's center. If the central nucleus has

22 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ceased to be gaseous, it must be on account of the immense
pressure to which it is subjected. Its high temperature will
tend to preserve the gaseous state, but in the condensation of
a mass like the Sun, a time must at length arrive when the
influence of pressure will become predominant. Liquids will
then begin to form, though they cannot solidify while the
temperature is still very high.

Accordingly, assuming in line with the best available evi-
dence that the body of the Sun is gaseous throughout, we
shall now treat of the theory of convective equilibrium, and
finally consider a very remarkable law of temperature, which
applies to all gaseous celestial bodies, and apparently throws
a new light on the processes by which the material universe
has reached its present condition. We have elsewhere* dis-
cussed the history of the discovery of this law, and as nothing
has since come to light to alter the statements then submitted,
we content ourselves with observing that considerable addi-
tional credit should be given to Ritter, with the contents of
whose researches the author was not acquainted at the time
of composing the former paper. Ritter appears to have been
the first investigator to arrive at the law treated in the con-
cluding part of this paper, but it received so little attention
from astronomers and other men of science that when the
present writer found the law independently and made it known
in the most learned circles, apparently no astronomer in this
country was acquainted with Ritter' s work. The importance
of his researches will be admitted by all who have read his
papers, but as some of his conclusions are contradicted by
well-established phenomena of the heavens, it is safe to assume
that a very cautious sifting of his results must be effected
before the truth can be arrived at. As the law of tempera-
ture announced in Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3585, has
an important bearing on astro-physical theories, and yet to
some minds presents difficulties which are greater than could
have been anticipated, and on that account has been exten-
sively discussed by astronomers, some denying the existence
of such a physical law, others alleging that it was known

* Astronomical Journal, No. 455.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebidae. 23

already, " though of course not in the shape of a formula in-
troducing the idea and symbol of absolute temperature," it
seems proper to offer, at this time, a connected view of the
whole question. How far the author had been anticipated in
the discovery of this law, and how he became acquainted with
Ritter's work after writing the article in A. N. 3585, has been
sufficiently set forth in the Astronomical Journal, No. 455.
But it should be added here that at the time of composing
that article, the writer was not aware of the existence of Bit-
ter's earlier paper in Wiedemann's Annalen for 1878, s. 543,*
in which he reached a formula and a number of conclusions
essentially identical with those recently published. The scien-
tific public will be able to judge how far these results of Hit-
ter were known among astro-physicists, and what influence,
if any, they had already exercised upon astronomical thought.
In the present paper, written since May 1, 1899, it is to be
understood that the author has availed himself freely of the
works of Hitter t as well as of those of Lane % and Lord
Kelvin. If

3. On the convective equilibrium of a gaseous mass.

Gaseous stars are continually losing heat by radiation,
and contracting in consequence of the loss of heat, thereby
wrowine- denser and hotter. In stars of mature age the
radiation is chiefly from the surface layers, and as these ex-
posed portions soon cool off, it is evident that the continuity
of the energy supply is maintained by the circulation of the
mass in a state of convective equilibrium. Accordingly, we
must explain the nature of the circulation and adiabatic con-
traction which sustains the steady light and heat of the stars.

Amass of g;is changes adiabatically when it neither gains nor
loses heat from contact with its surroundings, but expands
and contracts in such a way as to adjust itself to the condi-
tions which envelop it.

* Professor Nipher first called attention to this paper, in one of the im-
portant contributions which he recently submitted to the Academy on this
subject, Transactions, Vol. IX, No. 4.

f Wiedemann's Annalen, 1878 to 1882.

% American Journal of Science, July, 1870.

Tf Philosophical Magazine, 1887, p. 287.

24 Trans. Acad. Set', of St. Louis.

By the law of Mariotte, the volume and pressure of any
mass of gas are defined by the equation,

PV=NT (24)

where iVis a constant, and J^is a fixed absolute temperature.
By the law of Gay Lussac, the volume of the same mass of
gas under constant pressure is proportional to the absolute
temperature, and defined by the equation

PV=JSTT (25)

We shall assume that these laws, derived from terrestrial
experiments on many single and compound gases under
varied conditions, hold true also in the body of the Sun. A
quantity of heat dQ applied to any element of the Sun's mass
will do external work by expanding the volume (under con-
stant pressure) and internal work against resisting molecular
forces. Suppose A to be a constant, and let $ and V be
unknown functions of the volume and internal pressure re-
spectively. Then we shall evidently have the differential

equation,

dQ = A(*dP + WdV) (26)

If now we apply the heat to a unit volume of the gas under
constant pressure, we shall have

dQ = AvdV=zvdT (27)

where zp is the specific heat of the gas. Thus, under con-
stant pressure,

r dT

dT P

By the law of Gay Lussac in (25) we have ry = j^, and

hence

If now we suppose V constant, and apply the heat dQ to
the gas under constant volume, we shall have

dQ = A$dP = %vdT (30)

where Zv is the specific heat under constant volume.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 25

dT V

Since by (24) jp = -^r, we have

<P = AdP = A$: (31)

and thus (26) becomes

dQ = \\ VdP +? PdV I (32)

r
It is found by experiment that the ratio k = ^ = 1.4, in

common air and most terrestrial gases; but in monatomic
gases the value rises to 1.66, and in gases of very complex
molecular structure falls to 1.03, as in vapor of oil-of-turpen-
tine. Now suppose that the element of solar gas expands or
contracts adiabatically, so that no heat is gained or lost by it ;
then dQ = 0, and (32) becomes

dP , dV

-1j + !c^F = 0 (33)

which is the differential equation for the pressure and volume
of an element of the Sun's mass in convective equilibrium.
Integrating this equation for the changes undergone by the
element in passing from the states Pv F,, to P, V, we have

I dP l ? dV

(34)

Equation (34) thus gives

log P + k log V = log Px + k log V1% or

PV* = P1V* (35)

But since ^y — -> we mav write,

= '. c-r

(36)

26 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

P T P. Tx

With unit mass -r^ = -y , = -^ = 17 ' anc* we nave

27

If now the density of the Sun at the point ax be taken as
unity, Tx being the temperature of this point, we shall have
the important equation

T= Zy-1, (37)

by which the law of temperature can be determined as soon as
the law of density is known.

4. Determination of the law of density. If we denote by
in the mass included in the sphere of variable radius r, and
by M the total mass included in the sphere of radius R, and
by a the ratio of acceleration of gravity at the distances
r and R from the center respectively, we shall have

a =

mR2

(38)

Differentiating this equation with respect to r, we get

da _ R2 dm 2mR2
dr ~ M?~dr ~ Hfo* ' or

da _ R2 dm 2a

dr Mr2 dr r ^ '

If now we designate the mean density of the sphere of
radius R by a we shall have

Jf=-gTffi?3 (40)

The element of mass between the two sphere surfaces r and
r-\-dr is given by

dm — irar2dr (41)

Then by (40)

dm 3Mar2

dr ~ Rs5 V '

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebidae. 27

By means of this equation ( 39 ) takes the form

da 2a 3a „

— + — — —_= 0 (43)

dr r Ha

A well-known theorem in the Kinetic theory of gases states
that the internal heat of any element in convective equilibrium
is equivalent to the mechanical energy required to raise the ele-
ment to the limits of the atmosphere ; for the adiabatic com-
pression of the element from infinite expansion would develop
this amount of heat ; or an equivalent work would be done by
the particles if the mass were allowed to expand indefinitely,
as happens when the element circulates from a depth below
the surface to the limits of the atmosphere.

Thus if w denote the caloric equivalent of a kilogram-
meter, and dr the height of the atmosphere, we shall have the
following differential relation between the internal heat and
gravitational work upon a kilogramme of air: — ZpdT = wdr,
in which as before Kp is the specific heat of the gas under con-
stant pressure and dTh the change of absolute temperature.
When the kilogramme of air is elevated above the surface dr,
where the force of gravity is g', we shall have

— 'dl1=w2.dr=wadr (44)

9

The total amount of heat given up by the element in
ascending from the center of the sphere to the surface will be
given by

J>T nr = R

CpdT = w \adr = vB, (45)

T Jr = 0

where v is a small numerical coefficient, which must be
found by successive approximations. If the force of gravity
at the surface of the sphere were G = ftg we should have

CpdT=—wpadr, (46)

— 10/3 I adr =

,p770 = - 10/3 adr = wpvB (47)

28 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

o

dr ' vR

d2T T da

(48)

o

di'2 ' vR dr

(49)

The relation between density and temperature can be
deduced from the celebrated equation of Poisson,

P0 IT,
P

40 (50)

which may be put in the form

rp \2.44

f-S"

Substituting in (43) for a, ^r- and a their values given by

equations (51), (49), and (48), we have
vR d2T 2>R dT 3<r„ / T

2uR dT 3o0(Ty« _
+ Tnr -dr~+R^[Tj ~ "' (^

T dr2

Putting t=, = ? and yp = ??, this equation may be written

o

^.+1*1^ (53)

which is the form given by Ritter. We may determine
the three constants of this differential equation, as well as
the two constants of integration as follows. By the equation

4
M = 7, toR?, the constant a is to betaken as known, when
o

R and M are given, as we here assume; and the value r = R,

c = 1, corresponds to a = 1, and by equation (48)

dT _ T\_ dy 1_

dr vR ' dz v '

Thus the constant v is equivalent to the negative reciprocal
dr}

value of tt for £ = 1. Moreover, T = 0, and ?? = 0, for

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 29
c = 1. The value r = 0, or £ = 0, corresponds to the value

a = 0, and hence by (48) -77 = 0, or -p. = 0. Finally,

T= r0,ori7= 1, for £ = 0.

If now we seek to find the law, according to which I and rj
change, and represent the result by a curve which is corrected
by successive approximations till it satisfies the above differ-
ential equation in all its points, we shall have the following
numerical values, computed by Ritter : —

s- = 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

17 = 1 0.95 0.83 0.68 0.52 0.38 0.27

0.18 0.10 0.045 0.

The constants y = 2.4, and -= = 23.

o

By means of these results and equations (51 ) and (48) we

a
derive the curves which — > and a represent geometrically.

" "j " '

r~ikj &i,v-1

' 0

r

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1,0

"- = 1

0.88

0.64

0.39

0.20

0.10

1

ao

0.040

0.015

0.0038

0.00054

0.

a = 0

2.1

3.5

3.9

3.6

3.2

2.5

2

1.6

1.2

1.

(B)

In the case of the Sun, where the central density is, on the
gaseous theory, 23 times the mean value, we have the density
in units of the mean density and of water respectively : —

r

w

a
a

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

23 20.24 14.72 8.97 4.60

2.30 0.90 0.345 0.0874 0.01242 0.

(C)

Spec.gr. = 32. 2 28.34 20.61 12.56 6.44

3.22 1.29 0.483 0.12236 0.017388 0.

30 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It will not be necessary to insert a diagram illustrating
these functions, as the resulting curves are similar to those
found by Lane, and reproduced in Part I. And since the
temperature curves deduced from

T=T1<Tk~1 (54)

depends directly on that of the density, they will also be simi-
lar to those given by Lane. But it should be pointed out that,
while Lane's density curve depends on the value of k, and
in derivation is independent of the law of radiation, Hitter's
curve on the other hand depends on Poisson's law of radia-
tion, and is independent of the value of k. The fact that
the curves obtained by two such widely different processses
agree so closely, may be taken to show that the whole theory
of gaseous bodies despite its difficulty, is in a highly satisfac-
tory state. It is easy to see that the density is a function

r
which follows a complex law, varying reciprocally as -^-

To inquire into the theoretical nature of this curve, let us
express the density in units of the central density <r0, as in
equation (B), and then we shall have

R

= 9{") <55>

It is not easy to find the rigorous algebraic expression for
this function, but we may express it in Fourier's series as

— J to be finite and continuous

between r = 0, and r = R, and then put

a — <p (x) = ^ b0 + bx cos x + b2 cos 2x

+ b3 cos 3 x + . . . . + bm cos mx

+ o1 sin x + a2 sin 2x

+ a3 sin 3x + .... + am sin mx (56)

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 3 1
where

m = - | <F (p) cos mfidfi

■IT

(57)

=ly

a'"=lj{

+ 7T

| <p (p) sin mfidfi

7T

7r>af> — 7r, (p (/?) denoting any known value of <r = <p(x).

Then since the researches of Lane and Ritter furnish a
numerically for given arguments of the radius, x will not ex-
ceed unity, and the multiple angles are, of course, to be taken

V
as multiples of radians, - (57°. 3), where p denotes the multi-
ple of the angle, and q the number of parts into which the
radius is subdivided.

Assuming the transformation here indicated, we may inquire
into the law of density when the radius has shrunk from the
loss of heat.

The new density curve will obviously be given by an equa-

(R'\

tion of exactly the same form, a = <p I— H. The internal dis-
tribution of temperature in the first case will be defined by
T— jTj^-1; in the second case, by T = T1Vk_1; whence we
see that the laws of distribution of density and temperature
are the same after shrinkage has taken place as before.

Some persons who do not fully understand the problem
under consideration, have claimed that the functions which
define the internal distribution of density and temperature
change with contraction ; that these functions depend upon
the linear dimensions of the globe rather than upon the prin-
ciple of convective equilibrium, and would give a new law of
temperature at each stage of the shrinkage.

It will perhaps be evident from the preceding differential
equations or from the curves which they satisfy, that the
density and temperature are independent of the linear dimen-
sions of the gaseous globe.

32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Thus, so long as the mass is a perfect gas the forms of the
density and temperature curves are rigorously the same after
contraction as before. If, however, the radiation were sud-
denly checked, say by surrounding the gaseous globe with a
solid shell impermeable to heat, the internal temperature
would soon become more equably diffused; the convective
currents would be interrupted or replaced by conduction of
some kind, and the nature of the temperature and density
curves would be rapidly altered.

When the shell was removed, however, the original condi-
tions would return, and the curves of density and temperature
take their usual forms which satisfy the foregoing differ-
ential equations. From these considerations we conclude
that the distribution of temperature and density remain the
same, are represented by functions of the same form, which
satisfy the same differential equations so long as the radiating
mass is gaseous and condensing under conditions of convective
equilibrium.

5. Elementary Derivation of the Law of Temperature.

Suppose a gaseous globe of radius R0 and surface temperature

T0 to be held in equilibrium by the pressure and attraction of

its particles. Let P0 be the gravitational attraction exerted

upon a thin layer of matter covering a unit surface of the

globe, which may be regarded as the base of an elemental cone

extending to the center. Then suppose the globe to shrink

by loss of heat to a radius R. If the original element of mass

now covered a unit surface the pressure exerted upon it would

/R \2
thereby become P — P0 ( -50 I . But since the area of the ini-

(R \2

tial sphere surface has shrunk to £ = S0 I n J > the area of

the elemental conical base into which the matter is compressed
has diminished in the same ratio. As the force of gravity is
increased while the area upon which it acts is correspondingly
decreased, it follows that in the condensed condition of the
globe the gravitational pressure exerted upon a unit area is

-*.(§)■

The forces counterbalancing the increased

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 33

pressure are obviously the resistance due to the increase in the
mean density, and a possible change in temperature which
might affect the elasticity of the gas. But the surface density

(R \3

of the original mass was <70\ and hence we have a' = a\ I -^ J .

By hypothesis the equilibrium of the globe is maintained
by the elastic force of the gas under the heat developed by
the gravitational shrinkage of the mass. If therefore the
globe was in equilibrium when the mass had a temperature T0,
to remain in equilibrium in the condensed condition, T0 must

R

be multiplied by ^. As T0R0 is a constant, we may write

the law of temperature

T=-R (58)

So great is the author's confidence in the significance of
physical causes, that he does not hesitate in the belief that this
simple formula expresses one of the most fundamental of all
the laws of Nature.*

Its application of course is confined to gaseous bodies, but
it is safe to assume that millions of stars and nebulae approx-
imate this condition closely, and give this law profound
import. It is obvious that the equations of pressure and
temperature above applied to the external layer of the globe
will apply equally well to any concentric layer of which the
globe is made up, and thus it is unnecessary to consider
anything more than the surface layer.

Contemplating now the fundamental law of temperature,

T =~d' we see that it will obviously hold true for the mean

temperature of the condensing mass, whatever be the law of
internal density and temperature, so long as the globe is
wholly gaseous, and maintained in convective equilibrium by

* A distinguished foreign astronomer, writing under date of April 29,
1899, says : "1 am profoundly glad that you have had the courage to gener-
alize. The fear is that our outstanding men of science will go on accumu-
lating data till they became crushed under the load of their observations.
You call your law a fundamental law. I am sure it is so."

34 Trans. Acad. Set. of Si. Louis.

free radiation into surrounding space. For if the globe be
made up of i isothermal layers of uniform density \, tempera-
ture T{, and mass mt ; then a theorem of the form

T4 = ^ (59)

will hold for each layer of the giobe. And for the mean
temperature of the whole we shall have

1=0

When the mass condenses the temperature of each layer rises
proportionally, and we have the same law as before.

The above reasoning assumes that the globe is composed
of one kind of gas throughout, and that its properties are
the same under all conditions of temperature and pressure.
The Sun and stars appear to be compounded globes of different
gases which freely interpenetrate one another. If such in-
terpenetrating globes be of unequal dimensions under given
conditions of temperature and pressure, as seems probable,
on account of the elements rising to heights inversely as the
atomic weights, then the relative percentage of the several
elements which would appear in a layer of the mixed gas
would be a function of the distance of that layer from the
center. As the specific heats of the different elements are
unequal, we may take each layer of mass mi to have an
average specific heat C«, the effects of which may be included
in the constants 2T„ and the resulting value written K[.
The temperature formula for any layer would thus become

Tt= -jj, and the mean temperature of the globe would
be

_ 1 ^! Kjm,

(61)

t=0

4
The mass of any layer is m4 = q "" \ {R/' — R3i-i), and

the amount of heat in any such layer is m, C,- Tf.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 35
Hence T = J^ <|< , and as Vm^ = C,

<=o

our final equation takes the form

i=0 *

In this expression B{ is the only secular variable, and hence
the fundamental law of temperature retains its original form.
If, however, the gases diffused according to a new law when
the mass shrunk, it would require us to take account of this
slowly modifying cause. For considerable intervals it might
be neglected, but for very great periods an error would at
length develop and necessitate a new integration. The form

would then be T= ^ ~^" ) ? where t is the time and /? a small

secular coefficient. It thus appears that the law T= p holds

for every layer of the Sun's mass, and consequently for the
mean temperature of that globe. It is not probable that un-
known conditions arising in gaseous stars and nebulae are
likely to render this law appreciably inexact, and hence we
are, I think, justified in regarding it as one of the most fund-
amental as it is the most simple of all the laws of Nature.

The question will doubtless be asked how far this law is ap-
plicable to the evolutionary history of the Solar System. We
may observe that as the Sun is still gaseous, it now has a
mean density a little greater than one thousand times that of
atmospheric air. As the molecules in a vacuum produced by
the air pump still roughly follow the laws of gases when the
density is reduced to about one-millionth of the ordinary den-
sity, we see that gases may undergo a change of density of a
billionfold without wholly invalidating their known physical
laws. It thus appears that our Sun would probably behave
sensibly as a gas when its radius was one thousand times
larger than at present ; or that the Solar Nebula has been
gaseous since it came within the orbit of Jupiter. Even if
the above law of temperature hold only within the thousand-

36 Traris. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

fold radial limits here pointed out, it will still admit of wide
application throughout the heavens. In the present state of our
knowledge of the laws of gases, we refrain from any attempt
at fixing more definite limits to the Solar Nebula, which would
also depend on the temperature of the mass. For if the mass
could be kept sufficiently heated it might extend its bounds
far beyond the present limits of the Solar system.

In concluding these remarks, the following curious illus-
tion of a reversible process is thought to be worthy of atten-
tion. Imagine a huge pipe made of some material impervious
to heat laid from the center of a great hot star like Canopus
to the center of the Sun, and suppose the two ends to be
closed by non-fusible pistons which freely transmit the heat
communicated along the pipe. Heat will flow steadily from
the hotter to the cooler source, and as the center of Canopus
is assumed to be much hotter than the center of the Sun, the
material at the latter point will receive a supply of heat
which will tend to elevate the temperature of the Sun's mass ;
but as heat cannot be supplied to the gaseous globe without
expanding its dimensions, the result will be an increase in its
diameter and a corresponding fall in its temperature. If the
flow of heat along the pipe is sufficiently great ( it must of
course surpass the amount lost by surface radiation), and
kept up long enough, the compact mass of the Sun will be
expanded into a vast diffuse nebula filling the planetary
orbits ; and if the pipe then be intercepted the cold rare mass
will again slowly condense and rise in temperature, and the
planetary system will be formed anew !

6. Conclusions based upon tite fundamental law of temper-
ature. The following conclusions seem to be legitimate
inferences from the remarkably simple law of nature treated
above.

(a.) The diffused nebulae are near the temperature of space .
In the formula T = ^ , K is different from each body, but
always finite, and hence when R is infinite T is zero.*

* Cf. Astronomical Journal, No. 458.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 37

Thus the diffused nebulae are near the temperature of space,
or approximately — 273° C. This may also be inferred from
other considerations. If such diffused masses were appre-
ciably heated, they would soon cool off; and, besides, mole-
cules on their outskirts having sensible molecular velocities,
would escape into interstellar space. How the light of such
masses is maintained is quite unknown, but it seems not
improbable that it is due to electric luminescence such as we
observe in the tails of comets, which also shine at tempera-
tures approaching the absolute zero. We may therefore sup-
pose the diffused and irregular nebulae, as well as the milky
nebulosity so abundantly scattered over the sky, to be
intensely cold. It is an impressive fact that hydrogen and
nebulium are the only elements recognized in the nebulae, and
all other elements presumably present are wholly non-
luminous.

( b. ) /Stars of the first class are at the maximum temperature
and already condensed to the smallest bulk consistent with the
laws of gaseous constitution. The high temperature of the
Sirian stars is inferred generally from the nature of the light
emitted by these bodies, and in the particular case of Sirius,
is proved by the enormous radiation of that star compared to
that of our Sun. Thus, while the mass of Sirius is only twice
that of our Sun, its radiation is shown to be forty or fifty
times the greater of the two bodies. It follows, therefore,
that the Sirian stars are intensely hot. By the above law of
temperature such heat can be developed and such radiation
maintained only when the radius of the condensing mass is
relatively small. The Sirian stars have therefore already
shrunk to small bulk, and the contention recently current
among astrophysicists, that the Sirian stars are of great bulk,
and resemble nebulae, can no longer be supported.

Such tremendous radiation as we observe could not, it
appears, be maintained by the gravitational shrinkage of the
mass, except when the radius is small, and the force of grav-
ity correspondingly enormous. As respects volume therefore
as well as temperature the Sirian stars are as far removed
from the nebular condition as possible; and any spectral
parallel between these two classes of objects should be ex-

38 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

plained in some other way. The diffuse nebulae are cold,
infinite]}' rare, and almost free from pressure ; the Sirian stars
are intensely hot, relatively dense, and subject to enormous
gravitational pressure.

The Astronomical Journal, No. 455.

■*■ — B

Law of Temperature for Gaseous Celestial Bodies
Condensing under the Law of Gravitation.

T. J. J. See, May 6, 1898.

!! Class I Class II Class III ">- — — „ >. ■ . w-y

5 Sirian Stars Solar Stars Orange Stars Planetary Nebnlas Diffused N6P^ll^r^°^^

AZIS OF EAEItJS R

CURVE OF TEMPERATURE FOR GASEOUS STARS AND NEBULAS, A REC-
TANGULAR HYPERBOLA REFERRED TO ITS ASYMPTOTES.

(c. ) Stars of the second class have not yet reached the maxi-
mum temperature. Stars of the second class, of which our
Sun is an example, are conceded to be at lower temperatures
than those of the first class, and the question arises whether
their temperatures are rising or falling. The Sirian stars are
surrounded by dense hydrogen atmospheres, which produce
the heavy absorption observed in their spectra. As the
heights of atmospheres of gases of different molecular
weights under any given condition are known to be inversely
as the molecular weights, it follows that when a star is so far

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 39

condensed that gravity is intense, the outer atmosphere ought
to be of hydrogen, such as we observe in the Sirian stars.
The heavier elements in the Sirian stars are pressed down by
gravity, and their spectral lines are either faint, or entirely
absent. Now if our Sun had already passed through the
Sirian stage, and the temperature was falling, the hydrogen
atmosphere which had been separated from the other ele-
ments by the effects of gravity ought still to surround its
globe. -As all the elements in the Sun are fairly evenly
mixed, such heavy vapors as calcium and iron mixing freely
with those of light elements like hydrogen and helium, we
infer that our Sun has not yet passed through the Sirian
stage of development. The lower temperature of solar stars
thus indicates an earlier condition than that met with in the
Sirian stars.

(d.) /Stains of the third class are at a still earlier stage
of development. This inference is based upon well
known spectral phenomena which connect classes I, II,
and III. If the first class stars are related to the second
class stars as stated above, the continuity of spectral
lines show that the third class stars are still younger, and
further from the maximum of their temperature curves. It
is a fact of great significance that the Milky Way, presumably
the oldest part of the visible creation, is composed almost
wholly of Sirian stars. On the other hand, the solar stars
and to a greater extent the orange stars, seem to cluster about
the poles of the galaxy. The orange stars are in fact rela-
tively thickest in those regions of the sky which are poor in
stars, like Hydra, Microscopium, etc. This depth of color of
the stars remote from the Milky Way frequently attracted the
attention of the writer while occupied with the survey of the
Southern hemisphere. If the reddish stars have a larger bulk
than the older more condensed stars, they would naturally
receive more accretions of dark matter from surrounding
space, the chance of collision at periastron being thereby in-
creased, and one might naturally explain in this way the
greater variability of the third class stars.

(e.) Present and Past Temperatures of the /Sun. If we
adopt the effective temperature of the Solar photosphere ex-

40 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

perimentally determined by Wilson and Gray (Phil. Trans.,
1894), which is about 8000° C, we see that when the Sun's
radius was twice as great as at present, the effective tempera-
ture, by the above law, was about 4000° C. ; and when the
radius had eight times its present value, the temperature was
only 1000° C. , which would not fuse the more refractory metals.
The following table shows the effective temperature of the
solar nebula when it extended to the several planets : —

(Absolute
Temperature.)

Present solar surface 8000° C.

Mercury 92° C.

Venus 53 C.

Earth 40° C.

Mars 24° C.

Jupiter 7° C.

Saturn 4° C.

Uranus 2° C.

Neptune 1° C.

The excessively low temperature of the solar surface when
it reached the orbits of the several planets can hardly fail to
excite our astonishment. The temperature was always much
below zero, and the density of the mass necessarily very small.
About the only escape from such low temperatures for the
planets at their formation is to suppose that the Sun has long
passed its maximum temperature, and as now cooled down
does not allow us to trace the past history of its temperature ;
but of course such an hypothesis is embarrassed by many
difficulties. Indeed it seems positively contradicted by the
existence of life upon our globe which could hardly have de-
deloped as Geology shows it did develop, had the Sun ever
been enormously hotter than at present.* The conclusion
that the planets were formed at very low temperatures there-
fore seems irresistible.

* Some of these conclusions have been anticipated by Ritter, who re-
marks how contrary they are to current theories (herschende ansichten) ,
yet it does not appear that he made any very serious effort to overthrow
the errors which have been handed down by tradition.

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 41

(f.) Temperatures of the Great Planets. As experiments
upon the secular shrinkage of great masses cannot be made
in our laboratories, it is fortunate that the solar system offers
to our observation large as well as small planets which may
be taken to be approximately of the same absolute age. We
find the smaller planets such as the Earth, Venus, Mars, and
Mercury, already solid, while the great planets Jupiter, Sat-
urn, Uranus, and Neptune, are apparently still gaseous, if not
actually rising in temperature. A similar comparison holds
for the Moon and Jupiter's satellites which are much more
advanced in their development than the planets about which
they revolve. The law of temperature shows that if bodies
like Jupiter and Saturn are gaseous, they have not been hot
in the past, but may become so hereafter. There is some
spectral indication of inherent luminosity in Uranus, and
hence all the great planets are probably still rising in tem-
perature. As the temperatures of these masses were origi-
nally near the absolute zero of space, we are not to think of
them as cooling, but rather as having slowly heated up ever
since their separation from the solar nebula.

The inferences of Kant, Zollner, and Proctor, as well as
the original assumption of Laplace, all implying an initial
high temperature, it is needless to say, are wholly unauthor-
ized. It is possible and perhaps even probable, that some of
the great planets, especially Jupiter and Saturn, may eventu-
ally become self-luminous.

The problem as to how closely the purely gaseous theory
conforms to the actual state of the heavenly bodies is very
important, but unfortunately difficult to answer with confi-
dence. On the one hand, the purely gaseous theory leads to
a height of 27.5 Kilometres for the terrestrial atmosphere ; on
the other, observations of meteors, which disclose the fact
without regard to theory, show that it extends in a rarified
state to a height of at least 200 Kilometres. From this well-
established deviation of theory from phenomena, it would
appear that the purely gaseous atmosphere extends to its
proper height, and is then overlaid by another layer in the
ultragaseous state. Presumably this upper ultragaseous
atmosphere is one in which the molecules have a long free

42 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

path, and are in fact projectiles from the gaseous atmosphere
beneath. Moving almost without collision, these molecules
may be regarded as free projectiles shot out with velocities
which carry many of them to an average height of some 200
Kilometres. Meteors colliding with the upper part of this
ultragaseous atmosphere would of course finally be consumed
very much as if the mass were denser and obeyed the laws of
fluid equilibrium.

The Solar Corona is the analogue of the upper terrestrial
atmosphere ; and similar gaseous appendages doubtless sur-
round the planets and other heavenly bodies. But since the
limbs of Jupiter and Saturn, which have been studied by means
of eclipses and occultations of their satellites, appear teles-
copically sharp and almost perfectly opaque, it is not probable
that these rare atmospheres in comparatively cold bodies like
the great planets, have anything like the relative extent of the
Corona, which is kept expanded by the intense heat of the
Sun. Yet it may be assumed that all bodies, planets, comets,
and stars alike, have the two strata in some proportion. In
the case of the stars, which especially concerns us here, we
may suppose, on the analogy of the Sun, that their Coronas
give very little light and heat, and hence that the laws of
gases apply with considerable accuracj'to their radiations. It
is certain that a Corona does not seriously obstruct the radia-
tion, and equally clear that no sensible amount of heat can
arise from the condensation of such a rare medium. The
laws of gases ought therefore to apply to the condensation of
stars which are well advanced, but in the case of diffuse
nebulae the extreme tenuity of the medium relieves it of the
laws of fluid pressure and renders the radiations practically
free in all directions ; and the theory of convective equilibrium
is not required.

(g.) Cause of the darkness of the companions of such stars
as Sirius and Procyon.

The secular shrinkage of the sun's radius will cause a
steady rise in its temperature, and when the body has reached
the stage of Sirius it will shine with an intensely blue light,
like that emitted by stars of the first class. The temperature

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 43

will go on rising * till a small radius is attained, and finally
when the dense mass, intensely hot, becomes incapable of
further shrinkage, from increase of resistance in molecular
forces, a cooling and liquefaction will rapidly take place. A
condition of darkness thus follows close upon a period of in-
tense brilliancy; and hence the darkness of such bodies as the
companions of Sirius, Procyon, and Algol.

Here the smaller masses, as in the solar system, have de-
veloped most rapidly. The theory of the ages of the stars
here adopted enables us to explain the colors and relative
masses of the double stars. On this point Bitter has gone
astray, by concluding that in double stars the companion,
usually bluish in color, has a larger mass than the principal
star, which is usually of a reddish or orange tinge. This view
is positively contradicted by the relations of the masses de-
termined from actual measurement in the cases of 77 Cassi-
opeiae, Sirius, Procyon and, a Centauri, the only systems in
which the relation of the masses has been investigated. As
each of these systems is a typical double star, the rule of
assigning the fainter star the smaller mass — a mere inference
of common sense — will undoubtedly hold good generally.
And since the spectra of the companions of double stars are
generally of the first class, while those of the principal stars
are of the second class, the result also conforms to the theory
of the ages of the stars adopted above.

Certain obscure companions of double stars recently dis-
covered by the writer in the southern hemisphere, as well as
the historical examples of Sirius and Procyon, lead him to

* Professor Perry, of the Royal College of Science, London, has pointed
out in a letter to Sir Norman Lockyer {Nature, July 13th, 1899; reply by the
author in Nature of September 28th;, some reasons for thinking that our
sun has long since passed the period of maximum temperature. He thinks
that after the central density exceeded one -tenth that of water, the mass
could no longer be considered a perfect gas; but it seems to the author that
Professor Perry regards too lightly the effect of the tremendous temperature
of the sun, which necessarily increases the "perfection" of the gas, and
perhaps to an enormous extent. He concurs however in the author's views
that old stars have their radiating layers near their surfaces, and that they
radiate more rapidly than young stars. The other interesting points sug-
gested by 1'rofessor Perry may be reserved for future research.

44 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

believe that the number of such dark bodies is enormous ; and
a satisfactory explanation of their condition is therefore a
desideratum of science. The suggestion here thrown out
that the smaller masses condense more quickly, and thus be-
come dark while the large bodies are intensely brilliant seems
to accord with all known phenomena of nature.

(h.) Absorption of Light in Space. If it be conceded
that the nebulae are cold and that comparatively very few
of them are luminous, we shall be driven to the conclusion
that the heavenly spaces are more or less filled with dark
or faintly luminous matter. This matter appears telescop-
ically as a faint haze on the background of the sky, or as
diffuse nebulosity in photographic impressions of the vault
of the heavens. In any case such cosmic clouds of dark
or semi-opaque matter however rare act like a fog in in-
tercepting some portion of the light from distant regions of
creation, and thus ultimately limit the depths to which our
telescopes can penetrate. On this account it may never be
possible to extend our exploration of the universe beyond a
certain finite distance. Struve's celebrated problem of the
bounds of creation, in which he discussed the absorption of
light arising from the imperfect elasticity of the luminous ether,
thus appears more difficult of solution than ever. He showed
that if the number of stars be infinite, and they be scattered pro-
miscuously throughout space, and no light be absorbed by the
ether, then the whole face of the sky would necessarily glow
like the points now occupied by the stars. As the sky is very
dark even in the regions most crowded by the stars, it follows
either that the universe is not infinite or that light is absorbed
or interceped by dark masses scattered throughout the
immensity of space. Since we now have for the first time
satisfactory evidence of the existence of vast clouds of cos-
mical dust, which intercept the light of distant stars, we know
that the luminif erous ether is not the only cause which extin-
guishes the light of distant regions of creation. Thus even if
the universe of stars be infinite we may never be able to dis-
cover this fact, since opaque masses limit the depth to which
our telescopes can penetrate.

The significance attached to any line of research naturally

See — Temperature of the Sun and Ages of Stars and Nebulae. 45

varies according to the taste of the investigator, but we
believe it is generally allowed that speculative inquiries
founded on mechanical laws are essential to the development
of Physical Science, and hence have not hesitated to apply
the mechanical theory of heat to some of the most interesting
phenomena of the heavens.

Issued February 5, 1900.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should he addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

6*

1*
2f
3,4

1 to 3

1 to 4

1 to 4

1-2, 3-4 |

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4,5,7, 13,

14, 15,18

3,9

12

2,3,4,6,7,8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

1,3 to 6
8, 10, 12

2,7, 9, 11

91

1, 3, 4, 7, 9
2, 5,8

6

Price per
number.

Price per vol. Price in set.

$1.00
2.00 each.

2.00 each.

2.00 each.

2.00 each.

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

}

25 cts. each.

50 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

$7.50 $7.00

(Nos. 2-4 only.) (Nos. 2-4 only.)

25 cts. each.

50 cts. each.

75 cts.

$1.00

V 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

5.50

7.50

7.50

7.50

7.50

7.50

3.75

5.00

7.00

7.00

7.00

7.00

7.00

.50

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2. CO.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume,'— so far as this can be
supplied.

J Each number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

H

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL,. X. No. 2.

SOME ILLINOIS BEES.

CHARLES ROBERTSON.

Issued February 21, 1900.

L 1900

SOME ILLINOIS BEES.*
Charles Kobertson.
Andrena hirticeps Sm.

Andrena hirticeps Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hyni. 1 : 116. tf. 1853.

§. — Black; pubescence black, except on thorax above, on
vertex and usually about insertion of antennae, where it is
ochraceous ; clypeus shining, coarsely punctured, except a
median raised line; process of labrum semicircular; third
joint of antennae about equaling next two joints together,
fiagellum dull testaceous beneath ; wings fusco-hyaline, apical
margins clouded; nervures and stigma fusco-ferruginous,
second submarginal cell about as long as third to second recur-
rent nervure ; abdomen shining, almost impunctate except on
bases of segments, no pubescent fasciae. Length 12-13 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 24 5, 27 $ specimens, the sexes taken
in copula. I have regarded the male as that of A. vieina,
and the female as only a variant form. The true A. vieina,
I think, does not occur here. The male, which, no doubt,
resembles the above, I think will be found to want the black
hairs on the head. But for the description of the male, I
would say that A. errans is the same as A. hirticeps.

Andrena viciniformis n. sp.

o.. Black; head, thorax and femora clothed with fulvous

pubescence which, is brightest on scutellum, palest beneath,
a few blackish hairs about ocelli and on clypeus, floccus pale,
tibiae and tarsi with blackish pubescence, the scopae on hind
femora and tibiae, however, pale beneath; clypeus shining,
coarsely punctured, a median raised line impunctate ; process
of labrum semicircular ; third joint of antennae about equal-
ing next two together ; wings fusco-hyaline, nervures fusco-
ferruginous, second and third submarginal cells subequal ;

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St, Louis, in abstract, January
22, 1900.

(47)

48 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

abdomen shining, nearly bare and nearly impunctate, anal
fimbria dull fulvous. Length 10-12 mm.

^. — Resembles the male of A. hirdceps, but the black hairs
on vertex and about eyes are wanting, and the second and
third submarginal cells are subequal. Length 9 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 18 §, 2 ^ specimens. This may be the
same as A. dunningii.

Andrena macoupinensis n. sp.

5. — Black, tips of four anterior tarsi and hind tibiae and
tarsi ferruginous; pubescence thin and pale; clypeus convex,
finelv roughened and closely punctured on the sides, in the
middle smooth, shining, coarsely and sparsely punctured;
process of labrum large, emarginate; front before ocelli finely
striate ; lateral grooves broad, extending below antennae,
filled with pale pubescence; third joint of antennae longer
than next two together, fourth joint shorter than fifth, flagel-
lum dull testaceous beneath; mesonotum and scutellum
sparsely punctured, finely roughened except on the discs
which are smooth and shining ; inclosure of metathorax finely
and evenly roughened; wings yellowish hyaline, nervures
and stigma dull honey-yellow, second submarginal narrowed
above, receiving recurrent nervure beyond middle, about
one-half as long as third ; hind tibiae and metatarsi rather
broad, tibial scopa short, dense, not very plumose; abdomen
somewhat shining, minutely roughened and finely sparsely
punctured, clothed with rather long thin pubesence forming
thin whitish fasciae on margins of segments, anal fimbria
ochraceous. Length 11 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 2 5 specimens. This species closely
resembles A. mandibulariH, but the clypeus, mesonotum and
scutellum are more shining, pubescence thinner and paler,
facial grooves longer, broader, with paler pubescence, third
joint of antennae longer, hind legs stouter, inclosure of meta-
thorax larger, less rugose, etc.

Andrena salicagea n. sp.

5. — Black ; clothed with thin pubescence, dirty white above,
pale below, showing a little fuscous on the tibiae; clypeus

Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 49

convex, finely roughened, with rather large and sparse punc-
tures; process of labrum long, narrow; front below ocelli
finely striate ; facial grooves narrow, extending below anten-
nae, appearing fulvous; antennae black, short, joint three
longer than four and five together, these subequal ; meso-
notum and scutellum finely roughened, rather sparsely punc-
tured, not shining; metathorax rugose reticulated, inclosure
small, quite rough ; wings subhyaline, nei vures honey-yellow,
stigma darker, second submarginal cell about half as long as
third, receiving recurrent nervure just beyond middle ; ab-
domen smooth, shining, almost impunctate, especially the
first segment, with thin pale pubescence, segments 2-4 with
narrow pale-testaceous margins and thin whitish fasciae, anal
fimbria blackish. Length 10 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 2 9 specimens. This species also
resembles A. mandibularis.

Andrena nasonii Rob.

Andrena nasonii Robertson, Trans. Ana. Eut. Soc. 22:120. $. 1895.

g. — Closely resembles the female ; abdomen more shining,
pubescent fasciae almost obsolete; face narrowed below;
clypeus finely roughened, with rather coarse, shallow punc-
tures, bearded with long, thin, white pubescence; antennae
long, joint three about as long as four, shorter than five.
Length 6-8 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 15 9, 4 <j specimens.

Andrena robertsonii D. T.

Andrena serotina Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 20 : 148. <j? (not J*).
1893.

g. — Closely resembles the female ; abdomen less fasciate
with pubescent bands; clypeus yellow; third joint of antennae
longer than fifth ; cheeks narrow, without obtuse angle ; sixth
ventral segment of abdomen with reflexed dentiform angles.
Length 7 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 41 9, 7 ^ specimens. Resembles the
male of A. bipunctata, but may be readily distinguished by
its cheeks being more narrow, without obtuse angle, more
rugose inclosure of metathorax and dentiform reflexed angles
of sixth ventral segment.

50 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Andrena corni n. sp.

5. — Closely resembles A. pruni 5 in size and color; mid-
dle of mandibles rufous ; process of labrum triangular, trun-
cate ; clvpeus more closely and finely punctured, less shining,
more pubescent, median raised line less evident, joint three of
antennae longer than next two together, facial foveae broad,
not widely separated below from eye margin; inclosure of
metathorax more rugose ; abdomen less shining, more closely
punctured, legs more ferruginous. Length 11 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 1 $> specimen.

Andrena andrenoides Cr.

Parandrena andrenoid<s Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St Louis. 7 : 337.
1897.

Andrena wellesleyana Rob.

Parandrena wellesleyana Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7 : 337.
1897.

When this name was proposed it was stated that it was
little more than a section of Andrena. It is proposed here
to reduce it to that rank. It is certainly a natural group in
which the two above species have originated from a common
ancestor whose wings had only two submarginal cells. Never-
theless, except as an expedient for separating the species
having only two submarginal cells, we are hardly justified in
giving a special name to this group of Andrena unless we are
ooing to divide the genus into several named sections.

The second transverse cubital nervure is the most unstable
element in the venation of bees. Its presence is not con-
stant in ordinary species of Andrena, as I have found it want-
ing in specimens of Andrena, platyparia, solidagiiris, bipunc-
tata, hippotes, roberlsonii and cl<njloniae. Its obliteration
seems to be constant, and of quite independent origin, in
species referred to Biareolina Dours, Callandrena Ckll.
and Parandrena Rob. To establish a new genus for every
one, or every set, of these anomalous Andrenas, now seems
to me to be unnecessary.

Iomelissa n. g.

This is proposed for the reception of Andrena violae Rob.
Scopae, facial foveae and venation as in Andrena, the basal

Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 51

nervure sometimes ending before the transverse median;
clypeus produced, third joint of antennae longer than next
two together, mouth parts long, maxillary palpi six-jointed;
labial palpi four-jointed, the joints long and subequal; tongue
long, filiform, pubescent.

This may be the same as Uilissa americana 8m. The
male sometimes has a small yellow spot on the clypeus, and
on each side of the face.

COLLETES BREVICORNIS Rob.

Colletes brevicornis Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7 : 315. J1.
1897.

5. — Agrees with the male in all respects, except that the
pubescence on the thorax above is mixed with blackish.
Length 9 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois ; 5 $ specimens.

The third joint of antennae is longer than any except the
last, and, of course, the scape; second submarginal cell equal
to, or a little shorter than, the third, receiving the first re-
current nervure a little before the middle ; nervures usually
darker than indicated in original description.

SrHECODES PIMPINELLAE n. Sp.

5. — Black, llagellum, labrum, mandibles, tegulae, tibiae,
tarsi and abdomen red; mandibles dark at tips, with a denti-
form angle ; head broader than thorax ; face closely and rather
finely punctured, the clypeus with more sparse and more
coarse punctures; mesonotum with median impressed line,
roughened and indistinctly punctured in front, the disc shin-
ing, somewhat metallic, punctures more distinct ; metathorax
shining, coarsely reticulated, with a semicircular inclosure
above; wings subhyaline, nervures and stigma fuscous; sec-
ond submarginal cell narrow; first recurrent nervure uniting
with second transverse cubital; abdomen shining, almost im-
punctate, fifth segment blackish. Length 7 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois ; 1 $ specimen.

Halictus arcuatus Rob.

Halictus arcuatus Robertson, Trans. Am. Eut. Soc 20:145. 9. 1893.
g. — Black, a transverse spot on clypeus, labrum, mandibles
except base, tegulae in front, knees, edges of anterior tibiae

52 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

and all the tarsi whitish, the spots on tegulae and knees some-
times wanting; antennae long, submoniliform, black; head
and thorax closely and finely punctured ; scutellum subbilobed,
with two mammiform eminences, metatho rax very coarsely and
strongly rugose reticulated ; wings hyaline, nervures testaceous ;
abdomen shining and rather sparsely punctured on first seg-
ments, margins of segments depressed, narrowly pale testa-
ceous, segments two and three with more or less evident,
thin, interrupted, basal pubescent fasciae. Length 7-9 mm.
Carlinville, Illinois; 5 ^ specimens.

Halictus similis Sm.

Hulictus similis Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hym. 1 : 69. $. 1853.

£. — Closely resembles the male of H. arcuaius. It is
more slender, the abdomen more shining, less closely punc-
tured, antennae testaceous beneath, a pale spot on tubercles,
tibiae pale at base and apex. Length 8 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 1 $ specimen.

NOMADA SALICIS n. Sp.

£. — Mandibles simple; antennae short, fourth joint twice
as long as third, joints 7-12 short ; head and thorax closely
punctured, abdomen shining, scutellum bilobed, basal nervure
ending beyond transverse median, apical segment of abdomen
bifid. Black, the lower part of face, mandibles except tips,
labrum, scape in front, front and lower border of pleura,
tubercles, two spots on scutellum, yellow ; anterior and middle
coxae in front, the knees, anterior and middle tarsi, anterior
tibiae in front, middle and posterior tibiae at apex, yellow ;
elsewhere the legs are more ferruginous, inclining to blackish
behind on middle and posterior pair; wings hyaline, apical
border clouded, nervures and tegulae testaceous; abdomen
with six yellow bands, the last two interrupted laterally
so as to leave a small spot on each extreme side. Length
8 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 1 $ specimen.

Heriades Spin.

H. carinatus Cr. is a Trypetes. H. philadelphi is a Che-
lostoma. Osmia bocconis Say belongs to Ashmeadiella .

Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 53

Florilegus n. g.

This is proposed for the reception of Melissodes condigna
Cr. It has the general character of Melissodes, but the max-
illary palpi are moniliform, five-jointed, the joints subequal.
The abdomen shows a metallic reflection.

Anthedon n. g.

This is proposed for the reception of Melissodes compta Cr.
The male has the antennae black, shorter than in Melissodes,
joints 3 and 4 subequal, the last joint is the longest in the
flagellum and is curved and produced to a point. In the
female the scopae consist of hairs which are quite simple, not
plumose as in Melissodes. The fasciae of abdomen are about
alike in both sexes. Otherwise as in Melissodes .

Melissodes atripes Cr.

Epimelissodes atripes Ashmead, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 26 : 63. 1899.

Mr. Ashmead makes this the type of a new genus. His
description of the venation is correct for only certain indi-
viduals, perhaps a majority, but in some specimens the first
submarginal cell is fully as long as the third. The maxillary
palpi are four-jointed. This species is closely related to
M. obliqua Say, which also has the maxillary palpi four-
jointed.

Melissodes petalostemonis n. sp.

$. — Related to and closely resembling M. communis Cr.,
but is somewhat smaller and the mesonotum and scutellum are
without black pubescence. Also resembles M. comptoides,
but the pubescence is less fulvous above, and not dark on the
thorax beneath, the front and middle legs, and the hind meta-
tarsi beneath. Length 9-11 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois ; 9 £ specimens.

Emphor bombiformis Cr.

? Melissodes nigripes Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat. Hym. 2:311. 9 (nori <-^).1854.
Melissodes bombiformis Cresson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1878:219 <^ 9-
Emphor bombiformis Pattern, Bull. U. S Geol. Surv. 5: 476. tf 9. 1879.
The male described by Smith belongs to Melissodes de-
sponsa. Cresson and I have supposed that the female was

54 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the dark-legged form of Synhalonia atriventris, but that
would hardly be described as having the pubescence of the
legs black. One could hardly account for the statement that
the pubescence of thorax was paler than that of the head,
nor for mistaking it for the § of M. desponsa. Mistaking
31. desponsa $ and M. bombiformis 5 as sexes of the same
thing will not seem very strange to any one who will place
them side by side. Also, from the statement that the apical
margins of the segments were sometimes rufo-testaceous, I
suppose that Smith mixed both sexes of the Emphor. At.
any rate, I believe that the above synonymy will be verified.

Synhalonia atriventris Sm. form fuscipes n. f .

5. — Differs from the normal form {S. dubilala Cr. 5) in
having the tibian and metatarsi, especially the scopae of hind
legs, fuscous or blacki.-h.

Synhalonia rosae, n. sp.

$- — Closely resembles the preceding form, but is smaller,,
the apical half of the second abdominal segment shining and
impunctate, the tibial scopa more nearly surrounding that
joint, less limited to the exterior of the joint. Length
12 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; 3 § specimens.

Ceratina calcarata n. sp. (?)

? Ceratina tejnnensis Provancher, Faun. Ent. Can. 812. $. 1883.

Ceratina tejonensis Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 22 : 126. tf. 1895.

Differs from C. dupla Say ^, as far as I can see, only in
the hind femora being produced into a triangular tooth. The
maxillary palpi are six-jointed. Whether it is the male of a
distinct species or a dimorphous male of C. dupla I cannot
say, but I think the dimorphism has to be proved. Accord-
ing to Mr. Ashmead, C . tejonensis has the maxillary palpi
four-jointed. He makes it the type of a new genus, Zaodon-
tomerns. The name of the local insect is changed on the
presumption that Mr. Ashmead's statements are corect.

Neopasites illinoensis Rob.

Phileremus illinoensis Robertson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 18 : 64. Qtf. 1891 .

Robertson — Some Illinois Bees. 55

Neopasites heliopsis Rob.

Ammobates heliopsis Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7: 352. J*.
1897.

In the two preceding species the males have the antennae

12-jointed, and pulvilli are present.

Epeolus interkuptus n. sp.

5. — Black, mandibles except tips, sides of labrum, three
basal joints of antennae, tubercles, tegulae, two spots on
scutellum, scutellar spines, and legs, except coxae, trochan-
ters and base of hind femora, ferruginous ; face about the
insertion of antennae, a line on prothorax, two lines on
mesonotum, pleura above, sides of metathorax above and
postscutellum with appressed whitish pubescence ; head and
thorax densely punctured, pleura below shining, with coarse
not very close punctures; scutellum subbilobed, much sur-
passing the spines; wings somewhat clouded, especially on
apical margins, nervures and stigma black; abdomen with
the fasciae of appressed whitish pubescence widely inter-
rupted, wider on the disc and narrower towards the sides;
the basal portions on first segment are quite clavate; fifth
segment with a patch on each side and a narrow apical
border; edges of segments 2-4 subtestaceous; the post-
scutellum presents a blunt tooth. Length 8 mm.

Carlinville, Illinois; one j specimen.

Issued February 21, 1900.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*
2f
3,4

$4.00
2.00 each.

$7.50 $7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.) ' (NTos. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50 5.00

3

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50 7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 3-4 |

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

6J

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15,18

3,9

12

i 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

7:

2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

L 25 cts. each.

\ 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

81

1,3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2, 7, 9, 11

\ 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

n

1, 3, 4, 7, 9
2,5,8

6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3.75 3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1830. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2. CO.

* Supply exhausted.

f Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume,'— so far as this can be
supplied.

I Each number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

n

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. X. No. 3.

KINDERHOOK FAUNAL STUDIES.

II. THE FAUNA OF THE CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE
AT BURLINGTON, IOWA.

STUART WELLER.

"issued February 24, 1900.

MAY 26 1900

KINDERHOOK FAUNAL STUDIES. II. THE FAUNA
OF THE CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE AT BUR-
LINGTON, IOWA.*

Stuart Weller.

Introduction.

The stratigraphic succession of the Mississippian beds at
Burlington, Iowa, was first indicated by David Dale Owen f
in 1852. At that time the Kinderhook stage or its equiva-
lent had not been defined, but the lower portion of his general
section, that portion which is now included in the Kinderhook,
was described as follows : —

5. «' Band of cellular, buff, magnesian limestone."

4. " Oolitic limestone containing Gyroceras Burlington-
ensis."

3. " Dark gray, argillaceous limestones (locally hy-
draulic?)."

2. " Bun0, fine-grained siliceous rock, containing casts of
Cho?ieles, Posidonomya, Allorisma, Spirifer, Phil-
Upsia."

1. " Ash colored, earthy marlites."

At that time Owen included all the strata down to the base
of his No. 3, in the " Encrinital Group of Burlington." It is
not possible to determine, from his section, the exact thickness
attributed to each individual stratum recognized, but their
aggregate is indicated in his table as about 100 feet, and the
lowest member, No. 1, is about 60 feet.

In 1858 Hall's report on the Geology of Iowa was published,

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, No-
vember 6, 1899.

f Rep. on Geol. Wis., la., and Minn. 92. (Philadelphia, 1852.)

(57)

58

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

and the following section given of the rocks at Burlington
of the Kinderhook stage, at that time referred to the " Che-
mung Group."*

Chemung
Group.

5. Oolitic bed (often absent) its great-
est thickness 4 feet.

4. Argillaceous sandstone with fossils

as below, of Chemung species. ... 6 feet.

3. Limestone, irregularly-bedded, con-
cretionary and rarely brecciated,
with shaly interlaminations ; com-
pact, brittle, ash-colored, appar-
ently siliceous. Higher beds more
regular and arenaceous; near the
base, a thin band of limestone
charged with Chonetes 10 feet.

2. Fine-grained, siliceous and argillace-
ous sandstone, with bands of shale,
highly f ossilif erous ; lower half
much softer and more argillaceous
than the upper part (often shaly). 25 feet.

1. Soft green shale like that of Portage

group, to level of river 32 feet.

In 1860 C. A. White published a paper entitled " Observa-
tions upon the Geology and Paleontology at Burlington, Iowa,
and its Vicinity "t in which the Kinderhook section at Burling-
ton was described, and later, in 1870, while he was State geol-
ogist, the section was again described in his official report.!
In White's section seven beds were recognized, as follows: —

7. Impure limestone, sometimes magnesian, passing grad-
ually into the Lower Burlington limestone. 3 to 4
feet in thickness.

* Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. r:90. (1868.)

t Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 209-235.

X Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. 1 : 192-193. (Des Moines, 1870.)

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 59

6. Light gray oolitic limestone with uniform lithological

characters. 2 to 4 feet in thickness.
5. Fine grained yellowish sandstone much like parts of No.

1, often crowded with casts of fossil shells. Maximum

thickness 7 feet.
4. Dark gray compact limestone, sometimes slightly

arenaceous. It breaks up into small fragments upon

exposure, and is very fragmentary even when not

exposed to the atmosphere. Maximum thickness 12

feet.

3. Band of oolitic limestone about 3 inches in thickness.

2. Band of compact limestone everywhere crowded with

Chonetes. 6 inches in thickness.

1. Fine grained sandy shales, varying from bluish clay

shale to fine grained yellow sandstone. The upper
portion of the bed quite f ossiferous. Greatest thick-
ness actually exposed above river level 82 feet, its total
thickness as estimated from well borings 140 to 200
feet.

In his report on Des Moines County in 1895, Keyes * gives
the following section of the Kinderhook beds at Prospect
Hill, a bluff on the river bank just south of the city of
Burlington.

Feet.

6. Limestone, buff, soft, sandy locally 5

5. Limestone, white, oolitic 3

4. Sandstone, yellowish, soft, fine-grained, highly

charged with casts of fossils 6

3. Limestone, argillaceous, fine grained, with often

an oolitic band or thin bed of impure limerock

at base 18

2. Sandstone, yellowish, soft, friable, clayey 25

1. Shale, blue, argillaceous, shown by borings to ex-
tend 100 feet or more below river level ( exposed ) 60

* Geol. Surv. Iowa. 3 : 433. (Des Moines, 1895.)

60 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

In March, 1899, the writer spent some time in the field
studying the Kinderhook section at Burlington, in order to
differentiate the fossil faunas of that age there represented,
and the following section, which seems best adapted to bring
out the faunal succession, has been adopted as the result of
observations made at that time. It differs from Hall's and
from Keyes' sections only in dividing their No. 3, recognizing
as a distinct bed the thin band of impure or oolitic limestone.
It differs from White's section only in joining his Nos. 2 and
3, and in dividing his No. 1, the upper sandy, fossiliferous
portion being recognized as a distinct bed.

Feet.

7. Soft, buff, gritty limestone 3-5

6. White oolitic limestone 2-4

5. Fine grained, yellow sandstone 6-7

4. Fine grained, compact, fragmental gray limestone 12-18
3. Thin band of hard, impure limestone filled with
Chonetes, sometimes associated with a thin

oolitic band -J— \

2. Soft, friable, argillaceous sandstone, sometimes
harder and bluish in color, filled with fossils in
the upper portion , the most abundant of which

is Chonopecius fischeri (N. & P. ) 25

1. Soft blue argillaceous shale (exposed) 60

The correlation of the Kinderhook beds at Burlington, as
recognized by Owen, Hall, White, Keyes, and the writer, is not
a difficult matter, the preceding sections being but different
interpretations or different arrangements of the same series
of strata. In the following table these five sections are
arranged side by side, in such a manner as to correlate the
divisions recognized in each, the divisions of the several
authors being indicated by numbers only.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies.

61

Owen
1852.

Hall

1858.

White

1870.

Keyes

1895.

Weller

1899.

5

7

6

7

4

5

6

5

6

3

4

5

4

5

3

4

3

4

3

2

8

2

2

1

iver Leve

2

2

1

1
K

1
1.

1

62 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The fossils of the Kinderhook beds at Burlington at one
time attracted much attention from paleontologists and local
collectors, but of late years they have usually been neglected.
The first species described from any of the beds was Gyro-
ceras buiiinglonensis, described by Owen * in 1852 from the
oolite bed No. 6 (Weller). A little later (1858), in his pale-
ontology of Iowa, Hall f described and illustrated a number
of species of brachiopods and a few pelecypods from the
" yellow sandstone " at Burlington.

The most important collection of Kinderhook fossils from
Burlington that has been brought together was made by Dr.
C. A. White when he was a resident of that city. The
" White collection," which is now the property of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, formed the basis for several important
papers, devoted to the description of Burlington fossils, by
C. A. White,! by C. A. White and R. P. Whitfield, § and by
A. Winchell.|| In these papers many species were described
but without illustrations, so that their identification by other
observers and from other localities has always been exceed-
ingly difficult or impossible. Many of these species have re-
mained without illustrations up till the present time, a large
number of those recorded in the present paper being now
figured for the first time.

During the preparation of the descriptions of New York
Devonian pelecypods for the Paleontology of New York, Hall If
described and illustrated several of the Burlington " Yellow
Sandstone " species that were related to New York Devonian
species, the figures in most cases being drawn from the type
specimens. More recently Keyes** has published upon some
of the gasteropods from the Kinderhook beds at Burlington,
but his identifications of the species were apparently not based

* Geol. Surv. Wis., Iowa, and Minn. 581. tab. 5, fig. 10.
t Rep. Geol. Surv. Iowa. I2.
J Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 9: 8-33. (1862.)
§ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 8: 289-306. (1862.)

|| Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863 : 2-25. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.
1865: 109-133.

1 Pal. N. Y. 51. (1884-1885.)

•• Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1889: 284. Am. Geol. 5 : 193. (1890.)

Weller — Kinderlwok Faunal Studies. 63

on comparisons with the type specimens, and are evidently
erroneous in some cases.

In all the work which has been done in the past, on the
Kinderhook fossils at Burlington, little or no effort has been
made to assign the species to their definite stratigraphic posi-
tions in the section. It has usually been deemed sufficient to
refer a species to the " Yellow Sandstone, Burlington, Iowa,"
ignoring the fact that there are two 3^ellow sandstones in the
Kinderhook at that place, whose faunas are almost entirely
distinct, there being only a small number of species common
to the two beds. The fauna of the oolite bed can be more
easily recognized from the literature, but even the fossils from
this well marked horizon have often been recorded simply as
coming from the " Kinderhook beds, Burlington, Iowa."

In the White collection most of the specimens are marked
with a number indicating the bed from which they came, and
a careful study of that collection supplemented by an exam-
ination of the faunas in the field and of material kindly loaned
by Prof. Calvin, leads to the recognition of at least four dis-
tinct faunal zones in the section in which fossils are abundant,
and three other zones in which the fossils are less abundant
but which still possess their own faunal characteristics. These
seven faunal zones correspond with the seven beds recognized
by the writer in the section.

The fauna described in the present paper is that of bed
No. 2 (Weller). This is the lower one of the two yellow
sandstone horizons, and it contains the most prolific fauna in
the whole section. It is characterized by multitudes of indi-
viduals of Chonopeclus fisdieri (W. and P.), and for this
reason the sandstone will be designated as the Chonopectus
sandstone. Usually this bed is a soft, friable, yellow grit or
fine sandstone, in which the fossils are always preserved as
casts, though in many cases the cavities left after the solution
of the shell, have been closed by pressure. At one locality
on Flint River, this bed is represented by a highly fossilifer-
ous, much harder, blue sandstone, which has weathered along
the joints into a soft yellow rock with characters similar to
the usual exposures of the bed. From this occurrence it
seems possible that the softness and yellow color of the bed

64 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

as usually exposed may be due to a weathered condition, but
this could only be determined by extensive excavations. The
fossils are most abundant, in fact are almost wholly restricted
to the upper five or six feet of the bed, just below the thin
band of impure limestone, — bed No. 3 ( Weller).

It is usually possible to recognize the fossils from the
Chonopectus sandstone, by their lithologic characters alone.
They could only be confused with those of bed No. 5 (Wel-
ler), but the Chonopectus sandstone is usually of a deeper
yellow color, often reddish, and is softer than bed No. 5. In
the upper yellow sandstone, No. 5, the cavities remaining from
the solution of the shells are usually preserved, the greater
density of the rock not allowing them to be closed by pressure.

The writer is under the greatest obligation to Prof. I. C.
Kussell of Ann Arbor, Michigan, for the use of the types
and other specimens of Burlington fossils preserved in the
" White Collection " in the University of Michigan. These
specimens have been loaned for study with the utmost gener-
osity, and without the hearty co-operation of Prof. Eussell the
present paper could never have been prepared. A large pro-
portion of the illustrations here published have been drawn from
the type specimens in the University of Michigan collection.

Prof. Samuel Calvin, state geologist of Iowa, has also
loaned a small collection of Kinderhook fossils from Burling-
ton. Acknowledgment is also due Dr. H. F. Bain, assist-
ant state geologist of Iowa, for the helpful encouragement
he has given during the prosecution of the work.

Description of Species.*

ECHINODERMATA.

A few detached joints of crinoid stems have been observed
in the Chonopectus sandstone, as well as a single form which

* The bibliographic references have been omitted from these descriptions.
For these the reader is referred to Bulletin 153, U. S. Geological Survey,
" A Bibliographic Index of North American Carboniferous Invertebrates,"
by Stuart Weller. Washington, 1898. In the case of species referred to a
different genus in the present paper than in Bulletin 153, a reference is given
to the Bulletin.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 65

seems to be the impression of a crinoid arm, and very imper-
fect cast of a calyx. None of these fragments can be identi-
fied, even generically.

VERMES.

Indefinite worm burrows are sometimes present in the
Chonopectus sandstone, but they are usually not conspicuous.

MOLLUSCOIDEA.

BRACHIOPODA.

LlNGULA MEMBRANACEA Win.

PI. I. f. 20.

" Shell flattened, quadrate-elliptical, nearly as broad near
the beak as at the same distance from the anterior margin ;
length nearly equal to twice the width; lateral margins
slightly curved ; beak scarcely elevated, near the posterior
margin, but with a narrow belt behind it. Shell substance
membraneous, marked externally by very delicate, regular
concentric lines." Length 12 mm., greatest width 8 mm.

Remarks. This species is represented in the University of
Michigan collection by the single imperfect type specimen
with rather indefinite characters. The above description is a
copy of the original one by Winchell. The specimen is im-
perfect along the margins, and if it were complete the shell
would be wider posteriorly than is represented in the illus-
tration.

Okbiculoidea capax (White).

PI. I. f. 19.

" Shell subcircular in outline, dorsal [brachial] valve much
convex, apex small, prominent, eccentric, and pointing back-
wards. Surface having a rather smooth appearance, but
marked by fine lines of growth and these crossed by very faint,
somewhat distinct, radiating striae."

Remarks. The only specimen of this species which has
been observed in the Chonopectus sandstone, is the type pre-
served in the University of Michigan collection. The speci-

66 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

men is an imperfect, badly crushed example, which when
complete must have had a diameter of about 25 mm. Any
really distinguishing characters by which it may be separated
from various other species of the same genus in the Devonian
and Carboniferous faunas, are not well preserved. The
description of the species given above is a copy of the
original one written by White.

Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall).

PI. I. f. 18.

Shell subplano-convex or slightly concavo-convex, sub-ellip-
tical or subsemicircular in outline, more or less unsymmet-
rical; the hinge-line usually equaling the greatest width of
the shell, but sometimes a little less. Pedicle valve nearly
plane, slightly concave or convex; usually convex near the
beak and concave in all directions to the lateral and anterior
margins. Brachial valve strongly convex, greatest convexity
near the middle. Surface of both valves marked by fine,
radiating costae which are somewhat irregular, and often
alternate in size. More or less conspicuous concentric lines
of growth are often present on one or both valves, though
they are usually stronger on the pedicle valve. The dimen-
sions of an average specimen are: length, 19 mm., and
breadth, 26 mm.

Remarks. A study of a large number of specimens from
many localities and horizons, will probably show this species
and perhaps others of the same genus in the lower Carbon-
iferous faunas, to be not distinct from 0. chemungensis which
is so common throughout many of the Devonian faunas.
Because of their great amount of variation, it is extremely
difficult to draw sharp specific lines between the members of
this genus, and this can only be done when a large number
of specimens from many localities shall be brought together
and diligently studied.

SCHIZOPHORIA SWALLOVI (Hall).

Pl.I.f. 11-13.

Shell subcircular or transversely subelliptical in outline;
hinge-line shorter than the greatest width of the shell, the

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 67

cardinal extremities rounded. Pedicle valve depressed convex
near the beak, flattened on the sides, with a broad, shallow,
mesial sinus beginning in the middle of the shell and becom-
ing more conspicuous towards the anterior margin ; cardinal
area of moderate size. Brachial valve somewhat regularly
convex or gibbous. Surface marked by fine, closely arranged
radiating striae, and by a few indistinct lines of growth. In
the internal casts the muscular impressions are well defined.
Length 30 mm., breadth 38 mm., convexity of brachial valve
13 mm.

Remarks. For a discussion of the relationship between the
later Devonian and the earlier Carboniferous species of the
genus iSckizophoria, the reader is referred to the first of these
Kinderhook Faunal Studies.* The Chonopectus sandstone
specimens do not materially differ from the North view speci-
mens, and are more Carboniferous in aspect than Devonian.
The small specimen illustrated (Plate I. fig. 13) is the type of
Winchell's species Orlhis flava, and is only an immature
example of Scliizophoria swallovi.

Chonetes ielinoisensis Worthen.

PL If. 14.

Shell of medium size, varying in outline from subelliptical
to semielliptical ; the hinge line usually a little shorter than
the greatest width of the shell, and the cardinal extremities
slightly rounded. Pedicle valve rather strongly convex in the
middle, flattened towards the cardinal extremities ; the cardinal
margin furnished with five or six oblique spines on each side of
the beak. Brachial valve slightly concave, the concavity much
less than the con vexing of the opposite valve. Surface of
both valves marked with from 120 to 200 fine, rounded,
dichotomizing striae. The dimensions of an average specimen
are: length 10 mm. and breadth 13 mm.

Remarks. The type specimens of Chonetes multicosta Win.,
should be in the University of Michigan collection, but they
cannot now be found. The species is said to range all through
the Kinderhook and into the base of the Burlington limestone
at Burlington, Iowa. It most nearly resembles C. illinoisensis,

* Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9: 13.

68 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

being distinguished from that species chiefly by reason of its
greater number of radiating striae. In all the collections of
Chonopectus sandstone fossils which have been studied in
connection with the present investigation, three species of
Choneles have been observed, but only one of these resembles
in any degree the description of O. mullicosta. From a
careful study of the best of these, and comparison with many
specimens of G . illinoisensis from the Osage fauna, there
seems to be no reason for believing them to be distinct from
C. illinoisensis. For the present, therefore, it seems best to
consider C. multicosta as a synonym of O. illinoisensis though
if the type specimens are found at some future time it may
be found to be distinct. In none of the Chonopectus sandstone
specimens have the spines been observed, and the specimens
themselves are for the most part imperfect.

Chonetes sp. — Cf. C. geniculata White.

PL I. f. 16.

Shell more or less subelliptical in outline, with the hinge-
line usually a little shorter than the greatest width of the shell.
The pedicle valve strongly convex in the middle, slightly
flattened near the cardinal extremities ; three or four oblique
spines present along the cardinal margin on each side of the
beak. The concavity of the brachial valve much less than
the convexity of the pedicle valve, in some individuals
it being nearly flat throughout. Surface of each valve
marked by eighty to one hundred fine radiating striae.
Dimensions of an average specimen: length 5 mm., width
7 mm.

Remarks. C. geniculata, with which this species may be
compared, occurs in abundance in the Louisiana limestone at
Louisiana, Missouri, and many specimens from that locality
have been examined. The Burlington specimens agree closely
with those from Louisiana in general form, but their average
size is a little greater, and the radiating striae with which they
are marked are much finer, there being only about forty-five
or fifty in C. geniculata. In the list of localities for C.
geniculata, given by White with his original description, Bur-
lington, Iowa, is recorded with a query, and it was undoubt-

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 69

edly the little shell here described that he had in mind, be-
cause of its abundance at Burlington in the Chonopectus
sandstone, and especially in the thin limestone band which lies
just above the sandstone. This limestone band which is only
a few inches in thickness is usually constituted almost wholly
of the shells of this single species. Upon the internal casts
of the pedicle valve in the Chonopectus sandstone, such as the
one here illustrated, the radiating striae can usually not be
recognized, hence their absence from the figure.

Chonetes sp. uudet.

PI. I. f. 15.

A few imperfect specimens of a third species of Chonetes,
not yet identified with any described form and intermediate
in size between the other two, have been found in the Chono-
pectus sandstone. It differs from either of its associates in
its coarser radiating striae, there being only 40-50 on each
valve. The shell is also much more extended along the hinge-
line, the cardinal extremities being acutely angular. The
species somewhat resembles C. ornatus from the Louisiana
limestone at Louisiana, Missouri, but the striae are finer and
the cardinal extremities more acute than in that species. The
best specimen observed is an impression of the outside of the
brachial valve which is moderately convex in the middle and
flattened towards the cardinal extremities. The contour of
the pedicle valve is not certainly known.

Chonopectus fischeri (N. & P.).

Pi. I. f. 17.

Shell semi-elliptical in outline, the hinge-line equal to or a
little less than the width of a shell. Pedicle valve convex,
somewhat gibbous in the middle, often nearly flat at the umbo
and along the hinge-line, compressed at the cardinal angles;
the hinge-line furnished with five to seven nearly straight tub-
ular spines on each side of the beak, those nearest the beak
usually being at right angles to the hinge-line while the outer
ones are slightly oblique. Brachial valve moderately concave,
following the curvature of the opposite valve. Surface marked
by fine radiating striae, by concentric lines or wrinkles of

70 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

growth which are most prominent near the hinge-line, and by
a double set of curved, diagonal lines. The dimensions of an
average specimen are: length, 16 mm., breadth, 21 mm., and
convexity, 4^- mm.

Remarks. This species is by far the most abundant in the
Chonopectus sandstone. Not a fragment of the rock in the
fossiliferous layers can be broken without exposing one or
more specimens of this species, and the number of individuals
present is many times that of other species in the fauna. As
they occur in the sandstone, the surface markings are usually
obliterated to a very great extent so that they appear to be
nearly smooth, but the concentric lines or wrinkles of growth
may usually be observed near the hinge-line, and also the
curved diagonal lines.

Productus semireticulatus Martin.

Pl.I.f. 6-6.

A detailed description of this cosmopolitan species is not
necessary. The specimens in the Chonopectus sandstone
resemble P. burlingtonensis Hall, of the Burlington limestone,
but they are constantly less convex than that species. In size
and in general characteristics, aside from the convexity, these
specimens approximate P. burlingtonensis, and it is possible
that they should be considered as constituting a variety of
that species. It is difficult as yet, if not altogether impossible,
to draw sharply defined specific lines in the genus Productus,
and therefore it is thought best for the present to refer the
Chonopectus sandstone specimens to the more general species
P. semireticulatus, which as understood at present includes a
great variety of forms. The specimen illustrated in the ac-
companying figures 5 and 6 is the one referred to by Winchell*
as P. martini, and the one in figures 7 and 8 is one of the
types of P. curtirostris Win.f This latter species proves to
be nothing more than the external impression of the brachial
valve of P. semireticulatus, and the name therefore becomes a
synonym.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863 : 4.
t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1865 : 114.

Weller — Kinderhook Fauna! Sttidies. 71

Productus cooperensis Swall.?

PL I.f. 3-4.

The specimens in the University of Michigan collection,
referred by Winchell to this species, differ from P. semire-
ticulatus chiefly in the nearly obsolete radiating plications.
The specimens are also more gibbous than those that are more
completely plicated. Associated with these specimens there
are others which are intermediate in their characters between
the two forms, and it is not improbable that both those re-
ferred to P. cooperensis and to P. semireticulatus are mem-
bers of a single variable species. The original P. cooperensis
was described from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper County,
Missouri. It has never been illustrated and the identity of
these Burlington specimens with it is by no means certain.

Productus laevicostus White.

PL I.f. 1-2.

This species, first described from the Burlington limestone
at Burlington, Iowa, is a member of the group of species of
Productus typified by P. cora. All the species of this group
are characterized by their fine, dividing, more or less wavy,
radiating costae, and by the conspicuous transverse wrinkles
of the shell in the region of the cardinal extremities, P. lae-
vicostus is closely related to the typical P. cora as it occurs
in the Coal Measure faunas, but the beak is always much more
pointed than in the latter species, and it is also more free from
spines.

Productella nummularis (Win.).

PL I.f. 9-10.

Strophalosia nummularis, Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 613.

Shell subcircular in outline, truncated by the hinge-line;
hinge-line shorter than the greatest width of the shell. Pedi-
cle valve depressed convex, most prominent at a point a little
in front of the beak, decidedly flattened on each side of the beak
towards the cardinal extremities; the beak, rather small and
pointed, incurved, projecting but slightly beyond the hinge-
line. Brachial valve discoid, with a broad, shallow mesial
depression which is bounded on the two sides by lines diverg-
ing from the beak nearly at right angles to each other ; beak

72 Tram. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

depressed; the cardinal process, as shown in casts of the
inside of the valve, is small, bifid, and lies in the plane of the
valve projecting beyond the hinge-line ; the internal casts also
show a low median ridge extending from near the beak almost
to the middle of the shell ; there are also two low, widely diverg-
ing socket plates whose impressions are preserved in casts of
the brachial valve. The surface of the pedicle valve is cov-
ered with innumerable fine spines which attain a length of at
least 5 mm. The brachial valve also is marked by small pits
which may represent a covering of spines, though the spines
themselves have not been observed. Both valves are marked
by more or less conspicuous concentric lines of growth. The
dimensions of the best preserved pedicle valve observed, one
of the type specimens, are : length, 20 mm., breadth, 22 mm.,
thickness, 3| mm. The largest specimen preserved is a
brachial valve whose length is 22 mm. and breadth, 32 mm.

Remarks. This species was referred to the genus Stropha-
losia by Winchell in his original description, but it is un-
doubtedly a ProducteUa. The fine spines covering the surface
are usually destroyed, leaving only a pitted surface, but in a
single specimen of a pedicle valve in the University of Chicago
collection, their presence is clearly shown. The species
resembles in some degree P. pyxidata from the Louisiana
Limestone at Louisiana, Missouri, but it is a more nearly
circular shell and often attains a much greater size.

Pugnax striatocostata (M. and W.) var. ?

Pi. II. f. 16-17.

Shell much wider than long, broadly subtriangular in out-
line, the angle of divergence of the lateral margins from the
beak 110° to 113°. Pedicle valve depressed convex with a
broad, deep, sharply defined mesial sinus which is greatly
produced anteriorly in a lingual extension nearly at right
angles to the plane of the valve. Brachial valve extremely
gibbous, the mesial fold strongly elevated in front. Surface
of the shell marked by simple, strong, subangular plications,
of which there are usually four on each side of the mesial
sinus in the pedicle valve, and three on each side of the fold
of the brachial valve ; in the fold and sinus the number of

Weller — Kinderhook Fanned Studies. 73

plications varies from two to four in the sinus with always
one more on the fold. In addition to the plications both
valves are marked over their entire surface by fine radiating
striae which are often nearly obsolete in the casts. The
dimensions of an average specimen are: length, 22 mm.,
breadth, 30 mm., thickness, 22 mm.

Memarks. In 1855 Shumard * described Rhynchonella
missouriensis from the Chouteau limestone of Cooper and
Boone Counties, Missouri. In 1868 Meek and Worthenf
described a shell from Kinderhook, Pike County, Illinois, as
the same species, but in their remarks on the species they
pointed out that Shumard included what they considered to
be two distinct species in R. missouriensis. Their own speci-
mens they identified with the larger form of Shumard's
species and suggest the name striatocosiata for it, retaining
the original name missouriensis for Shumard's smaller form.
One of the most conspicuous features of Meek and Worthen's
R. sirialocostala are the fine radiating striae which cover the
entire surface of both valves in addition to the strong plica-
tions. Shumard mentioned no such markings in his descrip-
tion of R. missouriensis, but did mention fine, concentric lines
of growth, and in some specimens from the Chouteau lime-
stone at Sedalia, Missouri, believed to be R. missouriensis,
there are no signs of radiating striae but the fine concentric
lines of growth are finely shown. From a study of the speci-
mens, therefore, it seems that Meek and Worthen were mis-
taken in identifying their shell from Kinderhook, Illinois,
with Shumard's, whether the latter really includes two dis-
tinct species or only one. All of these shells were originally
described as members of the genus Rhynchonella, but they
are now referred to Pugnax.

In the Kinderhook formations at Burlington, there are two
varieties or perhaps distinct species characterized by the fine
radiating striae of P. striatocostata . One of these occurs in
the limestone above the Chonopectus sandstone and may be
certainly identified with Meek and Worthen's shell from Kin-

* I and II Rep. Geol. Mo. 204.
t Geol. Surv. 111. 3:450.

74 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

derhook, Illinois. The second form occurs in the Chonopec-
tus sandstone, and apparently presents constant characters
by which it may be separated from the shell in the limestone
above. It is always larger and thicker than the typical P.
strialocostata , and as they diverge from the beak the lateral
margins form a wider angle than in the limestone specimens.
The differences are so great and apparently so constant that
it is possible that the Chonopectus sandstone form should be
given a specific designation, but for the present it will be con-
sidered only as a variety. In volume eight of the New York
Paleontology this shell is illustrated on plate 62, figs. 44-45,
under the name P. missouriensis, while the typical form of
P. slriatocostata is illustrated under the same name on plate
60, figs. 33-34. Allied species have been described from the
Waverly sandstone in Pennsylvania.

Rhynchonella sp. undet.

Pl.Il.f. 4-5.

Several specimens of Rhynchonella have been observed in
the fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone, but they are too im-
perfect for certain identification. They seem to belong to a
single variable species, the two figures given representing the
extremes, one with an obtuse and the other with an acute
beak. The umbonal region of the pedicle valve is convex,
the sinus being present only towards the anterior margin of
the shell, and there it is very shallow. The anterior margin
of the valve is abruptly incurved so that the margin lies nearly
at a right angle to the general plane of the shell. The surface
of each valve is marked by about twelve or fourteen simple
rounded plications. Most of the specimens observed are
pedicle valves, only a few fragments of the brachial valve
having been seen.

EUMETRIA ALTIROSTRIS (White).

Pl.Il.f. 18-19.

Shell longitudinally subovate in outline, the valves nearly
equally convex. Brachial valve with a prominent, elevated
beak slightly incurved at the tip, and perforated by a large
circular foramen ; mesial sinus shallow, ill-defined. Brachial

Wetter — KinderhooJc Faunal Studies. 75

valve without an appreciable mesial fold. Surface of each
valve marked by twenty or twenty-two prominent, simple,
rounded plications, which gradually increase in size towards
the front; the furrows between the ribs much narrower than
the ribs themselves ; the groove along the median line of the
pedicle valve stronger than any of those on either side.
Length of an average specimen 19 mm., breadth, 15 mm., and
thickness, 10 mm.

Remarks. The types of this species in the University of
Michigan collection are four in number, all of them more or
less imperfect. The specimen here illustrated is a more
perfect one in the University of Chicago collection from
the same locality as the types. The species resembles
E. marcyi (Shum.) from the St. Louis limestone fauna,
but it has a more acute and more erect beak, coarser plica-
tions, and the slight median sinus with its stronger median
furrow.

Athyris corpulenta (Win.).

PL II. f. 12-15.

Shell varying from longitudinally subelliptical to subcircular
in outline, the valves becoming exceedingly gibbous in the
adult individuals. Pedicle valve gibbous in the middle,
usually with a shallow, ill-defined mesial sinus in the anterior
half of large shells, though this is sometimes practically
obsolete; in those specimens with the sinus well developed,
the anterior margin of the valve is produced; the beak is
small and incurved over that of the brachial valve. Brachial
valve nearly as convex as the pedicle valve so that the older
and shorter individuals become subglobular in form; the
specimens with a sinus developed in the pedicle valve have a
corresponding, ill-defined fold in the brachial valve. Surface
of both valves marked by strong, concentric lines of growth
which are often crowded near the margin. The dimensions
of a small, exceedingly elongate specimen are : length, 15 mm.,
breadth, 11 mm., and thickness, 10 mm.; those of another
larger and very gibbous specimen are: length, 16 mm.,
breadth, 18 mm., thickness, 20 mm. This latter specimen has
apparantly been somewhat distorted so that the convexity

76 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

of the pedicle valve is too great and consequently also the
thickness of the entire shell.

Remarks. The general aspect of the type specimens of
this species is remarkable. The great gibbosity of the larger
specimen illustrated, causes the lateral slopes of the two
valves to lie in the same general plane, so that the sides of
the shell present a regular convexity. The gibbosity of the
pedicle valve of this specimen is accentuated by the crushing
of the anterior portion of the valve. The smaller specimen
illustrated perhaps represents more nearly the normal form of
the species, though this one is extremely elongate, the average
form of the species being that in which the length and the
breadth are nearly equal. It is by no means certain that this
species belongs to the genus Athyris, but it was originally
described as Spirigera, a synonym of Athyris, and it is
therefore allowed to remain here until its generic relations can
be accurately determined.

Spirifer subrotundatus Hall.

Pl.II.f. 8-10.

Shell subcircular in outline, the hinge-line much shorter
than the width of the shell. Pedicle valve rather strongly
convex, the umbo large and prominent ; the beak moderately
incurved ; the cardinal area rather high, concave, extending to
the ends of the hinge-line; the mesial sinus shallow, rounded,
not sharply denned. Brachial valve less convex than the
opposite one, its greatest convexity posterior to the middle,
from which point it curves regularly to the lateral and anterior
margins ; the mesial fold not sharply defined and scarcely
elevated above the general surface of the valve. Surface of
each valve, both the lateral slopes and the fold and sinus,
covered with from sixty to seventy-five bifurcating plications,
and by more or less conspicuous concentric lines or wrinkles of
growth. The dimensions of an average specimen are; length,
32 mm., breadth, 37 mm., and thickness, 19 mm. The largest
specimen observed is 43 mm. long and 48 mm. broad.

Remarks. This species is one of the commoner ones in the
Chonopectus sandstone. It belongs to a decidedly Carbonifer-
ous type of the genus in which the shells are completely

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 77

covered with bifurcating plications. In this respect it is
allied to 8. grimesi H., of the Osage fauna, and may possibly
be considered as a genetic predecessor of that species. It
never grows so large as 8. grimesi, however, and has a shorter
hinge-line. It is not known whether the shell is marked by
the very fine radiating striae which characterize 8. grimesi.

Spirifer biplicatus Hall.

Pl.II.f. 6-7.

Shell, exclusive of the cardinal extensions, semicircular or
semielliptical in outline; the hinge-line greatly extended in
long mucronate points. Pedicle valve with a rather small in-
curved beak and a prominent umbo ; the cardinal area narrow ;
the slope to the cardinal margin rather steep, that to the
cardinal angles and lateral margins slightly concave ; the
mesial sinus narrow and shallow, marked in the center by a
single, simple plication, the two bounding plications larger
than any of those on the lateral slopes. Convexity of the
brachial valve about equal to that of the pedicle valve, the
mesial fold narrow, not elevated above the general surface of
the valve, marked along its median line by a simple, shallow
furrow, the bounding furrows deeper than those on the lateral
slopes. Surface of each valve marked by about twelve simple
plications on each lateral slope which grow smaller as they
approach the cardinal angles, and by concentric lines of
growth. The dimensions of an average specimen are: length,
9 mm., breadth along the hinge-line, 50 mm., thickness,
8 mm.

Remarks. This species is remarkable because of its greatly
extended, mucronate cardinal extremities. In this respect it
strongly simulates some Devonian species such as 8. pennatus
Atw., and has no near allies in the succeeding Carboniferous
faunas. We have then, associated in this fauna, this strictly
Devonian type of the genus Spirifer, and a characteristic
Carboniferous type represented by 8. subrolundatus.

Syringothyris extenuatus (Hall).

PI. I.f. 1-3.

Shell subsemielliptical in outline, greatly extended along
the hinge-line. Pedicle valve subpyramidal ; the cardinal

78 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

area high, flat or slightly convex or concave, sharply defined
along the margin, sloping forward from the hinge-line at an
angle of about 30° with the plane of the valve ; the mesial
sinus broad and deep, not plicated, rounded in the bottom,
not sharply defined, produced anteriorly in a lingual exten-
sion ; the lateral slopes very narrow ; in the sandstone casts
the syrinx is usually well exhibited. Brachial valve somewhat
gibbous in the middle, the lateral slopes concave from the
deepest point of the valve to the cardinal extremities, flat-
tened towards the cardinal angles; the mesial fold prominent,
rounded above, sharply defined, not plicated, deeply emar-
ginate in front. Surface of each valve marked with fifteen
to twenty simple rounded plications on each lateral slope, grow-
ing smaller towards the cardinal extremities ; in addition to the
plications each valve is usually marked by several more or less
conspicuous lines of growth which in the pedicle valve are
continuous across the cardinal area. The dimensions of an
average specimen are: length, from beak of brachial valve to
the anterior margin of the fold and sinus, 14 mm., length of
hinge-line, 41 mm., height of cardinal area, 15 mm. An-
other large brachial valve has a length of 17 mm., and a
breadth along the hinge-line of 63 mm.

Remarks. It has always been found difficult to draw
sharply defined specific lines between the species of the genus
Syringolhyris. From the Kinderhook beds at Burlington two
species of the genus have been described, 8. exlenuatus Hall,
and 8. halli Winchell. Hall's species is from the Chonopectus
sandstone; it was originally described from the brachial valve
alone, but in recent collections from Burlington several specimens
preserving both valves have been secured and it is a common
species in the fauna. The types of 8. halli are not from the
Chonopectus sandstone but from the overlying limestone,
although specimens of 8. extenuatus from the sandstone are
present in the University of Michigan collection labeled 8.
halli var., by Winchell. From a careful study of the typ«s
of 8. halli and of a good collection of 8. exlenuatus, it is
believed that the two species are not identical as has been
sometimes suggested. As they occur at Burlington 8. halli
is always smaller than 8. extenuatus, the largest specimen of

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 79

the former being 36 mm. in extent along the hinge-line, while
the largest specimen of the latter is 63 mm. The cardinal
area of 8. extenuatus is usually perfectly flat or slightly
convex, in but one specimen is it slightly concave, while
in 8. halli on the other hand, the area is usually concave
at least towards the beak, and in some individuals it is
strongly concave throughout the entire height. The most
important difference between the two species, however, is to be
found in the length of the pedicle valve from the beak to the
anterior margin. In 8. extenuatus this distance is always
shorter than the height of the area, while in 8. halli it is always

Fig. 1. Fig. -• Flg# 3-

Explanation of Figures.

Profile views of :-l. Syringothyris extenuatus from the Chonopectus sand-
stone 2. One of the type specimens of S. halli from Burlington. 3. S. han-
nibalensis from the Louisiana limestone at Louisiana, Mo These outhnes
show the variation in the angle of forward slope of the cardinal area.

longer. Perhaps a better manner of expressing this same
difference is in the angle of forward slope from the hinge-line
of the area of the pedicle valve. In the measurement of this
ano-le the plane of the pedicle valve is assumed to pass through
the hino-e-line and the lateral margins of the valve, cutting off
the anterior extension of the mesial sinus. While these lines
do not exactly locate a plane, they do so approximately, and
the an^le between this plane and the cardinal area may be
approximately measured. In nine specimens of 8. extenuatus
this angle does not vary more than two or three degrees from
30°, while in the two type specimens of 8. halli perfectly
enough preserved to admit of measurements, this angle varies
only°two or three degrees from 60°. In five specimens of
8 "hannibalensis Swallow, from the Louisiana limestone at

80 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Louisiana, Missouri,* varying greatly in other characters,
such as length, breadth, thickness, curvature of the area and
length of hinge-line, this angle remains approximately the
same, being not far from 60°. If the size of this angle may
be considered as a specific character of value, then 8. exten-
ualus is certainly a good species while 8. halli may be only a
small variety of 8. hannibalensis. Schuchert and others
have considered 8. hannibalensis as identical with 8. Carteri
Hall, and it is quite possible that this is true, but it is
certainly a mistake to consider 8. halli as a synonym of 8.
exlenuatus.

Reticularia cooperensis (Swall.).

Pl.ll.f. 11.

Shell transversely subelliptical in outline, the hinge-line very
short, the cardinal angles rounded. Pedicle valve rather
strongly convex, the greatest convexity between the middle
of the valve and the beak; the beak moderately acute, in-
curved; the cardinal area small, a large portion of it occupied
by the delthyrium, its margins rounded ; mesial sinus shallow,
undefined, sometimes almost obsolete. Brachial valve less
convex than the opposite one, its greatest convexity at
or a little posterior to the middle; the mesial fold ill-
defined, not elevated above the general surface of the valve.
Surface marked by more or less conspicuous concentric lines
of growth, and also by very fine radiating costae which form
little pustules at the margins of the concentric ridges, indi-
cating the presence of concentric rows of fine spines upon the
surface of the shell. Dimensions of a rather large specimen:
length of brachial valve, 18 mm., breadth, 25 mm.

Remarks. The types of R. hirta (W. and W.) are from
the " Yellow sandstone " at Burlington, but apparently from
the upper formation included under this name. In the Chono-
pectus sandstone the species is not common, the brachial
valve illustrated being the only one certainly identified from
that formation. R. hirta is generally considered as synony-
mous with R. cooperensis (Swall.) from the Chouteau lime-

* These specimens were generously loaned for study by Mr. R. R. Rowley
of Louisiana.

Weller — Kinderhook Fanned Studies. 81

stone of Cooper County, Missouri, and as Swallow's name
has priority it is here adopted. It is possible that both these
names should be considered as synonymous with Ii. lineata
(Martin), but this can be certainly determined only when a
large number of specimens can be compared. These sand-
stone specimens are, of course, all casts and consequently the
surface markings of the shells are indistinct, the concentric
lines usually being the only ones that can be definitely
recognized.

BRYOZOA.

Impressions of bryozoa belonging to Fenestella or some
allied genus are not uncommon in the Chonopectus sandstone,
but the state of their preservation is not such as to admit of
their identification.

MOLLUSCA.

PELECYPODA.

AVICULOPECTEN TENUICOSTUS Win.
PI. III. f. 3.

" Shell small, equilateral ; pallial margin circularly rounded
between anterior and posterior extremities, which lie midway
between the beak and the opposite side. Beak slightly promi-
nent ; body of shell bounded by a truncation from beak to
each lateral margin; anterior truncation slightly concave.
Anterior wing of left valve moderately inflated, as long as
anterior side of shell, distinctly rounded at extremity, joining
hinge-line by a rounded angle, and separated from body of
shell by a broadly V-shaped sinus, rounded at the bottom.
Posterior wing only very imperfectly seen. Surface (of left
valve) ornamented by fine, rigid, nearly equidistant ribs, 50
or 60 in number, separated by concave intervals ; similar but
finer ribs or striae marking the anterior ear. Frequently
from three to five equidistant costate elevations appear, each
of which bears two or three of the ribs. A few inequidistant
concentric lines are seen. Right valve unknown."

Remarks. The types of this species consist of seven

82 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

specimens, and it is rather singular that in each of these the
posterior ear has been destroyed so that its form cannot be
determined. The specimen illustrated is the best preserved
and largest one of the types, having a height and length of
13 mm. each. The smallest of the type specimens is but
8 mm. in height, while a fragmentary specimen not included
among the types is 17 mm. in height. The most characteris-
tic features of the species are the fine radiating striae with
the variable number of raised ribs, each of which is covered
with striae similar to those between. These ribs are variable
in number, from three to six or seven. In some specimens
they are much more conspicuous than in others, and those near
the center of the shell are always most conspicuous. Some-
times the ribs are nearly obsolete.

AVICULOPECTEN CAROLI Win.
PI. III. f. 4.

Shell subcircular, the height and length each 25 mm.,
nearly equilateral, the greatest convexity 6 mm. at a point a
little above the middle. Hinge-line shorter than the shell.
Beak central, scarcely elevated above the hinge-line. An-
terior ear of the left valve slightly convex, sharply depressed
from the body of the shell ; its anterior margin nearly straight
above and forming approximately a right angle with the hinge-
line, rounded below where it forms a shallow angular notch
with the margin of the shell below. Posterior ear of the
same valve not so sharply separated from the body of the
shell ; its posterior extremity acutely angular, and the pos-
terior margin forming with the margin of the shell below a
shallow, rounded notch. The anterior, basal and posterior
margins together form something more than a nearly per-
fect semicircular curve. Surface of the shell marked by
about seventy-five raised costae towards the margin, which
varv sreatlv in size. These costae increase in number by
division and by intercalation, so that the number is much less
towards the beak. The larger costae are from three to five
times the width of the smaller ones. The larger ribs pro-
duced into spines on the margin of the shell. The surface
is also marked by indefinite concentric lines of growth. The

Welter — Kinderhook Faicnal Studies. 83

surface markings on the anterior ear become nearly obsolete,
while on the posterior ear the concentric markings become
stronger at the expense of the radiating costae.

Remarks. The specimens which are labeled as the types of
this species in the University of Michigan collection are four
in number, two of them being from the Chonopectus sand-
tone, the others from a higher horizon. It is altogether prob-
able that all these specimens do not belong to a single species,
and it is impossible to determine from his description and
measurements which one of these specimens Winchell consid-
ered as the type. The two species from the Chonopectus
sandstone are of the same species, and one of these is here
selected to represent the species and the description has been
entirely rewritten.

The specimens from the Waverly series in Ohio, identified
as A. caroli by Hall and by Herrick, probably do not belong
to this species.

PTERINOPECTEN. — Cf . P. LAETUS H.

PI. III. f.1-2.

Shell 27^- mm. in height, the length about one-fourth
greater than the height. Left valve moderately convex ;
hinge-line straight, about equal to the greatest length of the
shell; pallial margin regularly rounded. Beak scarcely
elevated above the hinge-line, located about f of the distance
from the anterior extremity. The anterior ear of the left
valve depressed, slightly convex, separated from the body of
the shell by a shallow and narrow sinus ; its anterior margin
rounded above and nearly straight below, meeting the hinge-
line at approximately a right angle, joining the pallial margin
in a broadly rounded notch. The posterior wing broad and
flattened toward the margin, but not sharply separated from
the body of the shell; its posterior margin sinuate. The
surface of the left valve ornamented with 85-90 rounded,
radiating costae, a few of which near the center of the basal
margin are smaller than the others and do not extend to the
beak. The costae on the anterior ear are finer than those on
the body of the shell, and in the sinus separating the ear
from the body of the shell they are nearly obsolete. The

84 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

costae also grow smaller in size posteriorly, the largest ones
being near the center of the basal margin. In addition to the
costae the shell is marked with fine concentric lines and with
a few coarser lines or indistinct wrinkles of growth.

Remarks. White and Whitfield's description of Aviculo-
pecten nodocostatus (= Pterinopecten nodocostatus) was based
upon two type specimens which are now preserved in the
paleontologic collection of the University of Michigan. One
of these specimens is a left valve from the Chonopectus sand-
stone, and the other is a right valve from the upper horizon
of the " Yellow sandstone." These two specimens appar-
ently belong to distinct species. The original description
agrees in the main with the latter one of the two specimens
and it will be retained as the type of the species. The speci-
men from the Chonopectus bed differs from P. nodocostatus
in its greater proportionate height, in having nearly twice the
number of radiating costae, and in lacking the conspicuous
nodosity of the costae from which the specific name nodocos-
tatus was taken. There are other differences in convexity, etc.,
due to the fact that the two specimens are opposite valves.

Except in size the specimen from the Chonopectus bed
agrees quite closely with the illustration of P. laetus Hall *
but is proportionately a little shorter. In general form it
agrees even more closely with P. dignatus Hall,t but not so
closely in its surface markings. Each of these New York
species, however, which may in reality be but one, is only
about one-half the size of the Burlington specimen. The
difference in size, however, can scarcely be taken as a good
specific character, and the Burlington specimen is provision-
ally referred to P. laetus. This species was first described
from the Marcellus shale of the Hamilton series in New York.
At a later date a shell from the Waverly series of Ohio was
identified with it by Herrick, but in all respects except size,
the Burlington shell agrees more closely with the New York
illustration, than does the Ohio specimen illustrated by Her-
rick.

* Pal. N. Y. 51. pl.l.f. 13.
t Loc. cit. pi. l.f. 14.

Wetter — Kinderhook Fanned Studies. 85

Pernopecten ?? sp.

Plate III. f. 5.

It is by no means certain that this genus occurs in the
fauna of the Chonopectus sandstone. The specimen here
illustrated resembles it in being a nearly flat, smooth shell,
but it differs from Pernopecten in the absence of both the
anterior and posterior auriculations. It is of course possible
that the ears have been destroyed, but the margin of the shell
seems to be uninjured, and if this is the case it cannot be
Pernopecten. It is perhaps more probable that this shell
should be associated with those called Posidonomya ? am-
bigua by Winchell. (See p. 105, pi. IV., f. 18, 19.)

Leiopteria spinalata (Win.).

PL III. f. 8-9.

Pterinea spinalata. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153 : 511.

" Shell rather large, very oblique, becoming distinctly
arcuate upwards. Left valve very ventricose, with a tapering
incurved beak, closely approximated to its fellow ; body of
valve regularly arched along the umbonal slope, from which
line it describes a rapid convexity to the anterior margin,
sloping more gradually to the ventral margin and becoming
gradually flattened toward the posterior ventral angle. The
upper boundary of the body is an abrupt descent to the plane
of the posterior wing, and sharply divides the two ; posterior
wing sloping to the dorsal and posterior borders of the valve,
produced above into a slender spine, nearly as long as the
posterior end of the shell, with a deep sinuation below. An-
terior ear short, saccate, less distinctly divided from the body
of the valve. Hinge-line straight, with a long, posterior
cartilage facet. Surface marked by irregular wrinkles of
growth which become fine striae on the posterior wing, and
sharp plications on the anterior slope and auriculation. Right
valve smoother and considerably less ventricose, with the
posterior wing- surface divided from the body of the valve
only by a slight groove."

Remarks. None of the specimens in the University of
Michigan collection are marked as types, but there are five
well preserved left valves and four right valves of the species,
labeled by Winchell, which agree well with his description and

86 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

which are without doubt -good representatives of the species.
These specimens exhibit some variation in size and form.
The largest one measures 40 mm. from the beak to the
farthest posterior extension of the body of the shell, while the
same measurement in the smallest shell is scarcely 10 mm.
The specimens illustrated are intermediate in size. There is
also some variation in the width of the body of the shell, and
also in the posterior extension of the wing. In some individ-
uals the posterior angle of the wing reaches nearly as far as
the most posterior extension of the body of the shell, while in
others it is considerably shorter.

This species has previously been referred to the genera
Avicula and P termed, but an examination of authentic speci-
mens shows that the species should be placed in the genus
Leiopteria. This species differs from the Devonian species of
the genus generally, in its greater obliquity and in its narrower
shell. L. speciosa M. and G. from the Chouteau limestone
near Sedalia, Missouri, closely resembles the Burlington
species and may be identical with it.

Avicula strigosa (White).

PI. III. f. 10.

Pterinea strigosa. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 511.

Shell very oblique, length, 30 mm., greatest height, 8 mm.
Hin^e-line slightly more than one-half the length of the shell.
Anterior and posterior extremities sharply rounded; ventral
margin convex; dorsal margin, exclusive of the wing, concave
with the concavity less than the convexity of the ventral mar-
gin. Beak placed near the anterior extremity of the shell.
Behind the beak there is a small, narrow, abruptly com-
pressed wing whose posterior extremity seems to be pointed.
Body of the shell very convex, the slope toward the dorsal
margin being much steeper than the ventral slope. The
o-reatest convexity at about one-third the length of the shell
from the anterior extremity. The anterior extremity forms a
small, inflated ear which is separated from the body of the
shell by an oblique depression. Surface marked by a few
concentric wrinkles which are more conspicuous anteriorly.

Remarks. The form of the posterior wing of this species

Weller — KinderhooJc Faunal Studies. 87

is not distinctly shown in the type specimen, but it is believed
to be as shown in the illustration. In the original description
this wing is not mentioned, it not having been uncovered in
the type specimen at that time. The species was originally
described as Gervillia strigosa and it has since been referred to
the genus Pierinea, though it is much more oblique than any
other species referred to that genus. So far as its characters
are preserved, it seems to be cogeneric with the Coal Meas-
ure species Avicula longa, and it is therefore placed in the
genus Avicula although its hinge characters have not been
preserved.

Pteronites whitei (Win.).

Pi. III. f. 6-1.

Avicula whitei. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 106.

" Shell large, transverse, exceedingly oblique, with nearly
terminal beaks. Hinge-line more than three times the great-
est dorso-ventral dimensions. Anterior ear pouched, not dis-
tinctly divided from the body of the shell. Left valve ven-
tricose ; umbonal ridge somewhat arcuate, or nearly straight,
forming an angle of about 20° with the hinge-line ; slope
thence to the ventral margin very rapid — to the dorsal side
rather gradual and symmetrical to the very hinge-line — the
posterior wing not being divided from the body of the shell.
Ventral margin, in the middle rather straight and nearly par-
allel with the dorsal; posterior margin sigmoidal by a deep,
or rather shallow sinus, isolating the posterior end of the
cartilage plate from the body of the shell ; posterior wing tri-
angular, exceeding the shell. External surface marked by
numerous fine, irregular striae of growth. Right valve much
less ventricose, marked on the body and anterior slope by
numerous sharp, regular raised concentric striae which become
very faint posteriorly. Cardinal line in each valve with a
long, slender, bifid lateral tooth behind the beak."

"Length of dorsal side, 53 mm.; greatest dorso-ventral
dimensions, 17| mm.; depth of left valve, 51 mm."

Remarks. The specimens in the University of Michigan
collection which are labeled as types of this species are ten in
number, but of all these only two left valves approach perfec-

88 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

tion in their condition of preservation. Judging from Win-
chell's measurements it is the larger one of these two which
is really the type of the species. Most of the specimens are
smaller than this one, some of them having a length no greater
than 15 mm.

The species approaches more closely to P. profundus Hall,
from the Chemung fauna of New York, than any other species
of the genus, but the two are quite distinct. P. whitei is a
much narrower shell and lacks the pointed anterior ear of
P. profundus.

Mytilarca occidentalis (W. & W.).

PI. III. f. 11.

Shell elongate, narrowly ovate; length, 52 mm., breadth,
20 mm. Hinge-line short; ventral margin gently curving
from just below the beaks to the abruptly rounded posterior
margin; dorsal margin gently curving to the posterior ex-
tremity of the short hinge-line. Beaks acute, situated at the
extreme anterior end of the shell ; valves convex in the pos-
terior part, becoming gibbous anteriorly, the greatest con-
vexity anterior to the middle; the umbonal region narrow
and the convexity continued along the median line to the
posterior extremity of the shell. Surface marked by fine,
more or less irregular concentric striae, and at irregular inter-
vals by stronger concentric wrinkles.

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type of the
species. It is somewhat compressed dorso-ventrally, so that
it is proportionately narrower than before this distortion took
place, and the convexity along the median line is proportion-
ately accentuated. Hall's* illustration of the species was
drawn from the same specimen, but that figure is made to
represent the shell as restored to its normal form.

Mytilarca fibristriata (W. & W.).

PL III. f. 12.

Shell elongate, ovate, very oblique; length, 41 mm.,
breadth, 16 mm. Hinge-line short ; ventral margin nearly
straight in the central portion, curving gently upward to the

* Pal. N. Y. fr.pl. Sl.f.ll.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 89

anterior extremity of the hinge-line in front, and posteriorly
curving into the somewhat abruptly rounded posterior margin ;
dorsal margin gently curved to the extremity of the hinge-
line. Beaks acute, suberect, situated at the extreme anterior
end of the shell. Valves moderately convex in the posterior
part, becoming gibbous anteriorly. The line of greatest
convexity near the ventral side of the shell, the ventral slope
being very steep and the dorsal slope more gentle. Surface
marked by fine radiating striae, and by more or less incon-
spicuous lines of growth.

Remarks. This species differs from the last in the pres-
ence of the radiating striae and in the more ventral position
of the line of greatest convexity.

GONIOPHORA JENNAE (Win.).

PL III. f. 13-14.

lsocardia jennae. Bull U. S. G. S. No. 153: 314.

The specimens of this species in the University of Michigan
collection labled " types (in part) " are three in number, but
the specimen from which Winchell took the measurements
given in his original description, is missing, none of those
observed being- as large as that one. The largest and best of
the specimens studied will therefore be selected as the type.

Shell very oblique, the beak at or near the anterior
extremity. Dimensions, 26 mm. from the beak to the pos-
terior basal angle, hinge line 14 mm. in length, greatest
width from the posterior extremity of the hinge-line to the
middle of the ventral margin 14 mm. Hinge-line straight.
The posterior margin truncated, meeting the hinge-line in an
obtuse angle. The postero-ventral extremity of the shell
acutely angular ; the ventral margin nearly straight through
the greater part of its length, curving upward anteriorly to
meet the hinge-line under the beak. The umbonal ridge
elevated and sharply angular, slightly sigmoidal from the beak
to the posterior basal angle. The postero-dorsal slope from
the umbonal ridge concave, becoming more and more steep
anteriorly until at or near the beak it faces dorsally, and is
overhung by the umbonal ridge; the antero-ventral slope
steeper than the opposite one posteriorly, but more gentle

90 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

anteriorly. A shallow sinus extends from the beak obliquely
across the antero-ventral slope to near the center of the basal
margin. Surface marked by fine lines of growth which are
most conspicuous upon the antero-ventral slope.

Remarks. The dimensions of this species as given by
Winchell are somewhat greater than those recorded above,
the length from the beak to the postero-ventral angle being
32 mm., and the hinge-line 20 mm. The length of the hinge-
line was therefore proportionately longer than in the specimen
here described. The species varies considerably in its pro-
portions, the two specimens illustrated being representative.

Macrodon cochlearis Win.

PI. III. f. 15.

Shell subrhomboidal in outline, length, 23 mm. and height,
10 mm. Hinge-line straight, a little shorter than the total
length of the shell ; anterior margin meeting the hinge-line
at nearly a right angle, curving regularly downward and back-
ward into the ventral margin ; ventral margin nearly straight
or gently curving, except towards the extremities where it
curves upward; posterior margin abruptly rounded below,
truncate above, meeting the hinge-line in obtuse angle. The
valves rather ventricose; beaks flattened, incurved, elevated
above the hinge-line, situated at a point about one-fourth the
length of the shell from the anterior extremity ; the umbonal
ridge rather sharply rounded near the beak, becoming more
broadly rounded posteriorly, the dorsal slope from the ridge,
concave. Surface marked by concentric lines of growth.

Macrodon modesta (Win.).

PI. III. f.16.

Area modesta. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 91.

Shell small, ventricose, subovate in outline, length, 10 mm.
and breadth, 5 mm. Hinge-line straight, nearly equaling the
greatest length of the shell ; anterior abruptly rounded; ven-
tral margin broadly rounded; posterior margin broadly
rounded from the ventral margin to the hinge-line, which it
meets at an acute angle. Beak prominent, obtuse, situated
near the anterior extremity of the shell, elevated above the

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 91

hinge-line, but little incurved. Umbonal ridge broadly
rounded, ventricose, the postero-dorsal slope concave, forming
an alate expansion of the shell. Surface marked by fine,
regular, sharp, concentric lines of growth.

Remarks. This shell is represented by a single specimen,
the type, whose posterior portion is imperfectly preserved,
this part being restored in outline in the illustration, as indi-
cated by the direction of the lines of growth. As originally
described it was referred to the genus Area, but it should
rather be referred, in all probability, to the genus Macrodon.
It differs from the species of this latter genus in general, in
its broadly rounded ventral margin, and its great breadth
posteriorly as compared with the anterior portion of the shell.
The true generic relationship of the species can of course be
determined only when its hinge-structure can be known.

Grammysia plena Hall.

Pi. iv. f. 21.

Shell subovate or subelliptical in outline, length, 36 mm.
and height, 22 mm. Hinge-line straight, more than half the
length of the shell; anterior margin short, abruptly rounded
below the lunule which is deep and distinct extending half
way or more from the beak to the base of the shell ; ventral
margin regularly curved from end to end except for a slight
constriction at about the anterior third ; posterior margin
rounded below, obliquely truncate above. Valves regularly
convex in the posterior portion, becoming very gibbous in the
middle and umbonal region. The beaks prominent, much
elevated above the hinge-line, strongly incurved, situated
near the anterior extremity ; umbonal slope rounded or sub-
angular, the postero-dorsal slope sometimes marked by a dis-
stinct fold along the middle ; a shallow sinus extends from
the beak obliquely backward to the constriction in the ventral
margin. Surface marked by fine concentric striae which
become fasciculate posteriorly, by fine pustulose striae which
can only be seen in exceptionally well preserved specimens,
and by strong, subangular or rounded concentric undulations
which are strongest anterior to the umbonal ridge, being re-
placed posteriorly by the fascicles of fine concentric striae.

92 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Remarks. This species has often been confused with G.
Itannibalensis, but it differs from that species in its much
greater gibbosity, and in its more anterior beaks. The spe-
cies exhibits a good deal of variation in its proportions and
general outline. In some specimens the truncation of the
posterior margin is much more pronounced than in the speci-
men illustrated, and the ventral margiD may be much more
strongly curved.

Grammysia amygdalinus (Win.).

PL IV. f. 16.

Glossites amygdalinus (iu part). Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 289.

Shell moderately convex, 24 mm. long and 11 mm. high.
Hinge-line long, arcuate ; anterior margin rather abruptly
rounded; ventral margin nearly straight in the middle, gently
curving upward towards each extremity ; posterior margin
arcuate, oblique, meeting both the cardinal margin above and
the ventral margin below in rounded angles. Beak situated
about one-fourth the length of the shell from the anterior
extremity, elevated above the hinge-line, somewhat flattened,
incurved and pointed forward. An obtusely subangular or
rounded umbonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero-
ventral angle. Posterior to the beak, just below the dorsal
margin and parallel with it, there is a groove-like depression
which gives to the cardinal margin an angular, ridge-like
appearance, the upper slope of which is sharply inflected.
Anterior to the beak on the dorsal margin, there is a deep
lunette. Surface marked by strong concentric wrinkles which
are more conspicuous towards the ventral and posterior mar-
gins. A broad, shallow, ill-defined sinus or mere flattening of
the shell runs from the beak to a point in front of the middle
of the ventral margin.

Remarks. Five specimens in the University of Michigan
collection are attached to the card marked "Types" and
bearing the label of this species. Three of these specimens
are quite distinct from the other two, and are evidently mem-
bers not only of a distinct species but of another genus as
well. Winchell's description and the dimensions given by
him, agree with one of the two specimens which are distinct

Wetter — Kinderhook Farmed Studies. 93

from the other three, and this specimen is undoubtedly the
type of the species and is here illustrated. It is apparently to
be referred to the genus Grammy sia. It resembles G.
hannibalensis but is a smaller, longer, and more slender
shell. It also differs in the same manner from G. plena H.
with which it is associated, but the difference is even more
striking. Hall * has identified a shell from the "yellow sand-
stone " at Burlington with this species of Winchell's, refer-
ring it to the genus Glossites. This shell, however, is quite
distinct from Winchell's type of the species and is probably
identical with the species described by him as Edmondia
elliptica which is transferred to the genus Glossites in the
present paper. The generic position of the three specimens
associated with the type of the species is somewhat uncertain,
but they certainly constitute an undescribed species which
possibly should be referred to the genus Glossites, though they
are distinct from the species identified as G. amygdalinus by
Hall.

Edmondia burlingtonensis W. & W.

Pl.IV.f. 1-2.

" Shell of medium size, broadly subelliptical in outline, with
regularly ventricose valves, breadth equal to three-fifths of
the length. Beaks situated within the anterior third, strong,
prominent and incurved. Hinge-line and basal margin gently
and equally curved ; anterior and posterior extremites broadly
and equally rounded.

" Surface marked by numerous strong, concentric undula-
tions, parallel to the margin of the shell. In full-grown in-
dividuals there is a shallow, undefined sulcus, commencing
near the center of the shell, and reaching the border near the
middle of the basal line."

Remarks. The type specimens of this species are
seven in number, ranging in size from 10 mm. to
35 mm. in length. Two of the best preserved of these
are here illustrated. The specimens figured by Hall were
not the type specimens, and show some slight variation

* Pal. N. Y. 51 : 501. pi. 40. f. 13, 14.

94 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

from the types. The specimen which he separated from
E. burlingtonensis and described under the specific name
ellipsis should not be so separated. E. ellipsis therefore be-
comes a synonym of E. burlingtonensis. Some of the varia-
tions of E. subovata H. from the Chemung in New York and
Pennsylvania, approach very close to the Burlington species.
In fact, in his earlier publications,* Hall identified this Che-
mung species as E. burlingtonensis, it being separated only
in the final publication of the New York Paleontology. The
Chemung species exhibits a greater variation than the Burling-
ton species and for this reason it may perhaps be considered
as distinct, but some of its variations f are certainly identical
with the shell from Burlington.

Edmondia quadrat a (W. &W.).

PL IV. f. 1 7.

Microdon quadratus. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 353.

Shell small, subquadrangular in general form, length 12 mm.,
height 9^ mm., thickness of the two valves 7 mm., greatest
convexity of the valve posterior to the beaks along the
umbonal ridge. Hinge-line slightly arcuate, gradually slop-
ing to the posterior margin ; anterior and posterior margins
subparallel; ventral margin greatly rounded. Beaks small,
slightly incurved; umbonal ridge obscurely angular, gently
arcuate. Surface marked bv fine concentric lines of growth
and by a few coarser concentric wrinkles.

Remarks. When this species was originally described it
was referred to the genus (Jypricardella. More recently it
has been shown by Whitfield X that the genus Cypricardella
is not distinct from Microdon and for that reason this species
has sometimes been referred to the latter genus. Upon com-
parison of the type specimens of the species with authentic
specimens of Microdon, however, it is believed that it is more
probably an Edmondia although the essential generic char-
acters cannot be seen.

* Prelim. Notice Lamell. 2:90 (1870).— Pal. N. Y. 51. Plates and Ex-
planations, pi. 64. f. 19-29 (1883.)

t Compare Pal. N. Y. 51. pi. 95. f. 12.
X Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1 : 63.

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 95

Edmondia aequimarginalis Win .

PL IV. f. 3.

Shell subcircular in outline, length, 23 mm., height, 20 mm.,
greatest convexity of each valve, 6 mm. Beaks central, the
anterior and posterior cardinal slopes at right angles with
each other. The pallial margin regularly rounded. Surface
marked by rather fine concentric striae of growth with an
occasional stronger furrow.

Remarks. This species was originally described as Car-
dinia aequimarginalis Win., from Marshall, Michigan. At a
later date the species was identified by its author from the
"yellow sandstone" at Burlington, and the species trans-
ferred to the genus Edmondia. The specimen here illus-
trated and described is the one from which the latter
identification was made. It is rather an imperfect specimen
which is possibly but a variation of E. nitida.

Edmondia nitida Win.

PL IV. f. 4.

" Shell small, equivalve, suborbicular, ventricose, slightly
oblique, with a subcentral beak. Hinge-line slightly extended
posteriorly, obtusely rounded at the extremities ; anterior and
posterior sides subparallel ; ventral border circularly rounded,
but a little produced in the line of the umbonal ridge. Beak
elevated above the hinge, obtuse, slightly incurved ; umbonal
ridge making an angle of 68° with the hinge-line ; behind this
ridge the slope is abrupt to the posterior border; middle por-
tion of the shell very slightly flattened from the beak along
the region anterior to the umbonal ridge. Surface hand-
somely marked bjr rigid, regular, concentric, raised striae,
with a few remote, irregularly-distributed concentric furrows.
The striation is preserved in all its sharpness to the very
hinge-border." Length of shell, 16 mm., height, 15 mm.,
convexity of each valve, 5 mm.

Remarks. This species resembles quite closely some of the
illustrations of E. obliqua Hall * from the Chemung fauna in
New York, and the two species are certainly closely allied.

* Compare Pal. N. Y. 51. pi. 64. f. 16.

96 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It is also closely allied to E. philipi Hall, also from the
Chemung.

Edmondia jejunus (Win.).

PI. IV. f. 5.

Sanguinolites jejunus. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 538.

" Shell of moderate size, equivalve, transverse; beaks small,
barely elevated above the hinge, slightly inflected, one-third
the shell-length from the anterior end; height fully half the
length; hinge-line extended; dorsal slope erect, marked by
an internal ridge; margin slightly inflected, if at all, though
some indication exists of a very narrow escutcheon ; anterior
lunette equally inconspicuous ; ventral margin symmetrically
arcuate between the extremities, with which it connects by
similar gradually increasing curvatures; posterior end truncate
for a short space near the termination of the hinge-line, with
which it forms an angle of about 130° ; anterior end semi-
elliptically rounded. Valves somewhat appressed; greatest
distension one-fourth the distance from the beak to the
center. Surface of cast marked by faint lines of growth.
Length 21 mm., height 12 mm."

Remarks. This species was originally referred to the
genus Sanguinolites, but its characters, so far as they are
preserved, seem rather to ally it to the genus Edmondia.
It differs from most of the species of Edmondia, however,
in its greater proportional length. The specimen illustrated
is the best preserved one of the types of the species in the
University of Michigan collection, and as its dimensions cor-
respond with those given by Winchell, it is believed to be
the specimen from which he drew up his description. There
are two other specimens of the same species, both of which
are somewhat smaller than the one illustrated.

Sphenotus rigidus (W. & W.).

PL IV. f. 9.

Shell elongate, subtriangular or elongate subpentagonal in
outline; length, 25 mm., breadth, 12 mm. Hinge-line straight
posteriorly, arcuate in front; anterior margin short, regularly
rounded, merging into the ventral margin below; ventral
margin straight, sometimes slightly emarginate a little in front

Wetter — Rinderhook Fanned Studies. 97

of the middle; posterior margin nearly vertically truncate
below, meeting the ventral margin in a rounded right angle,
and obliquely truncated above, this upper portion meeting
both the hinge-line above and the lower portion of the
posterior margin below, in obtuse angles, giving to the pos-
terior margin of the shell a very angular outline. Beak
elevated above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed
forward, situated at a point about one-fifth the length of the
shell from the anterior extremity. From the beak to the
postero-ventral angle there is a prominent, angular umbonal
ridge, with another similar but less conspicuous ridge extending
from the beak to the angle in the middle of the posterior
margin. An ill-defined, shallow but rather broad sinus, which
is sometimes a mere flattening of the shell, extends from the
beak obliquely to a point in front of the middle of the ventral
margin. The greatest convexity is on the umbonal ridge at
about the middle of the shell. Surface marked by rather
sharp, irregular, crowded, concentric lines of growth.

IlemarTcs. The specimens indicated as the " type," of this
species in the University of Michigan collection are two in
number, a larger one imperf ectly preserving both valves, and
a smaller, nearly perfect left valve. Hall's illustration* of the
species was drawn from the larger one of these two specimens,
but the figure is to a large extent restored with no indication
of the restored portions. The figure here published is based
upon the second of the two types above mentioned. The
larger specimen is 38 mm. in length and has sharper and more
irregular lines of growth.

Sphenotus bicarinatus (Win.).

PI. IV. f. 10.

Edmondia bicarinata. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 242.

Shell small, strongly convex, subelliptical in outline; length
13 mm., breadth, 6^ mm. Hinge-line straight posteriorly,
bending downward in front; anterior margin short, rather
sharply rounded; ventral margin slightly arcuate, subparallel
with the dorsal margin ; posterior margin rounded. Beaks a
little elevated above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed

* Pal. N.Y. h\pl. 66. f. 14.

98 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

forward, situated at a point about one-fifth the length of the
shell from the anterior end. A prominent, subangular urn-
bonal ridge extends from the beak to the postero-ventral
margin, and midway in the dorsal slope there is another sim-
ilar but less prominent ridge. The greatest convexity is near
the middle of the valve, upon the umbonal ridge. Surface
marked by fine, concentric lines of growth.

Remarks. This species resembles S. rigidus but is much
smaller, is proportionately narrower posteriorly, and lacks the
strongly angular posterior margin. It is possible that this
species is but a small or immature form of S. rigidus, but the
specimen illustrated seems to be an adult shell. The speci-
mens indicated as " types " of this species in the University
of Michigan collection, are four in number, the best preserved
of which is here illustrated.

Sphenotus iowensis (Win..)

Pi. iv. f. 7.

Sanguinolites iowensis. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 538.

Shell subelliptical in outline, length, 26 mm., height,
13 mm. Hinge-line arcuate, the dorsal margin sharply in-
flected to form a long cartilage groove; anterior margin
sharply rounded above to the anterior extremity of the hinge-
line under the beak, regularly rounded below ; ventral margin
gently curved; posterior margin short, truncate, meeting the
ventral margin in a sharply rounded angle, and the dorsal
margin in an obtuse angle. Beaks elevated above the hinge-
line, somewhat flattened, incurved and directed forward over
a deep lunette. A prominent, sharply angular or carinate,
slightly sigmoid umbonal ridge extends from the beak to the
postero-ventral angle, and a still sharper ridge along the
dorsal margin of the shell bounding the long cartilage groove;
the twisted, flattened triangular space between these two
ridges is marked by three faint, depressed lines radiating
from the beak. Surface marked by irregular lines of growth
which are most conspicuous on the anterior portion and faintest
on the postero-dorsal slope.

Remarks. The above description is based upon the speci-
men of the species marked " type " in the University of Mich-

Weller — Kinderhodk Faunal Studies. 99

igan collection, and which also agrees with Winchell's de-
scription and dimensions. Associated with this specimen,
however, and attached to the same card, are other specimens
which seem to be distinct. Winchell recognized this other
form and mentioned it in his description, but was not inclined
to consider it as specifically distinct from the type. These
two shells, however, seem to be entirely distinct, and in the
material examined there are no intermediate connecting forms,
so that the second form will be described here as a distinct
species.

Sphenotus bicostatus n. sp.

PL IV. f. 8.

Shell subelliptical in outline, strongly convex, length, 29
mm., width, 14 mm. Hinge-line arcuate; anterior margin
curving abruptly inward to the anterior extremity of the
hinge-line under the beak, more gently and regularly curved
below ; ventral margin straight or geutly curved through the
greater part of its length but more strongly curved upward
both anteriorly and posteriorly ; posterior margin sharply
rounded below, obliquely truncated above. Beak elevated
above the hinge-line, flattened, incurved, directed forward,
situated about one-fourth the length of the shell from the an-
terior end. A prominent, rounded, umbonal ridge extends
from the beak to the postero-ventral margin; the postero-
dorsal slope is marked by two additional subaugular ridges
radiating from the beak, one just at the dorsal margin and
another midway between the dorsal margin and the umbonal
ridge. The dorsal margin is sharply inflected to form a
groove for the attachment of the ligament, and the area be-
tween the dorsal marginal ridge and the median one is con-
cave. The greatest convexity is near the middle of the valve
on or just below the umbonal ridge. A shallow, ill-defined
sinus extends from the beak obliquely backward to a point
anterior to the middle of the ventral margin. Surface marked
by fine concentric lines of growth.

Remarks. This shell was included by Winchell in his
species S. iowensis, the specimen here illustrated being at-
tached to the same card with the type specimen of that species.

100 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It seems to be distinct, however, from the specimen specific-
ally designated as the type specimen, and furthermore, seems
to be the more common form of the two. It differs from
/S. iowensis in the absence of the sharply angular or carinate
umbonal ridge, and also in the additional radiating ridge upon
the postero-clorsal slope. The lines of growth are also less
conspicuous than in S. ioivensis.

Spathella ventricosa (W. & W.)

PI. IV. f. 12.

The types of this species are two in number, the larger one
being 45 mm. in length, and 20 mm. in height ; the smaller
one is 21 mm. long and 10 mm. high. The shell is subcylin-
drical, widest behind. Hinge-line straight, about two-thirds
the length of the shell; anterior end short, the margin ab-
ruptly rounded; ventral margin nearly straight or slightly
arcuate throughout the greater part of its length, curving
upward into both extremities ; posterior margin usually regu-
larly rounded, forming a segment of a circle, sometimes more
abruptly rounded. Beak anterior, not prominent, small and
closely incurved. Valves very convex, gibbous in the middle ;
umbonal ridge broad and ill-defined, the dorsal slope much
more abrupt than the ventral. Surface marked by fine con-
centric lines of growth, which are sometimes fasciculate in the
posterior portion of the shell.

Remarks. Of the two type specimens of this species the
smaller one is illustrated, the larger one being imperfect in
the anterior portion. Upon the specimens illustrated by Hall,
the concentric growth lines were evidently much more irregu-
lar and fasciculate than in the original types.

Cardiopsis megambonata Win.

PI. III. f. 18.

Shell subcircular in outline, strongly ventricose, oblique ;
length from the beak to the postero-basal margin 25
mm., height from ventral to dorsal margin, and length
from anterior to posterior margins, each 20 mm., con-
vexity of valve, 10 mm. Hinge-line short, pallial margin
regularly rounded. Beak prominent, situated anteriorly,

Weller — Kinclerhook Faunal Studies. 101

elavated above the hinge-line, incurved; umbonal region
gibbous, sloping abruptly to the dorsal and anterior margins,
and much more gentry to the posterior and ventral margins.
Surface marked by about 50 simple radiating costae which are
crowded posteriorly and anteriorly, being more widely sepa-
rated in the middle of the ventral margin where they are at
distances of 1 mm. apart. Besides the radiating costae there
are a few concentric wrinkles at irregular intervals, which are
strongest posteriorly near the hinge-line.

Remarks. This species was originally described from
Michigan, from specimens very much smaller than the one
here illustrated. The type of the species has never been illus-
trated, but this specimen from Burlington was studied by
Winchell and was identified by him with his Michigan shell.
The generic reference is somewhat uncertain because the hinge
characters are not known. In its general appearance, how-
ever, it resembles the Carboniferous shells usually referred to
Cardiopsis.

Schizodus iowensis n. sp.

PL IV. f. 13-14.

Shell subcircular in outline, length, 11 mm. and height,
10 mm. Hinge-line short, slightly arcuate; anterior and ven-
tral margins regularly rounded, the posterior margin convex,
obliquely truncate ; the posterior basal extremity angular.
Beaks moderately elevated above the hinge-line, slightly
incurved, situated about one-third the length of the shell from
the anterior extremity, connected with the posterior basal
extremity by a slightly arcuate, subangular, umbonal ridge.
The posterior slope from the umbonal ridge concave; the
remainder of the shell convex, the greatest convexity above
the middle. Surface of the shell smooth.

Remarks. In the White collection the two specimens used
as the types of this species were attached, with others, to the
card labeled Oardiomorpha frigonalis, the specimens on the
card being designated as types. Among Winchell's types of
this species, however, there are evidently two distinct species
represented, one species from the Chonopectus sandstone and
the other from the upper yellow sandstone horizon. The

102 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

latter species is represented by a single specimen which is
much larger than those from the Chonopectus sandstone,
with a more triangular form and with a much more angular
umbonal ridge. Judging from his description and the meas-
urements given, Winch ell considered this larger specimen as
the principal type of his species, and it is therefore retained
as the type of Cardiomorpha or rather Schizodus Irigonalis.
The smaller species from the Chonopectus sandstone requires
a new name, 8. iowensis being here proposed. This species
may be compared with 8. gregarius Hall, from the New York
Chemung fauna, but it is shorter than that species. It also
resembles 8 . cuneus Hall, from the Waverly series in Ohio.

Schizodus burlingtonensis n. sp.

PI. IV. f.15.

Shell subovate in outline, depressed convex, length, 18 mm.
and breadth, 11 mm. Hinge-line short; anterior margin regu-
larly rounded ; ventral margin nearly straight posteriorly, but
curving upward in the anterior half; posterior margin sharply
rounded below, obliquely truncated above. Beak small, but
little elevated above the hinge-line ; umbonal ridge arcuate,
extending from the beak to the postero-ventral margin. Sur-
face marked by inconspicuous concentric lines of growth.

Remarks. This species differs from 8. iowensis in its
much greater length. It resembles 8. gregarius H., from the
Chemung group in New York, but is a longer shell. In
fact 8. gregarius is somewhat intermediate in its characters
between this species and 8. ioivensis. The specimen illus-
trated was attached to the same card in the University of
Michigan collection, with the types of Edmondia jejunus,
but it is entirely different from that species, not even being
generically allied to it.

Cypricardinia sulcifera (Win.).

Pi. ill. f. 1 7.

Shell small, subovate in outline, very oblique; length, 7 mm.,
breadth, 4 mm. Hinge-line straight, shorter than the total
length of the shell ; anterior margin abruptly rounded ; ven-
tral margin nearly straight or sinuate in the middle; pos-

Welter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 103

terior margin abruptly rounded below, truncated above,
meeting the hinge-line at an obtuse angle. Beaks nearly ter-
minal, prominent, flattened, slightly incurved; umbonal ridge
slightly arcuate, the dorsal slope concave, the ventral slope
moderately convex. Greatest convexity of each valve on the
umbonal ridge a little back of the beak. Surface marked by
six to eight strong imbricating concentric ridges.

Glossites elliptica (Win.).

PI. IV. f. 6.

Edmondia elliptica. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 242.

" Shell rather large, appressed, transverse, with an elongate-
elliptical outline. Beaks flat, inconspicuous, situated one-
fifth the shell-length from the anterior end. Hinge margin
elongate, slightly curved, abruptly elevated; a flattened area
extending from the beaks backward to the posterior hinge
angle. Extremities neatly rounded. Surface marked by
numerous distinct unequal lines running parallel with the
pallial margin. Length, 34 mm., height, 16 mm."

Remarks. This species is represented by a single specimen,
the type, which is only an imperfect impression in the sand-
stone. The figure is drawn from a wax impression taken
from this specimen, the probable outline of the shell being-
indicated. It was originally described as Edmondia, but in
all the characters preserved it more closely resembles the
illustrations of Glossites and is therefore transferred to that
genus. It is perhaps more closely allied to G. depressus
Hall * from the Chemung in New York, than to any other
species of the genus.

Glossites? burlingtonensis n. sp.

Pi. IV. f. 11.

Shell subelliptical in outline, moderately convex, com-
pressed toward the posterior extremity; length, 28 mm.,
height, 13 mm. Hinge-line nearly as long as the shell;
anterior margin abruptly rounding into the hinge- line above,
regularly curving below into the ventral margin; ventral

* Compare Pal. N. Y. b1. pi. 40. f. 17.

104 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

margin regularly curved throughout its entire length ; poste-
rior extremity situated well towards the dorsal margin, its
margin rather abruptly rounded. Beak prominent, incurved,
elevated above the hinge-line, situated about two-sevenths of
the length of the shell from the anterior extremity. Surface
marked by concentric wrinkles which are most conspicuous
anteriorly.

Remarks. The specimen selected as the type of this species
was included among the " types " of Grammy sia amygdalinus
(Win.), in the University of Michigan collection. This
specimen, however, along with two others associated with it,
is entirely different from the real type of the above mentioned
species, as determined from Winchell's original description
and the dimensions given by him. These specimens, there-
fore, have to be considered as representatives of an unde-
scribed species. The genus to which these specimens should
be referred is uncertain since the characters of the hinge can-
not be seen. The species is provisionally referred to the
genus Glossites, for the want of any better place for it,
though with the feeling that when the hinge-characters are
known, it will have to be removed. It differs from Gram-
mysia amygdalinus in its larger size, in its less convexity, in the
absence of any well-defined umbonal ridge, and in the more
dorsal position of the posterior extremity of the shell.

Promacrus cuneatus Hall.

Pi. iv. f. 20.

This species has not been observed but it was described
from the " j^ellow sandstone" at Burlington* and possibly
belongs in the Chonopectus sandstone fauna. The illustra-
tion is a copy from the original one published by Hall. A
nearly complete specimen from the Vermicular sandstone at
Northview, Missouri, has been identified t with this species,
but the Burlington shell is much more slender anteriorly than
the Northview specimens.

* See Fal. N. Y. 51 : 510. pi. 78. f. 28.

t Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9 : 36. pi. 3. f. 2.

Weller — Kinclerhook Fanned Studies. 105

POSIDONOMYA? AMBIGUA Will.
PI. IV. f. 18-19.

" Shell of medium size, rather ventricose, somewhat
oblique. Hinge-line short, straight, not surpassed by the
inconspicuous beak, abruptly rounded at the extremities ;
sides of shell subparallel, somewhat straight ; ventral margin
circularly curved, gaping at the antero-ventral angle. Cast
nearly smooth, but bearing the impression of a few small,
irregular wrinkles around the margin. Greatest dimension
(from beak to ventral margin), 16 mm. ; anterior-posterior
dimension, 14 mm.

" Three left valves and one right, of an anomalous fossil
are here referred with great uncertainty. One of the speci-
mens is larger and relatively longer from beak to venter than
the one described, and seems to have been everted around
nearly the entire pallial border, producing an extensively gap-
ing shell. * * * The three valves could scarcely belong
to the same species of any genus, but it would be folly to
attempt a further discrimination at present."

Remarks. The above is copied from Winchell's original
description of this species. The smaller one of the specimens
illustrated is the type of the species, judging from the de-
scription and the dimensions given. The larger illustration is
of the larger specimen mentioned in the description. The
proper disposition of these shells is about as uncertain now as
when Winchell wrote his description. The smaller specimen
closely resembles the illustration of Paracyclas erecta H.,*
from the Chemung group at Warren, Penn., and it may be
identical with it. The larger specimen may also be referable
to the genus Paracyclas, though it is quite different from any
of the recognized species of that genus. A few specimens of
a small, nearly flat, smooth, oval shell, having much the form
of a Pernopecten ( see p. 85 , pi. III. ,f.5) with the ears removed
should possibly be associated with the shells here described.

* Pal.N. Y. fr.pl. 95. f. 22.

106 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

GASTEROPODA.

LOXONEMA SHUMARDANA (Will.).

PI. VII. f. 5.

Murchisonia shumardana. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 359.

" Shell small, conical, consisting of six or seven gradually
enlarging whorls, somewhat flattened on the base and outer
surface, so as to leave but a shallow suture; body whorl
obtusely angulated at the junction of the basal and lateral
surfaces; aperture broadly cuneate-ovate, angulated behind,
scarcely effuse in front; plane of aperture parallel with
vertical axis of shell, surface of cast quite smooth. Height
of shell, 14 mm.; height of last whorl, 6 mm. ; diameter of
base of shell, 7 mm. ; length of aperture, 5^ mm. ; greatest
width, 4 mm.; apical angle, 34°."

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type of this
species, and is the only specimen which has been observed.
The generic characters of the shell are uncertain, but it
certainly is not Murchisonia, the genus to which it was
originally referred. It is here placed in the genus Loxonema
but not without some doubt. It resembles some of the species
referred by DeKoninck to the genus Flemingia* and it is
possibly a member of that genus.

Loxonema oligospira Win.

Pi. VII. f. 4.

"Shell small; whorls about six, rather rapidly enlarging,
convex exteriorly, with traces (on the cast) of vertical ridges,
which become more observable in the vicinity of the aperture ;
suture deep ; body whorl three-fifths the length of the shell,
more rapidly enlarging than the spire, gently convex on the
outer side, more rapidly curved toward the base — which is
somewhat umbilicately indented — rapidly increasing in
diameter toward the aperture, which is thus rendered some-
what effuse in front. Height of shell, 10 mm. ; height of
body whorl, 5^ mm. ; diameter of body whorl, 7 mm."

Remarks. This species was founded upon a single speci-

* See F. Munsteri DeK., Faun, du Calc. Carb. de la Belg. 3. pi. 7. f. 21-22.

Weller — Kinderhooh Fanned Studies. 107

men "which is here illustrated for the first time. Its generic
position is by no means certain, so it is retained in the genus
Loxonema where it was originally placed. The shell probably
posesses no umbilicus as is indicated by the original descrip-
tion quoted above, though this cannot be determined with
entire satisfaction from the type specimen. The description
of the surface markings is also somewhat misleading as the
specimen is almost absolutely smooth with the exception of a
few faint lines of growth near the aperture. There are not
six volutions preserved in the type specimen, though there
may have been that number in the perfect shell.

Loxonema sp.

PI. VII. f. 2.

Among the specimens labeled Murchisonia quadricincta in
the University of Michigan collection, there are several indi-
viduals which have a more elevated spire than the type of that
species, with smooth, rounded volutions which are but barely
in contact, the lower volutions not overlapping the upper.
These shells evidently belong to the smooth shelled division
of the genus Loxonema, though they are not sufficiently well
preserved to determine their essential characters.

Murchisonia quadricincta Win.

PI. VII. f. 3.

'* Shell of medium size, turrited; whorls convex, regularly
enlarging to the last, with an obsoletely bicarinate band run-
ning along the middle, below which are four small, rigid,
thread like approximated carinae, leaving the base of the body
whorl smooth or faintly lined, and regularly curved into the
umbilical cavity ; the surface above the band marked only by
very delicate lines of growth, which arch backwards to the
peripheral band, below which they arch far forwards, entering
the umbilical cavity half their length in advance of their place
of origin at the suture. Suture deeply impressed. The only
specimen showing the external markings has a defective spire,
but could not be completed with less than 8 or 9 whorls,
giving a length of 27 mm. ; an apical angle of 19°, a sutural
angle of 66°, while the body whorl is 6 mm. high."

108 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Strophostylus bivolve (W. & W.).

PI. V. f. 4-5.

Shell of medium size, composed of about two closely coiled
volutions, with the spire scarcely elevated above the outer
one. The inner volution small, the outer one more rapidly
expanding, becoming ventricose. Cross section of the outer
volution ovate, narrowest at the inner margin. Surface
marked by fine transverse lines of growth, parallel to the
margin of the aperture. Greatest diameter of the shell 19
mm., height of aperture, 11 m., width of aperture, 11 mm.

Remarks. This specimen is included among the types of
S. bivolve in the University of Michigan collection, the three
other specimens being from a higher horizon. The specimen
believed to be the actual type from which original description
was made, and which has been illustrated by Keyes,* is one of
the other specimens. This single specimen observed from the
Chonopectus sandstone, differs from all the others in the
much greater size of the inner volution of the shell, and con-
sequently in the less rapid expansion of the outer volution.
It is possible that it should be considered as a distinct species,
but it is desirable that additional specimens should first be ex-
amined in order to determine the constancy of its characters.

Sphaerodoma pinguis (Win.).

PL vi. f.l-2.

Shell subglobular, spire short and tapering rapidly, three
greatly overlapping volutions recognizable in the type speci-
men, suture moderately impressed. The body volution ven-
tricose, broadest in the middle ; the aperture ovate, its longer
axis forming an angle of 27° with the axis of the shell, acute
posteriorly, rounded anteriorly ; inner lip flattened. Surface
marked by faint, transverse striae of growth. Height of the
shell, 47 mm., length of aperture, 37 mm., width of aperture,
25 mm., spiral angle, 85°.

Naticopsis depressa Win.
Pi. VI. f. 3-4.
Shell small, narrowly umbilicate, the type specimen with

* Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pi. 53, f. 4.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 109

three volutions ; the spire scarcely elevated above the body
volution, the suture very shallow, giving the upper side of the
shell a regular, gentle convexity. The last volution rapidly
expanding, the aperture oblique, oval, rounded posteriorly
and anteriorly, somewhat contracted on the inner side by the
rather broad inner lip. Height of shell, 11 mm., greatest dia-
meter, 16 mm., length of aperture, 11 mm., width of aperture
9 mm.

Remarks. The fine, regular, elongate nodes mentioned
by Winchell as marking the upper ends of the striae of growth
on the outer volution, have not been observed upon either of
the two type specimens of the species in the University of
Michigan collection.

Straparollus macromphalus Win.

Pi. VI. f. 17-18.

Shell of medium size, depressed, with a slighty elevated
spire and a broad umbilicus open to the apex of the spire ;
volutions gradually enlarging, barely in contact, with a nearly
circular cross-section. Surface marked by regular lines of
growth. Diameter of shell, 21 mm., height, 9 mm.

Remarks. In the type specimen of this species here illus-
trated, the spire is imperfectly preserved so that the number
of volutions cannot be accurately determined, but there are
probably not less than four and perhaps five volutions alto-
gether.

Straparollus ammon (W. & W.).

PI. VI. f. 22.

Shell small, discoid, the spire not elevated above the plane
of the outer volution. Volutions three or four, closely coiled,
gradually enlarging from the apex, slightly angular on the
upper side, rounded below, and on the back. Umbilicus very
broad, exposing nearly the whole of the inner volutions.
Surface of the shell marked by fine, closely arranged trans-
verse striae of growth, which have a gentle backward curva-
ture from the suture line to the under side of the volution.

Remarks. The actual type specimen of this species was
not found in the University of Michigan collection, but an-

110 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

other authentic specimen is there preserved and here illus-
trated. In their description the authors of the species give
the diameter of the largest specimen as 15^- mm., but the
specimen here illustrated is somewhat smaller, being but 11
mm. in maximum diameter. The species may be easily dis-
tinguished from its associates by its perfectly flat or even
slightly depressed spire.

Steaparollus angularis n. sp.

PI. VI. f. 13-14.

Shell of medium size with four volutions ; spire not greatly
elevated above the outer volution, the suture located in an
angular groove. The top of each volution flat or sloping
inward, the outer side rounded, meeting the flattened upper
side in an obtuse angle so that the shell is marked with a con-
spicuous, angular, revolving ridge, and the successive volu-
tions form a series of steps from the outer one to the summit
of the spire. The surface of the shell marked by somewhat
irregular lines of growth which curve gently forward on the
outer side of the last volution. Greatest diameter of the
shell, 21 mm.

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is a plaster cast
taken from a natural mould in the sandstone. The under
side of the shell is not known but it is probably umbilicate.
The specimen bears the name 8. obtusus in the University
of Michigan collection, but it is certainly distinct from that
species which has a discoid shell with little or no elevation of
the spire above the outer volution. The species is quite dis-
tinct from any of its associates and seems to be as yet unde-
scribed. It most closely resembles 8. luxus White, described
from near the base of the Carboniferous strata in Utah, but
it differs from that species in having a somewhat higher
spire. It also resembles 8. planodorsatus M. and W., from
the Kaskaskia beds in Southern Illinois and Missouri.

Platyschisma barrisi ( Win . ) .
Pi. VI. f. 15-16.
Straparollus barrisi. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 604.

Shell of medium size, depressed conical in form, with a
medium sized, rather deep umbilicus ; volutions four or five

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. Ill

in number, gradually expanding, the suture rather strongly
impressed ; cross section of each volution subcircular in out-
line. The outer volution with a barely perceptible, de-
pressed, rounded, revolving ridge a short distance below the
suture, marking the position of a moderately deep rounded
notch in the peristome. Greatest diameter, 25 mm., height of
shell, 18 mm., approximate diameter of umbilicus, 7 mm.

Remarks. The genus Plaiyschisma is distinguished from
Straparollus, where this species has always been placed, by
the presence of a notch of greater or less depth in the peri-
stome in its outer posterior half. This notch resembles that
in the peristome of the Pleurotomaridae, but it does not result
in forming a conspicuous revolving band, so that unless the actual
margin of the aperture is preserved it is impossible to sepa-
rate the species from Straparollus. The genus Platyschisma is
represented by several species in the Carboniferous faunas of
Europe, but it has heretofore been definitely recognized in
America only in the Vermicular sandstone fauna at Northview,
Missouri.* In the type specimen of P. barrisi here illus-
trated, the peristome is perfectly preserved through a greater
part of its length, and the notch is well shown. The summit
of the spire is imperfect in the type specimen so that the actual
number of volutions in the shell cannot be determined, but
another specimen preserves at least four volutions.

Platyschisma depressa n. sp.

Pl. vi. f. 19-21.

Associated with P. barrisi and attached to the same card
marked "types" in the University of Michigan collection,
there is a specimen which differs from it in being a much
more depressed shell with a much deeper notch in the peri-
stome, and in having the notch at the middle of the outer
side of the whorl instead of in the dorsal part of the outer

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9 : 42. pl. 5. f. 1-4. — In this place the
author is made to state, by the omission of the word definitely, that the
genus has never before been recognized in America. Two species have
in fact been referred by their authors to the genus, — P. dubium Dawson,
and P. helicoides M. & W., — but neither of them is certainly or even prob-
ably a member of the genus.

112 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

side near the suture. It is believed that this specimen repre-
sents a distinct species and the name P. depressa is proposed
for it. The type specimen has a diameter of 16 mm. and a
height of 9 mm., with an umbilicus whose approximate width
is 4 mm.

Phanerotinus paradoxus Win.

Pi. VII. f. 1.

Shell discoid, with three gradually and regularly expanding
volutions disjoined throughout their entire extent, the inner
ones depressed below the plane of the outer. Cross-section
of the volutions subcircular. Surface marked by faint, trans-
verse lines of growth. Diameter of shell, 25 mm., width of
the outer volution at the aperture, 8 mm.

Remarks. The illustration of this specimen published by
Hall * is in error in showing the inner volutions in contact,
and also in making the transverse lines of growth too strong.
It is possible that this shell should be considered as sinstral
rather than dextral. If it is a dextral shell, then the depres-
sion of the inner volutions is so great that the under side is
more nearly in a plane than the upper, while if it be a sin-
stral shell the inner volutions are but slightly depressed below
the plane of the outer one, and the under side is broadly
umbilicate.

The types of this species are wax casts from a natural
mould which has not been seen and which is probably lost,
and it is not certain that the species is a member of the Cho-
nopectus fauna, as it may belong in the upper " yellow saud-
stone."

Bellerophon bilabiatus W. & W.

PL VI. f. 9-10.

Shell of medium size, subglobose, narrowly umbilicate; the
inner volutions expanding somewhat gradually, the outer
volution rather broadly expanded at the aperture. The outer
volution with a narrow subangular dorsal band, becoming
more prominent and carinate towards the aperture. The
outer lip deeply notched, giving the aperture a strongly

* Pal. N. Y. fr.pl. 16. f. 16.

Weller — Kinderhook Fauna! Studies. 113

bilobed outline. Surface nearly smooth, but with a few faint
undulations parallel with the margin of the aperture, and
sometimes with very fine, faint lines of growth.

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the most per-
fect one of the three types in the University of Michigan col-
lection. The specimen referred to this species and illustrated
by Keyes * is very different from the types, and should
possibly be referred to B. panneus although it is a much
more perfect specimen than the types of that species.

Bellerophon vinculatus W. & W.

PI. VI. f. 11-12.

Shell of medium size, subglobose, not umbilicate. Volu-
tions expanding somewhat gradually to the aperture. Outer
lip deeply notched. Dorsal band rather broad, bounded on
either side by a narrow raised rib. The sides of the shell
marked by transverse striae which originate at the margins
of the dorsal band and pass with a gentle forward curve
toward the axis of the shell ; these striae most conspicuous
near the aperture, becoming obsolete on the upper part of
the shell.

Remarks. No specimen marked as the type of this species
was found in the University of Michigan collection, although
it should be preserved in that place. The somewhat dis-
torted specimen here illustrated, however, is present in that
collection and may be the type although not so labeled. In
size this species corresponds with B. bilabiatus, but it may
be easily distinguished from that species because of the
absence of the expanded aperture and the presence of the
conspicuous transverse striae.

Bellerophon panneus White. ?

PI. VI. f. 7-8.

Shell of rather more than medium size, rather broadly um-
bilicate, gradually expanded to the aperture, transverse section
of the volutions subelliptical in outline. Outer lip broadly
notched; dorsal band narrow, subcarinate towards the aper-
ture. The lateral surfaces of the shell marked by transverse

* Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pi. 50. f. 3.

114 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

lines of growth which become stronger towards the margin of
the aperture. Width of the outer volution at the aperture,
25 mm., distance from the outer lip to the opposite side of
the volution, 22 mm., height of the shell above the plane of
the aperture, 13 mm.

Remarks. This specimen is identified doubtfully with
B. panneus. The types of the species are two imperfect and
distorted specimens from a horizon somewhat higher than the
Chonopectus sandstone. The better preserved of the two is
several times larger than the specimen here illustrated, but
their general form and proportions are about the same. In
the typical B. panneus there are three or four stronger lines
of growth near the aperture, but this is not believed to be a
very essential difference. The species may be easily distin-
guished from B. bilabiatus by its larger size, its larger umbil-
icus and the absence of the expansion of the outer volution at
the aperture.

The specimen illustrated by Keyes* as B. panneus has no
resemblance whatever with the type of the species, and is
probably an undescribed form. The specimen illustrated by
the same authorf as B. bilabiatus, however seems to be a good
example of B. panneus.

BUCANOPSIS DEFLECTUS 11, sp.

PI. VI. f. 5.

Shell small, subglobose, umbilicate, the volutions gradually
expanding to within one or two mm. from the aperture,
where the margin of the shell is abruptly deflected. Cross-
section of the volutions subelliptical ; aperture subelliptical,
the outer lip with a moderately shallow notch. The revolving
dorsal band narrow, flat on top, becoming obsolete a short dis-
tance from the aperture. The surface of the shell marked by
very fine revolving striae which become almost obsolete a short
distance from the aperture, and by even more faint lines of
growth. In the type specimen, at a short distance from the
aperture where the dorsal band and the revolving striae
become obsolete, there is a strong, transverse rounded groove

* Mo. Geol. Surv. 5. pi. 50. f. 6.
t Loc. cit.pl. 50. f. 3.

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 115

which traverses the whole outer side of the shell. Width..,
of the aperture, 9 mm., length, 7 mm., height of shell above
the plane of the aperture, 5 mm.

Remarks. Waagen * referred all the Bellerophon-like shells
with spiral sculpture to the genus Bucania, and he was fol-
lowed by DeKoninck f in his work on the Carboniferous
fossils of Belgium. It has been shown by Ulrich | however,
that a part of these shells in which the revolving striae are
parallel with the dorsal band instead of oblique to it, should
be separated from Bucania, and he has proposed the generic
name Bucanopsis for these species. The species here de-
scribed differs from the usual form of the members of this
genus, in the less rapid enlargement of the volutions and also
in the abrupt deflection of the margin of the shell as it
approaches the aperture.

Upon the card in the University of Michigan collection
marked "Types" and labeled as Bellerophon perelegans,
there are no less than three distinct species from two distinct
horizons. Two of the specimens, from a horizon higher than
the Chonopectus sandstone, are apparently the actual types
of B. perelegans, but the species should rather be referred
to the genus Bucanopsis. The seven other specimens are
from the Chonopectus sandstone, six of them being good
typical specimens of Bellerophon bilahiatus, the seventh being
the specimen here described. It differs markedly from B.
perelegans in the more gradual enlargement of the volutions
and in the deflected margin. The revolving striae are also
somewhat coarser near the aperture, and as it can be identi-
fied with no described species it is here described as new.

Patellostium scriptiferus (White).

PI. VI. f. 6.

Bellerophon scriptiferus. Bull. U. S. G. S. 153: 144.

Shell ventricose, closely coiled, the umbilicus small; inner
volutions subglobose, subelliptical in cross section, the last half
of the outer volution abruptly expanding towards the aper-

* Pal. Ind. XIII. 1 : 130.

t Faun, du Calc. Carb de la Belg. Pt. 4.

% Pal. Minn. 2:853.

116 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

ture into a broad, subcordate disk. The outer lip of the peri-
tome with a small, shallow dorsal notch, the inner lip spread-
ing over the preceding volution. The dorsum marked by a
narrow ridge or carina in the outer half of the last volution,
but beyond this the dorsum is flattened. The expanded
portion of the outer volution is marked by a few, shallow,
inconspicuous wrinkles parallel with the margin ; the smaller
part of the shell marked by three or four faint revolving ribs
on each side, which are entirely obsolete in some specimens.
Transverse diameter of the aperture, 42 mm., the longi-
tudinal diameter, 33 mm., the height of the shell above the
aperture, 12 mm.

Remarks. In general form this species resembles P.
patulus from the Hamilton group of New York, but the aper-
ture is more transverse, and the concentric wrinkles are not
nearly so strong.

PORCELLIA CRA8SINODA W. & W.
PI. V.f.1-2.

Shell large, discoid, broadly umbilicate, consisting of three
or four contiguous or slightly embracing whorls, which rapidly
increase in size towards the aperture ; the greatest diameter,
83 mm. Volutions subtriangular in transverse section,
rapidly increasing in diameter from the ventral to the dorsal
side; at the aperture the ventral diameter is 11 mm., and the
dorsal, 43 mm., to the tips of the nodes. Lateral surfaces
slightly convex; the dorsum gently rounded, marked along the
middle by a shallow double groove indicating the position of
the slit in the aperture. The dorso-lateral angles ornamented
by a single row of distant, strong, obtusely pointed nodes; in
the type specimen the nodes on one side are a little in advance
of those on the other. Surface marked by fine, revolving and
transverse striae which are strongest on the dorsum. On the
dorsum the transverse striae slope backward from each side to
the central groove where they meet at an angle of about 120°.

PORCELLIA OBLIQUINODA White.

PL V. f. 3.

Shell of medium size, discoid, broadly umbilicate, consist-
ing of four or perhaps more slightly embracing volutions

Weller — Kiriderhook Faunal Studies. 117

which increase in size somewhat rapidly towards the aperture ;
the greatest diameter of the type specimen, which is incom-
plete, 30 mm. The inner volutions subcircular in transverse
section, the outer one becoming remotely subtriangular, the
diameter of the whorl at the largest part of the shell, 18 or
20 mm. The lateral surfaces convex ; the dorsum rounded,
marked along the middle by a shallow groove. The dorso-
lateral angles ornamented by a single row of rather small,
moderately elevated, oblique nodes, whose outer ends are
directed backward; the nodes increase in size with the
growth of the shell, they being nearly obsolete upon the inner
whorls. The surface of the type specimen is smooth.

Remarks. In its smooth surface this species is unlike most
of the species of the genus, but the type specimen is a cast,
and it is possible that the external surface of the shell was
marked by the usual revolving and transverse striae.

PORCELLIA RECTINODA Win.

This species was described by Winchell from the "yellow
sandstone " at Burlington, and although it has not been
observed, it is possibly a member of the Chonopectus sand-
stone fauna. Judging from the description it resembles P .
obliquinoda but is much smaller, the type specimen having a
maximum diameter of 15 mm. with the diameter of the outer
whorl at the aperture scarcely 5 mm.; it also differs from
P. obliquinoda in the more nearly circular section of the
whorls and by the transverse, rather than the oblique, direc-
tion of the nodes. Specimens from the Vermicular sandstone
at Northview, Missouri, have been compared* with this
species, though they are considerably larger.

SCAPHOPODA.
Dentalium grand aevum Win.

PI. VII. f. 6.

" Shell rather large, perfectly straight and terete, or a
little compressed, tapering 1 mm. in 12 mm. near the larger

* Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 9 : 43. pi. o.f. 7.

118 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

end, less rapidly near the small end; surface marked by faint,
irregular lines of growth which run obliquely around the
shell, and in flattened specimens are more advanced along
one edge. Length of largest specimen, 56 mm.; diameter at
larger end 5 mm.; at smaller end about 1 mm."

PTEROPODA.

CONULARIA BYBLIS White.

PL VII. f. 7.

Shell large, elongate pyramidal; the lateral surfaces nearly
flat, their margins diverging at an angle of about 15°, marked
along the mesial line by a slight depression ; transverse costae
somewhat variable in their distances apart, there being from
12 to 18 in a distance of 10 mm., each costa forming at the
median line of the lateral surface a rounded, obtuse angle of
about 120°; the spaces between the costae crenulate. The
angles of the shell at the lines of junction between adjacent
lateral surfaces are marked by narrow grooves formed by the
incurved margins of the sides. The dimensions of the type
specimen cannot be accurately determined because of its
crushed and distorted condition, its maximum length as pre-
served is 76 mm., and its greatest width 54 mm. ; if the sides
of the shell be projected to a point its length is nearly twice
the present length of the specimen.

Remarks. The specimen here illustrated is the type. In
the figure the transverse costae are made to form too abrupt
an angle as they cross the median line of each lateral surface,
this angle should be more rounded. One specimen referred
to as a variety of this species in the University of Michigan
collection, is somewhat larger than the one illustrated although
it is much more crushed and distorted. It differs from the
type in having the transverse costae somewhat closer together
and in having them conspicuously crenulate. There are still
other more fragmentary specimens which show various de-
grees of crenulation of the costae, and also a considerable
variation in the distances separating the costae. It therefore
seems, either that this species is a very variable one, or that
two or more distinct species of Conularia are present in the

Weller — KinderJiook Faunal Studies. 119

fauna, although not sufficiently well preserved specimens have
yet been found to admit of determining their distinguishing
characters.

CEPHALOPODA.
Orthoceras whitei Win.

PL IX. f. 4-5.

Shell annulated, gradually tapering at an angle of about 5°;
subelliptical in cross-section ; septa deeply concave, situated
at distances of about 4-5 mm. At the largest end of the
largest type specimen, the louger diameter of the cross-sec-
tion is 32 mm., and the shorter 25 mm. The annulations
are sharply angular or rounded, separated by regularly con-
cave furrows; ten of them occupy a space of 63 mm. In
the smaller specimens referred to this species, the annulations
and septa are much closer together, and sometimes the annu-
lations have a broad, shallow, retral sinuosity. Siphuncle
rather large, situated excentrically along the longer diameter.
Surface of the casts marked by fine encircling striae which
are parallel with the annulations, in some specimens being
obsolete.

Remarks. This species is not uncommon iu the Chonopectus
fauna, though it exhibits a considerable range of variation in
size. The two specimens illustrated are both included among
those labeled as type specimens in the University of Michigan
collection. The larger one probably represents about the
maximum size of the species. The species belongs to the
annulate division of the genus which is represented by several
species in the Devonian faunas in America, but which is
uncommon in the Carboniferous.

Orthoceras heterocinctum Win.

PL IX. f. 6.

This is an annulated species closely allied to O. whitei, and
is possibly no more than a variety of that species. None of
the type specimens are as large as the largest O. lohitei, and
the annulations are much more unequal, in some specimens
being nearly obsolete and in others being nearly

120 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

obsolete in parts of the shell. The cross-section of this
species is circular rather than elliptical as in O.
whilei, although the elliptical cross-section of the latter
species may be due to a slight compression of originally
cylindrical shells. It is said by Wiuchell that this species
tapers more rapidly than 0. whitei. This may be true in
general, but the two species overlap in this characteristic, the
type specimens of 0. whilei varying from 5° to 8° and 0.
heterocinctus from 6J to 10°. The material representing both
these species, leaves much to be desired, it being for the
most part fragmentary, and the species can be properly
defined only when more perfect specimens are procured.

Orthoceras indianense Hall.

PI. ix. f. 3.

Several specimens of a small, smooth species of Orthoceras
with the sides tapering at an angle of about 8° with a circular
or slightly elliptical cross-section, and with a central or slightly
excentric siphuncle, have been observed in the Chonopectus
fauna. These were referred to the species 0. indianense by
Winchell, and they seem to present no characters upon which
they can be separated from that species. The specimens are
all mere fragments, and more perfect material is needed to
certainly determine their essential characters.

Phragmoceras expansum Win.

PI. IX. f. 2.

Shell straight, rapidly expanding at an angle of about 70°,
very slightly constricted near the aperture. Transverse sec-
tion of the shell broadly elliptical, approaching circular.
Septa at distances of about 6 mm. Surface smooth in the
cast. The type specimen has a total length preserved of
about 35 mm., 21 mm. of which is included in the living
chamber; the longer diameter of the aperture is 52 mm. and
the shorter 45 mm., at the first septum the longer diameter
is 33 mm. and the shorter 27 mm.

Remarks. The characters of this species are not very
definitely preserved. The specimen illustrated is the type,

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 121

and is the only one which approaches perfection, even
remotely. Several other fragments are preserved in the
University of Michigan collection and labeled as this species,
but it is by no means certain that they are all the same.

Cyrtoceras unicorne Win.

Pi. VII. f. 9.

Shell arcuate, angle of divergence rapidly increasing with
the growth of the shell ; trausverse section laterally com-
pressed, oval in outline, narrowest along the side of least
curvature. Living chamber large, expanding towards the
margin; septa at distances of about 3£ mm., regularly con-
cave. Siphuncle apparently marginal along the side of least
curvature. Surface smooth except for some irregular lines
of growth near the aperture. In the type specimen the sep-
tate portion is 29 mm. in length and the living chamber
22 mm. ; the greatest diameter of the aperture is 40 mm. and
the shorter diameter 34 mm. ; at the first septum the longest
diameter, 24 mm., and at the seventh septum, the last one
perfectly preserved, the longest diameter is 16 mm.

Remarks. There are several fragmentary specimens of
curved cephalopods in the University of Michigan collection,
all of which bear the label C unicorne. The type specimen
here illustrated, however, is the only one sufficiently well
preserved to exhibit any of its essential characters.

Agoniatites opimus (W. & W.).
PI. VII. f. 8. PI. VIII. f. 1. Pi. IX. f. I.
Goniatites opimus. Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 153: 295.

Shell large, discoid, gently convex on the sides, rather
sharply rounded upon the periphery. Number of volutions
not known, the inner ones embraced by the next outer ones
to a depth of one-half the diameter of the latter; the umbili-
cus rather small, but somewhat variable in size, being rela-
tively larger in the larger individuals, its sides rounded.
Aperture compressed crescentic in outline, the proportion of
height to width about as 7 to 5, the ventral margin sinuate as
indicated by the lines of growth. The size of the living

122 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

chamber not known. Septa deeply concave, rather distant ;
being about 20 mm. apart in the outer volution of a large
individual ; the sutures forming a low saddle upon the umbil-
ical angle, then gently curving backward and forming on
each lateral face a single broad lobe which occupies the entire
width of the volution; the direction of the suture upon the
periphery cannot be certainly determined, but there seems to
be a low saddle on either side, with a shallow ventral lobe
between. Position of the siphuncle unknown. Surface
marked by very faint lines of growth which are sinuate on
the periphery of the shell.

Remarks. In the original description of Goniatites opimus,
specimens of two entirely different species were apparently
used, the general form of the shell being described
from one specimen, and the suture from another.
The specimen here illustrated on plate VII, figure 8, is
the type of the species in the University of Michigan
collection, and corresponds with original description of the
general form and proportions of the shell. This specimen,
however, does not preserve the suture, and the original speci-
men from which the suture was described has not been
seen. This latter specimen was probably a fragmentary one
not preserving the form of the shell, which was be-
lieved to belong to the same species as the type which has
been preserved. In the collection received from Prof.
Calvin there is a goniatite much larger than the type
of G. opimus but agreeing closely with it in its general
form and proportions in all respects save in its relatively
larger umbilicus. This specimen is illustrated on plates VIII
and IX, and it is believed to be an individual of the same
species as the type of G. opimus; but unlike the type speci-
men several of the sutures are fairly well preserved, and are
entirely different from the sutures of G. opimus as indicated
in the original description. It is therefore probable that the
suture originally described as that of G. opimus is really the
suture of some shell which is not only specifically, but gen-
erically, distinct from G. opimus. The true suture of the
species is in all respects that of the genus Agoniatites, and

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 123

therefore the species is placed in that genus. Heretofore this
genus has been recognized only in the Devonian, and in
America, at least, at no higher horizon than the Middle
Devonian.

Correlation.

Attention should again be called, at this point, to the diverse
and local character of the lithologic formations and of the
faunas of the Kinderhook epoch. It is not possible, as has been
the usual custom, to recognize three constant divisions of the
Kinderhook, either lithologic or faunal, well denned through-
out the whole area in Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois, occupied by
the rocks of this age. The names Louisiana limestone, Han-
nibal shale, and Chouteau limestone, cannot be applied to all
the Kinderhook formations throughout the area, and as inves-
tigations are prosecuted in various localities, other local
formation names will have to be introduced.

No satisfactory correlation of the Kinderhook beds at Bur-
lington with those of Illinois and Missouri, has yet been made.
Keyes* has referred nearly the whole of the section at Bur-
lington to tbe Hannibal shales of Northwestern Missouri, but
his basis for this correlation seems to have been chiefly the
lithologic similarity. It is far more probable that the section
at Burlington is equivalent, or more than equivalent, to the
whole of the section as known in Missouri. On lithologic
grounds alone, bed No. 4 (Weller) at Burlington, might well
be considered as a northern extension of the typical Louisiana
limestone of Missouri, reduced in thickness. In both locali-
ties the rock is a fine-grained, compact, fragmentary lime-
stone, though at Burlington its fragmental character is more
pronounced and more irregular than at Louisiana. Fossils
are not abundant in this bed at Burlington, so that an entirely
satisfactory comparison of the faunas canuot be made.
However, the species of Syringothyris which occur at the
two localities, seem to be identical, although the Burlington

* Geol. Surv. Iowa. 1 : 55. (1893.)

124 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

specimens described by Winchell as jS. Halli are smaller
than the Louisiana examples.

If it be true that bed No. 4 is the northern extension of the
Louisiana limestone, then the Chonopectus sandstone and the
underlying shales would be included in the Devonian accord-
ing to Keyes'* interpretation of the Kinderhook. The basis
for his determination of the Devonian age of the Louisiana
limestone, however, seems not to be well founded. The fact
that in a single vertical section like that at Louisiana, includ-
ing several diverse lithologic formations, a line can be drawn,
above and below which there are no species of fossils in com-
mon, does not necessarily indicate a profound life break.
From a broad point of view this is seen possibly to
indicate only a change in local conditions such as to cause a
shifting in the geographic distribution of life. In almost any
geologic section of any considerable thickness, in which there
are diverse lithologic formations, no matter to what geologic
period it may belong, there may be found just such profound
life breaks, but judgment must be used in the interpretation
of these faunal changes.

It is not the writer's intention to positively deny the con-
temporaneity of a portion, perhaps a large portion, of the
Kinderhook beds with some of the beds referred to the
uppermost Devonian in other portions of the continent, but
if any part of them are Devonian, the evidence of their
age will have to be of a more substantial nature than that
offered by Keyes. There are certainly Devonian elements in
the fauna of the Louisiana limestone, but there also are con-
spicuous elements of Devonian life in some formations of the
age of the St. Louis limestone, f and yet no one would insist
for a moment on their Devonian age. The Chonopectus
sandstone also possesses a strong Devonian element in some
particulars, — it is far more strongly Devonian than the fauna
of the Louisiana limestone, — but in both faunas there is an-
other element of perhaps greater significance binding them
to the Carboniferous.

* Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 7 : 357. (1897.)
t Am. Jour. Sci. III. 49 : 94.

Wetter — Kinderhook Faunal Studies.

125

The composition of the Chonopectus sandstone fauna is
as follows : —

CLASS.

Genera.

Species.

Total

15

19

12

1

1

4

20

32

21

1

1

6

52

81

Of these genera and species, the brachiopods are for the
most part strongly Carboniferous in aspect. The abundance
of Productus is particularly a Carboniferous characteristic of
the fauna, as is also the presence of Syringothyris. Of the
two species of Spirifer, one, S. subrotundatus, with its com-
pletely plicated shell and with the plications on the lateral
slopes bifurcating, is strongly carboniferous in aspect, while
S. biplicatns, on the other hand, with its excessively elongate
hinge-line, has just as strong a Devonian aspect. The shell
identified as Schizophoria swallovi is far more like the Car-
boniferous than the Devonian representatives of the genus.
The presence of Productella may be considered as a Devonian
element, and also Orthothetes inaequalis, which is so nearly
like 0. chemungensis .

The pelecypods have quite a different story to tell, and
from a study of this portion of the fauna alone, one would
perhaps be justified in identifying it as of Devonian age.
All of the nineteen genera, with the exception of two, Pro-
macrus and Avicida, have numerous representatives in the
Devonian faunas of Eastern North America, particularly in the
Chemung faunas of New York and Pennsylvania, and several
of the genera have no representation later than Kinderhook.
Promacrus is a genus which is represented in America only
in faunas of Kinderhook age, and in Europe it has been noted

126 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

only in Belgium from near the base of the Carboniferous.
Avicula is in general a later genus. Not only are most of the
genera of pelecypods abundantly represented in the Devo-
nian, but in several instances the species in the Chonopectus
sandstone are so nearly like species in the Chemung of New
York, that it is largely a matter of personal opinion as to
whether they are really distinct or not. These specific simi-
larities have been pointed out in connection with the descrip-
tions of the species.

The gastropods and cephalopods are also, for the most
part, of Devonian types, with no strikingly Carboniferous
characteristics. The genus Agoniatites has not previously
been recognized outside the Devonian, and Orthoceras whitei
is a very ancient type, being related to the Silurian 0. annu-
latum.

Taken as a whole, a larger number of the total 81 species
recognized in the fauna, have Devonian and not Carbonifer-
ous relationships, but this is not sufficient evidence upon which
to establish the Devonian age of the fauna. In general, in
paleontologic interpretation, the initiation of a new inverte-
brate faunal element is of greater importance than the hold-
ing over of a much larger element from an older fauna, and
on this principle the strongly Carboniferous element among
the brachiopods of the Chonopectus sandstone is to be consid-
ered as weightier evidence than the holdover pelecypods and
cephalopods.

In the interior of the North American continent, the divid-
ing line between the Devonian and Carboniferous periods is
not sharply defined like that between the Ordovician and Silu-
rian, for instance, but judging from the association of genera
and species alone, the fauna under consideration, and indeed
all the Kinderhook faunas, should be placed in the Carbonif-
erous. However, if it can in any way be demonstrated that
the strong Carboniferous element in the fauna had its point of
origin right here in the Mississippi valley, and that these types
of life existed here earlier than in any other part of the world,
their presence in other regions being due to migrations of life
from this region, then there may be some foundation for con-
sidering a part or the whole of the Kinderhook as being the

Weller — Kinderhook Fanned Studies. 127

very youngest Devonian. It yet remains to be demonstrated,
however, whether or not the Kinderhook holds such a rela-
tionship to the Carboniferous of other parts of the world.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plates I. -IX.

(ALL OF THE FIGURES ARE OF NATURAL SIZE.)

Plate I. — 1-2, Productus laevicostus White. Pedicle and lateral views
of an average specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5924. — 3-4, Productus cooper -
ensis Swall.? Anterior and lateral views of a specimen identified as this
species by A. Winchell. U. of M. Coll., No. 2000. — 5-6, Productus semi-
reticulatus Martin. Lateral and anterior views of an average specimen.
U. of M. Coll., No. 1336. — 7-8, Productus semireticulatus Martin. One of
the type specimens of P. curtirostris Win., which proves to be the brachial
valve of P. semireticulatus. U. of M. Coll., No. 1337. — 9-10, Productella
nummularis (Win.). A pedicle and a brachial valve, two of the type speci-
mens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1340. — 11-13, Schizophoria sicallovi (Hall). The
two larger specimens are a brachial and a pedicle valve. The smaller speci-
men is a pedicle valve which was used by Winchell as the type of Orthis
Jlava. U. of M. Coll., Nos. 1351 and 2007. — 14, Chonetes illinoisensis
Worthen. A somewhat distorted specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5925. — 15,
Chonetes sp. undet. An imperfect impression of the brachial valve. U. of
C. Coll., No. 5926. — 16, Chonetes sp. Cf. C. geniculata White. An internal
cast of the pedicle valve. U. of C. Coll., No. 5927. — 17, Chonopectus fischeri
(N. & P.). Illustration of an average pedicle valve. After Hall. — 18,
Orthothetes inaequalis (Hall). A cast of a pedicle valve taken from a natural
mould. U. of C. Coll., No. 5928. —19, Orbiculoidea capax (White). The
type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1331. — 20, Lingula membranacea Win.
The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1330.

Plate II. — 1-3, Syringothyris extenuatus (Hall). Anterior and posterior
views of an average specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5929. A very large
brachial valve. U. of M. Coll., No. 1365. — 4-5, Bhynchonella sp. undet.
Two specimens showing the variation in form. U. of C. Coll., No. 5930. —
6-7. Spirifer biplicatus Hall. Views of a pedicle and a brachial valve, the
pedicle valve preserving the mucronate extension of the hinge-line on one
side. U. of C. Coll., No. 5931. — 8-10, Spirifer subrotundatus Hall. Pedi-
cle, brachial and anterior views of an average specimen. U. of C. Coll., No.
5932. — 11, Reticularia cooperensis (Swall). View of a brachial valve.
U. of C. Coll., No. 5933. — 12-15, Athyris corpulenta (Win.). Views of two
of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1359. — 16-17, Pugnax striato-
costata (M. & W.) var.? Pedicle and anterior views of an average speci-
men from the Chonopectus sandstone. U. of M. Coll., No. 1375. — 18-19,
Eumetria altirostris (White). Brachia and pedicle views of a nearly perfect
specimen. U. of C. Coll., No. 5934.

Plate III. — 1-2, Pterinopecten Cf. P. laetus H. A large, flat, right valve,
and a smaller left valve. The left valve here illustrated was one of the

128 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

types of P. nodocostatus (W. & W.). U. of M. Coll., No. 1390 and U. of C.
Coll., No. 5935. — 3, Aviculopecten tenuicostus Win. One of the type speci-
mens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1392. — 4, Aviculopecten caroli Win. One of the
type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1393. — 5, Pernopecten ? sp. This
specimen may belong to Posidomya ? arnbigua Win. U. of C. Coll., No.
5936.-6-7, Pteronites whitei (Win.). Two of the type specimens. U. of
M. Coll., No. 1384. — 8-9, Leiopteria spinulata (Win.). A. left and aright
valve, two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1382-1383. — 10, Avi-
cula strigosa (White). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No.
1387. — 11, Mytilarca occidentalis (W. & W.) Left view of the type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1400 — 12, Mytilarca fibristriata (W. & W.).
Left view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1399. — 13-14, Gonio-
phora jennae (Win.). Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No.
1428. — 15, Macrodon cochlearis Win. One of the type specimens. U. of
M. Coll., No. 1422. — 16, Macrodon modesta (Win.). The type specimen
U. of M. Coll., No. 1420. — 17, Cypricardinia sulcifera (Win."). One of the
type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1415. — 18, Cardiopsis megambonata
Win. View of a left valve, not the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1429.
Plate IV. — 1-2, Edmondia burlingtonensis W. & W. Two of the type
specimens. U. of M. Coll. No. 1405. — 3, Edmondia aequimarginalis Win.
View of a left valve, not the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1408. — 4,
Edmondia nitida Win. The type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1406. — 5,
Edmondia jejunus (Win.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No.
1416 (in part). — 6, Glossites elliptica (Win.). The tjpe specimen. U. of M.
Coll., No. 1411. — 7, Sphenotus iowensis (Win.). The type specimen. U. of
M. Coll., No. 1414 (in part). — 8, Sphenotus bicostatus n. sp. The type
specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1414 (in part). — 9, Sphenotus rigidus (W.
&; W.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1417. — 10, Spheno-
tus bicarinatus (Win.). One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No.
1410. — 11, Glossites ? burlingtonensis n. sp. The type specimen. U. of M.
Coll., No. 1412 (in part). — 12, Spathella ventricosa (W. & W.). One of the
type specimens. U. of M Coll., No. 1402. — 13-14, Schizodus iowensis n. sp.
The type specimens, a right and a left valve. U. of M. Coll., No. 1419 (in
part). — 15, Schizodus burlingtonensis n. sp. The type specimen. U. of M.
Coll., No. 1416 (in part). — 16, Grammysia amygdalinus (Win.). The type
specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1412. — 17, Edmondia quadrata (W. &W.).
One of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., 1430. — 18-19, Posidonomya ?
arnbigua Win. Two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1430. — 20,
Promacrus cuneatus H. View of the type specimen (after Hall). — 21, Gram-
mysia plena H. View of a left valve (after Hall).

Plate V. — 1-2, Porcellia crassinoda W. & W. Lateral and dorsal views of
the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1441. — 3, Porcellia obliquinoda
White. Lateral view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1442. — 4-5,
Strophostylusbivolve (W. & W.). —Two views of one of the type specimens.
U. of M. Coll., No. 1444.

Plate VI. — 1-2, Sphaerodoma pinguis (Win.) Two views of the type
specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1461. — 3-4, Naticopsis depressa Win. Two
views of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1464. — 5, Bucan-
opis defiectus n. sp. A dorsal view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No.
1437 (in part). — 6, Patellostium scriptiferus (White). Dorsal view of the

Weller — Kinderhook Faunal Studies. 129

type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1436. — 7-8, Bellerophon panneus White.?
Two views of a specimen provisionally referred to this species. U. of C.
Coll., No. 6937.— 9-10, Bellerophon bilabiatus W. & W. Two views of one of
the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1438.— 11-12, Bellerophon vmculatus
W. & W. Two views of an authentic specimen which may be the type. U. of
M.Coll., No. 1440. — 13-14, Straparollus angularis n. sp. Two views of the
type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1454.— 15-16, Platyschisma barrisi
(Win.). Two views of the type specimen U. of M. Coll., No. 1456 (in part).—
17-18, Straparollus macromphalus Win. Two views of the type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1457.— 19-21, Platyschisma depressan. sp. Three
views of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No 1456 (in part). — 22,
Straparollus amnion (W.& W.). View of a specimen supposed to be one of
the types. U. of M. Coll., No. 1455.

Plate VII. — 1, Phanerotinus paradoxus Win. View of the type speci-
men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1458. — 2, Loxonema sp. U. of M. Coll., No.
1451. — 3, Murchisonia quadricincta Win. View of the type specimen. U.
of M. Coll., No. 1450. — 4, Loxonema oligospira Win. View of the type
specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1462. — 5, Loxonema shumardana (Win.).
View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1453. — 6, Dentalium gran-
daevum Win. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1447. —
7, Conularia byblis White. View of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll.,
No. 1432. — 8, Agoniatites opimus. (W. & W.). Lateral view of the type
specimen of this species. U. of M. Coll., No. 1470. —9, Cyrtoceras unicome
Win. Lateral view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No. 1469.

Plate VIII. — 1, Agoniatites opimus (W. & W.). Lateral view of a very
large specimen showing the sutures. Univ. of la. Coll.

Plate IX. — I, Agoniatites opimus (W. & W.). Outline view of the speci-
men figured on Plate VIII, fig. 1, somewhat restored. —2, Phragmoceras
expansum Win. Lateral view of the type specimen. U. of M. Coll., No.
1468. — 3, Orthoceras indianense H. Lateral view of a fragmentary speci-
men. U. of M. Coll., No. 1465. — 4-5, Orthoceras whitei Win. Views of
two of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll., No. 1466. — 6, Orthoceras
heterocinctum Win. View of one of the type specimens. U. of M. Coll.,
No. 1467.

Issued February 24, 1900.

Tkass. Acad. Sci. of St. Louts, Vol. x.

Plate j.

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. <>i" St. Louis, Vol. x.

Plate II.

Stuart UJetter Jel

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate III.

Stunrt Wei lei de (

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

IT. ati: IV.

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate V,

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. \iau. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

PLATE VII.

Stuart Pl/eiler c/el

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate VIII.

CHONOPECTUS .SANDSTONE FAUNA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. \.

CHONOPECTUS SANDSTONE FAUNA.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*

2t
3,4

$1.00
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2. CO each.

5.50

5.00

3

lto4

2:00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.C0

5

1-2, 3-4 {

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

6J

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15, 18

3,9

12

| 25 cts. each.

\ £0 cts. each.

75 cts. each
§1.00

7.50

7.00

71

2, 3, 4,6. 7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18,19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

"[■ 25 cts. each.

> 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

81

1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2,7,9, 11

\ 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

91

1, 3, 4, 7, 9

2, 5,8

6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3.75

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2, CO.

* Supply exhausted.

t Oau be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume,'— so far as this can be
tupplled.

J Kach number is a brochure containing one complete paper.

MAY 26 1800
Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. X. No. 4.

STUDIES ON SUBTERRANEAN ORGANS.

II. SOME DICOTYLEDONOUS HERBACEOUS PLANTS

OF MANHATTAN, KANSAS.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

^Issued April 3, 1900.

MAY 261900

STUDIES ON SUBTERRANEAN ORGANS. II. SOME
DICOTYLEDONOUS HERBACEOUS PLANTS OF
MANHATTAN, KANSAS.*

A. S. Hitchcock.

In the present article are discussed the underground parts
of a number of perennial dicotyledonous, herbaceous, and
several shrubby plants of the vicinity of Manhattan.

Some have already been mentioned, and figured in Bulletiu
76 of the Experiment Station.

The plants are divided as in Article I,f into those forming-
crowns, those forming rhizomes or stolons, and those propa-
gating by adventitious buds upon creeping roots.

Crown Formers. I have designated as a crown the per-
sistent base of vegetative stems. The new stems hence arise
as lateral shoots upon the base of a stem, the upper part of
which died to the ground, or even below the surface. I have
designated as a caudex a vertical rhizome. In this case the
main axis is not a vegetative shoot but produces a terminal
bud which continues the growth. A caudex advances slowly
and is usually pulled down into the ground by contraction of
the lateral roots about as fast as it grows upward, hence does
not extend above the surface. The crown may be formed upon
a fleshy or thickened root, in which case the chief portion of
the underground part is root, or it may be supported by
fibrous or small woody roots in which case the chief portion
of the underground part is stem. In the first series the root
may be very large as in Oxybaphus nyctagiaeus, Phytolacca
decandra, and Cucurbita foelidissima. In more numerous
cases the root is smaller but distinctly fleshy, as Callirrhoe
involucrata, and Asclepiodora viridis. In Psoralea esculenta

* Presented in abstract, with illustrative specimens, to The Academy of
Science of St. Louis, March 5, 1900.
t Trans. Acad Sci. of St. Louis. 9: 1.

(131)

132 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

it is spherical with a slender prolongation below and a slender
crown above. Asclepias stenophylla, Polytaenia JSfuttallii
and others have a slender fleshy root. The first has a rhizome-
like crown and the other is surmounted by a caudex. Some-
times the crown branches and there are several small crowns
tracing back to the same root. In several cases, Lithosper-
mum hirlum, Astragalus caryocarpus, and Petalostemon, the
root is thick and woody rather than fleshy, while the top
forms a compact crown.

In the second series, the simplest case is that of a small
tap-root extending upward into a single vegetative stem the
first year. The second season vegetative shoots arise from
buds at the base of this stem. If the plant is long lived the
crown thus formed becomes thicker and thicker from year to
year. Verbena and JSTepeta Calaria are examples. If a mass
of fibrous roots is produced instead of a tap-root a crown
of a different nature is produced. In most cases the older
portion below dies off and the crown is thus relatively small.
Examples are Ruellia ciliosa and Asclepias incarnala. The
base of the vegetative stem may be oblique or decumbent, in
which case the new stems often appear as offsets along the
base and become independent at an early date, as Penistemon
Cobaea. In Penthorum sedoides autumn rosettes are pro-
duced which elongate the following spring. There is a
transition from such oblique offsets to short rhizomes.

Propagation by Stolons. Here are included those species
which propagate by means of stems above ground rooting
and thus forming independent plants. /Symphoiicarpos
vulgaris forms prostrate leafy branches for this purpose while
Frag aria Virginiana forms the familiar runners and Rubus
occidentalis roots at the tips of the recurved branches.

Propagation by Rhizomes. There are all gradations from
the oblique branches from a crown to the extensive rhizomes
of Rumex venosus and Laportea Canadensis. The upright
rhizome or caudex has been mentioned as occurring: at the
summit of a fleshy root. Often it is the chief underground
portion, bearing lateral fibrous roots. There is a transition
from the vertical caudex through the oblique caudex to the
slowly creeping horizontal rhizome such as Thalictrum pur-

Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 133

purascens, and Agrimonia mollis. The familiar Polygonatum
giganteum is the typical form of this. The upper part of the
oblique caudex is drawn down into a horizontal position each
successive year by the contraction of the lateral roots. At
first the oblique crown and the oblique caudex may seem to
resemble each other. The oblique crown is surmounted by
the dead base of a vegetative stem or else, where offsets are
produced which soon become independent, the old stem dis-
appears. But the oblique or slowly creeping horizontal
rhizome ends in a terminal bud which continues the growth.
The vegetative stems are thus axillary from the rhizome.

The creeping rhizome may show peculiarities, as in Teu-
crium Canadense, where it is dorsiventrally flattened and con-
stricted at the nodes. In Scutellaria parvula the internodes,
or some of them, swell up into so-called tubers, forming a more
or less interrupted chain, " subterranean stolons moniliform-
tuberiferous," Gray. In Apios tuberosa genuine tubers are
formed though they are not usually terminal on a rhizome as
is the common potato, but there may be several on one
rhizome. These tubers may send out new rhizomes or may
become a crown and send up successive vegetative shoots.
Glycyrrhiza lepidota produces deep root-like rhizomes which
may grow several or many feet before producing a new plant.
Each new plant becomes a strong crown. One would scarcely
suspect the presence of rhizomes in this case.

Comandra pallida propagates in a similar manner but the
crowns are closer together. Astragalus Plattensis is also
similar but the new plant forms a small fleshy root below and
sends a stem to the surface which becomes a small or slender
crown. Ipomoea leptophylla, a very peculiar case, was
described in the Botanical Gazette, 25:52. This plant
forms a very large fleshy root, the summit of which is sunken
several inches below the surface. A crown is formed but in
addition it propagates by slender roots about the size of a
fence wire which have their origin along the lower half of the
root and rise obliquely to near the surface when the new plant
is formed several feet from the parent. In some plants the
creeping decumbent bases of the vegetative shoots branch and
root abundantly, forming a tangled mass of stems which per-

134 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

sist through the winter and send out new branches in the
spring; such are Lycopus sinuatus, Lippia lanceolata and
Dianthera Americana.

Propagation by Adventitious Buds upon Creeping Roots.
Creeping roots of the typical form are produced by Rhus
glabra, Ambrosia psilostachya, Cnicus undulatus, Apocynum
cannabinum, Enslenia albida, Convolvulus arvensis, and
Rumex Acetostlla, some of which are, on this account, bad
weeds. Asdepias Cornuti has a thick oblique root producing
buds along its surface. Sometimes the new plants thus pro-
duced form a crown as in Ascelepias verticillata.

Solanum Carolinense and several species of Physalis have
a very deep slender vertical or horizontal root. Shoots may
start from this at considerable depth, and may become slender
crowns, thus giving the impression that the plant propagates
by rhizomes.

As to the relation between underground parts of plants and
their habitat little can be said. On the stony hills, crown formers
are the rule. Species with rhizomes ( Comandr a pallida) and
creeping roots (Rhus glabra) are rare. Even in these cases
crowns are also formed. Rhizomes are not produced on prairie
species to any great extent but rather on our mesophyte
species inhabiting the rich loam of our woods or moist places
along streams and sloughs. All kinds are found about equally
in the sand-hills. Of course the perennial weeds of culti-
vated soil are those producing rhizomes or creeping roots
rather than the crown formers.

Clematis Pitch eri, Torr. & Gray. A woody vertical crown
several inches long covered with fibrous roots. Moist thickets.

Anemone decapetala, L. Vegetative stems arise from small
tubers. After flowering, the tubers send out slender white
rhizomes which form tubers at the apex. These tubers pro-
duce the vegetative stems of the following spring. Prairie.

Anemone Virginiana, L. A slowly creeping oblique rhi-
zome. Open woods.

Thalictrum purpurascens, L. A slowly creeping rhizome,
only one-half to one inch long. A strong bud is produced
just beyond the base of the vegetative stem. Low prairie or
open woods.

Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 135

Delphinium azureum, Michx. A crown from a cluster of
fascicled roots, Prairie.

Helianthemwn Canadense, Michx. New stems from base
of old. Upland woods.

Lechea tenuifolia, Michx. A small but strong tap root
supporting a crown of small stems. Upland woods.

Viola pedatifida, Don. A vertical or oblique caudex.
Prairie.

Silene stellaia, Ait. Rather strong root with dichotomously
branched crown. Open woods.

Callirrhoe involucrata, Gray. A spindle-shaped fleshy
root an inch or more thick, from the sunken summit of which
the vegetative stems arise. Prairie.

Oxalis comiculata , L. A tap-root with a crown but the
decumbent bases of the stem may root more or less. Open
ground.

Oxalis comiculata, L. var. stricta, Sav. Filiform rhizomes.
Moist soil.

Ceanothus ovatus, Desf. Woody root with strong crown.
Prairie and stony hills.

Rhus glabra, L. Creeping roots which produce buds.
Thickets and stony hills.

Rhus Toxicodendron, L. Rhizomes which creep just below
the surface. Woods and fence rows.

Baptisia leucophaea , Nutt. A horizontal woody more or
less branched rhizome with strong lateral roots. Prairie.

Baptisia leucantha, Torr. & Gray. A thick woody slowly-
creeping rhizome forming a crown at the apex. Moist
meadows.

Baptisia aiistralis, R. Br. A woody root surmounted by a
thick short knotty horizontal crown. New buds forming at
base of old stem. Prairie.

Psoralea fioribunda, Nutt. A strong vertical fleshy root,
often branched below. Several stems arise from the summit
which is several inches below the surface. Prairie.

Psoralea argophylla, Pursh. A long woody or somewhat
fleshy tap-root sunken several inches below the surface.
From the crown at apex, one or more slender vegetative stems
are sent up. Prairie.

136 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Psoralea lanceolata, Pursh. Stems erect from large creep-
ing rhizomes. Sand-hills.

Psoralea esculenta, Pursh. A globose woody-fleshy sunken
root, well stored with starch, abruptly tapering into a slender
tap-root. An elongated crown reaches to the surface and
bears buds along the side. Prairie.

Amorpha canescens, Nutt. Similar to the next. Forms a
knotty crown. Prairie.

Amorpha fruticosa, L. Woody root. No vegetative
propagation. Moist places.

Petalostemon violaceus, Michx. P. candidus, Michx.
P. mullifiorus, Nutt. All produce a thick woody root, sup-
porting a large crown with numerous stems. First occurs
on prairie and stony hills ; the second mostly on prairie ; the
third is confined to limestone hills.

Astragalus caryocarpus, Ker. Crown of nearly upright
stems at surface of ground, supported by a strong more or
less branched tap-root. Prairie.

Astragalus Plattensis, Nutt. Slender creeping rhizomes
which establish plants at intervals of two to six inches. Each
such plant forms a slender tap-root, below the rhizome, while
each stem may form a crown at the surface. Prairie.

Astragalus lotiflorus, Hook. A tap-root forming a crown
at summit. Limestone hills.

Glycyrrhiza lepidota, Nutt. Root-like rhizomes creeping
several feet before establishing plants. Each plant produces
a crown and also sends out a few rhizomes. Moist prairie.

Desmodium acuminatum, DC. A slender deep, sunken
root at the apex of which arise a stem made up of a series
of progressively younger portions toward the surface.
Upland woods.

Desmodium canescens, DC. A strong woody crown. Open
woods.

Desmodium sessilifolium, Torr & Gray. Tap-root with
crown. Prairie.

Lespedeza violacea, Pers. A slender tap-root with crown
of numerous slender stems. Upland woods.

Lespedeza capitata, Michx. Crown upon a strong woody
root. Prairie.

Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 137

Vicia Americana, Muhl. Slender rhizomes. Prairie.

Lathy rus ornatus, Nutt. Extensive, slender, branching,
horizontal rhizomes, more or less winged like the stem.
Sand-hills.

Apios tuberosa, Moench. Rhizomes which enlarge into
tubers at intervals of an inch or so, or even several inches.
The tubers send out new rhizomes and also may produce
vegetative stems, near the end. Shoots mav arise in succes-
sive years from the same tuber. Moist thickets and low
ground.

Cassia Marylandica , L. Forms a crown. Low ground.

Desmanthus brachylobus, Benth. A thick, woody tap-root
supporting a large crown. Low ground.

Schrankia uncinata, Willd. A vertical, woody, sunken
root, surmounted by one or more woody, knotty stems, from
the summit of which grow the several slender vegetative stems.
Prairie.

Prunus Watsoni, Sarg. Roots produce buds abundantly.
Sand-hills.

Geum album, Gmelin. A slowly creeping oblique rhizome
about an inch long. Flowering stems axillary. New bud
terminal at base of vegetative shoot. Woods.

Agrimonia mollis, Britt. A slowly creeping rhizome, the
new plant just beyond the old. Woods.

Agrimonia parviflora, Ait. Offsets formed at base of old
stem. Woods.

Rosa Arkansana, Porter. Extensive rhizomes. Prairie.

Penthorum sedoides, L. Base decumbent and rooting.
In the autumn rosettes or offsets are produced, which elon-
gate into vegetative shoots the following spring. Wet places.

Ly thrum alatum, Pursh. New stems arising from the base
of old. Moist places.

Ludwigia alternifoUa, L. Forms buds at base of old stem.
Springy places.

Oenothera Missouriensis, Sims. A fleshy-woody sunken
root throws up one or more stems each of which forms a
crown at the surface. Limestone hills.

Oenothera serrulata, Nutt. A woody crown, forming buds
along the base of the old stem. Prairie.

138 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Stenosiphon virgatus, Spach. A strong tap-root with a
crown. The bases of the stems persist above ground more or
less, and form winter buds. It is thus a semi-shrub. Lime-
stone hills.

Circaea Latetiana, L. Slender rhizomes. Rich woods.

Opuntia Rafinesquii, Engelm. Forms a tap-root. The
first joint throws out lateral joints, and these may root where
they come in contact with the soil. Joints mostly perennial.
Sand-hills.

Poly taenia Nuliallii, DC. A flesh}' vertical root sur-
mounted by a caudex marked with a series of close rings or
leaf-scars. Prairie.

Peucedanum foeniculaceum, Nutt. One or more caudices
from a sunken vertical fleshy root. Stony hills.

Cicuta maculata, L. A fleshy caudex surmounting a fleshy
root which is an inch or two long and half an inch thick, and
branched below into several fleshy tuber-like portions. Wet
places.

Sanicula Marylandica , L. A short caudex. Woods.

Oornus asperifolia, Michx. Woody rhizomes. Woods
and thickets.

Sambucus Canadensis, L. Thick rhizomes. Low woods.

Triosteum perfoliatum, L. A slowly creeping woody rhi-
zome or knotty crown. Open woods.

Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Michx. An ordinary shrubby
root and crown but propagates by long leafy runners or pros-
trate stolens, which creep along the surface for a few feet and
strike root, forming a new plant. Woods.

Galium circaezans, Michx. A small crown, with a few
fibrous roots. Woods.

Galium Irifidum, L. var. lati folium, Torr. The slender,
decumbent, rooting bases of the stems resemble rhizomes.
Woods.

Galium triflorum, Michx. A crown of tangled stems which
throws out buds and fibrous roots. Woods.

Apocynum cannabinum, L. Buds upon extensively creep-
ing horizontal roots. Moist soil.

Asclepiodora viridis, Gray. A thick woody-fleshy verti-
cal or oblique root supporting a strong crown. Prairie.

Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 139

Asclepias tuberosa, L. A strong woody or slightly fleshy,
vertical or oblique root, with crown at summit. Prairie.

Asclepias incarnata, L. A small crown with a dense clus-
ter of slender fibrous roots. Wet places.

Asclepias Cornuti, DC. Produces buds upon the roots but
not abundantly. Usually there is a long oblique or horizon-
tal main root with several stems growing from it, each of
which may become a crown. Moist places.

Asclepias verticillata, L. Roots produce buds. Also a
crown is formed at the base of the old stem. Prairie.

Asclepias stenophylla , Gray. A few inches below the sur-
face is a slender, fleshy root a few inches long and half an
inch thick which ends abruptly in a long, slender tap-root.
A vertical rootstock extends to the surface where a crown may
be formed. Prairie.

Enslenia albida, Nutt. Buds upon creeping horizontal or
vertical root. Moist soil.

Lithospermum hirtum, Lehm. Tap-root with crown. Sand-
hills.

Lithospermum canescens, Lehm. A slender branched,
woody root supporting a slender crown. Prairie.

Lithospermum angustifolium, Michx. A slender fleshy
vertical root about half an inch in diameter. Buds from
sunken summit or from base of old stem. Prairie.

Onosmodium Carolinianum, DC. var. molle, Gray. A
woody crown upon a woody tap-root. Prairie.

Convolvulus Sepium, L. Rhizomes creeping a few inches
to two feet below the surface. Moist places.

Convolvulus arvensis, L. Buds upon slender, creeping
roots. The roots may be several inches below the surface and
send up stems which produce buds along the underground
portion thus giving the impression that the plant propagates
from rhizomes. A weed in cultivated soil.

Solanum Carolinense, L. Root slender and usually extend-
ing vertically to a depth of four or five feet. Stems are pro-
duced above from adventitious buds. Open ground.

Physalis Virginiana, Mill., lanceolata, Michx., longifolia,
Nutt. In the three species studied there is a deep-seated
slender root similar to Solanum Carolinense. In old plants the

140 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

stem portion extends to considerable depth and is variously
branched. The new stems may come from rhizomes or from
the roots. Prairie or sandy soil.

Pentstemon Cobaea, Nutt. A creeping rhizome which is a
crown rising obliquely to the surface, bearing numerous lateral
roots. Limestone hills.

Pentstemon grandiftorus, Nutt. Base of stem decumbent,
throwing up offsets. Sand-hills.

Ruellia ciliosa, Pursh. Small crown with a fascicle of
fibrous roots. Prairie.

Dianthera Americana, L. Extensive creeping white
rhizomes about the size of the vegetative stems, rooting at
the nodes. The lower part of the stem roots at the nodes
and persists. The vegetative stems are thus a continuation
of the upturned ends of the rhizomes. In water or very wet
places.

Verbena ur time folia, L. Tap-root with small crown. Low
ground.

Verbena haslata, L. Tap-root with strong crown. Low
ground.

Verbena striata, Vent. A tap-root supporting a crown.
Prairie.

Lippia lanceolata, Michx. Extensively creeping inter-
twining rhizomes similar to the vegetative stems, rooting at
the nodes. Wet places.

Teucrium Canadense, L. Creeping rhizomes with distinct

dorsiventrally flattened internodes. Thickets and moist places.

Lycopus sinuatus, Ell. Creeping rhizomes with distinct

internodes rising obliquely into the vegetative stem. Rooting

at nodes. Wet places.

Pycnanthemum mulicum, Pers. var. pilosum, Gray. Short
rhizomes which soon become erect, thus producing stems in
clusters. Springy bogs.

Salvia azurea, Lam. var. grandifiora. Benth. A strong
crown with woody roots. Prairie.

Monarda Jistulosa, L. Slender brown woody rhizomes,
extensively interlacing. Thickets and open woods.

Lophanthus nepetoides, Benth. A crown with numerous
fibrous roots. Woods.

Hitchcock — Studies on Subterranean Organs. 141

Nepeta Cataria, L. A strong crown.

/Scutellaria lateriflora, L. Slender white square rhizomes
with long internodes, and small scales. Wet places.

Scutellaria parvula, Michx. Creeping moniliform rhi-
zomes. The internodes swell up into tuber-like bodies.
Moist sandy soil.

Brunella vulgaris, L. Small crown. New plants forming
at base of old stems. Moist places.

Leonurus Cardiaca, L. Similar to JWepeta.

Plantago Rugellii, Dec. A thick cylindrical caudex, with
leaves from the upper portion and fibrous roots below.
Woods.

Plantago lanceolata, L. A tap-root supporting a branched,
short-lived crown. A weed in meadows.

Oxybaphus nyclagineus, Sweet. A strong fleshy tap-root
which may extend three or four feet below the surface. The
new shoots form at the base of the old ones or at various
places along the side of the root, near the top. Open
ground.

Oxybaphus angustifolius , Sweet. A long slender vertical
root surmounted by knotty somewhat sunken crown. Prairie.

Phytolacca decandra, L. Forms a large fleshy tap-root
which frequently branches. New stems form at the crown
on the summit which is a short distance below the surface.
Moist woods and barnyards.

Humex Patientia, L., altissimus, Wood, crispus, L. A
fleshy somewhat branched tap-root supporting a crown.
Moist places.

Eumex venosus, Pursh. Extensive rhizomes often reaching
to considerable depth. Sandy soil.

Rumex Acetosella, L. Buds on slender creeping roots. A
weed in fields.

Polygonum Muhlenbergii, Wats. Extensive rhizomes.
Moist soil.

Polygonum Virginianum, L. Small woody crown. Low
woods.

Comandra pallida, A. DC. Root-like rhizomes, which
produce plants at intervals, each plant forming a crown, that
throws up one or more shoots each year. Stony hills.

142 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Euphorbia corollata, L. A slender black vertical root
surmounted by one or more caudices. Prairie.

Humulus Lupulus, L. Crown supported by a rather
strong root. Thickets.

Urtica gracilis, Ait. Rhizomes. Low ground.

Laportea Canadensis, Gaud. Extensive tender white
rhizomes about the size of the stems. Low woods.

Boehmeria cylindrica, Willd. A matted crown of stem
bases. Rhizomes are formed which soon become upright
>tems. Low ground.

Following are a few additional notes on Compositae* : —

Hymenopappus corymbosus, Torr. & Gray. This is bien-
nial instead of perennial as stated in Article I.

Senecio aureus, L. var. Balsamitae, Torr. & Gray. A small
caudex. Stony hills.

Cacalia atriplicifolia,\j. Slowly creeping rhizome. Woods.

Oacalia tuberosa, Nutt. A caudex with fascicled roots.
Low prairie.

Hieracium longipilum, Torr. Perennial by basal buds
which produce rosettes in the fall or spring. Prairie.

Issued April 3, 1900.

* See Traus. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. 9:1.

PUBLICATIONS

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should he addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science cf St. Louis, 1600 Locust St,, St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per

number.

Price per vol. Price In set.

1

1*
2t
8,4

$100
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(KTos. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

3

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 3-4 |

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

6$

1,2,6,8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14,15,18

3,9

12

| 25 cts. each.

\ 50 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

7J

2, 3, 4,6,7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

I 25 cts. each.

i CO cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

8J

1,3 to 6
8, 10, 12'
2, 7, 9, 11

| 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.60

91

1, 3, 4, 7, 9 -

2,5,8
6

25 cts. each.

50 cts. each.

$1.25

i

3 75

-

3.50

-

mem oiks (in quarto).

Contributions to tbe archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 183S. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — so far as this can be
supplied.

j Each number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

MAY 26 1900

i u q

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL.. X. No. 5.

A SEVERE SLEET-STORM.

HERMANN VON SCHRENK.

^'Issued April 12, 1900.

MAY 261900

A SEVERE SLEET-STORM.*
Hermann von Schrenk.

During the evening and night of February 27th, a sleet-
storni of unusual severity occurred over a large tract of coun-
try including parts of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio.
Sleet-storms of this kind occur with more or less regularity
throughout the northern United States, whenever a southern
storm center with rainclouds meets with freezing temperatures.
The falling rain is not cooled sufficiently to turn to snow, and
reaches the ground as rain. Here it freezes, and covers every
object with a layer of ice. Generally this ice layer is very
thin, and vanishes the next day. Occasionally, however, the
conditions are favorable to the formation of thick ice, and the
destruction which is then wrought to trees and shrubs is great.

Accounts of such storms have appeared now and then.
Nipher t describes one of unusual severity which caused wide-
spread destruction to trees in Missouri, on the nights of Feb.
19th and 20th, 1882. Some six inches of rain fell at that time.
He says of this storm: " The enormous loading of the trees
resulted in immense destruction of fruit and ornamental
trees. * * * At Pleasant Hill, the weighing of ice-
covered branches led to the result that a cedar tree 10 ft.
high and with branches spreading at the base, had received
over four hundred pounds of ice. * * * The damage
occurred over an area of almost 5,000 square miles."

In Europe these ice-storms are apparently not as common
as with us. Fischer X mentions a number of notable storms
which occurred in the Harz mountains from 1827-1875. He
states that the weight of ice on the trees is often fifty pounds
on six pounds of wood. A spruce tree 3^ ft. high had to
support 165 lbs. Jamin§ describes a most extensive storm

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, April 2,
1900.

t Nipher, P. E. Trans. St. Louis Acad, of Science. 4 : lxxii. 1882.

% Fischer, W. R., in Schlich's Manual of Forestry. 4: 493. 1895.

§ Jamin, J. Le Verglas du 23 Janvier. Revue des Deux Mondes. 31 : 922.

Feb. 15, 1879.

(143)

144 Trans. Acad. Sci. of iSt. Louis.

which occurred in France on Jan. 24, 1879, where some 50%
of the wood was broken. He states among other things that
a branch of Rhododendron weighing 13 grams bore a load of
360 grams of ice, and that an oak 2 meters in circumference
was bent to within 4 m. of the ground. Plowright * tells of
a similar storm which swept over portions of England on Jan.
7th, 1889. He figures an oak tree showing broken branches.

The storm of Feb. 27th began late in the afternoon. The
maximum afternoon temperature was 29.2° F. Towards even-
ing the temperature fell to 27.2° F. at 7 p. m. and reached a
minimum of 26.6° F. during the night. The rainfall of Feb.
27th up to 7 o'clock was .36 inch. During the night 1.07
inches fell. About 8 o'clock it began to rain: the water
froze as soon as it fell, and by the next morning a heavy
coating of ice covered the trees, which were bent to the
ground in many places by the load. The temperature of
Feb. 28th remained below freezing ( min.24.2° F., max. 30° F. ),
likewise on the succeeding days,t and not until March 4th did
any of the ice melt. By March 6th it had all disappeared.

The destruction brought about by the ice was very great,
but considering the enormous weight which rested upon the
branches, it is astonishing that it was not greater. The
downward pressure exerted by the ice is oftentimes but one
of the factors which cause a branch or trunk to break. The
wind is of as great importance if not more so. A branch
heavily weighted will bend far from its normal position with-
out breaking, but if it is swayed back and forth violently the
chances that it will break are almost doubled. Branches are
very much more brittle when frozen, and a blow which would
not affect a branch ordinarily will cause it to snap off when
frozen, particularly if weighted with ice. Thus it is, that

* Plowright, C. B. Notes on Hoar Frost. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc.
13 : 117. 1891 ; also Gardener's Chronicle III. 5 : 459. 1889.
t The temperatures were : —

Max. Min. Max. Min.

March 1 33° 26° March 4 52° 35°

2 34° 27° 5 58° 34°

3 40° 29° 6 60° 28°

The writer is indebted to Dr. R. J. Hyatt of the St. Louis Weather Bureau
for the meteorological data.

von Schrenk — A Severe Sleetstorm. H5

ice-laden trees break so much more readily when the wind
blows than on a still night, a fact familiar to most people.
The wind velocities were not high during the storm period
and on the following day. At 7 p. m. of Feb. 27th, it
was 20 miles E., dropping to 17 miles during the night, and
14 miles N. by the morning of Feb. 28th. The extreme
velocity on Feb. 28th was 31 miles N.

How great the weight was which was borne by the branches
can perhaps best be seen from the accompanying photographs
(upper figures, PI. X, XI. ), made on the morning of February
28th. The first one represents a group of hornbeam trees
( Carpinus betulus) in the arboretum of the Missouri Botanical
Garden ; the second is a view on Flora avenue, a street extend-
ing east and west from the Garden ( the photograph was taken
looking to the east). The branches of the hornbeams trailed
on the ground, and the tops of the small maple scraped on
the snow of the street. It was impossible for one person to
lift the top of the maple, much less to restore it to its origi-
nal position. These trees are good instances of the appear-
ance of the trees all over the affected area.

Some 200 branches, taken from various trees, were weighed,
when covered with ice, and after the same had melted, to
determine what weights the trees were able to withstand.
Some of the results are given in the accompanying
table. Something must be said about the distribu-
tion of the ice on the branches, before referring to
the table. Vertical branches became coated with a layer
of ice of equal thickness on all sides. After a time as the
rain fell on the ice-coated twig, it flowed down and as the
wind swayed the twig back and forth more ice was deposited
at some points than at others. A thicker layer formed on the
side from which the storm came ; in some cases this was twice
as thick as on the opposite side. If the branch was a strong
one it bent but slightly under this added weight, and by the
next morning it appeared as a long rod coated with a layer
of ice varying from f-1 inches in thickness, in some cases
even more. The great majority of branches are not vertical,
but are inclined one way or another. The rain fell on the
upper side and froze in part, while some dripped from the

146

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

under side; the drops froze and formed long icicles, often one
for every inch. Under this weight the branches drooped more
and more; the strongest branches were bent to the ground,
and in many instances the weight was great enough to break
the branch. The smaller branches where the weight of ice
was proportionately greatest often pointed vertically down to
the ground. The rows of icicles then were almost horizontal.
Adjacent branches came to touch their neighbors and in a
short time a mass of ice joined them one to the other.
By moving one branch one could move the whole tree, one
way or the other, as if it were one solid piece. This was
particularly true of the conifers, where the opportunity for
forming a solid coating of ice was so much more favorable.
Such an ice-coated tree, when moved by the wind, moves as
a mass, and breaks with incomparably greater ease than a
tree in which each branch acts for itself, and can give way
before the wind pressure.

Trees.

Acer dasycarpum

te
a
k

Ulmus Americana

Malva sp.

Malva "

Peach (Primus persica)

Platanus occidentalis
Thuja occidentalis. . .

Pinus austriaca

<< (i

c< it

Viburnum sp

«i

u

Pinus strobus

it
it

Tsuga canadensis

A.

Branch

with ice.

Grams.

132

116

52

206

2121

374

420

307

69

35

20

1322

1540

285

325

608

510

275

65

55

19

154

316

145

755

1120

B.

Branch
without

ice.
Grams.

17.5
4.5
5.5

24

157
48
26
37.5

2

2.5

2
98
108
18
23
35
27
18

5

8

3.5

6
22

7
22
33

Ratio of
A. to B.

7.5

26.8

9.5

8.9

13.5

7.8

16.1

8.1

34.5

14.

10

13.5

14.2

15.8

14.1

17.3

18.8

15.3

13

6.87

5.4

25.7

14.3

20.7

34.3

33.6

Remarks.

With icicles.

With icicles.

With icicles.
Upright branch.
With icicles.

Larger branch.
Larger branch.
With icicles.

With icicles.

von Schrenk — A Severe Sleet-storm. 147

In weighing the branches short pieces were taken ; usually
the twigs were about three years old, although several were
older branches. It would obviously be unfair to compare a
branch \ inch iu diameter with one 2 inches in diameter,
both covered with the same thickness of ice. The branches
weighed were about 2 feet long and \ inch in diameter.
The figures in the table must be considered as purely relative ;
they are intended to show merely that the weight borne by
the smaller branches was a very large one, and to give some
idea of the amount which three-year-old branches can bear
without breaking.

From the table it appears that different twigs had different
amounts of ice, as was to be expected, for no two twigs are
alike in form or position. Twigs on the outside of a tree had
more ice to bear than those more or less protected on the in-
side. The twigs with icicles usually bore twice as much ice
as those without. The deciduous trees had approximately
similar amounts to bear ; the differences in the table are to
be accounted for by differences in position. The conifer-
ous trees had greater weights of ice than the others. The
closely packed leaves of these trees were frozen into solid
masses, making a most picturesque sight. The ice-mass
steadily increased, because of the large surface exposed to the
rain. The small branches of such trees as pine and hemlock
had an unusually heavy weight to carry, and were bent, often-
times so as to hang vertically. The hemlock had the greatest
weight to bear, followed closely by the white pine.

The weight of the smaller branches had to be borne by
the larger ones, and where these were not very flexible they
broke off at the weakest point. There was no regularity as
to the point at which the break occurred ; it took place near
the insertion of a branch and at all points towards the
periphery of a tree. Knots and old wounds, made by the
tornado of 1896, were the weak spots. A fine birch in
the Botanical Garden, whose trunk had been twisted
by the tornado, had recovered and almost healed.
It was snapped off like a straw at this weak spot.
The arbor vitae (Thuja occidentalis) is a tree whose

148 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

soft wood has little resisting power. The tops of these
trees were broken very badly, and such as were not broken
were bent so far from the vertical position that they did not
go back to the same. The soft maples (Acer dasycar-
pum) were most affected. Large and small limbs of this
useful shade tree were broken off, and there were few trees
which escaped entirely. The honey locust {Robinia pseud-
acacia) lost many branches, likewise the oaks, ash, peach and
apple trees. Some trees escaped entirely, notably the cypress
(Taxodium disticltum), which likewise successfully resisted
the tornado ; furthermore, thegingko ( Gingko biloba), whose
long, sweeping branches bent under the load, but did not
break. The pines suffered very severely.

The ice remained on the shrubs and trees for several
days, and not until March 5th was it entirely gone. The
branches gradually resumed their original position, while the
trunks did so more slowly. The lower figures on PL X, XI,
are from photographs taken just one week after the storm,
March 6th. The camera was placed at the same points as it had
been in taking the photographs immediately after the storm.
The branches of the hornbeam returned to their former
position, with the exception of one branch which was broken
by the load. The maples on Flora avenue show some residual
effect. The ice remained on the trees for so long a period
that the wood on the convex side became stretched, and when
the top returned to the vertical position, the stretched side
remained somewhat convex. How long the bent position
will last, cannot be guessed at this time. These trees are
still bent at this writing (April 2d). The trees in the cen-
tral row are birches (at the left of the figure). They have
straightened completely. The arbor vitae and related conif-
erous trees show the residual effect of the ice more than the
trees of the hardwood type.

The weight of ice which the trees were called upon to bear
was a very great one, greater than any that has been known
in this region for many years. The ice can hardly be con-
sidered an ecological factor in the life history of a tree in
this climate, for it is a factor which exerts an influence on

von Schrenk — A Severe Sleet- storm. 149

the branches at such very great intervals of time that
any reaction or adaptation to the same cannot possibly
take place.

One can ask, therefore, how it happens that so many of the
branches were able to withstand successfully a weight so great
as the one described. The only other force which might act
in depressing branches is snow. But its weight is exceedingly
small when compared with ice, and its influence on the
branches of deciduous- leaved trees is of the smallest. It is
therefore necessary to account for the strength of the
branches in another way.

The wind is a factor, constantly at work, and its influence
in shaping the form and strength of the plant body has been
duly noted.* It exerts a pressure on the branches which at
times is very considerable. In the course of time the
branches of trees have acquired sufficient strength to with-
stand this pressure, and only when the same exceeds a certain
limit, as in tornadoes and hurricanes, do the branches break.
The pressure exerted by the ice is much like that exerted by
the wind, in many ways. It is a steady pressure, and in that
respect, perhaps, more effective than the pressure exerted
only now and then by the gusts of wind. But the action is
one affecting the strength of the branch. It therefore be-
comes less astonishing that so many of the trees successfully
bore the great weights of ice placed upon them, when one
reflects that these same trees resist similar strains which act
at frequent intervals. They have adapted themselves to
these, and were consequently able to withstand the unwonted
ice pressure.

* Schimper, A. F. W. Pflanzengeographie. 84. 1898.— Metzger. DerWind
als massgebender Faktor fur das Wachstum der Baume. Mundener forst-
liche Hefte. 8. 1893; also 5 and 6. 1894.

150 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES X-XI.

PI. X. — Upper figure. A group of horn beam trees (Carpi7ius betulus)
in the arboretum of the Missouri Botanical Garden on the morning of Feb.
28, 1900. — Lower figure. The same group of trees on the morning of March 6,
1900. Note that one branch has been broken.

PI. XI. — Upper figure. View looking east on Flora avenue, St. Louis, on
the morning of Feb. 28th, 1900. The tree in the foreground is a soft
maple {Acer dasycarpum) , likewise the row of trees of which it is one. The
trees at the left are birches (Betula alba). — Lower figure. The same street
(from the same spot) just a week later, March 6, 1900. Note that the maples
have not quite returned to their original position, while the birchen have.

Issued April 12,1900.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

SLEET EFFECTS.

(Carpinus betulus.)

PLATE XI.

SLEET EFFECTS.
Acei1 dasycarpum.)

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications shonld be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*
2f
3,4

$4.00
2.00 each,

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

s

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

8

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2,8-4 |

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

ej

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 16,18
3,9

12

| 26 cts. each.

| 60 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

n

2,8,4,6,7,8,

18, lo, 16,

18, 19
6, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17
1

t 26 cts. each.

V 60 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

8*

1 1,3 to 6

S, 10, 12

2,7,9, 11

| 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

8.50

9:

1, 3, 4, 7, 9
2, 5, 8

G

25 cts. each.

50 cts. each.

$1.26

C 75 3.50
1

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made bv the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

f Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — so far as this can ba
supplied.

t Each numbar Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

JUN 33 1900

Iff
Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL,. X. No. 6.

ON CERTAIN PROPERTIES OF LIGHT-STRUCK
PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

ir*

Issued May 16, 1900.

JUN 25 1900

ON CERTAIN PROPERTIES OF LIGHT-STRUCK
PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES.*

Francis E. Nipher.

The results to be given in this paper were obtained with a
Topler-Holtz machine having one 24-inch plate, and with no
condenser attached to its terminals. The spark-length men-
tioned in the paper is the distance between the discharge
knobs of the machine.

A parallel circuit consisting of ball-tipped brass rods about
six feet in length led to the insulated stool upon which the
photographic plate is placed for electrical exposure. A brass
plate a foot square was placed on the top of an insulated
stool, and formed one plate of a condenser. Upon this a
much larger glass plate is placed, upon which rests the
photographic plate. All of the results were obtained with
the Cramer "lightning" plate. Some metallic object like
a medal is placed upon the sensitive film, and forms the
other plate of the condenser. A rod about a foot in
length, having knobs, stands vertically over the medal.
The knobs of the secondary or parallel circuit are separated
from the plates of the condenser and from the machine
terminals, by small spark gaps which may be varied. Such
changes appear to materially affect the behavior of the
machine and the details of the picture produced. The rods
are all sleeved by glass tubing, and are then held by labora-
tory clamp stands. This arrangement for electrographing is
well known although the photographic plate has heretofore
been protected from the light.

The method which has been found most convenient for
manipulation is to first expose the plates to the light of an
ordinary room for from one to nine days. A longer interval

* Presented in abstract to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, March 19,
1900.

(151)

152 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loute.

has not been tried, but some of the best results were obtained
from the last of a box of plates which were all exposed at
the same time, and which were not all used until nine days
had elapsed. This method of treatment is advantageous be-
cause it is difficult to prevent light from the discharge from
striking the plate during the electrical exposure, and a great
over-exposure renders the plate more manageable in the
subsequent treatment. It darkens much more slowly in the
developing bath than when slightly light-struck.

The plate is put in position with the medal resting upon it.
The capacity described gives a rather rapid sequence of small
sparks, which may be made 15 cm. in length. At each dis-
charge between the knobs of the machine, a discharge occurs
on the film around and under the medal. This exposure may
be from four to ten minutes. A much longer exposure re-
verses the picture and gives a positive. The exposure should
be in a darkened room, and the light from the spark should
be kept from the plate by a screen. Light falling on the
plate while the electrical action is taking place, counteracts
the electrical action in a very remarkable way. This may be
shown by partly closing the blinds of a window ten or fifteen
feet away, forming thus a vertical slit a foot in width. The
other blinds are to be wholly closed. A book set up so as to
shade half of the plate yields results such as are shown in
Fig. 1. This print is of course a positive from the original
negative.

It is therefore evident that the time of exposure depends
somewhat on the diffuse illumination in the room. A very
dark room is not necessary.

It is also found that if the plate be exposed to light for a
day or more after the electrical exposure, a similar counter-
acting effect is produced. In this way the picture may even
be reversed and develop as a positive.

In developing the picture a cool and rather weak hydro-
chinone developer leaves nothing to be desired. The room
should not be too dark during this operation. The best con-
ditions are to be found in an ordinary dark room, lighted by
a single incandescent lamp. The light should be five or six
feet away, and any tendency to fog is remedied by taking the

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 153

plate nearer to the lamp. If already fogged, a plate may
thus be cleared up in a very remarkable way. If the plate is
too near the light during the whole time, there is a loss of
detail. By allowing the developing to begin four or five feet
from the lamp, moving it up as necessity arises to within two
or three inches, and with a cool and weak developer, the picture
may be developed for an hour if desired. During this time the
details are coming out with continually increasing sharpness.

When the spark length is less than twelve or thirteen milli-
meters, no disruptive and luminous sparks are seen on the
plate. There is a violet corona around the medal. The pic-
tures given by the positive pole show radial discharges,
bounded by a dark band, like a halo. For short spark lengths
of 5 or 6 mm., the halo is close around the medal, and it
increases in radius as the spark length increases. With a
spark length of about sixteen millimeters, a dark halo appears
distinctly on the plate before developing. This has been seen
only a few times. Thus far it has not been found possible to
save it. It washes out in the developer. It begins to fade
and an inner one, apparently midway between it and the medal,
begins to appear. The outer halo has disappeared, before the
inner one has fully developed. When the developing is ar-
rested at an earlier stage, the outer ring is lost in the fixing
bath.

The shape of the dark halo conforms to the general shape
of the body. In some cases, where disruptive effects of ex-
ceptionally strong character have passed, their tracks are
shown on the negative. These tracks are in all cases dis-
tinctly broader and darker where they cross the dark halo,
than elsewhere.

Figs. 2, 3 and 4 show some of the peculiarities mentioned.
In Fig. 2 the spark is delivered to the large weight, but the
smaller one is so near that it has very nearly the same poten-
tial as the larger. It is joined to the larger by a spark, which
practically unites the two bodies at each discharge.

In Fig. 3 the smaller weight has a much lower potential
than that of the larger. It corresponds nearly to that of the
halo encircling the larger weight. In Fig. 4 the distance be-
tween the weights is still greater, and the smaller weight is at

154 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

a lower potential than that of the halo around the larger
weight. With a spark length between thirteen and twenty
millimeters, disruptive sparks begin to appear around the
medal, and the discharge picture changes its character en-
tirely. Not only is it greatly different from those previously
described, but as in all other cases it does not correspond to
the appearance which it presents to the eye. See Fig. 5.
The visible spark discharges show a curious tendency to turn
at right angles, and seem to be unsteady and flickering in their
outer extremities. As the spark length increases the disrup-
tive discharges become several inches in length, and the gen-
eral appearance of the field as shown in the negative, is shown
in Fig. 6. In this figure the spark is delivered to the larger
disk. In most of these cases the development has been ar-
rested before the tracks of the visible sparks appeared on the
negative. No discharge like those shown on the negative can
be detected by the eye. If the knobs of the machine are
separated so widely that no sparks can pass, the brush dis-
charge gives very feeble results if exposure and developing
are otherwise done in the same way as before. This applies
both to the image of the object and to the field around it.
The oscillating spark discharge appears to be the important
element rather than luminous or electrolytic action. Certainly
the luminous effect is distinctly prejudicial.

The negative discharge shows much less of interesting detail.
With short sparks, there is a smooth corona, looking like a
brush shading in India ink. With longer sparks some radial
line- work suggesting lines of force appears. See Fig. 7.
The general appearance is much the same for short as for
long spark lengths. When strongly illuminated during the
electrical action, both positive and negative discharges give
weak coronal effects in the negative, and the color is that of
a sepia stain, or an untoned silver print. Most of the in-
teresting features which the negatives show must be passed
over without mention. They pertain largely to effects due
to variation of capacity and spark gaps both in the main and
the parallel circuits. The perfecting of the methods and the
study of these features occupied a period of several months,
and a large part of this work was done during 1896.

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 155

While recently observing a plate exposed to the negative
discharge, half of which was shaded, a bright ball of light
looking like a globule of molten metal rolled slowly out into
the shadow from the brass weight. Its size appeared to be
that of a pin's head. It moved somewhat irregularly and left
a black narrow track in its wake. The discharges which had
previously been in all directions around the medal were now
all on the side occupied by the ball. They were less frequent,
and the sparks were apparently within an angle of 30° or 40°.
They, however, did not pass along the track of the ball, but
rather appeared to avoid it. Another ball appeared from the
same point on the coin and the first disappeared. The second
ball soon diverged from the track of the first, and slowly made
its way outwards. Several others followed. The plate was
finally developed, and these tracks appeared as a branching
system of black lines, wholly unlike anything before observed.
The experiment was repeated, and a similar result followed.
It was then thought that the shadow in which they made their
appearance might be concerned in the phenomenon. In the
next plate, however, the balls appeared in the part of the
plate which was strongly illuminated. The development of
this plate was pushed to the extreme, and the branching-
track began to appear blurred. On examination with a pocket
lens, it was found that the tracks of the ordinary spark dis-
charges could be detected where they crossed the tracks of
the ball discharges. They were here intensified. Under the
glass the spark discharges appeared indistinct and hazy, while
the tracks of the balls were still sharp. See Fig. 1. When
rephotographed and enlarged 100 diameters, the tracks of the
balls on the original negative were found to be about 0.002 cm.
in width.

Some changes were then made in the apparatus in order to
provide more suitable conditions, and it was then found im-
possible to secure the result again after two days of persistent
work. The old arrangement was then resorted to with like
results. It was observed that the ball discharges came from
the same point on the brass weight. A short radial pencil
line was drawn on the plate at this point with no result.
There seemed to be no irregularity at the point of discharge

156 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

that could account for the peculiar discharge. The brass
wheel of a clock was selected, and all but one of its pointed
coo-s were removed, with no better result. A return to the
weight gave a successful result, but continued repetition re-
sulted again in failure. A radial line was again drawn with
a different pencil from that formerly used, and with a suc-
cessful result, but this was again followed by a long list of
failures. It was finally found that the mark of a moistened
pencil would always yield the desired result.

This threw discredit upon the idea which had begun to pre-
vail, that a definite frequency of oscillation was involved, and
which only a fortunate combination of adjustments could
secure. After a month of experimenting in this way the con-
ditions favorable to the immediate production of the phenom-
enon were found.

The secondary circuit was discarded, and the metal disk
from which the discharge is to come was put in contact with
the negative knob of the machine. The disk was armed with
a radially placed needle point, which touched the sensitive
film. No condenser was used in the machine, and the knobs
were separated so that no visible discharge could occur be-
tween them. A needle point is also presented to the point
on the surface of the film. A very effective device consists of
two needles or pins with their eye or head ends lashed to-
gether, and attached with sealing wax to the end of a glass
tube serving as a handle. The needles form the arms of a T
of which the glass tube is the trunk. One point is held near
the point from which the balls are to issue upon the film.
The other point discharges upon the air. This device has
earned the name " teaser." It seldom fails to bring the ball
discharge at once. The mark of a moistened pencil upon the
film at the discharge point is sometimes needed. The teaser
may also be used to lead the balls into abnormal paths upon
the plate. When this device was hit upon, it was at once
used to determine whether ball discharges could be drawn
from the positive pole. The discharge point was placed at
the positive pole, with the teaser held in front of it. The
balls appeared, but they issued from the teaser and passed to
the positive pole. Several negatives were obtained in which

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 157

short discharge tracks exactly resembling those of the ball
discharge, were found originating in irregularities of the film.
This suggested the experiment, the details of which are shown
in the adjoining cut. A disk, b, c, was armed with two
needle points, one of which was directed towards the point a,
from which the ball discharges issue. The other was directed
in an opposite direction. The positions of the knobs of the
machine are shown in the cut. A very luminous ball dis-
charge passed very slowly from a to b, requiring about a
minute to traverse one inch. At b the luminosity disappeared,
but it appeared at once at c and drifted around towards the
4- knob. It reached the edge of the plate at d, and remained

Diagram Showing the Arrangement op Discharge in Pl. XV., Fig. 8.

there for several minutes. A little rivulet of violet discharge
passed along the whole line of the track and was especially
strong near a. After developing it was found, what has been
seen in several other plates, that the film was attacked along
this part of the track, as is shown by dendritic formations
extending outward from the main track but which do not
show in the half-tone reproduction. When the machine was
stopped and the flow along this line ceased, it was found on
starting the machine that this track had ceased to act as a
conductor. No glow appeared at d. Another ball discharge
appeared. It was drawn out and to one side of the old track
by means of the teaser, and then was allowed to traverse its
own path. It found its way by a new path, to b and c, and
finally to the edge of the plate. There it also persisted, but
the machine was soon stopped, and the glow ceased. This
was repeated many times. The result is shown in Fig. 8.

158 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It was fouad in this experiment, as in all others, that the
track of a ball discharge is a good conductor, so long as the
ball discharge is in existence at the end of the path. It affects
the operation of the machine in a very remarkable way, as has
been explained, when strong disruptive discharges are taking
place. If a ball discharge intersects the track of another ball
discharge, it will sometimes move along this track with great
speed, but sometimes it disappears and at the same time it
reappears on the same track further away from the cathode.
But as a rule these balls cross and recross old tracks while
running closely parallel to them, without being in the least
affected by their presence.

It is not probable that these discharges are really spherical
in form. Sometimes they do not even appear spherical. The
phenomenon is apparently the result of a breaking down
under electric stress of the medium composing the sensitive
part of the film. The chemical action results in the formation
of a track along which a discharge passes to feed and main-
tain these luminous nuclei. This discharge along the track
between the cathode and ball is usually invisible, even in a
dark room, but its existence can always be shown by passing
the point of the teaser along the track. By separating the
knob of the machine from the disk bearing the discharge
point this silent brush discharge also becomes apparent.

If a drop of water be put on a not too clean plate of glass, and
at the end of the discharge point a of diagram, the water is
drawn out into long narrow tracks. They originate at points
of maximum curvature, where a luminous point discharge
appears. This action results in the formation of a conducting
track which feeds the point discharge. But a similar action
will take place at the positive knob of the machine. Only
part of the conditions existing on the photographic plate are
found here. The medium is a conductor, which is distorted
by the acting forces. There is no chemical breaking down of
the medium, resulting in the formation of a conducting
channel.

After a plate containing a ball discharge has been fixed and
dried, if it be replaced at either discharge knob of the machine,
luminous ball discharges form along the tracks, but the con-

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 159

ducting material forming the track is quickly torn out and
dispersed. In a few cases these points or ball discharges have
been seen to move quickly along the old tracks, but as a rule
they do not appear to be capable of motion. Such motions
as have been seen were away from the cathode knob, and they
consisted in most cases rather in a disappearance of a glowing
ball-like mass at one point, and its reappearance at an adjacent
point. Only one or two negatives gave results of any sig-
nificance. In most of them the film as a whole had become
either too good or too poor a conductor.

It is apparent that the gradual formation of a channel of
somewhat lower resistance, is a material feature in the ball
discharge. It is probable that the breaking down of insulat-
ing material by stresses due to high potentials will yield val-
uable results. Whether these ball discharges on the photo-
graphic plates are the same as those reported in connection
with lightning, it is perhaps too early to decide. They are
certainly similar. It is very probable that optical illusions
are to be credited with some of the descriptions given of these
phenomena. The remarkable photographs taken by Sidney
Webb and recently published,* show that during lightning dis-
charges, tracks stream out from arc lights. The line wire is
a conducting channel. The arc itself is a point of weakness
in the gaseous medium, by reason of its high temperature.
At low temperatures, nitric and nitrous fumes when mixed
with air, increase its resistance to the passage of sparks be-
tween discharge knobs ; but at high temperatures the result
is likely to be different. Certain it is that these photographs
taken by Mr. Webb, show that just such discharges are formed
in the air as are known to exist along the track of a ball dis-
charge on the photographic plate.

In many cases where spark intervals have been specially
adjusted, and a continuous violet brush discharge was seen
passing along the track leading to a ball, persistent appear-
ances resembling what has been described as bead lightning
have been observed. These beads were really incipient ball
discharges that were about to branch out from the main track.
Such branches are seen in almost every negative secured.

* Nature, Feb. 8, 1900.

160 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

In many cases such attempts to form branch tracks prove
abortive, but all of the tracks which are maintained for a
sufficient time show most elaborate branches, of the most
beautiful form. This is especially true when the photographic
plate is not too near the machine, and when the teaser is only
used to start a ball, which is then allowed to wander over the
plate. The most interesting ball discharge yet obtained was
found on a plate inclosed in a paste-board box in which pho-
tographic plates are packed. The discharge was disruptive
in character. The negative terminal was a small knob in con-
tact with the coin, from which a wire passed through the
center of the cover, and was held in place by sealing-wax.
The ball discharges wandered over the entire plate. They
even branched off towards the coin and two such branches
ran under the coin itself. The X-ray was playing upon the
plate during the exposure, but this was apparently not an
essential feature. The walls of the box undoubtedly did
have some influence.

The essential differences between the three kinds of dis-
charge described are well shown in Fig. 1, which contains
them all. Ordinary visible disruptive sparks are shown
most sharply in that part acted upon by the light during the
discharge. They are not sharply defined, and are curiously
bent near their outer ends. When first appearing on this
negative, they were dark. As the development was pushed,
they reversed. The dark corona on the negative immediately
around the brass weight was produced by radiations along the
lines of force. They were straight lines or nearly so, and
the discharges which produce them are invisible. Within
this coronal discharge in the shaded part of the plate will be
found the track of a ball discharge, which on an ordinary
silver print comes out very sharply, under a strong lens, but
the reproduction will not bear very much of magnifying.

Fig. 9 shows a ball lightning discharge from a plate
which was pushed somewhat in the developing bath. It would
have been very nearly as good if it had been fixed without
developing at all. It is, however, somewhat better to de-
velop, if the arrangement has been such that disruptive sparks
have not passed over the plate.

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 161

Fig. 10 is a reproduction of a portion of a negative show-
ing ball tracks magnified about one hundred diameters.
While these tracks were being traced, disruptive sparks were
passing continually over the plate, and the tracks appeared
somewhat obscured when viewed with the unaided eye. A
pocket lens showed well defined tracks, and in the enlarged
photograph the blurred effect has entirely disappeared.

This picture has been reversed twice, and shows the tracks
in black as they appear on the original negative.

The fact that greatly over-exposed plates may be developed
in the light, was suggested by the fact that in exposure to
light during the taking of an electrograph, the electrical action
was annulled. Finally when a plate which at first promised
well began to fog in the dark room, the light of an incandes-
scent lamp was turned on, and the plate at once cleared in a
most remarkable way.

This again suggested the idea of developing X-ray pictures
in the light. This has also been done with very satisfactory
results. Light-struck plates were used for this purpose,
which had been exposed for a day to the diffuse light of the
laboratory. Singularly enough these pictures were negatives
when they were inclosed in black paper during the X-ray
treatment, and they were positives if they were exposed to
the light while the X-ray was acting.

The advantage of being able to study an X-ray picture
during the operation of the developing is sometimes very
great. The operation may then be pushed until the desired
features have been brought out, and it may be arrested before
they are obscured by over-developing.

When the X-ray is thrown upon a plate in a camera while
an ordinary picture is being taken, all exposed parts of the
plate are affected alike. The action of light and of the
X-ray are added. If a picture be taken of a diagram in
black on white cardboard, the action of the X-ray will be
shown equally on the dark and the light parts of the image.
This is made evident by shielding half of the plate from the
X-ray by a screen of metal or of lead glass. There is a
marked difference between this result and that found for the
superposition of light and electrical action, as is shown in

162 Trans. Acad. Sri. of St. Louis.

Fig. 1. In order that the X-ray picture of the metal fittings
of the camera, and the light picture of the object in front
of the lens may be superposed on the fixed plate, the
diaphragm of the camera must be so set that the two pictures
will develop in the same time with the same developing
bath.

The results already described suggested that in ordinary
photography the exposure might be so modified that the
picture might be developed in the light.

In the first attempts that were made the object was a street
scene. The exposures were from one to three and a fourth
hours. The pictures developed in the light with perfect
clearness. They are of course positives. They appear some-
what unpromising at first, while in the developing bath, and
one is tempted to abandon them as failures, as indeed some
of them may be, until experience is gained. The pictures
obtained by these long exposures show some very interesting
features. They show no trace of moving objects on the
streets. In some cases hundreds of people passed. In one
case ten street cars were blocked for twelve minutes, in the
foreground, and cars were passing at the rate of 70 to the
hour. Wagons were driven to the curb to deliver goods to
houses, and people were standing on the street corners wait-
ing for cars. In an exposure of an hour no trace of these
objects could be seen on the plate when developed. The
street appeared absolutely deserted. The car tracks show
with distinctness. In one exposure of three hours and forty-
five minutes a team and wagon stood in one position for
twenty-eight minutes, and no trace of them appeared. If the
exposure of the same plate is only for one second, these mov-
ing objects are all shown. Another feature of these long
exposures is the entire absence of shadows. It is somewhat
difficult to account for this, as it hardly seems possible that
their motion is sufficiently rapid to produce this result. The
sky appears absolutely uniform. Clouds which were in
marked contrast in one case yield no trace upon the picture.
An attempt was then made to shorten the time of exposure
and still permit development in the light. This was done by
subjecting the plate, while in the plate holder, to the X-ray.

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 163

The plate holder was held for ten minutes, six inches from a
Crookes tube operated by a large induction coil in oil. A
perfect picture of the hand could be obtained in six to eight
seconds. The same plate was then exposed for two hours to
a Crookes tube operated by a large eight-plate influence
machine. The plate holder was then put into the camera and
exposed to a street scene for ten minutes and was then de-
veloped in the light. The result is shown in Fig. 11. For
reproduction of form and shadow, this plate could hardly
be excelled by a transparency made in the ordinary way.
Like the others, it shows no trace of moving objects on the
street.

It has been long known that a slight over-exposure of a
plate in the camera sometimes gives a positive picture when
developed in the dark room. The experience thus far
described made it seem probable that such pictures might also
be developed in the light. This was found to be the case.
If the proper exposure is one and a half to two seconds,
an exposure of a minute is sufficient. Some that have been
made have not been very satisfactory. But one has been ob-
tained which is even superior to the plate reproduced in Fig.
11. It is shown in Fig. 12. For richness of finish and for
perfect modulation of light and shadow, this original plate
leaves nothing to be desired. During most of the time while
being developed, it was held one foot from a sixteen-candle
lamp. During some of the time it was held nearer, and
during some of the time it was five or six feet from the
lamp.

Figs. 11 and 12 are of course reproductions of the original
positives. In these exposures the Cramer isochromatic plate
was used.

In some of these shorter exposures where people or wagons
halted on the street, they are shown on the fixed plate.
Where they were motionless during the whole exposure they
are of course shown with perfect clearness.

Experiment shows that a conspicuous object two feet
in breadth and fifty feet from the camera if moved
transversely at the rate of twenty feet per minute, during
an exposure of one minute, will show on the plate as

164 Trans:. Acad. Sci. of St. Loxiis.

a distinct trail. With a longer exposure it is eliminated.
The unit of exposure may be roughly considered as one candle-
meter-second. With a fixed illumination, the exposure may
be varied, by varying the time of exposure. It appears that
for any exposure, there is some definite degree of illumina-
tion in the dark room, which will yield what might be called
a zero plate. No picture will appear on it if lights and
shadows are each uniform on the object, as in case of a dia-
gram in black on white cardboard. This picture will become
a negative in a darker, and a positive in a lighter developing
room. With an exposure of half a second a plate which will
develop as a perfect negative in a proper dark room, will
develop as a zero plate if the room is dimly lighted. In the
parlance of the photographer, it will fog. In a still brighter
light it will develop as a positive. In this action there must
be a time co-ordination in the action of the developer and the
light of the dark room. With a given strength of developer
it appears from results thus far obtained, that a maximum
degree of excellence will be secured with a definite degree of
illumination in the dark room. The results thus far obtained
with half-second exposures, are by no means satisfactory,
considered as products of the photographer's art, but the
pictures of street scenes are distinctly positives. If results
comparable with those for longer exposures are attainable, it
involves a delicate adjustment of the illumination of the dark
room and strength of developer which has not so far been
secured.

With an incandescent lamp burning in the dark room, it
is easy in half-second exposures to obtain a rather poor neg-
ative, by holding the bath in the shadow of an object eight
or ten feet from the lamp. By holding the plate in the light,
and going somewhat nearer, the same plate with the same
exposure, will yield a picture which is distinctly a positive.

With a very much over-exposed plate, it is difficult to get a
room dark enough to yield a negative. With a very short
exposure, it is equally difficult to get positives, and only by a
very great illumination of the plate while in the developer.
The condition of zero plate when only the time of exposure
and the illumination of the developing room are variable,

Nipher — Properties of Light-struck Photographic Plates. 165

certainly cannot be very different from an inverse proportion.
The experiments thus far made show also that with a long
exposure, the best results can be obtained by developing the
plate in the light, as a positive, while for very short exposures
the best results are attainable by developing as a negative.

These conclusions may be modified by a variation of the
strength of the developer. The limits within which the va-
riables may change and yield results of commercial value have
not been determined with precision for positive pictures.
What has been said of pictures taken in the camera, may also
be said of X-ray pictures on plates not previously light-struck.
If two plates are exposed in the same way to the X-ray, and
one be developed in the dark and the other in the light, the
former develops as a negative and the latter as a positive.
Either may be converted into a zero plate by a change in the
illumination of the plate while in the bath, as has been pre-
viously explained. The more careful study of these subjects
is still in progress. There is ground for believing that the
treatment of a plate by a slab of plaster of Paris moistened
with peroxide of hydrogen, according to the method used by
Russell * may be of value in developing X-ray pictures in the
light. Work in this direction has not yet progressed suffi-
ciently to warrant any final conclusions.

The superposition of X-ray pictures on electrographs does
not as yet reveal any effect of either agent upon the action of
the other. This has been done with fresh plates and with those
which had been previously light-struck. In these experiments
half of the plate was shielded from the X-ray by a heavy
plate of lead glass. The pictures due to the two sources
were superposed, and the two effects were added where sim-
ultaneously acting. This is also in marked contrast to the
action of light on the electrograph, as is shown in Fig. 1.

The superposition of X-rays upon a plate in the developing
bath while in a dark room promises interesting results, but
so far this has not been done from lack of time.

Science, March^O, 1900, p. 491.

166 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plates XII-XVII.

Plate XII. — 1, Electrograph with light from one window falling on the
left half of the plate. The right half is in shadow. Negative pole. — 2,
Electrograph with positive pole with plate exposed in a moderately dark
room. Discharge upon the large weight.

Plate XIII. — 3, Same with small weight at a greater distance. — 4, Same
with the small weight still further removed.

Plate XIV. — 5, Same with greater spark length. — 6, Same with still
greater spark length.

Plate XV. — 7, Electrograph with negative pole, long spark length. —8,
Ball lightning discharges. — See diagram in text. Fig. 8 has been reversed
in the reproduction.

Plate XVI. — 9, The same as Fig. 8. — 10, The same enlarged 75 diameters
and shown twice reversed.

Plate XVII. — 11, Ordinary photograph — exposure 10 min. on a plate
previously fogged for two hours in X-rays, and developed as a positive in
the light. — 12, An ordinary photograph — exposure one minute. Developed
in the light. The original is also a positive.

Issued May 16, 1900.

Tkans. Acat>. so. or St. Lotus, vol. X.

Plate XII.

Fig. i.

Fig. 2.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XIII.

FIG. 3.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate XIV.

Fig

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. A*.

Plate XV,

Pig

Fig. 8.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XVI.

Fig. 10.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

1T.A1K XVII.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*

»t
8,4

$4.00
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nob. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

8

lto4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 3-4 {

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

ej

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14,15,18

3,9

12

I 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

7t

2, 8, 4,6,7,8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

I 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 Cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.09

8J

1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2, 7, 9, 11

| 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

8.50

9J

1, 3, 4, 7, 9

2, 5,8

6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3.75

8.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume,'— so far as this can b«
supplied.

X Bach number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St, Louis.

VOL. X. No. 7.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICOCRINUS.

MARY KLEM.

' Issued May 30, 1900.

JUN

25 1900

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICOCRINUS.*
Mary Klem.

In recent works on the Crinoideae of North America, we
find the writers relying upon the variations in the proportions
of the interbrachial plates, and upon the form and size of the
costals and distichals as the best distinctive characters for
specific separation. The number and distribution of the arms,
the form of the anal area, and the condition of the oral
plates, are also important features.

I have examined a large and excellent collection of Agari-
cocrini, numbering over one hundred well preserved specimens,
gathered at Moore's Mill on the Fox River, in Clark Countv,
Missouri, from the Keokuk formation. The diversity of their
general form and the various stages of the development of
the plates, comprising the calyx, would tend to support the
above statements ; but, on closer investigation, I became fully
convinced that the specimens before me belong to but one
species. The fact that these fossils were found within the
small radius of one-eighth of a mile strengthens the stand I
take on this question. I consider the prevailing differences in
the plates the result of abnormal development, otherwise I
would have one hundred species of the same genus from one
locality, which is an utter impossibility.

On the ventral side of any one of these specimens, there
are invariably six prominent plates, each of which is sur-
rounded by a more or less perfect ring of smaller pieces. In
all the specimens that have come under my observation, and
in the drawings I have examined, I have found these essential
points. This fact led me to the following conclusions con-
cerning the development of this genus.

According to my conception of their development, the first
plates to be formed were the orals, six in number. These

* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 7,
1900. Presented to the Faculty of Washington University as a thesis for the
Degree of Bachelor of Arts, June, 1900.

(167)

168 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

plates are always large and prominent in this genus ; the
posterior one being usually larger than the other five and
central. They divide the ventral side into five spaces occupied
by smaller plates. Four of these areas are about the same
size, while the one on the anal side is much larger. (See
figure.) The condition of the orals varies considerably;
sometimes they are tuberculose as in A. excavatus, nodose as
in A. bullatus, spinous as in A. stellatus, or conical as in
A. Coreyi.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGARICOCRINUS AMERICANUS.*

The next step in the development was the formation of a
series of smaller pieces around each oral. This ring can be
traced more or less distinctly in every instance, but in no two
cases is it composed of the same number of pieces, or of pieces
of the same size. The variations in the size, shape and number
of these plates, in all probability, depended upon the quality
and the quantity of food, the amount of light and the nature
of the surroundings. If the animal was healthy, well-fed, and
the environments were favorable for rapid growth, it seems
plausible to suppose that it developed large plates, but few of
them ; if the nutrition was poor and the conditions were
adverse, then a large number of much smaller plates formed.
Very often we find a number of small plates inserted between

* The six plates shaded heavily were the first plates to be deposited.
The series of smaller plates around each, which are shaded lightly, were
the second step in the development. The intervening pieces, which are
not shaded, were formed at a later period as the necessary material
could be produced.

Klem — Tlie Development of Agaricocrinus. 169

the orals and some of the plates composing the ring, as shown
in Figs. 5, 18, 22 and 25. These may have been formed
while the animal was sick or in a poor locality. Upon a
return to more favorable conditions, the ring of larger
plates was deposited. The isolation of the orals by these
supplementary pieces cannot very well be regarded as of
specific importance, as there is no regularity in their occur-
rence.

Because of the great variety in the shape, size, and number
of the pieces, I think the intervening spaces were filled out
as the necessary material could be produced. The sole pur-
pose of these plates seems to be to fill out space, no one know-
ing any functions which they might have had. Since their
only object is to connect the different parts, it is very reason-
able to suppose that they made their appearance at a later
period than the orals and the basals, which appeared simul-
taneously. Here, again, it is impossible to find any two
specimens in which the spaces have been filled out in the same
manner. An examination of the drawings accompanying this
paper will show every possible combination, resulting from
the factors with which the animal had to contend. The
number of drawings could have been multiplied many times,
but I think those submitted are sufficient to show the chief
features in the development, and the departure in each case
from the regular pentamerous arrangement.

This process of development necessarily affected the gen-
eral shape of the calyx, making it hemispherical as in A.
Americanus, pyramidal as in A. excavatus, conical as in A.
conicus, or inflated as in A. inflatus. In many cases the sym-
metry of the body was destroyed by the addition or the
removal of arms or plates . The size of the calyx is of little
value for classification, as it depends entirely upon the size
and number of the component plates.

Examining the dorsal cup, I found a great similarity in the
general arrangement of the plates, but differences in the
number and in the size of the plates were as prevalent as on
the ventral side. The many variations in the structure have
been mistaken for specific differences, giving rise to useless
synonyms.

170 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The first radials vary much in size, being the largest plates
of the dorsal cup in some, and quite small in others. In
many they are irregular in size, the posterior ones being
generally longer than the others. Often the sides are spread-
ing, the lower ends thickened to form a circular ridge around
the depression for the column. The second and third
radials are among the most variable plates in the disk.
The second radials are usually quadrangular with convex
sides, but frequently one or both upper angles are trun-
cated by the second interbrachials. In some three are
hexangular, and the two posterior ones pentangular; or all
are quadrangular, except the one on the anal side which has
one of the upper angles truncated, making a fifth angle.
There is considerable range in size ; in some specimens they
are larger than the first radials ; in some they are the largest
plates in the disk, and in others they are very short, more
than twice as wide as long. The third radials are regularly
five-sided, but pieces with six, seven and eight sides are of
common occurrence. Sometimes they are irregular in out-
line, or all pentangular, except the posterior ones which are
hexangular. In some they are triangular and so small that
the first piece of the brachials rests in part on the second
radial as well as on the third. As the first and second radials,
so these may be the largest plates in the disk. Often they
are tumid and project beyond the surface of the first and
second radials.

The distichals and brachials are quite variable in form and
size, as well as in number among the rays. In many the
first distichal of the three anterior rays is followed by a
cuneate second plate, while the posterior rays have one
distichal, followed by two palmars, or only one distichal with
one palmar. The second distichal may be quite small and
cuneate, the outer ends being occupied by arm plates which
meet it from opposite sides. Usually there are two series of
alternating brachial pieces which form the base of two arms.
Additional arms are produced by the intercalation of brachial
pieces between the others.

The first anal is usually longer than the radials and fol-
lowed by a second anal and an interbrachial on each side,

Klem — The Development of Agaricocriaus. 171

which extend to the arm bases and beyond the second anal.
This is not constant, however, the anal being smaller than
the radials and of various shapes in many specimens. The
next row generally consists of two short plates, succeeded by
numerous small, irregular pieces, forming the anal area.
This row frequently comprises three, four or five plates, which
may be as wide as long, as large as the radials, or almost twice
as large.

Upon examination the interbrachials will be found to be as
variable in size as the radials and distichals. In some the
first plate rises almost to a level with the arm bases, in others
it barely reaches the middle of the second radial. As a re-
sult the second brachial plates come much lower, which makes
them more prominent in the structure. They are brought in
contact with the second radials, cutting off their upper
lateral angles, making these plates hexagonal instead of
regularly quadrangular. The two of the second row are, as
a rule, twice as long as the first and very narrow, while the
plates of the third range are quite variable in form and size
and often partly interambulacral. The interambulacral areas
are filled out with from five to nine small convex pieces. The
variations in the proportions of the interbrachial plates can-
not be of specific importance because, if the first inter-
brachials are small, the second ones are necessarily forced
lower down in the cup and become more prominent, while,
if the first interbrachials are long, there is no need for the
second ones to be large and they remain narrow and do not
truncate the second radials on the upper lateral edges as in
the former case.

In their normal state the Agaricocrini of the Chouteau and
Burlington Groups have ten arms and those of the Keokuk
Group twelve arms, three upon each of the posterior rays
and two upon each of the others. The number of arms is
not constant however ; additional arms frequently appearing
as the result of abnormal development, or one or more arms
remaining undeveloped. When a series of specimens, such
as I have figured, is carefully examined, the most striking
feature is seen to be the irregularity in the number and
size of the arms. The normal forms in the Keokuk Group

172 Trans. Acad. Set. of Si. Louis.

have the following arm formula*: 3+3+2+2+2. Of
the twenty-six specimens figured, ten have twelve arms,
the formula in Figs. 4, 7, 14, 16, 20, 21 and 24 being
3+3+2+2+2; in Fig. 25, 3+3+li + 2+2 ; in Fig. 22,
lil+3+li+li+2 ; and in Fig. 2, 3+4+2+1+2. One, No.
12, has thirteen arms of this formula: 3+3+2+3+2; No. 10
has seventeen arms arranged thus: 4+4+3+3+3. Six have
eleven arms, the formula in Figs. 13, 15, 17 and 26 being
2+3+2+2+2; in Fig. 6, 2+3+2+U + 2; and in Fig. 8,
3+2+2+2+2. Of the rest six have ten arms and two nine
arms. In Figs. 5, 9, 11 and 18 the formula is 2+2+2+2+2 ;
in Fig. 3, 2+li+li+li + 2; in Fig. 1, 3+2+2+2+1. For
Fig. 19 the formula is 3+2+2+1+1, and for Fig. 23 it is
2+3+2+2.

A lack of proper regard for this occurrence has led many
writers to create new species, instead of considering their
specimens abnormal developments of existing species. From
the drawings it will be seen of how little value the number
and distribution of the arms can be for specific separation.
Many of Miller's species rest entirely upon the number of
arms. His A. Indianensis and A. Gorbyi agree in every
essential point with the description of A. sjilendens, the only
distinction being that A. Gorbyi has thirteen arms, while the
other two have each twelve arms.f A. Blairi is described as
a distinct species because it has nine instead of ten arms,
which is caused by one of the arms of the anterior ray remain-
ing undeveloped 4 The only claim A. profundus has to recog-
nition as distinct species is the fact that it has fourteen arms,
which the author thinks of specific importance. A. tugurium is
considered new because it has twelve arms ; and A. avoula with
ten arms,§ A. Iowensis with fifteen arms and A. KeoJcukensis ||
with sixteen arms are classed as new species for that reason

* In counting the arms I begin at the left posterior ray (ventral side
up) and count toward the right. Smaller figures denote smaller arms.

t Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 16: 340. pi. IV. f. 1, 2. —Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind.
17 : 663. pi. VIII. f. 5; 664. pi. VIII. f. 9.

% Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18: 275. pi. III. f. 12-14.

§ Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 6: 26. pi. III. f. 1-3; 28. pi. III. f.
4-6; 30. pZ. III. f. 7-8.

|| Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 12: 5. pi. I. f. 1-3; 7. pi. I. f. 4-6.

Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 173

only. If we examine the way in which extra arms arise, the
folly of considering the number of arms important becomes
still more apparent. In rays having regularly three arms, the
third arises from a tertiary radial which cuts off the upper
angles of the secondaiw radials. If this plate should divide
vertically, forming two tertiary radials, then an arm would
spring from each of these two tertiary radials, and there would
be four arms to that ray. Increase in the number of arms
seems to be due solely to the dividing and cutting off of the
sides of the plates. Injury to some of the plates where arms
were to form would prevent the further growth of the arm
and leave it undeveloped. Such a case I have shown at Fig.
2, where the middle anterior ray started to produce a second
arm. The size of the arms and the number of joints are worth-
less as features of classification, as they are preserved in
comparatively few specimens and represent only the age of
the animal. The only way in which the number of joints
could be of value is, if there were a certain definite number
of joints to the inch for each species.

The pentamerous arrangement of the parts is the rule
throughout the sub-kingdom of the Echinodermata, but we
cannot find another division in the whole animal kingdom so
subject to abnormal development. In addition to the above
examples of abnormity, I will mention a few striking instances
of its occurrence in other families, as examples of deviation
from the regular pentamerous type are not uncommon. In
Bulletin 3 of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History,
on page 19, in a comparison between Batocrinus facetus and
B. Lyonanus, we find the following statement: "In Bato-
crinus facetus the three-armed series is on the right of the
azygous side, in this it is on the left. In that species, there
are four regular interradials and eleven azygous plates, in
this species there are three regular interradials and six azygous
plates." In the same Bulletin the following remarks are
found in the description of Zeacrinusbellulus: " This species
bears some resemblance to Gyathocrinus manifoi'mis of Yan-
dell and Shumard which has generally been referred to Zea-
crinus. In that species the subradials are long and abruptly
bend into the columnar cavity and upward so as to form a

174 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

convex rim for the base of the calyx and show the upper part
of the plates in a lateral view ; in this species the columnar
depression is much smaller and the subradials are compara-
tively shorter and only slightly convex so as to form a some-
what truncated base to the calyx and to show only the superior
angles of the plates in a lateral view. The first radials are
comparatively shorter and the second radials comparatively
longer, and the plates more convex in this species than they
are in Z. maniformis. The arms in this species are more
fusiform than in Z. maniformis. In that species there are
only nine arms." On page 37, in describing Z. nitidus,
Miller says, " Z. maniformis has proportionally a longer and
more globose calyx and much longer arms than our species.
The second radials in our species are much more constricted
on the sides than they are in Z. maniformis, and we are led to
infer, from the figure, that it had ten arms while our species
has only nine." In a description of Zeacrinus cylindricus
this statement is made: "This species has been confounded
with Z. maniformis by some collectors, but in that species
the basal plates are hidden by the column, the body is shorter,
and there are only nine arms, as the radial series opposite
the azygous area bears only a single arm." The distinguish-
ing features of Batocrinus prodigialis are given as follows :
" This species is distinguished from B. Yandelli, which it
most resembles, by having twenty-five instead of twenty-one
or twenty-two arm openings to the vault, and by having one
more regular interradial in each area and one or two more
azygous plates."

It seems very arbitrary to make a new species because a
specimen has nine instead of ten arms, or has three arms on
the right of the azygous side instead of the left, or four
regular interradials and eleven azygous plates instead of three
regular interradials and six azygous plates, or because the
basals are hidden by the column, or because the basals instead
of being five, which is the typical number, have become three
or two by concrescence. With regard to the description of
Batocrinus prodigialis I will say that it agrees in every
essential point with Shumard's Actinocrinus Yandelli.* I

* Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis. 1: 7G.pl. I. f. 4,a,b.

Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 175

have examined the specimen from which Shumard made his
description and am at a loss to see any difference. The
specimen, which is now in the collection of the Washington
University, was found at Button Mould Knob in Kentucky,
the same locality which Miller mentions for his specimen.
Because of the possession of one more arm Zeacrinus
bellulus is separated from Zeacrinus maniformis, which was
described by Hall in 1858* as having nine arms which he
distinctly states is probably accidental. f

Besides the foregoing reasons for reducing the existing
number of species, the following characteristics will help to
prove my assertions : —

(a) Concavity of the base. — Messrs. Wachsmuth and
Springer J state that " the Keokuk species without exception
are deeply concave, in the basal regions," but I have found
all possible gradations from an almost flat basal region to a
deeply concave disk. A. Whitfieldi is so deeply concave,
that when the body is placed upon a level surface, it rests
upon the first brachials. In A. tuberosus and A. Americanus
the concavity involves the entire radial series of the plates ;
in A. splendens it extends to the top, and in A. nodulosus to
the middle of the first distichals ; in A. Wortheni, to the sec-
ond costals ; in A. nodosus and A. conicus, to the first cos-
tals, and in A. crassus it is almost flat. The difference in
the concavity is such a gradual variation, that it is impossible
to state the extent of concavity permissible for a certain species.

(b) Horizon and locality. — A great many of the species
recently described were collected at the same place and from
the same geological formation. From Charlestown, Indiana,
Miller alone described thirty-five new species of Dolatocrinus

* Geol. Rep. Iowa. I2 : 682. pi. 25. f. 8.

t For further examples of abnormal development see Bull. 111. State
Mus. Nat. Hist. 3:19, 35,36,37,46; 5:39,53; 6:16; 7:6,8,19,21,22,25,
28, 29, 31, 40, 63, 67; 8: 6, 8, 9, 10. — Trans, and Proc. New Zealand Insti-
tute. 1894. 27 : 194-208. pi. X, XI, XII, and XIII (in part). — Quarterly
Journal Geological Society. 451. No. 177: 149-171. pi. VI. (1889); 38.
(1882).— G. Boehm. Zeitschrift der Deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft
433. Uber eine Anomalie im Kelche von Millericrinus mespeliformis.—
Quenstedt. Fetrefactenkunde Deutschlands. 4:328.— F. de Loriol. M4m-
oires de la Society Paleontologique Suisse. 4.

X Revision Palaeocrinoidea. Part II. 109.

176

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

as occurring in the Hamilton Group. From Sedalia, Mo., he
described twenty-six Batocrini from the Burlington Group,
thirteen Platycrini from the Chouteau limestone and twenty-
two Platycrini from the Burlington ; from Burlington, Iowa,
nineteen species of Batocrinus from the Burlington limestone;
and from Boonville, Mo., twenty-one species of Batocrinus
from the Keokuk formation. Following is a list of the
species described by Miller from the different localities.

CHARLESTOWN, IND. HAMILTON GROUP.

Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus

peratus.
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatacrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus
Dolatocrinus

aureatus.
bulbaceus.
lineolatus.
omatus, var. as-

spinosus.

stellifer.

venustus.*

amplus.t

bellulus.

corporosus.

exornatus.

Hammelli.

pulchellus.

vasculum.t

nodosus.

sacculus.

salebrosus.§

ajilatus.

Dolatocrinus argutus.
Dolatocrinus bellamgosus.
Dolatocrinus caelatus.
Dolatocrinus Charlestown-

ensis.
Dolatocrinus Indianensis. ||
Dolatocrinus arrosus.
Dolatocrinus asper.
Dolatocrinus aspratilis.
Dolatocrinus basilicus.
Dolatocrinus cistula.
Dolatocrinus dispar.
Dolatocrinus dissimularis .
Dolatocrinus laguncula.
Dolatocrinus Lyoni.
Dolatocrinus peculiars.
Dolatocrinus preciosus.9^
Dolatocrinus neglectus.**

SEDALIA, MO. — BURLINGTON GROUP.

Batocrinus aequalis.
Batocrinus aspratilis.
Batocrinus laetus.

Ba tocrinus scyphus . f f
Batocrinus formaceus.
Batocrinus imparilis.

* Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 4. || Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 8.

t Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 5. f Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9.

X Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 6. ** Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 12.

§ Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. ft Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 3.

Klein — The Development of Agaricocrinus.

177

Batocrinus incultus.
Batocrinus insperatus.
Batocrinus planus.*
Batocrinus argutus.
Batocrinus asper.
Batocrinus basilicus.
Batocrinus folliculus.
Batocrinus germanus.
Batocrinus Jessieae.
Batocrinus nanus.
Batocrinus proximus.^
Batocrinus Pettisensis.
Batocrinus regalis.%
Batocrinus repertus.
Batocrinus Sedaliensis.
Batocrinus subaequatus.
Batocrinus subcitulus.§
Batocrinus Blairi.
Batocrinus Briltsi.
Batocrinus comparilis. \\
Platycrinus modestus.

Platycrinus semifusus.
Platycrinus sidciferus.
Platycrinus tugurium.^
Platycrinus concinnidus .
Platycrinus formosus, var. ap-
proximates.
Platycrinus subscitulus.**
Platycrinus acclivus.
Platycrinus amabilis.
Platycrinus batiola.
Platycrinus Blairi.
Platycrinus Broadheadi .
Platycrinus carchesium.
Platycrinus concinnus.
Platycrinus Gorbyi.
Platycrinus lautus.
Platycrinus occidentalis.
Platycrinus pulcellus.
Platycrinus rotundus.
Platycrinus Sampsoni.
Ptatycrinus sulcatus.^

SEDALIA, MO. — CHOUTEAU GROUP.

Platycrinus cortina.%%
Platycrinus casula.
Platycrinus clinatus.
Platycrinus formosus.
Platycrinus germanus.
Pla lycrinus Missouriensis .
Platycrinus Pettisensis. § §

Platycrinus absentivus.
Platycrinus aequiternus.
Platycrinus allophylus.
Platycrinus annosus.
Platycrinus ollicula. || ||
Platycrinus Chouteauensis.
Platycrinus Colletti.^

* Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7.

f Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 8.

J Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9.

§ Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 10.

|| Kep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18.

1 Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7. 11 Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18.

** Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9.
ft Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. 4.
Xt Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 5.
§§ Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7.
Illl Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. 4.

178

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

BURLINGTON, IOWA.

Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus

nitens.

spurius.*

Albersi.

approximates.

cognatus.

complanatus.

consanguineus.

enodis.

glaber.

insolens.

-BURLINGTON GROUP.

Batocrinus levigatus.
Batocrinus levis.
Batocrinus politus .
Batocrinus remotus.
Batocrinus repositus.
Batocrinus saccellus.
Batocrinus speciosus.
Batocrinus subovatus.
BoAocrinus subrotundus.
Two abnormal species. f

BOONVILLE, MO. KEOKUK GROUP.

Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus

Broadheadi.

heteroclitus.

ignotus.

inconsuetus.

inopinatus.

insuetus.

modestus.

nitidulus.

peculiaris.

polydactylus.

procerus.

Sampsoni.

serratus.

venustulus.

Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus
Batocrinus

veterator.
vetustus.
vicinus.%
delicatulus.
parilis.
stelliformis.
strenuus.§
Boonvillensis.
Gorbyi.
Gurleyi.
mediocris.
pulchellus.
venustus. \\
divalis.^

The impossibility of such a large number of new species
being found in a comparatively small space becomes an over-
whelming fact, when we consider the distribution of plants
and animals. Nature has never been known to confine such
an incredible number of species at one spot. Nothing like it
is found in the distribution of plants and animals of the pres-

* Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9.
t Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 10.
X Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7.

§ Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 9.
|| Bull. Geol. Surv. Mo. i.
t Rep. Geol. Surv. Ind. 18.

Klem — The Development of Agar •icocr inus. 179

ent time, and we may safely assume that the same rules of
distribution which exist to-day existed during the geological
ages. From Florissant, Colorado, a place famous for the
great abundance of fossil plants and insects found there, 213
species of fossil plants have been enumerated.* Of these the
Family Myricaceae contains the largest number, thirteen in
all. More than one hundred and seventy species of Formi-
cidae have been described from different localities, the largest
number, thirty-seven, from Radoboj.

(c) Possible influence of light. — The aerial parts of plants
are directed largely under the influence of light, the stem and
petioles curving toward the light and the blades standing at
right angles to the rays of light. Gorgonia shows the same
tendency to develop more on the side toward the light, and in
a number of Blastoids the whole body leans considerably to
one side, suggesting more rapid development toward the light.
In a number of Crinoids the same asymmetry of the calyx
may be seen, which may be due to heliotropism. As to the
extent of this influence it is impossible to come to any definite
conclusions at the present time, but a thorough study of
more material may lead to more tangible results.

( d ) Effects of injury . — In describing Batocrinus insuelus]
Miller gives as one of the distinctive characters the balloon-
shaped bulb terminating the proboscis. This is as far as I
know the only one found having this feature, which alone
should have made the author very cautious about describing
it as a new species. In all probability the proboscis was
injured early in its growth, and as a result developed a balloon-
shaped growth. There is no more reason for making a new
species based on this character, than there would be for
creating a new species of oak, because the tree had a part of
its trunk expanded into a big tuber-like growth. Very many
Crinoid stems show the marks of injury and an increase in
size at those points.

The mistake of considering the variations in the different
parts as of specific importance has led to the creation of many

* Trans. The Academy of Science of St. Louis. 8 : 161-188.
t Bull. 111. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 7: 14. pi. I.f. 8, 9.

180

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

synonyms. Forty-two species have been described which
can easily be reduced to ten. The following is a list of the
species with their synonyms and geological formations.

I.

1892. Agaricocrinus Chouteaue?isis, Miller. Chouteau.

1892. Agaricocrinus Blairi. Chouteau.

1892. Agaricocrinus germanus. Chouteau.

1892. Agaricocrinus Sampsoni. Chouteau.

II.

1858. Agaricocrinus brevis, Hall.
1858. Agaricocrinus pyramidatus.
1858. Agaricocrinus stellatus.
1860. Agaricocrinus comiculus.

1860. Agaricocrinus geometricus.

1861. Agaricocrinus fiscellus.
1861. Agaricocrinus corrugatus.

L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.
L. Burlington.

III.

1896. Agaricocrinus Adamsensis, Miller and Gurley.

Burlington
1896. Agaricocrinus Hodgsoni.

Burlington ,

IV.

1896. Agaricocrinus Illinoisensis, Miller and Gurley,

V.

1861. Agaricocrinus injlalus, Hall.
1861. Agaricocrinus planoconvexus.
1891. Agaricocrinus decomis.
1897. Agaricocrinus convexus.

Burlington.

Burlington.
Burlington.
Burlington .
Burlington.

VI.

1861. Agaricocrinus ornolrema, Hall. U. Burlington.

1897. Agaricocrinus bellatrema. U. Burlington.

1897. Agaricocrinus bellatrema, var. major. U. Burlington.

Klem — Tlie Development of Agaricocrinus.

181

VII.
1861. Agaricocrinus gracilis, Meek and Worthen,

U. Burlington,
VIII.

1860. Agaricocrinus Coreyi, Lyon and Casseday,

Keokuk.
1882. Agaricocrinus Springeri. Keokuk.

IX.

1858. Agaricocrinus Wortheni, Hall. Keokuk.

1858. Agaricocrinus Wliitfieldi. Keokuk.

1897. Agaricocrinus conicus. Keokuk.

X.

1855. Agaricocrinus Americanus, Roemer.
1858. Agaricocrinus tuberosus.
1858. Agaricocrinus bullatus.

1860. Agaricocrinus pentagonus.

1861. Agaricocrinus excavatus.
1869. Agaricocrinus nodosus.
1881. Agaricocrinus crassus (?)
1881. Agaricocrinus elegans.
1890. Agaricocrinus Macadamsi.
1890. Agaricocrinus nodidosus.

1890. Agaricocrinus splendens.

1891. Agaricocrinus dissimilis.
1891. Agaricocrinus Gorbyi.
1891. Agaricocrinus Indianensis
1895. Agaricocrinus arcula.
1895. Agaricocrinus profundus.
1895. Agaricocrinus tugurium.
1897. Agaricocrinus Americanus, var. tuberosus.

Keokuk.
1897. Agaricocrinus lowensis. Keokuk.

1897. Agaricocrinus Keokuhensis. Keokuk.

1897. Agaricocrinus nodidosus, var. Macadamsi.

Keokuk.

In conclusion I will offer a few su^orestions as to the fea-

CO

tures which seem proper for specific separation. In the pre-

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

U. Burlington.

IT. Burlington.

U. Burlington.

U. Burlington.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

Keokuk.

182 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ceding pages I have pointed out the great deviations from the
pentamerous arrangement in the number and size of the in-
terbrachials, costals, and distichals, and in the number and
distribution of the arms. A natural classification rests upon
those prevailing characters which are most constant. This
fact points out at once the fallacy of adopting the interbrach-
ial plates, costals, distichals or arms as distinctive features.
The best characters for specific separation are (a) the general
aspect of the plates, (b) the external ornamentation of the
plates, and (c) the anal area. The geological formation is
also of value, as we may assume with perfect safety that fos-
sils found in the Chouteau Group belong to different species
from those found in the Burlington or Keokuk. Specimens
from the Burlington in general appearance look very different
from those of the Keokuk. Chouteau and Burlington speci-
mens have ten arms, a deviation from the number being rare.
In the Keokuk we see a tendency toward abnormal develop-
ment appearing in the number of arms. The regular Keokuk
species has twelve arms, which in itself is a departure from
the pentamerous arrangement. Deviations from that number
and in the distribution among the rays are very frequent as I
have pointed out before. Finding the pentamerous rule tol-
erably well preserved in the Chouteau and the Lower Burling-
ton Groups, with an increase in the amount of deviation from
it throughout the Upper Burlington and the Keokuk, proves
conclusively that the tendency was toward abnormal develop-
ment.

Diagnoses of Species.

Agaricocrinus Chouteauensis, Miller.

Dorsal side flat or very little concave in the region of the
basal plates. Ventral side low, covered with small slightly
convex plates. Surface of the plates granular, rarely smooth.
Anal orifice small. — Geological formation. Chouteau.

Agaricocrinus brevis, Hall.

Orals distinctly convex, the interambulacrals almost flat.
Posterior oral sharply conical. Plates of the dorsal cup be-
low the arm regions thickened, rising above the suture lines

Klem — The Development of Agaricocrinus. 183

in nodose or tuberculose extensions with short ridges extend-
ing to the sides of the plates, where they meet with the
ridges from adjoining plates. Surface granulose. Anal area
formed of numerous rows of small plates with a distinct
groove at each side. — Geological formation. Burlington,
especially Lower Burlington.

Agaricocrinus Adamsensis, Miller and Gurley.

Plates thick, part of them subspinous. The first primary
radials are sculptured so as to be pyramidal or subspinous.
Ventral side moderately convex, covered with large plates and
a very large posterior oral which may be formed into a con-
ical spine. The anal area is elliptical with no indications of
an orifice or only a very small opening on top partly sur-
rounded by small plates. — Geological formation. Burlington.

Agaricocrinus Illinoisensis, Miller and Gurley.

Ventral disk low, most convex toward the middle. One
large convex central oral, otherwise the plates are small and
very little convex. Plates thick, smooth or granular. Anal
area not elevated or a tumid swelling, but composed of small
flat plates. — Geological formation. Burlington.

Agaricocrinus inflatus, Hall.

Plates of the dorsal cup flat, radials and first interbrachials
sometimes a little concave. Ventral disk highly elevated,
plates all flat, except the posterior oral which is more or less
nodose. Ventral disk strongly inflated at the anal area
which is composed of almost flat pieces, with a shallow groove
at each side in some. — Geological formation. Burlington.

Agaricocrinus ornotrema, Hall.

Plates of the dorsal cup flat. Radial dome plates highly
convex. Posterior side of the ventral disk inflated and pro-
truding. The middle portion of the inflation consists of an
ovoid flattened area, covered by small plates which are sur-
rounded by moderately large, strongly nodose or subclavate
pieces. — Geological formation. Upper Burlington.

Agaricocrinus gracilis, Meek and Worthen.

First costals, first interbrachials and second anal plates

184 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

abruptly bent upward and swollen to form a circle of nodes
at the lower margin of the calyx. Surface of the calyx finely
granulose and convex enough to bring out the suture lines.
Anal area almost flat. — Geological formation. Upper Bur-
lington.

Agaricocrinus Coreyi, Lyon and Casseday.

All plates of the body tumid with abruptly raised trans-
verse ridges on each plate. Surface smooth. Anal area an
elongate distinctly rounded area, composed of small, smooth,
irregular pieces. — Geological formation. Keokuk.

Agaricocrinus Wortheni, Hall.

Plates within the concavity perfectly flat, others slightly
convex. Orals and radial dome plates large with rounded
nodes. Intervening pieces small and only slightly convex.
Surface finely granulo-striate. Anal area perfectly flat.
There is no anal ridge, the plates of the posterior area grow-
ing smaller as they approach the anus. — Geological forma-
tion. Keokuk.

Agaricocrinus ( Amphoracrinus) Americanus, Roemer.

Plates within the concavity flat or slightly convex, while
the others are more or less convex and sometimes covered
with indistinct transverse angularities. Plates of the ventral
side highly convex, except the interambulacral pieces which
are much smaller and almost flat. Orals and radial dome
plates large and tuberculose. Surface granular or granulose
striate toward the margin of the .plates. Anal area abruptly
protruding, formed into a large anal process with a broad de-
pression on either side. — Geological formation. Upper
Burlington and Keokuk.

explanation of illustrations.

Plates XVII1-XXI.

All the figures are drawings, by the author, of the veutral side of Agari-
cocrinus Americanus, and show the great variations in the number and dis-
tribution of the arms, and in the plates of the tegmen. All the di*awings
are about natural size and drawn as if the arm bases had been flattened
out, regardless of perspective.

Issued May 30, 1900.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lolls, vol. x.

Plate XV in.

AGARICOCRINUS AMERICA NTS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate XIX.

AGARICOCRINUS AMEBICANUS.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

Plate w.

AGARIC! XKINTS AMERICANUS.

Tkans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XXI.

AGARICOCKINUS AMERICANUS.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

TKAN8ACTI©N8 (in Octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol. Pric<; in set.

1

1*
2t
3,4

$400
2.00 each.

$7.50 $7.00
(Nob. 2-4 only.) (Nos. 2-4 only.)

1

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50 5,00

8

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4
1-2, 3-4 |

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50 7.00

ej

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5,7, 13,

14, 15, 18

3,9

12

| 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

it

2,3,4,6,7,8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

l 25 cts. each.

> 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

st

1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2,7, 9, 11

> 25 cts. each.
50 rts. each.

3.75

3.50

fit

1,3,4,7,9

2, 5, 8

6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

$1.25

3.75 3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washingtoa University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — so far as tills can be

supplied.
I Eac

Each number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

% 1001
Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Lou hi,

VOL.. X. No. 8.

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS CONCERNING THE

GLANDULAR STRUCTURES APPERTAINING

TO THE HUMAN EYE AND ITS

APPENDAGES.

ADOLF ALT, M. D.

'issued July 12, 1900.

FEB 2 1901

b.

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS CONCERNING THE
GLANDULAR STRUCTURES APPERTAINING TO
THE HUMAN EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES.*

Adolf Alt, M. D.

preface.

The studies and investigations which are the subject of this
paper are the outcome of a desire to have as clear as possible
an understanding of the glandular structures appertaining to
the human eye and its appendages from personal knowledge.

It took a number of years to accumulate the very
numerous specimens, the careful study of which furnished
the basis for the descriptions here given. While part of the
many eyelids which I have examined were obtained from suit-
able cases in my own practice, a large number came from the
dissecting rooms of the Beaumont Hospital Medical College
of this city through the kindness of Dr. R. W. Baker, the
demonstrator of anatomy in this institution. Of necessity a
great part of this anatomical material was of a pathological
character, and it has, therefore, served for other studies as
well.

As it seemed to me that the text-books which I know of,
with but few exceptions, deal in a very insufficient manner
with this interesting subject, I have thought it might be of
some interest to place the results of my own investigations
in this direction before the ophthalmic public. This may,
perhaps, prove the more interesting, since by the efforts of
numerous foreign ophthalmic surgeons, and in this country
notably of Dr. C. R. Holmes of Cincinnati f the old operation
of the removal of the lacrymal glands for incurable lacryma-

* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 21,
1900.

t Archives of Ophthalmology. 28:1.

(185)

186 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

tion has of late been reintroduced and has become a legiti-
mate surgical procedure.

The investigations herein recorded may claim to be original
in so far as they were made, in a sense, as if I had known
nothing of the literature on the subject. This was in reality
the case with some of the more recent monographs which I
did not and had no chance to consult until my researches,
at least as far as my material would allow me, were finished.

The illustrations, except the three last ones, which are more
or less schematic drawings, are made from photographs I
took of my own specimens.

THE ORBITAL, PALPEBRAL AND CONJUNCTIVAL LACRYMAL

GLANDS.

The lacrymal gland is usually spoken of as consisting of
two separate parts, one the so-called orbital lacrymal gland
and the other termed the inferior, palpebral, conjunctival or
accessory lacrymal gland.

The orbital lacrymal gland, as its name denotes, is situated,
at least to its greatest extent, within the orbital cavity. There
it is located in the fovea lacrymalis which lies right behind the
outer upper bony orbital margin in the processus zygomaticus of
the frontal bone. Its anterior end usually slightly protrudes
beyond the bony margin. The gland is held in this position
by a connective tissue capsule which is united with the orbital
periosteum by means of loosely interwoven trabeculae. This
capsule is generally somewhat firmer on the nasal side of the
gland.

When this gland is in toto removed from the fovea lacry-
malis, its shape is seen to resemble to some extent that of an
almond (Fig. 1). It is convex at the orbital surface, and
more or less concave at its ocular (lower) side. Its posterior
portion is usually thick and rounded, its anterior one thinner
and sharper. The posterior part of the gland may, when it is
well developed, reach back into the orbit about as far as the
anterior third of its depth. The nasal edge usually reaches
to the temporal margin of the superior rectus muscle.

However, the actual measurements of this gland, like those
of other glands, are subject to great variations. As an inter-

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 187

esting fact, I may say, that in the Negro I have found this
gland to be as a rule larger than in the Caucasian. I have
seen it often to be twice as large or even more (Figs. 2, 3).
The orbital lacrymal gland forms a more or less compact
glandular body. It consists of a large number of lobules
united closely with each other by loose connective tissue in
which its ducts and numerous blood vessels lie. These con-
nective tissue trabeculae are united to its capsule.

The gland is of the acinous type and its structure has been
correctly likened to that of the serous or salivary glands.
The round or oval final acini are situated around and
connected with small efferent ducts which, by their union in
the direction towards the conjunctiva, form larger and larger
excretory ducts. These acini consist of a membrana propria
and a lining of cylindrical, or rather, conical secretory epithe-
lial cells, with a large round or oval nucleus near their broader
base which are arranged in a circle around a central lumen.

The secretion of this gland is carried to the conjunctival
sac by means of a varying number of these excretory ducts
which are lined with a cylindrical epithelium. The statement
is made by numerous authors, that there are from 6 to 12
such excretory ducts. It does not seem to me that there are
so many. I often found one of them, which also seemed to
be the longest, to be considerably wider than the others.

These excretory ducts reach the conjunctiva of the fornix
by a somewhat bent and wavy course ; their external orifices
lie in the temporal part of the conjunctival sac near the edge
of the tarsal tissue.

Below the orbital lacrymal gland and separated from it by
its capsule, the levator palpebrae superioris muscle and
Mueller's non-striated muscle, and embedded in the loose
connective tissue of the eyelid on the temporal side of the
tarsus, lies the inferior or palpebral lacrymal gland (Figs.
lto 5).

This gland consists of a varying number of smaller and
larger lobules which are very much more loosely held together
by the intervening connective tissue than those of the orbital
gland, and therefore do not form as compact a body.

While this gland is usually thought to lie in the upper eye-

188 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

lid alone, I have in normal lids almost invariably found its
lobules to reach downwards through and beyond the outer
canthus into the lower eyelid (Figs. 6, 7). The gland-
ular lobules here lie grouped around the temporal and some-
times even the lower edge of the tarsus. Similar lobules of
glandular tissue, only still more loosely connected with and
further apart from each other, are found in most eyelids to
extend from the more compact temporal body of this palpebral
glandular system towards the nasal side of the upper eyelid.
These more isolated lobules may reach to the middle line
of the eyelid and even somewhat beyond it (Figs. 8, 9).
They lie in the loose tissue of the fornix of the conjunctiva
or a little below it on the palpebral side. The farther away
from the outer canthus, the smaller these glandular lobules
usually are. Those found in the temporal side of the lower
eyelid seem to be of a more uniform size. Yet, there is no
absolute rule about this.

It seems that when speaking of the palpebral or inferior
lacrymal gland, we have to include all of these separate and
so widely dispersed glandular lobules. Their number in the
aggregate may well reach up to 40 or more.

The structure of the glandular lobules is exactly the same
as that of the orbital lacrymal gland. They differ in no
particular. Their numerous efferent ducts, lined with cylin-
drical epithelium, lead their secretion to the conjunctival sac
(Fig. 10). The statement has often been made and
repeated, that the ducts of these glands are taken up by
those of the orbital lacrymal gland around which, in part,
they are grouped, before reaching the conjunctival surface.
Whether this happens often, I cannot tell definitely in spite
of my numerous specimens ; but it may occasionally be the
case. I find, that most frequently several of these lobules
have an excretory duct in common, which runs separately from
the excretory ducts of the orbital lacrymal gland to the con-
junctiva. Such a duct has generally a wavy course and does
not reach the conjunctiva by the shortest route ( Figs . 10 to 16 ) .
The more widely separated and the totally isolated glandular
lobules in the lower eyelid and those glands which extend in
the upper eyelid towards its middle line, must of necessity

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 189

have their ducts apart from those of the orbital lacrymal
gland, as they lie so far removed from them. The external
orifices of these ducts lie in the upper conjunctival fornix and
usually form a row, being arranged side by side. I may state
here, that these excretory ducts pierce the conjunctival sur-
face generally at a more or less acute angle in a downward
direction, so that the upper lip overhangs the orifice (Figs.
11, 14).

Even in what appear to be perfectly normal conjunctivae,
the orfiices of the duets are frequently surrounded by a dense
lymphoid infiltration in the adjoining tissue. This infiltration
is frequently so dense that on surface specimens it may hide
the openings. This condition may, perhaps, be the explana-
tion for the repeated statements that in the normal conjunc-
tiva of man lymph-follicles could be found. I here repeat
the statement which I have made on other occasions, that, like
Waldeyer, I have never found a true lymph-follicle in the
human conjunctiva.

From the foregoing description it is apparent that a very
large, though varying, amount of glandular tissue, of identi-
cally the same structure and most probably the same function
as the orbital lacrymal gland, is situated in the temporal half
of the eyelids above, respectively below, the fornix conjunc-
tivae. The secretion of all of these glands, combined with
that of the orbital lacrymal gland, is discharged into the con-
junctival sac and, flowing over the surface of the eyeball,
keeps it and the inner surfaces of the eyelids moist.

Yet, even a careful removal of all of this glandular tissue
does not render the surface of the eyeball dry. There must,
therefore, be still other glandular structures, which supply
such a moistening liquid, and, in reality, a number of such
glands do exist.

Almost without exception 1 find one such gland, consisting
of 2 or 3, seldom 4 lobules, near the inner canthus in the
nasal part of the upper eyelid, or a little higher up in the con-
junctiva near the fornix (Figs. 17 to 20); another one, con-
sisting usually of 2 lobules, I find in the nasal conjunctiva of
the lower eyelid, below the lacrymal caruncle (Figs. 21, 22),
and frequently one in the temporal side of the lower eyelid

190 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

somewhat nasally rem ved from the palpebral lacrymal
gland.

When studying horizontal sections through the eyelids such
little glands are sometimes found, also, to lie close to the
temporal and nasal edges of the tarsus of the upper as well
as the lower lid, and partly in the ocular conjunctiva. They
are formed of one or two minute glandular lobules. All of
these glands are of exactly the same histological structure as
those generally recognized as lacrymal glands. Their ex-
cretory ducts, from their situation, are rather short. They,
also, are lined with cylindrical epithelium. Their external
orifice lies usually in the palpebral, sometimes in the ocular
conjunctiva (Figs. 23 to 25).

There is no reason, as far as I can see, why these small
isolated acinous glands should not also be looked upon as
lacrymal glands, as they differ in no way histologically from
them. The difference in size is the only one I can recognize.

The presence of these glands alone, then, could explain
why, after the operative removal or the destruction of the
orbital and the larger palpebral lacrymal glands in the tem-
poral half of the eyelids, the surfaces of the eyeball and eye-
lids do not become dry. It is, furthermore, clear that when
a chronic inflammation, involvingthe whole of the conjunctiva,
gradually leads to its shrinkage and to the consequent oblitera-
tion of the excretory ducts and secondarily to atrophy of all
these glands (and of some to be described presently), as for
instance trachoma, xerophthalmus must result.

GLANDS SITUATED IN THE TARSAL TISSUE OF THE EYELIDS.

The tarsal tissue proper of the eyelids contains two forms
of glands, namely, the so-called Meibomian glands and the
acino-tubular (Waldeyer) glands.

The Meibomian glands are found in the upper lid to be
about 30 in number, while in the lower lid they are only
about 20. There are, however, individual variations as
to these numbers. They are long, slender glandular struc-
tures, somewhat resembling the pancreatic glands, consisting
each one of a central duct to which are attached numerous
round, vesicle-like acini (Fig. 26). These central ducts

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 191

never quite reach the upper (in the lower eyelids the lower)
edge of the tarsus. The acini begin somewhat removed from
the external orifice of this central duct and sit upon it very
much like grapes on the central stem. They form usually
four rows around it, one on the posterior and one on its
anterior surface, one on its nasal and one on its temporal side
(Figs. 27, 28). The external orifices of the excretory ducts
lie side by side at the free edge of the lid behind the lashes.
The dermal epithelium reaches inwards into these ducts for
some distance, as is particularly well shown in the eyelids of
the Negro (Fig. 26).

The acini of these glands as well as their ducts are lined
with several layers of flat polygonal epithelial cells. These
continually undergo a fatty degeneration and thus form a
sebaceous secretion which renders the lidmargins fatty and
thus helps to retain the tear-fluid within the conjunctival
sac. In their structure these glands differ in no way
from the sebaceous glands of the skin ; they differ only in
size.

The length of the individual Meibomian glands varies ac-
cording to the height of the tarsal tissue. Thus, the longest
ones lie in the middle line of the eyelid, and from there they
grow gradually shorter towards both canthi. The most
nasally or temporally situated ones often consist only of the
central duct and two or three acini.

I can find only one layer of Meibomian glands, and all
statements, referring to two or even more layers, are un-
doubtedly due to oblique sections. In a general way these
glands run parallel to each other and at right angles to the
lidmargin. Yet, deviations from this rule are not uncommon
(Fig. 28).

The second kind of glands, the acino-tubular ones (Wald-
eyer), are usually drawn and described as lying solely in the
temporal part of the tarsus above (in the lower lid below) the
Meibomian glands (Fig. 29 to 31). This seems to be their
most frequent location, or at least, they seem to be generally
best developed in this portion of the tarsus. They are how-
ever, at least in the upper eyelid, quite frequently found to
be located, also, near and in the middle line (Figs. 23 to 25),

192 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

and sometimes, but rarely so, near the nasal edge of the tarsus
(Fig. 32). While, as a rule, they are situated between the
apex of the Meibomian glands and the upper (in the lower
eyelid the lower) edge of the tarsus, they are not at all in-
frequently found to reach in between the Meibomian glands
and as far down (or up) almost as the orifices of these
glands at the lidmargin (Figs. 32 to 35).

The histological structure of these glands is also of the
acinous type, and they do not essentially differ from the
lacrymal glands, although their appearance and general ar-
rangement are slightly modified by the dense tissue in which
they lie embedded (Figs. 36, 37). Their lobules are
formed of numerous round and oval acini which consist of a
basal membrane lined with cylindrical (conical) cells arranged
around a central lumen, with a round or oval nucleus near
their base. The small excretory ducts coming from the acini
unite into a larger one which is sometimes quite long and to
which smaller acini are attached throughout its length, the
small ducts of which empty directly into this large duct
formed by the union of the ducts coming from the most dis-
tant acini. It is probably this arrangement which has led to
their being named " acino-tubular " glands. Sometimes,
however, and especially when these glands are situated be-
tween the Meibomian glands, this excretory duct is but very
short. The excretory ducts of the acino-tubular glands are,
also, lined with cylindrical epithelium, like those of the
lacrymal glands. Their external orifice lies in the palpebral
conjunctiva (Figs. 35, 38).

These acino-tubular glands are generally spoken of as muci-
parous glands. For what reason, I have been unable to deter-
mine, and it is not possible to examine their secretion chemi-
cally. Their structure as stated, with the slight modification due
to density of the tissue in which they lie embedded, corresponds
in every respect with the lacrymal glands. The microscopi-
cal staining reagents which seem to have a special affinity to
mucous substances, as haematoxylin, Bismark-brown, and
others, do not stain any part of these glands in particular.
Now and then I have found a concretion in the excretory duct
of such a gland, but this cannot be taken as proof of their

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 193

muciparous character, as just such concretions are also found
in the ducts of the lacrymal glands (Fig. 39).

GLANDS SITUATED IN THE TISSUE OF THE LIDMARGIN.

In the dense tissue of the liduiargin, in front of the excre-
tory ducts of the Meibomian glands, the cilia or eyelashes are
implanted. These short curved hairs form three or four rather
irregular rows and emerge from the skin of the anterior part
of the lidmargin (Fig. 40). They are more numerous in
the upper eyelid than in the lower one, numbering in the
former from 100 to 150, in the latter from 50 to 70.
These numbers are, of course, only approximately correct.
The longest eyelashes lie in the middle line of the lids and
from here they grow smaller and smaller in the direction
towards the canthi. They are shortlived and drop out when
about from 50 to 100 days old. The curvature of the
eyelashes of the upper lid is concave upwards and convex
downwards, while that of the eyelashes of the lower lid is
just the reverse.

Each eyelash is accompanied by sebaceous glands, usually
two, not infrequently three and four to one hair. These
glands do not differ in any particular from other sebaceous
glauds of the hair of the skin and, therefore, it is not neces-
sary to give here a special description .

There is, however, another kind of glands situated in the
intermarginal tissue of the eyelids, more especially, between
the roots of the eyelashes, which is of a somewhat peculiar
structure. These glands have been called modified sweat-
glands, although, as far as I can find, nothing is known con-
cerning the character of their secretion (Figs. 41, 42).

In vertical (sagittal) sections through the whole thickness
of the eyelids one or two such glands are usually seen to lie
between the roots of two neighboring eyelashes or a little
nearer to the lidmargin, sometimes farther inwards between
the eyelashes and the tarsal tissue. In horizontal sections
(Fig. 43) and sections which are made parallel to the surface
of the eyelid, these glands are often found to be very numer-
ous. (I have never succeeded in getting such sections par-
allel to the surface which would go through the whole width

194 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

of the eyelid on account of its curvature, but they often com-
prise about half or a little more of an eyelid. For the same
reason, that is, the curvature of the eyelid, these sections can
only in an approximate way be said to run parallel to the
surface of the eyelid.)

Near the canthi where the eyelashes cease, I find, as a rule,
a larger body of these glandular structures lying outside of
the last eyelash, temporally as well as nasally.

These peculiar glands usually appear to consist of one or
two rows of round or oval vesicle-like acini, which are some-
times quite large, and which probably communicate with each
other (Figs. 44, 45). Half a dozen or so of such acini
seem to constitute the gland. These usually terminate in one
larger, more conically shaped acinus, a collecting chamber,
from which the efferent duct of the gland takes its origin.
While this arrangement is the one I have almost always found,
I have now and then seen a gland which appeared to be alto-
gether tubular, the tube being wound upon itself exactly as is
the case with the sweat-glands of the skin (Figs. 42, 46).
As this usually occurred in thicker sections it may, perhaps,
be that the appearance I have above described, is due to the
manner in which the section has cut through the windings
of the tube, and that in reality we have to deal altogether
with tubular glands. I have been unable to come to a definite
conclusion as regards this point.

The efferent duct of these glands usually has a slightly
arched course on its way to the lidmargin (Figs. 41, 42).
There its orifice lies frequently within the duct of one of the
sebaceous glands belonging to an eyelash. There are, how-
ever, many exceptions to this general rule, and I have found
in almost every eyelid a number of external orifices of effer-
ent ducts of modified sweat-glands which lie separately in
the skin of the lidmargin.

The acini of these peculiar glands are lined with a short,
almost cuboid cylindrical epithelium ; the epithelial cells lining
the efferent ducts appear more flattened.

I have frequently seen a fatty, grumous substance contained
in the lumen of the acini of these glands which appeared
exactly like the contents found in the acini of the Meibomian

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 195

glands. Like these it did not take up any stain and it was
dissolved and totally disappeared, as soon as the specimen
was cleared in oil of cloves. Of course, it is not permissible
to conclude from this fact alone that these glands must be
looked upon rather as modified sebaceous than as modified
sudoriferous glands. Still, I think this point is worth men-
tioning. Neither does it seem very apparent, what role a
watery secretion should play, when mixed with the fatty secre-
tion of the sebaceous glands of the eyelashes. Furthermore,
a watery secretion in this region would very likely lead to
the overflow of the tears at the lidmargin, which is evidently
not the case.

THE CARUNCULA LACRYMALIS AND THE GLANDS SITUATED IN

ITS TISSUE.

The little rounded body of tissue lying at the nasal can-
thus between and slightly backwards from the folds coming
from the upper and lower eyelids, which is called the lacry-
mal caruncle, consists to a large extent of glandular tissue and
bears some small hairs on its surface.

In vertical, as well as in horizontal sections through this
body, I find usually three larger sebaceous glands which,
except in their smallness, differ in no particular from the
Meibomian glands of the eyelids. They have the same cen-
tral duct and the same acini, only in a more compact arrange-
ment (Fig. 47).

Now and then one or two of the so-called modified sweat-
glands are found between them, lying usually in the center
of the body of the caruncle. They differ from those found
in the tissue of the lidmargin only by being smaller and
shorter.

With much more regularity, indeed, almost as a rule, I find
one, and quite often two, small glandular bodies of the acinous
type situated in the lacrymal caruncle (Figs. 47 to 50).
One of these usually lies near the upper and the other nearer
the lower edge of the caruncle. They differ in their struc-
ture in no way from the acinous glands found in the con-
junctiva and eyelids, and are, therefore, probably little lacry-
mal glands like these. At least they do not react differently

196 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

against staining reagents and more especially they do not show
any staining affinity which would prove that they are of a
muciparous character.

Their short excretory ducts are lined with cylindrical epi-
thelium, and their external orifice lies either on the surface
of the lacrymal caruncle or in the plica semilunaris.

Aside from these glandular structures, usually some fat-
tissue is inclosed in the connective tissue which forms the
body of the caruncle. In one case, and in one only, I
found a small amount of hyaline cartilage tissue embedded in
the loose connective tissue near the lower margin of the
lacrymal caruncle and between it and the plica semilunaris
(Figs. 51, 52).

THE LACRYMAL DRAINAGE APPARATUS.

The tear fluid which has neither been evaporated nor used
up in moistening the surfaces of the eyeball and the eyelids,
is drained off into the nose at the nasal angle of the palpebral
fissure by means of a special system of draining tubes.

This draining apparatus begins with the lacrymal puncta,
two small oval openings which are situated at the apex of the
lacrymal papillae. These papillae are little cone-shaped ele-
vations which lie in the lidmargins in line with, and to the
nasal side of, the orifices of the Meibomian glands in the
tarsal part of the eye-lids. The lower papilla lies, as a rule,
a little farther removed temporally from the inner canthus,
than the upper one.

From the puncta the lacrymal canaliculi start by which the
tear-fluid is carried to the lacrymal sac. Each canaliculus
may be divided into two parts, namely, a more or less vertical
(Fig. 53) and a more or less horizontal one (Fig. 54). The
first part, which is by far the shorter, runs from the lacrymal
punctum upwards (in the lower eyelids downwards), and in-
wards, nearly at a right angle to the lidmargin. It is from
1.5 to 2 mm. long. The second, the so-called horizontal,
part, runs in the direction towards the nose until it reaches
the lacrymal sac.

Just inwards from its orifice at the lacrymal punctum the
vertical part is generally very narrow (Fig. 55), and then

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 197

widens out more gradually. Where it makes the sudden
bend to form the horizontal part, it usually has a diverticle
(Fig. 56), which bulges out from its temporal side into the
tissue of the eyelid. This diverticle is formed just at the
end of the vertical part, and runs in a horizontal direction and
is sometimes comparatively large. Quite frequently there is
another diverticle in the horizontal part just at its beginning
which runs in a more vertical direction.

The horizontal part of the upper canaliculus is about 7
mm. long and that of the lower canaliculus is a little longer.
As stated above, the course of this portion of the canaliculi
is not in reality horizontal, as the two gradually bend toward
each other. Moreover this part of the canaliculi does not run
in a straight line, so to speak, but is quite wavy, sometimes
even tortuous (Fig. 57).

Just before reaching the temporal wall of the lacrymal sac
the two canaliculi may, and as a rule do, join together and
form one larger collective tube (Fig. 58). The length of this
tube varies materially in different individuals, and it may be
so short that it can hardly be recognized as a separate part.
In other cases the two canaliculi reach and enter the lacrymal
sac separately and ununited.

From their beginning at the lacrymal puncta to their en-
trance into the lacrymal sac the canaliculi are formed by
a membrana propria, the connective tissue of which is largely
intermingled with elastic elements. This membrana propria
is lined with lamellated polygonal pavement epithelium
(Fig. 59) which often forms a dozen or even more layers,
seldom fewer than ten.

By means of these canaliculi, as stated, the tear-fluid is
drained from the conjunctival sac into the larger receptacle,
the lacrymal sac, and again from this into the nose by means
of the nasal lacrymal duct.

The lacrymal sac (Fig. 60), lies in the fossa lacrymalis
formed by the lacrymal bone and the frontal process of the
supram axillary bone, and between the branches of the internal
palpebral ligament. It forms a comparatively narrow, almost
slit-like, cavity, which has a great many diverticles and folds.
Its epithelium consists of a basal layer of more cuboid cells

198 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

and of an inner layer of cylindrical cells. I have never seen
ciliated cells (Figs. 59, 61).

The material of lacrymal sacs which I have been able to
obtain for microscopical study has been rather limited and I
have seldom had an entire lacrymal sac for examination.
Usually it was only the upper and temporal part. I there-
fore cannot give from my own knowledge a more detailed
description of its structure and will refer only to one point of
interest, which, more especially, belongs to this paper, deal-
ing, as it is, with the glandular organs belonging to the eye-
ball and its appendages.

It has been, and still is, a moot question, whether or not
true glandular tissue is found in the walls of the lacrymal
sac. From my specimens I cannot see how the existence of
such glandular tissue can be doubted. As to the character of
the glands and their secretion we can only speculate by com-
parison with other glands. I find usually two forms of glands
and both of these often in considerable numbers, especially in
the wall opposite the entrance of the collecting tube of the
canaliculi.

The one kind is of the acinous type and corresponds in its
structure exactly with the acinous glands found in the eye-
lids, conjunctiva and caruncle (Figs. 62 to 66). The struc-
ture of the other kind is more that of tubular glands, like the
sudoriferous glands (Figs. 67, 68.)

I have never had an occasion to examine the structure of
the nasal lacrymal duct.

REMARKS ON THE LITERATURE CONCERNING THE SUBJECTS OF

THIS PAPER.

In how far, what I have found and described in the forego-
ing pages corresponds with or disagrees with what other
investigators on this subject have found and laid down in
literature, may be judged from the following brief survey of
the more important works on the subject from the literature
at my disposal.

I started out more particularly on this investigation, because
I could get no satisfactory explanation as to what glands
were referred to by the different authors, when speaking of

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 199

the " glands of Krause." As I could not procure Krause's
own original description * I had to rely on what the text-books
could give me, and this is what I found.

H. Frey t states that "in man we find small acinous
glands, so-called mucous glands (according to Henle ' acces-
sory lacrymal glands'). They lie in the fornix of the con-
junctiva between the tarsal tissue and the eyeball, and
there are in the upper eyelid as many as 42 of them, in the
lower eyelid from 2 to 6."

What Frey here refers to, are probably the lacrymal glands
forming the palpebral or inferior lacrymal gland and the
adjoining separate lobules which I have described, and which
together may number about 40. Why, however, he calls
them mucous glands, Frey does not explain.

W. Waldeyer % says: "The acino-tubular glands in man
lie in certain distinct localities, at the edge of the tarsus near-
est the fornix, and with preference in its nasal part. There
they are found, partially along the edge of the tarsus, and
partially within the tissue of the tarsus itself. They are
more numerous in the upper eyelid than in the lower one; ac-
cording to Krause and his pupil Kleinschmidt there are about
42 of them in the upper and from 6 to 8 in the lower eyelid.
Their excretory ducts open into the conjunctiva of the fornix.
The glandular body belonging to an excretory duct is rela-
tively large and consists of short tubular glandular chambers
to which round acini are attached in large numbers." Yet,
in the text to his beautiful illustration, he calls the acinous
glands lying buried wholly within the tarsal tissue itself, the
acino-tubular glands.

Surely it is utterly impossible from these two apparently
authoritative descriptions to arrive at a clear and distinct idea
of what is meant by the term " Krause's glands." Frey calls
them mucous glands or, with Henle, accessory lacrymal
glands, and Waldeyer states that they lie with preference in

* Zeitschrift fur rationelle Medicin. 4 ; 337. (1854).

f Handbuch der Histologic and Histochemie des Menschen. 673. Leipzig.
1874.

X Handbuch der gesamraten Augenheilkunde, von A. Grade u. Th.
Saemisch. la:238. Leipzig. 1874.

200 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the nasal side of the eyelid and calls them acino-tubular
elands. Yet, both of these authors agree in stating that
they found 42 such glands in the upper eyelid, and but
slightly differ as to the minimum number in the lower
eyelid, while they again agree as regards their maximum
number.

In my description I have, therefore, refrained from using
this term for any of the glands which I have found. I may,
however, state that the idea of most authors seems to be that
the glands which are found in the conjunctiva of the nasal
part of the upper eyelid are " Krause's glands." That the
number of these glands is very small and never comes near
being 42, has been seen from my description. That number
can only refer to the palpebral lacrymal glands.

E. Fuchs * says: " Upon the fornix, especially in its nasal
half, lie the acinous glands of Krause, while in the temporal
half of the tarsus are found lobules similar in character but
more densely packed, representing the inferior lacrymal
gland." This may, perhaps, sound differently in the origi-
nal. Certain it is, that the inferior or palpebral lacrymal
eland does not lie in the tarsus.

On page 560 of the same text-book, Fuchs makes the state-
ment (translation) that the inferior lacrymal gland consists
of only one or tivo lobules, for which reason it is also known
as the accessory lacrymal gland.

It does not seem possible that by these two statements he
refers to one and the same glandular structure.

A good description, both of the orbital and of the inferior
lacrymal gland, is given by E. Bock in a monograph on the
lacrymal gland in health and disease. f

The best, most extensive and most careful researches and
descriptions, and those which most nearly correspond with
what I have found, were made by A. Terson, whose excellent
monograph t has come to my knowledge and into my posses -

* Text-book of Ophthalmology. Translated by A. Duane. 2d American
edition. New York. 1899. In the text beneath Fig. 1 64 (p. 561).

t Zur Kenntniss der gesundenund kranken Thraenendruese. Wien. 1896.

% Les glandes lacrymales coujonctivales et orbito-palp^brales. L'ab-
lation des glandes lacrymales palpebrales. Paris. 1892.

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 201

sion only when my investigations on this subject were, so to
speak, closed.

For macroscopic inspection Terson clears the whole eye-
lids up, by means of tartaric or acetic acid. He says: " In
the outer third of the specimen the palpebral lacrymal gland
with its own excretory ducts and those of the orbital lacrymal
gland is plainly seen." Further on : "It is not difficult to recog-
nize a long line of very much smaller glands, forming, as
Mr. Panashas so happily expressed it, a sort of ' milky way ' in
the upper conjunctival cul-de-sac. Of these glands there is a
continuous row, and they grow gradually larger towards the
inner angle."

Further on, he says: " In the lower cul-de-sac I find a few
glands very similar to those in the upper one, but they do not
reach the inner angle and are situated in that half of the
lower eyelid which lies close to the palpebral lacrymal
gland."

In these particulars Terson' s description varies but little
from my own.

His description of the acino-tubular glands in the tarsal
tissue, also, agrees very well with mine. His experience has,
also, been that these glands are found most frequently in the
temporal half of the tarsal tissue, but often, too, in the nasal
or other parts. Contrary to my experience, he finds their
excretory ducts to be very long and very tortuous. He also
has found, that their duct may pass down, in between the
Meibomian glands. He further states that the epithelium of
these glands as well as that of their excretory ducts ap-
pears identical with that of the acinous glands of the fornix,
and that the external orifices of the excretory ducts of the
acino-tubular glands lie in the conjunctiva of the upper cul-
de-sac or at other points of the tarsus and often even very
near the lidmargin.

From this it would appear, that he never found such acino-
tubular glands in the lower eyelid.

With regard to the glands found in the walls of the lacry-
mal sac, a very exhaustive paper by K. Joerss has appeared
as No. 35 of Deutschmann's Beitraege zur Augenheilkunde,
Leipzig, October 29th, 1898. (Beitraege zur normalen and

202 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

pathologischen Histologic des Thraenenschlauches). Joerss
made his studies on excised lacrymal sacs, and one of his ob-
jects was to see, whether true glands could be found in the
lacrymal sac, or not. In consequence, he devotes consider-
able space to this question and his conclusion is that, contrary
to the statements of other investigators, true glands are really
sometimes found lying in the normal mucous membrane of
the lacrymal sac; but, according to his investigation, they are
serous glands, of the type of Krause,s glands of the conjunc-
tiva. Mucous glands, according to him, have, thus far, been
found with certainty only at the orifice of the nasal lacrymal
duct in the nose, and it is still a moot question, whether these
mucous glands belong in reality to the nasal lacrymal duct or
to the mucous membrane of the nose. This investigator has,
therefore, seen only one form of glandular tissue lying in the
walls of the lacrymal sac, namely the acinous form, which
seems to be the most frequent one of the two forms which I
have found and described.

It is a strange fact, that aside from Waldeyer's article in
Graefe & Saemisch's Cyclopaedia, mentioned above, and its
translation into French in De Wecker's Traite complet
d'ophtalmologie, and of the parts referring to the eyelids and
lacrymal apparatus in Fuchs' text-book, the text-books on
ophthalmology in general deal but very insufficiently with the
glandular structures which are the subject of these investiga-
tions. Especially, in tbe first volume of the large, very
recent, and generally admirable system of diseases of the eye,
published by Norris & Oliver, Philadelphia, 1897, in the able
article on the anatomy of the orbit and the appendages of
the eye by T. Dwight, these points, it seems to me, are passed
over too lightly. The lacrymal caruncle, for instance, though
not a very important organ, might have received a little
more attention than is expressed in the following words: " A
raised pinkish little body, the lacrymal caruncle (Vol. I, p.
80)." The largest amount of the literature on the subjects
here considered, is dispersed in journals and magazines
which are not, as a rule, even ophthalmological ones, and it
is, therefore, not easily obtained.

With regard to the small portion of hyaline cartilage

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 203

tissue which in one instance I found just below the lacrymal
caruncle, I have detected only one statement in literature of
a somewhat similar occurrence. In the text-book of A.
Boehm and M. von Davidoff * the following statement is
made (p. 349): "The third eyelid, the plica semilunaris,
when well developed, contains a small spicule of hyaline
cartilage."

In illustrating the details of their descriptions of the eye-
lids, most text-books give a longitudinal (sagittal) section
through the thickness of the upper lid near the temporal
canthus. From the descriptions here given, it is clear that
one such drawing (not even excluding Waldeyer's often
copied and classical one) cannot be sufficient, as the details
of the tissues of the eyelids differ so very materially in their
different portions (Figs. 69 to 71).

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plates XXII-LVII.

Plate XXII. — 1, Vertical (sagittal) section through the orbital lacrymal
gland (A) and the more compact portion of the inferior or palpebral lacry-
mal gland (B), from a negro. —2, Vertical (sagittal) section through the
temporal outer third of the upper eyelid and the eyeball, from a white indi-
vidual, showing the orbital and part of the palpebral lacrymal gland. — 3,
Section the same as in Fig. 2, from a negro. The magnifying power under
which the last two photographs were taken being the same, the great differ-
ence in size of the two orbital lacrymal glands is evident.

Plate XXIII. — 4, From a negro. Section the smie as in Figs. 2 and 3,
but still further toward the temporal canthus, showing a large number of
lobules belonging to the palpebral lacrymal glaud.

Plate XXIV. — 5, Part of the palpebral lacrymal gland of Fig. 2 under a
higher magnifying power. Above, part of the orbital lacrymal gland; to the
left, the orbicularis muscle; to the right, the conjunctiva, sclerotic and
choroid. The palpebral gland is seen to be separated from the orbital one
by the tendon of the levator palpebrae superioris and the nonstriated muscle
of Mueller. — 6, Vertical (sagittal) section through both eyelids at the
temporal canthus, showing lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland in the
lower eyelid as well as in the upper one, from a negro.

Plate XXV. — 7, Vertical (sagittal) section through the lower eyelid
near the temporal canthus (white), showing a Meibomian gland (A), below
it acino-tubular glands (B), and below these, three lobules of the lower

* Lehrbuch der Histologic des Menschen, einschliesslich der mikros-
kopischen Technik. Wiesbaden. 1898.

204 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

palpebral lacrymal gland with an excretory duct between them. To the left
the orbicularis muscle. — 8, Vertical (sagittal) section through the upper
eyelid and eyeball (white), just through the middle line. The small round
dark body in the subconjunctival tissue above the tarsus (-*) is an iso-
lated small lacrymal gland.

Plate XXVI. — 9, The same lacrymal glands as in Fig. 8, under a high
magnifying power. — 10, Three lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland in
the upper eyelid, and an excretory duct.

Plate XXVII. — 11, The distal end and external orifice of one of the ex-
cretory ducts of the orbital lacrymal gland (vertical section). — 12, Several
lobules of the palpebral lacrymal gland of the upper eyelid; upwards
an excretory duct from the orbital lacrymal gland. The epithelium of the
conjunctiva has fallen off.

Plate XXVIII. — 13, Vertical section through two lobules of the palpe-
bral gland, one with its excretory duct, upper eyelid. — 14, A large lobule
of the palpebral lacrymal gland with its excretory duct, upper eyelid.

Plate XXIX. — 15, A large lobule of the palpebral lacrymal gland with its
excretory duct. To the right of it a transverse section of an excretory
duct from the orbital lacrymal gland. The conjunctival epithelium has
fallen off. — 16, The external orifice of the excretory duct of a small iso-
lated lacrymal gland in the conjunctiva. Lymphatic infiltration around and
near it. To the left the bulbar conjunctiva. The epithelium has fallen off.

Plate XXX. — 17, Small acinous gland in the upper eyelid close to the
nasal canthus (*-*). Vertical section through upper eyelid and eyeball.
The lacrymal caruncle is seen below. — 18, The same gland under a higher
magnifying power.

Plate XXXI. — 19, 20, Acinous glands from the conjunctiva near the
lacrymal caruncle, upper eyelid.

Plate XXXII. — 21, Horizontal section through the lower eyelid a little
below the caruncle. An acinous gland imbedded in the loose connective
tissue. Upwards to the left side the conjunctival sac. — 22, A part of the
same gland and its duct under a higher magnifying power.

Plate XXXIII. — 23, Horizontal section through the eyelids showing the
tarsal tissue, including some Meibomian glands, some acino-tubular glands
in the middle line, and small acinous glands in the conjunctiva at both the
temporal and nasal edges of the tarsus (A, B). — 24, The same. The skin
and orbicular muscle torn off.

Plate XXXIV. —25, Similar section to Figs. 23 and 24. — The dark lines
in the conjunctiva represent the lymphatic infiltration. — 26, Somewhat ob-
lique vertical section through the upper eyelid, showing the lower part of a
Meibomian gland and its excretory duct. To the right of it appears to be a
second layer of glandular tissue; this is, however, only apparent and due to
the obliqueness of the section. To the right of the excretory duct lies the
muscle of Riolan and the dark root of an eyelash (negro).

Plate XXXV. — 27, Vertical section through the tarsal tissue and Mei-
bomian glands parallel to the surface, from the lower eyelid, close to the
conjunctival surface. — 29, Section parallel to the surface through the tem-
poral third of the upper eyelid, showing Meibomian glands with dilated
central ducts, aud above them the acino-tubular gland as dark patches.

Plate XXXVI. — 28, Similar section to that shown in Fig. 27.

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 205

Plate XXXVII. — 30, The same section as shown in Fig. 29, from the
lower eyelid. Near the lidmargin in both of these figures a number of di-
lated modified sweat-glands appear as small white spots. — 31, Horizontal
section from near the upper edge of the tarsus of the upper eyelid, showing
the acino-tubular glands in the temporal side; also, a small acinous gland in
the conjunctiva. Below is seen the bulbar conjunctiva.

Plate XXXVIII. —32, Horizontal section through the tarsus of the upper
eyelid just above the nasal canthus. There are a number of transverse sec-
tions of Meibomian glands and a large compact body of acino-tubular glands
in the nasal part of the tarsus (A).— 33, Horizontal section through the
central part of the upper eyelid. In the middle line acino-tubular glands
are seen lying between the Meibomian glands at A.

Plate XXXIX. — 34, Section the same as in Fig. 33, but nearer the lid-
margin. In the middle line, at A, a small piece of an acino-tubular gland
with its excretory duct is seen; also, its external orifice in the palpebral
conjunctiva. —35, A similar section under a higher magnifying power. To
the right and left side of the acino-tubular gland a Meibomian gland is
seen.

Plate XL. — 36, Vertical section through the lower eyelid, near the tem-
poral canthus. Downwards, the very much dilated central duct of a Mei-
bomian gland; above it a number of acino-tubular glands, undergoing
atrophy. The conjunctiva to the right shows changes due to chronic
blennorrhoea. — 37, Acino-tubular gland from the upper eyelid under a high
magnifying power. A great many acini are atrophied.

Plate XLI. — 38, Vertical section of the upper eyelid; high magnifying
power. In the left lower corner the dilated apex of a Meibomian gland;
above it lobules of an acino-tubular gland torn apart in mounting; also an
excretory duct with its external orifice in the palpebral conjunctiva. The con-
junctival epithelium has fallen off. — 39, A concretion in the excretory duct of
an acino-tubular gland close to its external orifice in the palpebral conjunc-
tiva, the epithelium of which has fallen off. This concretion was semi-soft
and took up those stains with preference for which mucous substances have
a special affinity.

Plate XLII. — 40, Two horizontal sections through the lidmargin. The
upper one, from the upper eyelid, goes through the shafts of the eyelashes;
the lower one, from the lower eyelid, goes through the bulbs of the eye-
lashes. Both sections show numerous transverse sections through Meibo-
mian and modified sweat-glands, as light spots. — 41, Vertical (sagittal)
section through the margin of the upper eyelid: A, Meibomian gland and
its duct; B and E, eyelashes and their sebaceous glands; C, modified sweat-
gland; at D, the collecting chamber and excretory duct which does not
enter the sebaceous gland of an eyelash, but has a separate orifice at the
lidmargin; at F, a part of another modified sweat-gland is seen.

Plate XLIII. — 42, Vertical (sagittal) section through the margin of the
lower eyelid of a negro. To the left, the conjunctiva, tarsus and a Meibo-
mian gland with its excretory duct below ; to the right, the skin of
the eyelid; downwards, an eyelash, and just above it a modified sweat-gland
with its secretory duct, the external orifice of which lies in the duct of a
sebaceous gland; above this the root of an eyelash and the orbicularis
muscle. Between the lower end of the Meibomian gland and the sebaceous

206 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

gland lies Riolan's muscle. — 43, Horizontal section through the lidmargin
at the level of the roots of the eyelashes, showing numerous transverse
sections of hair-bulbs and between them modified sweat-glands. Down-
wards the transverse sections of three Meibomian glands near their lower
end. The fibres seen running parallel to the conjunctival surface above the
Meibomian glands and those between the modified sweat-glands and the hair-
bulbs are the fibres of Riolan's muscle.

Plate XLIV. — 44,45, Vertical sections, parallel to the surface, through
the lid margins of the upper and lower eyelid, showing the modified sweat-
gland and (abnormally dilated), between, the roots and shafts of the eye-
lashes, under a high magnifying power.

Plate XLV. — 46, Section the same as in Figs. 44 and 45, showing at A,
B and C modified sweat-glands under a high power, having an altogether
tubular appearance; above them are some acini of a Meibomian gland. — 47,
Horizontal section through the lacrymal caruncle of a negro, showing
sebaceous glands, the transverse section of a hair (upwards) and an acinous
gland at A.

Plate XLVI. — 48, Vertical section through a lacrymal caruncle having
two acinous glands (A and B). The epithelium has fallen off. — 49, Hori-
zontal section through the lacrymal caruncle. Acinous glands at A,

Plate XLVII. — 50, Similar section to that shown in Fig. 49. — 51, Small
body of hyaline cartilage lying in the loose tissue (in one lid only) of the
lower eyelid, just below the caruncle. Horizontal section. The conjunc-
tival epithelium has fallen off.

Plate XLVII1. — 52, This cartilage under a high magnifying power. —
53, Vertical (sagittal) section through both eyelids passing through the
vertical portion of the lacrymal canaliculus of the upper eyelid and its
orifice in the lacrymal papilla. The oblique section through the horizontal
portion of the canaliculus is seen in the lower eyelid. The canaliculus is
filled with desquamated epithelium.

Plate XLIX. — 54, Horizontal section through the upper eyelid showing
the horizontal portion of the lacrymal canaliculus. Below is the lacrymal
caruncle. — 55, Section through the axis of the lacrymal papilla and the
vertical portion of the lacrymal canaliculus, showing its narrowest part just
inside of the lacrymal punctum, from where it widens out gradually to where
it bends to form the horizontal portion.

Plate L. — 56, Section like the one in Fig. 55. To the left the horizontal
diverticle of the lacrymal canaliculus projects into the tissue of the eyelid
(temporally) , to the right (nasally) the beginning of the horizontal portion.
This section does not pass exactly through the axis of the vertical portion
of the canaliculus. — 57, Horizontal section showing a tortuous lacrymal
canaliculus.

Plate LI. — 58, Section through both eyelids and nasal canthus almost
parallel to their surface. To the left and downwards, nasal part of the
upper, to the right and upwards, nasal part of the lower eyelid ; between these
the lacrymal caruncle. At the right the horizontal portions of the two can-
aliculi are seen to join at a sharp angle. — 59, The entrance of the lacrymal
canaliculus into the lacrymal sac. The canaliculus lies to the right and is
seen to be lined with a thick pavement epithelium ; the lacrymal sac to the
left is lined with cylindrical epithelium.

Alt — Glandular Structures Appertaining to the Human Eye. 207

Plate LII. — 60, Horizontal section through the right lower eyelid (A) and
the tissue at the side of the nose. The lacrymal sac at B.

Plate LIII. — 61, the walls of the lacrymal sac, showing the cylindrical
epithelium and lymphatic infiltration, under a high magnifying power. — 62,
Acinous glands in the wall of the lacrymal sac at A.

Plate LIV. — 63, Similar section to Fig. 62. — 64, Acinous gland of the
lacrymal sac. The sac begins to the right downwards; the gland seems to
lie some distance from it.

Pla;e LV. — 65, Another such acinous gland, with an oblique section
through its excretory duct. — 66, Several acini of such a gland from the wall
of a lacrymal sac, under a high magnifying power.

Plate LVI. — 67, 68, Glands in the wall of a lacrymal sac which have a
more tubular structure.

Plate LVII. — 69, Schematic section through both eyelids and eyeball near
the nasal canthus. — 70, Schematic section through the middle line of both
eyelids and eyeball. — 71, Schematic section through both eyelids and eye-
ball near the temporal canthus.

Issued July 12, 1900.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

l'LATE XXII.

*3MK

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XXIII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

PLATE XXIV.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XXV,

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HI/MAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate xxvi.

10

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate XXVII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Plate \ \\ III.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EVE.

V

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. \

I 'LATE XXIX.

r

ia&mtmae&tmm^m

J

-*-jW. '

9

A

16

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XXX.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN KYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

Plate XXXI.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. So. of St. Louis. Vol. X.

Plate XXXII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

PLATE XXXIII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING To HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate XXXIV

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO Hl'MAN EYE.

Trans. Acad Scr. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

* ' jf

PLATE XXXV.

V

27

29

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. Vol. X.

PLATE XXXVII.

GLANDs AI'I'LKTAINIXG TO HI MAX EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

PLATE XXXVIII.

32

•jflR' i

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. OF St. Louis, Vol. X.

PLATE XXXIX.

HP

&

m

■X.

34

GLANDS APPERTAINING To HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Lours, Vol. \.

(.LANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING To HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis, vol. x.

Plate xlii.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Traxs. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XLIII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO III MAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of st. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XLIV

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. <>f St. Louis, Vol. \.

Plate xlv.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate xlvi.

49
GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of. St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate XLVll.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. x.

Plate xlviii.

•

i"

m

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN BYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. <>f St. Louis, Vol. \.

Plate \I.IX.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Tkaks. Acad. Sci. of St. I. oris. vol. X

Plate L.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. <>r St. Louis, Vol. x.

Plate LI.

GLANDS APPEBTAINING TO HUMAN EYE

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

Plate LII.

60

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis. vol. X.

PLATE LIII.

61

62

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

TRA.NS. A.CA.D. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. V

63

"' .

(.LANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. X.

Plate LV

65

66

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. or St. Louis, Vol. x.

Plate LVI.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. X.

PLATE LVII.

GLANDS APPERTAINING TO HUMAN EYE.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1G00 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*

2f
3,4

$1.00
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 8

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

S

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 8-4 J

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

6J

1,2,6,8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15,18

3,9

12

\ 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 eta. each
$1.00

7.50

7.00

7J

2, 8, 4,6, 7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

I 25 cts. each.

\ 50 cts. each.

75 Cts.

$1.00

7.50

7.00

81

1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
2,7, 9, 11

> 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

9t

1, 3, 4. 7, 9

2, 5,8
6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3.75

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — so far as this cart be
supplied.

I Each number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

K£B gg 1901
Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. X. No. 9.

POSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY, WITH SPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO ECLIPSE WORK.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

'issued October 24, 1900.

FEB 23 1901

POSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY, WITH SPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO ECLIPSE WORK.*

Francis E. Nipher.

During the last year the writer has been making an attempt
to adapt the process of positive photography to service in the
two solor eclipses which occur during the next two years. f
The unusual duration of the period of totality in both, makes
them peculiarly favorable to the use of such a process.
And while this will also be to some extent an advantage in
securing negatives, still an over exposure is then always pos-
sible. When such over exposure is corrected by the use of
a restrainer, the effect is to dissolve away the very details
which the long exposure was intended to secure.

By great over exposure in the old sense of the word, and
development in the light instead of in the dark room, no
over exposure for positives is possible. The only limitation
then is an under exposure, which causes the positive picture
to fog.

The object of the present paper is, to give the present
condition of the process, and to request any who may be able
to do so, to aid in so improving it, that the best results may
be secured in these eclipses. There will be no other oppor-
tunity so favorable in the next generation.

Let the stop of the camera be set at No. 8 of the universal
system. The ratio of focal length divided by diameter is
then

/=41/n = 41/8"= 11.3.
d

* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, October 15,
1900.

t These Transactions, Vol. 10, No. 6.— Nature, 1900. July 12, p. 246;
Aug. 9, p. 342; Aug. 23, p. 396. — Am. Journ. of Science, July, 1900, p. 78.

(209)

210 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

If the object to be photographed is a landscape, consisting
mainly of mid-summer foliage, and the plate be a fast plate,
like the crown plate of Cramer, the exposure may be made
two to four minutes in length. For the first attempt the
latter interval is to be preferred. The exposure may be made
as much longer as may be desired. It has been successfully
tried with exposures of six and eight hours.

The plate is taken to the dark room and is best developed
by the light of a strong lamp. If the exposure has been
not over two minutes, the best result will be obtained by plac-
ing the bath between two strong lamps. Two Argand or
Rochester burners with porcelain shades in contact or nearly so,
with the bath in a position of strongest illumination between
and below the shades, is an admirable arrangement. The bath
should be cool at the start, and it should be in ice-cold water
during the development. The bath being rather weak, the
development will go on very slowly.

Various developers have been tried. Pyro has given very
poor results, although the same bath would yield brilliant
negatives in the dark room. By far the best results have been
reached by the use of Cramer's hydrochinon developer,
the formula for which may be found in every box of Cramer
plates. This formula is : —

SOLUTION NO. 1.

Ounces. Grammes.

Water 25 1000

Sulphite of soda 3 126

Hydrochinon a 21

SOLUTION NO. 2.

Ounces. Grammes.

Water 25 1000

Carbonate of soda 6 252

The two solutions are to be mixed in equal parts, when used,
and are to be diluted to from one-third to one- fifth strength.
A few drops of ten per cent, solution of bromide will give
brilliancy to the plate, but will not improve definition of
details. The bromide may be left out.

In transferring the plate from the holder to the developing
bath, it would seem to be somewhat better to turn the lamps

Nipher — Positive Photography: Eclipse Work. 211

down until the liquid covers the plate, but the light should
then be turned on at once. When lamp-light is used this
precaution is not very important. In fact the writer
is inclined to say that such precaution is not then necessary.
If the exposure has been too small, either from insufficient
light on the object, or from insufficient time, such an exposure
in the light-room is a decided advantage. It carries
the plate farther from the zero condition, and materially
improves the picture. The same result may be secured by
turning the camera upon the sky after the usual exposure to
the object has been made, and before the shutter has been
closed. This sky- exposure may be for half a minute with a
No. 8 stop, but should not exceed this. The following ex-
periment seems to indicate that this sky exposure should be
after rather than before the exposure to the object.

A white paper was pasted on a somewhat larger card of
dead black. It was placed against a brick wall in
sunlight, and with a cloudless s-ky. After a minute
of exposure to the plate in the camera, the black card
was quickly shifted laterally by a distance slightly
greater than its width. This was repeated ten times in an
exposure of ten minutes. On developing, the first of the ten
exposures was somewhat more distinct than those which fol-
lowed, but between the others no difference could be detected.
The last minute of the ten was as effective as the second.
But when the experiment is terminated at the end of the first
minute, the image is very indistinct. It is evident that the
subsequent exposure during the nine minutes served to make
more distinct the image of the card made during the first
minute. And since the plate seems to be somewhat more
sensitive at first than it is later in the exposure, it is better to
utilize this part of the exposure in securing details of the ob-
ject, rather than in fogging the plate beyond the zero condi-
tion. This difference of sensitiveness is not very marked. It
is difficult to see any difference in the first three and the last
three minutes of a six-minute exposure. This may be shown
in an interesting way by the following experiment. The ex-
perimenter should preferably be dressed in light-colored cloth-
ing, and should train the camera on a grass-covered hill,

212 Traits. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

which will serve as a background. Any other dark back-
ground will of course answer the purpose. After
snapping open the shutter, walk to a point about 100 feet
distant, the camera having been focused for that dis-
tance, and stand motionless for two or three minutes. Then
step sidewise four or five feet and stand for an equal time.
Then walk back and close the shutter. The two figures will
seem practically alike if the sunlight has not changed, and
the darker background will not appreciably showthrough them.
The plate will show no trace of the motions, and the figures
will be as clear and distinct as in a good negative.

Of course the same thing can be done in the ordinary
negative process by so arranging the conditions that the time
of exposure is sufficiently lengthened.

In order to make the positive photography as useful as
possible, it is necessary to find a developer which will bring
out a clear positive with as small an exposure as possible. It
seems certain that it must differ from any developer used in
ordinary photography. The method of restraining an over-
exposed negative is known, in order that it may be developed
as a negative. If we consider this plate as an under-exposed
positive, how shall it be pushed along over the zero condi-
tion, and developed as a positive? That answer may be given
in part. It must be developed in the light. A poor negative
may be developed in a lighted room, and a poor positive may
be developed in a dark room. These are not the conditions
which yield the best results.

The writer had great expectations of the developer used by
Waterhouse for producing positives in the dark room with
ordinary exposures. The formula for this developer, as
given in various works on photography is: —

Parts.

A. Eikonogen 5

Sulphite of soda 10

Water 100

B. Carbonate of soda 4

Water 100

C. Phenyl-theocarbamide 1

Water 2000

For developing take of A 1, of B 2, of C 1 and of a 10 per

Nipher — Positive Photography: Eclipse Work. 213

cent, solution of potassium bromide 1. If the contrasts are
too strong, a few drops of ammonia may be added.

This developer was said to produce a positive in the dark
room, with ordinary exposure. It was hoped that this urea
salt either in the Waterhouse developer, or in some other,
and with development in the light, might shorten the camera
time very greatly.

When the exposure is normal for a negative, and the plate

is developed in the dark room with this developer, it is found

that a yellow to orange coloration appears in the shadows.

If there are contrasts on the object, the high-lights look as

they do in an ordinary negative. The roof of a building and

the sides lighted by direct sunlight appear as in an ordinary

negative. Light and dark strips of slate will appear reversed.

The sky is dark. The sides in shadow are of a yellow or

orange color, sometimes almost red, and appear as positives.

If the exposure is increased somewhat either by an increase

in time, by stronger illumination of the object, or by using a

larger stop opening, the coloration disappears, and the whole

picture is seen to be a negative. A still greater exposure

being made, the picture approaches, and finally becomes a

zero result. Nothing develops on the plate. With a still

longer exposure the picture is reversed, and a real positive

develops. This picture can be developed in the light.

This is not the case with the Waterhouse pictures. They

look like positives, as any negative may be made to look like

a positive, but they should be called pseudo- positives. They

are not due to a real reversal. They are moreover somewhat

disappointing in appearance. It is only too evident that this

Waterhouse process does not seem to be a very promising field

for application to eclipse photography, although it presents

some very interesting illustrations of different forms of silver.

The most promising field for investigation at present con-
sists in the application of some transforming process to the
film, after it comes from the camera, and before the picture
is developed. Various oxidizing agents have been tried with
different degrees of success. The most satisfactory of these
oxidizing solutions is a mixture of nitric acid and potassium
bichromate in rather dilute solution. There is no trouble in

214 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

getting very satisfactory results with four minutes of expo-
sure and a No. 8 stop. It seems very probable that by vary-
ing the proportions of this transforming solution, and perhaps
varying the oxidizing agents themselves, such exposures as are
now given in the negative process, may yield good positives.
The field open for experimentation along these lines is very
wide. The degree of illumination while in the transforming
solution, and the time interval for the transforming process,
are involved. The desirability of perfecting these processes
at the earliest possible moment, leads the writer to urge
those who have had wider experience in photography to lend
a hand in this work. If fine details can be secured in a posi-
tive with a camera exposuie such as is now required for a
negative, then certainly there is great reason to hope that by
exposing a plate during the whole time of totality in the long
eclipses which will shortly take place, we may hope to secure
better results than the present methods can give. In posi-
tive photography there can be no over exposure. In nega-
tive photography, over exposure is an approach to a zero
condition. In positive photography the zero condition has
been passed.

Issued October 24, 1900.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

Price per
number.

Price per vol.

Price in get.

1

1*
3,4

$LO0
2.00 each.

$7.50
(No». 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nob. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

S

lto4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

lto4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 3-4 |

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

•*

1, 2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15, 18

3,9

12

V 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 cts. each
$1.00

7.50

T.OO

TJ

2, 3, 4,6,7,8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

i, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

I 25 cts. each.

I 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

St

1,8 to 6
8, 10, 12
2,7,9,11

| 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

n

1, 8, 4, 7, 9

2, 5,8

6

25 cts. each.

50 cts. each.

$1.25

8.75

3.60

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — bo fax ns thi» can be
supplied.

I Each number is a brochure containing one complete paper.

PfcB S3 1901

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL.. X. No. 10.

THE FKICTIONAL EFFECT OF RAILWAY TRAINS
UPON THE AIR.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

Issued November 12, 1900.

FEB 23 1901

THE FRICTIONAL EFFECT OF RAILWAY TRAINS
UPON THE AIR.*

Francis E. Nipher.

The effect of any medium in retarding a body moving
through it, has been very carefully studied in connection with
moving ships and trains of railway cars, and in various other
ways. In train resistance it is well known that the effect
of the air is made up of end effects, and of side effects. The
end effects are the result of the compression at the head end
and the rarefaction at the rear end. These retarding effects
are independent of the length of the train. The side effects
are due to the viscocity of the air. They are in the nature of
a shear. The resistance to the train due to this cause, is
directly proportional to the length of the train.

That the air in contact with the sides of a train has an
appreciable effect in resisting its motion, carries with it as a
necessary consequence, the dragging of air along with the
sides of the train. This phenomenon is well known. It has
long been known as a source of danger in connection with
fast trains. At least eighteen years ago the writer witnessed
with some surprise the frantic efforts of a station agent of
the New York Central Railroad to drive everybody from the
platform to the interior of the station building. The fast
train from New York was due, and it soon passed at full
speed. I declined to leave the platform, and discovered the
reason for his behavior when the train passed. The draught
of air which accompanied the train was sufficient to cause
serious alarm. The agent afterwards explained to me that
serious results might follow such imprudence as I had shown.

* Piesented, and read by title, at the meeting of The Academy of Science
of St. Louis, of October 15th, 1900.

(215)

216

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Some years later I arranged a device with Avhich to test the
conditions in this air-draught. It was built after the plan of
the rotating anemometer used by the Weather Bureau, except-
ing that the four hemispherical cups were replaced by thin
flat metal plates. The rotating system was very delicately
mounted, but in an ordinary wind, there was rotation only
as a result of eddy motions in the air. In the long run, the
slow rotations in opposite directions canceled each other.

A top view of the rotating part is shown in the adjoining
figure.

The four cross arms, having the flat plates at their outer
ends, were of No. 6 brass wire, and they were braced by a
steel wire which connected their outer ends.
The distance from center to center of oppo-
site plates was one foot, and the plates were
four inches square.

When this differential anemometer is
brought near a building against which the
wind blows obliquely, it begins to revolve.
This revolution is due to the fact that the
velocity of the air sheet sweeping over the surface, is less, the
nearer the face of the building is approached. When held
out of the window of a moving train, the system is put in
rapid rotation.

The plate nearest the car is shown to be in wind of less
velocity, than those further out. This shows that air is being
dragged along by the train, and that the concentric layers of
air around the train are shearing on each other.

On one occasion the apparatus was carried into the country
three or four miles west of Iowa City, and planted on the
ground near the track of the C, R. I. & P. R. R. It was
so placed that the fast train from Chicago, passed at
a distance of f<>ur inches from the vane nearest the track.
The plane of the vanes was about a foot above the bottom of
the car. The observer lay down near the track iu order that
there might be no doubt about the question of actual collision
of the train with the apparatus. The distances were as had
been planned. The effect of the blow from the air when the
train passed was to break the small steel brace- wire, and to

Fig. l.

Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 217

bend the arm carrying the nearer plate until it nearly touched
the arm 90° distant. The opposite arm was also somewhat
bent in an opposite rotational direction.

A number of cases of chickens being entangled in the air
draught of a train have come to my attention, but some doubt
naturally arises in such cases. It is possible that misdirected
efforts on their part may have contributed to the result. A
better illustration is found in an incident related to me by an
eye-witness, Mr. T. J. Foster, of Hannibal, Mo., who in 1896
was conductor on train No. 81 of the St. L., K. & N. W.
R. R. Some time near the year 1890 he was on a train passing
without stop through Paris, Mo. A number of excelsior bed
mattresses six inches in thickness were each tied in a roll and
were standing on end on the station platform, about twelve
feet from the track. They were tumbled over by the air
draught of the train and rolled under the train. The train-
men made the greatest efforts to bring the train to a stop in
order to prevent derailment.

It is evident that these objects were toppled over by the
blow of the air current, and that they were given a rotation
in falling, by being struck a little harder on the side nearest
the train. After they had fallen over, they were kept in
rotation because they were still in the current of air. The
moment of the force producing the rolling motion was in this
case relatively large, because of the large diameter of the
masses. Smaller masses on the ground would be less affected
because of the smaller leverage, and because the air current
near the ground is less rapid than at some distance above the
surface. The effect of the earth's surface in retarding
winds has been well known for many years. Nevertheless,
I have seen pieces of coal an inch in diameter rolled along
over the surface of the ground by train draught.

This subject was called to ray special attention by the death
of a little boy, James Graney, under circumstances which
made it seem probable that his death had been brought about
by the action of the air-draught of a rapidly moving train.
The evidence showed that he was about to cross a railroad
track at a public crossing in St. Louis, and that he was on
the plank approach to the track. The surface of the ap-

218 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

proach was flush with the tops of the rails, and sloped gently
towards the track. An approaching train giving no warning
signals was hidden from view by cars on a switch track.
Under the ordinances, the speed of the train was limited to
six miles per hour, and it was admitted by the trainmen, none
of whom knew anything of the accident when it occurred,
that the speed of the train exceeded this limit. Other evi-
dence of those who saw the accident, showed that the speed
was very great. It was shown that the boy was not hit by
the train. The fact that the upper part of his body was
without injury, was corroborative of this evidence He fell
over after part of the train had passed, falling in the general
direction of the train, and rolled under the wheels. In the
first trial the writer gave it as his opinion that the blow from
the air current would be sufficient to topple him over, and
give him a sufficient tendency in rotation to roll him towards
and under the wheels; and further, that this action would not
have been appreciable if the train had been running at a
speed of six miles per hour. The jury and the Supreme
Court accepted this explanation,* but the case was sent back
for retrial on account of other evidence.

A report of the evidence obtained wide circulation, and as
a result, the writer received a marked copy of a Paris paper,
giving an account of the evidence, and stating that a French
soldier had recently been killed in a precisely similar way.
With several companions he had been surprised by a high-
speed train while in a cut having masonry walls. All but one
made their escape from the cut. He backed against the wall
and out of reach of the train. He was, however, swept along
and under the wheels.

In the second trial Professor Woodward testified in corrob-
oration of my testimony. No contesting evidence upon the
points covered in our testimony was offered by the railroad
company in either trial, but the Supreme Court on the second
appeal, t reversed the action which it had taken on the first
appeal.

* Graney v. St. L., I. M. & S. R. R., 140 Mo. 89.

t No 9320. Graney et al., Resps. v. St. L., I. M. & S. Ry. Co., Applts., 67
S. W. Reporter, 276.

Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 219

The matter having now ceased to be a subject of judicial
consideration, it will not be indelicate to publish the results
of experiments upon which the evidence was based, and which
could have little meaning to a jury. This seems now to be
doubly important as a matter of public safety by reason of
the opinion of the court, that the danger here pointed out
does not exist.

Jt may first be explained, that, although probably more
common than is supposed, such accidents are not very com-
mon. No person of mature years, and unfamiliar with train
effects, would voluntarily place himself as near a moving train
at high speed, as is necessary to result in danger. The
danger comes when one not familiar with trains is taken by
surprise, and becomes terrified. Trainmen think nothino- of
standing on the ground between a stationary train and one
passing at full speed. They know exactly what to expect
and they even unconsciously prepare for it. They habitually
take risks as great as those of war. But one who is surprised
in such a position, and who fears for the result, is in serious
danger. He should lie down or get upon his hands and
knees, in which position he will be safest. All four-footed
animals, particularly if they are small, are also on a stable
base, and are therefore in comparative safety.

The differential anemometer before described is not easily
calibrated for precise measurements on account of the
element of friction. It was therefore determined to make
a direct measurement of pressure due to the velocity of the
train, at various distances from the train. For this purpose a
hollow cylinder of brass served to collect the pressure.
The open end of this tube
collector was directed to-
wards the head of the train,
and the wind pressure in the
collector was carried through
a small hole in the bottom
by means of a rubber tube,
to a water gauge in the car.
This gauge consisted of a closed cistern of water, having an in-
clined glass tube leading out from the bottom . The air pressure

Fig. 2.

220 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

was transmitted from the collector to the air chamber above the
water in the cistern, and an increase of pressure was shown
by the rise in the level of the water iu the inclined tube.
The whole apparatus was carried on a carpenter's clamp of
wood, which could be clamped to the window sill of the car.
The cistern and inclined tube were pivotallv mounted on a
standard attached to the clamp, and furnished with a level
and with a duplicate tube and cistern which served also
as a level. Bv this means the frame carrying the cisterns
and tubes could be kept in level while readings of pressure
were being made. The collector was mounted on a light
wooden channel-bar, sliding in guides attached to the clamp.
The rubber tube was laid in the channel of this bar. 'I he
bar could be thrust out to various distances, so that the col-
lector could be set to a known distance from the side of the
car. This distance could be varied from 0 to 30 inches. At
the former distance the axis of the collector was at the gen-
eral surface of the car. The wooden channel-bar was occa-
sionally broken by collision with bridges, and a supply of
such bars was always carried.

The measurements were made on passenger trains and on
freight trains on various roads. Many trips were made from
St. Louis to Burlington, on the St. L., K. and N. \V. R. R.
and from St. Louis to Chicago and Cairo on the Illinois
Cent'al. Some work was also done on the St. Louis and San
Francisco and on the Wabash railroads, where advantage was
taken of journeys on other business. The officials of all
these roads afforded every assistance in the prosecution of
this work. The Illinois Central R. R. finally fitted up a
special car which was delivered to us at East St. Louis, and
it was placed in any part of any train we might select upon
this road.

The greater part of one summer was devoted to the study
of various wind pressure problems by means of this car,
which was in motion during most of the daylight hours of
every day.*

Duriug most of this work, the open end of the pressure

* Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, No. 1, Vol. VIII.

Cipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 221

gauge, communicated with the air in the car. The car win-
dows and doors were open, and the measurements were
usually made at the middle of the car. In the special car,
the open end of the manometer was connected with a tank of
standard pressure, in communication with an Abbe collector
above the top of the car. There was no substantial difference
in the results obtained by these various methods.

It is evident that if the air around the car were being carried
along with it at the same velocity as the car itself, the gauge
should show no pressure. A person standing on the ground
near the car would then feel a gust of wind, blowing with the
velocity of the car. If the air near the train is being carried
along by the car, but lags somewhat, the pressure measured
from the car will correspond to this lag, or slip of the air
upon the car. If the observation could be made from the
ground, the mouth of the collector being turned in an oppo-
site direction, the pressure collected would be due to motion
of the air, dragged along by the train.

Let P = the pressure corresponding to the velocity of the
car. This would be the pressure shown by the gauge, if the
collector were thrust far out from the car into the undis-
turbed air. This distance to which the collector must be
thrust in order to collect the pressure P, is really infinite,
but at a comparatively short distance this pressure is nearly
attained.

It is not uncommon to see hats blown from the heads of
people standing 25 feet from p LlmltiIlg Pre8BUre

the track, by the air-draught
of a fast express train.

If the collector be thrust
out to a distance d from the
side of the car, the pres-
sure will be some pressure
p, smaller than P.

In the diagram, 0 p, re-
presents the side of the car,
and is taken as the axis of
pressure. 0 d, is the axis of distance from the side of the
train. The pressure at the car surface, as shown by the

222 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

gauge within the car, is represented by the line O p'. The
rise in the curve passing through p' shows how the pressure
rises, as the collector carried on the car is thrust further out.
As the distance d increases the pressure approaches the limit-
ing value P, corresponding to the speed of the train. This
is represented in the figure by the horizontal line at the top
of Fig. 3. The curve approaches this line of limiting pres-
sure, as d increases.

The distance from this line of limiting pressure, down
to the curve at any distance d, represents the pressure
against an object standing on the ground. The way in which
this curve drops from this horizontal line as the vertical axis
is approached, shows how the train-draught increases as one
approaches the train. Measured from the ground, the pres-
sure on the windward side of an object due to train-draught
at the distance d from the train is P — p, while measured from
the train the pressure in the opposite direction is p.

This curve as determined by the observations satisfies the
equation of an hyperbola. The vertical asymptote is within
the car a distance d' . The equation of this hyperbola is
evidently

{P — p) {d'+d) =c. (1)

In this equation P. d' and c are constants to be determined
from the observations. The value of P is of special impor-
tance. Its relation to the velocity of the train is represented
by the well-known equation of Newton

S

P = -v2 (2)

where & is the density of the air. When v is expressed in
centimeters per second and P in dynes per square centimeter,

the value of _ at ordinary temperature and pressure is

0.0006. When v is in miles per hour and P is in pounds per
square foot the equation becomes

P = 0.0025 v\ (3)

Nipher — Friclional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 223

These equations were tested by making observations on
fast passenger trains which made long runs at fairly
uniform speed. The b;ir carrying the pressure collector
was continually varied in position through the limit from
0 to 30 inches as is shown in the following table. In this
table the values of the pressure corresponding to the various
positions d, are each the means of 87 separate determina-
tions. The number of measurements represented in this
table is therefore 11 X 87 = 957.

Inches.

Lbs. per Sq. Ft.

Diff

d.

p obs.

p calc.

0

0 95

102

— 0 07

1

1.16

1.16

0.00

2

1.30

1.31

-0 01

3

1.44

1.43

+0.01

4

1.59

153

+0 06

5

1.67

l.«l

+0.06

10

1.96

1 98

—0.02

15

2.17

2 22

—0.05

20

2 36

2.38

—0.02

25

2 49

2.52

—0.03

30

2.66

2 62

+0 04

00

3.42

The values of P, and <V in equation (1) were computed by
the method of least squares, since the form of the equation did
not easily lend itself to graphical solution. The equation may
be put in the form

pd = a + Pel — d'p
where a = Pd' — c.

The normal equations for a, P and d! are respectively,

2 pd -

Zpd2

Zp*d

va — Zd.P + Zp.d' = 0.
-Zd.a—Z'i* P + Zpd.d'=0.
.2p.a — 2.pd.P + Zp2.d' = 0.

From these equations d' and P were found by elimination.
The value of c was then computed from the observations by
substituting these values in equation (1).

224 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The average value of c and the values of P and d' being
substituted in ( 1 ) the value of p for each value of d is com-
puted. These values are given in the third column of the
table.

The vertical asymptote of the curve is inside of the car
surface a distance d' = 15.1 inches, and the limiting pressure
which would be observed if the collector were thrust far out
into the undistubed air is P — 3.42 lbs. per square foot.

The measurements of the last table were made in the rear
of the fourth car from the locomotive. They covered the
distance from St. Louis to Burlington and return. The actual
distance covered while the measurements were being made was
316 miles, during 7.88 hours, not including stops. The aver-
age velocity of the train was 40.1 miles per hour. The aver-
age weighted v2 was 1746. The square root of this value, the
virtual velocity, is 41.7. The constant in equation (3) is by
this determination

P 3.42

? = 1746 = °-0020-

The velocity of the train was determined by timing its pass-
age through all stations which could be identified, and by
timing its arrival in and departure from all stations where
stops were made. During this trip the wind was very light
from the East while going from St. Louis to Burlington.
On the return trip the wind was from the N. W., with a
velocity of from 6 to 12 miles per hour. This would make
the effective velocity somewhat less than that of the train on
the return trip.

A decrease of 4.7 miles per hour in the j/ mean square
velocity produced by a following wind, would account for the

P

reduction of the value of -* from 0.0025 to 0.0020.

v

The effect of a wind blowing transversely across the train,
in an open country, is to largely obliterate the phenomenon
of train draught. The air drifts away from the train too
quickly to be set into motion by the successive action of all
the cars in the train. The effect then appears and disappears

Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 225

as calms and gusts of wind alternate with each other. In a
timbered region, or along the banks of the Mississippi river,
where the bluffs and timber check the air current, the phe-
nomenon is always present. The locality where James
Graney was killed was eminently favorable to the production
of train draught, even with a transverse wind.

The effect of a wind blowing against any object, is the re-
sult of the compression on the windward side and the rare-
faction on the leeward side. The cup-shaped collector used
in these measurements, gives only the compression. The
effective pressures acting on any object like a pressure board,
are about thirty-three per cent, greater than those computed
by Newton's formula.*

* These Transactions, Vol. VIII, No. 1, p. 19.

226

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The work done on a number of other trips has been sim-
ilarly reduced. All give very satisfactory results. A few in
which the effect of wind was least, have been used to check
the constant of Newton's equation. The results of the
observations are shown in Fig. 4, which is the same in char-
acter as Fig. 3. The different curves are indicated by Roman
numerals, which correspond to the number of car-lengths
from the locomotive tender to the point of observation. For
example, curve I represents observations made one car-length
from the tender of the locomotive. The horizontal line rep-
resenting the limiting pressure is also marked I. Similar
explanations apply to the other curves of Fig. 4. The curve
of Fig. 3 is reproduced in Fig 4, where it is indicated by the
numeral IV. Additional data concerning these curves are
given in the adjoining table.

Curve.

v.

No.
obs.

d'.

P.

IT

I.

46.0

21

10.5

4.90

0.0023

III.

38.3

36

20.4

3.42

0.0023

IV.

41.7

87

15.1

3.42

0 0020

V.

44.7

18

5.4

6.01

0.0030

VI.

42.5

10

8.5

4.11

0.0023

Remarks.

No wind.

No wind.

Light following wind.

Light head wind.

No wind.

The column headed curve gives the number of the curve in
Fig. 4, and also the number of car-lengths from locomotive
to the point of observation. The next column gives the
V mean square velocity of the train. The third column gives
the number of observations of />, to obtain a mean p, for
each of the eleven positions of the collector. In the final
column the remarks: No wind, means a very light wind,
variable as regards velocity and direction. It was thought at
the time of making the observations that it was not appreci-
able as a factor.

A very large amount of work which has been done has not

Nipher — Frictional Effect of Railway Trains upon the Air. 227

been included in these reductions. In some cases the wind
was so strong as to greatly disturb the measurements. It
was found to be impossible to eliminate this effect. The
wind velocity could not be determined at stations where the
train came to rest, under the conditions which hold along the
track between cities. Only such work is included in the pres-
ent paper, as might be expected to lead to a fair approxima-
tion to the constant in Newton's equation.

The investigation of this subject was made possible by the
co-operation of Mr. W. W. Baldwin, president of the St. L.,
K. and N. W. R. R. and of Mr. A. W. Sullivan, General
Superintendent of the Illinois Central Railroad. Assistance
in making the measurements was also given by my colleague,
Professor Engler.

Issued November 12, 1900.

PUBLICATIONS.

Tbe following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number. .

Price per

number.

Price per vol.

Price in set.

1

1*

2t
3,4

$1.00
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

2

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

8

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 3-4 |

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

ex

1,2, 6, 8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 13,

14, 15,18

8,9

12

| 25 cts. each.

| £0 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

7$

2,8,4,6,7,8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

5, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

>■ 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 Cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

sx

1, 3 to 6

8, 10, 12

2,7,9, 11

> 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

9J

1, 3, 4, 7, 9

2, 5,8
6

25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3.75

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclip.se of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eciipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be Bold only to purchasers of the entire volume,'— so far as this can be
supplied.

j Kach number Is a brochure containing one complete paper.

:B 23 1991

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. X. No. 11.

TITLE-PAGE, PREFATORY MATTER AND INDEX,
RECORD FROM JAN. 1 TO DEC. 31,. 1900.

PAPERS CONTAINED IN FIRST TEN VOLUMES.

Issued January 31, 1901.

List of Authors. 229

LIST OF AUTHORS

Alt, A. lvii, 185

Baker, C. F. lx, lxi
Baker, F. C. lxiv

Engler, E. A. xlviii
Espenschied, C. lvi

Geddes, P. 1
Goldstein, M. lvii

Hermann, E. A. lx
Hitchcock, A..S. li, 131

Klem, M. 167
Kodis, T. lxi

Langsdorf, A. S. xlvii

Miller, G. A. 1

Nipher, F. E. lii, lvi, lviii, lx, lxiv, 151, 209, 215
Norton, J. B. S. lix

Outten, W. B. lx

Panls, G. lvii

Ravold, A. lxi
Roberts, H. F. lv
Robertson, C. xlviii, 47
Roever, W. H. lx, lxii

von Schrenk, H. li, liv, lvi, lvii, 143
See, T. J. J. xlvii, 1

Van Ornum, J. L. 1

Warren, W. H. liv
Weller, S. 57
Widmaun, O. lxiv

230

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

GENERAL INDEX.

Absorption of light in space 44

Acino-tubular glands 192, 203-205.

pi. 25, 33, 35,36,38,39-41
Acinous glands 204, 206, 207. pi.

30-33, 46, 53-55
Age of earth 21

stars and nebulae 1

sun 11

Air friction of trains lx, 215
Amphipods lxi
Anemometer 216
Animal electricity lxi

Bacteria lxi

Ball- discharge photographs Hi, 155

Bees of Illinois xlviii, 47

Bison, fossil lx

Brilliant points lxiii. pi. A

Buds on roots 134

Burlington sandstone 57

Burls li, lvii

Butterflies xlviii

Camncnlar glands 195

Cell, plant lv

Chonopectus sandstone 57
Conjunctival glands 186
Coronas, photographic 160
Crowns of plants 131
Crustacea lxi

Dark stars 42

Development of photographs in
light Hi, lvii, 161, 166

Earth's age 21

Eclipse photography 209
Electric spark photographs Hi, 151
Electricity, animal lxi
Electrographs 151, 166. pi. 12-16
Encrinital group 57
Energy of sun 17
Expositions 1
Eye glands lvii, 185. pi. 22-57

Fish and bacteria lxi

Fleas lx

FricLion of trains on air lx, 215

Gaseous celestial bodies 21

Glands of eye lvii, 185. pi. 22-57

Ice storm US.pl. 10,11
Illinois bees 47
Isopods lxi

Kinderhook fauna 57.pl. 1-9
Krause's glands 199

Lacrymal drainage 196

glands 186, 195, 206. pi. 46-

57

Law of temperature 32

Least squares lx

Librarian lxix

Life term on earth 21

Light absorbed in space 44

vs. crinoids 179

vs. photographic develop-
ment Hi, lvii, 161, 166

Light-struck plates 151

Meibomian glands 190, 203-206.

pi. 25, 33-36, 38-43, 45
Microscope, uses xlix
Milling Ivi
Muciparous glands 192

Nebulae, ages 1
temperature 36

Officers lxiv, lxvi

Orbital glands 186, 203, 204. pi. 22,

27,29

Palpebral glands 186, 203, 204. pi.

23, 24, 26, 28, 29
Parabola xlviii
Perennial plants li, 131
Perfumes liv

General Index.

231

Photographic development in light

lii, lvii, 161, 166
Photography lii, lv, lvi, lx, 151, 209

pi. 12-17
Planets, temperature 41
Plates, light-struck 151

zero lvii, 164

Points, brilliant lxiii. pi. A
Positive photography lii, lvi, lx, 162,

209
President lxvi
Pressure collectors 219
Propagation of trees lvi

Railway trains vs. air 215

Reptiles and bacteria Ixi
Rhizomes 132
Root buds 134

contraction 133

Sandstone, Chonopectns 57
Sanitation 1

Sebaceous glands 193, 205, 206. pi.
42, 45

Shadows in positive photography

162
Shumard collection lxii
Sleet-storm 143. .pZ. 10, 11
Sound xlvii, lx
Southwestern flora lix
Stars, ages 1

dark 42

temperature 37

Stolons 132
Substitution groups 1
Subterranean plant organs li, 131
Sudoriferous glands 193, 195, 205

206. pi. 37, 42-45
Sun, age 11

temperature xlvii, 1, 39

Sweat glands 193, 195, 205, 206. pi.

37, 42-45

Tarsal tissue glands 190, 204. pi.
33

Tear glands 186, 195, 206. pi. 46-

57
Temperature, law xlvii, 32

solar 1, 39

Terpenes liv

Trains, friction on air lx, 215
Treasurer lxix
Tree propagation lvi

Voice lvii

Water bacteria lxi

filtration xlviii

Weight of sleet 145
Wind vs. plants 149
vs. train friction 224

X-ray photographs 161, 165

Yandell collection lxii

Zero photographic plate lvii, 164

232

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

INDEX TO GENERA.

Acer 146, 150.pl. 11

Actinocrinus 174

Agaricocrinus 167; 180-4. pi. 18-21

Agoniatites 121, 126, 129. pi. 7-9

Agrimonia 133, 137

Allorisma 57

Ambrosia 134

Ammobates 55

Amorpha 136

Andrena 47-50

Anemone 134

Anthedon 53

Apios 133, 137

Apocynum 134, 138

Area 90

Asclepias 132, 134, 139

Asclepiodora 131, 138

Ashmeadiella 52

Astragalus 132, 133, 136

Athyris 75, 127. pi. 2

Avicula 86-7, 125-6, 128. pi. 3

Aviculopecten 81-2, 84, 128. pi. 3

Bacillus lxi

Baptisia 135

Batocrinus 174, 176-8

Bellerophon 112, 113, 115, 129. pi. 6

Betula 150. pi. 11

Biareolina 50

Boehmeria 142

Brunella 141

Bucania 115

Bucanopsis 114, 128. pi. 6

Cacalia 142

Callandrena 50
Callirrhoe 131, 135
Cardinia 95
Cardiomorpha 101
Cardiopsis 100, 128. pi. 3
Carpinus 145, 150. pi. 10
Cassia 137
Ceanothus 135
Ceratina 54

Chelostoma 52

Chonetes 57-60, 67-9, 127. pi. 1

Chonopectus 60, 63, 69, 127. pi. I

Cicuta 138

Circaea 138

Clematis 134

Cnicus 134

Colletes 51

Comandra 133-4, 141

Conularia 118, 129. pi. 7

Convolvulus 134, 139

Coruus 138

Cucurbita 131

Cyathocrinus 173

Cypricardella 94

Cypricardinia 102, 128. pi. 3

Cystoceras 121, 129. pi. 7

Delphinium 135
Dentalium 117, 129. pi. 7
Desmanthus 137
Desmodium 136
Dianthera 134, 140
Dolactocrinus 175-6

Edmondia 93-7, 103, 128. pi. 4
Emphor 53
Enslenia 134, 139
Epeolus 55
Epimelissodes 53
Erythronium Ivi
Eumetria 74, 127. pi. 2
Euphorbia 142
Euphydryas lvii

Fenestella 81

Florilegus 53
Fragaria 132

Galium 138

Gerardia lvii

Geum 137

Ginkgo 148

Glossites 92, 103, 128. pi. 4

Index to Genera.

233

Glycyrrhiza 133, 136

Goniatites 121

Goniophora 89, 128. pi. 3

Gorgonia 179

Grammysia 91-2, 104, 128. pi. 4

Gyroceras 57, 62

Halictns 51-2
Helianthemum 135
Heriades 52
Hieracium 142
Humulus 142
Hymenopappus 142

Iomelissa 50
Ipomoea 133
Isocardia 89

Laportea 132, 142

Lathyrus 137

Lechea 135

Leiopteria 85-6, 128. pi. 3

Leonurus 141

Lespedeza 136

Lilium lvi

Lingula 65, 127. pi. 1

Lippia 134, 140

Lithospermum 132, 139

Lophanthus 140

Loxonema 106-7, 129. pi. 7

Ludwigia 137

Lycopus 134, 140

Ly thrum 137

Macrodon 90, 128. pi. 3

Malva 146

Melissodes 53

Microdon 94

Monarda 140

Murchisonia 106-7, 129. pi. 7

Mytilarca 88, 128. pi. 3

Naticopsis 108, 128. pi. 6
Neopasites 54-5
Nepeta 132, 141
Nomada 52

Oenothera 137

Onosmodium 139
Opuntia 138
Orbiculoidea 65, 127. pi. 1

Orthis 67, 127

Orthoceras 119, 120, 126, 129. pi. 9

Orthothetes 66, 125, 127. pi. 1

Osraia 52

Oxalis 135

Oxybaphus 131, 141

Parandrena 50

Patellostium 115, 128. pi. 6

Penthorum 132, 137

Pentstemon 132, 140

Peridermium lvii

Pernopecten 85, 128. pi. 3

Petalostemon 132, 136

Peucedanum 138

Phanerotiuus 112, 129. pi. 7

Phileremus 54

Phillipsia 57

Phragmoceras 120, 129. pi. 9

Physalis 134, 139

Phytolacca 131, 141

Picea li

Pious lvi, lvii, 146

Plantago 141

P'atanus 146

Platycrinus 177

Platyschisma 110, 111, 129. pi. 6

Polygonatum 133

Polygonum 141

Polytaenia 132, 138

Porcellia 116, 117, 128. pi. 5

Posidonomya 57, 105, 128. pi. 4

Productella 71, 125, 127. pi. 1

Productus 70, 71, 125, 127. pi. I

Promacrus 104, 125, 128. pi. 4

Prunus 137, 146

Psoralea 131, 135-6

Pterinea 85-6

Pterinopecten 83, 127. pi. 3

PteroDites 87, 128. pi. 3

Pugnax 72, 127. pi. 2

Pycnanthemum 140

Reticularia 80, I27.jp?. 2

Rhus 134-5

Pvhyuchonella 73-4, 127. pi. 2

Rosa 137

Rubus 132

Ruellia 132, 140

Rumex 132, 134, 141

234

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Salvia HO

Sambucus 138

Sanguinolites 98

Sanicula 138

Schizodus 101, 102, 12B.pl. 4

Schizophoria 66, 125, 127, pi. 1

Schrankia 137

Scutellaria 133, 141

Senecio 142

Silene 135

Solanum 134, 139

Spathella 100, 128. pi. 4

Sphaerodoma 108, 128. pi. 6

Sphecodes 51

Sphenotus 96-9, 128. pi. 4

Spirigera 76

Spirifer 57, 76, 125, 127. pi. 2

Stenosiphon 138

Straparollus 109, 110, 129. pi. 6

Strophalosia 71

Strophostylus 108, 128. pi. 5

Symphoricarpos 132, 138

Synhalonia 54

Syringothyris 77, 123, 125, 127. pi. 1

Taxodinm 148

Teucrium 133, 140
Thalictrum 132, 134
Thuja 146-7
Triosteum 138
Trypetes 52
Tsuga 146

Ulmns 146
Urtica 142

Verbena 132, 140
Viburnum 146
Vicia 137
Viola 135

Zeacrinus 173-5

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 235

CLASSIFIED LIST OF PAPERS AND NOTES CONTAINED
IN VOLUMES I-X.

Addresses of Presidents.

Eads, J. B. 8 : lv, xciii, cxix

Engelmann, G. 2: 171, 194, 239, 257. 550, 569, 581. 3: xxxvii. 4: xxxii,

xlvi, lx, Ixix, Ixxxii
Engler, E. A. 8 : xxvi. 9 : xxvii. 10 : lxvi
Gray, M. L. 7 : lxi, Ixxvii

Harris, W. T. 3 : clvii

Leete, J. M. 4: civ

Nipher, F. E. 4 : cxxix. 5 : vii, xxii, xl, xlviii. 6 : xiii

Prout, H. A. 2 : 145

Riley, C. V. 3 : ccxxxviii. 4 : i

Shumard, B. F. 1 : 107. 3 : x

Wislizenus, A. 1 : 325, 690. 3 : xxv
Anatomy.— See Biology.
Archaeology, ethnology.

Allen, G. W. [Pottery and skulls from mounds of southeastern Mis-
souri]. 3 : cxcix

Broadhead, G. C. [Ancient mounds of Saline County, Mo.]. 3 : lxxxvi

[Ancient walled graves, in Pike County, Mo.]. 2 : 223

Conant, A. J. Archaeology of Missouri. 3 : 353-366

[Skull from New Madrid mound]. 3 : ccv, ccvi

Croswell, C. Mound explorations in southeastern Missouri. 3 : 531-8

Dacus, J. A. [Ruins at Xayi, Mexico]. 4 : xi

Engelmann, G. J. [Sandstone statuette from Tennessee]. 3 : cclvii

[Skulls of mound-builders]. 3: ccxxviii

[Teeth of mound-builder]. 3: ccix

Gage, J. R. [Ancient stone wall in Mississippi]. 3 : clxxxiv

Results of investigations of Indian mounds. 3 : 226-234

Gillespie, T. P. [Pottery from Peruvian burial grounds]. 3 : ccviii

Gillman, H. [Perforations of mound skulls], 3 : cl

Harris, W. T. [Antiquity of man]. 3:c

Hilder [Mound pottery]. 3 : cclxiv

Holmes, N. [American antiquities]. 3 : cciii

[Antiquity of man]. 3 : ci

[Fossil man of the Mentone cave]. 3 : xcvi

[Indian pottery from Big mound of St. Louis]. 1 : 700-701

[Man and the elephant in Nebraska]. 3 : ccxiii

[Shell ornaments from Big mound, etc.]. 3 : cxxxlv

[Skull-flattening]. 1 : 32

[Stone mounds]. 1 : 98

Nipher, F. E. [Skulls of mound -builders]. 3 : ccxxviii

Potter, W. B. [Archeological work in S. E. Mo.]. 3 : cclxiv

[New Madrid mounds]. 3 : ccv, ccvii

236 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Archaeology, etc., cmtinued.

Richardson [Skull and pottery from St. Louis mound] . 3 : cxcviii

Sawyer, A. [Indian mound relics]. 3 : ccxviii

Shumard, B. F. [Ancient stone wall in Pulaski County, Mo.]. 1 : 97-8

[Human skull from an ancient Indian mound near Little Rock,

Ark.]. 2 : 585-6

[Skull from Arkansas mound]. 1 : 31-2

Sidney-Hamilton, F. W. [Southeastern Africa], 3 : cclv
Smith, S. [Height of the Big mound of St. Louis]. 3 : xv
Swallow, G. C. [Indian mounds in New Madrid county]. 1 : 36-7
Todd, A. [Skull and ornaments from the Big mound]. 3 : cxxxiii
Wislizenus, A. Indian stone graves in Illinois. 1 : 66-70

Was man contemporaneous with the Mastodon? 1 : 168-171

Astronomy.

Pritchett, H. S. [Barnard and Fabry comets]. 5 : i

Ephemeris of the satellites of Mars for the opposition of 1881. 4 :

353-7
[History of the sun-spots, magnetic storms, and aurorae, of Feb-
ruary, 1892]. 6:xvii

Observations on the transit of Mercury, May 9, 1891. 5 : 609-614

[Periodic doubling of stars]. 6 : xv

[Physical observation of Mars during the opposition of 1892].

6 : xxii

Results of double star observations made with the equatorial of the

Morrison Observatory. 7 : lx, 299-313

[Rotation period of Jupiter]. 5 : lv

[Satellite system of Saturn], 7 : xlvii

See, T. J. J. On the temperature of the sun and on the relative ages of

the stars and nebulae. 9 : xix. 10 : 1-45
Seyffarth, G. An astronomical inscription concerning the year 1722 B.C.
1:356-86. pi. 10

Corrections of the present theory of the moon's motions, according

to the classic eclipses. 3 : 401-530

[Lunar tables]. 4 : xxv

The original Egyptian names of the planets, according to a Turin

papyrus, and some new planetary configurations. 4 : 411-39

Planetary configurations on Cyprian antiquities. 4 : 395-407 (with a

folding plate).
Updegraff, M. Determinations of the latitude, longitude and height
above sea level of the Laws observatory of the University of the State
of Missouri, containing a description of the building and principal
instruments. 6: 481-517 (with plate).

Flexure of telescopes. 7 : 243-72

Biographic notices.
Agassiz, L. 3 : cxvii
Baumgarten, F. E. 3 : xxv
Breckinridge, S. M. 5 : liii
Curtman, C. O. 7 : lvii
Eads, J. B. 5: xiii
Eliot, W. G. 6 : ix

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 237

Biographic notices, continued.
Engelmann, G. 4: xc

Memorial volume, by Enno Sander. 4. Supplement, pp. 18, with

portrait.
Evans, J. 2 : 162-4
Gray, A. 5 : xxiv
Gray, M. L. 8 : xviii
Henry, J. 4 ; xix
Hilgard, T. C. 3 : clxxvi
Leete, J. M. 7 : lxxii
Lucas, J. H. 3 : cxii
Pallen, M. M. 3 : ccxxii
Prout, H. A. 2 : 178-9
Riley, C. V. 7 : xlvi
Sander, E. 7 : lxix
Shaw, H. 5:xl
Shumard, B. F. 3 : xvii
Silliman, B. Jr. 4 : cviii
Smith, C. S. 5 : xvi
Smith, S. 3 :xxxi
Todd, A. 4 : cxvii
Whittlesey, C. C. 3 : clxxv
Wislizenus, A. 5 : xxxvii, 464-8
Biology.

Engelmann, G. [Migration of insects and weeds]. 3 : ccxxvii
Hilgard, T. C. Phyllotaxis — its numeric and divergential law expli-
cable under a simple organological idea. 1 : 48-61. pi. 3
Kodis, T. [Overcooling animal and vegetable tissues]. 8 :xxv
Riley, C. V. [Geographical range of species]. 3 : ccxxx

[Introduced weeds and insects]. 3 : xlii

Botany.

Ball, C. R. Notes on some western willows. 9 : 69-90

Bay, J. C. Materials for a monograph on inuline. 6 : 151-9

Bernays, A. C. [Karyokinesis in Fritillaria]. 7 : lii

Combs, R. Plants collected in the District of Cienfuegos, Province
of Santa Clara, Cuba, in 1895-1896. 7 : 393-491. pi. 30-39 (with
map).

Curtman, C. O. [Fungi on apple-rind]. 4: cxiv

Eliot, W. G. Jr. Measurements of the trimorphic flowers of Ozalit
Suksdorfti. 5 : 278-85

Engelmann, G. About the oaks of the United States. 3 : 372-400,
539-43

The acorns and their germination. 4 : 190-2

Additions to the cactus- flora of the territory of the United

States. 2 : 197-204

[Age and diameter of trees]. 4 : Ixii

[Age of Sequoias]. 3 : clxxxix

The American junipers of the section Sabina. 3 : cclxx, 583-92

[Arceuthobium minutum~\. 3 : lxxxiii

[Bernhardi herbarium]. 1 : 316

238 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Biology, Botany, continued.

Engeimann, G., continued.

[Catalpa speciosa]. 4 : 1

[Cinchona cultivation]. 4: lv

[Dimorphism of Draba brachycarpa]. 2 : 154-5

The flowering of Agave Shawii. 3 : cclv, 579-82. pi. 4

[Frnit and seed of Viburnum], 2: 269-271

[Fungi and fermentation] . 3 : xli

The genus Iso'etes in North America. 4 : 358-90

[Geographical distribution of North American flora]. 3 : cclxx

[Grape rot]. 4 : xxxix

[Hybrids of Verbena]. 1 : 675-6

[Mildew and black-rot of grape]. 2 : 165-6

[Nelumbium luteumj. 2:135, 136-9

New species of Gentiana, from the alpine regions of the Rocky

mountain?. 2:214-8. pi. 7-11

Notes on Agave. 3 : 291-322

Addition to arlicle on Agave. 3 : 370-1. pi. 2, 3

Notes on the genus Yucca. 3 : 17-54

Notes on the genus Yucca. No. 2. 3 : 210-214

Additiou to the article on Yucca. 3 : 371-2

[Notes on the grape-vines of Missouri]. 1 : 660-2

[Oak and grape fungi]. 3 : ccxv

The oaks of the United States. 3 : ccvi, 539-43

On Pinus aristata, a new species of pine, discovered by Dr.

C. C. Parry in the alpine regions of Colorado Territory, and on
some other pines of the Rocky mountains. 2 : 205-214. pi. 5-6

[Oxytropis Lamberti], 3:clxxvi

[Pheuological notes], 3 : xlvi, cclvii. 4 : xiii, lv

[Physiological and anatomical characters of the Gymno-

sperms]. 3 : ccxxix
[Pollen showers], 3 : xliv

[Polypodium incanum~\. 3: Ixxxiv

[Pulp of cactus fruit]. 2 : 166-7

[Pulp of Cereus for calking]. 4 : Ixxvii

Revision of the genus Pinus, and description of Pinus

Elliottii. 3 : Ixxvii. 4 : 161-190. pi. 1-3
A revision of the North American species of the genus Juncus,

with a description of new or imperfectly known species. 2 :

424-98
Further additions to the revision of the genus Juncus. 2 : 590

ISelaginella lepidophylla]. 1 : 687

[Sequoias]. 3: xlviii

[Structure of the fruit and seed of Ribes~\. 2 : 180-1

A synopsis of the American firs (Abies Link). 3: 593-602

Systematic arrangement of the species of the genus Cuscuta,

with critical remarks on old species and descriptions of new ones.

1 : 339, 453-523
Two new dioecious grasses of the United States. 1 : 324,

431-42. pZ. 12-14

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 239

Biology, Botany, continued.

Engelroanu, G., continued.

[Ulmus Americana]. 1:332

[Vegetation along the lakes]. 4 : xx

[Vernation of American oaks]. 3 : ccxiv

[ Vitis~\ . 3 : clxxvii

[Wild grapes]. 4: xliv

[Xenia phenomena in corn]. 3: xiiii

Espeuschied, C. [Sisal and palm fiber]. 7 : li

Glasgow, W. Jr. [ Ulva thermarum from Hot Springs, Ark.]. 1 : 388

Glatfelter, N. M. Relations of Salix Missouriensis, Bebb, to S. cor-
data, Muhl. 7 : 137-144. pi. 1-3

A study of the relations of Salix nigra and Salix amygdaloides,

together with the hybrids arising from them as these species ex-
hibit themselves in the vicinity of St. Louis. 6 : 427-31. pi. 1

Hager [Green-stained oak wood]. 3 : lxxxi

Hambach, G. [Fruiting Cycas revoluta']. 5 : iv

[Petrified seeds of Celtis]. 5:xxxiii

Hilgard, T. C. [Exposition of a natural series of immediate catholic
affinities in the vegetable kingdom]. 1 : 103-4, 125-156. pi. 6-7

[Variability of foliage of a single tree]. 1 : 312-314

Hitchcock, A. S. A catalogue of the Anthophyta and Pteridophyta
of Ames, Iowa. 5 : 477-532

Ecological plant geography of Kansas. 8 : 55-69.

The opening of the buds of some woody plants. 6 : 133-141

(with 4 plates).

Studies of subterranean organs. I. Compositae of the vicinity of

Manhattan, Kansas. 9 : 1-8. pi. 1

Studies of subterranean organs. II. Some dicotyledonous herba-
ceous plants of Manhattan, Kansas. 10:131-142

Letterman, G. W. [Loco weed]. 4:cvi

[Planera and Gleditschia], 4 : lxxvi

[Woods from Arkansas]. 4 : lxvii

Mallinckrodt [Green -stained oak wood]. 3 : lxxxi v

Norton, J. B. 8. [Effects on trees of tornado of May, 1896], 7 : lxxiii

[Flora of Southwestern United States]. 10:lix

A study of the Kansas Ustilagineae, especially with regard to

their germination. 7 : 229-41. pi. 25-9

[Supposed Crataegus hybrids]. 9: xxii

Pammel, L. H. Anatomical characters of the seeds of Leguminosae,

chiefly genera of Gray's Manual. 9 : 91-273. pi. 7-35

[Ecological notes on Colorado plants]. 7 : lxvi-ii

The histology of the caryopsis and endosperm of some grasses.

8: 19d-220.pl. 17-19
On the pollination of Phlomit tuberosa, L., and the perforation

of flowers. 5 : xviii, 241-277. pi. 6-7

On the seed-coats of the genus Euphorbia, hi 5iS-68.pl. 12-14

Sclerotica Libertiana, Fuckel, with a bibliography of fungus

root diseases. 6: 191-232. pi. 1-2
Pope, C. A. [Aecidium deformation of elder]. 1 : 676

240 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Biology, Botany, continued.

Riley, C. V. [New use for the American Agave]. 3 : cxcv

[Peronospora viticola]. 3: ccxvi

[Physianthus an insect trap]. 3: cix

\_Vilfa following locust devastation]. 3:clxxxviii

Roberts, H. F. [Structure and physiology of plant cell]. 10: lv
Robertson, C. Flowers and insects. Contributions to an account

of the ecological relations of the entomophilous flora and the

anthophilous insect fauna of the neighborhood of Carlinville,

Illinois. 7: 151-79
Flowers and insects — Asclepiadaceae to Scrophulariaceae. 5 :

569-98

Flowers and insects — Labiatae. 6: 101-131

Flowers and insects — Rosaceae and Compositae. 6 : 435-80

Flowers and insects — Umbelliferae. 5 : 449-60

Rush, W. H. [Intramolecular respiration of plants]. 7 : lxviii
von Schrenk, H. [Arceuthobium pusillum] . 9: xxiii

[Burl caused by Peridermium]. 10 : lvii

[Burls on the white spruce]. 10: li

On the mode of dissemination of Usnea barbata. 8 : 189-198.

pi. 16

[Parasitism of lichens] . 7 : lxi

[Propagation of fruit tree?]. 10 : lvi

[Root-oedema of Salix nigra], 7 : lxviii-ix

[Sclerotiurn disease of beech roots]. 9 : xvii

A severe sleet-storm, 10 : 143-50. pi. 10, 11

The trees of St. Louis as influenced by the tornado of 1896. 8:

25-41. pi. 3-9
Smith, E. [Dionaea muscipula]. 5: iii
Spiegelhalter, J. [Loco weed]. 4 : ci

Swallow, G. C Grape culture in Missouri. 1 : 156-168. pi. 8
Thorn, C. The process of fertilization in Aspidium and Adiantum.

9: 285-314. pi. 36-8
Thompson, C. H. [Endogenous flowers]. 9: xviii
Trelease, W. [Cactus monstrosities]. 9: xx

[Catasetum Onomus]. 7 : lvii

Description of Lycoperdon Missouriense. 5 : 240. pi. 8

[Dionaea muscipula]. 5 : iii

[Fruit of Salisburia]. 4:cxxv

[Fruiting Cycas revoluta]. 5 : iv

North American Rhamnaceae. 5 : 358-69

Observations suggested by the preceding paper [Eliot on

Oxalis], 5:286-91

Revision of North American Ilicineae and Celastraceae. 5 :

343-57

A revision of North American Linaceae. 5 : 7-20.pl. 3-4

[Synthesis of starch]. 5 : ii

[Trapa and Nephelium fruits and "cinnamon beans"]. 4:cxxvi

An unusual phyto-bezoar. 7 : 493-7. pi. 40

[Wood of Leitneria], 6:xxviii

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 241

Biology, Botany, continued.

Webber, H. J. Appendix to the Catalogue of the flora of Nebraska.

6:1-47
Whittlesey, C. C. [Pollen showers]. 3 : xliv
Wislizenus, A. [Fasciation in corn-cob]. 3 : lii
Zoology.

Baird, S. F. [Snake imbedded iu sandstone]. 1 : 686
Baker, C. F. [American Isopods and Amphipods]. 10 : lxi
Baker, F. C. Critical notes on the Muricidae. 7 : 371-91

The molluscan fauna of Western New York. 8 : 71-94. pi. 10

Briggs, C. C. [Prairie dog]. 3 : cxxxix

Call, R. E. A study of the Unionidae of Arkansas, with incidental

reference to their distribution in the Mississippi valley. 7 : 1-65.

pi. 1-21
Engelmann, G. [Black fox squirrel]. 1 : 329

[Menobranchus] . 3 : lxxxi

[Taenia]. 1:334

Hambach, G. [Rattles of snake]. 5:xxvi

Holmes, N. The geological and geographical distribution of the

human race. 4 : 1-35
Hurter, J. Catalogue of reptiles and batrachiaus found in the vicinity

of St. Louis, Mo. 6 : 251-261

A contribution to the herpetology of Missouri. 7 : 499-503

Lugger, O. [Storing of acorns and cutting of pine cones by squirrels],

3 :clxviii
McLellan, G. B. [Squirrels in winter]. 3: cxxxviii
Nipher, F. E. The evolution of the American trotting-horse. 4:

509-516
Pope, C. A. [Tarantula from Missouri]. 2 : 135
Riley, C. V. [Crustacea from Dallas, Tex.]. 3 : clxxiii

■ Descriptions of two new subterranean mites. 3 : 215-6

\_Heterodon platyrhinos], 3: ex

[Menobranchus : lateralis]. 3:cxv

[Mite transformations], 3 : eclxvii

[Mygale Hertzii}. 3 : eclxix

[Nephila plumipes']. 3 : cix

[The rattlesnake]. 3 : lxxxix

[Scenopinus in human luug]. 3 :xc

[Toad fish]. 3:clxxxii

Sawyer, A. [The method adopted by squirrels for securing their

winter's food]. 3:cxxxvii
Shinier, H. [An Icterus related to 2. spurius]. 2 : 260-1
Entomology.

Brendel, E. Synopsis of the family of Pselaphidae. 5: 298-302
Broadhead, G. C. The Rocky mountain locust and the season

of 1875. 3 : 345-9
Duffey, J. C. Transformations of a Carabid (Plochionus timidus),
and observations on a Coccinellid enemy of the red spider.
5: 533-42. pi. 10-11
Engelmann, G. [Jumping seeds], 4: lxxix, lxxxi
Grant, R. D. [Ravages of Termes]. 3: eclxix

242 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Biology, Zoology, Entomology, continued.

Murtfeldt, M. E. [Immigrant insects, especially the European
cabbage-worm]. 4 : li

[Seed -feeding insects]. 7 : xliv

Pauls, G. [Euphydryas phaeton']. 10: lvii

Riley, C. V. [Centennial insects]. 3 : ccxx

[Colorado potato beetle]. 3 : clxx

Descriptions and natural history of two insects which

brave the dangers of Sarracenia variolaris. 3 : cci, 235-240

Descriptions of some new Tortricidae (leaf-rollers). 4:

316-24

Descriptions of two new moths. 3 : 240-2

[Entomological notes]. 3 : ccxvii

Hackberry butterflies. 3 : 193-208

[Jumping seeds and galls]. 3: cxc

[Locust experience]. 3 : cclxvii

[Locust flights east of the Mississippi]. 3 : ccxxvi

[Locust plague]. 3: clxxi, clxxx, clxxxv, ccxxxvi

[Mimicry] . 3 : xliv

[Myrmecocystus] . 3 : cix

A new oak-gall on acorn cups. 3 : 577-8. 4 : i

Notes on North American Microgasters, with descriptions

of new species. 4: 296-315

Notes on the natural history of the grape Phylloxera (Phyl-
loxera vastatrix, Planclion). 3: li, cxlvii, 281-7

Notes on the Yucca borer, Megathymus Yuccae (Walk.).

3 : 323-44

Additional notes on Megathymus Yuccae. 3 : 566-8

On a new genus in the Lep'dopterous family Tineidae,

with remarks on the fertilization of Yucca. 3 : 55-64

On the oviposition of the Yucca moth. 3: 208-210

Supplementary notes on Pronuba Yuceasella. 3 : 178-180

Further remarks on Pronuba Yuceasella and on the pollina-
tion of Yucca. 3 : 568-73

[Yucca and its insects]. 3 : exxxix

On a remarkable new genus in Meloidae infesting Mason-
bee cells in the United States. 3 : ccxii, 563-5

[On migratory butterflies]. 3 : eclxxiii

On the larval characters and habits of the blister-beetles

belonging to the genera Macrobasis, Lee. and Epicauta, Fabr. ;
with remarks on other species of the family Meloidae.
3 : 544-62. pi. 5

On the differences between Anisopteryx pometaria, Hair.

and Anisopteryx aescularia, W.-V., with remarks on the
genus Paleacrita. 3: 573-7

[On the oviposition of Saperda bivittata Say]. 3: eclxix

[Oviposition of Leucania unipuncta~]. 3 : ccxi

[Parasites on eggs of Caloptenus spretus']. 3 : ccxxvi

[Paris green and insects], 3 : excili

— — Remarks on canker-worms and description of a new genus
of Phalaenidae. 3 : 273-80

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 243

Biology, Zoology, Entomology, continued.
Riley, C. V., continued.

[Transportation of silk-worm eggs]. 3 : ccxxxvi

Robertson, C. New or little known North American bees.
8 : 43-54

North American bees — descriptions and synonyms. 7 : 315-

56

Some Illinois bees. 10 : 47-55

Treiease, W. ["Jumping beans "]. 4:cxxv

Walsh, B. D. Descriptions of North American Hymenoptera.

3:lxxvii, 65-166
Wislizenus, A. [The so-called " army worm "]. 2 : 159-160
Anatomy, morphology.

Alt, A. Original contributions concerning the glandular struc-
tures appertaining to the human eye and its appendages. 10 :
185-207. pi. 22-57
Engelmann, G. [Genital parts of female opossum]. 2 : 224
Hilgard, T. C. [Comparative anatomy of the skull]. 1 : 335-7

[Comparative organotaxy of fishes]. 1 : 678-82

Notes on comparative organotaxis. 1 : 416-30

[Skull of Vertebrates]. 1 : 98-9

Stevens, C. W. [Monstrosity in head of lamb]. 1 : 697-8

Terry, R. J [Cervical rib in man]. 8 : xx

Todd, C. A. [Anomalous skull]. 5 : xxxii

[Arm-muscle of negro]. 5:i

" Reversion of type " in the digastric muscle of the human

being. 4:351-2

[Subcutaneous pocket in front of ear of man and elephant] .

4 : lxxxvii
Physiology.

Goldstein, M. [Physiology of voice production]. 10: lvii

Harrison, E. [Iron-ore bezoars of ox]. 3 : cli

Kodis, T. [Electro- chemical theories of animal electricity].
10 : lxi

Porter, W. T. [Apparatus for adminstering anaesthetics during
artificial respiration]. 5 : liv

The growth of St. Louis children. 6 : 263-380. pi. 1-46

The physical basis of precocity and dullness. 6: 161-181.

pi. 1-2

The relation between the growth of children and their

deviation from the physical type of their sex and age. 6 :
233-250. pi. 1

Riley, C. V. [Sex causation]. 3 : cviii

Runge, E. C. Merycism regarded in the light of atavic ten-
dency.— Report of a new case, with results of an investiga-
tion of its digestive chemism. 6 : 519-36

Sawyer, A. [Water required for domestic animals]. 3:
clxxxvi

Todd, C. A. [Soaring of buzzards]. 5: iv

Treiease, W. An unusual phyto- bezoar. 7 : 493-7. pi. 40

244 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Botany. — See Biology.
Chemistry.

Bandelier, A. F. Observations on ozone, made in Highland, Madison

Co., Ills. 2: 417-8

Bremer, L. [Aniline dye tests for glucose]. 9 : xxv
Curtman, C. O. [Detectioa and analysis of blood]. 6 : xxvi

[Test for aniline colors]. 5:v

Cushman, A. S. The post-mortem detection and estimation of strych-
nine. 6 : 537-44
Hunicke, H. A. [Boiling point of hydro -carbons], 9 : xxv
Jewett, E. C. [Specific gravity determination of alloys]. 4: cxxxi
Keiser, E. H. [Some derivatives of acetylene]. 9: xxiv
Litton, A. [Aluminum]. 1 : 33
Luedeking, C. Anomalous densities of fused bismuth. 5 : 292-7

Contribution to the chemistry of combustion. 5 : 370-4

The hydration of colloids. 5 : 375-82

[Iron in atmosphere], 5 : xi

The long-continued action of the electric discharge on iodine .

5 : 445-8

On the analysis of the barium group. 5 : 471-6

On the specific heats, specific gravities, and the heats of hydration

of the acids of the fatty series, and their mixtures with water.

4: 625-43 (with plate).

The post-mortem detection of chloroform. 5 : 28-32

— See H. A. Wheeler.

Potter, W. B. [Analysis of Geyserite], 4 : lxvi

[Analysis of Peruvian lignite], 3 : ccxxiii

[Analysis of Spiegeleisen], 4: viii

Reed, C. J. The graphical representation of the relation between valence

and atomic weight. 4: 649-675 (with triple chart).
Sander, E. [Analyses of condensed milk], 4 : cxxvi
Schiel, J. [Bisulphuret of carbon], 1 : 29

[Observations on glycerine], 1 : 28, 45-8

Seddon, J. A. [Specific gravity determination of alloys], 4 : cxxxiii

Warren, W. H. [Production of perfumes], 10: liv

Wheeler, H. C. and C. Luedeking. Iodine in blowpiping. 4 : cxxviii,

676-80. pi. 11-13
Wislizenus, A. [Ozone], 1 : 329
Earthquakes. — See Meteorology.
Education, sociology.

Geddes, P. [Plan for increasing the educational value of expositions].

10:1
Wood, O. M. [Sociology of the negro], 8 : xxvi
Woodward, C. M. At what age do pupils withdraw from the public

schools? 7 : 185-200

[Formulae of Herbart], 7 : lv

Engineering, machinery, mannfactnres.

Adams, W. [Telephone for deaf persons], 4 : lxxxix
Eads, J. B. [River jetties], 3 :cxiii
Espenschied, C. [Flour milliDg]. 10 : lvi

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 245

Engineering, etc., continued.

Johnson, J. B. [Portland cement]. 8 :xxi

Kinealy, J. H. [Volume of air passing a register]. 7 : xliii

Kinsley, C. Discussion of series dynamo-electric machines. 8 : 107-136

Nipher, F. E. [Electric lights]. 3 : ccxxxiii. 4 : xlvii

Kapp's method of prediction for dynamos]. 5 : v

[Mechanical influence of design], 4 : xvii

[On applying muscular work] . 3 : ccxxxiv

On the output of the non-condensing steam engine, as a function

of speed aud pressure. 5 : 434-444

Schmidt, A. Iron manufacture in Missouri. 3 : 261-272

Scott, C. M. On the improvement of the western rivers. 4:43-54 (with
plate) .

"Woodward, C. M. The efficiency of gearing under friction. 8: 95-105
Entomology. — See Biology.
Ethnology. — See Archaeology.
Folk-lore. — See Language.
Geology, palaeontology.

Broadhead, G. C. Age of our porphyries. 3: ccxix, 366-70

[Bones of large mammals in drift, etc.]. 3: xxii

Carboniferous rocks of eastern Kansas. 4 : 481-92

Coal measures in Missouri. 2 : 311-333

[Fossil horse in Missouri], 3 : xx

Missouri geological surveys, historical memoir. 4 : 611-624

On the well at the Insane Asylum, St. Louis County. 3:216-223.

pi. 1

Emmons, E. [Geology of North Carolina]. 1 : 101-2

Engelmann, G. [Geological and botanical notes on the Rocky mountains.]
3 : cxlv

[Hot springs of Colorado], 4 : lxxi

[Labeling specimens]. 1 : 318

[Petrified wood from near Pike's Peak]. 3 : lxxxvii

[Sigillaria marks on Illinois coal]. 3 : cxliii

Engelmann, H. [Lower Carboniferous in southern Illinois]. 2 : 188-190

Evans, J., and B. F. Shumard. On some new species of fossils from the
Cretaceous formation of Nebraska Territory. 1 : 38-42

Hambach, G. Contribution to the anatomy of the genus Pentremites,
with description of new species. 4: 145-160. pi. A, B

Description of new Palaeozoic Echinodermata. 4: 548-54. pi. C, D

Notes about the structure and classification of the Pentremites.

4 : 537-47

IPionocrinus found at St. Charles, Mo.]. 4 : cxix

Harrison, E. Age of the Porphyry hills of South-east Missouri. 2 : 504

Hawn, F. The Trias of Kansas. 1 : 171-2

— - — See G. C. Swallow.

Heilprin, A. [Glacial phenomena in Greenland]. 7 : xliii

Hermann, E. A. [Fossil bison femur]. 10 : lx

Holmes, N. [Loess and Drift, in connection with the Big mound at St.
Louis]. 2 : 565-9

[Mastodon and man]. 1 : 117-8

246 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Geology, etc., continued.

Keyes, C. R. Relations of the Devonian and Carboniferous in the upper
Mississippi valley. 7 : 357-69

Kirchuer, W. C. G. Contribution to the fossil flora of Florissant, Colo-
rado. 8: 161-188. pZ. 11-15

Klem, M. The development of Agaricocrinus. 10: 167-84. pi. 18-21

Koch, A. C. [Bones of mastodon]. 1 : 116-7

[Explorations in Mississippi and Arkansas], 1 : 17-19

Mastodon remains, in the State of Missouri, together with evi-
dences of the existence of man contemporaneously with the mastodon.
1 : 61-4

Lapham, I. A. [Devonian in Wisconsin]. 1 : 684

Linton, M. L. [Impressions in sandstone]. 1 : 23

Litton, A. Belcher & Brother's Artesian Well. 1 : 80-86. pi. 5

Lyon, S. S. Descriptions of four new species of Blastoidea, from the
Subcarboniferous rocks of Kentucky. 1 : 628-34. pi. 20

Remarks on the stratigraphical arrangement of the rocks of Ken-
tucky, from the Catenipora escharoides horizon of the upper Silurian
period, in Jefferson county, to the base of the productive coal meas-
ures in the eastern edge of Hancock county. 1 : 612-21

Marcou, J. [Age of geological formations]. I : 325

Notes on the geology of Kansas and Nebraska. 1 : 610-611

[On the Dryas in Nebraska]. 2 : 562-4

On the Terebratula Mormonii. 3 : 252-5

McAdams, W. [Drift fossils at Jerseyville, III.] . 3 : ex

[Drift fossils from Illinois]. 4 : lxxix

McGee, W. J. Notes on the geology of Macon county, Missouri. 5 : 305-
36. pi. 9

Norwood, J. G. [Rocks of Illinois]. 1 : 115-6

Potter, W. B. [Geological relations of the ore deposits of Missouri],
4 : cxviii

Prout, H. A. Description of a new species of Productus, from the Car-
boniferous limestone of St. Louis. 1 :43-5. pi. 2

Description of new species of Bryozoa from Texas and New Mexico,

collected by Dr. George G. Shumard, geologist of the U. S.
expedition for boring Artesian wells along the 32d Parallel, under the
direction of Capt. John Pope, U. S. Corps Top. Eng. 1 : 228-235

Descriptions of new species of Bryozoa. 2: 410-413

First of a series of descriptions of Carboniferous Bryozoa. 1 :

235-7

Second series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic rocks

of the western States and Territories. 1 : 266-73

Third series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic rocks

of the western States and Territories. 1 : 443-52. pi. 15-18

Fourth series of descriptions of Bryozoa from the Palaeozoic

rocks of the western States and Territories. 1 : 571-81

[Fossil tooth from Abingdon, Va.]. 1 : 699-700

[New Bryozoa, mostly from the Falls of the Ohio]. 1 : 308

Schmidt, A. On the form and origin of the lead and zinc deposits of
Southwest Missouri. 3 : 246-252

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 247

Geology, etc., continued.

Shumard, B. F. [Base of Cretaceous in northern Texas]. 1 : 695
A catalogue of Palaeozoic fossils of North America. 2 : 334-407

[Coal measures in northern Texas]. 1 : 686-7

[Cretaceous formation of Texas]. 2 : 152.

Description of a new fossil Crinoidea from the Palaeozoic rocks

of the western and southern portions of the United States. 1 : 71-80.
pi. 1

Descriptions of five new species of Gasteropoda from the Coal

measures, and a Bracbiopod from the Potsdam sandstone of Texas.
1 : 624-7

Descriptions of new Cretaceous fossils from Texas. 1 : 590-610

Descriptions of new fossils from the Tertiary formation of Oregon

and Washington territories and the Cretaceous of Vancouver's island,
collected by Dr. Jno. Evans, U. S. Geologist, under instructions
from the Department of the Interior. 1 : 120-5

Descriptions of new Palaeozoic fossils. 2: 108-113

Descriptions of new species of Blastoidea from the Palaeozoic

rocks of the western States, with some observations on the structure
of the summit of the genus Pentremites. 1 : 238-48. pi. 9

[Discovery in Texas of dicotyledonous leaves in Cretaceous strata,

and the existence of an extensive Miocene formation]. 2 : H0-1

[Fossils from the white limestone of the Guadalupe mountains,

N. M.]. 1:113-4

[Geological map of Texas]. 2 : 153

[Lower Silurian in Texas]. 1 : 672-3

Notice of fossils from the Permian strata of Texas and New Mexico,

obtained by the United States expedition under Capt. John Pope for
boring Artesian wells along the 32d Paral., with descriptions of new
species from these strata and the Coal measures of that region.
1:387-403. pi. 11

Notice of new fossils from the Permian strata of New Mexico and

Texas, collected by Dr. George G. Shumard, Geologist of the United
States Government expedition for obtaining water by means of
Artesian wells along the 32d Parallel, under the direction of Capt.
John Pope, U. S. Corps Top. Eug. 1 : 290-7

Notice of some new and imperfectly known fossils from the Primor-
dial zone (Potsdam sandstone and Calciferous sand group) of Wis-
consin and Missouri. 2 : 101-7

Observations on the geology of the county of Ste. Genevieve,

being an extract from a report made to the Missouri Geological
Survey, in 1859. 1 : 404-415

Observations upon the Cretaceous strata of Texas. 1 : 582-90

[Tertiary in Texas]. 1 : 678

[Vertical section of the Silurian strata of Cape Girardeau county,

Mo.]. 2:155-6

— See J. Evans.

an(j g. C. Swallow. Descriptions of new fossils from the Coal meas-
ures of Missouri and Kansas. 1 : 198-227

Shumard, G. G. [Coal measures]. 1 : 93

248 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loxtis.

Geology, etc., continued.

Shumard, G. G., continued.

Geological structure of the " Jornada del Muerto ", New Mexico.

1: 341-55
Observations on the geological formations of the country between

the Rio Pecos and the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, near the line of

the 32d Parallel. 1 : 27S-89
Spencer, J. W. Niagara fossils. 4: 555-610. pi. 1-9
Swallow, G. C. Descriptions of new fossils from the Carboniferous and

Devonian rocks of Missouri. 1 : 635-60
Descriptions of some new fossils from the Carboniferous and De-
vonian rocks of Missouri. 2 : 81-100

[Fossils from Kansas]. 1 : 111-112

Mr. Meek's notes on my preliminary report of the geology of

Kansas, as edited by Dr. Hayden. 2 : 507-526
Notice of remains of the horse in the altered Drift of Kansas.

2:418
Some new varieties of Spirifer lineatus, Martin ; Spirifer cameratus,

Morton; Spirifer Kentuckensis, Shumard; Spirifer Leidyi, Norwood

and Pratten; Spirifer increbescens. Hall; and Spirifer Keokuk, Hall.

2 : 408-410

— See B. F. Shumard.

— , and F. Hawn. The rocks of Kansas. 1 : 173-197

Todd, C. A. [Artesian wells at Jacksonville, Fla.]. 5 : iii

Vodges, A. W. Notes on Palaeozoic Crustaceae, No. 1. On some new

Sedalia Trilobites. 5 : 615-8. pi. 15
"Weller, S. Kinderhook faunal studies. I. The fauna of the Vermicular

sandstone at Northview, Webster county, Missouri. 9: 9-51. pi. 2-6
Kinderhook faunal studies. II. The fauna of the Chonopectus

sandstone at Burlington, Iowa. 10: 57-129. pi. 1-9
Wheeler, H. A. Note on the glacial drift in St. Louis. 7 : 121-2

[Some notes on the glacial drift]. 6 : xvii

[Temperature of deep mines]. 4 : cxiv-v

Worthen, A. H. Notice of a new species of Platycrinus and other fossils,

from the Mountain limestone of Illinois and Iowa. 1 : 569-71
[Review of some points in Dr. B. F. Shumard's report on the

geology of Ste. Genevieve county, Mo.]. 1 : 696-7
Language, folk-lore, etc.

deCorunay Colludo, A. Zoque — the language spoken at Santa Maria

di Chimalapa, and at San Miguel and Tierra Blanca, in the State of

Chiapas, Mexico. 4 : 36-42
Dacus, J. A.— Translater. — See A. de Coruna y Colludo
Gatschet, A. S. Tchekilli's Kasi'hia legend in the Creek and Hitchiti

languages, with a critical commentary and full glossaries to both

texts. 5 : 33-239
Holmes, N. [Sanscrit and Nahuatl]. 4 : xxii
Inscriptions.

McMasters, S. Y. [Coin from Alton, 111.]. 1 : 320-1

Mitchell, O. M. [Inscription on Leeds mummy-coffin]. 1 : 684-5

Seyffarth, G. [An ancient Assyrian brick], 1 :32

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 249

Language, Inscriptions, continued.
Seyffruth, G., continued.

Egyptian theology, according to a Paris mummy-coffin. 4 : 55-

80. pi. 1-2

The hieroglyphic tablet of Pompeium grammatically translated

and commented on. 4:193-295 (with 32 lithographed pages of
symbol and commentary).

Notice of a burnt brick from the ruins of Nineveh. 1:64-6.

pi. 4

A remarkable Papyrus-scroll, written in the Hieratic character

about 1050 B. C. 1 : 527-69 (with 16 lithographed pages of inscrip-
tion and annotation).

A remarkable seal in Dr. Abbott's museum at New York. 1 :

249-66
Stone, G. A. [Scarabaeus tablet and Papyrus scoll], 1 :689
Machinery. — See Engineering.
Manufactures.— See Engineering.
Mathematics.

Ena;ler, E. A. Geometrical constructions for cutting from a cone of revo-
lution plane sections (a) of given eccentricity, (b) of given latus rec-
tum. 6 : 183-190

A geometrical construction for finding the foci of the sections of a

cone of revolution. (J : 49-55

The normal to the conic section.. 8 : 137-159

Kinealy, J. II. A spiral on a torus. 5 : 1-6. pi. 1-2
Nipher, F. E. [Device for the projection of pendulum figures].
4 : xxxvii

The evolution of the American trotting-horse. 4 : 509-516

Isodynamic surfaces of the compound pendulum. 4 : 644-8

On a property of the isentropic curve for a perfect gas as drawn

upon the thermodynamic surface of pressure, volume, and tempera-
ture. 4: 407-410

On certain properties of a field of force due to a single mas.-.

5 : 619-23
[On the distribution of errors in numbers written from memory].

3 : ccx

On temperatures in gaseous nebulae. 9: 275-84

[Thermodynamic surface of steam]. 4: lxxxiv

Pritchett, H. S. A formula for predicting the population of the United
States. 5 : 599-608

Roever, W. H. [Brilliant points and loci of brilliant points]. 10 : !xii.
pi. A

Geometrical constructions of the lines of force proceeding from (a)

two parallel electrified lines, (b) two electrified points. 7 : 201-228

Geometrical properties of the lines of force proceeding from (a) a

system consisting of an electrified plane and an electrified line par-
allel to the plane, (b) a system consisting of an electrified plane and
an electrified point. 7 : 273-98

Seddon, J. A. [Hydraulic flow equation]. 5 : xxvii

[Resistance to flow in hydraulics]. 8 : xxiv

250 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis

Mathematics, continued.

Woodward, C. M. [Formulae of Herbart]. 7 : lv

The relations of internal pressure, volume, and temperature of an

isolated mass of perfect gas of uniform temperature and in equilib-
rium under the action of its own forces. 9 : 53-60
Medicine, sanitation.

Holman, M. L. [Purification of St. Louis water]. 8 : xxiii

Leete, J. M. [Some facts concerning past visitations ot cholera]. 4 : cxx

Potter, W. B. [Sewage and river water], 4 :cxi

Ravolcl, A. [Bacillus coli communis in fish and reptiles]. 10: lxi

[Diphtheria antitoxine]. 7 : lvi

[Hiss test for typhoid Bacillus']. 8 : xx

[On the typhoid Bacillus found in the Mississippi river water].

6 : xxxvi

[Placental infection in meningitis]. 9 : xxi-xxii

[Tuberculosis]. 8 : xxiii

[Widal's typhoid test]. 7 : lxiv

Van Ornum, J. L. [The cleansing of Cienfuegos]. 10: 1
Meteorites. — See Mineralogy.
Meteorology.

Bigelow, J. M. [Waves of atmospheric pressure and their progress from
West to East along the great northern lakes] . 2 : 185-7

Case, F. M. [Meteorological observations at Denver]. 2 : 226-7

Duenckel, F. W. [Meteorology of city and suburbs]. 7 : liii

Engelmann, G. Difference of temperature and of relative humidity in
city and country. 2 : 70-74

Fall of rain (including melted snow) in St. Louis from 1839 to 1861.

2 : 75-9

The mean and extreme daily temperatures in St. Louis during

forty-seven years, as calculated from daily observations. 4 : 496-508
(with three charts).

[Meteorological notes]. 1 : 332, 670, 704-5, 707, 710. 2 : 145, 162,

164-5, 174, 185, 222, 232-3, 238, 242, 246, 249-250, 264, 266, 549. 3 : xlvi,
xlix, liv, lxxx, xc, xcix, ciii, cvi, cxxxii, cxliv, clii, clvii, clxiv,
clxvi, clxxiii, cxcvi, cc-cci, cciii, ccviii, ccxviii, cclix, cclxiii,
cclxviii, cclxxii. 4 : vii, viii, xii, xviii, xxxviii, xxxix, xlix, 1, liv, lvi,
Ixv, Ixx, lxxiv, lxxxii, lxxxiii, lxxxvi, lxxxviii

[Meteorological observations at St. Louis for the year 1859]. 1 :

692-4

Meteorological table for 1859, St. Louis, Mo. 1

Meteorological table for 1860, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1861, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1862, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1863, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1864, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1865, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1866, St. Louis, Mo. 2

Meteorological table for 1867, St. Louis, Mo. 2

[Prevalence of tornadoes]. 4: xxxviii

[Rains in St. Louis from 1838-1865]. 2: 266-7

668

68

69

119

297

298

419

505

506

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. I-X. 251

Meteorology, continued.
Engelmann, G., continued.

[Singular scries of thunder-storms]. 2: 153

[Snowstorm of Oct. 25, 186?]. 2: 187-8

[Unusually violent storm]. 2:157

Engelmann, G., and A. Wisiizenus. Meteorological observations for 1856,

made in St. Louis. 1 : 87, 301
Engler, E. A. Auroral phenomena on the evening of Sept. 12, 1881.

4:391-4
Frankenfield, H. C. [Hot and cold waves]. 7 :xlviii
Hayes, R. [Hail storm of May 19, 1873]. 3 : cvii

[Tornado of March 30, 1872]. 3 : lxxix

McLellan. [Lightning and trees]. 3 : cxli

McPheeters, W. M. [Lightning effect on tree]. 3:xlv

Nipher, F. E. [Differences in anemometer readings]. 3 : cclxxii

[The establishment of a Missouri weather service]. 3 : cclxvi

[Meteorological notes]. 4 : lviii, lix. 5 : xxxiv, xxxv, xlii

Report on magnetic observations ia Missouri, summer of 1878.

4:81-101
Report on magnetic determinations in Missouri, summer of 1879.

4:121-144
Magnetic determinations in Missouri during the summer of 1880.

4 : 333-50

Magnetic survey of Missouri. Fourth annual report. 4 : 453-80

Magnetic survey of Missouri. Fifth annual report. 4: 516-34

[Rain-gauges and wind]. 5 : vi

Report on Missouri rainfall, with averages for ten years ending

December, 1887. 5 : 383-432 (with 9 plates).

[Storm of February 19th and 20tb, 1882]. 4 :lxxiii

Surface iutegrals in meteorology. 5 : 469-70

[Thunderstorms]. 4:xxxvii

[Topography and magnetic variation]. 4 : lxii

[Velocity of rain fall]. 4 : xv

Winter temperatures. 5: 461-3

■ — See J. L. R. Wadsworth.
Norton, J. B. S. [Effects on trees of tornado of May, 1896]. 7 : lxxiii
Parry, C. C. On the character of the persistent snow -accumulations in the

Rocky mountains, Lat. 40°-41° North, and certain features pertaining

to the alpine flora. 2 : 532-543
Sawyer, A. On climatic change in Illinois — its cause. 3 : 255-260
von Schrenk, H. A severe sleet-storm. 10: 143-50. pi. 10, 11
The trees of St. Louis as influenced by the tornado of 1896. 8 : 25-

il.pl. 3-9
Smith, S. An hypothesis concerning the formation of hail. 1 : 297-

300
Wadsworth, J. L. R., and F. E. Nipher. The tornado of April 14, 1879.

4 : 102-120 (with 3 charts) .
Wisiizenus, A. Atmospheric electricity. 2 : 3-16. pi. 1, 3. 115-118, 287-

296. pi. 12, 13. 414-416. 3 : 167-172
[Lightning and trees] . 3 : cxl

252 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Metkorology, continued.

Wislizenus, A., continued.

[Meteorological notes]. 3:ii, iv, v, vi, vii, viii, x, xv, xvii, xxii,

xxiv, xxxiv, xlvi, xlviii, lxxviii

Meteorological observations for 1857 made in St. Louis. 1 : 302

Meteorological observations made in 1861, in St. Louis, Mo.

2:16-67. pi!. 2

Prevailing winds in St. Louis, Mo. 1 : 303

Yearly report of atmospheric electricity, temperature, and humid-
ity, from observations made at St. Louis, Mo. 2 : 526-532

Yearly report of atmospheric electricity, temperature, and humid-
ity, from observations made at St. Louis, Mo. 3 : xxxv

, and G. Engelraann. Meteorological table for 1858, made from

observations in St. Louis. 1 : 524-5

■ — See G. Engelmann.

Earthquakes.

Hayes, R. Catalogue of earthquakes for 1871. 3: 173-7

Catalogue of earthquakes for the years 1872-3. 3 : 243-5

Nipher, F. E. [Earthquake of November 18, 1878]. 4: xxxv
Mineralogy.

Broadhead, G. C. [Mineralogy of Cole county, Mo.]. 3 : xxxiii

Occurrence of bitumen in Missouri. 3 : 224-6

Engelmann, H. Topaz in Utah. 2 : 114

Gase, J. R. On the occurrence of iron ores in Missouri. 3 : 181-192

Hilgard, E. W. [The existence of gold in the conglomerate of Madison
county, Mo.]. 2: 161

Leonhard, A. V. Notes on the mineralogy of Missouri. 4 : 440-52

On the occurrence of Millerite in Missouri. 4 : 493-5 (with 2 plates).

[Pseudomorphs]. 4 s Ixiii

Owen, R. [Rock salt, near New Iberia, La.]. 2 : 250-252

Sander, E. [Gold at Golden City, Ark.]. 5 : v

[Rock salt from Vermilion bay, La.]. 2 : 557

Sharswood, W. [East Bradford Allanite]. 1 : 685-6

Shumard, B. F. [Oil springs in Ray and Carroll couuties, Mo.]. 2:
263-4

Wheeler, H. A. [Bituminous coal from Lower Silurian]. 4 : cxix

[New locality for Pickeringite]. 4 : cxxiv

Note on an occurrence of blende in lignite. 7 : 123-5

Recent additions to the mineralogy of Missouri. 7 : 126-131

Meteorites.

Broadhead, G. C. [Meteor of December 9, 1875]. 3 : cciii

The meteor of December 27, 1875. 3 : 349-52

[Meteor of January 3, 1877] . 3 : cclviii

Clark, M. L. [Meteorite near mouth of Osage river]. 1 : 708
Hinrichs, G. [Meteor and meteorites of Forest City, la.]. 5 : xlv
Holmes, N. [Abstract of Haidinger on meteorites], 2 : 176-7

[Meteoric iron found in Nebraska]. 1 : 711-712. pi. 21

Prout, H. A. [Nebraska meteorite]. 2: 150

Shumard, B. F. Notice of meteoric iron from Texas. 1 : 622-4

[St. Louis meteorite], 2 : 183

Classified List of Papers and Notes Contained in Vols. T-X. 253

Morphology. — See Biology.
Obituaries. — See Biographic notices.
Palaeontology. — See Geology.
Philosophy.

Wislizenus, A. Thoughts on matter and force. 2 : 299-310
Photography.

Nipher, F. E. [Electricity and photographic plates]. 7 : lii-liii. 10: lil
On certain properties of light-struck photographic plates. 10 : 151-

66. pi. 12-17

[Positive photography]. 10: lvii, lxiv

Positive photography, with special reference to eclipse work. 10 :

209-214

[Zero photographic plate]. 10: lviii

Physics.

Curtmau, C. O. [Light in vacuo], 3: lxxv

Eads, J. B. [Explanation of rotoscope]. 1 : 24-6

Kinealy, J. H. The pressure of the wind on roofs and inclined surfaces.

5 : 337-42
Nipher, F. E. [Air vortices]. 4 : xxi
[A cheap recording instrument for Robinson's anemometer and the

anemonescope], 3 : cclxvi

[Determination of Johle's equivalent]. 6 : xxix

[Determination of latent heat of vaporization]. 6 : xvi

[Determination of the constant for a galvanometer]. 4 : lxxvi

[Experiments in binocular vision]. 3 : ccxxiv

[Experiments with colored glass]. 3 : clxxxvii

[Fire-alarm apparatus]. 3: cclx

[Formation of vortex in water]. 4 : lvii

The frictional effect of railway trains upon the air. 7 : lxiv.

10: 215-28

[Kapp's method of prediction for dynamos]. 5 : v

The law of minimum deviation of light by a prism. 7 : 133-6

A method of measuring the pressure at any point on a structure,

due to wind blowing against that structure. 8 : 1-24. pi. 1-2. 9 : xxv.

On a new form of lecture galvanometer. 3 : 287-290

On a rotational motion of the cathode disc in the Crookes tube.

7 : 181-3

On certain problems in refraction. 4 : 325-32

On gravitation in gaseous nebulae. 9 : 61-8

On the electrical capacity of bodies and the energy of an electrical

charge. 7 : 109-119
On the expression of electrical resistance in terms of a velocity.

4 : 535-6
On the scale value of the Dellman electrometer used by Dr. A.

Wislizenus. 5 : 303-4

[Phenomena of four-phase currents]. 6: xxi

[Reis telephone]. 4: cxxvii

[Resistance-bridge for air currents] . 7 : lxxii

[Rifle balls in water], 5 : xix, xx, xxi

Seddon, J. A. [Intensity of light]. 5 : xxxi

254 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Physiography.

Engelmann, G. Altitude of Pike's peak and other points in Colorado
Territory. 2 : 126-133

Appendix [to Dr. Parry's Notice of some additional observations

on the physiography of the Rocky mountains]. 2 : 282-6

Elevation of St. Louis above the Gulf of Mexico. 1 : 663-7

Marbut, C. F. — See A. Winslow.

Nipher, F. E. [Map of New Madrid county, Mo]. 4 : lxxxv
Parry, C. C. Account of the passage through the Great caSon of the
Colorado of the West, from above the mouth of Green river to the
head of steamboat navigation at Collville, in the months of August
and September, 1867, by James White. . . 2 : 499-503

Ascent of Pike's peak, July 1st, 1862. 2 : 120-125

Notice of some additional observations on the physiography of

the Rocky mountains, made during the summer of 1864. 2 : 272-282
Sawyer, A. [On the origin of ravines in the prairie]. 3: cxlix
Wheeler, O. B. The secondary base in geodetic surveys. 5:21-27.

pi. 5
Winslow, A., and C. F. Marbut. The mapping of Missouri. 6 : 57-99 (with

map).
Mississippi and Missouri rivers.

Engelmann, G. Stage of the Mississippi river at St Louis in 1861.
2 : 79-80. pi. 4

The variations in the stage of the Mississippi river at St.

Louis. 2 : 420-423
Fay, T. [Stage of Mississippi at Market street]. 3 : clxxxvii
Holme?, N. [Delta of the Mississippi]. 3 : cxiv
Pratt, G. C. [Stage of the Missouri river]. 4:xvii
Scott, C. M. [The formation of the banks of the lower Mississippi].

4:xl
Warren, G. K. [Mississippi river]. 2 : 144
Physiology. — See Biology.
Sanitation. — See Medicine.
Sociology. — See Education.
Zoology. — See Biology.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications of the Academy are offered for sale at the
net prices indicated. Applications should be addressed to The Librarian,
The Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1600 Locust St., St. Louis, Mo.

transactions (in octavo).

Vol.

Number.

SJSST w-p-™>.

Price in set.

1

1*

2t
3,4

$4.00
2.00 each.

$7.50
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

$7.00
(Nos. 2-4 only.)

s

1 to 3

2.00 each.

5.50

5.00

8

lto4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

4

1 to 4

2.00 each.

7.50

7.00

5

1-2, 8-4 {

4.00 each.
(Double numbers)

7.50

7.00

«t

1,2,6,8,

10, 11, 16, 17

4, 5, 7, 18,

14, 15, 18

3,9

12

| 25 cts. each.

| 60 cts. each.

75 cts. each.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

II

2, 8, 4,6,7, 8,
13, 15, 16,

18, 19

6, 9 to 12,

14, 20

17

1

v 25 cts. each.

| 50 cts. each.

75 cts.
$1.00

7.50

7.00

SJ

1, 3 to 6
8, 10, 12
3, 7, 9, 11

> 25 cts. each.
50 cts. each.

3.76

8.50

»t

1, 3, 4, 7, 9

2, 5, 8

6

26 cts. each.
50 cts. each.
$1.25

3 75

3.50

lot

9

2, 4, 5, 10

1

3, 6,7,8, 11

10 cts.
25 cts. each.

40 cts.
50 cts. each.

3.75

3.50

memoirs (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
Part I. Pottery. 1880. $2.00.

The total eclipse of the sun, January 1, 1889. A report of the observations
made by the Washington University Eclipse Party, at Norman, Califor-
nia. 1891. $2.00.

* Supply exhausted.

t Can be sold only to purchasers of the entire volume, — so far as this can be
supplied.

I Bach number is a brochure containing one complete paper.