~ ad 
hee 


~ 
4 


orererys | 


HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 


LIBRARY 


OF THE 


MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 


syste 


C 


Reugety 
~ 


— 


~~ 
—_--. +a. 


s 
- 
ety 


? ~ 

’ , 

‘ . 
* 
: PY 
. . 2% 
7 . 4 Cary ~ = i 
> i . . 3S 
4 urd = E 
- br ’ - J 
4 ‘4 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF THE 


ALBAN Y, INSTITUTE, 


VOLUME X, 


\ 


7 ALBANY, 1s Ee Ge. 


WEED, PARSONS AND COMPANY, PRINTERS. 
1883. 


Bee re | YR Gt a 
ANOS fod. eu 
CEM OMG GS: 


, 
4 
' 
| i 
ry 
A 
| ba 
¢ 
P 
- 
: 
i cap 
: ay 
i 
. f 
F ye : 
‘ 
s 
A 
j 
ie 
hae 
{ 
ma 
. | 
. 
{ 
rE | 
i 
. a J , | 
Pr 
, 
a ‘ee 
y - : 
. -_ ‘ 
i 
1 
. 
* 
F 
ms i 
. | 
4 
| ; 
a aie 


CONTENTS. 


Officers of the Albany Institute, 1883, - - - 


. The Utica Slate and Related Formations of the Same Geologi- 
cal Horizon, by C. D. Walcott, - - . “ 


Fossils of the Utica Slate, by C. D. Walcott,  - - 
Degraded Words, by Gilbert M. Tucker, - 2 : 


Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from the Niagara 
Formation, by James Hall, LL. D., — - - - 


The Origin of Force, by Stephen C. Hutchins, - - 


Industrial and Material Progress, Illustrated in the History 
of Albany (Annual Address), by David Murray, LL. D., 


’ Whittington and His Cat, by Ernest J. Miller, - 


An Account of the Manuscripts of Gen. Dearborn, as Massa- 
chusetts Commissioner in 1838 and 1839, for the Sale of the 
Seneca Indian Lands, by Henry A. Homes, LL. D., - 


Proposed Erection of Local Historical Monuments; Report 
of Special Committee on Archeology, - - 


Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg and Hamilton Groups, 
by James Hall, LL. D., : : re a 


The First Men: Their Epoch, Habitat and Saad by Stephen 
C. Hutchins, - - - - - 


The Principles of Ventilation, by Richard Prescott, M. E., 


The Physical Sciences the Products and Promoters of Civili- 
zation (Annual Address), by Paul A. Chadbourne, LL. D., 


105 


128 


iv Contents. 


Prehistoric Music, by Armand de Potter, — - - - 241 
The Correct Arms of the State of New York, by Henry A. 
Homes, LI. D., - - - - - 245 
The Plea of Insanity, by Horace E. Smith, LL. D., - 290 
Linguistic Discussions, by George R, Howell,  - - 306 
Gravestones Aisthetically and Ethically Considered, by Irving | 
Browne, - - - -* - =), S20 
American English, by Gilbert M. Tucker, - ~ - 334 
Catalogue of Members of the Albany Institute, - 361 
Index, - - - - - - | a aeee 


Plates, in order as below ; 


Fossils of the Utica Slate (two plates). 

“Arms of the State — Initial from Commission issued by Gov- 
ernor Clinton, 1778. 

' Arms of the State -— Regimental Flag, 1778. 

‘Arms of the State — Painting in St. Paul’s Chapel, New York, 
1785. 

‘Arms of the State — As restored for the action of the Legis- 
lature. 

‘Arms of the State — Official Representation, as re-established 
by law taking effect Jan. 1, 1883. 


OFFICERS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE FOR 1883. 


President, 
ORLANDO MEADS. 


Treasurer, 
JOHN TEMPLETON. 


Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, 
DANIEL J. PRATT, Pu. D. LEONARD KIP. 


First Department — Physical Science and the Arts. 


President, and ex-officio one of the Vice-Presidents of the Institute, 
DAVID MURRAY, LL. D. 
Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, 
VERPLANCK COLVIN. SAMUEL B. WARD, M. D. 


Librarian, 
DANIEL J. PRATT, Pu. D. 


Second Department — Natural History. 
President, and ex-officio one of the Vice-Presidents of the Institute, 
J. A. LINTNER. 
Vice-President, 
WILLIAM HAILES, Jr., M. D. 


Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, 
CHARLES H. PECK. CHARLES J. BUCHANAN. 


Third Department — History and General Literature. 
President, and ex-officio one of the Vice-Presidents of the Institute, 
_ HENRY A. HOMES, LL. D. 


Vice-President, 
THOMAS J. VAN ALSTYNE. 
Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, 


EDWARD M. RANKIN. IRVING BROWNE. 


Curators of the Collections in Natural History and the Arts. 


MAURICE E. VIELE, GEORGE R. HOWELL, 
PHILANDER DEMING, © JOHN W. McNaAMARaA, 
CHARLES M. JENKINS. JAMES M., CASSsETY, 
ERNEST J. MILLER, GRANGE SARD, JR. 


EUGENE BURLINGAME. 


Publishing Committee. 
GILBERT M. TUCKER, JAMES O. FANNING, 


STEPHEN C. HUTCHINS. 


TRANSACTIONS. 


THE UTICA SLATE AND RELATED FORMATIONS OF 
THE SAME GEOLOGICAL HORIZON. 


By C. D. Watcort. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, March 18, 1879. ] 


Tue Utica SLATE. 


Mohawk slate, Black slate and shale, Frankfort slate, Graptolitic slate, Lorraine 
shales (in part) of the New York Geological Reports. 

In part Professor Eaton’s Transition argillite, Wacke slate and Glazed slate. 
No. 3 and the Matinal Black slate of the Pennsylvania Survey. 


The name Utica slate was adopted by the New York geologists 
in their final reports for the black bituminous slates succeeding the 
Trenton limestone in the Mohawk and Black River valleys — Prof. 
EK. Emmons retaining the term Lorraine shales for the upper 


_ . portion beneath the shaly sandstones of the Hudson River group, or 


Lorraine sandstones as he termed them. ‘The term Hudson River 
group, with the Utica slate for a subdivision embracing the lower 
slaty portion, was, however, generally received into geological no- 


-~ menclature. 


At the typical locality in the tdi of Utica the formation has 
a thickness of over 600 feet, the upper part passing into the lighter 
colored, more silicious slate, beneath the Oneida conglomerate; 
this change of color and addition of silicious material, with the pre- 
sence of a few thin sandy layers, alone representing the arenaceous 
shales and sandstones of the Hudson River group in its extension 
east and west from this point. The Utica slate would otherwise be 
a continuous formation from the Trenton limestone to the base of 
the conglomerate. 

At Rome, fifteen miles west, the shaly sandstones increase in 

Trans. &.| 1 


2 Utica Slate and 


thickness, and contain characteristic fossils of the Hudson River 
formation above the Utica slate, namely: Ambonychia radiata, 
Modiolopsis modiolaris, Cyrtolites ornatus, etc. 'The extensive de- 
velopment of this portion of the group in the valleys of the Black, 
Salmon and Hudson rivers, and its almost entire absence near Utica, 
is undoubtedly owing to some local cause which affected the distri- 
bution of the coarser sediments. 

The Utica slate formation was traced by the New York geologists 
down the Mohawk valley from Oneida county through Herkimer, 
Montgomery, Schenectady and Saratoga counties to the shores of the 
Hudson. At Baker’s Falls, Saratoga county, it is seen in contact 
with, and resting upon, the Trenton limestone. It here contains 
graptolites characteristic of the formation in Central New York and 
also the typical fossil of this horizon, Zriarthrus Becki. Trilobitic 
remains are very rare in localities where graptolites abound in the 
undisturbed slates in Oneida county. This is particularly noticeable 
in the graptolitic slates of the Hudson River valley, where the 
graptolitic fauna flourished to the almost entire exclusion of other 
forms common to the slates elsewhere. 

Prof. Wm. W. Mather! gives the following localities in the 
Hudson river valley below Baker’s Falls, where the Utica slate is 
to be observed with its characteristic graptolites: at Waterford, 
Cohoes, Norman’s kill below Albany, at Hudson, and also one and 
one-half miles below on the same side of the river; in the black 
slate of the Shawangunk mountain, one and one-half miles east of 
Ellenville, Orange county; also at Blue Rock in Marlborough on the 
bank of the Hudson several miles below Poughkeepsie.2 Owing to 
the disturbed condition of the strata the graptolites afford the means 
of determining the geological horizon, where, without their being 
present, it would be exceedingly difficult if not impossible to do so. 

Prof. R. P. Whitfield, in a letter? written to Dr. C. A. White, 
gives a very full description of the occurrence of the graptolites at 
Norman’s kill and the evidence they afforded of the equivalency of 
the graptolitic slates and the Utica slate. 

Prof. Mather included a greater range of rocks in the Hudson 
River group, on the east side of the Hudson, than is now recognized 
as belonging to it. The evidence, however, that he adduced in 1843 


1 Geol. of N. Y. Surv. First Geolog. Dist., pp. 393-395. 1843. 

? It is interesting to note in this connection that Mr. T. Nelson Dale, Jr., has 
recently discovered typical Hudson River group fossils in this same vicinity. 
Amer. Journ. Sci. Arts, Xvi, p. 57. 1879. 


3 Wheeler EKxpd. West of the 100th Meridian, tv, Pt. I, Pal.,p.19. 1875. 


Related Formations. 3 


of its presence, with its lower division the Utica slate, in the valley 
of the Hudson, was very complete, and, judging from the writings 
of his associates on the geological survey and contemporary writers, 
accepted as conclusive. Of the controversy which arose at the time 
of the making up of the Quebec group, regarding the age of these 
rocks along the Hudson and the retaining of the term Hudson River 
group in geological nomenclature, a very complete review will be 
found in a paper recently published by Prof. James Hall.! 

Passing to the south-west along the line of the Appalachians, we 
find the Utica slate mentioned by Prof. H. D. Rogers, as occurring in 
the long valleys crossing the southern, central half of the state of 
Pennsylvania and into Virginia. In the Kittatinny and Kishico- 
quillas valleys it has a thickness of from 300 to 400 feet and carries 
graptolites, also Triarthrus Becki. 

South-westward in Virginia the black slate passes into the drab 
colored shales of the Nashville group of Tennessee, reference to 
which will be made in reviewing the formations of the Utica slate 
horizon. The northern extension of the formation from Baker’s Falls, 
Saratoga county, is seen in the numerous outcrops in the Champlain 
valley and down to the St. Lawrence river, where it expands and 
extends from Montreal to below Quebec. An outlier at Lake St. 
John, and the presence of the slate in the channel between the Min- 
gan Islands and the Islands of Anticosti, gives the known extension 
to the north and north-east.? Of its presence at Anticosti Sir William 
Logan says :3 | 

“* Loose fragments of black, strongly bituminous graptolitic shales, 
in every way resembling those of the Utica formation, and of some 
- of the interstratified beds of the Hudson River, are met with on the 
beach on the north side of Anticosti.” 

Graptolites abound at Lake St. John and TZriarthrus Becki also 
occurs. West of Montreal numerous outliers of the Utica slate are 
found in the Ottawa basin. Asaphus Canadensis, which occurs so 
abundantly at Collingwood on Georgian Bay, is found near the city 
of Ottawa associated with Zriarthrus Becki and other characteristic 
fossils of the Utica slate formation. 


1Proceed. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1877. 

2 Professor C. H. Hitchcock, in the Science News of March 15, 1879, states that 
Professor B. K. Emerson of Amherst College, has in his possession specimens of 
Triarthrus Becki Climacograptus bicornis, etc., from the Arctic regionsbr ought 
by Captain Hall; thus proving the presence of the Utica slate horizon to the 
north of any previous known exposure. 


3 Geology of Canada, p. 221.2 1863. 


4 Utica Slate and 


Having traced the extension of the formation down the Mohawk 
valley to the Hudson and thence north, north-east, and south-west, 
we return to Utica and follow it to the north-west across Oneida, 
Lewis and Jefferson counties to the eastern shore of Lake Ontario. 
It outcrops on the shore east of Toronto, on the north side of the 
excavation made in the strata by the lake basin, and, crossing the 
province of Ontario in a north-westerly direction, presents a fine ex- 
posure at Collingwood on Georgian Bay. With a more westerly 
trend it is next seen crossing the northern side of Manatoulin Island 
in Lake Huron, beyond which, in its characteristic black bituminous 
shaly formation, it has not been traced. 

On Manatoulin Island the thickness has decreased to fifty feet 
(Logan). 

Dr. C. A. White! mentions the discovery in black slates in Nevada 


of Graptolithus quadrimucronatus, G. pristis, and two species allied - 


to forms found in the Utica slate. This discovery will have an im- 
portant bearing on the extension of the Utica epoch to the western 
side of the continent, should it be substantiated by subsequent inves- 
tigation. 

The Trenton limestone and the strata of the Hudson River for- 
mation are co-extensive with the geographical range given for the 
Utica slate. In many instances it is difficult to indicate the line of 
demarcation between the latter formation and the strata above or 
below, while in other localities the limits of each formation are 
clearly defined. In Jefferson county, N. Y., itis only by an arbitrary 
line that the Utica slate can be separated from the Hudson River 
formation.” In the town of Deerfield, Oneida county, N. Y., the 
Trenton and Utica formations are as intimately connected, lithologi- 
cally, as the Utica formation is with the succeeding Hudson River 
formation, which is also the case to the north-east on the St. Law- 
rence? and in other localities. 

Prof. H. D. Rogers in the Pennsylvania Survey Report, 1858, says: 

“The transition from the formation of this very fossiliferous 
limestone (Trenton) to that of the bluish black, carbonaceous, matinal 
(Utica) shale, was, throughout most of the basin, now accessible to 
study, somewhat abrupt ; though, as we have seen, it was extremely 
gradual in one part of their south-east outcrop, or in the northern 
section of the great valley of Virginia. There, there is such an in- 
termingling of the materials, and even of the fossils of the two 
strata, that a division of the blended mass is difficult if not impossible. 


"1 Wheeler’s Expd. West of the 100th Meridian, tv, Pt. I, Pal., p.10, 1875. 
2 Emmons’s Agriculture of New York,1, p. 128. 1846. 
3 Geology of Canada, p, 202. 1863. 


Opes 


Bs ‘te 


Related Formations. 5 


But, through Pennsylvania and all the country north and north-west 
of it, whenever both formations appear, their line of separation is a 
somewhat crisp one. It is evident from this that over most of the 
watery floor there occurred almost simultaneously some great physi- 
cal change banishing the conditions favorable for the deposition or 
secretion of carbonate of lime and permitting the introduction and 
tranquil precipitation of dark, carbonaceous sandy clay or fine, gritty 
blue marl.” 

These varying conditions of the formation along the line of contact 
with the inferior and superior strata have led to considering the Utica 
slate as an independent formation and, at the same time, as beds of 
passage between the Trenton and Hudson River formations. Prof. 
J. D. Dana' unites all the rocks between the Chazy limestone 
and the Medina sandstone epochs under the term Trenton period, 
with the divisions of the Trenton, the Utica, and the Cincinnati 
epochs. . 


EQUIVALENTS OF THE UTICA SLATE. 


Prof. Dana includes the Utica slate alone in the Utica epoch. 
The writer would also include strata which are apparently equivalent 
in time as well as stratigraphical position in the geological series. 

The extensive geographical distribution of the Utica slate, its re- 
taining its characteristic black carbonaceous shaly character, a 
peculiar association, and comparatively large development of or- 
ganic forms, and an average large volume unite to indicate a pro- 
longed continuation of conditions favorable to the depositions of the 
sediments forming it. During the period this formation was being 
deposited in the eastern and northern portions of the Appalachian 


basin,” the central, western and north-western areas must have been 


receiving a deposit of a character in accordance with the conditions 
prevailing without the limits of the deposition of the sediments 
forming the Utica slate. } 

When investigating this subject, and after the outline of this 
paper was sketched, the writer read a passage in the description of 
the matinal series of Pennsylvania which indicates that Prof. H. 
D. Rogers had considered the question in the same light many 
years before, since which time it appears to have been overlooked. 


He says:3 


“The lead-bearing limestone of Wisconsin and Illinois, superior 


1 Manuai of Geology. 1874. 


2 Appalachian basin is used in this paper as including the interior continental 
basin as was originally defined by Prof. Rogers. 
5 Geol. of Penn., 1, p. 784. 1856. 


6 Utica Slate and 


in position to the matinal (Trenton) limestone and inferior to the 
matinal (Hudson River) shales is evidently nearly upon the horizon 
of the matinal (Utica) black slate.” 7 
The facts to be presented will add materially to the view ad 
vanced by Prof. Rogers and, it is believed, will -warrant our 
including the Galena limestone in the Utica epoch. 
The Galena limestone has been very fully described in the pub- 
lications and reports of Professors Whitney, Hall, Chamberlain, 
Winchell and other authors who have written on the geology of the 
region over which it is developed and exposed to examination. It is 
evident that the formation is more closely related to the Trenton 
limestone than to the Hudson River formation; and this must 
necessarily follow from its being a limestone formation succeeding 
a limestone and thus enabling the more persistent forms of the 


Trenton fauna to live on in the seas under conditions that varied _ 


comparatively little, if we contrast the change that took place, from 
the Trenton limestone-forming seas to the turbid waters that de- 
posited the Utica slate. That there is such a marked change in the 
fauna of the Galena is one of the strongest proofs of the great extent 
of the physical change which accompanied the introduction of the 


Utica epoch. 
The most north-easterly exposure of the Galena limestone is men- 


tioned by Prof. James Hall as occurring on the Escanaba river 


in the upper peninsula of Michigan. He says :! 

‘The upper layers of gray limestone having a thickness of fifteen 
feet which rest on the Trenton limestone do not, appear to be identical 
with any portion ofthe Trenton limestone farther east.” 

He then shows that these beds are the probable north-eastern ex- 


tension of the Galena limestone. 

“That the lead-bearing rock is a peculiar one, holding a certain 
place in the series and of limited geographical extent. * * * * * * 
The fact of the existence of this rock, as a distinct member of the 
series, is interesting in a geological point of view and opens the 
question as to the completeness of the series which have been 
studied in New York, Canada, Pennsylvania and Virginia.” 

In describing the formation in Wisconsin the same author says :° 


“Tn some localities there is an abrupt passage from the blue lime- 
stone or Trenton limestone below, but not unfrequently some thin 
argillaceous and calcareo-magnesian layers constitute beds of pas- 
sage from the lower rock. The middle portion is heavy bedded, 
very crystalline, and free from any considerable proportion of argil- 


1 Foster and Whitney’s Report of the Lake Superior Land District, Pt. 2, 


pp. 146, 148. 1801. 
2 Geology of Wisconsin, I, Pp. 43,44. 1862. 


* 


Related Formations. 7 


laceous matter. The upper portions are usually thinner bedded and 
more argillaceous, and often pass by a gradual accession of argil- 
laceous material into the shaly rocks of the group above. * * * * * * 
In some localities there are repetitions of the lower calcareous strata 
above the base of the Galena limestone or alternations of thin fossil- 
iferous beds of the Trenton limestone with the dolomitic limestone of 
the Galena period.” 


In the second volume of the Geology of Wisconsin, Prof. T. 
C. Chamberlain gives a detailed description of the Galena forma- 
tion and a list of the species of fossils occurring in it. From this we 
learn that towards the north-western portion of the state the forma- 
tion begins to undergo a change. 


“The modification consists mainly in the introduction of more 
clayey material in the form of shaly leaves and partings. This 
changes the color from the usual buff to a greenish or bluish-gray. 
There is also an increase of fossils. * * * * * * * * * The change 
in the Galena limestone is gradual and progressive for forty or fifty 
miles, beyond which its nature as modified, becomes constant for 
nearly one hundred miles, to the limits of the state.” 


The formation has still more the character of beds of passage 
between the Trenton and Hudson River formations in its north- 
western extension. The following extracts are taken from Prof. 
N. H. Winchell’s report,! as giving information of the Galena lime- 
stone, and also an account of reference being made to the nomencla- 
ture of the period to which it belongs: 

“In New York the Trenton limestone is succeeded by a mass of 
shales with the local designations, Utica slate, Frankfort slate, shales 


and sandstones of Pulaski, and Lorraine shales. These were all em- 
braced in the term Hudson River group, which had before been 


__ applied to a mass of shales that are now known to be much lower. 


On account of this error the term Cincinnati group has been generally 
substituted.” ? 

“On the other hand in Iowa and southern Wisconsin and Minne- 
-sota, the Trenton limestone is found to pass into the Galena by slow 
stages and to be followed, at least in Iowa, by a greatly reduced 
representative of the Cincinnati group, named by Dr. White the 
Maquoketa shales. Leaving lowa and passing into Minnesota the 
Trenton increases in thickness, and the Galena diminishes, the latter 


1 Siath Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, pp. 82, 83. 1878. 

? The erroneous reference of the shales of the Hudson River group in the 
valley of the Hudson to a lower geological horizon is one that, since the correc- 
tion of the error by Prof. James Hall and more recently by Prof. J. 8. New- 
berry, will undoubtedly be dropped as an argument in favor of retaining the 
term Cincinnati group. ‘lhe only grounds upon which it can be retained with 
any degree of reason are those advanced by Prof. Newberry in the Geology 
of Ohio. 


8 Utica Slate and 


becoming interstratified with beds of shale. In Olmstead county, 
still further north, the Trenton also contains numerous beds of shale; 
and the Galena is still further reduced. The beds are traceable by 
continuous or frequent out-crops throughout Goodhue and Rice 
counties, with an increasing amount of contained shale in the Trenton, 
and finally with the complete loss of the Galena.” 

The Galena formation, attaining its maximum development in the 
area bordering on northern Illinois, south-western Wisconsin and 
eastern Iowa diminishes in volume to the north, north-east and north- 
west. In the area mentioned it has a thickness of from 200 to 275 
feet; it is not to be found near the primary rocks on the old shore 
line of the northern border of the basin, having thinned out in that 
direction. To the south it passes beneath the superior formations, 
with the exception of an area in Missouri, where, although having 
considerable volume, it is less than in its central area. In south- 


western Illinois the Thebes sandstone rests directly upon the Trenton - 


limestone, occupying the same position as the Galena limestone does 
in Illinois and Missouri. 

Having reviewed the Utica epoch in its stratigraphical character and 
geographical distribution, over its eastern, northern and western ex- 
tension of the Appalachian basin, there remains the great central 
area over which, from its being remote from the eastern and northern 
shore lines, the sediments were deposited with less abrupt changes 
in their character and with less disturbance of the then living fauna. 

In 1842 Prof. James Hall said of the lower beds exposed near 
Cincinnati : 

“At Newport, Kentucky, opposite to Cincinnati and at one or 
two other places in the vicinity, there is a green shale with the 
Triarthrus, graptolites and a few encrinal joints, showing the same 
assemblage of fossils and in the same position as the Utica slate of 
New York.” 

The rock below these beds he considered the equivalent of the 
Trenton limestone and above the equivalent of the sandstones of 
Salmon river and the shales and sandstones of Pulaski.'! Thirty- 
seven years of study and investigation of this formation has not 
changed the value or correctness of this statement, as is well shown 
by. the recent action of the committee on Geological Nomenclature, 
of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History.? 


* Notes on the Geology of the Western States. Amer. Journ. Sci. Arts, p. 61. 
1842. 

? « The fossils found in the strata, for twenty feet or more above low water mark 
of the Ohio river, in the first ward of the city of Cincinnati, and on Crawfish 
creek, in the eastern part of the city, and in Taylor’s creek east of Newport, 
Kentucky, at an elevation of more than fifty feet above low water mark in the 


=e) 


Related Formations. 9 


Prof. Edward Orton on page 369 of the first volume of the 
Geology of Ohio 1873, says : 

“Tt will; however, be shown to be probable that the lowermost 
beds of Cincinnati are the proper equivalent of the Utica slate ; in 
other words, that these shales and limestones were growing here, 
while the black Utica shales were in progress of deposition in Eastern 
New York.” 

Also on page 398, in referring to the presence of Zriarthrus Becki, 
he says : 

‘Some interest is connected with the occurrence of this fossil here, 
because it is counted quite a characteristic fossil of the Utica shale, 
of Eastern New York. It belongs, however, in the Trenton of the 
Same region, so that no parallelism of formations is effected by this 
trilobite, which other fossils are unable to establish. The most that 
can be said in regard to it, is, that it suggests the low water beds of 
Cincinnati as the equivalent of the Utica shale.” 


The specimens of Zriarthrus Becki found in the Trenton limestone 
of New York occur in the upper portion of the formation in what may 


Ohio river, indicate the age of the Utica slate group of New York. A fauna is 
represented in these rocks, that is not found above or below them. Within this 
range, we find the Triarthrus Becki, Leperditia Byrnesi, Leptobolus lepis, Butho- 
trephis ramulosa, and several species of graptolites, crinoids, bryozoans, and 
brachiopods, that seem to be confined within its limits. Moreover, the brown 
slates and greenish blue shales and concretionary nodules give a lithological 
character to the strata, which distinguish them from the strata both above and 
below. From the evidence thus furnished by the lithological character of the 
strata, and the distinct character of the fossil remains, we refer all the strata 
containing the 7riarthrus Becki to the age of the Uticaslate group of Ne) 

“ Above the range of the Triarthrus Becki, the fossils, as well as the position of 
the rocks, indicate the age of the Hudson River group of New York,and we have 
no hesitation in so referring them, and entertain no doubt of the correctness of 
the reference. 

“ The fossils from Paris, Lexington, the High Bridge over the Kentucky river, 
and from other places in Kentucky, as well as the lithological character of the 
strata, furnish abundant evidence of the existence of the Trenton group over an 
extensive tract of country, in that state. In the state of Kentucky, we have the 
Trenton, Utica slate and Hudson River groups well represented, and the rocks 
have a northerly dip from Paris and Lexington, toward the Ohio river. * * * 

_“ The conclusion is, that all the Lower Silurian rocks, which we have under 
consideration, are to be referred to the Trenton, Utica slate and Hudson River 


groups, and that the name ‘ Cincinnati group’ should be dropped, not only be- 


cause it is a synonym, but because its retention can subserve no useful purpose 
in the science, and because it will, in the future, asin the past, lead to erroneous 
views and fruitless discussion. And we would add that so far as any investiga- 
tions of these rocks have been made, they have not led to any further or other 
subdivisions than those which we have adopted, and which have been so thor. 
oughly and firmly established by the geologists of the state of New York.?” 

1 Report of special meeting of the Cin. Soc. Nat. Histy., Jany. 23d, 1879. 

Trans. &. 2 


10 Utica Slate and 


be termed beds of passage to the Utica slate, and have not, to the 
writer’s knowledge, been found lower in the formation. During 
eight years of work in the Trenton limestone I have never seen a 
fragment of this trilobite below the upper shaly passage beds. It 
has a distinct geological horizon, and its presence indicates a 
parallelism of formations as will be shown by the facts presented in 
this paper. The presence of the Utica slate horizon does not rest 
solely on the presence of this trilobite as there is both a paleontologi- 
cal and lithological break in the series, at this horizon, throughout the 
Appalachian basin with the exception it may be at the extreme 
north-western and south-eastern outcrops. 

In South-western Illinois, the formation resting on the Trenton 
limestone is described by Professor A. H. Worthern ( Geol. of Zu., m1, 
p. 27, 1868), as a sandstone, which he calls the “‘ Thebes sandstone 
and shale.” He says: 

“This formation, which underlies the limestone above described 
(dark blue compact limestone) is well exposed in the vicinity of 
Thebes. * * * * * The lower portion of it only is a true sandstone, 
and is about thirty feet in thickness, and passes upward into a sandy 
shale of a dark brown color. * * * * * A half mile below Thebes 
we found a yellowish brown shale, apparently not above five or six 
feet in thickness, that evidently formed the base of this group. It 
was filled with fragments of Z7ilobites, apparently belonging to the 
Asaphus canalis, which, with a Zingula found in the upper shale 
immediately below the limestone, are the only fossils it has afforded. 
« * * * * Some of the sandstone layers are from two to three feet 
in thickness and well adapted for building purposes.” 

In the valleys of Virginia, Eastern Tennessee, and Northern Ala- 
bama, the black carbonaceous shales of the Utica slate are replaced 
by the lighter colored marls and shales of the same geological 
horizon. 

Professor James Safford in the Geology of Tennessee, pp. 228 — 
278, 1869, describes the Trenton and the Nashville rocks in East 
Tennessee as follows: 

“They are, first, a stratum of blue limestone, more or less argilla- 
ceous, from 200 to 600 feet thick, then, above this, a great body of 
sky-blue calcareous and often sandy shales. * * * * In going to the 
north-west the shales become more and more calcareous approaching 
the condition of the same strata present in Middle Tennessee. 

“At the base of the sky-blue calcareous shales in the eastern 
border counties there is a fine dark or black shale, becoming in places 
100 or 150 feet thick. It abounds, very generally, in graptolites. The 
graptolites are not confined to this lower stratum, they run up into 
the main body of the shale and are found at numerous localities. 

“In the basin of Central Tennessee the rocks are mainly blue 
limestones throughout. The entire series is about 1000 feet thick 


Related Formations. 11 


and is equally divided between the Trenton and Nashville series. 
This series is a natural group, and though each member has many 
of its own, yet there are a number of forms uniting the two. It is 
divided both on lithological and paleontological grounds into two 
sub-groups. The Trenton ends with a light colored, heavy-bedded 
limestone, and the Nashville begins with a silicious, blue calcareous 
rock, weathering often, into thin, earthy, buff, sandy masses, and, 
sometimes, into shales. The bed is distinguished by the abundanee 
of Orthis testudinaria and Strophonema alternata, while the upper 
Trenton beds contain Stromatopora rugosa, Columnaria alveolata, 
Petraria profunda, Strophonema filitexta, Rhynchonella recur- 
- wtrostra, Pleurotomaria lapicida, Orthoceras Huronense, ete. 

“The Orthis bed is frequently a group of smoothly laminated 
flags, interstratified with shaly seams, when wet it looks much like 
the ‘ Black Shale.’ At almost all points where it comes to the surface 
throughout middle Tennessee, it is seen to contain vast numbers of 
individuals of Orthis testudinaria. 

“In the western valley of Tennessee it is the hydraulic rock and 
the most conspicuous of the Nashville strata. Along the Tennessee 
river it is seen at the base of several bluffs, its dark band on a 
level with the water and in strong contrast with the lighter beds, 
and gray limestones of the high bluffs above. 

“The upper members of the Nashville group, constitute a group 
of rather dark blue, highly fossiliferous, often roughly bedded, im- 
pure, limestones of a maximum thickness of 400 feet.” 

The preceding descriptions, selected from the various authors 
who have published details of the character and sequence of the 
strata of the area and geological horizon: over which our examina- 
tions have taken us, proving the existence of a widespread change 
in the physical condition of the sea of the Appalachian basin at the 
close of the Trenton limestone formation, and preceding that of the 
coarser and more varied sediments of the Hudson River formation, 
are given as a basis for including the Utica shale, Galena limestone, 
Triarthrus beds of Cincinnati, and the Orthis bed of the Nashville 
series, in one geological epoch; we might also add the Thebes sand- 
stone and a portion of the Graptolitic shales of Virginia, Tennessee 
and Alabama. 

All along the margins of the great Appalachian basin, from Anti- 
costi to Lake Huron, to Minnesota, to Alabama and thence north- 
east to the St. Lawrence, the change at the close of the Trenton 

limestone-forming period, in the lithological characters and the 
fauna, is everywhere apparent; in some localities quite maiked and 
abrupt; in others the horizon is nearly lost by the blending of both 
the strata and organic remains of the lower with the next succeeding 
formation. The organic remains of the Utica slate entitle it to rank 
as a formation quite as much as its lithological character. one 


12 Utica Slate and 


hundred species known to the writer as occurring therein, fifty-four 
are peculiar to it and not known above or below its horizon. The 
graptolites are the most constant forms but over a great area the 
Triarthrus Becki is only second to them. The few individuals of 
the species of trilobite that have been found in the Trenton lime- 
stone were in the upper shaly limestone, which was deposited when 
the conditions bringing about the Utica slate deposit were being in- 
troduced. 

Triarthrus Becki and the various forms of graptolites appear to_ 
have been, notwithstanding their fragile character, peculiarly adapted 
to spread over an extended area in the muddy bed of the sea, while 
the clearer limestone-forming seas were not favorable to the develop- 
ment of the trilobite and to but few species of the graptolites ; 
the trilobite has not been found to the knowledge of the writer to the 
north-west, west, or south of the Cincinnati exposure. That this tri- 
lobite and the graptolites should have obtained so wide a geographi- 
cal distribution is evidence of the comparative slow deposition of the 
sediments forming the Utica slate; this view is also strengthened 
by the presence of the large and fully developed Asaphus Halli and 
Asaphus Canadensis at Collingwood, where the shales are filled with 
their remains and those of graptolites, brachiopods and orthoceratites. 

The return of conditions favorable to the existence and extension 
of the graptolites and Zriarthrus Becki, at the commencement of 
the deposition of the Hudson River formation in Illinois, Wisconsin 
and Iowa, would have undoubtedly led to their extension to the 
west, either by the way of the central basin or the northern coast 
line, had they not been replaced by the fauna of the later beds at 
Cincinnati. I would regard the deposition of the sediment forming 
the Galena limestone as going on during and after the deposition of 
the Triarthrus beds at Cincinnati; the calcareous marls and _ sedi- 
ments of the Hudson River formation over the central basin, to the 
west of the extension of the Utica formation, gradually forcing their 
way, towards the close of the epoch, over the Galena limestone- 
forming area, and eventually burying it beneath a deposit of shales 
and preventing for a time the deposition of the sediments forming 
the magnesian limestones, so characteristic of the western side of 
the Appalachian basin. 

The shales resting on the Galena limestone in Wisconsin and 
Iowa, cannot, in the writer’s view, be considered as the possible or 
probable equivalent of the Utica slate. There isno similarity in the 
fauna and the fact of their being somewhat carbonaceous is not 
sufficient to correlate them. 


Related Formations. 13 


The Galena limestone in its north-eastern extension commences as a 
comparatively thin formation and augments in volume to the west and 
south-west. In the north and north-western exposures, it is essentially 
a connecting link or bed of passage between the Trenton and Hudson 
formations. Distinct, lithologically and paleontologically, when 
viewed by itself, as is the Utica slate, still, on the same grounds, 
it is united to the formations above and below. To the underlying 
Trenton it is connected by beds of passage and the presence of fifty- 
six species of fossils found in the Trenton, twenty-nine of which do 
not pass upward into the Hudson River formation. In the north- 
eastern portion it partakes of the character, in its upper beds, of the 
succeeding beds, and thirty species continue on into the Hudson 
River formation, while nineteen species of fossils are limited to the 
Galena. 

The following table gives the number of species in each of the 
two formations, viz.:. Utica and Galena. 


Utica. | Galena. 


SMMERNGP OF SPOCICS,*.. <2... ines ee ccc cee ce ect eeeee 100 78 
Number of species limited to the formation, Ae) ee ores 54 19 
Number of species limited to the formation and Trenton group,. . i 29 
Number of species limited to the formation and the Hudson River 
a eh Gs clin Sela div = Welt ws eos eqn cee ees 11 5) 
Number of species common to the Trenton, Hudson River, and U. 
; MEI TINTS 820 sa nLch  e-aie alee oe So's onlay by wee oe 24 27 
Number of species passing from the Trenton formation to Utica 
Rr tote le i SLI ab Ugiactiy'd peeve OR Cee eee eee 30 56 
Number of species passing from the Utica or Galena to the Hud- 
EMIT MIRLION. Se cect wes ose teak eoeie ee eas 30 30 


The table shows that a greater change took place in the fauna of 
~ the Utica slate than in that of the Galena limestone; the former 
having fifty-four species limited to its boundaries, and thirty-six 
derived from the Trenton ; while the latter has nineteen species 
peculiar to it, and fifty-six passing up from the Trenton formation 
beneath. This diversity is undoubtedly owing to the greater variation 
in the character of the sediments of the Utica slate as compared with 
the Galena, when the change from the Trenton limestone-forming 
deposit occurred. One of the strongest arguments in favor of the 
Galena being placed with the Utica slate in a distinct epoch is the 
fact that, notwithstanding its being a limestone formation, it has a 
fauna of twenty-two species, which do not occur in the Trenton and 
but three pass to the Hudson River formations. If the Utica slate 


1 This does not include the undefined species from the Galena, mentioned in 
the Geology of Wisconsin, 11, 1877. 


14 Utica Slate and 


can be taken from the Hudson River group and considered a distinct 
formation then the Galena is to be ranked in the same way, both on 
account of its lithological characters and the peculiarity of its fauna. 
To the superior formation the Galena is united by passage beds 
and thirty species of fossils, while the Utica slate has but two more 
species and a somewhat closer union by its lithological characters. 

Both the Thebes sandstone and the Orthis bed of Tennessee give 
expression to the epoch following that of the Trenton and, although 
inferior in volume and character of imbedded fossils to the Utica and 
Galena, they unite with the Triarthrus beds of Cincinnati to estab- 
lish the Utica horizon over the central Appalachian basin, at the 
close of the Trenton limestone-forming epoch. 

In conclusion, it is to be considered, that, although an exact 
equivalency in time cannot be asserted for the deposition of the 


Utica and Galena formations, the facts presented afford strong evi- 


dence of their belonging to the same geological epoch, and consid- 
ered with the beds mentioned above in the central basin, they form 
a distinct geological horizon in the Trenton period, separating and 
distinguishing the two great divisions, the Trenton and Hudson 
River. 

The Utica horizon will then include : 
The Utica slate. 
The Galena limestone. 
The Triarthrus beds of Cincinnati. 
The Orthis bed of Tennessee. 


The Thebes sandstone. 
Graptolitic shales, in part, of Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama. 


We have observed that there isa well defined and distinct horizon 
between the Trenton and Hudson River formations along the Hudson 
and Mohawk valleys, which extends throughout the Appalachian 
basin. With this in view there can be but one series of terms to 
express the divisions of Prof. Dana’s Trenton period. 

They are : 

Hvupson Epocu. 
Utica Epocu. 
TRENTON Epoca. 


The term Cincinnati epoch cannot be substituted for that of 
Hudson River, without violence to accepted rules of nomenclature. 
The term Nashville group has priority and both are synonymous 
with the much older term Hudson River. The Hudson epoch, 
as used above, includes the original Hudson River group of the 


Are 


Related Formations. 15 


New York geologists above the Utica slate horizon, and the same 
strata in Pennsylvania and Canada and their western extension de- 
signated as the Nashville and Cincinnati groups. 


SUPLEMENTARY NOTE. 


This paper was prepared in January of this year, 1879, and as the 
third volume of the Geology of Ohio was not received until late in 
February, the following references are added as bearing on the nomen- 
clature adopted by the writer in speaking of the Hudson River group. 

Prof. J. S. Newberry has a reference in the third volume of 
the Geology of Ohio, which mentions the statements made in the 
first volume of the same work, relating to the propriety of retaining 
the term Cincinnati group, for the strata exposed in southern Ohio 
which have received that name. 

On page 3 of the third volume the following passage occurs : 


“In the state of New York, the differences between the Trenton 
and the Hudson groups, are chiefly local and lithological nearly all 
the fossils of the Hudson being found in the Trenton. The only 
fossils characteristic of the Utica slate, are graptolites which seem to 
have grown in great profusion in certain shallow and quiet parts of 
the lower Silurian sea.” 


The difference between the Trenton and Hudson groups, as estab- 
lished in New York are not local or entirely lithological. From 
Lake Huron, across the province of Ontario to New York State and 
thence by the way of the Black river, Mohawk, Hudson, Lake Champ- 
lain and St. Lawrence valleys to Anticosti and south-west from the 


valley of the Hudson to Virginia, the differences are essentially the 
‘same. The black, bituminous shale forms a distinct horizon between 


the Trenton and Hudson groups. 

Viewed in its paleontological aspect we find one hundred species 
of fossils, fifty-four of which are limited to the formation (Utica), of 
these thirty-three are graptolites in nine genera. There are also of 


Algee,......-.- + eee Ra as Gates: PIPONETAL |i sestvedice. <2 sses. 4 species. 
Bry0Z0a,.--.202+ seeeeee es eeeeeeee one Pe CR State pon evans a= 1 - 
BEMMEHIODOOR, ~~. ...-----+ 5.020000. 2 -PONORBS cess jonndarew cose’ 3 = 
Lamellibranchiata, ................ 3 ce, <a ee a 3 es 
0 Eee eee Be INTIS PAIS 2 sre sy scicnn a> 1 7 
Cephalopoda, .....-......sseer sees. 1 Metis 0 (oc » 1 - 
Pteropoda,. .---...eeeeeeee ceeeeeeres 1 pgeh 2 ari Seen Ban ae 1 < 
0 te Dp ENCM A ene o oad cect da 7 ee 


1Proc. Amer. Assoc. Advt. Sct., 1877. 


16 Utica Slate and 


This gives a distinct paleontological horizon of twenty-one species 
in fourteen genera without the addition of the graptolites and Zriar- 
thrus Becki. Fifty-four species distributed in twenty-three genera, 
should sufficiently establish the paleontological record of the Utica 
slate as a distinct formation. 

In the Science News of March 15th 1877, Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, 
in an article under the title “‘ Lorraine Group, ” reviews the nomen- 
clature of the strata composing the Trenton series or Trenton period. 


“The proposition to substitute Cincinnati period for the term 
Trenton period is one that increases the confusion which is con- 
nected with the name Cincinnati.” 

As Prof. Hitchcock admits the presence of the Utica slate horizon 
at Cincinnati, he does away with the last reason for retaining the 
term Cincinnati, as applied to any ate epoch or period of Lower 
Silurian rocks. On page 1538, he says: 

“ The majority of the feed board of New York geologists agr eee 
that the name Hudson River should be applied to q@l/ the slaty and 
gritty rocks lying in the Hudson valley from the Highlands to Lake 
Champlain ; while their jointly published map adds the synonomy 
of Lorraine.” 


In the Report of the First Geological District, Prof. Wm. H. 


Mather says, p. 380: 

“We have thus far described some of the characters and phen- 
omena of the Hudson River rocks, on the right bank of the Hudson, 
and have kept them distinct from those of the left bank, because 
they are much more deranged on the east side of the river, by sev- 
eral fractures and lines of upheave parallel to the main axis, extend- 
ing north and south, and also by transverse fractures and lines of 
upheave, that have deranged all the rocks of the Champlain divi- 
sion, and packed them together, helter-skelter, in the utmost con- 
fusion. They are contorted, broken and wrinkled, in almost every 
conceivable manner, in the vicinity of the intersections of these frac- 
tures and axes of disturbance; and although the lines of bearin 
and dip of the strata are nearly uniform in their direction (* * * * *) 
except near the intersections of the fractures and axes of disturb- 
ance, yet the repetitions of the same strata so variously, with others 
lying higher and lower in the geological series, and with frequent 
apparent inversions of the order of superposition, renders it almost 
impossible to determine from an examination of the strata on the 
east bank of the Hudson, what the real order of superposition is. 
* * * * * * Fortunately, nearly all the strata of the Champlain 
division are exposed in the valley of the Mohawk, unchanged in 
position and in some places along the west side of the main axis 
they may be examined in the order of superposition indicated in the 
tabular arrangement of the rocks of that division.’ 

Prof. Mather was the geologist in whose district the strata in 


1 [bid. 


gh Lit 


Related Formations. 17 


discussion are situated. His official report contains the above. On 


_ page 366 he says: 


“The division of the fossiliferous rocks of the first geological dis- 
trict, as proposed in the Fourth Annual Report (1840), was one of con- 
venience, and founded in nature, and as affording means of easily 
tracing the groups of strata. This division of the rocks has been 
substantially sustained by the Board of Geologists, the Hudson slate 
series being divided into the Champlain division and Taconic sys- 
tem, etc.” 


Prof. Mather recognized the presence of the lower members of 
the Champlain division in the confused strata on the east side of the 
Hudson. He established the Hudson River group on the west side 
and then referred the strata on the east side, in many places with 
doubt, to it. The correctness of the original reference and its accept- 
ance by the Board of Geologists is a fact in the history of the 
survey. 

The use of the term Lorraine group is not admissible, as the term 
Hudson River antedates it, and Lorraine was placed as a synonym 
by the Board of Geologists who agreed upon the nomenclature of 
the New York system of rocks. The facts presented by Prof. 
Mather upon which the term Hudson River group was established, 
have not been materially changed by subsequent investigations. 
Mr. Dale’s discovery of an old locality given by Mather and Mr. 
Ford’s verification of the presence of a lower member of the Cham- 
plain division by paleontological evidence, being the two instances 
cited in the article by Prof. Hitchcock. 

In a very interesting paper on the “Hudson River Age of the 
Taconic Schists” (Amer. Jour. Sci., Artsy pp. 375-388, May 1879), 


~ Prof. J. D. Dana shows that the Taconic schists are, according to 


the evidence presented, of the age of the Hudson River group and 
that the five limestone belts mentioned are of Lower Silurian age, 


thus arriving at conclusions partially coinciding with those of Prof. 
Mather. 


Trans. z.| - © 3 


FOSSILS OF THE UTICA SLATE. 


{Read before the Albany Institute, March 18, 1879. ] 
By C.D. AV Arcorr 


It is not designed under the above title to present a detailed 
description of the various fossils found in the Utica slate formation, 
but to give a list of those occurring in it, with references to publi- 
cations where descriptions of the species mentioned may be found ; 
also descriptions of some new species not hitherto known in the for- 
mation, and a notice of the development, or metamorphoses as far as 
now known, of its characteristic trilobite Zriarthrus Becki. 


CYATHOPHYCUS nov. gen. 


KiaSes —a@ cup ; Bixog—a sea weed. 


Hollow membraneous fronds with an opening at the upper extrem- 
ity of the frond, elongate or hemispherical in form ; reticulate or 
plain structure. 


The type of the genus Cyathophycus reticulatus, resembles in its 
tubular, hollow, membraneous frond, with a recticulated structure, 
the recent genus of alge ENTEROMORPHA. 


CYATHOPHYCUS RETICULATUS 7. Sp. 


Plate u, figures 16, 16 a—d. | 


Elongate, tubular, hollow fronds ; membraneous, with a strong 
reticulated structure ; opening at the summit circular, usually a 
little smaller than the diameter of the frond, and sometimes with a 
thickened margin ; the thickened cell walls are arranged in longitu- 
dinal and transverse lines, giving the reticulated appearance, even 
in poorly preserved specimens. 

The longitudinal lines of cell walls converge and unite at the base 
to form a short obtuse stem or root. 

The fronds vary in length from one and one-half to twenty-three 
centimetres and in form from long tubular to broad cup shaped. 

This rare and beautiful alga is associated with graptolites ;— Dxn- 
DROGRAPTUS, CLIMACOGRAPTUS — Endoceras proteiforme and Triar- 
thrus Becki. Specimens of a small undetermined Pleurotomaria 
are attached to several fronds. 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 19 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
wo. N. Y. 


CYATHOPHYCUS SUBSPHERICUS 1%. Sp. 


Plate u, figure 17. 


Hollow membraneous fronds with a circular opening at the apex 
of a nearly hemispheric body. 


This species is less firm in structure than the proceeding, there 
being no thickening of the cell walls to give the reticulated appear- 
rance and to preserve the form, which varies from circular to 
oval as if a hemispheric body had been pressed flat. In an example 
three centimetres in diameter, the circular opening is nine milli- 
metres in diameter. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Co., N. Y. 


DISCOPHYCUS nov. gen. 


Aigxog — a disk ; Pixos — a sea weed. 
Discoid, slightly convex fronds ; circular or orbicular in outline 


substance coriaceous. 


DiscoPpHYCUS TYPICALIS 7. Sp. 


Plate u, figures 18, 18a. 


Frond discoid, more or less convex owing to degree of compres- 
sion. Outline clearly defined, varies from circular to orbicular when 
unbroken before being imbedded in the sediment, assumes various 
shapes when broken and pressed out. The substance appears to have 
been of a coriaceous nature as it is slightly corrugated on the outer 
margin in some fronds, and frequently shells of the genera Orruis 
and PreRInEa are attached to it, forming small colonies upon 
the smooth, dark lustrous surface. In several large entire, and 
also fragmentary, specimens the outer margin appears as though a 
gelatinous or carnose body had been pressed flat between the layers 
of shale. | 

Fronds vary in size from four to twelve centimetres in diameter. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
o,,.N.. ¥: 


20 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


GreNnus—GRAPTOLITHUS Linnavs 1736. 


Plate 1, figures 2, 2a. 
GRAPTOLITHUS ANNECTANS 7%. Sp. 


Frond consisting of two slender flexuous stipes which are widely 
divergent from a small short obtuse radical. The stipes curve 
slightly upward at their origin and then outward and obliquely 
downward ; semi-cylindrical at the base, they become more flattened 
at the extremities. 

Diameter at and near the base one-half of a millimetre, near 
the extremities one millimetre. Test strong and thick; surface 
apparently smooth. 

Cellules long, narrow, curving gently toward the aperture, making 
an angle with the axis of the stipe of about 20°. The apertures of 
the cellules are about one millimetre apart ; the point of the denticle 
or aperture is falcate curving over the cellule so as to nearly close 
it midway. The walls of the cellules are thickened giving a tumid 
appearance to the cell denticle, and forming a small pustule in ad- 
vance of the base of each cellule. 

The form and proportion of the stipe is similar to that of ona 
lithus flaccidus, Hall. The cellules are quite different. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Co, N.¥: 


Grenus— DENDROGRAPTUS Hatt 1865. 


DENDROGRAPTUS SIMPLEX 7%. Sp. 


Plate 1, figures 5, 5 a, b, 6. 


Stipe long, slender,*flattened. Branches of nearly a uniform char- 
acter with the stipe bifurcating from it at regular distances ; both 
celluliferous and noncelluliferous surface apparently smooth. Cellules 
simple, slightly elongated, depressions, from two and one-half to 
three millimetres distance from each other, on the central depressed 
portion of the branches. Substance of the stipe and branches cor- 
neous and from the evidence of compression probably tubular. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, nae 
Ae. BPE 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 21 


DENDROGRAPTUS TENUIRAMOSUS 2%. Sp. 


Plate 1, figure 4. 


Stipe slender, compressed ; branches bifurcate from it irregularly, 
frequently sub-dividing, terminating in filiform extremities ; surface 
apparently smooth. Celluliferous side with smooth simple round 
pits, or depressions along the center of the branches. Substance 
corneous and as in Dendrograptus simplex probably tubular. 

The compression of the tubular stipe and branches forms a rim-like 
margin on each side of a central depressed area in which the cellules 
are seen, as in the specimen illustrated on Plate 1, fig. 5, 5, a, b. 

The different mode of branching, the slender extension of the 
branches and the general appearance of the entire frond distinguishes 
it from the preceding species. From Dendrograptus (Psilophyton) 
gracillimum it is separated by having smaller cellules and less robust 
stipe and branches. In specimens received from Mr. 8. A. Miller of 
Cincinnati, Ohio, identified as the Psilophyton gracillimum of — 
Lesquereux, the cellules are larger and more elongated than in the 
species from the Utica slate, the stipe and branches show the same 
compression of an apparently corneous, hollow, tubular structure. 

The resemblance of these two species of DENDROGRaPTUs to Lyco- 
podiaceous plants of the genus PstLopuyTon is very striking and apt 
to mislead the observer. Their occurrence with alge, graptolites, 
trilobites and brachiopods in the same layers of shale, in a posi- 
tion indicating their growth in situ, taken with their graptolitic 
structure, precludes the idea of their being of other than marine 
origin. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Sex. WN; Y. 


DENDROGRAPTUS COMPACTUS 7%. Sp. 


Plate 1, figure 1. 


_ Frond fan shaped ; branches comparatively coarse and numerous ; 
stipe below the branches unknown. 


The specimen figured is the only one in the collection; it is too 
much weathered to show the surface characters. The shape of the 


frond and the numerous and compact branches distinguish it from 
allied species of the same genus. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Co., N. Y. 


22 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


GreNus—SAGENELLA Hatt 1852. 


SAGENELLA AMBIGUA 1. Sp. 


Plate 1, figures 3, 3a. 


Cells arranged in regular parallel series over most of the surface, 
quadrangular and oblong shaped in the parallel series, and where 
this series is broken they are more or less oval, several series are 
intercalated giving the cell walls the appearance of the bifurcating 
branches of a Dictyonema. The striations visible on the cell walls 
and transverse septa are owing to the impression of the striated 
surface of the shell of the Endoceras to which the bryozoan was 
attached. 

Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 


Co; Ney 
Grenus— MODIOLOPSIS Hatt 1847. 
MODIOLOPSIS CANCELLATA 1. Sp. 
Plate 1, figure 8, 8a. 
General form subelliptical, convex ; cardinal line nearly straight 


from the beak to the posterior margin; anterior end rounded from 


the cardinal line to the basal margin. 
Basal line arcuate ; posterior end obliquely truncate, umbonal 


ridge broadly rounded with a uniform convexity, to the basal 
margin. 

Surface marked by strong concentric and radiating strie, 
which are strongly developed on the posterior half of the shell ; the 
crossing of the striz gives a cancellated appearance which is not 
seen on the closely related Modiolopsis anodontoides. The broad 
umbonal ridge also distinguishes it from that species. 

Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Vo. Na a 


Grenus— ORTHOCERAS  Breynivs 1732. 
ORTHOCERAS ONEIDAENSE 7. sp. 
Plate 1, figure 7, 7a. 


Besides the very common Hndoceras proteiforme, which occurs 
in great numbers, there are two forms of Orthoceras in the beds from 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 23 


which so many rare specimens have been obtained. One is an annu- 
lated shell with strong longitudinal striations which have the appear- 
ance of having transverse striz crossing them. The fragment is of 
the character of Orthoceras (vertebrale) olorus of the Trenton lime- 
stone. The other is a very slender, finely cancellated, shell different 
from any other form known to me; for the latter the name Ortho- 
ceras Oneidaense is proposed. 


Formation and locality, Utica slate, town of Trenton, Oneida 
Co., N. Y. 


BEYRICHIA CINCINNATIENSIS MILLER. 


This species occurs, associated with Leperditia cylindrica and L. 
minutissima, in the lower part of the slate on Rathbone’s brook, 
Deerfield, Oneida Co., N. Y. 


TRIARTHRUS BECKI Green 1832. 


Brongniartia carcinoidea: Eaton 1882. Geol. Text Book. 

Triarthrus Beckii : Monthly Journal of Geology, p. 560. 

Triarthrus Beckii : Green 1832. Monograph, p. 87. 

Triarthrus Beckii : 1885. Trans. Geol. Soc. Penn., vol. 1, p. 105. 

Paradozides arcuatus: Harlan, 1835. Trans. Geol. Soc., Penn., vol. 1, p. 265. 
Paradozides triarthrus: “ cs 7 : se * se a 264. 
Paradoxides Beckii : Hall 1838. Amer. Jour. Science, vol. XxxttI, p. 187. 
Paradoxides Katoni: “ “ # - - - e . 


Triarthrus beckii: Mather 1842 Rep., 1st District, Geol. N. Y., p. 390. 


Triarthrus beckii: Emmons ‘“ ‘ 2d . % BS “« 399. 
_ Triarthrus beckii: Vanuxem, ‘‘ “ 3d ne Os “4 Oke 
Triarthrus Beckii: Hall, of eee 4 ees i. a “ 604. 


Aitops trilineatus : Emmons 1844. Taconic System, p. 20. 

Atops trilineatus : Emmons 1846. Agr. Rept., N. Y., vol. 1, p. 64. 
Calymene Beckii: Hall 1847. Pal. N. Y., vol. 1, pp. 237, 250. 
Triarthrus Beckii : Logan 1863. Geology of Canada, p. 202. 
Triarthrus Becki: Barrande 1872. Syst. Sil. Boheme. vol. 1, p. 259. 
Triarthrus Becki: Miller 1874. Cincinnati Jour. Science, vol. 1, p. 146. 
Triarthrus Becki : Miller 1877, Cat. Amer. Pal. Fossils, p. 223. 


Many references are omitted where the species is named Triar- 
thrus Becki, as it has been so frequently referred to by authors. 
Numerous figures and detailed descriptions of the species are given 
in the first volume of the Paleontology of New York. 

Before proceeding to the discussion of its metamorphoses, we 
will first notice the references that have been made to changes 
occurring in species of the genus Triarthrus by authors. 


24 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


1847. Prof. James Hall in vol. 1, Pal. NV. Y, p. 251, in describing 
Calymene (Triarthrus) Becki says: 

“There is still some little difficulty in determining the number of 
articulations of the thorax, since the greater number of specimens are 
imperfect ; and in a single large specimen there appear to be fourteen 
or fifteen. This fact indicates an increase in the number of thoracic 
rings with age, a character which Emmricu has given of OLENUs.” 

1852. Prof. Barrande’ in noticing the above remarks says. © 

“In a previous passage (p. 237) relating to the same species [ Caly- 
mene (Triarthrus) Becki]. J. Hall regards it as having thirteen seg- 
ments. The extent of the supposed variations in the number of thoracic 
elements will then be from thirteen to fifteen, this last limit, however, 
is given with some doubt. The numerous figures given by the author 
elsewhere, show that the materials at his disposal were incomplete. 
It seems to us then, before definitely admitting a progressive devel- 
opment, it is necessary to await new documents ; as for the character 
attributed to the OLeNus by Emmrice it comes from an error of. 
observation.” 

1857. Prof. E. Billings comparing Zriarthrus Becki with Triar- 
thrus spinosus, which he then described as having thirteen thoracic 
segments, says :? 

“In a well preserved specimen of Triarthrus Becki in the museum, 
there are distinctly fifteen segments in the thorax, and five in the 
axis of the pygidium, so that if these two species be congeneric, the 
number of articulations in the genus must be a variable character.” 

1872. Prof. J. Barrande gives Triarthrus Billingsi as having 
sixteen segments in the thorax (table, p. 116, vol. 1, Pt. u, Syst. 
Sil. Boheme). 


METAMORPHOSES OF TRIARTHRUS BECKI. 


As the metamorphoses, or all changes experienced by a trilobite 
during its life, are given of Zriarthrus Becki as far as known, the 
following quotations from Prof. J. Barrande’s exhaustive discussion 
of the metamorphoses of the trilobites? are taken as a basis, as his 
work is the foundation upon which investigations in this line of re- 
search must be based : 


“Whatever may have been the real extent of the modifications of 
form undergone by the trilobites from their leaving the egg to the 
adult age, it is clear that we can find traces of the transformation 
of their solid envelope, only ! All the variations relating to the soft 
parts, such as the feet, antennz, etc., which play so important a part 


1 Systeme Silurien de la Boheme, vol. I, p. 259. 


2 Raport of Progress, Geol. Survey, of Canada, p. 340. 1857. 
> Loc. cit., 1, pp. 281, 282. 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 25 


in the metamorphoses of the living Phyllopodes (according to the 
description of Burmeister cited above), are forever effaced for us.” ! 

“The Savant Professor of Halle (Burmeister) still teaches us that 
at the earliest age all the modern Phyllopodes — without exeeption— 
are naked, that is, deprived of all crustacean envelope, according 
to general analogies demonstrated by this savant, between this 
tribe and the trilobites, we can admit as very reasonable that at 
least a part of these ancient crustaceans were born in the same state 
of nudity.” 


Four orders of variatious are characterized in the metamorphoses 
of the trilobites in which he has observed evidence of progressive 
development. 3 

“They are as follows: 


Head predominating, incomplete. q TYPE 
1st order. Thorax nothing or rudimentary. Sao hirsuta. 
Pygidium nothing. j 


Head distinct, incomplete. } TYPE 
2d order. Thorax nothing. Trinucleus ornatus and all 
Pygidium distinct, incomplete. the Agnostus. 


Head complete. q TYPE 
3d order. Thorax distinct, incomplete. Arethusina Konincki. 
Pygidium distinct, incomplete. j 


Head complete. 
Ath order. Thorax complete. 
Pygidium distinct incomplete. 


TYPE 
Dalmanites Hausmanni. 


“The two last sections are provisional and ought sooner or later 
to be merged into the one, or other of the two first.” 


We find Zriarthrus Becki placed doubtfully at the end of the 
3d order on the description given by Prof. Hall. We cannot re- 


. move it from that position, as the youngest stage we have shows one 


segment in the thorax, but from the changes that occur in its de- 
velopment, we cannot avoid the conclusion that with more complete 
material it will be removed to the 2d order, as the smallest individual 
is one millimetre in length and the head and pygidium are strongly 
lobed and well developed. 

That the earlier degrees of development of Sao hirsuta, the type 


1In the earlier degree of development of the trilobite, and for all preserved 
in the sediments of the character of those in Bohemia, this undoubtedly is true. 
Since the discovery ? of the delicate spiral branchial apparatus of the trilobite, 
preserved in the fine grained limestones of the Trenton group, it is to be hoped 
that the time is not far distant when even some of the later changes in the pro- 
gressive development of the so called soft parts may be discovered and give to 
the biologist more of the life history of this remarkable crustacean. We havea 
few facts sustaining this view which will be given in a paper on the anatomy 
and development of.some trilobites of the Trenton limestone. 


7 318t Report N. Y. State Museum of Natural History, 1878, and Preliminary N° tice, 1877. 
Lrans. x.] : 4 


26 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


of the 1st order, will be discovered for Triarthrus Becki is extremely 
doubtful. 


DEGREES OF DEVELOPMENT. 


First Degree. Plate u, figures 1, la and 15.— Of the four 
individuals indicating the first degree of development, as known at 
the present time, three have each a total length of one and one-eighth 
millimetres, and one of one millimetre the latter being proportion- 
ally broader than the former. The anterior and posterior extremi- 
ties are broadly rounded, giving a general oval outline. The entire 
individual is strongly convex, and the two deeply impressed dorsal 
furrows give a marked convexity both to the central and lateral lobes. 

The head and pygidium are distinctly separated by one thoracic 
segment and the trilobitic character is as essentially formed as in 
the later degrees of development. The head is a little more than 
one-half the entire length of the animal; the glabella is elongate, 
narrower at the base than at the anterior margin, and the glabetlar 
furrows are indicated by straight transverse furrows penetrating 
one-third the distance across the glabella and are proportionately 
farther apart than in the fully developed glabella of the adult. 

Occipital groove, transverse, deeply impressed. Occipital ring, 
convex, rising in the center to form the base of a small node, or 
short spine; transverse anteriorly, it slopes each way from the 
center of the posterior margin to half the width at the lateral 
margins. The dorsal grooves do not extend in a direct line with 
the sides of the glabella, as in the adult, but turn obliquely out- 
ward, across the occipital segment at the base of the glabella, 
giving a constricted appearance to the central lobe of the head at 
the occipital groove. Fixed cheeks convex, broad at the base, nearly 
equaling the width of the posterior margin of the glabella; posterior 
groove very clearly defined, extending across ona line with the 
posterior margin of the occipital segment, curving slightly forward 
near the lateral margin; the posterior margin is a rather narrow 
elevated rim. The eyes and free cheeks are not discernible in any 
of the examples of this degree ; it may be owing to the condition 
of their preservation as it is often difficult to discover these parts in 
the third degree of development. 

The thorax is shown by the presence of one segment. The pleure 
are grooved as in the later degrees of development and the charac- 
teristic spine upon the center of the axis is distinctly shown. 

The pygidium is strongly lobed; the deep dorsal furrows giving 


Se Oo e””.-.hC lh . 


«py fal 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. yi 


prominence to the strongly convex axis. The five rings crossing it 
are prominent and sharply defined; the last is scarcely more than a 
transverse node as the axis tapers to a point within the posterior 
margin. The anterior ring of the lateral lobes shows a pleural 
groove crossing it obliquely which separates a small lobe or elongate 
margin between it and the thoracic segment, a feature which is 
persistent topthe adult; the three posterior rings are simple rounded 
pleurz curving slightly backward toward the margin; the repre- 
sentative of the last ring of the axis is a broad expansion of the last 
segment extending across the posterior margin. 


Second Degree. Plate u, figure 2. — All parts have increased 
in size but not proportionally. The table (p. 32), illustrates this 
very completely, as it does for all the degrees of development. The 
glabella has widened, and the occipital ring narrowed slightly at 
the center. The free cheek is seen as a narrow rim. The eye is 
indicated by a very small groove on the outer border of the fixed 
cheek which in the later stages of growth separates the palpebral lobe 
from the fixed cheek. 

The thoracic segments are convex; each is raised at the center to 
form the base of a short spine. This spine is very prominent in all 
well preserved specimens, from the first to the last degree of de- 
velopment. The pleure are very convex on each side of the pleural 
groove; they terminate nearly the same as in the adult. 


Third, Fourth and Fifth Degrees. Plate 1, figures 3,4 and 5.— 
The details of the development in size may be seen by a glance at 


- the table. The spine on the axis of each thoracic segment appears 


with it, as it must from the fact that we find the spine on the axis 
of the first anterior segment of the pygidium, and frequently on the 
second when the pygidium has six rings in the axis, as it does in in- 
dividuals having from three to seven segments in the thorax. With 
a sufficient amount of material we would probably find this to hold 
good in all the degrees of development as was observed by M. 
Barrande, the thoracic segments were first elaborated in the pygi- 
dium before being liberated in the thorax. In one very perfect 
example, with five segments in the axis of the thorax and six in the 
pygidium, the first three anterior segments of the pygidium have 
the spine upon them. 


Sixth Degree. Plate u, figure 6.— At this stage all the parts 
have attained most of the characters of the adult. 
The glabella has gradually expanded towards the base so that its 


28 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


sides are almost parallel, the glabella furrows have become oblique 
to the axis of the glabella and assumed the slight curvature that 
appears in the adult. The cheeks have not developed as rapidly as 
the glabella being now proportionally narrower. The eyes and free 
cheeks also appear to have been retarded in a measure, but their 
small size, and the fact that they are almost invariably broken away 
or pressed under the head renders a study of them very difficult. 

The proportions of the head, thorax and pygidium vary proportion- 
ately up to the adult. Each deep dorsal groove extends the entire 
length of the body with a gentle curvature near the pygidium and 
uniting at the posterior extremity of the axis of the pygidium. 

The pygidium retains more of the characters of the first degree 
than either the head or thorax. 


Seventh to Thirteenth Degrees. Plate wm, figures 7-12. —~ 
The development of the thorax continues by the addition of 
segments, while all parts increase in size, with the development 
of the individual. The strong convexity of the earlier stages 1s re- 
duced, and with it, the very deep dorsal furrows. The entire ex- 
pression assumes that of the adult. The examples of the 12th 
degree are uniform with the smaller individuals of the 13th and 14th 
from the same locality. 


Twelfth Degree to complete development in size. Plate 11, figures 
13 and 14. — With the exception of the reference made by Pro- 
fessor J. Hall to the presence of fourteen to fifteen segments in a 
single individual and Mr. Billings to fifteen, Zriarthrus Becki has 
been described as having thirteen segments in the thorax, this must 
have been the usual number of segments met with by authors who 
have had the species under consideration. This result has not been 
obtained in our researches. Of forty-one examples, having respec- 
tively thirteen, fourteen, fifteen and sixteen segments in the thorax, 
six have thirteen, twenty-five have fourteen, seven have fifteen and 
three show sixteen. ; 

The fully developed adult of sixteen segments varies but little, 
with the exception of size, from the smaller individual of thirteen 
segments. The larger adults are usually flattened by compression, 
while the smaller individuals preserve the natural convexity of the 
shell; but when the conditions of preservation are considered the 
larger are less convex when in a natural condition as is shown by the 
transverse flattening of the segments in the axis of the thorax and 
the greater expansion of the pygidium when the evidence of compres- 
sion is very slight. Upon the glabella we find in the larger speci- 


= F/T 


tt 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 29 


+ 


_ mens the third pair of glabella furrows! and the peculiar short 


transverse furrows. Plate u, figure 14. 


PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT. 


Professor J. Barrande divides the development of Sao hirsuta 
into two periods. The first includes all the degrees from the first, 
when there is no thoracic segment or pygidium defined, to the nine- 
teenth, when there are seventeen liberated segments in the thorax 
and two in the pygidium. | 

The second period extends from the last (nineteenth) to the com- 
plete development in size and ornamentation. 

It is difficult to establish two periods in the development of 
Triarthrus Becki; there is no change in the ornamentation, as it 1s 
the same in individuals of from thirteen to sixteen thoracic segments. 
There is a certain increase in size after the sixteenth segment is 
liberated in the thorax, but not of sufficient importance to indicate a 
period of development. If any change is to be noted, it is, that, 
after the development of the twelfth segment, individuals having 
the same number of thoracic segments vary very much in size, 
some even being smaller than those having a lesser number of seg- 
ments; this period of development is a marked one in the history of 
this trilobite; as shown by the table following an individual of thirteen 
thoracic segments is larger than one having sixteen. Again we find 
that an individual of thirteen thoracic segments is more than three 
times as large as one with fourteen, one being twenty-four and the 


_ otherseven millimetres in length; that the largest with fourteen seg- 
~ ments, thirty millimetres in length, is nearly double the smallest with 


sixteen segments, and that the adult individual of sixteen thoracic 
segments is fifty-three millimetres in length. Minor variations have 
been noticed in individuals having less than thirteen thoracic segments 
but in no case has the size of the one having the lesser number of 
segments exceeded the next in the series of development. It is not 
until the twelfth degree of development is passed that this strange 
anomaly occurs. Until a much greater quantity of material is 
studied we should not be willing to make a division and call this 
a second period of development, as such a great degree of variation 
occurs in this trilobite that our having but three examples of the 
twelfth degree of development forbids such a separation except, pro- 
visionally, for reference. 


1 Seen in individuals of ten millimetres, and upwards, in length. 


30 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


It corroborates in a remarkable degree the observations of M. 
Barrande on the development of Arethusina Konincki, and the 
changes in Proetus venustulus,; of the latter he says: ! 


“The specimen of ten segments is absolutely smaller than most of 
those having but nine. Plate XV of the same work shows that in 
Arethusina Konincki the size of the individual is not proportionate 
to the number of liberated segments in the thorax.” 


The following table shows the variations in Triarthrus Becki of 
individuals having from thirteen to sixteen segments. 


Number of segments in | Entire | Head | Thorax | Pygid- 


the Thorax Length ium 

nm, Inm. mm. mm. 
HIF DORT: oc nee) ee eee 7.00 2.50 3.75 15 
Thirteen .c.. osteo ts ee ae 24.00 7.50 14.00 2.50 
Vourkeent 2c hee cat ee 7.00 2°50 B ie 5 5 
Fourteen: ceo eee. 12.50 4.00 7.00 35 
Roariecns te ee 17.00 5.00 10.50 1.50 
BRourtéen:..o 6 eee 25.50 7.50 15350 2.50 
‘Pourtéer+2AS 2+ See 30.00 9.00 18.50 2.50 
WriGOenc::: soi ae eee eee 19.00 5.50 14550 2 50 
Pifteen.S Jy oe eee ae 28.00 8.50 17.00 2.50 
HWifteen: 42 ee 48.00 12.00 31.00 5.00 
Sixteen: (si: ek Gate eee 16.50 5.00 10.00 1.50 
SERILOCH Koc oon teh eee eee eee 23.00 7.00 14.00 2.00 
ix been 2849 soe ae 53.00 15.00 33.00 5.00 


The two pair of slight depressions, seen on the anterior part of 
the glabella in the adult, have not been observed in any individual 
with less than thirteen segments in the thorax. 


CoMPARISON OF PARTS DURING DEVELOPMENT. 


In comparing the two extremes of development as known to us, we 
notice the relative proportions of the different parts of the body. In 
the adult having sixteen thoracic segments the head is twenty-six 
and two-thirds times larger, the thorax 528 times, and the pygidium 
ten times larger than the same parts in the first degree of develop- 
ment. The head is broad in proportion to the length ; the glabella 
is rectilinear, and equal to the width of both cheeks ; the glabella 
furrows are oblique and curved slightly backward, instead of being 


1 Silurien Systeme de la Boheme, 1, p. 269. 


4 No Lael 


* 


—_ 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 31 


tranverse, the dorsal furrows are less strongly defined, the occipital 
segment is transverse and of the same width all across, the occipital 
spine being proportionately smaller; changes of equal extent charac- 
terize the thorax and pygidium. A comparison of the figures on PI. 
1, will enable the paleontologist to judge of these differences in 
the two extreme forms of development; between these the changes 
from one degree to another are so gradual that it is difficult to 
note where one form begins or the other disappears. 

There is a variation in the pygidium of the last four degrees of 
development, that is not at all constant, the last ring in the axis of 
the pygidium merges into the margin, so that there appears to be 
but four rings in the axis; as they are usually developed in the same 
space, it is not noticed in the table, and five, the usual number in the 
axis of the pygidium, is given. 


TABLE OF DEVELOPMENT. 


The first line indicates the number of thoracic segments and the 
degree of development; the second, the entire length of the aver- 
age individual of each degree; the succeeding three, the length of 
the head, thorax and pygidium. As it is difficult to compare the 
relative proportions of different parts of individuals of the different 
degrees when expressed in fractions of the millimetre the succeeding 
three divisions are so arranged to enable this to be done readily; they 
are based on dividing the millimetre in sixteen equal parts. By them 
any part of an individual can be compared with any part of an indi- 
vidual of any other degree of development. With a sufficient 


- number of examples of each degree, a series might undoubtedly be 


selected showing a regular proportional development of all the parts 
throughout the series; this table is based on the material we now 
have in the collections mentioned in the table. 


32 Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


= - 
3 <td O 
Sis Eee: 
& |. 4 mas a 
a Be ir ‘Sas : 
re = a = mn 5g o | 
| a| sa SS =e q iS 
= se be hs : = = > io = 
a, ela = f 5 B bas og|2 
2 be a 4 = aot : ase iS : 
ra sig © : a ‘ O,, 2 a5,e1g 
e tp | oo - A. 3 a Sy) ARE ak eo|@m|s 
ra maine! = = a Pm ao & Rol Pls 
Say Pe, S = ES Au S ae) i 5 ee 3 
S o|/o3] % = ‘s ‘g See On |e |e 
m 5 5 & a = = = = = séi518 
eS alge| & | & me | & | RSE [eee g 
&p 3 |so a ro] r=] | SS le {4 
i?) - ® © © © — 
a Aa = a 4 4 |Ha.|Th.| Pg.) |= |S 
mm mm mm. mm. mm. 
1 1 5 fat be .5625 .0625 | .5000) 9 1 Si Baa 
2 2 5| 1.50 .6865 17008 eE25O at 3 10 aes a 
3 3] 5-6} 2.00 8750 .0000 62501 145) 8 )> a0 aa 
4 4] 5-6] 2.25! 1.0000 .6250 | .6250] 16] i0]} 10] 16] 2 
5 5| 5-6] 2.50} 1.0000 .8125 6875 | 16) P3:) ela) aie 
6 6| 5-6] 3.00) 1.1250] 1.1250 .7500| 18) 18] 12 3| 4 
4 7| 5-6] 3.50] 1.8750] 1.38750 .7500| 22] 22] 12 9; 1 
8 8 5{ 4.00} 1.5000} 1.7500 | .7500| 24] 28] 12] 9 ; 
9 9 5| 4.50] 1.7500| 2.0000 } .7500} 28) 32) 12) Si 3 
10 10 do} 6.00] 1:8750| 2.2500 |. 2750) 30), S64514.15 et 
11 11 5] 5.50} 2.0000] 2.6250 8750 | 32| 42) 14 Stk 
2c ae 5| 7.00} 2.5000} 3.7500 .7500| 40) 60} 12 3 
13 | min. | 13 d| 7.00| 2.5000} 3.7500 | .7500| 40] 60] 12 3 3? 
13 | max. | 138 D| 24.00} 7.5000} 14.0000 | 2.5000 | 120 | 224} 40 
14] min. | 14 D| 17.00) 2.5000} 3.7500 .7500| 40) 60) 12] 19] 5} 1! 
14] max. | 14 5| 30.00} 9.0000} 18.5000 | 2.5000] 144] 296} 40 
15} min. | 15 5] 19.00) 5.5000} 11.5000 | 2.0000} 88/184) 82]...] ..| 7 
15 | max. | 15 dD} 48.00} 12.0000 | 81.0000 | 5.0000 | 192/496} 80)...] ..] 1° 
16] min. | 16 5|116.50} 5.0000] 10.0000 | 1.5000} 80/160} 24) 2] ..| 1! 
16 | max. | 16 5 


53.00| 15.0000 | 33.0000 | 5.0000 | 240/528] 80 


ORNAMENTATION. 


The characteristic and only ornament is the spine* which occurs 
upon the centre of each segment of the thorax, the occipital segment 
and the anterior segments of the pygidium. It is to be seen from 
the first degree as at present known to the sixteenth. Upon the 
thoracic segments of the adult of the latter degree, the spine bends 


1 From Cincinnati, Ohio, Mr. Dyer’s collection. 
?'N. Y. State Museum collections, from N. Y. State. 
* Geology of Canada, p. 202. 1863. 


“Prof. Hall considers this the most prominent character of this species, Pal. 
Nop. eae 


— 


SOR OO. IEF, 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 33 


slightly backward. This ornamentation is of an embryonic charac- 
ter as is shown by its greater proportional development in the 
younger stages of growth. In the first degree its base occupies one- 
third of the entire surface of the occipital segment. TZriarthrus 
spinosus, Billings, has but two spines, one on the occipital segment, 
and one on the eighth segment of the thorax. Both are long and curved 
backward, the one on the thorax resembling the spine on the thorax 
of some species in the genus CypPHaspPIs. 

The above closes our observations on the metamorphoses of Zriar- 
thrus Becki. Taken with Mr. Ford’s discovery of the earlier meta- 
morphoses of Olenellus (Hiliptocephalus) asaphoides,! we have 


- illustrations from American strata of the first and third order of 


Barrande. If collectors will pay attention to the very small speci- 
mens of trilobites, there is little doubt, but that other genera and 
species will be added to thelist. Wehave Asaphus platycephalus ? 
showing three segments in the thorax, and J/lenus Milleri, Billings, 
with ten, the usual number being nine.? 

Acknowledgment. To Mr. C. B. Dyer, and Mr. 8S. A. Miller, of 
Cincinnati, Ohio, Mr. E. Hurlburt of Utica, and Rev. Wm. N. Cleve- 
land, of Holland Patent, N. Y., I am indebted for the loan of 
specimens. It was due to the efforts of Mr. William P. Rust, of 
Trenton Falls, N. Y., that the large collection of trilobites was 
obtained and also the rare graptolites and alge. 

To Prof. James Hall, I am indebted both for access to the New 
York State Museum collections and to his private library for works 


' of reference. 


1 Amer. Jour. Science and Aris, vol. x111. 1877. 
2 Can. Nat. and Geol. 1859. 


Trans. 2.] 5 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


34 


“IOAIY UOspny 


qf 
co 
ee 
oO 
~ 
es 
fo 
oo 
@ 
ro 
os 


*AO|[VA JOALI UOSPN]FT oY} Ur sdos9yno { oye[s BONA 1 


meres seesggg dT RN Wd “(CUBE Sysqed snyjyojdnugy 4 JOBaIStY) LST ‘UPL 
soreness ses sees" 99g “dT XN “Wel “(ICH SrgDUOLNU snyjyordDig) LORI ‘IPH 
soreeesee sees ss “pig *d “Ur XN [ed “(IVE snpyounus snyzyo;dn.49) 6981 ‘eH 
teler|s [ae] cece ceeeeeetettereeeerseeeeerees coord Snqg IT“ Joap ‘soULY ‘gggr ‘suourmG 
sereeeeesesewagg dE XN [ed “(BH snyofysnbup snyjyoj}doio) 698TH 
cefee] [oe] ceereeeeeeeeereneeeenerg dO x NT Teg “(IVE sumpeas snygyondoup) LSE “IBH 
Ae sere eeeeeeeeeses "OLB CT" XN 1B “(IVE snsomns snyjyopdn.iy) LST “IH 
yey pp eereseessssssesssss eyed TOR ON 1d CUBE srpDoUns sny71070D.LH) UST ‘IIBH 
me oseesessees “G19 “dM “XN ‘Ted “(BH snpno_unayp snyqyordn.19) 6981 ‘IISA 
seetenerenceeescenevee see eeersessentey ed] . park ck 


ed esl ye d 


et enineeeeteesaareeeeeeeeoeereenge ed 6x Gagay LUBQry ‘sUBIL GLET 90018 AL 
Hofer or foe | eceeeceeeeeeesees sees creeeeeesg ed Sr opuoag suBUTOY O1UWIO “uRD ‘G98T ‘ICH 
refs [efor [etee ceettescnereeeseeee ses ed Sx apRoag ‘suyeuray o1uBAIO ‘WEN ‘ger “INE 
reer ereeees eres "896 *d UT" XN ‘1d “BEL (spusoogg snyjyordn4y ) ‘LvSt ‘TRL 
* eo foe | oe Ce cote cece mene sees oan sees erereeesrersenes ces “198 ‘d “I “rN 1B LEST “ICH 


i i ee a ry peg ERT HEY Yay 0 ‘a An a na “i 


ey pte Pane OLE NE 2 Ly ‘d 


9 ” ” 9 ” 


* ae * “* ee ee ee ce ed geese ana Ly | ‘d Ly ‘qsuy Lusqiv *SUBAL ‘6181. *4,00[B AA 


 GONTAALAY ANV ALIMOHLAY 


FI os 
wis 
ae 
g |= 
"1 
wv 


« 


qj 
co 
S. 
312 /2|¢ 
on Fe 
oS N 
= > 
3 

_ 


see ewe homes eee e eee 


"res sragtaid snydeisodiq 


ee a 4 


snyvuo1nM snydvisoldiq 


Ce ee en rr 7 


snproivu snydeasoldiq 


“‘snyer1o snydvasoldig 
ore eeeseesreross Senoyrgsndus snydeisoldiq 


sees eee see. 


Ts eereeesssueyxXos snyduisouv1oig 


“ees **snsourBl snideisousiorg 


. Ce ee i i ee ay 


‘snywoiny snydvisouvioig 


re a ey 


oreo es SSN BOMRATP snjydeisouv1oig 


Cee ee er or eresese 


‘snsomBiinue} snjdvisoipusg 


***xoduris snydvisorpusqg 


re a | 


"**'<‘snqoxduioo snydeiSoipuoq 


seeeesestorigotd sy snydersoovmto 


Cree ee rors eesseeeeeseee & 


snared snjydeisoovuy[O 


Co ee rere 4 


SIUIOOIG SnJdvasoovwmi[O 


seer eee ee eee woe 


* “SNI[OJLISNIuV snjpeyyouoydg 


e see weer ewes 


Risjanefelutwiniere ‘stpword A} snodydoosig 


Cisia:b evaiuvwintsreis.ciacne ates’ 


snonoyqdsqns snof{ydoyiwsg 


"eres ees stonaemopjed snoAydouyeso 


‘SHIOHAG GNV VYHNAY 


‘ALVIS VOILO AHL NI ONIWNNDOOO STISSOM AO ANYOTV.LVO 


35 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


ee ce ie 


moreeee esses’ Og “d “I “sTs80T “(ed ‘OST ‘SFaTIA 
tte eeetneeserewees teeereeeceee rere ence dE “NT Teg BHD) eBSr ‘pestog 
Trees eed ‘x ‘4suy AuRqly ‘SUBLL ‘6L8T ‘3900/8 AA 
Oem twee were a cee sens eres seen verseees eens rece eee "pL d Pach 'N [ed ‘ERI ‘eH 
Sit eneeeeeeeeeesesteeee treseen teeters eters emg ad OOK NT Hag UEGE MEH 


ee git Ohris SceNee ACT a - 


” 9 ” ” ” 


eee eww ee ewe eee ee eee eee rere ees 8 e 8 eeeee TLRS ETC 
99 ”” ” ” 7 99 


sere wees e ee eee aeesesees « 


cteteeee sereee cee seg dant KN Ted “6SRT ‘LIGHT 
Teteee seas eeeeeee seeeeeessensserseese rere seeeerora od Gyr x “KT “Ter ‘GOST IISA 
woreceecceress sont ‘d Il apBoad SULBIUDY D1UBSIQ ‘UBD ‘GOST ‘TRH 
mereeserses pg dT XIN ‘Wd “BH (uopsadooh) sazysoang) LB Avg 
Trt seerees seeseeeereeesereuanigg uLIeD “(nsougy Dlodownyn) ) ‘9esI sstyplOD 
wlatelwinil aW'eceinleve et natulesole/ate, tia’ s * ‘STISSO.T ‘eq ‘1OULY enso[BIBO 8, JOTI ‘DUST. ‘18H. 
Tene 6G ETS KN 1’ “UVH (Srqunpn bos snjou0rt7) LESt ‘oSuIs1H 
Fhe Ste eeneaesesdenneeces oes seee sense ecco cmp yy ad ty bey oN Ter UseT TER 
tresteceaserceeceesra(ra ed Mx oN 4sIq pe ‘doy ‘loon ‘epgr ‘uexnue,) sneuUly 
ecco Cc oc ccs: <2 27, ae . o. v Q98T “ITRH 
"66 ‘oT ‘dd ‘11 “‘o0q surwwoy o1UBS109 ‘UBD ‘GOST ‘TRH 
Tere geet eeee sees seeeseer sens cee see sect eeesserevapg ed tote oN pT Yer Hee 
“ytncerecrasderrenssaecaeeeses oy eee aun oe miqgaiéd typte 9yr rear MBgoy true 
“cr sepT d ‘IT ‘oq ‘SULBUIOY OIUBSIO ‘UBD "COST ‘TIRE 
rest ee eres sececsen sees eeereseieneeccrceeeeseeecrgog ol GEE NT TBE “GORT ITCH 
“' "08 'd ‘x “4suy Auvqry “sUBIL, ‘6L8T ‘1300/8 


Ce 


od “****‘oqudeqg einsury 


Petia pitt) Rees Seneca sein een BIT OULU 


eee 


sees 


fees 


SONS RSLS eee sey e se SUS Bie keses 


Cees cece cces cece s scr ene “endow BAJOIPO[d 
eee eww we eens news **gaploleyjue 810d [919 
ee | nee HUBRIS 89411] SBI 


Tee eres cereees e+ 6enddy snjidvisousulsy,y, 


Te eeeeee eeeeess STIBT[ devo snjdeisougwmegy, 


eee ewes 


reeeee enagizzoroxy snydeisoroy 
Coe c eee sceeseeccece *‘sqavygone snydeis01exy 
Treeeceeseceresssopradoods, BIOdO|NIIUOHL 
Tete seereseceeres  stpsoray BIOdOMINUOIT 
Gti ateferatensialove’ ceived ‘gtnuaqqns snyyyoydviy 
Heres eeseveeeeeesertonrigqq1Ses snyyt[o}dery 
trrereseeresercosesteninipizas SnyqI[o}desy 
Teer cress ceeeceresoesetgriaigog anq}[O}dBIK 


sore sess es(onagmodonulpenbd snyjt[oydeiy 


ce ii i a i as ‘sn]BLlosRyy[NU snyyypoydery 


ipcicbthbed th ete Meselitr gh EP oR LS sny voids 


ce ee od “silowad snyqyoyduip 


ee | teen ae eee ne DOOR snyyoidery 


ee ey srresss SQ RI@AIp snyyoydeay 


. 


Sia'6s Bos Pts ch aan Sarr tee snyqyyoydery 


“gig “dm X "Teg “(eH wey snqyorydn4y) ESBT ‘Te | tt IppUITOAL snydeaZoldiq 


PS A Ne vss ese ‘d ‘WW yr ‘N ‘ltd “(eT snsojpnurds snyryojdv.tp ) 6S8I “eH secre cece eres ves ceee *‘snsornuids snideisoldiq 
Teeeesesesess"196 “dT XN Tq ‘(uoyey snuynoes soproonyg ‘LSI (BH) Woy | tt ttt snUTeoes snydeiZoldiq 
CORR Riel tablet fate el GA ida SLR pea + 3 ‘d ‘uw ‘00q ‘SUIRUOy o1uesd109 ‘aR ‘G9gT TRH A pU Aas waka s'8 W's so pay Cem snydeisoldiq 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


36 


steeseeeseeeceeerecesscssesepne od Ox NT TUT ‘(mpayndnd DjOUYILO) LPST MOREY [orf casneainesaese areata ‘unjoy[eavd vursopoywo 
reteeteeseerarereressngeg ed EK NT Ted “(syudofynonu sesdoporpoyy) LYST ‘WHE | Un spurtogyjnonu wkuroutT[aL 
Liseeeseeeeeescggg dx ‘pr doy [oo suomury (ngn/sapnonyr) ‘VERT ‘peuog | TT ttt - ‘gquy sisdoporpoyy 
sebege sescontovensecsrene so sreeearoreniue connor engoed ty bun 8 Tye Gupy [ott tee nes eee seeeeees coon esteaang gredOlOppPON 
detect eeeeseeeseeeseescenereorsesssnege id by “aan AUUGTY ‘SUBIZ, ‘LET ‘Joorm | se enqereouee stsdolorpoy 
rerererececoeeeepen ed tx NT [Bd ‘(sapzozuopouD sopipavorwdhy ) GERI ‘peluog | “sete ‘‘goprojuopour sisdololpoyw 
bet eeeeeeeeeseeeereceeesenesseses cga sd Sir Sg GUN ‘PROV “NOL ‘ZEEE 5, Fotteeeee sees sees sees eee s(gremQUOJUaLL UIMOTAY 
Leseeee sesesaeeseeeereeesececeeseesns(gan id texar “day ‘oa SUOMIUIG) PRIUOG | TTT tteereetteerees cress wIONsUT BMOTAY 
settee sees eeeceveecoessoenerer ed TOK “NT Teg (vpsopou vdhugy) LEST ‘WeH Aeg| ctttteretse “eysopou viidso3hz 
seeecceceeeecee ceerennr ed TAN [ed ‘TVA (Wuzsouaunoes DdAYY) LST “CH | verses: MIAGOITAINOD! BlOMOYOUAYY 


eee rere een em erestesreese sn ODT. ‘d by Son ‘N "18d ‘(RH SUpArsagasour pdhuyy) 
poz ‘d ‘MA “POS “JUN ‘poy ‘uanoe “(peiu0g wodno ndhupy) VP8T “PBUH | TT soesesersssstyudyo vljouoyoudyyy 


Sere OMEN IRE 3 210 ‘d ‘tr LOS ‘NI [Bd ‘(snganoydyuloy pany ) LEST TRE Paani vase cess cee sa MOTIC TOU sno1ewyjueg 
Cece ee weer iecese PECCION aCe Ch CBE EE 5 ‘den or 'N 1@d ‘([VED LeBT ‘uvuyeq (ey eR eee ekecneueeen Senses eh temo ao) BIqIWO 
ee Sima any ‘d fret ‘N ‘doy ‘uuy *(090U.Le7)0 nuajdaT) REST ‘peluog eecerce sees setecce Rn AU RCW G vurouoydong 


sip ible le alelalele Wiu(eseu\u ©.0)6ls.u.eie® slenet ee siels “++ -uraqsh9 “TIS ‘WounyL '6E8T ‘{qio Mog weet emcee ese weer sees eereenss ‘goolias wueydo'T 
soccer eee cece sees nest eeseveesesce He ssieneen sesseceenessstqermigepiooo anjoqo.dery 


” ” ” ” ” ” ” 


se ssceneccccccecccccovsnserecossrnom od ‘MInOSnW Ss “AN ‘doy UIPS ‘TLST Ac BE er ee ee ee) eee *“‘srusisut snpoqoqydoyT 
ee ee ee "66 ‘d TX Nid ‘(TTB sory Z 07N01QL0 ) LST ‘TIQi CHE HEL TICICR ICICI TTR ITACIO DTI Cop gadt:yhok Wolo, iu ays 
eoeeesenseee sees FFs es veseeeeeees eee Sen (OR iC acest "N ‘[@d ‘IIVH) 68ST ‘PIBM OIA Pe ee a) ‘eyeipwnbd BynsulT 


* 
* 


SOeR SMF aO ed SOE USAR LEE 6 EO o ROMs FECe BE, Peo e LP *d ‘1 ‘s[IssoT [Bq ‘98ST ‘SOUT (Ig SO COC URE OCI I OTA LIIGRICICIICH LY AG op (| R[nsUlyT 


‘AONDAIAAY AGNV ALINOHLAVY "*SHIONdS GNV VARNA 


“uo0j} UL, 


opt MK pee ee [ee teresereeereeerron ed x snr doy ‘Joop ‘uuy ‘(opopnNUDId 80;1/NONAT) THT PBdUOD , ~~ *" "7" TT sees tangenusid sn1oydopre[O 


Jaan Uospny 
6 97B[S BON 
‘T 828[5 BOND 
‘Ud “gd pue ‘_ 


37 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


_ 2 


* 


ope pte [tee eereeneereeseeereeseeerseeeeeee sossseeseee sen ed tudpaSouopl ‘Zest ‘uaodg tts eiendaortea ouaurs[eg 
SAT in cwesestesle tu svew Nee. oo dace Wels slewavenese mens ee.Na “pg -d ‘ydeaSouoy ‘zegy ‘waoag | vert reese gnimoqjuexemeld snaneseg 
ofa [ae | cece ee ere reece eee ereeeee ter eeee seeseeeeensgay ed ‘T “suRLT ‘loon ‘gest soqoig | srt rte ‘enpeqdeosyuld snydesy 
Poel Foal) aici ev awtavevclatelere elelcielviels’crc'b's ysis t(s'¥'e e'b'e w Giclee We.etivielsaieets ‘goed ‘IX N Ted ‘LEST UPH terse eeeceeeeeeererees (anaunIsivUlyel suydesy 
wefan [ce | cece eter eee eter cent eeeeeeereeee tens cerereeerey od “MOP ‘UBg ‘EGgI ‘uemdEaQ | re CsMouT suqdesy 
we fae [ee | cere eect cette ee eee teers eereeeeers ee eengog -d “emMop uvIpeuRg ‘gogt ‘uwudeyg | tte eA suadesy 
PtP e Mketee hirdale vento vise SOUS waver OTs wave shale cles “-TeuMOP URIpeULD ‘gost SuRUdegg | oro TTT (Q) sisuepeueg snydesy 
we [ce [oe [cree eree tee eee eeee cree cess eee eetge od es - ah a x - tresses cess SBUTISSTINULUL (BUI[IGIOS]) BIZLpAodaT 
wa [us [ce | te8e ceeccnsccvevecrrcssecs seen veray ‘d ‘mnosnyy ‘S'K'N ‘day UIPS ‘ELST “MPH Fevinnigega'sle ® VOTO UTTAO (eut[Iqo0s]) BiyipsiodaT 
ve [cc [ee | ceeeeteeeeeeeeeeeereseersee seeeeeeesgae cd ar ‘gouatog ‘unop ‘UID ‘ast MoI | ce esuapyeuapuig Biyorsog 
to [eee | cereeeeceereseeeeeees seereersereroor “dar o1yO ‘[ed ‘CLOT PIOUIIUM PUB TEA | cc sourer sequin 
wo | ce [oe | ceeecereceecce eres secesnme od ty tex snr ied ‘(ensonxayl J 89)1NODIUAL) LEST IIH | tt oo snsonxep seqy]nuI0H 
te [ce [ee [eee cree eeeeeetec eerste seer seee cre seeereesegg ed 'F 'gIIssOg “[Rd ‘goon ‘efurma | ++++sees4gnantossIp soytndieg 
se fae [oe [ee eeee tee eeee ener eeeeeerssererere nae ed ‘x “any KUBQIY ‘SUBIT, GLST ‘MOO | t otttt esuerproug svr000q}10 
cece [ae [eee ceseeeneecreees seer eeereeeeeeee eee ereres mere d eR NT Tea LEBE TRAP ch cette mest] [109 svs10004}10 
to [ce [ee [cece ceeteee seen eee tie teeeeerreeeesenereessoeregoy ed Glee oN Teg GEGT HBA | coittt coteeescte' +++ eumostajoad sereoopuy 
feces [eee ceeeceeeeeeseeseseseesnpye d SHIA ‘SooUDlOg “JUN ‘peoy ‘UANOL ‘ePgE ‘prauog | “ttt Tt BpUIIOF qrouKld soy Toyoory, 
eof e [oe [cece eeeeeeens eee eeeseeteeeeeseeeceerseeesterr ed tex “nr sdagy [oon ‘sagt ‘peamog | ccs tt snyuoULUTe s9q][040., 
w [x [am [orreerereeer serrated T10A “RIN ‘ed (OpDIeNGuUN DpLDUOIOLNAIT) ‘LEST [WA | TT cangworquin euouoyoonL, 
to [ee |as | eceecrerseeeeeeteeee sereteeeerescetsserseesererrany od tre nr rer Oper we | coco worjeuruss sodoloH 
te [ee [ee | cer eeereeeeeriaen sd x sn daw ‘loop “(suousgound uoydosepog) spat ‘suoumg |’ sts te “suoayyound eyavong 
we [ce | a [cece tees cree eee eee cer eeee tees eeeeeeee sercerrnyog ed eter nr ing open ie | ccc enyeyfeouvs uoqdosa[og 
* * ra See edecaeesaccnnres seuvetceseerenseresse werermaqa ta TIS "qouny, ‘gear ‘Aquamog reneeccccececosscesvoe: » tanaBaOrid uoydouol [og 
& [ee [ee | seceee cereeeeseegngoqg oomBApe ‘unesny oIwIG “KN “doy IRs ‘LET ‘WooTeAA | “eyeapenb eyrejnu0g 
wees [ce | corsets eneeeeeeeeereeereees os seeeeeerseerscog d 1oan ‘domly ‘gos] ‘suommg | ctttttttt ct rt Seruospngy Bprenaog 
Pellvareh I ate dlicalw soso celeele a warwieleiese eia(e We wen ibe Yas @ 6c: sc€ie ae «ahs ma “eog ‘d y ag ‘N ‘I@d LEST URE weeneen tereereeees eee eetanayond Buseporsry 
WH | [or Leccecevcescecncors gag eg Sex ony ‘doy ‘Joon “(07024987800 sazyNoNnAT) VR ‘suomurg | “TT “*canqelis}sod wulsoporAT 


“BIUBATASUUAT IO BPRURH ‘AOA MON JO SAOAINS [BOTSOTOIS OY} JO SUOT}ROT[Gud oY} Jo AyIoyINeS 
94} UO ONFO0/vIeO OY} UT Poye1Od1O9UT IO TOTVUNIOJ 97B[S BOTT OY) ULAITIM oy} Lq POAIOSGO UEd9q JOYILO OABY ONSO]RIRO OY) UL PoUo]}UOW Sojoods OY} [LV 


C—O 


* 7 | * * 
ia oo | & oe Sea ee “*so6e ‘d ‘facing ‘ano ‘B01g “ydoxy ‘GQ ‘SSUlllia ewe ences secereaceon: es stengoulds SNIQQIBL AL, 
PCRS IUCR CUCL CS SOA ICRU EROS RLY 0171 ‘d “AI “Too pue “WEN ‘URO ‘ogy ‘ssulig Coe eeeeneeneresr eres sece sa tQgye ENATIIRIL 
Manis Casal BLS MALE Mepteigein gM AIaiN Naess tee mug Roe c as nom cecal Aves) Bs ‘d ‘uanoe URO ‘TO8T ‘qyiug SO OMICS CICS YF 0 (204194, [0 SNAY AVIA, 


see PAAR ASA cae ARCS NN SRNR RNS Le ok Oats aie se eee PA i TMBteOUOT Coal Geode) ee Sle Taalele ce tsheleis TOS ET BtLAU ge hil 


Aye ere elie ATID 


* 
* 
* 


SUCRE CTRL ICE SME SC a LE IS «11 “d ‘cInasny, 1S 8 tr ‘doy UIE ‘eI 8T eT sec eeeeeceeteceseees sens (nimogntAIed snjooig 


i , i EET a 


| trtreeeesesee so sempet «d ‘HOO FXOT, [OH (MoQu]UIIUOI DIUWIINAT) ‘BERT ‘Moy | ee “ees BNOLVMOOMOD SnoPnUTL, 


‘HONTUAIY GNV ALIMOHLOY ‘STIONAG GNV VUANAY 


“mojyuIL 
‘a “ad pus ‘g 
Azeyo 


Fossils of the Utica Slate. 


‘IBA Uospuy 
% aqeIS BOND 
*T aq8(S BOD 


38 


DEGRADED WORDS. 


By Gipert M. Tucker. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, May 18, 1879.] 


The fundamental principle in philology, that on close examination 
of any living language, a large proportion of its words will be found 
undergoing a process of gradual modification in their significance, 
or at least in the precise sense in which by common consent their 
originally recognized significance is generally taken — finds abundant 
exemplification in English; and the changes in the meaning of familiar 
words, though apparently in many cases anomalous at first sight, 
- may nevertheless be classified and grouped in such manner as to 
suggest the drawing of certain inferences, and to illustrate, indirectly 
but effectively, some of the important traits of character that prevail 
among the people by whom the language is employed. Whether 
parallel processes of modification can be traced in other tongues — 
a question full of interest — must be left to the comparative phi- 
lologist; butit is the purpose of this paper to make a slight contribu- 
tion to the development of the subject at large — the direct influence 
of moral character upon language — by sketching, inadequately and 
summarily only, the salient features of oe group of changed meanings 
in English — the group whose nature keeps a record of the follies, 
weaknesses and common faults of humankind, and the daily trials 
‘and disappointments that flow from them; the alterations in the 
meanings of words which are plainly due to the unwise or culpable 
practices of those who use them. Many of the facts referred to for 
Ulustration are of course familiar —so familiar indeed that it is 
rarely possible to give credit to the authors who originally noted 
them. 


I. 


To take as the first instance a case where the change is still in 
progress, there is the adjective pitiful, which at present we almost 
invariably employ in an evil sense. ‘“‘ A pitiful subterfuge,” we say; 
that is, a transparent and contemptible attempt at fraud. Yet the 
dictionaries with one accord give the good meanings precedence — 
either “melancholy, moving compassion, deserving to be pitied ” 


40 Degraded Words. 


(exemplified in the watchman’s ejaculation, “ pitiful sight!” on dis- 
covering the dead body of Juliet), or else “full of pity, tender,” as 
in the three instances in which only the word occurs in King James’ 
Bible. Nowit needs no conjecture to discover the reason and method 
of this gradual drifting in meaning from good to bad. Whoever 
has heard a “ pitiful” story of his woes froma wandering solicitor 
of charity, and, moved with compassion, has looked into the case 
only to find an impudent attempt at deceit, has the explanation before 
him in charactérs which he may run that readeth. The “ pitiful ” 
story becomes a provocative of scorn and indignation; and the 
ignominy of the transaction attaches itself indissolubly to the word 
that described its first appearance, dragging down with it the inno- 
cent adjective, and fitting it for companionship with actions and 
conditions diametrically opposite to those with which it originally 
found place. 
Yet if misery loves company, there is no lack of consolation for 
pitiful, in this unfortunate relegation to infamous uses. At least 
three other adjectives have traveled far in the same direction and by 
much the same route — apparent, plausible and specious. The first 
of these commonly, though of course not always, the transformation 
as yet being incomplete, but commonly, carries with it in these days 
at least an insinuation that the thing to which it is applied is not 
really quite what it seems — that we must not be surprised in fact if 
the truth of the matter turns out to be very different from its apparent 
condition. This insinuation is, so to speak, a fungus of comparatively 
recent growth upon the real meaning of the word, gradually fostered 
beyond doubt by a series of painful discoveries. Bailey’s whole de- 
finition of apparent, in 1764, was “that plainly appears, certain, 
evident, manifest, plain, visible.” Thus we still say an “heir ap- 
parent,” meaning an heir beyond question or dispute, but as far as 
common usage is concerned, we should hardly employ a word like 
certain as a synonym of apparent, the present practice being rather 
to consider the two adjectives as almost contradictory of each other. 
As regards plausible and specious, they are manifestly only the 
English forms of the Latin plausibilis and speciosus,' of which the 


1 Of course everybody knows that many words of classical derivation have 
come into English, not directly, but through living European languages, chiefly 
the French ; but that fact is of no consequence for the present purpose, so long 
as they have preserved enough of their original form to be recognized as the same. 


—— 


Degraded Words. 41 


first indicated primarily the possession of qualities deserving of ap- 
plause, as “plausibilis nomen” in Cicero; while speciosus is com- 
monly best rendered by such expressions as “ having a good shape, 
beautiful, handsome, fine or splendid.” Now what a commentary it 
is upon the proverbial deceitfulness of appearances in this uncertain 
world, that these terms, which really indicate that a thing seems to 


~ be all right, have come to convey so sharply the implication that it 


is all wrong ! 

There is a noun too that started earliest of all inthe same descensus 
Averni, and has long since reached a point so low that its hereditary 
claim to respectability has been almost forgotten. This is hypocrite, 
the Greek hupokrités in a modern dress — and hupokrités, as every- 
body knows, meant originally nothing but a player or actor. Roscius, 
the elegant speaker and beloved instructor of the greatest Roman 
orator, was by virtue of his art a hypocrite. Plainly the first step 
downward was taken when the word began to be used figuratively — 
when men were called hypocrites (in English or Greek) because their 
life was found to resemble the histrionic art in striving to appear to 
be different from what it was. It cannot have taken the common- 
sense of mankind long time to perceive that such dissimulation is 
almost always for evil purposes —the sheep’s raiment covering the 
ravening wolf. And so it has come to pass that wheu we wish to 
indicate the assumption of virtue for the intents of vice, the word 
that springs most readily to the lips is the once well-thought-of 


_ “hypocrite.” 


To counterfeit, likewise, was formerly only to imitate, conveying 


_ no insinuation as at present that the imitation was designed to be 


fraudulently substituted for the original — this added insinuation 
having been developed by the same process as the present evil signi- 
ficance of the word hypocrite. ‘To egwivocate was merely to call two 
things by the same name, not necessarily to mean one while leading 
the hearer to understand the other. Z%nsel was really woven of the 
precious metals, or supposed to be, until the detection of oft-repeated 
frauds caused it to be taken for granted that the appearance of ex- 
ceptional richness and value in ornamental trappings of this material 
is nothing but the appearance, without reality. 

Finally under this head should be mentioned the group of words 
most characteristic in their present meaning of the special vice of 
deliberate attempt at deception —the verb pretend and its derivatives. 
To say nothing of the innocent meaning indicated by their Latin 
origin, it is not so very long since they were used in English without 
[Trans. x.] 6 


42 Degraded Words. 


any evil implication. Ash, 1775, mentions among his definitions of 
the verb, “to claim, todemand as right,” and gives “a claim ” as the 
first equivalent of the noun pretension. Johnson informs us that a 
pretender is ‘‘ one who lays claim to anything ” — that, and nothing 
more. A claimant, whether justly or unjustly, was in his view a 
pretender, and the butcher Orton, had he lived in England a cen- 
tury earlier, might have been spoken of as “ pretending to be Sir 
Roger Tichborne ” without the slightest intimation on the part of the 
speaker that the story was not believed. In the third part of King 
Henry Sixth, published 1623, Shakspeare makes Sir John Mont- 
gomery demand of King Edward at the gates of York, “‘ why shall 
we fight, if you pretend no title?” and in the same breath, “if you'll 
not here proclaim yourself our king, I’ll leave you to your fortune ” — 
using pretend almost interchangeably with proclaim. Milton indeed, 
forty years later, wrote, ‘this let him know, lest, wilfully trans- 
gressing, he pretend surprisal ” (Paradise Lost, v, 244), and elsewhere 
uses the word in the same manner; but the innocent meaning has 
lingered in literature for nearly two centuries longer. As historically 
applied for instance to the son and grandson of James II. of Eng- 
land, it can hardly have been originally intended to signify much 
more than claimant, for the unfortunate princes made no attempt 
at representing themselves to be anything but what they were, though 
they unquestionably latd claim to a kingly dignity that the nation 
was not anxious to concede to them. In the denoument of Lord 
Lytton’s masterpiece, “My Novel,” to take an instance within thirty 
years of the present time, it may be remembered that Peschiera, 
in his scathing exposure of the villainy of Randal Leslie, speaks of 
him as “ pretending” to the hand of Violante; and though there 
was certainly no love lost between the two worthies at that juncture, 
yet the context makes it clearly evident that this particular word is 
intended in no reproachful sense — the dashing count meant only to 
represent the minor scoundrel as his rival, seeking what he himself 
sought, and by much the same means, and pretend in his mouth is 
the exact equivalent of aspire. Yet who does not feel, now-a-days, 
the more than suggestion of a charge of fraud that is conveyed when 
we speak of and one as “ pretending,” or as a pretender ?— and 
indeed ‘Webster, reversing the earlier order of definitions, renders 
the noun as meaning, first, “ one who simulates or feigns,” and only 
secondarily, ‘‘ one who lays claim,” in which he doubtless interprets 
correctly our modern usage. What deduction can we draw from 


iff 


Degraded Words. 43 


such a progression in meaning toward the bad but this — that it has 
been the common experience that people are apt to claim more than 
their due — to make demands considerably in excess of the require- 
ments of equity ? 

There is yet one more word that may perhaps be considered as 
allied to the foregoing, if the history of its changing sense, as given 
by Barclay — an author of no great fame, who uevertheless managed 
to gather a good deal of curious and interesting matter — is true. 
This is legend, of which he says, writing about eighty years ago, that 
it was originally “‘a book in the church containing the lessons that 
were to be read in divine service; from hence the word was applied 
to the histories of the lives of the saints, because chapters were 
read out of them at matins, but as the ‘ golden legend,’ compiled by 
James de Varase about the year 1290, contained several ridiculous 
and romantic stories, the word is now used to signify any incredible 
or unauthentic narrative.” That is to say, legends, books highly 
esteemed, have been so often found to contain glaring falsehoods — 
for it can hardly be that the change is wholly attributable to the 
single instance mentioned by our author— that the very word which 
used to denote only that the composition to which it was applied 
ought to be read, now serves rather to warn the reader that it ought 
not to be believed ! 


IL. 


Another common fault with our not-too-truthful humanity, nearly 
allied to the practice of exaggerating one’s own deserts and conceal- 


. ing blemishes, is that of unduly depreciating the merits of other 


people, and particularly of despising beyond reason such classes of 
the community as we thing below us; and this habit, as might be an- 
ticipated, has made its mark upon our language. There are numerous 
words that formerly indicated little more than inferior social or poli- 
tical position, but which have come to embody the charge of some- 
thing much worse. Thus a villain was at first, as Trench puts it, 
only a serf or bondsman “ (véllanus), because attached to the villa 
or farm;” and secondly “the peasant who, it is taken for granted,” 
[and this is the root of the matter] “will be churlish, selfish, dis- 
honest, and of evil moral conditions, these having come to be assumed 
as always belonging to him, and to be permanently associated with 
his name, by those higher classes of society who in the main com- 
manded the springs of language. At the third step, nothing of the 
meaning which the etymology suggests, nothing of villa, survives 


44 Degraded Words. 


any longer; the peasant is quite dismissed, and the evil moral con- 
ditions of him who is called by this name alone remain.” Thus 
Barrow rather superciliously remarks that foul language “ is termed 
villainy, as being proper for rustic boors, who, having their minds 
debased by being conversant in meanest affairs, do vent their sorry 
passions in such strains.” 

The term door, just quoted, was likewise originally descriptive of 
nothing worse than ‘‘a husbandman,” “a plowman,” ‘a country 
fellow,” and the world or its Hollandish representative is still applied, 
without offense, to the wealthy and presumably well mannered Dutch 
planters of South Africa. A churl was a free tenant at will, or, as 
some trace the derivation, only «a person of remarkable physical 
prowess. A kern was a footman or foot-soldier of rural extraction. 
A pagan was “first a villager, then a heathen villager, lastly a 


heathen.” Heathen itself meant originally only a dweller on the 


heath or open country. Jncivility was merely the customary behavior 
(in the eyes of city residents), of their somewhat unpolished acquaint- 
ances from the interior; and the epithet savage indicated for a long 
time nothing more than relationship to the forest, or at worst a wild 
or uncultivated state, without the implication of anything like ferocity. 
This must have been Milton’s conception when he wrote of a “ savage 
hill,” and a “‘savage wilderness ;” and Dryden’s too, who speaks of 
““ savage berries of the wood.” | 

Not only, however, are dwellers in towns addicted to under-esti- 
mating their brethren of the fields, but the smaller minds of every 
country are apt to consider their land the flowery kingdom, and to 
despise unreasonably the outside nations. The prevalence of this 
folly is well illustrated by the present degradation of the adjective 
outlandish, which ought of course to mean only foreign, as it plainly 
did in the seventeenth century, when Translator-General Holland, 
rendering Pliny into English, made him refer to “ outlandish wheat.” 
The uncouth, also,was once merely the unknown or unfamiliar ; a vaga- 
bond and a harlot was a wanderer or stranger, not necessarily of 
disreputable character ; and a barbarian, in Greek, was a man of 
different nationality from the speaker.’ 

Idiot meant originally in English, as in its native tongue, only a 
private person, or at worst an unlearned man, these two constituting 
the whole definition given by Bailey, except when used as a technical 
term inlaw. Jeremy Taylor, in the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, remarked that “humility is a duty in great ones as well as in 
idiots ;”’ and Blount, a contemporary of the good bishop, says: 


ree 


Degraded Words. 45 


** Christ was received of idiots, while he was rejected and persecuted 
by the priests, doctors and rabbis.” From this meaning, however, 
the word speedily descended to the level of the lowest classes in 
society ; then came to indicate dense and stupid ignorance, and 
finally attached itself to persons absolutely void of understanding, 
natural fools, innocent or simpletons, as Webster has it. One can 


Imagine the effect, in these days, of a minister’s addressing his con- 


gregation as composed in part of idiots ! 

The appellation caitif,‘which implies at present, and has done so 
for along time, the possession of certain highly uncommendable 
traits of character, is traced by Johnson to the Italian cattivo, a 
slave, “‘ whence,” says the doctor, “‘it came to signify a bad man, 
with some implication of meanness,” and he adds: “A slave and a 
scoundrel are signified by the same words in many languages.” 

The adjective vulgar, again, was once almost synonymous with 
such innocent terms as general, public, and even national. A mod 
was not much more than the common people, the crowd, having only 
in recent times come to impiy, adopting Worcester’s expression, 
“a crowd excited to some violent or unlawful act,” the select few 
always recklessly imputing evil purposes to the many who they think 
should rank below them. Base, mean and lewd were terms applied 
of old to the mass of the population, as distinguished from the gentry 


_ or clergy, and indicated nothing worse than this. Spenser writes, in 


the Fuerte Queene: 
“ But virtuous women wisely understand 
That they were born to base humility, 
Unless the Heavens them lift to lawful sovereignty.” 


__ In one of Latimer’s sermons, we read : “It might please the king to 


accept into his favor a mean man, of simple degree and birth, not 
born to any possessions.” As for lewd, it seems to be only a varia- 
tion of Jay, a lewd fellow being etymologically merely a layman. 
So Chaucer, in the Canterbury Tales: 


“ For if a priest be foul, on whom we trust, 
No wonder is a lewid man to rust.” 


But the rich and the learned have been tempted so often to despise 
and slander the poor and the ignorant, these adjectives have been 
coupled so commonly with injurious aspersions, that we now insult 
a man, however humble his station in life, if we call him base, mean 


‘or lewd. 


A process of degradation, not dissimilar from the foregoing in its 
operation, has been effected within comparatively recent times also 
on the noun Jeast and its derivatives, it seeming to have been found 


46 Degraded Words. 


impossible for rational man to speak of his less highly endowed 
fellow creatures without some tinge of scorn gradually attaching 
itself to the name by which he calls them. The “beasts” of the 
Apocalypse are plainly only living beings different from men ; and 
in Wiclif’s version of First Corinthians, five hundred years ago, we 
find : “It is sown a beastly body ; it shall rise a spiritual body.” 
The term knave, like the German knabe, meant at first only a boy, 
well or ill behaved. In Wiclif’s Apocalypse, the woman clothed 
with the sun is represented as giving birth to “a knave child; ” and 
when Shakespeare wrote “‘ good knave” (in the Twelfth Night), 
and “gentle knave” (in Julius Cesar), there was nothing incon- 
gruous in the expressions. Next it indicated a servant; there is 
said to be an early version of the New Testament in which the 
Apostle Paul is styled “the knave of Jesus Christ;” and it is 


doubtless in the sense of a serving man or attendant to the king and 


queen that the name was given to the card at whist. Indeed the 
knave is called “‘ Ze valet” in French to this day — valet, by the way, 
being only the modern form of the old Gallic varlet, our English 
varlet. The words caitiff, knave and varlet came, however to de- 
signate not only a servant but a cowardly or roguish servant, and in 
process of time the original signification has been quite lost sight of, 
nothing remaining of the poor despised dependents but the evil odor 
of their supposed bad morals. 

A blackguard, moreover, was merely a scullion—that is, the 
“black guard” was the company of such servitors, who accompanied 
persons of quality on their journeys, to take care of the pots and 
kettles; and the ancient acceptation of the term involved no neces- 
sary conception of ruffianly manners. 

A menial was one of the household or mesnee; minion was only a 
favorite, the French mignon. <A brat was simple a child, however 
lovely; and an imp was a young person, a minor, particularly, it 
it would seem, a young heir. ‘To imp is to engraft, and the imps of 
a family were what we now, adopting precisely the same figure, call 
the scions. Tusser writes, in “ Good Husbandry,” 1557: 

“ Take heed how thou layest the bane for the rats, 
For poisoning thy servant, thyself, and thy brats.” 

It is stated that one of the earls of Warwick, who died in boyhood, 
is commemorated in a moituary inscription in the chancel of the 
parish church as “the noble imp;” and Bacon, in his “ Pathway 
unto Prayer,” exhorts his readers to “pray for the preservation of 
the king’s most excellent majesty, and for the prosperous success 


Af 


Degraded Words. 47 


of his entirely beloved son, Edward our Prince, that most angelic 
imp.” 

Now it may, be of course, that a part of the new turpitude which 
has gradually attached itself to all these words — villain, boor, 
churl, kern, pagan, savage, vagabond, harlot, barbarian, idiot, caitiff, 
vulgar, mob, base, mean, lewd, beastly, blackguard, minion, brat, 
imp, and others like them — is attributable to the actual discovery 
of unexpected vices in the classes to whom they primarily referred; 
but it seems more probable that the terms have become odious 
chiefly because of their constant application to those unfortunates 
whom their betters have though it proper to regard with some mea- 
sure of systematic contempt. In either case, the changes in mean- 
ing that the whole group have undergone, constitute certainly a 
very striking instance of the power of degradation which man’s bad 
habits are constantly exerting upon the structure of the language 
that he uses. 


Ifl. 


But it must not be supposed, nevertheless, that all the despising, 
all the calling of hard names, is to be attributed to the upper ten. 
A moment’s reflection will discover that the children, the learners, and 
inferiors of various grades, have been active, on fiain part, in bring- 
ing about a similar humiliation for the words by which they desig- 
nate both the persons and the opinions of their rulers and instructors. 
Here however, as in the preceding case, there has no doubt been 
fault on both sides. Had the teachers of youth never assumed a 
degree of knowledge beyond their actual attainments, the words 


~ pedant and pedagogue, both perfectly innocent in their etymology 


and once inoffensive in their use, might never have come to convey 
the implication of owlish self-conceit. Had the schoolmen of the 
middle ages devoted a larger share of their attention to the acquisi- 
tion of really useful and practical knowledge, and exercised their 
wits less exclusively with “subtill quiddities,” the name of their 
great exemplar, Duns Scotus, might never have been corrupted, in 
form and meaning, into our modern dunce. Had the expounders of 
scientific discovery, and the preachers of religion, been invariably 
careful to confine their inculeations within the limits of certain truth, 
and to allow to their disciples in some degree the exercise of un- 
trammeled reason in weighing the doctrines they were expected to 
accept, the term theory, which ought to denote a reasonable opinion 
logically deduced from a sufficient number of established facts, might 


48 Degraded Words. 


never have sunk so near to becoming a synonym of the wildest gues- 
sing; and dogma, which properly indicates only a tenet or principle 
of belief, might never have carried with it the imputation of obsti- 
nate and unwarranted assertion. Had students really in possession 
of superior knowledge employed it more generally for the benefit of 
their fellow-men, rather than to bewilder and delude them, the term 
wizard (a wise man) might never have descended to equivalency 
with charlatan and impostor. 

Had absolute rulers again, exerted their authority mainly for the 
good of their subjects, the appellations tyrant and despot might still 
have been free from more than shade of censure that now clings to 
them. TZyrant, indeed, began very early to imply reproach, and in 
Latin is,commonly used in the same unfavorable sense as in English, 
but in Greek we find it applied to the mild Pisistratus. Despot, it 
will be remembered, was frequently employed in antiquity as a respect- 
ful form of address in approaching a monarch. Thus in Herodotus’ 
account of the debate in the Persian cabinet over the invasion of 
Greece, the statesman Mardonius, beginning tke speech that 

smoothed over” the opinion of Xerxes, calls him “ O despota” — 
rather inadequately rendered by Cary, “sir.” And in much later 
times, if the tradition preserved by Déllinger in his “ Myths of the 


Middle Ages” is to be believed, the announcement, “ Arrén hémin . 


estin ho despotés,” constituted an essential formality in the enthrone- 
ment of the popes. In no such case as this, can the Greek progenitor 
of our English despot be supposed to convey any uncomplimentary 
notion. The moderr conception of selfish and cruel oppression that 
is now so firmly united with the definition of either of these words, 
is doubtless the outgrowth at once of the bad use of unlimited au- 
thority on the part of the average ruler, and of the proneness of the 
average subject to cast what opprobrium he can and dares upon the 
powers that be. 


V2 


Turning now to words relating to the passions and appetites, we 
shall find several whose altered meanings tell plainly the story of 
repeated indulgence in wrong directions, or at least of groveling 
tastes. The degradation of the word paramour, formerly used by 


Spenser and others in a perfectly innocent sense, and the vulgar - 
misuse sometimes to be noticed of the beautiful word Jove, which 


onght to express one’s feelings toward his child, his wife, his mother 
or his God —the misuse of this word by connecting it with the names 


Degraded Words. 49 


of things we eat—are cases in point. To carouse, again, was once 
only to drink, with however great a degree of decorum and pro- 
priety. ‘‘The queen carouses to thy fortune, Hamlet,” so proclaims 
that august lady in the last scene of the tragedy, referring plainly to 
the taking of a single glass, by way of formal compliment. But as 
our affections are so apt to be set upon things that perish with the 
using, and as the enjoyment of intoxicants has been found so often 
to degenerate into their lawless and injurious abuse, we have come 
by degrees to conceive the preposterous notion of ‘‘ loving ” a favorite 
eatable, and our designation of the slightest possible use of wine has 
grown so swollen and distorted, like the persons of the depraved 
beings whose bad habits have brought about the change, as to imply 
the highest degree of riotous excess. 

The selfish and malevolent passions, too, have been at work upon 
our vocabulary. Charles Francis Adams, some years ago, took oc- 
casion to characterize the British nation as greatly “ wddicted to com- 
merce,” for which expression he was censured by sundry newspapers, 
on the ground that commerce is not a vice. Truly it is not; but why 
should we never speak of persons or peoples as addicted (or prone, 
which is another expression of exactly the same kind) to anything 
but what is evil?— the words having equally proper application, 
both by etymology and by the authority of ancient usage, to good 
practices and to bad. Why, indeed, had not common experience 
persistently given its testimony in support of something very like 
the much abused theological doctrine of total depravity, the doctrine 
that “we are utterly indisposed to all good, and wholly inclined to 


all evil ?” 


Indolence, again, once signified merely a condition of freedom 
from pain or excitement, and it would seem that its present parity 
with laziness must be due to the fact that humankind is not likely 


‘greatly to exert itself unless stimulated by the actual presence or 


the apprehended peril of some sort of discomfort. To be careless, 
in Pope’s time, was to be free from anxiety, not culpably negligent, 
asnow. “ Thus wisely careless, innocently gay,” he writes. In its 
present common language, we seldom consider carelessness wise. 
Indifference was impartiality, so that it was once a compliment to 
say of a magistrate that he administered justice indifferently, though 
we should now infer from the remark that his decisions were thought- . 
less and as likely to be wrong as right. 

To covet means, of course, properly speaking, only to desire 
[ Trans. 2.] cen 


50 Degraded Words. 


eagerly, the French convoiter, and the expression was formerly em- 
ployed, as by the translators of the Bible in First Corinthians (xii, 31), 
‘““covet earnestly the best things” — without that implication of 
evil which man’s bad habit, his proneness to covet more particularly 
what he knows be ought not to have, has fastened upon it. 

The expression “to inflame,” which we seldom hear now-a-days 
except in connection with some evil feeling, was used of old in re- 
ference to the good passions quite as freely as the bad, examples of 
which practice can be found in many hymns still sung. ‘To de- 
nounce,” also, “to instigate,” “to conspire,” and “ to provoke,” are 
verbs that we hardly ever employ at the present day except in re- 
ference to wrong doing, though just as correctly applicable to 
endeavors in the most praiseworthy directions, and once so used. 

Animosity, in Sir Thomas Browne’s “ Urn Burial,” 1658, meant 
courage, as where he tells us that Cato confirmed “ his wavering 
hand to animosity ” by reading the Greek philosophers. ‘‘ To have 
words” with a man, is now in most cases to quarrel with him, 
so great is the tendency of animated discussions, those in which we 
notice chiefly the great flow of words on both sides, to degenerate 
into heated disputes. 

But perhaps the most striking instance of the spoiling of words of 
this class is that which is furnished by the verbs retaliate, resent, 
and their derivatives. ‘The writer was once present at the parting 
of that scholarly but somewhat eccentric divine, the Rev. Dr. Samuel 
Hanson Cox, from a gentleman to whom he was indebted for hos- 
pitality, and to whom he said: “ You may be certain, sir, that I shall 
be glad of any opportunity to display my resentment of your at- 
tentions.” The host looked rather blank, as well he might, and the 
doctor explained: “That word resentment, sir, is a good word that 
has been brought into disgrace by man’s wickedness. It only indi- 
cates a feeling-back, a desire to reciprocate, and was once employed 
as well in relation to benefits as to injuries. But we have so short a 
meniory for kindness, and so vague an intention of returning it, while 
our perceptions of wrong done us are so acute, and our inclination 
toward revengeful purposes so strong, that one is actually not un- 
derstood in these days if he speaks of resenting anything but an 
affront or an attack!” This position is unquestionably sound; and 
almost the same remarks apply also to the companion words retalia- — 
tion and retaliate, which certainly no one would think of employing 
now except in connection with some kind of injury. Yet to retaliate 


‘ 
, 


Degraded Words. 51 


is really of course only to pay back, whether good or evil, as to 
resent is to feel back, whether with gratitude or with anger; and 
examples of the use of both words in the good sense abound in our 
earlier literature, particularly in the sermons of the seventeenth 
century, with whose authors they seem to have been favorite terms. 
Thus Isaac Barrow strongly enjoins the duty of cultivating “‘ resent- 
ment of our obligations to God,” and in another passage remarks 
that “‘ honor renders a man a faithful resenter of courtesies;” and 
Edmund Calamy says: “God takes what is done to others as done 
to himself, and by promise obliges himself to full retaliation.” 
Dryden, too, writing at about the same period, has the statement : 
“The king expects a return from them, that the kindness which he has 
shown them may be retaliated on those of hisown persuasion.” Such 
expressions grate harshly upon modern ears, but that is because the 
words have become soiled and polluted by the unworthy purposes 
to which they have now so long been generally restricted. And the 
language, let it be noticed, is Just so much the poorer in consequence, 
for we have no exact synonyms with which, for their former and 
better use, We may replace them. 


V. 


Another unfortunate trait of character whose prevalence is curi- 
ously illustrated ina similar way, is that suggested by the adjectives 
meddlesome and officiows. To meddle with anything was once 
merely to concern one’s self with it, no implication of any imperti- 
nence or other impropriety being conveyed. Officious, in Bailey’s 


-. time, had preserved exactly the meaning of its Latin ancestor, “ ready 


to do one a good office, serviceable, very obliging,” and it is in this 
sense that Titus Andronicus uses it when he says [v, 2]: “Come, 
come, be every one officious to make this banquet.” Pragmatical 


_and busybody also, though perhaps always involving some degree of 
censure in their English use, ought certainly by every principle of 


etymology to be susceptible of an innocent if not a laudatory appli- 
cation. Pragmatikos means “ active, able, business-like or prudent.” 
A busybody is plainly a person who is busy ; and why, in either 
ease, should it always be taken for granted that the individual of 
whom these terms are predicated is active about business that he 
might better let alone, unless the common experience of those who 
have employed the words has taught them that people are for the 
most part rather more likely to exert themselves in the pursuit of 


52 | Degraded Words. 


uncommendable enterprises than in the practice of their appropriate 
occupations ? 


Na 


Our evil tendency to grumble and complain of our surroundings, 
and to find fault with our fellow-man, has likewise been instrumental 
in the degradation of a number of common expressions. Can it be 
believed, for instance, that homely would ever have come to mean 
ugly among people cultivating a due spirit of contentment with 
their daily lot? The adjectives chronic and inveterate, also, and 
the nouns plight and predicament ought to be as freely applicable 
to desirable states and conditions as to the reverse. Dr. Cuyler 
wrote, not'long ago, in the Hvangelist: “ We pastors set great store 
by chronic Christians;” but in present common usage it cannot be 
denied that these terms are seldom heard except in relation to things. 
evil. A catastrophe, too, is really only the final act of a drama, 
whether tragic or comic, and has perhaps become so nearly the 
synonym of disaster chiefly because we are so apt to take it for 
granted, in our talk, if not in our real convictions, that things gen- 
erally do turn out badly. 

“To censure” was once merely to express an opinion, as in 
Richard III.: “ Will you go and give your censures in this business ?””’ 
But our judgment of each other is so often uncharitably severe that 
the meaning has become limited to unfavorable judgment only; and 
it appears to me that criticise is going the same way — we apply it 
much more frequently, I think, to the expression of blame than of 
commendation. 

The epithet egregious might formerly have been coupled with the 
name of the most distinguished philosopher, poet or statesman; but 
‘we are so much readier at abusing our neighbors than praising them, 
that the term epithet has dropped almost entirely its good use; and 
we are so likely, in characterizing any person as at all peculiar, which — 
is all that egregious really signifies, to mean that he is peculiarily 
disagreeable, that one rather expects now-a-days some highly dam- 
aging appellation to follow, when a man is mentioned as “an egre- 
gious —” and there the speaker pauses. 


Vil. 


Man’s propensity to over-reach his fellows when he can, and to 
take unfair advantage of their necessities, has branded several words 
with new opprobrium. To prevent is really only to get ahead of, or 


f 
- 


Degraded Words. 53 


to precede, as in the English Common Prayer: “ Let thy grace always 
prevent and follow us;” and Hamlet (ii, 2), “so shall my anticipa- 
tion prevent your discovery.” But alas, those who reach first a 
desirable goal are so wont to take advantage of their position, not 


to help others get there too, but to block the way if possible, that the 


verb which ought only to describe the arrival of the first-comers in 
advance of the rest, is now understood as implying also their doing 
the best they can to monopolize the good fortune, and prevent others 
from sharing it. 

Another illustration of the same principle, still stronger perhaps, 
is furnished by the word rival. Rivals were at first only the occu- 
piers of the banks of the same stream, and a little later, partners or 
co-laborers in the same enterprise. It is in this sense that Bernardo 
speaks of Horatio and Marcellus as the rivals of his watch. But it 
came to be perceived that joint owners and partners are very apt to 
quarrel, each doing his best to possess himself of all the advantages 
of the combination, until at last the word, in our present usage, has 
come to involve the entirely modern addition of a conflict of interest, 
and more or less hard-feeling between the parties. 

_ Artful, so late as the time of Johnson, meant only skillful, not 


tricky. Usury was once merely interest money, however moderate 


the amount and however legal and equitable the charge. A cheat, 
or escheatour, was a royal officer in England who attended to the 
sequestration of estates that were forfeited to the crown, and the 
corrupt practices of these men led it to be commonly believed that 
to “cheat” a man was to deprive him of his property unfairly — 


_ which meaning is now the only one recognized. To embezzle was to 


spend rashly and foolishly, but it was applied for a long time to the 
man’s own property — “ Mr. Hackluit died, leaving a fair estate to 
an unthrift son, who embezzled it” ! —that is, wasted it — until it 
was discovered that spendthrifts are apt to become thieves as well. 
A defaleation was formerly only a diminution or abatement, as in 
Burke: ‘The natural method in reformation would be to take the 
estimates and show what may be safely defalcated from them.” Its 
present use, as implying arrant knavery in the diminution, is possi- 


bly due in part to some supposed connection with “default” and 


*“‘defaulter,” to which words, of course, it is by etymology only very 
distantly if at all related. 


Thomas Fuller, “ Worthies of England,” 1662. 


54 | Degraded Words. 


VILL. 


Of the great multitude of other degraded words that do not so- 


readily fall into classes, but illustrate nevertheless each one the pre- 
valence of some blameworthy course of action or thought, there may 
be instanced gossip, which denoted first a fellow sponsor in baptism, 
next an intimate friend, and finally a too-talkative and therefore 
often dangerous companion; voluble, which was only fluent (and not 
unduly fluent as at present) when Bishop Hacket, a little more 
than two hundred years ago, wrote of Archbishop Abbott that “he 
was of agrave and voluble eloquence; ” conceit, properly the equi- 
valent of idea or opinion, but rarely used now except for such opin- 
ions as the speaker deems ill-founded or absurd; profane, which 
originally meant only secular or non-sacred, as we still say “ profane 


history,” and its opposite, fanatic, which really signifies about the - 


same as inspired; libertine and miscreant, formerly synonymous 
with free-thinker and infidel, and having reference solely to the 
man’s opinions instead of his actions; obseguious, which once im- 
plied merely the exercise of affectionate and becoming obedience; 
fussy, which was once the same as busy; an apology, which was of 
old only a defence, by no means implying that the thing apologized 
for wasin the slightest degree admitted to be improper, but only 
that it had been attacked; ringleader and notorious, which have only 
in modern times become restricted to their present evil sense; bush- 
whacking, which was originally “a harmless word, denoting simply 
the process of propelling a boat by pulling the bushes, or of beat- 
ing them down in order to open a way through a thicket; ” * a pro- 
ser, which term really indicates only a person who writes prose, 
whether tiresome or quite the reverse; casuwistry, the science of de- 
termining what is duty, but more generally applied to specious 
attempts at making the worse appear the better reason; the adjective 
jesuitical, and the verb to jew, which are certainly often used, 
though perhaps improperly, in a highly offensive sense not at all im- 
plied by their original applications. 


LX: 


Not to prolong, however, this somewhat humiliating though per- 
haps salutary catalogue of human frailties, there is one bad habit 


1 Schele de Vere, “ Americanisms,” p. 89. 


Degraded Words. 55 


that gives constant annoyance in our daily life, and seems sometimes 
to prepare the way for all the others — the habit of procrastination, 
unnecessary and vexatious delay when action is demanded. A vice’ 
so common could hardly fail to make its impression on the language. 
Accordingly we find that certain adverbs of time which are and 
have been very frequently employed in promising immediate atten- 
tion to duty, have lost by degrees a large share of their former intensity 
(promises of this kind being so often broken), and have become 
so weakened and enervated as quite to obscure the sense in many 
passages of the older writers. Thus Bailey’s definition of the word 
presently — which is “at present, at this time, now,” as exemplified 
by Cardinal Beaufort in King Henry Sixth [part two, 1, 1], “this 
weighty business will not brook delay; Pll to the Duke of Suffolk 
presently ”— this definition is marked “obsolete” by Webster, 
though that meaning still seems to survive to some extent in Eng- 
land, for I read the other day in the Newcastle Courant that ‘‘ Gene- 
ral Ramsay is presently visiting at the castle.” Yet the American 
Lexicographer is indisputably correct when he proceeds to mention, 
as the synonyms of this adverb in its more common applications, the 
words “soon, before long, after a little time” — which embody 
quite a different conception. 

As regards the similar term by-and-by, the case is if possible 
still stronger, the ancient meaning still more debilitated in its 
modern usage. Of course this word in our present understanding of 
it, invariably implies considerable delay, but we need only turn to 
the Greek testament to discover that King James’ translators con- 
- sidered it the equivalent for the most emphatic adverbs that the 
' original tongue can furnish to indicate instant and hurried action — 
euthus, eutheos and exautés. These words mean suddenly,hastily, rash- 
ly, at the very point of time; and are rendered “ straightway,” ‘‘ im- 
mediately” and “ forthwith” in the Bible itself, when by-and-by is not 
used. In the account given by Ulysses in the Ajax of his breathless 
and frantic pursuit of the mad warrior who had buteheréd the flocks 
and their guardians, Sophocles makes him say: ‘‘ And to me a watch- 
man that espied him bounding over the plains alone, with freshly 
reeking sword, tells it; and eutheos [that is, instantly| I hurry 
close on his steps.” Fancy rendering this, as is done with the same 
word in the Bible, “ dy-and-by I hurry on his steps!” How com- 
pletely such a translation destroys the coherence of the narrative ! 
What a flood of light is thrown too upon the real intent of the sacred 
writers, when we substitute the stronger and now more accurate ex- 


56 Degraded Words. 


pressions for the indefinite by-and-by, as in Matthew xiii, 26: “ Yet 
hath he not root in himself, for when tribulation cr persecution 
ariseth because of the word,” not “ dy-and-by,” but INSTANTLY “‘he is 
offended,” does not hold out at all—makes no effort for a single 
moment to breast the current! Again, Mark vi, 25: ‘ And she 
came in straightway with haste unto the king, and asked, saying, 
I will that thou give me,” not “dy-and-by,” but As SOON AS POS- 
SIBLE “in a charger, the head of John the Baptist.” Finally, 
Luke xxi, 9: “ But when ye shall hear of wars and commotions, be 
not terrified, for these things must first come to pass, but the end is 
not” — immediately. And if the gradual fading out of the original 
intense emphasis of these words is largely due, as every considera- 
tion seems to render probable, to the fact that people have so often 
said they would do things “ presently ” or “ by-and-by,” and then 
have neglected them, so that in process of time the idea of more or | 
less delay has become thoroughly involved in the common under- 
standing of the words themselves-— what a commentary does it fur- 
nish upon the prevalence of this habit of procrastination, that these 
terms, once the strongest that could be found to picture hurried and 
impatient action, have come at last, as indisputably in ordinary usage 
they have, to denote so vaguely an indefinite period, at an indefinite 
distance, in the indefinite and uncertain future ! 


4 


DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE 
NIAGARA FORMATION AT WALDRON, INDIANA. 


By James Hatt. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, March 18, 1879. ] 


In the 4th volume of the 7ransactions of the Albany Institute, I 
have described a considerable number of new forms from the above 
named locality of the Niagara group, and also noticed the occur- 
rence of other known species in the same association. The 
Corals and Bryozoa which, without a eritical examination, I then es- 
timated as “at least twelve species,” have been subsequently illus- 
trated in the 28th Report of the New York State Museum of 
Natural History, and these together with other new or before unrec- 
ognized forms amount to more than forty species. The entire 
number of species now known to me from this locality is upwards of 
150, including varieties. 

In the autumn of 1877, Mr. Charles D. Walcott with the aid of 
Mr. C. Vandeloo made large collections of fossils from the Waldron 
locality, which have furnished the following new forms, together 
with an additional number of known Niagara species, not before 
recognized at that place. 

In the preparation of this paper L have been very ably assisted by 
Mr. George B. Simpson who has carefully studied the Bryozoa and 


separated the species here described from the previously illustrated 


forms Gn the 28th Museum Report) indicating their distinctive 
characters. Mr. C. E. Beecher has likewise selected and arranged 
the remaining species of the entire collection, enabling me to add 
several new species of crinoidea and other fossils. 


PROTOZOA. 
RECEPTACULITES SACCULUS 7. sp. 


_ Body longitudinally subcylindrical, hollow, open at one end (the 
base ?), length less than twice the diameter. Cells irregular in size 
and arrangement, somewhat smaller near the base, expanding at 


_ the aperture to twice the diameter below. Distance between the 


Trans, x.]| 8 


58 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 


cell-apertures equal to the diameter of the apertures. Length of 
cylinder 80 mm., diameter at the base 55 mm., diameter at the sum- 
mit about 45 mm.; length of cell tubes in the thickest portion of the 
cylinder 10 mm. 


This species is described from a portion of an individual broken 
longitudinally through the middle. The fragment is covered with 
bryozoa rendering some of the characters obscure. It is readily dis- 
tinguished by its sac-like form from all other species known in this 
horizon. 


HY DROZOA. 


DENDROGRAPTUS (s.g. CHAUNOGRAPTUS) NOVELLUS n. sp. 


Fossil occurring free in the shales, or upon other fossil bodies, in 


slender branching fronds. Branches diverging, lax and slender, with 
numerous branchlets, both marked by numerous cellules which are 
usually indicated by the appearance of abrupt expansion and contrac- 
tion of the branches. 

The angular projection of the cell-aperture can be observed in 
many parts of the fossil. 


This species is more lax and diffuse than any form of Drnpro- 
GRAPTUS known to me, and I therefore suggest a separation from the 
typical forms of the genus. It occurs free among other fossils, or 
attached to some fragmentary portions of other bodies. In its habit 
of growth it is quite distinct from any of the forms heretofore illus- 
trated or that have come under my observation. 


INOCAULUS DIVARICATUS ”. sp. 


Frond ramose, regularly branching about every 10 mm. by dich- 
otomous division. Branches straight, diameter 2 mm., diverging at 
an angle of nearly 85°, giving the frond a somewhat rigid appearance. 
Exterior structure composed of numerous irregular, longitudinally 
striated, branching filaments, connected by slender dissepiments, 
forming rows of small, irregular, subangular cell-apertures. 


This species is distinguished from Z. plumulosus Hain (Pal. NV. Y., 
vol. ii, p. 176), by its rigid, slender, diverging branches, and by the 
absence of the projecting, imbricating scales forming the cell-margins. 

The specimen here described furnishes some additional evidence 
regarding the intimate structure and nature of INocauuus. 


aig Sites 


From the Niagara Formation. 59 
CORALS AND BRYOZOA. 


CLADOPORA SARMENTOSA 7. Sp. 


Frond ramose, solid, frequently branching, diameter from two to 
four mm.; cell-tubes radiating equally on all sides from the axis at 
an angle of 45°, gradually enlarging towards their apertures, which 
are about .75mm. in diameter, and closely arranged in alternating 
series, the apertures having their lower side margined by a projecting 
lip which gradually slopes into the substance of the branch below. 

This species bears some resemblance to C. seriata, Hau, of the 
Niagara group of New York, but differs from that species in its 


stronger and more frequent branches enlarging at their bases ; and 
in the gradual diverging of the cell-tubes from the axis. 


TREMATOPORA (CH#&TETES) CREBRIPORA 2. Sp. 


Frond ramose, branches infrequent, moderately diverging ; sub- 
stance solid from the filling of numerous small subcylindrical cells, 
which, originating at or near the centre, gradually diverge to near 
the surface, where they turn directly outward. Cell-apertures oval, 
from one and a half to two mm. in length and about two-thirds as 
wide as long ; irregularly arranged, often contiguous, but preserv- 
ing the oval form. Septa few or none. 


It differs from Z: varia in its larger and distinctly oval cell 
apertures, and its solid branches. 


CALLOPORA ELEGANTULA. 


_Callopora elegantula Haun. Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, p. 144, pl. 40, figs. 1,2. 1852, 


This species has not heretofore been recognized among the collec- 
tions from Waldron; but the specimens under examination possess 
all the essential characters of those from the Niagara group of New 
York. 


CALLOPORA CERVICORNIS 7. sp. 


Frond ramose, branches round or flattened, solid, irregular in their 
mode of growth, diverging at an angle of 90°, diameter of branches 
reaching eight mm. Cellules rising from the centre and gradually 
ascending to near the surface, where they turn abruptly outward ; 
cell-walls very thin; septa very infrequent; cell-apertures oval, 
.3mm. long, .2mm. wide, closely arranged, with elevated margins which 
are often granulose. Intercellular spaces very narrow or sometimes 
wauting, leaving the cell-margins in contact. 


60 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 
CaLLOPORA ? DIVERSA 2. Sp. 


Frond ramose, solid ; branches infrequent, strong and usually some- 
what compressed, often much thickened below the bifurcations, and 
presenting a clavate form. A longitudinal section shows the cells 
gradually divergent from the centre and turning abruptly outward 
uear the surface ; cell-walls with strong and regular corrugations, 
about four in the space of one millemetre ; septa wanting or very 
infrequent ; cell-apertures usually subcircular, sometimes distinctly 
oval and often subangular from close proximity, with distinct spies 
at the angles, and sometimes with margins entirely granulose. In- 
tercellular spaces sometimes marked by a single series of pits upon 
the surface, but usually this feature is absent or obsolete ; a section 
of a branch shows the septate intercellular spaces extending a short 
distance below the surface. 


This species, in its solid structure, and its intercellular spaces, seen 
only near the surface, so closely resembles Curxres that there is 
little reason for separating it from that genus. It can be distinguished 
from Callopora cervicornis by its stronger habit, more circular 
cell-apertures, and conspicuous maculx with larger cells. 


TREMATOPORA SUBIMBRICATA ”. Sp. 


Bryozoum ramose ; branches straight, hollow; inner surface 
transversely wrinkled ; cellules rising from the epitheca and con- 
tinuing with slight obliquity to near the surface, where they curve 
outward almost rectangularly to the axis. Cell-apertures oval, 
about two-thirds as wide as long, often closely arranged or crowded, 
upper side without elevated margin, lower side with a projecting lip. 
In some parts of the surface there are macule of larger and more 
irregularly disposed cells. 


This species resembles 7. osculum in its general aspect ; but the 
branches are stronger, and the cell-apertures irregularly disposed. 
In that species the smaller and more regularly arranged cells are 
marked by a projecting border on the upper margin. 


TREMATOPORA ? (TRACHYPORA?) MACROPORA 7. sp. 


Bryozoum branching ; branches slender, solid, infrequent, dia- 
meter .5mm Cell-apertures oval, very large in comparison with 
the branches, about .3mm. in length. and .2mm. in width, with 


. 
a, +e 
b Se 
saa 
—s? ee 


mink » 


From the Niagara Formation. 61 


elevated and granulose margins ; the apertures arranged in spira 
rows, the distance between them a little more than their length 
Interspaces covered with fine granules. 


This species is distinguished from 7: minuta by the absence cof 
the strong longitudinal rows of nodes, which in that species are more 
elevated than the cell-margins, while in this the character is reversed. 
The minute granule upon the surface show that the differences 
observed are not due to weathering or maceration. 


STICTOPORA ORBIPORA 2. Sp. 


Bryozoum ramose ; bifurcations frequent, branches convex, thick- 
ness about half as great as the. width ; margins of branches destitute 
of cellules, and marked by granulose striz. Cellules rising from 
a thin diaphragm and ascending at an angle of about 45° for half 
their length and then turning slightly backward, open upon the 
surface in small circular apertures which are surrounded by an 
elevated granulose margin: cellules arranged in oblique lines 
in which there are sixteen cell-apertures in the space of five milli- 
metres. 


This species differs from S. similis in the thicker eape and the 
distinctly circular cell-apertures. 


CrRAMopPoRA ? (LICHENALIA ?) EXPLANATA 2. Sp. 


Bryozoum consisting of thin foliate expansions, which may be free 
or incrusting, and celluliferous on one or both sides: when celluli- 
ferous on one side only, the lower side consists of a concentrically 
wrinkled epitheca ; and when celluliferous on both sides, this epitheca 
becomes a thin diaphragm separating the two ranges of cells. Cellules 
obliquely ascending and rapidly expanding towards the aperture ; 
arranged in alternating and imbricating series ; apertures oblique to 


the surface of the frond, opening in an arched or subtriangular 
form. 


This species occurs in moderately large expansions, presenting 
the general aspect of Lichenalia concentrica ; but it may readily 
be distinguished by the angular form of the cell- -apertures, and 
by the direction of the cells being mere nearly parallel to the 


epitheca or diaphragm ; and they are exposed for nearly their whole 
length. - 


62 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 
CERAMOPORA RARIPORA 7. Sp. 


Bryozoum growing in thin expansions ; celluliferous on one side 
(so far as observed), the other side marked by a wrinkled epitheca. 
Cell-tubes subcylindrical, oblique, enlarging to the aperture, extremely 
variable in size. Apertures from .5 to 1.5mm. in diameter ; arching 
and subtriangular in form, and arranged in alternating and imbri- 
cating series ; the larger cells frequently appearing polygonal and 
opening directly upward. 


This species differs from the preceding in the closer arrangement 
of the cells, comparatively little of the cell-tube being seen, and 
also in the lar ger cell-apertures, which open directly outward. 


CERAMOPORA (PALESCHARA ?) NOTHUS 7. Sp. 


Bryozoum growing in thin expansions, attached to other organic 
bodies ; cell-tubes short, arranged in alternating and imbricating 
order : aperture. arched or angular, usually oblique to the plane of 
the surface, sometimes opening obliquely upward, one-third of a 
millimetre in diameter. Surface marked by numerous slightly 
elevated maculz, the centres of which are distant from each other 
about four or fivemm. These macule are occupied by larger cells, 
their apertures being nearly a half millimetre in diameter. 

In well-preserved specimens, the angles of the cell-apertures have 
short, spine-like projections. ~ 


This species resembles C. confluens ; but the cell-apertures are 
larger, and the maculz are less elevated and always covered by cells. 
In C. agellus the cell-tubes are more exposed and have a radiating 
order not observed in this form. 


EscHAROPORA (PTILODYCTIA) ANGUSTA N. Sp. 


Bryozoum an elongate, simple stipe, celluliferous on both sides : 
cell-apertures opening a little obliquely upon the surface, about five 
in the width of the stipe, occupying a width of 1.3mm., while in the 
same space longitudinally there are three. Margins of stipe granulose. 


FENESTELLA PERTENUIS 7. Sp. 


Frond flabelliform, branches slender, from eight to eleven in the 
space of five mm.; on the non-poriferous side the branches are 
flattened and striated, the strie distinct, from three to five on a 


j 


asian citi i 


From the Niagara Formation. 63 


branch, and on well-preserved specimens finely granulose : dissepi- 
ments extremely slender, frequently oblique, and not expanding at 
their junction with the branches. Fenestrules quadrangular, vary- 
ing from equal to twice the width of the branches, length from two 
to three times the width. Cell-pores in two ranges, apertures circu- 
lar, four in the length of a fenestrule, opening obliquely upward : 
distance between the cell-apertures equal to, or a little less than, their 
diameter : margins slightly elevated. Centre of the branch longitu- 
dinally carinated ; carina sharp and slightly elevated. 


FENESTELLA BELLASTRIATA 2. Sp. 


Frond funnel-shaped, branches strong, rigid, very gradually en- 
larging to the bifurcation. Surface of non-poriferous side flattened, 
strongly striated, strie two to three upon each branch except just 
below the bifurcation where the number is greater: dissepiments 
from one-half to two-thirds the width of the branchés, expanded at 
their junction, about six in the space of five mm. Fenestrules elon- 
gate-oval, width about equal to that of the branches, length two or 
three times the width : cell-pores in two ranges, three in the length 
of each fenestrule, opening laterally, and slightly upward ; margins 
elevated and indenting the border of the fenestrule. Centre of the 


_ -branch carinated, carina narrow and little elevated. 


This species differs from / pertenwis, in its stronger branches and 
much wider dissepiments, which are expanded at their junction with 
the branches, in the elongate-oval fenestrules, the strong sharp 


-strizon the non-poriferous side, and in the number of pores in the 


length of a fenestrule. 


FENESTELLA CONFERTA 2. Sp. 


Frond flabelliform, branches slender, about seven in the space of 
five mm.; non-poriferous side rounded, striated; striz granulose, four 
or five on the width of the branch ; bifurcations very frequent and ir- 
regular : dissepiments, from one-third to one-half the width of the 
branches, widening at their junction, usually direct but sometimes 
oblique, three in the space of five mm. Fenestrules subquadrangu- 
lar, varying from equal to nearly double the width of the branches, 
length about three times the width. Cell-pores in from two to four 


ranges, usually three ranges ; six to seven in the space of each fenes- 
trule. 


64 Descriptions of New Species of Lossils 


Where there are three or four ranges of cell-pores, the central 
range, or ranges open directly upward, with the lateral ones open- 
ing nearly directly outward ; where there are but two ranges they 
open directly outward. Cell-apertures small, circular, closely ar- 
ranged and nearly contiguous ; cell-margins but slightly elevated ; 
margins and intermediate spaces finely granulose. Ranges of pores 
separated by a narrow nodose ridge. 


FENESTELLA TANTULUS ”%. Sp. 


Frond flabelliform, branches straight,seven in the space of five mm. ; 
on the non-poriferous side rounded and striated ; striz fine, four 
to six on each branch, strongly granulose : dissepiments from one- 
half to two-thirds as wide as the branches, expanding at their junc- 
tion, four in the space of fivemm. Fenestrules elongate-oval or sub- 
quadrangular ; width about the same as the branches, length from 
two to three times the width. Cell-pores in from two to four ranges, 
two ranges predominating ; five pores in the length of a fenes- 
trule ; where there are more than two ranges the inner ones open 
directly upward and the lateral ones directly outward. Cell-aper- 
tures small, circular, margins slightly elevated, spaces between the 
ranges of apertures tortuously striated ; where there are but two 
ranges of cells they open directly outward ; the interspaces are ele- 
vated and nodose, but not carinated. 


This may be distinguished from / conferta by its smaller and 
more distant cell-apertures, and fewer cells in the space of a fenes- 
trule, and by its stronger and more closely arranged dissepiments. 


F'ENESTELLA PROLIXA 7. Sp. 


Frond flabelliform, branches slender, irregular near the base, be- 
coming more regular and straighter above, eight or nine in the space 
of five mm.; non-poriferous side.rounded and striated ; striz sharp 
and in well-preserved specimens granulose, three or four upon each 
branch. Dissepiments very slender, occasionally oblique to the 
branch, slightly expanding at their junction, distant from each other 
about one millimetre. Fenestrules quadrangular, often twice the 
width of the branch, the length from two to two and a half times 
the width. Cell-pores in two ranges, four or five in the length of a 
fenestrule, opening nearly directly upward, apertures circular, mar- 
gins distinctly elevated, granulose and indenting the border of the 
fenestrule ; centre of the branch carimated, carina sharp and strongly 
elevated. 


From the Niagara Formation. 65 


CRINOIDEA. 


PLATYCRINUS SILURICUS 7. Sp. 


The base of the calyx composed of large plates, which have a 
length of eleven mm. with a width of ten mm. The plates nearly 
flat in the middle, becoming convex towards the margins, and abruptly 
depressed at the suture line. Surface granulose, the granules 
elongate, tortuous and confluent. 


DENDROCRINUS ANCILLA 2. Sp. 


Body narrowly turbinate, width and height about as ten to twelve 
or as ten to thirteen; contracted between the arm-bases ; upper part 
of the column closely adhering to the body, the five minute basal plates 
scarcely distinguishable from the segments of the column atits summit: 
subradial plates obscurely angular on the lower face,about three-fourths 
as wide as long, very gradually expanding in width from the base, 
and supporting on their upper adjacent sloping faces a large hexa- 
gonal interradial plate, and this supporting a single radial, from 
which the arms take their origin. Arms unknown. 


This species is narrower and less robust than. D. longidactylus 
(Pal. N. Y., vol. ii. p. 193, plates 42 and 43). 


LAMPTEROCRINUS PARVUS 7%. sp. 


Body small, somewhat narrowly turbinate, obtuse at the base 
and obscurely pentagonal. Basal plates five, small; the subradials 
larger: radial plates comparatively larger and strong, the third one 
not determined : the first interradial nearly equal in size to the first 
radial; apparently two smaller plates above. Arm-bases prominent, 
giving a distinct pentalobate aspect to the body ; the anal side ex- 
tremely prominent. 


This species has the essential structure and general aspect of JZ. 
Tennesseénsis, except that there are fewer plates in the interradial 
series, and the third radial plate is obscure. The specimen is much 
smaller than any of the Tennessee specimens which have come under ~ 
my observation, having a height of only about ten millimetres. 

This species is from the limestone beds at Waldron, Ind. 


Trans. x. ] 9 


66 Descriptions of New Species of Fossiis 


CYATHOCRINUS (POTERIOCRINUS) AMULUS 7. Sp. 


Body pentangularly swhturbinate, rapidly attenuate below the 
summit of the subradial plates, and expanded above ; the anal side 
prominent. Basal plates with a prominent node at the base of each 
one: subradials higher than wide: radial plates wide, pentagonal, 
with the upper side deeply cicatrised for the arm attachment. First 
anal plate quadrangular, the second one large unequally pentagonal, 
and cicatrised on the upper side as in the radial plate. Surface 
granulose. Arms and column unknown. 


This species differs from C. Polyxo of the same formation and 
locality, in its more elongate form and less robust character. 


POTERIOCRINUS ? CALYX ”. Sp. 


Calyx turbinate. Basal plates strong, thickened at their lower 
margins, forming a distinct annulation at the base, and having a height 
a little less than half the height of the subradial plates : subradial 
plates elongate, three of them hexagonal, the anal side being un- 
known. Surface of the plates granulose. 


The only specimen examined is imperfect and its full charac- 
ters are unknown. ‘The strong basal plates with the annulated lower 
margin, and the unusually elongate subradial plates are distinguish- 
ing features of the species, and present characteristic differences 
from any other species known in the formation. 


EUCALYPTOCRINUS CONSTRICTUS 7. Sp. 


Body subturbinate, narrow below and abruptly expanding from 
the second radial plates ; becoming ventricose and _ pentalobate 
above. Basal plates large, their entire characters undetermined. First 
radial plates wider than high, the lateral margins scarcely expand- 
ing, little incurved; indented on the lower margins for the reception 
of the basal plates, gently concave on the upper margin, the upper 
lateral angles truncated for the support of a large interradial plate 
with narrow base, the surface of which is moderately concave. The 
second and third radials are quadrangular and pentagonal ; the sum- 
mit of the latter reaching to the point of greatest gibbosity in the 
calyx, and supporting on the sloping sides the supraradial plates, 
being scarcely truncated at the upper extremity for the reception of 


From the Niagara Formation. 67 


the interbrachial plate. The double second interradial plate, sur- 
mounting the first interradial plate is distinctly concave, causing the 
lobed character of the upper part of the calyx. The lower plates 
of the arms, only, are preserved. 

Surface of the plates smooth or finely granulose. 


This species is conspicuously distinct from all others, in the con- 
tracted lower part of the calyx and the abrupt expansion, giving 
great gibbosity above, while it is contracted between the arms of 
each ray by the concavity of the double interradial plates. 


AMPHERISTOCRINUS nov. gen. 


Body turbinate, composed of the following series of plates: basal 
plates three ; subradials five ; radials five in the first series, anal 
area composed of several plates; arms unknown. 


This crinoid has the general form and aspect of PorERiocrinus or 
CyatuHocrinvs, and has a similar structure above the basal series. 
Three individuals have been examined, each one of which has the 
remarkable protuberant attenuate base and large anal area. 


i=) 


HY O 
nit 
Gras 
QA? 
The accompanying diagram gives an illustration of the structure of the Genus. 


AMPHERISTOCRINUS TYPUS 7. sp. 


Body somewhat angularly turbinate, base a little protuberant for 
the column attachment, narrow and distinctly pentangular above to 
the middle of the subradial plates ; the areas formed by the lateral 


68 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 


portions of the adjacent subradials, the basal portion of the radials 
and upper part of the basal plates, are distinctly flattened or some- 
times slightly concave ; and in like manner the areas formed by the 
lateral portions of adjacent radial plates and the upper part of the sub- 
radial are distinctly flattened. The pentagonal basal plate higher than 
wide, the other two wider than high. Subradials with the pentasoant 
forms a little higher than wide a the others about equal in height 
and width. Radials fully one-third wider than high, with a narrow 
cicatrix upon the upper margin for the attachment of the brachial 
plate, which occupies scarcely one-third of the width of the plate 
below. First arm plate quadrangular, above which their character 
is unknown. Surface finely granulose. Column and arms unknown. 
Height of calyx 12 mm. 


This species in its external form bears much resemblance to Cya-_ 


thocrinus Polyxo, but it is less robust, more slender and more dis- 


tinctly pentangular in the lower part, while the column attachment 


is proportionally smaller. Compared with the young of that species 
the basal plates are distinctly higher, and the same is true of the 
subradials ; but a marked difference in the structure is shown in the 
number and form of the basal plates,— C. Polyxo having five short 
broad plates, while this species has three basals, two of these hex- 
agonal and about as high as wide, and one pentagonal plate on the 
anal side which is much higher than wide. 


CoDASTER (STEPHANOCRINUS?) PULCHELLUS. 


Codaster pulchellus MILLER and DyER. Contributions to Paleontology, Journal 
of the Cincinnati Society of Natural Aistory, April, 1878.* 


Body obconiecal, triangular below, becoming obtusely pentagonal 
above, the angles coinciding with the ambulacral areas ; the exterior 
surface between these being flat or slightly concave in the upper 
part. The basal plates constitute a little more than one-third the 
entire height of the body: plates of the second range much larger 
than the basal, and deeply indented on their upper margin for the 


reception of the ambulacra: plates of the third range extremely ~ 


minute except on the anal? side, where the terminal plate broadly 
truncates the upper sides of the two adjacent plates of the second 
range. Central aperture conspicuous, -pentalobate. Surface ob- 
scurely striated. 


In the specimens examined, the minute plates covering the central 


iff 


From the Niagara Formation. 69 


aperture are wanting. The grooves for the attachment of the tenta- 
cule are distinctly preserved, but no appendages have been seen. 

This form differs from Stephanocrinus gemmiformis in its nar- 
rower proportions and more acute base, and also in the smaller and 
less elevated plates of the third series, of which one plate is con- 
spicuously larger than the others. 

In the structure of the body, at least, there are no differences which 
appear to be of generic importance between STEPHANOCRINUS and 
CopastER. The species under consideration presents all the es- 
sential features of the former genus. 


CoDASTER PENTALOBUS 7”. sp. 


Body robust, distinctly pentangular and pentalobate in the upper 
part, narrowing below ; the basal portion unknown. Summit broad, 
the ambulacral areas prominent. 

The specimen described has a width of over ten mm. in the upper 
part ; and the width of each side, measured from the base of the 
ambulacral areas, is about seven mm. 


A single imperfect specimen only, has been observed, but its char- 
acters are quite distinctive, when compared with any Silurian 
forms of the genus. 


BRACHIOPODA. 


LINGULA GIBBOSA 7. sp. 


General form subelliptical, lateral margins curving, rounded at the 
base, and somewhat abruptly contracting towards the beak ; valves 
gibbous on the umbones; greatest convexity at about one-third the 
length from the apex. Surface marked by fine irregular concentric 
striz which in some parts become lamellose, and also by concentric 
undulations. 


CRANIA SPINIGERA 7. Sp. 


Shell very broadly oval, wider than long, slightly concave on the 
margin near the apex. Upper valve depressed subconical, apex trans- 


70 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 


versely subcentral, distant from the concave margin about one-third 
of the longitudinal diameter. Lower or ventral valve not observed. 

Surface marked by very fine, sharp, lamellose, concentric striz. 
Entire surface minutely papillose. Shell ornamented with irrregular, 
interrupted radiating lines or ridges of small, short, tubular spines, 
diverging from the apex to the margins, and increasing in number 
by implantation only. These radiating lines are composed of a single 
row of imbricating spines forming a nearly continuous nodose 
ridge. The specimen described has over thirty of these rows at the 
margin. 


When in a perfect condition the spines do not show their tubular 
character, being closed at the extremities. The individual is attached 
to the dorsal valve of Rhynchonella Stricklandi, and exhibits the 
plications of that shell continued over the Cranta in corresponding 
folds irrespective of the surface ornaments. 

From C. setifera and C. Siluriana, with which it is associated, 
and from any other paleeozoic form with which I am acquainted, this 
species 1s distinguished by the radiating rows of spines. 


ORTHIS SUBNODOSA 7. Sp. 


Ventral valve suborbicular, length and width about as 10 to 14 ; 
hinge-line much shorter than the width of the shell ; an undefined 
mesial depression on the lower half of the shell ; umbo prominent, 
beak small and slightly incurved ; area small, triangular, apparently 
not occuping more than half the width of the valve ; foramen large, 
reaching to the beak, wider than high. 

Surface marked by subangular plications of which there are three 
in the mesial depression, the central one being interstitial, coming 
in below the umbo. There are about ten plications on each side of 
the mesial depression, some of these coming from bifurcation or in- 
terstitial additions ; the plications are crossed by lamellose lines of 
growth, which give them a subnodose aspect. 


This species resembles, in some of its features, the O. fissicosta of 
the Hudson river group. 


ZYGOSPIRA MINIMA 7%. Sp. 


A small subglobose form, about as long as wide. Ventral valve 
extremely gibbous, with a slight emargination in front. Dorsal 
valve gibbous on the umbo, depressed in the middle, and concave 


— 


From the Niagara Formation. 71 


towards the front, presenting the feature of a broad, shallow, un- 
defined sinus. Surface marked by strong radiating strie. 


The aspect of this fossil is characteristic of the genus ZyGosPIRA, 
but the form is extremely gibbous and has the character of a ma- 
ture shell, though its length is only two and a half milliemtres. 


MERISTELLA RECTIROSTRA 72. Sp. 


Shell broadly ovate, acute at the beak, thence rapidly expanding ; 
the dorso-lateral margins nearly straight for one-third the length of 
the shell, and then broadly curving, giving the body of the shell 
(in older individuals) a depressed orbicular or sublentiform aspect : 
younger shells ovate or acute. Valves almost equally convex. 
Ventral valve most convex a little above the middle, thence curving 
to the lateral and basal margins ; sinus none or very obscure ; beak 
elevated, acute, attenuate, nearly straight or very slightly arcuate; 
area and foramen triangular without deltidial plates. Dorsal valve 
very convex above the middle, sloping abruptly to the lateral, and 
more gently to the anterior margin ; beak closely incurved into the 
triangular foramen of the ventral valve. 

Surface usually appearing smooth, but is marked by extremely 
fine radiating striae, which give a cancellated appearance under a 


lens. The larger specimens measure eleven mm. in length by about 
nine mm. in width. 


This species is very distinct from the two other forms of the genus 
from this locality, both in its proportions and general aspect ; but 
more especially in the nearly straight beak and open triangular fora- 
‘men. The specimens have the aspect of CrypToNELLA, but are clearly 
shown to possess spires arranged as in MERISTELLA. 


SPIRIFERA BICOSTATA ? var. PETILA. 


Shell obliquely subpyramidal, wider than long; hinge-line 
straight, about four-fifths the greatest width of the shell, rounded 
at the extremities. Ventral valve gibbous, subpyramidal ; beak 
incurved, umbo prominent, abruptly curving to the basal and baso- 
lateral margins ; sinus visible at the apex and becoming wider and 
deeper towards the front, margined on each side by a strong _plica- 
tion, and between this and the cardinal extremity on each side are 
one or more obscure folds. Area elevated, triangular, margins 
rounded ; foramen higher than wide, with elevated margins, and 


72 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 


Occuping one-third of the area. Dorsal valve moderately convex, 
the greatest convexity just above the middle ; mesial fold indistinct 
above, becoming prominent towards the base, marked on each side 
by ‘one or two obscure undulations. Surface marked by concentric 
undulating ridges, and intermediate fine radiating strie. 


This form resembles Sp. bicostata’ of the Niagara Limestone of 
New York, but is much smaller and with the ventral valve more ele- 
vated. 


TRIPLESIA PUTILLUS %. Sp. 


Compare Spirifera ? Waldronensis MILLER and DYER. Contributions to Paleon- 
tology, Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, April, 1878. 


Shell small, subquadrate in outline, length and breadth nearly 
equal, hinge-line straight, less than the width of the shell, extremi- 
ties rounded. Ventral valve slightly convex on each side of the 
sinus, becoming concave near the margins ; mesial sinus undefined 
above, becoming wide and deep below, and produced in front into a 
long triangular extension ; beak greatly elevated, acute, extending 
beyond the hinge-line, the apex obscurely marked by what appears 
to be a minute foramen ; area triangular, wider than high, deltidium 
triangular, higher than wide. Dorsal valve very gibbous ; moder- 
ately convex on each side of the fold, and slightly concave just with- 
in the margins; mesial fold commencing about one-third the length 
of the valve below the beak and becoming very prominent towards 
the base ; summit of the fold straight, its greatest elevation being 
at the basal margin ; beak obtuse, closely incurved. 

Surface marked by fine concentric lines of growth, which toward 
the margins become strong lamellose striz. 


The specimens of this species are distorted in their mode of growth, 
apparently from the natural obliquity of the mesial fold and sinus. 


PENTAMERUS FORNICATUS var. 


Pentamerus fornicatus HAuu. Pal. N. Y., vol. ii, page 81, plate 24, fig. 7. 


Shell ventricose, larger valve highly arcuate, length less than the 
width, umbo gibbous, beak strongly incurved ; a broad shallow and 
undefined mesial sinus extends from the umbo to the base of the 
shell, having in the centre a low, distinct elevation which gives a 
double sinus: the median elevation is scarcely so high as the shell 
on each side, prolonged in front, and terminating in a distinct emar- 


From the Niagara Formation. 73 


gination for the reception of the median extension of the opposite 
valve. . 

Surface marked by fine sublamellose strize of growth, which are 
distinctly curved backward on the prominent parts of the shell and 
forward in the depressions. 


This form so nearly resembles Pentamerus fornicatus of the Clin- 
ton limestone that I can only regard it as a variety of that species. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
GONIOPHORUS SPECIOSUS 7”. Sp. 


Shell subrhomboidal, a little more than twice as long as wide ; 
hinge-line two-thirds the length of the shell; anterior extremity 
somewhat obliquely truncated ; a prominent angulation extending 
from the beak to the posterior basal margin. Surface marked by 
strie of growth which are parallel to the margins of the shell, 
being gently curved below the carination, and above it turning 
forward parallel to the truncate posterior margin. Length of 
specimen eighteen mm. 


GASTEROPODA. 
LoxoNEMA——— ? 


Compare Lozonema Leda. HALL. 20th Rep. St. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 346. 1867. 


. Several specimens referred to this genus have been observed, con- 
sisting entirely of casts of the interior. They do not possess suf- 
ficiently well defined characters to designate them asa species or 
to refer them to any described form. 


PTEROPODA. 


CoNULARIA INFREQUENS 7. sp. 


Cone strong, marked by prominent transverse ridges, with inter- 
mediate furrows which are gently curved; ridges crossed by 
numerous strong nodes, which are slightly elongate in a direction 
transverse to the ridges, and perceptibly wider at their lower ex- 
_ tremities; about ten of these nodes in the space of four millimetres 
Trans. 2. | 10 


74 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils 


in the line of the ridges. The intermediate furrows are marked by 
one or two longitudinal striz. 


This species is larger and the surface-markings coarser than C. 
Niagarensis. In general aspect and surface-marking it may be 
compared with C. longa and C. lata, but the cone has apparently 
been wider than the first of these and not so expanded as the last. 
No entire individual has been seen. 


CoLEOLUS! SPINULUS ”. Sp. 


Form a very slender, elongate cone, slightly curving near the 
apex. Section circular. Length from 2 to 8mm. Surface orna- 
mented by fine, sharp, annulating, regular striz, 15 to 20 in the space 
of 1 mm. 


This is the only species yet described from Silurian rocks. Speci- 
mens are found in considerable numbers in the softer portions of the 
shale associated with LerpERpiT1A, BEyRicutIA, and other minute forms 
which are obliterated in the coarser or pyritiferous shales. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


ORTHOCERAS MEDULLARE. 


This species, described in the 20th Report on the State Museum 
of Natural History, is of frequent occurrence in the Magnesian 
Niagara limestone of Wisconsin; several specimens have been ob- 
served in the Waldron collections. It usually occurs in an imper- . 
fect and much macerated condition ; only one specimen has been 
observed which preserves distinctive characters. 


ORTHOCERAS AMYCUS 7. sp. 


Shell very gradually and almost imperceptibly enlarging from 
the apex ; section circular; septa deeply concave, distant from 
each other nearly two-thirds the diameter of the tube ; siphuncle 
central or slightly excentric, diameter at the septum one-sixth the 
diameter of the tube ; marked by low rounded annulations which 
are slightly oblique to the axis of the shell, two to three annula- 
tions in the space of one chamber ; 24 annulations in the space of 
100 mm. 


1 Ooleolus HALL, unpublished nov. gen., Pal. N. Y., vol. v. part 11, page 184. 


From the Niagara Formation. 75 


Surface marked by fine concentric striz which follow the direction 
of the annulations : no longitudinal strize have been noticed. 


This species differs from O. annulatum in the more gently taper- 
ing tube, the greater distance of the septa, the low undefined annu- 
lations, and the fine concentric striz, which are not lamellose, and 
_ In the absence of longitudinal strie. 


NavTILuS OCEANUS N. sp. 


Shell large, discoidal ; volutions closely coiled but not re-entrant ; 
umbilicus large and open ; transverse section elliptical, the dorso- 
ventral diameter being the greater. Shell gradually enlarging. 

Chamber of habitation large ; length twice the greater diameter, 
the capacity being equal to, or greater than, the entire septate por- 
tion of the shell ; becoming straight, and free from the inner volu- 
tions, toward the aperture. Septa regular, two in the space of five 
centimetres on the ventrum, and five in the same space on the dor- 


sum. 
The specimens measure from 20 to 25 centimetres in diameter. 


This species resembles JV. occidentalis of the Niagara group of 
Wisconsin, but the form is less gibbous and the septa less distant 


than in that species. 


GYROCERAS ABRUPTUM 7. sp. 


Shell coiled, rapidly expanding towards the aperture : number 
yolutions about one and a half?, not contiguous. Transverse 
section broadly elliptical or subcircular ; dorso-ventral diameter 
the longer. Septa distant, the distance between them becoming 
gradually greater from the apex toward the chamber of habitation. 
The last three chambers measure on the ventral side 65 mm., and on 
the dorsal side about 24 mm. Siphuncle near the ventral side. 

Surface cancellated by longitudinal furrows, about one millimetre 
wide, which are crossed by finer strong lines of growth. 


The specimen described has had a diameter of about 15 centime- 
tres. 
This species, in a fragmentary condition, may be distinguished 


from Nautilus Oceanus with which it is associated, by its smaller 
“size, more distant septa, and more rapidly expanding form. 


76 Descriptions of New Species of Fossils. 


CRUSTACEA. 


ACIDASPIS FIMBRIATA 7. Sp. 


Fragments of a species of AcrtpAspis occur upon the surfaces of 
some of the slabs which are mainly covered with Bryozoans. The 
separated cheek pieces are distinguishable by the numerous straight 


lateral spines which give them a fimbriate appearance. As many as- 


eleven of these lateral spines may be counted upon a single imper- 
fect cheek. The border of the cheek is but slightly curved and the 
long posterior spine is nearly straight. 


ItLa2nvus (Bumastus) Ioxvs. 


Itlenus Ioxus HALL. 20th Rep. St. Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 378, plate 22, figs. 4-10. 
1867. Revised edit., p. 420, pl. 22, figs. 4-10. [1870.] 


A large specimen of the caudal shield from the limestone, has all 
the proportions of this species, though of somewhat larger dimen- 
sions than is usual with the Wisconsin individuals. The specimen 
measures 60 mm. in length, with a width of about 75 mm. 


In addition to the foregoing species the following known forms 
have been recognized among the collections formerly and recently 
made at Waldron: Buthotrephis gracilis, Orthis biloba, Cypricar- 
dinia arata, Orthoceras subcancellatum, and Orthoceras annulatum., 


THE ORIGIN OF FORCE. 25 
By SrepuHEn C, HutTcuHIns. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, Nov. 18, 1879] 


In reflecting upon the so-called conflicts between Science and Re- 
ligion, it has seemed to me that they arise primarily from want of a 
common starting point; and that if an agreement could be had with 
regard to the beginning of things, great advantage would be 
gained. Mankind ought tobe willing to seethrough the eyes of 
those who see clearest and with the keenest vision. When I look 
up to the blue vault above, I do not see there all that the astrono- 

mer sees. If I then deny the existence of that which is perceived 
by him, I simply expose my own ignorance, without in the slightest 
degree invalidating the evidence upon which the facts’ perceived 
by him rest for proofs of their existence. If the world will 
only recognize the truth, therefore, that that which is seen by 
specialists who have exhausted human power in a given field must 
necessarily be true, eveu if not perceived to be true by others, and 
if then it will harmonize these truths in one rounded whole, it will 
possess the entire sphere of truth. I regard it, therefore, as not 
inappropriate, in a society largely devoted to scientific inquiry, to 
endeavor to find this common starting point, in order that we may 
the more readily harmonize conflicting views in matters of the 
gravest concern, by accepting the affirmations of all competent in- 
vestigators in all fields of inquiry, and rejecting all mere negations 
not based on scientific examinations. 

We live in a universe propelled and sustained by Force. If, in the 
spirit of scientific inquiry, the origin of Force can be ascertained, we 
may trace its manifestations from their simplest forms to their pre- 
sent wondrous complex development, in such a way as always to 
preserve full-orbed truth in all its harmonious conc.rd, and with- 
out doing violence to anything except the crude negations of incom- 
petent critics. 

The author of Genesis tells us that “in the beginning God fashioned 
the heavens and the earth.” 

The phrase heavens and earth is phenomenal, expressive of the 
visible universe. The sentence pictures this universe to our senses, 


78 The Origin of Force. 


tells us that there was a time when it was not, and that in the be- 
ginning of its existence God began the work of fashioning it. We 
are required to fix our minds upon this pre-existing state; this age 
when neither heavens nor earth existed as now, and when there was 
something out of which God could fashion them. We are also re- 
quired to consider the beginning of this work. The English version 
of the Scriptures uses the word created instead of fashioned; but all 
expositors concur in saying that the original Hebrew word (dara) 
means to shave, to cut or to shape. It, therefore, implies the fashion- 
ing of something which did not exist, out of existing material. The 
word create originally signified growth; and to create would mean to 
cause to grow.! Fashioning and creation are therefore distinct terms, 
and in some important respects opposing ideas. 

Science also asserts that the heavens and the earth had a beginning. 


It does not say that God fashioned them; but it says they were - 


fashioned by Force. Science and the author of Genesis, therefore, 
assuming the existence of unorganized matter, assert that the heavens 
and the earth were fashioned therefrom. What was the nature of 
this pre-existing material? Science tells us that an etherial mass 
spread throughout space, before the spheres existed; and Genesis, 
as we shall see, can only be rationally interpreted by accepting this 
hypothesis. Indeed, we may go further, and affirm that a rational 
interpretation of Genesis will prove this hypothesis to be true, to all 
who accept it as authority. If we shall succeed in establishing this, 
then we are justified in now assuming that the primordial universe 
was a monotonous sea of jelly, and that this etherial fluid, or gela- 
tinous mass, was unillumined by a single ray of light. 

This absence of light is rendered certain from the fact that there 
was an absence of motion— or, the fact that there was an absence 
of motion renders certain the fact that there was an absence of 
light; for light is simply the manifestation of motion, or a form 
of motion. ‘There must have been a time when the primordial ether 
was absolutely motionless. If we assume that it is a thousand million 
years since the Laurentian continent first appeared above the waters, 
we must also assume that there was a definite time when the first 
impulse of motion was applied which resulted in its appearance. 
That time may have been countless ages preceding the formation of 
Laurentide; but, whenever it was, it had a distinct and definite be- 


1 See Six Days of Creation, by Tayler Lewis. p. 49,50 


buy 
ae 
——- oo © 


The Origin of Force. 79 


ginning. No matter how feeble or how forceful that beginning may 

have been, it is still scientifically true that the beginning of motion 

was areality. Any other assumption is illogical and unscientific, 
and would annihilate chronology. Motion must necessarily have had 

a beginning; for the further back we place the commencement of 
motion, the more remote becomes the period when the Laurentian 
continent first appeared, and the longer becomes each age in the 

history of the universe, until infinity itself will fail to furnish room 
for the beginning. 

Motion is life. Absence of motion is death. How came this 
motionless mass of ether to move? If it had had life within itself, it 
would have moved from all eternity. This assamption would not 
only annihilate chronology ; it would establish pantheism. The same 
doctrine would follow from a concession that motion was generated 
by this etherial mass. It is, however, scientifically impossible for a 
dead universe to generate life in itself. Motionless molecules will 
not move without the application of an external force. Overlooking 
this limitless sea of ether, therefore, we can safely assert it as a 
scientific fact that unless there is a Life external to itself, capable of 
' applying force to it, it will never move. This limitless expanse of 
death necessitates a limitless Life for its awakening. 

In the beginning, therefore, the universe was filled with an etherial 
fluid, which we can liken to nothing except to say that it was like 
the palpable, congealed, perceptible breath of God ; and there came 
a time when the all-pervading imperceptible Spirit which exhaled 
it, gave it momentum, and began to fashion it to suit His purpose. 

_ This limitless mass of motionless ether could never have been 
moved by anything less than an Omnipotent Power. God and God 
only, could have fashioned the heavens and the earth therefrom. 
State in scientific phraseology as you please the nature of this drear 
waste of monotonous matter, and you must admit it to have been 
at one time motionless. It is impossible to interject life within it 
except from aliving source. If it had a self-generating power, it 
must have had the power of self-restraint, to hold that power from 
all eternity until the time had come for its exercise. That is to make 
it God. It is scientifically impossible to imagine molecules in 
motion from all eternity, and yet not effecting changes in form suchas 
we are able to trace in the universe now. It is equally impossible to 


suppose that anything less than Infinite energy moved this mighty 


mass. This Omnipotent energy began the work of fashioning the 
heavens and the earth in the beginning. when the time therefor had 


80 The Origin of Force. 


come. Force, then, is the scientific equivalent for the powor of God. 

The force which held the primordial ether motionless, and preserv- 
ed its equilibrium until the time came for disturbing that equilib- 
rium through the introduction of motion, was just as active, persistent 
and potential an agency as was the imparting of the first primal 
impulse, when orderly and systematic disturbance of the original 
equilibrium occurred. The preservation of the equilibrium of the pri- 
mordial ether, and its disturbance, were alike acts of the Will exerted 
deliberately, restraining motion on the one hand and regulating it on 
the other. 

There is no scientific doctrine more firmly established than that 
of the persistency of force or the conservation of energy. Force being 
but the scientific equivalent forthe power of God, “the persistency 
of force” is simply the scientific formula for expressing the infinite 
energy of the Divine power. This energy must have been directed 
with Infinite wisdom when first called into exercise; for if the force 
applied to the primordial ether had been either less or greater than 
it actually was, the results would have been entirely different. 
Effects are always in exact ratio to causes. Successive chains of 
events, or manifestations of force, derive their character from the 
primal moving impulse. The phenomenal is simply the revelation 
and realization of the forceful, the same as the billiard ball reveals 
and realizes the power behind it. The realis but the expression and 
embodiment of the ideal. In the beginning, therefore, Infinite 
intelligence, forecasting the succession of the ages with unerring 
vision, adapted the primal impulse so as to secure the precise mani- 
festations of power revealed in the production and peopling of our 
globe. 

The momentum imparted to primordial ether must have had its 
origin in Divine power; thecharacter of that momentum must have 
been determined by Divine intelligence; its relation to matter or 
ether must have been adjusted with Divine wisdom. This Divine 
Force must have been conscious of possessing an existence distinct 
from that of the matter to which it applied its energies. Self-con- 
sciousness is the essence and evidence of personality. To hold other- 
wise, would be to make Force a monster power, without consciousness 
will or emotion —a heartless, grinding, revolving wheel, remorse- 
lessly crushing the pitiable and sensible creatures of its blind and 
unthinking ceaseless action. Against this horrid hypothesis, the judg- 
ment of mankind revolts. 


—_=—— 


1) Se yee 


ff 


The Origin of Force. 81 


The one of these truths is as scientifically true as the other. 
The existence of God is as demonstrably true as the existence of a 
primordial universe of ether. They rest for their truth on human 
consciousness. They are seen to be true by the psychical sight. 
Looking back with clear mental vision to “the beginning,” Science 
has seen a universe filled with motionless ethereal finid or jelly ; and 
a Being more ethereal than ether, everywhere present, the eternal 
Spirit we call God. No man has seen God at any time. He cannot 
be localized or handled. He is termed Elohim (plural) so as to 
include in one comprehensive, all-embracing term, all the manifesta- 
tions or attributes of Divinity variously incarnated or personified by 
the ancients. 

Belief in the existence of God does not exclude belief in the most 


radical processes of creation, as boldly advanced by the most pro- 


gressive scientific investigators and philosophers of the day. Creation 
by a gradual process, as described by science and really confirmed 
by Genesis, is a far grander conception of God than the crude notion 
that He spake the earth into existence in six successive days; or the 
degrading notion that after He had created man in His image, He 
rendered it impossible for this creature to ascertain the processes of 
creation. Why did He not make the universe in one day, or ina 
single second of time, if a mere impressive display of the power of 
His fiat was the only purpose? Why has He permitted man to gaze 
with mystified awe on the universe, even to the analysis of all 
its parts, if He intended to keep him in ignorance of the origin of 
matter and mind? This was not His purpose. To build the earth 


by successive stages of regular growth, and to people it with a race 


able to extract from it the secret of its origin, and to maintain steady 
progress in all knowledge is a far more Godlike way of working 
marvelous wonders, and winning the admiration and affection of His 
creatures, than a display of supernatural and unintelligible power to 
ignorant men and women. 

No naturalist has ever been able to detect the organizing differen- 
tiating principle of the violet, or of the oak, of the horse or of man. 
That there is a subtle agency governing the aggregation of molecules 
in the one differing from the agency which operates in the other no 
one doubts; nor would we doubt any the more readily if some 
skeptical chemist should tell us that, because he cannot find it, there- 


fore it does not exist. Nor would we believe in its existence any 


the more implicitly, if some one should affirm that each of these 
Trans.z, | 11 


82 The Origin of Force. 


subtle agencies is called into being by a separate and distinct exer- 
tion of the Divine Will. Precisely thus, we believe there is a vital 
and conscious force in the universe called God; and we would believe 
it none the more implicitly, if some one should re-affirm the notion 
that He created the universe, or our solar system, or the earth, in 
six successive natural days instead of shaping it in a longer period ; 
nor would we doubt any the more readily if some scientific sage 
should say that he had dissected the universe and been unable to 
find Him. 

If we are right in our reasoning, the existence of God is as 
thoroughly a scientific fact as any fact depending for its proofs upon 
the processes of induction. It is far more conclusively demonstrable 
than any fact which has only hypothesis at its base. 

Co-extensive with this fact is another which we may consider es- 
tablished. This fact is, that the entire universe is revolving around 
one common center. When this revolution began, as we have seen, 
this universe was one monotonous sea of ether. As it proceeded, the 
inevitable result was the gathering of condensed portions of nebulous 
matter around new and subordinate centers, in sections larger or 
smaller, in which the forces of attraction counterbalanced the forces 
of repulsion; then heat was thrown off into the surrounding space, 
and became the force which held each revolving section in its place. 
Thus there was carved out of the revolving ether, a series of nebulous 
globes, of immense diameters, pursuing their course around the 
common center of the universe. The center of the section out of 
which our solar system was carved, was where our sun now is. This 
section continued its revolutions (in common with other sections), 
until the inner mass became separated from its exterior; the latter 
then forming a ring revolving around the former, or central nucleus. 
This ring, still revolving, subsequently broke up into a number of 
globes, which ultimately coalesced into one. This globe, still con- 
tracting, and the nucleus also contracting, threw off each planet in 
the form of a circle, each of which circles united finally as separate 
globes, and continued their revolutions around the central nucleus. 

We accept this nebular hypothesis, because it explains all the 
phenomena of the universe, reducing every manifestation of force to 
a uniform plan, as simple in its unity as it is multiform in develop- 
ment. We accept the hypothesis of the Divine existence, because it 
explains the origin of this force. The one hypothesis is as clear as 
the other; and both must be trne. We do not thus eliminate 


The Origin of Loree. 83 


mystery from the universe; nothing can do that. But we reduce 
mystery to the minimum, and adopt an intelligible explanation of the 
universe, which fully accounts for all its physical and psychical phe- 
nomena. It is thus scientifically true that in the beginning God 
shaped or carved the heavens and the earth out of ether. 

On the evening of the first day the unwrought earth was speeding 
its way around the central nucleus of our system of worlds. Neither 
the sun nor the earth existed then as now; but in their places were 
the materials out of which they were to be formed. As the nebulous 
earth continued to contract, its revolutions increased in velocity. 
Heat, which is but a form of motion, was liberated in the great con- 
test with gravity; rotation tending to expansion on the surface and to 
contraction in the interior. In the progress of contraction, atoms 
approached so near that other laws found practical application. The 
varying conditions had differentiated atoms. Atoms which were alike 
tended to cohesion ; atoms which were unlike possessed chemical affin- 
ities. The process of cooling by the radiation of heat into space has- 
tened contraction, which produced changed conditions among the 
atoms and new forms of matter. By the constant attraction caused 
by contraction, cohesion and chemical affinity, heat was set free in 
such abundance that it could not be stored away. It then took the 
form of a wave ; became radiant heat, light. 

As heat is the product of motion, so light is the product of heat. 
The Hebrews expressed this relation of light to heat with scientific 
precision, using the same word for both, only changing the prouunci- 
ation —as Or and tr. 

_A dark, unwrought globe, followed by one emitting light, is the 
testimony alike of scientific investigation and the illumination of 
Scripture. The ancient Psalmist sings the story* grandly as follows: 


And the earth was formless} and empty .t 
And darkness was upon the face of the abyss. 
And the spirit of God broodeth upon the face of the vapors. 
And God said, Let there be light ; 
And there was light. 
And God saw the light that it was good. 


*The translation is from ‘‘ The Theistic Conception of the World,” by Dr. 
Cocker. 


+In the original, tohu (confused, unwrought). 
+ In the original, bohu (empty). 


84 The Origin of Force. 


And God called the light Day. 
And the darkness He called Night. 
And there was evening and there was morning; one day. 


The evening was the darkness, the morning was the light, of the 
first day. 

We have passed from the origin of force to the origin of the earth, 
in order to confirm from Genesis the scientific hypothesis which 
forms the basis of our argument. The review shows that the entire 
process was natural, but that the primal impulse was supernatural, 
being imparted by the Divine Architect. If we should continue our 
examinations, we would find the same fact apparent; that all opera- 
tions are natural, all results obtained by a supreme intelligence im- 
pelling and governing natural forces. 


ANNUAL ADDRESS. 


By DAVID MURRAY, Ph. D., LL. D. 


[Delivered May 25, 1880.] 


[INDUSTRIAL AND MATERIAL PrRoGRESS, ILLUSTRATED IN THE 
HIstToRY oF ALBANY. 


Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Albany Institute : 


You have invited me to make one in a long and distinguished suc- 
cession of members, who have delivered addresses before this society. 
When I recall the names of those who have preceded me, and the 
contributions they have made to the annals of this venerable society, I 
realize that it is no easy task to find something worthy and fitting to 
say on this occasion and in this presence. 

‘In attempting to fulfil the duty to which I am called to-night, I 
have thought that it would not be inappropriate and, I hope, not 
without interest, to present to you a sketch of the material and in- 
dustrial progress of the country during the period which has elapsed 
since the origin of this society. And in order that the subject may 
have foran Albany audience a more direct and personal interest, I 
propose to illustrate this progress, so far as possible, from facts in the 
history of our own city. I confine myself to the material progress of 
this period, because other aspects of this subject have been more fre- 
quently presented, and because we shall find in a comparison of the 
physical condition of the present with even that of the recently past, 
facts that must prove both striking and instructive. The limit which 
I have set for this comparison carries us back to the time immediate!y 
succeeding the revolutionary war. It was in 1791 that the Society of 
Arts, which composes the elder branch of the Albany Institute, was 
founded. This was almost at the very beginning of that wonderful 
career of growth and prosperity on which the country entered after 
its struggle for independence — a career which before that time had 


86 Indusirial and Material Progress 


had no parallel in any country, and which since has only been 
paralleled by other examples in our own. 

In this general march of prosperity, Albany held a conspicuous 
rank. Her situation at the head of the navigation of the Hudson, 
and in the direct line of travel from New England to the West, gave 
her unrivaled commercial facilities. ‘The fur trade, which, for a cen- 
tury, had been the chief reliance of Albany, had, indeed, nearly 
ceased, or been diverted into other channels. But, instead of it, 
sprang up a new traffic dependent upon and growing ont of the 
immense immigration into central and western New York from New 
England and from foreign countries. From first to last, no American 
town has had a more varied or interesting history. It is one of the 
few cities whose diversified experiences’ have developed in it a distinet 
individuality. The old Dutch Colonial period ; the period of English 
administration ; the long residence here of an English garrison; the 
intimate and friendly relations which its people-established and inva- 
riably maintained with the neighboring Indians; its strategic position 
in the French and revolutionary wars; its central position for travel 
und trade; all these have left their indelible marks upon the town, 
and have given it a character which is a record of its history. 

Before proceeding to my subject, I cannot forbear making my 
acknowledgments for the material which I have combined in this 
address to the labors of a deceased member of this Institute. No man 
can ever hereafter write about the history of Albany without being 
indebted at every step to the previous labors of Joel Munsell. Let us 
pause a moment at the mention of this name. The words of eulogy, 
which were spoken on the occasion of his death, are still fresh in your 
memories. It will always be an honor to the Albany Institute that it 
gave help and encouragement to him in his work; that he found, in 
the meetings and associations of this society, that sympathy and 
appreciation which led him on year after year in those researches 
which have made his name a household word in this city. Many of 
you, I dare say, have read the touching address with which he prefaces 
the concluding volume of his “ Annals of Albany.” While preparing 
for this address, I chanced upon an explanation of what had seemed 
to me puzzling in the manner and contents of that preface. For the 
first time in all his writings, he refers to the trials and struggles and 
unsubstantial recompense of his labors. The explanation will surprise 
no one who knew the appreciative and generous character of Mr.- 
Robert Townsend. In a little manuscript note, appended to the copy 
I use, Mr. Townsend says: “ Mr. Munsell had brought to me to touch 


Ree Sf 


Xs 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 87 


up a short preface he had written. I told him it would not answer. 
In justice to himself, this concluding volume of his series should con- 
tain something more ; and above all it should give some slight sketch 
of his struggles and sacrifices in continuing his work. As I was well 


- acquainted with his labors, and knew how unrequited they had been, 


I offered to write a concluding address for him. He gladly consented, 
and this is the result.” Mr. Munsell himself, I think, never com- 
plained. It was left to this kind friend to put in words, and such 
appropriate words, too, those feelings, not which Mr. Munsell had for 
himself, but which others who knew his work entertained for him. 
To the world, Mr. Munsell is best known as a printer of rare skill and 
enthusiasm in his profession, but to Albanians and to his associates in 
the Institute, he will always be best remembered as the man whose 
researches, like those of Layard or Schliemann, have rescued a city 
from oblivion. 


1. General Progress. 


Let us then look at our old city as it emerged from the trials and 
struggles of the revolution, and entered upon its new career of progress 
and prosperity. Let us recall its contour, size and general aspect, and 
draw,if we can, even a rude and imperfect sketch of it, touched up, if 
possible, with some of the colors of nature. In the old maps of the 
city (1696), the fort stood at the head of State street, where now St. 
Peter’s church stands. A line of stockades ran off on each side down 
to and along the river, enclosing the space from Steuben street on the 
north, to Hudson street on the south. Within this narrow space was 
included all that there was of the little city. Subsequently the stock- 


“ades were extended and renewed, probably when fears of the French 


ana Indian wars stirred up the city te greater diligence in its defense. 
This new stockade followed the line of Hamalion: street on the south, 
and on the north crossed Broadway near Van Tromp street, where the 
location of the ancient blockhouse and gate was preserved to a late 
period, as the dividing line between Albany and the Colonie. 
According to Simeon DeWitt’s map, made in 1794, State street still 
extended only up to Lodge street, whcre it merged into the Schenectady 
turnpike. The old fort had been removed, but the ground on which 
it had stood, and westward, where now the capitol stands, towered up 
in a high bluff. Capitol hill was a famous place for huckleberries in 
those days, and all west of Eagle was still left covered with the scrubby 
pine which was the only vegetation that the poverty of the soil was 
capable of supporting. Broadway from .ts junction with State street, 


88 Industrial and Material Progress 


northward, was then called Market street. It took its name from the 
public market, which stood in the broad portion of it near Maiden 
Lane. The street south of State street, to the steamboat dock, was 
called Court street. South Pearl street, which then as now formed the 
principal exit from the city to the south, was calied Washington street. 
The broad meadows south of the city had originally been set apart as 
a common for pasturing the cows of the citizens, and Mrs. Grant paints 
us a pretty bucolic picture of the cows with their tinkling bells com- 
ing home each night to be milked, each one seeking out and taking 
her place quietly at her master’s gate. But by this time the cow pas- 
ture had been cut up into lots, and Mrs. Grant’s bucolic picture had 
been spoiled. 

The streets must have been as yet almost entirely unpaved. In 
1729 the city fathers had indeed issued some kind of an ordinance that 
the people should pave their streets, but they complained bitterly of 
the burden, and on one pretense or another, got it put off, so that 
still in 1792 we hear of General Schuyler’s carriage getting mired in 
State street, opposite Green, and of the whole neighborhood being 
called out to extricate it. The incident may have made some stir, and 
helped to work some improvement ; for two years later a traveler in 
giving an account of his visit, compliments the city on the condition 
of the streets and pavements. Curb stones were a thing unknown at 
that time, and only a shallow gutter separated the roadway from the 
sidewalk. The pavement was, of course, the old cobble stone pave- 
ment which continues with us till this day. I have made some effort, 
but unsuccessfully, to discover the inventor of the cobble stone pave- 
ment, in order to award to him his due meed of gratitude for the 
boon which he bestowed on mankind. I would like to have him here 
to-night and hold up before him the miraculous mirror which the 
angel of retribution presents to his victim when they are brought to 
the Buddhist purgatory—-a mirror in which he can see all the 
crimes and evil consequences for which he is responsible. 

There was still in the city no system of drains. The surface gutters 
of the streets served the purpose of carrying off the sewage, and on 
Mondays, which was the traditional washing-day, the streams of soap 
suds which ran down the streets made crossing the streets a perilous 
undertaking. . | 

Water-works were first projected for the city in 1799, at which time 
a company was formed, Which afterward, in 1802, was incorporated as 
the *‘Albany Water-works Company.” Previous to this time, the sup- 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 89 


ply of water for the inhabitants was chiefly derived from wells ; and 
we have the occasional references of ill-natured travelers to the bad- 
ness of the well water, complaining of its containing all sorts of ani- 
malculz and bad tastesand smells. But we hear no complaints from 
the natives themselves, either because they had become used to these 
impurities or because they rarely used it for drinking. They had no 
patience with these prying, fault-finding, water-drinking travelers, 
who came with their pocket magnifiers to discover animalcule, and 
did not know what water in the economy of Providence was meant for. 
The water company purchased from the Patroon the right to take 
water from Maestland kill, and erected a dam and laid a line of pump 
logs down Broadway and up Columbia street to a reservoir which has 
been only recently removed. The main line consisted originally of 
two lines of four-inch pipes, bored from logs. But subsequently, 
about 1815, iron pipes were substituted in the main line, and it is 
mentioned incidentally that the company got the privilege from the 
Patroon of substituting one eight-inch iron pipe for the two four-inch 
wooden pipes, a very clever little operation by which they more than 
doubled their supply of water at the expense of the good old Patroon. 
The reservoir being on Eagle street, the supply could only reach the 
streets east of this line. I have copied from the old book of minutes 
of this company, kindly lent to me by Mr. Meads, who was the last 
secretary of the company, the schedule of annual charges in 1815 : 


Ist class dwelling, 3-story double house................-..0.. $16 
2nd do S-sLory, > windows in front.......:...<.s.. 14 
3rd do 3-story single, or 2-story double............ 12 
Ath do 2-story, 2 front windows and an L.......... 10 
dth do 2-story single, 2 rooms on first floor......... 8 
Ra ES 2 i an 6 
Sueeeeriiional family ina house.............2+...-+--:000- 3 
ye ee coca a a pine ee ncieciaccces acess 100 
se as sn gis cla sole sind in asge soe os 7 
es gay a oS in en Sis we Nate woe se oe 60 
ee aes deities sew atin kahe es he eases 50 


In 1832 additional iron pipes were laid, and in 1845 the company 
purchased the right of taking water from Patroon’s creek. But the 
growth of the city, especially westward, made necessary the increase of 
_ the supply of water and the construction of new reservoirs. Hence 
movements were set on foot to establish a city commission to take in 

12 


90 Industrial and Material Progress 


hand the supply of water. In 1851, this commission purchased all the 
property and rights of the old stock company and proceeded to con- 
struct the works by whcih the city is still supplied. 

Next toa supply of water, nothing now seems to us more essential 
than a supply of light for our streets. What a hardship we should 
think it to be left for a single night without the comfort and protec- 


tion of well lighted streets. And yet we only need to go back a few | 


years to find dim and smoky lamps in the place of the brilliant gas- 
lights, and not very many years more to find our city with no lights at 
all. In 1812, Sir Walter Scott wrote home from London that “ there 
is a crazy mau here, who is trying to light Loudon with smoke.” The 
crazy man succeeded, and in 1813 London was lighted with gas. In 
this country the experiment was first tried in 1820 in Baltimore, but 
failed. It was successfully introduced in Boston in 1822. In New 


York the first gas company was chartered in 1823, but it was not till 


1827 that the lighting went into successful operation. The Albany 
Gas Co. was chartered in 1841, and the streets were first lighted in the 
winter of 1845. Street lamps preceded gas, and when introduced 
were hailed as a wonderful advance. In the old colonial times, when 
the little city was on the outskirts of civilization, and fears of the 
treacherous French and Indians kept them on the alert, the orders 
from the authorities were, that at the ringing of the alarm bell, every 
body should set a candle in his window, so that the patrol could see 
what they were about, and detect the skulking enemies. Just a century 
ago, May 19, 1780, was the famous dark day, which covered with its 
dreadful pall the whole of New England. And in the Connecticut 
Assembly when it grew too dark to attend to business, Abraham Day- 
enport moved that candles be brought in and that they go on with the 
debate irrespective of the day of judgment. The incident reminds 
us that at that time even public assemblies were lighted by candles. 
What an idea it gives us of the change a century has wrought, when 
the candle has given way to the lamp, and the lamp faded before the 
gas, and the gas is preparing to hide its diminished head before the 
glories of the electric light; when from a flag-staff on the highest pin- 
nacle of the new capitol, one single electric globe shall dispense light 
to every street, and enable us to go on with our occupations by night 
as well as by day. 


2. Houses and Furniture. 


' The immigrants from Holland came for commercial rather than 
political reasons. They opened up with the Indians a trade, which 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 91 


lasted down to the beginning of the present century. As late 
as 1796, we find a reference to loads of furs arriving from the 
Indian country. ‘The fairness and honesty of their dealings with the 
Indians gave them a strong and permanent hold upon these simple 
children of the forest. As a result of this, Albany never suffered 
from the incursions of the Indians, and continued to hold the most 
intimate and friendly relations with them. ‘This fur trade especially, 
and afterward the frontier trade, brought great wealth to the city, 
which displayed itself in the character of the dwellings which they con- 
structed for themselves. Before the revolution, new fashions had _ be- 
gun to spring up in house-building, and the mansions of the more 
wealthy were built in the English rather than the Dutch style. But 
still, even long after the revolution, the town to the eye of a traveler 
had a peculiar Hollandish look. The typical Dutch house stood with 
its gable end to the street, although the popular opinion that old Dr. 
Morse, in his first geography, represents the inhabitants in the same 
attitude, is not sustained by facts. In the ordinary house, the end 
toward the street was built of brick. ‘he sides and rear were almost 
always of wooden plank. The roofs were of tile, and sometimes of split 
pine or cedar shingles. The gables ran up to a peak in a series of 
steps, und the topmost angle was invariably surmounted by a wind- 
vane in the form of arooster. Along the eaves of the houses were 
fastened wooden troughs to catch the water from the roof. These 
projected out two or three feet into the street, and ina rain sent down 
a deluge of water on the unhappy passers. Finally there was so much 
complaint made of this, that, although the old Dutch burghers stoutly 
held that it was an infringement of their prerogatives, the common 
council in 1791 ordered these spouts to be cut off, and the water ta 
be led down in pipes. 

Each house had its ample porch, or what the Dutch called a stoop. 
It had seats on each side, and was covered with a roof, to which an 
arbor of wild grape-vines or some other climbing vine often contrib- 
uted its verdure and shade. Here the burghers of the town and 
their families assembled on summer evenings after the sun went down. 
The meinherrs smoked their pipes in great comfort, and the vrows 
and girls brought out their knitting. The dear old mother tongue 
was still most often heard in these evening conclaves, although an Eng- 
lish neighbor, who had not learned the Dutch, was always greeted in 
hisown speech. In the Dutch church the preaching was still in Dutch, 
down to the coming of Dominie Westerlo in 1782. The younkers 
gathered in gay and pleasant groups at each others’ stoops, chattering 


92 Industrial and Material Progress 


and laughing, as boys and girls, young men and maidens have always 
done, and will always do, to the end of the world. 

Have you any curiosity to step inside one of these houses, and gee 
how your ancestors lived? Of all the sights I saw in Europe, by far 
the most interesting to me was the ruins of Pompeii, where, after an 
interval of 1800 years, we can still see the very rooms where’the people 
lived, the beds where they slept, the kitchens and ovens where their food 
was cooked, and the very footprints which they left on the pavement. 
And of all the museums I saw, not one compared in interest with that 
at Naples, where the furniture and implements and ornaments col- 
lected from these houses were open for our inspection. 

To know how people were housed and clad, how they ate and slept. 
to learn their home life, their amusements and occupations, is of far 


greater interest and of greater value than a knowledge of their Jegis- 


lation, their politics or their wars. The poverty of details in all 
cotemporary records on such subjects is always to be regretted, so 
that even the crumbs of information which fall from the letters and 
diaries of the time are to be thankfully gathered up and set before you 
as the best that we can do. 

Thanks to Mrs. Grant of Laggan, we know pretty weil the arrange- 
ments and contents of an Albany house a century ago. She spent some 
years in Albany, when a child, about 1765, and by her talent and 
vivacity attracted the attention of Madame Schuyler, whose memoirs 
she afterward wrote. Let us then enter, and although the hundred 
years that have elapsed may have dimmed and dismantled somewhat 
the old house, we shall still find that which will interest us. 

A great mansion of that time was always set with its broadside to the 
street, and the entrance was at the middle. Through a door that was 
divided into two, an upper and a lower, you entered a hall ten or twelve 
feet wide, and even wider, which ran through the house. There were 
chairs and set'les placed here, and on account of the breeze which gen- 
erally could be felt, it was a favorite resort in the hot days of summer. 
At the rear end of the hall, a staircase with a landing carried you to 
the second story. On this landing stood the old Dutch clock, although 
by this time they were more often made in England than Holland. 
On one side of the hall was the parlor, a large square room, with 
plenty of light let in through the narrow panes of glass with which 
fashion is making us again familiar. A great fire-place occupied one 
side of the room, with its brass andirons and fender, beside which stood 
the shovel and tongs, and bellows. Some stiff, straight-backed chairs; 
sofas without springs, but comfortably cushioned; queer crooked- 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 93 


legged, claw-footed tables with drawers und brass handles; cabinets 
with choice bits of cut glass, and oriental china, which were then 
great rarities; some pieces of silver, and a good supply of pewter, 
which was kept as bright as silver; some trifling curiosities brought 
from the West Indies or China—such were the things which you 
found in aparlor of that day. A few books perhaps occupied a 
shelf or two. No piano* had yet made its appearance, although per- 
haps the rumors of its introduction in London may have reached them. 
It was not until 1803, that the first piano was manufactured in Boston. 
Instead of this, you might find in the wealthiest houses a spinet or a 
harpsichord. The floor of this grand room was of clear beautiful 
maple, perhaps curl or pin maple, or some other native wood, which 
the mop and the broom kept in a high state of polish. It might 
have been sanded with white sea sand, which the skill of the house- 
wife worked into picturesque figures with her broom. Except perhaps 
in the richer houses there were still no carpets; and even then they 
were only small rugs. 

The first carpets brought to America were said to have been brought 
by the pirate Kidd, and were doubtless the result of his encounter 
with some East Indiaman. Even in England, carpet manufacturing 
did not secure a footing till 1757, and in America the first carpets 
were made in 1791, in Philadelphia. 

Opposite to the great parlor, on the same floor, was the grand bed- 
room, reserved for guests. It was as large as the parlor, and like it 
provided with a fire-place. Here stood a great chest in which was kept 
the household linen, and, perhaps, a chest of drawers reaching almost 
to the ceiling. Here too stood the state bed. Look at it with awe and 
reverence, for if there was any thing to which the Dutch housewife was 
ever tempted to fall down in idolatrous worship it was to this bed. 
Like Naaman, the Syrian, she had an understanding with herself, that 
when she entered that room, and paid a secret worship to it, it was 
pardonable. Of course it wasa fourposter, made of mahogany. It. 
was surmounted by a teester, with hangings and curtains, and had a 


*T have recently seen a very interesting specimen of the pianos which were first 
brought to thiscountry. It makes but an insignificant show beside the great instruments 
now manufactured. Itis about five feet long and twenty-two inches wide. The frame 
is entitely cf wood, and the case of mahogany, handsomely inlaid. But it was tho 
manufacturers’ mark which had for me the greatest interest. This reads, ‘‘ New Patent, 
Astor & Comp’y, 79 Cornhill, London.’’ No date is given, but it is known that this was 
one of the instruments manufactured by John Jacob Astor, who fora few years was in 
this business in London, and who, in 1783, brought out to New York a number of them, 
which he exchanged for furs. This was the beginning of his dealing in furs, and the 
foundation of his fortune. : 


. 


94 Industrial and Material Progress 


valence reaching to the floor. It was so high that steps were necessary 
to mount up to it. The bed was of live geese feathers, and had great 
feather pillows, kept well aired and sunned. For covering she had her 
beautiful fragrant linen sheets, spun and woven in her own house, and 
quilts wondrously patched from her old silk gowns and remnants of 
ribbon. Blankets also she had, home-spun and home-woven. Over 
all she had, for cold weather, a down quilt, such as you still see in the 
houses in Germany and Holland. 

The dining-room of the house we will suppose was in the rear exten- 
sion, behind which were the kitchen, wood-sheds, etc. For winter the 
dining-room was the principal living room of the family, where a great 
wood fire was always kept blazing. 

At the time of which I write the fire-place, burning wood, was almost 
the only mode of heating. Dr. Franklin had invented, in 1740, his 
stove, which he called the Pennsylvania fire-place, but the difficulties of 
manufacturing them at this time in America prevented their becoming 
common. 

The first stove of which we hear in Albany, although it probably 
was not the first, was one introduced into St. Peter’s Church in 1796, 
which was cast at Ancram, at the iron foundry on the Livingston 
manor. The first stoves would only burn wood or bituminous coal. 
Anthracite coal came into use about 1820, when 365 tons (!) were sent 
to market. 

A new kind of stove was required for anthracite, in which the dratt 
of air should be much smaller. One of the earliest in this field of in- 
vention was Dr. Eliphalet Nott, who spent years in perfecting his 
inventions for heating. In my day the chapel of Union College was 
heated by one of Dr. Nott’s stoves, in which the base-burning principle 
was used. We had in our rooms, also, a marvelous kind of box stove, 
which we attributed to the genius of Dr. Nott. The iron was about 
an inch thick and could be neither broken nor bent. It served as 
an anvil for all sorts of mechanical experiments, from the cracking 
of hickory nuts to the splitting of kindling wood. And even if ina 
playful mood, as occasionally happened, one of them took « flying leap 
from a fourth story window upon the pavement below, the only injury 
was to the person who might be standing underit. As for the stove 
itself it only needed to be carried back and put in its place again. 

I need not tell you that in stove manufacturing Albany, for almost 
fifty years, has maintained a leading position, and to-day sends its 
stoves to all parts of the world. The familiar name of Albany on my 
stove in Japan contributed not a little to the comfort and home feeling 
of our long residence there. 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 95 


We can scarcely imagine how great a change has been wrought in 
dweliing-houses by the improvements in the methods of heating and 
lighting them. Whether we are with all these improvements more 
healthy may be a matter of doubt, but there can be no question that 
we are more comfortable. What would we say nowif we had, like our 
grandfathers, to sleep in rooms where the water froze at night? They 
hovered in the cold windy weather around open fires, which kept one 
side hot while the other was freezing. They went to church and sat 
through an hour’s, sometimes a two hours’ sermon without fire, where 
even the men, to keep themselves warm, sat with their hats on their 
heads and their handsin a muff. On a Sunday morning it was a sight 
to behold the string of negro slaves who came to the church carrying 
their mistresses’ foot-stoves filled with hickory coals or hot water. I 
fear you would find in other particulars a good deal less of comfort in 
the old church than is now deemed essential to the proper worship of 
God. I venture to give you here a little picture, which has been drawn 
for us.of the church and its equipments of that day: 


The church was old, the church was queer ; 
Would you like to look in on the Sabbath day 

And witness their strange, old-fashioned gear, 

_ And gather a hint of the ancient way? 


The walls were plain, the roof was square, 
The carpets— ah! well, they were not there ; 
And the pews — of course they were better bare, 
For cushions were deemed a carnal affair. 
And the Meinherrs, they took in the winter weather 
A foot-stove of tin well soldered together, 
And filled with water at a boiling heat, 
To protect from the cold their freezing feet ; 
For remember that no one ever hears 
Of a stove in a church back a hundred years. 


But the pride of the church, the glory of all, 
Was the pulpit which towered against the wall. 
"Twas set so high, said the wits of the town, 
For the preaching was heavy and would settle down. 
Like an egg-cup it stood on a narrow base, 
While the good old dominie held the place 
Of the spoon in the empty shell, 
To stir in the pepper and salt, and he stirred them well 
Over his head a sounding board hung, 
Like a vast extinguisher above him swung, 
Ready to fall and put out his light, 
As candles are quenched at dead of night. 


96 Industrial and Material Progress 


3. Cloth and Clothing. 


Up to the time of the revolution, our people depended chiefiy on 
Great Britain for their supplies of clothing and clothing material. 

During the colonial period the British board of trade, and their 
agents in America, tried in every way to discourage and repress at- 
tempts on the part of the colonists to start home manufactures. 

In 1705, Lord Cornbury writes: to Secretary Hodges: “I am well 
informed that upon Long Island and Connecticut they are setting up 
woolen manufactures, and I myself have seen serge made upon Long 
Island that any man may wear. Now, if they begin to make serge, 
they will in time make coarse cloth and then fine. The consequence 
will be that if once they can see that they can clothe themselves, not 
only comfortably but handsomely too, without the help of England, 


they who are not very fond of submitting to England would soon think. 


of putting in execution designs they have long harbored in their 
breasts.” (Doc. Hist. I, 711.) 

Mr. Caleb Heathcote writes in 1708, to the board of trade in London: 
“ What in the first place I arrived at in my proposals was to divert 
the Americans from going on with the linen and woolen manufacture, 
and to have turned their thoughts to such things that might be useful 
and beneficial to Great Britain. They are already so far advanced that 
three-fourths of the linen and woolen they wear is made among them- 
selves.” (Doc. Hist. vol. I.) 


But Governor Cosby, in 1732, did not see so much danger to British - 


manufactures, for he writes to the board of trade: ‘** The inhabitants 
here are more lazy and inactive than would generally be supposed, and 


their manufactures extend no further than what is consumed in their 


own families, a few coarse linsey-woolseys for clothing, and linen for 
their own wear.” 

Subsequently, in 1767, we find Governor Moore reporting to the 
board of trade about some small manufactures being set up by one 
Wells, who is supported by a set of men who call themselves the ‘‘So- 
ciety of Arts.” 

But, in spite of these discouragements, the enterprising spirit of the 
people, and indeed the necessities of their situation, led to the rapid 
development of cloth making. The Hollanders had brought with 
them their knowledge of making linen, and custom and tradition had 
kept alive in every family the skill which this art required. Every 
house had its spinning wheel, and every farm its patch of growing flax. 
Mother and daughters and servants were all employed as thev had time 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. | 97 


in spinning flax or wool. The weaving was sometimes done in the 
house by itinerating weavers, but more frequently the yarn was given 
out to be woven by persons who made this their occupation. Not only 
plain linen was made in this way, but even the more ornamental, which 
was required for table and toilet use. The pride of every mother of a 
family was not only to have her own house well supplied, but to have 
ready against the time of marriage an outfit for each of her daughters. 
Stockings, of course, were knit in the house for the family, and it 
accounts for the good temper and amiability of our grand-mothers that 
they found, in the swift flying needles, points of discharge for the irri- 
tability which otherwise might have gone to make their husbands 
uncomfortable. 

Woolen cloth, also, was largely home-made. The first prizes which 
were given by the old “Society of Arts,” from which this Institute took 
its origin, were for the manufacture of woolen cloths, and there are pre- 
served in the library of the Institute several volumes of specimens of 
these prizes. The spinning and weaving were mostly done at home, 
but there were small fulling mills where the web was dyed, fulled and 
dressed. The cloth produced in this way was not as fine as French 
_ broadcloth, but was warm and durable, and had no shoddy mixed with 

it. We have it mentioned as a notable fact that in 1790 President 
Washington appeared in asuit from cloth madeat a mill in Providence, 
Rhode Island. Serge and linsey-woolsey were of course the principal 
materials for the ordinary female dress. But the prosperity which 
Albany had enjoyed before the revolution, and still more afterward, 
had doubtless brought hither habits of luxury and elegance which 
could only be satisfied by the rich materials from abroad. 

To you who are familiar with the rich female costume of the revo- 
lutionary period, it is not necessary that I should describe it in detail. 
Let it suffice to say that in richness of material, in the elegance and 
taste of arrangement, it has never been surpassed. I venture, how- 
ever, to insert here a memorandum taken from the papers* of General 
Washington, containing a list of articles to be purchased by his agent 
in London, and sent out for Mrs. Washington and her daughter. It 
- will show to those growling husbands, who are disposed in these days 
to find fault with the luxury and expensiveness of their wives’ toilets, 
_ that they have very good examples for making a liberal provision for 
those whose appropriate and becoming decoration reflects honor on 
themselves. 


* Quoted by Mr. Lossing in his ‘‘ Centenary of Progress.” - 


13 


98 Industrial and Material Progress 


“1 silver colored tabby velvet of the enclosed patterns, with satin 
flowers, handkerchief and tucker and ruffles to be made of Brussels 
lace or point proper to be worn with the above negligee, to cost £20, 
1 piece bag Holland, 6 shillings a yard ; 2 fine-flowered lawn aprons; 
2 double handkerchiefs; 2 pairs women’s white silk hose ; 6 pairs fine 
cotton ditto; 4 pairs of thread ditto; 4 threaded ; 1 pair blankets 
and 1 pair of white satin gloves of the smallest fives; 4 pairs cala- 
manco ditto; 1 fashionable hat or bonnet; 6 pairs women’s best kid 
gloves ; 6 pairs ditto mits ; half doz. knots and breast knots; 1 doz. 
round silk stay laces; 1 black mask; 1 doz. most fashionable cambric 
pocket-handkerchiefs ; 2 pairs neat, small scissors; 1 pound sewing 
silk, shaded ; real minniken pins and hair-pins, and 4 pieces binding | 
tape; 6 pounds perfumed powder (for the hair); 3 pounds best Scotch 
snuff; 3 pounds best violet Strasbourg snuff; 1 piece narrow white 
satin ribbon, pearl edge; a puckered petticoat of a fashionable color; 
a silver tabby velvet petticoat; 2 handsome breast flowers.” 

«For Miss Custis, six years of age: A coat made of fashionable silk; 
a fashionable cap or fillet with bib apron; ruffles and tucker to be 
laced; 4 fashionable dresses to be made of long-lawn ; 2 fine cam- 
bric fro¢dks ; 4 satin capuchin hats and neckatees; a Persian quilted — 
coat; 1 pair pack-thread stays; 4 pair callamanco shoes; 6 pairs 
leather, ditto ; and 2 pairs satin, ditto, with flat ties ; 6 pairs fine cotton 
stockings; 4 pairs white worsted, ditto; 12 pairs mits; 6 pairs gloves, 
white kids; 1 pair silver shoe buckles; 1 pair neat sleeve buttons; 6 
handsome egrets, different sorts; 6 yards ribbon, ditto ; 1 pair little 
scissors ; 8 M large pins; 3 M short whites; 3 M minnikens; 1 fashion- 
able doll to cost a guinea; 1 ditto, at five shillings; a box of ginger 
bread. Toys and sugar imagesand comfits. A neat small bible bound in 
Turkey, and Martha Parke Custis wrote on the inside in gilt letters. | 
A small prayer_book, neat and in the same manner. Twelve yards 
coarse green calamanco; one very good spinet to be made by Mr. 
Plinius, harpsichord maker in South Audley street, Grosvenor Square, 
Send a good assortment of spare strings to it.” 

Of course the gentleman of the period could not be expected to 
compare in elegance with the grand dames. Yet with his coat of 
black, brown or drab cloth, his knee breeches of plush or velvet, his 
fine ruffled linen, his silk stockings, and his shoes with their silver 
buckles, he made no insignificant figure, even in comparison with the 
full-dressed gentleman of to-day. 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 99 


4. Travel and Transportation. 


Under this head, let us first consider the improvement in carriages. 
The evolution of the carriage is a most curious and interesting sub- 
ject. It seems strangely connected with the state of civilization in a 
country. Wherever the human mind has been most active, there the 
carriage has been most rapidly developed. Before the revolution, 
there were scarcely half a dozen family coaches in the province of 
New York. When Robert Murray, the Quaker merchant in New 
York city, after whom Murray Hill is called, set up a carriage, it was 
so unusual a step that he felt called upon to excuse himself, on the 
ground that he lived three or four miles from his place of business. 
Traveling then was mostly on horseback, and the country roads were 
so bad that nearly all the transportation had to be carried on by pack 
horses. But the American inventive mind has surpassed itself in 
improvements of wheeled vehicles. Even the most elaborate of the 
state coaches that you see at the museums of Paris and Versailles are 
crude, clumsy affairs, compared with the modern coach. Solomon in 
all his glory rode in a chariot without springs. Even as late as 1785, 
the best that had been attained was to suspend the body of the 
carriage on strong leather straps, so as to give it in passing over 
obstacles a rocking motion. Then came the invention in 1795, in 
England, of the elliptic steel spring. But it was long before carriages 
with these springs were manufactured in America. Far into the 
present century the old leather strapped coaches were used. It is 
within the memory of living men that spring wagons have become 
common in the country. It was only in 1830, that an American black- 
smith invented the method of making a wagon tire in one continuous 
hoop. Before that time they were put on in pieces. Fifty years ago 
Albany had a leading position in the manufacture of carriages, and 
her fame in this particular has been well maintained. 

The omnibus originated in Paris in 1825, and they were running 
in Broadway in New York in 1830. The stage-coach was from an 
early period a great institution in Albany. 

_ Albany lay in the direct line of travel to the western and northern 

part of the State. A continuous stream of immigrants poured through 
it into the rich regions of the Genesee valley. They came up the 
Hudson river in boats or across from Massachusetts and Connecticut. 
They crossed over the turnpike to Schenectady, and then followed up 
the Mohawk. Stage lines were started to accommodate this travel. 
In 1785, a company was started to run a line from New York to Al- 


100 Industrial and Material Progress 


bany, making the journey in two days at threepence per mile, and 
carrying the mail which came twice a week. Then, in 1789, a stage 


began running between Albany and Lansingburgh, and in 1790 be- 


tween Albany and Schenectady. And from this time every year saw 
their number multiplied and their routes extended, so that by 1811 
a line of stages connected Albany with Niagara Falls in the almost. 
incredible time of three days. The fare from Albany to Utica was 
$5.50 ; from Utica to Geneva, $5.00; from Geneva to Canandaigua, 
$5.75 ; and from thence to Buffalo at six cents per mile. The coming 
and going of these stage lines made lively times in Albany, and the 
tradesmen and the publicans flourished. 

But so far as Albany is concerned, water communication has always 
been the rival in importance of that by land. The noble river whose 
navigation practically ends here has brought hither a continued stream 
of prosperity. In 1791, April twelfth, it is noted that forty vessels 
arrived at or passed the city. Notwithstanding the establishment of 
the stage lines, the journeys to and from New York were chiefly taken 
on sloops, which had pretty little cabins fitted up for passengers. It 
was a perilous journey in those days, and required often as much time 
as to cross the ocean now. When men set out on this journey they 
made their wills and bade each other farewell, not knowing but the 
perils of the Tappan-Zee and of Anthony’s Nose might make this 
journey their last. 

But the navigation of the Hudson was soon to receive a tremendous 
impulse by the introduction of steam. Robert Fulton, the inventor, 
had the good fortune to meet with Chancellor Livingston, the patron 
and promoter. After years of study and trial and experiment, they 
built a little steamboat, which was called the Clermont, after Mr. 
Livingston’s country seat. It was 130 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 
drew seven feet of water. On the morning of Friday, the 7th of 
August, 180%, the little steamboat left New York, having onboard 
Fulton and his friends. A little way out they stopped to adjust some- 
thing in the machinery. The crowd on the shore thought this meant 
another failure, and shouted after them with jeers and mockery ; but 
their jeers were turned to wonder and awe, when they saw the steamer 
ploughing its way along against wind and tide and leaving behind its 
long pennon of smoke and steam. After frightening the people along 
the shore, they reached Albany, and we may imagine the surprise and 
astonishment which filled the city when this strange monster of the 
deep came steaming up and anchored off the town. I can imagine no 
grander moment in a man’s life than a triumph like this. Whena 


7 
oe” 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 101 


general wins a great battle his hour of success is embittered by the 
thought that it has heen attained by the destruction of thousands of 
friends and foes. But when Fulton and Livingston triumphed in their 
efforts to establish the possibility of navigation by steam, there were 
no drawbacks to their satisfaction. They could feel that they had 
conferred a benefaction on their race which could be alloyed with no 
element of regret. From that day to this, steam navigation between 
Albany and New York has never for a single season been interrupted, 
and has never ceased to receive improvements every year. 

The next great step in the material progress of Albany and of the 


. State of New York was the construction of the Erie canal. The 


State of New York has the advantage over all her rivals of having 
within her territory the line of greatest depression between the ocean 
and the great western lakes. The river at Albany is only five or six 
feet higher than at New York. The valley of the Mohawk, which 
connects with the Hudson, penetrates far into the interior of the 
State. The early traders pursued this line of travel. They avoided the 
great falls at Cohoes by crossing the plains to Schenectady. In bat- 
eaux they pushed their way up the Mohawk to Rome, and from there, 
by portages, they made their way to Wood’s creek and the Oswego 
river, into Oswego lake. This easy line early attracted the atten- 
tion of the great statesmen of that day. The names which deserve 
especial mention as connected with the great canal system of the State 
are General Philip Schuyler, Elkanah Watson, Gouverneur Morris, 
Stephen Van Rensselaer the senior, Simeon De Witt and De Witt 
Clinton. I have not time to detail the struggles and difficulties 
encountered by the promoters of this great work. Clinton, whose 
name will always be associated with it, saw the work begun during his 
term as governor in 1817. And in 1825, when he was again governor, 
he had the satisfaction to officiate at its formal opening, when a keg 
of water which had been brought on the canal, 352 miles, from Lake 
Erie, was by him emptied into the sea at New York. 

This was the turning point in the history of the State and city of 
New York. If there had been before any doubt about New York 
being the Empire State, and the city of New York the national me- 
tropolis, these doubts were forever put at rest.* And of this great 
increment of prosperity Albany secured more than her full share. 
She sat at the junction of canal and river. And as boats filled with 
the floating products of the west, and in turn with the commercial 


* Here are the figures which told the story. Before, to carry a ton of freight from Buf- 
falo to Albany, took 20 days and cost $100: after, it took 10 days and cost $3. 


r 
, - 
; 
* 
a 


staples of the east, were carried by, she has always been able, like the 
free cities of the Rhine, to collect her toll on the passing trade. 

But we must not forget the improvements which had been taking 
place in travel and transportation by land, while steam navigation 
and internal canals had been transforming that by water. The first 
railway charter granted in the United States was to the Mohawk and 
Hudson R. R. R. Co., in 1825. It was not the first railway to be built,. 
but the first to be chartered. The road was running in 1830 between 
Albany and Schenectady. The Albany terminus was at the south end 
of the city, and an inclined plane with a stationary engine carried the 
cars from the river level to the summit of the plateau. From here 
they were drawn by a locomotive to the summit of another inclined 
plane, by which they were let down to the level of the Mohawk at. 
Schenectady. In an interesting picture which is familiar to you all, 
we have preserved to us the appearance of this first train of cars, as. 
it made its memorable trial trip on the 9th of August, 1831. ‘The 
names of the passengers deserve to be here transcribed : John Town- 
send, afterward mayor, ex-Goy. Yates, Charles HE. Dudley, Lewis Ben- 
edict, Thurlow Weed, Edwin Croswell, John I. Boyd, and Billy Winne,. 
penny-post. David Matthew was the engineer, and I. 8. Clark, con- 
ductor. The locomotive was called “ DeWitt Clinton,” and weighed 
four tons; a modern locomotive weighs thirty-two tons. ‘The cars 
were literally the old-fashioned stage-coach bodies set on railway trucks- 
They were coupled together by three-link couplers, and were without. 
brakes. In slowing up and starting, this primitive contrivance made 
a terrible jarring and clatter. The sparks from the wood-burning 
locomotives were blown in upon the passengers, who, at the end of 
their journey, found themselves frequently with holes burned in their 
coats. 

For the convenience of passengers at Albany a branch was laid in 
1833 down Little State street to a station in State street where Van 
Vechten Hall now stands. From here the passenger cars were drawn 
by horses to connect at the junction with those brought up the in- 
clined plane. But this was expensive and inconvenient and was soon 
abandoned, much to the disgust of the Albany people, who avenged 
themselves by starting a line of stages to Schenectady, which they 
continued to run for some time at a great loss. Finally, engineering 
skill found ways to dispense with the inclined planes, both at Albany 
and Schenectady, and in 1843 the lines were laid in their present: 
location. | 


102 Industrial and Material Progress 


iy 7 
LO OO ee 


Illustrated in the History of Albany. 103 


,Other roads followed the building of this one; the Schenectady 
and Utica; the Utica and Syracuse; the Syracuse, Rochester and 
Buffalo, and the Rochester, Lockport and Niagara Falls railroads. 
This chain of railways was complete in 1845, and the time from Albany 
to Buffalo was reduced to fifteen hours. 

In 1853, these various lines were consolidated into the New York 
Central under Erastus Corning as president, The Hudson River rail- 
way was completed in 1851, and in 1869 was consolidated with the 
New York Central, thus forming a continuous line under one man- 
agement from New York city to the western limits of the State. 
The growth of the railway interests here, and the necessity of through 

ransportation, suggested the construction of a bridge across the Hud- 
son river. These facilities, including lines to Boston, to the north and 
to the Susquehanna, have made Albany one of the great railroad cen- 
ters of the country. 

In the continuation of my subject I might have had something to 
say of the improvements in the communication of news ; the develop- 
ment of the postal system of the country; the enormous and rapid 
growth of the express business; the rise of the telegraph, with its lines 
by land and sea; the district telegraph, the telephone, photography, 
printing, wood engraving, lithography, photo-lithography, and a hun- 
dred other inventions and improvements which have now become the 
necessaries of modern life. It is simply amazing! we cannot grasp the 
conception of what has been accomplished. Are we the same race, 
with the same feelings and aspirations as the generation of a century 
ago, and will another century see as great advances as the last? 

And yet it is a perfectly reasonable inquiry to ask, what has been 
gained by all this. These material surroundings are not, after all, the 
man himself, and it is pertinent to inquire whether all these changes 
in his surroundings have changed him, the man. Instead of cabins 
we live in palaces; we are clothed in garments such as the kings and 
nobles of the earth could not once have obtained. Instead of ox carts 
we ride in palace cars, faster than the wind! What is the good of all 
this? It is Emerson who utters the profound reflection, that the 
_ question whether it is anyadvantage to a man to travel in a day, where 
_ before he required a week, depends altogether on the fact whether he 
would make a good use of the six days thus gained. Time gained is 
not in itself an unmixed good. If the man is to use his time for base 
uses, he had better be kept on the road. But these are ill-natured 
reflections; they go upon the principle that the evil is more powerful 


104 Industrial and Material Progress. 


than the good. We cannot prevent the perversion of blessings by the - 
evil disposed, but we need not deny ourselves the comfort of them for 
that. Six months after the introduction of chloroform, it was used 
for stealing hogs, but we cannot give up the blessing of anesthesia 
because thieves have used it. Neither can we give up the good to be 
got from the improved methods of travel and communication because 
bad men use them. 


WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT. 
By ERNeEstT J. MILLER. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, Dec. 7, 1880.] 


So much attention has been given of late years to the history of 
our proverbs, nursery rhymes and nursery tales, that I offer no apology 
for the subject 1 am to present to you this evening. By the forma- 
tion of folk-lore societies, both in this country and in England, this 
particular kind of investigation has been fostered and increased; and 
all the facts that are ascertained, ail the old customs that are ex- 
plained, all the familiar stories that are traced to their origin, are 
esteemed as so many contributions to the history of the times to 
to which they refer. And they no doubt give us a correct view of how 
our ancestors lived; what they ate and drank; how they spoke the 
language we speak, and how they thought, and oftentimes what they 
thought about; and in this way we learn the history of the people as 
individuals, which is fully as interesting as their history as a state or 
nation. The person to whom I shall call your attention this evening 
was a high-minded, noble, honorable, benevolent man, fully justify- 
ing the title that has been given him, ‘‘the model merchant of the 
fourteenth century,” and I only regret that I have not veen able, with 
the resources at my command, to give a more extended and complete 
account of his life and good deeds. His biography has been partially 
written ; but even if I could have found a copy of it — which I could 
not — I deem it better that I should gather what facts I could find, 
and present them to you, rather than avail myself of another’s labor 
in this respect. In order, then, that we may understand this subject 
as I desire to present it, | must ask you to bear with me, while I relate, 
substantially, the nursery tale of Whittington and his cat, as | find it 
in the chap-book of the present day; and perhaps while you are 
hearing it, you will renew your youth, and the early days will come 
back again. 

Little Dick Whittington was born in the northern part of England, 
in the reign of Edward III. His parents died when he was very 
_ young; and the little fellow was left to shift for himself, earning a 
living by holding horses and doing such errands as he could get 

14 


106 Whittington and His Cat. 


to do; but it was little he could make in that way, and so he was 
very poor and often hungry. As he lounged around the tavern in 
hope of earning a few pence, he listened to the talk of the wagoners 
who congregated there, and learned that there was a far-off place 
called London, and if any one could get there, he would have plenty 
of money ; for its streets were paved with gold. To get to that 
happy place became then the object of his life; and after some hesi- 
tation, he communicated his great desire to a wagoner, who kindly 
consented to take the little fellow to London on his next trip. In 
due time, therefore, little Dick was landed in London; and he ran up 
one street and down another in the eager hope of finding the one that 
had the gold pavement. But he found nothing but dirt and stones in 
the street— the passers-by paid no attention to his requests for alms, 
for he had no money and had nothing to eat— for was he not the 
same as all other beggars, and was not his piteous story just as much- 
a lie as those they were accustomed to hear every day ?— and so the 
poor little discouraged boy laid himself down on the steps of a man- 
-slon, expecting to die of starvation, in the midst of the plenty that 
was all around him, The mansion belonged to Mr. Fitzwarren, and 
he, coming out of the house, was surprised to find the boy on his steps; 
and gently chided him for his idleness and his apparent unwillingness 
to work. The boy replied that he would gladly work, but could find 
nothing to do; and attempting to rise, almost fell down again from 
his great weakness. Mr. Fitzwarren, seeing what the trouble was, sent 
him into his house, gave him a good meal, and then hired him to do 
the dirty work for the cook in the kitchen. The cook was cross and 
old ; and when she wasn’t basting the meats, was basting poor Dick 
with a broom handle ; so that his life was not a particularly happy 
one. Toadd to his troubles, he was sent to sleep in a garret, the floor 
of which was full of holes; and the rats and mice running around the 
room and over his face, made the night more unpleasant for him than 
the day had been. He, however, had received a penny for blacking the 
boots of a guest of Mr. Fitzwarren; and once meeting a little girl with 
a cat in her arms, bought the cat of her. The cat was his great and 
only treasure —his constant companion— his all. The kind mer- 
chant, having a ship that was ready to sail for foreign parts, called all 
his servants into his parlor, and explained to them that it was his 
desire that each one should have some interest in the venture he was 
about to make ; and that he would permit each of them to send in the 
ship whatever he chose. Poor Dick had nothing but his cat ; and at 
the suggestion of Miss Alice, Mr. Fitzwarren’s daughter, with tears — 


Whittington and His Cat. 107 


in his eyes he brought puss down and gave her to the captain, who 
immediately thereafter set sail. His life was more lonely than ever, 
now that his only friend was gone; and his enemy, the cook, added to _ 
her cruel treatment by making fun of him because he had sent his 
cat to sea. At last he could stand it no longer and determined to run 
away; so on the morning of All-Hallow day, which is November Ist, 
he left his home and traveled as far as Halloway, and sat there ona 
stone to rest. While he was resting, the six Bow bells began to ring ; 
and they seemed to say to him: 
“Turn again, Whittington, 
Thrice Lord Mayor of London town!” 


It was to him like the revelation of his future life; and he went 
back at once to his pots and pans, and brasses and bastings. 

In the mean time the ship with the cat on board was driven on the 
coast of Barbary, which was inhabited by Moors. The captain sent 
samples of his goods to the king of the country; and in return the king 
invited him and the mate to the palace, where they were royally enter- 
tained. A sumptuous repast was prepared; but no sooner were the 
dishes set on the table, than the rats and mice ran from all sides, and 
devoured what wason them. The captain asked the kingif they were 
not offensive to him, and the king answered that he would give half of 
his wealth to be ridof them. The captain, recollecting poor Dick’s cat, 
said he would help him, and going back to the ship, he brought puss 
up under his arm. The tables were once more covered ; the rats and 
the mice made the usual onslaught, when the cat jumped out of the 
captain’s arms and slew the intruders in great numbers, to the delight 
and amazement of all present. The king out of gratitude purchased 
the whole ship’s cargo, and in addition gave a prodigious quantity of 
gold for the cat, and the captain then set sail for England. Arriving 
there, those who had sent anything by the ship were again sum- 
moned by Mr. Fitzwarren to receive their share of the profits of the 
voyage ; when, to the surprise of all, Whittington received by far the 
largest portion, and his wealth was, by this single venture, greater than 
that of the merchant who had given him the opportunity of making 
the investment. He was now enabled to dress himself as a gentleman, 
and when he was shaved, and his hair curled, and a brave new hat on 
his head, Miss Alice, Mr. Fitzwarren’s daughter, thought he was really 
a fine ‘ooking young fellow ; so the good merchant consented to their 
_ Marriage, as many a father has had to do before when he couldn’t help 
himself; and in due time Richard Whittington fulfilled the prophecy 


108 Whittington and His Cat. 


of the Bow bells, and his memory has ever since been embalmed in 
English story. | 

This is the substance of the nursery tale — for I have taken the story- 
teller’s privilege of telling it in my own way — and I think it has usually 
been considered as of the same class as Jack the Giant Killer, Jack 
and the Beanstalk, Tom Hickathrift, and Puss in Boots—almost wholly 
legendary, composed by nobody knows who, and descended to us; 
nobody knows how. And yet, despite the legend related in it, it is a 
veritable history of a model merchant of the Dark Ages; and how the 
story has survived to the present day is perhaps the greatest mystery 
connected with it. For Whittington was born only a century and a 
half after the English nobles compelled King John to sign the declara- 
tion of English liberty at Runnymede. Rienzi, the last of the Roman 
tribunes, resigned his power, and was sent into exile, less than twenty 
years before Whittington’s birth; Wat Tyler’s insurrection was put 
down by Sir William Walworth, who preceded Whittington as Lord 
Mayor of London by less than twenty years; and he had been dead 
only about thirty years when Faust and Scheffer printed their first 
book, and about seventy years when Columbus discovered America. 
He lived and died in the Dark Ages; and the wonder is that his story 
has come down to us at all; for I venture to say that the only things 
remembered about him are, that he was wealthy, that he was Lord 
Mayor of London three times, and that he had a cat. But other men 
in that time were as wealthy, though very few made so good use of 
it; but notwithstanding their wealth, they are forgotten, and the good ° 
use he made of his is scarcely remembered. Sir John Lofken, fish- 
monger, was four times Lord Mayor, and Sir Nicholas Brember, grocer, 
served for three successive terms, and had been Lord Mayor before the 
three terms began, and all these four years werein Whittington’s life- 
time, and many others filled the office three times and more; yet their 
names have not come down to us through five hundred years. I think 
that but one answer can be given to our inquiry ; and that is a modern 
answer, but it has come down to us through the centuries—“ it was the 
cat.” 

But whatever the reason was that caused this story to be remem- 
bered, it differs from the ordinary class of nursery tales, in this, that 
there is more truth than fiction about it. No matter with what other 
variations the story may be told, it is always sure to represent Whit- 
tington as a poor little barefooted, bareheaded, half-clothed boy born of 
poor parents, whose early death left the little fellow entirely alone. 
With the exception of the early death of his parents, this statement is 


Whittington and His Cat. 109 


wholly without foundation, and was no doubt originally made, to 
heighten by the contrast the exalted position to which. he attained- 
His father was Sir William Whittington, Knight; and an honor of 
that kind was not easily obtained in those days, nor so lavishly 
- bestowed, as it is now. But besides that fact, by the pedigree of the 
family in the Heralds’ College and British Museum, it is shown that 
our hero was descended from the Whittingtons who, as early as the 
reign of Edward I., were owners of land in Gloucestershire, so 
that the family were landed proprietors; and Richard may have been 
poor as compared with his brother, who was the elder son and so heir 
of the estate ; yet it could not have been any such depth of poverty as 
the story would lead us to suppose. Nor does the fact that his father 
was branded with the stigma ‘‘utlagatus” the outlaw, prove that the 
family were poor; for the outlawry neither tainted the blood nor confis- 
cated the estate; since he was outlawed simply because he would 
marry Joan the widow of Thomas de Berkley, without the king’s con- 
sent, or in opposition to it; for in the time of Edward IIL, injunctions 
were issued against second marriages, whether avowed or secret; and 
they were punished with a degree of severity that was in accordance 
with the maxims of the times, but which we, at the present day, can 
hardly understand, 

But however untrue the story of his poverty may be, there is no 
doubt of the fulfillment of the prophecy of the Bow bells made to the 
young wanderer, as he sat on the stone on Highgate hill. Nor is it 
difficult to understand how the boom of the bells should seem to say — 

“Turn again, Whittington, 
Thrice Lord Mayor of London town,” 
as the principal vowel sounds in the sentence would be used, if we 
wished to imitate the round full tone of a bell; still there has been 
another conjecture offered, which is curious, even if we cannot accept it. 

Whittington was from Gloucestershire in the north of England, and 
his family for many centuries lived there. Now Gloucester was one 
of the earliest bell foundries in England, having been established at the 
beginning of the century in which Whittington was born; and this, 
together with the earlier one established at Salisbury, were probably the 
only bell foundries inthe kingdom. The monks of Ely at London em- 
ployed the Gloucester bell founder; and itis not unlikely that the parish- 
ioners of Bow had obtained their bells from the same source. So 
when the bells sounded, they may have recalled a home feeling to the 
young apprentice, and touched a chord in his heart, that induced him 
to return again to his duty. But be thisas it may, he was three times 


110 Whittington and His Cat. 


Lord Mayor of London; the first time in 1397, in the reign of Richard 
IJ., when he was only thirty-seven years old, having been sheriff 
four years previously, as without having filled that office, he could not 
be eligible to the office of Lord Mayor; then again in 1406, in the 
reign of. Henry [V., and for the last time in 1420, in the reign of 
Henry V. I always supposed that this thrice election was a tribute 
to Whittington’s popularity and worth; but antiquaries never leave 
us to the enjoyment of our pet theories, but are continually knocking 
them to pieces by hard facts and dry logical conclusions ; and they 
have fallen upon this theory and have endeavored to demolish it, as 
they have many others; they admit his popularity and worth, however, 
only denying that his being elected three times proves it. Between 
his first term and his second, a period of nine years elapsed; and 
when he was called to serve the third time, it was twenty-three years 
since he had first filled the mayor’s chair. In the time of Whitting- 
ton, aldermen were frequently called upon to take this office more 
than once. Sir William Stonden, grocer, who had been mavor in 
1392, succeeded Whittington; and Stonden himself was succeeded in 
1408 by Sir Drew Barentine, goldsmith, who had succeeded Whitting- 
ton in 1398; and from these different successions in different years, it 
is argued that Whittington’s frequent occupancy of the office arose 
from the fact that, all the aldermen having occupied the chair, it 
became the turn of the senior members to serve again ; so that the 
repetition of election arose from the paucity of candidates of sufficient 
station, capable of bearing the expenses of the office, rather than as a 
tribute to his personal popularity and virtues, which his fellow 
citizens only discovered after such\long periods as nine and twenty- 
three years. But it may be doubted whether this argument is as 
strong as it appears; for it is founded on the fact that the Lord 
Mayor was always elected as he is at present. The electors now are 
the liverymen of the several companies of London, who meet in Com- 
mon Hall on the 29th of September in each year; and to this com- 
pany so assembled, the crier reads a list of aldermen in the order of 
seniority, who have served as sheriff, and who have not already passed 
the chair of mayoralty. In ordinary cases the first two persons named 
are accepted; and although the livery may depart from that order, or 
even select those who have already been elected and served, still it is 
not the usual course to do so. The two names finally determined 
upon are announced to the mayor and aldermen by the common 
sergeant ; and they also generally select the senior alderman, although 
they have occasionally rejected the senior and chosen the other candi- 


Whittington and His Cat. 111 


date presented by the livery. The person elected declares his accept- 
ance of the office; the Lord Mayor, recorder, sheriffs, crier and 
common sergeant return to their hall, and the proclamation of the 
election is made. It only remains to present the successful candidate 
to the Lord Chancellor, to receive, through him, the assent of the 
Crown to the election, and then to administer the usual oaths before 
the mayor and aldermen. 

But the city records of London show that in the earlier days, 
a much larger and more popular constituency than the livery- 
men of the different companies, claimed the right to elect the 
Lord Mayor; so large a constituency, indeed, that it is supposed 
to have comprised the whole body of citizens. For Richard IL, 
in whose reign Whittington was Lord Mayor for the first time, had 
shown a determined and open hostility to the citizens, partly because 
they had manfully remonstrated against the acts of his ministers, and 
partly because he was envious of their wealth ; and when they had 
fallen under his displeasure, they could only purchase his forgiveness 
by large contributions of money. Sir Nicholas Brember, whom I 
have before mentioned as having served as Lord Mayor for three con- 
secutive terms, was a creature of the king’s, and he forced him on 
the citizens as Lord Mayor several times, in defiance of their wishes 
and rights; and this was one of the elements of the struggle between 
Richard and the Londoners. This struggle rose to its climax in 1382, 
when the citizens selected John of Northampton as an opposing candi- 
date to Nicholas Brember; of the particulars of this struggle we have 
no account, althougk the poet Chaucer, who was deeply interested in 
it on behalf of the citizens, tells us that they would have submitted 
to every imaginable disadvantage rather than have suffered the man- 
ner and rule of the hated governors ; and when Brember endeavored 
to hinder the election, aud procure one in favor of himself, then the 
‘insurrection broke out, or as Chaucer expresses it, “ mokyl roar 
-arreared.” The insurrection was put down by a large body of armed 
men under Sir Robert Knolles on behalf of the King; and Sir Nicholas 
Brember was again duly installed. How deeply Chaucer as a simple 
citizen was interested in these proceedings appears from the fact 
that he fled to Zealand to escape the trial which had been commenced 
against him. Venturing back to London in 1386, he was elected 
member of Parliament for Kent; but this very election may have 
determined the government not to overlook his former conduct ; for 
he was arrested in the latter part of that year, and sent to the Tower 
-and deprived of his offices, namely, the comptrollership of the customs 


112 Whittington and His Cat. 


im the port of London, and the comptrollership of the sinall customs. 
Contrasting his former with his present estate, he touchingly says : 
“ Although I had little in respect (comparison) among others great. 
and worthy, yet had I a fair parcel, as methought for the time, in 
furthering of my sustenance; and had riches sufficient to waive need ; 
and had dignity to be reverenced in worship; power methought that I 
had, to keep from mine enemies; and me seemed to shine in glory of 
renown. very one of these joys is turned into his contrary; for 
riches, now have I poverty; for dignity, now am I imprisoned; 
instead of power, wretchedness I suffer; and for glory of renown, I 
am now despised and fully hated.” He was set at liberty in 1389, and 
it would certainly appear from this account, that in the early history — 
of London, the citizens had more voice in the selection of their chief 
magistrate than they have at present. So that after all, if it pleases. 
us to consider Whittington’s elevation to office as a grateful tribute 
on the part of his fellow citizens —and they had good reason to think 
well of him — we are not running contrary to historical factsin so. 
doing. | 

There is but one other fact in the nursery tale to which I would 
now call your attention, and that is his marriage; his wife was Alice 
Fitzwarren, the daughter of the gentleman on the steps of whose house 
he lay down to die, and who had befriended him asa poor boy in her 
father’s house, and who had given him a penny to buy another cat, when 
he had sent his first one on its renowned venture. For Stow, in his 
history of London, informs us that Richard Whittington rebuilt the 
parish church of St. Michael in the Royal, and made a college of St. 
Spirit and St. Mary, with an alms-house, called God’s house or hos- 
pital, for thirteen poor men who were to pray for the good estate. 
of Richard Whittington, and of Alice his wife, their founders; and 
for Sir Wm. Whittington, knight, and Dame Joan his wife; and for 
Hugh Fitzwarren and Dame Malde his wife, the fathers and mothers. 
of the said Richard Whittington and Alice his wife; and besides this. 
testimony, in the church at Pauntley on the family estate in Glouces- 
tershire, are emblazoned the arms of Whittington impaling Warren. 

But the story gives no record of his honorable life, nor any account 
of the good deeds he performed for the benefit of the poor, for the 
education and enlightenment of his fellow citizens, or for the glory 
and renown of the old city that honored him. He held his wealth at 
the disposal of his king and his country, and showéd he had a proper 
appreciation of it, by endeavoring to do what good he could with it, 
Remember, he lived in the fourteenth century, in the Dark Ages, so. 


Whittington and His Cat. 113 


called ; some of our rich men in the nineteenth century have not 
learned the true power of wealth as well as he knew it, and not as 
often as we should, do we find them erecting lasting monuments to 
religion, education and charity — monuments that would cause them 
to be held in everlasting remembrance. With the church of St. Mi- 
chael, in Paternoster Royal, his name is inseparably connected, for it 
was there he founded his magnificent college with its master, four fel- 
lows, masters of arts, clerks, conducts and choristers; and bestowed 
on it the rights and profits of the church which belonged to him. This 
college, called God’s House by his executors, was founded by him in 
1421, “‘for perpetual sustentation of needy and poor people ;% and I 
believe this is the first establishment of a home for the aged poor. It 
is now under the control and management of the Mercers’ Company, 
of which company Whittington was a member. The principal is a 
person in holy orders called the tutor, whose duty it is to perform 
service in the chapel, and to “oversee the husbandry of the house and 
nourish charity and peace among his fellows.” Hach poor person ad- 
mitted is to be one “‘meek of spirit, destitute of temporal goods in 
other places, by which he might competently live, and chaste and of 
good conversation.” The inmates must be single persons above fifty- 
five, not having freehold property to the amount of £20, or other 
property to the amount of £30 a year. They receive from the funds 
of the college a yearly stipend of £30, besides enjoying some money 
gifts, and the advantages of medical attendance and the assistance of 
nurses. This charity, four hundred years after Whittington founded 
it, erected a handsome stone building, at an expense of £17,000, and ° 
its annual income thirty years ago was nearly £5,000. 

He was the founder of the large manuscript library, which,in the reign 
of Edward Sixth, was in the chapel, called the Lord Mayor’s Chapel, ad- 
joining Guildhall; and he laid the first stone of a new library building 
attached to the church and house of the Gray Friars, near the spot 
where Christ Church hospital now stands. The total expenses of this 
building amounted to £556 16s. 8d, and of that sum Whittington con- 
tributed £400. In this London monastery there appears to have been 
the most considerable collection of books in the city, and one of its 
treasures was a transcript of the works of Nicholas de Lira, which 
_ waschained in the library. This book was one of Whittington’s gifts, 
purchased at a cost of more than $300. During his third mayoralty, 
he entertained at Guildhall King Henry the Fifth and his bride Catha- 
rine of France. The king had just before been victorious at Agin- 
court, and that victory and the others which followed it brought about 

15 


114 Whittington and His Cat, 


this alliance, which was to give the crown of France to Henry and his 
heirs, on the death of the present French king. The war had been 
expensive, but the loyal Englishman forgot all that, when he considered 
the glory of the crown, and the honor due to the king, who had 
knighted him. Guildhall exhibited all its magnificence; precious 
stones reflected the light from the chandeliers; choruses of beautiful 
females sung the praises of the victorious sovereign ; wine flowed down 
the conduits instead of water; the tables were loaded with the choicest 
fish, most delicate meats and rare confections. The king was amazed 
anddelighted. “Surely,” said he,“ never had prince such a subject ; even 
the fires are filled with perfumes.” ‘I will make these fires still more 
grateful,” said Sir Richard, ‘‘if your highness inhibit’me not.” The 
king nodded his assent, and Whittington, advancing to the fire, drew 
forth a packet of bonds and placing them in the flames, he said: 
“Thus do I acquit your highness of a debt of £60,000!” 

Says Richard Grafton, one of the old antiquaries of London : 

‘* This year (1406), a worthy citizen of London, named Richard Whit- 
tington, mercer and alderman, was elected mayor of the said city, and 
bore that office three times. This worshipful man so bestowed his goods 
and substance to the honor of God, to the relief of the poor, and to the 
benefit of the common weal, that he hath right well deserved to be 
registered in the book of fame. First, he erected one house or church 
in London to be a house of prayer, and named the same after 
his own name, Whittington College, and so it remaineth to this day. 
And in the said church besides certain priests and clerks, he placed a — 
number of poor aged men and women, and builded for them houses 
and lodgings, and allowed unto them wood, coal, cloth and weekly 
money, to their great relief and comfort. This man, also at his own 
cost, builded the gate of London, called Newgate, in the year of our 
Lord 1422, which before was a most ugly and loathsome prison. He 
also builded more than half of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in West 
Smithfield, in London. Also he builded, of hard stone, the beautiful 
library in the Grey Friars, in London, now called Christ’s Hospital, 
standing in the north part of the cloister thereof, where in the walls 
his arms is graven in stone. He also builded for the ease of the mayor 
of London and his brethren, and of the worshipful citizens, at the — 
solemn days of their assembly, a chapel adjoining to the Guildhall, to 
the intent they should ever before they entered into any of their affairs, 
first to go into the chapel to call upon God for his assistance. Andin 
the end, joining on the south side of the said chapel, he builded for the 
city a library of stone, for the custody of their records and other books. 
He also builded a great part of the east end of Guildhall, besides 
many other good works that I know not. But among all other I will 
show unto you one very notable, which I received credibly by a writing 
of his own hand, which also he willed to be fixed as a schedule to his 
last will and testament, the contents whereof was, that he willed and 


Whittington and His Cat. 115 


_ commanded his executors, as they would answer before God at the day 
of the resurrection of all flesh, that if they found any debtor of his, 
that ought to him any money, that if he were not in their consciences 
well worth three times as much, and also out of the debt of other men, 
and well able to pay, that then they should never demand it, for he 
clearly forgave it, and that they should put no man in suit for any 
debt due to him. Look upon this, ye aldermen, for it is a glorious 
glass.” 


Ah! good master Grafton, there be few aldermen that prepare them- 
selves for the discharge of their official duties, in the way you have 
pointed out; and there be still fewer, aldermen or citizens, that would 
ever look into the glass you hold up before them. 

From this account of Whittington’s good deeds it would be no won- 
der if Englishmen should cherish his memory lovingly, and so they do; 
but the curious part of it is, that it is the mythical or legendary por- 
tion of his history that has been preserved aud has come down to us, 
while the true facts of his life are even now being slowly gathered to- 
gether, and still are difficult to obtain. 

Look at the history connected with the stone on which he sat while 
listening to the Bow Bells of Chepe. The original stone is said to 

_haye been placed in Highgate Hill by himself, and it had a pavement 
around it eighteen feet_in circumference. This stone remained as he 
placed it until 1795, when one S—— (history does not tell us what his 
name was; it only gives us the first letter, but he was the parish 
clerk at Islington) had the stone removed and sawed in two, and 
placed the halves on each side of Queen’s Head Lane, in the lower street 
of that town. He tore up the pavement around the stone, and with it paved 
the yard of the Blue Last public-house, now the Marlborough Head, Is- 
lington. That disposed of the first and original stone. But another stone 
of smaller dimensions was immediately erected on the same spot and on 
it was inscribed “ Whittington’s Stone;” and, strange to say, it was 
never known by whose order or at whose expense it was done. This sec- 
ond stone, in point of fact, was three stones — two stones being used as 
bases to keep the Whittington stone upright. These remained until 
May, 1821, when they were removed by order of the church wardens of 
St. Mary Islington, and we find that it cost them £10 13s. 8d to do it, 
but we are not told why it was done; then the trustees of the parish 
ways erected a third stone, but in a different place. This was removed 
in 1854, and a tavern erected where it stood. Whether the turning 
point in Whittington’s life remained unrecorded until 1869, I cannot 
say, although it is likely; but in that year, Mr. Richard Perkins, pro- 
prietor of the Whittington Stone Tavern, at an expense of £40, re- 


116 Whittington and Es Cat. 


faced the old stone, inclosed it in an oval plinth, surrounded it with an 
iron railing, supporting a very handsome lamp, and inscribed on it. 
‘“‘ Whittington Stone,’’ with the years of his service as Lord Mayor and 
Sheriff, and added the following: ‘‘ This stone was restored, the rail- 
ing fixed, and lamp erected, at the sole expense of R. Perkins, 1869.” 
So, now, Whittington and Mr. R. Perkins will go down to posterity 
together. Now, despite this record of the stone, which goes back long 
before 1795, it is very doubtful whether Whittington sat on a stone at. 
all. For from the ancient deeds that have been found, it appears that 
on that part of Highgate Hill there stood in ancient times a Lazar 
house or hospital for leprous persons; and from an old view of the 
place which has been preserved, it would seem that the stone was a 
part of a wayside cross in front of the chapel of St. Anthony, erected 
for the purpose of attracting the notice of the passing traveler, to the 
unhappy victims of disease in the hospital, and as a means of solicit- 
ing his alms and his prayers for the unfortunate. Such a cross would, 
of course, be very old, but it would be long after the time when Whit- 
tington flourished. But the story is stronger than historical facts, 
and thanks to Mr. Perkins’ liberality, the story seems destined to out- 
live them, 

But [ do not believe the story would have lived for a generation had 
it not been for the part the cat has taken init. Puss seems to have 
been the foundation of the whole tale, and had she been left out, his 
good deeds, his munificent charities, and his high honors would all 
have been forgotten. That prince of old gossips, Pepys, tells us, that 
he went “to Southwarke fair, and there saw the puppet show of Whit- 
tington, which was pretty to see; and how that idle thing do work 
upon people that see it, and even myself, too!” Honest old Samuel; 
but we cannot believe that the puppet show could have worked upon 
him very greatly, or that the play could have been a stock piece of 
Punch and his dramatic troupe for more than a century, if the cat 
had not been one of the principal performers. arly in the reign of 
James I., Reginald Elstracke published avery fine engraving of Whit- 
tington, in which he was represented with his hand resting on a skull. 
There was no sale for it, no one wanted it; his great and generous 
deeds failed to create a market for it. So one Peter Stint, a print- 
seller ‘of Pye Corner in London, purchased the plate, and having a 
proper appreciation for the Englishman’s love of the legend, and also 
a keen eye for business, erased the skull and engraved a cat in its 
place; and he had no difficulty then in disposing of all the copies he 
printed. 


Ee —— 


- Whittington and His Cat. 117 


At Mercers’ Hall, to which company Whittington belonged, there 
is a portrait on canvas of a man of about sixty years of age, dressed 
in a fine livery gown and black cap of the time of Henry VIII. It is 
about a half length portrait, and on the left hand of the figure is a 
black and white cat, whose right ear reaches up to the band, or broad 
turning down of the skirt of the figure, and in the left-hand upper 
corner of the canvas is painted “R. Whittington, 1536.” The inn- 
keepers of England, who, I think, can bear off the palm for curious 
signs, early adopted this one, and the Lord Mayor and his feline friend 
in many places invited the weary traveler to the ease that an inn af- 
fords; while one ambitious innkeeper outstripped all others in this 
particular line, by exhibiting, in the window of his public house on the 
’ Highgate Road, the skeleton of a cat, which the good people who visit 
the place firmly believe to be the mortal remains of Whittington’s 
early friend. Now, all this is more curious, when we know that the 
story of a cat being the source of a man’s wealth, is not an English 
story at all; but that long before Whittington was born, such stories 
were current in Tuscany, Persia, Denmark and other countries. It is 
possible, of course, that the heroes of all these stories had cats, and 
got wealth by them, as Whittington is said to have done, but it is not 
likely ; and when we come to read these stories, we find such a strik- 
ing resemblance between them and that of our hero, that we are forced 
to believe that they must have been transmitted from one country to 
another in some way. You can only judge of the similarity of these 
stories by permitting me to relate some of them ; and the first one we 
shall take comes from Persia. 

In the 700th year of the Hejira (A. D., 1300), in the town of 
Siraf, lived an old woman with her three sons, who, turning out 
profligates, spent their own patrimony and their mother’s fortune; 
and abandoning her, went to live at Kais. A little while after, a 
Siraf merchant undertook a trading voyage to India, and freighted 
aship. It was the custom of these days, that when a man undertook 
a voyage to a distant land, each of his friends intrusted to his care 
some article of property, and received its produce on his return. 
The old woman, who was a friend of the merchant, complained that 
her sons had left her so destitute that except a cat, she had nothing to 
send as an adventure, which yet she requested him to take. On ar- 
riving in India he waited upon the king of the country, who, having 
granted him permission to trade with his subjects, also invited him to 

dine. ‘The merchant was surprised to see the beards of the King and 
his courtiers encased in golden tubes; and the more so, when he ob- 


118 Whittington and His Cat. 


served that every man had a stick in his hand. His surprise still 
increased, when, upon the turning up of the dishes, he saw swarms of 
mice sally out trom the wall, and make such an attack upon the vic- 
tuals as to require the greatest vigilance of the guestsin keeping them 
off with their sticks. This extraordinary scene brought the cat of the 
old woman of Siraf into the merchant’smind. When he dined a sec- 
ond time with the king he put thecat under his arm, and no sooner 
did the mice appear than he let it go, and to the delight of the king 
and his courtiers, hundreds of mice were laid dead about the floor. 
The king, of course, longed to possess so valuable an animal, and the 
merchant agreed to give it up, provided an adequate compensation 
were made to its real owner. When the merchant was about his de- 
parture, he was shown a ship finely equipped, laden with all sorts of 
merchandise, which he was told was to be given to the old woman 
for her cat. She, of course, could scarcely yield credit to his tale, but 
when she found that he was in earnest, and that she was possessed of 
such vast wealth, she imparted her good fortune to her sons, who. 
came over to her, and after having made merry with the ready money, 
embarked with their mother and the rest of the property, and estab- 
lished themselves at Kais. Here they traded with great success, until 
their name became so famous that twelve ships all at one time were 
consigned to them. They managed by stratagem to make away with 
the owners of these ships, seized their property, and commenced to be 
pirates. In this new character they were again successful, and became 
so powerful that they braved the king of the country, who was too 
weak to destroy them. In the course of time, indeed, their descend- 
ants became the kings of Kais, and are known in Persian history 
under the name of Beni Kaiser. At length their power was destroyed 
by Atta Beg, then king of Fars; and since then, their possessions have: 
been annexed to the Persian dominions. This is the legend of Persia, 
current before Whittington was born. 

Italy furnishes us with another story, told by Count Lorenzo. 
Magalotti, a Florentine nobleman, who flourished in the latter part of 
the 17th century ; the story, however, is no invention of his own, but. 
an old legend current many years in Italy, and it is as follows: 


‘You must know that at the time our Amerigo Vespucci discov- 
ered the new world, there wasin our city (Florence) a merchant whose 
name was Messer Ansaldo degli Ormanni, who, though he was very 
rich, being, perhaps, desirous of doubling his wealth, freighted a large 
ship, and began to sell his merchandise in the newly-discovered parts: 
of the west. And having made two or three good voyages thither, 
and gained immensely in his dealings, he determined to return there 


Whittington and His Cat. 119 


for the fourth time. But scarcely had he departed from Cadiz, when 
a most furious tempest arose, and he ran for several days without 
knowing whither he should go. Fortune, however, was so kind to 
him, that she brought him to an island named Canary. He had 
scarcely anchored, when the king of the island, hearing of the arrival 
of a vessel, came down to the port with all his barons; and having 
given Messer Ansaldo a most gracious reception, to let him see how 
agreeable his arrival was to him, insisted on taking him with him to 
the royal residence. Here, the tables being spread in the most sump- 
tuous manner, he sat down along with Messer Ansaldo, who, seeing 
several of the young men who waited on the king holding in their 
hands great long rods, like those carried by the Penitents, wondered 
yery much; but as soon as the dishes were brought up he saw at once 
what was the cause of this mode of attendance, for the mice that 
came from all sides and attacked these delicate meats were so large 
and so numerous that it was quite wonderful. The young men then 
bestirred themselves, and used their rods vigorously to defend from 
them the dish off which the king and Messer Ansaldo were eating. 
Ansaldo, when he had heard, and in some sort also seen, that the mul- 
titude of these nasty animals was numberless in that island, and that 
no way had ever been discovered of destroying them, endeavored by 
signs to let the king know that he would give him a remedy which 
would clear the country completely of such animals. So he ran down 
to his vessel, took two remarkably fine cats, a male and a female, and 
bringing them to the king, made the tables be covered once more. 
Scarcely had the odor of the victuals began to diffuse itself, when the 
usual procession made its appearance ; which, when the cats saw, they 
began to skirmish away so nobly that in a very short time they had 
made a glorious slaughter among them. The king rejoiced beyond 
measure at what he saw, and wishing to recompense the courtesy of 
Messer Ansaldo, ordered several nets of pearls, and abundance of gold 
and silver and other precious stones to be brought to him, and he 
presented them to Messer Ansaldo, who thinking that he had now made 
sufficient profit of his merchandise without going to dispose of it in 
the west, spread his sails to the wind, and returned home as rich as he 
need be.” 

Stories similar to these are found in Tuscany and Denmark, 
while Venice furnishes us one which is connected with the origin 
of that city, and was an old story one hundred years and more 
before Whittington was born. Indeed, it is generally conceded that 
the story did not make its appearance in England until about the 
reign of Elizabeth, about a century and a half after Whittington was 
in his grave. One of the earliest allusions to the story that we have, 
is in the play of Eastward Hoe, made (as the old edition has it) by 
Geo. Chapman, Ben Jonson and John Marston, and played in the 
- Black Friars by the children of her Majesty’s Revels. In this play, 


Touchstone had given his daughter in marriage to his apprentice, 


126 Whittington and His Cat. 


Goulding, releasing him from his indenture before his marriage. On 
the first day of his freedom, Goulding was taken into the livery of his 
company, and afterward appointed deputy to the alderman of his 
ward. Relating his advancement to his father-in-law, Touchstone 
says: “I hope to see thee one of the monuments of our city, and reck- 
oned among her worthies, to be remembered the same day with the 
Lady Ramsey and grave Gresham, when the famous fable of Whitting- 
ton and his puss shall be forgotten, and thou and thy acts shall be- 
come the posies for hospitals; when thy name shall be written upon 
conduits, and thy deeds played in thy life-time, by the best companies 
of actors, and be called their get-penie.” This play was written in 
1603. 

In an old play called “If you know not me you know nobodie, or 
the Troubles of Queen Elizabeth,” by Thomas Heywood, 1609, we 


have the following dialogue between Nowell and Hobson: . 


Nowell —“ This Sir Richard Whittington three times Maior, 
Sonne to a Knight and prentice to a Mercer, 
Began the librarie to Grey Friars in London; 
And his executors after him did build 
Whittington College, thirteen Almes Houses for Poore Men, 
Repaired St. Bartholomew’s in Smithfield, 
Glased the Guildhall and built Newgate.” 
Hobson —“‘ Bones of me! then I have heard lies ; 
For I have heard he was a scullion, 
And raised himself by venture of a cat.” 7 
Nowell —‘‘ They did the more wrong to the gentleman.” 


In the ‘‘ Induction,” as it is called, to Beaumont and Fletchar’s 
comedy of the “‘ Knight of the Burning Pestle” (A. D. 1613), the 
speaker of the prologue is interrupted by a citizen, who commands 
him to stop, as the play is intended to abuse the citizens, and asks him: 
«“ Why could you not be contented as well as others, with the legend of 
Whittington, or the life and death of Sir Thomas Gresham with the 
building of the Royal Exchange? Or the story of Queen Eleanor, 
with the rearing of London Bridge upon woolsacks?” And the 
earliest notice of the song, ‘‘ Turn Again, Whittington,” is in “Shir- 
ley’s Constant Maid” (1640), where the niece says: 

“ Faith, how many churches do you mean to build 
Before you die? Six bells in every steeple, 
And let them all go to the City tune, 

‘Turn again, Whittington ’— who, they say, 
Grew rich, and let his land out for nine lives, 
Cause all came in by a cat,” 


aa 


Whittington and His Cat. 121 


But I think, perhaps, the earliest notice of the story is in Richard 
_ Johnson’s ‘‘ Crown Garland of Golden Roses.” Johnson was a ballad 
and prose romance writer at the end of the i6th and beginning of the 
17th century, and it is not known in what year he was born, or when 
he died. The first edition of his ‘‘ Garland” was published in 1612, 
and the ballads in this collection were written at an earlier period than 
the date oftheir publication in the form of a ‘“‘ Garland.” The ballad 
is entitled “A Song of Sir Richard Whittington, who, by strange for- 
tunes, came to be thrice Lord Maior of London; with his bountifull 
guifts and liberality given to this honourable Citty,” to be sung to the 
tune of ‘‘ Dainty Come Thou to Me,” and is as follows: 


Here must I tell the praise 
Of worthy Whittington; 
Known to be in his dayes 
Thrice Maior of London. 
But of poor parentage 
Borne was he, as we heare; 
And in his tender age 
Bred up in Lancashire. 


Poorely to London than 
Came up this simple lad, 
Where with a marchant man 
Soone he a dwelling had ; 

And ina kitchen plast 
A scullion for to be, 
Whereas long time he past 
In labour drudgingly. 


His daily service was 
Turning spitts at the fire, 
And to scour pots of brass 
For a poore scullion’s hire. 
Meat and drinke all his pay, 
Of coyne he had no store, 
Therefore to run away 
In secret thought he bore. 


So from this marchant man 
Whittington secretly 
Towards his country ran, 
To purchase liberty. 
But as he went along 
In a fair summer morne, 
London’s bells sweetly rung, 
“ Whittington back return.” 


Evermore sounding so 
“Turn againe Whittington, 
For thou in time shall grow 
Lord Maior of London.” 
Whereupon back againe 
Whittington came with speed, 
A prentise to remain 
As the Lord had decreed. 


** Still blessed be the bells.”’ 
This was his daily song, 


_ ** They my good fortune tells, 


Most sweetly have they rung. 
If God so favour me, 

I will not proove unkind, 
London my love shall see, 

And my great bounties find.”’ 


But see his happy chance; 
This scullion had a cat, 

Which did his state advance, 
And by it wealth he gat. 


16 


His maister ventred forth, 
Toa land far unknowne, 
With marchandise of worth 
As is in stories showne. 


Whittington had no more 
But his poore cat as than, 
Which to the ship he bore, 
Like a brave marchant man. 
Vent’ring the same, quoth he, 
I may get store of golde, 
And Maior of London be, 
As the belis have me told. 


Whittington’s marchandise 
Carried was to a land 

Troubled with rats and mice, 
As they did understand. 

The king of that country, there 
As he at dinner sat, 

Daily remained in fear 
Of many a mouse and rat, 


Meat that in trenchers lay 
No way they could keepe safe, 
But by rats borne away, 
Fearing no wand or staffe. 
Whereupon soone they brought 
Whittington’s nimble cat, 
Which by the king was bought 
Heapes of gold giv’n for that. 


Home againe came these men 
With their ships loaden so, 
Whittington’s wealth began . 
By this cat thus to grow. 

Scullion’s life he forsooke 
To be a marchant good, 

And soon began to looke 
How well his credit stood. 


After that he was chose 
Shriefe of the citty heere, 
And then full quickly rise 
Higher, as did appeare. 
For to this cities praise, 
Sir Richard Whittington 
Came to be in his dayes 
Thrise Maior of London. 


More his fame to advance 
Thousands he lent his king, 
To maintaine warres in France, 
Glory from thence to bring. 
And after at a feast 
Which he the king did make. 
He burnt the bonds all in jeast, 
And would no money take. , 


Whittington and His Cat. 


Ten thousand pound he gave 
To his prince willingly, 

And would not one penny have, 
This in kind curtesie. 

God did thus make him great 
So would he daily see, 

Poore people fed with meat 
To show his charity. 


Prisoners poore cherished were, 


Widdowes sweet comfort found, 


Good deeds both far and neere, 


New Gate he builded faire 
For prisoners to live in; 
Christ’s Church he did repaire, 
Christian love for to win. 
Many more such like deedes 
Were done by Whittington, 
Which joy and comfort breedes 
To such as looke thereon. 


Lancashire then hast bred 
This flower of charity; 
Though he be gon and dead, 


Of him do still resound. 
Whittington Colledge is 

One of his charities; 
Records reporteth this 

To lasting memories. 


Yet lives he lastingly. 
Those bells that called him so, 
“ Turne again Whittington,” 
Call you back many moe 
To live so in London.* 

From the registers of the Stationers’ Company in London it appears 
that on the 8th day of February, 1604-5, Thomas Pavier entered ‘‘ The 
history of Richard Whittington, of his lowe birthe, his great fortunes 
as yt was plaied by the Prince’s Servants.” ‘This is the earliest printed 
account of the story of which we have a certain date, and it was fol- 
lowed on the 6th of July, 1605, by a ballad, entered by Joseph Wright, 
called ‘‘ The wondrous life and memorable death of Sir Richard Whit- 
tington, now sometime Lord Maior of the Honorable City of London.” 

All these illustrations go to show that the story was invented some 
time in the reign of Elizabeth, as we find no record of it at an earlier 
date; and we are met at once by the question, how did the story come 
to be told of Whittington at all? That isa hard question to answer; 
but there’s a harder one. Did he have acat? And this question has 
been a puzzler to scientific and antiquarian societies. The London 
Antiquarian Society had a discussion on this point, but did not settle 
it. ‘*‘ Mr. Pegge,” it is said, ‘‘ gave us the history of Whittington, but 
could make nothing at all of his cat, although she is his constant 
companion in all statues and pictures.’ And Horace Walpole, angry 
at the society because of their publication of Master’s reply to his his- 
toric doubts, says in one of his letters: “I choose to be at liberty to 
say what I think of the learned society, and, therefore, I have taken 
leave of them, having so ‘good an occasion presented as their council 
on Whittington and his cat, and the ridicule that Foote has thrown on 
them.” 

Foote did indeed do his best to ridicule the society, and the account 
of it is not only amusing but pertinent to this matter we are discuss- 
ing, too. His satire on the society is found in the comedy of “The 


*Harper’s Magazine for December, 1879, published a fac simile of a ballad entitled ** Lon- 
don’s Glory and Whittington’s Renown; or a Looking-Glass for Citizens of London.” 
This ballad is found among the Rexburghe ballads (III, 58), and the conjectured date of 
its publication is 1641. It is, however, substantially Johnson’s earlier ballad, with the ad- 
dition of the 1st verse and the 18th verse, and other changes of words and lines through- 
out the whole ballad. = 


Whittington and His Cat. 123 


Nabob,” which was produced at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in 1772. 
Sir Matthew Mite, the hero of the comedy, was the son of a cheese- 
monger, and was sent beyond the seas to escape the punishment of 
some youthful indiscretion. While there he accumulated great wealth, 
and on his return home he lived in profligacy. Among the other 
honors that were heaped upon him, notwithstanding his low life, was 
his election to be a member of the Antiquarian Society, and one of the 
rules of the society was, that every member elected should produce 
proofs of his antique erudition, and should deliver an inauguration 
speech. To prove that he has made the necessary antiquarian 
researches, he attends the meeting preceded by four black servants, 
one bearing an illegible manuscript in Latin, containing the twelve 
books of Livy, supposed to have been lost ; another bearing a sarco- 
phagus or porcelain urn, dug from the Temple of Concord, and supposed 
to have held the dust of Marc Antony’s coachman ; another, a large 
piece of lava thrown from the Vesuvian volcano at the last great 
eruption, by a chemical analysis of which, and by properly preparing 
it, it will be no difficult task to propagate burning mountains in Eng- 
land, if encouraged by premiums; and a fourth containing a box 
bearing petrifactions, bones, beetles and butterflies. These proofs of 
antiquarian research being considered sufficient, he proceeds to deliver 
his inaugural address, taking for his subject Whittington and his cat. 
“The point I mean to clear up,” he says, ‘‘is an error crept into the 
life of that illustrious magistrate, the great Whittington, and his no 
less eminent cat; and in this disquisition four material points are in 
question. 1st. Did Whittington ever exist? 2d. Was Whittington 
Lord Mayor of London? 3d. Was he really possessed of a cat? 4th. 
Was that cat the source of his wealth? That Whittington lived no 
doubt can be made; that he was Lord Mayor of London is equally 
true ; but as to his cat, that, gentlemen, is the Gordian knot to untie. 
And here, gentlemen, be it permitted me to define what a cat is. A cat 
is a domestic whiskered four-footed animal, whose employment is 
catching of mice; but let puss have been ever so subtle, let puss 
have been ever so successful, to what could puss’s captures amount ? 


_ No tanner can curry the skin of a mouse, no family make a meal of 


the meat; consequently no cat could give Whittington his wealth. 
From whence then does this error proceed? Be that my case to point 
out. The commerce this worthy merchant carried on was chiefly con- 
fined to our coasts; for this purpose he constructed a vessel which, for 
_ its agility and lightness, he aptly christened a cat. Nay, to this our 
day, gentlemen, all our coals from Newcastle are imported in nothing 


124 Whittington and His Cat. 


but cats. From thence it appears that it was not the whiskered four- 
footed mouse-killing cat that was the source of the magistrate’s wealth, 
but the coasting, sailing, coal-carrying cat; that, gentlemen, was Whit- 
tington’s cat.” | 

But Foote’s solution of the problem, ingenious though it is, has not 
been considered as settling the matter entirely, and a controversy has 
arisen on the point which, like many controversies in which neither 
party has any positive knowledge on the subject, has left the disput- 
ants of the same opinion that they were ‘when they began the wordy 
warfare.. On the one hand it is argued that the story of Whittington 
getting his wealth by a cat isa pure fiction; that as he was born before 
the year 1360, the year in which his father died, and was Lord Mayor 
the first time in 1397, and as the cat voyage occurred when he was a 
lad, it must have happened about the year 1375, when he was about 
fifteen years old. Now the story lays the scene of the cat adventure 
on the west coast of Africa, and during the whole of Whittington’s 
life-time that coast was as nearly unknown to Europe as the coast of 
America, for the Portuguese did not begin exploring it until the fifteenth 
century, not in fact until after the death of Whittington, in whose 
time the most distant voyages of English ships could only have been 
to the Baltic, or the Mediterranean, on the shores of which cats were 
as well known and as plentiful as in England. 

This appears to be a pretty strong line of argument, but not strong 
enough to convince an antiquary who had made up his mind other- 
wise ; so forgotten books of travel are unearthed, old encyclopedias 
are ransacked and all the facts and hints are gathered together, and it 
is shown that the African shores were visited by the English — not 
continuously, perhaps, but enough to say they were there—at the 
time Whittington is said to have sent his cat there. And more than 
that, there was great need that the cat should be sent there, for even as 
late as 1732, one Jean Barbat testifies of the enormous quantity of rats 
that were there, and that the cats were imported from Europe. And 
besides, the cat was able to be the source of his wealth, for cats brought 
enormous prices in countries so troubled with rats. 

Two cats were taken out as a speculation to Cuyaba in Brazil, where 
there was a plague of rats, and they sold for a pound of gold; their 
kittens brought each thirty pieces of eight, or over thirty dollars in 
our money. The next generation brought about twenty dollars a piece, 
and so the price gradually fell as the supply increased; and the elder 
Amalgro is said to have given 600 pieces of eight, or $675, to the per- 
son who presented him with the first cat which was brought from 


: 
. 
. 
j 


Whittington and His Cat. 125 


South America. And the same thing is shown in the early history of 
Britain ; for cats were then held in so great estimation that their pres- 
eryation was considered of the utmost importance, and in the reign of 
Howel the Good, a Cambrian prince, who died A. D. 948, special laws 
were made to fix the price of different animals, and among them the 
cat was included on account of its scarcity and utility. The price of 

. a kitten before it could see was fixed at one penny, till proof could be 
given of its having caught a mouse two pence, after which it was rated 
at four pence, and this was a great sum in those days. It was likewise 
required that the animal should be perfect in its senses of hearing and 
seeing, should be a good mouser, and have its claws whole. If any 
one should steal or kill the cat that guarded the prince’s granary, the 
offender was to forfeit either a milch ewe, with her fleece and lamb, or 
as much wheat as when poured on the cat, suspended by its tail (its 
head touching the floor), would form a heap high enough to cover the 
tip of the tail. 

And on such an array of facts as this the contestants for a literal 
interpretation of the story rest their case. 

But neither of these views appears to me to be the correct one, for if 
there is no truth in the statement that Whittington got his wealth by 
a cat, how did it happen that his name was and is always associated 
with this animal; how did it happen to him rather than to some other 
man? ‘There is always a history connected with such an association - 
something in the character, condition and circumstances of the man 
that makes it appropriate, or properly descriptive, or else it would not 
be. No man would have such a story attached to his name if there 
were no reason for it, and it is no matter how foolish a reason it 
may be. The other particulars of the story could easily be increased 
and enlarged upon by its transmission through so many centuries: 
but there must have been something that was the origin of the idea 
that he had a cat. To ask us to believe, as the literal interpreters do, 
that it was a veritable cat, seems to be asking too much when we call 
to mind the many similar stories of other men living in different 
countries and at different times ; and I rather incline to the opinion 
expressed in sport by Foote, that Whittington obtained his wealth in 
the coal trade, and that it was the cat of the collier that gave rise to 
the story. There is no doubt that the boats that carried the coal to 
London were called cats, and Webster gives as one of the meanings of 

_ the word the following: “ A strong-built ship from four to six hundred 
tons burden and employed in the coal trade.” And the history of the 
‘use of coal in London agrees very curiously with the time that Whit- 


126 _ Whittington and His Cat. 


tington flourished. It was first made an article of commerce from the 
north to the metropolis in 1381, when Whittington was just of age. 
Previous to that time its use had been prohibited in London by a proc- 
jamation of Edward I., issued in 1306. And Prynne gives us the rea- 
son for the proclamation: 

“ When brewers, dyers and other artificers using great fires began 
to use sea coals instead of dry wood and chareoals in and near 
the city of London the prelates, nobles, commons, and other people 
of the realm, resorting thither to Parliament and upon other 
occasions, with the inhabitants of the city, Southwark, Wapping 
and East Smithfield, complained thereof twice, one after another, 
to the king, as a public nuisance, corrupting the air with its stink 
and smoke to the great prejudice and detriment of their health. 
Whereupon the king first prohibited the burning of sea coal by his 
proclamation, which being disobeyed by many for their private lucre, 
the king, upon their second complaint, issued a commission of oyer 
and terminer to inquire of all such who burned sea coals against his 
proclamation within the city, or parts adjoining to it, and to punish 
them for their first offense by great fines and ransoms, and for their 
second offense to demolish their furnaces and kilns wherein they burnt 
sea coals, and to see his proclamation strictly observed for times to 
come.”’ 


» Dr. Bachoffner in a lecture before the Royal Polytechnic Institution 
mentions the fact that three separate proclamations were issued against 
the burning of coal, and that it was at last made a capital offense, and 
a man was actually accused, tried, condemned and put to death for burn- 
ing coal within the metropolis. Such a statement as this seems almost 
incredible, and although no record has been found of any convic- 
tion or execution for such an offense, still we can hardly suppose that 
it would have been made before such a society without some ground 
for it. At any rate, these facts show that there was a great source of 
wealth in the coal trade in those early days, or men would not have 
been so willing to disobey the royal command ; and all restrictions 
being removed in Whittington’s early manhood, he may have laid the 
foundation of his wealth with this kind of a cat. 

Again, it is a common thing in the English language for one word — 
to be substituted for another, when both words sound alike, but mean 
different things; so that it would be no difficult matter to invent the 
whole story of the cat, the pussy, when there was no other foundation 
for it than the cat, the coal boat. One example will show this. 

In King Lear, Edgar, disguised as a madman, tells Gloster what he | 
eats and drinks and how he suffers, and closes with the well-known 


couplet — 
“But mice and rats and such small deer 


Have been Tom’s food for seven long year.” 


Whittington and His Cat. 127 


_ We do not see why mice and rats should be called “deer;” but the 
difficulty vanishes when we remember that Shakespeare undoubtedly 
used originally the Anglo-Saxon word “ deor,” which means “ beasts ;” 
and Tom meant ‘‘ mice and rats and such small beasts” had been his 
food for seven long year, and the word being the same in sound asour 
English word for a special beast, the meaning of the couplet has been 
somewhat obscured. But Iam not so strenuous in support of this 
theory of the story as to seek a quarrel with any who do not agree 
with me. If you prefer that your childhood remembrances should 
not be disturbed, consider a veritable cat as the hero of the story; 
there are many who will agree with you, and these early recollections 
are the most sacred we have. As Martin Luther said: ‘‘I would not 
for any quantity of gold part with the wonderful tales which I have 
retained from my earliest childhood, or have met with in my progress 
_ through life ;” and with such testimony as that, you do well to cherish 
them, and let no words of mine cause you to depreciate the value of 
your treasure. 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MANUSCRIPTS OF GEN. DEARBORN 
AS MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSIONER IN 1838 AND 1839, 
FOR THE SALE OF THE SENECA INDIAN LANDS. 


By Henry A. Homes, LL.D. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, October 12, 1880.] 


At a sale at auction, in Boston, in October, 1878, of books and 
manuscripts from the library of J. W. Thornton, one of the titles in 
the catalogue, describing the articles offered for sale, read as follows: 


‘*¢ Journal of a Mission as Commissioner from the State of Massachu- 
setts to the Seneca and Tuscarora Indians; and an account of the 
treaties held with those tribes, in the years 1838 and 1839, for the sale 
uf their lands, and for their emigration west of the Mississippi. By 
H. A.S. Dearborn, Superintendent of Massachusetts. In 3 vols. 4to.” 


It was thought that these volumes might be worth securing for our 
State Library. I wrote to Hon. Lewis H. Morgan of Rochester, to 
obtain his opinion as to their probable value. You are all well aware 
of Mr. Morgan’s extensive acquaintance with New York Indian His- 
tory. His well-known volume, ‘‘The League of the Iroquois,” gives 
their history, religion and customs with a touching eloquence. In 
answer, he referred me for explanation to a passage in this volume. 
From this extract, and from the manuscripts themselves, I learned 
that they referred to a treaty of the United States with the Seneca. 
and Tuscarora Indians in the extreme western part of this State, 
whereby 119,000 acres of their lands were to be sold, and they were to 
emigrate to Green Bay, Michigan. But the measures by which the 
treaty with the Indians had been secured were represented to have 
been tainted with so much corruption and fraud, there was so much 
opposition on the part of the Indians themselves to emigrating, they 
were supported in their opposition by so many friends, especially by 
the Society of Friends, that the purchasers, the Ogden Land Company, 
finally made a compromise, and yielded up to them more than half of 
the land which they had purchased. 

This transaction was painted by Mr. Morgan, in the passage to 
which he referred me, in very sombre colors. I quote a portion of it 
as illustrative of the nature and importance of the subject: 


“The darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and the most execrable 
intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest have been practiced in 


On the Seneca Indian Lands. 129 


open day, upon this defenseless and much-injured people. The nat- 
ural feelings of man and the sense of public justice are violated and 
appalled at the narration of their proceedings. * * * The Georgia 
treaty with the Cherokees, so justly held up to execration, is a white 
page compared with the treaties of 1838 and 1842, which were forced 
upon the Senecas. This project has already, however, in part, been 
defeated by the load of iniquity which hung upon the skirts of these 
treaties.”"* 


In another passage, in the same volume, he remarks: 


“The (United States) government bartered away its integrity to 
minister to the rapacious demands of the Ogden Land Company.’’+ 


The author is an adopted member-of the Seneca tribe. 

In view of this and similar declarations, I concluded that it was 
certainly for the interest of the State, that in a transaction where the 
good name of the United States, of Massachusetts and of New York, 
were all more or less implicated, the original documents belonging to 
one of the chief parties to the transaction, the State of Massachusetts, 
should enter into the possession of the State of New York. And 
accordingly, the three volumes, of about 1,100 pages of manuscript, 
letter-sheet size, were purchased at the auction for about twenty 
dollars each. On examination, I found them to be a valuable addition 
to the historical records of the State, and well worthy of being pre- 
served for reference. 

Before describing the MSS., let me very briefly mention a few of 
the antecedent historical facts regarding our relations with these 
Indians, for the sake of some of the younger members in the audi- 
ence, who may not be familiar with them. Massachusetts and New 
York, under their original powers from Great Britain, claimed juris- 
diction from their western boundaries to the Pacific ocean. This 
interfering claim of Massachusetts was settled by an agreement or 
contract of that State with New York, December 16, 1786, at Hart- 
ford, Conn., by which the territorial jurisdiction of New York was 
acknowledged, while Massachusetts only retained the right to buy the 
4,000,000 acres which she claimed, from the Indians, at such times as 
they were willing to sell. This pre-emptive right was one which 
Massachusetts could dispose of in portions to other parties. The first 
great sale was made to Messrs. Phelps & Gorham, in 1788, and next in 
time, 1,250,000 acres to Robert Morris, the great financier, the nation’s 
_ great benefactor, in 1791. He formed the Holland Land Company to 
facilitate the sale of the land. It was this purchase which brought 
upon Morris those financial embarrassments which could and did 


*Morgan’s League of the Iroquois, Roch., 1851, p. 33. +The same, pn. 458. 


17 


130 The Dearborn Manuscripts 


confine him for three long years in a debtor’s prison, uttering bitter 
words against some of his creditors; and the country was too poor to 
relieve him. 

It was after the Big Tree Treaty at Geneseo, in 1797, (of which 
treaty there is an official copy in the State Library), a treaty in which 
Robert Morris and Thomas Morris, his son, participated, that the 
Indians ceded the title to a large portion of their lands. In view of 
his embarrassments, Morris organized the North American Land 
Company, in which Nicholson and Greenleaf were partners. He 
accused the latter of cheating him, and of being the occasion of his 
becoming the inmate of a prison.* 

The Indians after that treaty were gradually in the extreme western 
part of the State disposing of their lands to eager purchasers. At last, 
the invasion of a white population all around the four reservations of 
Allegany, Buffalo, Cattaraugus and Tonawanda, which contained in all 
only about 119,000, of an original 6,000,000 acres, excited the carnest 
desire of those who had purchased the pre-emptive right from 
Massachusetts, now called the Ogden Company, and who were the suc- 
cessors of Robert Morris and his associates, to enter into possession of 
these Indian lands by purchase. In their general aim, they were 
sustained by the policy of the United States. President Van Buren, 
in a message to Congress, in December 1837, urged the removal of these 
Indians, declaring that it had been the “fixed policy of the govern- 
ment from the days of the administration of Jefferson, in 1804, to re- 
move the Indians west of the Mississippi ;” and in his special message 
of January 14, 1840, he states that 40,000 Indians had been removed 
there since 1837 from different States.+ 

In 1838 a law of the United States for carrying into effect a treaty 
which had been adopted by the Senate for the emigration of the New 
York Indians, was amended, the treaty not having been accepted by 
the Senecas. In the summer of this year, the Ogden Company 
notified the Governor of Massachusetts, Mr. Everett, that a council 
was to be held at Buffalo Reservation with the Indians, for the accept- 
ance of thistreaty, whereby that company would become the purchaser 
of the Indian title, and asked that Massachusetts should be present by 
her superintendent, according to the terms of the agreement with 
New York in 1786, and meet the United States commissioner to pro- 
tect her own rights and those of the Indians. 

*Doty’s Livingston's County History. 8vo. 1876. 


+This message will not be found in Williams’ Statesman‘’s Manual ; but was a special mes- 
sage and must be sought for only in the journals of the Senate. 


~~ 


On the Seneca Indian Lands. 131 


Governor Everett appointed, as such superintendent, Gen. Henry A. 
S. Dearborn. He wasson of Gen. Henry Dearborn, who had been en- 
gaged in the battle of Bunker Hill, and in Sullivan’s campaign in 
New York in 1779, had been Secretary of War from 1801 to 1809, and 
finally had held command in the war of 1812, chiefly on the frontier 
of the State of New York and Canada. His son the commissioner 
also had been a public servant during a large part of his life, had been 
Adjutant-General of the State of Massachusetts for ten years, from 1834 
to 1843, and for five years was mayor of the city of Roxbury, from 
1847 until his death in 1851. He wasa man of large experience, 
of high honor and integrity. | 

He attached great importance to the functions which he dis- 
charged in 1838 and 1839 as Massachusetts commissioner at the 
Buffalo Creek council, to superintend the disposal of the Indian lands ; 
and in his leisure hours in the following years he collected and person- 
ally arranged all his original manuscripts connected with this mission, 
and bound them into three quarto volumes of letter sheet size of about 
three hundred and sixty pages each. 

Of these volumes, the first one contains eighteen original letters 
from Gov. Everett, chiefly to Gen. Dearborn, and eighteen letters 
chiefly to the Governor from Gen. Dearborn ; the treaty with the 
several tribes; the official report to the Governor of his first mission 
commencing August, 1838, with an appendix of documents, embrac- 
ing statements of the chiefs, Judge Stryker’s statement, inall about 
one hundred and fifty pages ; a second report of his second mission 
later in the same year,in November and December, with the docu- 
ments, making about fifty pages ; several letters from Mr. Ogden of the 
Ogden Company to Gen. Dearborn, and various other letters. I have 
not found either of these reports in print among the documents of the 


State of Massachusetts. 


The second volume bears a title given by Gen. Dearborn, the same 
title which was given to all the three volumes in the printed catalogue 
of the MSS. as sold at the auction sale, and which we quoted at the 
beginning of this paper. 

If the preceding reports are not sufficient to give us a clear 
view of the part taken by Massachusetts in a treaty which has 
been said to compromise both her honor and that of New York, we 
have in addition for testimony in this volume, three hundred and 
fifty-six pages filled with Gen. Dearborn’s private “ Journal of a Mission 
to the Senecas” as written down by him from day to day, containing 
all the occurrences from the hour of his departure until that of his 


132 The Dearborn Manuscripts 


return to Boston, names of the individuals with whom he conversed, 
and notes of his conversations with them. 

The third volume contains a similar private journal of his second 
mission in November and December, 1838, of about one hundred 
pages; and alsoa journal of a tour to Cattaraugus on a branch of the 
same subject in 1839 to meet the Secretary of War, J. R. Poinsett. 
There are’also bound up with these journals, letters from Ransom H. 
Gillet, the United States commissioner; from N. T. Strong, a Seneca 
chief; several from the Secretary of State of Massachusetts; many from 
Honnondeah, a chief, son of N. T. Strong; more letters from Gov. 
Everett, and from T. L. Ogden; and finally as cumulative testimony, 
that nothing might be wanting for the most thorough presentation of 
the whole case, and not the least light and shade be laeking to com- 
plete the picture, this last volume contains the identical letters which 
Gen. Dearborn mailed from dayto day during his absence to Mrs. 
Dearborn, to the number of twenty-nine, covering eighty-seven pages. 
They bear the postmarks, and have apparently been preserved without 
diminution or erasure, and in them he speaks without reserve of the 
minutie of the affair in which he was engaged. The three volumes 
as a whole present every phase of the transactions in question, as they 
came before the Massachusetts commissioner. 

The transactions treated of in these volumes did not awaken a national 
interest, like the removal of the Indians from Georgia in 1829, an 
event commemorated in volumes entitled Speeches on the Indian 
Bill, 1830, and Essays on the Present Crisis, etc., signed William Penn, 
by the father of William M. Evarts, and published in 1829. Still they 
occasioned the printing of as many as fifteen pamphlets at least, by 
different parties, between the years 1840 and 1843, large extracts from 
some of which were published in England. Most of these emanated 
from those who represented the Indians as greatly wronged, especially 
from the yearly meetings of the Society of Friends. The substance of 
the complaint of these latter was, that the alleged treaty was fraudu- 
lent; that usage and the law of 1835 required that the consent of the 
chiefs should have been obtained in open council: but that after obtain- 
ing the consent of asmall minority in open council, the United States 
commissioner had obtained the consent of the rest, singly, and not in 
council; that bribery had been freely used with individuals to secure 
their consent; that of the 2,000 Senecas not 150 were desirous of 
going west, counting men, women and children, and that all the 


On the Seneca Indian Lands. 133 


remainder, including a majority of the chiefs, were determinedly op- 
posed to leaving their homes. 

It appeared that Mr. Gillet had informed the Indians that, under 
the amended treaty of 1838, he thought that if they should reject it 
they could none the less be compelled to go to the West. Gen. Dear- 
born, however, speaking in the name of the Governor of Massachusetts, 
assured them that they would not be compelled to go.* 

But on the point of the necessity of securing the consent of the 
chiefs in open council, after the treaty had once been submitted to 
them there, and had been debated, it appears that the suggestion had 
proceeded from Gen. Dearborn himself to Mr. Gillet, that he would do 
well to call the chiefs, individually, to his room and confer with them 
there. The reason for his making this suggestion was, that he was 
persuaded that nearly all the violent opposition to the treaty proceeded 
from interested whites, who wished to have the Indians retained on 
their reservations, for the sake of mill privileges and lumber privileges 
for which they paid very little; or for some other motive of no greater 
_ significance, such as that the Indians were pecuniarily indebted to 
them. Gen. Dearborn observes in his journal, that if the same offers 
were made to any laboring whites which were made by the United 
States Government to these Indians, they were so liberal that men 
would abandon any homes to avail themselves of them. 

He writes thus upon this branch of the subject: 

«To reason with the ignorant, and attempt to do good to the 
prejudiced, suspicious and most debased of the human species, is to 
labor without results either gratifying to us or beneficial to them. 
Here has been a boon offered which would depopulate any country 
town in New England, and hurry them to the West with glad and 
grateful hearts ; but the miserable savages are incapabie of appreciat- 
ing the generous humanity of the Government.” 

As evidence that the Indians were most bountifully dealt with by 
the United States, the following figures are presented by Gen. Dear- 
born as the money value of what was offered in exchange for the 
119,000 acres of land by the parties interested. They were offered 
1,824,000 acres of land at Green Bay, which, at $1.25 an acre, was 
worth $2,280,000. The amount to be given them in money was 
$433,500; the amount to be paid them by the Ogden Company was 
- $211,600 ; the amount for exploration of the new territory was 
$16,000. This made a total sum of about $3,000,000 to the two 
tribes. + 


* Dearborn MSS. II, 97, 98, 99. t+ Dearborn MSS., 112, 126. 


134 The Dearborn Manuscripts 


On January 14, 1840, President Van Buren sent the treaty thus 
tainted with allegations of fraud, with a special message of six pages 
on the subject, to the Senate. (It will not be found in the collection of 
his messages in Williams’ Statesman’s Manual, but must be sought for 
in the journals of the Senate.) He speaks in favor of the general 
proposition of the removal of the Indians, but declares that in his 
opinion the signatures had been fraudulently obtained, and that there- 
fore the treaty ought not to be ratified. The question was debated on 
eleven different days in the Senate; and finally, after the failure of 
many proposed resolutions from Tallmadge, Clay, Preston, Porter and 
others, the vote stood nineteen to nineteen, and the treaty was only 
ratified by the casting vote of R. M. Johnson, the Vice-President, in 
the affirmative. The New York Senators, Messrs. Tallmadge and 
Wright, voted in the affirmative. The differences of opinion were not 
on party lines, though Mr. Clay voted in the negative. Mr. Sevier in 
1840 presented a memorial of sixty-seven chiefs of the Senecas, beg- 
ging that no appropriation be made to carry out the treaty, as they 
did not intend to leave their homes in New York. In 1841 six or 
seven petitions were presented in Congress that the Indians in New 
York be forcibly removed. In a few days the committee was dis- 
charged from further consideration of the petitions. 

In Massachusetts, Governor Everett, in his message in 1839, ex- 

pressed the opinion that if the State had known all that it had since 
learned, it would not have consented to the request of the Ogden 
Company. A committee of the Senate reported in the same spirit, 
but expressed the opinion that it was too late to attempt to reverse 
the action which had taken place. 
The testimony of W. H. Seward, at the time Governor of New York, 
corroborates the declarations of President Van Buren that the treaty 
was obtained by corruption. Gov. Seward, in a long private letter on 
the subject, dated Albany, June 15, 1841, writes: 

‘‘T am fully satisfied that the consent of the Senecas was obtained 
by fraud, corruption and violence, and it is therefore false, and ought 
be held void. The removal of the Indians, under a treaty thus 
made, would be a great crime against an unoffending and injured 
people; and I earnestly hope that before any further proceedings are 
taken to accomplish that object, the whole subject may be reconsidered 
by the United States.” * He also said that the treaty of the United 


* Quoted from ‘“‘A Further Illustration of the Case of the Seneca Indians ;’{ Phila., 1841, 


»P- 


On the Seneca Indian Lands. 135 


States with the Senecas was made in open violation of the settled 
policy of New York in dealing with them. 

The final result of all the negotiations and disputes was, that very 
few of the Senecas or Tuscaroras removed beyond the Mississippi ; 
and the Ogden Company, in view of the various difficulties which 
were raised in their path, consented to a compromise, by which the 
Senecas retained 52,000 acres of the 119,000 in controversy, being the 
two reservations which they now possess in Allegany and Cattaraugus 
counties. This act was what is called the treaty of 1842. 

In consequence of these treaties of 1838 and 1842, there occurred 
a revolution in the Seneca tribe. They adopted something like a con- 
stitution and new laws, with a complete system of government. A 
very valuable report made to the Legislature, January 22, 1857, from 
the judiciary committee of the Senate, represents the rights of the 
Senecas to their lands as absolute, through a series of conveyances 
down to that date from the State of Massachusetts, from Phelps and 
from Morris; and that no parties had now any pre emptive rights in 
their lands. ‘Thus out of the law of 1838 and the treaty of the same 
year had proceeded the law of 1845 of the State of New York, which 
guaranteed to the Senecas their lands. So that if that treaty was 
evil, a power for good has been seen to proceed from things evil in 
this case, as in multitudes of other cases in human affairs. 

I hare not been so rash as to form an opinion as to the expediency 
or justice of these transactions with so little opportunity of studying 
them. The facts are many, and the documents are voluminous. 
So far as New York alone is concerned, I had little occasion to be so- 
licitonus. Her relations to the Indians under her jurisdiction are 
abundantly justified by the Society of Friends, who constituted 
themselves the special agents to defend their rights in this very case. 
In the report of the joint committee of four yearly meetings in 1847, 
six years after the close of the dispute, they acknowledge explicitly 
the kindness of New York to the Indians within her jurisdiction. 
They say: 

“The uniform justice and compassion of New York toward the Six 


Nations who were located on its territory present in retrospect one of 
the most pleasant scenes on the pages of our history.”* 


It may be felt by some that these Dearborn documents refer to dead 
issues, and that they have no relation to the live questions of the day, 
and are therefore worthless. Still, if the value put upon historical 

researches be not a delusion, if to secure the materials by means of 


* Proceedings of Joint Committee, 1847. 


136 The Dearborn Manuscripts. 


which to maintain the good repute and honor of a State, and thus 
guard against a blot upon her escutcheon, be a worthy aim, then I 
think that to be in possession of the complete papers of Massachusetts, 
acting under the authority of the United States and of New York, in 
a transaction where some have impugned the honor and justice of 
New York, is a valuable acquisition to the records of the State. If 
Massachusetts cared not for these papers, yet the day may come when 
New York may be glad to appeal to these documents, making Massa- 
chusetts to be a witness, to justify her treatment of the Indian denizens 
within her jurisdiction. 


PROPOSED ERECTION OF LOCAL HISTORICAL 
MONUMENTS. 


REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ARCH OLOGY. 
[Presented April 26, 1881.] 


The city of Albany has a history, in its length of record, beyond 
that of most of the cities of the Union, and especially interesting in 
the features of that history. At the time of the settlement of the 
river at and near this place, England was under the authoritative, and 
in a degree, absolute government of the Stuarts. It was just subse- 
quent to the time of Elizabeth, and the monarch was the son of Mary, 
Queen of Scots. Europe was old Europe then, with ways and words of 
rule and manner now faded ont, or living in the more or less truth of 
coloring of books. From this interesting date of commencement, 
Albany, under differing names and governments and fealties of allegi- 
ance, has been a discovery, a trading post, a border fort, a frontier village, 
a city, and for the greater portion of its existence, on the verge of civil- 
ization, fenced in by the surroundings of savage life, when ‘that life 
was in the conduct of an organized powerful Indian confederacy of 
tribes, skilled in their ideas of warfare. It has been a place greatly 
desired to be reached by conquest of savage and European war, and 
through all this, and out of all this, has attained what it is to-day — in 
the incidents and wealth and enterprise and life of a large city — the 
leading political capital of the north, except the place of the Federal 
government. , 

It is but an expected result of all these facts, that certain physical 
relics are yet here, and tradition of others is not yet obliterated. As 
to some of these, the only duty of the Institute is to give earnest and 
respectful recommendation. The conduct of preservation of them is, 
in its greatest features, for municipal and State authority. 

Your committee understand distinctly, and their action is with this 
- closely in view, as regulating the expression of their judgment to you, 
that. the pecuniary question involved is the rock upon which effort at 
monumental memories wrecks. Large expenditures are initiated by 
enthusiasm, and reach a pitiable mediocrity and fail. We propose no 
individual effort except on the most economical basis. 

There are to-day two buildings in Albany that, especially, should be 
preserved. The loss of them, or cither of them, would be deplorable, 
18 


138 Proposed Erection of 


because the one structure is, in its architecture, a reality before our 
eyes of a long gone-away history, and the other is history, and of the 
highest class. If any word the Institute can utter, or effort it can 
make, can avail toward their preservation, the future will be grateful ; 
for while any architecture cun be produced — it is but the will of a 
nation to be expressed and St. Peter’s can be placed on Broadway in 
faithful copy —all that is of that which can be effected by money — 
yet history cannot be bought. The work of time and association, only 
time and the ages can perform. One of these buildings is the Pem- 
berton house, on the north-east corner of Columbia and North Pearl 
streets, of the date of Queen Anne’s reign, while Marlborough was the 
invincible soldier, while Addison wrote for all time to imitate, while 
as yet the old race had not been supplanted by the House of Hanover, 
and the people of Albany knew no other sovereignty than the royal 
lady whom Dr. Johnson dimly remembered as in velvet; but inter- 
esting as that is, there is yet an association with its date, 1710, to us 
invaluable. Its construction must have been an object of interest to 
men who themselves had known those identified with the very first 
settlers of the trading post directly succeeding Hudson’s discovery in 
the Half Moon. These old people would in the probabilities see with 
a kindly look another building, and over the work of the laborers 
thereon, while they talked about what Queen Anne and Marlborough 
were doing, recollect when the procedure in Ilolland was. their home 
government. The architecture of the building is to-day in some fea- 
tures what it then was. The double door, with its smaller opening for 
observation, reminds us of what may now be seen in the town hall of 
Leyden, whose siege is of the vivid passages in Ilolland’s history. It 
would be familiar to a citizen of the Low Countries. One only has to 
look down the street of Antwerp and he can to-day see what was 
ancient New York and Albany. Our bright architects can plan for us 
the semblance of old houses, but time charges a price which even 
Americans of the Pacific coast cannot pay. 

Your committee have pleasure here in expressing to the Institute 
their grateful sense of Mr. Pemberton’s intelligent appreciation of this 
property, and while he holds it they have no recommendation to make; 
but he, as all of us, will pass away, in the certainties of chronology. 
We would carnestly appeal, through the Institute, to the city to pur- 
chase that house and to keep it so long as the physical structure 
remains, as the history of what Albany was in the ancient life of its 
progress. Certainly they would not advise any extravagant municipal 
expenditure, but this is not a dangerous precedent. It can have but 


! 


Ee —— eee | ew atte ys 


Local Historical Monuments. 139 


few followers, and the cost can be a definite ascertained sum, and as the 
building would be the property of all, all might easily bear the outlay. 
It is in the preservation of these things that a people show their intel- 
ligence, and strangers come to see them. If any man doubts this, let 
him consult the expense account of our people who go to Europe. ‘They 
go to see the old — the crumbling, ruined, but not obliterated past. 
The grandeur of all things new, and of to-day, they can see at home. 

While the Schuyler Mansion is in the occupancy of the Messrs. 
Tracey, your committee rest satisfied; but they would appeal to the 
State to possess itself of the house, where the young battle-torn, in- 
dependence-seeking State of New York, as early as 1777, dared, after 
victory on the field of battle—a batile which won to us the belief in 
strength which turned to us the fervor of European power—the 
-higher moral courage of a victory over the hate of war, and where was 
exercised the grandeur of a hospitality to the conquered, the praise of 
which was uttered in the British Parliament, when such words were 
tribute to our civilization. It showed of what American soldiers were 
made. It was our trinmph in the dignity of a great nation. The 
State may well take this house to itself and care forit. It has waited 
more than the century todoso. It is proof how that mansion is re- 
membered, that so late as 1879 it was visited by a lady, a relative of Gen- 
eral Burgoyne, who had also visited the battle field of Saratoga. We 
do not name other incidents in its annals, asof giving its hospitalities 
to Washington, of being the scene of Alexander Hamilton’s wedding, 
its attack by Indian raid, because in most of these features other places 
share the history. Nor need the expenditure be great. ‘The price is 
fair subject of determination by fair authority, and the State would be 
the richer for such enlightened gift to history. Such acquisitions are 
really part of our “‘educational system.” It is the facts of the past 
placed before the observation of the present without passing through 
the opinions or prejudices of any man. 

And now your committce come to their immediate duty of present- 
ing, through the Institute, to the consideration of the citizens of 
Albany its wishes respecting the memorialsof localities. We, in each 
case, point only to a moderate expenditure. We intend the Institute 
shall recognize that whatever may be the warmth of our antiquarian 
zeal, we comprehend the cold safety of economy. We would rather 
that the surprise of our fellow-citizens should be at our self-restraint 
than at our recklessness. 

First, we respectfully urge that at the north lines of the ancient 
stockade defense of the old city which is at, or near, the former resi- 


140 Proposed Erection of 


dence of that distinguished citizen and counselor, Abraham Van 
Vechten, in North Broadway near Van ‘Tromp street, a white marble 
post shall be, with the consent of the owners of the real estate in that 
case, as in all others, placed on the sidewalk against the building, bear- 
ing this inscription: 
THIS STONE 
PERPETUATES THE SITE OF THE NORTH LINE OF THE ANCIENT STOCKADE DEFENSES 
OF THE CITY OF ALBANY AGAINST FOREIGN AND SAVAGE ENEMIES. 

Anda similar marble post at or near Division and South Broadway, to 
indicate the southern stockade line. Each of these memorials is esti- 
mated to have its cost defrayed by $40. 

Albany had its ancient forts—the supposed strength, in degree, of 


its people and the north of the colony—the first, Fort Orange, of those — 


who remained. (A fort — Nassau? — was perhaps earlier, on one of the 
islands.) The situation of Fort Orange was on the ground formerly 
occupied as a residence by the honored Simeon DeWitt, who for 
forty years held the place of Surveyor-General. The Susquehanna 
railway, former depot, in South Broadway, is about the same site. 
To get a just idea of the locality of the fortification and its usefulness, 
the river must be seen as it was before the construction of the pier and 


the outfilling, and the control of the river passage of batteaux ° 


and canoes. and vessels perceived. The fort included in its 
protection the earliest church, and of this there is yet mem- 
orial in the name of the contiguous street. It was a fortification 
identified with Holland rule, and undoubtedly to the Indian of that 
day a memorable locality, as possessing the secret of the white man’s 
strength, and its overthrow would, had it been attained by the French, 
have been welcome news at Paris. 

It was from this fort that the measurement of a cannon ball’s range 
may have been suggested by Governor Stuyvesant as the limitation of 
the Patroon’s manorial claim over Albany—not then bearing that 
name ; and our citizens who have not yet forgotten the south line of 
‘‘ the Colonie,” may ask if the guns of Fort Orange carried so far. 

On the site of this fort your committee recommend a marble post 
to be placed in proper position, with this inscription : 


THE SITE OF FORT ORANGE 
WHILE ALBANY WAS UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF HOLLAND. 


The cost of this would be defrayed, it is our estimate, by $40. 
The old fort grew obsolete. It was by better engineering or force of 
changed circumstances seen that the command wason the height, and 


i tala 


Local Historical Monuments. 141 


English military rule raised Fort Frederic—the name being, it is 
thought, given in honor of the House of Hanover. This stood in 
State street, south of and occupying in part the position of St. Peter’s 
church. Nor is this inappropriate, for it is probable that the garrison 
contributed to the strength of the new ecclesiastical existence, which 
amidst a stranger people and a strange language, began a career, pros- 
perous after varied experiences. At this date the site of the fort is 
remembered by a living man. This most interesting and authentic 
fact in its history was communicated to one of your committee by 
Mr. John Van Zandt, the intelligent old gentleman who will be remem- 
bered as the cashier of the Bank of Albany. When -the battle of 
Saratoga was fought in 1777, the sound of the cannon was heard by a 
soldier on this pint 
Here, in place at the fence on the weet side of St. Peter’s church, 

your committee recommend the erection of a white marble pillar, 
bearing this inscription : 


AT THIS PLACE IN THE STREET ROSE FORT FREDERIC, THE FORTRESS OF THE 
CROWN, WHILE NEW YORK WAS A COLONY OF ENGLAND. 

The cost of the proper memorial is estimated at $30. 

And now your committee turn with peculiar pleasure to a recom- 
mendation in which all hearts and all phases of opinion can unite for 
the courage and patriotism of man from history’s brightest page. 
Albany possesses in its role of illustrious citizens one of the signers 
of the Declaration of Independence, Philip Livingston, whose residence 
was upon the lot now covered by: Tweddle Hall, and, fortunately for 
memorial purposes, one of the chiefly important localities of the city, 
and by Mr. T'weddle’s enterprise already so valuably designated. 

To comprehend how justly memorial is here deserved, we must 
recollect that when that charter of our freedom was signed, we were 
not, as now, in the grandeur of a vast material strength. In 1776 our 
struggle was bearding the lion in his den—it was the resolve of the 
resolute. If the consent of the owners be obtained, your committee 
recommended that in or near the corner wall of the building a white 
marble tablet, at the cost of $150, be placed, bearing this inscription : 

17—Albany—76 
Remembers with pride that 
This ground bore the Dwelling of 
PHILIP LIVINGSTON. 
Born 1716, Died 1778. 
Who with Jefferson and Franklin 
Signed the Declaration of Independence. 


142 Proposed Erection of 


Another grateful duty is before your committee. They recommend 
that when the new City Llall, now in process of construction, shall be 
sufficiently advanced to receiveit, a tablet of white marble shall be 
built into the inner wall of the entrance, on which shall be cutthe 
words addressed by George Washington to the citizens of Albany, in 
reply to their address welcoming him to Albany, 17383: 


‘* While I contemplate with inexpressible pleasure the future tran- 
quillity and glory of our common country, I cannot but take particular 
interest in the anticipation of the increase in prosperity and greatness 
of the ancient and respectable city of Albany, from whose citizens I 
have received such distinguished tokens of theirapprobation and 
affection. GEORGE WASHINGTON.” 


Your committee do not believe it is necessary to tell the Institute, or 
through it the people of Albany, that this prediction of the glory of 
our Union, and this anticipation of the greatness of Albany, so well 
phrased by the PATER PAtTRIa&, deserves highest place amidst iis 
imperishable archives. The intelligent gentlemen who form the City 
Hall Commission can easily cffect the desired result. 

These are not the only interesting features of past history left in our 
midst and in our vicinage. Few of those who, in its crowded thorough- 
fure, pass the old building at the south-east corner of South Pearl and 
State streets, notice the iron ANNO, which isrelic of its date, whose 
figures were so unfortunately removed by itsowner. Mr. Munsell,a name 
always to be spoken with honor by the Institute, had strong recollec- 
tion of those figures as of the seventeenth century. 

On the opposite bank of the river, a brief distance south of the 
Greenbush ferry, is the old dwelling, formerly owned by Jeremiah 
Van Rensselaer, and now the property of Mr. Callender. It is thought 
to be of the seventeenth century, but the proof is not distinct. It has 
in itself most interesting memorial, as yet showing the loop-hole 
stones, of ancient defense against the savages. These relics are most 
interesting as now placed, but whenever removed for any cause, they 
should be built into the wall of some modern building, for preservation. 

Out of the desolation of taste which has characterized municipal 
action on this subject, there is yet preserved, in the city streets, some 
historic names which we would earnestly hope might be retained. 
Beaver strect indicates the very cause of the vitality of the trading 
post, amidst all its discouragement of flood and foe; Van Tromp, the 
patriotic remembrance of the Hollander cf the sea-sweeping broom of 

_ the brave sailor; to Church street allusion has been already made; 
Dean street remembers the name of the bold navigator who took an 


Local Historical Monuments. 143 


Albany sloop to China, puzzling the Orientals to arrive at her nautical 
measurement, which difficulty they, however, overcame by placing a 
stick at the stern to represent a mainmast. Over the fate of the 
nomenclature obliterated, there can be only grief. It is not the 
province of this report to express the proper degree of contempt on the 
servile imitations of the metropolis that have taken their place. 

- Your committee mention with profound respect and admiration the 
care taken by the venerable (North) Dutch Church of its precious 
ancient communion plate, two of whose beakers go back to a time so 
remote as that near the occurrence of the great fire of London, one, 
in its date, preceding that event by two years. 

They have seen with much satisfaction and due honor the efforts so 
successfully made in other portions of the State to perpetuate history. 
The city of Elmira is honored by its interesting monument, in good 
taste, and not burdensome cost, of the decisive battle which, in the 
Sullivan campaign of 1779, ended the Iroquois power. The former 
occupation of their village by the Senecas has, by the intelligent 
action of the people of Waterloo, been commemorated by a stone 
pillar. These things interpret refinement and educate the people. 
How many of the localities of the State have to this day neglected 
their historical duty! But. while we thus reproach them for being 
faithless to their archeology, let us penitently admit that our cen- 
sure will be more appropriate when Albany itself has done its duty. 

Onr respected neighbor, the city of Schenectady, has a university 
whose success is gratifying to us—has an historical scholar in whose 
honor we speak, but it is sadly faithless to its most interesting his- 
tory. It has no monument of the great raid of 1690, whose narrative 
was the theme of interest across the great sea—it has no‘ memorial 
of Curlaer, who, going out of Albany to find the still more remote 
froatier settlement, by his sagacity and estimable qualities so won the 
heart of the savages that thereafter they gave his name as the equiva- 
lent of Governor, and he died while cn route to Montreal, where his 
excellence had won him an invitation from the French ruler. 

Hudson is, by its name, a remembrance of the navigator who dis- 
_ closed the noble river, and is content with such easy remembrance. 

Utica has an historical society, and, creditably to itself, publishes 
its transactions, but where is its memorial of the site of Fort 
Schuyler ? 

Rome is acity, but has it made enduring monumental record of 
Fort Stanwix, the place of war and treaty? 

In Little Falls there is yet a most interesting relic of a portion of 


144 Local Historical Monuments. 


the structure of the pre-Erie canal, the effort of early New York to 
avail itself of that depression of the hills, which constitutes the great 
gateway to the West. The structure is in decay; while a little effort 
and taste would make it pleasantly available to the admiration and 
instruction of the millions who travel by its side. The stones are 
ready to fall from its graceful, single arch bridge — the lock is incum- 
bered with encroachments, and history is covered up. 

Your committee have been careful to avoid the encouragement to 
any large expenditure. It is not intended, nor desirable, that any one 
person should give all that the report recommends. It may be that, 
in the prosperity which has attended enterprise and industry among 
us, the small cost suggested, in each case in this report, may attract 
the kindly notice of some citizen who may identify his name with the 
good work; and to some, one locality will be more familiar than to 
another. They would hope it may be the good fortune of the Insti- 
tute to see this work done. They believe it a result of intelligence, of 
cultivation, of the attrition of a refined people. It is for this day to 
do, for as yet the memories of living men connect us with history. It 
is for us to show that, with our increase in material prosperity, came 
our advance in intelligence. . 

If they shall succeed in directing the notice of the citizens of 
Albany to this subject, as not in the line of mere sentiment, but as in 
the truth of education of gentlemen, the Institute will have a felicitous 
recollection of good achieved. In al] London, one of its most precious 
possessions, and every year enhancing in value, is the plain stone 
inclosed in the wall of a church, which has to be sought out, but 
which the intelligent man does seek out, because it is Roman history 
in modern England. 

If we succeed in our archeology, we give value to our city, as hay- 
ing had the taste and sense to preserve the physical association of a 
rich and prosperous community in its high civilization, with the brave 
trader founders who dared the wild beast and the wild man, to assert 


the supremacy of thought. 
W. H. BOGART, 


DAVID MURRAY, 

Ss. C. HUTCHINS, 

LEONARD KIP, 

ABRAHAM LANSING, 
Committee. 


BRYOZOANS OF THE UPPER HELDERBERG AND 
HAMILTON GROUPS. 


By James Hatt, LL.D. 
[Read, by title, before the Albany Institute, March 29, 1881.] 


The present paper is chiefly devoted to the Bryozoans of the Upper 
Helderberg and Hamilton Groups.* The descriptions in full were 
communicated in the Thirty-third Report upon the State Museum of 
Natural History, in January, 1880, but that document has not yet 
been printed. ‘The present paper is an abstract of the original, with 
the descriptions abbreviated to conform to the space at my disposal. 

The number of species has-been greatly increased by a series of 
specimens from the Falls of the Ohio river, very kindly communicated 
to me by Victor W. Lyon, Esq., of Jeffersonville, Indiana; and many 
of the forms cited from that locality are due to him. In this collec- 
tion we have not only the expanded celluliferous parts, but the bases 
or radical portions of the fronds, in a great number of examples ; 
and these serve not only to aid in the determination, but to confirm 
the specific distinctions adcpted. 

Although unwilling to increase the number of specific designations, 
the examination of numerous specimens of nearly all the species has 
left no alternative but to follow the course here adopted. 

We have within a few years discovered the existence of a silico-cal- 
careous band at the base of the corniferous limestone in western New 
York and Canada West. This horizon corresponds with that of the 
Schoharie grit in eastern New York, but the material appears to have 
been in solution before deposition; the sea-bed, in this condition, 
affording a most favorable soil for the growth of Bryozoans ; — the rock 
now being largely composed of the broken and comminuted fragments, 
and of larger and more complete portions of these organisms. In the 
weathered portions of this rock, the original substance of the Bryo- 
zoan has been dissolved, leaving a sharp, clean impression preserving the 
-most delicate and minute characters of the fossil. 


*I have here included a few forms of CH4TETES, which, from their structure, can 
scarcely be separated from the FAVOSITID&, while the difference between this genus and 
TREMATOPORA is hardly determinable by any well marked characters. 

Under the FENESTELLIDZ I have not adopted the genus POLYpPoRA, though describing 
species with from two to four ranges of cells on the branches. The numerous examples of 
this variation have rendered the distinction between the genera obsolete ; but the ques- 
tion will be more fully discussed in the Report on the State Museum of Natural History. 


19 


146 Bryozoans of the 


Many of the species known in New York likewise occur in Canada; 
and further collections will doubtless show that nearly all are common 
to the two regions. 

In the more calcareous portions of the formation, the determination 
of specific characters is attended with great difficulty, and many still 
remain for future study and decision. | . 

The Hamilton Group, in nearly its entire extent, has furnished 
numerous Bryozoans of varicd and interesting forms; which will be 
given in full in the State Museum Reports; the space allotted to this 
communication admitting only such as have been studied and arranged 
to precede the FENESTELLID&. The descriptions of the latter are 
however completed, and in the hands of the printer. ; 

In the determination of all these forms, as well as in their illustra- 
tion in numerous excellent figures, I have been greatly indebted to 
Mr. George B. Simpson, except for whose zeal in the study and 
careful discrimination of the specific forms, I should, amidst other 
duties, have left, for the present at least, many of them undetermined ° 
and undescribed. 


CHATETES, Fischer. 


CH ETETES CREBRIRAMA, 2. §7). 


Coral ramose, solid; branches frequent, bifurcating, occasionally tri- 
furcating ; cells tubular, polygonal, gradually diverging till within .75 
mm. of the surface, when they turn more abruptly, opening slightly 
oblique, diameter at aperture .25 mm., in the interior walls thin, af the 
surface thickened, tue thickness of the walls frequently equal to the 
diameter of an aperture; tubes septate; septa very thin and fragile, 
occurring at irregular intervals; on the surface are macule distant 
from each other from 2.5 mm. to 3 mm., which are sometimes elevated. 


The macule form a prominent feature of the branches. 
Locality — Falls of the Ohio river, near Lopisville, Ky. 


CHZETETES QUIDISTANS, 2. sp. 


Ramose, solid ; branches infrequent, diameter 5 mm.; cells tubular, 
polygonal, septate; septa strong, near the surface there are four in the 
space of one mm., in the remaining portion from eleven to thirteen, 
equidistant ; cell-tubes 8 mm. in length, apertures oval, length 5 mm., 
with spinules at the angles, surface with macule of large cell-apertures. 


Locality — New York. 


CHATETES EGENUS, 2. Sp. 


Ramose; branches infrequent, diameter 5 mm.; cells tubular poly- 
goual, non-septate, walls very thin; apertures very irregular in size 


Upper Helderberg Group. 147 


and form, frequently hexagonal, length from equal to three times the 
width, which is usually about .35 mm.; at the angles are frequently 
strong obtuse spines. 


Locality — Onondaga Valley, N. Y. ; 


CH2&TETES ? (‘’REMATAPORA ?) INTERNASCENS, 2. Sp. 

Ramose, solid; diameter 8 mm.; cells tubular, polygonal, arising from 
the center of the Branch, gradually diverging till within one mm. of 
the surface, when they turn more abruptly outward, frequently ten 
mm. in length, nearly the entire length angular; apertures circuiar or 
oval, diameter .33 mm., contiguous, oblique, subimbricating ; on one 
side of the aperture the cell-wall projects above the surface .17 mm.; 
macule at irregular distances, centers noncelluliferous; tubes septate ; 
exterior of cell-wall transversely corrugated. 

Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


TREMATAPORA, Hall. 


TREMATOPORA ARBOREA, %. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches frequent, diameter 2.50 mm.; cells tubular, 
polygonal; apertures oval; cells septate; septa occurring at irregular 
intervals; length of apertures .22 mm., width two-thirds the length, 
usually irregularly arranged, but’ sometimes occurring in transverse 
oblique rows, distance variable; the margins of apertures and inter- 
vening space have numerous minute spines, from six to eight, sur- 
rounding an aperture; no macule. 


Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


TREMATOPORA ? ANNULATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid ; branches occurring at intervals of from 4 to 15 mm., 
diverging at an angle of 45°; diameter three mm.; cells tubular, reg- 
ularly curving to the surface, diameter at aperture .25 mm., polygonal, 
walls thin, sometimes thickening at the surface constricting the cell- 
apertures; cells septate; septa closely arranged; sometimes angular 
pits occupy the intercellular space of the surface, apertures irregularly 
arranged, with small spines at the angles, giving to the surface an acu- 
leate appearance; at intervals of two mm. occur elongated elevations 
at right angles to the branch, two or more elevations being on a line 
-and giving to the branch an annulated appearance ; a narrow space 
along the middle of the elevations without apertures, but frequently 
with smali pits. This species can be easily distinguished by its strong 
annulations. 


Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


148 Bryozoans of the 


TREMATOPORA ANNULATA, VAR. PRONASPINA, 2. var. 


Ramose; branches infrequent, diameter two mm.; cells tubular, poly- 
gonal, gradually diverging, diameter of aperture .25 mm.; cell-walls 
of the interior thin, thickened at the surface; cells septate; septa 
‘occurring at irregular intervals; width of aperture greater than the 
length, subimbricating; at the base of each aperture a strong oblique 
spine, which feature distinguishes it from the ordinary forms oi 
T. annulata. ‘ 

Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


TREMATOPORA ALTERNATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches infrequent, diameter slightly more than 
one mm.; cells tubular, cylindrical, opening directly outward; aper- 
tures oval, Jength .38 mm. width two-thirds the length, margins thin, 
scarcely elevated, arranged in longitudinal parallel rows; fifteen in the 
space of five mm., five or six rows on a branch, apertures alternating, 
forming oblique, transverse longitudinal rows, separated by strong 
granulose ridges; at the base of each aperture is a strong conical 
node. ‘The most prominent feature of the surface is the longitudinal 
ridges alternating with the rows of nodes. 


Locality — Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


j TREMATOPORA. RECTILINEA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; diameter 1.20 mm.; cells tubular, cylindrical, aper- 
tures oval, arranged in parallel longitudinal rows, fourteen rows on a 


branch, alternating — forming equally prominent obliaue rows; space | 


between apertures equal to width of aperture; space between lonyi- 
tudinal rows elevated or striated, granulose; at the base of each 
aperture there is a strong conical node. 


Locality — Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


TREMATOPORA SCUTULATA, 7. Sp. 


Ramose, solid ; branches occurring at intervals of from 5 to 12 mm., 


diameter one mm.; cells tubular, apertures rhombiform, length .33, 
width .25 mm., closely arranged in oblique parallel rows at an angle 
of 45° to the axis of the branch, separated only by the cell-walls; the 
margins are minutely granulose, and at each angle is a strong node. 


Locality — New York. 
CALLOPORA, Hail. 


+ CALLOPORA IRREGULARIS, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, hollow; diameter of branch three mm., thickness of the 
bryozoum .55 mm.; inner surface a wrinkled epitheca; cells tubular, 


Upper Helderberg Group. 149 


opening directly outward ; apertures circular, diameter from .25 to .33 
mm., irregularly disposed ; the surface has macule destitute of aper- 
tures, from 1 to 1.5 mm. in diameter; apertures nearest the macule 
slightly larger than the others, margins strongly and equally ele- 
vated, intermediate space sometimes with shallow angular pits. 


Locality — New York. 


CALLOPORA ACULEOLATA, %. Sp. 


Ramose; diameter of branches two mm.; cells opening directly out- 
ward; apertures circular or nearly circular, length .45 mm., distance 
between varying from contiguity to .25 mm.; margins strong and dis- 
tinctly elevated, and having from one to three comparatively strong 
nodes; intermediate space occupied by minute angular pits, usually 
one or two series between two adjacent apertures. 


CALLOPORA MULTISERIATA, 22. sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches diverging at an angle of 80°, diameter two 
mm.; cells tubular, cylindrical ; apertures oval, length .33 mm., irreg- 
ularly disposed; margins thin, not elevated, intermediate space with 
minute angular pits arranged in longitudinal rows giving a striated 
appearance to the surface; from 5 to 10 series between, adjacent aper- 
tures. | 

Locality —Warner’s Quarry, south of Leroy, Genesee county, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA, ail. : 


LICHENALIA SUBSTELLATA, %. sp. 


Pemitlacs expansions, free or encrusting, or forming masses by su- 
_ perimposition ; each Jayer usually one eee in thickness: cells tubular, 
varying in length from .25 to 4 mm.; apertures usually circular, di- 
ameter .28 mm., closely and Gilenularly arranged; surface with macu- 
lee, usually Bovated: the centers with out apertures; cells radiating from 
macule larger and more oblique than the siners'a apertures variable, 
sometimes opening directly outward, margins equally elevated, but 
usually obliqne; margins unequally elevated, occasionally very oblique 
and imbricating, the most strongly elevated portion produced and spini- 
form, sometimes bidenticulated ; cell-tubes septate, eight septa in 
space of one mm.; frequently contorted. 


_ Locahty — Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA DENTICULATA, 2. sp. 


Lamellose expansions, or massive by superimposition of layers ; 
cells tubular, diameter .23 mm., one-ha!f of the margin is very 


150 Bryozoans of the 


strongly elevated, frequently projecting over the aperture, with two 
strong denticulations; apertures crowded; surface with numerous ele- 
vated macule; cells contiguous to centers of some macule larger than 
others, bases of maculz contiguous ; interior intercellular space with 
tubuli; diameter of tubuli.12 mm. divided by numerous septa. 


Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA BISTRIATA, 2. Sp. 


Celluliferous on one or both sides, sumetimes massive by superim- 
position of iayers; diameter of cells .36 mm.; apertures closely ar- 
ranged, margins not distinctly elevated; interior intercellular spaces 
vesiculose; vesicles irregularly arranged. On the interior of the cell- 
tubes, situated close together, are two strong striations, which appear 
on the surface as denticulations, projecting from one-half to two- 
thirds across the aperture; this feature distinguishes it from all other 
species. 


Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA CRUSTACEA, %. Sp. 


Lamellate expansions, or massive; layers sometimes not more than 
.25 mm. in thickness; apertures circular, diameter .33 mm., irregu- 
larly arranged, sometimes so closely arranged as to be distorted ; mar- 
gins irregularly elevated, not denticulated; surface frequently broken; 
at the margin the cells are very oblique ; surface with elevated macule; 
interior vesiculose. 


Locality -— Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA SUBCAVA, %. Sp, 


This species is distinguished from all others of this genns as fol- 
lows: The elevated macule of the surface are entirely destitute of all 
apertures, and the space beneath them is hollow; intercellular space 
of interior of bryozoum vyesiculose; apertures subtriangular, width .20 
mm. 


Locality — Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA ALTERNATA, %. Sp. 


Lamellate expansions; greatest thickness observed .75 mm.; cells 
closely arranged, very oblique, alternating and imbricating; apertures 
broadly oval, length .35 mm., slightly elevated macule, distant 5 
mm., with cells slightly larger than the others, not radiating; space 


Upper Helderberg Group. 151 


between apertures smooth and slightly concave, intercellular space of 
the interior vesiculose. 


Locality—F alls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA CONULATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, hollow, or lamellate expansions; thickness varying from 
.00 to 5 mm., sometimes branches solid; cells tubular; apertures cir- 
cular, diameter .20 mm., margins unequally elevated, inclining toward 
the center of and consiricting the aperture, giving the appearance of 
tumid lips; margins of adjacent cells in contact; surface with numer- 
ous rounded elevations, the centers of which are distant .50 mm.; 
height 1.50 mm.; cells of macule larger than others and radiating; 
cell-tubes septate; septa 5 in space of one mm.; intercellular space of 
interior vesiculose. ‘This species is easily distinguished by its promi- 
nent conical elevations. 

Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA CLIVULATA, 7%. Sp. 


Lamellate or cylindrical expansions; diameter of cell-apertures .17 
mm.; margins unequally elevated, the stronger portion projecting over 
the aperture, and having two minute denticulations; around each aper- 
ture a narrow obscurely polygonal depression; surface with numerous 
elevated macule, centers distant from two to three mm., bases often 
in contact with each other; surface being composed of rounded eleva- 
tions, and finely granulose. 


Locality—F alls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA CARINATA, 2. Sp. 


Intercellular space vesiculose; vesicles large, irregularly disposed, 
apertures circular, oblique to the surface, diameter .28 mm., irregularly 
arranged, margins unequally elevated, one side projecting over and 
constricting the aperture ; the upper portion of the cell-wall is some- 
times exposed for nearly two-thirds the entire length; along the 
middle of the wall is a sharp slightly elevated carina, sometimes pro- 
jecting beyond the margin as a denticulation; on the surface are 
maculz, the centers of which are depressed and without apertures; 
cells in contiguity to the macule larger than the others, and the 
_ radiating space between apertures with minute pits. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA PERMARGINATA, 7. Sp. 


The specimens observed are celluliforus on both sides; cell-aper- 
tures .40 mm. in diameter, irregularly arranged, margins strong; on 


152 Bryozoans of the 


the surface are broad elevations the centers of which are essentially 
flat and without apertures, distance from centres 17 mm., width at 
base 5 mm., surface finely granulose ; sometimes obscure ridges from 
one aperture to another. 


Locality—Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA LUNATA, 2. Sp. 


Lamellate, or massive; cells tubular, diameter at aperture .38 mm., 
margin of one-half slightly elevated or entirely wanting the other half 
strongly elevated, projecting over the aperture, the central portion 
more extended, giving to the aperture a cunate form, which distin- 
guishes it from other species; apertures irregularly arranged; sur- 
face with gently elevated macule the centers of which are distant from 
each other about 5 mm. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA ALVEATA, 2. sp. 


Lamellate expansions; cells tubular, oblique or at right angles to 
the surface; usually alternating and imbricating; apertures closely 
arranged ; diameter .45 mm., margins unequally elevated, the stronger 
portion, comprising one-half, strongly elevated, projecting, with two 
slight denticulations, sometimes the upper portion of the cell-wall 
is exposed nearly its entire length; surface with numerous elongate 
concave maculex, without cell-apertures, four mm. in length and one 
in width, forming narrow channels, interior intercellular space vesi- 
culose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA RADIATA, 22. Sp. 


Lamellate; cell-apertures usually oblique, subtriangular, irregularly 
disposed, diameter .50 mm., margins unequally elevated, one portion 
strongly elevated, projecting over and giving to the aperture an arched 
or triangular form ; macule broad, circular, distant from six to eight 
mm., slightly elevated centers without cell-apertures, granulose; cells 
radiate very distinctly from the centers; interior intercellular space 
vesiculose. 


Locality—Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA PALIFORMIS, 2. sp. 


Ramose, hollow ; diameter 3 mm., thickness of bryozounm .50 mm., 
apertures with a diameter of .20 mm., usually closely and irregu- 
larly disposed, but sometimes in oblique transverse lines; at the base 
of each aperture are two slight denticulations extending to and par- 


Upper Helderberg Group. 153 


tially closing the apertures, giving them an acutely semielliptical form 
of one mm. in length; margins of apertures not elevated, space be- 
tween apertures angular, striated ; at base of each aperture slight node; 
surface sometimes presenting a distinctly reticulated appearance. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA LONGISPINA, %. sp. 
Lamellate, cell-apertures oval, length .35 mm. irregularly disposed; 
between adjacent apertures, thin, sharp elevations, uniting and form- 
ing polygonal areas, which sometimes have a height of one mm., at 
the angles of the elevations are strong spines, one mm. in length. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LLICHENALIA CIRCINCTA, ”. sp. 


Foliaceous; cells oblique, diameter of apertures .20 to .45 mm,, 
margins unequally elevated, one portion strongly elevated, extending 
over and constricting the aperature, bidenticulated, between apertures 
are thin, oblique elevations, uniting, forming polygonal elevations 
around the apertures; macule distunt four mm., centers without ap- 
ertures ; cells anaveet larger than the others; the more oblique the 
cells, the less conspicuous the elevations. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


LICHENALIA COMPLEXA, 2%. sp. 


The manner of growth of this species is the same as that of L. cir- 
cincta, but the apertures are larger and at a greater distance apart, 
_ the enclosing walls are stronger, the frond presenting a much stronger 
appearance, the polygonal elevations have very much the appearance 
of the cell mouths of a Favosite, and without a close examination 
might be mistaken for them. 


Locality—Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA GRANIFERA, 2. Sp. 


Foliaceous ; cell-apertures usually oblique to surface, oval or eo 
triangular, length 33 mm., margins sometimes cqual, at other times 
the upper portion of cell-wall exposed more than the length of aper- 
ture, irregularly disposed; macule not elevated, centers distant four 
-mm., without apertures, cells radiating from centers, intercellular 
space with prominent granules, cell walls very fragile, margins usually 
bidenticulate; interior intercellular space vesiculose. 


“Locality—F alls of the Ohio river. 
20 


154 Bryozoans of the 


LICHENALIA PYRIFORMIS, 2. sp. 


Lamellate ; cells tubular, on a large portion of the frond very ob- 
lique in their entire length, on the remaining portion oblique a 
_ part of their length, then turning abruptly outward; diameter of 
aperture .35 mm., when oblique the upper portion of the wall is 
exposed from .d0 to .73 mm., the edges denticulated; looking per- 
pendicularly on the frond, the margins and ceil walls are pear 
shaped, as seen obliquely across the frond, the cell walls and projec- 
tions resemble strong spines; maculee distant about six mm., elevated 
cells of the centers confused ; intercellular surface crowded with small 
spines ; intercellular space of the interior occupied by large and irregu- 
larly disposed vesicles; the denticulations are formed by the projec- 
tion of two striz, situated near together and continuing the entire 
length of the interior of the cell tube. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


GENUS LICHENALIA. 


SUBGENUS PHRACTOPORA, 2. S. gen. 


The manner of growth is essentially the same as that of Lichen- 
alia, the surface is raised at irregular intervals into elevated crests, 
which are celluliferous on both sides; cells arising from a mesial epi- 
theca, the crests unite leaving irregular cavities between them. 


‘ 


PHRACTOPORA CRISTATA, 2. 87. 


Lamellate; crests sometimes attaining a height of seven mm., base 
from one to two mm. thick, gradually growing thinner, summit sharp, 
noncelluliferous; at the middle of each crest is a triangular noncel- 
luliferous space*two mm. wide and three long; the portion of the 
frond from which the crests arise celluliferous on one side only; 
cells cylindrical, closely disposed, alternating and imbricating, diame- 
ter of aperture .25 mm., margins unequally elevated, one portion pro- 
jecting over and constricting the aperture; maculze numerous, slightly 
elevated ; interior intercellular space vesiculose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 
THALLOSTIGMA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum consisting of broad foliate expansions similar to LicH- 
ENALIA, but with the intercellular space punctate upon the surface. 


THALLOSTIGMA INTERCELLATA, 7. Sp. 


Lamellate; cell-apertures circular or slightly oval, diameter .25 mm., 
irregularly and closely disposed, margins elevated, having from one to 


Upper Helderberg Group. 155 


four spines; between adjacent apertures usually one series of pits, oc- 
casionally two or three, interapertural pits varying from square to tri- 
angular; interior intercellular space vesiculose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


THALLOSTIGMA SPARSIPORA, 2. Sp. 


Lamellate; celluliferous on both sides; apertures usually elongate- 
oval, length .38 mm., sometimes circular with diameter of .20 mm., 
‘margins distinctly elevated and granulose, usually irregularly disposed, 
distant from each other from .25 to .66 mm.; on one frond they are 
regularly arranged in alternating rows; from the small size of aperture 
and distance apart they present a scattered appearance; occasional 
macule; interapertural pits minute, granulose; gréiules sometimes 
obscuring other features. 


Locality— Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA LAMELLATA, %. sp. 

Cell-apertures opening outward, circular, diameter .45 mm., irregu- 
larly disposed; greatest distance apart slightly less than the diame- 
ter of an aperture; margins distinctly elevated, granulose. There 
are occasional macule destitute of cell-apertures, about seven interaper- 
tural pits in one mm., from one to three series between adjacent aper- 
tures, granulose. 


Locality—Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA, Hail. ° 
StrcroPoRA GUILBERTI. 
Ptilodictya (Stictopora) Gilberti Meek. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila, 1871. 


Branching dichotomously; a greater portion of the branches nearly 
flat, abruptly narrowing to the edge bifurcations frequent, width of 
noncelluliferous margin .78 mm.; from frequency of bifurcations the 
margins of branches are more or less curved ; cells tubular, for one- 
half the length parallel to the mesial plate, then abruptly turning and 
_ Opening at right angles to the surface ; mesial-plate transversely corru- 
gated and striated longitudinally; corrufations arched ; cell-apertures 
oval, arranged in longitudinal rows, increasing in number as the 
branch widens, separated by a ridge; margins elevated, on one side a 
denticulated projection, frequently concealing one-half of the aper- 
ture; interior of the branch finely vesiculose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river and New York. 


156 Bryozoans of the 


STICTOPORA OVATIPORA, 2. Sp). 


Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from five to seven mm. ; width 
of branches, three mm.; margins parallel, slightly obtuse, non-cellu- 
liferous margins, 45 mm. in width; cell-apertures oval, length, .33 
mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, margins distinctly and equally 
elevated, ranges separated by a broad, rounded ridge, higher than 
the margins of apertures, giving to the apertures the appearance of 
being situated in a channel ; interior of stipe vesiculose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


STICTOPORA SEMISTRIATA, 2. Sp. 


Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from eight to eleven mm., 
diverging at an angle of from sixty to ninety degrees, width from three 
to forr mm., greatest thickness, .38 mm.; margins thin, sharp, non- 
celluliferous margin, .560 mm. in width; apertures circular, diameter 
22 mm.; on a portion of the frond irregularly arranged, on other 
portions in longitudinal rows, separated by a ridge. The margins of 
the branches are more nearly parallel than those of P. gilberti ; and 
the stipe thinner. 


Locality—Near Leroy, Genesee county, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA FRUTICOSA, 12. Sp. 


Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from three to ten mm.; 
branches diverging at an angle of 45 degrees, width 2.50 mm.; non- 
celluliferous margin, .835 mm. in width; cell-apertures .50 mm. in 
length, arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, from six to eight rows 
on a branch, margins slightly elevated, granulose, space between rows 
elevated, with obscure granulose striations. The appearance of the 
species varies greatly, accroding to the degree of weathering. 


Locality—New York. 


STICTOPORA RIGIDA, %. Sp. 


Bifureations occurring at intervals of from four to fifteen mm.; 
width of branches from two to three mm. ; margins parallel ; greatest 
thickness .50 mm., width of non-celluliferous marginal space, .25 
mm. ; cell-apertures oval, length .25 mm., twelve apertures in the 
space of five mm., distinctly arranged in longitudinal rows, sepa- 
rated by a strong, angular, finely striated ridge; transverse space 
between the apertures flat, obscurely striated ; margins thin, equally 
elevated. 7 


Locality—Near Leroy, Genesee county, N. Y. 


Upper Helderberg Group. 15? 


STICTOPORA INVERTIS, 72. 8p. 


Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from eight to ten mm.; width 
of branches, 2.5 mm., greatest thickness, 1.50 mm., width of non- 
celluliferous marginal space, .35 mm.; cells tubular, one mm. in 
length, for one-half this length nearly parallel with the mesial-plate, 
then turning abruptly, and opening directly outward; apertures cir- 
cular, very frequently arranged in a V-shaped order across the branch ; 
on the narrower portions of the branch they form oblique, arching, 
transverse rows ; margins of apertures strongly and equally clevated. 


Locality—New York. 


STICTOPORA RHOMBOIDEA, 7. sp. 

Bifurcations frequent ; branches widley diverging, width two mm., 
greatest thickness one mm., edges obtuse ; cell apertures oval, length 
.35 mm., disposed in irregular longitudinal rows, usually alternating, 
margin thin, slightly elevated, granulose; between the apertures is a 
thin sinuous granulose ridge, frequently touching the margins of the 
cells ; in the transverse space between cells the ridges approach each 
other frequently touching and coalescing. 


Locality—Near Leroy, Genesce county, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA LINEARIS, 7. sp. 


No bifurcations occur on fragments observed, though probably they 
will] be found in larger fragments; width of branch 1.50 mm., greatest 
thickness. 50 mm.; cell-apertures circular, diameter .20 mm., arranged 
in longitudinal parallel rows, five or six rows on a stipe, 14 apertures 
in the space of five mm., margins thin, slightly elevated, longitudinal 
rows separated by comparatively strong angular ridges; non-cellulif- 
_erous margin very narrow or entirely wanting. 


Localities—Onondaga Valley and Leroy, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA PERARCTA, 7”. sp. 


Branches infrequent, diverging at an angle of 45°, width 90 mm., 
greatest thickness .50 mm., non-celluliferons marginal space very nar- 
-row and frequently entirely wanting; cell apertures, circular or broadly 
oval, diameter .20 mm., arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, sepa- 
‘rated by a comparatively strong rounded granulose ridge, margins of 
apertures thin, slightly elevated, granulose. 


_Locality—Onondaga valley, N. Y. 


INTRAPORA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum growing as in STICTOPORA; stipe and branches broad, 
bifurcating at somewhat regular intervals. Both sides celluliferous, 


158 Bryozoans of the 


the intercellular spaces regularly punctured or pitted asif by numerous 
minute cell-apertures — entire intercellular space vesiculose. 


INTRAPORA PUTEOLATA, 2. Sp. 


Bifureations occurring at intervals of from six to eight mm., 
branches variable in width, on most of the specimens observed from 
two to four mm., but on some 20 mm; forming lamellose’expan- 
sions; greatest thickness one mm., width of non-celluliferous margin 
.) mm., base of frond thin, spreading; attached to foreign sub- 
stances, cells for about one-half their length parallel to the mesial- 
plate; then abruptly turning and opening directly outward: aper- 
tures oval, length .23 mm., occasionally circular, sometimes irregularly 
disposed, at other times quite regularly arranged in oblique transverse 
rows at an angle of 45° to the margin of the branch, closely arranged, 
margins strong and equally elevated; intercellular space occupied by 
minute angular pits, variable in shape and size, usually a single series 
between two adjacent apertures, sometimes two and very rarely three; 
these pits cover the non-celluliferous margin of the branch. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


THAMNOPORA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum a narrow branching stipe; the principal stipe and 
branches celluliferous on both sides. The divisions are not by bifur- 
cution as in Sricropora, but by lateral and abrupt divergence from 
the main stipe. 


THAMNOPORA DIVARICATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of stipe 1 to 125 mm., thickness at the middle .45 mm, 
width of lateral branches .50 mm., diverging from the stipe at an angle 
of 90°; cell-apertures oval , Jength .30 mm., arranged m two longi- 
tudinal parallel rows; sometimes three rows on the main stipe fora 
short distance occur; width of non-celiuliferous marginal space of the 
main stipe about .25 mm., on the lateral branches very narrow cr en- 
tirely wanting; longitudinal ranges separated by a ridge, which is fre- 
ayently elevated above the margin of apertures, angular, giving to the 
branch a subangular appearance; margins of apertures distinctly and 
equally elevated; margins of branches usually entire, but sometimes 
serrated. 

Locality—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


PRISMOPORA, nov. gen. 


Consisting of triangular branches, frequently forming irregular 
groups, sides equal or unequal, subangularly concave, celluliferous on 


Upper Helderberg Group. 159 


each face ; cells arising from internal plates, which radiate from the 
center and extend to each angle; apertures regularly or irregularly 
arranged. 


PRISMOPORA TRIQUETRA, 2. Sp. 


Consisting of an irregular group of branches, diverging at an angle 
of from forty-five to ninety degrees ; sides subangular at the middle; 
angles at margins sharp, width of each face, 3.50 mm. ; frequently a 
braneh trifurcates; a non-celluliferous space, at the margins of each 
side, of about .65 mm. in width; cell-apertures circular or oval, some- 
times subtriangular ; diameter .25 mm.; variable, sometimes opening 
directly outward, at other times so oblique that the upper portion 
of the cell wall is exposed for nearly two-thirds its entire length; 
those nearest non-celluliferous margin larger than the others (all inter- 
mediate forms occurring) ; at the middle of the brauch are from one 
to three longitudinal ranges of apertures; the remaining apertures 
more or less distinctly radiate from the center of the brancl; rows of 
apertures frequently separated by a ridge. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


PRISMOPORA PAUCIRAMA, 7. Sp. 


Branches comparatively infrequent ; two of the sides are equal in 
width, the remaining one wider; the equal sides are 2.75 mm. wide, 
the third four mm.; branches occurring at intervals of twenty mm. or 
more ; non-celluliferous space at the margin, .66 mm. wide ; apertures 
circular, diameter .25 mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, and more 
distinctly in transversely oblique rows; the apertures are smallest at 
the middle of the branch, gradually growing larger to the marginal 
space ; intercellular tissue vesiculose. 


Locality—Thompson’s hake, Albany county, N. Y. 


SCALARIPORA, zov. gen. 


Bryozoum consisting of irregular groups of triangular branches, 
more or less concave, traversed transversely by sharp, elevated lamin, 
situated at regular distances apart; branchescelluliferous on each face; 
cells arising from internal plates, radiating from the center to cach 
angle of branch ; margins and summit of lamine non-celluliferous. 


SCALARIPORA SCALARIFORMIS, 2. sp. 


‘Branches frequent, sides very concave, angles acute, width of each 
sidé to four mm.: summits of transverse aos essentially straight, 
height at the midtie of the branch, one mm., thickness at base, .25 
mm., distant 1.50 mm., width of non-celluliferous marginal space .48 


160 Bryozoans of the 


mm.; of summit of laminz .10; cell-apertures of branch minute ob- 
lique or opening directly outward, margins equally elevated, constrict- 
ing the aperture; cells of laminz very oblique, irregularly disposed. 


Locality—Falis of the Ohio river. . 


SCALARIPORA SUBCONCAVA, 2. sp. 


Branches infrequent; two of the sides have each a width of 2 mm., 
the third 1.50 mm.; transverse lamine, .48 mm. high ; distant, 1.83 
mm.; non-celluliferous marginal space very narrow ; cell-apertures, 
15 mm. in diameter, irregular in their disposal and mode of opening, 
those on transverse laminz very oblique. 


Locality——Falls of the Ohio river. 


GLAUCONOME, Goldf. 


GLAUCONOME NODATA, 2. sp. 


Primary branches, .65 mm. in width; transverse section broadly 
ovate ; non-celluliferous side gently rounded and finely striated ; 
space between lateral branches equal to the width of a branch; six 
branches in tke space of five mm.; cell-apertures circular, opening 
almost directly outward, laterally arranged in two rows, one on each 
side of the branch ; space between ranges of apertures strongly cle- | 
vated and with prominent nodes ; cells of secondary branches slightly 
smaller and more closely arranged than those of the primary. 


Locality—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME SINUOSA, 2. sp. 


Transverse section of a branch broadly subcuneiform, width of 
primary branches .90 mm., of secondary branches .50 mm., space be- — 
tween secondary branches equal to the width of a branch; non-cellu- 
liferous side unknown; cell-apertures circular, in two ranges, usually 
opening laterally at an angle of forty-five degrees, margins of aper- 
tures very prominent; branches carinated, carina thin and very sin. 
nous. 


Locality—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME TENUISTRIATA, 2. Sp. 
Non-celluliferous side of branches gently rounded, finely striated ; 
width of primary branches 60 mm., of secondary .33 mm., space be-— 
tween lateral branches .66 mm.; three cell-apertures in the space of 
five mm. 


Locality. Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


Upper Helderberg Group. 161 


THAMNISCUS, King. 


THAMNISUUS NANUS, 2. sp. 


Width of branches varying according to distance from the base; 
non-celluliferous side rounded, just below the bifurcations somewhat 
flattened, on the specimens observed the branches are smooth; cells 
tubular, cylindrical, arising just within the non-celluliferous surface 
of the branch; for a portion of their length they are essentially paral- 
lel with the surface, then turning abruptly, and frequently opening 
directly outward; cell-apertures circular or slightly oval, diameter .25 
mm., irregularly disposed, sometimes forming transverse rows, the ele- 
vated margins of the apertures, forming the rows, are in contact, mar- 
gins of apertures strong ; frequent macule .50 mm. in diameter, des- 
titute of apertures. 


Locality—Falls of thé Ohio river. 


THAMNISCUS MULTIRAMUS, 2. sp. 

Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from two to five mm.; many 
of the branches cease growth after one or two bifurcations; width of 
branches from .5 to 1.50 mm., sometimes equally bifurcating, at other 
times one branch is much the smaller; non-celluliferous side gently 
rounded or flattened, finely striated; cell-apertures circular, diame- 
ter .15 mm. 


Locality—Schoharie, N. Y. 


CYSTOPORA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum consisting of simple or branching sub-cylindrical stipes, 
cells arising from the axis, circular and sub-cylindrical below, enlarg- 
ing above the midule of their length, and becoming ampullate, turn- 
ing abruptly outward below the apertures, which are extremely con- 
tracted; cell tubes exposed for more than half their length. 


CYSTOPORA GENICULATA, %. Sp. 


Length of tubular cells two mm., for the space of one mm. nearly 
parallel with the axis of the branch, the walls of one-half of the tube 
_ being exposed ; at a short distance from the aperture the tube is con- 
stricted, abruptly turning and continuing at right angles to the 
former portion; diameter of widest portion of tube .50 mm., of the 
narrowest .18 mm.; diameter of branch one mm.; cells alternating, 
imbricating and forming spiral rows. 


Locality—F alls of the Ohno river. 
21 


162 Bryozoans of the 


CLONOPORA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum consisting of an aggregation of elongate cylindrical 
tubular cells, which at more or less regular intervals become entirely 
free and turn abruptly outwards in an umbelliform expansion or in 
alternation ; cell apertures expanded or narrowly trumpet-shaped. 


CLONOPORA SEMIREDUCTA, 2. sp. 

Ramose; diameter of branches one mm., composed of an aggrega- 
tion of tubular cells, commencing at the axis of the branch, essen- 
tially parallel with the axis till within about one mm. from the aper- 
ture, when they turn abruptly and continue at right angles to the 
previous portion, length 2.50 mm.; some of the specimens consist 
simply of an aggregation of cell- Reed but some others have el 
rently an intercellular substance. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


CLONOPORA INCURVA, 2. sp. 


Consisting of an aggregation of cylindrical tubular cells which 
gradually increase in size to the aperture, eight or ten tubes com- 
mencing growth at the same point; ata distance of 1.50 mm. from 
the aperture, the tube turns quite abruptly and continues at nearly 
right angles to the former portion; the apertures are spirally arranged; 
the group of cells being umbel-like, and the bryozoum consisting of 
a succession of the umbelliform groups of cell-tubes. 


Locality—Manlins, N. Y. 


CRISINA, d’ Orbigny. 
CRISINA ? SCROBICULATA, 2. Sp. 

Branches frequent; transverse section oval; celluliferous on one 
side; apertures small, circular, arranged in oblique ascendant rows 
from the middle of the branch, the two series of rows alternating, 
prominent, elevated, extending beyond the side of the branch; aper- 
tures .25 mm. in diameter, intercellular space occupied by polygonal’ 
pits; non-celluliferous side finely and irregularly striated 


Locality—New York. 


FENESTELLA (Miller), Lonsdale. 


FENESTELLA CULTELLATA, 7. sp. 
Infundibuliform with frequent elongate processes ; branches vary- 
ing in width from .50 to 1.50mm.; on non-celluliferous side rounded 
or subangular, ogcasionally nodose; dissepiments about .35 mm. in 


Upper Helderberg Group. 163 


width, depressed . fenestrules varying from elongate oval to circular, 
length .75 mm.; cells in from three to six ranges, 18 in the space of 
five mm., along the middle of the branch is a row of thin elevations. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA QUADRANGULARIS, %. Sp. 


Infandibuliform ; branches from .50 to one mm. in width on non- 
celluiiferous side, angular, nodose; dissepiments from one-half to 
two-thirds the width of the branches; on non-celluliferous side angu- 
lar and carinated; fenestrules, oval , length .75 mm.; cells in from 
three to six ranges; apertures circular, 18 in five mm.; margins ele- 
vated, occasionally near base celluliferous side nodose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA ACULEATA, 7. Sp. 


Infundibuliform; branches from .50 to .65 mm. in width; non- 
celluliferous side rounded, flattened just below bifurcations, with 
numerous, prominent, irregularly arranged nodes; dissepiments from 
one-half to equal width of the branches; fenestrules oval or sub- 
quadrangular. length .65 mm.; width .50 mm.; cells in from two to 
four ranges; apertures circular or oval, 16 in the space of five mm.; 
between the ranges of apertures are numerous sharp conical spines. 


Locality—F alls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA SUBMUTANS, %. sp 


Infundibuliform ; lax; branches 35 to .50 mm. wide; on non-cellu- 
liferous side, round or angular; dissepiments from .25 to .55 mm. in 
width , rounded, depressed, fenestrules variable, usually subquadran- 
gular, length 1 mm.; width from .23 to .75 mm.; cells in from two to 
four ranges; apertures circular, 18 in the space cf 5 mm.; ranges 
separated by granulose ridges. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELA LINEANODA, 7%. sp. 


Infundibuliform ; branches from 50 to one mm. wide; non-cellu- 
liferous side angular, slightly carinated, with strong conical nodes; dis- 
sepiments .30 mm. wide, frequently carinated; fenestrules elongate 
oval or subquadrangular, width from .50 to .65 mm., length twice the 
width ; cells in from two to four ranges; apertures circular, ranges of 
apertures separated by a thin ridge. 


164 Bryozoans of the 


FENESTELLA ROBUSTA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform: width of branches from. 65 to 1.50 mm.; non- 
celluliferous side, in well-preserved specimens, angular or subangular, 
with slight carina and minute nodes; dissepiments .65 of one mm. in 
width; non-celluliferous side rounded or subangular; fenestrules, on 
non-celluliferous side broadly oval, length one mm. oncelluliferous 
side elongate-oval; cells in from four to seven ranges; apertures cir- 
cular, 18 in the space of five mm. 


Localities—Ontario, Canada; and New York. 


FENESTELLA PROPRIA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform ; lax , branches very gradually increasing in width, 
from .65 to one mm., on non-celluliferous side broadly angular with 
a prominent sinuous carina along the middle ; dissepiments .30 mm. 
in width, angular, carinated ; fenestrules subquadrangular or broadly 
oval; length from 1.25 to 2.75 mm.; width from .80 to 1 mm., cells 
in from two to five ranges, apertures minute circular, 14 in the space 
of five mm. 


Locality—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA LARGISSIMA, 2. sp. 

Infundibuliform, irregular ; width of branches, 1.5 to 2.56 mm., 
rounded or angular, dissepiments, 1.5 mm. in width; fenestrules 
irregular in size and shape, generally oval or subquadrangular ; length 
from 2.5 to 5 mm.; width from one to two mm. 


Locality—New York, 


FENESTELLA RIGIDA, 7. Sp. 

_ Infundibuliform, compact, width of branches from .5 to 1.5 mm.; 
on non-celluliferous side angular, slightly carinated; dissepiments one- 
half the width of the branches, angular, carinated on non-celluliferous 
_ side. Fenestrules broadly oval, width equal to, or a little more than, 
the width of the branches. Cellules in from two to six ranges; 
apertures circular, margins elevated ; ranges separated by a promi- 
nent ridge. : 


Locality—-Thompson Lake, Albany county, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA STRIATUPORA, 7. Sp. 


Infundibuliform, compact, width of branches from .25 to .65 mm., 
on non-celluliferous side, angular, with a slight carina along the mid- 
aie, having frequent strong nodes; dissepiments, .6 mm. in width; 
fenestrules oval, length, from .65 to .75 mm., width, .5 mm. ; cellules 


Upper Helderberg Group. 165 


in from three to five ranges ; apertures circular, twenty-five in the 
space of five mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, margins very strong 
oblique resembling ridges. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA DISTANS, 7%. sp. 


Infundibuliform, large; width of branches from .5 to 1.3 mm., 
on non-celluliferous side, branches angular, below bifurcations, flat- 
tened, sometimes’ carinated and nodose ; dissepiments, .6 mm. in width, 
rounded or angular ; fenestrules subquadrangular, length, 2.75 mm,, | 
width, to 1.3 mm.; cellules in from three to seven ranges ; apertures 
circular, fourteen in the space of five mm.; longitudinal ranges of 
apertures are separated by a narrow carina; there are also elongated 
conical nodes, which occur at irregular but frequent intervals. 


Lovality—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA FLABELLIFORMIS, 2. Sp. 

Flabelliform, width of branches from .6 to 1 mm ; dissepiments .50 
mm. in width, frequently oblique to the branches ; fenestrules sub- 
quadrangular, 2.3 mm. in length, 1 mm. in width ; cellules in three 
and four ranges, sixteen in the space of five mm. 


Locality—Shortsville, near Manchester, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA PERANGULATA, %. Sp. 
5 On 


Broadly infundibuliform ; width of branches from .5 to 1 mm. ; 
non-celluiiferous side angular, slightly carinated ; just below the bi- 
furcations on carina is a small conical node; dissepiments, .35 mm. 
in width; fenestrules usually subquadrangular; length from .75 to 1 
mm. ; width, .65 mm.; cellules in from two to four ranges; apertures 
cireular or oval, opening obliquely, eighteen apertures in the space of 
five mm.; ranges sometimes separated by a ridge. 


Locality—New York. 


- 


FENESTELLA CELSIPORA, 7. sp. 


Bryosoum infundibuliform, broadly expanding, usually broadly pli- 
cated in the direction of the branches; inner face of the frond cel- 
luliferous ; branches moderately strong, very gradually increasing in 
size to the bifurcations which occur at intervals of from fifteen to 
forty mm. Dissepiments on non-celluliferous side from .25 to .35 of 
one mm. in width and nearly on a plane with the branches; on the 
_ celluliferous side narrower, angular or slightly carinate. Cellules in 
from two to five ranges ; apertures circular or oval, opening obliquely 


166 Lryozoans of the 


backward or toward the base, about 18 in the space of 5 mm., mar- 
gins elevated, the upper side more decidedly than the lower; space 
between ranges of apertures smooth or marked by longitudinal 
ridges, the latter feature being more conspicuous where there are 
only two ranges of cell-apertures. 


Locality—U pper Helderberg group, Canada West. 


FENESTELLA CELSIPORA, Va7’. MINOR, 7. VG7’. 


Infundibuliform, frequently plicated; branches ridged, width from 
285 to.d0 mm., on non-celluliferous side branches angular or suban- 
gular, dissepiments .20 mm. in width, fenestrules generally subquad- 
rangular, sometimes oval, length .50 mm., width .33 mm.; cellules in | 
from two to four ranges; apertures small, circular, twenty-five in the 
space of .6 mm., very prominent. 

Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA CELSIPORA, va. MINIMA, 2. var. 


Cup shaped; width of branches from .25 to .50 mm., bifurcations 
irregular; dissepiments from two-thirds of slightly more than the 
width of the branches, on non-celluliferous side sometimes elevated 
above the plane of the branches, continuing across the branches and 
forming elevations more prominent than the branches; fenestrules 
broadly oval, or circular, length from .25 to .50 mm., width equal to or 
greater than the length; cellules in from two to four ranges; aper- 
tures circular, prominent, distinctly longitudinally disposed, twenty- 
five in the space of .5 mm. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA CYLINDRACEA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform; width of branches from .35 to .66 mm., on non- 
celluliferous side, angular, carinated ; dissepiments .25 mm. in width, 
rounded, subangular, angular or carinated; fenestrules oval, length 
.90 mm., width .35 to .50 mm.; cells in from two to four ranges; ap-— 
ertures circular, oval, eighteen in space of 5 mm., longitudinally 
arranged, margins unequally-elevated. 


Localitg—Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA BISERIATA, 1, Sp. 


Infundibuliform; width of branches from .38 to.50 mm. on non- 
celiuliferous side rounded, striated ; dissepiments, less than one-half 
as wide as the branches; fenestrules, subquadrangular, the ends 
straight, the sides rounded, width from one and one-half to two times 
the width of the branches, length twice the width , cells in two ranges ; 


Upper Helderberg Group. 167 


apertures circular, four and sometimes five in the space of a fene- 
strule; middle of branch carinated. 


Locality—Cherry Valley, N. Y. 


FENESTELLA ADNATA, 2. Sp. 

Infundibuliform ; width of branches from .35 to .50 mm., on non- 
celluliferous side, sharply rounded or subangular, sinuous finely cari- 
nated ; dissepiments, equaling or wider than the branches; branches 
sometimes anastomosing; fenestrules on non-celluliferous side circu- 
Jar, on celluliferous side oval, length .66 mm.; cells in from two to _ 
four ranges, apertures circular, twenty-five in the space of five mm., 
margins very strong. The margins of adjacent apertures frequently 
unite and are prolonged, forming a short spine. 

Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA NEXA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform; width of branch from .50 to .75 mm.; on non- 
celluliferous side the branches are, when perfect, Saat ; dissepi- 
ments, on non-celluliferous side .50 mm. in width, on celluliferous 
side contracting midway between the branches to .25 mm., depressed, 
carinated ; fenestrules, subquadrangular or broadly oval, length 1.25 
mm., width .75 mm.; cells in from two to four ranges, apertures cir- 
cular, 16 in the space of 5 mm., longitudinally arranged ; ranges sep- 
arated by a strong, continuous ridge. 

Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA MUTABILIS, 2. Sp. 


Tnfulidibuliform, broadly spreading ; width of branches, near base, 
.33 to .65 mm., above, from .65 to 1 mm.; on non-celluliferous side, 
near base, a slight carina along the middle; at a greater distance 
from the base there are three or four strong striations ; dissepiments, 
from .33 to .d0 mm. in width, on the upper portion of the frond some- 
times one mm., angular and carinated, or gentiy rounded without 
earination ; fenestrules on the non-celluliferous side oval or oblong, 
length from .65 to 1 mm., width, .50 mm., but somewhat varying; 
cells in two and three ranges, apertures small, circular, seventeen in 
the space of five mm., arranged in distinct longitudinal lines; mar- 
gins thin, distinctly elevated. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA POROSA, 2. sp. 


Infundibuliform, conical ; branches straight, width from .50 to .90 
mm.; in well-preserved specimens the branches are angular, carinated ; 


168 Bryozoans of the 


dissepiments, slightly less than .50 mm. in width, on non-cellulifer- 
ous side angular, carinated ; on celluliferous side, depressed, angular, 
carinated; fenestrules broadly oval or subquadrangular, width, from 


50 to .65 mm., length, one and one-half times the width, on cellu-- 


liferous side, elongate oval, cells in from two to four ranges; aper- 
tures circular, distinctly arranged longitudinally, central range promi- 
nent. 


Locality —Canada West. 


FENESTELLA PARALLELA, 7%. sp. 


Infundibuliform, large ; width of branches from .30 to .45 mm.; on 
non-celluliferous side angular, with thin, sharp carina; dissepiments 
slender, .18 mm. wide, angular, carinated on celluliferous side curved, 
the curvature toward the base; fenestrules oval, or subquadrangular, 
length .65 mm., width .25 mm., on celluliferous-side, elongate oval ; 
cell-apertures in two ranges, except immediately below the bifurcations, . 
18 in the space of five mm., margins thin, elevated; space between 
longitudinal ranges of apertures elevated and having a row of strong 
conical nodes. 


Locality—New York. 


FENESTELLA BREVISULCATA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform ; width of branches from .65 to .90 mm.; on non- 
celluliferous side, angular or subangular, flattened just below the bi- 
fercations where there is a short shallow channel, occasionally cari- 
nated, usually nodose, a strong line of nodes along the middle; 
dissepiments, .30 mm. wide, on celluliferous side rounded, on non- 
celluliferous side carinated; fenestrules oval or subquadrangular, 
length 1.50 mm. width .80 mm., occasionally narrower; cells in from 
two to four ranges, usually three ; apertures circular, 16 in the space 
of five mm., arranged longitudinally, margins thin, elevated. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA GRANILINEA, 7. Sp. . 


Infundibuliform ; branches nearly parallel; width of branches from 
.35 to .65 mm.; acutely angular, with from one to four lines of nodes 
along the middle, the central range always the strongest ; dissepiments 
from .25 to .30 mm. in width, on non-celluliferous side very angular, 
prominent, non-celluliferous side, rounded, carinated ; fenestrules oval 
or subquadrangular, length, usually .75 mm., width from .35 to .48 
mm.; cells in two and three ranges, apertures circular, 15 in the space 
of five mm.; margins distinctly and equally elevated. When three 


Upper Helderberg Group. 169 


ranges occur the intervening space is smooth, when two ranges 
occur they are separated by ridges. 


Locality'—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA PERUNDATA, 1. Sp. 


Infundibuliform, strongly undulating on a line with the branches; 
width of branches from one to 1.50 mm., angular and in well-preserved 
specimens slightly carinated ; dissepiments or anastomosed portions; 
equaling or greater than the width of the branches ; fenestrules vary- 
ing from elongate to broadly oval, width equal to or a little more 
than the width of the branch, length one and one-half times the 
width of the branch; cells in from three to six ranges, apertures circu- 
lar arranged in sinuous longitudinal rows, 16 in the space of five 
mm. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA HEXAGONALIS, 2. sp. 


Infundibuliform, broadly spreading ; width of branches from .50 to 
one mm.; angular, slightly carinated, sometimes connected by dis- 
sepiments, at other times anastomosing, when anastomosing de- 
cidely zig-zag , dissepiments or anastomosed portion .66 mm. in width; 
on celluliferous side the branches are regularly sinuous, never zig- 
zag; fenestrules, from .65 to one mm. wide, length to one and one- 
half times the width; cells in from two to four ranges, arranged in 
longitudinal sinuous rows, 17 apertures in the space of five mm.; be- 
low bifurcations a triangular space without apertures. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA HEXAGONALIS var., FORAMINULOSA, %. var. 


On the celluliferous side of the branches, at irregular but frequent 
intervals, are prominent nodes, apparently formed by the coalescing 
and elevation of adjoining cell apertures, having a height of .25 mm. ; 

diameter at the base, .35 mm. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA LEVINODATA, %. sp. 


Infundibuliform, branches strong; bifurcations occurring at inter- 
vals of from 5 to 20 mm., branches sometimes straight, usually more 
or less sinuous and sometimes decidedly zig-zag; dissepiments from 
two-thirds to equal the width of the branches, fenestrules somewhat 
variable, but usually oval or obscurely hexagonal, length, one mm., 

22 


170 Bryozoans of the 


width from .60 to .95 mm. ; cells in from three to five ranges, in longi- 
tudinal sinuous rows; apertures circular, twenty in the space of five 
mm. 

Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA ANGULATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches from .33 to .50 mm.; the branches are round 
or subangular, finely striated ; dissepiments, from one-third to one- 
half the width of the branches, sometimes oblique to the branches, 
at times curving; fenestrules rectangular or rhomboidal, two mm. 
in length, and from .50 to .80 mm. in width; cells in two ranges; 
apertures circular, longitudinally arranged, eighteen in the space of 
five mm.; space between the ranges of apertures elevated and slightly 
carinated. 

Locality—New York. 


FENESTELLA VARIAPORA, 1. Sp. 

Infundibuliform, base thin, spreading; pedicel, short; width of 
branches from .25 to .80 mm.; branches without nodes or striations; 
dissepiments equal to the width of the branches, on non-celluliferous 
side, rounded or subangular, occasionally faintly carinate; dissepi- 
ments, from broadly oval to circular, sometimes hexagonal, width, one 
and une-half times that of the branches; cells in two ranges; aper- 
tures circular, thirty in the space of five mm.; space between the 
ranges of cells elevated, with conical nodes. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA SERRATA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform ; width of branches from .25 to .85 mm.} on non- 
celluliferous side branches nodose; nodes strong, at irregular dis- 
tances apart, branches also sometimes spinose, sometimes granulose ; 
dissepiments, two-thirds the width of the branches, occasionally hay- 
ing a strong oblique node; fenestrules oval or subquadrangular, 
length .50, width .25 to .50 mm., on non-celluliferons side elongate 
oval; cells in two ranges, circular, twenty-two in the space of five 
mm.; branches on celluliferous side carinated, carina with prominent 
tri-angular nodes. 

Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA STELLATA, 2. Sp, 


Infundibuliform ; width of branches from .35 to .50 mm., branches 
rounded with comparatively strong oblique nodes, also granulose; dis- 
sepiments, from one-half to two-thirds the width of the branches; 
fenestrules oval or subquadrangular, length 65, width from .25 to .50 


Upper Helderberg Group. 17), 


mm.; cells in two ranges twenty in the space of 5 mm.; space between 
ranges a nodose elevation, nodes strong and variable. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA PERTENUIS, %. sp. 


Infundibuliform, width of branches from .20 to .25 mm., non-cellu- 
liferous side sharply rounded with low conical nodes; dissepiments, 
a little less than the width of the branches; fenestrules quadrangu- 
lar, length .35, width .25 mm., on celluliferous side .20 mm.; cells 
in two ranges apertures circular, twenty-eight in the space of 5 mm.; 
space between ranges one-third the width of branch, elevated, with 
prominent conical nodes. 


Locahty—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA SINGULARIS, 2. 3p. 


Infundibuliform; width of branclies from .35 to .50 mm., on non- 
celluliferous side rounded, with from three to five rows of granules 
and occasional spines, immediately below each bifurcation is a strong 
node or spine; dissepiments, from .25 to .35 mm. wide, sometimes 
oblique to the branch; fenestrules, oval or subquadrangular, length, 
50; width, .35 mm.; cells in two ranges; apertures circular, twenty 
in the space of 5 mm.; space between ranges one-third the width of 
branches, elevated, occasionally spinose. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA CURVIJUNCTURA, 2. Sp. 

-Width of branches from .20 to .50 mm.; shape varying from nearly 
flat to acutely angular, sometimes having strong conical nodes; dis- 
sepiments from two-thirds to three-fourths the width of the branch, 
frequently curved, nodose; fenestrules, subquadrangular, length .25, 
width .20 to,.25 mm.; cells in two ranges; apertures circular, twenty- 
five in 5 mm., space between ranges, elevated, having conical nodes 
equai in number to cells. 

- Localitu—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA CULTRATA, 2. sp. 

enadiboliform; width of branches from .50 to .80 mm., round or 
angular, with oy obscure granulose striw; dissepiments, 30 to .68 
mm. wide: fenestrules usually subquadrangular, usual length .2 mm., 
width from .25 to 1 mm.; cells in two ranges; apertures large, sixteen 
to eighteen in 5 mm.; branch carinated, carina broad at base, con- 
cealing apertures, narrowing above and sharp at the summit. 

Locality—F alls of the Ohio river. 


172 Bryozoans of the 


FENESTELLA TORTA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform, delicate; pedicel 4 mm. in length and,1n the 
specimens observed, twisted; width of branches from .20 to .25 mm., 
below a bifurcation from .35 to .50 mm.; on non-celluliferous side: 
rounded or subangular, slightly carinated; dissepiments .50 mm. in 
width, much expanded; fenestrules usually oval, sometimes circular, 
length .50, width from .33 to .60 mm.; cells in two ranges, twenty- 
four in 5 mm.; margins of apertures strong, frequently touching one 
another; space between ranges carinated, carina thin, .50 mm. in 
height. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river 


FENESTELLA BISERRULATA, 7%. Sp. 


Infundibuliform ; branches strong, on non-celluliferous side rounded 
or subangular, frequently flattened opposite the dissepiments, or 
slightly concave on the summit, regularly granulose; dissepments .50 
mm. in width; fenestrules oval, width from .80 to 1 mm., width from 
.35 to .65 mm. ; cells in two ranges, apertures circular, 18 in the space 
of 5 mm. ; middle of branch carinated, height of carina .50 mm., thin, | 
expanding to .33 mm.; then contracting, summit sharp; on margins 
of widened portions are minute nodes or spines corresponding in num- 
ber to the apertures. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA PERMARGINATA, 7%. 87. 


Infandibuliform; branches from .25 to 40 mm. in width; dissepi- 
ments, from .60 to .95 mm. wide; fenestrules oval, length .75 mm., 
width from .50 to .75 mm.; cells in two ranges, 20 in.the space of 5 
mm., middle of branch carinated, height of carina .95 mm., at about 
half the height expanded, then contracted, the summit sharp; at the 
edge of the expanded portion is a row of conical nodes. 


Locality——Falls of the Obio river. 


FENESTELLA DEPRESSA, 2. SP). 


Infundibuliform; width of branches from .25 to .35 mm.; angular 
on celluliferous side; on non-celluliferous side, rounded, striated, from 
three to six strie on a branch, also nodose; dissepiments one-third 
the width of the branch; fenestrules subquadrangular ; length from 
one and one-half to two times the width; cells in two ranges, aper- 
tures circular, 20 in five mm., middle of branch angular, elevated. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


Upper Helderberg Group. 173 


FENESTELLA ZQUALIS, 2. sp. 


Width of branches from .25 to .85 mm.; on non-celluliferous side 
angular, slightly carniated ; dissepiments, varying from two-thirds of 
to equal the width of the branches; fenestrules usually subquadran- 
gular, length .75 mm.; width from .60 to .75 mm.; cells in two 
ranges, apertures circular, space between ranges elevated, angular no- 
“dose. 


Locality—Clarence Hollow, N Y. 


FENESTELLA LUNULATA, 7. Sp. 


Infundibuliform ; width of branches from .25 to .50 mm.; dissepi- 
ments equal in width to the branches, generally on the non-cellulif- 
erous side a semicircular ridge extending on the branches and at the 
middle of the dissepiments a strong oblique spine, projecting over the 
fenestrules; fenestrules variable, frequently oval, width equal to that 
of the branches ; length one and one-half times the width; cells in 
two ranges, apertures sometimes oblique, 22 in 5 mm., space between 
ranges carinated, carine thin, elevated from .35 to .50 mm., then ex- 


panding, the expansions .20 mm. wide. 
Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA LATIJUNCTURA, ”. sp. 


Branches on non-celluliferous side very irregular, width from 1 to 
1.50 mm., nodose, nodes irregular in size and appearance, sometimes 
one mm. high, frequently oblique, sometimes there is a thin sharp 
carina with elevations; dissepiments one mm.in width, fenestrules 
oval, width equal to that of the branches, and from one-half to two- 
thirds the length ; cells in two ranges, apertures circular, 18 in 5 mm. 
middle of branch carinated, one mm. in height at one-third the dis- 
tance above the branch; expanded, width of expansion .25 mm., then 
contracting, the expanded portion having on its margin nodes equal 
in number to the apertures. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA BI IMBRICATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches, 34 mm.; on non-celluliferous side very irregular; 
dissepiments, one mm. or more in width, on non-celluliferoous side, 
_ the summit elevated, continuing on the branches, forming a promi- 
nent semicircular elevation around the lower portion of fenestrule; 
fenestrules nearly circular, diameter .50 mm., sometimes subtriangu- 
lar ; cells in two ranges; apertures circular, 22 in the space of 5 
mm. ; Carina attaining a height of .50 mm., then abruptly expand- 


- 


174 Bryozoans of the 


ing, the expansion mostly on one side, its width from .33 to .65 mm., 
overlapping. 
Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


. FENESTELLA RHOMBIFERA, 2. Sp. 


Infundibuliform; width of branches from .30 to .50 mm.,on non- — 
celluliferous side rounded or,angular, slightly carinated nodose, sinu- 
ous or zig-zag. ‘The branches are sometimes connected by dissepi- 
ments; when zig-zag, connected by anastomosis; width, .65 mm. ; 
fenestrules broadly oval or circular, height, .75, width, .65 mm. on 
celluliferous side more clongate oval; cell-apertures in two ranges, 
circular, fourteen in the space of five mm.; curina expanding from 
the base, at a point miway from the summit it reaches its greatest 
expansion, equal in width to the branches. 


Locahity—Leroy, Genesee county, N. Y. 


FENFSTELLA SEMIROTUNDA, 7%. Sp. 


Regular on celluliferous side; irregular on non-celluliferous side ; 
width of branches, .42 mm., angular, slightly carinated, zig-zag or _ 
straight; dissepiments .65 mm. in width ; fenestrules, from oval to — 
circular ; width, from a little less than, to twice the width of the 
branches; cell-apertures in two ranges, circular, twenty in five mm ; 
height of carina equal to diameter of branch, base thin, at half the 
height expanding to .35 mm. in width, then contracting ; at the mar- 
gin of the expanded portions are conical nodes, also, at irregular in-~ 
tervals, strong, flat, semicircular projections. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA INTERRUPTA, 2. sp. 


Branches irregular on non-celluliferous side ; width, 40 mm. ; cari- 
nated, zig-zag ; dissepiments, .65 mm in width, sometimes elevated 
above the branches, connecting and forming strong, irregular eleva- 
tions; fenestrules on celluliferous side regularly oval, on non-cellulif- 
erous side usually circular ; diameter, 50 mm. ; cell-apertures in two 
ranges, circular, twenty-four in 5 mm; carina .50 mm. in height, 
summit expanded, having a width from 25 to .50 mm, 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river 


FENESTELLA ERECTIPORA, 72. Sp. 


Branches on non-celluliferous side sometimes irregular, gently 
rounded to angular, straight to zig-zag, sometimes carinated, always 
prominently nodose, frequently anastomosing, width, from .50 to .75 


a 


Upper Helderberg Group. } 178 


mm.; dissepiments on anastomosed portions, .80 mm. wide; fene- 
strules varying from oval to circular; length, .90 mm.; cells in two 
ranges, immediately below each bifurcation there is au additional cell; 
fourteen in five mm.; carinated. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) GRANIFERA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches from .20 to one mm.; flattened, rounded or sub- 
angular; slightly elevated carine, the carine and at times other por- 
tions of branches minutely granulose; dissepiments 90 mm. wide, 
much expanded ; fenestrules broadly oval, length .90, width .66 mm.; 
cell-apertures in two ranges fifteen in 5 mm.; carina at first very 
~ slender, enlarging midway to the summit, then cortracting ; proba- 
bly connected by lateral bars. 

Lecality—F alls of the Ohio river. 


HENESTELEA (HEMITRYPA) PERPLEXA, 2. 8%. 


Width of branches from .20 to .65 mm., gently rounding to suban- 
gular with small but very distinct nodes; dissepiments from .20 to .30 
mm. in width; fenestrules from regularly oval to circular or ob- 
scurely hexagonal, length, .50, width .35 mm.; cell-apertures in two 
ranges twenty-two in 5 mm., space between very thin, sharply ele- 
vated, having on the summit nodes projecting beyond the sides of the 
carine, having the appearance of broken lateral bars. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) ACAULIS, 2. sp. 


Width of branches from .25 to 35 mm., rounded or slightly angu- 
lar, slightly carinated, minutely nodose; dissepiments having a width 
equal to or greater than the branches on non-celluliferous side, some- 
times elevated above the branches, connecting and forming prominent 
angular elevations; fenestrules subquadrangular, broadly oval, circu- 
lar, obscurely hexagonal, length .50 mm.; cell-apertures in two ranges, 


_ stightly oval, twenty-five in 5 mm.; carina thin, height equal to that 


of branch, for one-half the height thin, then expanding; width of the 
- summit one-half that of branch; carine connected by bars, twenty- 
two in 5 mm. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) STIPATA, 2. sp. 


Branches straight to zig-zag, width .25 to .35 mm.- regular, cari- 
nated; disseniments same width as branch, scmetimes forming con- 


176 Bryozoans of the 


tinuous elevations; fenestrules, from .25 to .50 in length, width from 
.12 to .35 mm.; cell-apertures in two ranges, circular, twenty in 5 mm.; 
carina .90 mm. iu height, for half the height thin, then expanding, 
width of summit, .35 mm., connected by oblique lateral bars, thirteen 
in the space of five mm. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) TEGULATA, 7. sp. 


Width of branches .35 mm., acutely rounded or subangular, slightly 
carinated, nodose, straight or zig-zag; dissepiments, from equal toa 
little more than the width of the branches, sometimes elevated above 
and extending across the branches; fenestrules oval, length .55, width 
33 mm.; cell-apertures in two ranges, circular, twenty four in five 
mm.; height of carina from .50 to .75 mm., expanding to midway to 
summit, then contracting, summit thin ; the carina connected by lateral 
bars fifteen in 5 mm. ; arcuate. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) LATA, %. sp. 


Width of branches from .20 to .50 mm., rounded or angular, rigid, 
straight or zig-zag ; dissepiments from .50 to .75 mm., sometimes ele- 
vated above and extending across the branches; fenestrules, length 
75 mm., width 50 mm. Cell-apertures in two ranges circular or 
oval, sixteen in the space of five mm., carina one mm. in height or 
half the height, thin, then slightly expanding, connected by lateral 
bars, twelve in the space of five mm. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) ANONYMA, 2. sp. 


Width of branches from .30 to .50 mm., angular, slightly carinated 
on non-celluliferous face, near bifurcation rounded or gently concave; 
the carina is replaced by two or three striations as the branch widens; 
dissepiments .14 mm. in width. Fenestrules usually oval, length .33, 
width .22 mm.; cells in two and three ranges, the latter number for 
enly a short distance below the bifurcations; apertures circular, 
twenty-two in five mm., carina expanding for one-half the height, 
height .50 mm., width of expanded part .10 mm., connected by lateral 
bars, twenty in the space of five mm. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) PERNODOSA, 7%. sp 


Width of branches .45 mm., wider opposite the dissepiments: dis- 
sepiments obscuring the continuity of the branches; branches angular, 


Upper Helderberg Group. 177 


carinated, prominently nodose, sometimes striated ; the branches fre- 
quently appear as slight elevations across the dissepiments which are 
apparently united; dissepments greatly expanded at the branches, 
carinated, nodose. Fenestrules oval, length .90 mm., width .60 mm. 
Cell-apertures in two ranges, with an additional aperture just below 
the bifurcations, circular, sixteen in the space of 5 mm.; carina thin, 
height .50 mm., connected by lateral plates extending to the sum- 
mit of branches, oblique. 


Locahity—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) SUBSTRIATA, 2. Sp. 

Width of branches from .25 to. 50 mm., angular or subangular ; dis- 
sepiments one-half to two-thirds the width of the branches. Fen- 
estrules subquadrangular, length .75 mm., width 35mm. _ Cell. aper- 
tures in two ranges, circular, twenty in space of .6 mm. Carina at 
first thin, rapidly expanding to .35 mm., height .45 mm., connected 

by lateral bars, fourteen in 5 mm. 


Locality—Falkirk, XN. Y. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) ELEGANTISSIMA, 7. sp. 

Width of branches from .33 to .65 mm., rounded to angular, line- 
arly nodose; dissepiments, width one mm., much expanded at junc- 
tion with the branches. Fenestrules elongate-oval, length 1.50 mm., 
width, 95 mm.; celluliferous side not aiisabved: 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) FAVOSA, 2. sp. 

Width of branches from .20 to .35 mm., subangular, slightly cari- 
nated. Fenestrules elongate-oval to subquadrangular, length to .45 
mm., width .25 mm. Cell-apertures in two ranges, circular, twenty 
in the space of five mm. Carina having processes from each side, 
those of adjacent carinz connecting midway between the carinz form- 
ing a ridge, interstices generally hexagonal. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) CRIBROSA, 7. sp. 


Width of branches from .25 to 50 mm., rounded, width of dissepi- 
ments .18 mm. cee eure in two ranges, circular, sixteen in the 
Space oi five mm.; carina having lateral processes meeting midway 
between carinz i uniting form a longitudinal ridge: interstices cir 
cular enclosed by a narrow elevation 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river 
23 


178 Bryozoans of the 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) CONJUNCTIVA, 2. sp. 


Width of branches from .33 to .50 mm., immediately below bifur- 
cation the width is .75 mm., rounded or subangular, carinated ; below 
bifurcation flattened, from straight to zig-zag; the dissepiments have 
a width to .d0 mm., fenestrules oval, length .95 mm., width .50 mm. 
Cell-apertures in two ranges, circular, sixteen in the space of 5 mm.; 
height of carina .55 mm., summit connected by lateral bars; bars and 
summit of carina having precisely the same appearance as the non- 
celluliferous side of some fronds, both summit and processes carinated. 


Locality—Canada West. 


FENESTELLA (HEMITRYPA) FASTIGATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches from .53 to .65 mm., angular, carinated ; carina 
strong; around each fenestrule there is a narrow elevation; width of 
dissepiments 40 mm. Fenestrules oval, length about .50 mm., width 
.33 mm. Cells in two ranges, apertures comparatively large, opening 
laterally ; space between the ranges of apertures carinated ; carine at 
base very thin, expanding above, height .45 mm.; connected by lateral 
processes consisting of very thin plates. 


Locality—Falls of the Ohio river. 


Hamilton Group. 179 


BRYOZOANS OF THE HAMILTON GROUP. 


(Including only the genera preceding the Fenestellidz. ) 


PALESCHARA, Gall. 


PALESCHARA INTERCELLA, 7. Sp. 

Foliaceous expansions; cells polygonal, in contact; diameter .33 
mm.; macule numerous, slightly elevated, centers distant 5 mm., 
their cells larger than others; between the cells are cellules equal in 
number to the cells, quadrangular, square or triangular; diameter .17 
mm ; cells sometimes circular, walls with triangular spines. 


Locality—Y ork, New York. 


PALESCHARA RETICULATA, 1. sp. 

Foliate expansions; cells polygonal, in contact; diameter .25 mm., 
frequently arranged in undulating, intersecting rows; in this arrange- 
ment the cells are quadrangular, giving to the frond a reticulate ap- 
pearance; centers of macule distant 3 mm., slightly elevated and 
composed of larger cells, which in perfect specimens were probably par- 
tially hooded. 


Locality—York, New York. 


PALESCHARA VARIACELLA, 2. sp. 


Foliaceous expansions; celJs in contact, usually hexagonal; diame- 
ter .25 mm.; centers of macule distant 6 mm., composed of larger 
cells; diameter .80 mm; cell walls with strong angular spines; no 
intermediate cellules. 


Locality—Y ork, New York. 


PALESCHARA AMPLECTENS, 2. sp. 


A thin expansion, usually encrusting crinoid stems; cells polygonal, 
in contact, irregularly disposed ; diameter .20 mm.; no macule; fre- 
quent nodes or spines. 


PALESCHARA ? (LICHENALIA ?) PERTENUIS, 7. Sp. 


Foliaceous expansions; greatest thickness observed, .20 mm.; cells 
usually circular or oval, sometimes polygonal; some portions of walls 


180 Bryozoans of the 


in contact, diameter .33 mm.; macule not elevated, somewhat ob- 
scure, composed of larger oval cells, having a length of 50 mm.; there 
are minute intermediate cellules or pits, varying in number, sometimes 
entirely surrounding a large cell. 


Locality—Lodi Landing, New York. 


TREMATOPORA, Aail. 


TREMATOPORA SCUTULATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid ; branches widely diverging; diameter .66 mm.; cells 
tubular cylindrical; apertures oval, margins parallel with surface ; 
length .25 mm., arranged in longitudinal parallel rows and oblique 
transverse rows; oblique arrangement most conspicuous; at the base 
of each aperture is a strong node or spine, longitudinal rows sepa- 
rated by ridges; ridges coalescing between apertures, giving to the 
apertures the appearance of being separated by strong oblique ridges, 
crossing and forming elongate diamond-shaped apertures. 


Locahty—Hamburg, Erie county, New York. 


TREMATOPORA TRANSVERSA, 7. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches widely diverging; diameter 2 mm. ; cells 
tubular, cylindrical ; apertures oval, parallel with surface; length .25 
mm., closely arranged in oblique transverse rows; apertures without 
elevated margins; space between apertures elevated, with a single row 


of granules. | 


Locality—Hamburg, Erie county, New York. 


TREMATOPORA POLYGONA, 2. Sp. | 
Ramose, solid; branches widely diverging; diameter 1.25 mm.; 
cells tubular; apertures oval, very closely arranged; space between 
them narrow, elevated, angular, appearing as walls of cells, making 
the apertures apparently polygonal ; length .40 mm., width .25 mm. ; 
at each angle a conical node, the elevations frequently granulose. 


Localhty—Hamburg, New York. 


TREMATOPORA TORTALINEA, 7. Sp. 

Ramose ; branches distant; diameter .60 mm., frequently sinuous; 
cells tubular, sub-cylindrical; apertures oval; length .25 mm., width 
12 mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, alternating and forming ob- 
lique rows; longitudinal rows frequently separated by a ridge, which, 


7 
: 
; 
a 
q 


Hamilton Group. 181 


owing to the sinuous branches, frequently presents a twisted appear- 
ance; the ridge 1s granulose, giving a serrated aspect. 


Locality—Hamburg, New York. 


TREMATOPORA SUBQUADRATA, 7%. Sp. 

Ramose, solid; branches infrequent, diameter 1 mm.; cells tubu- 
lar; apertures oval: length .33 mm., arranged in longitudinal and in 
oblique rows, the latter arrangement the most prominent; occasion- 
ally irregularly disposed; intermediate space elevated, quadrangular 
or polygonal, minutely striated; at each angle is a comparatively 
strong node. . 


Locality—Darien, New York. 


TREMATOPORA PERSPINULATA, %. Sp. 


Ramose, solid ; branches infrequent; diameter 3 mm.: cells tubu- 
lar, apparently angular, contiguous; apertures varying from elongate- 
oval to nearly circular, some having a length of .35 and a width of 
16 mm. ; others are circular; diameter .30 mm., irregularly and very 
closely disposed, without elevated margin ; space between flat or little 
elevated, with a slight carina, or granulose, with numerous irregularly 
disposed conical nodes or spines, forming the most prominent feature 
of the surface. 


Locality—York, New York. 


TREMATOPORA CLAVIFORMIS, 7. sp. 


Consisting of an erect frond 10 mm. in height, attached by a root; 
branching dichotomously ; near the base the stem is round; diameter 
.75 mm. ; the branches become flattened and widened to 2.25 mm., 
giving to the frond a clavate appearance. Cell-apertures polygonal, 
contiguous, somewhat longer than wide ; length .33 mm., arranged in 
oblique rows, at an angle of forty-five degrees to the branch; cell 
walls thin; at the angles of the summit are minute spines. 


Locality—Bellona, Yates county, N. Y. 


TREMATOPORA ORBIPORA, 2. sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches infrequent; diameter 2 mm.; cells tubu- 
lar, cylindrical ; apertures usually oval or circular, and sometimes 
subangular from mutual pressure, diameter .40 mm., closely and regu- 
ularly or irregularly disposed ; the more or less oblique rows seem to 
be the most frequent arrangement of the apertures ; both margin and 


182 Bryozoans of the 


intercellular space are granulose; sometimes the margins are in con- 
tact, coalescing, and forming elevated angular nodose ridges. 


Locality—Canandaigua, N. Y 


TREMATOPORA ? GRANISTRIATA, 2. 8p. 


Consisting of elongate stems with striated base, apparently simple, 
attached to foreign substances by wrinkled rootlets. The stem for 7 
mm. is small, striated; cells tubular, cylindrical; apertures oval or. 
circular; length .38 mm., arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, fre- 
quently alternating and forming oblique rows; space between longi- 
tudinal rows, with linear granulose striations; sometimes from mu- 
tual pressure the apertures are polygonal. 

Localhity—Darien, N. Y. 


‘ 


CALLOPORA, Jail. 


CALLOPORA BISPINULATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; branches infrequent; diameter 1 mm., expanding 
and flattened before bifurcating; cells tubular, subcylindrical; aper- 
tures oval; length .35 mm., closely disposed, some portion of the mar- 
gins of adjacent apertures in contact ; sometimes in regular longi- 
tudinal and oblique rows, the margins having at each end a minute 
spine ; space between apertures with minute pits; as the arrangement 
of the apertures vary, the bryozoan presents a very variable appear- 
ance. 


Locality—Moscow, NAS 


CALLOPORA HAMILTONENSIS. 
Ceriopora? Hamiltonensis, Nicholson. 

Ramose, solid; diameter 1 mm.; cell-apertures oval; length .25 
mm., arranged in parallel longitudinal rows, alternating, and forming 
transverse oblique rows; margins slightly elevated ; longitudinal ranges 
separated by a strong ridge; the transverse space between the aper- 
tures is occupied by two quadrangular pits. 


Locality—Hamburg and New Berlin, N. Y. 


CALLOPORA INTERNODATA, 2. Sp. 


Ramose, solid; diameter 2 mm.; cells tubular, subcylindrical; ap: 
ertures oval; length .33 mm., elevated margins frequently in contact, 
sometimes irregularly disposed, at other times arranged in trans- 
versely oblique parallel rows; intermediate -space occupied by minute 


Hamilton Group. 183 


angular pits; there are alsc conical nodes, one or two at each aper- 
ture, forming the most prominent feature of the surface. 


Lecaliiy—Darren, N. Y. 


CALLOPORA HEMISPHERICA, 7. Sp. 


Hemispheric masses; under surface a wrinkled epitheca ; cells tubu- 
lar, cylindrical, at the center at right angles to the base, becoming 
more and more oblique as they approach the margin; cell walls 
thin, septa wanting; apertures circular, very closely but irregularly 
disposed , diameter 50 mm. ; margins thick, strongly elevated ; inter- 
mediate space with angular pits varying in size and shape; macule 
gently rounded, with larger cell-apertures ; interior intercellular space 
irregularly vesiculose, or composed of tubili with regular septa. 


Locahity—York, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA, Hail. 


LICHENALIA STELLATA, 2. Sp, 


Expansions or masses; cells tubular, cylindrical; walls thin; septa 
infrequent ; intercellular space vesiculose ; cell-apertures circular, usu- 
ally oblique to the surface ; diameter .33 mm., quite regularly arranged 
in undulating intersecting rows, frequently alternating and subimbri- 
cating, sometimes presenting an arched or triangular appearance; 
centers of the macule depressed, smooth, distant 6 mm., bases con- 
tiguous ; apertures near macule radiating, and presenting a stellate 


appearance, 


LICHENALIA FOLIACEA, 2. sp, 


Apertures circular or oval, regularly alternating and imbricating; 
diameter .40 mm; the upper portion of the cell walls are sometimes 
exposed nearly their entire length, carinated, giving to the aperture a 
_ triangular appearance; macule distant 10 mm., elongate, without 
apertures, cell-apertures nearest the macule larger. 


Lecality—West Bloomfield, N. Y. 


LICHENALIA CONSTRICTA, 7. Sp. 


Expansions or masses; apertures circular, oblique te the surface, 
very closely disposed , on a portion of the surface the intermediate 
space is occupied by minute angular pits, on the highest portion of 


184 Bryozoans of the 


the wall is a projection extending over and constricting the aperture, q 
macule slightly elevated, distant 5 mm. 


Locality—Near Leroy, N Y. 


LICHENALIA COLLICULATA, % sp. 


Expansions or masses; cells tubular, cylindrical; apertures oval; 
length .25 mm., distant from each other about equal to the length of 
an aperture; the surface consists of rounded elevations, 4 mm. in di- 
ameter; apertures arranged 1n rows, radiating from the centres of ele- 
vations, sometimes indistinct, the radiating rows appearing as ridges; __ 
internal intercellular tissue consisting of vesicles. 


THALLOSTIGMA, Hail. 


THALLOSTIGMA VARIAPORA, 2. Sp. 


An expansion, with cell tubes at right angles to the surface ; cell 
walls thin, septa infrequent; one-half the thickness of the cell walls, 
four in 5 mm.; intercellular space composed of septate tubuli; septa 
closely arranged; cell-apertures circular, irregularly disposed ; macule 
elevated, width of base 6 mm., the whole surface composed of these 
elevations ; cells nearest the center large; margins of apertures thin, 
distinctly elevated; intermediate space with angular pits. 


Locahty—West Williams, Canada. 


TOALLOSTIGMA CONFERTIPORA, %. SP. 


Expansions or masses formed by superimposition of successive 
growths; cells cylindrical, tubular, and for the greater portion of their 
length at right angles to the surface, diameter .33 mm., septa infre- 
quent; intercellular tissue composed of minute tubuli divided by 
numerous septa; cell-apertures circular, closely disposed macule; ar- 
ranged in regular intersecting rows; margins thin, distinctly elevated, 
spinulose. 


Locality—Moscow, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA SCROBICULATA, 7%. Sp. 


Expansions or masses by superimposition ; cells tubular, cylindrical; 
apertures parallel with surface, diameter .24 mm.; walls of cells 
thin ; septa infrequent; intercellular space vesiculose; apertures of 
tubes irregularly disposed ; margins of apertures thick, distinctly ele- 
vated, granulose; macule at irregular distances, without cell-aper- 


Hamilton Group. 185 


tures, not elevated; intermediate space occupied by angular pits of 
irregular size, some equal to the cell-apertures. 


Locality—Bellona, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA SERRULATA, 2. SD. 

Expansions, or masses formed by superimposition of successive lay- 
ers; cells tubular, cylindrical, at right angles tou the surface; walls 
thick, longitudinally striated; intercellular space vesiculose; aper- 
tures circular, diameter .33 mm., quite regularly distant from each 
other about equal to the diameter of an aperture; the portion of the 
cell wall extending above the surface strongly striated, the striations 
extending beyond the summit, and giving to it a serrate appearance ; 
intermediate space occupied by shallow angular apertures, frequently 
as large or larger than the cell apertures. , 

Locality— West Bloomfield, N. Y. 


THALILOSTIGMA UMBILICATA, 7%. Sp. 

_ Expansions, or massive from accretions of growth ; cell tubes cylin- 

drical, tubular; apertures circular, parallel to the surface, diameter 
33 mm., regularly distant from each other equal to the width of the 
aperture ; margins strongly elevated; intermediate space occupied by 
pits, which are variable in size; macule distant from each other 6 
mm., elevated ; centers much depressed for the space of 1.50 mm., and 
destitute of cell-apertures. 


Locality—Y ork, N. Y. 


‘THALLOSTIGMA LONGIMACULA, %. sp. 

Lamellate expansions; cells tubular, round or subangular; cell walls 
thin, non-septate ; intercellular space consisting of vesicles or minute 
septate tubuli; cell-apertures subtriangular, irregularly disposed, di- 
ameter .25 mm.; margins very thin, slightly elevated ; intermediate 
space occupied by angular pits; macule elongate, depressed; cells - 
immediately around macule larger and more oblique than on other 
portions of the frond. 


Locality—Y ork, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA DIGITATA, 2. sp. 


Expansions ; frequently presenting a digitate appearance ; cell-aper- 
tures oval; length .25 mm., width four-fiftns the length, quite regu- 
larly distant from each other about one-half the width of an aperture; 

24 


186 Bryozoans of the 


margins thin, very slightly elevated; intermediate space occupied by 
minute angular pits. ‘There are numerous conical nodes or spines sit- 
‘uated between adjacent cell-apertures, the base occupying the space 
petween them. 


Locality —Hamburg, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA DENSA, sp. 


Expansions; cells tubular, apertures oval, circular, polygonal, di- 
ameter .25 mm., closely disposed, some portion of adjacent cells usually 
touching, frequently disposed in comparatively straight lines; inter- 
mediate space occupied by angular pits; macule from 2 to 3 mm. dis- 
tant, composed of cells which are usually subpolygonal and larger 
than others. 


Locality—Y ork, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA MICROPORA, %. sp. 


Expansions; greatest thickness observed .33 mm.; apertures nearly 
circular, diameter .20 mm., irregularly disposed, margins thin, ele- 
vated ; intermediate space occupied by minute angular pits about 10 
in the space of 1 mm.; from one to three series between adjacent 
apertures. 


Tocality—Highteen Mile Creek, Erie county, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA SEGREGATA, 2. Sp. 


Expansions; cells tubular, cylindrical ; apertures broadly oval ar 
circular, diameter .33 mm., margins strong, distinctly elevated, irreg- 
ularly disposed; intermediate space occupied by minute angular pits, 
from one to four series between adjacent apertures. This is similar in 
appearance to T. micropora, but the cells are much larger. 


Locality—EHighteen Mile Creek, Erie county, N. Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA STRIATA, 2. sp. 


Expansions or masses formed by accretions of growth; cells tubu- 
lar, cylindrical, walls thick, non-septate; apertures broadly oval or 
circular, diameter .25 mm., sometimes irregularly disposed, at other 
times quite regularly distant from each other about the diameter of an 
aperture; intermediate space with angular pits, usually about 10 in the ~ 
space of 1 mm., but sometimes as large as the cell-apertures ; usuaily 
so arranged as to give a striated appearance to the surface. 


Locality—Hamburg, N. Y 


Hamilton Group ; 187 


THALLOSTIGMA DECIPIENS, 7. Sp. 


Expansions or masses ; cell-apertures polygonal, .33 mm in diame. 
ter; when the surface is worn the angularity is slight, sometimes 
they are circular, irregularly disposed ; sometimes in contact, at other 
times distant twice the diameter of an aperture; margins thin, cle- 
vated; intermediate space occupied by angular pits, varying greatly in 
size. The apertures and pits being polygonal and frequently nearly of 
the same size, it is very difficult to distinguish them from each other, 
the surface presenting very much the appearance cf that of a Chetetes 
or Paleschara. 


Locainty—-York, N Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA SUBTILIS, 2. sp. 


Foliaceous expansions; cell-apertures oval or subpolygonal, occa- 
sionally circular; length 20 mm.; irregularly disposed, distance from 
each other varying from contact to twice the diameter of an aper- 
ture; margins elevated, and on some portions of the frond having a 
very strong spine; intermediate space occupied by pits, nearly the 
size of the apertures, with their margins equally elevated. 


Locality—Canada West 


THALLOSTIGMA PLANA, 2. Sp 


Expansions or masses; apertures circular, diameter .40 mm , or 
some fronds quite regularly distant from each other, slightly less than 
the diameter of an aperture; in other fronds very irregularly dis- 
posed ; margins thick, elevated, the apertures being very prominent ; 
intermediate space with shallow angular pits; macule from1 to 2 
mm, in diameter, destitute of cell-apertures 


Locality—Darien, N Y. 


THALLOSTIGMA SPHEROIDEA, 2. Sp. 


Consisting of spheroidal masses formed by the accretion of success 
ive layers of growth , cells tubular, cylindrical; septa infrequent; in- 
- tercellular tissue consisting of irregularly disposed vesicles ; cell-aver- 
tures subpolygonal or circular, .50 mm. in diameter; margins elevated, 
_ some portion of the margins of adjacent apertures usually in contact ; 
frequently the intermediate angular pits occur on all sides of the aper- 
ture, but often they cecur on!y at the angles; walls with spinules. 


THALLOSTIGMA TRIANGULARIS. 


Expansions or masses, cells tubuiar, cylindrical; apertures arched 
or triangular, diameter .25 mm., quite regularly arranged, alternating 


188 Bryozoans of the 


and subimbricating, arched or triangular; the upper part of the cell 
walls are exposed for a distance equa! to or more than the diameter of 
an aperture; intermediate space occupied by minute angular pits, 
those occtpying centers of macule larger; at the angles of the pits 
are prominent granules; maculae low, rounded, distant 6 mm., ar- 
ranged in intersecting rows. 


Locality—New York 


THALLOSTIGMA INCLUSA, 2. Sp. 


Cells tubular, cylindrical; for one-half of their length parallel with 
and resting on the epitheca then turning abruptly and continuing at 
right angles to the former portion; the intercellular space is com- 
posed of septate tubuli, two-thirds the size of the cell tubes, divided by 
thin, closely arranged septa; cell-apertures circular, diameter .25 mm., 
quite regularly distant from each other, distance equal to the diame- 
ter of an aperture ; margins thin, slightly elevated ; midway between 
the cell-apertures are strong ridges whick unite and form polygonal 
elevations around each aperture ; the space between the marginal ap- 
ertures and ridge is flat, and occupied by minute angular pits. 


Locality—Y ork. N. Y. 


CERAMOPORA, Hail 


CrrAftopora (LICHENALIA?) CLYPEIFORMIS, %. sp. 


Consisting of a circular expansion, upper surface rounded and the 
lower flat ; thickness at center 1 mm.; at center of upper surface is a 
slight space destitute of cell-apertures ; from this space the cells radi- 
ate in all directions ; apertures very closely arranged, arched or triar- 
gular, alternating and imbricating. 


Zocality—York, N. Y. 


CERAMOPORA (LICHENALIA ?) IMBRICELLA, %. sp. 


Cells arising obliquely from the epitheca, gradually enlarging to 
the apertures, very oblique, sometimes at right angles to the surface, 
usually triangular, alternating and imbricating; the upper portion of 
the exposed cell walls has, along the middle, 2 comparatively strong 
carina; cell wall sometimes exposed to the extent of 1 mm. 


Loeahty --New Yerk. 


Hamiiton Group. 189 


STICTOPORA, Hall. 
STICTOPORA INCISURATA, %. Sp. 

Flattened dichotomous branches; bifurcations infrequent, some- 
times 30 mm. distant, width 4 mm.; greatest thickness .75 mm. ; 
width of non-celluliferous margin .35 mm., the ridges separating 
the longitudinal ranges of apertures sometimes continuing across this 
space, and from their extension giving a serrated appearance to the 
margin; cells tubular, cylindrical, apertures circular or slightly oval, 
diameter .25 mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, increasing by inter- 
stitial addition; margins of apertures very distinct and prominent, 
some portion of the margin bearing a denticulate projection; ridges, 
separating longitudinal rows of apertures, of varying appearance, 


STICTOPORA OBLIQUA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches 3 mm., non-cellular margin .25 mm., straight, 
not indented; apertures rounded or slightly oval, diameter -25 mm., 
arranged in longitudinal rows, which are slightly divergent ; margin 
of lower portion of aperture more prominently elevated ; the ranges 
of apertures separated by a distinct ridge. 


STICTOPORA INDENTA, 2%. 87. 


Bifurcations occurring at intervals of from 5 to 13 mm.,; width of 
branches 6 mm. ; greatest thickness slightly more than .50 mm.; non- 
celluliferons portion of the margin entirely wanting or very narrow ; 
cell apertures circular or slightly oval; diameter .25 mm., arranged in 
longitudinal rows from 11 to 17 rows on a branch; 10 apertures in the 
space of 5 mm., longitudinally; margins distinctly and usually equally 
elevated ; sometimes there is a denticulate projection from the lower 
or lateral portion of the margin. 


Locality—Lodi Landing, Seneca Lake, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA PALMIPES, 7. sp. 


Greatest thickness of the bryozoum .50 mm. ; celluliferous portion 
of the branch varying from 1 to 1.50 mm. in width. The mode of 
branching differs from that of the usual forms of Stictopora. The 
branches are primary and secondary; the secondary branches are 
short, not exceeding 1.50 mm. in length; the primary branches are 
distant from each other about 3 mm.; the secondary branches 2 mm., 
or less; width of non-celluliferous margin .80 mm.; it continues 
around the end of the secondary branch, and from that point to the 
secondary branch above, entirely limiting the celluliferous portions of 


190 Bryozoans of the 


the branch. The celluliferous portion has thus somewhat the appear- 

ance of encrusting a smooth surface; cells tubular ; apertures cir- ~ 

cular, diameter .22 mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, sixteen or 

seventeen in the space of 5 mm., the longitudinal rows are separated 

by a strong ridge, having numerous strong nodes or short spines. 
Locabty—Hamburg, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA SINUOSA, 2. sp 


Branches diverging at an angle of 45 degrees; width 2 mm., 
greatest thickness 1 mm. cell-aperatures broadly oval, nearly circu- 
lar, oblique to the surface, margins thin; diameter of aperture .25 
mm.; apertures arranged in irregular longitudinal rows and some- 
times in oblique ascending rows, from 7% to 10 longitudinal rows in 
the width of the branch, separated by a narrow sinuous, sometimes 
interrupted ridge. 


Locality—Near Auburn, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA MULTIPORA, n. sp, 


Some of the fronds present a somewhat rigid appearance; width 
of branches 2 mm.; greatest thickness .55 mm.; margins of branches 
acute; cell apertures circular, diameter .17 mm., arranged in longi- 
tudinal rows, separated by a narrow ridge; margins of branches 
notched or serrated by prolongation of striations. 


Locality—Borodino, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA SUBRIGIDA, 2. sp. 


Branches diverging at an angle of 80 degrees; width 2 mm. ; great- 
est thickness .75 mm.; apertures circular, usually parallel with the 
surface, .25 mm. in diameter, arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, 
five or six rows on a branch, those nearest the margins opening very 
obliquely; non-celluliferous margin .50 mm. in width; space between 
longitudinal] rows flat. 


Locality—Middleburg, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA INCRASSATA, 7. Sp. 


Branches diverging at about 40 degrees ; width of branches 3 mm. ; 
greatest thickness from 2 to 3 mm.; margins of cell-apertures parallel 
with surface, opening directly outward; apertures oval, length two- 
fifths of 1 mm., arranged in longitudinal rows, usually seven rows 
on a branch ; margins thin, but distinctly elevated and with’minute © 
spinules; in each aperture there 1s a distinct spine, proceeding appa- 
rently from the side of the interior. 


Locality—New York. ‘ 


. Hamilton Group. 191 


STICTOPORA GRANIFERA, 2”. Sp 
Width of branches from 2.50 to 5 mm.; greatest thickness 50 
mm.; ceil apertures oval, nearly parallel with the surface ; length .30 
mm., irregularly and very closely disposed, frequently forming an irreg- 
alar transverse row ; the elevated margins of the apertures, forming 
the rows coalescent; margins strong, with from three to five nodes on 
the summit; space between apertures striated ; stre interrupted, hav- 
ing numerous nodes; non-celluliferous margin narrow, striated, striz 
granulose ; the branches, so far as observed for a short distance above 

a bifurcation contract, then expand quite abruptly. 


Locality—Pavilion, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA INTERSTRIATA, 2. Sp. 

Width of branches usually from 2.50 to 3 mm., much widened im- 
mediately below the bifurcation; greatest thickness .65 mm. ; aper- 
tures oval, parallel with the surface; length .33 mm., usually disposed 
in irregular transverse rows; margins, strong, elevated, and having 
from their sides several minute denticulations extending toward the 
center of the aperture; intermediate space having minute interrupted 
striations. 


Locality—New York. 


STICTOPORA PERMARGINATA, 2, Sp. : 


Width of branches 1.25 mm.; greatest thickness .33 mm., apertures 
oval, length .40 mm., margins very strongly elevated, generally closely 
disposed ; some portion of the margins of adjacent apertures in con- 
tact ; between adjacent apertures sometimes a single carina; margins 
and carina with minute nodes or granules. 


Locahiy—-Uamburg, N Y 


STICTOPORA ? SCUTULATA, %. sp. 


Only fragments of this species have been observed, from which it is 
impossible to determine whether ramose or not. Width of branch 2 
mm., greatest thickness .55 mm., apertures polygonal, coalescent, 
length .25 mm., frequently arranged in oblique ascending rows; mar- 
gins thick, granulose, and frequently at the angles a short spinule, 


Locality—Lodi Landing, Seneca Lake, N. Y. 


STICTOPORA * SUBCARINATA, %. sp. 
Width of branch from 2 to 2.50 mm. ; greatest thickness 15 mm.; 
“apertures circular or oval, sometimes parallel with, at other times 
oblique to, the surface: arranged in paralle! longitudinal rows, usually 


192 Bryozoans of the 


separated by striations, the one separating the central rows somewhat 
larger than the others, and giving to portions of the branch a sub- | 
carinated appearance; occasionally only this ridge is present; non- 
celluliferous space at margin .33 mm. in width, flattened, smooth or 
granulose ; margins sometimes crenulated. 


Locality—Bellona and York, N Y 


GENUS TANIOPORA, Mich. 


Frond growing asa flattened stipe. from which proceed opposite 
' or alternating lateral branches: along the middle of each branch 
is a sharp elevated carina. frond celluliferous on each face, cells aris- 
ing from a mesial evitheca: apertures arranged in longitudinal parallel 
rows, sometimes in oblique ascending rows. 


TZ NIOPORA EXIGUA. 
Teniopora exigua Nicholson. Paleontology of Ontario, p. 108, 1874. 


Lateral branches diverging at an angle of 80 degrees, width 3.50 
mm.; thickness of transverse section .75 mm. , height cf carina .75 
mm. ; cells tubular, for the greater portion of their length parallel 
with the epitheca, opening directly outward; cell-apertures circular ; 
non-celluliferous space at the margin 50 mm. in width; the rows of 
cells at middle of branch smallest; each succeeding row larger; the 
number of rows differ from 2 to 5, but all intermediate forms occur. 


Locality—Bellona, and numerous other localities, New York ané 
Canada 


GENUS PTERQOPORA, nov. gen 


Frond consisting of a main axis with numerous branches ; axis tri- 
angular; sides equal concave; cells arising from-internal plates which 
radiate from the center to each angle; apertures arranged in lorgi- 
tudinal rows; margin at angles destitute of apertures. From each ~ 
angular margin proceed branches, diverging at an angle of 40 degrees, 
simple or branching ; transverse section lenticular, along the middle 
of each side are sharp, strong carinations ; branches celluliferous on 
each face; cells arranged in longitudinal rows, 


PTEROPORA DUOGENERIS, 2. sp. 


Axis triangular, width of each face 6 mm., equally concave. The 
lateral branches are like those of Tzniopora, from which it may be 
distinguished by the central axis. 


Locality—In a loose mass at Unadilla Forks, N. Y. 


Hamilton Group 193 


GENUS PRISMOPORA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum, consisting of triangular branches, frequently forming 
irregular masses, sides equal or unequal, subangularly concave, cel- 
luliferous on each face : cells arising from internal plates which radi- 
ate from the center to each angle; angular margins non-celluliferous. 


PRISMOPORA DILATA, %. SP. 


Branches frequent, sometimes rapidly widening and becoming flab- 
ellate ; sides equal or unequal; width of sides from 4 to 7.mm., inte- 
rior intercellular space vesiculose; cells opening directly outward, or 
slightly oblique to the surface, apertures irregularly disposed, diameter 
.33 mm.; width of non-celluliferous margins .33 mm, 


Locality—Near Leonardsville, N. Y 


GENUS SEMIOPORA, xov. gen. 


Bryozoum flat, branches infrequent, sometimes bifurcating, at other 
times, trifurcating; margins essentially parallel; celluliferous on both 
sides ; cells arising from a mesial epitheca;, apertures circular or oval, 
arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, ranges separated by a distinct 
continuous ridge; and between the cells in a iongitudinal direction, 
are two minute pits; apertures nearest to the margin larger and 
more oblique than the others; a marginal space non-celluliferous, stri- 
ated. 


SEMIOPORA BISTIGMATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branches 2.50 mm.; greatest thickness 60 mm. , aper- 
tures broadly oval, nearly parallel with the surface; length of aperture 
.d3 mm., arranged in parallel longitudinai rows, eight rows in the 
width of a branch, separated by a narrow angular ridge ; nen-cellulif- 
erous marginal space very narrow, striated. 3 


Locality—New York. 


GENUS ACROGENIA, nov, gen 


Frond ramose, proliferous, two branches proceeding from the trun- 
cate termination of the previous one; base of each division conical, 
terete above, strongly striated, becoming flattened and celluliferous ; 
transverse section of the completed branch lenticular, celluliferous on 
each side; a space at the margin non-celluliferous, cells arranged in 
_ longitudinal rows, separated by ridges, apertures of middle of branch 
smallest, those of each succeeding row becoming larger. . 

25 


194 Bryozoans of the 


ACROGENIA PROLIFERA, 2. Sp. 


Width of branch 2 to 3 mm.; greatest thickness .15 mm.; cell- 
apertures parallel or oblique to the base, circular or oval, diameter 
Varying from .20 to .50 mm; when oblique to the surface, the lower 
portion of the margin is most elevated, the apertures appearing as a _ 
succession of loops; the rows are separated by continuous ridges, the 
central ridge much stronger than the others. 


Locality—Bellona, N. Y. 


GENUS HEDERELLA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum consisting of a filiform axis with opposite or alternate 
lateral budding of simple tubular cells, or of lateral extensions having 
the same mode of growth as the original, 


HEDERELLA CIRRHOSA, 2. sp. 


A filiform tube, from which proceed laterally simple tubular cells, 
and at irregular distances tubular extensions, whose manner of growth 
is the same as that of the main tube; parasitic, procumbent, attached 
for their entire length ; diameter.20 mm.; the lateral cells generally al- _ 
ternate and are distant from each other on the same.side of the branch 
2.50 mm.; before ceasing growth they turn abruptly outward; tubes 
transversely annulated. 

Locahty—York, N. Y 


| - HEDERELLA CANADENSIS, Nich. sp. 
Aulopora canadensis, Nich. Pal. Prov. of Ontaric, 1874, Alecto canadensis. 
Nich. Canadian Naturalist. Vol. 7, No. 3. 

Lateral tubes have a length of 1.50 mm.; they are quite regularly 
arranged, and are distant from each other on the same side of the 
branch 1.50 mm. ; cell for the greater portion of its length of the same 
size., diameter .560 mm, surface marked by strong transverse annula- 
tions and fine strie. 3 

Locality—York, N. Y. 

| HEDERELLA FILIFORMIS, 

Aulopora filiformis, Billings, Canadian Journal, New Series, Vol. 4, p 119 

This species differs from all others of the genus in the compact ar- 
rangement of the cells’ It may be very easily distinguished from H. 
cirrhosa by its large size; from H. canadensis by its larger size, and 
from the fact that the lateral cells are parallel to and in contact with 
the main axis for their entire length; from H, magna from its much 
smaller size. 


Locality—York, N Y. 


Hamilton Group. 195 


HEDERELLA MAGNA, 2. SD. 


The lateral tubes are frequently regularly arranged, but often 
otherwise, diameter 1.25 mm. ; length 2 mm.; near the end the cell 
turns upward, and the circular and slightly expanded aperture is pare 
allel with the axis of the branch. The surface is marked by fine 
transverse striz, and rrequently by strong annulations. This spe- 
cies can easily be distinguished from all other forms by its much 
larger size. 


Locality—Y ork, N. Y. 


PTILIONELLA, nov. gen. 


Bryozoum parasitic, procumbent, attached along its entire length ; 
ramose; branches at irregular intervals; cells tubular, subcylindrical; 
the attached portion flat, the free portion round; cells on each side of 
the rachis contiguous, but not coalescing. 


PTILIONELLA CONFERTA, 7%. Sp. 


Width of cell at base .25 mm., increasing to .50 mm. ; cells in con- 
tact nearly their entire length; transverse section oval; aperture 
slightly elevated, circular, opening directly outward; surface with an- 
ruiations, and with fine distinct longitudinal striations. 


Locahity—Darien, N. Y. 


PTILIONELLA PENNIFORMIS, %. Sp. 


Width of cells at base .25 mm., increasing to .t6 mm.; cells on 
each side of rachis contiguous, but not coalescing; the end of each 
cell-tube projecting beyond the previous cell gives a serrate appear- 
ance to the frond, tubes strongly annulated; apparently angular. 
Where the annulations have the appearance of nodes the tubes 


are not angular. 


Locality—Cazenovia, N. Y. 


PTILIONELLA NODATA, 2%. Sp. 


Diameter of cell-tubes at base .25 mm., enlarging to 75 mm.; in 
contact with each other nearly their entire length, and frequently coa.- 
lescing; each succeeding cell projects beyond the preceding about .80 
mm.; length of cell-tube nearly 4 mm.; tubes very strongly annu- 
lated or nodose; sometimes the annulations extend across the cell- 
tube, but usually there is a strong line of nodes on each side, some- 
times coalescing with similar nodes on adjoining tubes, the apertures 


196 Bryozoans of the 


ure oval or lunate, and directed upward; the tubes are generally 
slightly overlapping; the nodes on different tubes are very variable, 


Locality—New York. 


HERNODIA, nov. gen. 


HERNODIA HUMIFUSA, 2. Sp. 


Epizoic, procumbent, consisting of tubular cells enlarging to near 
the aperture; diameter at smaller end .33 mm.; greatest diameter 1 
mm.; aperture slightly contracted ; length of tube 5 mm. ; surface 
marked by comparatively strong annulations, concentric strie and 
faint longitudinal strie. Growing upon Gomphoceras. 


Locality—New York. 


PTYLOPORA, McCoy. 


Bryozoum attached by radices, from which arises a strong midrib, 
having slender equi-distant, cylindrical, lateral branches, connected by 
dissepiments; midrib gradually growing smaller from the base; cellu- 
liferous on one side. 


PTYLOPORA STRIATA, 2. Sp. 


Width of rachis from 1 to 1.25 mm.; non-celluliferous side rounded, 
striated; from ten to twelve striz on a branch, diameter of lateral 
branches .20 mm.; situated at regular distances apart; non-cellu- 
liferous side striated, dissepiments depressed, oblique; on cellulif- 
erous side the cell-apertures are arranged in two rows, opening directly 
laterally, fourteen in the space of 5 mm.; margins thin, elevated. 


Locality—West Williams, Canada. 


PTYLOPORA NODOSA, 7. Sp. 


A transverse section of the midrib circular; width on fragments 
observed .33 mm.; width of lateral branches .20 mm.; space be- 
tween adjacent branches .40 mm.; cell-apertures slightly oval, 
20 mm. in length, arranged in two rows, usually opening Jaterally, 
margin of apertures thin, elevated ; space between ranges eievateo, 
striated, nodose. 

Localitty—Alden, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME, Goldf. 
GLAUCONOME CARINATA, 7. Sp. 


Width of midrib .40 mm.; of lateral branches .20 mm.; laterai 
branches diverging at an angle of 9C degrees; non-celluliferous side of 
the midrib flattened, with a comparatively strong carina along the 


Hamillon Group. 197 


¥ middle ; the margins of the branch are sharp and eleyated, having 
_ the appearance of two striations. The midrib has thus the appear- 
~ ance of having three ridges, the central one the strongest ; lateral 
branches similar; on celluliferous side the branches are subangular ; 
_eell-apertures minute, circular, with comparatively strong, elevated 
margins; ranges of apertures separated by comparatively strong, 
_ sharp carina. 

Lecality—Eighteen Mile creek, Erie county, N Y. 


THAMNISCUS, King. 


( THAMNISCUS PAUCIRAMUS, 2. sp 


_ Bifurcations distant from each other from 3 to 7 mm.; branches 

diverging at an angle of from 30 to 40 degrees, enlarging below bifur- 

- eation; width from .50 to 1 mm.; non-celluliferous side striated, gran- 

_ulose; cells opening obliquely, ero small, circular, or pelygonal 

& from mutual pressure ; diameter .20 mm., closely but irregularly dis- 
- posed; usually in contact. 

- Locality—Monteith’s Pom:, Carendaigua Lake, N. Y. 


THE FIRST MEN: 
THEIR EPOCH, HABITAT AND CRANIA. 


By STEPHEN ©. HUTCHINS. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, February 15, 1881.] 


The subject which I propose for consideration this evening is one 
which is attracting general attention, and the solution of which is 
engaging the critical examination of the most eminent scientific in- 
vestigators. My purpose is to gather together the sum of present 
knowledge concerning the first men, free from detail, and to connect 
it with certain hypotheses; the whole forming what it seems to me is 
the provisional answer men are preparing to give to questions concern- 
ing the epoch, habitat and crania of their original ancestors. I trust 
I shall not be deemed presumptuous in presenting for your considera- 
tion so intricate and involved a problem, for I shall assume that when 
scientific men have thoroughly explored the accessible sources of knowl- 
edge, the results of their investigations are to be accepted as the best 
attainable truth, if not as actually the truth itself. At the same time 
I shall feel at liberty to disregard conjecture, or even hypothesis, and 
to supply suppositions of my own, in cases where it seems necessary to 
do so, in order to preserve the continuity of the provisional history 
which I shall briefly outline, subject to verification. 

Among the sources of our knowledge we ascribe high authority to the 
book of Genesis. While we do this, however, we must at the same time 
carefully distinguish between the book itself and its interpretations. 
It is within the memory of most of us that it was regarded as heresy 
to deny that the earth was created in six days of twenty-four hours 
each. Now, this construction ‘of the ancient record has been cast aside, 
and there has been no better use found for the vast number of printed 
volumes enforcing it than to grind them into pulp again, perchance to’ 
afford the white pages upon which to print a history of creation far 
more in harmony with the character of the great Author whose press 
has been the forces of the universe, the leaves of whose work have been 
the stratified rocks of the earth, and whose types have been the fossi- 
lized remains of flora and fauna, ranging from the tiniest, most simple 
and most delicate to the largest, most complex and most ponderous. 
As we have cast into heaps of literary rnbbish the interpretations which 
men were once arrogant enough to claim as the only literal and author- 
ized version of a revealed account of creation, so one must discard the 
crude constructions of the antediluvian portion of the narrative, and 


“> 


The First Men. 199 


adopt one which, while being even more in harmony with the Word, 
shall conform to the history of man which God Himself has written in 
the open pages of the fossilized races now to be found the world over, 
arranged in the strata where they were originally deposited, when man 
was being gradually developed into the stature we now find him. 

It is established that the cyclical succession in the earth’s history is 
correctly recorded in Genesis. We must give to the “days” therein 
described, however, a more specific character, if we would ascertain their 
full significance. The “evening” and the “morning” have definite 
meaning, and we must determine what that meaning is, or else lose the 
full force of the testimony of the Word. A natural day is a completed 
cycle, and so must the days in Genesis have been, or the original term 
(yonr) has been employed without due regard to its pertinence and value. 
These cycles must have conformed in general character to the natural 
day, or else the terms “evening” and “ morning” have been used care- 
lessly and atrandom. We must, then, base our divisions of the world’s 
history into ages upon the divisions in Genesis, and depart from scien- 
tific nomenclature sufficiently to enable us to give names to those days, 
derived from their characteristics as stated in the Word, if we would 
synchronize the two accounts, and ascertain the night and noon of each 
day. Ifscience will enable us to do this, we shall find in Genesis the 
cycle in which the first men were created. If the result thus reached 
shall be in harmony with advanced science, let us not shrink from 
accepting it as the true solution ; for man is older than he is willing 


to own, as well as woman, and there can be no real conflict between 


the record of God in the rocks of the earth or the races of men, and 
the revelation of His doings which He gave to the founders of His true 
worship. 

The Hebrew day began with the ‘‘evening,” artd thus began each 
creative cycle.* In undertaking to give precise definition to the terms 
“evening” (erev) and ‘‘morning” (voquer), we shall be greatly assisted 
by the fact that in Hebrew the same consonants, as a rule, embody the 
same root idea, and that the different meanings are expressed by the 
vowels. rev, therefore, is reiated in thought to arev, which means 
to mix, conceal, confuse together; and voquer is connected with diguar,t 


_ to make appear, develop. In each creative day, therefore, there was 
developed or made to appear during the morning that which was mixed, 


concealed or confused together during the evening; and hence each 
day was a distinct cyle of evolution. 


' * The author has rewritten the paragraphs in which the “days” of Genesis were con- 
sidered, in order to avail himself of the interpretations of erev and voquer, thehom and 
hoshak given in an able work entitled ‘‘Conversations on the Creation: Chapters on 
Genesis and Evolution,”’ published by the Sunday School Union, London. 

+The consonants ‘*b” and “vy” are more or less interchangeable in nearly all lan- 
guages. 


200 The First Men. 


It is distinctly declared in Genesis that the evening of the first day 
was marked by just such concealment or confusion. ‘The earth was 
formless and void. Darkness was upon the face of the deep, or thehom, 
a word closely related to ¢thohw, or confusion; as hoshek, the original, 
Ilebrew for darkness, is related to hasak, which denotes absence of 
action, or refraining. This deep is termed mayim, a word which usu- 
ally means waters, but which is also a general term for the fluids of 
the universe.. When the Spirit of God moved upon this chaotic mass, 
motion was produced, and light followed, precisely as the nebular 
hypothesis explains. This was the first day. 

There followed another period of confusion, when all the elements 
of the earth were mixed together, at high temperature; but from this 
confusion there finally came an orb covered with water over its entire 
surface, which water was separated from the waters above by an expanse. 
The morning of this day did not end until the chaos of the stormy 
evening had been superseded by order; and, as the appearance of water 
was followed by the appearance of life, this second day may properly 
be termed the Ezoic cycle. At some time during this day, from the 
not-life of the preceding Azoic cycle, there came the first marine 
creatures of our planet. 

Another period of confusion followed. Land appeared above the 
surface of the waters, but it was at first barren and shapeless. Con- 
cealed in this new-made soil, however, were the germs of vegetation, 
which the land was to bring forth. The reference is to the original 
Paleozoic vegetation — the vegetation alluded to in the second chap- 
ter being of a different character, the plants of the field, that is, do- 
mestic grains. This, then, was that great Phytozoic cycle, which had 
its culmination in the carboniferous vegetation. 

Now comes the fourth period of confusion — the burial of this vege- 
tation in great coal vaults. With all the mixed and confused terrestrial 
phenomena which must have occurred up to this time, there were 
no seasons, as we now know them, as the uniformity of life in every 
section of theglebe attests. Order was restored; the land, after various 
upheavals and subsidences, became quiet; life was no longer uniform 
in every section of the globe; the pulpy trees of the carboniferous 
period were succeeded by the fibrous and woody vegetation of the 
Permian period, and, with the appearance of winter, the fishes of 
the old time, which had been fitted for the warmer waters of their day, 
were superseded by others, adapted to cooler waters. Thus is the 
proof afforded that on this, the fourth day, the sun, moon and stars 
were completed, and took their places as ruling orbs. 

The confusion which followed the Permian period was so great, the 
break so extensive, that geologists are yet unable to tell us what took 


The First Men. F 201 


place. The rocks of the Permian period are said by some authorities 

to give evidence of glacial action; and the rocks of the fifth day, or 
Mesozoic cycle, show that it was an age in which minor creatures and 
reptiles which spawn rapidly, large fowls and great aquatic monsters 
abounded, as Genesis declares, so that it is not necessary to dwell here 
to establish that which is the object of inquiry — the identification of 
the sixth day. 

The sixth great period of confusion was the beginning of the Kaino- 
zoic cycle; the sixth great period of development was the evolution of 
the Mammalian kingdom, closing with the creation of man, an act 
which justifics its classification as the Phrenozoic cycle. It must be 
borne in mind, also, that there was a seventh day ; and hence that 
there must have been a seventh period of confusion, a seventh evening, 
a seventh period of development, a seventh cycle, during which that 


* which was concealed in the “evening” was made to appear in the 


> 


morning. Man must have been created before the evening of the 


seventh day, for he was created during the sixth day, after the crea- 


tion of the lower orders of mammals, but before the close of the cycle. 
This day must have terminated with the first evening, cr period cor- 


# responding thereto, following the creation of the animal kingdom, .in 


general. Man was created before the close of the day, or cycle, if the 


~author of Genesis knew whereof he affirmed. Tence, to place his crea- 


tion after two glacial epochs, or even after one, is to do violence to the 


' narrative. Man, therefore, must have been created before the glacial 


“ 


period, which was the evening of the seventh day. 

The existence of man during the inter-glacial or Reindeer period is 
fully established. The memory of the last glacial period, we assume, 
is preserved in the Persian tradition of a great climatic change, syn- 
chronizing with the departure of their ancestors from their original 
home; and is typified in Genesis by the symbol of the Lord God cloth- 
ing man with skins. The inter-glacial period, then, was the seventh 
day, or Psychozoic cycle; the Sabbath of the creative cycles which the 
Lord God blessed and sanctified. The condition and migrations of 


_ man during the inter-glacial or Reindeer period prove that he had been 
_ ereated and developed somewhere at the east, and can only be satis- 


~ 
- 


-factorily explained: by assuming that this creation occurred before the 


glacial period which immediately preceded the Reindeer period; for, as 


_ he followed the retreating glaciers into Europe, he must have been 
_ created before their formation, in order to have matured and multi- 
plied and acquired a migratory disposition. 


The weight of this argument for the pre-glacial origin of man rests 
upon the interpretation of the terms “evening” and “morning” as 


_ indicating a complete cycle, and the assertion of Genesis that man was 
_ created on the same day with other mammals. 


‘ 
. 


26 


202 The First Men. 


The conservative scientific argument against this view is, that the 
traces of pre-glacial man are too meager and doubtful to be accepted 
as conclusive. This, however, is just what we should expect in the be- 
ginning of the race; and cannot be permitted to nullify such proofs as 
may actually exist. 

The traditional Scriptural argument against this position is, that it 
is in irreconcilable conflict with. Biblical chronology. The answer to 
that is, that there is no Biblical chronology; only uninspired and con- 
flicting schemes computed from the Scriptural record, but having no 
binding authority. Indeed, there is no settled chronology, fixing either 
the glacial epochs or the beginning of the human race. So faras either 
scientific or Scriptural authority goes, we are at liberty to accept any 
dates we please. 

We would not place undue stress upon the Scriptural argument we 
have advanced in favor of the pre-glacial origin of man. We think, 
however, we can properly claim that it affords presumptive proof of 
such origin, and gives weight to the probability that traces thereof | 
exist. We add to these evidences an argument derived from the unity 
in diversity of the human race. 

Adam, says Lange, means “the red one, from the red earth taken.” 
This isconfirmed by the monuments of Egypt, upon which the ancient 
Egyptians were represented as of brick-red color. They were really a 
brown race, however. The first men, therefore, were neither white 
nor black, but of some intermediate shade. The white races, no one 
will dispute, were a later development. Again, the blackest races are 
not the lowest in organism, and hence they do not represent the first 
men, and are likewise to be eliminated. The brownish-yellow inhabi- 
tants of eastern and north-eastern Asia are likewise of later origin, 
and are to be omitted from consideration. This leaves only the brown 
races to be considered. \ 

The children of Australians, who are generally classed as lowest 
among men, are yellowish brown immediately after birth, and become 
dark at a later age. The Hottentots are regarded by many ethnolo- 
gists as the lowest of mankind, because of their associations, their 
repulsive physical characteristics, and their intellectual inferiority. 
They are ofa yellowish brown complexion. The new-born negro child is 
reddish nut brown, which soon becomes slaty grey; the black color 
being fully developed within a year in the Soudan, but not until three 
years in Egypt. The eyes of the negro are at first blue, and the hair 
chestnut brown, rather than black, being curled at the ends.* Among 
the Eskimo, the oldest families are brown. 

These facts show that the first men were of a uniform brown or 


* Pruner Bey. 


The First Men. 203 


“reddish-brown color. They must have originated and multiplied, 


therefore, in an age of uniform conditions, and then encountered 
various natural influences, differentiating them into existing types. 
The glacial periods alone supply these influences. When Europe was 
much colder than it is now, Africa was much warmer — we may say 


hotter. The black pigment is a natural protector against heat. 


Nature provides nothing not necessary. This pigment, then, was 
provided under extra-torrid conditions, to protect men who would 
otherwise suffer from intense heat. 

It will be said, in answer to this view, that Genesis records the 
existence of but one man and one woman, from the creation of the 
Adamite until after the expulsion from the garden. This isa mistake. 
The word used in recording the creation of man is a common noun 
and not a proper noun. ‘The proper noun is not used until the midst 


of the scene in the garden, long after the creation of the first men. 


os 


This scene is a pictorial representation of an historic event of momen- 
tous importance; the exact meaning of which it is not our purpose 
now to inquire. We may say, however, to avoid misunderstanding, 
that we should give to it an interpretation in no way impairing the 
most rigid orthodox faith, and in no way conflicting with scientific 
investigations into the origin of man. In supportof our view that the 
record we are considering covers a very long period, we hold that it is 


sustained by the established fact that the first chapter of Genesis gives 


FEES ew es 


a Liat alas 


the history of thousands of years, in the most compressed form. It is 
not probable that the style of the writer suddenly changed toward the 
close of that chapter, and that he then began to give us an elaborate 
account of the events occurring in a single year in the life-time of a 
single pair. From the creation of man to his expulsion from the gar- 
den a Jong time elapsed — how long it is not our purpose to inquire, 
even if it were possible approximately to estimate it. We must bear 
in mind that the record is simply a foledoth, giving the generations or 
Genesis of the Hebrew race, and stating only the points of divergence 


-from the main stock, of other races. If we would correctly read the 


record, therefore, we must consider it as a genealogical tree, and not 
as a complete history. 

We shall now endeavor to show that the division of the human race 
into two stocks and various vocations is recorded as having taken 
place on the sixth day; and, in this connection, we shall advance our 
last argument in support of the pre-glacial origin of man. 

- Two terms are employed in Genesis, from the creation of man until 
the deluge, evidently for the purpose of distinguishing between two 
ancient branches of the human family. These are, respectively, Adam 
and Ha-Adam. If we discriminate in the employment of these terms, 


204 The First Men. 


and others which are indifferently translated as man and Adam, we 
may obtain a clue to the earliest divisions of mankind, which with the 
aid of the science of ethnology will lead to important results. The 
26th verse of the 1st chapter reads: “And God said, Let us make — 
Adam in our image, after our likeness, and let them have dominion 
over the fish of the sea [that is, become fishermen] and over the fowl 
of the air [hunters] and over the cattle [herdsmen] and over all the 
earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth” 
[the smaller domestic animals]. In the fifth chapter, we have the 
explanation of the plural form when applied to Adam — ‘male and 
female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name 
Adam.” In the language of Akkad, dd means “father” and dam 
‘‘mother;” and as Akkad signifies son, descendant or lineage of “ Ad,” 
we may not improperly give to the term “ Adam” an interpretation — 
expressive of the unity of the race. The record we are considering, in 
the first chapter, shows the development of the race from fishermen to 
hunters and herdsmen, and the slow movement of man over the earth, 
as scientific inquiry has established. 

The 27th verse introduces us to another development. The trans- 
lators have rendered the first word ‘‘so,” when they ought to have 
employed the word ‘‘and.” ‘The verse reads: ‘‘ And God created Ia- 
Adam in His own image, in the image of God created he him; male 
and female created he them.” ‘The word “ Ha” means “ the,” and its 
employment signifies a development, which is simply expressed by 
designating the differentiated family as “the Adam.” Its growth is 
thus recorded: “ And God blessed them, and God said unto them, be 
fruitful, and multiply and replenish the earth, and subdue it [be the 
ruling race] and have dominion over the fish of the sea [as fishermen | 
and over the fowl of the air [as hunters] and over every living thing that 
moveth upon the face of the earth” [the larger domestic animals]. 
It will be observed that this portion of the sentence is similar to the 
reference to Adam, except that “cattle” is omitted, and “living 
things” substituted for “creeping things.” With the introduction of 
domestic animals of a higher order, there camea change which implies 
that Ha-Adam was something more than a herder of cattle; the 
fruits and herbs of the field were introduced. ‘“ And God said, Behold, 
I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all 
the earth, and every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding 
seed ; to you it shall be for meat. And to every beast of the earth, 
and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon 
the earth, wherein seein is life, I have given every green herb for 
meat; and it was so.” The Pliocene was remarkable for its herbivora; 
and it could not be more accurately described than in this passage. 


The First Men. 205 


= 


Whe n we consider the archaic style of the narrative, therefore, and its 
an Belogice, it seems clear that this indicates that man not only existed, 
t had reached a stage of development at the close of the Pliocene 
Bod, contemporaneously with the development of other herbivora. 
~The work of the sixth day was thus completed. ‘‘ And God saw 
every thing that He had made, and behold it was very good. And the 
evening and the morning were the sixth day.” 

Le Garite, in his recent work on the Elements of Geology, while 
adi itting that man may be traced to the Pliocene or even to the Mio- 
o ene epoch, advances an argument against it which is worthy of eon- 
i eration : ‘‘ not a single species of ot dyeing now living,” he says, “is 
found in the Tertiary. Shall man, the highest of all: be the only 
xception? Man is one of the present mammalian fauna, and came 
n SS with it. But, again, several distinct mammalian faune have 
Bipeaced and eipenked since the beginning of the Miocene. The 
Miocene mammalian fauna is totally eiedrant from the Eocene; the 
Pliocone totally different from the Miocene ; the Quaternary fein the 
Pliocene, and the present from the Gaateraany. It seems in the high- 
Bs est degree improbable that man, a mammal, should survive the appear- 
ance nod disappearance of several mammalian faune. If, therefore, 
man should ever be traced to the Miocene, it would probably bea 
different species of man—-the genus Homo, but not the species 
Sapicns.” 

‘This argument necessitates the consideration of an opposing one, 
base upon acknowledged facts, which is similar in its ratiocination, 
and yet the very antipodes in its result. The flora and fauna of 
Australia resemble those of Eocene Europe, and in Australia there 
exist low forms of man which are held by some to be the oldest be- 
cause the lowest. Did this man come in with the Eocene flora and 
fav na, the same as modern man came in with modern flora and fauna? 
Again, the Miocene flora of Europe resembles that of America not only at 
but in Eocene times. Did the most ancient man on this 
mtinent, then, enter it with the Miocene vegetal and animal life 
f which he apparently formed a part? Further, the Pliocene flora 
ck mrope resembles that of Southern United States at present. Did 
n * , then, enter this continent, with this vegetation, before he entered. 
Ev rope ? These questions are pertinent, for the reason that we have 
un. doubted traces of Quaternary man. Why not, then, Pliocene and 
n of Miocene if not of Eocene? ‘The answers to these questions 
am be given as we proceed, indirectly if not directly. 

The comparisons we have cited show that, at some common center, 
@ was a steady progress toward the Pliocene consummation, which 
td in the Blontking of various subdivisions of the earth with 


i 


206 The First Men. 


varying forms of vegetal and animal life. The unity of nature is its 
highest law, and kence we have no doubt that as the evening of the 
seventh day drew on, toward the close of the Pliocene epoch, these forms — 
of life were subjected to modification, rendering them more conformable — 
to the wants of man; and that with such modification the development 
of man took place. 

Dawson, who also declines to accept the pre-glacial origin of man, 
in his Story of the Earth and Man, remarks: “ Was the Miocene period 
ou the whole a better age of the world than that in which we live ? 
In some respects it was. Had we lived in the Miocene, we might 
have sat under our vine and fig-tree equally in Greenland and Spitz- 
bergen and in those more southern climes to which this privilege is 
now restricted. We might have enjoyed a great variety of rich and 
nutritive fruits, and, if sufficiently muscular, and able to cope with the 
gigantic mammals of the period, we might have engaged in either the 
life of the hunter or that of the agriculturist under advantages which 
we do not now possess. On the whole, the Miocene presents to us in 
these respects the perfection of the Neozoic [ Kainozoic]| time, and its 
culmination in so far as the nobler forms of brute animals and of 
plants are concerned. Had men existed in these days, however, they . 
should have been, in order to suit the conditions surrounding them, — 
a race of giants; and they would probably have felt the want of many 
of those more modern species belonging to the flora and fauna of — 
Europe and Western Asia on which man has so much depended for 
his civilization.” 

This certainly foreshadows the domicil of the human race, and we 
may be sure that the forerunner of man is not far distant, if the unity 
of nature is to be preserved. ‘There has been found in the Upper 
Miocene of the south of France an ape equaling man in stature, and 
apparently living among the trees and feeding upon plants, This ape, 
Aermed the Dryopithecus, is considered by M. Lartel, from its denti- 
tion, to have approached nearer to man than any other existing species 
of ape. 

We must now consider the habitat of the first men, if we would 
reach an approximate solution of the problem we are considering. 
Wallace, in his great work on the Geographical Distribution of Ani- 
mals, says that “all the chief types of animal life appear to have origi- 
nated in the great north temperate or northern continents. The pro- 
cess of development has been more rapid in the north, and has resulted ~ 
in more varied and higher types.” This law of nature, we believe, is 
accepted as incontrovertible; and it seems to us clear that man cannot 
be an exception thereto. He could not have originated at the south, | 
either on an imaginary Lemurian continent or elsewhere south of the | 


The First Men. 207 


‘Palearctic region, and migrated northward; he must have been cre- 


ated somewhere on the border of the temperate and tropical regions, 
and migrated southward. 

It is equally a scientific conclusion that man originated in the region 
of maximum vegetal and animal life; and that there, also, existed 
the most perfect forerunners of man, in each epoch, from the begin- 
ning of mammalian life. It is almost certain, says Wallace (upon 
whom we here rely for our data) that during the Miocene period Europe 
was not only far richer than it is now in the higher forms of life, but 
not improbably richer than any part of the globe now is, not excepting 
tropical Africa and tropical Asia. ‘The Mediterranean sub-region,” 
he also says, ‘‘is by far the richest portion of the Palearctic region ; 
and it is perhaps in Asia Minor, on therange of the Taurus, along the 
shores of the Black sea and to the south of the Caucasus, that this 
sub-region obtained its maximum luxuriance in vegetation, and in 
animal life.” This is precisely the region known in Genesis as Eden. 
All the earlier races of men are traceable, from the localities in which 
they first became certainly known, toward this plateau. 

Wallace also shows that there was little difference between the 
Palearctic and Oriental provinces previous to the elevation of the 
Himalayas. The northerly plains of Asia were then probably under 
water, and a great continental formation extended from north-west to 
south-east, under generally tropical or sub-tropical influences, gradually 
modifying in temperature at each extreme. This harmonizes with the 
fact that man was evidently created in a warm climate. 

The elevation of the Himalayas and other mighty ranges worked 
a radical change in land life. The development and differentiation 
which took place can now be distinctly traced. From the base to the 
summit of the Himalayas, all species of floracan be found, from 
tropical to Arctic forms; while in Eden, on the right bank of the 
Euphrates, north-west from Arnah, barley, wheat and spelt have been 
found growing together in a wild state. The changes effected during 
Plivcene times were wrought gradually. At the close of the Quater- 
nary period, when Ha-Adam was expelled from the garden, he went 
eastward, to till the ground from whence he was taken. He came 


~ from the east, and was driven back. There is thought to be reason to 


think that man existed on our own continent in Pliocene times, and 


that he came in with a peculiar fauna from Asia. These reasons lead 


us to believe that the first men were of Pliocene creation, and that 
their original habitat was at the point where all life was most rapidly 
and most perfectly developed. From thence, man was distributed over 
the face of the earth. 

In seeking to trace the first men to some region where we can cxam- 


208 The First Men. 


ine their crania and. judge their character, we’ think we shall be sus- 
tained in three assumptions. ‘The first of these is, that man followed, 
if he did not go with, the flora and fauna which were agreeable to him. 
The second is, that when compelled to go to an inferior region the 
effect was to degrade him below the standard attained by the first 
men. The third is, that if he reached a region where he was sur- 
rounded by superior influences, he shared in the common deyelop- 
ment. In other words, primitive man was modified by the same 
operating causes which affected vegetal and animal life in general. 

In view of the fact that we have zoological provinces partaking of char- 
acteristics of different periods as far back as Eocene times, we would have 
no difficulty in obtaining the concession that the original Adamites can 
be traced in the persons of their descendants, if it were not for two 
reasons. On the one hand, we are told that there were pre-Adamites ; 
on the other, that all mankind were drowned in the deluge, so that 
every race now existing descended from Noah. This latter position. 
we believe is untenable, from a scientific standpoint ; and we do not ; 
believe it is a necessary interpretation of the account in Genesis. 

‘We think it to be an indisputable proposition that anatomically the 
first men are represented to-day by the men of the lowest cranialogical 
organization, specimens of which can be found either in the graves of 
the dead or the lands of the living. As between races competing for 
this rank, we think it reasonable to hold, as the first men would 
naturally follow familiar vegetation, that they are more likely to be 
represented among the earliest races of America than among the earliest 
races of any other continent. In prosecuting this inquiry, we are 
manifestly limited to such earliest races. 

The Australioid is ethnologically lowest in the scale. Next to him, 
among African races, is the Hottentot, and the two are closely related. 
On the other hand, the Malays are most nearly connected. The Aus- 
tralioids have been traced to and identified with the man of the Dek- 
kan, and the ancient Egyptians have been shown by Huxley to be 
merely adevelopment therefrom. They werea brown race, or Adamites 
The Australioids and Hottentots have been shown to give evidence of 
arrested development. Friedrich Muller regards the latter as a racial 
ruin. We attribute this ruin to the severance of their relation with 
more progressive stocks, and to their being cast away in a zodlogical 
province unfavorable tu their natural development. While we shall 
consider them in comparison with other early races, we think it only 
a fair conclusion that they do not represent the first men, absolutely. 
The Australians have names for eight different winds, and many of 
them speak English with fluency. ‘‘ They are peculiarly inventive in 
expressions of courtesy, which they both require and bestow freely in 


‘eet 


The First Men. 209 


conversation.” They possess very distinct religious conceptions, and 
their language is, like that of the Koi-Koin [Hottentots], an unex- 
pected evidence of very considerable intellectual power and discrimina- 
tion. It posseseseight case terminations, and as many numbers as the 
Greek. ‘‘ The verb is as rich in tenses as the Latin, and has also ter- 
minations for the dual, and three genders for the third person. In 
addition to active and passive, it has reflective, reciprocal, deter- 
minative and continuative forms. We also find among them attempts 
at poetry, and the names of renowned poets.” * 

The language of the Hottentots (or Koi-Koin, as they call them- 
selves), says Winchell, “is of great ethnological interest, since, accord- 
ing to Moffat, Lepsius, Pruner Bey, Max Muller, Whitney and Bleek, 
it presents some resemblances to the language of ancient Egypt. 
Though other philological authorities dissent from this view, the ex- 
istence of an opinion of this kind, so well indorsed, proves that the 
Koi-Koin are in possession of a Janguage which has reached a remark- 
able development. Whether these people are descendants, with more 


or less extraneous mixture, from the ancient Egyptians, or have lived 


in communication with them, or some other civilized people, are ques- 
tions which naturally arise for discussion. It is not impossible that 


even so rude a people as the Koi-Koin should have created a language 


as complex and polished as that which they employ; though it seems 
more probable that they present to-day the mere ruins of a former 
better condition, or the reminiscences of ancient contact with a higher 
race.” 

Here, then, we have the Adamites in ruins, eth scsi speaking; 
fallen, theologians would say. 

Turning to our own continent, we have the Mound Builders and 
Cliff Dwellers, who lived north and north-west of the gulf of Mexico; 
their kindred, the ancient Mexicans and Central Americans, with the 
ancient Peruvians, who were unlike any other people, except the Mexi- 
cans, and were doubtless remotely from the same ancestral stock. 
The Mound Builders lived so long before the Indians that they were 
not known to them even by tradition. ‘The carvings upon some of 


their elaborate stone pipes are thought to prove that they were con- 
- temporaries of the Mammoth and the Mastodon. Their civilization is 
undoubted. In reference to the report of a ceiling in one of the Cliff 
_ dwellings which had been arched at the height of twenty-five feet over 


a room twenty-five or thirty feet in diameter, Dr. E. Bessels remarks: 
‘«There are but two tribes inhabiting this continent whose architect- 


ural skill proved efficient enough for this purpose — namely, the Peru- 


vians and the Eskimo.” + The Eskimo once occupied much of North 


* Peschal. + Bulletin of Hayden’s Survey, Vol. II, p. 61. 


27 


210 The First Men. 


America, and were driven north and west by the warlike hunting tribes 
of Indians, who differ profoundly from them and from all earlier races. 
‘he Eskimo type also exists among the Patagonians. It is clear that 
the ancient Peruvians moved southward at a very early date; so early 
that they lost all recollection of their association at the north, and were 
not even aware that a contemporaneous civilization existed there. In 
his work on Peru, Mr. E. George Squier says: ‘‘ Even if it be assumed 
that the whole human race sprung from a single family, and that their 
original seat was in the highlands of Armenia, whence they have over- 
spread the globe, still it remains true that the period of their advent 
in Peru antedates all human record.” The capacity of the Peruvian 
skull was no greater than that of the Hottentot. The Central Ameri- 
cans say that civilization came to them from the east. They have 
linguistic affinities to some extent with the Basques of Spain, whose 
native name ascribes to them an eastern origin. The entire continent 
of America is overspread with brown tribes, which appear to have been 
fully developed elsewhere, and then to have immigrated from their 
original home.* 
— Itis clear that the American continent was at one time in pos- 
session of a primeval race whose mental capacity co-existing with crania- 
logical inferiority is established. They were likewise morally superior 
to the Indians, who came after them, notwithstanding the craniolog- 
ical superiority of the latter. Mr. J. 8. Phillips explains this by 
saying: “ The intellectual lobe of the brain of these people [ the Indians], 
if not borne down by such overpowering animal propensities and pas- 
sions, Would doubtless have been capabie of much greater efforts than 
any with which we are acquainted, and have enabled those barbaric 
tribes to make some progress in civilization. * * * * The intel- 
lectual and moral qualities of the Mexicans and Peruvians are left more 
free to act, not being so subordinate to the propensities and violent 
passions.” 

We have now traced man back to the lowest cranial organization 
which he is known to have possessed, and have found no reason to ques- 
tion the natural capacity of the first men, except the inferences which 
men draw with regard to skulls containing the minimum of cubic 
contents. ‘The first men were superior to races which succeeded them 
the world over. All African races are descended from the Hottentots, 
and yet they show no improvement. ‘The Malays are the first di- 
varication from the Australians toward the Mongoloid; and yet the 
further we trace the descent the more brutal are the descendants. 

The first men were orthocephalic, or straight skulled; the brain vault 
being pyramidal or gothic. As to the ratio between length and breadth, 


* Tylor. 


ae 


ger ere 


The First Men. 211 


the Mound Builders were medium in proportion, while minimum in 


capacity. While the volume of the brain is small, says Foster, the 
brain case is as symmetrical as that of the European. In this sym- 
metry, rather than in mere size, we find the cranial index of character, 
Foster says, further, that the skulls which he has described possess 
peculiarities which ally them more nearly with the Mongolian than 
with the negro or European. Short concedes the orthocephalie char- 
acter of the first races upon this continent, while showing diverging 
tendencies toward dolichocephalism and brachycephalism. The Aus- 
tralians are excessively dolichocephalic, the Hottentots and Bushmen 
range from dolichocepnalism to mesocephalism. The negroes are doli- 
chocephalic, except certain mesocephalic tribes in the interior. The 
Eskimos are dolichocephalic. 

The natural development of the cranial structure of the first men 
was toward brachycephalism; an enlargement of the skull by broaden- 
ing it. A symmetrical enlargement would be toward the mesocephalic 
type, after which the extreme of brachycephalism, without corre- 
sponding increase of intellectual and moral faculties, would be reached, 


‘indicating brutality, and not an improved man. Development does 


not always mean improvement. It may mean the development of the 
baser faculties, as well as the intellectual or moral. 

The pre-historic tribes of Europe range from dolichocephalism to 
brachycephalism. The Neanderthal skull is quite like the skull of the 
Monnd Builders. The Engis skull, however, is the most important 
one for our consideration. Sir John Lubbock says it might have been 
that of a modern European, so far at least as form is concerned. Prof. 
Huxley says, ‘‘ there is no mark of degradation about any part of its 
structure. It is in fact a fair, average human skull, which might have 
belonged to a philosopher or might have contained the thoughtless 
brain of a savage.” Of this skull. again says Lubbock, “there seems no 
reason to doubt that it really belonged to a man who was contempo- 
raneous with the mammoth, the cave bear and other extinct mam- 
malia.” Thus we have registered evidence of a man with ‘a per- 
fectly well-developed skull” living in Europe in the inter-glacial period, 
or Psychozoic cycle. 

In the second chapter of Genesis (v. 23) after the pictorial represen- 


tation of the Lord God causing a deep sleep to fall upon Ha-Adam, 


and taking one of his ribs from him (the meaning of which picture we 
need not here stop to inquire), Ha-Adam names his wife Ishah be- 
cause she was taken out of Ish. ‘The significance of these terms is 


lost in their translations, ‘‘ woman ” and “man.” Ish means “ excel- 


lent,” and asimilar root is so widespread that it must have greater 


significance than has been given it. The term “ Aryan” means excellent 


212 The First Men. 


householder; and while we are not prepared to say that the word Ish 
is identical therewith, we think we cannot be mistaken in the con- 
clusion that its employment indicates an important advance toward 
that specific type of man. ‘I'he designations Ish and Ishah are used in 
wu scene which occurred during the inter-glacial period, if our division 
of days or periods is correct. If we are not mistaken, therefore, we 
have here recorded the development of man of the Engis type, as being 
the specific characteristic of the seventh day. ‘To follow the question 
further would be to lead us far beyond the limits of our inquiry, We 
refer to it here merely to add another link to the chain of argument, 
part of the merits of which, if it has any, is to be found in its synchro- 
nous arrangement of the facts of science and history, such as we have 
just attempted, and the affording of a key to some of the perplexing 
problems of tradition. 

From the Mound Builders to the man of Engis, in time of develop- 
ment, was a long distance. If the first men upon this continent came 
originally from Asia, a long period must have elapsed before the mi- 
gration was consummated; and that the first men upon this continent 
did come from Asia is clear, for the reason that there are no traces in 
America of any mammal lower than man from which the genus homo 
could have been developed. If Ged made man out of a lower order, 
He must have done so on the eastern continent. 

We turn from the inviting field open before us, relative to the de- 
velopment of man, in order to inquire of the first men in America the 
traditions current among them as to the origin of man. The oldest 
traditions in connection therewith are found in Central America. What- 
ever force or vitality we may give these traditions, we cannot escape 
the significance of the fact that in the Nehuatel (or Toltecan) language 
the radical a, atl, has the various meanings of water, man, and the top 
of the head. From this comes a series of words, such as atlan, on the 
border of, or amid the water, and others. The root At or Ad is found 
among primeval peoples everywhere, and everywhere means the first 
man or ruler. 

Traditions of the origin of man, as they are found among ancient 
races, are generally figurative, or overgrown with crude conceptions, 
or surrounded by mythical accretions. The traditions prevailing 
among the Atlans, if we may so term them, are no exception. They 
have been embodied in the Popel Vuh, a work which, whatever may 
be said about it, undoubtedly contains the ideas prevailing among 
these ancient peoples as to the originof man. Divested of their acerc- 
tions, these traditions are quite in harmony with the account of crea- 
tion given in the creation series of Chaldean tablets, when relieved of 
their mythological conceptions. We shall interpret these traditions in 


ae 


The First Men. . 213 


harmony with the teachings of science, in order to show how fully they 
coincide therewith. 

“ There was not yet a single man; not an animal$; neither birds, 
nor fishes, nor crabs, nor wood, nor stone, nor ravine, nor herbs, nor 
forests —only the sky existed. The face of the land was not scen ; 
there was only the silent sea and the sky. There was not yet a body; 
naught to attach itself to another; naught that balanced itself; 
naught that made a sound in the sky. There was nothing that stood 
upright; naught there was but the peaceful sea—— the sea silent and 
solitary in its limits, for there was nothing that was.” ‘This will 
answer very well as a picture of the Eocene waters, as they stretched 
from India to England, when the foraminifera were engaged in laying 
the foundations of the earth in nummulitic limestone. 

The record continues: ‘Those who fecundate, those who give 


being, are upon the waters, like a growing light!) * * * While 


they consulted, the day broke, and at the moment of dawn man ap- 
peared. * * * ‘They then consulted while the carth grew, Thus, 
verily, took place the creation, as the earth came into being. ‘ Earth,’ 
sail they, and the earth existed. Like a fog, like a cloud [the mist of 
Genesis] was its formation; as huge fishes rise in the water so rose the 
mountains ; and in a moment the high mountains existed.” Can we 
desire a more vivid description of the elevation of the mighty ranges 
which skirted what was called the earth in ancient times,—the- 
Himalayas, the Kuen-lun, the Caucasus, and other mountains — 
which were raised toward the close of the Eocene age, and during the 
Miocene? | 

“ Tlear, now, wheu it was first thought of man, and of what man 
should be formed. At that time spake He who gives life and He who 
gives form, the Maker and the Moulder, named Tapen Gucumatz. 


‘The day draws near ; the work is done; the supporter, the servant, is 


ennobled; he is the son of light, the child of whiteness; man is 
honored; the race of man is on the earth; so they spoke. * * * 
Immediately they began to speak of making our first mother and our 
father. Only of yeliow corn and of white corn were their flesh, and the 
substance of the arms and legs of man. They were called simply beings, 


formed and fashioned ; they had neither mother nor father; we call 


them simply men. Woman did not bring them forth, nor were they 
born of the Builder and Moulder, of Him who fecundates and Him 
who gives being. But if wasamiracle,an enchantment worked by the 


‘Maker and Moulder, by Him who fecundates and Him who gives 


being. Thought was in them; they saw; they looked around; their 
vision took in all things; they perceived the world; they cast their 
eyes from the sky to the earth. Then they were asked by the Builder 


14 The First Men. 


und Moulder, what think ye of your being ? See ye not? Under- 
stund ye not? Your language, your limps, are they not good? Look 
around beneath the heavens ; see ye not the mountains and the plains? 
‘Then they looked, and saw all there was beneath the heavens. And 
they gave thanks to the Maker and Moulder, saying: ‘Truly, twice 
and three times, thanks! We have being; we have been given a 
mouth, a face ; we speak, we understand, we think, we feel, and we 
know that which is far and that which is near. All great things and 
small on the earth and in thesky do we see. Thanks to thee, O Maker, 
O Moulder, that we have been created, that we have our being. O our 
Grandmother, O our Grandfather!’ ” ‘ 

Philosophers have sought to give exact definition to man. What is 
it which distinguishes him from the rest of the animal kingdom ? 
We doubt if they can get any nearer to it than in this description of 
his attributes and his aspirations, of the circumstances attending his 
creation, and his song of praise. Man is primarily a_ perceptive 
being — a being which sees the actual, alike in the physical and psychi- 
cal realms. ‘The perceptive faculties are associated with the forehead ; 
and man existed the moment that the power to perceive the ideal in 
connection with the power to survey the heavens and the earth with 
accurate vision was given him. In other words, the frontal develop- 
ment of the skulJ, to the moderate extent shown by the crania of the 
first men, constituted the final work in their creation. 

The first men are described, in the record we have quoted, physi- 
cally, intellectually, morally, spiritually. They are seen in this record, 
and wherever we find trace of them, to have been created in the 
image of God; and this symmetrical man was not only the actual, but 
he was the only possible product of the equable climate in which a 
being with his physical characteristics could alone have originated. 

We have seen that man was created on the sixth day, and began to 
move slowly over the earth. The skulls of the first men were gothic 
or pyramidal in form; and hence, by their very constitution, these first 
men were “‘ upright” in character. The inhabitants of Eden, on the 
seventh day, as they are presented to our consideration in the second 
chapter of Genesis, and appear to us from the most thorough re- 
searches into the ancient past, were simple, pure and intelligent 
beings; but man, since that day, has indeed ‘‘sought out many 
inventions.” The history of the life of Ha-Adam while in Eden is 
given in Genesis, and its true interpretation would solve some vexed 
questions, for the day he spent there was an epoch, and not merely a 
fixed period in the life of a single individual. Into that history, how- 
ever, we cannot now enter. . ; 

According to M. de Serres, the brain of the Cancasian, during em- 


2 


The First Men. 215 


bryonic development, presents in succession the conformatiors seen in 


the Negro, the Malay, the American Indian, and the Caucasian. “This 
statement,” says Winchell, ‘‘ rests on excellent authority, but lam not 
aware that it has been confirmed. Its significance is apparent, in view 


of the established principle in physiology, that the embryonic char- 


acters in any vertebrate resemble the adult characters of other verte- 
brates lower in rank.” 

The fact that so discriminating an anatomist finds evidences of four 
types of brain, and their consecutive unfolding, lends confirmation to 
other proofs of the unity of the human family, and affords a provis- 
ional scientific classification into races, based on internal conformations 
in connection with cranial structure. These races, however, could not 
have been evolve one from the other. A fixed type, after reaching 
maturity, produces only its kind. A new race comes from divarica- 
tion while yet the lower race is growing ; the two then developing on 
gradually diverging lines, the one which outstrips the other being, of 
course, the most advanced of the two, but not necessarily the higher 
type; for growth may be away from perfection, as well as toward it. 
Thus, there has been a constant branching off from the trunk, the 
races unable to keep up with the advance being the lower races, 
and the more vigorous branches keeping on toward the higher ideal. 
The development, however, may have been toward an undue growth 
of brutal characteristics, as well toward intellectual or spiritual su- 
periority. 

If we are correct in this, then the time when the conformations of the 
Adamite brain were Negroid in character was at a very early period in 
growth. If we bring together the Australian, the Hottentot and the 
ancient Peruvian, with their equal cranial capacity, we shall be able to 
see who the first men were, and where the divarication began. The 
first departure was toward the brain conformation of the Malays. This 
was on the Mongoloid line of growth, and may be traced in the Mound 
Builders, who possessed cranial characteristics nearer the Mongoloid 
than to the Negroid or the European type. On the other hand, the 
Dravidian is a development toward the ancient Egyptian, who was 
the most perfect type of ancient man, and who possessed a fully deyel- 


- oped civilization at the very beginning of history. Somewhere in this 


upward progress, the human brain reached the definite conforma- 
tion now preserved in the Malays. The third development is noted 
as resembling the American Indian in the conformation of the brain. 


~ Then comes the European, whose mesocephalic skull and perfected 


nature prove his direct descent from the first men; all other races 
being divarications from the main line of growth. 
The brown race is the oldest, and the black, yellow and white races 


216 The First Men. 


were developed therefrom. The oldest civilizations were the Egyptian, 
Akkadian and Chinese. The Egyptian came from the northeast, and the 
Chinese from the west, while the Akkadian seems to be nearly indige- 
nous. The Akkadians, as their name indicates, were the sons of Ad, and 
we cannot be mistaken in identifying them with Ha-Adam, or the Adam 
of Genesis. When Ha-Adam was driven from the Garden to tiil the 
ground from whence he was taken, he found his way to Akkad. Indi- 
cations are found throughout the entire region, and in Egypt, that 
the oldest peoples living there of which trace can be found had only 
paleolithic instruments, or were in the paleolithic stage of civilization. 
Here civilization began, and from thence it extended to other climes 
and peoples. 

The conclusion to which science seems to be tending is, that the first 
men were a brown race which spread from the valleys of the Tigris 
and Euphrates east along the Indian ccean and west across Africa- to 
America, developing ancient civilizations in Akkad, Egypt, Mexico 
and Peru, which have curious and striking resemblances. The origin 
of this civilization and of the earliest race divisions we believe to be 
recorded in the antediluvian chapters of Genesis; but the true mean- 
ing of this archaic record is destroyed by interpretations not less 
absurd than the old version of creation, which insisted that it was all 
accomplished in six days of twenty-four solar hours each. 

This examination shows that the first men were Adamites and 
that there were no pre-Adamites, and also that there is nothing 
in Genesis in opposition to the conclusions of science with regard to 
the primeval races. The entire field is open to the broadest and most 
thorough scientific Inquiry, and there is nothing in the revealed Word 
which anthropologists must accept as authoritatively negativing their 
conclusions, as there is and can be nothing in science antagonistic to 
revealed religion. 


, an 
ae 


. 


THE PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. 


By RicHarp Prescort, M. EH. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, December 20, 1881.] 


The systematic ventilation of buildings, by special appliances, is of 
quite modern date. In the early periods of history, the construction 
of buildings was of such a character that the most essential features 
of ventilation were secured of necessity, and as an unintended effect. 
Thus, until the latter part of the tenth century, all rooms that were 
to be heated were furnished with a hole in the roof, through wiich the 
smoke from a fire built on a flat hearth in the middle of the floor 
escaped. In the sixteenth century chimneys were still rarely used, 
but from this time their employment rapidly became universal ; they 
were, however, for the most part, built of sticks covered with a clay 
plaster. ‘These chimneys were always associated with capacious fire- 
places, containing, on each side of the fire, benches or settees, while 
from iron bars placed across the throat hung heavy chains from which 
were suspended the pots and kettles used in the culinary operations. 
A great volume of air passed up the wide throat of these chimneys 
from the room, while to take its place streams of air entered through 
every crack and cranny. In such rooms the air was unquestionably 
pure enough to satisfy any one, but, save in the chimney corners, it 
wis at the same time too cold for comfort. Indeed, a large room with 
a large fire-place at one end would become colder the hotter the fire 
was made. 

That no attention was given to the subject of special appliances for 
ventilation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is shown by 
the construction of the public buildings, and particularly the prisons 
of that time. The well-known investigation of Howard in the latter 
part of the eighteenth century revealed such an insanitary condition 
of affairs in the jails and prisons of England and on the continent that 


the world stood fairly aghast. Even that profession which should 


have been foremost in exposing the abuses heaped upon those unfortu- 


nates, whom either the law or disease had seized, was most conserva- 


tive in its opinion and senseless in its practice. -For we read that the 
physicians in the eighteenth century condemned their fever patients 


_ to be immured in rooms made as nearly air-tight as possible, to lie on 


beds beneath mountains of blankets, to look upon a red counterpane 
and red curtains, and, as a lasc refinement of cruelty, to have their 
small supply of drinking water dyed scarlet. 

28 


218 The Principles of Ventilation. 


Our interest, however, is more immediately with processes of ventila- 
tion actually practiced in our own time, and with the fundamental 
principles of the science of ventilation. 


I. STANDARD OF PURITY. 


Pure air, as understood by sanitary engineers, and as the object 
sought by ventilation, is a mixture of gases having a close approxima- 
tion to the following composition: 


NUGPOROH soa) 2 ssn ec Sates © ie ei ainee pinta eo ae ee 77.517 
ORY BOD. 4 5 rca, LS niale dhe «Ramiele ath omie aye eee ene 20.990 
W@IRD 05 Lidice] se de ete eee oe Cee sities -fageineche eel ee 1.460 
Carbonicacid....... ROR a ssc avefe pinta. apete ee 0.033 


100.000 


——— 
——— 


I]. IwpurIties. 


Many impurities are encountered in various places and in varying 
amounts. In-doors are the organic particles exhaled from the lungs 
and thrown off from the skin, and in bed-rooms from chamber uten- ~ 
sils; excess of carbonic acid from respiration, and gas or lamp flames ; 
carbonic oxide from too hot or leaky stoves and furnaces; hydro-car-— 
bons from the kitchen; sewer gases from plumbing fixtures and 
cellars, with their accompanying hosts of living germs; dust, con- 
sisting of organic material from carpets, upholstering and clothing, 
and mineral matter from wall papers. Out-of-doors are the fumes 
from manufactories; miasmata from low-lying regions, alternately 
flooded and left bare, and from depressions filled with stagnant water; 
dust from the streets; ammoniacal fumes from stable dung-heaps, with 
their myriads of germs; exhalations from cess-basins ; and odors from 
privies. 

Of course these out-of-door impurities cannot be removed by venti- 
lation, but, in designing any system, they have to be taken into. 
account so far as they affect the given locality. 


III. REQUIREMENTS OF VENTILATING APPARATUS. 


1. The amount of carbonic acid must not exceed, say, six volumes 
per 10,000 of air, singe a greater proportion produces various unpleas- 
ant symptoms, as headache, lassitude and drowsiness, besides the more 
important effect of lowering the general tone of the body. In this 
connection it must be noted that carbonic acid, per se, is not a poison; 
its injurious effects are due to its replacing oxygen in respiration. "Ing 


addition it has been shown that when carbonic acid has been produced | 


The Principles of Ventilation. 219 


by respiration alone, its amount is proportional to the amount of 


organic matter present, and this latter, owing to its prompt decomposi- 
tion, is decidedly injurious. 

The amount of carbonic acid present in the atmosphere can be 
easily determined, while the reverse is true for the organic impurities. 
A very simple method of determining whether a room contains more 
than the maximum allowed of carbonic acid is given by Dr. Angus 
Smith as follows :- Fill a clean bottle, holding ten and one-half fluid 
ounces, with the air to be tested, then pour in one-half ounce of clear 
lime-water and shake it up with the air; if more than about six vol- 
umes of carbonic acid to 10,000 of air is present, a turbidity will be 
produced, due to the formation of carbonate of lime. 

2. A second requirement is that the amount of moisture shall be 
no more than about fifty per cent. of saturation. When this limit is 
exceeded, the airis with difficulty prevented from acquiring and retain- 
ing an odor due to organic particles, since these seem to acqufre a 
coating of moisture and adhere pertinaciously to clothing and furni- 
ture. Moreover, moist air prevents the proper and healthful excretion 
of perspiration. Very much less than fifty per cent. of saturation 
causes a disagreeable feeling of dryness. 

8. It is desirable that the temperature of the air should be kept, as 


_ nearly as possible, at 70° Fah. in dwellings and about 68° Fah. in 


schools, churches and public balls. 

4, No draughts must be perceptible. This condition requires that 
there shall be no general movement of air faster than two feet per 
second. ‘To sum up the requirements, then: 

1. Carbonic acid must be kept down to six vols. per 10,000. 

2. Moisture must not exceed fifty per cent. of saturation. 

3. The temperature must be maintained at about 70°. 

4. The air in the room shall not move faster than two feet per 
second. 


IV. MopEs oF VENTILALING. 


The various modes of ventilation may be divided into two great 
classes : 

A. Natural ventilation. 

B. Artificial ventilation. 

By natural ventilation, I mean all processes which do not call for 
the application of force in any form, save that supplied by ordinary 
natural operations; and by artificial ventilation, those means which 


involve special appliances requiring the employment of force. There 


are two forms of natural ventilation: 
1. Perflation. 


220 The Principles of Ventilation. 


2. Gravitation by reason of the necessury difference in temperature 
of the air in-doors from that out-doors. 

Ventilation by perflation is the most simple of all means, consisting 
in Opening windows on opposite sides of the house. It is, of course, 
only applicable when the weather is warm, and in perfectly calm 
weather is only moderately successful. Perflation may be combined 
with an apparatus for cooling the air, and is then almost always suc- 
cessful. A method that I have tried with good results is, to hang 
three or four wet towels from sticks, supported at one end by the 
slats of the blind — the towels hanging perpendicularly to the window, 
on the windward side of the house. ‘The effect is to cool the air by 
the absorption of heat consequent on the evaporation of the water. 
There is a distinct acceleration of the velocity of the incoming air, 
as might be expected. This combination however, is really an artificial 
method. 

The method by gravitation is less successful in its operation than 
the one just described ; it consists in utilizing the difference in tempera- 
ture commonly existing between the air in a house and that outside. 
Doors and windows, at the bottom of the house, are opened and the 
scuttle is also opened, or else the upper sash of windows in the upper 
story are drawn down. In the case of a high, narrow house, this 
method gives fairly good results. Of course, the kitchen has to be 
shut off from the rest of the house, in order to keep culinary smells 
from circulating, and for a like reason the dining-room must at certain 
times be excluded from the benefits of the system. After a current 
has been fairly established, it will be found an advantage to open 
slightly, at the bottom, the windows of the lower stories on the wind- 
ward side of the house, as these will then act as inlets. Like the 
method of perflation, this plan cannot be depended'on. Just when 
ventilation and cool air are most needed, that is on close, hot, sultry 
days, the difference in temperature becomes sv small that the exchange 
of air practically ceases. 

The artificial methods of ventilation are divisible into two principal 
classes; first, Those employing heat directly: and, second, Those 
employing motors of some sort. The principle involved in the first. of 
the cases is the same as in the natural gravitation method described 
above; that is, hot air has a lower specific gravity than cold air, and 
will rise if opportunity be given, while cold air supplies its place. In 
the direct application of heat, the source is either indirect radiation, 
direct radiation, or a combination of the two. It is to be noted that 
whatever may be the system of ventilation, in the cold months it must 
include the heating of the building, and in the summer the cooling of 


The Principles of Ventilation. — 221 


the building sisi necessary, according to the third requirement of 
perfect ventilation. 

The most common, because the cheapest and most easily managed, 
apparatus on the indirect radiation plan, is the hot-air furnace, ‘That 
there may be real ventilation with the use of this system, there are 
necessary — although commonly omitted — appropriate ducts for the 
removal of vitiated air. As applied in the majority of cases, this fur- 
nace has a cold-air duct, of rectangular cross section, measuring fifteen 
inches by six inches, or ninety square inches; hot air ducts, circular 
or elliptical in section, leading to the various rooms, and no means for 
the heated air to escape, save through cracks or opened windows. 'The 
cold-air ducts frequently terminate too near the ground, and in places 

_ where boys at play may throw things into them. There are cases in this 

: city where, incredible as it sounds, the cold-air duct is omitted and the 

air supply taken from the basement, at the floor level. Comment on 

this procedure is unnecessary. It is not difficult to understand the 
reason for such faulty arrangements. With suitable inlet and outlets, 
more coal must be burned to maintain a comfortable temperature. It 
seems proper to say here, that no one can expect to ventilate his house 
without cost, any more than he can heat his house without paying for 
it. The relative cost of heating, merely, and heating with ventila- 
tion is shown in the following extract from a paper by Robert Briggs, 
CG. E., published in the third annual report of the Connecticut State 
Board of Health. 


“A certain school-room. when the outside thermometer stands at 
zero, may be kept at the temperature of 70° by introducing 150 cubic 
feet of air heated to 250° each minute. There is thus dispersed in 

- heating 180° temperature that has been abstracted or taken away 
from 150 enbic feet each minute, or 27000° cubic feet. If we suppose 
in place of 150 cubic feet there is given for ventilation 1000 cubic 
feet each minute (50 scholars and 20 cubic feet each minute), it then 
happens that only 27° excess of temperature is demanded, and the 
heat of the influent air becomes 97° in place of 250% But there is 

wasted each minute, in the one case, 150 cubic feet of air at 70°, 

* ~ which has been heated up from zero, = 10500° cubic feet, and in 
the other, 1000 cubic feet at 70° = 70000° cubic feet, or six and two- 
“third times as much heat-in case of ventilating as in the case of 
pemele heating.” 

The above comparison is made between hot air furnaces for the 
_ heating and steam apparatus for ventilating. When the comparison 

- is made between steam heated hot currents and steam heated ventilat- 

; ing currents, the numbers are 48000 and 97000, and these numbers 


represent ‘‘ the ratio of heating surface, boiler surface and fuel 


a} 


consumed.” 


= i ‘ hy hae -, 


222 The Principles of Ventilation. 


The natural philosophy of the water pan in the hot-air furnace is 
not understood by many people; and the necessity of adding moisture 
to the air that has passed through a heater is actually denied by men 
whose habits of thought and occupation should make them zealous 
wdvocates of the practice. The capacity of the air for moisture depends 
upon its temperature, being greater as the temperature is higher. If, 
then, air be saturated at, say 25° Fah., when heated to 70° Fah., it 
will no longer be saturated, but its capacity for water vapor will be so 
much increased, that the air is properly described as dry. It is not 
unhydrous, of course, for there is just as much water, by weight, in 
the air as before the heating. 

The use of steam-coils in place of the furnace is a decided advantage, 
for, so far as I have observed, no one goes to the expense of putting in 
sicam apparatus without providing for the escape of the foul air; and 
indeed without these, indirect heating by steam is almost sure to fail 
—fortunately. Steam-pipes never attain the temperature of hot-air 
furnaces and the resulting hot air is generally of a better quality. A 
small steam jet supplies the moisture needed. 

Heating by direct radiation is most commonly effected by stoves. 
With these in general there is practically no ventilation. The air 
next the stove is heated, rises to the ceiling and flows off toward the 
walls, then down to the floor, and so on. A small amount of air is 
constantly withdrawn to supply the stove, and a correspondingly small 
umount is drawn under doors and around windows to make good the 
loss. Good ventilation is not possible with stoves, since there is no 
way of heating the air before it enters the room. One point in favor 
of stoves is their economy in fuel. A stove will ordinarily give out 
nearly ninety per cent. of the surplus heat in the fuel, after deducting 
the amount necessary to make a draft in the chimney. 7 

Heating by direct radiation from steam-pipes and hot-water pipes 
is not necessarily accompanied by any change of air. In this connec- 
tion I onght to say that the heat radiated from surfaces which, like 
steam and hot-water pipes, are usually not more than 212°, amounts 
to but little and is not perceptible at a distauce of from ten to twelve 
feet. These appliances really heat principally by conduction and con- 
vection. . 

The grate fire is an excelient ventilator, so far as removing foul air 
is concerned, but it tends to produce drafts near doors and windows, 
It heats solely by radiation and is very wasteful of heat, not more than 
about 10 to 15 per cent. being utilized. As I shall presently show, the 
open grate is a highly useful adjunct to other systems of heating, but 
alone and simple it is a poor source of heat to rely on, save for small — 
rooms. 


ek TTS ESLER RITE RE a at 


aot 


i a ae 
eR ne 


The Principles of Ventilation. 223 


Open grates of the Franklin or Galton style are excellent as venti- 
lators and economical in the use of coal. The most modern of this 
kind of grate is that manufactured by the Open Stove Ventilating 
‘Company of New York. These grates have a hollow back and hollow 
sides, through which cold air, brought by a special flue from outside, 
circulates and escapes into the room, heated through radial openings 
in the top, just over the arch of the fire-place. The current of heated 
air enters the room, having an upward and outward direction, and after 
describing a series of loops which include all parts of the room, sweeps 
back and into the fire, supporting combustion, and finally escaping 
through the chimney. This is evidently a combination of direct and 
indirect heating. The direct radiation being the same as with the 
simple open grate, while the hot air poured in the room represents an 
amount of heat saved, which in the case of the simple grate passes up 
the chimney, doing no useful work. I have not seen this apparatus in 
operation, but several scientific men have examined it, and report that 


its real performance is close to what the theory of its construction 
 ealls for. | 


A stove and grate combined, called the “ Ideal,” has lately been placed 


_ on the market in this city by the Magee Furnace Company of Boston, 


of which I am able to speak from experience, having one in use at my 
house. When used as a stove, the “Ideal” is simply a very cheerful 
looking base-burning stove, neither better nor worse than other stoves 


_ as regards ventilation. When converted into an open grate, however, 


which is done by removing the front, thus exposing a bed of live coal, 
it acts as a vigorous exhauster. It is better than the simple grate, be- 


_ cause it continues to radiate and conduct on all sides like any other 


stove, while removing air from the room as rapidly asthe simple grate. 
On one occasion, by way of experiment, the room was filled with 


_ smoke, and the change made from stove to grate, when immediately 
_ the smoke in the air was observed to stratify, so to speak, and rapidly 


_ disappeared, passing into the fire in long filaments. The temperature 


of the room, it must be added, falls rapidly after the change is made — 


in the case mentioned, falling from 80° to 73° in about half an honr. 


A combinational system of direct and indirect heating with ventila- 
tion is to heat air by steam-pipes in the basement, and convey it to 


some central locality on each floor, and then by a small, simple grate 
_ fire in each room, draw out the heated air and pass it up the chimney. 


An example of such a system, slightly modified, is afforded in a resi- 


dence designed and built by the architect, A. W. Fuller, of this city, 
- for Mr. Geo. W. Van Slyke, and of which the following is a description. 


The main hall is 16x24 feet, and has direct communication with all 
rooms of first story, and, by a large well-hole, with the second story. 


< 


224 The Principles of Ventilation. 


This hall is supplied with fresh air taken from the outside and heated 
to about 60° by passing over coils of Gold’s steam radiators, and thence 
throngh a register capable of supplying 12,000 cubic feet of air per 
hour. This is distributed into all the rooms by means of open doors 
and transoms. The parlor and sitting-room are each heated by in- 
direct radiation described for main hall. ‘The dining-room and all the 
chambers are heated by radiators placed in the room. Each room has 
an open fire-place, and, to insure perfect circulation in the flue, there 
is a coil of steam-pipe in each flue, so that in case the fire-places are 
not used, the process of ventilation is not interrupted. By these means 
a continuous supply of fresh warm air enters the rooms and the foul 
air as continuously passes out through the fire-places. All the cham- 
ber doors have head-lights opening into the hall, which remain open, 
thus supplying a sufficient amount of warmed, fresh air to all sleeping 
apartments. The temperature in all rooms is about 65° Fah. 

Ventilation by motors consists in forcing air into the rooms of a 
building by fans, or drawing it out by faus, or both, or using a fan to 
supply fresh air and an exhausting chimney to withdraw it. The 
heating is accomplished by causing the air to pass through a chamber 
containing steam-pipes, either before it passes through the fan, or, 
preferably, after. Air may be cooled in summer by passing around 
pipes containing cold water. The ventilating system of the New 
Capitol includes two sets of fans— one forcing air into the rooms and 
the other drawing air out; and in addition each office has an open 
fire-place. In the Johns Hopkins Hospital a fan is used to supply air, 
and the withdrawal is effected by a stack, at the bottom of which a fire 
is kept burning. 

Many devices have been patented and are for sale, claiming to be 
more or less efficient in compelling an air movement in a given direc- 
tion. Ofall of these it may be gaid that in calm weather they are no 
better than a simple open pipe, and many of them are worse, by reason , 
of the obstruction they offer to the escape of air. It is equally true 
that when the wind blows they assist the movement of air very ma- 
terially. Revolving cowls are liable to gather rust about the axis, and 
be sluggish in their movement, giving chance for a reversal of the column 
of air which they control. One piece of apparatus, claimed to bea 
ventilator, should be mentioned on account of the curious faith in its 
efficacy shown by numbers of people. It consists of a flat, circular fan- 
wheel fixed in an aperture in a sheet of metal that replaces a pane of 
glass in a window. When its cover is removed it commences to re- 
volve, increasing its speed until, if there is considerable difference in 
temperature, it whirls very rapidly, emitting a loud hum, and seeming 
to be very energetically at work. A moment’s reflection must convince 


The Principles of Ventilation. 225 


any one that the wheel is turned by the current of air entering the 


room, and that if it were removed the current of air would be in- 
creased. However, it gives information to the eye and ear that fresh 
airis coming in. * 

The particular system of ventilation and heating to be applied to a 
building depends upon its use, size, etc. For dwellings, the plan 
described for Mr. Van Slyke’s.house, or the open-stove apparatus, 1s pre- 
ferable to any others, but a small open grate, working in combination 
with an ordinary hot-air furnace, will give very good results. Merely 
providing exit flues for the hot air will make a furnace a very fair 
ventilator and heater. 

For schools and churches the indirect method is, I believe, the only 
one practicable; since any direct radiation, to be effective, will prove 
unpleasant to those in its immediate neighborhood. A method of 
heating and yentilating such buildings as churches and the theaters 
very satisfactorily is to force air by a fan through a pipe chamber, and 
then through a system of pipes to long boxes, the front sides of 
which are the risers of the platforms on which the seats are placed, 
these risers being perforated. A series of vertical slits in the side 
walls communicate with an exhaust stack or flue, in which a coil of 


-steam-pipe is placed. ‘The distributing pipes from the fan are care- 


fully arranged, their dimensions and directions being such as to secure 


the delivery by each one of the same amount of air. A separate system 


of pipes supplies each gallery, and the chancel or stage, as the case 
may be. This plan is in actual operation in one very large theater in 
Italy, and in several theaters and churches in New York City. 

It is quite practicable, however, to ventilate such buildings as I have 
described, and also schools, by heat alone, all that is necessary being 
to provide an upcast shaft of sufficient height, and kept ata high 
enough temperature. 

A school building in Bridgeport, Conn., now in course of erection, 


‘is to be ventilated according to this plan. Four rectangular flues, 


measuring in cross section 10 by 14 feet, extend from the basement to 


the upper story. At the bottom of each are several steam-pipe cham- 


bers — one for each room to be heated — from which hot-air pipes ex- 


_ tend (within the main flue) tothe school-rooms. The hot air enters the 


room, in one corner, eight feet above the floor, and escapes, after tra- 
versing the room, through an aperture at the floor level, in the same 
corner with the inlet. The outlets open into the main ventilating flue, 


which is kept warm by the hot-air flues within. 


When a very large building is to be ventilated — as for instance the 
Capitol at Washington, or the New Capitol at Albany — the problem 
of so apportioning the ducts that from one central point a sufficient 

a 


226 The Principles of Ventilation. 


amount of warm air shall be delivered in each room, and the foul air 
brought back, is dependent for its successful solution on such fine ad- 
justment, and involves so many conditions, that it may better be aban- 
doned. Certainly, in the two cases just mentioned the success has been 
very moderate. For such vast structures the ventilation should be 
distributed. 

For the purpose of studying the ventilation of an apartment, one 
should supply himself with the apparatus of Dr. Smith, which I have 
described, and with a number of discs of tissue paper fastened to threads, 
to be hung from various points, to show the existence and direction of 
currents. Jam indebted to Dr. F. B. Lincoln for the neat idea of 
using the tissue paper in discs, rather than in strips, as has long been 
done. The advantage of Dr. Lincoln’s plan being that the disc is acted 
on by only a small portion of air, while a strip may feel the effect 
of several currents. ort 
_ In bringing this paper to a close, I beg to remind my hearers that 

vitiated air is an undoubted cause of consumption, and the certain 
promoter of all other diseases. And thatin close, unventilated churches 
and theaters much of the effect of sermon and performance is lost, — 
because the ears that hear are partly deadened by the imperfect re- 
moval of the impurities of the blood, and at the same time the clergy- 
man is unable to deliver his message with the energy naturally his own. 
Public sentiment should compel the perfect ventilation of every public 
hall in the city by staying away from every place where that condition 
is not found. 

When such public sentiment shall have developed —as develop it 
surely will — the devout churchman, the enthusiastic admirer of the 
drama and of music, and the earnest school boy, may follow their bent 
with infinite profit, and without the danger of laying the foundation 
of wearisome and tormenting diseases from inhaling the exhalations 
of some hundreds of others. 


wy) 


ANNUAL ADDRESS. 


By the Hon. PAUL A. CHADBOURNE, LL. D 
[Delivered April 11, 1882. ] 


THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES THE PRODUCTS AND PROMOTERS OF 
CIVILIZATION. 


Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Albany Institute: 


As the ship is crossing pathless seas, to the careless observer there 
seems to be the same waste of water beneath and the same unchanging 
heavens revolving from day to day above. But the commander, at 
stated hours, observes the place of star and planet and marks upon 
his chart the daily advance toward the desired haven. So in the 
progress of the world, there is to the majority of men no clearer 
notion of the real advance of science than there is to the ordi- 
nary passenger at sea of the position of the ship that carries him. 
They have a general notion that the world is drifting on, because from 
time to time some new scientific discovery arrests their attention, as 
would the blowing of a whale or the sight of some distant island break 
the monotony of a long sea voyage. It is well then for societies 
like this to have set times for observing the scientific heavens, that 
they may report progress and make a point on the scientific chart for 


anew departure. Such a time is properly the anniversary occasion. 


As you have honored me by an invitation to aid you in this work, I 
would gladly do something to exalt the physical sciences, and espe- 
cially to mark their true place as elements of human progress. 

In the enchanting stories of the Arabian Nights, we read of the 
“slave of the ring” and ‘‘slave of the lamp” that transported men, 
opened treasure-caves and reared stately palaces at the command of 


their masters. ‘To those who are so-ready to see a hidden, double 


228 Physical Sciences. 


meaning in every old myth, it might seem that these wonders of the 
Arabian Nights were dim prophecies of the marvels performed by 
modern science. Some of the physical sciences stand like Titans 
ready to wield a power that braids iron bars like straw and moves 
with a single stroke of the piston a thousand ponderous wheels. They 
train the lightning for a servant, and from dull clods bring out colors 
that vie with the rainbow in its glory. They reveal the past history 
of the globe, read from the leaves of stone the history of the world 
from the ages when the old Silurian seas rolled over the Empire State 
till the present day, unlocking the caves of the earth, revealing the 
gold and silver in a thousand hills and the coal and iron that, as 
physical agents, rule the world. They have revealed the laws of 
vegetable and animal life, making the flowers we cultivate more beau- 
tiful, the fruits more delicious, the herds in our fields more prolific 
and even the rivers, lakes and the ocean itself to teem with more 
abundant life, for the delight and support of man. If one would be 
impressed with the service of the physical sciences, let him pass 
through the streets and business centers of this city or any other in 
our land. He need not visit the observatories to view the wonders 
of the heavens, nor the halls of science where strange and wonderous 
forms are embalmed in stone, but in the products of the marts, in the 
furnaces that pour out molten iron, in the boats that defy wind and 
tide, in fruits and flowers that have gained deliciousness and beauty in 
our own time, will he see something of the wonders physical science 
has wrought for man. Or go to the great Centennial Exhibition and 
see the products which science has gathered from the earth, and the 
power and skill by which these products are fashioned into forms for 
use and beauty. No dreams of the old Arabian Nights surpass the 
marvels of this scientific age. These physical sciences are both the 
products and promoters of the modern civilization. In human prog- 
ress, action and reaction are in the same direction, the exact opposite 
of mere mechanical law. While human progress seems at first sight 
to rest on physical science, the human mind must construct science, 
and therefore must ever move on before it in its highest activity. The 
sciences in their perfection simply mark the pathway of the human 
mind, as the dead coral, with its cells and rays, marks the growing 
pathway of the coral polyp, or as the builder stands upon the course 
of granite which his own hands have laid, to rear still others for the 
completion of his work. It is useless to plan and labor for the prog- 
ress of science while we neglect the careful training of the human 
mind, the instrument through which all these wonders have been 
achieved — wonders that will cease to multiply the very day men 
become content with mere practical science, and shut out the scientific 


Physical Sciences. 229 


mind of the world from the means of scientific research, and that 
mental training which scientific research demands. The history of 
science from its earliest dawn to the present day, is proof of the posi- 
tion we wish to maintain, that while we boast of science as a promoter 
of our civilization, this science itself is the product of civilized mind; 


and in any progress in time to come, the mind of man must be the 


moving and guiding power, peering into the darkness, making new 
discoveries, gathering materials, controlling forces, forming classifica- 
tions, which when completed are given to the world as science, before 
which some seem ready to fall down as before a God that has created 
the wonders of modern times. But this God of science is itself a crea- 
tion —the creation of that mind made in the image of Him who 
created the worlds. It is this thought that I wish specially to illus- 
trate and enforce. 

It is in the savage that we mark the first mastery of nature through 
thought— that thought that builds upon the experience of others 
and gives the first condition of science and of progress for the race. 
No mere auimal, from thought or choice, makes provision for its own 
improvement or that of its race. If improvement comes to the animal 
at all, it comes from without, impressed upon it by the conditions of 
nature or by man. Its physical nature is, indeed, plastic, and through 
its plasticity the animal changes for its own good in the struggle for 
existence, and also to subserve the uses of man. 

But in every implement of savage life, rude though it be, there is 
promise of unbounded progress. The bow may be of oak or ash, but 


it is fashioned according to the fancy of the owner and for a purpose 


which its owner understood while yet the stick from which it is fash- 
ioned was growing in the wood. The bow was a mental conception 
before it was formed or the string adjusted in its construction. And 
the art of making and using the bow must be transmitted from father 


to son by instruction. That simple bow in the savage hunter's hand 


is as truly a product of thought and marks its owner as plainly above 


the highest animal in kind, as does the repeating rifle or telegraphic 


cable. 
In every bundle of arrows chosen from the straightest rods and 


tipped with flint; in the graceful canoe of birch or skin; in the paint 


and feathers with which the savage makes himself hideous, are the 
tokens of a progressive power from within the man. In every one of 
these rude attempts at art and science, thought went before the act. 


~The man moved and guided himself in the work. The necessity or 


desire came, and by the power of thought, physical forces and material 
products were made instrumental to supply his wants. Some one 
more thoughtful, more cunning than the rest, took an upward step 


230 Physical Sciences. 


and marked the path for his fellows to follow. And all the gross 
conveniences of his savage home are the results of many such steps 
by succeeding generations. And rude as these products of his thought 
are, they are unlike iz kind the perfect work of the instinct-guided 
beasts and birds around him, and have in them the germs of all civil- 
ized productions. They give promise of unending progress, not by 
their perfection — for the works of bird and insect far surpass them — 
but they give evidence of unending progress because they show their 
maker’s power to go before the act in thought, to consider material 
products in relation to his wants, and to meet these wants by contriv- 
ance of his own, originating new combinations and yet building Dave 
the experience a those who have contrived before him. 

But in savage life much of the study of nature’s forces and of her 
products has arisen from bodily wants alone. The plainest utility has 
marked every step of the savage, except in his rude attempts at art. 
Science for tts own sake, thought for its own sake, producing results 
for the present unusable, are to him apparently unknown. It is only 
when these are found, the cultivation of thought for its own sake, 
that we have the first gleam of that intellectual progress of which the 
present civilization is both the offspring and parent. Thought or 
investigation for its own sake, the love of knowledge AS AN END, is 
the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night that has 
guided the race in its onward march in civilization, while utility 
alone would have kept it forever in the desert of savage or half-civilized 
life. In this realm of pure investigation, the leaders of the race have 
labored since there was any promise of a science, and long before science 
gave promise of utility. In that same realm the leaders stil] walk 
to-day. The world is enriching itself now with the products of their 
former labors—labors performed when this same world sneered at 
them as useless. ‘The laborers themselves come back from time to 
time to gather the products of former labors, as a means of advancing 
still farther. But should they heed the cry of these wise men, ‘ the 
practical men,” falsely so called, and remain in the realm of mere 
practical utility of to-day, all progress would stop and our civilization 
would become fixed, like that of China and Hindostan. Nota single 
physical science can be named that has not been built up by the labors 
of men who were seeking for truth, while their labors were considered 
puerile and ridiculous by mere utilitarians. And the best scientific 
results of the present day, which have not yet borne fruit, the ques- 
tions that engage the attention of our scientists, are recounted with 
the same sneers and ridicule by those who claim to be practically wise, 
as were observations in geology and experiments in electricity a century 
ago. Every great advance in practical science in the last half century 


Physical Sciences. 231 


has been simply the combining or utilizing of materials and results 


; wrought out as isolated products or facts, by long years of careful 


investigation, by the patient truth-searchers in all portions of the 
_ world. When these practical results are reached, the crowd will throw 
up their hats and exclaim “ Great is science!” and with the same 
_ breath cali that humbug which is preparing still greater successes for | 


the next generation. 


Let us interrogate the sciences or appeal to their history in proof of 
our assertion. Whence cameour telegraphs that now link the nations 
together? If you would answer that question, you must go back to 
_ Franklin, to Galvani and Volta, to Ersted and Arago, to Grove and 
_ Daniel, to Henry and Faraday, and their co-workers, men whose 
- names are seldom whispered in connection with the telegraph, but 
whose labors in accumulating facts, discovering laws and inventing 
instruments, made the electric telegraph a possibility in our day. It 
was no telegraphic line, nor oceanic cable with its round dividends in 
gold that urged them on, but love for nature’s laws, the charm of 
tracing this wonderful physical force — the lightning of the storm — 
- in all its manifestations. And thus through years of thought and 

labor for the love of science alone, the conditions were preparing for 
the wonder of the nineteenth century to spring as by magic into full 
perfection. 

One practical thought seemed to do the work, as one spark calls out 
the force that hurls the shot and shell; but that practical thought 
would probably never haye existed except as a flight of fancy in some 
tale of magic, or if it had existed as something desirable and possible 
_ in real Jife, it would have been as barren of results as a grain of corn 

on winter’s snow, had it not been for the preparation made by those 
‘who labored for the love of original investigation, paid only by the 
discovery of nature’s laws, without one thought of other gain. 

_ What shall we say of Chemistry, that worker of wonders, transform- 
ing waste products into wealth and changing daily the conditions of 


life by its new products and applications? The old alchemists pro- 


_ duced some meager results, indeed, while searching for the philoso- 
_ pher’s stone and the elixir of life. But for the origin of true Chemistry 
we must look to that illustrious band of whom Black and Davy and 
Lavoisier were the types — men who asked for nothing higher than to 
_ unfold the laws of nature in the constitution of water, air and earth. 


_ The time has come, indeed, when Chemistry, like almost every other 


_ physical science, is so full and complete in its facts and established 
principles as to become truly deductive. Materials are so abundant 
~ and methods of work so perfect, that practical life has but to suggest 
its wants to have them supplied. But they are supplied, directly or 


232 Physical Sciences. 


indirectly, through work done before the want was known, and from 
materials collected, perchance, as the mere curious rubbish of men 
who would delve in science, the world knew not why. 

Thus every physical science presents in itself perpetual proof that 
the thought of man is ever ranging beyond it for new materials; that 
it is itself only the perfected, organized product of past thought. 

We are re-stocking our rivers with fishes to the wonder of the peo- 
ple as well as to their profit — sixteen millions of profit already reck- 
oned in the Empire State; but we are doing it under the instruction 
of those who studied the habits of fishes when legislatures saw noth- 
ing but folly and waste in giving money for the study of “eels and 
horn-pouts.” We can do something to protect ourselves from the 
insect hosts, but we do it mainly through the studies of those who 
were content to bear the sneers of the “practical men” who saw 
nothing but childish folly in studying ‘‘ bugs and butterflies.” 

We can without pain endure the dentist’s forceps or the surgeon’s 
knife; but this priceless boon to suffering humanity resulted from 
experimenting with curious compounds that came into being through 
love of science alone. Compounds of such wonderful powers were 
not dreamed of till they appeared in answer to the chemist’s constant 
search, through love of his science. 

We rejoice that the world is reaping such rewards from the labor of 
scientific men. But we would have the world remember, for its own 
sake, the price which has been paid for its great scientific possessions. 
We would have credit given to whom credit is due, not for any good 
that can come to the laborers, most of whom are beyond the reach of all 
earthly rewards, but for the good of the present and coming genera- 
tions, that they may know the toilsome pathway along which the 
builders of science have trod, and that they may also learn that the 
real advance of science must evermore lie in a region beyond apparent 
utility. We would have them realize the fact that science is the gift 
of mind — not of mind simply crowded with facts, but of mind trained 
to observe and compare, boldly pushing beyond the bounds that limit 
the vision of those who see nothing but the practical utilities of 
to-day. ! 

Modern science, then, is the thought of the past put into most 
effective form for present use. As such it is a mighty magazine of 
power. It isin the mental world even like the beds of coal as accu- 
mulated force in the physical world. And by the diffusion of knowl- 
edge every man may become armed with much of this accumulated 
power — the accumulated thought of the past. This garnered power 
of thought finds its full expression in our railroads and steamships, in 
telegraphs and cotton mills, and in the wonderful transformations of 


- Physical Sciences. | 233 


the chemist’s laboratory. It predicts every change on the dial-plate of 
the heavens and photographs the falling drop of rain. It thunders 
and destroys in all the enginery of modern war. 

An agency such as man never before wielded are the physical sci- 
ences to-day. As such they bring the whole race to a plane of civil- 
ization impossible without them. Butstanding high above the masses, 
the few explorers see still higher hills, where in coming time shall be 
a broad highway prepared by patient workers, for those to climb and 
shout for science who see no use in all the labor till the road is ready 
for their use. 3 

While natural science, then, is nothing but an instrument, and one 
prepared by man, it is an instrument which he prepares for his own 
use and for his own advancement. It is the means by which one gen- 
eration rises higher than another, standing upon the towers which the 
other raised. As an instrument, natural science is like iron that 
forms the hammer, chisel and anvil, by which other masses of iron 
can be fashioned into more curious and useful forms; or it may be 
likened as a whole to two of the most wonderful scientific products, 
the telescope and microscope, instruments which are the product of 
thought, but when once fashioned opening new fields of thought as 
they bring within our view the extremes of the universe — the wonders 
of the heavens and of a single drop. 

As an instrument, as the product of civilization, we would now 
inquire into the relations of natural science to the permanency and 
progress of the civilization which produced it. Among the greatest of 
all triumphs of science, in its influence on civilization, are the means 
which it offers for intercourse among the nations. Men run to and 
- fro, and knowledge is increased in the earth. The iron car thunders 
along night and day from ocean to ocean, and then the vessels that 
defy both wind and tide complete the circuit of the globe. And from 
this great artery of travel branch off a thousand lines to every portion 
of the earth. The work of months is thus crowded into days by the 
forces called into action and directed by modern science. 

And as though these swift messengers were not enough to bring the 
world into sympathy, science stretches its wires across the continent, 
sinks cables along the ocean’s bed, and now through the water and the 
air the lightning has become the messenger of thought. Every event 
of importance in the world becomes upon the same day, if not in the 
same hour, the subject of thought in every center of civilization on 

the globe. The thought and impulse of the nations in all questions 
_ of universal interest move on together like the hands of the electric 
clocks in a great city. 

No longer is there danger that any of the important arts will be 

30 


234 Physical Sciences. 


lost. The knowledge and improvement of any practical science or 
useful art originating in any nation becomes the property of the world 
before a single year has passed. In former times, such knowledge was 
too often like the single standard of measure kept in the House of 
Parliament, which, when destroyed by fire, not even the mathematics 
of the whole kingdom could replace. These arts and sciences now in 
their wonderful distribution, are like the new standard with its exact 
copies distributed throughout the kingdom. No conceivable catas- 
trophe could destroy them all. 

And the rapidity of improvement corresponds with the means of 
communication. The same experiment may be now tried in a hundred 
places at the same time—the results be compared and conclusions 
reached in a single year, that once required the life-time of a generation. 

All that renders life desirable in knowledge or product may be trans- 
mitted from one portion of the globe to any other, equalizing the 
conveniences and luxuries of life. And poor and unfortunate in the 
last degree must be the man who cannot transport himself and house- 
hold gods to any portion of the earth that offers new attractions for 
him. 

Science has made the globe very small—a journey of but a few 
weeks at most, and of but a few hours for thought — but it widens the 
area of the globe for the spread of civilization. With its new appli- 
ances, man defies the rigors of a northern zone and lives in comfort 
where, without its aid, life would be impossible or reduced to the rude. 
form of savage existence. Much of that zone of the earth where are 
now gathered large cities with the most wealth and refinement, the 
greatest means of enjoyment, the best conditions for the improvement 
of the human race, without the fruits of science would have remained ' 
a wilderness inhabited by savage or half-civilized tribes, or by a sparse 
population, wringing the bare necessities of life from a scanty soil. 

t is science quickening art, perfecting its processes and rendering 
them certain, that provides support for the dense population which 
the most rapid growth and highest scale of civilization demands. 
Without science, dense population becomes a mere struggle for exist- 
ence; but with the products of science, we may welcome compact 
population as the condition of the highest enjoyment for all. 

If there is a possible overstocking of the earth for some gloomy 
Malthus to dream about — predicting wars and famines — it must take 
place in that uncertain future when the coal shall be exhausted or the 
sun be dim for want of fuel. For untold ages to come, we know that 
science as it now is will increase the enjoyments and improvement of 
men as population becomes more dense; and with the possible ad vance- 
ment in science, we dare not assign a limit to the means which 


Pere Ty 64) A. 
nu 


SS eee ty” 


Physical Sciences. 235 


may be enjoyed by coming generations for social, mental and moral 
improvement. 

As a product of mind, that gives solid returns in money and goods, 
science becomes a stimulus to mind that reaches to the masses. With 
such means of intercourse that the same problems are subjects of 
thought at the same time in all partsof the world, and with such 
wonderful instruments for physical research as are already invented, 
we may well boast of science as a promoter of civilization, as a broad 
basis upon which it may now rest to build higher courses upon which 
to advance. It is not strange that these results charm men. They 
are worthy of admiration. Itis not strange that an instrument so 
powerful should be exalted above its maker—that science should 
become to some a divinity with power of self-revelation — the giver of 
every blessing — that grand guideand prophet of future good on which 
the hope of the race should center. Men look to physical science not 
only as an agency destined to become more powerful as an advancer of 
civilization, but as sufficient of itself to bring tv man all the good he 
can enjoy. To this view we object, and utter our earnest protest 
against it in the interest of science itself no less than in that of race. 
We claim that the advance in science has come from knowledge of 
method, and that knowledge of the true method of investigation came 
from the study of man, his powers and their proper use. We claim 
that there is nothing in natural science that is self-directive even in 
securing physical good; that it is a mere machine which must be 
brought into action by the same cunning workman that prepared and 
organized its parts; that it has no power to secure justice or purity or 
truth, except as it appeals to the higher tribunal in man, a tribunal 
which science never organized and for which it can never become the 
substitute. That tribunal, the Moran Reason, is in man like the 
pilot to the ship, while physical science is the moving power which 
fills the sails or turns the ponderous wheels—a force like the wind 
bringing destructive tornadoes that will founder the ship without the 
pilot’s skill to avert its force, or like the steam that shatters and destroys 


except when controlled by valves and pistons as the engineer directs. 


We wonder at science, indeed, but we wonder at it most of allasa 


product of human thought. It is indeed a revelation of the thought 


and plan of the Creator in the physical universe, but the revelation 
Was meaningless as science, till the human mind, the image of God, 


¢ put letter and line in place and proclaimed the mysteries of matter 


and force in common language for the instruction of the thousands 


unable to read the mystic signs in earth and sky for themselves. As 


an invention —a discovery, an instrument, an agency — science prom- 
ises to accomplish all its admirers can claim in giving power and the 


236 Physical Sciences. 


conditions of progress to the world. ‘That it promises stability to civ- 
ilization we gladly admit. That it promises accelerated progress we 
joyfully hope. That it incréases man’s power we know, but that power 
needs control and direction, or 1t may prove a curse or be totally lost, 

The world is now wild on the question of physical science. Like the 
achievements of a hero that has done much, its results are exaggerated; 
or like the riches of a rich man, the sum increases with every repeti- 
tion. ‘The very wonders of science are the basis of wild speculations 
impossible to be realized. ‘There are wild dreamers who know some- 
thing of what has been accomplished, and little of the time and labor 
required for securing the results already reached. Science is extolled 
for what it has done, and sneered at with the same breath because it 
cannot do more. Butstill thecry is, “ More practical science.” ‘More 
production.” <‘‘In that is our hope.” ‘‘All else is ‘heavy guessing,’ 
or a remnant of the past to be buried out of sight.” 

Amid all this clamor and din and glare in which the multitude seem 
confused with the sounds and bewildered by the cross-lights, until they 
rush with the crowd and shout the cry that seems to be in the ascend- 
ant, let us listen to the voice of reason. Let us appeal to experience, 
the history of the past. Let us scan physical science with that keen 
searching method by which it has been built up. Let us turn clear, 
scientific light in upon science itself. Let its triumphs be revealed. 
Let us comprehend all its capabilities that we may know what it can 
possibly accomplish. And where, I ask, in the past results or in its 
present capabilities are found the power of controlling man, the power 
of bringing the individual or the race on to that high plane where true 
manhood reigns — the plane of right, of justice, of purity, of truth 
and of good will to man which leads to labor and to the sacrifice of self 
for the advancement of all mankind to this higher plane ? 

We look in vain to physical science for such a result. It may give 
light, but it never gives strength of purpose; and its light is that which 
comes to show the extent of the disaster that has befallen us, rather 
than a light ever shining upon a path that leads away from all danger. © 
For guidance and self-control we are to look within man to those 
powers by which he comprehends moral relations—to that moral 
nature for the approval of which a good man will lay down his life — 
under the guidance of which physical science and its products are 
means to be used or rejected as they hasten or retard the progress of 
the man toward that true position of moral dignity where manhood in 
its perfection becomes more noble and more glorious than all of the 
visible universe besides. Under this guidance he is self-poised and 
stable, because it leads him and links him to God Himself. Along the 
pathway where the moral nature leads there is an illimitable road of 


a | 
r = 
7 

- 


Physical Sciences. 237 


progress for man to travel, even if science were to make no further 
advance and production never exceeded its present limit. Do what the 
moral nature of man demands in obedience to the moral law, and you 
have multiplied the power of science for good a hundred fold. Stop 
the waste of intemperance which science has made possible for the 
world; the waste of carelessness which science can never correct; of 
recklessness which science never cures; of prodigality and luxury to 
which science indirectly supplies the means; of dishonesty which 
science too often aids; of war which science every year renders more 
terrifically destructive to labor and the products of labor by the Titanic 
efforts of nations to surpass each other in the armor of ships, the weight 
of guns and the destructive power of projectiles. Stop all these ter- 
rible agencies, in all their forms; agencies over which science has no 
more control than the water that thunders down Niagara has over its 
own movements — stop all these and turn all this wasted energy into 
another channel, put it under the control of that principle in man 
that seeks his own highest good and the good of the race — under the 
- control of an enlightened self-love and benevolence — and the world 
would change as by enchantment. The light of civilization would be 
freed from clouds and mists and shadows, and break forth with the 
brightness of the morning sun. Science itself would advance with 
a rapidity unknown before, for its votaries would be multiplied, their 
powers be strengthened, and their means increased. The multitude 
that now grovel in the low plane of sensuality would rise into the 
sphere of rational enjoyment, and freedom would no longer be confined 
to one portion of the globe, now advancing and now retreating before 
anarchy and despotism, but she would walk with an assured step and 
dispense her blessings in every land. Such is the promise we have 
from man’s own nature, when those principles rule in him which make 
him the image of God—in right of which he has dominion over all 
the earth. 

The dangers of this age are not that practical science will be ignored 
or neglected, but that its proudest achievements may prove a curse 
_ through misdirection; that honor and honesty and patriotism and 
_ philanthropy may be weakened and overwhelmed in the strife for 
gain and power. 

Man, who can trace the planets in their courses, must learn to direct 
his own steps. He who can control the lightnings, must learn to con- 
trol his own passions. He who can reclaim the earth from wildness 
must cultivate the rich garden of his own emotional nature. He who 
can cross pathless oceans mid darkness and storms by the guidance of 
_ the magnetic needle, must seek for some guide that shall conduct him. 
_ safely through the doubts and darkness that beset the pathway of 


238 Physical Sciences. 


every bold adventurer in thought. For such guidance and for such 
power of man over himself we must look beyond the sphere of physical 
science. ‘lhe guiding-star to all permanent progress is found in the 
firmament of man’s moral and religious nature. When this is acknowl. 
edged and the study of man’s moral nature is exalted as the center 
toward which the studies of youth should converge and from which 
the acts and influence of every man should radiate, then will our ciy- 
ilization reach the full splendor of which it now gives only feeble 
promise, and then shall we see new triumphs of physical science, the 
ereat motive power in the progress of the world, guided, controlled 
and utilized by man ever guiding and controlling and utilizing his 
own powers. ‘l'hen only shall we see the true relations of physical 
science to civilization, and never till its true relation is seen and 
acknowledged, will it have stable growth and give its full blessings to — 
the world. 
MEMBERS OF THE ALBANY INsTITUTE—I cannot close this discus- 
sion without inviting your careful attention to what I consider to be 
the office and duty of all such organizations as you represent. In your 
complex and comprehensive plan you embody and symbolize the char- 
acter of modern civilization which Guizot has graphically contrasted 
with the ancient civilizations, presenting as they did only some single 
phase of human activity and development, or that uniformity of 
thought and activity that naturally ends in such fossilized civilizations 
as China and‘India present. All questions that relate to the progress 
of science and the social welfare of the race properly come before you 
for discussion and illustration. In this way you secure individual 
advancement, in which is the only hope of the world, for organizations 
are but aggregations of individuals, and can rise no higher intellectually 
or morally than the elements of which they are composed. But organ- 
izations have certain powers which belong to no one of their number. 
Organizations live while individuals die. Organizations, therefore, can 
bring to bear upon the same problem the labor and observations of its 
ablest men for generations, and carry on to completion grand under- 
takings where the most gifted individual would fail. There is also an - 
aggregate influence in combined numbers such ag no one man can 
wield. When a newtruth is reached, organizations can defend it with 
power against the onset of opposers, and in the important work of its 
dissemination they can overcome obstacles and multiply agencies 
where individual effort would be powerless. ‘T’he possession of these 
peculiar advantages brings upon such an organization as the Albany 
Institute a great responsibility as a promoter of every branch of science. 
The world at large will give no heed and help to investigation till it 
begins to promise money returns. How long it has taken our States 


Physical Sciences. 239 


_ to make appropriations for scientific research! And in almost every 
case the hope of finding metals or coal or of securing some kindred 
money advantage has been the moving force in deciding the legis- 
lator’s vote. 

New York did a noble work in so early and efficiently inaugurating 
her scientific surveys, and richly has she been paid in the instruction 
of her people and in the honor she has secured among our States and 
the nations of the world. This Institute was the first memorialist in 
favor of this great scientific movement. Wise legislators gave the 
means of studying the rocks of New York, thus laying a foundation 
for the grand superstructure of American Geology. The ablest scien- 
tists of the nation were called by your Executives to carry on the 
work. ‘The way had been prepared by Clinton, Van Rensselaer and 
other honored names among the early patrons of science. The labors 
of Eaton and Beck, of Torrey and Emmons, De Kay and Hall, and 
others who still have their armor on, have instructed the world in the 
whole field of Natural History and made the rocks of the Empire 
State an everlasting monument to the wisdom and liberality of your 
early statesmen. We trust the race of statesmen has not deteriorated, 
but that the work will go on till all the treasures of science which the 
State possesses are made accessible and free not only to all her people 
but to all the people of the world who will visit her vast collections. 
To the early statesmen there was only a promise and possibility of 
results; for those of the present time there is the stimulus of work 
already done. Your scientists have certainly vindicated their tireless 
energy and their avility to enter new fields of observation and research. 
Your Botanists and Zodlogists have described the living species, your 
Geologists have not only given names to the rocks but to the thousand 
extinct forms within them, so that the superb volumes of the Natural 
History of New York are a necessity in the library of every working 
naturalist. Your Henry, in this very city, discovered the principles 
that made the telegraphic cable possible, and your Morse gave the 
practical hint for surrounding the earth itself with electric nerves, so 
that it responds to the will of man as though it were a living thing. 
One touch of his finger can now move the globe, not convulsing it as 
- dead matter, but quickening it as an obedient agent of his will, trans- 
mitting the commands of him who was made to rule the earth. 

You, as an organization, have all you can desire as an inducement 
to careful work and courageous advance in time to come. And as an 
organization you are to press on and encourage other searchers for 
truth to enter that advancing morning twilight of scientific discovery 
where untrained eyes see no light of the coming day. How many 
great questions still remain for patient watchers and tireless workers 


240 Physical Sciences. 


to answer! The best inductions of history are yet to be made, and 
the most weighty social and political problems are yet to be solved. 
The history of our earth is, as yet, but a disconnected story. The 
introduction and progress of life on the globe, and the origin and age 
of man, as scientific questions, give rise now to the most conflicting 
opinions drawn from meager and uncertain data. To meet these ques- 
tions successfully there is need of patient research, broad training and 
sense of deep responsibility for observations reported and theories 
promulgated. The great retarder of science is hasty generalization, 
especially if it be made by a man justly entitled to authority and 
respect for any work he has accomplished. ‘The false theory will 
vitiate books and misdirect the labors of many till its author is dead. 
And it is a blessed thing for the progress of the race that individuals 
die while society and organizations live. The earth will be true to 
herself and will in time reveal her full history and the history of the 
races of beings that live upon her. We need to observe with care and 
to gather abundant materials for thorough investigation. This work 
can be done most successfully by organized effort — by just such labors 
as your Institute is fitted to perform. But while you look to science 
as a whole, and seek its enlargement and perfection, I beg yon to 
remember that man, as man, is the crown of all; and you can advance 


science only as you advance men in intellectual and moral power and © 


social well-being. The education of the young, the constant progress 
of men of all pursuits in those things that promote life, health, com- 
fort and moral and intellectual growth, should be the leading idea in 
all your work; and then the growth of science will be as natural and 
sure as the springing of the blade in the warmth of May and the 
maturing of harvest in the golden autumn months. 


—. 


PREHISTORIC MUSIC. 
By ARMAND DE POTTER. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, May 10, 1881.] 


In bringing before you a subject which for the present, at least, is 
more scientific than esthetic, more geological than musical, it would 


_ perhaps have been better to call it a geological wonder. You may 


have heard of the subject under the name of ‘‘Singing Stones,” or 
“The Geological Piano,” but I would rather call it Prehistoric Music, 
a name which seems to me more fitting. A few weeks ago, when on a 
visit to the metropolis, I had the honor of being introduced to Mons. 
Banudre, the discoverer and owner of the wonderful flint stones, of 
which I shall endeavor to give a short account. In going to M. 
Baudre’s house, I must confess I had but little faith in music drawn 
from stones, and expected only to hear a doleful sound, such as I have 
heard when staying with an Arab tribe, who had certain stones from 
which they obtained sound and music enough to dance by. I was 
therefore greatly surprised when I heard the musical sound as M. 
Baudre struck the first stone, it seemed so sweet and wonderful. 
Seldom have I experienced more pleasure, than when I heard this 
gentleman sing an air to the pure musical tones of his flints. It 
seemed as if we were suddenly carried back six thousand years. I 
decided at once that this marvelous music had once been that of the 
young world, and on mentioning the idea to M. Bauare, he said with 
enthusiasm that it was the opinion of most archeologists, and indeed 
his own. ‘There is no doubt that the flint was the first weapon, the 
first tool, and produced the first fire, and until the comparatively 
recent invention of matches, I think it was universally used for that 
purpose. Prof. Newberry, of Columbia College, says: ‘‘ In all proba- 
bility, the resonance of sonorous stones constituted all the music of 
the man of the Stone Age.” 

I have spoken of having heard the Arabs draw musical sounds from 
stones, but a stronger proof in favor of the belief that the flint was 
the first sonorous body heard by man is that the demi-savages in 
Abyssinia used just such an instrument of nature to call the people to 
war, and for other purposes. An English missionary brought three 
such stones, which form the Abyssinian instrument, to London, where 
they can be seen in the Kensington Museum. 

31 


242 Prehistoric Music. 


The wonderful part of the music is, that it is drawn from the rough 


natural stones without any polish or cutting whatever, while all other 
musical instruments have been shaped and polished, and are nothing 
but industrial products, in which strength and volume must be 
observed in order to obtain the desired effect. M. Baudre says: ‘I 
must call your attention to the fact, that iron or ingots of gold or 
silver, as also rock crystal, in their natural states, are quite free from 
vibrations ; flint on the contrary vibrates in its natural state, and does 
not, like the former, require polishing and change of shape in order to 
become sonorous.” So we may consider it a fact, that the first musi- 
cal note that God gave to nature was deposited in the cold heart of 
that stone which is also full of fire. 

You all know of the colossal statue near ‘Thebes, called by the 
Egyptians the Vocal Memnon, from the sounds emitted from it. I 
remember wondering while I examined it, why stone apparently so 
cold and silent should be called the singing statue. But now it 


seems quite possible, and I only look forward to the discovery of some 


papyrus that will tell the story of a colossal musical instrument. That 
sounds were heard is confirmed by undisputed records. ‘They were 
listened to by Hadrian and his ill-fated queen Sabina, and a host of 
other historical personages. Some historians also say that the rude 
Roman soldier, unused to any other sound than that of the trumpet, 
listened in silence to its-voice. It has been said that the sound heard 


from the statue was due to a blow, and this was no doubt the true | 


cause. The Egyptian priests were crafty men, always working miracles, 
and they alone were allowed to ascend the rocks, which were on one 
side of the statue. There in the crevices, the Arabs of our own time 
often conceal themselves, and for amusement strike a piece of granite, 
which sends forth a sonorous and metallic sound which rings all over 
the plain. 

To return to the stones in possession of M. Baudre, they are 
twenty-seven in number, and are suspended from a string, which, 
not being a good conductor of sound, allows the vibrations of the flints 
to be produced in their purity. The stones are rough, just as they 
were taken from the quarries, and are of different sizes. M. Baudre 
says, that there is an absence of the proportion which is indispensable 
in instruments of music, for three stones of the same weight and 
volume may produce very different sounds, while two stones, entirely 
unlike in weight and volume, may correspond to the same note, which 


is a fact that at present ‘cannot be explained. He says also, that cut- — 


ting the stones, asa general rule, has the effect of destroying the purity 
of the sound. So it was necessary to seek the note formed by nature, 
without regard to the shape of the lumps. Repeated experience has 


Prehistoric Musie. 243 


shown him that the gravity of the flint is in direct proportion to the 
number of irregularities on it; thusa long flint may give a good result 
if it is, to some extent, regular in shape, but the full extent of the 
vibrations is only obtained when the flint is full of projections and 
cavities. Yet flints long and absolutely flat on cach side may pro- 
duce fine effects, always on condition that the flint is perfectly homo- 
geneous. As a rule, it is necessary to strike the stone on the smoothest 
surface to obtain the most perfect note; the sides opposite to the 
smooth, produce disagreeable multiple vibrations. The stones used 
to strike the flints are free from allsound. The collection forms two 


_ chromatic scales, commencing on D, andending on upper E sharp, and 


the strings to which they are suspended are about two yards in length. 

M. Baudre devoted twenty-four years to making this collection, 
wandering with untiring perseverance through the departments of 
Haute Marne, the Somme, Perigord, Artois, and lastly the basin of 
Paris. More than two hundred thousand stones: were tested before 
deciding upon the fitness of a single one. He was led to make the 
search, which resulted in acquiring this geological wonder, in the fol- . 
lowing manner. In 1851, he was superintending the works of a rail- 
way in France; the workmen came upon great quantities of flint 


_ which, producing a faint sound, attracted his attention. It seemed to 


him a whole revelation, and he immediately thought it might not be 
impossible to find in those quarries something useful to the musical 
world. It required nine months of searching before he found the first 
one that gave a satisfactory sound. He then began to regard his dis- 
covery as belonging to the realm of science, rather than something to 
be exhibited in concert halls as a mere curiosity, and only thought of 
founding a geological collection of musical stones. Encouraged by 
the result of his first truly sonorous stone, he continued his search at 
his own expense, often laboring day and night, and thus in twenty- 
four long years he obtained the desired result, and had his geological 
piano complete. He considers these sonorous flints very rare, especi- 


5 ally those with so pure and charming tones. 


However this may be, such a collection must remain almost unique, 
for although there may be more stones, it would be difficult to find 
another man to seek for them, with so much patience, perseverance, 


- and ardent enthusiasm as M. Baudre has shown. One of the stones 


was once in the possession of Mr. Boucher de Perth, who valued it 
from its resembling the head of a Sphinx. When M. Baudre saw this 
stone in the museum of Abbeville, he remarked to the mayor of the 
city, who was with him : “That stone would speak if I touched it.” 
The mayor, rather astonished, desired him to try it, and handed him 


_ the stone. He touched it slightly with a small stone, and to the 


244 Prehistoric Music. 


astonishment of all present, he drew from it a marvelously pure and 
sweet musical sound. 

When Rossini went, the same year of his death, to see M. Baudre, 
he admired especially one of the stones which has a form of a thigh — 
he told him he thought it must be the bone of an old musician. 

Some French poet has written the following lines : 

“ Ah, qu’on ne dise plus: Aussi froid que la pierre — 
Les pierres ont une Ame et cette ime une voix 


Vivante, harmonieuse et pleine de mystére. 
Honneur a ]’Enchanteur qui leur a fait des lois.” 


Victor Hugo also wrote him: “ Patience is not enough ; it needs the 
original and fruitful idea; it needs faith, without which nothing 
grand can be undertaken. All this you have had, and you have 
achieved the impossible, the incredible, you make the stones sing. 
Virgil, that other enchanter, had only known how to make them 
weep. You are the poet predicted by the Roman orator who said, 
‘Rocks and deserts answer to your voice.’ This truly prehistoric: 
‘ harpsichord, these more than ancient keys, astonished without doubt 
at repeating our most modern airs, have recalled to me the aerial, I 
might almost say celestial chime from the lofty bell tower of the 
Cathedral at Antwerp. There is then in the words of Chateaubriand, 
“ A yoice in the stone, and the hard flint, from which flame darts, is 
also the source of harmony.” 

‘Stirred by Amphion’s Lyre, stones from the glebes 
Skipped to their places on the walls of Thebes. 
You to our ears a greater wonder bring, 

Beneath your touch the flints divinely sing 

The lovely music charms both ear and heart. 

And we exclaim as wondering we depart ; 


Sure to these rustic notes, in Eden’s glade, 
Eve must have danced while father Adam played.” 


THE CORRECT ARMS or THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 


Frrst PAPER. 


By Henry A. Homgs, LL. D. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, Dec. 2, 1879.] 


The people of the States of the New World, who have become in- 
dependent of the monarchical governments of Europe, have all adopted 
certain emblematic devices, by which they are recognized among 
themselves, and by the rest of the world. These emblems they em- 
ploy upon their public buildings, their flags, their seals, their medals 
and in other ways. They consist of a shield and crest, and other in- 
signia, which they call the Arms of the State, and the symbols are 
calculated to awaken in friend and foe due sentiments of respect. In 
devising these Arms or Ensigns, they have imitated their former 
rulers, whose monarchies from the times of the crusades have em- 
ployed such signs, most frequently called coats of arms, as badges of 
honor and discrimination. The usage has been so systematized and 
developed, as applied to families and States, as to give rise to that 
special art, called the science of heraldry. 

As a people we have no yearnings for heraldry, or for coats of arms, 
except as a means of symbolizing a State by some sign of a lofty idea 
or-aim, or of its characteristic traits; and in this spirit all the States 
and Territories within the Union of the United States of America, 
and also many of the cities and towns have adopted the custom of 
using each a special symbol, us the stateor city arms. By and through 
this symbol, the State, its presence, its dignity, its property, its 
authority and the relation of individuals to it for obedience and love, 
are declared with most effective emphasis. The devices on the arms 
_ of these many States are extensively known and easily remembered 
~ by all men interested, because they are perpetuated without any 
changes except in unessentials, as of the drapery of the figures, or 
the arabesques or scroll work surrounding them. 

When, however, we come to our own State, the great State of New 
York, we find that for many years past there has existed great uncer- 
tainty, even among the best informed in the State, as to what is the 
exact and genuine device of its State Arms; and in the community 
generally, those who should be requested to state in an informal way 


246 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


what are the arms of New York, would be unable to answer with 

tolerable correctness except that at least all, recalling ‘‘ that banner 
with a strange device,” could probably say, ‘‘ I know that the Motto 
is Excelsior.” Enquiries are frequently made from other States at the 
public offices for a correct copy of the Arms, and whatever answer is 
sent, it is with doubt and hesitation. 

I am glad to be able to say, that I think that the information which 
has been accumulated, from the date of the Centennial year of 1876, 
makes it now possible to set forth the true Arms of the State in an 
unquestionable form, and in their original beauty and force. 

The first and only device of Arms that was ever made for the State 
was prepared by a committee, appointed by the New York Provincial 
Congress in the year 1777. In the Journals of that body, we read the 
following, under the date of April 15: 


“On motion of Mr. Morris, resolved, that a committee be appointed 
to prepare a proper device for a great seal for this State ; and that Mr. 
Morris, Mr. Jay and Mr. Hobart be a committee for that purpose.””* 


The Congress adjourned in less than one month thereafter; and of 
what was done on this subject by the three distinguished tMewya's of } 
the committee, Lewis Morris, John Jay and John Sloss Hobart, nothing 
is recorded in the journals of the Congress or the Convention, because 
the disturbances of active war on the Hudson river, either prevented 


protracted meetings or general business previous to the first meeting 


of the legislature in 1778. The next mention of the State Arms is, 


after the adoption of the Constitution of the State of New York of — 


1777, at this first session. In the first general law, the one for the 
organization of the government, and passed March 16, 1778, it is 
said that the device prepared by this committee was adopted. 

The language of the Statute of 1778 so far as relates to the Arms 
and Seals is in these words : 


«* And whereas arms have been devised for this State, and two several 
seals have been devised and made, one of the said seals as and for the 
great seal, and the other as and for the privy seal of this State, (and 
which said seals are now in the Eu ioe and possession of his excel- | 
lency the present governor): 

“ Be it therefore further enacted -by the authority aforesaid, that the 
said arms and seals shall severally be and they are hereby respectively 
declared to be the arms, the great seal and the privy seal of this State.” 


A subsequent clause in the section declares that such matters as were 
issued under the seal at arms of the governor of the colony shall issue 
under the new seal; and a clause in section five requires the person 


*Provincial Congress of N. Y., Journals, vol. i, p. 882. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 247 


administering the government to ‘‘deliver to the secretary of the 
State descriptions of the device of the said arms and seals, hereby de- 
clared to be the arms, the great seal and the privy seal.” These several 
extracts embrace every mention of the word Arms throughout the 
law.* 

In April, 1786, an act was passed which authorized the issuing by 
the State of $200,000 in bills of credit; and it declared, ‘upon 
which bills shall be impressed the Arms of the State of New York,” 
and no mention is made of an impress of any seal of the State upon 
the said bills) The Arms are once more mentioned in the law in 
speaking of the engraver to engrave them.t 

Highteen years afterward, a law of January 26, 1798, provides for a 

commission of three public officers to repair or cause to be made a 
new great seal, after such device as the commission shall judge proper, 
but it makes no allusion to the Arms of the State. It simply requires 
that a written description of the seal shall be preserved in the secre- 
tary of State’s office.{ This commission however in making a 
new seal record the description of it in 1799 in these words: ‘‘ The 
Arms of the State complete, with supporters, crest and motto, around 
the same, The great seal of the State of New York.” They then de- 
‘scribe the reverse. They do not pretend to have devised new Arms, 
and while they have not followed closely the old device, they do not 
appear by the terms of the law to have had any authority for any 
changes which were made by the artist.§ 

A law of March 20, 1801, like the preceding one, regarding the great 
seal and the privy seal of the State, uses the following language: 

Sect. 5. ‘‘The description in writing of the arms and of the great 
and privy seal of this State, recorded and deposited in the office of 
the secretary of this State shall remain as public records ; and the arms 
and great and privy seal aforesaid, of which descriptions in writing 
have been deposited and recorded as aforesaid shall be and continue 
the Arms, the great seal and the privy seal of this State: . . .”| 

This law makes no further mention of the Arms, but merely con-. 
tinues to speak of the two seals. 

May 27, 1809, a law was enacted authorizing the fas eee of State 


~ to make a special seal for his own office, of such device as the governor 


*Laws of the State of N. Y., Greenleaf’s ed., vol. I, p. 181. 

+Laws of New York, Greenleaf’s ed., vol. I, p. 241. 

tLaws of New York of 1798, p. 249. 

§The commission consisted of 8. Jones, 8S. De Witt and J. Ogden Hoffman. 
Their report, filed January 22, 1799, may be found in the first volume of the folio 
entitled “ Official Seals,” in MS. in the secretary of State's office. Also, see N. Y. 
Civil List, ed. of 1880, p. 469. 

|Laws of N. Y., Webster & Skinner’s ed., vol. I, p. 205. 


248 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


should approve ; and a new great seal with a written description, to 
be preserved in the secretary’s office. This law of 1809 makes no men- 
tion of the Arms of the State.* 

A law passed Feb. 25, 1813, does not differ from the law of 1801 ex- » 
cept that it includes a seal for the office of the secretary of State, under 
a like requirement for the preservation of a description of the Arms. 
Chap. XIV, Sec. 6, requires ‘‘ That the descriptions in writing of the 
Arms and of the great and privy seal of this State and of the seal of 
office of the secretary of this State, deposited and recorded in the office 
of the secretary of this State, shall remain as public records; and the 
arms and great and privy seal aforesaid, and the seal of office of the 
secretary, of which descriptions in writing have been deposited and 
recorded as aforesaid, shall be, and continue the arms, the great seal, 
and the privy seal, and the seal of office of the secretary of this State.’’+ 

The State Arms are not again mentioned in this law, nor in any law 
of this State since that date, except as they are mentioned in the re- 
vised statutes; and the language in the last edition of 1875 relating 
to the Arms and Seals, is the following : 

** Sect. 20. The description, in writing, of the arms of this State, 
and of the great and privy seals, and of the seal of office of the secre- 
tary of State, deposited and recorded in the secretary’s office, shall re- 
main as public records; and the said arms shall continue to be the arms 
of this State, and the said seal of office, to be the seal of office of the 
secretary of State.” { 

The declaration that there is somewhere a standard Arms of the 
State, that can be appealed to, is here very emphatic; and the import- 
ance of the declaration will be seen in the sequel. 

Of all the descriptions of the arms and seals alleged to have been 
deposited and recorded in the ‘‘ secretary of this State’s office,” not 
one can be found, I am assured, except a brief description, without 
heraldic detail, of the seal of 1809. The search for these descrip-. 
tions has, I believe, been repeatedly made during the last thirty years ; 
their disappearance, if they ever existed in the office, is not a recent 
one.§ 

This memorandum poHiiande the description of the great seal of 
1809, describes a picture, having asa basis the arms of this State, 


*Laws of N. Y., 1809, Chap. 141, p. 185. A description of this seal of 1809, 
signed by Gov. Tompkins, and an impression of it may be found in the volume of 
Official Seals, Secretary of State’s Office. 

+ Laws of N. Y., Van Ness & Woodward’s ed., vol. I, p. 468. 

tBanks’ Ed, of ecsncd Statutes, 1875, vol. I, p. 525. 

SN. Y. Geneal. and Biog. Record, vol. III, p. 18.—N. Y. Civil List, ed. of 
1857, p. 429. 


J 
5 
ce 
- 


eh eh at ee el a a 
—->» ne ’ ( 


The Correct Arins of the State of New York. 249 


which is drawn up in heraldic language, but is none the less defective 
if regarded as acomplete description of the Arms. I quote it in a 
note as being of record in the secretary’s office. * 

From all these extracts from the laws which I have read, and they 
embrace all the laws relative to the subject that I have discovered, it 
does not appear that the first device of Arms adopted by the State has 
ever been changed by statute. Nor in the journals of the legislature, 
from the time of the adoption of the Arms to the present time, is there 


-any evidence of an attempt to change them by legislation. These 


laws, authorizing changes in the seals of the public offices, do not en- 
tail as a consequence, or even suggest, any change in the State Arms. 
The Arms of a people, containing symbols and emblems, adopted 
under the influence of and exemplifying the ideas and principles of an 
especial crisis, are of too serious moment to be subject to be changed 
in accordance with the peculiar fancies of individuals in each succes- 
sive decade of years. And if changed at all after some new grand 
crisis, the change should not be made regardless of the prevalent laws 
of the science of heraldry. Thus it is almost without example in ac-. 
cordance with its laws, that one or both of the two supporters of the 
escutcheon should be ina sitting posture, as they may be found on 


_ some of the seals of the State, and in pictures alleged or supposed to 


represent the State Arms. The word “incumbent” or “recumbent,” 
applied to the seal of 1809 in the New York Civil List is used to con- 
tradistinguish the modern seal from the pendent seal of earlier days, 
and not to the supporters as lying or sitting. The name of support- 
ers, given heraldicaliy to the figures by the sides of a shield, implies 
that they should be standing. Additions may more appropriately be 
made to a shield than changes may be made in it: as in the case of 
annexation of, or of union with a new State. 

I must add that no prinéed description of the Arms of this State, 
as devised and adopted in 1778, has been found to my knowledge in 


* Copy of the memorandum of 1809 in the secretary of State’s office: 
** Description of the new great seal of the State of New York, procured in pur- 


_ suance of the act entitled ‘ An Act relative to the office of secretary of this State, 
authorizing the making of a new great seal and to amend the act entitled an act 
’ concerning oaths.’” Passed March 27, 1809. 


Argent. A rising sun proper. 
Crest. Ona wreath a demi globe and an eagle passant regardant all proper. 
Supporters. The figure of justice on the dexter, and liberty on the sinister 


_ side. 


Motto. Excelsior. 
Legend. The great seal of the State of New York. 


32 


250 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


any early printed document of the State ; nor has there been found a 
line, in any early document or memorandum printed or written any- 
where, touching the arms or ¢he seals, authorizing both of the figures 
of Justice and Liberty, or either of them, to be seated. 

It might be conjectured by some persons that the changes which 
were from time to time made in the seals implied a change in the 
_ Arms, on the assumption that the word arms was merely a name for 
the central portion of the seal. This assumption is without founda- 
tion, because that, when in 1778 the great and privy seals were decreed, 


the Arms were also decreed asa separate thing. ‘The proof of this — 


is given in the specimens of the seals of 1778 annually reprinted in 
the New York Civil List, where we see that the devices of the seals 
differ from the device for the Arms. The first seal had on the 
obverse side a sun, rising behind mountains with the motto, Excel- 
sior, and the legend, “The great seal of the State of New York.” 
On the reverse, was a rock amid the ocean, with the legend, Frustra, 
1777. At the same time, the Arms were made having among other 
emblems Liberty and Justice as supporters of the shield. 

It will not have escaped notice that the resolution of the N. Y. 
Provincial Congress of 1777 called for a seal only; while the law of 
1778 declares the existence of and adopts both Arms and Seals. We 
may be allowed to suppose that the committee having provided a seal 
with a portion of what is now the Arms, with an obverse and reverse, as 
for the pendent seals which have a seal on both sides, judged it neces- 
sary to set fourth an Arms complete as a substitute for the colonial 
Arms formerly in use with the Royal escutcheon, locking forward to 
the time when they would be also upon the Seai. The section in the 
law of 1778 providing for Arms speaks of the Governor’s ‘‘Seal at 
Arms.” And so twenty years having elapsed before the subject was 
again reached by the legislature, the Commission under the law of 
1798, speak in 1799, of the new great seal, as having the ‘‘ arms com- 
plete,” as if they had completed a work which had been intended for 
the great seal from the beginning.* Embarrassment had been felt on 
account of the contrast between the Seal and the Arms, and therefore 
the new seal was made to embrace the original Arms of 1778, with 
modifications, which there was authority to make, as regards devising 
a seal; but as the law of 1798 makes no allusion to the Arms, conse- 
quently it gave the commission no authority tomake changes in them. 

The whole interest of: this essay turns upon the fact, that having, 
as I hope, produced a strong conviction in your minds, that the Arms 
of the State have never been changed by statute or legal authority, 


¥N. Y. Civil List, ed. of 1857, p. 427. 


_—— 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 251 


and then shown that the written description of them has apparently 
been lost, 1 am now able to adduce the strongest evidence of what was 
the original device,— evidence which in most respects is of more value 
than a description would be. The evidence consists in three speci- 
mens of the State Arms which have been preserved as they were en- 
graved or painted before the year 1785, a date which is within eight 
years of the first passage of the law for a State Arms; and each one 
of the three is impressed with a measure of official authority. 

The first of these early specimens is a copy of the Arms as they are 
engraved upon a military commission signed by Gov. George Clinton, 
June 25, 1778, the commission itself being dated within about three 
months after the passage of the law of March 16,1778. Mr. Edward 
F. Delancey, president of the Westchester Historical Society, a 
master of the mysteries of heraldry, who first brought this specimen 
to my notice, gave a photographed copy of it to the State Library. 
He thus speaks of it in a letter to me dated July 8, 1878:— 

Brea... The whole form of the commission is engraved upon a 
copper plate elegantly executed, about eight by ten inches in size, the 
arms being in the upper right hand corner. ........ I never saw or 
heard of it till this week......... It is as fine a piece of copper plate 
engraving as I know of executed in America. I have had the elegant 
initial letter T in which the arms are used as an interior ornament, 
photographed. The engraver’s name is Dawkins, and he is I believe 
the same man who made the first seal of the State........ He lived 
at Poughkeepsie. The date of the commission is June 25,1778.... 
.... The photograph of the T is only a trifle larger than the original 
Matias « This commission is a general military commission, and could 
be used for any rank of field or company officers, blanks being left to 
he filled as required.” 

The commission was for Daniel Mortine, as second lieutenant of 
Capt. Samuel Haight’s company of Westchester county, in Col. 

Samuel Drake’s regiment. The initial letter T was for the first word 
of the commission, The. The first clause of the sentence reads, “The 
people of the State of New York.” 

In this specimen the shield is much broader at the base than in the 
two following spécimens, for a reason which will afterward be ex- 
plained. The scales of Justice are held clear of her body, and the 
sword is not held firmly erect. The drapery of the figures though 
not classic is more agreeable than in the third specimen. As this 
specimen is the first in order of time and is employed upon a mili- 
tary commission signed by the Governor, it necessarily takes prece- 

dence over the others as having more direct official authority. 

Mr. G. R. Howell of the State Library has kindly furnished a blazon 
of the Arms on this commission, that should have technical exactness 


252 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


so far as possible, regard being had to the failure of the engraver to 
indicate color by the usual mode of dots and lines, and to the mod- 
ern costume of the figures.* 

The second specimen of the Arms is one which was painted upon 
the flag of the Third New York Regiment commanded by Col. Peter 
Gansevoort, Jr., during the revolutionary war. The regiment had 
been raised and recruited by him in 1777, and its first active service 
was in defense of Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk river, where it made 
a successful sortie against the forces under Gen. St. Leger. The 
colonels of the three New York regiments had petitioned the Commit- 
tee of Safety to be furnished with colors as early as Nov. 30, 1776. 
But this regiment was still unprovided with a flag. The knowledge 
that the flag, which they had improvised during the investment, had 
been made with portions of the garments of some of those within the 
fort, induced the preparation, in the year 1778 or 1779, of the beautiful 
stand of colors for the regiment, which is still reverently preserved in 
the family, although much tattered. With the kind consent of its 


*Blazon of the Arms of New York as engraved on the Military Commission of 
1778, by Mr. George R. Howell. ; 

Arms. Azure, in fess, the sun rising in splendor, or, behind a range of three 
mountains, vert and half irradiated, at their base forming a grassy shore ; in base 
a ship and sloop under sail, passing and about to meet, on a river (or strait) irra- 
diated, bordered by a grassy shore fringed with shrubs, all proper. 

Crest. On a wreath argent and vert, an eagle proper rising to the dexter 
from a two-thirds of a globe, showing parallels of latitude, and the Atlantic 
ocean with adjoining outlines of the equatorial portions of the two continents. 

Supporters on a quasi compartment formed by the extension of the scroll. 

Dexter. W.iberty, her face, neck, arms, and hands ‘proper, the feet in socks; 
vested in a short tunic, uncinctured, fringed at bottom, demi-sleeved, over a 
gown reaching to the feet. Over all, a broad sash vert, festoony, depending from 
under her sinister arm to her dexter hip, and thence from a fastening nearly 
to the ankle. In the dexter hand a staff ensigned with a Phrygian cap, the sinis- 
ter arm embowed, the hand and fore arm behind and supporting the shield ; the 
sinister foot resting on a royal crown dejected. 

Sinister. Justice, her face, neck, arms, and hands proper, her feet in socks; 
vested in a short tunic uncinctured, fringed at bottom, demi-sleeved, over a gown 
reaching to the feet ; over all a broad sash gules, crossing bendwise from the sin- 
ister shoulder to the dexter hip ; bound about the eyes with a fillet vert (?) ; in the 
dexter hand a two edged sword, cross-hilted,erect, the middle point resting against 
her dexter shoulder ; the sinister arm embowed, the hand holding out from the per- 
son her scales proper. 

Motto. Ona scroll argent, in sable, Excelsior. 

Observations. A slight amount of scroll work is employed for ornament above 
the shield.—No indication of color by dots or lines is given on this engraving, ex— 
cept in the cases of the wreath, the sash of Liberty, and the sash and fillet of Jus- 
tice, where the lines represent the colors above given, but may have been intended 
only as an artist’s shading. 


rT 


ae ee a a 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 253 


present possessor, Mrs. Abraham Lansing of Albany, it was unfurled 
with great ceremony at the centennial celebration at Oriskany in 1877, 
exciting a thrill of admiration in the fifty thousand people assembled 
there. 

The regiment remained at Fort Stanwix (Schuyler), till June, 1779, 
when it marched to take part in the Sullivan campaign of that year. 
During 1780 it was with the main army under Gen. Washington in 
New Jersey. In January, 1781, the 3d, 4th, and 5th N.Y. Regiments 
were consolidated with the lst and 2d. Col. Gansevoort, Oct. 15, 
1781, being at Albany, was sent by Gov. Clinton as General of brigade 
to maintain the authority of the State in the direction of Vermont.* 
Gen. P. Gansevoort, in 1864, wrote with his own hand a declaration 
that that flag was also “‘ borne at the surrender of Yorktown in 
1781,” ¢ having been carried probably to the 2d Regiment, and allowed 
to be used on account of its history and beauty, and for the sake of the 
battalion from the 3d Regiment which had joined it. It was after- 
ward returned to Gen. Gansevoort at Albany. Whether the flag was 
present on that occasion or not, its value is enhanced as a specimen of 
the true Arms of New York in proportion as the date when it was 
painted, approaches the year 1778, when the law establishing the 
Arms was passed. 

I have entered into more details regarding this flag than would have 
been necessary, if it had not been that a State appropriation in 1879 
was made to secure a copy of the Arms “ taken from a flag borne at 
Yorktown in 1781,” which was expressed in these terms: “ For the 
secretary of State, for the purchase of a colored picture of the arms 
of the State taken from a flag borne at Yorktown by the American 
army in 1781, to be deposited in the State Library, the sum of fifty 
dollars.” . 

The doubt thrown by the researches of Maj. Gardner, on the truth 
of the alleged fact, led to conclusions as stated above, which made the 
flag still more valuable as a witness to what are the correct Arms, than 
on the assumption made in the law appropriating money for the 
painting. 

-* Some of the preceding statements respecting the history of this regiment have 
been condensed by me from a much longer sketch in MS., for which Iam much 
indebted to Prof. A. B. Gardner, LL.D., Judge-Advocate, U.S. A., now in New 


York City. 
+ Albany Army Relief Bazar: Catalogue of Relics. Albany: 1864. S8vo. 


¢ Laws of 1879, May 15, Chap. 272. 


254 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


The Arms are carefully and finely painted upon both sides of the 
flag, which is of dark blue silk, and about seven feet square. The 
Arms complete cover upon the flag a space of about four feet four 
inches wide by three feet five inches high ; the two figures are each two 
feet two and a half inches high. 

Acting again in the same kind spirit as I before mentioned, Mrs. 
Lansing has afforded the utmost facility for securing an exact copy of. 
this venerable flag for the purpose of the law. It has been beautifully 
and perfectly painted on canvas in oil colors by Miss Annie Wright- 
son, of Albany. ‘The copy is one-half of the size of. the painting on 
the flag. 

This second specimen presents some striking departures from the 
first, chiefly such as were introduced by the fancy or carelessness of the 
painter. It has the great value of being the first specimen which we 
have in colors; and the colors of the drapery differ considerably from © 
those paibyedk in the third specimen. ‘The expression of the features 
of the head of Liberty is peculiarly winning. Of the Arms on the 
flag I am able to subjoin a more technical description, as before, 
through the kindness of Mr. Howell.* 


*Heraldic description of the Arms on the N. Y. Regiment Flag of 1779. 

Arms. Azure, in fess the sun rising in splendor, or, behind a range of three 
mountains, proper; in base the sea wavy. 

Crest. Ona wreath argent and gules, an eagle proper, langued of the last, ris- 
ing to the dexter from a two-thirds of a globe showing the Atlantic ocean, and a 
part of the Eastern and Western continents in outline. 

Supporters. Supporters on a quasi compartment formed by the oneal of 
the scroll. Dexter, Liberty, her hair brown, her face, neck, arms, hand and feet 
proper, the last sandalled and stringed gules; vested in a close fitting waist, 
demi-sleeved, having lapels falling over a gown reaching to the feet, both cloth 
of gold; a mantle gules depending from the shoulders behind to the feet; a 
ribbon azure passing from the sinister shoulder bendwise under the dexter breast ; 
in the dexter hand a staff, ensigned with a Phrygian cap, or,the sinister arm 
embowed, the hand supporting the shield; the sinister foot resting on a royal 
crown dejected. 

Sinister. Justice, her hair brown, her face,neck, arms, handsand feet proper, 
the last sandalled and stringed gules ; vested in a close fitting waist, demi-sleeved, 
having lapels falling over a gown reaching to the feet, both of cloth of gold; a 
mantle gules, depending from the shoulders behind to the feet ; a ribbon azure 
passing from the dexter shoulder bendwise under the sinister breast ; bound about 
the eyes with a fillet proper; in the dexter hand a sword erect resting between 
the forte and middle parts on her dexter shoulder, the sinister arm embowed, the 
hand holding out from her person her scales proper. 

Motto. Ona scroll argent, in sable, Excelsior. 

Obs. One branch of scroll work is used for ornament over each supporter, ter- 
minating at the wreath. Finer scroll work borders the outer edge of the 
shield. 


oe ye ee 
- rath 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 255 


The third of these specimens of the State Arms is a painting on 
¢anvas, which was first hung up in St. Paul’s Chapel, New York City, 
on the south wall,in 1785. It was suspended over the large square 
and canopied pew occupied by Gov. George Clinton, and opposite toa 
similar pew on the north occupied by Gen. Washington, one of them 
having been the pew of the Provincial governor during the British 
possession of New York, and after the burning of Trinity Church in 
1776. At ‘some dreary day of modernizing ” * the painting was locked 
up along with the painting of the Arms of the United States. After 
a few years, they were suspended in the porch ; but both were restored 
to their original places about the year 1857. The dimensions of this 
picture of the New York Arms are 67 by 45 inches. 

In 1875, the authorities in Philadelphia, preparing for the centen- 
nial celebration of 1876, were desirous of securing paintings of the arms 
of the original thirteen States for suspension in Independence Hall, 
and they applied to Mr. De Lancey, whose name I have already men- 
tioned, for a copy of the New York Arms. Mr. De Lancey regarding 
this painting justly as the most correct and ancient picture of the 
Arms then known, by his personal exertions obtained an appropria- 
tion in the supply bill of 1875 of six hundred dollars for the purpose 
of having copies of it made. It reads: “ For the governor, for the 
purpose of procuring two paintings on panel-wood or metal, of the 
arms or heraldic device of the State of New York, one to be placed in - 
the State Library, and the other to be placed at the disposal of the 
committee on the restoration of Independence Hall, Philadelphia, six 
hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary.” + ‘The 
object of the deposit in the State Library was to diffuse and perpetu- 
ate a knowledge of the genuine State Arms. The first two specimens 
which we have just mentioned having since been discovered, had not 
come into public notice. We give in a note a description of this 
painting of the Arms in heraldic language, made and published by tne 
Rey. B. R. Betts, of New York City, in place of the description of the 
copy which was made for the State Library in 1875, and which differs 
from the original painting in some respects.{ 


*History of St; Paul’s Chapel, N. Y., by Rev. Morgan Dix, D. D. ,1867,—Rev. 


_ Mr. Betts, in the N.Y. Geneal. Record, vol. III, p. 116, on the Heraldry of St. 


Paul’s Chapel. 
¢Chap. 634, Laws of 1875. 
tBlazon of the Arms of New York from the St. Paul’s Chapel painting of 1785, 


by Rev. B. R. Betts. 


Arms. Per fess, the sky in chief and the sea in base, the upper half of the 
Sun rising out of the latter, all proper. 

Crest. Ona wreath vert and argent the northern half of the terrestrial globe, 
of the second, the meridians sable, a spike projecting from the pale of the last ; 


256 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


Besides these two copies, a third was made for the Centennial Ex- 
hibition in Philadelphia for the Hall devoted to the Women’s Pavilion 
for the Works of Women. ‘This copy was embroidered by Tiffany & 
Co., on a light colored silk, and was in size about fifteen by twelve 
feet. The expense was paid by collections made for the purpose from 
the women of the State of New York, under the auspices of Mrs. 
Howard Townsend. By means of a second appropriation of the Legis- 
lature in 1878, obtained upon the request of the same lady, another 
copy, the fourth of the same painting, was made for the Mount 
Vernon Association, to be hung up with the arms of the other States 
in the mansion at Mt. Vernon. 

Having now given a history of these three earliest known specimens 
of the Arms, and accompanied each one with a scientific description, 
it seems necessary and unavoidable that I should describe particularly 
the earliest specimen in language which shall be clear and sufficiently 
exact, avoiding as much as may be possible technical terms, and that 
I should at the same time indicate the points wherein the second 
and third differ from the first. 

Arms. Shield. At the base of the shield of the first specimen, a 
shore of land is seen fringed with shrubbery, beyond there is an 
expanse of water smooth and calm. In the two later specimens the 
water commences at the very base of the shield, in the second it is in 
commotion, and in the third it is calm. Upon the water a ship and 
a sloop are seen advancing toward each other. Upon the second and 
third there are no vessels. Beyond the water appear in the two first 
three mountains, the central one being the most elevated. In the 
Library copy of the third there are mountains, but on the painting in 
St. Paul’s chapel it is clear that the sun rises directly from the water 
without mountains. In the first and second two-thirds of a sun, with 
a great effulgence of rays, appears beyond the mountains. 


above it, but not touching, an eagle rising proper, to the sinister, his head re- 
flexed below his breast, grasping in his beak his dexter talon. 

Supporters on a quasi compartment formed by the extension of the scroll or 
Dexter. Liberty, hair brown, decorated with pearls, proper, face, neck, arms, 
hands and feet also proper; sandalled gules, vested vert ; depending from and_ 
behind her shoulders a brown mantle, in her dexter hand a pole sable, spiked at 
the foot or, thereon a Phrygian cap argent, the sinister hand resting on the shield. 
Sinister. Justice, her face, neck, arms, hands and feet proper, sandalled gules, her 
hair brown and flowing, decorated with pearls, vested in a brownish gray, ° cinc- 
tured about the waist azure, the cincture fringed or, bound about the eyes with a 
fillet sable, depending from and behind her shoulders a mantle as the cincture, 
holding in her dexter hand a sword erect argent pomelled and hilted gold ; in her 
left depending by a ribbon gules, her scales, the beam sable, the strings as the 
ribbon, the scales, round, or.— From N. Y. Geneal. and Biog. Record, 1872, vol. 
TIE p19. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 257 


Crest. An eagle, with its head and front of its body directed to 
the right of the shield and its wings spread, stands upon a two-thirds 
of a globe, with parallels of latitude; it shows outlines of a portion of 
the east coast of the New World and of the west coast of the Old World. 
The eagle of the second specimen very nearly resembles that of the 
first. Neither of them should be supposed to have been drawn to rep- 
resent what we call an American eagle, but only the traditional her- 
aldic eagle. ‘The eagle of the third specimen conforms more nearly to 
our usual notion of the eagle, but it has the peculiarity that its head 
is turned to the left, while its feet do not touch the globe, but it 
hovers over it in flight. The word ‘“‘ America” is painted upon the 
globe, and there are drawn meridian lines in addition to the parallels 
of latitude, | 
_ Supporters. The figure of Liberty is on the right of the shield, 
and is completely dressed in a robe, with a mantle falling from one 
shoulder, and passing in front below the waist. In the second and 
third the mantle resembles an imperial cloak, spreading out behind 
on both sides of the robe, and somewhat shorter. ‘The robe reaches 
to the feet, which have socks upon them, while in the second and 
third they have sandals. ‘There is no belt at the waist in the first or 
second, but there is in the third. Besides the face and neck, the hands 
and fore-arm only are nude. The same is true of the other two. Her 
left foot rests upon a crown, which is overturned. In her right hand 
she holds an upright staff with a liberty cap upon it, and her left sup- 
ports the shield with vigilance and firmness. In the second specimen 
also the foot rests upon a similar crown; in the third specimen the 
crown lies a¢ the foot of Liberty. In the St. Paul’s Chapel picture in 
New York, in addition to the crown overturned, there is lying under 
the crown cross-wise a sword and a sceptre. 

On the left of the shield the figure of Justice stands, with a robe 
similar to that of Liberty, with a long waist, having lapels but no belt. 
The mantle passes from behind over her left shoulder down in front 
across under the right fore-arm. The same style of cloak is worn in 
the second and third as by Liberty. In her left hand she holds an 
even balance; in the two earliest specimens, it hangs away from her 
body, and in the St. Paul’s Chapel specimen directly in front of her 
body. In her right hand she holds a sword with the point upward, 
but her arms down in the two early specimens, the elbow touching the 
shield. The sword is raised higher, with her hand touching the left 
point of the shield, in the Chapel specimen. Her eyes are blindfolded 
in all three of them, but she seems anxiously and intently listening to 

33 


258 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


reach the truth. The face, neck, hands and fore-arms only are exposed. 
It is so also with the second. In the third nearly the whole arm is 
bared. 

Her feet are covered with socks in the first two, and sandalled in 
the last specimen. ‘The first two have no belt at the waist, in the last 
one Justice is belted. 

Motto. The word Excelsior, painted upon a scroll, upon the ends 
of which stand the supporters, alike in all three of the specimens. 
There is a mantling of scroll-work over all the three specimens. 

The next representations of the Arms, the nearest in time to the 
Chapel painting, were on the New York copper tokens of 1786 and 
178”. ‘There were issued four varieties of copper coins in those years © 
known by that name, and even a gold piece of the same size. ‘T'hey 
were struck at Birmingham, England, as a means of profit for specu- 
lators in New York City, and all bore upon them some portion of the 
Arms of the State.* One of them, having on the obverse the figure 
of an armed Indian chief, had on the reverse, a rudely cut but lively 
picture of the complete Arms, the supporters markedly holding up the 
shield, although each one is on the wrong side of it, and the head of 
the eagle is turned to the left. None of these can be appealed to for 
official evidence of the original device of Arms, as they were issued 
without authority of law, the legislature declining to recognize the 
undertaking. 

A lithographic picture of the Arms, obtained from a study of the 
three specimens first described, and conformed largely to the one from 
the military commissivun specimen, has been prepared by Mr. S. C. 
Hutchins and will be published as a vignette on the title page of the 
edition of the New York Civil List for 1880. The volume will con- 
tain from his peu many of the facts which I have mentioned. In the 
year 1875, a copy of the St. Paul’s Chapel painting of the Arms was 
cut on wood with the legend, Saint Micholas Club, 1875, as a design 
for the seal of that institution, and it may yet be adopted as such. 

No peculiar significance or meaning has been attached hitherto to 
some of the emblems constituting the original Arms of the State ; yet 
it is well worthy of our inquiry whether they had not a very distinct — 
and positive meaning in the minds of the original proposers of them. 
If the interpretation of them which I shall venture to give shall be 
received as correct, [am confident it will enhance our respect and 
attachment for them. This significance disappears from most of the 
modern representations of the Arms; nor does any one of the three 
express all the meanings with equal force. 


* Hickcox’s American coinage, pp. 78, 79.—Historical Magazine, 1869, p. 117. 


free “ 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 259 


I think the device upon the shield is emblematic of New York itself, 
by means of its most characteristic feature, the passage of the Hudson 
river through the mountains to the ccean; the tranquil and calm water 
represents not the #a but the Hudson river ; there is land at the base 
of the shield, with shrubs upon it, which is the west bank of the 
river. The reason why the shield was made so broad at the bottom as 
compared with the very pointed base of the third specimen, was prob- 
ably to give an opportunity to make the land on the west bank to be 
more obvious to the eye. The mountains represent those of the High- 
lands on the east bank. The water is not in commotion, dashing up 
againat the base of the mountains, as drawn upon the great seal of 
1777; for the mountains do not spring directly out of the water, but 
have a shore of foot hills of very slight elevation between them and 
the water. ‘The existence of this low land on one and both sides of 
the water has never before been recognized on the shield in anyof the 
later drawings until this moment.* Upon this river is to be seen, with 
a ship, the once so familiar North river sloop, passing through this 
wonderful chasm in the great Appalachian chain of mountains, which 
tells of the path for an empire assured thereby to New York, in the 
facility that this tidal communication, of one hundred and eighty miles 
from the ocean by the river toward the great lakes, and to the heart of the 
continent, was to offer for carrying on the commerce of the new United 
States.+ 

The eagle as the crest of New York has this historical prominence, 
that it is extremely probable that New York was the first of the States 
to make use of it. It now forms the crest of only Maryland and 
Pennsylvania of the original thirteen States. It was adopted by New 
York previous to its being adopted by Pennsylvania.{ It was not on 
the colonial arms of Maryland, and in what year after the revolution 
it was first put upon the great seal of the State by the Council the 
evidence is not yet clear.§ The eagle was not adopted as a portion of 


*The Rev. J. H. Frazee, of Franklin, Delaware county, who has in his pos- 
session the original engraved military commission of 1778, has at my request 
made an attentive scrutiny of it, and he informs me that there is unquestionably 
engraved upon the Arms, landon both sides of the water, such as I have described it. 

+ It is not a conclusion that I have adopted ; but I have thought that whdh the 
original blazon of the Arms comes to be discovered, if it ever happen, it may be 
we shall find that the sun was designed to represent a ‘‘ westering ” sun, and not 
a rising sun; in which case the mountains depicted upon the shield would be 
those upon the west bank of the Hudson, and stand for the Catskills, which they 
fairly resemble, while they are more than twice as elevated as the mountains 
lower down the river. 

¢ Penna. Legis. Docts., vol. IIT, 1875, No. 21. 

§ Maryland, Laws of 1854. 


260 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


the Arms of the United States till June 20, 1782, more than four years 
after its adoption by the State of New York, asitscrest.* It had not 
been upon any arms or seals previously used in the State. There is 
reasonable ground for the conviction that the crest of New York, an 
eagle facing to the west, with wings spread, was the device of those 
who were familiar with the idea of western development, rendered 
popular by the prophetic verses of Bishop George Berkeley (of whom 
Pope said he had ‘‘ every virtue under heaven”’), at the time of his 
enthusiasm for education in America. They were written by him just 
half a century before the Revolution, and were entitled ‘“‘ The prospect 
of planting the Arts and Learning in America.” He afterward 
passed more than two years (1729-1731), at Newport, in Rhode- 
Island. ‘The device was intended to shadow forth, as in a picture, the 
concluding lines of those verses : 
‘‘ Westward the course of Empire takes its way ; 
The four first acts already past, 


A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; 
Time’s noblest offspring is the last.” 


The eagle’s head and front, and its flight are in the direction of the 
dexter of the shield, from east to west, from the old world to the new. 
The succeeding artist who painted the canvas for St. Paul’s Chapel, 
aware we may suppose of the original intention of the design, and 
thinking that the emblem was not sufficiently understood, endeavors 
to make it more clear, by boldly painting upon the western continent 
of the demi-globe the word America, and draws the eagle, instead of 
standing upon the globe, as hovering over it in actual flight to the 
west. 

Massachusetts in the midst of the revolution, in 1775, adopted the 
motto of her Arms from a couplet of Algernon Sydney. It would 
not be surprising that New York should have been inspired in a simi- 
lar manner by such memorable verses from Bishop Berkeley. We 
know not what further revelations are yet in store for us from other 
sources regarding the early history of this ensign of our common- 
wealth. We know however that in 1776, Gov. Pownall had pub- 
lished in London his folio volume on the geography of the Colonies.{ 
In this work he gives the greatest prominence to the position of New 
_ York, as constituting the line of division between all the other colo- 
nies, owing to the marvelous ‘‘chasm” as he calls it of the Hud- 


* Preble, History of the Flag, Albany, 1874, p. 479. 
+ Lossing in Harper’s Monthly, v. 13, p. 178. 


{ Pownall, T. A topographical description . . . of the middle Colonies of 
America, Lond., 1776, fo. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 261 


son river, by means of which commerce easily reaches the lakes. And 
in the same year Adam Smith, discussing the possible future of the 
British empire, had applied by anticipation to the colonies the phrase 
“‘the seat of the empire.”* With the writings of both these men, 
Washington must have been well acquainted ; and hence when in 1784 
in responding in New York city to an address of the Common Coun- 
cil, he applied to New York the phrase “your State (at present the 
Seat of the Empire),” he was adopting language expressive of a 
thought, already current in America for many years; a thought sug- 
gested first to the inventors of the Arms from the marvelous facts of 
nature, then from the writings of these English authors, and finally 
by them set forth to all men on the Arms themselves. + 

The choice of Liberty and Justice as supporters of the shield, may 
have been suggested to our committee, from their remembering that 
in the Congress of 1776, on the tenth day of August these emblem- 
atic figures had been suggested as the supporters by the first com- 
mittee appointed to devise Arms for the United States, a committee 
of the most distinguished character possible, John Adams, Thomas 
Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, and only abandoned on account of 
the whole device as proposed for a seal with obverse and reverse, being 
too complicated. In brief, on the shield of our Arms is expressed not 
merely a sun rising upon the earth, but a sun rising upon the Hudson 
river, the great geographical feature of the State ; while the crest is 
not merely a portion of a globe but represents America, and the eagle’s 
flight expresses the hope of other poets and authors than Berkeley — 
the belief of tens of thousands of that day of the coming glories of 
the New World. { 

The Arms as we have now described them, continued to be set 
forth on seals and vignettes of books published by authority, without 
essential change, for a period of forty years. Engravings or wood- 
cuts of them appeared on the title pages of the successive editions 
of the laws of the State, which were published by Greenleaf in 1798, 
by Webster and Skinner in 1801, by Southwick in 1813, and in the 
annual volumes of the session laws from 1815 to 1819; they all give 
us a passable idea of what was the original device. Gradually after 

* Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Chap. 7, p. 59. 


+ New York City: Addresses to Washington and his Answers, 1775-89. N. Y., 
1867. 
¢ Rev. A. Burnaby in his travels in North America published in Lond., 1775, 
_ writes: ‘‘An idea, strange as it is visionary, has entered into the minds of the 
generality of mankind, that empire is traveling westward, and every one is look- 
ing forward with eager and impatient expectation to that destined moment when 
America is to give law to the rest of the world.” p. 155. 


262 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


that date changes came on; at first one only of the figures or sup- 
porters appeared seated ; but after a while both of the figures were 
drawn seated, or one of them disappears entirely ; besides many other 
changes perhaps as serious, and without any apparent authority of 
law. ‘To these changes we shall soon refer more particularly. 

These changes originated in the substitution in these vignettes of 
the title pages of the session laws and of other publications of the 
State, of the pictures found upon the seals of the State in place of the 
pictures of the Arms of the State. The new dies for the seals formed 
a sufficiently graceful picture for a vignette. When the casts or blocks 
used in printing were worn out by use, the pictures on the dies of the new 
seals were allowed to take the place of the Arms. From time to time, 
as new cuts in wood or in metal were needed, the varying tastes of 
artists and engravers facilitated further changes, and occasioned still 
wider departures from the original Arms. The genuine Arms having 
once commenced to be disregarded as the unvarying symbols of the 
dignity and sovereign authority of the State, and not being in re- 
quest except for occasional decoration and ornament, the pictures 
upon the seals were supposed to answer equally as well, and soon the 
time came when they were all that could be appealed to when any one 
was curious to see, or asked to obtain a representation of the State 
Arms. 

Thenceforward seals, vignettes and pictures of all kinds, made of 
every sort of pattern for the public offices, have passed in the common 
estimation as tokens of the State Arms: they have been of every de- 
gree of completeness and exactness as regards the shield, crest and 
supporters. The only thing which is uniformly repeated upon every 
seal that I have observed except one, is the word Lzcelsior, which word 
with the ideal aspirations that it suggests, is certainly well retained, as 
conveying a double meaning of material and moral elevation.* 

In the changes in these representations, whether regarded as Arms 
or seals, there are some which are especially worthy of notice, though 
_ we shall be obliged to omit all reference to many of them. In one of ~ 
the devices, instead of the three mountains, the shield has the colors 
and stripes of the United States; another divides the shield between 
the emblems of New York and of the United States. In one there is 
the anachronism of introducing the canal asan emblem of New York ; 
and in another a more violent anachronism, a steamboat and a railroad 
with a locomotive in the ornamentation outside the shield for Arms 
devised in 1778. The motto Excelsior is sometimes thrust within the 
shield. One of the latest devices for a seal for one of the public 


*N, Y. Geneal. & Biog. Record, 1874, p, 59, 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 263 


offices has a picture of a castellated and barred entrance to a prison, 
and the only trace of the Arms of the State upon the seal is the in- 
scription as if upon the doorstep, with a certain grim humor, of the 
motto, Excelsior! In many of the current pictures, each of the two 
supporters is on the opposite side of the shield to the one for which 
they were originally designed. Justice is seated upon some of them, 
and both Liberty and Justice are seated upon others. Liberty upon 
one has the cap of Liberty upon her head with the word “Liberty” 
upon the cap ; upon another the cap has disappeared, both from the 
staff and from the head. Upon another Liberty is seated in a posture 
as if she were overcome with other spirit than the spirit of liberty. 
Upon a letter-head used in the Executive department as late as 185) 
and perhaps later, there is the shield, the eagle and the motto, but the 
globe and the supporters have disappeared; and the legitimate sym- 
bols of Liberty and Justice have their places supplied by two figures 
symbolizing Science and Industry. The engraved letter-head in use 
. in the office of the Trustees of the’State Library has no unauthorized 
additions to the Arms, but rejects the crest and both of the sup- 
porters. 

When by a movement of some one who has a fair knowledge of 
what are the Arms of the State, a picture of them, most of it correct, 
has been made, all that has been gained may be lost in the next picture 
drawn. Thus in 1849, the State struck a gold medal in honor of 
Lt.-Col. Bliss for gallantry in the Mexican war. The picture of the 
Arms on the reverse side was not only most attractive and graceful but 
in almost all respects was conformed to the original device. And yet 
five years later, on a gold medal struck by the State in honor of Lt. 
Hartstene’s services in the Arctic regions, the design for the State 
Arms falls back upon all sorts of liberties and eccentricities, of which, 
recalling what I have said on the usual presence of it, the absence of 
the motto Excelsior is perhaps as noteworthy as any of them. 

There is a change, much to be regretted, which has been introduced 
upon quite a number of the semblances for the State Arms, that the 
eyes of Justice are not blindfolded, the scales of justice, and the 
sword have been withdrawn from her hands, and in place of a sword 
is a roll of parchment. All these emblems belong to the original 
picture of the Justice of 1778, and constitute a part of the mytho- 
logical emblems to signify that justice is an avenger of evil acting 
with impartiality. In another case, the avenging sword remains, but 
without the balance or covering to the eyes. And yet the statue of 
mere carved wood on the top of the cupola of the Old Capitol from 
1806 until a late period, had been declaring, by the presence of the 


264 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


balance evenly suspended, and of the sword, what were the requisite 
symbols of her presence. 

Although it is now more than three years since under the laws of 
1875, the copy of the painting of the St. Paul’s Chapel specimen of 
the Arms has been suspended in the State Library, yet the knowledge 
of the fact was not so widely diffused, but that the drawings which 
served for the State Arms ag sculptured in stone over the fire-places 
in the Assembly Chamber of the New Capitol, have both of the sup- 
porters seated ; the eyes of Justice are not blindfolded,the figures of 
Liberty and Justice are each on the wrong side of the shield; their 
feet are not clad with sandals; and the two ships and the crown are 
not there. There are other departures from the original, and yet the 
picture is much more complete than has been frequently given out for 
the correct Arms. 

In respect of maintaining correctly the Arms of New York, the 
military department of the State has made more progress than the 
civil departments. ‘The painting of the State Arms for the centen- 
nial of 1876 has apparently led to a change of the picture of the 
Arms of the State, as displayed in the center of the regimental flag 
of the N. Y. National Guard. In 1871 the Arms were painted on — 
blue silk on regimental flags of twelve feet by ten, with the evident in- 
tention to have a complete arms, but both of the supporters were 
drawn sitting, and respectively on the wrong side of the shield. But 
in 1878 upon the new flag of white bunting, both of the supporters 
are drawn standing, as is proper, and Justice is blindfolded, with the 
balance and sword, as is also proper, though the point of the sword is 
turned downward and touches the ground. Upon the dexter or right 
half of the shield are to be found as on the original Arms, water 
(though without ships), mountains (four instead of three) and a 
rising sun. Upon the left half of the shield are quartered emblems 
of the United States; a measure doubtless justified on the ground 
that since the adoption of the Arms in 1778 the independent State 
of New York had formed a Union with the United States 
America; and conformed in that respect to the usages of heraldry 
(when done with authority). As the embroidery is worked through 
and through, the supporters appear on the reverse to be on the pro- 
per side of the shield. 

I do not pretend to indicate or enlarge upon all the variations, 
between the original Arms and modern pictures of them ; but there 
is one symbol which has disappeared from every representation of the 
State Arms that I have seen of the last ninety years. It is the over- 
turned royal crown at the left foot of Liberty. I am not aware that 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 265 


the existence of this most significant emblem has ever before been 
pointed out or recognized as absolutely belonging to the State Arms.* 
It has disappeared from all the pictures of the State Arms, and from 
all the seals of the State, if it were ever upon any of the latter. And 
yet this crown is distinctly shown upon all the three early specimens 
of which we have been speaking. Now, while the arms of many of 
the States symbolize independence and liberty, our own State 
stands alone in declaring by this position of a crown at the foot of Lib- 
erty, a distinct abandonment of royal and monarchical government, 
and the substitution instead thereof, of government by the people and 
for the people. 

By some accident in making the copy of the St. Paul’s Chapel paint- 
ing for the State Library, the crown has not been observed or pre- 
served in the copy; nor was the sword and sceptre under the crown 
observed and copied. Or if observed, they may have been omitted on 
the ground that they were not an essential part of the Arms, accord- 
ing to canons of heraldry. 

Without referring to the many arguments, which will naturally 
occur to your minds, against distorting and altering the emblems on 
the State Arms, I must instead beg you to dwell with me for a single 
moment on the argument against such changes which offers itself, 
from a consideration of the remarkable character of the three eminent 
men who proposed the device for the Arms in 1778. They were men 
who, we know from their history, had deliberately considered all the 
consequences that were involved for themselves and the people, in 
choosing the emblems which they set forth as a device of State Arms. 
Lewis Morris, John Jay and John Sloss Hobart : — the first a descend- 
ant of a commander under Cromwell and during the Commonwealth, 
and a signer of the declaration of Independence; the second a de- 
scendant of a French family seeking refuge here from monarchical 
persecution, the first chief justice of the United States, and six years a 
governor of the State; the third, a Son of Liberty of 1765, a judge of 
the Supreme Court of New York, a circuit judge of the United 
States , and a United States Senator. All three of them, prime lead- 
ers among their fellow citizens, at this very time were suffering from 
the devastation and wasting of their estates by the British, and were 
refugees from their homes.t{ The enemy was at their doors. They 
were familiar with the old seal of the province which down to the 
Revolution had upon the obverse side the Royalarms of Great Britain, 


* Rev. Mr. Betts speaks as if it was introduced solely by a fancy of the artist 
who painted the St. Paul’s Chapel specimen. N.Y. Geneal. Record. III, p. 18. 

+ Jones’s Hist. of N. Y., 1879, vol. II, p. 48. 

ot 


266 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


and on the reverse the queen or the king of the successive reigns 
standing and receiving the homage of two crouching Indians, a chief 
and a woman, offering gifts.* The Arms of the colony, from the 
year 1686 had retained over the shield and supporters the sole symbol 
of the royal British crown as acrest. ‘The laws of the colony in vol- 
umes printed in England or New York down to 1752 bore on the 
title page a vignette of the complete arms of Great Britain. 
But in 1752 and in 1762 the folio volume editions of these laws had 
as their sole vignette the Arms of the colony. The same seal only 
was on the coloniai money of 1771. In thus superseding the com- 
plete British arms by the arms of the province, they were following 
on in harmony with those same popular impulses which had led the 
people to rush out from the King’s Arms tavern, to overthrow the 
King’s Statue on Bowling Green, and to cause its lead to be melted 
into bullets. No New York Arms had as yet replaced them in the 
Province. The sole change made in the old arms was to place the 
eagle over the shield instead of the British crown for a crest. They 
were required to provide a complete appropriate substitute, to make 
all things new. So these three men, rejecting with calmness all token 
of subjection, and standing upon the manhood of common citizenship, 
with no spirit of vengeance that with spear in hand exclaims, sic sem- 
per tyrannis, devise an emblematic State Arms, which announce with 
simplicity and directness a state to be maintained under popular sov- 
ereignty, and supported by Liberty and Justice without the aid of 
kingly power. The people of to-day, with a knowledge of the facts, 
will certainly not be indifferent when they reflect that a device of 
arms, originated and cherished by these leaders through such a crisis 
of our history, is liable to be either abandoned or disfigured, and no 
one can give a “reason why.” 

If it should be said in reference to one feature of the Arms, the 
overturned crown under the foot of Liberty, that according to heraldic 
rules it can be disregarded as not an essential feature, yet, remember- 
ing that it was placed there by men so honorable and honored in our 
history, should we not be jealous to retain it? We recall also that 
George Clinton, of whom Hammond says “he was in grain and prin- 
ciple a republican,” in the same church where a preceding colonial 
governor had sat in his pew under a painting of the British Arms, 
had for many years, as Governor of the new independent State, sat 
under these new republican Arms, with the approval of all the 
people ; and can we with easy and careless indifference allow our- 


* The Arms previous to 1664 are described in the MS. folio volume Annalium 
Thesaurus, Secretary of State’s office. They had no supporters. An impression 
of the seal having them may be found in Letters MS., 1647-1663. _ 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 267 


selves to erase or efface so expressive a portion of this grand and 
beautiful memorial of the birth of the State ? 

These Arms were conceived during the battle-year of 1777; they 
were formed at the crisis of the revolution. With these Arms on her 
flag, New York went through the war; they were displayed at the 
great surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. It cannot be possible 
that any of the emblems upon them, of such historical significance, 
will be allowed to disappear without any one knowing how it occurred 
and without any approving voice of the people. How can we speak 
of haying no blot on our escutcheon, if we are indifferent as to what 
that escutcheon really is, and if we do not cherish the symbol of the 
empire State with reverence, when we find it restored to our sight ? 

When we consider the lofty and noble significance of the symbols 
devised by these founders of the State, how paltry and trifling 
are mere female figures, with the emblems of their character, 
the cap of liberty, the scales, the blindfold and the sword removed ; 
figures seated and inactive, supporting nothing and apathetic, while 
our shield with its rising sun, and our motto, Excelsior, speaks of 
aspirations for all that is best, to be sustained by Liberty and Justice ! 

The badges and ensigns by which to designate and identify a people 
are a species of object-teaching, the use of which comes down from 
the remotest antiquity. The twelve tribes of Israel were each shad-, 
owed forth by a specific emblem. - Each one of the six nations of the 
Iroquois was known by one. Our soldiers know what it is to follow 
or stand by the national flag in battle: and each army corps of our 
civil war had its unchangeable and easily recognizable badge. 

-. In a comparative study of the arms and seals of the States of the 
whole Union, I find that at least sixteen of them have arms and seals 
which are nearly identical with each other, with the exception that 
each seal has the addition of an inscription or legend, bearing the 
name of the particular department using the armsas a seal. And in 
Massachnsetts, as in New York, on parade or in service, the State flag 
‘having upon it the Arms of the State is borne along in company with 
the national colors. But the arms of several of the States appear to 
_ have been subjected to various fanciful changes like our own, as if in 
the view of those whu make fresh copies, there was no significance or 
authority in the original picture or device. The arms on the seal of 
the State of Connecticut were changed before the revolution from 
fifteen vines to three with no apparent authority. The constitution 
of 1818 declares that the seal shall not be altered, but neither in that 
instrument nor in any law is the seal ascertained or described. In 
1840, the Secretary of State was required to report whether any leg- 


268 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


islative enactment is required for a proper description of the seal, 
which he neglected to report upon.* In Wisconsin the State has no 
arms, €0 nomine, established by law, except the device upon the great 
seal, which was devised by the Governor and Chief Justice in 1851 to 
replace the two former seals, and ‘“‘ Forward” adopted as the motto, 
as a free translation of the Excelsior of New York. And each de- 
partment uses this as a coat of arms with such variations as the fancy 
of the engravers suggests.t In Pennsylvania, the knowledge of the 
correct arms and seal was found in 1874 to be lost, and a Commission 
including the Governor was appointed ‘‘ to correct the arms of the 
commonwealth and to have the same recorded in the archives.” This 
commission made a report in 1875 recommending a return to the earli- 
est known copy of the Arms of the year 1779. In one of the docu- 
ments accompanying the report it is recommended “that a stringent — 
statute be adopted requiring adherence to the arms and pro- — 
hibiting any’ tampering with them or so-called zesthetic improve- 
ment. e 

Whatever are the merits of the arms which have been adopted by 
any of the States, there are none of them which declare by so signifi- _ 
cant symbols, that the State has entered upon the maintenance of a 
republican and democratic form of government, as the Arms of the 
State of New York. ‘The military commissions of the State begin, 
‘The people of the State of New York . . . reposing special 
frush, im yous. 2s do appoint you ”—that is, in the name of the 
people, instead of the language of a colonial commission, which was 
in the name of the Governor, and founded on fis trust in the person 
to he appointed. 

If this position which I have maintained, that this State has a de- 
finite and unchanged coat of arms for more than a century past, is 
verified, as on examination I think it will be, then it would seem that 
there cannot be a doubt what the decision will be, when the history 
and character of the arms are appreciated. 

A common sentiment will be stimulated to secure the necessary 
action which shall prevent the Arms of the State from being con- 
founded with the seals of the State; and measures will be adopted so 
that it shall no longer be true that any man in the State who is a 
voter may not easily know and be familiar with the symbols by which ° 
the State of New York a hundred years since decreed to make her- 
self known to the world. 

* Conn. Hist. Soc. Collections, vol. I, Art. by C. J. Hoadly. 


+ Wisconsin State Journal, Dec. 1879. 
t Penna. Legislative Documents, 1875, No. 21, vol. ITI. p, 1118. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 269 


It is obvious that the topic which we have been considering is 
deeply interesting to thousands in this State, and in other States 
also, from the enumeration which I have made of three recent calls 
for a public exhibition of our State Arms, two at Philadelphia and 
one at Mount Vernon; and from the fact that three times successively, 
in the years 1875, 1878 and 1879, the legislature has made appropria- 
tions of sums of money for correct drawings of the Arms, its mem- 
bers thus recognizing the importance of the subject. It is evident 
that the time has now come to give effect to these efforts, and that to 
prevent all whimsical or negligent treatment of the Arms in drawings 
by artists or others, which might either destroy or disfigure their sig- 
nificance, the legislature might wisely adopt measures to reéstablish 
by some declaration the character of the old arms of a century past, 
as not having been ever changed, if not as being unchangeable. 

Among the measures necessary to be adopted one would be, to 
secure that a correct blazon or heraldic description of the Arms 
should be filed in the Secretary of State’s office, and embodied in a 
special act, which should recite that the blazon which Goy. Clinton 
was directed to file cannot be found as the reason ; and another that a 
steel plate should be ordered to be engraved and preserved, in the 
Secretary of State’s office or in the State Library, conformed to this 
blazon.* And further to secure familiarity with the device, a paint- 
ing of it on canvas should be suspended in the executive chamber, 
and copies of engravings made from the plate should be suspended in 
all the public offices of the Capitol, and sent for like publicity to all 
the county clerks. Copies should be furnished on application to 
cities and towns when applied for; and they might be accompanied 
with a printed certificate from the secretary that the engraving shows 
the true Arms of the State as preserved in his office. 

It would be worthy of discussion also, whether it be not possible 
that the seals of the public offices, at least the great seal, as was 
originally intended, should ultimately bear these true Arms, each 
seal having its legend around the border, of the particular office or 
department using it. Questions relating to title to property may be 
made to depend upon the impression upon a document of a genuine, 
well-known and incontestable seal. Before the revolution, the royal 
arms were impressed upon the pendent seal used in patents and 
grants.t 


*j] am indebted to Mr. De Lancey for this last suggestion, made to me in writ- 
_ing since I read the paper to the Institute. He will also soon publish a paper 
containing his own more scientific statements on this subject. 

“+Addison on Contracts, Art. Seals, Am. Ed. 


270 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


The result of such measures and discussions would be to restore the 
Arms to the position which belongs to them. If in 1806, the Arms 
of the State had been carved and placed solely in the tympanum of 
the portico of the then New Capitol, as it was intended to have been 
done at the time when it was built, we would have been spared much 
of the confusion of the last seventy years. The Arms, besides being 
placed on seals, flags, military commissions, and medals of honor, 
might be placed upon all the public buildings, carved in stone or 
painted, not only on those of the State, but of counties, cities and 
towns ; they should wave on a standard jointly with the flag of the 
United States over the Capitol during sessions of the legislature, and 
wherever if was natural and desirable to impress a sense of the 
presence of the sovereignty of the State and of its eminent jurisdic- 
tion. Every citizen and beholder would be inspired thereby with sen- 
timents of respect and of patriotic pride in the Empire State. 


Note.— On page 266 the Arms, usually called the Arms of the city of New 
York, are referred to as the Arms of the Colony or Province. The same Arms 
are indeed those which are stamped both upon the paper currency of the Colony 
and upon the editions of the laws of the Colony for more than a score of years 
previous to the Revolution. But the change of name from “ city ” to ‘‘ colony” 
was made in the text while the essay was passing through the press without com- 
paring it with the context. It would be, however, an investigation of much 
interest if some gentleman would find time to make it, to discover and trace the 
history of the origin and varied uses of the Arms of the Civitas of New York 
from their first introduction to the present time. 


THE CORRECT ARMS or tHe STATE OF NEW YORK. 


SECOND PAPER. 


By Henry A. Homes, LL. D. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, May 24, 1881.] 


I should not presume to address you a second time regarding the 
State Arms, if I did not hope that I had some thoughts to present to 
you, which were both new and true and worthy of your consideration. 
I have some important additions to make to the statements on the 
subject, which I made in this place eighteen months since, and of 
such a nature that in listening to them, I hope they will explain and 
justify to your minds my willingness and desire to bring them under 
your notice. 

I am not an enthusiast for this one idea of a correct Arms for the 
State; but I have a strong persuasion that the restoration of the true 
insignia of this great State to their proper place is an object worth 
accomplishing, and that it will not be accomplished without steady 
exertion to that end, and that when completed it is desirable there 
should be a prevailing sentiment that it is well that it has been done, 
and that the immense majority should be satisfied with the result 
obtained. Yet I believe that there never will exist that prevailing 
sentiment that it has been well done, if the matter is abandoned to 
the taste and arbitration of any one man to decide alone on what is 
the true representation of our original Arms. 

Before calling your attention directly to my topic, I desire to be in- 
dulged in a few preliminary remarks, on the relations which the 
science of heraldry holds to the insignia or Arms of our American 
States. The occasion for making them is that during the year I have 
met with persons who were ready to decide questions regarding the 
Arms of this State, by the rigorous application of the laws of heraldry; 
while the making this rigorous application would entail results to 
which in my opinion New York ought not to assent. 

The relations of heraldry to our State Arms will be better appre- 
hended after I shall have read a short extract from T. C. Banks’ pre- 
face to afresh edition of the work of the great antiquarian Dug- 
_dale, on the ancient usage of Arms. 

«<The original design of heraldry was to discriminate persons and 
families, and to illustrate the histories of nations in general; to rep- 
resent the martial deeds of our ancestors, to perpetuate their mem- 


272 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


ory, to trace the origin of noble and ancient houses, to distinguish 
the many branches descending from the same stock ; to show the 
several degrees of relationship in which one family stands to another, 

and to ascertain by the blazonry of the proper coat, how each is de- 
scended, or connected by marriage or alliance.”* 


The main object of heraldry differs greatly from the object of State 
emblems or Arms. Heraldry is for coat armor, to distinguish indi- 
dividuals; other devices are for the purpose of distinguishes societies 
and States. 

The great object of heraldry has been, by means of othcers ad hoc, 
to control the entrance of persons into the ranks of the nobility, and 
to trace by means of marks, upon armor, banners and the like, rela- 
tionship of individuals. It extended to monarchies in Europe, because 
the kings themselves had their own coat armor. 

In our American States we have no family history to recognize by 
coats of Arms. We call the device which we create, to be the sym- 
bol of a State, the Arms of the State, for the convenience of using a 
word derived from heraldry, because readily understood in its applica- 
tion, descended as we are from the western people of Europe; to some 
extent we use the terms of heraldry as furnishing words by which we 
can render intelligible our ideas; and on account of their agreeable 
associations, we also preserve the outward forms of a science or art 
five hundred years old, such as the shield, crest and supporters, And 
in many of our States if as a matter of taste there had been greate1 
conformity to the principles of heraldry, the impression on the minds 
of the people who acknowledge those Arms. would have been more 
elevating. 

Still our State Arms do not perpetuate the history of the rights or 
rank of individuals, or of conquered States. They are a symbol 
established by law, of which one part is as essential as the other. If in 
heraldry the shield alone is the Arms, and the rest may be pronoun- 
ced ornamentation, whether ornamentation by authority, or without 
authority, the same cannot be said of the Arms of the American - 
States. It is the whole device which constitutes their Arms. It is to — 
such insignia we may apply the language used in the treatise pub- 
lished in 1592, by Sir William Wyrley. 

“Without such tokens...... nor so much as any commonwealth 
whatsoever can be defended, neither from outward enemies, civil dis- 
cord, or the rebellion of any plebeian rout.” + 

The Arms of all States, those of Europe and Asia, are not mere 
coat armor: they are insignia which are regarded by their people as one 

*Banks’ Dugdale, Lond., 1811, fo. 

+Quoted in Dugdale’s Ancient Usage of Arms, 1682. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 273 


whole, by which they are recognized among men, one portion of the 
token being as much a part of the whole as any other portion. The 
stalwarts that support the Arms of Prussia, and the lion and unicorn 
that support the Arms of Great Britain, are more essential to make 
an impression on the popular mind that they have before them the 
symbols of their country for their patriotic reverence, than any of the 
minute quarterings within the shield. 

Approaching closer to details regarding the New York Arms, I 
have still one observation of a general nature to make regarding them ; 
it is that New York is one of the very few States that makes any 
mention at all of Arms in its constitution or laws. I regard this fact. 
as worthy of being made prominent, if for no other reason than 
because it affords an evidence of the high culture of the leading 
minds in the convention. In the history of the successive States of 
the Union, the urgent motive for establishing Arms for each State 
has chiefly been to be in possession of a device for the seals of the 
State. Indeed the laws of the States, as if mindless and regardless of 
Arms, frequently merely require that there shall be a device for a 
seal, and this seal subsequently becomes in the usage of all the Arms 
of the State, although the laws nowhere make any mention that that 
State has any Arms. 

On the first organization of a State or Territory, the officers of its 
departments and courts solicit of the legislature the means of le- 
galizing their acts by a seal, and it immediately authorizes its chief 
officer or officers to devise such a seal. Availing themselves of such 
resources of wit, fancy and education as are at hand, a device is 
precipitated upon a State by the officers of that year for aseal, and it is 
this seal, which, perhaps without the approval of the best minds in the 
State, stands through the successive years, not only as the State Seal, 
but also as the State Arms, and is used upon the State flags, and upon 
medals. Yet in the popular apprehension the device is less known as 
being the State Seal than as being the State Arms. 

The language of the original motion in the New York convention 
on this subject, in 1777, confirms the general truth of what I have 
stated. ‘The first motion made was solely to appoint a committee to 
devise a great seal. The action some months later, in September, ap- 
pointing a second committee, specified nothing farther than a seal. 
But when in March, 1778, the law for the seal came to be enacted, its 
language was, ‘‘ and whereas Arms complete have been provided and 
seals.” Although there had been no requisition for Arms from the 
committee, there were evidently some persons near the government 


who recognized the genuine necessities of the case for the rising State, 
35 | 


274 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


and were influential enough to secure for the distinctive word Arms a 
place in the law. 

I will now proceed to present in order the work that has been done, 
and the additions made to our stock of knowledge regarding the 
State Arms, or other important observations, since the reading of my 
paper in December 2, 1879, before the Institute. 

1. At the time when that paper was read, no other copy of the 
military commission of 1778 was known to be in existence than the 
one of Lieutenant Mortine. During the past year, however, upon unty- 
ing files of papers in the office of the Secretary of State, a consider- 
able number of similar military commissions, perfect in every par- 
ticular, have been discovered. Other copies have been given to the 
State Library by citizens of the State, and are also known to be in 
. the possession of individuals, thus establishing clearly the fact, which 
had been doubted by some persons, that this engraved military com- 
mission was in common use. One of these commissions, given to the 
State Library by a descendant, is that of Kilian Van Rensselaer, as 
colonel of the Albany county regiment in 1778. 

2. It is one of the discoveries of the past year, that the use of this 
vignette of the initial letter '‘[ was not limited to the military depart- 
ment, but was also used on civil commissions. Among the papers on 
file in the office of the Secretary of State, there is an engraved head- 
ing of a civil commission with the Arms identical with the heading 
of the military commission, printed upon parchment, and recorded 


August 19, 1778, as a commission to Gen. Philip Schuyler, to be 


a delegate from New York to the Continental Congress, thus estab- 
lishing the fact that this was also the drawing of the Arms adopted 
for use in the civil service of the government. A difference of 
opinion existed at the time in the convention regarding the nomina- 
tion and appointment of delegates by the Governor ; and Gen. Schuy- 
ler was not actually chosen a delegate until the 25th or 26th of 
September, at Poughkeepsie. 

It is natural to ask the question, why this engraved form of the 
commissions did not continue in use? The answer is that it was 
not essential that the Arms should be found in the initial letter; it 
was the privy seal of the Governor which stamped the commissions 
with authority. It is probable that in transferring the seat of govern- 
ment from Kingston to Poughkeepsie, the plate was mislaid and lost. 
It may have been purposely abstracted by the engraver, of whum a 
sketch was lately published in the Magazine of American History very 
little to his credit. It disappeared during the year of confusion of the 
revolutionary war, resulting from the battle year of 1777 in the State 


of New York. 


: 
| 
: 


EE eee 


a 


The Correct Arms of the State cf New York. 275 


My reason for dwelling upon the large number of these commissions 
which have been found, and upon the fact that the same heading was 
also used for civil commissions is this, that so long as there was 
only a single copy known, it gave some color to the assertion of some 
that this initial T was a fancy sketch of the engraver, and was of 
little significance as a witness as to what were the original Arms. 
Now, however, that the extensive use of it by the Governor has been 
established, and that no other contemporaneous witness has arisen to 
detract from its authority, the military commission acquires great 
value as evidence. 

3. On account of the feeling which I had that every person inter- 
ested in the subject of the true Arms ought to have the means of 
judging for himself by comparison of the various early specimens of 
them, a beautiful copy in oil colors of the St. Paul’s Chapel painting 
has been made at the personal expense of the State commissioners, at 
my request, for the State Library. It was painted by the same lady 
who painted the N. Y. Regimental flag of 1779 for the library. And 
there any person can now compare the three earliest known specimens 
of the Arms with each other. And remembering that the Arms 
which were drawn under the law of 1875 were drawn only from this 
picture of 1785, or pictures of later date, without the use of the 
military commission and the regimental flag pictures, we must con- 
clude that it would be improper to have the question of what are the 
true Arms foreclosed, and shut up from discussion by any action 
taken under that law. 

4. In the paper of 1879, I mentioned the existence of additional 
early examples of the State Arms, current in 1787, upon copper cents. 
For the same year, though ten years later than the law of 1778, we 
can now refer to an edition of the session laws, having on the title 
page a vignette of the Arms. They were also painted about the same 
time though very imperfectly upon tea-cups made in China, a speci- 
men of one of which I am enabled to show you this evening. A 
drawing of the Arms was upon the cover of the first volume of the 
New York Magazine of 1790, and on the title page of the printed 
volume of the Journal of the legislature for 1792. None of these 
specimens adhere to the earlier examples with more than a rude 
faithfulness in most particulars. 

5. In the first paper, I spoke correctly of the appointment of Jay, 
Morris and Hobart to prepare a seal for the State. It appears, how- 
ever, that in the confusion of the times the seal was not forthcoming. 
The men first appointed had not been able to perfect their undertak- 


276 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


ing, while the necessities of the State for a seal continued. Accord- 
ingly on September 10 of the same year,Gov. Clinton and Chancellor 
Livingston were appointed to attend to the same duty and to order 
a seal to be made. Iam indebted for the reference to the Journal of 
the convention for this fact to Mr. Edward F. De Lancey of New 
York. It was voted that in the mean time the seal of the Governor 
be the great seal of the State. This is the seal which is called in sec- 
tion 1 of the law of 1778, the Governor’s *‘ seal at Arms,” that is, 
his seal with his family Arms upon it, such as each one of the colonial 
governors had been in the habit of using. It appears from the 
Journal of the convention, December 31, 1777, that the seal was 
actually finished, and adopted in that year, and on that day. And it 
was this seal which served as a basis for the “ Arms complete ” men- 
tioned, and adopted in the law of March 16,1778. There is no re- 
cord so far as is known what was the measure of coéperation of any. 
one of these five men, in producing the device of Arms as we this 
day find it, with which their honored names will be forever associa- 
ted. Instead therefore of three, as I reported in 1879, we have five 
of the most eminent men of the State, associated in this measure of 
revolution and republican independence, a measure which was sanc- 
tioned by all who constituted the provincial congress of the day. 

6. In my first paper on the Arms, I argued that the water’ between 
mountains, and a meadow at the base on the military commission, in- 
dicated a river, not the sea, and that river the Hudson river, with 
vessels of commerce upon it. But it will be remembered that on the 
paintings of the regimental flag, and of St. Paul’s Chapel, the water 
extends to the very base of the shield, and those paintings do not rep- 
resent the meadow; hence if, in the reconstructed Arms of the 
State, nothing was to be retained which did not have the testimony in 
its favor of two of these three witnesses, the meadow or fringe of 
land would have to disappear as being merely an invention of the 
engrayer, and without authority. 

Now it is one of the results of the investigations of the last year, 
that it is clearly established from the examination of many specimens 
of impressions upon wax of the great seal of the State, and attached 
to deeds and other papers from 1777 to 1798, that they have this 
fringe of meadow-land at the base of the shield. This fact conclu- 
sively shows, that the great seal which was the original, and proto- 
type of the shield of the complete Arms of the State, was closely imi- 
tated by the engraver of the military commission. 

The seal having been made under the authority of a resolution of 
the convention of September 10, 1777, we have in it a second and 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 277 


most authoritative witness to the existence of the land on the Arms 
at the base of the shield. Engravers, who in the past years have 
assumed to make fac similes of the seal of 1778, have overlooked this 
none the less conspicuous and highly important portion of the pic- 
ture which they werecopying. The seal of 1777, though it did not 
pretend to include the Arms complete, yet contained the full sun, the 
mountains, the river, and the land at the base. The date on the seal 
of 1777 represents both the year of the organization of the State 
government, and the year of adopting the seal. ‘The seal on this par- 
ticular point is an earlier witness than any one of the three speci- 
mens we have employed. 

7. In the paper of 1879, the opinion was expressed by me, that the 
State of New York was the first of all the States, and preceded the 
United States, in placing the eagle on the insignia of the State. The 
only State in reference to which there remained any doubt at that 
time was Maryland. It now appears that Maryland never had the 
eagle on its arms until 1840; and on this point I will read an extract 
from a letter addressed to me by Mr. W. H. Browne, the librarian of 
the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore, during the last year, 
October 28, 1880. 


Saree ** The legislature, some twenty-five or thirty years ago, swept 
away the cap and crest, and put in their place an unmeaning eagle, 
which remained until about 1873 or 1874, when the ancient device 
was restored. I have little doubt that you are right in your supposi- 
tion, that New York was first to adopt the eagle. It has no place in 
the genuine Arms of Maryland, and its appropriation by New York 
should have been an additional reason why our legislature should 
- have let it alone.” 


8. In the paper of 1879, I suggested that it would be proper that 
the seals of all the department offices, and of the courts, should be 
conformed to the State Arms, and have a legend around the Arms, tuo 
contain the name of the department or court using the seal. A 
custom has grown up, which has the sanction of law in many cases, 
that the departments do not use the Arms of the State on their seals ; 
instead thereof in many of the public offices at the capitol, the devices 
engraved on their seals, letter-heads and envelopes retain either no 
part of the Arms of the State, or only the motto Excelsior, and some 
of them do not retain even that; and the device on the seal of each 
department and public office differs from that of almost every other 
department. 

The State of New York has in this matter countenanced a usage 
which has not its parallel to the same extent in any of the States of 
the Union, and has allowed herself to be misrepresented in her State 
symbol more than any of the States of the Union have been as re- 


\ 


278 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


gards theirown. These devices, when found attached to documents 
issued by these departments, do not suggest to any one familiar with 
any of the representations of the Arms of the State, either with the 
correct ones or the altered ones, that the document is issued by 
authority of the State of New York, except by the legend containing 
the name of the office or department surrounding the device. 

In contrast with this usage, at least sixteen of the States, and 
probably many more of them have Arms and seals, whereof the de- 
vices for the one and the other are identical, except that each seal 
bears, as an addition to the Arms, the name of the department em- 
ploying the seal. 

The State commissioners have received letters from the secretaries of 
State of Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, 
New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Ver- 
mont, in answer to communications addressed to them regarding 
their own usages in this respect. The responses in many cases 
brought full sets of all the devices in use as Arms or seals, or on 
letter-heads, making quite a voluminous collection. 

So far as we have observed, these engraved State insignia are in- 
variably composed of a center, containing the State Arms, accom- 
panied with words containing the name of the State, and of the par- 
ticular department using them, either over, under or around the 
picture. Of late years the laws of some of the States which have 
suffered by painful experiences from the abuses flowing from the 
absence of clear laws regarding the Arms and seals, specifically 
require that the Arms of the State shall be the device to be engraved 
upon all the seals of the State. 

For the first example, I will name the State of Arkansas, which 
enacted, as late as 1864, a law, one section of which reads as follows: 

“‘ All official seals used in this State shall present the impressions, 
emblems and devices presented by the great seal of the State, except 
the surrounding words which shall be such as to indicate to which 
office they may severally belong.” * 

A law of Ohio, which was passed May 9, 1868, and which was en- 
acted from the same motives, in the first section describes the device 
of the “ Arms.” In the second section it is provided that the great 
seal shall have the same device described in the preceding section. 
The same section proceeds then to name all the courts of the State, 
and the departments, giving the legend to be engraved on the seal of 
each one, and closes in these words: “ All the seals ...... shall con- 
tain the words and devices mentioned in this act, and no other. ” + 

In addition to these two States, other States suffering from abuses 

* Arkansas, laws of 1864, May 3. 

+ Ohio, laws of 1868, Rev. Statutes, 1880. 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 279 


in the alteration, without authority, of their Arms, have been obliged 
to re-establish their legitimate Arms by fresh legislation. Such States 
are Connecticut, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Vermont. 
New York may be the last to apply the remedy, but the facts men- 
tioned in the first paper, of very numerous alterations of the New 
York Arms, we think sufficiently demonstrate the necessity of some 
action by the State to recover herself from these irregularities and 
inconsistencies, and to render such departures from and disregard of 
the genuine Arms of the State impossible ; and that our laws should 
require a similar uniformity in the use of the State Arms on the 
seals of the public offices of the capitol, and of the courts. It is not 
an exhibition of suitable respect to the State, that each of its depart- 
ments should symbolize or represent itself by a distinct and different 
device, and ignore and omit to employ the very device by which the 
State has chosen to set forth its sovereignty. The dignity of each de- 
partment and bureau, and of the courts is derived from the State, and 
no one of them can devise any emblem for use which can surpass, in 
value and significance, that of the State which they represent. 

9. One of the objects of my paper in 1879 was to call attention to 
the numerous incorrect representations in use of the New York Arms. 
With the same design, a letter was addressed to me from Washington, 
stating that the sculptured representation of them upon the block of 
marble, which had been contributed by the State in 1851, to the 
national Washington monument, to be placed in it with similar blocks 
from other States, did not contain a true picture of the State Arms, 
according to any one of the three early examples of them. I secured 
. afaithful copy of the design upon the stone, and in February I 
visited the lapidarium containing the collection for the monument of 
sculptured blocks of stone, representing the Arms of thirty-one of 
the States of the Union. The State commissioners on the Arms, 
finding that the divergence from the original Arms was great, ad- 
dressed the president of the association, who is the president of the 
United States, requesting delay in placing the stone in the monument, 
until the wish of the State upon the subject should be expressed. 
There can be no doubt but that the carving must be effaced from 
this block, and a correct copy of the Arms substituted in its place. 
This is the recommendation of the commissioners. | 

10. In my first paper, among the many improper alterations of the 
Arms adverted to were those affecting the supporters — Liberty and 
Justice. No one of the original thirteen States adopted for their 
Arms supporters so suggestive of lofty principle and purpose as the 


280 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


State of New York; indeed the Arms of most of them have no sup- 
porters. Although Virginia has a Liberty, it is not as a supporter, but 
fills the shield as an avenger of Tyranny. New Jersey has Ceres with 
Liberty as supporters, but the other ten States have nothing of the 
one kind or the other suggestive of virtues or duties. Whence arose 
the eminent distinction of New York in this feature of her Arms? 
In the first paper I spoke of the three men on the committee, Jay, 
Morris and Hobart, as having been judges on the bench. We have 
now to add to their number a fourth, also a judge, Chancellor Liv- 
ingston, and a fifth, George Clinton, a member of the bar, and the 
first governor of the State,'and for a longer period than any of his 
successors. In the absence as yet of detailed written records contain- 
ing the history of the origin of our Arms, it is but reasonable to 


give due credit to these four dispensers of justice, as having been led 


both by their education, profession and character to exnibit the 
virtue of Justice as one of the pillars of the State along with Liberty. 
It should serve to enhance the respect with which the Arms of the 


State should ever be regarded by us, to dwell upon the character of — 


these men, thus eminent in position, with whose names we must 
hereafter always and unavoidably associate this device. Of Clinton 
and Livingston, the two new members of the commission, I do not 
need to say a word more than that they two are the citizens whose 
statues have been selected by New York State to adorn the national 
Walhalla at Washington. But it is worth adding that four of the 
five men on these committees were graduates of American colleges, 
Jay graduated from Columbia in 1764 ; Morris from Yale in 1746 ; 
Hobart from Yale in 1757, and Livingston from Columbia in 1765. 
It is not a fact that should surprise us that the influences of a liberal 
culture should appear in the determinations of such men regarding 
the symbols of the new State, even if they did not personally origi- 
nate them. 

It is worth remembering, as will appear in the sequel of this paper, 
that the acted drama had been introduced into New York in 1753, 
and the plays of Shakespeare were repeated on the boards of the 
theater there. The members of the committees were men of as high 
culture as any to be found in the thirteen colonies. This fact with 
their personal history gives us the assurance that they were either 
thoroughly competent themselves to devise Arms for the State, with 
the symbolical perfection and heraldic completeness which we find in 
our Arms to day, or to influence and approve of the adoption of such 
rich insignia if prepared for them by another person, under their 
direction. | 

Regarding the emblematic figure of Liberty, I would observe that 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 281 


the color of the Liberty cap upon the pole in her hand, is not red, 
upon any one of the three early specimens of the Arms. The cap 
has been designated by some as a Phrygian cap, the color of which is 
historically represented as red. Our Arms were devised however long 
before the French revolution of 1793; and even if the color of the 
cap had been red, there was nothing in the principles of a govern- 
ment for the people which New York was devising, to suggest a de- 
structive spirit, or any symbol of a like spirit. 

The emblem of Justice on our Arms does not represent Themis 
or jurisprudence, into which it has been changed on the letter-heads 
in most frequent use in the departments at Albany, but represents as 
near as may be the Greek goddess Astrea. It was from this figure 
of the goddess, as a beautiful virgin, was derived also the Justice 
which originally formed the seal of the Supreme Court of the State 
of New York down to the year 1846. With the change resulting 
from the new organization of the court, by which the seal of the 
county where the court is held is impressed upon such documents as 
require a seal, that seal is no longer in use. 

A learned member of the bar has kindly suggested to me that it is 
worthy of mention that the symbol of Justice as here presented, har- 
monizes both with the Bible and with Shakespeare — with the Bible as 
in Job, “let him weigh me in the balance of justice,” and with 
Shakespeare who speaks of the ‘‘sword of justice,” and of learning to 
** poise the course of justice in equal scales, whose beam stands sure, 
whose rightful cause prevails.” Henry IV also is made to address the 
Lord Chief Justice thus : ¥ 


_ ** Therefore still bear the balance and the sword....the unstained 
sword that you have used to bear.’ * 


Why should such symbols of the god-like principles of single 
mindedness, impartiality and retribution be allowed to disappear from 
the figure of Justice, and from our Arms? I will add but one word 
more in this connection, which will be excused as appropriate to my 
argument for maintaining the figure of Justice as one of the support- 
ers of our Arms. On the last evening which I passed with the late 
lamented Chief Justice Church a few weeks before his decease he 
three times successively introduced before a numerous company the 
topic of the State Arms, and urged me to endeavor to secure the ap- 
pointment of a commission to re-establish New York’s ancient Arms. 

11. The last point which is of the nature of new light upon the 
Arms, and to which I desire to invite your attention is the results of 


* 2 Henry IV, 5; 2. yn 
36 


282 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


an inquiry, as to the probable reason for introducing a sun into the 
shield of the Arms. I think that its introduction was first suggested 
by the fact that a full sun was the badge or cognizance of Edward, 
Duke of York, who was afterward Edward IV, and was regarded by 
him as an omen of prosperity and success. 

If you do not, after listening to the reasons which I have to offer 
for the suggestion, find them satisfactory, I shall have to take the re- 
sponsibility of this application of the alleged facts; I am not aware 
that they have previously been thus applied. The history of the 
adoption of the sun as the badge of Edward IV is related in five or 
six of the early chronicles of England, the fullest accounts being in 
those of Hall and Holinshed. The event took place toward the close 
of the wars between the white and red roses, between the houses of 
York and Lancaster, and resulted in establishing the dynasty in the 
line of the family of York. A very successful and decisive battle was 
fought by Edward in the edge of Wales, February 2, 1461, called the 


“battle of Mortimer’s Cross.” I will only quote Holinshed’s account 
of ‘the battle, and of the prodigy which accompanied it: 

“ But when he was setting forward, news was brought to him, that 
Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, half brother to King Henrie, and James 
Butler, Earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire, had assembled a great num- 
ber of Welsh and Irish people to take him; he herewith quickened, 
retired back, and met with his enemies on a fair plain near to Morti- 
mer’s Cross, not far from Hereford East, on Candlemas Daie in the 
morning. At which time the sunne (as some write) appeared to the 
Earl of March like three suns, and suddenly joined altogether in one. 
Upon which sight he took such courage, that he, fiercely setting on 
his enemies, put them to flight; and for this cause men imagined 
that he gave the sun in his fulle brightnesse, for his badge or 
cognizance.’ t | 

Wm. Habington published the hfe of Edward IV in 1640, 180 
years after the battle of 1461, at the express desire of Charles J, who 
had been Duke of York; only two Dukes of York had intervened 


between his possession of the title and Edward IV, 140 years pre- 


viously. He discusses this phenomenon of the sun in the following — 


language : ‘‘ Before the fight, the sun (as by many authors it is asser- 
ted,) appeared to the earl] in the resemblance of three suns, and sud- 
denly united in one. The truth of which I will not dispute.... Yet 
how this omen could be expounded happy to his designs I understand 
not, unless we seek the interpretation from the event; for that indeed 
gave him the victory, and brought the glory of the two adverse gen-' 
erals (Pembroke and Ormonde) to his side; so that the three suns 


* T, 660, Lond. 1587, 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 283 


which with equal brightness appeared in the morning, before evening 
shined alone in him. For the two earls and their whole army were 
put to flight with the slaughter of 3,800 men on the place.” (Kennett’s 
England, 1706.) 

It was this phenomenon, which was probably a genuine mirage, and 
which was so well accredited in the minds of the people, which led 
Edward IV to adopt a sun in splendor as his badge. It was placed 
upon the housings of the saddles, and upon his banners. ‘The gold 
coin of his reign called the rose noble, and the rial and half rial had 
the sun stamped upon them. I do not find that the sun had pre- 
viously to this been stamped upon any of the coins of the realm of 
England. It wasalso used during his reign, and only in his reign asa 
mint mark, Writers on the history of the coins of England, Fleetwood, 
Leake, Ruding and Akerman, agree in ascribing this origin to the 
sun upon the gold noble. If the sun was not uniformly perpetuated 
afterward upon the Arms of the kings, or on the coins of the king- 
dom, the explanation is found in the words of Dallaway in his 
Heraldry: ‘‘A cognizance is but temporary in a family; it does not 
descend like the Arms, and so it never became a perpetual badge of the 
succeeding members of the dynasty of England.” . And for the same 
reason, Guillim does not give the sun in his drawing of the Arms of 
the Dukes of York. 

After the golden coin of Edward LV, the first coin upon which we 
find the sun, was one of the reign of Mary, and next upon the gold 
coin of Elizabeth. James I had it placed upon the sovereign. In 
all these cases it was upon the reverse of the coin, and the suns were 
all of the same type. We will speak later of the use of the sun by 
James II. | 

It was of this sun of the Duke of York that the members of the 
committee of the New York convention on the arms would have been 
reminded when they dwelt upon passages relating to it which Shakes- 
peare has woven into two of his historical plays. I will here quote a 
portion of the scene from the third part of Henry VI, between Ed- 
ward who became king, and Richard the second Duke of York. In 
the margin we read: ‘‘A plain near Mortimer’s Cross in Hereford- 
shire.” 

The Duke Richard addresses Edward: 


Richard.—See how the morning opes her golden gates, 
And takes her farewell of the glorious sun; 
How well resembles it the prime of youth, 
Trimmed like a younker prancing to his love! 


Edward —Dazzle mine eyes, or do I see three suns? 


284 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


Richard.—Three glorious suns, each one a perfect sun; 
Not separated with the racking clouds, 
But severed in a pale clear-shining sky. 
See ! see! they join, embrace and seem to kiss, 
As if they vowed some league inviolable. 
Now are they but one lamp, one light, one sun: 
In this the heavens prefigure some event. 


Edward.—’Tis wondrous strange, the like yet never heard of. 
I think it cites us, brother, to the field, 
That we the sons of brave Plantagenet, 
Hach one already blazing by our meeds, 
Should, notwithstanding, join our lights together, 
And overshine the earth. as this the world. 


A few years later in English history, Shakespeare makes Richard 
III, then Duke of Gloster, break out in triumphant soliloquy, in the 
first words of the play with that title: 


/ 


Gloster.—Now is the winter of our discontent 
Made glorious summer by this sun of York ; 
And all the clouds, that lower’d upon our house, 
In the deep bosom of the ocean buried. 


I will quote no more of this soliloquy than the allusion to the badge 
of the new king, Edward IV. , 

But it will be inquired why, readily granting that our New York 
legislators were familiar with Shakespeare, and familiar with this 
Yorkist legend, why it should in consequence be surmised that they 
designed to put into the shield of our Arms a Yorkist sun? I will 
not attempt to discuss the question asked at length. But in the first 
place I must say that negatively I regard the adoption of a sun, full 
like this one, as the adoption of so uncommon an emblem that I cannot 
help inferring that the New York convention had some extraordinary 
reason for adopting it. The story of the three suns becoming one, 
unconnected with any subsequent history, we easily and naturally let 
pass as an idle legend. But when we find that monuments were estab- 
lished in memory of the alleged occurrence, it acquires a new import-. 
ance and has taken its place in history. Affirmatively, I think that 
this historic Yorkist sun may be claimed to be the sun in the arms of 
New York for a first reason, that it is more like a Yorkist sun than 
any J have ever seen. On the coin or rose noble of Edward IV, it is 
a full sun; on the seal of the State of New York of 1777, it shows 
more than eleven-twelfths of the sun—all that it was possible to intro- 
duce compatible with the introduction of the other objects in the 
shield. A sun isan uncommon emblem in any arms as compared 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 285 


with the numerousness of other emblems. Among states and nations 
of previous date, I only find it used by Persia. It is ‘also on the 
patriotic banner of Ireland, called Fingal’s and is named the “sun- 
burst,” having been upon the standard of her hero Bryan Boroihme, 
when he won the decisive victory against the Danes, in the year 1014, 
at Clontarf. 

On the St. Paul’s Chapel picture of the New York Arms, we find 
less than half the body of the sun is represented, but that is the latest 
and least valuable witness of our three only specimens of the Arms. 
It is on the wax seal of New York of 1777 that the large proportion 
of the sun which is exposed shows most conspicuously. 

My second reason for thinking thatit is not a mere coincidence that 
the sun of the New York Arms resembles the sun of the York family 
is the following: James II, formerly Duke of York, when he had 
been on the throne for two years, on account of complaints from Goy- 
ernor Dongan, in 1685, of irregularities in the use of seals in the 
province of New York, sent over the sea, by special command, on 
August 14, 1687, a new seal, with a sun upon it, which was to be used 
in the place of all other seals. It reached New York, November 19, 
while Governor Dongan was in Albany. It is thus described by the 
king’s minister, the Earl of Sunderland, in the document containing 
the warrant for its use in the province: ‘‘ The obverse has on the one 
side the effigies of the king on horseback in arms, over a landskip of 
land and sea, with a rising sun.” It will be asked if this was a 
Yorkist sun? Unfortunately it is not known that there is a copy of 
this seal in existence. The secretary calls it a rising sun, but it could 
not well have been less than a Yorkist sun, for that too was a rising 
sun according to the legend, though all above the horizon. 

James the Second had been at his birth declared Duke of York, by 
Charles I, and ten years after he received the patent of Duke of 
York; he had read Habington’s history of Edward IV; he was 
learned and a pedant ; he had been declared proprietor of New York 
in 1664, 

He gives to it in the place of its old name of New Netherland, the 


~ name of its new proprietor. Although the sun had ceased to be used 


upon the coin of the kingdom for many years, he revives the use of 
it by placing it upon the new seal of his province, named after him. 
Can any other supposition be fairly made than that while he did not 
place there the insignia or arms of his own family, yet that he placed 
there as emblematic of the name of New York, the cognizance of the 
family of York ? 


286 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


The mind of James II was full of the thought of perpetuating the 
name of his family title in the new world, and in his “proprietary 
province. He, being Duke of York and Albany, calls the chief city 
as well as the province by the same name of New York instead of 
New Amsterdam or New Netherland. Fort Orange becomes Albany, 
Long Island is called Yorkshire, and the region of the Shawangunk 
Mountains, receives the name of Albania. 

It is very likely that no document exists anywhere with this seal 
attached to it; the seal itself was broken up in public and no impres- 
sion of it is known to exist. But itis very easy to account for this 
fact. In less than a yearfrom the date of its reception, in August, 
1688, Governor-General Andros defaced this “almost virgin seal” by 
the order of James II, and its place was supplied by the seal of the 
new ‘‘New England,” (which name was made to cover all the British 
possessions north of latitude 40°) and of which he had been made 
governor-general. With the English revolution of 1688, the next 
year, all chance of again using the York seal of the sun as an emblem 
of New York, ceased with the expulsion of James II, and the com- 
mencement of the reign of William of Orange, or it might have re- 
mained in use on coins and on our seal until 1776. | 

An impression of this seal of New England, which was the only 


seal in use in New York, from August, 1688, to April, 1689, it may 


not be inappropriate to observe here, should be included in the collec- 
tion of the seals of the State in the New York Civil List. No copy 
of the impression was known to exist at the time of publishing the 
Documentary History of the State, in 1850-51. One was presented 
to the New York Historical Society in 1862, being attached to the 
patent creating Joseph Dudley, first chief justice of New York. 
(Adlard’s Sutton-Dudleys of England, Bost., 1862.) It should be 
brought into its proper relations with the seals of the State, as one of 
the series, in use for a period of seven months. 

The seal has one peculiar additional item of interest, in that it is 
the first of that series of seals of the State which continued to be in 
use through a period of eighty-eight years, from the year 1688 to the 
year 1776, having on one side an Indian kneeling before the figure of 
the sovereign of the day, king or queen, and offering gifts. This first 
seal differs from all the remainder of the series in having the figure of 
an Englishman, as colonist, teacher or missionary, kneeling by the 
side of the Indian. lf the figure is that of a teacher, it may explain | 
the selection of the motto from Claudian which is on the seal. 

I have given reasons for believing that the members of the com- 
mittee of the convention must have been well acquainted with the © 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 287 


Yorkist badge from history and Shakespeare. I might add that the 
notices of this badge of the sun are frequent in English literature. I 
have before me extracts from Drayton’s poems, from his Polyolbion 
and from his Miseries of Queen Margarct, repeating the story of the 
three suns. Drayton was a contemporary of Shakespeare. In the 
22d song of the Polyolbion he distinctly affirms what was the phe- 
nomenon which induced Edward IV to choose the sun for his badge. 


‘« When to the Duke of York (his spirits as to awake), 
Three suns at once appear’d, all severally that shown, 
Which in a little space were joined all in one, 


Auspicious to the Duke, as after it fell out. 
* * “ s 2 s % “ * * 


When this most warlike Duke in honor of that sign, 
Which of his good success so riglitly did divine, 

And thankful to high heaven, which of his cause had care, 
Three suns for his device still in his ensign bare,” * 


It may be aconvenience to subjoin the extract from the second 
of the poems mentioned. 


“ Until at length (as Fortune pleased to guide), 


The conquest turn’d upon the Yorkists side. 
* * * * * * * * * * 


Three suns were seen that instant to appear, 

Which soon again shut up themselves 

Ready to buckle as the armies were, 

Which this brave Duke took to himself alone, 

His drooping hopes which somewhat seem’d to cheer; 
By his mishaps near lately overthrown; 

So that thereby encouraging his men, 

Once more he sets the white rose up again.” + 


Later references to the prodigy of the sun may be mentioned, as 
that of Hume, who refers the defeat of the Earl of Warwick by Ed- 
ward IV, to an accident which led the Lancastrians to mistake the 
star of the Karl of Oxford for the king’s badge of the sun, and to drive 
a portion of their own forces from the field. Bulwer-Lytton, in his 
novel ‘“‘The Last of the Barons,” referring to the event, says: 
**The housings of his steed were spangled with silver suns, for the sil- 
ver sun was the cognizance ofall his banners.” Hardy, in his new novel 
of ** The Laodiceans,” now publishing, describing a walk in the church 
_ of Stancy Castle, and the tombs of the knights upon the floor of the 
ancient church, with their effigies sculptured upon them, thus writes: 


* Polyolbion, Song 22 (Drayton, Chalmer’s ed.), p. 841, published in 1612. 
+ From Miseries of Queen Margaret, 1596, p. 112, of Chalmer’s Drayton. 


288 The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 


‘‘ Some of them wearing around their necks the Yorkist collar of suns 
and roses, the livery of Edward IV.” But I need not give other ex- 
tracts from English writers to illustrate the prominence which the 
cognizance of the sun has had in the history of the family of York. 

12. The last topic of this evening’s undertaking is to mention some 
of the conclusions of the report of the commission on the correct arms 
to the legislature, which I am able to do, having been appointed to 
act as their secretary. Their recommendations to the legislature 
constitute one of the steps of progress since the reading of the first 
paper. The commission composed of the governor, the secretary of 
state and comptroller, recommends the re-establishment of the original 
arms by a law, in which shall be embodied a full description of the 
Arms; they maintain as belonging to the Arms all those features which 
had disappeared or had been strangely altered; they recommend that 
the departments of the State and the courts shall place no other device 
on their seals than the Arms of the State, and they propose that the 
standard of the State bearing the Arms shall be hoisted upon the cap- 
itol while the legislature is in session along with the flag of the United 
States. They recommend that a year shall be allowed to elapse be- 
fore these recommendations should be enacted into a law, so as to 
give an opportunity for an expression of opinion on the subject by 
any who take an interest in it. - 

This process of retracing our steps to where we started from in 1778, 
may seem needlessly tedious, but it took Pennsylvania several years to 
complete its remedial legislation on the subject, and it took Ohio four 
years to obtain the same results. 

The Arms which these fathers of the State have left us as their legacy 
bring us on the one hand into the direct use of a symbol which for 
now nearly four hundred years, when found in its appropriate place, 
has suggested to the mind of the beholder the interests which belong 
to the name of York; with the difference that the symbol of the 
Highlands and the Hudson being conjoined in the same shield with 
that of the sun, the sight now suggests to us the interests and sym- 
pathies of the people of the whole State of Mew York. If there be 
any one who has any doubts about the significance and grand express- 
iveness for this State of that portion of the device of the Arms which 
represents the great geographical feature of the State, the cnasm of the 
Hudson river, let him familiarize himself with the eloquent descrip- 
tions of the marvelous geographical position of New York in the Union 
as given repeatedly by Hon. Horatio Seymour in his discourses touch- 
ing upon the subject, and his doubts will disappear. 

The briefest summary of the meaning of our Arms is, that the shield 


The Correct Arms of the State of New York. 289 


symbolizes in the full sun the name and idea of Old York and the old 
world; the mountains, river and meadow, with the ships, convey the 
name and idea of the New York of the new world. This New York 
is supported by Justice and Liberty, and discards monarchy. By ex- 
hibiting the eastern and western continents on a globe, the old and 
new are brought together, while the eagle of the crest proclaims, 
“Westward the course of empire takes its way.” 


Note.— Four plates, illustrative of the specimens of the arms spoken of in the 
two preceding papers, will be found at the end of this volume. The drawing 
of the Arms on Plate IV is unsatisfactory in its outlines and expression, but con- 
forms to the description of them as given by the Commissioners. In the absence 
of a more artistic representation of them, it has been necessary to print it. It is 
not a drawing of what had been definitely adopted, but is a sketch of the essen- 
tials, which was offered by them to the public, for the purpose of receiving sug- 
gestions, previous to preparing new dies for the seals. This is now being super- 
intended by the Secretary of State, under the law of 1882 reéstablishing the 
ancient arms September, 1882. 


37 


THE PLEA OF INSANITY. 
By Horace E. Smiru, LL. D. 


[Read before the Albany Institute, January 31, 1882.] 


The extraordinary trial of Guiteau for the assassination of Presi- 
dent Garfield has directed public attention with unusual interest to 
the defense of insanity in criminal prosecutions. ‘The subject involves 
questions of great importance, and considerable difficulty. It is the 
aim of this paper to present briefly, in outline, the present status of 
the subject, with some of the difficulties surrounding it, and the vexed 
questions involved. Its main design is to stimulate thought and dis- 
cussion, which may contribute to the realization of a more just, uni- 
form, and satisfactory administration of the criminal law, when the 
plea of insanity is interposed as a defense. The objective point of all 
inquiry and discussion is, the adoption of such rules and methods as 
shall be most likely to secure the conviction of responsible parties, and 
protect the irresponsible when charged with crime, and convicted of 
the overt act. Now, unfortunately, it often happens that guilty part- 
ies escape through the plea of insanity, while sometimes, possibly, the 
irresponsible insane are convicted and punished. ‘This defense has be- 
come so common, and is often interposed on such weak grounds, that 
the popular mind has come to regard it with marked disfavor, and 
courts, even, look upon it with a wary and suspicions eye. And yet, if 
legal insanity really existed when the alleged crime was committed, 
there is no better or more meritorious defense known to the law. An 
essential ingredient of crime, especially crime of the grade of felony, 
is criminal intent, and this implies a sane mind, without which such 
intent cannot exist. 

For convenience of presentation, and without special reference to 
- Jogical arrangement, the subject will be examined under three heads: 
The Fact, the Law, and the Procedure. 

First, the Fact: 

The plea of insanity presents a question of fact for the jury 
which is both a question of fact and a question of science ; not 
a question of physical science, but of metaphysical and psychologi- 
cal science. If the court and jury, and expert witnesses had to deal 
with physical facts alone, which may be subjected to the test of experi- 


The Plea of Insanity. 291 


mental aud demonstrative science, their task would be comparatively 
easy. but they have to deal with the outward, physical manifestation 
of inward, immaterial, occult forces. 

The astronomer, by the aid of his instruments and mathematical 
science, is able to make an accurate survey of the heavens, weigh the 
planets as in a balance, and trace their orbits with unerring precision. 
The scientist, with his glass, reveals the wonders of the microscopic 
world, and makes the solid earth seem instinct with organic life. 
But with what instruments shall the psychologist examine the soul? 
By what science, pure or applied, shall he determine its nature? By 
what mathematics, speculative or mixed, shall he unfold with precision 
its laws and powers? ‘The surgeon cannot subject it to his knife, nor 
the anatomist to his scalpel ; it is beyond the power of chemical analy- 
sis ; it will not respond to the inquisition of the microscope. What is 
it? Where is it? What is the fact and the law of its connection 
with the body? These and other questions may easily be asked ; but 
an attempt to answer them satisfactorily will at once reveal the in- 
trinsic difficulties involved. 

And these difficulties are presented by the mind in its normal state, 
studied by a mind in the same condition, when the investigation is 
aided by introspection, the observer beholding in himself, as in a mir- 
ror, the general features of his study. 

But how immeasurably are the difficulties increased when the sub- 
ject is a mind in an abnormal state; when, instead of light and divine 
order, there is darkness and tumultuous chaos; and when the student 
finds no assistance from corresponding features within himself ! 

Dr. Elwell, in a recent issue of the North American Review, writes 
thus: ‘‘ The human mind, connected as it is with matter, so far as we 
know any thing about it, in its best estate is an unknown quantity, 
having no unit or standard of measurement by which it can be accu- 
rately defined. Hence it is often most difficult, or even impossible, to 
determine precisely when there is a departure from a healthy standard 
or normal condition. No two individuals being alike in their normal 
condition of mind, it follows that each must be his own standard for 
comparison, and that an uncertain one. No words in the language 
have yet been able to define mind, sane or insane; and it has no 
synonym but mystery. Over the portal that leads to the luminous 
temple where thought dwells, the pilgrim who would enter there sees 
written in letters of living light the inscription: ¢ Put off thy shoes 
from off thy feet, for the ground whereon thou standest is holy 
ground.’ It is the temple of an unknown God, and whosoever would 
rush unbidden into this presence, thinking to sit face to face with and 


292 The Plea of Insanity. 


understand its mysteries, is but little less than a madman himeelf. 
Whether the subject be sanity or insanity, it will be found firmly and 
securely intrenched behind ramparts, and surrounded by insurmount- 
able difficulties —a terra incognita.” 

The difficulties are augmented by the great variety of forms and 
hues which mental alienation assumes, From the raving maniac, ex- 
hibiting the fury of a demon and the strength of a giant, there are all 
degrees and shades, down to the imbecile, or the morbid misanthrope 
seen in the picture of Byron, as drawn by himself in his Manfred. 

The perplexities of metaphysical study are also enhanced by inhar- 
monious theories on the subject of mental unsoundness. 

The leading schools are the psychic and the somatic. The former 
is based on the assumption that the primitive source of insanity is in 
the sou? itself, and that the soul is what originally suffers, imparting, 
when there is sympathetic insanity, its malady to the brain. 

The latter, the somatic theory, assumes that the soul itself, as such, 
is incapable of originating a disease; that the occasion of every 
affection of the mind is to be found in some abnormal bodily develop- 
ment; and that aberrations of the mind are nothing more than dis- 
turbances of some functions of the soul produced by bodily abnormi- 
ties. 

There is a third, or intermediute theory, which attributes to the body 
and the soul alike originative influence in the growth of mental dis- 
turbances. This theory has able advocates, and may be the golden 
mean of truth between the two extremes. There are phenomena diffi- 
cult, if not insusceptible, of explanation upon either of the extreme 
theories alone; and the intermediate theory, which recognizes the 
reciprocal influence of body and soul in mental alienation, seems to re- 
solve some difficulties not otherwise explainable. While these conflict- 
ing theories complicate medico-legal investigations to a considerable 
extent, they are not so embarrassing as might at first view be supposed. 
And this for the reason, that whatever theory be adopted respecting 
cause, medical experts have to deal mainly with effects, 

The disciples of the psychic and the somatic school alike deal with 
phenomena, which in particular cases are the same, whether the pro- 
ducing cause originated in the body or in the soul. While it is easy 
for medion experts to differ when interest or feeling excites antagon- 
ism, on the other hand, it is comparatively easy for them to agree 
when they speak to the phenomenal rather than the cazsal cnaracter 
of the case before them. | 

In all matters of science and philosophy, and especially on meta- 
physical and psychological subjects there always has been, and prob- 


The Plea of Insanity. 293 


ably always will be, a tendency to speculative ¢heorves and over-worked 
hobbies. Men of a speculative cast of mind, and a controversial dispo- 
sition, will sometimes frame a theory upon a very limited number of 
facts, experiments, or observations, and thereafter adjust every thing 
to it; bending facts and phenomena to such theory when they will 
yield, and boldly questioning or ignoring them when they will not. 
There are few men who possess the requisite force and grasp of intel- 
lect, combined with a well-balanced mental organization, coolness of 
judgment, freedom from emotional disturbance, patience to wait tho 
slow processes of inductive methods, and perseverance to push them to 
legitimate results, which are indispensable to safe conclusions in the 
realm of psychological investigation. Such men there are, however, 
. and they are making steady advances in psychological medicine; and 
we may reasonably hope that at no distant day their labors will result 
in relieving medical jurisprudence from some of its present embarrass- 
ments. 

Within a comparatively recent period moral insanity has become a 
disturbing element in criminal jurisprudence. By this name is meant 
insanity of the moral system, co-existing with sanity of the mental. 

It assumes that the moral and mental functions are so separable 
that one can be insave without involving the other; and that this 
severance actually exists in cases of moral insanity. It is claimed by 
the highest authorities that this species of alleged insanity has, psy- 
chologically, no existence; and it is generally repudiated as a legal de- 
fense. It will have been noticed by readers of the Guiteau trial, that 
_the most distinguished experts there examined deny the existence of 
_ moral insanity. It still finds distinguished advocates, however, both 
among alienists and jurists; and even when overruled as a defense, it 
doubtless sometimes creeps into the jury-box and secures a verdict of 
not guilty, against Jaw and evidence. 

The perplexity caused by this alleged species of insanity is greatly 
increased by its numerous subdivisions into the large and increasing 
family of monomanias. Among these may be mentioned homicidal 
mania, kleptomania, pyromania, erotomania, pseudomania, oikeiomania, 
dipsomania, fanatico-mania, and politico-mania. In his testimony on 
the Guiteau trial, Dr. Gray stripped from some of these manias the 
Greek costumes in which they had posed and imposed, and left them in 
their naked deformity and moral depravity, as murder, arson, theft, 
and drunkenness. Under the nomenclature of moral insanity, a person 
may lie, steal, ravish, burn and kill, ad libitum, and go unwhipped of 
justice. 

The doctrine once fully established and universally recognized, that 


294 The Plea of Insanity. 


there can be no moral insanity independent of mental, a convenient 
cover for moral depravity will have been removed, and the adminis- 
tration of criminal justice relieved from much embarrassment. | 

Secondly, the Law: 

When insanity is interposed as a defense, the court lays down the 
rule of criminal responsibility, and the jury pass upon the fact of 
insanity. In dealing with the issue a clear discrimination between 
medical and legal insanity is of the first importance. A recognition 
of the doctrine that the presence of medical insanity is not of itself 
alone a valid excuse for crime will greatly narrow and simplify the 
question. 

Establish a uniform rule touching legal responsibility, and so far as 
the administration of justice is concerned, it would matter little how 


wild the theories, or how fierce the conflict in the domain of medical 


insanity. 

What is the true rule in respect to penal responsibility ? 

In 1843, the English House of Lords propounded certain questions 
on this point to the fifteen judges, and received in substance the fol- 
lowing answer : | 

“The jury ought to be told in all cases that every man is presumed 
to be sane, and to possess a suflicient degree of reason to be responsi- 
ble for his crimes until tthe contrary be proved to their satisfaction ; 
and that to establish a defense on the ground of insanity, it must be 
clearly proved that, at the time of committing the act, the party ac- 
cused was laboring under such a defect of reason from disease of the 
mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, 
or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was 
wrong.” 

This rule, as an abstract proposition, is adopted by the English 
courts; but, like most common-law rules, it is flexible, susceptible 
of adaption to various circumstances, and the judges have been liberal 
in its administration. It is termed, in common parlance, the “right 
and wrong test,” and is applied with greater or less strictness in many, 
perhaps a majority, of the American States. 

Were this the only and the uniform test of responsibility, the issue 
of insanity would be comparatively simple. But it is held by high 
authority, and with much strength of reason, that the “right and 
wrong test” is not in all cases the only one by which penal insanity 
is to be tried. 

It is claimed that the defense is sustained when, first, there was an 
insane delusion from which the crime emanated; and secondly, that 
when being insane the defendant was forced to the act by an irresist- 


The Plea of Insanity. 295 


ible impulse, although in each case he knew that the act was for- 
bidden by the laws of the land. 

These propositions may be stated with a little more fulness and 
accuracy, thus: ‘‘First, when the defendant was acting under an insane 
delusion as to circumstances, which, if true, would relieve the act of 
responsibility, or where his reasoning power is so depraved as to make 
the commission of the particular act the natural consequence of the 
delusion.” Secondly, “where the defendant, being insane, is forced 
by a morbid and irresistible impulse to do the particular act.” 

Under the present English practice, “the delusions which indicate a 
defect of sanity such as will relieve a person from criminal responsi- 
bility are delusions of the senses, or such as relate to facts or ob- 
jects,— not mere wrong notions or impressions, or those of a moral 
nature; and the aberration must be mental not moral.” It is not 
enough that the delusions show a diseased or depraved state of mind, 
or an abnormal condition of the moral feelings, if the sense of right 
and wrong, although perverted, be not destroyed. 

There is some contrariety of opinion upon this question among the 
jurists of this country, but the trend is in favor of the insane delusion 
defense, under proper limitations. 

It is important to notice that the delusion constituting a defense 
must be that of an znsane person. 

If he has sufficient reason to dispel or correct the delusion, and re- 
fuses or fails to do so, he is responsible before the law. One author, 
in illustration of this point, says:—“ Thus the Mormon prophets claim, 
it is said, a direct revelation permitting them to practice polygamy. 

Would they be permitted to plead their delusion in this respect as a 
_ bar to an indictment? Certainly not. And the reason is, that they 
are shrewd, sane men, and must therefore be held responsible for their 
delusions.” 

‘There are many recorded instances of men subject to delusions, who 
were sane beyond question, and had full control of themselves. For 
example, Lord Castlereagh, who had a vision of the “Radiant Child ;” 
President Lincoln, who, at the same view, saw two images of himself 
in the mirror; and who, according to his biographer Lamon, “ was 
readily impressed with the most absurd superstitions;” and Lord Ken- 
yon, who had a morbid apprehension of impending poverty. 

There isa marked contrast between these instances and cases in 
which the delusion has so extended as to implicate the whole mind, 
producing incoherence of thought and speech. Dr. Rush reports the 
conversation of a patient belonging to the latter class, as follows :— 


296 The Plea of Insanity. 


“ No man can serve two masters. I am Philip King of Macedonia, 
lawful son of Mary Queen of Scots, born in Philadelphia. I have 
been happy enough ever since I saw General Washington with a silk 
handkerchief in High street. Money commands sublunary things, and 
makes the mare go; it will buy salt mackerel made of ten-penny nails. 
Enjoyment is the happiness of Virtue. Yesterday cannot be recalled. 
Ican only walk in the night-time when I eat pudding enough. I 
shall be eight years old to-morrow. ‘They say R. W. isin partnership 
with J. W. 1 believe they are about as good as people in common — 
not better, only on certain occasions, when, for instance, a man wants 
to buy chincapins, and to import salt to feed pigs. ‘Tanned leather 
was imported first by lawyers. Morality with virtueis like vice not 
corrected. L. B. came to your house and stole a coffee-pot, in the 
twenty-fourth year of his majesty’s reign. Plum-pudding and Irish 
potatoes make a very good dinner. Nothing in man is comprehensi- 
ble in it. Born in Philadelphia. Our fore-fathers were better to us 
than our children, because they were chosen for their honesty, truth, 
virtue and innocence. The Queen’s broad R. originated from a forty- 
two pounder, which makes too loud a report for me. I have no more 
tosay. Iam thankful I am no worse this season, and that I am sound 
in mind and memory, and could steer a ship at sea, but am afraid of 
the tiller. * * * Sonof Mary Queen of Scots. Born in Phila- 
delphia. Born in Philadelphia. King of Macedonia.” 

There can be no doubt of insanity in this example; but it may be 
considered as a sound and pretty well-established doctrine, that a de- 
lusion in a sane person does not relieve him from responsibility. 

It is important, also, to notice that an insane delusion is a good de- 
fense, only when the act charged as a crime was the offspring of such 
delusion. 

The defense of “irresistible impulse” is rejected by the English 
courts, but is recognized as valid in some American authorities. In 
Iowa, Chief Justice Dillon, delivering the opinion of the Supreme 
Court in the case of Felter, tried for the murder of his wife, said,— 
“The capacity to distinguish right and wrong is not in all cases a safe 
test of criminal responsibility. Ifa person commita homicide, know- 
ing it to be wrong, but driven to it by an uncontrollable and irresist- 
ible impulse, arising not from natural passion but from an insane con- 
dition of the mind, he is not criminally liable.” The ‘irresistible 
impulse ” allowed by some courts as a valid defense is not, it must be 
remembered, ‘‘ moral insanity ” as already defined ; it is not the stress 
of passion, nor is it the expression of malignant depravity ; i¢ is the 
overpowering force of insanity. 

There is not so wide a difference, practically, on the question of legal 
insanity, as an affluent and varied nomenclature naturally suggests. 

Dr. Folsom,in the same number of the North American Review 


The Plea of Insanity. 297 


from which we have quoted, thus sums up the conditions of legal re- 
sponsibility at the time of the act: — “First. Sufficient mental capacity 
for ordinary reason, reflection, and judgment. Secondly. The knowl- 
edge of right and wrong as applied to the particular act. Thirdly. 
The power of self-control within reasonable limits. Fourthly. The 
absence of insane delusion overpowering reason — the character and 
strength of the false belief to be judged in each particular case and 
not by any general definition of insane delusion, that being impossi- 
ble.” 

The question of the burden of proof in cases of alleged insanity 
has elicited much discussion, and resulted in considerable confusion 
and conflict in judicial opinion. 

It may be considered as quite well settled that sanity being the normal 
and generally the actual condition of the mind, is always presumed. 
The prosecutor may rest upon this presumption until evidence of 
insanity is introduced for the defense. Just here comes the conflict. 
What degree of evidence is requisite to overcome the presumption ? 
After the introduction of such evidence for the defense, does the bur- 
den rest upon the prosecution to satisfy the jury beyond a reasonable 
doubt, that defendant was legally sane when he committed the act? 
There are several theories. 

First. That insanity as a defense, the same as what is technically 
known as confession and avoidance, must be proved by defendant be- 
yond a reasonable doubt; and unless such proof be furnished, the 
case for the prosecution being otherwise proved, the jury must convict. 
This view was taken by the late Chief Justice Hornblower, of New 
Jersey, aman of great worth, and a jurist of distinguished ability ; 
but it is not generally adopted. 

Secondly. That upon the issue of insanity the jury must be gov- 
erned by the preponderance of evidence; that while the burden is on 
defendant, he is not required to prove insanity beyond a reasonable 
doubt. 

Thirdly. Another view which has some earnest advocates is, that on 
the issue of insanity, the burden is on the prosecution to prove sanity 
beyond a reasonable doubt. 

Fourthly. That upon the main issue of guilty or not guilty, the 
burden of proof rests upon the prosecutor from the beginning to the 
end of the trial. That to secure a conviction, it must be shown that 
the prisoner was sane when he committed the act, and for the reason 
that he cannot be guilty if a sane mind never assented to the act, and 
the fact of such assent is put in issue by the plea of ‘not guilty.” 
But, upon the particular question of insanity, the preswmption is 


38 


298 The Plea of Insanity. 


sufficient for the prosecutor in the first instance. When, however, 
evidence of insanity is introduced, it must be considered in connection 
with the presumption, and if, when so considered, the jury have rea- 
sonable doubt of the prisoner’s sanity, they must acquit. 

This is substantially the doctrine in New York as authoritatively 
announced by the Court of Appeals. 

It is forcibly and plausibly urged in an approved work on Medical 
Jurisprudence, that this conflict is due to the mistake of viewing the 
plea of insanity as in some way entering into the merits of the ques- 
tion of innocence or guilt. That the maxims of criminal jurispru- 
dence constructed to guide in determining the question of guilt or in- 
nocence hwve no application to the issue of insanity. That the pre- 
sumptions of innocence and of intent assume that the defendant is 
either innocent or guilty, but if the plea of insanity is good, he is not 
a moral agent, and can be neither. ‘‘ The defense being,” it is said, 
“that he is not amenable to penal adjudication —thathe is a being 
outside of the law — the maxims as to guilt or innocence belong en- 
tirely to another issue, and have no relevancy.” 

This reasoning, so far as it applies to the question of the burden of 
proof, makes in favor of the rule requiring a preponderance of evi- 
dence to sustain the plea of insanity. And the weight of judicial 
authority has been in the same direction, but the tendency seems now 
to be in favor of the rule adopted in this State. 

Whatever may be said of the logic of thisrule, practically its appli- 
cation meets serious difficulties. If the burden of proving sanity be- 
yond a reasonable doubt to the minds of an average jury be thrown 
upon the prosecution, it is quite apparent that the task of securing a 
conviction for a capital crime becomes exceedingly difficult. The 
almost infinite grades of insanity, its variable and accommodating 
nomenclature, the conflicting theories of psychologists, the unsettled 
rule of criminal responsibility, the facility of procuring extraordinary 
expert testimony, and the weakness of juries would conspire to em- 
barrass the prosecution, and insure impunity to crime. 

The question,— what is the true theory of civil government, and 
the purpose of penal law? has some bearing upon this subject. 
Does human government deal with man simply as a memberof soci- 
ety, or does it take cognizance of his relations to the divine law, and 
assume to enforce its claims and sanctions ? Is punishment for crime 
designed as a protection to society, or as a moral discipline for the 
‘ransgressor ? ach of the theories indicated by these questions has 
its advocates ; and there are, moreover, afloat in community some 
very crude notions upon the general subject. The adoption of a cor- 


The Plea of Insanity. 299 


rect theory is important in adjusting the true standard of responsi- 
bility for insane criminals. If human government regards and treats 
man simply as a member of society, and inflicts punishment for crime 
as a protection to society, it is manifest that a stricter rule of respon- 
sibility is allowable, nay, indispensable, than would be the case should 
it attempt to adjust its penalties by a moral scale, and make the good 
of the offender’s soul the purpose of the criminal code. The latter 
theory, carried to its logical result, would require the abolition of 
capital punishment ; and it would be an interesting inquiry whether 
the opponents of capital punishment do not, as a rule, adopt an er- 
roneous theory of government. What 7s the true theory? ‘This ques- 
tion is answered by ex-President Hopkins, one of the most profound 
thinkers of the age. 

In a discourse delivered before the Legislature of Massachusetts dis- 
cussing the relation of the divine and human government, respectively, 
to the ends of individual and of social existence, he says “that human 
governments regard man solely as a member of community ; whereas 
it is chiefly as an individual that the government of God regards him. 

“Human government is chiefly a system of restraint for the purpose 
of protection. Its object is to give equal protection to all in using 
their faculties as they please, provided they do not interfere with the 
rights of others. Government, then, is not an end but ameans. Soci- 
ety is the end, and government should be the agent of society, to 
benefit man in his social condition.” 

Dr. Elwell, in the paper from which we have quoted, thus forcibly 
presents this view in its relation to the plea of insanity: “The theory 
‘upon which government proceeds to punish crime by the infliction of 
the death penalty, and upon which alone it can be justified, is that the 
existence of the criminal is dangerous to society, and that society can 
only be protected by his death. Human law in these cases has nothing 
to do with the moral guilt of the offender. It undertakes to protect 
society, and punishes for that purpose only when the punishment is 
death. If government attempts to reform the criminal, as is some- 
times the case in crime less than capital, even then the primary object 
is the good of society, and not that of the offender. Criminal law is 
established by society for its own protection — not for the indulgence 
of revenge on the one hand, nor of a tender sentimentality in favor of 
the criminal on the other. Certainly, the community at large has 
the same right to protect itself, even to the taking of the life of an 
insane murderer, if need be, that an individual has when assailed 
With murderous intent.” 


300 The Plea of Insanity. 


In seeking the true rule of responsibility for insane criminals, some 
weight should be given to the fact that the fear of punishment is as 
great in the insane as in the sane, and has the same restraining in- 
fluence. “In cases of low mental and moral culture,” says an ap- 
proved author, ‘‘ the will, when on the brink of some forbidden act, 
is swayed by two conflicting motives, passion and fear. Fear, in such 
cases, is the only check on passion. If it isremoved, passion has no 
remaining barrier in its way. ‘The State which declares that no ir- 
repressible passion shall be punished evokes the irrepressible passion 
it exempts. The necessary check on passion is fear; and punishment 
must be applied by government with such even hand that fear will be 
real and reasonable.” The London Lancet says: ‘‘ No doubt men- 
tal disease is mysterious in its operations and manifestations. No 
doubt weakened mental power and a low standard of moral sense leave 
mankind an easier prey to violent passions or criminal desires. It is 
equally true that such natures are morc easily controlled and influ- 
enced by the fear of punishment. ” 

If these authorities are right, and penal law is designed primarily 
and mainly for the protection of society, it would seem to follow, neces- 
sarily, that the rule of responsibility for insane criminals cannot prop- 
erly or safely be relaxed. 

Thirdly, the Procedure: 

At present, both in England and in this country, generally, the ques- 
tion of insanity is tried by the court and jury with the other issues in 
the case. The court lays down the rule of legal responsibility, and 
the jury determine the fact of sanity or insanity. In doubtful cases 
and, indeed, in most, if not all cases,expert testimony is submitted 
for the consideration of the jury on the question of insanity. This 
procedure is often embarrassing and unsatisfactory. It unites issues 
unlike in their character, and in the kind of evidence apposite to 
each. If the prisoner is insane at the time of his trial he should not 
be tried at all while in such a state. He is incapable of pleading, of 
employing counsel, or of conducting his defense. He is a person 
** beside fede ” and if he was in the same mental state when the act 
charged as an offense was committed, it was not his act but the act of 
another person, the person “‘ beside himself.” He is not amenable to 
penal jurisdiction ; and the joinder of the two issues in one trial in- 
volves a kind of judicial solecisn, which naturally, if not necessarily, 
leads to confusion and embarrassment. 

If the question of insanity could first be determined by a competent 
commission, or otherwise, the administration of criminal law in such 
cases would be much more simple and satisfactory. 


The Plea of Insanity. 301 


Another and a more serious embarrassment in the procedure arises 
from the necessity of submitting the delicate, and often very difficult 
question of insanity to an ordinary jury. 

The English jury system, which we inherit, has long been a theme 
of unqualified panegyric ; and it must be conceded that, during some 
periods of English history, it stood between the sovereign and his sub- 
jects, a bulwark to the latter against the oppressive rule of the former. 
But it may well be questioned whether the system has not outlived 
its usefulness, especially under a popular government. 

In criminal cases, and notably where capital punishment follows 
conviction, ignorance is the prime qualification of the jury. Each 
juror drawn is challenged, and if he has formed such an opinion of 
the guilt or innocence of the prisoner as would require evidence to 
change, he is generally held disqualified. In this age and quarter of 
the world, all intelligent persons read the newspapers: the newspapers 
publish accounts of homicides, especially those occurring in the vicin- 
age ; no person can read these accounts without forming such an opin- 
ion as would require evidence to change; and hence, intelligent per- 
sons are, as a rule, excluded from the jury box. Under sucha system, 
what does the average juror know of insanity in its occult phases? 
Just about as much as he knows of Hebrew, or the nebular hypothesis 
of La Place. Experts, called on both sides, give conflicting opinions 
couched in language unintelligible to ordinary laymen ; a long cross- 
examination follows, which sometimes only ‘‘ darkens counsel”; then 
follow the arguments and appeals of counsel, which serve to dazzle and 
bewilder ; and finally the judge delivers his carefully prepared charge, 
formulated with reference to the diverse theories and judicial conflict 
upon the vexed question, and better adapted to the understanding of 
a lawyer or an expert than to an unlearned jury. By this time the 
jury know less, if possible, about insanity and the prisoner’s mental 
condition than when the trial commenced. On retiring to their room, 
if they enter upon discussion, like Milton’s devils they “find no end 
in wandering mazes lost.” The result will be a disagreement, or a 
profound united guess; and if the latter, the chances are that an in- 
sane man will be executed for an irresponsible act, or that a responsi- 
ble murderer will be let loose upon society. 

Curran once very cleverly satirized the jury system in a trial before 
Lord Avonmore, who piqued himself, and not unjustly, on his pro- 

_ found classical acquisitions. Phillips relates the anecdote as he heard 
_ it from Curran’s own lips. The latter was addressing a jury of Dublin 
shop-keepers, so stupid and so illiterate that the finest flights of his 
eloquence were lost on them; “I remember, gentlemen,” said he, steal- 


302 The Plea of Insanity. 


ing a side glance at the unconscious and attentive Lord Avonmore, “I 
remember the ridicule with which my learned friend has been pleased 
so unworthily to visit the poverty of my client ; and remembering it, 
neither of us can forget the fine sentiment of a great Greek his- 
torian upon the subject which I shall take the liberty of quoting in 
the original, as no doubt it must be familiar to all of yon. It is tobe 
found in the celebrated work of Hesiod called the Phantasmagoria. 
After expatiating upon the sad effects of poverty, you may remember he 
pathetically remarks: 


‘Nil babée infelix paupertas durius in = 
*Quam quod ridiculos homines facit.’ 


Lord Avonmore bristled up at once: “Why, Mr. Curran, Hesiod was 
not a historian — he was a poet, and, for my part, I never heard before 
of any such poem as the Phantasmagoria.” “Oh, my good lord, I assure 
you he wrote it.” “Well, well, it may be so; I’ll not dispute it, as you 
seem to be so very serious about it ; but, at all events, the lines you 
quoted are Latin, they are undoubtedly Juvenal’s.” ‘‘ Perhaps, my lord, 
he quotes them from the Phantasmagoria.” “ Tut, tut, man, I tell you 
they are Latin ; they are just as familiar to me as my Blackstone.” 
as Indeed, -my good lord, they are Greek.” “ Why, Mr. Curran, do you 
want to pursuade me out of my senses? [I tell you they’re Latin ; 
can it be possible that your memory so failsyou?” ‘‘ Well, my lord, 
I see plainly enough we never can agree upon the subject; but I'll tell 
you how it can easily be determined. If it was a legal question, I 
should of course bow at once to the decision of your lordship; but it 
is not —it is a mere matter of fact, and there is only one way I know 
of deciding it ; send it up as a collateral issue to that jury and I'll be 
bound they'll oF it Greek.” 

When the joke flashed upon the simplicity of Lord Avonmore, he 
literally shook with laughter. 

One of the most serious embarrassments incident to the procedure 
is that arising from expert testimony. This class of testimony is, in 
most cases, a necessity. Questions to which alienists speak on the 
witness’ stand are often intrinsically difficult,— questions upon which 
there are honest differences of opinion among men of undoubted 
scientific attainments; but the worst difficulties encountered are adven- 
titious. 

In the first place there is no rule or standard by which courts can 
determine who is and who is not entitled to speak as an expert. 
True, it is said that ‘‘neither quacks” nor mere speculative theorists 
are admitted as experts. But who are “‘ quacks” and who mere spec- 
ulative theorists? And how shall courtsdecide these questions? A 


The Plea of Insanity. 303 


late writer well says, ‘‘ Either the court must distinguish between rival 
schools, in which case it determines in advauce the renditions of science 
as to which the experts are to testify ; or it must decline so to decide, 
in which case there is no ground of discrimination of any kind be- 
tween professed experts. This virtually breaks down the distinction 
between experts and non-experts.” 

It is a matter of common experience that persons wholly unquali- 
fied are admitted to testify as experts ; and such witnesses often speak 
with an assurance rarely seen in men of profound scientific attain- 
ments; thus verifying the saying that “fools rush in where angels 
fear to tread.” 

Besides this inevitable embarrassment under the present system of 
procedure, there are abuses which more than merely justify criticism. 

The unseemly spectacle is often witnessed of medical experts arrayed 
against each other in a cause, and not only giving wholly contradict- 
ory testimony upon the same question, but manifesting all the par- 
tisan zeal, and frequently more bitterness of antagonism, than is ex- 
hibited by the opposing counsel. This results, in part at least, from 
the volunteer position of experts, which is sometimes termed the An- 
glo-American practice. Each party selects witnesses holding views to 
suit his purpose, or he retains them as he does his counsel, to take 
care of and advance his interests. They are generally well paid for 
their services, sometimes larger fees, even, than counsel in the cause. 
Thus, interest and the zeal of a paid retainer are added to professional 
pride and jealousy, the sure outcome being a painful, not to say 

disgraceful, scene in court. It is scarcely in human nature, under 
“such circumstances, for a witness to resist the temptation of becoming 
a partisan, and manifesting feeling wholly unbecoming the position. 
It is scarcely too much to say,— there is no theory of insanity, how- 
ever wild and absurd, and no perversion uf facts and science, however 
monstrous, that have not been subsidized in criminal jurisprudence, 
under the guise of expert testimony. No witness, and especially no 
professional witness, should be subjected to such a strain. Applied 
here, as wheresoever, in all the relations and activities of life, there is 
great significance in the prayer, ‘‘ Lead us not into temptation.” It is 
apparent at a glance that under the present procedure, with its attend- 
ant abuses, there will be great difficulty, often, in ascertaining the 
truth. ‘‘ Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? ” 

One remedy proposed for some of the evils incident to the Anglo- 
American practice, is the adoption of the German system. Under this 
system, medical experts are appointed by the State. They are selected 
from men scientifically trained, who have successfully passed an ex- 
amination in the specialty of medical Jurisprudence, in the manner 


304 The Plea of Insanity. 


prescribed by law. In some of the German States, for every county 
there are appointed a governmental physician and surgeon, who are 
charged with the duty of examining and reporting upon cases requir- 
ing medico-legal investigation. If they differ in opinion, an appeal 
may be taken to a medical college appointed for the province, com- 
posed of men of peculiar experience and knowledge in medical juris- 
prudence. ‘Then there is a final appellate court established for the 
entire State. ‘‘Thus, in Prussia,” says a German authority, “ we 
have (1) the county physician and county surgeon ; (2) the medical col- 
lege of the province, consisting of the chief-president, the governmental 
counselors, a pharmaceutical assessor, and a physician whose specialty 
is the disease of animals; and (3) an appellate medical commission 
for the whole monarchy.” 

Such a system as this eliminates from medico-legal investigations 
all interested testimony, and gives to the court and jury the unbiased 
judgment of thoroughly competent alienists, instead of the conflicting 
and perplexing jargon of feed experts, or the audacious utterances of 
brazen empirics. . 

Under our government and constitutional provisions there might 
be some difficulties in the way of adopting such a system, in its com- 
pleteness, not encountered in the German States. But were govern- 
mental expert commissions established, the courts might at least re- | 
fuse to put an alleged insane criminal on trial for the offense charged, 
until advised by such commission of his legal responsibility; and, should 
the prisoner, after being declared responsible by the commission, in- 
sist upon the plea of insanity in his defense, the opinion of one of the 
commissioners would outweigh the testimony of a cohort of hired ex- 
perts. Until some change occurs in the present system, alienists will 
of necessity be called as witnesses. And if called, and required to 
leave their business and attend the sessions of a court for days, and 
perhaps for weeks, it is only simple justice that they should be fully 
compensated ; and they are not obnoxious to just criticism for de- 
manding and receiving compensation. Such, only, as yield to the 
temptation of virtually selling their testimony for a price are fairly _ 
open to censure. 

Honorable members of the prceaean may do much to alleviate 
somewhat the worst features of the present expert system. Let them 
insist upon a high standard of professional honor and practice in the 
matter; firmly resisting all inducements to swerve a hair’s breadth 
from the line of rectitude, or the dictates of judgment and conscience, 
for the benefit of either party ; and frowning indignantly upon the 
mercenaries in their ranks, who, by yielding to the lust of gain 
degrade their high calling. 


The Plea of Insanity. 305 


The court and legal profession may also do much to correct this 
evil. To them it is well known, and peculiarly obnoxious ; and there 
is no class of men who are quicker to see and condemn, and more 
prompt to remedy any practice which obstructs the due and pure 
administration of justice than the much abused lawyers. 

It is exceedingly desirable that the courts throughout the Union 
should harmonize upon the question,—W hat constitutes legal insanity ? 
It is also important that they should adopt a uniform rule in respect 
of the burden of proof. Such agreement would relieve trials of much 
confusion and embarrassment, and tend to certainty and uniformity 
in the administration of criminal law. It could not then well be, as 
now, that a criminal, tried in New Jersey and sent to the gallows, 
would, if tried in Indiana for the same offense, and on the same evi- 
dence, be acquitted. 

But what is needed most of all, perhaps, is a sound and wholesome 
public opinion on the subject; an opinion that shall embody itself in 
legislative enactments, sustain courts in the administration of penal 
law, and furnish spinal qualifications to juries. 

There is a morbid, ill-directed sympathy, a tender sentimentality, 
abroad in the land, which expends itself upon the assassin, while over- 
looking the desolate home and broken-hearted friends of his victim. 
Weak men and silly women seek the murderer’s cell, and strew it with 
flowers, with as much fervor of sentiment as the religious devotee 
visits the shrine of his idolatry. The tendency of this sickly senti- 
mentality is, to disarm justice and break down the safe guards of so- 
ciety. It often pervades the jury box, and sometimes finds a respon- 
sive chord in the breast ofthe judge. 

_ One most deplorable effect is the stimulus given to lynch-law. On 

the occurrence of some peculiarly atrocious crime, the popular indig- 
nation 1s aroused, and bold, impulsive men, lacking confidence in the 
ordinary and lawful methods of justice, take the law into their own 
hands, and inflict swift vengeance ! 

Such acts of unlawful violence are severely and justly condemned; 
yet it cannot be denied that they are often prompted by that deep- 
seated abhorrence of murder, and innate sense of its guilt that drew 
from Cain the cry of terror,— ‘Every one that findeth me will slay 
me.” — 

The remedy must be sought in a uniform, well-adjusted system of 
criminal jurisprudence, which, administered by magistrates and juries 
possessing intelligence, and the combined attributes of justice and 
mercy, and sustained by a sound and vigorous public opinion, will 
protect the innocent, and mete out just and sure punishment to the 


guilty. 
39 


LINGUISTIC DISCUSSIONS. 


By GrorGE R, HOWELL. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, March 28, 1882,] 


I have used the title of this paper as a means of introduction, for 
your consideration, of some thoughts, mainly on the pronunciation, 
changes and growth, of the English language. It makes no pretension to 
a formal treatise, but is rather a collection of notes made during many 
years’ reading, and as they are connected with our mother tongue, they 
may be supposed not to be without interest to us all. In asort of dis- 
cursive way we shall pluck what fruit best suits our convenience frum 
the broad field of our language andits literature. And first, in this quest 
of an hour’s entertainment, if you please, we will consider some of differ- 
ing and the unsettled pronunciations in this present stage of the 
language. It should be laid down dogmatically and categorically as an 
axiom, that the nation that has a written language should pay some 
respect to its letters as constant symbols of sound. Formed as the 
English language is of a low German and adialect of the French, modi- 

fied by Scandinavian influences with modern additions from the Latin 
and Greek, it is more or less subject to the laws that govern the struct- 
ure and pronunciations of these several languages. Thus from the low 
German we obtain the broad sound of a as inal] *; from the French the 
short sound of @ asin matter. And in many cases we can on this 
principle refer the origin of the words containing these vowel sounds to 
their respective source in France or Germany. There is one class of 
words, those ending in ough, whose pronunciation cannot be ac- 
counted for by this method. Bough and rough are both of Saxon ori- 
gin, and the only apology we can offer a foreigner for the existence of 
such anomalies is that the spelling of them was begun in times of 
ignorance. It was the printer, not the mass of readers, nor even of 
writers, Who began to demand uniformity in spelling. And at first 
even they spelled phonetically with a wide margin, and a given word 
was apt to masquerade under as many forms as the ingenuity of. the 
printer could devise. These apologies for the irregularities of pro- 
nunciation may, with a good conscience, be given by the upright man, 
in a large number of words coming into the language from different 
national sources, or receiving their external shape in the chaotic or 


* By this I do not mean that the high German gives to a the sound of that letter in awe : but 
that words having that sound in English are of low German origin. 


LIvnguistic Discussions. 307 


forming period —that is, a period of ignorance ; but the upright man 
sinks back in dismay when he is confronted with the mode now in 
vogue of pronouncing certain other words to be presently considered. 
Au illiterate people may be excused for considerable variation in pro- 
nunciation, but is it fair treatment to the shade of Mr. Webster, sup- 
posing it given to traveling, to hear thar and whar in North Carolina, 
theer and wheer in Virginia, thare and whare in New England, and 
there * and where in New York? Being somewhat of an old fogy in 
regard to pronunciation, and mindful of unaccustomed sounds I some- 
times hear, it was with a degree of trepidation that I inquired lately 
of one of the teachers in our public schools whether they ever had oc- 
casion to teach the alphabet. But the question was not the cause of 
my trepidation, it only led up toit. Being informed that such was 
the case, I then anxiously sprung my real question, ‘‘ Do yon teach 
the scholars to name the first letter of the alphabet a (long) or a 
(short) as its proper normal sound ?” ‘‘ Why,a (long) of course.” Al- 
though I did not pursue the subject any further verbally, yet mentally 
I asked myself a million questions, or less. N-a-t-i-o-n — nation, n-a- 
tion-al —nashenal. During the civil war, however, we even heard of 
soldiers’ rashions (rations). But he who says nashenalt should also say 
nashion, stashion, stashionary and all the other ations and ationaries 
in the language. So long as we recognize the fact that there are gen- 
eral fundamental laws governing the letters, ascribing to them certain 
fixed sounds, so long it seems obligatory to respect those symbols and 
not vary from them as whims or fashion may chance to dictate. 

In this connection I venture modestly to question the propriety of 
_ saying ither and nither. The best students of old English are agreed 
that these words were formerly pronounced ayther and nayther. But 
they conformed in process of time to the pronunciation of other words 
containing the diphthong e2 so as to become eether and neether. If 
there is another word in the language besides height and sleight where 
ei takes the long 7 sound, I do not now recall it, and in the first of 
these words, the eis an interloper. /Zeight as derived from the ad- 
jective high of conrse needs only the ¢ to make it the abstract noun. 
And the same may be said of sleight. By etymology the e has no 
right to be in the word at all. As for ether and neither, there is cer- 
tainly no philological reason for pronouncing these two words with the 
long 2 sound, and as devotees of science we can admit no other law to 
influence us. 

Our language is a growth like a living organism, and the process is 
so gradual as to be imperceptible. Particularly is this true of the 


* E as in pere. + First a as in hash. 


308 Linguistic Discussions. 


pronunciation. There was a time in the history of the language when 
the normal first sound of @ was aw, and when all the other vowels 
were sounded as near as may be like the corresponding ones in Ger- 
man. But no man can put his finger on any particular period and 
say that in such an age or generation that change of the vowel sounds 
took place. Some time since I made a study of some of the poems of 
‘Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, Who lived from 1536 to 1608, and 
of John Donne, who lived 1573 to 1631. Among the rhymes taken 
at random are: were and fear; fear, there and bear; peer, hear, 
vear and dear; there, and uprear; there, hair and where, and con- 
sequently all these interchangeably used with each other; wears and 
tears (the noun); bred and dread; dread and need ; beat and great ; 
heart and smart; wheel, smile and while; shine, fine, and seen ; 
grief, chief, life and strife; blood, stuod, food and good; draught 
(a drink) and taught ; thought and fraught ; plaint and torment: stone, 
one, anon; reward and regard ; wound (to injure) and found. But 
how these rhyming words were then pronounced is more than any one 
now living can tell. 


PROPER PRONUNCIATION. 


There are two grand divisions of the English speaking people who are 
affecting the pronunciation of the language; first, the conservatives, 
and second, all the rest. The conservative element for the most part 
is to be found among scholars. The aim of the student is to discover 
truth and then maintain it. He need not be tauricephalous about it, 
but should be firm to lead rather than easily to be led by ignorance. 
A scholar would be apt to say muséum and not muséum, heroine, and 
not héroine, because he knows the ein these words has been handed 
down to us as long in quantity. He would, however submit to the 
idiomatic laws of the language and say geography and not geography. 
He would observe the rule that where no violence is done tothe general | 
laws of the English pronunciation, the quantity of the vowels in the 
original tongue is to be retained. Whena given pronunciation is once 
adopted as astandard, although he knowsit to be a corruption or degra- 
dation ofan older correct one, he will accept it and try to have others do 
thesame. And just here he will be opposed by others still more conser- 
vative than himself, the illiterate. They, for instance, have heard 
their fathers and grandfathers say arth and larning, and they will 
regard it as an affectation to hear you pronounce these words earth 
(urth) and learning (lurning). So far as preserving the old and true 
and best pronunciation of this class of words is concerned, the illiterate 
are right—but they are not right in not accepting a decision rendered — 


Linguistic Discussions. 309 


by a large majority. They forget that they are the ones to follow, and 
not to lead inthis matter. In other things in which they are authority 
as experts they may lead unchallenged. But then again there is always 
something in our language undetermined on which scholars as ex- 
perts are divided. ‘I'he wars of the dictionaries have been as eager, if 
not as deadly, as the wars of the roses. Doubtless there are some words 
upon which the only settlement is an agreement to disagree. But 
there are many words that ought to have been eliminated from the 
fight long ago, on which we are at variance. The statement of a sim- 
ple rule will serve to introduce some of this kind. The rule is that a 
foreign word, before it is naturalized, should be written in italics to 
show it to be a foreigner, and that it should have the pronunciation 
that good usage gives it in its native tongue. When, however, it has 
become naturalized so as to be written in Roman letters, it follows as 
near as may be the laws of the language ofitsadoption. Thus envelope 
italicized should have its French pronunciation onvelope, but the word 
as we write it in Roman characters and use it as an English word, has no 
more right toa French nasal than enemy,or engage, ora hundred others. 
How would this sentence sound from the lecture forum, the French 
nasal sound being given to the syllables in italics? ‘‘I am enchanted 
to tell you that in the engagement with the enemy the entire army was 
captured in the environs of the city before darkness enveloped them.” 
The same rule demands that we should either spell depot with two p’s 
or pronounce it deepo. ‘I'his refusal to yield to the laws of common 
sense as well as the common law of the language is very awkward for 
me to characterize as it deserves. But the rule, however, of assimilat- 
ing foreign words to the language is a necessary and pitiless one. 
Sooner or later all will have to yield toit. A lady of my acquaintance 
has prophesied the day will come when people will say, “the debut of 
Mr. So-and so was received with eclats of applause.” And why not, 
since debriss* (debris) is already quite current? The strongest opponent 
of this thorough lingual incorporation—this domestication of foreign 
words into the language, is doubtless fashion, which may be regarded 
as one branch of ‘‘all the rest” of the forces influencing pronunciation. 
And in this case fashion is about synonymous with pedantry. 
Fashion may dictate the cut of a garment, but it confronts a nobler 
spirit than itself when it presumes to dictate to the genius of a lan- 
guage. But such cowards are we all before it that we bend when we 
should stand as firm and as straight asamonument. ‘‘Mon carrosse 
ou et-il ?” said one of the Louis of France, when a lad, changing the 


* Pronounced dee-briss, with accent on first syllable. 


310 Linguistic Discussions. 


gender of a feminine to a masculine noun, and masculine it has been 
ever since. ‘lhe courtiers at once accepted the situation and the next 
grammar and dictionary recorded the change. Sometimes, however, 
fashion leads in the right direction—if there is any right direction. 
For instance we may assume that the Italian @ (ah) is more pleasing 
or at least more dignified sound than the flat a of French. Weare in- 
debted to the Normans for the latter sound, and as it came over with 
the conqueror, why, to treat it with disrespect might imply some want 
of regard to the persons who brought it with them, which could not 
be tolerated. The sole argument for the Italian sound however, is its 
cuphony. Itis thought that aisk is more euphonius than ask, fahst than 
fast. And so fashion decrees, we will say in Boston,the change in all that 
class of words, and we are expected to obey its mandates. In Philadel- 
phia they say paand ma (a as in man)—in New England paw and maw, © 
and in some other places pop and the old woman. The readiness with 
which a foreign word is domesticated in the English language depends, 
first, on the want of it to express an idea not perfectly represented by any 
one already in the language, and, second, on the ease with which it may 
assimilate in its new relationship without having too much violence 
done to its spelling and pronunciation. Weshould have had debut and 
ennut long ago naturalized had it not been for the difficulty of decid- 
ing how to write and pronounce them. In doubtful cases the princi- 
ple is a sound one that the pronunciation should be governed by the 
general rule and not by the exception. Although I do not consider it 
a case of doubt at all, yet in the word rowée there is a difference of 
opinion. Out of every hundred who speak the English language, 
perhaps one pronounces it root and the ninety-nine pronounce it 
rout. It may be presumed that at least three out the ninety- 
nine know as Well as the hundredth person that route is a word of 
French origin and in Paris would be pronounced as the hundredth 
person pronounces it according to the French value of the vowels. 
The same principle is applicable to the use of the word swi¢e in the 
phrase ‘‘ suite of rooms.” There can be no more propriety in saying a 
“‘sweet of rooms” than of saying a ‘‘ sweet of clothes,” or a basket 
of frweet.” 

There is a tendency to bring the accent as far forward in the word 
as possible. A few years ago not to say balcony was regarded as evi- 
dence of want of culture if not of illiteracy. Now we wonder that 
anybody ever pronounced it otherwise than balcony. Quandary and 
vagary on the contrary are two words that have had the accent shoved 
backwards from the first to the second syllable. To illustrate the diffi- 
culty of teaching sounds by the eye-alone, call to mind the pronuncia- 
tion the Pennsylvanian gives to the word Jarrel, giving to the first sylla- 


Linguistic Discussions. 311 


ble the scund of dar in barter. The first syllable of the word Jury he pro- 
nounces as we do the surname of Aaron Burr, and if you refer him to 
the equivalent given in Webster (berry) he says, ‘‘ Yes, Webster sus- 
tains my pronunciation, b-e-r-r-y—burry.” In this country where 
dictionaries are found in almost every house, where common schools 
are almost universal, there is a difference of pronunciation sufficient 
to indicate to the keen observer the native state of the speaker. In 
England there is still greater difference in the pronunciation of the 
mother tongue from Newcastle to Land’s End. If this makes ita 
delicate point for one to say what is the exact pronunciation of the 
English language to-day, and if, as there is good reason to believe, no 
man living can with certainty give the pronunciation of the English 
language in the life time of Shakespeare, three hundred years ago, what 
is the probability of recovering that of the Latin language, dead for 
fifteen centuries, or only living in its offshoots — offshoots corrupted 
by ages of mental darkness, intermixed with Teutonic, Gallic, Slavic, 
and Arabic, and suffering violence from them all, while those who 
spoke them were in turn trampled under foot of Goth and Hun, and 
Teuton and Moor ? 
If the pronunciation of the Latin of the age of Augustus has been 
lost to earth, so has that of the Greek of the time of Alcibiades. There 
is a mild attempt to bulldoze the conservative portion of the United 
States into the new system of pronouncing Latin and Greek. Outside 
of the schools, the world receives the attack through the proper names 
of the ciassics. Thus the hero of my lord Beaconsfield’s last novel 
must, as they claim, have its accent on the third syllable, Endymion, 
(although that syllable is short both in Greek and Latin) because in 
Greek the acute accent is placed over it. But the object of Greek ac- 
centuation is all a mystery. No one knows, except to his own satis- 
_ faction, what it means at all. It was not in use previous to the sixth 
or seventh century, and all tradition of its introduction has been lost. 
The modern Greeks employ the accent to point out the emphatic 
syllable, but the modern Greeks do not pretend to have the pronun- 
ciation of the classics, and would have to abandon their system to read 
a line of Homer according to its rhythm. Subjected to the modern 
system by accent, the grand old poem would be reduced to plain prose 
with none of that rhythmical beautv that has charmed the world for 
three thousand years. 


ETYMOLOGIES. 
And now let us turn our investigations in another direction : into 


discussions of word changes, etymologies,and whatever.of interest may 
be found in the practical use of the language of our fathers. There is 


312 Linguistic Discussions. 


one very important fact overlooked by many writers and thinkers on 
the origin of our language : and that is, that the portion of words in- 
troduced by the Normans are not French words — that is, they are not 
taken from what is known to-day as the French language. The truth 
is that when the crown of Harold was placed on the brow of the Nor- 
man duke, and England portioned out among his followers, the lan- 
guage which they brought with them was really but one dialect strug- 
gling for supremacy with two or three others within the borders of 
what is now the republic of France. Although it then bade fair to 
take lead as did the Castilian in Spain, and the Tuscan in Italy, yet 
as time went on, the dialect of the Province of the Isle de Paris be- 
came the standard of the Gallic tongue. We are, then, not to look to 
modern French for the standard in form and pronunciation of our 
Gallic words, but to the old Norman French. A few words will illus- 
trate the truth of this statement. ‘Thus it would not be easy to ex- 
plain the discrepancy between the French words glotre and our glory, 
mémoire and our memory, victoire and our victory, ivoire and our 
ivory but when we discoverin the Norman writings that have come 
down to us from that period, that these words in that dialect took the 
same form as ours with the exception that in spelling they terminated 
in ie instead of y, the case is self-evident. The Normans said memory - 
as we say memory. And moreover, the same termination is continued in 
English books down to the 17th century.— The same is true of an- 
other class of words, like honor — French honneur, but Norman honor, 
and later honour with the accent on the last syllable. And so the ad- 
jective glorious had the same form exactly in the Norman dialect, while 
it took that of gloriewx in the French. ‘T’he same may be said of joyous 
hideous, courageous and many others: perhaps all of this class of ad- 
jectives. Again we observe in old English a general disposition to 
spell words now ending in ance and ant with an additional u, as 
graunt, chaunt, avaunt, chaunce, launce, and even chaumbre. The 
pronunciation, however, was not affected by the uw, and was the 
same probably as that we now give to these words. But this was a 
Norman orthography, and does not appear in the French forms of 
these words, neither at that date nor any time since. The appeal to 
the real source of the Gallic portion of our language brings in evidence 
to settle another disputed question of the dictionary men: shall we 
write centre or center? Octobre or October? Those ancestors of 
ours (if we ever had any such) who came over with the conqueror 
wrote these words as Webster spells them, ending in e7, while their 
Isle de Paris neighbors on the east followed Worcester, who, by the 
way hasn’t yet conformed the spelling of his own name to this rule. 


Linguistic Discussions. 313 


If our language had come from the upper Seine we should have had 
gardin and not garden as the Normans called it, and jarreé instead of 
the Norman garre¢t. One moral of all this is that we should be care- 
ful in giving a French pronunciation to English words, to make sure 
first and foremost, and not put a French coat on a lay figure of Nor- 
man extraction. 

It is remarkable how the wear and tear of centuries have changed 
the appearance of the sonorous words of Latin to their modern 
dress. ‘Thus mea domine of the Latin in the Italian comes to be mia 
donna, then contracted still more to one word as madonna ; in the 
French it dwindles to madame, and in the English is successively 
madam, ma’m, mum and mem, and with a sign of affirmation is re- 
duced to the single letter m, as yes’m. 

In French while the eye sees a goodly framework of letters reminding 
one of the old Latin, yet the number of silent letters makes the word 
as pronounced a very feeble representative of its original. Thus the 
original adjective septimus is seen in the modern French as septiéme, 
but in its pronunciation, set-vem, an old Roman would hear no 
familiar sound to tell him what the speaker intended to say. 


SLANG. 

‘The eastern reader of Mark Twain's account of a California miner’s 
attempt to make known his wishes to a clergyman for his services at 
the funeral of a comrade, would suppose that the curious slang em- 
ployed by the miner was the product of the Pacific coast. It is nearly 
all of it, however, of English origin and older than this century. 
- Thus the slang of one age reappears in another and sometimes works 
its way up to become good usage. A large class of uncouth words, such as 
disgruntled, bamboozle, obstropalous, flabbergasted and skimshaunter, 
that have been regarded by many as the outcome of Yankee humor are 
all words that have been used as slangin England for an indefinite 
number of generations. Gospel shop is thieves’ slang for church, and 
the parson they have dubbed indifferently, snub-devil, devil-catcher, 
devil-driver, and tickle-text, while the parish clerk is known as the 
amen-curler. 

‘In 1811 the revised edition of Grose’s slang dictionary defines the 
word gouge as follows: “‘to squeeze out a man’s eye with the thumb ; a 
cruel practice used by the Bostonians in America.” And there may be 
Englishmen still living who suppose that is yet a popular amusement 
in Beacon street. The phrase ‘‘to get one’s back up,” which I heard 
for the first time about thirteen years ago, is at least as old as the present 
century, and probably as old as the domestication of the cat. Fogy 


40 


314 Linguistic Discussions. 


was the slang word in 1800 to represent an invalid or superannuated 
soldier. Its transition to designate any elderly person whose opinions 
differ from our own is of course very easy. 

Housage is a word found in the deeds of sale and wills of the 
seventeenth century. lt means more than housen, the old plural of 
house, inasmuch as it includes besides dwelling-houses all the out- 
buildings attached to a farm house. 

The use of the word prevené to signify to precede or to anticipate is 
well known in few passages in the Bible. [Ps. 21:3, Matt. 17:25.] 
In a letter from the Rev. John Goodwin to the Rev. ‘Thomas Good- 
win, written in 1639, in regard to some theological difference of 
opinion, occurs the following : “The heavens, I doubt not will accord 
us; yet were it our greater comfort and glory, if the earth herein might 
prevent the heavens.” ) 


VARIOUS ETYMOLOGIES. 

Jury-mast. Two derivations of this word are suggested—both from 
the accidental resemblance of other words to this. The first, given 
by Webster, is that it is an abbreviation of injury-mast. But there are 
two objections to this—first, the accented syllable of the original word 
is dropped in the derivative, which would not happen in the natural 
order of things; and second, the first half of the word probably comes 
from the same linguistic family as the second half, and mast belongs 
to the northwest of Europe, to Teuton and Scandinavian. The sug- 
gestion of Worcester (who seems to like to differ from Webster when he 
can) is that itis from the French word jowr (a day) as if a mast 
used for a day and therefore a temporary mast. The fault of this 
theory consists in it ascribing the first part to another linguistic family 
than its mate, and in the great hiatus between the meaning of the 
generic word day and the specific meanig of the word temporary. 
Too much is taken for granted. The wisest course for us to take is to 
have the courage to admit that the utmost we are warranted in saying 
is, that so far as the facts are known they point to a Scandinavian 
origin of the word, and that both the thing and the name came from 
the Vikings of the North. 

As other examples of false etymology we may take the following: 
Catnip is not so named because cats nip it, but comes from the old 
English word nepp or nipp, a general term for mint. Catnip then is 
really catmint. unagaite is not one who necessarily runs a toll-gate 
but a renegado, one who denies his faith, from renegando religionem. 
Causeway is not because some one has caused a way to exist where for- 
merly there was none, but simply a payed road from the French 
chaussée. Tuberose is another example of gravitation and false ety- 


Linguistic Discussions. 315 


mology. Not because it is a rose, for it is a polyanthes and more like 
a lily, but it is a result of trying to Anglicize its French name 
tubereuse. When the English captured Canada and the adjacent 
territory, French names along the coast fared hardly when pro- 
nounced by the unlettered sailors of England, and thus Anse des Cousins 
or Bay of Mosquitos, has now become Nancy Cousins bay. Typhoon 
is generally considered to come from the Greek typhos—a furious 
storm, but it really is a Chinese word ¢at-fung, meaning a great wind. 

Crank is a word which, as now used, was given to our country by 
an off-hand remark of a sheriff in Washington when the nation was 
paralyzed by a crime unparalleled for the shameful motives that led 
to it, and the ferocity with which it was perpetrated. It now signifies 
a person of not well balanced mind — whose judgments are incorrect 
and whose temper is such as to lead him to acts of personal violence in 
case his purposes are thwarted. In German it means to be sick or ill. 
In some dialects of the English language cranks are pains and aches 
and cranky means poorly. In New England and on the east end of 
Long Island sixty years ago it was used to express the idea of return- 
ing health after asickness. Thus a man so circumstanced would say I 
am getting crank again — that is recovering his usual health and vigor. 
This usage is found in Howell’s letters where he says: ‘‘We use the 
Dutch word crank in English to be well-disposed, which in the original 
signifieth to be sick.” In nautical language it applied to vessels in- 
clined to heel over — such as were too narrow and high for their width. 
It is from this use of the word, I presume, it came to mean what it 
does in the current newspapers of the day. 

In 1876, bewildered by the French use of the word exposition, the 
Americans seemed to be at a loss whether their affair at Philadel- 
phia was an exposition or an exhibition. Both names were used in the 
newspapers and guide-books, but the majority were in favor of calling 
it an exhibition, and they were quite right, as it was the English and not 
the French language that we were using. The French word exhibition 
denotes a single act, as to exhibit the contents of a purse. The French 
word exposition is a formal exhibition of many things to the gaze of the 
world. The French exposition, then, is the exact equivalent of the 
English exhibition. 

When the thing represented by a word ceases to exist, the word 
dies also. Our English ancestors ground their wheat in a hand-mill 
called a quern — but since wind, water or steam-mills have ground 
the grain of the race, the -quern and its name alike have both quietly 
dropped out of existence. So the addition of a new thing to the 
treasure house of the world necessitates the coining of a name to 


316 Linguistic Discussions. 


represent it in the world’s thought. We have telegram and we still 
need calogram, meaning a message over a cable, or spartogram, to de- 
signate a message by cable. 

Demijohn is a word which takesits present orthographic form from a 
tendency to make it conform to words expressing some idea to an En- 
glish speaking people. As a matter of fact however, it has no relation 
to demi, meaning a half, nor to the common or proper word, John. It 
is an Arabic word in common use in Egypt, to signify a large glass 
bottle, inclosed in wicker work, and holding usually from one to two 
gallons. 

Among decided Americanisms we may place the verb nassau. To 
nassau a book is to take out its plates, title-page or index, that is, as if 
such would he its inevitable fate if it had passed through one of the 
second-hand book stores of Nassau street, New York. 

The etymology of the word martinet, meaning a strict dideiphanms 
is very obscure, unless we accept the derivation given by Webster that 
. this was the name of an officer in the French army in the time of 
Louis XIV, who burdened his subordinates with a superabundance of 
discipline. The only objection to this in some minds is, that it is too 
simple. Butevery other etymology is altogether too far fetched to be 
accepted, and here, as often happens, the truth may lie on the sur- 
face, and the simple be the true. : 

There is a word whose use in this country is wide-spread but which 
cannot be found in any dictionary. The word as pronounced I should 
write canelle. It signifies the coarser portion left after the finer flour 
has passed through the sieve after grinding. Another name for 
this article, quite common, is shorfs. It is probably derived from the 
French word canazlle, meaning the lowest rabble of a people. But the 
remarkable point is that it has so long escaped the keen eyes of the 
dictionary men. : 

MENTAL GRAVITATION. 


There is a curious change in the spelling of some words brought 
‘about by what we may call mental gravitation. Thus in the name of 
our eastern neighbor Connecticut, the middle c not only has no use or 
sound there, but it has no business there —the original word having 
no such letter. It came in by gravitation —gravitating towards our 
English word connect. The spelling of aisle, the aisle of a church, 
had a similar origin. That portion of the church was the wing 
of the church, and named from the Gallic azle a wing, as of a 
bird; and the superfluous s crept-in by gravitation toward the word 
iske —an island—in which latter word it came through the old 
French isle, as in its ‘Teutonic form it is without the sin all the various 


Linguistic Discussions. 317 


dialects of German, Dutch, Swedish and Icelandic. Lantern is another 
conspicuous example of the same. Of course we get the word direct 
from the French lanterne, but our forefathers for generations spelled 
it lanthorn, as if the name had some conncction with the horn slabs 
on the sides through which glimmers its faint light. ‘he habits of 
the great and good Falstaff furnished opportunity for one Shakespeare 
to render immortal the name of a light wine which entered so largely 
into the famous reckoning at the tavern, a half-penny worth of 
bread to seven shillings of sack. ‘This wine was exported to Spain 
from Xeque, a town in Morocco, not far from the straits of Gibraltar, 
and from Spain found its way to England. The transition was easy 
to the name that was found so often coming from the lips of the doughty 
knight. So also the word valance is said by Junius, an old lexico- 
grapher, to have been borrowed and Anglicized from the Italian valen- 
zane, Which was derived from Valentia, the city where the article 
came into use and fashion. 

There is or was a church in London, called the Marylebone church. 
It has also given its name to a street in the same city. The same au- 
thority, Junius, thinks it equivalent to Marybone and that a corrup- 
tion of marrow-bones, and that designation to have originated from 
the kneeling posture of the worshipers. But it seems more likely to 
have been simply derived from Marie la bonne, Mary the good, mean- 
ing, of course, the Virgin mother of our lord. Marry, the exclamation 
so often seen in the literature of the Elizabethan period, is, of course, 
but a variation of the same name. 


SIGNBOARDS, 


Nothing is easier than to make mistakes in etymology and sometimes 
very curious ones. The signboards of the taverns of England have 
been a fruitful theme of philological guessing. Regarding them as 
corruptions of something lost that was more dignified, philologists have 
shown much ingenuity in their wrestle with these word puzzles. Thus 
the goat and compasses have been regarded as a relic of the pious motto 
«God encompasses us.” But the truth is, the sign was addressed very 
largely to the illiterate, and the more grotesque it was — the more in- 
congruous the objects associated — the more likely it would attract 
attention. Thus the one mentioned — what has a goat to do with com- 
passes? He is neither carpenter, cooper nor philosopher, though he 
hath along beard. But the name once heard could never be forgotten, 
and that was reason enough for its adoption. The Cat and Fiddle is 
another instance. The cat suggests cosiness, comfort, and the fiddle 
tells of merriment. The combination flows from the lips like water, and 


318 Linguistic Discussions. 


whoever has heard nursery rhymes has become familiar with cats that 
fiddle as well as stride in boots. But there aresome men who think they 
dive deeper into the wells of knowledge than their fellows and such as 
these suggest that the Cat and Fiddle isacorruption of the Chat Fidele. 
But the faithful cat has no point or significance whatever. There are 
no faithful cats. The Bell and Savage is another attractive incongruity. 
What does a savage want ofa bell? While it wascalling him to dinner, 
it would be frightening away his supper or his next dinner. But some 
philologist thinks the origin of this sign is the delle sauvage, which 
might be allowed if London innkeepers were in the habit of attracting 
custom by exhibiting on their sign boards French rebuses to be read 
by Englishmen who could not even read their own vernacular. 

In reading a novel by Mortimer Collins a few years ago, I was start- 
led by meeting the phrase “ necoteric kettledrum.” Necoteric kettle- 
drum! what could it mean ? Well, I went to the dictionaries — but 
they furnished no assistance. Necoteric, at least, had a Greek look 
about it—so I turned to my Greek lexicon. And there it was— or 
its root rather, for the full developed adjective is not in the Greek lan- 
guage, and was coined from the author’s own mint. Necos- - that is 
strife —and necoteric, of course, is strife-stirring. The strife-stirring 
kettledrum! And I laughed as I realized what a fine classic euphem- 
ism our author had invented for what the ladies on the east end of 
Long Island would term an old-fashioned tea-fight. 

The Chinese are thought to exceed other nations in national self-es- 
teem and in the application of uncomplimentary epithets to foreigners. 
And yet the English were not backward in this habit as is evident 
from these phrases in vogue in 1800: 

Dutch comfort.—Thank God it is no worse. 

Dutch concert.—Where each one plays or sings a different tune. 

Dutch feast.—Where the host gets drunk before his guest. 

French leave.—To go off without paying one’s debts. 

Spanish coin.—Fair words and compliments only. 

Spanish faggot.—The sun. As if the Spaniard were too lazy to 
gather faggots or too poor to buy them. 

Spanish trumpet.—The braying of an ass. 

Trish apricots.—Potatoes. 

Family names suffer violence in the vicissitudes of migration 
and the ferment of peopling and reducing to civilization the wilder- 
ness of a new country. Thus the French De Boeudereau has been 
gradually worn down to Budrow. Le Sieur has changed to Lesier. 
Vermeille to Vermilye. The Dutch Kiersen has been reduced 
to Keese and Keys and Oblinus has been hibernicized to O’Blenis, 


t 
; 
1 
] 
‘ 


Linguistic Discussions. 319 


and Michiels to McKeel. Cornelis, another Dutch name, has taken 
the form of Cornell. But this name Cornell was also sometimes 
written in the seventeenth century Cornhill as if of English extraction. 
Kirkpatrick originally was a Scotch name. When some of the mem- 
bers of the family emigrated to Ireland their name shaded off into 
Kilpatrick and Gilpatrick. Members of the same family emigrating to 
America suffered the:name to undergo still further changes, by drop- 
ping either the first or last portion of the name. So that we have 
here Kirkes, Patricks, Kirkpatricks, Kilpatricks and Gilpatricks, all 
claiming descent from the same Scottish ancestor. 

The truth is, the language is never stationary. Like those who use 
it, itis in a state of progress. In the time of Chaucer and before him 
what is now the silent e at the end of such words as home and name 
was pronounced as a second syllable. During the lifetime of this poet 
it began to be dropped in common speech, thus making one less syl- 
lable wherever it occurred. Life was too short to tolerate useless 
excrescences and they were lopped off. Thus have we shorn off one 
after another the inflectional termination of nouns and adjectives and 
verbs and find the simple root form answers all our necessities, with 
the aid of prepositions for the nouns and auxiliaries for the verbs. In 
the eliminiation of the useless we have far outstripped the French and 
the German — taking these two as representatives of the Latin and Teu- 
tonic languages of modern times. For illustrating the absurdities of 
the law of gender in the German language see the story of the fish- 
woman in that English classic, “A Tramp Abroad,” by Mark Twain. 
Their declensions of nouns and adjectives are also so peculiar, that 

scarcely any two writers of a German grammar ever agree upon a 
common system and a common nomenclature. 

The same criticism applies to the application of gender to inanimate 
objects in the French language, but the case terminations of the Latin 
parent tongue have been worn away in the French by the attrition of 
ages. In that respect it resembles the English of the present. There 
is no language used by the civilized world so point blank as the En- 
glish; none in which an idea may be as easily and fully formulated, 
without circumlocution or redundancy. And tu-day by the use 
of the English language one can convey a message of a given number 
of ideas in fewer words than by any of the modern languages of 
Europe. It is like a strong man stripped to runa race. It is equal to 
any in precision and flexibility, and there is afuture for it far exceed- 
ing anything of the past. 


GRAVESTONES: 
ESTHETICALLY AND ETHICALLY CONSIDERED. 


By Irvine BROWNE. 
[Read before the Albany Institute, June 29, 1880.] 


Our Puritan forefathers cared little to assuage the natural terrors 
of death. Indeed, one is almost disposed to think that they deemed 
it a solemn duty to enhance them. At all events, their neglect of the 
resting-places of their dead was well fitted to make one content to 
live. A New Engiand burying-ground, even thirty or forty years 
ago, was the most neglected spot in the village. The thought of being 
laid away in such a place added a new terror to death, almost as keen 
as the little man’s threat to the great man that he would write his 
biography if he survived him. The graveyard was always piaced 
where nothing would grow, and the only cultivation it ever received 
was the digging of an occasional grave. The ground was usually 
given by some citizen, who had found, by experiment, that he could 
not raise any thing on it, and wanted to escape taxation for it. Its 
unsightly growth of weeds and grass, its ruinous fences or tumbling 
walls, its gravestones pitched in every direction by the assaults 
of the elements and the vaulting ambition of schoolboys, all com- 
bined to make it repulsive. Every thing like decency in the care of it 
was regarded as a squandering of money, if not rather irreligious. 
Any suggestion of improvement met with small favor. God’s acre 
was left to the exclusive care of the proprietor. 

It is related of the late lamented Commodore Fisk, that when ap- 
pealed to for a subscription to rebuild the fence around the burying- 
ground in his native town, he declined, saying that he thought it. was 
a useless outlay ; those who were inside couldn’t get out, and those 
who were outside didn’t want to get in. This was the feeling of the 
whole community, though probably few could give so plausible a rea- 
son for it. 

In New England literature, we get two noteworthy descriptions of 
the burying-grounds of that country. In ‘‘ Twice-‘Told Tales ”— 
‘“‘Chippings with a Chisel ”—Hawthorne says: 


“Tn my walks through the burial-ground of Edgartown — where the 
dead have laid so long that the soil, once enriched by their decay, has 
returned to its original barrenness— in that ancient burial-ground I 
have noticed much variety of monumental sculpture. The elder stones, 


Gravestones. 321 


dated a century back, or more, have borders elaborate,carved with flowers 
and are adorned with a multiplicity of death’s heads, cross-bones,scythes, 
hour-glasses and other lugubrious emblems of mortality, with here 
and there a winged cherub to direct the mourner’s spirit upward. 
These productions of gothic taste must have been quite beyond the 
colonial skill of the day, and were probably carved in London, and 
brought across the ocean to commemorate the defunct worthies of 
this lonely isle. ‘The more recent monuments are mere slabs of slate 
in the ordinary style without any superfluous flourishes to set off the 
bald inscriptions. But others — and those far the most impressive, 
both to my taste and feelings —were roughly hewn from the gray rocks 
of the island, evidently by the unskilled hands of surviving friends 
and relatives. On some there were merely the initials of a name; 
some were inscribed with misspelt prose or rhyme in deep letters, 
which the moss and wintry rain of many years had not been able 
to obliterate. These, these were graves where loved ones slept! It is 
an old theme of satire, the falsehood and vanity of monumental 
eulogies; but when affection and sorrow grave the letters with their 
own painful labor, then we may be sure that they copy from the 
record on their hearts.” 

And in Judd’s almost forgotten but powerful novel, “ Margaret,” 
we read : 

“This spot, chosen and consecrated by the original colonists, and 
used for its present purpose more than a century, was conspicuous 
both for its elevation and its sterility. A sandy soil nourished the 
yellow orchard grass that waved ghost-like from the mounds, and 
filled all the intervals and the paths. No verdure, neither flower, 
shrub nor tree, contributed to the agreeableness of the grounds, nor was 
the bleak desolation disturbed by many works of art. There were 
two marble shafts, a table of red sandstone, several very old head- 
stones of similar materials, and more modern ones of slate. But here 
Jay the fathers, and there too must the children of the town ere long 
be gathered, and it was a place of solemn feeling to all.” 


In the reaction against Puritan asceticism, it is possible that in our 
burying-grounds we are in danger of going to the opposite extreme, 
and of detracting from the proper dignity of the place by making it 
too much a theater for artistic display. In modern practice, the 
cemetery is the pfeasure-ground and park of the locality. It has the 
finest site, the greatest abundance and variety of trees, the best roads, 
the most picturesque lakes and water falls, the handsomest bridges, the 
most inviting lodges and summer-houses, and every thing is contrived 
to make us forget death. In short, the cemetery is now the perfection 
of landscape gardening. In the midst of the beauties of natural 
scenery, skillfully enhanced by art, it seems essential that the few ob- 
jects designed to mark the proper use and purpose of the place should 
be regulated by good taste and correct principles of art ; and that the 


cultivated sense should not be shocked by obtrusive and inartistic 
: 41 y 


322 Gravestones, 


erections that almost make one sigh for the huckleberry bushes of 
the New England graveyard of old time. 

Let me offer a few practical suggestions about grave stones, or mort- 
uary monuments, restricted to out-door monuments of private individ- 
uals. 

The first point to be settled in the selection of a gravestone is the 
-material. In this regard, durability is themain requirement. Here 
there is not much room for choice, for our climate imposes strict limi- 
tations in this matter. Ours is not, so to speak, an “out-of-doors ” 
climate. A material which would be proper in the sunny clime of 
Italy would soon become impaired under our own stormy sky. Ex- 
perience has shown that white marble will not answer in our climate. 
It soon becomes stained and defaced, and unless constantly scoured, 
like Aladdin’s lamp or Mr. Stewart’s house, it quickly loses its 
characteristic purity and beauty. Besides, it looks too cold under our 
cool sky, and when the earth is covered with snow, the whitest marble 
looks dirty. Sandstone is too friable, and yields too readily to the dis- 
integrating influences of the weather. This has been proved by its 
use for many years in thiscountry. The sandstone obelisks transported 
from Egypt to Europe have already, it is said, suffered much loss of 
sharpness of outline in their hieroglyphics. Nature has provided in 
every climate the material best adapted to the localarchitecture. The 
Carrara quarries of Italy and the sandstone quarries of Egypt furnish 
the materials best fitted for those countries, and in our land we need 
look not beyond the granite hills of New England. Granite seems’ on 
all accounts our best resource for mural monuments, not only for its 
superior durability, but because it is capable of a brilliant and lasting 
polish. Bronze is a very beautiful and durable material, but it can 
appropriately be used only in large forms, and is intrinsically, as well 
as for this reason, very costly. Modern use has conformed to 
the evident necessity of the case, and granite is now almost the only ma- 
teria] from which out-door monuments are constracted. In respect to 
color, good taste banishes every thing like variety from our graveyards, 
but a pleasing and good effect is produced by intermixing, with cer- 
tain shapes of granite, our blue limestone, or the red Scotch granite, 
which takes a beautiful polish. The proper use of the Scotch granite 
is in combination, and not by itself, for an isolated shaft of Scotch 
granite looks painfully like cheap pottery. It has occurred to me 
that in the use of red granite a good effect might be attained by rough 
dressing and smooth dressing in combination with polished surfaces, 
which mode of treatment is so effective in the gray granite. A pleasing 
combination may also be effected by the combination of the light Concord 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 323 


With the dark Quincy granite. It is difficult to imagine what could 
have induced the adoption of those streaked and variegated cheap 
marbles which are sometimes seen in our older cemeteries, and which 
so strongly reminds one of that soap which prevails in country 
inns or of those ingenious monuments of soap which were common in 
the Philadelphia exposition. The use of colored glazed tiles in out-door 
monuments is of doubtful propriety, as well in point of durability asin 
point of color. It is to be noted that the Quincy granite is unfit for re- 
ceiving inscriptions, as its dark color renders them nearly illegible, and 
necessitates the use of paint or gilding, both of which are perishable 
and unpleasant to the eye. 

In regard to construction, it may be observed that in addition to 
the evident necessity of a deep foundation, below the frost line, there 
should be as few joints as possible, and these should be horizontal 
rather than perpendicular, in order the better to resist the effect of 
the elements. For the same reason, the joints should be overlapped as 
much as possible. Owing to these laws, the use of tiles is objection- 
able in point of durability; the frost and the wet are quite apt to dis- 
place them. 

It is evident from these limitations of material and color that the 
main resource of the designer must be in form. The cardiual rule as 
to form is that it shall be simple and severe. ‘To my own taste, in- 
tricate carving and tracery,the elaborate gothic forms, are out of place 
in a burial-ground. This is not the place for the display of dexterity 
in handling or skill in constructing. The forms should not be so at- 
tractive as to ergross the attention for the art’s sake, nor so delicate 
und slender as to become the prey of the elements. Probably the 
Candé monument in Greenwood cemetery is popularly admired, but to 
me it is one of the most repulsive of monuments, in respect to form, 
saying nothing of durability. It is a sort of a sugar-candy order of 
architecture that is more appropriate to a confectioner’s window 
than toa cemetery, but is not so much to be wondered at when we 
remember that 1t was executed after a design by the young lady her- 
self. 

- [ think it may be laid down as a rule of good taste that the princi- 
pal lines of a monument should be few, straight and compact. As 
durability is the chief requisite, it can best be attained by simplicity 
and solidity. Of course there may be well rounded and curved sur- 
faces, but they should he subordinate. Curved or concave lines in a 
shaft, excepting as flutings of a column, are entirely wrong, just as 
they are in a tower, or would be in the wall of a house. Any thing 
like pagoda architecture should be avoided. The lines of a shaft may 


324 Gravestones, 


be converging or parallel, but the ascent should be decisive, not hesitat- 
ing. The pure obelisk is always grateful to the sense, and the idea of 
ascent is best attained by isolation; a single shaft is better than a 
number of pinnacles. It is probably the gratefulness of this feeling 
of ascent that dictates that the principal lines should be perpendicu- 
lar rather than horizontal. The spirit is not elevated by the contem- 
plation of a low horizontal structure. And yet I do not deny that 
much has of late been accomplished in the use of horizontal lines, 
rising to a moderate height. Indeed, I think some of the most beautiful 
monuments in our modern cemeteries are in this form. But if this 
form is adopted, it should be in large and solid blocks. Nothing is 
more offensive than a slab laid on the earth, or mounted on legs like a 
table. It must always be borne in mind, however, that large horizon- 
tal surfaces require more care and are less durable than perpendicular 
structures. ‘I'he slabs in old graveyards, overgrown with moss, grimy 
with dirt, and with their inscriptions obscured, are disheartening ob- 
jects. The use of the horizontal form, too, should always be sincere; 
it should never seem to be what it is not, as for example a sarcophagus. 
Literally, there is nothing in such an object. It does not even in- 
dicate a like object hidden under ground, and if it did, it would be 
all the more offensive to good taste. 

Mortuary chapels should be marked by simplicity. The mortuary 
chapel in the Troy cemetery isa model of this kind of erection, in 
every point of view —materials, color, form and expense. It presents 
a refreshing contrast to a very elaborate and pretentious chapel in the 
Cincinnati cemetery. 

In regard to columns I must say that except in combination 
with a structure, I think they are not in the best taste for monnu- 
ments.- A column is properly an integral part of a building. It sup- 
ports something. But a column standing alone suggests nothing but 
ruin or incompleteness, and on esthetic grounds these ideas are not to 
be tolerated in a cemetery. However it may be in human estimation, 
I suppose in the divine eye the life of man is always complete, or if 
ruinous, 1t is man’s own fault, and attention should not be invited to 
that failure. Incompleteness in the human sense is not ruin. The 
idea of discontent or repining should never be represented in a 
monument. Rather the expression should be of submission, faith, 
aspiration. So the broken columns, which used to be so common, are 
not esthetically commendable, it seems to me. I once saw the use of 
the column singularly debased —I think it was in Greenwood — 
where three columns, broken off at different heights, were used to in- 
dicate the different ages of deceased members of one family. 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 325 


At all events the column must not be adopted asa support for any 
thing foreign to its natural use, such as across, a statue, or any of 
those ornamental bird-cage devices, so common in modern Italian 
monuments. Thé sense of congruity is shocked by the Christian 
cross on the top of a pagan column, especially when placed, as I have 
seen it, on the top of an Ionic column, with its capital of rams’-horns, 
the imitation or suggestion of Jupiter's locks. <A statue on a column 
is always abominable in an artistic view, both from the sense of inse- 
curity and of excessive remoteness. The Nelson monument, at Lon- 
don, and the Washington monument, at Baltimore, are the time-hon- 
ored jest of the artistic world. I cannot conceive acase where a 
statue on a column could have any significance as a mortuary monu- 
ment, unless it were a memorial of St.Simeon Stylites, who lived 
constantly for fifty-six years on the top ofa pillar, “‘ elevated in height 
as the Saint drew nearer Heaven and to perfection.” 

In regard to the use of statuary in out-door monuments, if it is 
permissible in an esthetic view, of which I have some question, it 
must be conceded that granite, the only fit and not over-costly mate- 
rial for our clifate, is very illy-adapted to statuary. In the very best 
treatment of which it is capable, its lines are always harsh, both in 
facial expression and in drapery. As to marble, it must be said that. 
unless a statue is more meritorious as a product of art, that can pro- 
ceed from any place but an artist’s studio, we can well afford to dis- 
pense with it in ourcemeteries. The statuary of the average grave- 
stone manufacturer is quite detestable. Respectable statuary, like re- 
spectable poetry, is unendurable. A pure and high work of the imag- 
ination, like Palmer’s Angel at the Sepulchre, at the Albany ceme- 
tery, is exceptional, and outside the rule which we would lay down for 
the exclusion of statuary from the cemetery. The same may be said 
of the exquisite bronze ideal figure in the Troy cemetery. It may be 
superfluous to remark, that the use of statuary in mortuary monu- 
ments should always be emblematic or ideal; any thing like portrait- 
ure in a graveyard is not to be tolerated for an instant. The busts 
or statues of private men are of little contemporary interest, save to 
their families, and of none at all to general posterity. Let their effi- 

gies be preserved at home like the Roman household gods. A shocking 
display of family portraiture in a grave yard is found in one of the 
most expensive monuments in this country, in central New York, 
where life-size statues of the widow and daughter are weeping over the 
bust of a departed husband and father, all under a great glass case. 

Even a portrait statue of a public man is better placed in a more 
public and common situation. The proper place for our conven- 


326 Gravestones, 


tional soldier’s monument in the form of a statue is a public square 
or park, where it may constantly appeal to the busy passers. Bostgn 
has recognized the force of this idea, by placing the statues of her 
great public men in her public gardens and the grounds of her public 
buildings, rather thanat Mount Auburn. I will make one exception 
to this rule; a mortuary chapel in a cemetery is an appropriate place 
for a bust or statue of a public man who is there interred. But this 
exception extends only to public men. The public are not supposed 
to care for the effigies of private persons, and any parade of them is 
objectionable. In the cemetery at Cooperstown, overlooking Otsego 
lake and the village founded by his ancestors, is a monument in mem- 
ory of Cooper, the novelist, surmounted by an ideal statue of Leath- 
erstocking, the hero of so many of his romances. This is a good ex- 
ample of the proper employment of ideal statuary in the burying- 
ground, and although a monument to a public man, is properly placed 
in the peculiar circumstances. If my memory serves me rightly, 
the statue is supported by a-column, which is objectionable for the 
reasons I have mentioned. 

It is a fundamental canon of art, that mere ee cheap, com- 
mon, and ephemeral objects and materials should be“€schewed. This 
law is applicable to the adornment of cemeteries. To illustrate this 
idea: a heap of stones, with a rude, wooden, bark-covered cross, thrust 
into it, and the whole overgrown with vines, under certain circum- 
stances is a touching and appropriate memorial, but certainly not 
where any thing more dignified or more durable can be afforded. But 
the imitation in stone of such a monument —a very common imita- 
tion — is entirely indefensible by the laws of art. The more skillful 
the imitation in such a monument, the worse the art. It is insincere 
and unworthy — insincere because it expresses a poverty which it does 
not suffer, and unworthy because it calls attention simply to the dex- 
terousness of the art. There are of course instances in which a com- 
mon object has acquired an emblematic use, and may therefore be 
properly imitated in stone, as for example, the anchor, the Christian 
emblem of hope. But such use should generally be strictly emblem- 
atic. Any attempt to use such an emblematic form to signify the oc- 
cupation of the tenant of the grave or the manner of his death is or- 
dinarily vulgar. And where the emblem is adopted, the imitation 
should be confessed; we must not use the real thing. For example, 
we could not tolerate an iron anchoron a monument. Still less could 
we endure even the imitation of an anchor over the grave of a manu- 
facturer of anchors. Occasionally, where the occupation or the man- 
ner of death was one that was essentially noble or heroic, or appeals 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 327 


to our higher sympathies, such an adaptation may be tolerated. Thus 
I see nothing incongruous or inartistic in the adoption of the anchor 
for the monument of a seafaring man, on account of its religions sym- 
bolism, but I have some doubt about the artistic propriety of adding 
the cable and capstan, which simply designate the man’s business in 
life. In fact, any thing commemorating the commercial occupation 
of the tenant of the grave can serve no purpose save to indicate that 
the old business is still carried on at the old stand by the sorrowing 
survivors. For example, on the monument of an expressman at Mt. 
Auburn, bas-reliefs depicting the modus operandi of the express busi- 
ness, such as a horse and wagon at full speed, and a big dog guarding 
a safe, do not raise devout emotions in the spectator. I once saw at 
the grave of a sea-captain, in Springfield, Mass., a dismasted ship on 
her beam ends in the grass, carved out of stone. Whether this was 
intended also ‘to signify that the deceased had been lost at sea, I do 
not know, but it seems hardly artistic, as the representation of a ship 
cast away in the grass calls up no sensation of terror or sympathy in 
the beholder. In myself it excited quite a different sensation. It 
made me think of the story of the canal boatman, who was narrating 
the circumstance of a wreck’on the ‘‘raging canal,” in which the no- 
ble vessel went down, and every soul on board perished save himself. 
“But how did you escape?” was the inquiry. “ Well,” said he, “I 
. see how things was goin’, and so I took my boots and stepped ashore.” 
Now a monument that can suggest such an undignified reminiscence 
can hardly be artistically right. It is possible that such representa- 
tions in the form of bas-reliefs on the surface of the monument may 
be permissible, but when they are made to assume an independent at- 
tractiveness, they lose their place. The famous ‘‘hay-stack” monu- 
ment, at Williamstown, Mass., is an example of the mingling of good 
and bad taste in this particular. This monument is built to com- 
memorate the origin of the American Foreign Missionary system, on 
the spot where it was devised. The tradition runs that the projectors 
were in the habit of sitting under a hay-stack on this spot, and coun- 
selling together. So we have a hay-stack chiselled in relief on the 
side of the shaft. It might be taken fora projectile fora rifled canon, 
or for a Dutch cheese. What pertinency it has, unless to suggest 
that all flesh is grass, I cannot imagine. On the top of the shaft is a 
massive globe, designed to represent the world, with continents and 
islands faintly outlined on it. This is not so bad, but it would be bet- 
ter if the literalism of the outlines had been omitted. It is a wonder 
that the designer did not paint the heathen parts of the world in black. 
- But let us be thankful that the hay-stack was not put on top instead 


328 Grawestones, 


of the globe. An example of a monument representing the manner 
of an hereic death is found in the famous firemen’s monument at 
Greenwood — the statue of a fireman with a rescued child in his arms, 
I am not aware whether this represents an actual and particular oc- 
currence, or is typical merely, and placed over the graves of brave fire- 
men who have lost their lives in the performance of duty. This is an 
instance so strongly appealing to the best sympathies of our nature, 
that the idea adopted is entirely right; but it may be questioned 
whether it would not be better expressed in a high bas-relief. A most 
offensive example of the imitation of common and prosaic things, I 
once saw ina representation of a baby’s worn pair of shoes chiselled on 
a gravestone. Nothing could be worse than this— but the real arti- 
cle, and that I once saw in a glass case on the top of a gravestone in a 
country burying-ground. ‘The imitation of animal life on gravestones 
is usually prohibited by good art, even when designed to be emblem- 
atic. Let all the sentimental lambs be put into some other pasture 
than the graveyard. Sentiment is admirable, but sentimentality is 
sadly misplaced there. And do not let us have any doves and little 
boys on ponies. An exception to this rule exists in the case of monu- 
ments to public heroes, as for example the famous lion at Lucerne, 
commemorating the devoted Swiss Guard who perished in defense of 
Louis XVI, and a most touching example in the Troy cemetery, where, 
at General Thomas’ tomb, the eagle guards the patriot hero’s sword. 
We have outlived the conventional weeping willow, and I hope, the 
broken flower and the broken rose-bud also. [am tired of broken 
rose-buds, but in the contemplation of a canker-worm gnawing off a 
rose-stem, on a monument at Newburyport, I experienced a more un- 
comfortable feeling than fatigue. 

Our forefathers used alternately to terrify the survivor with ak all 
and cross-bones, and enchant him with a cherub’s head at the top of 
the gravestones, both usually equally terrific, by the way. All ob- 
jects simply suggestive of death or decay should be ostracised. Of the 
sarcophagus I have spoken. Urns, I am glad to observe, have pretty 
much gone out of vogue, and the pall has haditsday. Nothing more 
incongruous can be conceived than an urn in a Christian burying- 
ground, for cremation was a heathen custom, and if it should be re- 
instated in favor, there would be no use for monuments except as re- 
ceptacles for the urns, in which case the urn would no longer be in 
sight. It is a pretty safe rule to dispense with all sorts of natural and 
artificial objects in the ornamentation of tombstones. Of course the 
rule, like every other, has its exceptions, but like all other exceptions 
they simply tend to confirm the rule. The objection to such things 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 329 


ig that they are apt to degenerate into sentimentality. Conventional 
objects and emblems may be indulged in, but they should be evidently 
appropriate and in harmony with our religion. I even think that the 
pagan butterfly would be more appropriate than a lamb over the grave 
of a child, for although the latter is the emblem of innocence, it may 
occasionally, in spite of the proverb that the good die young, find a 
place over a particularly terrible child, and so lose the advantage of 
truth ; but the butterfly is the classic emblem of immortality and 
resurrection, and so is always appropriate. But it is quite safe to leave 
off such things. Again, all devices which simply draw attention to the 
personality of the deceased are inappropriate at the grave. For 
example, although every monument should exhibit the surname and 
the several christened names, what is the use of parading in addition 
the monogram of the head of the family? This is too much like the 
-stationer’s art, and makes one think of “no cards.” The only mono- 
gram that I ever saw ona monument that is tolerable is one com- 
posed of alpha and omega. But no monogram, or any other device, 
ever ought to be cut on the shaft. For the same reason, I think coats 
of arms are objectionable. ‘The graveyard is no place for the ‘‘ boast 
of heraldry.” Reserve them for carriages and plate. Besides being 
misplaced, they are in this country generally as false as epitaphs them- 
selves. I have objected to portraiture. Occasionally I have seen 
medallions of the deceased on monuments, but it seems to me they 
are not in correct taste. ‘The monument is designed to mark the 
resting place, and to perpetuate the memory, not the face or figure. 
Why should we struggle to preserve for the public gaze what God 
- has decreed to perish ? Banish such memorials to county histories. 
Let the perpetuation of the form exist in memory alone, so far as the 
monument isconcerned, Another advantage in this course; imagina- 
* tion may convey to thestranger and to posterity a more favorable idea 
of the physiognomy than portraiture would do. A good many years 
ago there was a fashion in New England, in rural districts, of insert- 
ing a daguerreotype of the departed in the upper part of the grave- 
stone! I suppose this ridiculous custom no longer obtains, but except 
in dignity of material and excellence of execution, it is only less absurd 
than carving a portrait medallion in the same place. 

But if there is any thing better deserving the prize for offensiveness 
than all others, it is any indication of an assumption that the tenant 
of the grave is a partaker of the glory reserved for the saints. Ex- 
pressions of hope and trust in this regard are all well, but we ought to 
be a little modest about taking it for granted. A hand with an index 
finger oc aes upward is a common example of whatI mean. ‘There 

2 


330 Gravestones, 


is a vast amount of assumption in this sort of device, and in regarding 
the gravestones of certain persons whom I have known, I have 
thought that an asterisk would more correctly direct the thought. 
Now I never see this upward pointing index finger without being re- 
minded of a certain story, and as it was told me by a clergyman 
there can certainly be no harm in my repeating it. In certain locali- 
ties in New England they have shops where they manufacture and 
keep on hand for sale a stock of ready made gravestones with devices, 
inscriptions and epitaphs suited to every occasion, and only lacking 
the particular data, which are filled in to order. A farmer who had* - 
been deprived of his wife by death, wishing to show proper respect to 
her memory, and also to save time, asked a neighbor who was driving 
to market, to go to ashop of this description, and select for him a 
handsome headstone for his wife, and at the same time gave him the 
necessary data for completing the inscription. The neighbor per- 
formed the errand, and in due course of time the stone was sent home 
executed in the first style of the art, with a touching epitaph about 
*“ mother ” at the bottom, and at the top a hand with the index fin- 
ger pointing upward, and under it the words “no graves there,” all 
very appropriate apparently. But somehow it did not seem auite to 
suit the purchaser, for the fact was that his surname and consequently 
that of his deceased wife, was— Graves! Prophetically, as well as 
historically, it probably had an unpleasant significance. 

As to inscriptions they form a fertile subject of themselves, and are . 
hardly within our province, but I may be allowed to offer one sugges- 
tion -— eschew conventionality and pedantry. Conventionality is 
always unpleasant, but when associated with an affectation of learning 
it becomes ridiculous. ‘‘ Mors janua vite” has been carved over 
many a grave, but to me, it now only serves one purpose, and that is 
to remind me of an anecdote of Lord Kenyon, who was always quoting 
Latin incorrectly, and was very parsimonious. When his lordship 
died, ‘‘ mors janua vita” was displayed on the hatchment. This served 
to emphasize his pedantry and his ignorance, but a wag of a law- 
yer insisted that the misspelling was intentional on his lordship’s part 
in order to save the expense of the diphthong ! 

Every object in a Christian burying ground ought to be consonant 
with the Christian faith. It is for this reason, in part, that urns are 
out of place there. The same idea would exclude every thing like imi- 
tation of distinctively pagan forms of architecture, unless they have 
received the Christian sanction by use. I suppose the use of vaults 
will always be retained by those who shrink from bowing to the 
divine decree of ‘‘ dust to dust,” but if we are to have vaults, let us 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 331 


not have them in pagan forms. For example, let us not construct a 
vault in the form of an Egyptian tomb with the exterior sym- 
bols of that religion. A Greek temple is not 30 incongruous, because 
we have to some extent adopted Greek architecture in our religious 
edifices; but a Greek temple was not a place of sepulture, and we 
have better resources than either of these anachronisms. Standing 
the other day in Mt. Auburn, I saw a monument in the form of a 
sphynx, commemorating the downfall of slavery and the suppression 
of the rebellion. But whya sphynx? It has no significance as a 
memorial of those who perished in the war, for christianity will not 
admit that their fate involves any riddle. Possibly, however, it may 
convey a hint of the riddle of political reconstruction, or the unvary- 
ing silence of the great man who commanded our armies. 

It remains to speak of a matter only indirectly connected with my 
subject, but of prime importance in any consideration of it, and that 
is, the cost of graveyard memorials. The expense of modern funerals 
has assumed such burdensome proportions as to call forth a protest 
from the clergy of many places, and the same excessive luxury and dis- 
play have been carried into our cemeteries. 

Some men are never content in life unless they lift the eaves of 
their dwellings above their neighbors’ houses; and among such there 
seems to be a sort of posthumous contest for the Ptlent and most 
costly monuments. I have said that all mortuary monuments should 
be simple and severe. Ostentation is horribly vulgar, as mere matter 
of esthetics in a cemetery, which ought to be the most democratic 
and levelling place on earth. Do the best we may in point of plain- 
‘ness and economy, such memorials will cost enough. <A fashionable 
gravestone designer can command his own prices. I have now in 
mind a monument not very large, and by no means elaborate, which 
is said to have cost $10,000, or as much as a good dwelling-house 
with all the ‘‘ modern improvements.” The profit on such an erection 
must be enormous. How insignificant in every point of view is that 
monument when compared with one erected by the same person at 
half the expense, in the form of a bequest for a historical alcove in 
_a public library. Better to have reversed the application of the two 
amounts. 

Now I suppose a single individual has a legal right to erect a 
monument, costing $10,000 or $50,000, but I very much donbt 
whether he has any moral right to do it. Expenditure beyond a 
modest sum in this direction does no good. It does not educate like a 
school or a college ; it does not cultivate like a gallery of art; it does 
not shelter like an asylum; it does not heal like a hospital ; it does 


332 Gravestones, 


not redeem and inspire like a church.. Almost under the shadow of 
pretentious monuments, families are starving and freezing. If God 
has given a man abundance of this world’s goods, and he wishes to 
erect a monument to himself, let him build in charity, in religion, in 
love, and Jet him attach his name to the donation, if: he is in dread of 
being forgotten, but do not let him heap up a pile in the cemetery, 


which will only call attention to his vanity and selfishness, and fre- | 


quently to his smallness. I have noticed that the size and cost of 
mortuary monuments are generally in inverse proportion to the moral 
and intellectual worth of the builder. A man who made a fortune in 
pills or petroleum will cause a chapel to be erected over his grave. 
which will cost more money than Milton, Michael Angelo and Beetho- 
ven got for all their works. It is not for all to fulfill the Roman 
poet’s boast, that he would build for himself a monument more lasting 
than brass. It is not of every one that posterity will say, as it says 
of the architect of St. Panl’s, “If you seek his monument, look 
about you.” Nor will the most lavish outlay on our part preserve our 
monuments or our memory. ‘The most magnificent monument ever 
erected, that of Mausolus, King of Caria, which was one of the seven 
wonders of the world, has long since disappeared, and ‘‘ Mausoleum ” 
calls up no suggestion of the origin of the word or image of the 
monument. To whose memory were the Pyramids erected? In 
contemplating the Castle of St. Angelo, we forget that it was the 
mausoleum of the Emperor Hadrian. The tomb of Cecilia Metalla 
survives two thousand years of Roman history ; but the poet Byron, 
at the close of five magnificent stanzas devoted to conjecture upon 
the woman in whose memory the grand pile was erected, can only 
say: 
“ But whither would conjecture stray ? 


Thus much alone we know, Metalla died, 
The wealthiest Roman's wife ; behold his love or pride i” 


On the other hand the mound of Marathon is imperishable, and so 
is the deed which it commemorates. The simple slab on Bunker Hill, 
inscribed ‘‘ Here Warren fell,” is more attractive to the pilgrim than 
the towering obelisk under whose shadow it lies) What monument 
more touching than the little flag which a grateful country annually 
plants on the graves of the heroes and patriots who died that we might 
live? Inthe Troy cemetery has recently been erected the hugest 
monolith of modern times, at an outlay of $50,000, over the grave of 
General Wool, a man who it is safe to say will not loom up in very 
large proportions in historical perspective. In contrast with this is a 


3 
— 


Esthetically and Ethically Considered. 333 


modest, low headstone, almost hidden in the grass, in the old Con- 
cord burying-ground, bearing no inscription but a name — but that 
name, the greatest in American literature — Hawthorne. That unique 
genius probably put his own sentiments into Miriam’s mouth; at all 
events a wholesome and weighty sentiment —- when he made her say: 
“It is a good state of mind for mortal man, when he is content to 
Jeave no more definite memorial than the grass, which will sprout 
kindly and speedily over his grave, if we do not make the spot barren 
with marble. Methinks, too, it will be a fresher and better world, 
when it flings off this great burden of stony memories, which the ages 
have deemed it a piety to heap upon its back.” 
At Arqua are the mansion and sepulchre of Petrarch, of which the 
poet sings: 
‘<%= * .*> Both plain 
And venerably simple, such as raise 
A feeling more accordant with his strain 
Than if a pyramid formed his monumental fame.” 


If one would have his memory ‘‘smell sweet and blossom in the 
dust,” he must build for others, not for himself. Otherwise he will 
share the common fate —to be forgotten. <A great or sweet life needs 
no care on the part of him who lived it. What will signify those 
gleaming masses on the wooded heights to him who shall sail up the 
Hudson a hundred years hence ? But the public charities founded 
by those who slumber there will endure, and bless like the twice- 
blessed attribute of mercy. 


‘‘ Such graves as these are pilgrim shrines; 
Shrines to no code or creed confined ; 
The Delphian vales, the Palestines, 
The Meccas of the Mind,” 


AMERICAN ENGLISH. 


By GILBERT M. TUCKER. 
(Read before the Albany Institute, June 6, 1882.] 


And you may have a pretty corsiderable good sort of a feeble notion that it don’t fit 
nohow; and thatit ain’t calculated to make you smart overmuch; and that you don’t 
feel ’special bright, and by no means first-rate, and not at all tonguey; and that, how- 
ever rowdy you may be by natur’, it does use you up com-plete, and that’s a fact; and 
makes you quake considerable, and disposed toe damn the éngine !—All of which phrases, 
I beg to add, are pure Americanisms of the first water.”’— Charles Dickens, Letter to John 
Forster, February, 1842. 


The time-honored jokes about the “American language,” if not 
entirely antiquated, have at least for the most part changed their lon- 
gitude to a meridian considerably east of that of Greenwich. A 
recent attempt dates from the land of the Pharaohs. Riaz Pacha, 
late President of the Egyptian Council, is said to have retorted, on 
being rallied by an American for supporting so patiently the British 
yoke, that in one respect at least the English were making greater 
progress in the United States than in the East, inasmuch as he was 
credibly informed that their language was now almost universally 
spoken among the Americans! This is perhaps endurable; but it 
would subject one’s politeness to a pretty severe strain, now-a-days, 
to be expected to appear greatly amused at a story about compliments 
paid in Great Britain to the good English spoken by some exceptional 
traveler from New York or Boston. Serious references, moreover, 
like that of Dean Alford, to ‘‘ the process of deterioration which our 
Queen’s English has undergone at the hands of the Americans,”* are 
not often found in British publications of very recent date, except 
when accompanied (as was the dean’s) by some display of insular 
prejudice or crass ignorance in regard to the history, geography or 
politics of the United States, such as would naturally disqualify the 
writer, in the mind of an impartial judge, as a critic of anything per- 
taining to this country. The testimony of well-informed British 
writers of the present day is, in fact, more generally in accord with 
that of Sir George Campbell: “Of the body of the [American] people 
it may be said that their language is a little better than that used in 
any county of England.” + 


Yet the pages of so important a periodical as the London Nineteenth 


*The Queen’s English, 11th thousand, 78. 
+‘*‘White and Black.”’ 


i 
7 —" 


American English. 335 


Century gave place not long ago* to an article, by Mr. Fitzedward 
Hall, in which it is gravely, as well as elegantly, stated that William 
Cullen Bryant lived ‘‘ among a people among whom our language is 
daily becoming more and more depraved,” and that whoever compares 
the diction of ‘‘ Edgar Huntly,” a forgotten novel published in 1799, 
with Mr. Bryant’s letters, “the English of which is not much worse 
than that of ninety-nine out of every hundred of his college-bred com- 
patriots, will very soon become aware to what degree the art of writing 
our language has declined among educated” people in the United 
States! 

That such rubbish should be written by a recognized authority in 
philology ceases to be surprising when it is understood that the 
author is—not a Briton, as might be supposed, but one of those extraor- 
dinary Americans of the Henry James, Jr.,stripe who seem to regard 
it rather as matter of regret than otherwise that they were not born 
in Europe.t Yet that the editor of such a magazine as that in which 
this effusion appeared should think it worth while to print and pre- 
sumably to pay for it, is a phenomenon which suggests two interesting 
reflections. The first, of comparatively minor importance, is merely 
that our English cousins have a good deal yet to learn about our com- 
mon language as used in the two countries. ‘The second is, that where 
there is so much smoke there must be some flame. That is, making 
all allowances, there must really exist certain noticeable variations 
between the styles of writing and speaking that are current on the 
opposite sides of the Atlantic; for if no differences at all could be 
found, it is hardly probable that an intelligent man, however strongly 
British his prepossessions, would care to publish a dissertation in 
which our practice is deliberately set down as distinctly inferior to 
that of his own nation. In what these différeuces consist, and in what 
particulars the mother tongue may be thought to have become espe- 
cially “depraved ” in this country, are questions deserving attention. 


I. 
In the first place, it will hardly be denied in any quarter that the 


+ Or he may remind some readers of ‘‘ Mr. Carroll Gansevoort’’ in Edgar Fawcett’s 
bright story, ‘‘A Gentleman of Leisure.’”? Mr. Gansevoort, a New Yorker by birth, who 
‘‘would consider himself disgraced if he wore a pair of trousers or carried an umbrella 
that was not of English make,” rebukes a friend for committing the frightful Americanism 
of saying that he fished with a pole (instead of a rod), and upon the culprit’s perpetrating 
the further enormity of speaking of catching four dozen fine trout, remarks: ‘‘ Upon my 
word, I beg your pardon, old fellow, but it always amuses them so on the other side when 
we speak about catching fish. There they don’t catch them, you know; they kill them!’ 


336 American English. 


the important particular that we have no dialects. “I never found 
any difficulty in understanding an American speaker,” writes the his- 
torian Freeman ;* ‘but I have often found it difficult to understand 
* * * a northern-English speaker.” ‘Trifling variations in pro- 
nunciation, and in the use of a few particular words, certainly exist 
in this country. The Yankee ‘‘ expects” or “calculates,” while the 
Virginian ‘‘reckons;” the illiterate Northerner ‘‘ claims,” and the 
Southerner of similar class, by a very curious reversal of the blunder, 
‘* allows,” what better educated people merely assert. The pails and 
pans of the world at large become ‘‘ buckets ” when taken to Ken- 
tucky. It is ‘“‘evening” in Richmond while afternoon still lingers a 
hundred miles due north at Washington. Vessels go into “docks” 
on their arrival at Philadelphia, but into ‘‘ slips” at Mobile ; they are 
tied up to ‘‘wharves” at Boston and Savannah, but to “piers” at 
Chicago and Milwaukee. Distances from place to place are measured 
by ‘“‘squares” in Baltimore, by ‘‘blocks” in New York. The 
‘“‘shilling” of our own State is the ‘‘levy” of Pennsylvania, the 
‘*bit ” of San Francisco, the ‘‘ninepence” of okd New England, and 
the “escalan ” of New Orleans. But put all these variations together, 

with such others as more microscopic examination mighé reveal, and 
how far short they fall of representing any thing like the real dialectic 
differences of speech that obtain, and always have obtained, not only 
as between the three kingdoms, but even between contiguous sections 
of England itself! What great city of thiscountry, for example, has 
developed, or is likely to develop, any peculiar class of errors at all com- 
parable in fixity and importance to the cockney speech of London ? 
What two regions can be found within our borders, however sequest- 
ered and unenlightened, and however widely separated by geographi- 
cal position, of which the speech of the one presents any difficulty 
worth mentioning, or even any very startling unfamiliarity in sound 
or construction, to the inhabitant of the other? Our omnipresent 
railroads, telegraph lines, mail routes and printing presses, and the 
well-marked disposition of every class of our people to make lavish 
use of these means of intercommunication, both for the rapid diffu- 
sion of intelligence and the interchange of opinion, and also, so 
far as lines of travel are concerned, for the frequent transportation of 
the people themselves hither and thither, with a degree of ease and 
celerity to which no other country has ever attained — these causes 


have always favored, and seem likely permanently to maintain, a cer- 
*Article, ‘‘Some Impressions of the United States,’’ published in the Fortnightly Re- 


view, and copied into the Eclectic for October, 1882, p. 435, and Littell for September 9, 
1882, No. 1994, p. 602. 


American English. 337 


tain community of expression as well as of thought, that is not only 
practically prohibitive of the formation of new dialects, but also rap- 
idly effaces the prominent lineaments of such variations as have at 
different times been imported from the old world, If then, in this 
particular respect, we are depraving our mother tongue, the only logi- 
cal inference that can be drawn is, that a language reaches its best es- 
tate in proportion as it is diversified by local peculiarities. 

It ought to be remembered also, in this immediate connection, that 
the ordinary speech of the United States presents not greatly more of 
what may be called caste variations than of those that are attributable 
to differences of locality. A discriminating English traveler, the 
Rey. F. Barham Zincke, Vicar of Wherstead and Chaplain-in-Ordinary 
to the Queen, has mentioned as ‘‘a remarkable fact that the English 
spoken in America is not only very pure, but also is spoken with 
equal purity by all classes. * * The language in every man’s 
mouth,” he adds, ‘‘is that of literature and society. * * It is even 
the language of the negroes of the towns.”* In other words, the 
speech of the lower orders of our people, even down to the very sub- 
strata, whether examined in regard to its vocabulary, its construction 
or its pronunciation, differs from what all admit to be standard correct- 
ness ina much smaller degree than we have every reason to believe to 
be the case in England, our enemies themselves being judges. <A 
careful comparison of slang dictionaries, I think, will reveal a far 
longer list of unauthorized words as current among British thieves 
and ‘‘cadgers” than among their congeners in the United States. 
Grammatical rules are violated badly enough by the ignorant of our own 
cities every day, no doubt; but how often, after all, will you hear from 
' intelligent and respectable working people of American descent quite 

such a solecism as the “I were” and “he were” that are so frequently 
noticed in the mouths of lower-middle-class Britons, accustomed all 
their lives to conversation with speakers of the purest English? And 
-as for pronunciation, we have our faults, of course, in abundance, the 
best of us as well as the most careless, and should amend them with 
all diligence ; but where, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, will you 
discover any such utter disability of hearing or discernment as can per- 
mit men to drop or multiply their #’s or transpose their w’s and v’s? 


Il. 


Speaking of pronunciation, and with regard to the sound of the 
language as used by the educated people of the two countries (a point 


*“Last Winter in the United States ;’? John Murray, London, 1863. 


43 


338 American English. 


which most writers on Americanisms pass over with the briefest notice, 
though one of the ablest of them all, Prof. George P. Marsh, has 
devoted to it his chief attention), it must be admitted, I think, that 
if the typical English intonation is better than ours, it is because the 
office of language is what Talleyrand said it was — to conceal one’s 
thought. That is to say, the average American college graduate, for 
instance, will speak more intelligibly and more agreeably wherever 
there is any difficulty in speaking, as before a large assembly or in the 
open air, than will the English university man. The Yankee may 
talk through his nose, to be sure; may unduly emphasize minor 
words, cut off terminal letters rather abruptly, or select too high a 
key; but he will not gulp or sputter ; he will seldom insert superfluous 
aw’s or ugh’s, and the reporter who may have to follow his utterance 
will be far less liable to lose parts of a sentence, or to mistake one 
phrase for another, than in discharging the same duty on the other 
side. 

And when it comes to orthoepy proper, the deliberate sounding of 
single words, it will be found that in almost every case the difference 
is due to the American’s following more closely than does the Briton 
the spelling of the word —a practice which can hardly result in de- 
praving the language, but seems rather to suggest that the American 
is the greater reader of the two, and therefore likely to be the safer 
guide in questions of verbal correctness. Thus the now thoroughly 
anglicized French word érait, in which none of us ever thinks of 
dropping the final ¢, is still commonly called ¢ray in England, and 
that pronunciation is given the place of honor in the best British 
authority, Stormonth’s excellent dictionary. Sliver, which very many 
Americans call sliver, following the obvious analogy of the more 
common word diver, and following, too, the example of the poet Chau- 
cer, is sliver and sliver only, at present in Great Britain. Schedule, 
which we invariably pronounce skedule, constitutes in England 
almost the only exception to the rule that ch is hard after initial s, _ 
being there called shedule. 

And in respect to geographical names, the closer.adherence of our 
countrymen to the guidance of the orthography is, of course, notorious 
and manifest. Except the dropping, in imitation of the French, of 
the final s of Illinois; the two words Connecticut and Arkansas (the 
latter a very doubtful exception); and a few terms like Sioux, derived 
from corruptions of Indian names—I can hardly recall any geographi- 
cal appellation indigenous to our soil which is not pronounced very 
nearly as it is spelled. And when names are imported with a well- 
authorized divergence between the sound and the spelling, a strong 


American English. 339 


tendency toward the obliteration of this divergence is sure to become 
manifest. Warwick is about as often Warwick as War’ick when 
spoken of in America; Norwich is more commonly Norwich, I think, 
than WNoridge; St. Louis and Louisville are often called St. Lewis and 
Lewisville; a resident of Delaware County in this State would not know 
what place was meant if you spoke of the county seat as “ Daily,” so 
perfectly settled is “ Delhi ” as the pronunciation as well as the spelling 
of the name. A multitude of other instances might be mentioned, 
among the most remarkable of which, perhaps, is the change that has 
taken place in the popular sounding of the name Chautauqua. As 
long as it was spelled with a final e, people persisted in saying 
Chautawk, notwithstanding that the local ‘practice was always other- 
wise ; but an immediate reformation was effected, some twenty years 
ago, by the simple expedient of substituting an a. It is probably 
quite safe to say that no mispronunciation of a geographical name, 
growing out of an attempt to follow too closely the sound of its 
letters, has ever become so prevalent in Great Britain as even to sug- 
gest the idea of making the spelling conform to the orthoepy, and, 
furthermore, that if such a difficulty occurred,the attempted remedy in 
question would be found in that country quite unproductive of any 
change in the popular usage. 


ITI. 


Passing from orthoepy to orthography, it hardly need be said that 
in every instance without exception where a change in spelling has 
originated in the United States, the change has been in the direction 
of simplicity, and in the interest therefore of the “ reform” which the 
Philological Society of Great Britain (not to mention such individual 
names as Max Miller, Dr. J. Hl. Murray, Prof. Newman, the Duke 
of Richmond, and Mr, Gladstone) so warmly favors. The dropping of 
the second gin waggon, the u in parlour and similar words, the eé in 
storey (ofa house), and the final ¢ in pease *(plural of pea),are all changes 
in this direction ; and sois the substitution of w for wgh in plough, and 
f for ugh in draught, and the abandonment of the spellings shew, cyder,t 
and especially gaol, the universal adoption of jai] bringing the word 
into harmony with the rest of the language, as there is no other in- 
stance in: English of a soft g before a —notwithstanding that some 
absurd people, who do not call Margaret Marjaret or Garfield Jarfield, 
will persist in saying oleomarjarine. 


* Of course pease was not originally a plural word, but nobody thinks of it otherwise 
now. 


. t See Halliwell’s Dictionary, art. ‘“‘ Griggles.”’ 


340 American English. 


iv; 


In respect to at least one American spelling, that of plow, and prob- 
ably others, it should not be forgotten that the prevalent practice in 
this country, thongh an indisputable innovation so far as modern 
usage is concerned, is really a return to the long abandoned custom 
of anearlier time, from which divergence without good reason has 
gradually grown up in England. And this brings us to another 
strongly marked characteristic of our American speech — its greater 
permanence and steadiness, so to speak, as compared with that of the 
mother country. Such a change of fashion as has occurred in London 
in respect to a lady’s robe, which was universally called a “dress” a 
dozen years ago, afterwards a “‘gown,” and now a “ frock”—the 
words “dress” and “ gown” being accounted alike vulgar at present 
—- such a change as that would be well-nigh impossible in New York. 
The same peculiarity will appear very clearly, where it might least 
be expected, on close examination of any list of words supposed to 
have been greatly distorted in their meaning, or even manufactured 
out of whole cloth, by erring Yankees, a very large proportiun of 
which will almost always be found to be good old English, grown 
obsolescent or obsolete at home, but preserved in the New World in 
their pristine vitality and force ; and conversely, on examining such 
a book as Halliwell’s Dictionary of Archaisms and Provincialisms, 
which contains, presumably, no word now in good use in Great Brit- 
ain in the meaning given, the American reader will discover a great 
number of terms—nearly three hundred, I should say—with which he 
is perfectly familiar. I give a few examples, not including any that 
are marked as provincial, the direct inference being that all these 
words were once good English, but are no longer in common use in 
the mother country: 

Adze (a carpenter’s tool) ; affectation (*‘a curious desire for a thing 
which nature hath not given”); afterclap; agape; age as a verb; air 
in the sense of appearance ; amerce; andirons; angry, said of a wound ; 
appellant (one who appeals); apple-pie order; baker’s dozen; bamboozle; 
bay in a barn ; bay window ; bearers at a funeral; berate; between 
whiles; bicker; blanch (to whiten); drain as a verb ; burly; cast (to tie 
and throw down, as.a horse); catcall; cesspool; chafe (to grow angry); 
clodhopper; clutch (to seize); clutter; cockerel; coddle; copious; cosey; 
counterfeit money ; crazy in the sense of dilapidated, as applied toa 
building ; crock (an earthen vessel) ; crone (an old woman); crook (a 
bend); croon; cross-grained in the sense of obstinate or peevish ; cross- 
patch; cross purposes; cuddle; cuff (to beat); deft; din; dormer win- 
dow; earnest money given to bind a bargain; egg on; greenhorn; hasp; 
jack of all trades; jamb of a door; lintel; list (selvage of cloth) ; loop 
hole; nettled (out of temper); mewel; ornate; perforce; piping hot; pit 


American English. 341 


(mark left by small-pox); guail (to shrink); ragamuffin; riffraff; rig- 
marole; scant; seedy (‘‘ miserable looking ”); shingles; sorrel (the color); 
out of sorts; stale (“‘ wanting freshness”); sutler; thill; toady; trash; 
underpinning. All these words, with many others equally familiar in 
the United States, are apparently regarded by Halliwell as having 
become obsolete in England. 


It would not be difficult, on the other hand, to compile quite a list 
of Briticisms, including words recently invented in Great Britain, 
like totalling, or (still worse) ¢otting, for adding up; navvy, for 
laborer; fad, for pastime*; randomly, for at random; outing, for 
pleasure excursion ; ¢und, for beat ¢ ; and a larger class of old words 
now used in that country in a comparatively new and in some re- 
spects objectionable signification not generally recognized in the 
United States. 

I remember hearing with astonishment, a dozen years ago, from an 
English gentleman of culture and high social standing, that it was 
necessary to remove the gates of Quebec, “to give more room for 
traffic.” I asked no questions, but wondered inwardly whether the 
people of the American Gibraltar were in the habit, like the ancient 
Orientals, of resorting to the gates of the town to exchange commo- 
dities with each other. On our arrival, next morning, the mystery 
was solved ; it was travel, not barter, that my friend meant by traffic. 
The word is continually thus misused in England, and it must be 
sorrowfully admitted that the bad habit is now slowly invading this 
country as well, not so much among the people, however, as in a kind 
of technical way. The New York Central Railroad, for instance, has 
a * general traffic manager,” who certainly manages no traffic, the cor- 
poration being carriers and not traders. 

Other examples—as yet, happily, not naturalized in American 
usage — are: Knocked-up, for fatigued ; Famous, for excellent — “we 
have had a famous walk,” meaning an enjoyable gne; dargain, for hag- 
glet — ‘‘ Mr. Boffin, I never bargain,” says Silas Wegg in Our Mutual 
Friend (Book I, chapter 5) — he was bargaining at that very moment; 
tiresome, for disagreeable ; the particularly refined and elegant expres- 
sion rot, for nonsense; jug, for pitcher; good form, for in good taste ; 
trap, for carriage ; tub, for bathe ; to wire, for to telegraph ; starved, for 
frozen; stop, for stay —‘“not that she would mind, if I were to stop 
out till midnight,” says Cynthia Walters, in Mallock’s Romance of the 


** Itis your favorite fad to draw plans’’— Dorothea in Middlemarch, Book I, chap. 4. 

+Even Spencer condescends to the use of this extraordinary vocable, though he offers 
a sort of semi-apology by putting it in quotation marks — Study of Sociology, chap. 8. 

+ The anonymous author of Chatto and Windus’ Slang Dictionary (new edition, Lon- 
don 1874 falls into this error, which surely cught not to be expected of a lexicographer. 
See page 353 of the work referred to. 


342 American English. 


Nineteenth Century (Book III, chapter 1); assist, for be present, 
as the silent auditors at a concert are absurdly said to “assist” at it; 
plant for fixtures, as the “plant” of a railway or a factory (I am not 
entirely certain about the last two words, but believe them to be com- 
paratively new in England and very rarely used in the United 
States); iéimate, for announce— advertisers in British newspapers 
continually ‘‘intimate” to their customers that they have changed 
their quarters or received new goods ; and ¢idy, for almost anything 
complimentary —a London paper made mention the other day of “a 
very tidy bull,” the writer meaning a valuable animal, and by. no 
means intending to refer to any particular cleanliness in the beast’s 
personal habits. English hostlers also — to get pretty well down in the 
social scale, though by no means going as low as do the compilers of 
what are termed Americanisms, in their search for blunders — English 
hostlers sometimes speak of chilling cold water, meaning warming it, 
an extraordinary perversion of a very common and elementary 
word. 

It is not only, however, in their recent coinages and anomalous 
assigning of new meanings to old terms, that the English have made 
reckless changes in the body of our speech where the American prac- 
tice adheres to the former standard. They have swung off in the 
opposite direction also, curtailing to no good purpose the significance 
of several words. A ‘‘ young person,” I believe, is always a girl in 
England, the term being never applied to a boy. An invalid is “ill,” 
not sick, unless he happens to be nauseated, while at the same time, 
strangely enough, it is regarded as perfectly proper to describe him as 
confined to a sick-room or stretched upon a sick-bed. A Briton is 
horrified at the idea of riding in a carriage, although he makes no 
scruple of riding in an omnibus or a street car. When you enter the 
vehicle at the side, you drive ; when at the end, you ride. And if the 
author of Macleod of Dare is a trustworthy guide, the word up, used 
in reference to a journey in Great Britain, indicates, not that the 
traveler is seeking a more elevated region or moving northwardly, but 
solely that he is going toward the capital; “up to London” and 
‘down to the Highlands” are, it appears, the correct formule. No 
wonder the young Scotchman thought it sounded “stupid.” Fancy 
a man in Chicago saying that he was going “‘ up to Washington,” or 
aman in Washington speaking of events occurring “down in St. 
Pau] !” 

A third kind of variation that seems to have grown up in Great 
Britain to a greater degree than in this country, is the habit of turn- 


American English. 343 


ing active and especially reflexive verbs into neuters by dropping the 
object, as, ‘‘ Don’t trouble” for “ Don’t trouble yourself.”* It is true 
that a tendency in this direction can be traced a long way back in the 
history of the language. ‘To repent, to endeavor, and some other now 
neuter verbs, were formerly reflexives ; one endeavored himself in the 
same sense that we now apply owrselves, and repented himself as we now 
bethink ourselves. It is also true that a few alterations of this kind 
not yet sanctioned by good usage, but occasionally heard, may be said 
properly enough to be common to the two countries; “I avail of this 
opportunity,” for “<I avail myself of this opportunity,” is one. But 
I think any careful reader of the now current literature of England 
and the United States will approve the opinion that our British breth- 
ren are going much faster in this direction than are we. As long ago 
as 1854 Miss Yonge wrote (in Heartsease, Part II, chapter 10): 
‘Theodora flung away and was rushing off.” Charles Reade, whom 
the astute Fitzedward Hall ranks among “ the choicest’ of living Eng- 
lish writers,’+ is guilty of such phrases as ‘‘ Wardlaw whipped before 
him ” (Foul Play, chapter 15), ‘‘ Ransome whipped before it” ( Put 
Yourself in his Place, chapter 31), [Little] “flung out of the room ” 
(same, chapter 32), and various others. These and similar incomplete 
sentences, not at all uncommon in British books and periodicals, cer- 
tainly strike the American ear as decided innovations, and constitute 
a peculiarity of diction very rarely to be observed on this side of the 
water. 

The English have also a practice, more pronounced by far than our 
own, of abbreviating a good many wordsin their common talk. They 
never call their consolidated government bonds anything but “ consols,” 
or the process of hypothecation anything but ‘‘hypothec.” The 
Zoological Gardens in London are commonly known as the “Zoo,” 
and a series of delightful popular concerts given every season in the 
same city are euphoniously denominated the ‘‘ Monday pops.” Hamp- 
shire, not in writing only, but in speech as well, is“ Hants,” Bucking- 
hamshire is “‘ Bucks,” and Hertfordshire ‘‘ Herts.” A similar liberty 
is taken with the names of firms; ‘‘ Smith & Co.,” is often made to 
do duty, even in formal business letters, for the established title, 
“Smith, Brown & Robinson.” One American establishment — of 
somewhat British propensities, however — Messrs. Ticknor & Fields of 
Boston, did at one time imitate this form of contraction, by gilding 


* “We do not trouble to inquire’”—London Luw Times, quoted in Albany Law Journal, 
vol. 26, p. 121. 


+ Scribuer’s Monthly, vol. 3, p. 701. 


344 American English. 


“Ticknor & Co.,” on the backs of their books; but the practice has 
been abandoned by their successors, and I do not know that any other 
American house ever followed the example. Certain it is that about 
the longest and most awkward name in the book trade at present, 
“Cassell, Petter, Galpin & OCo.,” is always written in full in this 
country, though often contracted into Cassell & Co., in England. 

In the construction of many sentences, however, an opposite plan is 
frequently followed —the insertion of utterly superfluous words. 
Thus one occasionally hears English ladies ask, ‘‘ Whatever are you 
doing ?” — meaning, ‘‘What are youdoing ?” In Herbert Spencer’s 
admirable treatise on Education, chap. 10, we read that ‘‘in Russia 
the infant mortality is something enormous ;” and in one of Charles 
Dickens’ letters to Mr. Forster, ‘‘the daily difference in [a ship’s} 
rolling, as she burns the coals out, is something absolutely fearful ;* 
few Americans would have put in the ‘‘something.” And who has 
not been annoyed and disgusted by the innumerable go?’s with which so 
many English pages fairly bristle? Three good illustrations occur in 
a single article, “ A Few Words about the Nineteenth Century,” by 
Frederic Harrison, recently published in the Fortnightly Review: “ Ic 
extolled him for possessing all the good qualities which he had not 
got; ‘*for twenty thousand years man has got no better light than 
what was given by pitch, tallow or oil;” “I don’t say but what this 
work has got to be done.” Or glance over Endymion: ‘‘ He has got 
a champion” (chap. 35); “I have got some House of Commons 
men dining with me” (chap. 50); ‘<I have got a horse which I should 
like you to ride” (chap. 52); ‘‘ Lady Montford maintained they had 
got nothing” (zd.); “ All you have gof to do is to make up your mind ” 
(chap. 65); ‘‘ You have got a great deal of private business to attend 
to” (chap. 99). Sothe Marquis of Blandford, in the North American 
Review for November, 1881, p. 459: ‘‘ The Irish members are a feature 
which we have not at present gof to deal with” ; Spencer in the book 
just referred to (Education, chap. 3): ‘‘ Must not the child judge by 
such evidence as he has got?” George Augustus Sala, Illustrated 
London News, October 2, 1880, p. 423: ‘‘To my shame, I have not 
got a Cowden-Clarke’s concordance ;” Wilkie Collins, Man and Wife, 
chap. 9: “I have got a letter for you;” and in Marion Fay, chap. 3: 
** He has got money;’ ‘ but he is not therefore to be a tyrant ;’ ‘ Yes, 
he is, over a daughter who has got none ;’” Charles Reade, Foul Play, 
chap. 19: ‘‘I have got something for yon ’—in none of which cases 
is the idea of getting intended in-the slightest degree to be implied, 


*«« A Short Life of Charles Dickens,’”’? Appletons’ Handy Volume Series, p. 116. 


American English. 345 


but only that of present possession. The general American dislike 
of this ugly word, and our practice, where the past participle of the 
verb get must be used, of adopting the old and softer form gotten 
(which is now scarcely ever used in England)* are not exactly what 
would be expected of a people who are ruining the language. 


V. 


I think moreover, though the opinion is of course only an opinion, 
and hardly susceptible of positive proof or absolute negation, that 
good English authors in general are less particular about many points 
of grammar than are Americans of the same class. Dean Alford is 
authority for the statement that ‘‘ our best writers [meaning the best 
British writers] have the popular expression these kind, those sort,’ 
where this kind or that sort is intended; and I have noticed instances 
of this solecism in Bagehot (Physics and Politics, No. II, section 3— 
*« Nations with ¢hese sort of maxims”), and in Miss Muloch (Agatha’s 
Ilusband, chap. 1 —‘‘ The Iansons were those sort of religious people 
who think any Biblical allusions irreverent.”) In a story called 
*“The Ladies Lindores,” published serially in Blackwood (Part II, 
chap. 4, No. 799 of the magazine, May, 1882) we find the following : 
“There are some happy writers whose mission it is to expound the 
manners and customs of the great. * * And yet, alas! to these 
writers when they have done all, yet must we add that they fail to 
satisfy their models. * * ‘As if these sort of people knew anything 
about society! Lady Adeliza says.” Lady Adeliza, or her reporter, 
would do well to study a certain very elementary rule of grammar. 

Worse than this, perhaps, is Charles Reade’s occasional blundering 
with*the nominative and objective cases, as where he makes the high- 
born and elegant Edward Fountain, Esq., of Font Abbey, inform his 
niece that “there will be only ws two at dinner!” (Love me Little, 
Love me Long, chap. 1.) Worse still is the confusing of the verbs Jie 
and day, an error very rarely to be observed in respectable American 
society, but one to which Alford says Eton graduates are especially 
prone —- and of which a striking instance may be found in an extraor- 
dinary place for a grammatical error, Stormonth’s English Word- 
Book, where Jaid is actually given as the participle of lie! After 
noting this, one need hardly be surprised to find the same writer de- 
fining Aldorak (in the supplement to his dictionary) as “‘the white 
_*See “‘English and American English,” by R. A. Proctor, in the Gentleman’s Maga-— 
zine, copied into Appletons’ Journal for October, 1881, and the New York Tribune of Aug. 


14, 1881. 
+The Queen’s English, 11th thousand, { 98. 


346 American English. 


mule on which Mohammed is said fo have rode from Jerusalem to 
heaven!” Ifan American lexicographer were caught using laid for 
lain, or rode for ridden, what a text it would furnish for a dissertation 
on the process of depraving our mother tongue which is advancing 
with such alarming rapidity in the United States ! 

And there are certain highly incorrect constructions, like “differ- 
ent to,” which are notoriously British, and of which it is almost safe 
to say that no American is ever guilty. Spencer’s “ immediately this 
is recognized” (Study of Sociology, chap. 2), meaning as soon as this 
is recognized, and Buckle’s “directly they came ” (letter to Mrs. Grey, 
quoted in Huth’s Life, chap. 2) meaning directly after they had come, 
are other instances. Buckle, it should be remembered, was anything, 
but a careless writer, having devoted great labor for a long time to the 
acquisition of a correct and polished style of composition. One would 
think he need not have spent many hours in this sort of study before 


discovering that such a sentence as “I put them away directly they ~ 


came” is not English. (Since writing the last sentence, I have noticed, 
with disgust, an instance of exactly the same error in one of G. W. 
Smalley’s letters from London to the New York Tribune. published 
April 24, 1882: “Directly he heard of the intended demonstration, 
Mr. Parnell left the train.” But Mr. Smalley, like the lady in “ The 
Mighty Dollar,’ has “lived so much abroad, you know,” that 
some absorption of British blunders might well be expected of him; 
and I think one might spend a good deal of time in searching Ameri- 
can literature, periodical or book, before he would find another.case. ) 
Mr. Fitzedward Hall, as already quoted, is of opinion that educated 
people in this country have lost the ability to write our language as 
did the author of “‘ Edgar Huntly” eighty vears ago. But ¢what 
must we think of the improvement that has been made on the other 
side of the sea when he turns the pages of Endymion and notices the 
following, among other phrases of similar correctness and beauty ? 
** Everybody says what they like” (chap. 20); ‘I would never leave 
him for a moment, only I know he would get wearied of me” (chap. 
39); ‘‘1 have never deen back to the old place” (chap. 63) ; Hvery- 
body can do exactly what they like” (chap. 98). Speaking in all 
seriousness, were it not on the whcle preferable that the art of writing 
English should decline everywhere even faster than it has declined in 


this country since the close of the last century, rather than that it | 


should develop into such perfection as is illustrated by the last 
literary production of an ex-prime-minister of Great Britain ? 


American English. 347 


¥B 


Of course nobody thinks of denying, nevertheless, that a number of 
new, and in many cases uncalled-for, words and expressions have been 
invented and now pass current in the United States, or that the 
meaning of some others has been gradually warped, to the injury of 
the language, just as has occurred in England. This part of the sub- 
ject has been laboriously investigated by several diligent students—so 
laboriously that there is little left to say about it except in the way 
of correction. Not to speak of articles in periodicals, brief essays, and 
single chapters, no less than five books devoted entirely to so-called 
Americanisms in speech have from time to time appeared — Picker- 
ing’s Vocabulary, in 1816; Noah Webster’s ‘“‘ Letter,” in 1817; 
Elwyn’s Glossary, in 1859; Schele de Vere’s Americanisms, in 1872 ; 
and Bartlett’s Dictionary—most comprehensive of all, and now the 
standard book of reference—of which the first edition was published 
in 1848, the second in 1859, the third in 1860, and the fourth, con- 
siderably enlarged, in 1877. ‘The student of language will find much 
to interest, and not a little to amuse him, in each of these compila- 
tions of monstrosities. 


VIl. 


John Pickering’s “‘ VOCABULARY, OR COLLECTION OF WORDS AND 
PHRASES which have been supposed to be peculiar to the United 
States,” originated in the author’s practice, while living in London 
during the first two years of this century, of noting down, for the 
purpose of avoiding them, such of his own verbal expressions as were 
~ condemned for American errors by his British friends. After return- 
ing to this country, he communicated a paper on the subject, consist- 
ing of an essay and a list of words, to the American Academy of Arts 
and Sciences, and shortly after, having largely amplified the vocabu- 
lary, submitted the whole to the candor of his countrymen for their 
instruction and admonition. The poor man was deeply concerned for 
the future of the language in America, and very much in earnest in 
his work. It might indecd be a long time, he thought, before it 
should “ be the lot of many Americans to publish works which will 
be read out of their own country ; yet all who have the least tincture 
of learning will continue to feel an ardent desire to acquaint them- 
selves with English authors. Let us then,” he proceeds, ‘‘imagine 
the time to have arrived when Americans shall no longer be able to 
understand the works of Milton, Pope, Swift, Addison and other 
English authors justly styled classic without the aid of a translation 


348 American English. 


into a language that is to be called at some future day the American 
tongue! * * * Nor is this the only view in which a radical 
change of language would be an evil. ‘To say nothing of the facili- 
ties afforded by a common language in the ordinary intercourse of 
business, it should not be forgotten that our religion and our laws are 
studied in the language of the nation from which we are descended ; 
and, with the loss of the language, we should finally suffer the loss of 
those peculiar advantages which we now derive from the investiga- 
tions of the jurists and divines of that country.” 

To do what lay in his power to avert a calamity so appalling, was 
the object that Mr. Pickering had in view; and lest his own impres- 
sions should be faulty, or his imperfect knowledge of pure English 
should prove inadequate to the task of properly branding all the prin- 
cipal American corruptions, he took the pains of submitting his list 
to several well informed friends, and particularly to two English gen- 
tlemen whose authority he considered beyond question, although he 
admits that as they had lived some twenty years in America, ‘‘ their 
ear had lost much of that sensibility to deviations from the pure Eng- 
lish idiom which would once have enabled them to pronounce with 
decision in cases where they now felt doubts.” As finally published, 
the Vocabulary contains over five hundred words, of which not more 
than about seventy, less than a seventh of the whole number, are 
really of American origin and now in respectable use. As examples 
may be cited — backwoodsman, barbecue, belittle, bookstore, bottomlands, 
breadstuff, caucus, clapboard, creek in the sense of brook or small 
stream, declension of an office, deed as a verb, desk for pulpit, dutiable, 
to girdle a tree, gubernatorial, hominy, intervale, salt-lick, lot—a divi- 
sion of land, lumber, offset, pine barrens, portage, rapids, renewedly, 
samp, section of the country, sleigh, span of horses, and staging tor 
scaffolding. The other six-sevenths of the book consists of, first, 
mere vulgarisms and blunders ; second, unauthorized expressions in- 
vented by eccentric writers and never generally adopted; and, third, 
of words really British in their origin though not current in good 
London society — to which last class, by the way, it is highly proba- 
ble that several of the terms above mentioned as genuine Americanisms 
might be transferred, were their full history known. 

The Vocabulary was reviewed by Noah Webster in a letter to the 
author, published at Boston in 1817, and by Dr. Beck in a paper read 
before this Institute, March 18, 1829, and included in the first volume 
of the Transactions. 


American English. 349 


VIII. 


Dr. Elwyn’s Guossary or SupPOSED AMERICANISMS was underta- 
ken, as the preface informs us, ‘‘ to show how much there yet remains, 
in this country, of language and customs directly brought from our 
remotest ancestry ””—« purpose quite different from that of Mr. 
Pickering ; but the chief value of the book, in my estimation, lies 
in the contribution it makes to our knowledge of Pennsylvania pro- 
vincialisms, of which the author is evidently a careful observer. About 
four hundred and sixty words are included, of which I will venture to 
say that a clear majority would be quite as little understood in decent 
American as in decent British society ; but it seems that we have been 
accused of manufacturing the whole list, while the fact is that they 
are one and all of foreign origin. The book is carelessly written, and 
not accurately alphabetized. 


LX 


Schele de Vere’s “‘ AMERICANISMS,” a small octavo of something less 
than seven hundred pages, differs from the other works mentioned in 
not adopting the dictionary form, but presenting our verbal peculiari- 
ties as arranged in various classes — those invented by the Indian, the 
Dutchman, the Frenchman, the Spaniard, the German, the Negro, 
and the Chinaman ; expressions peculiar to the West, to the church, 
to politics and to trade ; marine and railroad terms; cant and slang; 
new words and nicknames, ete. The author has been accused of 
plagiarizing from Bartlett, and doubtless did avail himself freely of 
the labors of that diligent lexicographer; but he added a good deal of 
original matter, and his book possesses an interest of its own, being 


~ indeed the only one of the four that is likely to be read entirely 


through. About four thousand items appear in the index. 


X, 

BARTLETT'S DicTIONaRY (or, to give the full title, “ Dictionary of 
Americanisms, a Glossary of Words and Phrases usually regarded as 
peculiar to the United States, by John Russell Bartlett,”) is, in its 
latest edition, a bulky octavo of over eight hundred pages, exceedingly 
well printed, and containing something above five thousand six hun- 


‘dred entries, but hardly representing, I think, more than about five 


hundred and fifty genuine and distinct Americanisms now in decent use 
—less than one-tenth of the whole number of articles. Of the remainder, 
nearly four hundred words and phrases are set down by the author him- 
self as of British origin, some being used in this country in exactly the 
same manner as on their native soil, while others have been slightly al- 


350 American English. 


tered in meaning, application or sound. At least a hundred and 
seventy-five more— and probably a much larger number —are also 
certainly British, though Mr. Bartlett seems not to be aware of it. The 
rest of the dictionary—say four-fifths—is made up, partly of expressions 
never in general use, or long since antiquated ; partly of mere mis- 
pronunciations, grammatical errors and unauthorized contractions ; 
partly of vulgar and disgusting slang; and partly of weari- 
some repetitions. Yet I by no means desire to be under- 
stood as setting down the work for a mass of rubbish. On the 
contrary, it contains a vast fund of interesting and curious informa- 
tion, which any man devoted to the study of English dialects might 
well be proud to have brought together. Only it isa great pity that 
the diligent compiler, in his anxiety to make a big book, allowed him- 
self such extreme latitude in his conception of what constitutes an 
Americanism in speech, and consequently buried his grains of wheat 
under so appalling a mountain of chaff. , 

It may be worth while to present some samples of the words that — 
are improperly included in Bartlett’s Dictionary, as showing the means 
by which a tremendous number of pseudo-Americanisms have been, 
first and last, accumulated by people who find satisfaction in count- 
ing them up. | 

Of the three hundred and eighty-five words and phrases that the ~ 
author himself sets down as of British origin, the following examples 
may be mentioned: 

To beat one all-to-pieces, or all-to-smash ; allow, for assert argufy ; 
awfully, for very; bail, the handle of a bucket ; barm, for yeast ; bownd, 
for determined or resolved ; a dull, on the stock exchange; bumptious, 
for self-conceited; can’t come it; cap sheaf; cheek,for impudence; chowder; 
clip, « blow, as, “he hit him a clip;” to collide; to cotton to a man; 
cracker, for a small biscuit; cute; to cut stick; a deck of cards; 
deputize; doxologize; dreadful, for very, as ‘‘ dreadful” fine; every 
once in a while; fall of the year; first-rate; fiz, to put in order; 
flapjack; flummuz; freshet ; gallivant; galoshes ; given name ; goodies ; 
to gulp; hand-running ; hard up; heft,for weight; help, for servants; 
homely, not handsome; hook, to steal; immigration; jeopardize; 
julep ; to keep company; to loan ; mad, for angry; mighty, for very ; 
old fogy ; over the left; pair of stairs; pled, for pleaded ; pry, a lever; 
to pull up stakes; to reckon, meaning to think, believe or suppose ; 
reliable; rooster; no great shakes; sophomore; spell of weather ; 
spry; spunk; starvation; stricken, for struck; sundown; swap ; to 
take on; talented ; teetotaller; ugly, for ill-tempered ; to wallop, and 
to whale; whapper ; to whittle,and to wilt. In many cases no reason 
whatever is assigned for including these words in a list of American- 
isms ; very seldom is any better cause mentioned than that they are 
provincial or antiquated in Great Britain; and sometimes the pretext 


American English. 351 


is of the most trivial character, as in the case of the word whittle, 
which is put in, forsooth, because both the verb and the practice are 
thought to be more common in America than in England! But the 
most surprising instance among this class of words has yet to be 
mentioned — the use of the adverb ‘“‘ immediately,” in place of the 
phrase “as soon as” — “‘the deer fell dead immediately they shot 
him.” This wretched expression, Mr. Bartlett writes, is creeping into 
use from England. What possible sense there can be in counting as 
an Americanism a villanously ungrammatical construction which is 
“creeping into use in this country from England,” it would puzzle 
Fitzedward Hall himself to explain. 

Among words and phrases erroneously supposed by Mr. Bartlett to 
be peculiar to this country, the following have. been pointed out by 
various reviewers of the dictionary : 

Baggage ; bender, a spree ; blackberry ; blow, tv brag; bluff, a high 
bank ; to do a thing brown; bug,as a general term; bureau, a chest of 
drawers ; catamount; choker, a cravat; chore; crevasse; cunning, 
in the sense of small and pretty ; educational; eelgrass ; to egg on; 
engineer of a locomotive; every which way; expect, for suppose ; fast, 
for dissipated ; fellowship, as a verb ; female, for woman; first-class; 
to go to the bad ; to go gunning ; ina horn, meaning ‘‘ over the left; ” 
kink, an accidental knot or twist; the whole kit of them; muss, a 
state of confusion, noéions, small wares or trifles; railroad, as the 
equivalent of railway ; sappy, meaning silly; slosh, soft mud; smack, 
a blow ; splurge; spree; swingletree, a good time; and tiptop. 

To these may be added the following, which I believe no reviewer 
has noticed: 


AAmpersand—The short cnaracter for the word and. This is found 
in Halliwell. 


Beef, an ox, and Blaze, a mark on a tree, are both in Halliwell. 
Clever, in the sense of good-natured. Thisis in Halliwell—said to 


~ be provincial in the south of England. 


Cookey—A little cake. In Prof. J. F. W. Johnston’s ‘‘ Notes on 
North. America,” chap. 23, vol. 2, p. 296, we read that this word is 
familiar to a Scotchman’s ears. 

Cradle Scythe isin Ualliwell. 

Firedogs—Andirons. This is found in Brockett’s Glossary of 
North-Country Words. 

Hulking (unwieldy), Jack-at-a-pinch, and Pitch-in, are all in 

Halliwell. 
_ Right for very, Fancy setting this down as an Americanism! Did 
Mr. Bartlett ever hear of a Right Honorable minister of Great Bri- 
tain, or ever read the 139th Psalm—* Marvellous are thy works, and 
that my soul knoweth right well”? 

To set to rights. Thisissaid by Elwyn to bean Essex provincialism. 

Safe—A place of security. This also is in Elwyn, and said to be 
from Suffolk. 


352 American English. 


Sauce—Impudence. This is in Halliwell. 
Shinny—A boy’s game. This is in Brockett. 


Span, for perfectly. ‘The expression ‘‘span new” is as old as 
Chaucer. 


Stand, a platform, and Stock, equivalent to cattle, are both in 
Halliwell. 


Stop for stay, as ‘‘I am stopping at a hotel.” The insertion o. this 
detestable Briticism in a dictionary of Americanisms, of all places in 
the world, is one of the absurdities of the book. Everybody who 
knows anything about the variations of the language as spoken in the 
two countries knows that it is heard a thousand times in England for 
once that it is noticed here. 


Too thin. Here is another Americanism of avery remarkable kind. 
Smollett was guilty of it, for he wrote, in ‘ Peregrine Pickle” (pub- 
lished 1751), chap. 26: “This pretext was too thin to impose upon 
her lover.” And Shakspere, a century and more earlier, in Henry 
VIII, Act 5, Scene 2, makes the King say: ‘‘ You were ever good at 
sudden commendations, Bishop of Winchester. But know I come not 
to hear such flattery now, and in my presence; they are too thin and 
base to hide offences.” Other instances could no doubt be found in 
plenty, if it were worth while to look for them. But when one con- 
siders that the phrase is invariably applied—as Smollett applies it— 
to pretezis, coverings, what can be more obvious than that it must 
necessarily always have been, not only perfectly good English, but the 
simplest and most natural expression imaginable ? The insertion of a 
phrase like that in a list of Americanisms or any other sort of isms, 
only shows what follies men may be led into, upon whom the eraze 
for making long compilations has qnce seized. 

Tophet—The place of torment. This familiar Biblical term is of 
course juss as much an Americanism as is Hden, or Babylon, or 
Jerusalem. 

Touch-and-go. Who does not remember the “touch-and-go young 
Barnacle” of the Circumlocution Office in Charles Dickens’ “ Little 
Dorrit” ? 

Tramp, a strolling vagabond, is in Halliwell. 

“ Well,” a meaningless preface to a sentence. The word is twice 
used in this way by highly-aristocratic speakers in the first chapter of 
Beaconsfield’s “Endymion.” ‘The author would have been slightly 
amused if Mr. Bartlett had informed him that he represented Sidney 
Wilton and William Ferrars as conversing in the American dialect. 


It would be unprofitable to detail examples of the mere errors, vul- 
gar expressions and slang terms which Mr. Bartlett enumerates as 
peculiarly American, A few instances of his senseless repetitions, 
enlarging the book to no possible good, may be mentioned with less 
disgust: | : 

‘¢ Bankit (French Banquette) ” is defined as a sidewalk in Louisiana. 
Immediately below we have “‘ banquette, the name for the sidewalk 


ee 


a Te eee 


American English. 353 


in some of our southern cities.” ‘‘ Bowie,” and “bowie-knife” are 
separately entered. “Breakbone” is “a species of fever,” and then 
follows “ breakbone fever,” with full definition. ‘‘ Bulldoze” is “to 
intimidate,” and on the next page we have ‘‘ to bulldoze,” “to intimi- 
date by violent means.” ‘‘ Filibuster ” isa freebooter; “ filibustering ” 
is “‘ freebooting ;”’ and “ to filibuster” is ‘‘ toaquire by freebooting ; ” 
three separate entries. ‘‘A loafer” is an idle lounger, and “to loaf ”’ 
is “to lounge.” “To lynch,” “lyncher” and ‘lynch jaw” are sepa- 
rately explained. ‘‘ Muss,” a corruption of “ mess,” is first elaborately 
defined as a noun, with examples, and then as averb. A “pony” is 
a translation, and *‘to pony” is to useatransiation. ‘‘To post” a 
person is to inform him, and then we are told that “posted ” means 
informed. “To red up,” meaning to set in order, is twice defined — 


once on page 517 and again on page 520. “To run” is “ to cause to 


run,” with the phrase “to run a church” as an example; and just 
below we find another entry — “ to run achurch,” “ to have the charge 
ofachurch.” ‘‘Tospin street yarn” (page 636) is “to go gadding 
about the streets ;” and on page 798, under the heading “street 
yarn,” we learn that ‘‘ to spin street yarn” is ‘ to frequent the streets 
without any definite object.” A ‘‘ stove pipe” is a tall hat; and then 
follows a second entry, “stove pipe hat, a tall hat.” A ‘suck in” is 
“a cheat,” and “to suck in” is “to take in, to cheat.” Many more 
instances might be mentioned; but it is hardly necessary to go further 
than this, in order to show how the book is filled up and expanded, 
without rhymeor reason. Mr. Bartlett would have done better to take 
pattern from Halliwell’s admirable dictionary, a work that contains 


-. nearly ten timesas many entries as the Dictionary of Americanisms, 


but fills less than fifty more pages. 

Coming now to genuine Americanisms, words and phrases really 
peculiar to this country, or used here in a sense never recognized in 
England — it is needless to take note of any that are correctly defined 
by Bartlett, his book being, as has been said, notwithstanding all its 
faults, indisputably the standard work of reference on this subject. 
Among those that he has either omitted, or about which his state- 
ments seem to invite remark, are the following: 


_ Blizzard.— This remarkable word Mr. Bartlett defines as “‘ a poser,” 


having noticed, apparently, only a single instance of its use, and 

jumped at the conclusion that this is the meaning intended. He adds 

the comment, ‘‘not known in the Eastern States,” which was gener- 

ally true, no doubt, until the sharp winter of 1880-81 familiarized the 

term — as well as the thing itself, in a greatly modified form — to the 

yresidents of the East. I suppose I need not say that a real blizzard, 
45 


354 American English. 


as the word is now understood, is a terrific storm, with low barometer, 
light clouds or none at all, “and the air full of particles of snow, in 
the form of dry, sharp crystals, which, driven before the wind, bite 
and sting like fire.’* ‘The term is said to have made its first appear- 
ance in print about the year 1860, in a newspaper called the North- 
ern Vindicator, published at Estherville, Minn. Its etymology can 
only be guessed at, but there has been no lack of guesses. The 
English word dlister; the French dowtllard (see Surenne’s Dictionary); 
the German dlitz; the Spanish drisa; the surname Blizzard (said to be 
common around Baltimore); an unpronounceable Sioux term; and 
the Scotch verb dlizzen, of which Jamieson’s Dictionary remarks that 
“drought is said to be dlizzening when the wind parches and withers 
the fruits of the carth ”—all these, and I know not how many other 
words in different languages, have been suggested, with various de- 
grees of improbability, as the origin of the term. My own conjecture 
is, that it is simply an onomatopceia ; an attempt, not wholly unsuc- 
cessful, to represent the whistling and “driving” noise of a terrible 
storm. It should be added, before leaving this word, that it seems to 
have been occasionally used in various places in the Hastern States, 
for a long time past, in significations quite different from its present 
meaning. Thus a newspaper correspondent writes from Solon, Me., 
to the effect that twenty or thirty years ago the phrase “let her bliz- 
zard ” was common in that locality, meaning “let her go,” as applied 
to the act of firing a gun or throwing a stone. Another, living in 
Perry County, Pa., has heard the word for many years as the equival- 
ent of a drink —“ let’s take a blizzard.” It is said also to have been 
in use in the same county in its present signification, as early as 1836, 
but to have become obsolete in this meaning, years ago. [Since this 
paragraph was set, I have received a letter from a well-informed friend 
at the West, who says: ‘‘ This word is in common use in Texas, and 
has been for many years to describe a very severe ‘norther.’ It has 
been stated to me on competent authority that the thermometer has. 
been known to register from, say, 86° down to 26°, the change being 
effected within the space of six or seven hours! ‘This has always been 
popularly known as a blizzard. When the temperature in the summer 
season would be lowered only say 20°, it was known only as a nortber. 
I think the term has gradually crept northward, until its significance 
is generally understood west of the Mississippi.” | 


Loom—A semi-slang expression (though it appears in the 1881 sup- 
plement to Worcester descriptive of a sudden advance in popularity 
or in price. Said to be borrowed from the mining phraseology of the 
far West, where a process called “booming” is sometimes adopted to 
clear off surface soil and reveal supposed mineral veins. An artificial 
reservoir is constructed near the summit of a mountain, which is first 
allowed to fill with water and is then suddenly opened, whereupon a 
terrific torrent rushes down the slope, carrying rocks, trees, earth and 
all, with resistless force. A newspaper writer says he has “seen gul- 
lies fifty, seventy-five, and in some places a hunared feet deep, and 


* Cultivator and Country Gentleman, Albany, N. Y., Vol. 44, p. 340. 


“* 


American English. 355 


extending the whole length of the mountain,” cut out by single 
booms. “ The word booming,” he adds, “has therefore a very signifi- 
cant meaning, and is expressive as a word phrase, for it denotes an 
overwhelming, irresistible power and force.” 

To buck against—To oppose violently. I suppose this verb to be 
of American invention. 

Canaille—Shorts, or low grades of flour; so defined in the Worces- 
ter Supplement, where it is said. to be common in Canada and New 
England. 

Casket—A kind of coffin. This first appears in the Webster Sup- 
plement of 1879. 

Coal. Bartlett blunders fearfully ; in attempting to give the names 
of the different sizes of coal. His list is: 1, Broken or furnace coal, 
being the largest lumps; 2, Stove or range ; <2, Pea or nut; 4, Egg; 
5, Coal dust. I believe the correct nomenclature is : iF Furnace ; os 
Egg ; 3, Stove; 4, Chestnut; 5, Pea; 6, Buckwheat ; "; Coal dust. 


Coral of pe AUT fA Ree udtell eggs. Not in the dictionaries, 
except the Webster Supplement, and incorrectly defined there. 


Dodger—A small hand-bill; not in the dictionaries. 


Escalan — Twelve and shelf cents, a New Orleans term not in the — 
dictionaries. 


Fair—An exhibition, not primarily for the purpose of sale. This 
very common American use of the word is not recognized by any dic- 
tionary in ordinary use, though the authority of arecent writer in the . 
Westminster Review (N 0. 230, October, 1881, p. 247 of the Scott 
edition) may be cited in its support. 


French—A term used in Mar yland and Virginia for anything that 
is greatly disliked. “For instance,” says a writer, “the tobacco 
gets the worm in it that destroys it; they call in ‘ frenching.’ And 
if the children have the measles very bad, it is ‘French,’ and the 
same with a bad case of small-pox—it 1s the ‘ real French small- -pox.’”’ 


Furore—An excitement; not in any English dictionary, so far as 
I know, although it is found in one of Bartlett’s citations, under the 
heading ‘* Nick.” 


Gripsack—A recently-invented and rather vulgar term for a sat- 


chel, chiefly heard, I believe, at the West. 


Handglass, Bartlett says handglasses are spectacles. My impres- 
sion is that the term generally denotes a small looking-glass. 


_ Highwines. (am not certain that this is an American coinage, but 


_I believe it appears in no dictionary except the Worcester Supplement. 


Institute—A convention. Farmers’ institutes—meetings lasting 
two or three days, with lectures and discussions, are very common at 
the West; and there is a post-office called ‘‘ Farmers’ oat aaen in 
Tippecanoe County, Ind. 


Keet. Bartlett says “Guinea keets” are Guinea fowls. I think 
the “ keets” are Guinea eggs—so called at the West. See Milwaukee 


356 American English. 


Republican- Sentinel, Dec. 7, 1882 (No. 12,551), second page, second 
column. 

Liable for likely. A vulgar error that sometimes creeps into good 
company. I have noticed ‘two instances in the New York Tribune— 
one of them in an editorial. (“ Guero is so hostile to the whites that 
he is liable to cut loose at any moment ;” Jan. 2, 1880. ‘‘The Navy 
Department seems to have acted on the theory that the vessel is liable 
to turn up where she is least expected ;’ June 17, 1881.) 

Mung news. Bartlett says this means false news. I have never 
heard the word ; but a writer in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine for 
October, 1877, says it is the preterite of the old English verb ming, to 
mix—whence mingle—and means, not false, but confused, mingled, 
mixed up. 

You must not, as the reverse of you may. I am inelined to think 
this is an Americanism, as I judge that the English generally say 
‘‘you may not ”—in which, if so, they are certainly more logical than 
we. ‘You must” means that an obligation rests upon you; there- 
fore ‘‘ you must not,” ought to mean merely that there is no obliga- 
tion. *‘* You may,” means that permission is granted, and therefore 
when permission is withheld and the action prohibited, the phrase 
ought to be “ you may not,” instead of the universal American prac- 
tice of saying “you must not.” 

Closely allied to this, is the incorrect use of can for may, where 
there. is no question of ability—-which seems to be rather more 
prevalent in this country than in England. A line on the face of 
our postal-cards makes the absurd statement that “nothing but the 
address can be placed on this side.” The possessor of the card can 
place there any number of words that there is roém for, if he pleases. 
What is meant is, of course, that nothing but the address may be 
placed there; that is, it is forbidden to place there anything else, 
under penalty of forfeiting the privilege of sending the card by 
mail. ‘The English newspaper wrappers have a similar notice, cor- 
rectly worded: ‘‘ This wrapper may only be used for newspapers, 
or for such documents as are allowed to be sent at the book-rate.” 

Ninepence — Twelve and a-half cents. Formerly used in New Eng- 
land and Virginia. 

Pit — The stone cf a fruit. ‘ Mostly confined to New York State,” 
Bartlett says. I think the term is now common at the West, and 
used to some extent in the South, at least in Alabama. 

Railroad Nomenclature. Bartlett gives a list of eighteen objects 
pertaining to railroads, which have different names in the two 
countries; but fails to note that the American “buffer” is the 
English ‘‘ bumper,” and the American ‘‘ grade” the English ‘ gra- 
dient.” 

Round-up — An annual collection of cattle on the plains of the 
West, for branding and other purposes. Not in the dictionaries. Per- 
haps from Spanish rodear, to encompass, 

Smitch — A very small quantity of anything. This word is noted 


American English. : 357 


by a writer in Lippincott’s Magazine for March, 1869, as peculiar te 
Carbon County, Pa. I have heard it in Albany. 

Solid-colored— All of the same color. This expression, very common 
among breeders of Jersey cattle, and also used, 1 believe, in the dry- 
goods trade, may not be an Americanism perhaps, but no dictionary 
defines it. 

Spilth — in the sense of street mud. This occurs in a story called 
“ Alice Brand,” by A. G. Riddle, published by the Appletons of New 
York in 1875, page 289. 

Super. Bartlett says this is a contraction of ‘‘superintendent of 
factories, theatres,” etc. What the ‘‘super” of a factory may be, if 
there is an official so called, I do not know ; but the ‘‘ super,” or, as 
he is commonly called, the “supe” at a theatre, is certainly by no 
_ means a superintendent, but a supernumerary. 


Tenderfoot —A new arrival from civilization in the wild regions of 
the far West — see Scribner’s Monthly, vol. 18, p. 815. Not in the 
dictionaries. There is a post-office called “ Tenderfoot” in Custer 
County, Dakota. 


Whiskey. It is perhaps to Mr. Bartlett’s credit that he does not 
seem to be very well “ up” on the varieties of this popular beverage, 
as he remarks that “ Bourbon whiskey is the best, being made of rye.” 
As to the question of Bourbon’s being the best, there may be differ- 
ences of opinion; our Scotch and Irish friends, to say nothing ‘of 
others, would perhaps dissent from the lexicographer’s judgment ; but 
as to Bourbon’s being made of rye, we must all take exception to that 
statement, the fact being, I believe, that Bourbon never contains more 
than one-third of rye, and seldom as much as that. 


To these genaine Americanisms may be added a few scientific or 
pseudo-scientifie words, such as phonograph, photophone, audiphone and 
lysimeter. Telephone, as may not be generally known, is, like telegraph, 
much older than the apparatus that we now call by these terms; the 
original telegraph was a semaphore, and the original telephone, I be- 
lieve, a speaking trumpet. And if time permitted, and the game 
were worth the candle, a numerous list of curious names of places, of 
American invention, might be compiled from the Post-Office Directory. 
Mr. Bartlett has done something at this, in his preface ; but he failed 
to notice Why Not, Autumn Leaves, Bird-in-Hand and Youngwo- 
manstown, Pa.; Bogus, Fiddletown, Hay Fork, Port Wineand Yankee 
Jim’s, Cal.; Nola Chucky, Jim Ned, Mouse Tail, A. B. C. and U Bet, 
Tenn.; Long Year and The Uorner, N. Y.; Hash Knife and Mud 
Creek, Texas; Star of the West, Sub Rosa and Gum Log, Ark.; Non 
Intervention, Va.; Quashquetown, Iowa; Medybemps, Me.; Rooster 
Rock, Oregon; Look Out, Dak.; Rabbit Hash, Ky.; Ty Ty, Geo.; 
Zig, Mo.; Skull Valley, Ariz.; Greenhorn, Left Hand, Ni Wot and 
O. Z., Col.; T. B., Md., and scores of other oddities that might be men- 


358 American English. 


tioned, It is a thousand pities that we have not preserved a greater 
number of the more euphonious geographical names of the aborigines; 
and it is to be sincerely hoped that as refinement and good taste be- 
come more general, we shall by degrees weed out most of these rough- 
and-ready appellations. | 


Or 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


I. Books ENTIRELY DEVOTED TO “ AMERICANISMS.” 


. A VocAaBULARY, or Collection of Words and Phrases which have 


been supposed to be peculiar to the United States, to which is 
prefixed an HKssay on the Present State of the English Language 
in the United States, By JoHN PICKERING. Boston; Cummings 
& Hilliard, 1816 ; 8vo.; pp. 208. 


. Letter to the Hon. John Pickering, on the subject of his Vocabu- - 


lary. By Noaw WEBsTER. Boston, 1817; 8vo.; pp. 70. 


. GLOSSARY OF SUPPOSED AMERICANISMS, collected by ALFRED L. 


‘Exiwyn, M. D. Philadelphia; J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1859 ; 12 
mo. pp. 122. 


. AMERICANISMS; the English of the New World. By M. ScHELE 


DE VERE, LL. D. New York; Charles Scribner & Co., 1872; 8vo.; 
pp. 686. 


. DIcTIONARY OF AMERICANISMS; a Glossary of Words and Phrases 


usually regarded as peculiar to the United States. By JoHN 
RussELL BARTLETT. Fourth edition. Boston; Little, Brown & 
Co., 1877; 8Svo.; pp. 814. fi 


II. CHAPTERS OR Parts oF Books. 


. JOHN WITHERSPOON, D. D. Essays on Americanisms, Perversions 


of Language in the United States, Cant Phrases, etc., in 4th vol. 
of his works, published in 8vo., Philadelphia, 1801. (The earli- 
est work on American vulgarisms. Originally puolished as a 
series of essays, entitled “ ‘The Druid,” which appeared in a peri- 
odical in 1761.) 


. ADIEL SHERWOOD. Gazetteer of Georgia. Charleston, 1827 ; Phila- 


delphia, 1829; Washington, 1837. Has glossary of slang and 
vulgar words used in the Southern States. 


. T. Romeyn Beck, M. D., LL. D. ‘* Notes on Pickering’s Vocabu- 


lary.” Albany Institute Transactions, Vol. I, p. 25; Albany, 1830. 


. JAMES RUSSELL LowELL. Biglow Papers, 1848, 1864. Introduc- 


tions to First and Second Series, and Glossary. 


. CHARLES Astor Bristep. ‘ The English Language in America,” 


in Cambridge Essays. London; John W. Parker & Son, 1855. 
(Shows ‘‘ rare ” meat, and “corned” for drunk, to be expressions 


‘ of English origin.) 


American English. 359 


6. GEorRGE P. Mars. Lectures on the English Language. Fourth 
edition; New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1859. Lecture 
30, “ The English Language in America.” 

7 GF. Gragam. A Book about Words; London; Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1869; chap.13, “Slang Words and Americanisms.” 


8. R. G. Wuite. Words and Their Uses; New York; Sheldon & 
Co., 1870; chap. 3, ‘‘ British-English and American-English.” 
Also, Every-Day English; Boston; Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 
1880; chap. 6, ‘‘ American Speech.” 

9. G. A. BARRINGER. ‘‘Ztude sur Anglais parlé aux Etats Unis 
(La Langue Americaine),” in Actes de la Société Philologique de 
Paris, March, 1874. (Largely transferred from De Vere.) 

10. Various Encyclopedias—the Americana, Appleton’s, Chambers’, 
Library of Universal Knowledge, etc. Article, ‘‘ Americanisms.” 


11. Worcester’s Dictionary, ed. 1881, p. 2. 


III. ARTICLES IN PERIODICALS.* 


et figures at the left of the decimal point indicate the volume: those at the right, the 

page. 

BLACKWooD’s EDINBURGH MAGAZINE: 89.421; 102.399 (“ Inroads 
upon English.”’) 

CHAMBERS’ JoURNAL: Dee. 20, 1873, p. 801; March 31, 1875, p. 171 
(‘American Nicknames”) ; Sept. 25, 1875, p. 609. 


Ecuectic Review: (N.8.) 31.356—April, 1820 (Review of Pickering). 


LoNGMAN’s MaGaZINE: 1.80 (‘‘Some Points in American Speech 
and Customs,” by E. A. Freeman.) 


NINETEENTH CENTURY, September, 1880. (‘‘ English, Rational and 
Irrational,” by Fitzedward Hall.) 

PENNY MAGAZINE; July 21 1838, p. 278. (Severe on American 
Speech.) . 

QUARTERLY REVIEW: 10.528. 


ANALECTIC MAGAZINE: 3.404. (Sarcastic [?] defense of American 
freedom of speech ; recommends invention of a new language.) 


APPLETONS’ JOURNAL: (N.S.) 11.315. (‘‘English and American- 
English,” by Richard A. Proctor, from Gentleman’s Magazine— 
copied also, in part, in N. Y. Tribune, Aug. 14, 1881.) 


ATLANTIC MONTHLY: 6.667; 40.233; 41.495 (R. G. White, Re- 
view of Bartlett); 41.656 (do.); 42.97 (do.) ; 42.342 (do.); 
42.619 (do.): 42.643 (Reply to White) ; 43.88 (White on Bart- 
lett); 43.109 (freight train and spool); 43.379 (White on Bartlett ) ; 
43.656 (do.); 44.654 (White, “Assorted Americanisms”); 45.428 
(Reply to White); 45.669 (White, “British Americanisms”’); 
47.697 (White, supplementary to Bartlett articles); 48.849, 


* For anumber of the following references I am indebted to the courtesy of William 
Frederick Poole, LL. D., of the Chicago Public Library, who very kindly allowed me the 
use of the proof sheets of the new edition of his invaluable Index to Periodical Literature, 
which was in press at the time of the compilation of this list. 


360 American English. 


CANADIAN MONTHLY: 1.87 (Review of De Vere). 


GALAXY: 21.521 (White, Pronunciation); 24.376 (White on Bart- 
lett); 24.681 (do.). 


Hours at Home: 5.361 (Review of ‘‘Queen’s English,” by F. W. 
Shelton). 


INTERNATIONAL REVIEW: 8.472 (“ English Language in America,” 
by Lounsbury) ; 8.596 (do.). 


LAKESIDE MONTHLY : 3.154. 


LippIncotr’s MAGAZINE: 3.310 (Provincialisms, by Henry Reeves) ; 
4.345 ; 5.545 (by N.S. Dodge) ; 19.513. 


LITTELL’s Livina AGE: 20.79 (Review of Bartlett, from Boston 
Advertiser); 95.218 (‘‘ Inroads upon English,” from Blackwood, 
as above); 100.636 (Review of Zincke’s * Last Winter in the United 
States”—see page 337, from Spectator); 114.446 ; 120.240 (* United 
States English,” from Chambers’ Journal) ; 132.821 (from Leisure 
Hour); 155.483 (Freeman’s Longman’s Magazine article). 


NATION: 5.428; 6.392; 11.56 (Pennsylvania provincialisms); 11.72 
(do.); 14.28 (savage Review of DeVere); 14.45 (Review of Hoosier 
Schoolmaster); 16.148 (North Carolina provincialisms) ; 16.183 
(do.); 17.113 (Words from Indian languages); 18.380 (Review of 
Barringer); 21.8 (Penn. pro.); 26.171 (Review of Bartlett); 
26.243 (Review of Bartlett); 32.184 (blizzard); 32.208 (do). ; 32.- 
220 (do.); 32.260 (do.). 

NATIONAL QUARTERLY REVIEW: 2.230 (Review of Pickering and 
Bartlett). | 

New ENGLANDER: (N.S.) 3.429. (No. 157, July, 1880.) 


NortH AMERICAN REVIEW: 3.355 (Review of Pickering); 69.94 
(Review of Bartlett); 91.507 (Review of Marsh’s Lectures). 


Poutnam’s MonTHLY: 16.519 (“The American Language,” by W. 
W. Crane). 


SCRIBNER’S MONTHLY: 3.379 (Review of De Vere). 


SOUTHERN LITERARY MESSENGER: 2.110; 14.623 (Review of 
Bartlett). 


SOUTHERN Review: (N. 58.) 9.290 and 9.529 (“Americanisms, a 
Study of Words and Manners”; an elaborate essay, in review 
of Bartlett’s and Webster’s dictionaries, and various other books; 
unduly severe upon American English; author evidently preju- 
diced). 


Note.— The author of this paper will be greatly obliged for any corrections. Please 
address at Albany, N. Y. 


—S F 


ACTING RESIDENT MEMBERS. 
May 1, 1883. 


Arthur L. Andrews, 
444 Broadway. 


Richard L. Annesley, 


57 North Pearl. 
William Appleton, Jr., 


192 Washington avenue. 
Sumner H. Babcock, 
Normal School. 
Robert Lenox Banks, 
322 State. 


William Barnes, 


Western avenue, near Robin 


Ezra A. Bartlett, M. D., 
83 Hawk. 


Tsaac Battin, 
128 Grand. 


George F. Beakley, 
74 State. 

Thomas Beckett, M. D., . 
276 Washington avenue. 


Edwin A. Bedell, 
73 State. 
Charles E. Beecher, 


Museum of Nat. History, 
cor. State and Lodge. 


Elmer E. Bellows, 


80 Grand, 
Willard Bellows, 
80 Grand. 


Herman Bendell, M. D. 
109 Eagle. 


_ Ezra G. Benedict, 


9 Ten Broeck. 


Reuben H. Bingham, 
Surveyor’s Office, City 
Building. 


46 


James H. Blessing, 
Townsend’s Furnace, cor. 
B’dway and Rensselaer. 
Lewis Boss |cor. Mem.] 
Dudley Observatory. 
James P. Boyd, Jr., M. D., 
212 State. 
Jonas H. Brooks, 
Exchange Bank, 
450 Broadway. 
Irving Browne, 
230 State. 
Charles J. Buchanan, 
Chapel, cor. Maiden Lane. 
Eugene Burlingame, 
452 Broadway. 
Edward A. Burt, 
Albany Academy. 
Duncan Campbell, 
13 Washington ave, 
Russell C. Case, 
Albany City Nat. Bank, 
47 State. 
James M. Cassety, 
1 Fayette. 
Frank Chamberlain, 
270 Hamilton. 
Geo. W. Clinton, LL.D., 
Kenmore. 
Verplanck Colvin, 
77 State. 
Paul F. Cooper, 
10 Elk. 
Erastus Corning, 
87 State. 
Erastus Corning, Jr., 
22 Elk. 


362 Acting Resident Members. 


Joshua E, Crane, Thomas L. Greene, 
Albany Academy. 283 State. 
Monroe Crannell, Rev. Wm. E. Griffis poor. Mem.], 
69 State. Schenectady. 
Wm. W. Crannell, Edward A. Groesbeck, 
9 Hall Place. Commercial Bank, 38 State. 
John S. Delavan, M. D., Edward F. Hackett, 
182 State. 41 N. Pearl. 
Philander Deming, William Hailes, Jr., M. D,, 
12 Jay. ; 197 Hamilton. 
William Dey Ermand, Matthew Hale, LL. D., 
272 Hamilton. 25 North Pearl. 
Walter Dickson, Wm. H. Hale, Ph. D., 
186 Elm. 50 Clinton ave. 
Wm. J. Dickson, Jr., James Hall, LL. D., 
366 Clinton avenue. State Museum of Natural 
Rt. Rev. Wm. C. Doane, D. D., History, cor. State and Lodge. 
: 29 Elk. Robert M. Hamilton, 
George Doelker, 249 Lark. 
Beaver Block, South Pearl. Samuel Hand, 
Andrew S. Draper, (Ee 
51 State. Elisha Harris, M. D. ccor. Mem 
: : Office of State Board of 
Edward A. Durant, Jr Health: New Capel 
19 Washington avenue. a 
Edward P. Durant, Wm. H. Hawkins, 
eae 35 Dove. 
475 Broadway. : 
James Hendrick, 
Rev. James H. Ecob, D. D. 444 Broadway. 
oe eater William W. Hill, 
J ee o ener ; 215 Madison ave. 
ce Oo tate boar 2 
oP Pian Charles Hilton, C. E., 


749 Broadway. 
seagate aces! John McC. Holmes, D. D., 


é 91 Lancaster. 
Hiram Ferguson, 


94 Jay. Henry A. Homes, LL. D., 
: State Library. 
James T. Gardiner, : 
State Library. George R. Howell, 
z State Library. 
Henry W. Garfield, 


: Charles 8. Hoyt, M. D., 
Albany City Nat. B’k, 47 State. Oilicn of Stata Eaacdine 


William Geoghegan, M. D., Gharities 

125 Grand 

Henry V. D. Z. Hull, M. D., 

George E. Gorham, M. D., » O. Box 319, 

66 Eagle. Schenectady, N. Y. 
Anthony Gould, Theodore F. Humphrey, 

55 State. 142 State. 
John W. Gould, M. D., Marcus T. Hun, 


Cherry Hill. 25 North Pearl. 


— 


Acting Resident Members. 363 


Leonard G. Hun, Harry Macdona (cor. Mem.}, ° 
25 North Pearl. Senate Chamber. 
Thomas Hun, M. D., John W. McNamara, 
31 Elk. : 82 State. 
Dexter Hunter, James McNaughton, C. E., 
: cor. Lumber and Ten Broeck. 238 State. 
Albert N. Husted, George H. Mallory, 
314 Hamilton. 337 Hudson avenue. 
William G. Janes, Henry H. Martin, 
Amer. Express Co.’s Office. - 152 State. 
Charles M, Jenkins, Henry T. Martin, 
60 North Pearl. 152 State. 
Charles E. Jones, M. D., John H. Mars, 
140 State. N. Y. Central avenue. 
Peter Kinnear, Andrew E. Mather, 
64 Beaver. 447 & 449 Broad way. 
Leonard Kip Frederick G@. Mather, 
20 Elk. | 99 Lancaster. 
George W. Kirchwey, Charles W. Mead, 
443 Broadway. 86 State. 
D. Mulford Knickerbocker. Orlando Meads, LI. D., 
: 68 Hawk, 4 Pine. 
Charles R. Knowles, George R. Meneely, 
150 Lancaster. 30 Elk. 
Abraham Lansing Lansing Merchant, 
50 State. ‘ 45 Trinity Place. 
‘William L. Learned, LL.D. —- uStavus Michaelis, 
298 State. 16 Norton. 
Maurice J. Lewi, M. D., Ernest J. Miller, 
cor. Westerlo and Trinity Pl. 89 Hawk. 
Joseph A. Lintner, Nathaniel C. Moak, 
399 Clinton ave. 34 Lancaster. 
Weare C. Little Walter B, Moore, 
525 Broadway. 50 North Pearl. 
W. Scott Lord, Jacob 8. Mosher, M. D., Ph. D., 
7 Columbia. 3 Lancaster. 
Henry S. McCall, George 8. Munson, M. D., 
5 Douw’s Building, 138 State. 
cor. State and Broadway. Samuel L. Munson, 
James H. McClure, 246 Hudson avenue. 
196 State. David Murray, LL. D., 
St. Clair McKelway, Regents’ Office, 
Argus Office. Old Capitol. 
Edward N. McKinney, Charles Newman, 
156 North Pearl. 457 Broadway. 


Maj. J. W. MacMurray, U.S. A., Rev. Frederick M. Newman, 
Kenmore. . 679 Broadway, 


364 


DeAzro A. Nichols, 
395 Broadway. 


Horace M. Paine, M. D., 
105 State. 

Howard S. Paine, M. D., 
105 State. 

Erastus D. Palmer, 
5 Fayette. 

Ivan N. Panin, 
11 Park. 


Charles H. Peck, 


State Museum of Nat. History, 
corner State and Lodge. 


John 8S. Perry, 


© 111 Washington avenue. 
John T. Perry, 
111 Washington avenue. 
Nathan B. Perry, 
115 Hudson avenue. 
Wm. L. M. Phelps, 
158 Jay. 
Henry R. Pierson, LL. D., 
38 State. 
Daniel J. Pratt, Ph. D., 


142 Lancaster. 


Richard Prescott, 
High School. 


John V. L. Pruyn, Jr., 
13 EI. 

Robert C. Pruyn, 
38 Willett. 


John H. Quinby, 
448 Broadway. 


Charles H. Ramsey, 
71 State. 


Joseph H. Ramsey, 
71 State. 
Edward W. Rankin 

31 North Pearl. 
Clarence Rathbone, 
5-Elk. 
J. Meredith Read, 
7 Elk. 
Harmon P, Read, 
7 Elk. 
Edward Reed, 


221 State. 


Acting Resident Members. 


Edward T. Reed, 
154 State. 

J. Howard Reed, 
154 State. 


J. Livingston Reese, D. D., 
80 Lancaster. 


Edward D. Ronan, 
10 Park. 


Simon W. Rosendale, 
147 Lancaster. 


Jacob G. Runkle, 

71 State. 
Grange Sard, Jr., 

166 Washington avenue. 
Rey. David L. Swartz, 

498 Clinton avenue. 
John F. Seman, 

500 Broadway. 
Hiram E. Sickels. 

25 North Pearl. 
Nathan E. Simons, 

26 First. 
Henry L. Smith, 

48, 50 State. 


Horace E. Smith, LL. D., 
74 State. 


Norman L. Snow, M. D., 
170 State. 


Charles T. F. Spoor, 
26 North Pearl. 

Benjamin I. Stanton, 
29 North Pearl. 


Rev. Horace C. Stanton, 
85 Ten Broeck. 
John Templeton, 
Albany County Bank, 
71 State. 
James Ten Eyck, 
37 Dean. 
Philip Ten Eyck, M. D., 
64 Lancaster. 
Jonathan Tenney, 
Y. M. A. Library, 
56 North Pearl. 
Ralph W. Thacher, 
448 Broadway. 
David A. Thompson, 
444 Broadway. 


Acting Resident Members. 


Wm. W. Thompson, 
74 State. 


Lemon ‘'l'homson, 
8 Ten Broeck. 
Frederick Townsend, 
8 Elk. 
Howard Townsend, 
21 Elk. 
Stephen V. R. Townsend, 
21 Elk 
Gilbert M. Rucker. 
395 Broadway. 
Luther H. Tucker, 
174 Washington avenue. 
Richard H. Tucker, 
181 North Pearl. 


Willis G. Tucker, M. D., Ph. D:, 


4 Lancaster. 
Clarence Valentine, 
19 Chestnut. 
Wm. T. Valentine, 
19 Chestnut. 
Garret A. Van Allen, 
24 Lancaster. 
Thomas J. Van Alstyne, 
9 Douw’s Building. 
Wm. C. Van Alstyne, 
59 North Pearl. 
John H. Van Antwerp, 


N. Y. State Nat. B’k, 69 State. 


Wm. M. Van Antwerp, 


162 Washington avenue. 


Clarence Van Benthuysen, 
8 Elk. 

Frank Van Benthuysen, 
407 Broadway. 


Albert Van Derveer, M. Ee Ph. D. 


28 Kagle. 


365 


Andrew Vanderzee, 

Beaver Block, 

South Pearl. 

Theodore V. Van Heusen, 

470 Broadway. 
Maurice E. Viele, 

41 State. 
Edward Wade, 

293 Hamilton. 


Frederick C. Ward, 
12 Hawk. 


Samuel B. Ward, M. D., 
135 North Pearl. 
James M. Warner, 
244 State. 


Edward P. Waterbury 
Normal School. 

Daniel W. Wemple, 
140 Lancaster. 


Charles F. Wheeler D. S., 
219 State. 


Oren E. Wilson, 
84 Dove. 


Orrin 8. Wilson, 

N. Y. State 
Capitol. 

Chauncey P. Williams, 
284 State. 

Rev. Charles Wood, 
Kenmore. 

J. Hampden Wood, 
2 Park Place. 


Edwin D. Worcester, Jr., 
25 North Pearl. 


Frank P. Wright. 
90 Jay. 


William A. Young, 
Hope Bank, 65 State. 


Survey Office, 


Sopp hh i 
® cf a hp wh bi 
’ f : a im 


he 


‘ 
- y Zr $% = 
7 . 3 y > & ; $ - 
r “ 
’ 
i a f, ‘! 
i 
; g ae 
x -* ‘ 
xy > at 
y 3 \ be - 
. a= 
¥ 
7 i = - 
Z i ¥ p 
: ra ees | 
8 
iss # . 
= + >, > 
* < 
i ] 
r : « ae 
‘ % ' 4 
’ 
‘ 
f 
; 
i: * 
Vag 
* ' ‘ £4. U4 ws 
s 
— a 
t 
? a 
) a 
- x. m 
‘ 
‘ 
¥r 
‘ t 
* es 
” 
; 
= 


INDEX. 


Albany, Industrial and Material Progress ...........-+0+00 85 
Proposed Erection of Historical Monuments.... ....... 137 
Albany Institute, Annual Addresses...............- ce, 
Members, Acting Resident, May 1, 1883 ........... Pcie 361 
SMM AMEE NSEt Arr fs oats 20's 2'= ancisk a's ok4.5 <2 oie ase als ee Vv 
MMC EIN TLE MCT DY 5 es esse eee nse cane Solve Be 
meaapourne,. ban! -A., LL. D., Address by .-..........00--0% 227 
Peoerne Manvineripts,, ACCOUNGOL 2.00604 .e ec cee ewes 128 
meter, Armand, Paper by..............- yh ae ere anes 241 
enna tae 11 AIMETICH Sooo oa cee ewe seats ele 334 
Penguistie Discussions /......:.......- Moaces feta ce oe 306 
SS Se ee ae 39 
CT ee ee a enue 4 ted oe Sack ea 7 
eesisot the Niagara Formation...............-6s.e.0 sees D7 - 
ier ttormerbere and THamilton....... 0.05.26 -.06 6 145 
LS Sa Re 18 
travestones Aisthetically and Ethically Considered ...... ... 320 
Semres, 0s bP. Papers DY ..s5.2 200.50 eee ke 5%, 145 
femes, enry A., UL. D., Papers by.............. 128, 245, 271 
RE NS hE UGE DY ook cies ios seis lane Dace eee c= eens 306 
mma nepnen ©., Papers by... 22.0.2 ...0s 0-800 77, 198 
ES SS OE eee ee ae 290 
ee oats OG A ales we clivcals sinew asta’ ware 198 
OS a) en 105 
eee avi, fil -D,. Address by... ies cee tnasccecses 85 
a NET n a9 pe cosa) i ds g 0) 8 dic a/gla/m Ae bmn w ni gre 241 
ule PVEALC, ATMS Of oF oo. cic eed eee se dee wes Ree 5 ae 
ee ter, Eafer DY... <a. bee cle css esas cée see 217 
peences, Physical, and Civilization ...... 0.065 e-ceesssecess 227 
Smith, Horace E., LL. D., Paper by........... Petes eke chy cis 290 
@ucmer, Gilbert M., Papers by. ...........2. 2 A Re eee 39, 33% 
Utica Slate and Related Formations ...............-..0.--. 1 
EOE Oo i ee a a ee 217 
Walcott, C. D., Papers by ...... RO Teli a Se LOR ae eae ts 


Oe ES CS 0 Se a a 105 


Ta om te 


F / ir Fy} ; ag fae - ie wf e - 
7 : aad ae 
7 < +f oF > 4 
in i ars 7 = — w= if 
ig oa 
ih — tet aan eee - ~— - 


eUTOAIMOD auTaAnposanad ; 


5 59 ny qq 
heh, ORG 1 é % 


pag:09. ati bor Sniffommrd To saute wee mwodle hoot Jt -git rs 
a hassiooaerk divin hetsdt {09 . 
- 


PARTORMMA BOTT) IOTIARO : pt 


0 suet- ; . 
bae Reiber [leme ods goiwaste briomt toolto RO A =e . e . zt 
a mega suen xe eb qole etitiso si 
maiB evi of eqite-ous fe goidtaq B To.Tt elad «2 @ 24 “ 
. dofulfes oft. to 1ajoeraafo Poe 
; 9 
AY rl PH eh: O41 2? . ; 
; SS egef F 
Hn 30 Lode oul3 6) botlosHa-siieidt baori s lo noid ay ¢ ae st 
a n genres : 
fold Yo tnsieguet 2 913. wode OF UOihog 6 10 fHaKts) es = | 
wisstion eiiwé fay ol! : si 


Og 


aU20M AS HIUYMT: SUTIAMHONT Aa! ; i 4 
. . 


= 24a J& eget i 
3 y Te . , \ bad . 4 . = " “ | 
pid 19basis bar aqie evonzull ols edivode bnoit Jositag 719v i bh oil : 
7 . « 
WaTiMi2 auTt rome Zac > 
- (© ane*T \ 
; 4 t ' o ’ 
abies evotstilgiias ont gniwnie Heol & To Hehniog A .c gr 
‘tealwouge zishib soishe boot) eto obis avo vetiiel ison a : AT’ .6 24 
~ , snidonaar to 
eta! G afl jo donaid # }o HOisTOg B 307% se slacl 86 aft 
Paes > c Z Ses a 
TS fy eti wordy: 8 G no vidilge s jo Toysatsgiaiis jorvat ive dG. 
= . r ; i \ 
doaei Olt £O Oreo : : 
my sevaaaianO #AnaoonTtag 
. : ‘ e 
, ss Ep? | sd 
VY .bodisoeeb lepbivibni ssf to soamtsoqge ban asia taqwisZ ogi. 
online boislisonso vidi wode of 1ausmegrslad .« f 24 
: AYAAIS0"LD 2 Sooo Agee h 
Sy : : é é 
- = . S oust 
CS oe i mi ~ e, Fi ; ’ : <s Sa 5m . 
ars See ixia lewis eviev Higit Baa wsiY 6 2 | 
y aie Gaile sixias acioo aT» pasate eas 10 inset ad ee 29 
bs hated 4 < '« ia 7 Rh) Btowe ye. es bojaotbo! 
oa ag ‘ a a s 2 
‘3 % . ut > AN - «4 a 
= a } P| ; i ; fe 
2 MES me , ey : 
pene ee ene - - : eS fe 


Fig. 


a 


g. 
. 5b. Still further enlargement of a cellule on 5 a toshow its character and 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE T. 


DENDROGRAPTUS COMPACTUS. 
Page 21. e 
1. Frond showing the mode of branching, and its compact character as 
compared with associated forms. 


GRAPTOLITHUS ANNECTANS, 


Page 20. 


. 2. A very perfect frond, showing the small radical and the widely bifur-~ 


cating, slender, flexuous stipes. 


g. 2a. Enlargement of a portion of the stipe to five diameters to show the 


character of the cellules. 


SAGENELLA AMBIGUA. 


Page 22. 


. 3. View ofa portion ofa frond that is attached to the shell of an Endoceras 


proteiforme. 


2 
. 39 a, Enlargement of a portion to show the arrangement of the cells. 


Mr. E. Hurlburt’s collection. 


DENDROGRAPTUS 'TENUIRAMOSUS. 


Page 21. 


. 4. Avery perfect frond showing the flexuous stipe and slender branches. 


DENDROGRAPTUS SIMPLEX. 


Page 20. 
5. A portion of a frond showing the celluliferous side. 
6. The noncelluliferous side of a frond which differs somewhat in its mode 
of branching. 


5 a. Enlargement of a portion of a branch of fig 5. 


position on the branch. 


ORTHOCERAS ONEIDAENSE 


Page 22. 8% 


. 7%. Natural size and appearance of the individual described. 
. 7a. Enlargement to show the cancellated surface, 


MoDIOLOPSIS CANCELLATA. 


Page 22. 


. 8 View of a right valve, natural size. 
g.8a.Enlargementof the surface. The concentric striz are not as strongly 


indicated as they should be. 


X. 


Trans., Alb Ins. 


nd 


al Be 


sh A I 
ove 


Ehcbt hi 


Jada as 
ANE 


eae 


a) 


. 
4 


ri 


* 1 ASS 


opus 


ORAL 2a Se een Se eye 
$25) eee SAS ee aS 
Pye Bg acer ys 
. 7 na “ 
Ls a ae vaneneanl a . 
ae arAld 40 KOT ZRITE 
te 
. } | ¥ 
* waa moed, ae See T e 


8S oueF E ; 


va leubivibai ag to toon zralne ban sste farcisX 
nsuyase ~ - 


. 
See alt to [snbi ivibee giFeiiol fo.93: an bue wortraiy é 
fg - xnonlt add ai icy Be. eno of Lays pil, Smoiicol: 7a. 


vitalor Bait bre ioebig wg his Dat a silt do ee. : 


es : Tye eS 
vas SNe OY RS ar SRia Dis 


294 siostortdozs to oii Rea sks 0 ea Sia Bese 
edt dtiw ageqeno AM Set ia Bite Herp cnlhigtg 
z sreoifiai le éi-f a peri ee Pocshod sft to 
idw ob Lag bit ibai ® 4y GO 3 rhrogs ont ceri Bete: 15) Bike te 


‘ah iss ey ot iyo 00 1.6) ae LAS 


uqolosb fenbare oii go ismiaenlticiaubiy | bis tossites A .EI- 


= 
yt 


tab otocosif) abe 17 ola te Wey Stiape | sis pg moxie [sitter -cl -ofe 


eS = 4 = : 

‘, Pad me os 10% + sae ee b uals: Or tu Rape 207 Hy: Repo vit 
= e- o . + AMERY 11092 sian eta 

B etnonTys sostodt 9 ot chy Aaa ing Br boqeisvoh ape AT iT 
gT IMO xd hsnsttah aeed ov ast ea 2a19ai1sl ot TR 
gi pivibai “8 ui xa score vill at siya odd ai vlixeviann 
7 fs ‘ ’  ifaosl of CIMEE stirsergor 
elt woda ot eh o= Guo besesig cele oT s eH@eds 991) osi'T 
pi, ye ts, . ‘ © 

oT. ty Waa AFIT OME 
| ee om SY F : 

Pehono3 1 BBs 1 + aes t git Iavay of) Bitktaoessg bumEA i it 
3 5 i ' ae me A rol$de te aiowmBl 

P uciel edit eu “Tt oi x Ors ea “Ha boat? ifatie A £8 at 

sea tsilvesmnok 2 Hae haert Pare pz a6le som A .d 3 it 

tise hensaAsids att sniwede bio 2 io uo yes i vit 

al adh ifort t ad rot Bwob hausiiel fuctt s te Sead bi vid 
a 7 Saas tohiy: Hiios 8 tivdihnoH 


’ ; 


ee RIT RAOUTAF 
a ie : Pan = 
cd “Umb oga < 
- ¥ 


nioute ight) oat pai Buetl bendiiasli é 


- . == 


aigieas om jo. o0ir ‘qf. Linus phos 
Wei nvIsTt ¢ eat meno J ; 
sa & en 2 aan # 
b AY sat ) 4 : is 
Ra. iyiscss aul Fe athe of Malt: aitilo Nea b 
J = Sine 
wenssbs tes) 4 phe 16 Papbiaibii’ RUOT Supt bin S 
-¥ —— = oo hte sult 
4 : " ei 
—— « ; 
2 —— Ae ee eee bie +” 
es r ' 
—— a me ner ee ee ee 


Pre. 


4 
Bien 
. t@ 
‘ 
‘ . 
. =" 
ee. 
* 
‘5 


- 
‘ 
= 
‘ 
. 
; 
“ 
a 
\ 
x 
¢ 
x 
4. 
. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. 


TRIARTHRUS BECKI GREEN. 


Page 23. 

Fig. 1. Natural size and enlargement of an individual having one thoracic 
segment. 

Fig. 1 a. A narrow and more elongate individual of the first known degree of 
development having one segment in the thorax. 

Fig. 15. Natural size, and enlargement of i a, to fifteen diameters to show the 
character of the head and pygidium and their relative proportions 
and size. 

Figs. 1-13. A series of individuals illustrating the gradual development of the 
head and throax on the addition of each thoracic segment The 
pygidium diminishing in size as compared with the other parts 
of the body. The numbers 1-13 also indicate the number of 
segments in the thorax of each individual to which they refer. 
All enlarged to three diameters. 

Fig. 13. Enlargement to three diameters of an individual having fourteen 
thoracic seginents. 

Fig. 14. Fully developed individual of sixteen thoracic segments, naturalsize. 
All the larger specimens have been flattened by compression, The 
esnvexity in the figure is the same as in an individual of sixteen 
segments, 33mm in length. © 
The free cheeks are also pressed out so as to show their margins. 


CYATHOPHYCUS RETICULATUS. 


Page 18. 


Fig. 16. A frond presenting the usual characters when flattened between the 
layers of shale. 

Fig. 16 a. A small frond showing the true cup like form. 

Fig. 16 b. A more elongate tubular frond with a somewhat contracted aperture, 

Fig. 16 c. A fragment of a frond showing the thickened cell walls. 

Fig. 16d. Base of a frond flattened down upon the frond. The last is from Mr 
E. Huriburt’s collection. 


CYATHOPHYCUS SUBSPHERICUS. 


Page 19. 


Fig. 17. A flattened frond showing the plain structure and the small opening 
at the summit. A portion of the margin is broken away. 
DISCOPHYCUS TYPICALIS 


Page 19. 
Fi 


i 
g 
° 


18. A small characteristic specimen. The margin is slightly corrugated 
and numerous individuals of Orthis testudinaria are attached to 
the surface. 


———————E sl Oo eee 


ran 
Fal 
oo 
B 
| A444 r. ML ) 
. a " 4, cm 
rengeet : TTI | | 
: | 
oma) (YAS * | | | 
i 


Dai 


Sain /YANAVANUN SS aa 


SBUbSEI pera 


; m te 


hogan MiG; j 


SPT 


WANS 


X. 


saa (\\\\\\\\ 


ALA 


Trans. Alb Ins. 


. ChD Walcott del. 


_ ARMS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK:. 
FAC SIMILE 


of the Imatial T, engraved on 
A New York Miirary ComMMIssIon 


from Gov. G Clinton, 
of June 25,1778. 


& 
ar. 


FAC SIMILE 
OF A NEW YORK REGIMENTAL FLAG 


GF LTTS. 


3 tiper 


FAC SIMILE OF THE ARMS 
FROM THE PAINTING IN ST PAULS CHAPEL 
Ee He Oe eg oe 


» 


i Miatites 


SS Aas 
SOM no 


BS, 
tj 


Yep 


SKETCH OF THE ARMS 
AS RESTORED FOR THE ACTION OF THE 


LEGISLATURE. 


THE ARMS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 


AS RE-ESTABLISHED BY CHAPTER I9g0 OF THE LAWS OF 1882, 
AND REQUIRED TO BE USED ON THE SEALS OF ALL 
THE PUBLIC OFFICES AT THE CAPITAL 
FROM THIS DATE. 


JOSEPH B. CARR, 


Secretary of State. 
ALBANY, Fan. 7, 788}. 


“ 
— 
Ne 
= . 
t 
} 
X 
. 
‘ 
- 
~ 


oe. Sm 
ay a 


rt 


i % 
- 
‘ 
° . 
. 
’ 
, Mt 
' 
’ aut 
. 
, 
= 4 
w 
- ‘& ‘ ; 
. e y 
- , = 
* 5, - 
' , a 
‘ “* . 5 . 
4 
ry , . al wi 
. - 
4 > a? 
1 
’ r ae : 
- * _ lead! 
, = * 
2 i roe rn 
a/b ae 
. = i 
: y + ere 
= >» péas 
2 F ; 2 ee 
‘ i Tee we. rel Fe 
< ‘ < , ant Site 
. . ° “ te) Ue 
i) x 4 y, 5 


eae s.* ; ‘ ; ’ ane 

4 ‘ * ‘ * oe 
‘ ‘ aye 

ae eS Pre, | | mange pat < 

J, ; . f roe 


. i , a ae 


DATE DUE 


LS el 
——— - 


DEMCO INC 38-2931 


~ ame pt Cat teghnges am Oy Wo- +e 
: i= C08 wren et nant be oe 9 ents: 204 tne 


a) 
ag eee 


ye bene he, 


wie 


a) 


™ oe 7 
oe , 2 MS eye ee ae. : . me ee