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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICil INSTITUTE

OF THE

CITY OF NE¥-IOBIv,

FOR THE YEAR

1855.

ALBANY:

C. VAN BENTHUYSEN, PRINTER TO THE LEGISLATURE.

No. 407 Broadway.
1856.

zS5

AMEEICAN INSTITUTE.

TRUSTEES AND COMMITTEES FOR 1855.

President,
ROBERT L. PELL.

Vice-Presidents,
ROBERT LOVETT,
D. MEREDITH REESE,
JOSEPH TORRE Y.

Recording Secretary,
HENRY MEIGS.

Corresponding Secretary and Agent,
WM. B. LEONARD.

Treasurer,
EDWARD T. BACKHOUSE.

Finance Committee,
John A. Buntiug, N. G. Bradford,

*George Bacon, George Dickey,

James R. Smith.

Managers of the Fair,
(To serve one year.)
W. H. Dikeraan, John Gray,

fJohn F. Conrey, Geo. F. Nesbitt,

B. Lewis, Jr., fA. D. Frye,

TVm. Hall, Joseph Cowdin .

(To serve two years.)
TVm. K. Strong, jJohn Ridley,

fWm. Ebbitt, Wm. A. Whitbeck,

tCharles A. Whitney, ]Vm\ Stillman,

Edwin Smith, F. W. Geissenhaincr.

(To serve three years.)
Peter B. Mead, J. N. Wells, Jr.,

fJas. R. Smith, Bailey J. Hathaway,

fCharles Turner, David R. Jaques,

Samuel D. Backus, Henry Steele.

•Decen?ed.

\ To fill vacancy.

Committee on Agriculture,
David Banks, Thomas Bell,

Robert S. Livingston, Nicholas Wyckoff,

D. K. Sherwood.

Committee on Commerce.
Abraham Turnure, John Disturnell,

Luther B. Wyman, W. W. Dibblee,

John Mcllveen.

Committee on Manufactures, Science and Arts,
James Renwick, Edwin Smith,

James J. Mapes, E. P. Davis,

Benjamin Aycrigg.

Committee on the Admission of Menibers,
Robert Lovett, James F. Hall,

Hiram Dixon, John W. Chambers,

Henry Meigs.

Committee on Correspondence,
F. P. Schoals, Linus W. Stevens,

John F. Conrey, William H. Browne,

S. R. Comstock.

Committee on the Library,
"Wm. A. Whitbeck, William Hibbard,

Ralph Lockwood, D. R. Jacques,

Bailey J. Hathaway.

Committee on Repository,
Samuel D. Backus, John A. Bunting,

F. \y. Geissenhainer, Jr., ' S. S. Ward,

Joseph Cowdin.

Clerk and Secretary of Trustees,
John W. Chambers.

Librarian,
Ezekiel A. Harris.

itatt <sf "Nt^siM^vU*

No. 216

IN ASSEMBLY, MAR. 18, 1856.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

New-York, March 17, 1856.
To the Hon. Orville Robinson,

Speaker of the Assembly:
I herewith transmit the Annual Report of the American Insti-
tute of the City of New- York, for the year 1855.

Very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,
W. B. LEONARD,
Corresponding Secretary,

FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

The undersigned Trustees, in compliance with the Law of
May 5, 1841, present a report of the acts of the Institute for the
year 1855.

The Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures of the 27th Annual
Fair of the American Institute, held at the Crystal Palace, in the
city of New- York, in October last, exceeded in novelty, utility, and
variety any previous fair, and attracted thousands of visitors.
Those citizens who enjoy that extraordinary genius for originality
of thinking and invention so distinguishing this new world,
availed themselves of the great space and national centrality of
that beautiful edifice to come from all parts of the union with
their new and improved machinery of every description, with the
implements of agriculture and arts.

This ready response from inventors and mechanics, is a proof
of the high estimation with whicli this time-honored institution
is regarded ; it is by this and kindred associations that the agri-
culturists are to be benefited, by labor-saving implements for
cultivating the soil, and prej^aring their products for market.
Among the many articles of interest to this class of visitors, were
the improved plow, mowing, reaping, and threshing machines,
which, contrasted with the crude plow, hand scythe, the sickle
and Hail, are improvements of great benefit to the farmer.

Manufactures of cotton, wool, silk, linen, and iron, were also
well represented, and surpassed in style and quality any foreign
articles of the kind ; proving the benefit of protecting liome in-
dustry, thereby encouraging the mechanic and artisan.

Notwithstanding the mighty competition of Europe in every
mechanical branch, and the millions imported, the progress in
arts and mechanics has been rapidly advancing under the foster-
ing hand of government ; and we rejoice in this manifestation of

8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE »

America as to her perfect ability to supply herself with all she
requires in mechanics, as well as in agriculture. Previous to
the tariff of 181G, we imported most of our agricultural imple-
ments ; now we export them-, of a superior quality, anid at far less
cost. And thus with manufactures ; a yard of brown shirting
cost 25 cents; a pound of cut nails 15 cents ; and all like arti-
cles of domestic manufacture cost the consumer in like propor-
tion. By the improvements in machinery these articles have
been reduced at least two-thirds in cost, and giving the consu-
mer a superior manufacture.

The exliibition of machinery and tools far exceeded the most
sanguine expectations of the managers, and the ample space ap-
propriated to this department was filled with more articles of
recent invention and utility than were at "the Exhibition of Indus-
try of all Nations," held at the Crystal Palace in 1853, among
which were steam engines of novel construction, gas apparatus for
heating and illuminating, and force pumps of great variety, tools
for working iron, of every description, of perfect quality and
finish; also for working wood in every variety of form. The
most novel and attractive machines on exhibition, were several
varieties of sewing machines ; and also a knitting machine, which
executed with neatness, perfection, and great rapidity, labor
wliich has hitherto been performed with untiring patience and
industry by the human hand only. An important feature in this
exhibition, was an automatic scale for measuring grain, of great
ingenuity.

As the Exhibition of the New-York State Agricultural Society
took place in the month of October, at Elmira, it was deemed
advisable that the agricultm*al department of our exhibition
should consist of a display of the various grains, floui-, and
meal, the productions of the dairy, fruit, flowers, and vegetables,
agricultural and horticultural implements, and a poultry show.

The whole number of entries in this department was 230.

Mechanics require further encouragement. Many valuable
inventions are lost to the public, as the originater has not always
the means and facilities for completing his design. We would
recommend establishing a Eepository (in the city of New- York,)
with motive power, and facilities for experimenting with new-
inventions, by which mechanics may test their improvements and
perfect their designs, offering the same when completed to the
public, contributing thereby to the rapid improvement going on
in our country in mechanical arts and sciences.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 9

The American Institute was founded a little more than a quar-
ter of a century since, and having been sustained by the hearty
efforts of a few through several years of doubt and embarrass-
ment, we now present to you this national institution in a highly
prosperous condition, with its Farmers' and Mechanics' Clubs,
and its large and valuable library. We ask but the continued
sympathies and co-operation of the public, that its influence
may be extended throughout the length and breadth of our
country. EGBERT L. PELL,

D. M. REESE,
ROBERT LOVETT,
JOSEPH TORREY,

E. T. BACKHOUSE,
W. B. LEONARD,
H. MEIGS, Trustees.

FINANCES.

The following is the financial condition of the American Insti-
tute, on the first day of February, 1856.
Balance in the treasmy Feb. 1, 1855, $98 92

The Receipts of the year have been —

From Treasurer State of New- York, $950 00

Fromrentof store, &c.. No. 351 Broadway, 1,458 33
From managers of the 27th Annual Fair,

1855, 8,200 00

From admission fees and annual dues, . . . 2,413 00

From library committee, fines, &c., 28 96

From sales of Transactions, 6 00

13,056 29

From note discounted by the Mechanic's Banking

Association, 4,000 00

Payments.
Real Estate.
Interest on mortgage, Nov. 1, 1854, to

Nov. 1, 1855, $845 00

Water tax, 19 95

'7,155 21

Carried forward, $864 95 $17,155 21

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Brought forward, $864 95 $17,155 21

Assessment, opening Walker-
street, 31 02

Insurance, 140 50

Mason work, rear building, 211 35

Carpenter's work, 46 99

Glazing, repairs, &c., 27 20

Painting store, 149 14

Water pipes for store, 13 25

$1,484 40

Library Committee.

Books, $145 8G

Periodicals, 98 70

Binding, 96 70

Subscription to newspapers, 62 50

403 76

On account of 2,i5th Annual Fair.
Rent of Castle Garden, 1853, ... $650 00
Pipes, labor, &c., in machine

room, 10 84

660 84

Mechanics' Banking Association.

Paid note discounted, $800 00

do do 4,000 00

Interest on note, 165 69

4,965 69

Miscellaneous Bills.

Insurance library and fixtures, . . $42 50

Printing, 51 09

Stationery, &c., 61 68

Directory, 2 25

Carpenter's work, tables, shelves,

&c., 21 62

Gas light, 96 89

Coal, 60 00

Advertising, 37 25

Eeporting 21 meetings of the

Farmer's Club, at $10, 210 00

Carried forward, ........ $583 28 $7,514 69 $17,1 55 21

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. H

Brought forward, §583 28 $7,514 69 $17,155 21

Volumes of Journal of the Ameri-
can Institute, 15 00

Removing ashes from cellar .... 8 75

Agent's expenses at Albany, 24 00

Collecting appropriation, '42 to

'53, 16 60

Eepairs of Dynamometer, 3 00

Petty cash, postage, advertising,

cleaning, &c., 184 90

835 53

Salaries.

Agent, $700 00

Recording Secretary, 600 00

Clerk, 1,000 00

Librarian, 600 00

Boy, 115 50

— 3,015 50

11,365 72

Balance in the treasury Feb. 1, 1856, $5,789 49

AMOUNT OF PROPERTY HELD BY THE INSTITUTE,
FEBRUARY 1, 1856.

Real estate, No. 351 Broadway, cost .. $45,000 00
Building 69^ Leonard-st., 800 00

$45,800 00
Less mortgage, 13,000 00

■ $32,800 00

Library and fixtures, per report made

to the Institute April 30, 1855, $10,979 52

Books and periodicals added since, .... 139 06

11,118 58

Ofl&ce furniture, safes, &c., 350 00

Carried forward , $44,268 58

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,

Brought forward, |44,268 68

Other property :

Steam boilers at Castle Garden, $1,000 00

Shaftmg, puUies, &c., at the Crystal

Palace, 600 00

Chandeliers, "^O 00

1,670 00

Cash in the treasury, Feb. 1, 1856, 5,789 49

$51,728 07

JOHN A. BUNTING,
N. G. BRADFORD,
JA'S R. SMITH,

Finance Committee.

REPORT OF THE MANAGERS OF THE TWENTY-SEVENTH
ANNUAL FAIR OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 1855.

The Board of Managers of the twenty-seventh Annual Fair of the
American Institute beg leave to

REPORT :

That the first meeting of the managers was held on the 31st day
of May last, and on the 7th of June the final organization was
completed by the appointment of Mr'. Edwin Smith as chairman,
and John W. Chambers as secretary.

The first subject of consideration was the location for the exhi-
bition. Castle Garden, in which the fairs of the Institute had been
held since the destruction of Niblo's Garden in 1846, was found to
be in the hands of the Commissioners of Emigration, and there-
fore could not be had for our exhibition ; the managers regretted
this on account of the many conveniences already placed there at
great expense to the American Institute.

The committee to whom the selection of a location was referred,
after looking over the city, found but two places suitable, viz :
the premises known as the Hippodrome, situated on the 5th ave-
nue between 23d and 24t]i streets, and the Crystal Palace, erected
by the association for the Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations,
on Reservoir Square ; as the HiiDpodrome property was in the mar-
ket, no arrangement could be made for its occupation. Mr. John
H. White, the receiver of the Crystal Palace, olFered that building
at a sum that was acceptable to the managers, with permission to
make such changes and alterations as might be deemed requisite
for our exliibition ; this arrangement was not consummated untU
the beginning of July.

The following circular was at once prepared and sent to manu-
facturers, mechanics, inventors, &c., calling their attention to this
exhibition :

14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The Twenty- Seve7ith Anmial Fair of the Americcm Institute of
the city of JYew-York, incorporated for the purpose of encour-
aging and promoting domestic industry in this State and the
United States, by bestowing rewards and other benefits on those
who excel in any of the departments of Agriculture, Commerce,
Manufactures, and the Arts.

The 27tli Annual Fair of the American Institute will be opened
in the city of New- York on the 3d day of October, 1855, and con-
tinue during the month.

The managers announce to the manufacturers, mechanics, in-
ventors, artisans, farmers, gardeners, and all others interested,
in the United States, that they have secured the Crystal Palace,
erected in 1853, for the Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations,
in which to hold the 27th Amiual Fair of the American Institute.
This magnificent and spacious building will afford unusual
facilities for the arrangement and display of tlie various speci-
mens of ar^ and productions of nature. Steam-power will be
provided, to put in operation machinery of every description,
and the managers pledge themselves to make every exertion in
their power to efiect such arrangements lor the accommodation
of exhibiters as will secure the great ends of the exhibition.

Premiums of gold and silver medals, cups, books, and diplo-
mas, will be awarded to the exhibiters of articles deemed worthy of
such distinction, by competent judges appointed for that purpose.
Practical and disinterested persons, acquainted with the seve-
ral branches in which they shall be appointed, will be selected
for judges, to whom all articles for competition will be referred,
in order to secure the same satisfaction that has heretofore been
given, in the bestowal of the awards of this Institute. To insure
a perfect impartiality, the by-laws of the Institute prohibit " any
premium being awarded by the board of managers to any member
of their board, to any of the trustees, or to any of the standing
committees of the Institute, or anything in lieu thereof."

The awards will not be confined to specimens prepared ex-
pressly for exhibition ; but when articles are entered as being of
ordinary manufacture for general consumption, full weight will
be given to that fact, as showing the actual state of the particu-
lar branch to which they belong.

The managers desire strongly to impress exhibitors with the
necessity of furnishing information, at an early day, of the de-
scription of articles they intend to exhibit, and the space requir-
ed for their proper display.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 15

Exhibitions have been held by the American Institute, in this
city, for 26 years, and the importance of these annual gather-
ings in this metropolis, the great mart of trade and commerce,
where producers resort in multitudes, cannot be too highly esti-
mated. It enables the accurate observer to compare improve-
ments from year to year, and note the progress of art in our
growing republic. The knowledge of improvements obtained by
examination, inquiry and conversation, is carried home by the
visitors, and is thus spread over the whole country. The col-
lection of inventors and ingenious men, their explanations, inter-
course, observations and suggestions, conduce to new and useful
improvements. To no class of men is our country so much
indebted for those rapid improvements, which are the admira-
tion of the world, as to the inventors and perfecters of labor-
saving machinery. From the power-loom, the skilful applica-
tion of steam, and the Magnetic telegraph, have proceeded im-
measurable power and wealth. The faculty of accomplishing
undertakings of this description forms a marked feature in our
national character. New and useful inventions will receive the
special attention and highest honors of the Institute.

These annual fairs attract our most honored and distinguished
citizens from distant States, whose presence and approbation cheer
the meritorious contributors. The commendations of illustrious
men have always conduced to high and noble exertions.

The exhibition being pui'ely American, brings into action the
noblest feelings of patriotism, and nomishes the pride of national
independence.

The coming fair will present to agriculturists a great opportu-
nity to exhibit the productions of their farms and gardens. The
arrangements contemplate the exhibition of grain, flour, fruit,
flowers, vegetables, and dairy productions ; and it is to be hoped
that the fan* of this year will show a marked Improvement in this
important department of the exhibition.

The managers would especially call the attention of manu-
facturers of steam engines to the present fair, as offering peculiar
facilities for exhil:)iting them in practical operation, which will,
doubtless, more than remiburse them for any extra trouble re-
quired in putting them in motion.

The managers design to include in the present fair, specimens
of the various minerals of oiu* country. Persons having collec-
tions, or rare specimens of this interesting department, are invited
to exhibit the same, for the purpose of showing their variety and

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

value. Tliey hope to receive for exhibition, not only a large col-
lection of specimens of coal, but also of the various ores and metals
which abound in this country, and form the basis of many of our
most important manufactui'es.

Space will also be assigned for the exliibition of building mate-
rials, natural and artificial, such as stone, marble, brick, slate, terra
cotta, lime, &c.

The arts of design will receive the attention of the managers.
Sculptors and painters will here have an opportunity to exhibit
their works for the insj^ection of the thousands who will attend
this annual fail'. Special premiums will be awarded for the best
specimens of painting and sculp tui-e, by American artists. The
attention of the managers has been called to the great improve-
ments that have recently been made in the photograj)liic art. For
the encouragement of further improvements in this beautiful art,
special premiimis will be awarded for the best specimens of natu-
ral colors in photographic pictures.

For the products of household industry and ingenuity, in all
their substantial as well as delicate forms, the managers rely upon
the ladies. They have never tailed, (from the opening of the first
fair) to furnish their full share of attractions ; and much of the
success of all the fairs may truly be attributed to their cheering
presence and patronage. We cordially invite a repetition of their
favors on an enlarged scale.

For the purpose of exciting emulation and encouraging im-
provements among the youth of our country, five hundred dollars
have been aj^propriated, to be bestowed in premiums for work of
apprentices and minors, to embrace all the objects on art and
industry I'or which the Institute awards premiums. Each appren-
tice or minor will be required to bring a certificate from his em-
ployer, or some responsible person, stating his age, and that the
work is entu-ely his own. A separate list will he kept, so that
this class of exhibiters will compete with each other, and not
with experienced and skilful workmen.

The following companies have consented, through the kindness
of their oflficers, to refund the freight (which in all cases must be
prepaid,) on all articles exhibited at the fair, if returned before
the 15th of November, on a certificate of the officers of the Insti-
tute, that the same was actually on exhibition, and had not changed
ownership, viz :

Hudson River Eailroad Co., New- York and Harlem Railroad
Co., New- York and New-Haven Railroad Co., New- York and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 17

Erie Railroad Co., Boston and Providence Railroad Co., Boston
and Worcester Railroad, Old Colony and Fall River Railroad,
Bay State Steamboat Co., Fall River Line, Stonington Line, Nor-
wich and New-London Steamboat Co.

All articles invoiced to the Institute, should be directed, " Wm.
B. Leonard, - Agent of the American Institute, Crystal Palace,
New- York," the freight of which must be paid. They will be
removed from the Railroad and Steamboat Depots to the Palace by
a responsible cartman, if requested by the owner : the cartage of
the same must be borne by the exhibiter.

Annexed to this cu'cular are the rules and regulations adopted
by the Board of Managers, to which your attention is particularly
directed.

1. The palace will be open i'ov the reception of goods, from
Thursday, the 27th of September, until Tuesday, the 2d of Octo-
ber. Heavy goods and articles from a distance will be received
and stored in the Palace, on and after the 1 5th of September.
Ofiices for the entry of goods will be on 40th-street.

2. The exhibition will open to the public on Wednesday, the
3d day of October, at 9 o'clock A. M. Tickets of admission, 25
cents. Children under 12, half price. The hours of exhibition
will be from 9 A. M., until 10 P. M.

3. Members admitted by tickets, (then- names inserted on the
same, ) which will entitle them to introduce their family ; by which
is understood their Avives and children. Tickets not transferable.

4. Each person presenting an article for comj^etition or exhibi-
tion, is requested to hand to the Committee on the Reception of
Articles, a statement, giving the name of the article, and the name
and residence of the exhibiter distinctly written. The (^'ommittee
will, if they deem it deserving, endorse the same, which must then
be handed to the clerk, who will give a ticket or check, (with a
number,) which must be attached to the article. The ticket will
admit him or her to the exhibition at all tim.es when open to the
public. This ticket is not transferalde ; and the door-lceeper is
instructed to retain such tickets Avhen presented by any other than
the exhibiter whose name it bears. Exhibiters necessarily re-
quiring assistance, will be furnished Avith an employee's ticket by
the clerk. In case of loss of the ticket or checks, the exhibiter is
advised to give the clerk immediate notice in writing, in order to
prevent the loss of the articles ; since tlie tickets or checks are
taken as sufficient evidence of ownership, in delivering the articles
at the close of the fair.

[Am. Inst.] 2

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

5. Articles presented for competition by apprentices or minors,
must be so designated at the time of entry.

6. No articles deposited after Wednesday, October 3, will be
entered on tlie judges' list for competition or premium, except such
as the managers are satisfied were dispatched from a distance in
time to have reached the exhibition by that day, but failed to
arrive from unavoidable detention ; and also articles intended for
the horticultural department.

7. All articles at the fair are at the risk of the owners,
who are expected to be present during the hours of exhibition.
The managers will direct the most efficient measm-es for the pro-
tection of property ; which, however, in no case is to be considered
at the risk of the Institute. Contributors for competition are re-
quested to leave with the clerk the keys of their cases, numbered
to correspond with the entry, on or before Wednesday, the 10th
day of October, that the judges may have an opportunity of in-
specting the articles.

8. Proper order will, at all times, be preserved by an efficient
police, who will be present to prevent olfences against exliibiters
and visitors.

9. Competitors for premiums cannot be present diuing the
examination, except at the request of the judges.

10. No exhibiter will be permitted to remove his articles until
the final close of the fair, unless by permission of the managers.

11. The floor committees for tlie different departments will
have the charge of placing and arranging all articles exhibited. In
case of any misunderstanding, application must be made to them.

12. Premiums of gold and silver medals, diplomas, &c., Avillbe
awarded by the board of managers, on such articles as the judges
shall decide meritorious. They will be announced on the last
evening of the fair, and the premiums will be delivered at the
Eepository of the Institute, No. 351 Eroadway, as soon as possible
thereafter. Eut in no case, for want of competition or for other cause,
will any article be entitled to premium, if adjudged intrinsically
not deserving particular commendation.

13. Fires will not be allowed in stoves, ranges, or furnaces on
exhibition.

14. No medicines, nostrums, or articles of that nature, made
and sold exclusively by the inventor or his agent, shall be exhibi-
ted at the fair.

Communications in relation to the Twenty-Seventh Annual Fair,
should be addressed, " Wm. B. Leonard, Cor. Secretary Ameri-
can Institute, 351 Broadway, New- York."

AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 19

Advertisements were inserted in the leading papers in manufac-
tui-ing districts, and the Agent of the Institute, Mr. Wm. B. Leon-
ard, made a tour through the New-England States, soliciting con-
tributions to our Fair, in October.

The Fair was opened for the reception of articles on the 27th
of September, and to the public on the 3d of October, and contin-
ued until the 13tli of November, making the time the Fair was
open near three weeks longer than usual.
The number of exhibiters in the manufacturing and mechanical

department, 2,024

Agricultural and horticultural, 230

Total, 2,254

The following premiums were awarded :

73 gold medals. $304 in cash.

382 silver medals. $82 in books, to minors and

43 silver cups. apprentices,

415 diplomas. 123 vols, of books.

Estimated to cost $3,527.

The opening address was delivered by the Hon. Henry Meigs,
the Recording Secretary of the Institute, the Anniversary Address
by Luther R. Marsh, Esq., of New- York, and the closing ad-
dress by Dr. D. M. Reese, the Vice-President of the Institute.
These addresses were delivered in the palace, and were listened
to with much attention by a numerous auditory.

The following is a condensed statement of the Receipts and Ex-
penditm-es of the Twenty-seventh Annual Fair :

RECEIPTS.

To cash received from sales of tickets at the Crystal Palace :

Monday, October 1 , $12 50

Tuesday, " 2, 4150

Wednesday, " 3, 110 00

Thui'sday, " 4, 427 00

Friday, " 5, 430 00

Saturday, " 6, 170 00

Monday, " 8, 505 00

Tuesday, *' 9, 850 00

Wednesday, " 10, 900 00

Thursday, " 11 , 850 00

Carried forward, $4,296 00

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Brought forward, $4,279 00

Friday, October 12, 278 75

Saturday, " 13, 840 00

Monday, " 15, 825 00

Tuesday, " 16, 1,238 77

Wednesday, " 17, 1,288 00

Thursday,' " 18, 1,304 15

Friday, " 19, 1,114 10

Saturday, " 20, 435 00

Monday, " 22, 939 59

.Tuesday, " 23, 760 00

Wednesday, " 24, 515 00

Thursday, " 25, 1,210 00

Friday, " 26, 1,501 18

Saturday, " 27, 865 00

Monday, " 29, 1,130 00

Tuesday, " 30, 1,347 20

Wednesday, " 31, 1,130 00

Thursday, Nov. 1 , 675 00

Friday, " 2, 620 00

Saturday, " 3, 19144

Monday, " 5, 370 00

Tuesday, " 6, 380 00

Wednesday, " 7, 680 00

Thursday, " 8, 475 00

Friday, " " 9, 1,045 00

Saturday, " 10, 770 00

Monday, " 12, 210 00

Tuesday, " 13, 589 25

Wednesday, " 14, 55 00

Tliursday, " 15, 53 40

Novelty Works, tickets, 77 70

Wm. Hall and Son, tickets sold, 8 00

E. Walker and Sons, tickets, 7 50

Cash for stove, 5 00

Book Publishers' Association, gas, 114 12

Kent of refreshment saloons and stands, 420 00

$27,764 40

Less discount, $30 26

Counterfeit money, 28 95

59 21

$27,705 19

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 21

Brought forward, $27,705 1 9

EXPENDITURES.

By Ticket Committee.

Ticket receivers, $1 95 00

By Finance Comi7iittec.

Ticket sellers, 222 00

By Com. on Carpenter''s Work.

Carpenters, 546 1 6

Lumber and hardware, 96 99

643 15

By Committee on Clerks^ Police^ and Labor.

Superintendent, $230 00

Desk clerks, 292 00

Floor clerks, 797 50

Police, 126 00

Day watch, 626 00

Night watch, 770 00

Laborers, 704 10

Boy in Agent's ofRce, 24 00

Case of property at entrance, ... 26 66

3,596 26

By Committee on Printing and Pitblication.
Printing circulars, cards, tickets, posting

bills. Address, badges, &c., $506 85

Entry books, stationery, enve-
lopes, &c., 63 31

Postage stamps, &c., 69 57

Muslin for flags, 31 13

Advertising, 917 93

1,588 79

By Committee on Picture Gallery.

Cartage of paintings, $23 75

Agent collecting pictures, 27 00

Hanging pictures, cord, &c., 32 00

82 75

By Gallery Committee.
Damages occasioned by the remo-
val of perfumery case, 1 1 7 03

Carried forward, . . . . i $6,444 98 $27,705 19

22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Brought forward, $6,444 98^27,705 19

By Committee on Light.

Gas light, $3,434 07

Lighting dome with the Calcium

light, 108 00

Labor, lighting, repairs of roof,

&c., 207 59

Repairs of gas pipes, 344 48

Oil, alcohol, and putty, 27 74

4,122 28

By Music Committee.

Music, 1,464 00

By Committee on Horticulture.

Clerk, assistants, and lal^orers, . $635 00

Evergreens, plants, &c., for deco-
rations, 55 13

Painting flower stands, 12 05

Repairs of fountain, 14 03

Use of glass and china, for fruit, 32 85

Feed for poultry, &c., tin tubes,
cartage, and expenses procu-
ring flowers, 66 13

815 19

By Flag Committee.

Flag poles, $6 00

Mounting flags and ropes, 7 80

Insui-ance U. S. flags, 5 00

18 80

By Machine Committee.

Engineers, machinist, firemen,

and laborers, $1,175 40

Taking down shafts, pullies, &c.,
at Castle Garden, and remov-
ing to the Crystal Palace, 138 00

Steam boiler from Jersey City, . . 65 79

Engine, 65 70

Shafting, brackets, bolts, &c., .. 119 04

Pliunbing, cocks, couplings, &c., 124 77

Brass work, 31 07

Carried forward, ... .$1,719 77$12,865 25 $27,705 19

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 23

Erought forward, ... $1,719 77$ 12,865 25 $27,705 19

Pipes and labor, 255 08

Smoke pipes, kc, 116 02

Mason worlv, 6 84

Timber, 23 94

Croton water, 36 00

Coal, 385 62

Belting, 119 99

» — 2,C63 26

By refreshment Committee.
Dinners for Managers while de-
tailed on duty, judges, and

guests from a distance, 858 50

By Premium Committee.
Gold and silver medals, and strik-
ing, in part, $891 09

Silver cups, 226 00

Cash premiums, 1 56 00

1,273 09

Miscellaneous Bills.

Rent of the Crystal Palace, $1 ,500 00

Muslin for tables, 134 43

Agent's expenses through the

New-England States, 73 1 0

Cleaning, 12 00

Expenses of Orator, 58 00

Stove pipes for offices, 16 87

Painting boards, trial of fire en-
gines, 10 03

Sundry payments, cartage, &c., . 40 66

— 1,845 09

Total payment, 19,505 19

Which, being deducted from the receipts, leaves, $8,200 00

Of which, has been paid into the treasury of the

American Institute, 7,000 00

Leaving a balance in the Butchers' and Drovers' Bank, $1,200 00

24

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

By the above statement it will be seen that the Mana-
gers have paid into the treasmy of the American In-
stitute, $7,000 00

Balance in bank, as above, 1 ,200 00

Total, $8,200 00

From which must be deducted the balance of pre-
miums unpaid, $2,254 16

Advertising, &:c., not yet rendered, about, 250 00

2,504 16

Leaving the surplus of the fau', $5,695 84

The great extent of the Crystal Palace made it necessary that
the police day and night watch should be increased, for the secu-
rity and safety of property on exhibition. The expenses of this
department were $3,596.26.

The committee on light found that extensive repairs, much more
than was anticipated, were necessary to be made in the pipes and
fixtures belbre the Palace could l)e sufficiently lighted. The ex-
pense for the repairs was $344.48. The gas consumed amounted
to $3,437.07; but when Ave take into consideration the number of
bui'ners lighted, (near 5,000,) this sum is not deemed extravagant.
The whole expense incm-red by the committee on light, was
$4,122.28.

The change of location made it necessary that the shafting, pul-
lies, &c., at Castle Garden, should be taken down, removed and
put up at the Crystal Palace. The committee on steam power and
machinery were so fortunate as to procure steam engines sufficient
to drive all machinery we expected on exhibition ; but contrary to
expectation, the manufacturers of machinery and inventors brought
three times the quantity that w^as contemplated, requiring extra
power to be provided, thereby augmenting the expense of this
department.

The display of machinery far exceeded, in the estimation of com-
petent judges, any exhibition ever before held in the country. The
bills incurred by the committee in this department, amount to
$2,663.26.

The expense of fitting up the interior far exceeded the calcula-
tions of the Managers, as a number of changes in the general ar-
rangement of the .Palace had to be made. The cost ibr carpenter's

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 25

work, alone, was $54G.16, added to the cost of lumber and hard-
ware, make the expenses of this department $643.15.

As the Fah' of 1854 was omitted, it was deemed advisable to give
greater publicity to this exhibition. The expenses incurred by the
committee on printing and publication are necessarily increased,
as follows: Advertising, $917.23 ; printing, $500.85; making the
total expenditures by this committee, $1,588.79.

The Managers found that some attraction in the evening was de-
sii'able. The committee on music were requested to engage a band
of music for that puipose, the cost of which was $1 ,464. The Mana-
gers are convinced that this sum was well spent, as it enlivened
the scene, and brought numliers to the palace during the evening.
The agricultural and horticultural department of the Fair at-
tracted considerable attention. The great staples, wheat and
corn, were well represented. The fruit, flowers and vegetables
were very choice, and in great quantities. The dairy produc-
tions were very superior. The display of agricultural and hor-
ticultural machines and implements was very general, many of
which have never been surpassed in the perfection of arrange-
ments and high finish, and excited the admiration of the thousands
of visitors to the exhibition.

During the fair, 89 propositions were received from gentle-
men wishing to become members of the Institute. These pro-
positions were acted upon by the managers, and the initiation
fees ordered to be received, which amount to $555; there was
'also received $666, arrearages of dues from members, making
a total of $1,221. At the last meeting of the Institute, these
names were reported by the managers, and the gentlemen unan-
imously elected members of the Institute.

The managers cannot close this reiiort without returning
their thanks to the gentlemen who acted as judges, for their
attentive examination of the numerous articles on exhibition,
which examination they believe has given satisfaction to the
exhibiters. EDWIN SMITH, Clmirm.an.

F. W. GETSSEXIIAIXER, Jr., BAILEY J. HATHAWAY,
BENEDICT LEWIS, Jr., DAVID B. JAQUES,

WILLIAM HALL, HEXBY STEELE,

JOSEPH COWDIN, A. D. FRYE,

JOHN GRAY, PAUL STILL:\rAN,

WM. A. WHITBECK, JOHN F. CONBEY,

GEO. F. NESBITT, JOHN RIDLEY,

W. H. DIKEMAN, GHAS. TURNER,

PETER B. MEAD, JAS. R S:\ITTH,

SAMUEL D. BACKUS, WM. EBBITT,

J. N. WELLS, Jr., CHxiS, A. M'HITNEY.

Wm. B. Leonard Cr. Sec, Ex. Ojf

REFOilTS OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES OF THE AMERICAN

INSTITUTE.

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON MR. J. K. FISHEr's STEAM
CARRIAGE FOR COMMON ROADS APPOINTED, JUNE TtH, 1855.

The special committee appointed to examine Mr. Fisher's steam
carriage, respectfully report :

That they have carefully examined his " steam carriage," con-
structed for travelling on common roads, and also various draw-
ings made by him, since the construction of the carriage, contain-
ing improvements thereon.

The application of tlie steam engine for the purpose of locomo-
tion upon common or hard roads, is neither novel, nor of recent
origin. Almost cotemporaneous with the discovery of the steam
engine, we find scientific men turning their attention to its appli-
cation as a motor of vehicles over common roads. As early as
1758, we are told that the late Dr. Robinson, while yet a student
at Glasgow, conceived the possibility of propelling wheel carriages
by the agency of steam, and suggested the idea to his friend Watt,
who commenced the construction of a model contrivance for that
piu'pose, but for some reason abandoned it before completion. It
appears, however, that he never lost sight of the idea, for in 1784,
in his patent, he describes a " steam carriage" — he proposed that
the boiler shoiUd consist of wooden staves, hooped together like
a cask, having an iron sui'face within it, surrounded with water —
the reciprocating action of the piston was to be converted into a
rotary motion by the old sun and planet wheel, and the rotation
was to be communicated to the running wheels by toothed gear-
ing, with provision for varying the relative velocities of the pis-
ton— and the wheels, according to the varying resistances of the
road. These were mere ideas. Tlie first complete model was
constructed in 1763, by John Theophilus Cugnot, a native of Lor-
raine, and was exhibited by him to the Comte de Saxe. Cugnot,
having removed to Paris, constructed, under the patronage of the

28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Due de Clioiseul, at the public expense, a large steam carriage,
whicli was tried in 1770. We are told by Stewart " that it
moved wath such force as to overtm-n a portion of the wall which
•was opposed to its progress" — a circumstance tliat induced the
idea, that for practicable pui-poses it was not sulficiently control-
able. This carriage is now deposited in the Conservatoire des
Arts et Metiers,

Mr. Mui-dock, a Cornish engineer, it is generally admitted, con-
structed the first steam carriage in England, somewhere about the
year 1782. Of its method of construction and its performances
we have not been able to collect any definite information. It
certainly could not have answered the purposes intended, or some
trace of it would undoubtedly have been left.

Mr. William Symington, in the year 1786, constructed a model
of a steam carriage. The entire machinery is placed in the back
of the carriage, and the motion of the piston-rod is communicated
to the axle by a rack and pinion, a ratchet being used to prevent
the wheels from tui-ning backwards with the return of the piston.

Bad roads, difliculty of procming water and fuel, caused Sym-
ington to abandon his experiments.

In the United States, Oliver Evans, in the year 1786, applied
to the Legislature of Pennsylvania for a patent, or exclusive right
to use steam wagons in that State. Eeing considered insane on
the subject, no notice was taken of his application. He however
was more favoral^ly regarded by the Legislature of Maryland,
who granted to him the desired privilege for the term of fourteen
years, " on the ground that it could injure no one, and might
lead to the production of something useful." (See Laws of Mary-
land, 1786.) Not being able to procure sufficient assistance and
encouragement to build his carriage, he turned his thoughts to
other channels.

In 1801, however, Evans demonstrated the practicability of a
steam carriage in the city of Philadelphia. Being employed by
the corporation of that city to construct a " dredging machine,"
he built both the vessel and the steam engine at his works, a mile
and a half from the water. The whole, weighing 42,000 pounds,
was mounted on temporary wheels, and moved by connecting them
with the endless chain driven by the steam engine, and used for
scooping mud and throwing it into lighters. With this imperfect
application he propelled his heavy machine a mile and a half to
the water.

Thus it will be seen that to England belongs the credit of hav-

AMERICAN INSTITUTl.. 29

ing first c(tnceived the idea; to France the credit of having con-
structed the first model; but to America the glory of having first
rendered practicable both the idea and model of a steam carriage.

Messrs. Trevetliick and Vivian seem next to have taken up
the subject, and to have constructed a steam carriage far more
light and portable than any theretofore known. Their hind
wheels were large, the front ones smaller and close togetlier, the
cylinder was placed horizontally at the back of the behind axle;
the piston communicated with a sliding cross-piece, moving at its
end in guides, from which a connecting rod, returning towards the
piston, commimicated the power to a crank on the axle, on each
of whicli was a toothed Avheel working into another fixed on the
nave of the hind wheel of the axle of the carriage; on one end of
this axle was a fly-wheel, used in consequence of having but one
cylinder.

The toothed wheels on the crank axle were not fixed immov-
ably to it, but were so arranged that by means of a lever under
the command of the steersman, either or both of them could be
disconnected from it, so as to leave the wheels and axle to move
independent of it.

A lever brake pressing against the periphery of the fly-wheel
was used for retarding the motion of the vehicle, and a lever
handle connected with the fore- wheels aflbrded the means of direct-
ing the carriage. (The same plan as Mr. Fisher's model carriage.)

It is a remarkable coincidence, that one of the principal places
in which Trevethick's steam carriage was exliibited in London,
over fifty years ago, should be now the site of the great railway
station at Euston square.

The experiments of Trevetliick and Vivian led them to abandon
the common road and turn their attention more particularly to lo-
comotion over railways.

The introduction of macadamised roads in England rendered the
idea of travelling over them more practicable, and various inven-
tions were made for this pm-pose in 1821. Julius Griffith obtained
a patent for the mechanism of a steam carriage, which was built
with two steam cylinders, condensers and pistons, impelling the
hind wheels by a cogged gearing; the boiler and machinery were
suspended fi'om the frame work by chaip.s and springs to preserve
it from injury.

The ascension of hills next occupied the attention of inventors,
(but subsequent performances rendered most of the plans proposed
wholly unnecessary and impracticable,) and a large number of

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

steam carriages were constructed with reference to this particular
object by cUft'erent individuals: Biu'tsall & Hill, of Leith; W, H.
James, ol Birmingham; Walter Hancock, Smnmers & Ogle; Heaton
and Dr. Church, of Birmingham; Dance &, Field, Squire k Mace-
rone, and Scott Russell, of Greenock; Hills, of Deptford; Sir J as.
Anderson, and others.

Some of these gentlemen were able to perform lengthy journeys
in their carriages; but the want of the means of obtaining fuel and
water, and the ascent of hills, seemed to form a great impediment
to their successful operation.

Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, a lectui'er on chemistry at the Siu-rey
Institution, then took up the subject, and became a successful ex-
perimenter in steam carriages, and obtained more pecuniary assist-
ance than any other projector of his time.

Whether he is entitled to all the credit generally ascribed to
him ? it is not necessary to decide; but upon the report of the
House of Commons in 1831 and 1835, (see pamphlet N^o. 114,
American Inst. Library,) founded upon the experiments of Gurney,
Hancock, James, and others, some reliable data may be obtained; we
say some data, for there were many things proved before that com-
mittee which we should hesitate to adopt as true. So much, however,
we can say, that we believe Gurney and Hancock constructed steam
carriages miobjectionable in form, and that would have answered
the purposes intended, had their boilers been properly constructed;
even with this defect they made satisfactory trips, and were capa-
ble of attaining a speed of twelve miles an hour Avheu loaded, and
were as safe and controlable as horses.

But the passage by parliament of innumerable bills of proliibitory
tolls, compelled these projectors to abandon their experiment.

We have thus endeavored to show what progress was heretofore
made in the adaptation of steam to locomotion over common and
macadamised roads. Tliis subject, after a repose of nearly twenty
years, we find again revived by the gentleman whose carriage and
plans have been referred to us for examination. There cannot,
after the experiments above alluded to, be any doubt whatever of
the practicability of the adaptation of the steam engine for the pur-
pose designed by Mr. Fisher.

It would be singular, nay, remarkable, if Hancock, twenty years
ago, could run a steam carriage through the streets of London,
that with the innumeralDle improvements since made in the steam
engine, Mr. Fisher should not be able to design a plan for a steam
carriage far superior to Hancock's.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 31

We think we may safely say that the great obstacle in the way
of all the English steam carriages, viz., the want of a light durable
boiler, capable of generating steam quickly, has been fully over-
come. In the locomotives manufactured by Mathew H. Ealdwin
and William Norris, of Philadelphia, and others, we have abund-
ant evidence of this fact.

Again, the tolls on our plank and macadamised roads, like every
thing American, are equal to all men, and all kinds of vehicles.
No exorbitant, exclusive, or prohibitory tolls, or unequal taxation
can be imposed under the sacred provisions of oiu* constitution,
defining the absolute rights of man.

Mr. Fisher's carriage is propelled by two horizontal engines,
connecting with cranks on the outside of the hind wheels — very
similar to the anthracite coal-biu-ning locomotives on the New-
Jersey railroad. His boiler consists of a series of tubes set verti-
cally, and connected at the top, the fire acting on about one-half
of the circmnference of the tube.

So far, we find no new feature in his carriage; but his adap-
tation of flexible springs we consider a new feature, and worthy
of attention. They consist of a series of plates or leaves bolted to
the front of the carriage and resting on the front axle; these bear
the whole weight of the front part of the carriage, and being three
or four feet long, have the requisite flexibility.

As the cranks on the wheels are at right angles with each other,
a single centrally-affixed spring would be apt (in the usual mode
of working,) to shake or rock the carriage from side to side. To
overcome this he has introduced a crank about the centre of his
carriage body on each side, to which the rod from the piston is
connected, and from this crank a connecting rod connects to the
crank on the wheel ; to adapt it to the vibration of the front spring,
he introduces (like Hancock,) between the cranks a radius rod with
a universal joint. By these means (there being a little play for
the carriage body laterally on the hind axle,) a very steady motion
is obtained.

The experiments of Morin show the decided advantage arising
from the use of springs. He states that the difference in power re-
quired to draw a carriage at nine miles an horn- between blocked
springs and those not blocked to be one half.

Mr. Fisher estimates the cost of running a twenty-four passenger
omnibus, sixty-four miles a day for one year at $2,077.

We have ascertained from reliable sources, that on an average it

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

costs annually to run a twelve passenger omnibus, such as are used
in Broadway, the sum of $2,200 .

Comparhig Mr. Fisher's estimates of cost with the cost of running
Gurney and Hancock's carriage — bearing in mind the great differ-
ence in the relative expense of steam power l^etween 1836 and the
present time, as exhibited in the official reports of the State Engi-
neer of New-York, we are of the opinion that a steam carriage such
as proposed on Mr. Fisher's plan, could be run for nearly the same
annual cost as a Broadway omnibus — his carrying twenty-foiu- pas-
sengers and the omnibus twelve.

With Mr. Fisher's springs and method of engine connection, we
believe a steam carriage could be constructed to run over common
roads when the ascent did not exceed one in ten or twelve miles, at
a much lower rate than horse power, and could be giiided in such a
manner as to be equally under the control of the driver.

These assertions may seem too sanguine to some, but are no less
extravagant than would have been the statement fifteen years ago,
that steam engines could be erected in store windows of from three
to ten horse power, to grind coflfee, and this, too, at a running cost
of less than $10 a week, or about the wages of a good man, while
they actually perform the work of twenty, and can do that of eighty.

Mr. Fisher's carriage will not require twice the power of the
largest of these engines; and hence, when we estimated the expense
at $2,200 a year to run the same, we may, in justice to him, state,
that we believe ourselves rather over than under the actual expense
of running the same.

Scarcely a centmy has elapsed since Watt constructed his first
steam engine; still, in that short space of time, what an alleviator
has it become to the work of man ? It turns oiu* mills, as well in
the frozen season of the winter as the genial climes of the summer.
It traverses the bomidless ocean irrespective of Boreas' rush or
Neptune's anger. It foUow^s the iron track as it encu-cles conti-
nents, carrying man and the products ot his mind and genius from
the Orient to the Occident — from pole to pole.

May we not hope, then, that the time is not far distant when
steam carriages shall traverse tliose great plains that meet us on our
westward march to the Pacific, as we go tbrth to force the wards of
Nature's storehouses, and apply her treasui*es to the use of man?

F. ^\. GEISSENHAINER, Jr.,
PAUL STILLMAN,

./lugust 2, 1855. Committee.

The report was accepted and ordered on file, August 2, 1855.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 33

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE TO EXAMINE AND REPORT UPON
THE SCALES OF THE VERGENNES SCALE MANUFACTURING COMPANY
APPOINTED JAN. 3, 1856.

At the request of the American Institute, we have examined and
made trials at the Crystal Palace of the two scales (one a six ton
platform scale, and the other a one hundred ton railroad track
scale,) both of which have been patented by Elnathan Sampson,
25th July, 1854, and been manulactured by the Vergennes Scale
Manufacturing Company, at Vergennes, Vermont, viz.:

First. — Two trials of Sampson's six-ton platform scale.

The platform of this scale is twelve feet in length by eight feet in
width; the metal weighed by it was placed upon a four wheel truck,
the bearing points of which were three feet apart in one direction,
and two feet nine inches apart in the other direction.

Two trials of weight were made by placing tliis loaded truck
successively at each of the foiu* corners of the scale, numbered 1, 2,
3, and 4, and on the middle thereof, numbered 5, which gave the
following results :

First trial.

The loaded truck when placed at ^'^"Zal^ZlZ^'.^kt''^^''^^

No. 1 weighed 4,953 lbs. 12 oz. —0 lb. 0 oz. 4-10

No. 2 " 4,953 lbs. 9 oz. —0 lb. 3 oz. 4-10

No. 3 " 4,954 lbs. 0 oz. =0 lb. 3 oz. 6-10

No. 4 " 4,954 lbs. 5 oz. =0 lb. 8 oz. 6-10

No. 5 " 4,953 lbs. 4 oz. —0 lb. 8 oz. 4-10

Sum 5)24,768 lbs. 14 oz.

4,953 12 4-10

Second trial.

No. 1 weighed 4,954 lbs. 0 oz.

0 1b.

0 oz,

No. 2 " 4,954 lbs. 0 oz.

0 1b.

0 oz

No. 3 " 4,954 lbs. 0 oz.

—0 1b.

Ooz

No. 4 " 4,954 lbs. 2 oz.

=0 1b.

2oz.

No. 5 " 4,953 lbs. 14 oz.

—0 1b.

2oz.

Snm 5)24,770 lbs. 0 oz.

Mean of the

5 weighings, 4,954 0

[Am. Inst.]

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Result.

Mean weight by first trial, 4,953 lbs. 12 oz. 4-10.

Mean weight by second trial, 4,954 lbs. 0 oz.

Mean difference of weight by first and second

trials, 0 lbs. 3 oz. 6-10.

Second. — Two trials of Sampson's 100-ton railroad track scale.

This railroad track scale is 11 9 feet in length and about 5 feet in
width. The metal weighed by it was placed upon a railroad car,
consisting of two ordinary railroad four-wheel trucks, resting upon
railroad rails, placed four feet nine inches apart, which rested upon
the track scale. The wheels, or hearing points., of each truck upon
this scale were four feet six inches apart, and the distance between
the centre of those trucks was eleven feet two inches.

This track scale of 1 1 9 feet in length was tested at five points or
stations, viz : at each of its ends and in the middle, and about mid-
way between the middle and the ends of the scale, and numbered
successively 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Eeginning at one of its ends. The
trial of weight was made by placing the centre of this loaded car at
each of those five points or stations, which gave the following re-
sults, viz :

First trial.

The loaded car when placed at ""'"'"J^rdMirnirau wefghf'"^^

No. 1 weighed 31,142 lbs. 8 oz. =4 lbs. 8 oz.

No. 2 " 31,132 lbs. 8 oz. — 5 lbs. 8 oz.

No. 3 " 31,140 lbs. Ooz. =2 lbs. 0 oz.

No. 4 " 31,142 lbs. 8 oz. =4 lbs. 8 oz.

No. 5 " 31,132 lbs. 8 oz. ~5 lbs. 8 oz.

Sum 5)155,690 0

Meanof5wts. 31,138 0

Second trial. •

The loaded car returning at

Station No, 4 weighed 31,138 lbs. 0 oz. —3 lbs. 10 oz.

No. 3 " 31,147 lbs. 0 oz. =5 lbs. 6 oz.

No. 2 " 31,139 lbs. 0 oz. —2 lbs. 10 oz.

No. 1 " 31,142 lbs. 8 oz. =0 lbs. 14 oz.

Sum 4)124,566 8

Mean of 4 weighings, 31,141 10

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 35

Result.

Mean weiglit first trial, 31 ,138 lbs. 0 oz.

Mean weiglit second trial, 31,141 lbs. 10 oz.

Difference in the mean weights first and second

trials, 3 lbs. 10 oz.

JOHN RANDEL, Jr.,
THADDEUS SELLICK,
GEO. W. STANTON,

Committee.
JVew-Yorkj Jan. 4, 1856.
The report was accepted and ordered on file, Feb. 7, 1856.

Holmes' Patent Crank Capstan.

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON HOLMEs' PATENT CRANK
CAPSTAN APPOINTED MARCH 6, 1856.

To the Jimerican Institute:

Gentlemen — The undersigned having been appointed a com-
mittee to examine Holmes' Patent Capstan, belonging to Mr. John

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

R. Pratt, 62 Cannon-street, New- York, performed the duty assigned
them, and beg leave to report the following :

These capstans are of two kinds, though in appearance the same.
One having a motion of tlie barrel of one revolution to five of the
crank, sufficiently powerful for ordinary service, or for warping
vessels of moderate size. The arrangement is simple, being that of
a pinion on the crank shaft mesliing into a bevel wheel attached
to the head of the capstan barrel.

The more powerful capstan has a motion of one revolution to
sixteen of the crank. This also is turned by a pinion on the crank
shaft; the wheel, however, into which the pinion meshes, is detached
from the capstan barrel, and has upon its upper surface, at the
periphery, the cogs into which the crank-shaft pinion meshes, and
upon its lower surface another spur wheel of reduced diameter, with
vertical cogs, which mesh into three wheels of smaller diameters;
these three wheels revolve upon vertical shafts, cast upon a surface
plate, equidistant from each other. This surface plate has upon its
lower side vertical cogs meshing into the upper end, and on the in-
side of the capstain barrel, furnishing a powerful arrangement, and
without complication. The swell of the upper end of the barrel or
drimi affords sufficient space for the spur wheel and surface plate,
without enlarging the head above the size of the less powerful caps-
tan.

The power arrangement is hid from view by a cover, which can
be removed as easily as that of a hat-box, whenever oiling or clean-
ing may be rendered necessary.

The arrangement for increasing the power we regard as a good
one. In reference to the space occupied in operating it, less is re-
quired than by the ordinary arrangement of bars. The cranks are
adjustable to a larger or smaller circle, by means of slide sockets
through which they pass, and being reversible, with the handle
resting upon the cover, occupy no additional space, and are always
at hand.

AJl of which is respectfully submitted.
(Signed,)

JOHN W. GRIFFITH,
JOHN M. REED,
THADDEUS SELLICK.

Read, accepted, and ordered on file, May 1, 1856.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 37

REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES, APPOINTED BY THE MANAGERS OF
THE 27th annual fair, ON THOMPSON'S GRADUATING LIFE PRE-
SERVING SEAT.

The undersigned, appointed a committee to examine Mr. Nathan
Thompson's " Graduating Life Preserving Seat," submit the follow-
ing report :

That impressed by the fact that the real value of a life preserver
can only be judged of by a practical test, the undersigned, by
appointment, met Mr. Thompson at the Battery, where a full ex-
amination was made. The committee were not a little surprised at
the simplicity of this preserver, which they found, however, to con-
stitute one of its chief merits. It is in the form of a stool, which
makes it an useful article, aside from its life preserving qualities.
The floating power is cork, which is encased in woodwork, which
precludes it from becoming water logged. The legs are hung on
hinges, which are held in their places by strong elastic bands, which
also serve to keep the preserver close to the body, without however
exerting an uncomfortable degree of pressure.

The preserver is applied by opening the legs of the stool and
placing it around the body, directly under the arms, which may be
done even by a child, being adapted to persons of all sizes.

Having examined the form of the preserver to our satisfaction,
we next proceeded to test its powers.

The subject to be experimented upon, having fixed the preserver
to his body, precipitated himself into the water, sank a short dis-
tance, but immediately arose and floated at his ease. The preserver
is so adjusted that the lower part of his body acts as a pendulum,
and an upright position is preserved, which cannot be overcome
without some effort.

The arms and legs are entirely at liberty to be used as occasion
may demand. Little or no impediment is offered to the art of
swimming, and we do not see how it is possible for a person to drown
with this preserver, or to be lost except from long exposure and
starvation. Having tested the preserver in all its adaptations to the
preservation of himian life, the committee have only to add, that
the whole experiment afforded them the deepest gratification, and
we arc compelled to say that this life preserver is most decidedly
the best which we have yet seen, and quite free from some serious
objections justly urged against those now in use. It is simple in its
structure, useful as an article of furniture in addition to its specific
purpose, not liable to get out of order, readily applied, and admir-
ably adapted to the preservation of human life.

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It is needless to remark here on the vast importance of this sub-
ject. It is a matter of life and death ! and hmnanity at large is in-
terested in it. In view, therefore, of the great merits and useful-
ness of this important invention, we unanimously recommend that
Mr, Thompson be awarded a gold medal.
All of which is respectfully submitted.

HENRY B. RENWICK,
WM. EBBITT,
PETER B. MEAD,
I. W. AYRES,
W. H. DIKEMAN,
October, 1855. Committee.

REPORT ON THE STEAMER NEW WORLD.

The special committee, to whom was referred the communi-
cation of Isaac Newton, Esq., requesting an examination of the
steamer New World, respectfully report :

That on the day appointed, Mr. Joseph Torrey, Vice-President
of the Institute, and Messrs. Edwin Smith, Joseph Cowdin, John
Gray, B. Lewis, jr., A. D. Frye, B. J. Plathaway, Paul Stillman,
Chas. Turner, and S. J). Backus, of the managers, visited the
New World, and were received by Mr. Newton and the officers
of the boat. After an inspection of the arrangements and ap-
pointments of the vessel, an elegant and sumptuous collation was
provided for their refreshment. The cursory examination which
the members of the committee were enabled to make, would not
qualify them to enter into a description of this great and magnifi-
cent structure, nor to point out in detail those qualities in which
its merits particularly consist, were such a course either necessary
or expedient. They can only say, that so far as they can judge,
the provisions for the safety, convenience, and pleasure of those
who throng the route of travel on which she is placed, are such as
the necessities of the public demand, and a sagacious anticipation
of popular wishes would suggest. It may be truly said that she
is precisely the boat needed on the North river at tlie present
time, and that river is precisely the place for such a boat. Upon
no other route, and among no other people than those for which
she is designed, would her size, peculiar form and arrangements
be needed or appropriate; and the expedients demanded by the
exigencies of a different navigation would be equally out of place
upon our own great inland aquatic highway.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 39

Great as is the excellence attained in the points of sj^ecd, ac-
commodation, and workmanship, it is in this adaptation to the
special purposes for which she was constructed that the committee
consider her superiority mainly to consist.

The men of past ages have been distinguished for tlieir patient
research and important discoveries in the fields of abstract science.
It is our peculiar j^rovince so to comjiare and apply those princi-
ples whicli they have made known to us, as to promote the ma-
terial progress and happiness of the human race.

To encourage the investigation of the wants of society, and the
supply of means by which they may be met, is the great aim of
this Institute.

The committee are pleased to recommend the New World to
the Board as a highly successful effort in this direction, as one of
the triumphs of ai-t and skill which do honor to our city, our
country, and oiu* time, eminently wortliy of their highest com-
mendation.

In behalf of the committee,

EDWIN SMITH, Chairman,

Mew-York, October 24, 1855.

REPORT ON THE FARM OF CHAS. WILSON, AT DEER-PARK, LONG ISLAND,

NEW- YORK.

The undersigned respectfully report, that according to ap-
pointment, on Saturday, November 3, 1855, they proceeded, at
9i o'clock, A.M., from South Ferry, Brooklyn, with Mr. Morris,
president of the Long Island Railroad, in a car provided for the
committee separatelj^ from the train, to Deer Park, to the new
farm of Charles Wilson.

The committee then organized by appointing Henry Meigs
chairman, and Henry S. Clubb (a re^wrter for the Tribune,) se-
cretary. There were present on the committee from the Mana-
gers of the twenty-seventh Annual Fair of the American Insti-
tute, Henry Meigs, Addington D. Frye, Peter B. Mead, John
Eidley, Bailey J. Plathaway, who added the following gentlemen
to the committee, viz: Rev. Evan Johnson, Rev. Thos. L. Guyon,
Daniel Embury, Captain Frazer, Wm. Hunter, jr., John W.
Mawley, John Haslett, M.D., Hon. Judge Greenwood, Alden J.
Spooner, Wm. E. Morris, president of the railroad; Thos. G.
Tallmadge, Chas. H. Thompson, John Winslow, N. F. Waring,

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A. J. Bergen, Edgar F. Peck, M.D., all of Brooklyn; Solon
Robinson, and Henry S. Chubb, of New-York; and Henry Steele,
Jersey City.

The chairman addressed the committee, stating his ancient re-
gard for the welfare of Long Island, on account of its admirable
geographical position, and capability of becoming one mighty
garden, whence the city of New- York, our American metropolis,
can draw subsistence, and revel in its fruits and flowers from
the narrows to Montauk. Covered now and since the deluge
with a profuse vegetation, which having become dry in summer
or fall — with leaves and branches for miles touching each other
— has from time to time, by accident or by design, become a
prey to flames, sweeping over tens of thousands of acres of it —
and that because there is not a spot on the entire island barren
enough to prove a harrier to the flames I Here, where the finest
silica in the world abounds, (the natives all say over abounds,) and
where the vegetable, insect, and animal remains, and all organic
matter, has quietly mixed with the silica and some alumnia, for
thousands of years, forming just such a soil, for the most part,
as Van Houtte of Belgium, or any gardener who knows his busi-
ness, makes by means of sieves — sifting the parts well together.
Here, where the struggle between fire and leaves has caused a
cry of barrens! on account of the constant effort of vegetation to
grow up young trees, which reach many feet in height before the
effect of the fire on the bark of older trees have worn oif. So that
you see trees of various heights making their way up among
burnt pines and scorched barks.

The committee examined the cleared land, and caused the soil
to be dug through to the substrata. This was done in such
various spots of the cleared land, as well as in the adjacent na-
tive forest, as would enable the committee to judge as to the
average depth and character of the soil and subsoil in that region.
They found the soil to be nearly what is termed a sandy loam,
of the color of burnt coffee on the surface, and some few inches
deep. At the depth of two to three feet the color of the soil is
yellowish. The subsoil abounds in the quartzose water worn
pebbles, for v/hich Long Island is remarkable. These pebbles
form an underdrainage for which England could atford to give
her crown. There is neither stump, stone, or weed to be seen
on the cultivated land.

Dr Peck, who lias nearly lost his life by his vast efforts to up-
lift a mountain of prejudice which has depressed the centre of

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 41

Long Island for two centiu-ies. I found liim despairing often of
his life. I did all I could to encourage liim. I rejoice now in
seeing him here in health and happiness, while the monster pre-
judice is rapidly decaying before his eyes.

Dr. Edgar F. Peck rose and said, that if the committee would
please to hear him, he would speak of his connexion with the
new era lately begun for the prosperity of this beautiful island,
where there are more than one hundred and fifty thousand acres
of land, which only require the spade and the plow to bring it
all into such fields as we here have before us, rich and beautiful
as a garden. But in spite of that, thousands of men have here-
tofore believed it to be barren. If it was bare of vegetation, one
might believe it cursed with sterility; but what is the fact? the
whole ground is covered with vegetation all the year round, and
for two hundred yeai'S has regularly been covered with growth,
especially oaks and pines, alternately, every twenty years. The
oak is not a stinted growth, it is new growth of a few years,
which has been constantly .cut down, as soon as it is large
enough, and carried off to the city of New-York and elsewhere
for firewood, from the first settlement of the country. In 1849,
a friend of mine paid two dollars an acre for some of this land,
which yielded him three hundred and fifty bushels of turnips
and a large quantity of pumpkins and squashes.
, Solon Eobinson — Sir, it is one of the greatest misfortunes that
wood will grow here; it is very hard work to clear it away in
the style in which you behold this fair farm has been delivered
from that horrid forest there !

Dr. Peck — What has been said by our chairman as to Dr.
Mitchell's opinion of the fitness of this island to grow locust
trees, is true. The locust was first introduced at Sands' Point,
by Captain Sands, and it grows no where more successfully than
it does here.

Solon Eobinson — And has so flourished that it has been ex-
ported to France.

Rev. Evan M. Johnson, D.D. — Captain Sands used the timber
for posts on his place.

Dr. Peck referred to Hon. Silas Wood's Plistory of Long
Island, which contains the records of the town of Jamaica; in
which there is a decree requiring every male inhabitant to cut
down hushes every two years, and a penalty of two shillings and
six pence for cutting down an oak tree. During the revolution

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of 1776, great quantities of wood which had grown on this soil,
was cleai-ed off — what a barren soil 1

Eev. Evan M. Johnson — I think it well to state to this com-
mittee, a conversation between me and an ancient Newtown
farmer, Mr. John Moore, of the parish of which I was then
rector. He died about thirty years ago, at ninety years of age.
Just before he died, he observed to me, that previous to the
revolution of 1776, a gentleman came over from England to New-
York, with a view to commencing a large agricultural business.
He brought his farmer along with him to select the proper soils
for him, who, when he had seai'ched all over New-Jersey, Long
Island and North River, reported to his master, that the best
land he had found was Hempstead Plains ! But the Long Islanders
so ridiculed him that he abandoned it altogether. So you see
gentlemen, that even before the revolution, there were men of
sufficient knowledge to understand our Hempstead Plains.

Dr. Peck — All the early historians of Long Island, describe
Hempstead Plains as very fertile. Towards the middle of the
island, the great plains are so smooth that neither stock nor stone
could be found on them. They describe the New-Market race
course there, and some other places as being great advantages
to the towns in which they were, because they produced very
good hay.

After an examination of the farm sufficiently to form a»
opinion as to the merits of the soil, the committee assembled at
the house of Mr. Wilson, and organized for consultation.

Solon Robinson said that the great question before us, is, how
can we convince the inhabitants of Long Island and tlie outsiders,
that the centre of this island is not a great barren?

Chairman — Hear the Island, it speaks for itself.

Rev. E. M. Johnson — I have resided on this island forty-three
years, and have been conversant with many of its old inhabitants.
I formerly resided on the northerly side of it. There has
always existed a prejudice among those of that region against
this southerly side of the island. I once participated in that pre-
judice against its fertility. And it is only within a few years
past that I have altered my mind with regard to it. My son
purchased some of it in South Hempstead, and from practical
observation, I am now well convinced, that the fertility of its
soil has been underrated, for I have seen there as fine fields of
corn and of oats as I have ever seen in any part of the world.
And some plants that will not flourish on other parts of the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 43

island — sweet potatoes for instance, grows there to a large size,
and obtains a fine flavor, as good as any brought to our markets
from the southern states, which persuades me, that the soils of this
island and those of portions of the south are similar. It seems to
me extraordinary that persons continue to travel to the distant
prairies of the far west, and pay more for that land than for our
island prairies ! We have this morning examined Mr. Wilson's
turnip crop, and his carrot crop, and I think that I have never
seen such fine crops. In Scotland I saw large fields of turnips,
but never one equal to the one before our eyes. The caiTots are
of an extraordinary size, on ground which in April last was
nothing but the wild scrub oaks. Tliis land is terra incognita^
hitherto it must have been always overlooked.

Solon Robinson — For the sake of argument, I for one am
willing to concede that this centre of Long Island is utterly
unproductive in its natm-al state; that it will produce nothing
that can be used for food; that it will bear nothing but scrub
oaks and acorns, for bears and deer to feed upon; and hence
contend that I will take it for a sand bank, and by cultivation
make it more profitable than the prairies of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
or Minnesota. Sir, it is capable of becoming the best market
garden in the State of New- York. I know that can be done. I
have raised wheat at the West, and carried it forty miles to market.
We now have railroads, and we cannot do without the produce
of the West; but that does not excuse us for leaving our mis-
named barrens untUled. What is the wheat soil of our Western
country? I say that it is an incontrovertible fact, that of all the
wheat ever sown in Oliio, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin and Iowa,
since the settlement of the Western territory, the general yield,
never averaged over ten bushels of wheat per acre. The land is
rich; but it grows the largest crop of straw of any land on earth.
If the grain on it was proportionally plenty, the crop ivould be
one hundred and fifty bushels an acre. They thresh the wheat on
the ground, and lose that way ten per cent of it. The straw is
a great burthen to handle, and it is cast aside and burned. It is
useless to the farmer, who does not want it lor manure, for the
whole soil is manure. It would not pay to haul it from my barn
across the road to my field. I kept forty to fifty head of cattle,
and gave all the manure they made to my neighbors, and lent my
team and man to get rid of it. No man can alford to haul his own
maniu-e a mile, much less can he afibrd to go to Rochester for
leached ashes for his land here. A man can brina; down here

4'4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

from New- York as miicli true fertilizer on his shoulder, as there is
in three wagon loads of such manure as he draws sometimes from
the city, which is mere straw, colored in the stables by the horses.
A handful of guano is worth more than a bushel of it. A man
may come on this land with a little guano, and although without
that it may not grow poverty grass, yet with it he can raise clover,
rye and wheat. Mr. Wilson knows well, that if he carts off a
load of carrots, he must pay back compensation to the land. What
a crop he could have on that large carrot field, if he would only
plow in one-fourth of those carrots. Suppose all Long Island to
be cultivated like this patch. What a foe to poverty ! Sir, the
stock of this railroad would be the best in our country, and would
require double tracks. Virginia had really become poor land by
working all fertility out of it; but now some Yankee farmers have
gone there, with guano in hand, bought the land for trifles, and
have begun to make it green once tnore.

Mr. Spooner remembered the call of the philosopher, whose
chemical researches had raised for him a supposition that he was
connected with a demon, and when charged with it, admitted the
fact, saying it was Jemo?i-stration. That is the demon required
by Long Island. This railroad was the first broad plowshare which
was put through this center of the island. This was the first
great instrument of demonstration. It opened the heart of the
island. Then came our friend Dr. Peck. When we consider the
character of this island in reference to position, its noble bays and
inlets, its inexhaustible fisheries, and then give it no more than
the ordinary labor wanted on all new lands, and you will have it in
its glory, healthy, wealthy; a perfect garden of a thousand square
miles and more.

A dinner followed, and such a one as an intelligent and able
gentleman can provide. The vegetables, butter, &c., of the farm
were specially admired and deserved it. Mrs. Wilson Avas
complimented on the products of her dairy, &c. The health of
Mr. Wilson was drank, and he called up. He rose evidently
embarrassed, but after thanking the committee in the most cordial
manner for their visit, he said, " when I purchased this land it
was not from any si3eculative motive whatever. It was rather
more of a romance of mine. The price was very low, I saw that
to suffer these fields to lie uncultivated, they would be of no use
to me or to any body else. So I pitched upon this spot, where
I have the happiness to see so many intelligent faces. I assure
you gentlemen, that it was on this spot, three years ago, the oaks

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 45

and the pines were interweaved in the same manner as you see
them in the adjoining woods. Here the owl told her nightly
tale, here the deer sported along the sides of yonder trout stream.
Gentlemen, if you will permit me a little egotism, allow me to say,
that a Caledonian came along here, armed to the teeth, with the
implements, not of war, but of civilization, the plow, the spade,
the axe, and tlie pruning knife, and by steady perseverance, and
with application of fertilizers, I may safely say, that the redemp-
tion of these broad acres is complete. I wish it to be distinctly
understood, that it is to the Caledonian (to whom I have referred),
a stalwart, industrious and energetic man, who has won many
prizes at various plowing matches in this country, and who has
touched with his own hands every stump and root which has
been taken off this land, that we owe the present condition of it.
I have furnished the means it is true, but it is to his industry,
perseverance and faithfulness, that the credit is really due. I
have no speculation in view. Gentlemen, it is not only the profit
and advantages of a farm whim, that have given me energy and
spirit, it is because I look upon a farmer's life, as one associated
with the finest and deepest emotions of the human mind. In the
month of August, after one very warm night, I awoke early in
the morning and went out doors to receive the fresh air. The
sun had just arisen above the surrounding pine trees; my chickens
came tripping along one by one, and bounding to meet the open-
ing day; the birds came hopping from bush to bush, their voices
although humble were given by the deity. Gentlemen, here
was a shrine to which a Christian and a philosopher might come
to worshij). No polemical squabbles can touch this subject. I
looked on the scene around me, and the whole aft* seemed to be
embalmed in the divinity.

Well, gentlemen, a man knocked about in the vicissitudes of
business, when he comes down to a place like this, why, it is a
redeeming point in his green old age, that he does enjoy the
farmer's life. Such, gentlemen, are my views. I have no selfish
plans before me. My sole object is to sit down here and enjoy
this peaceful retreat in these latter days of my life.

The first thing I thought of in this farming was, that it should
be rendered capable of supporting the laborers uj^on it. This
farm now does that. Now, gentlemen, allow me to offer the
health of Mr. Embury, of Brooklyn.

Mr. Embury remarked, that he had too long noticed and re-
gretted the negligence as to Long Island, and his great plea-

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

sure at the prospect of new developement of its undoubted natu-
ral riches.

Judge Greenwood observed that while agriculture was a
highly profitable employment, there was in it a much more
noble character, for the man employed in it was in co-operation
with the Deity, and he proposed the healths of the reverend
gentlemen who were on the committee.

The Rev. Thomas L. Guyon said he was highly pleased with
the remarks of the worthy host, who has shown himself to be
not only an agriculturist, but a poet and a philanthropist. That
agriculture was man's earliest occupation, and that he was
placed in Paradise for that purpose, to cultivate and to keep it.
Mr. Wilson has made a paradise here, in the midst of these
miserable scrub oaks. Here his turnips, carrots, and pumpkins
speak for themselves, and the beets cannot be beat.

Thanks were passed to the chairman and secretary, and to Mr.
Morris, the intelligent, prudent, and therefore safe ruler of the
railroad, and to the company for their greatly improved road.

The rain fell fast during the whole day, but the enthusiasm of
committee at being witnesses, as it were, of the regeneration of
this really lovely, but neglected Island, kept the committee
wai-m although wet.

HENRY MEIGS, Chairman.

Henry S. Clubb, Secretary.

Mew-York, JVovemher 3, 1855.

HISTORICAL NOTES AS TO LONG ISLAND BY DR. PECK.

Sketch of the First Settlement of Long Island; by the Hon.
Silas Wood, of the U. S. Congress. Published by Mr. Alden
Spooner, Brooklyn, in 1828.

"At the iirst settlement of Long Island, it appears that the
western part of it, if not the whole of it, was in a great measure
bare of timhery

Because, the Indians here, as every where else, when they set-
tled, annually burned over the woods, in order to clear the land,
to provide food for the deer and other game.

" There are numerous facts to prove that at the time of the first
settlement of the island, the woods were destitute of underbrush,
and large trees so scarce that it was deemed necessary to take
measures for their preservation."

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 47

"In 1659, the town of Huntington, (where Mr. Wilson is,) by
a vote of the town meeting, resolved, that no timber should be cut
for sale within three miles of the settlement under a penalty of
five shillings for every tree."

" In 1668, the magistrates, after stating their apprehensions that
the town was in danger of being l-uined by the destruction of its
timber, ordered that no timber should be cut for transportation,
(exportation,) within three miles of the settlement, under a penalty
of five shillings for every tree," &c.

"In 1660, the to^vn of Oysterbay passed a similar resolution."
. "In 1664, Southampton voted that no timber should be made
into pipe staves there, under the penalty of twenty shillings a tree."

" In 1668, the town of Newtown voted that no one should carry
any timber to the water side for transportation, (exportation,)
under the penalty of ten shillings a load."

"The trees in the woods were so thin and sparse, that they
abounded in feed^ and the settlers depended on them for pas-
ture," &c.

"In 1668, the town of Huntington, at town meeting, voted that
every male over sixteen should assemble when warned by the men
appointed for that purpose, to cut down brush or underwood,
when it should be thought a fit time to destroy it, under the
penalty of five shillings a day for neglect."

" Seventh of October, 1672, the governor and court of assize,
by an order, after stating that the feed for horses and cattle in
the woods on Long Island had decayed by the increase of brush
and underwood, directed the inhabitants, from sixteen to sixty, to
turn out four days in every year, under the direction of the town
officers, to cut out the brush and underwood, under the penalty
of five shillings for every day's neglect,'' &c., &c.

It appears that at the first settlement of the island, the pine
plains were in a great measure unincumbered with underbrush.
" This was of immense advantage to the first settlers. • Had they
been obliged to encounter thick forests of large timber, and to
wait the tardy returns of heavy clearings, the first emigrants
would probably have perished by famine. The openness of the
country, the quantity of land left unoccupied by the sparseness
of the Indian population, and the rapid growth and nutritive
quality of the corn, (sea maize,) found among the Indians, con-
tributed essentially to the preservation, growth and prosperity of
the first settlers on Long Island."

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

REPORT ON THE FLEECES OF THE CASHMERE, OR SHAWL GOAT.

The undersigned a sj^ecial committee, to wliom has been
referred for examination the fleeces of the Cashmere or Shawl
Goats, exhibited by Dr. D. C. Ambler, at the fair of the American
Institute^ respectfully report :

That, they have examined with much interest the fleeces sub-
mitted to them, and as well from their own observations, as from
the results of a microscopic examination, made and certified to,
by several gentlemen of scientific eminence, well known to them,
are convinced that the fibre of these fleeces is identical in charac-
ter, and fully equal in value to that from which the highly prized
Cashmere shawls are made.

The animals from which these fleeces were taken are full bred,
and direct descendants from the stock imported into this country
by Dr. James B. Davis, of South Carolina, in 1849, from the
northern slope of the Himmalaya mountains. They were at first
supposed by many to be of the same variety as those described
in works on natural history, under the various names of Cash-
mere^ Angora^ Thibet, and Shawl Goat, but from the best informa-
tion we are able to obtain, we are constrained to believe they
are a different and more valuable variety.

They certainly are so, if those imported into France by Napo-
leon the first, under the guidance of the celebrated M. Terneaux,
and which have been bred in that country and in England to the
present time, be the animal usually known by the name of Cash-
mere or Shawl goat. Of the latter, " the produce of a male is
about 4 oz. and of a female about two oz., and the coat is a
mixture of long coarse hair and of short fine wool, this latter
beginning to be loose early in April, and is collected easily and
expeditiously by combing the animals two or three times with
such a comb as is used for horses' manes." While the fleeces on
exhibition, and now under examination are not of this compound
character of " long coarse hair and of short fine underwool," but
of uniform fineness throughout, and amounting to from four to
eight pounds each per annum.

The enterprise exhibited by the introduction and propagation
of these animals in this country cannot be too highly prized.
If the introduction of Merino sheep was a rich boon to our country
which never contemplated anything beyond the improvement of
wool from the value of 25 to 50 or 75 cents per pound, and that
too at a comparative loss of the carcass; as to its flesh value
there can be no doubt that a much greater benefit must result

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 49

from tlie introduction of tliis really new and valuable stock
amongst us, siu-passing in value any fleeced animal of this country
or Europe.

First, The animals ai-e long lived, such being the case with the
whole goat race.

Second, They are prolific; breeding at the age of one year,
with a i^eriod of gestation of about five months, and yielding
twins almost invariably after the first birth.

Third, They are hardy; experience with the imported stock
and their issue having shown that they thrive well in our cli-
mate from Georgia to New-England, and that they require and
prefer coarse and cheajD food, as the inferior grasses, briars,
bushes, &c., such as is refused by other grazing animals.

Fourth, They produce a fleece of four to eight pounds per
annum, valued at about six to eight dollars per pound; in France,
or in Paisley in Scotland, for the manufacture of those high
priced shawls. These fleeces, when the animals become nume-
rous, can be produced at a less cost than common sheep's wool,
and possessing durability for wear far superior to it, not only
for fine fabrics but for all the coarse goods. The permanent re-
tention of color is also a valuable feature in the goods made from
the hair of these animals.

Another fact of great value practically to our agricultural in-
terest is the facility with which these Cashmere goats breed with
the common goats of our country; indeed youi* committee could
but admire the fineness of the fleece from a half or three-fourths
bred; a cross between a Cashmere buck and a common female
goat.

From these and other considerations, of the correctness of
which your committee have entire confidence, it will be obvious
that every encouragement should be shown this new enterprise
in which Dr. Ambler and his associates have embarked fn what
appears to us a bold but judicious movement. Messrs. Ambler
and Osborns, ventured to purchase the full bred pair of these
goats, and one half or three fourths bred that were exhibited by
Dr. J. B. Davis, at the lair of the State Agricultural Society of
last season, after the many prominent agricultural gentlemen had
been deterred by the very high price demanded for them, since
which they have devoted themselves with untiring zeal and suc-
cess to the study of their habits, and the propagation of this
valuable species of animal.

[Am. Inst.] 4

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Under these considerations, your committee feel no hesitation
in recommending your honorable board to award to Dr. Ambler
a very high testimonial, as approbation for effort and success in
so important a branch of public interest.

B. P. JOHNSON,
CHAS. S. J. GOODRICH,
JAMES J. MAPES,

Committee.
New -York, "^Gvemher 13, 1855.

REPORT OF JUDGES ON MACHINERY, ETC,

WITH REMARKS ON SUNDRY ARTICLES EXHIBITED AT THE TWENTY-
SEVENTH ANNUAL FAIR OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, AT THE CRYS-
TAL PALACE, 1855.

[Prepared by Wm. B. Leonard, Corresponding Secretary of the Institute.]

MACHINERY, No. 1.

RAILKOAD MACHINERY AND FIXTURES.

We, tlie undersigned, judges on railroad machinery and fix-
tures, appointed by the Managers of the Twenty-seventh Annual
Fair of the American Institute, held at the Crystal Palace, in
the city of New-York, October, 1855, beg leave to report :

That we have carefully examined the articles submitted to our
inspection, and decide, that

JVo. 1099 — Head Lights, Signal Lights, ^c.

D. D. Miller, 190 Water-street. Is the best specimen of head
lights, signal lights, &c. A fine specimen of construction and
workmanship in all particulars; the light particularly is a su-
perior article. [^ silver medal awarded.

JYo. 646— Head Lights.
Radley & Hunter, 48 and 50 Duane- street. Is the second best
specimen of head lights. The workmanship is good.

[^Jl silver medal awarded.

52

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Creamer's method of operating Railroad Brakes.

jYo. 817 — Method of operating Railroad Brakes.
U. S. Railroad Car Brake Co., N. Y. Is the best method of oper-
ating railroad car brakes. Patented by Wm. G. Creamer, of
New- York. The arrangement is exceedingly simple, and can be
readily attached to the ordinary brakes now in use. Its peculi-
arities consist of its being under the control of the engineer and
brakeman. It is connected with the bell cord, and in case of
danger all the brakes in the train can be instantly applied and
the train stopped in the space of 250 feet. It is on use on the
New-York and Harlem Eailroad, and has given entire satisfac-
tion. We therefore recommend it in the highest terms.

[j3 gold medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 53

JVo. 112— Car Brake.
Lucius Page, Cavendish, Vt. The peculiarities of this brake are
1st, The shoe, which is adjustable, and presenting the end grain
of the wood to the thread of the wheel, the whole surilice of the
shoe always having a full bearing against the wheel. 2d, The
sudden strain and jar upon the wheels, axles, &c., is relieved by-
intervening springs, which offer new and improved advantages.
This brake we consider worthy of the highest notice of all rail-
road companies. [^Ji silver medal awarded.

JYo. 26S— Railroad Car Seat.
Albert M. Smith, Rochester, N.Y. Is the best car seat. The pe-
culiarities of this seat are, 1st, As a day seat, it can be adjusted
without rising to suit the sitter, and it retains its adjustment
without any effort on the part of the sitter. 2d, By turning
over the back of the seat it becomes a perfect reclining, or night
seat, being capable of adjustment, as in the day seat, at any
angle. 3d, It can be applied to the ordinary seats now in use
at a small cost — all of the old seats coming into use in the alter-
ation. Its construction being simple, its advantages can be readily
conceived by travelers and railroad companies. We therefore
recommend it as deserving of your notice.

[./3 gold medal awarded.

J^o. 1251 — Railroad Car Seat.
C. P. Eailey & Co., 102 Broadway. Is the second best car seat.
This seat is a day and night combined, but its construction is
cumbersome and complicated. This seat can only be used by
dispensing with the old seats altogether. It is, however, when
in position, an easy seat. We cannot but say that there is some
ingenuity in its construction. [A diploma awarded.

JVo. 1169— Steel Car Spring.
Fowler M. Hay, 102 Broadway. Is the best car spring. It con-
sists of a tlat coiled spring resting upon a cast iron cone fitted in
a case, to take the place of the ordinary rubber spring. It is our
opinion that it can be used satisfactorily. [^^ diploma awarded.

JYo. 943 — Compound Car Spring.
P. G. Gardiner. Agent, Richard Vose, 15 Nassau-street. It con-
sists of a fiat spiral coil spring, with plain spiral spring com-
bined. This spring is similar to No. 11G9, but allows of too
much movement. We do not think it would give good satisfac-
tion for railroad purposes. [A. diploma awarded.

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JVo. 1120 — Car Coupliyig.
D. A. Hopkins, N.Y. Agents, Taulman & Low, 157 Broadway.
This coupling is self-connecting, works well, and meets our ap-
probation. [^ silver medal awarded.

J\'o. 140 — Railroad Jack.
Carpenter & Powers, 432 Tenth street. It has a vertical and
horizontal action, and vice versa as the power is applied. It
is an excellent apparatus for getting locomotives or cars on the
track; simple in its construction, and we would recommend their
use on all railroads. \^A silver medal awarded.

JYo. 831 — Locomotive, Tender, Car, Tracks, ^c.
H. P. Robinson, 128 West 23d street. It is designed for the
Pacific Railroad, to run one hundred miles per hour. Good for
the purpose intended but too expensive in ordinary cases.

[^ silver medal awarded.
JYo. 917— Railroad Car Wheel.
Peter Dorsch, Schenectady, N. Y. Is the best car wheel. Tliis
wheel is corrugated, and in its construction is excellent. It has
been run under an eight wheeled freight car 45.100 miles and has
the appearance of a new wheel. In construction, it is our opin-
ion, the best in use, and is deserving of more than ordinary
notice. [Ji silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1467 — Specimens of Railroad Forgings.
Paterson Iron Co., Paterson, N. J., agents, C. B. Raymond &
Co., 45 Cliff street. Consisting of locomotive connecting rods,
bowling fire axles, and crank pins. We can only say that they
are a good specimen of forgings made for exhibition.

[»/3 silver medal awarded.
JYo. 1248 — Case of Railroad Fiirnishi?ig Goods.
Bridges & Bro, 64 Cortlandt street. Very tastefully gotten up,
with every article necessary for railroad furnishing, highly ap-
proved for its design. [.^ silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1134 — Self- Regulating Railroad Switch.
Wm. Cutter, 63 John street. Only suitable for yard purposes.
This switch cannot be safe for high speeds; it is however very
ingeniously contrived. [^ diploma awarded.

JYo. 1050 — Locomotive Yoke.
Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. Is the best locomotive yoke;
very fine specimen of workmanship. [^ silver medal awarded.

P. HUNT,
J. B. SERGEANT,
J. NOTTINGHAM,

Judges.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

55

MACHINERY, No. 2.

LATHS, PLANES, BORING AND SLOTTING MACHINES, BOLT CUTTERS, DIVID-
ING AND CUTTING ENGINES FOR IRON, AND MODELS AND DRAWINGS OF
MACHINES FOR THE SAME.

We, the undersigned, judges on machinery. No. 2, appointed
by the Managers of the 27th Annual Fair of the American In-
stitute, held at the Crystal Palace in the city of New-York, Octo-
ber, 1855, beg leave to report:

That we have carefully examined the articles submitted to our
inspection, and decide, that

Jfo. 1051 — Upright Drilling Machine.
Lowell Machine shop, Low^el, Mass. Is the best upright drilling
machine, double back geared, and self-feeding, with an elevated
table, it is well proportioned and highly finished.

[./3 silver medal awarded.
JVo. 1051 — Two Universal Lathe Chucks.
Lowell Machine shop, Lowell, Mass. Are of superior finish, and
the best kind of chuck now in use. [Ji silver medal awarded.

Gould's Iron Planing Machine.

J\'o. 140-1 — Iron Planing Machine.
Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J. This is a first-rate machine, it is
well fitted up, of good proportions, and highly finished.

\^ji silver medal awarded.

56

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Gould's Shaping Machine.

JVo. 1407 — Shaping Machines.
Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J. Small planes for planing irregular
forms, with tool to move back and forth instead of bed. The
bed is made so as to fasten the articles being planed. It is also
rotary and self-feeding, as well as back and forth. The principle
is good, and the machines are very useful for small work.

\A silver medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

57

Montgomery's Bolt Cutting Machine.

Ko. 1475 — Bolt-cutting Machine.

William Montgomery, Yonkers, N.Y. A very good machine.

[^ silver medal awarded.

58

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Gould's Bolt Cuttinjc Machine.

JVo. 1405 — Bolt-cutting Machine.

Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J. A compact and good machine.

[Diploma awarded.
JYo. 103 — Hydraulic Rock-Drilli?2g Machine.
Josephus Echols, Columbus, Ga. Is ingenious and new. Where
water can be obtained it appears to be well adai)ted for the pur-
poses intended. [Jl gold medal awarded.

JYo. 1236 — Metal-Bending and Tubing Machine.
Wm. Webster, Morrisania, N. Y. Is the best metal bending and
tubing machines. A new and valuable invention for bending
sheet iron into cylinders of from eight to twelve inches diameter.
It is very perfect and quick in its operation, and is certainly a
superior machine for the purposes intended.

[A silver m.edal awarded.

JYos. 910 and 911 — Shearing and Punching Machines.
Liddle, Kepler & Co., Erie, Pa. Are the best shearing and punch-
ing machines. The shears and punch are both worked by the
same cam. The machine is very strong and compact, and re-
quires very little power to ^vork it. It has an excellent ar-
rangement for stopping the punch at every stroke, and is alto-
gether a first-class tool. [^ silver medal aicarded.

LIDDLE, KEPLEE & CO.'S SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINES.

(58)

LIDDLE, KEPLER & CO.'S SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINES.

(58)

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

59

JVo. 376 — Model of a Punching Press.
J. Rust, 40 Bank-street. This is a superior hand punch for
punching boiler plate, very strong and powerful, requiring but
©ne man at the lever. Ji silver medal awarded.

Carpenter & Tlass' Slotting Machine.

Ao. 1183 — Slotting Machine.
Carpenter & Plass, Tliirlieth-street. A well finished double
back geared machine, with circulars, cross and fore and aft
feed. The workmanship is very perfect, and does credit to the
maker. [*^ gold medal awarded.

jYo. Ib6— Tubular Boiler Tools.
Thos. Prosser & Son, 28 Platt-street. The best tools for the pur-
pose in use. The samples are highly crcdital^le to the makers.

[ji silver medal awarded.

60

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JVo. 1596 — Iron Turning Lathes.
Leonard & Clark, Moodna, N.Y. Two very superior back-geared
screw-cutting lathes, with compound rests. They are very
strong, well proportioned, and of first-class finish and workman-
ship ; and in our opinion, fully equal to best lathes now in use.

l^Jl gold medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 61

JYo. 24 — Watchmakers^ Lathes.
J. M. Bottum, 169 Broadway. Unrivalled in finish and work-
manship. [-^ gold medal awarded.

Mo. 1504 — Turning Lathe.
G. B. Hartsou & Co., West 33d and 34th streets. This is a
strong, well-proportioned and well-finished lathe, with heavy
compound rest. [^ silver medal awarded.

J\''o. 1185 — Turning Lathe.
Carpenter & Plass, 30th street, is fitted up in the best manner, is
highly finished, and well proportioned. [Jl silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1051 — Iron Turning Machines and Slide Rest.
Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. Good in point of finish and
fitting, but of rather light proportions. These lathes are highly
finished, but in our opinion not well proportioned, being too light.

JVo. 1050.
An ordinary slide rest, well finished. [^ silver medal awarded.

Mo. 1345 — Jewelers^ Engine Lathe.
Charles E. Stewart, (minor,) 15 Canal street. Is of excellent
finish and workmanship, and deserving of especial notice, by
being built by a boy. [Books, value $10.

D. B. COBB,
T. H. LANG,
ISAAC STANTON,

Judges.

MACHINERY, No. 3.

MACHINES FOK WORKING WOOD, AND MODELS AND DRAWINGS OF THE SAME.

We, the undersigned, judges on machinery. No. 3, appointed
by the Managers of the 27tli Annual Fair of the American Insti-
tute, held at the Crystal Palace, in the city of New- York, Octo-
ber, 1855, beg leave to report:

That we have carefully examined the articles submitted to our
inspection, and decide, that

JYo. 142 — Blind Slat Te7ioning J[Iachine.
D. G. Condit, 74 Spring street. Is the best, a small improvement,
cuts to an uniform length at the same time that it makes the
tenon, while No. 92 requires the slats to be cut to the length.

[.^ silver medal awarded.
JYo. 190 — Tenoning J\Ia chine.
C. P. S. Wardwell, Lake Village, N. H. Is a superior tenoning
machine for heavy work, does the work entirely by circular saws,

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of which one is set diagonally to make a broad cut that admits
the arbor of a small circular saw, which secured at the end cuts
the interior space between the double tenon.

[A silver medal awarded.

JYo. 291 — Felloe Machine.
Smith & Cowles, Amherst, Mass. This is a good machine.

[^ silver medal awarded.

JVo. 258 — Felloe Dressing Machine.
C. W. Wyatt, Newburgh, N. Y. Portable, effective and con-
venient; saws and dresses at the same time by hand power.

[Ji diploma awarded.

JVo. 297 — Machine for Turning and Boring Wood.
A. & r. Brown, 395 Fifth street. The best. Excellent, self-acting,
simple, eflacient, expeditious. If this instrument were the con-
trivance of the present date, it would deserve the highest pre-
mium as an admirable production, but since these tools had
already been brought to a high state of usefulness, we report this
as the second degree for the finishing improvement, making it,
as appears, all that is attainable in this direction.

[A silver medal awarded.

JYo. 4:8(5—Saw Mill Feeder.
C. M. Day, 45 Avenue D. The best. By means of a rack and
pinion the connecting rod is placed at any position on the lever
that gives motion to two opposite cams which seizing the wheel
on the two sides hold by friction and cause it to revolve.

[A diploma awarded.

JVo. 656 — Power Mortising Machine.
Lane k Bodley, Cincinnati, Ohio. Is the best; excellent for heavy
or light work; relieving the foot from jar by means of a toggle
joint which brings the chisel into action. Reversing the chisel
by a stationary spring lever while the chisel is in motion, or at
rest, as the case may be. [A silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1589 — Power Mortising Machine.
J. A. Fay k Co., Keene, N. H. The 2d best. This machine has a
pulley attached to a crank wheel that gives a continuous reci-
procating motion to the chisel; the whole of this work is drawn
down by a foot lever, and consequently the entire resistance
comes from the foot. This for heavy work would produce a jar
at least unpleasant, that is not felt in No. . The inventor

claims an improvement in the self-reversing of the chisel. This
is produced by a catch, acting on a half cylindrical inclined plane.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

63

(placed on one side of the chisel step) as the chisel is raised
from the work at the end of the mortice For light work it is
supposed that this machine will answer very well.

[»/j? diplo7na awarded.

Gould's Power Mortising Machine.

JVo. 1408 — Power Mortising Machines.
Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J. Good machines. [Ji diploma awarded.

JVo. 1031. — Model of a Saioing Machine for Fence Pickets^
C. F. Packard, Greenwich, Conn. Useful application. The
model being very imperfect, we could only see the object in-
tended. It is in principle the same as the lath machine, by the
same inventor, No 1672 and the upholstery shaving macliine. No.
292. A set of circulai* horizontal saws give the width of the
pickets, after which a vertical circular saw cuts off all the pickets
at once, as if they formed a single board. [^ diploma awarded.

g4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JVo. 1032. — Dovetailing Machine.
Burley & Putnam, Eoston, Mass. Superior. This macMne is
composed on one side of a niunber of circular saws placed on the
same arbor, and kept at regular distances by broad rings or
washers. One set of saws being on the right and another on the
left. Both sets increase in size uniformly towards the middle, the
edges forming a straight line. Before these saws is placed, a car-
na<re having a ledge in front, against which rests the board in
whtch the dovetail mortises are to be made. This board takes a
definite position by means of stops on the carriage, and the car-
riage itself is arrested in its forwai-d motion by stops on the sides.
The board being placed in the carriage against the ledge in front
and the stop at the side, it is pushed forward; at one operation
all the mortises are furnished on one side. Then the same process
on the left finishes all the mortises entirely by the circular saws.
On the opposite side of the machine is a table sloping in each
direction like the roof of a house. The board in which the dove-
tails are to be formed being placed on one slope against a pair
of guides in front, a set of dovetail chisels are brought down ver-
tically, cutting one side of the set of dovetails. The same opera-
tion on the other slope completes the dovetails, and the two pieces
of wood thus prepared by this machine are ready for gluing. If
the dovetails are to be hid, as in the front of a drawer, a circular
saw at the side of the machine cuts the groove, and the chisels are
set to stop at this groove. [^ ^H^^r medal awarded.

JVo. 1192. — Match Cutting and Framing Machine.
Southwick, Thomas & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. Excellent. This is
a most ingenious contrivance to save time and labor m the manu-
facture of articles that individually have less commercial value
than any thing else that has a market price. But from the im-
mense number consumed, this small machine is entitled to work
with those of more imposing character, where some larger opera-
tion is to be performed, but seldom and in the aggregate having
no greater value. It deserves description.

A wheel of about 30 inches diameter is placed in front of and
at right angles to the frame, in the same manner as the circular
cutting knives in front of a farmers straw bench.

On the top of this wheel is screwed a frame of cast iron, having
ratchet teeth on the outside that are held by a spring fall, so that
at each tui-n of a crank this frame and the wheel advances one
tooth .

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 65

The interior of this frame is filled up with a double piece of
lignumvitse, having between them a thin sheet of gum elastic to
act as a spring in holding the matches. The wood is then covered
on botli sides by a piece of zinc. It is then pierced to receive
the matches in rows of 16 holes, and about 100 such rows, so that
each frame will hold about 1,600 matches.

Behind this frame, and distant from it the length of a match,
is placed a row of 16 cutters, like a row of punches, resting on a
metal plate. Immediately behind these cutters, and resting on
the same plate, is placed a block of wood of the proper length to
form a match. The crank being turned, this wood is forced
forward and the lower surfacs is cut into 16 matches, which are
compressed in passing the punches, so as to leave no surplus,
and then slightly spread like a fan by means of steel guides, and
having their ends presented towards the holes in the frame. The
next motion of the crank cuts oflf 16 new sticks, and as tliey ad-
vance they push the former into the corresponding holes in the
lignumvitse frame. The frame advances one tooth, presenting a
new row of holes, that are filled by the last row of matches as
as they are pushed on by their successors.

This frame having been filled, presents the appearance of a
brush with sticks instead of bristles. It is then removed from
the wheel, the ends all at once dipped into the combustible mate-
rial, and laid upon a shelf in order to become hard. Another
frame is served in the same manner, and thus on for 25 or 30
frames. By the time that they are all filled the first is ready for
packing. It is then placed again in the wheel and filled as be-
fore, the new sticks pushing out the finished matches into the
hands of an attendant, and hy him placed in boxes. It is neces-
sary that these holes should be acciu-ate, and in their proper
places, and this is very simply effected. In preparing the frame
a number of steel points are placed where the matches will come.
The machine being put to work as if by making matches these
points are forced against the frame, making marks in the zinc
where each hole must be drilled.

.d silver medal cnvarded.

JVo. 1413. — ^ Machine for Tuniins' Irremdar Forms.
Crane & Tompkins, Newark, N. J. Very ingenious for turning
carriage spokes, squares, kc. In this machine the form is pro-
duced by the position of the cutters projecting more or less. The

[Am. Inst.] 5

66

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

arbor carrying the wing of cutters, say 16 in number, if made to
revolve with the same speed as the wood, each cutter will cut a
line from end to end, as both the cutters and the wood turn, and
the ring of cutters is carried along.

These 1 6 cutters are pushed out from centre by means of cams
of such form as to give the required shape, the cams being acted
on by a cone that is pushed in by a lever as the cutters move

along the stick.

Thus, if a square be required, then only four of these cutters
are pushed out. If an oblong, then two opposite are pushed out
more than the other two. If the wood and the cutters move
with different velocities, then a spiral square or spiral oblong
will be produced.

If this description be comprehended, then it will be understood
how any form with any number of sides (up to the number of
the cutters) can be produced, either the same for the whole
length, or constantly varying. But without a drawing it can

hardly be made intelligible.

[A silver medal awarded.

Conover's Wood-f'plitting Machine.

JYo. lUQ— Machine for Splitting Kindling Wood.
J. A. Conover, 130 Horatio-street. Effective and expeditious. This,
like the match machine, is a remarkable instance of small things
done on a large scale. It is asserted that it is a heavy business
in the city of New- York. Our matches were formerly made by
children, of split sticks dipped in sulphur at each end, tied in

AJMERICAN INSTITUTE. 67

bundles, and hawked about the streets, to be used together with
flint and steel, and tinder of burnt rags. Our anthracite coal
was brought in large lumps, and kindling fuel in the form of cord
wood, and after being placed in the -cellar (that required suf-
ficient height to swing the axe), were prepared for use by the
common laborer. Now all these things are done by machinery.
The coal breaker and coal screen moved by steam have taken
the work from those who formerly had nothing else to depend on.
But, on the other hand, they are important elements in a trade
that has so increased as to employ thousands in the place of the
former tens. So, also, of the match machines, in consideration
of their extended use. And so, upon general principles, must
we suppose, that even a huge wood-splitting machine will benefit
the class that it now competes with injuriously.

[»/2 silver medal awarded.

JYo. 866 — Sash Moulding and Tenoning Machine.
Ball & Ballard, Worcester, Mass. The best. The advantages
are in the feed in several particulars : 1st, By gearing — the band
requires less adhesion, and is not so liable to slip. 2d, The boxeg
that secure the bur-arbors, in place of being fixed to the frame,
are made to move on pivots; so that while the burs rise and fall,
the journals remain centered in the boxes, while screw washers
adjust the proper and shake. 3d, The bui-sare hollow cylinders,
placed in the arbors, and hence can be removed for sharpening,
and others substituted without removing the arbors.

[.y? silver medal awarded.

68

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Fay & Go's. Foot-Mortising Machine.

JVo. 1590 — Large Foot-Mortising Machine.

J. A. Fay & Co., Keene, N.H. An excellent machine.

[A diploma awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

69

Fay & Go's Portable Mortising Machine.

jYo. 1591 — Portable Mortisins: Machine.
J. A. Fay k, Co., Keene, N. H. Compact and convenient. The
improvement is in the position of the springs. Of these there
are two, standing upright beliind the frame, attached at the bot-

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

torn, but separated at the top. As the chisel, if freed down a
double armed lever, acts upon these, two springs forcing them
together. The power of one of these springs is adjustible by
means of a screw on the correcting rod. [A diploma awarded.

JVo. 1709 — Mitre and Dovetail Machine.
F. A. Gleason, Rome, N. Y. If the inventor will allow us to in-
sert the word " grooving," we can recommend this instrument as
very useful in manufactures where neatness, not strength, is re-
quired at the joints; and where a dove-tailed groove is required
in the solid wood, it will apply in strong work. But as a dove-
tailing machine, thence inferring a claim to supercede the instru-
ment that makes genuine dove-tails for strong work, we should
pass it as useless. The principle is, to form a dovetailed groove
in the mitre of one piece, and a dovetailed tongue in the mitre
of the adjoining piece, at any desired angle, according to the
number of sides desired; the mitre and tongue in one piece, or
the mitre and groove on the other being formed at one operation
by means of two cutters flaring from two that are at right angles
with the motion, the former cutting the groove or tongue, and
the latter the mitre. The proper angle is given by an adjustible
frame upon which the boards are slid along as the cutters re-
move the wood. [A diploma awarded.

JYo. 1806.— Model of a Saw Mill.
C. B. Hutchinson, Auburn, N. Y. Same as full sized saw and
support, No. 1164, " Back Guard Saw."

This is an admirable contrivance if in practice the saw be not
subject to haggle.

In this arrangement there is no saw-gate, but in lieu of it a
saw-blade without teeth, a little thicker than the actual saw,
stretched between the top and bottom frames of the mill as a
support behind the saw for its whole length. Against this steel
plate rests the saw, having the lower end attached to the pitman,
while the upper end simply is held in its place sidewise by cast
iron guides above the top, having a slat on each side with a pin
through the saw. Thus the saw must be pushed up, and has to
depend entirely on its own stiffness. We apprehend that not-
withstanding the saw-blade support passes through the log and
supports the saw from end to end, still, when the saw becomes
dull and meets with hard wood, as a hemlock knot on the side
of a log, it may run from its course. If this be not the case,
then it is evident that the absence of the gate is a great ad van-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 71

tage, botli on the score of personal safety, and freedom from ob-
struction in various ways. Also, the saw will work with much
more certainty with this support than without it, where there is
no gate. \^A diploma awarded.

JVo, 80. — Self-gauged Lathe for Turning all Regular Forms.
Albin Wai'th, corner Franklin and Centre streets. Very superior;
self-acting. In this lathe the cutters arc caused to take the pro-
per distance from the centre by means of iron guides on the
shears on both sides. One set of cutters in front of the central sup-
port takes off tlie rough, the next behind the support cuts the
plain surface, and the next cuts in the ornaments, while the sand
papers following finishes the work by the time that the turning
is finished. The work itself is excellent.

l^A silver medal awarded.

J\''o. 292. — Upholstery Shaving Machine.
Smith & Cowles, Amherst, Mass. Superior. The object is to
make shavings as a substitute for liair or moss. A horizontal
circular plate of about 4 feet diameter, has ten radiating slats.
In two of these slats are placed arms level with the surface,
having 70 small upright cutters to slit or scratch the surface of a
block of wood. These scratches are in the direction of the grain
of the wood, the arms being regulated by cams, so as to move in
a straight line while cutting. There are tlien planing cutters
on the same plate, so that each revolution will give 560 very thin
curled shavings, about one-eighth of an inch wide.

[.y3 silver medal awarded.

JYo. 526. — Mitre Machine.
Geo. W. LaBaw^, Jersey City, N. J. Excellent. This is simple,
effective, rapid, and makes very good work. Two knives like
those of a straw bench, are screwed to a cast iron frame, and from
a shark's bill cutter, eacli knife from the point where they join
sloping downward, so that in cutting the pressure is constantly
against the ledge in front, against which the moulding is placed
at equal angles with the knives. Thus the mitre can be cut from
either end of a short piece, or a square cut taken from the mid-
dle of a long piece, and the worli: is ready for immediate use
"without planing. This machine has also a cutter of anotlier form,
but the above will illustrate.

\_A diploma awarded.

72

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Barlow's Rotary Wood-Planing Machine.

JVo. 842 — Rotary Wood Plaimig Machine.
Alfred Conger, 345 Broadway, "Earlow's Patent." The best, very
compact and works well, \A silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1521 — Improved Circular Saw and sharpener for Sato Teeth.
N. Barlow, 345 Broadway. Excellent, the principle is to form
each tooth into a very small gouge by means of a small nut or
cutter, which is readily placed in front of the tooth, and the in-
strument then clamped against the side of the saw by means of
a circular cam; then by means of a crank the cutter is turned
while held against the front of the tooth. The cutter is so formed
as to cut only at the bottom while it spreads the metal outside
so as to give a set on both sides. This saw makes a very clean
cut, being a new idea, with more real ingenuity than most inven-
tions; we put it in the medium grade of premiums, although a
very small thing in point of size. \^Ji silver medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

73

Daniels & Raymond's Granular Fuel Cutter.

JYo. 1102— Granular Fuel Cutter.
Daniels & Raymond, Woodstock, Vt. Tliis is a novel and good
macliine for cutting small wood, it works upon the principle of a
straw cutter; it will cut wood of three inches diametre; one revo-
lution of the revolving cutter being sufficient to cut off the pieces.
In our opinion it is a useful and valuable invention

[.^ silver medal awarded.

74

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mo. 465 — Wi7idow Shade Crimping Machine.
L. T. Smart, Goffstown, N. H. Effective, uniform, expeditious, not
much required in this neighborhood, but very convenient where
required. [-^ diploma awarded.

Morse's Machine for Preparing, Planing, Tonguing and Grooving.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 75

Machine for Preparing Planing, Tonguiyig and Grooving at one

Operation.
C. B. Morse, Rhinebeck, N. Y. This machine always removes the
same quantity of wood in forming the tongue and cutting ofl' the
waste, and preserving the waste whole if the board should chance
to be wider at one end than the other. In other machines, the
cutters that remove the waste by having a greater quantity of wood
at one point than another, draw the board away from the line edge
which is entirely overcome by this improvement. Improvement
in preparing and tonguing at one operation, while the planing and
grooving is done at the same time. The peculiarity in this machine
is in the cutters that form the tongue working from opposite sides,
having projecting bills that cut through the plank and take off
the excess of width in form of a strip. [Ji gold medal aivarded.

BENJ. AYCRIGG,

ISAAC STANTON,
iRD

Judges.

WM. A. LEONARD,

MACHINERY No. 4.

STEAM ENGINES, AND ALL MACHINES AND PARTS OE MACHINES NOT
OTHERWISE APPORTIONED.

We the undersigned, judges on steam engines and all machines
not otherwise apportioned, appointed by the Managers of the 27th
Annual Fair of the American Institute, held at the Crystal Palaoe,
in the city of New-York, October, 1855, beg leave to report :

That we have carefully examined the various articles submit-
ted to our inspection, and decide that

Jfo. 1989 — High Pressure Steam Engine.
J. S. Bunce & Co., 26 Washington st. Is the best specimen of
workmanship on high. pressure steam engines, and an excellent
arrangement, without expansion valve, however, but as this may
not militate against what qualities it does possess, we are in-
clined to say it is the best specimen on exhibition.

[Ji silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1202— Three Steam Engines.
Wm. Bui'don, Brooklyn, L. I. These engines are quite credita-
ble for completeness and substantial workmanship.

[./^ silver medal awarded.

76

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JYo. 329 — Truss Steam Engine.
Pliilos B. Tyler, American Machine Works, Springfield, Mass.
Is the best truss engine, well executed, at worii, but could not
see its internal arrangement. It operates well, and is worthy of
notice. [-^ silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1654 — Steam Engi?ie.
Wm. H. Adams, New- York. For a steam engine in operation.

[^ silver medal awarded.

'^^CK^-ei/y^

Tousey & Reed's Chronometer Steam Engine.

No. 15. — Chronometer Steam Engine.
Tousey & Reed, 95 Maiden Lane. This impro-vement consists
in letting the steam in and out on both sides of the cylinder, and
cutting it off close to the piston. By this means the pressure
and friction is entirely removed from the valves. It also dis-
penses with the friction and weight of excentrics, cross-heads,
connecting rods, and rock shafts. It is well adapted for portable
purposes when attached to the boiler. [^ silver medal atoarded.

JVo. 1968 — Oscillating Steam Engine.
Darlington & Co., Centre cor Franklin st., is the best oscillating
steam engine. [^ silver medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

77

JVos. 1679 a7id 1680 — Oscillating Steam Engine and Hoisting

Machine.
E. Morris, South Bergen, NJ. An oscillating steam engine with
hoisting machine attached, good, worth}^ of favorable notice.

[Jl silver medal awarded.

-Portable Steam Engine.

Morristown, N. J., Logan & Ledgewood,

JVo 1507
Geo. Vail & Co.,
agents, 9 Gold st. A portable steam engine, doing part of the
work of the Institute, very simple, and good article, deserving
of notice. [^ silver medal awarded.

JYo. IIGO— Model of the Engines of the U. S. Steamer JViagara.
Pease & Murphy, Fulton Iron Works, N. Y. A fine wooden
model of the engines of the steamer Niagara, shows good design
and workmanship. \Ji silver medal awarded.

78 TKAKSACTIONS OF THE

A'^o. 1^89— Model of a Sleam Engine.
Victor Giraucl, Jr., 41 U Madison-st. The best model of a steam
engine of the highest order of workmanship.

[./i diploma awarded.
JYo. 60 — Working Model of a Steam Engine.
Alex. Ferguson, Troy, N. Y. A good specimen of a working
model of a steam engine, and worthy of notice.

[../? diploma awarded.

J^o. 1020 — Working Model of a Steam Engijie.
John A. Faulkener, 292 Tenth-st. A good specimen of a work-
ing model of a steam engine, and worthy of notice.

[A diploma awarded.
JVo. 1176 — Cloud Engine.
Cloud Engine Co., N. Y., Wm. M. Storm, agent. This engine
claims to work with great economy of fuel. As we do not com-
prehend the theory of its action as propounded by its inventor,
and see no reason why such an arrangement should be advantage-
ous, we are imwilling to pronounce upon its value without the
test of vigorous and protracted experiments. [Referred to the
.American Institute for a special committee to exuTnine.
J^o. 749 — Sickles'' Steam Steering Machine.
Wm. H. Sickles, 52 Third-street. This seems to us to be an ad-
mirable contrivance, by wliich steam power may be employed in
steering large vessels through the medium of the ordinary steer-
ing wheel. It displays great mechanical ingenuity, and we shall
be very glad to see it tried practically on some one of our
large steamers. \^Ko award made.

JVo. 1G76 — Ignition Engine.
Alfred Drake, Philadelphia, Pa. A novelty worthy of great praise.
Its action solves the question of the availibility of the force of
exploding gaseous mixtures as a substitute for steam. Further
experiments are necessary to determine its value on the score of
economy. The inventor deserves an expression of very high ap-
probation. [Referred to the American Institute for a special

committee to examine.

J^o. 806 — Steam and Fire Regulator.
Clark's Steam and Fire Regulator Company, 208 Broadway, The
best steam and fire regulator — a good instrument. These steam
and fire regulators have now become thoroughly established in
this city and vicinity. From the numerous experiments that
have been made, even from the early times of the celebrated

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 79

Watt and Perkins, down to the present time, to get up some
contrivance for the controlling of dampers l)y the pressure of
steam, adapted to high as well as low pressure, by which any de-
sired amount of steam may be carried, keeping up an even pres-
sure on the boiler, and consuming no more fuel than really neces-
sary to give the required amount of steam, shows the estimation
and importance of such an invention. The wonders they perform
in controlling the steam, saving the grate bars and furnace fronts,
besides the preventing of the straining of the boilers, the time
and trouble of watching the damper, and the safety guaranteed in
their use. [^ gold medal having been before awarded — a diploma

certifying that fact.
JVo. 1599 — Steam Pressure Gauge.
American Steam Gauge Company, Boston, Mass. Is the best steam
pressure gauges. [^ silver medal awarded.

Mo. 1485 — Syphon Steam Gauge.
Novelty Iron Works, N. Y. The syphon gauge is one of the
oldest, and at the same time one of the best steam gauges we have
in use; the glass tube is an improvement.

[A silver medal awarded.
JYo. 1484 — Registers, Water Gauges, Sfc.
Novelty Iron Works, N. Y. A case of clocks, registers, and
gauges, worthy of especial notice. [^ silver medal awarded.

JVo. Sutton^s Patent Lubricating Apparatus.

Sutton & Gregory, 114 and 116 Cannon-street. These are lubri-
cating apparatus for steam cylinders and valves.

\^A silver medal awarded.

^^^^^^Mgu^^k ^0. 1822— Oil Sockets.

[^awpygi)-;^ i| j jBH A. C. Garratt, Boston, Mass. Useful

ANo oRni.. "»>^q|!P' when required. [A diploma awarded.
JYo. 1674 — Cap Spinning Frame.
Danforth, Cook, & Co., Paterson, N. J. Decidedly an improved
cap spimiing frame ; it runs with less power than the old frame,
at the same speed, with less wear and tear. The following ac-
count was furnished by the inventor :

" This mode of spinning was invented by Mr. Charles Danforth
of Paterson, N. J., in 1828, and is now extensively used in va-
rious sections of the country. It will undoubtedly bear a much
higher speed, and make more yarn per spindle, than any other
spinning machine known. The ordinary velocity of the bobbins
being 8,000 turns per minute. But as the machines have been

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

heretofore constructed, the warves were made to traverse on the
spindle, while the cylinder, from which they received their mo-
tion, rested on stationary bearings, the angle of the bands, were
necessarily changed as the warves moved up and dow^n on the
spindle. This caused an inequality in the tension of, and an
extra friction on the bands; and from their great velocity, this
extra friction and inequality of tension affected their durability,
as well as the powder required to operate them.

It has therefore long been considered a desideratum to over-
come this difficulty, particularly on the warp frame. This has
now been most effectually accomplished by tliis last improvement
of Mr. Danforth, and the cap spinner as thus improved is now
believed to be the best tlu-ostle spinning machine in the world.

" The improvement consists of constructing and arranging the
machine, so that the wharves rest on a stationary rail, while the
spindle rails, spindles, caps, guards and guide wire boaixls, are
made to traverse. This is effected in a very simple manner,
by connecting together the spindle rails with cross-bars passing
from side to side of the machine. The rails are framed together
in two sections, one-half being separated from, and distinct from,
the other. On these cross-bars are fixed toothed racks, w^hich
geer into pinions on two parallel shafts, which pass through
nearly the length of the lower part of the machine, and the racks
on one section are arranged so that they geer into the pinions, on
their inside, while those on the other section geer into the pin-
ions on their outsides. This arrangement causes the spindle
rails, &c., to counterbalance each other, and makes the whole
warves w^ork very light and free. The two parallel shafts are
geered together by a cross shaft near the centre, with bevil wheels,
and the cross shaft is worked with a mangle wheel and pinion.
The cross bars connecting together and supporting the spindle
rails, also support and carry the tin guards and guide wire
boards, so that they all traverse together. The whole arrange-
ment is at once simple and substantial. This improvement was
patented on the 12th of December, 1854, since wliich time, the
makers, Messrs. Danforth, Cooke & Co., of Paterson, N. J., have
made and sold something over ten thousand spindles on this plan,
which are all giving the best of satisfaction.

[Jl gold medal awarded.

Xo. 1051.— Bobbin and Fly Frame.
Lowell Machine Co., Lowell, Mass. Very much simplified from
the EngUsh frame, and well built. [Ji gold medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 81

JS'^o. 1659. — Count er-tioist Speeder.
Jesse Whitehead, Manchester, Va. Well adapted for coarse work
more especially, will do good work, and will no doubt save labor
and occupy less room. [.2 silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1441 — Burring Machine, for Cleaning icool previous to its

entering the cards.
Calvin L. Goddard, 3 Bowling Green, a useful machine, and pro-
bably the best thing for the purpose intended now in use.

[.i gold medal awarded.
J\^os. 239, 109 and 1447—3 Knitting Machines.
J. Jackson, 32 Beekman-street. Designed and used with very
great success for knitting not only plain web, but common stock-
ings, socks, &c., without seam; they perform all the operations
of narrowing, widening, heeling and toeing off, indeed turning
off the stocking entirely finished, as perfect as when done by
hand, and at the rate of some fifty pairs per day when driven by
power, and requiring but one girl to tend some six machines. We
look upon this machine as one of remarkable labor saving, and so far
as we can learn, it has no parallel in its line.

\^A gold medal aioarded.
JVo. 584 — Anti-Choking Ship Pump.
F. Ransom, Brookl}Ti, L. I. Marine disasters from the choking
of ships' pumps ai-e too frequent to permit us to pass such an in-
vention as this lightly by. The safety features of this pump are
several; the vein pipe is a straight open tube from the bottom of
the hold up to and above tlie deck, so that each substance that
enters the lower end of the pipe is brought upon deck and is there
passed through a strainer before going to the valves; this strainer
acting as a guard to the piston and valves, and the foreign sub-
stance being easily removed without any interference with any
part of the working arrangement of the punch. Four working
cylinders (all above deck) being made to act on the one suction
pipe insures a constant ascending volume of water, and by a very
simple device, a perfect vaccuum is obtained; direct access from
on deck can be had to tlie suction pipe, and should an obstruction
take place, the obstructing body can be removed without the inter-
ference with any other portion of the pump, and while the pump
is in operation. The valves are simple, easily renewed, and ac-
cessible without removing the cylinder or any of the pipes, the
joints are all so arranged as to be water packed, or prevented from
admitting air; a simple little device is attached which insures a
[Am. Inst.] 6

82

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

very complete vacuum enabling it to draw water to the extent of
the pressure of the atmosphere. The best for general purposes
though expensive and complicated. [^ gold medal awarded.

DotUe-. -MR tun and 1 oice Pump',

j\fo, 999 — Suction and Force Pum'ps.
L. P. & W. F. Dodge, Newburgh, N. Y., cast iron. These
pumps are much used, and bear the test of use. They are
arranged with metallic popet valves sliding horizontally on the
piston-rod. [^ silver medal having leen before awarded, a

diploma certifying thai fact.

JYo. 1186 — Steam Pump.
C. & G. M. Woodwai-d, 77 Beekman street. Is the best steam pump
with crank motion. [^ silver medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 83

jYo. 1282 — Jlnti- Choking Arch Pump Valves.
N. Dodge, 42 University Place. For ships, a valuable invention,
much used and generally approved. These valves can be placed
in nearly all varieties of piunps. Has had medals from the Ameri-
can Institute. [^^2 silver medal having been before awarded, a diplo-
ma certifying that fact.

JVo. 1175 — Steam pump.
Guild & Garrison, Williamsburgh, N. Y. Is the best steam pump
without crank motion. [Ji diploma awarded.

JYo. 1224 — Double Acting and Force Pump.
Jas. Smai't, Philadelphia, Pa. Of all the pumps exhibited at the
fair of the American Institute, none seem adapted for a house or
well pump as well as for general purposes as that made by James
Smart of Pliiladelphia. They are made of brass, and are of ex-
cellent workmanship. \^Ji silver medal awarded.

JVo. 293 — Double Acting Pump.
W. C. & J. S. Burnham, 85th st., near 4th avenue. Well suited
for general use, and third best for common use, because cheap
and good. [^A silver m,edal awarded.

JYo. 81 — Drill for Joining Purposes.
G. Arthur Gardiner, 33 Trinity Buildings. The best mining drill.
This machine is arranged strictly as a mining drill. The whole
arrangement is calculated to make it very useful in a mine. For
di'iving tunnels, driftAvays, &c., drilling with the same facility at
any angle, either above or below, a horizontal. It is worked by
one man, and it is so compact as to occupy a much less space
than the old system of " Plolder and Striker." The machine is
cheap, simple and strong, is easily fastened up in a mine, and as
easily removed in case of blasting. It has been introduced into
the Schuylkill and other mines. [.^5 silver medal axoardcd.

JYo. 1511 — Rock Drilling J[Iachine.
Pettis & Stone, St. Johnsbury, Vt. The best drill for quarrying
purposes. This machine is portable, mounted on wheels, and
arranged for working in a quarry, the drill working below a
horizontal line. The proportions are good, working with great
rapidity. [A diploma aioarded.

JYo. 898 — Rock Drilling J\'Iachine.
Theodore F. Engelbrecht, 229 Broadway. The second best drill
for quarrying purposes. This is also intended for quarrying
purposes, placed on a wooden frame work; a cheap and useful
machine. [A diploma awarded.

84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

j\fo. bl6— Improved method of operating and lubricating Valves

in Hydrants and Cocks.
James Cocliran, No. 8 Tenth st. This hydrant has a very per-
fect device, for preventing freezing, being self-emptying. This
non- wasting and non-freezing is accomplished by means of a
sliding valve which, working without a stuffing-box, makes it
very free from derangement. This peculiai- valve constitutes its
novelty and usefulness, on which the patent was granted. The
l^gg^ [^ silver medal awarded.

Xo. 326 — Kon-wasting Hydrant.
John D. Haines, Yorkville, N. Y. A well made article, has had
premiums from the American Institute. [Ji diploma awarded.

Jfo. 1768 — Hydraulic Ram.
Thomas Hanson, 137 Third avenue. The valve to the air
chamber of this machine appears to possess advantages over
others, and to entitle it to pre-eminence. The best.

[Ji silver medal awarded.

J\^o. 939 — Hydraulic Ram.
W. & B. Douglas, Middletown, Conn. These rams have been
long used, and proved themselves fully worthy of confidence.

[A diploma awarded.
JVo. 1Sd8.— Valve and Valve Chamber for Hydraulic Rams.
Josephus Echols, Columbus, Ga. A very ingenious device, and
though not yet introduced, seems to possess advantages over
others now in use ; the best valve and valve chamber for hydraulic
jg^jj^g^ [A diploma awarded.

J\''o. 359. — Sewing Machines.
Howard & Davis, Boston, Mass. Robinson's patent. This
machine has two needles, and passes the thread through and
through at each stitch; is capable of making a great variety of
stitches. The best for common use. [A gold medal awarded.

jYo. 1040. — Sewing Machines.
Wlieeler & Wilson, Manufacturers' Company, 393 Broadway.
Wilson's patent. Sews with very great rapidity and beauty,
especially for fine sewing and stitching. The best for fine stitch-
ing and rapid work. [^ gold medal awarded.

JYo. 397. — Seioing Machine.
J. B. Nichols & Co., Boston. Used for shoemaking, and valuable;
the best for certain work. [A silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1566. — Sewing Machine.
J. Seymour, Newark, N. J. Used for shoemaking; best for cer-
tain kind of work. [^ ^i^^^r medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

85

J\''o. 10. — Universal Portable Gas Generator.
N. Aubin, Albany, N. Y, Well adapted for making gas in pri-
vate establishments, from rosin, grease, &c. This, in connection
with its suspended flexible gasometer, is worthy of the highest
commendation. [.-^ gold medal awarded.

Porter's Wood (iaS Ucucrator.

JVo. 110. — Wood Gas Generator.
Wm. D. Porter, New York. For making gas from resinous and
other woods. This ilistrument will in many parts of our coun-
try be found valuable. \^A gold medal awarded.

JYo. 513.— Dry Gas Meter.
Samuel Down, 333 West 22d street. Worthy of the highest con-
sideration, [ji silver medal awarded.

JVo. 430. — Gas Regulator.
New- York Gas Regulator Company, 262 Broadway. An ad-
mirable and useful invention, and deserving of the highest com-
mendation. [Ji silver medal awarded.

JYo. 13G6. Alcohol Heated Sad Iron.

Rotary Smoothing Iron Company, 189 Broadway. This is one
of those practical and useful articles that so mark the character
of the present exhibition. It is intended for domestic uses, as
also foi finishing hat bodies. The lighted alcohol lamp is placed
within the instrument, which heats the upper face while the
lower one is in use. By lifting a latch, the faces are changed,
bringing the newly heated surface below ready for use, while
the cooled one takes its turn of being heated by the lamp, a mo-

86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ment of time only being required to make the change. For do-
mestic use and in places where gas is not accessible, it is very
meritorious. The best. [^ diploma awarded.

JYo. 202. — Gas Apparatus for Heating Hatters'' Irons.
John G. Wilson, 39 Centre-street. This instrument seems de-
signed principally for manufactm-ers' use, and for such is well
adapted, and must prove very useful and advantageous in all
places where gas is accessible. The second best.

\A diploma awarded.

Mos. 1594, 1595, 1596, and Ibdl— Water Meter, Oil Tester,

Agricultural and Mechanical Dynamometers.
H. S. Leonard, Moodna, N. Y. These machines are self-regis-
tering, worthy of commendable notice. The registering feature
of these instruments is new, and deserving of especial notice, as
it is the first successful attempt to register expended power.
The water meter is a modification of the oil tester, &c., adapting
the same principle to the measurement of water ; evinces great
ingenuity and adaptation to the measurement of Ibiids, and the
recording of the same. [A gold medal awarded.

J\^o. 1355 — Heavy Platform Scales for weighing Hay, Coal and

Cattle.
Fairbanks & Co., 189 Broadway. The best.

\^A gold medal awarded.
JYo. 152 — Heavy Platform Scales.
Vergennes Scale Co., Vergennes, Vt. The second best.

l^A silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1007 — Model Beam Scale.
Duryee & Forsyth Manufacturing Co., Rochester, N. Y., and 13
Whitehall. Very perfect and convenient, and worthy of a
favorable notice. [^ silver medal awarded.

JVo. ISbl— Platform Scale.
Fairbanks & Co., 189 Broadway. Perfectly true and correct, a
very good article. [.^ silver medal awarded.

JVo. 479 — Automatic Grain Scale.
Wm. H. Bramble, Cincinnati, Ohio. There are but few inven-
tions in the exhibition so useful, and that perform their task so
perfectly as the one under consideration. It is now being
adopted by the grain dealers and millers of the West as an accu-
rate and labor-saving machine. It not only performs its work,
but is a clerk to record its own labor.

[A gold medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 87

JYo. 1845 — Trom Block for Flour Mills a7id Xoddlc Pin for

Saw Mills.
Gideon Hotchkiss, Windsor, Broome co., N. Y. The tram block
is a very great improvement upon the old system of bridge tree,
insuring a perpendicular lifting of the spindle. A large socket
is placed in the lever, and is perfectly under the control of the
miller. The grinding can be done with more certainty as to
evenness than in the common way. Millers have long been in
need of something like this present apparatus, which has no
parallel for simplicity and efficiency. The flouring mills of
Eichmond, Boston, Wilmington, Rochester, &:c., have adopted
it. The universal joint noddle pin for saw mills, is a very use-
ful and simple fixture, used extensively for the upper end of the
pitman in saw mills. [A silver medal awarded.

J\^o. 1440 — Adjustihle Mill Pick.
H. T. Hyde, Troy, N. Y. A very convenient and economical
tool, [^ diploma awarded.

Grain Mill.
W. P. Coleman, New Orleans, La. This is a portable grist mill,
with small horizontal perch burr stone, the lower stone being
the runner, and balanced on the spindle. The workmanship
and whole getting up is superior; it grinds with great rapidity
and evenness. The best for plantation common use.

\^A silver Tnedal awarded.
JYo. 231 — Grain and Flour Mill.
Prentiss & Page, 8 Seventh avenue. These mills have long been
known, and fully secured the confidence of the public. They
are well suited for making flour, grinding feed, &c. The second
best. ■ ^A diploma awarded.

Mo. liO—Cob a7id Corn Mill.
Troy Portable Grain Mill Company, Troy, N. Y. The working
parts of this mill are made of cast iron so arranged as to be easily
and cheaply renewed, grinding grain of all kinds, corn and cob,
with great rapidity, and witli a small amount of power. It is
also anti-choking, and grinds oats, without mixture with other
grains. The best as a corn and cob mill.

[A silver medal aumrded.

JYos. 1493, 1494 a7id 1848— TArce Co?iical Burr Stone Mills.

Ross & Davis, Rochester, N.Y. These mills are well arranged, and

show good workmanship in their getting up ; but conical forms,

in our opinion, are far inferior to the flat. [A diploma awarded.

88

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JVo. 24:2— French Burr Mill Stones.
Kogers, Fils & Co., Erookl;yTi, L. I. The quality of the blocks,
as well as the workmanship, in this manufacture, is very surpris-
ing, and evinces much skill. The best. [Jl diploma awarded.

J\''o. 91 — Atmospheric Flour Bolter.
John M. Carr, 78 Madison-street. A model. This machine was
first introduced for the purpose of rubbing and blowing the flour
from the common bran, obtaining some five per cent, of flour. It
is now used as a bolt for common milling purposes, and answers
a good end, making the bran cleaner from these fine adhesive
particles of flour, and cooling it at the same time by means of a
strong current of air from the rotary blower within the machine.
The best. ' \A diploma aivarded.

Jfo. 1252— Smut Machine,
Geo. Vail & Co., Morristown, N.J.; Logan, Vail & Co., agents, 9
Gold-street. A useful machine, very cheap, fitting it for general
use. ['^ diploma awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

iS9

.A'o. 942 — Sinut machine.
Harris & Brothers, Elizabeth City. A. L. Ackerman, agent, 163
Greenwich-street. This machine has been extensively used, and
proved itself to be a valuable acquisition to the mill owner. The
best. [^1 gold medal having been before awarded — a diploma

certifying that fact.

i t 1 ^ Piintu g Tii^^ ith TKciU Uiii„' 1 I 1.

./Vo. 1810 — Printnig Press unth Oscillutnig Bed.
C. Potter, jr., 29 Eeekman-street. This arrangement is novel,
and has some good features for saving friction, and the motion of
the bed is simple and effective. There may be in its construction
some faults which use and experience will fully develope. Work-
manship very fair. [.^ gold inedal awarded.

90

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Babcock's Polychromatic Printing Press.

JVo. 1027 — Polychromatic Printing Press.
A. M. & G. H. Eabcock, Westerly, R. I. This invention is in-
tended for printing several colors at one operation. It consists
of a square prism, around which the beds, three in number, are
arranged, leaving the fourth, or upper side of the prism for feed-
ing and flying the sheets. There are three sets of inking appara-
tus— one for each bed, and each for a separate color — which pass
twice across the forms betweeen the impressions ; at the same
time the prism is rotated one-fourth of a revolution, thus changing
the sheets from one form to another. At every movement of the
prism, a finished sheet arrives at the top, when it is removed by
the operator, and a clean one supplied. The sheets are clamped
upon the platen, or prism, by means of friskets, and held immov-
able until they have received all the colors, tlius insuring a per-
fect register. A very ingenious machine. Has the advantage of a
perfect register, with a saving of labor, and without the injury to
the sheets by the frequent handling, as in former modes. Worthy
of reward. [Silver medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 91

JYo. 1118. — Four Power Printing Presses.
S. P. Euggles' Power Press Manufacturing Company, Boston,
Mass.; J. Fursman agent, 12 and 14 Spruce street. For cards
and jobbing. A new combination, and an improvement on the
former plans of the same maimer. Fully worthy of a favorable
notice. [Ji silver inedal awarded.

JYo. 1222.— Hand Sfarn^^.
American Machine Stamp Company, Boston, Mass.; Taulman &
Low, agents, 157 Broadway. For stamping letters, &c. Wor-
thy of a favorable notice. [^ diploma awarded.

JVo. 328. — Stone Dressing Machine.
American Stone Dressing Machine Company, 62 William street.
This machine is designed for dressing stone for buildings, canal
locks, railroads, masonry, monuments, obelisks, and all kinds of
regular or rectilineal moulding. "The pillars sustain the chisels,
and also the revolving hammers, or the cylinder back of the
chisels, in which the cams are set in a spiral form. The stone
is placed upon a carriage, somewhat similar to the carriage of a
saw mill, and is driven forwards and backwards by a worm
w^orking in a rack underneath the carriage. The carriage with
the stone passes between the posts or pillars, and under the
chisels. The chisels are raised or lowered at pleasure, by means
of screws operated by gear and hand-wheels, aided by a counter-
balance underneath the bed of the machine, to suit the thickness
of the stone as well as the depth of chip required, and are pressed
back by the stone so as to come in contact with the cams, which
drive them forward with a sharp blow. The forward movement
of the stone presses the chisels back again, and the}' ai-e again
driven forward as before; this process goes on until the stone is
finished. The cams are set in a spiral form, and so arranged that
never more than two chisels act at one time, yet the blows follow
in such quick succession (each chisel, when the machine is under
full motion, receiving 1,800 blows per minute) that to the eye
of the spectator they all appear to work at the same time. In
this machine, with a gang of 16 chisels, over 28,000 blows are
given per minute. These machines are capable of dressing from
500 to 1000 feet of stone per day, according to the size of ma-
chine, doing the labor of from forty to eighty men. Eacli chisel
will perform a large amount more of service than it can possibly
do in tlie hands of the workman, as on account of the jorecision
with which the blows are given, we are enabled to temj)er them

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

much higher than the ordinary hand chisel. A good machine,
and works well. Entitled to the highest merit.

[Jl gold medal awarded.
JYo. 496. — Slate Dressing Machine.
New England Mining and Quarrying Company, Brattleboro', Vt.
A new invention, and useful. Much in use.

J\^o. 957. — Expansio7i Bolt and Screw Fastener^
Lowdon & Ahlstrom, 276 Bowery. An original and exceedingly
useful invention. [Jl gold medal awarded.

JVo. 1119 — Six Rotating Cutting Machines for Metals.
Cutting Machine Manufecturing Co , Boston, Mass., the inven-
tion of S. P. iiuggles. They are divided into two classes, viz :

Class First — Embraces all sizes cutting over 3-16 inch thick,
and in which the blades are not allowed to come nearer together
than about one-half the thickness of the sheet to be cut.

Class Second — Includes all" sizes for cutting 3-16 inch thick
or less, and on these the blades lap or pass each other in cutting.
Some of the superiorities these shears possess over all others
ever used, are: They cut sheets of any length or thickness at
one stroke. They cut j^erfectly straight at all times, without in
the slightest degree drawing the sheet towards or crowding it
from the blades. They leave, when the blades lap, as smooth
and finished an edge as the finest finish could produce; and when
the blades do not lap, as smooth an edge as the work of that
thickness of plate ever requires; and in all cases the sheet is
perfectly free from w^arp or twist. The upper blade being a ro-
tary circular blade, they cut both ways, thereby saving fifty per
cent, of time and labor over other shears, as, while with others
the upper blade would be raising to get the stroke down, these
would be cutting. They are self- sharpening. They have conve-
niences attached to them for cutting squares, angles, or strips, of
any dimensions, without scribing the sheet, which are arranged or
altered instantly. Tiiey require the least power of any shears in
use, the tliickest boiler plate being cut with ease, by hand. A three
inch belt, twenty inch pulley, is all that is required for driving
them in cutting 3-4 inch plates, ten feet long. They can cut boiler
plates, with a bevel edge, thereby saving the expense and labor
of chipping, as now done with the cold cliisel and hammer, turn-
ing out the plate ready for riveting and caulking. All the
different sizes can be made to operate by power or hand. These
machines are well finished, and w^ell adapted to the purposes in-
tended. [^5 gold medal awarded.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

93

JTo. 1718 — Chilled Rollers.
F. & T. Townsend, Albany, N. Y., good workmanship and useful.

[A silver medal awarded.
JYo. 557 — Jewelers'' Rolling Mill.
Geo. W. Wicks, 6 Liberty Place. Excellent work and fully
woithy of a special notice. [Ji silver medal awarded.

jYo. 586 — Patent Vault Light.
Thaddeus Hyatt, 120 West Broadway. An article worthy of
especial notice. [A silver 7nedal awarded.

JYo. 211 — Cordage Machine.
Troy Patent Cordage Co., Troy, N. Y. These machines make
cord and rope in the smoothest and most perfect manner. Each
strand is formed and twisted at the same time, and not only made
into rope and cord, but stretched and coiled by the same macliine-
ry, and may be made endless. Every thread, strand and cord has an
equal tension, which makes rope or cord exceedingly strong and
durable. A very ingenious machine, and fully worthy of a favora-
ble notice. [^3 silver medal awarded.

A^o. 690— Wire Rope.
C. W. Copeland, 64 Broadway, a good article and important.

[A diploma awarded.
JYo. 1219.— Black Lead Crucibles.
Jos. Dixon & Co., Jersey City, N. J. A very good article.
[ji gold medal having heen before awarded — a diploma certifying

that fact.

Flagler's Portable Forges.

JYo. 19. — Portable Forges.
J. P. Flagler, 210 Water street. Very good forges.

[^ diploma awarded.

94

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Machine for Quartering and Coring Apples.

JYo. 1693 — Machine for Paring Quartering and Coring Apples.
Smith k, Fenwick, N.Y.; Colman & Williamson, agents, 6 Wall-st.
This is a highly finished and working machine, which executes
its work with great rajjidity and perfection, leaving the apple in
quarters, free from core, and ready for the drying process. The
many efforts recently made for preserving fruit sufficiently, proves
the importance of any machine or process that facilitates a branch
of business of so much importance to any man who has a fi-uit
tree, and which contributes so largely to the jjublic health.
There is no form of preserving fruit so simple and useful, and
that fits it so well for sending to market, as by drying. Viewed
in this light, this present machine is very important, and the best
of the kind on exhibition. [^^ silver medal having been before

awarded — a diploma certifying that fact.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 95

JYo. U^l.— Apple Parer.
E. Brown, Lowell, Mass. This is a very simple and cheap ma-
chine. It works very efficiently, and is well adapted for general
use. The second best. \J1 diploma awar'ded.

Mo. 1881. — Tree Felling Machine.
Jas. Hamilton, 120 Waverly Place. In felling trees of valuable
wood, where it is an object to save some three or four feet of the
base of the tree, this machine can be used to great advantage.
This machine has often been on exhibition at the Fail's of the
American Institute.

JYo. 971 . — Model of Boom Derrick.
J. B. Holmes, 16 Grand street. This is a good sized working
model — fully illustrates the operations of the machine. It is an
ingenious arrangement for hoisting heavy weights. One of the
most usefid features of this invention is its taking up its own slack
rope. The best. [Silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1320.— Friciion Clutch.
Wendell Wright, 809 Washington street. A very good and in-
genious improvement J worthy of commendable notice.

[^Silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1631. — Friction Clutch.
H. Whipple, Shaftsbury, Vt. A very good and ingenious im-
provement; worthy of commendable notice.

[^Silver medal awarded.

JVo. 1701. — Adjusting a?id Self-acting Parallel Vices.
R. W. & D. Davis, Yellow Springs, Ohio. A very ingenious and
useful instrument; worthy of notice. [Silver medal awarded.

JYo. 111. — Lap Welded Boiler Flues.
Reading Iron Company, Reading, Pa. A good article; very
meritorious. [Silver medal awarded.

JYo. 195. — Combination Soda Fountain.

A. J. Morse, Boston, Mass. Best workmanship.

[Silver medal awarded.

JYo 212. — Copper and Iron Soda Fountains., Bottling Machine.

Draught Tubes, and a Self-acting Water Feeder.
Wm. Gee, 58 Fulton street. The closing of the cast iron ones is
a good arrangement, and deserves notice. The other ai-ticles are
well finished, and are much in use. [Silver medal awarded.

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

JVo. 701 — Machines for Cutfing Ropes, 8fc.
Daniels & Raymond, Woodstock, Vt. Machines for cutting ropes,
sacking, &c. A good and well-proportioned machine.

l^Siiver medal awarded.
JVo. 467 — Fire Escape Ladder.
George N. Keller, PhiladeliDhia, Pa. A valuable invention. This
article is cheap and portable. [Silver medal awarded.

J\'o. 269 — Improved Toggle Joint Press.
Elias Davis, Montpelier, Vt, The nature of this improvement
consists in the peculiar arrangement of a series of horizontal and
vertical knuckle jointed levers below the screw and bed plate,
whereby any degree from a light to an extremely severe pressure
may be exerted upon the article being pressed, by reason of its
gravity with that of the moving portion of the press. The man-
ner of operation is as follows : When the article |:o be pressed has
been placed upon the platen, raise the press by means of the side
wheel, the dog resting upon the gear wheel (front) holds the press
at any desired elevation; elevate the platen as far as you arc able,
by means of the wheel immediately under it; the dog is then
thrown back, and the press allowed to settle upon the levers by
its own gravity. This alone has been found to be sufficient for
most purposes for which the press on exhibition was designed,
viz : printers, bookbinders, kc. Should more power be necessary,
reverse the side wheel, by which the press was raised, and bring
the gear wheel pinions and racks to bear with the gravity of the
press, and a joower may be exerted upon the article, limited only
by the strength of material of which the press is made. Should
the yielding of the substance allow the levers to assume horizon-
tal and vertical positions, raise the press as before, bring the
platen snugly up, and this brings the levers into full effective
operation again. The attachment of a weighted lever or cord to
the side wheel makes the most severe pressure continuous. The
effect of tliis peculiar construction of a press, is a continuous ac-
cumulative pressure upon the article under operation, the yield-
ing of which is immediately taken up by the gravity of the press,
and by the consequent change of position of the knuckle joint
levers, a still greater degree of power is transmitted through
them, upon the substance being pressed. The press is thus found
to be always at work, while those of other construction (after the
first power has been applied,) are lying still. This self-regulat-
ing feature renders this principle peculiarly applicable to nearly
all kinds of operations for wliich a press is required. Other points

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 97

of advantage claimed for this press over many others in use for
the same purposes are, 1st, The extreme power obtained witli
slight exertion. 2d, The absence of any appreciable degree of
friction on any part of the press. 3d, The smallness of space
required to operate it. This is a good press.

\^Silver medal awarded.

JYo. 1771 — Hydraulic Jacks.
R. Dudgeon, 8 Columbia-street. Valuable, and worthy of favorable
notice. [Silver medal awarded.

JVo, 774 — dnti-Friction Metal,
B. F. Lawton, Troy, N. Y. This metal was tested for three days
with the greatest care upon Wm. E. Leonard's patent dynamome-
ter. The result as compared with Babbitt's, tried under the same
circumstances : The Lawton boxes lubricated with six drops of
oil, and clamped upon a busliing with 100 lbs. strain, made 8880
revolutions, exhausting 11| of power. The same boxes when
warmed, or on a second trial immediately following the first, with
110 lbs. strain, and four drops of oil, made 7680 revolutions, ex-
hausting 7| of power. The Babbitt boxes lubricated with six
drops of oil and clamped upon a bushing with a strain of 100 lbs.,
made 3520 revolutions, exliausting 6^ of power. The tests
throughout three days remained about the same. Lard oil was
used. [-^ gold medal awarded.

THOMAS B. STILLMAN,
D. C. AMBLER,
W. H. ELLET,
THADDEUS SELLECK,
ALFRED S. BOWEN,

Judses.

REPORT OF THE JUDGES ON FIRE ENGINES, HOOK
AND LADDER TRUCKS, AND HOSE CARTS.

Report of the judges of the 27th Annual Fair of the American
Institute, 1855.

We the undersigned, judges of fire engines, hose carriages, &c.,
appointed by the Managers of the 27 th Annual Fair of the
American Institute, held at the Crystal Palace in the city of New-
York, October, 1855, beg leave to report :

That we found three classes of fire engines on exhibition, viz :
1st, 2d and 3d. That on Wednesday, the 31st day of October, a

[Am. Inst.] 7

98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

trial was had. That 1st class were allowed sixty men, 2d class
fifty men, and 3d class forty men. Each engine played through
400 feet of hose, carried to an elevation of 42 feet, and played
from said elevation perpendicularly from a pipe through a nozzle
l|th inches in diameter for first class, one inch for second, |th of
an inch for third; and also, in a horizontal position, through 150
feet of hose, each using the pipe and the same size nozzle as be-
fore, with the following result :

FIRE ENGINES.

First Class.

Perpendicular. Horizontal.

1st best. No. 8, of Brooklyn, 110 ft., 206 ft.

2d best, No. 13,. " 104 ft., 206 ft.

Second Class.

1st best. No. 8, of New-York, 80 ft., 164 ft. 6 in.

2d best, No. 29, " 86 ft., 158 ft. 4 in.

3d best. No. 11, " 90 ft., 149 ft. 3 in.

Third Class.

1st best. No. 28, of New- York, 84 ft., 189 ft. 6 in.

2d best, No. 45, " 80 ft., 169 ft. 6 in.

We therefore decide as follows : That engine No. 8, of the city
of Brooklyn, is the first best first-class engine.

That engine No. 13, of the city of Brooklyn, is the second best
first-class engine.

That engine No. 8, of the city of New-York, is the first best

second-class engine.

That engine No. 29, of the city of New-York, is the second

best second-class engine.

That engine No. 11, of the city of New-York, is the third best
second-class engine.

That engine No. 28, of the city of New-York, is the first best

third-class engine.

That engine No. 45, of the city of New-York, is the second

best third-class engine.

The judges would beg leave to remark to the members of the
Institute, that No. 28 being a third-class engine, and of less ca-
pacity than either of the second-class, they would respectfully
recommend her to the favorable consideration of the Institute, as
they consider her a very superior engine.

HOOK AND LADDER TRUCKS.

They decide that No. 2, of Newark, N.J., is the best truck with
long ladders.

No. 13, of New-York, is the best truck with joint ladders.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 99

They recommend the running gear under hook and ladder
truck No. 2, of Newark, N. J., as the best running gear for hook
and ladder trucks.

HOSE CARTS.

No. 22, of the city of New-York, is the best hose carriage for
use and durability.

That hose carriage Phcenix, of Easton, Penn., is the second
best for use and durability.

No. 8, of the city of New- York, is the third best for use and
durability.

No. 38, of the city of New-York, is the best for ornamental
work.

Fire Hose and Buckets.
John H. Bowie & Co., 5 Ferry-street. They recommend them
as very superior articles and worthy of notice. We saw no
others on exhibition.

JYo. 1003 — Fire Engines for Factories aiid small Villages.
L. B. & W. H. Dodge, Newburgh, N. Y., they recommend as
worthy of notice.
All of which is respectfully submitted,

HORACE J. POINIER,
WM. ADAMS,
DANIEL VAN VOORHIES,
JOHN COGER, Jr.,

Judges.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Couzen's Greenburgh Grape, {an Isabella variety.)
John Couzen's, Dobbs' Ferry, N.Y. Awarded the first premium,
a silver medal, at the Twenty-seventh Annual Fair, for extra
large and best Isabella grapes.

Description — Bunches from six to eight inches long, being of
vai'ying size from two and a half to three and one-eighth inches
in circumference, and when fully mature, a thick skin, dissolv-
ing pulp, sweet, juicy, and rich, with a slight musky aroma,
color dark purple, nearly black, with bluish bloom.

100

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

7 V' '

J uluison

Patent Self-regulating Windmill.

Johnson'' s Wind Mill.
F. G. Johnson, Brooklyn, L. I. The best windmill.

^Silver medal awarded.
Specimens of Jirtijicial Stone.
The American Artificial Stone Company, 340 Broadway, N. Y.
It is composed of sand, plaster, and blood — three-fourths sand,
and one-fourth plaster, (or sulphate of lime,) moistened with
blood. Is capable of being moulded into the most elaborate
architectural ornaments, copies of sculpture, suitable for park
and garden ornaments, monuments, &c. It assumes the charac-
ter of stone in a few hours, without baking, or any other speci-
fic treatment, after being moulded. A few days hardening en-
ables it to resist a considerable crushing pressure, and renders
it fit to take its place, with suitable care, among the ordinary
materials of a city building, and to withstand the action of the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

101

elements, becoming harder continually as it acquires age. It is

of course very cheap.

l^Silver medal awarded.

Daniels' Sf Raymond's Machine for Cutting Corn Stalks.
Daniels k Raymond, Woodstock, Vt., awarded a silver medal
for the best corn stalk cutter.

Patent Anchor Supporter and Tripper.

S. R. Bryant, 97
and 99 Columbia-
street. The anchor
tripper is represen-
ted by the annexed
cut. It may be at-
tached to any suit-
\^\ j; / able part of the cat-
^^rt\/ head. Ey reference
to the cut it may be
seen that one end of

102

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

a chain is secured to the cathead or bulwarks, the other end being
run through the eye or ring of the anchor, and placed on the
supporter, between the frame and the guard. On the top of the
tripper frame is a movable pawl or holdfast, with a ring, which
is in contact with the supporter. Now, by lifting the pawl, it
may be seen (the supporter being a little bevelled,) that the
anchor hanging on the same, will force the supporter backward
within the frame, and allow the anchor to drop freely. On se-
curing the anchor again, run the chain tlirough its eye as before,
rest the link in the supporter, and drop the pawl when all is
secure and in readiness again for dropping.

Bryant's Friction Cable Stopper.

All cable stoppers used to the present time stop the cable in-
stantly. It is immediately seen that the wear and tear of the
cable, vessel, &c., by the present mode of stopping, is very great;
also, the shock anytliing but agreeable.

Thousands of pounds of cable running out at a great velocity,
to be suddenly checked, it is easily perceived, has a tendency
every time to strain the weaker links, and in a short time de-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 103

stroys one's confidence in the cable; in fact, it can never be de-
pended on with certainty at anchor in rough weather.

Above, the cut represents the friction cable stopper; it is
simple in its construction, and not liable to get out of order. It
consists of cast iron bed or frame having one fixed law firmly se-
cured to the deck, and one movable jaw and plate in one piece
that slides in guides on the top of same, between which jaws
passes the cable. The movable jaw plate is moved by eccentrics
acting against the same, the eccentrics being attached to the shaft
over the plate having sockets for levers or handspikes.

Operation — Pass the cable through the jaws and connect it to
the anchor; put the levers into their sockets, allowing them to
be in nearly a vertical position; let the hands stand by their
levers to bear down; when the word is given, let go the anchor;
when the word is given to stop (which may be when the cable is
run out about three-quarters the length required,) bear down
upon the levers, thus creating friction, that the remainder of the
cable may be stopped gradually, and without any straining of
the cable or vessel, or the least shock felt. It may now be
clutched or pinned, (not shown in the cut,) and all is secure.

The anchor trippers and stopper may be applied in half a day

by any ordinary carpenter. \^A silver medal was awarded for the

best anchor tripper, and a diploma for an anchor stopper.

Specimens of Breckenridge Coal and its products.
F. F. Thompson, 3 Wall street. The Breckenridge coal is found
in the western part of the State of Kentucky, within a few miles
of the Ohio river. The mines cover an area of eleven square
miles, and are situated part in Hancock and part in Breckenridge
coimties. This coal was discovered only about four yeai-s ago,
and the mines have been in operation but a year.

This mineral is improperly called cannel coal, although it is
different in its qualities from any coal heretofore discovered. It
has an even grain like hard wood, and can be readily cut with an
axe or knife in even square blocks. When cut open it presents a
smooth, glossy surface, perfectly black, there being no brown shade,
and the texture is so fine and close that it will not soil the whitest
kid glove rubbed upon it. Pieces of it under the graver's tools or
in the lathe, can be converted into all the ornamental forms made
from ivory, and can be carved into broaches, handles, &c., &c.,
resembling the bog-oak carvings so much sold in Dublin, Ireland.

As a fuel, the Breckenridge coal is the nearest approach to a
wood fire of any known mineral. It burns with the freedom and

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

brightness of split pine wood, making a most brilliant and cheerful
fire, and lasting as long as the English cannel coal, and leaving
but a small quantity of white ashes, which can be used with
advantage in enriching garden soil.

But the most notable features of this coal are, the various
oleagineous products which it contains. By distillation and
chemical decomposition, one ton of it can be resolved into one
hundred gallons of thin, oily tar, known as " crude coal oil."
This oil, upon re-distillation, will yield the following products in
their order, commencing at a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, and
rising.

1st, 20 gallons of benzole, a resinous matter, a colorless spirit,
useful for making "benzole gas," and also for dissolving crude india-
rubber or gutta-percha, preparatory to manufacturing articles; the
benzole evaporating and leaving the rubber solid and perfect.

2d. 28 gallons of illuminating oil or " kerosine." A thin oil,
of a rich wine color, which will burn in a button-argand lamp,
with the whiteness and brilliancy of camphene, and has no
explosive qualities whatever.

3d. 35 gallons of lubricating or " parafine oil," a fatty matter.
This oil can be made thin or less body, according to the amount
of " parafine " allowed to remain in it. Upon first coming over
from the still it is of a dark color, but can be easily made clea
and transparent.

4th. 25 pounds of " parafine wax," a substance in ever}
respect equal to the finest candle wax, having a beautiful whitt
and transparent appearance.

The residuum left after the re-distillation, is a very small
quantity of cinder, which would be of the nature of asphaltum,
if the parafine were not extracted. There must also be, aside
from this, some waste in process of purification.

After the first process of extracting the " crude oil," there
remains in the retorts sufficient coke (of a good quality) to
supply fuel to every department of the manufactory.

Some coal oil works now in operation make no distinction of
the above products, but convert the whole into an illuminating
oil, calling it " kerosine." [^ silver medal awarded.

Statuary Marble Mantels.
John Kennedy, corner of 35th street and Broadway.

Mr. Kennedy exhibited in 1855 seven different specimens of
mantels, of the most exquisite workmanship and design, and ex-
ecuted in the highest style of art.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 105

No. 1. Prize mantel, Ranaissance, a mixture of various classic
orders. On either side will be seen a classic Vestal, standing
under a canopy of elaborate workmanship, and thus forming the
support of friezes of foliage, through which are seen squirrels,
paroquettes, chameleons, and grotesque heads. In the center of
the friezes is a shield, supported by the stems of the foliage, and
surmounted by a griffin's head. See plate.

ISTo. 2. Prize statuary mantel. French Renaissance, ornamented
with figure and foliage center piece; the friezes of the richest
composition of fruit, flowers and foliage; pilasters on the angles,
with rich trusses, with storks standing in bold relief. This man-
tel is of unsurpassed workmanship. Price, $1,81)0.

No. 3. Prize statuary mantel. Italian Renaissance. This man-
tel is a composition of ornaments, fruit, flowers, and birds; chaste
and beautiful pilasters on the angles, with elegantly finished
trusses, and parrots standing in slings, in alto relief. On the
center piece is a vine of ivy, wreathed around a bird's nest, the
female sitting on the nest, the male standing on the edge, in alto
relief. The price of this mantel is $1,100.

No. 4. Prize statuary mantel. French Renaissance. This
mantel is executed in the latest style of art, ornamented with a
figure, birds, butterflies, foliage, and flowers; pilasters of exqui-
site finish on the angles. Price, |1,000.

No. 5. Prize statuary mantels. Of the latest style; orna-
mented with elaborate pilasters of fruit and flowers, with simple
female bust trusses, of chaste design, and figure of Vanity on the
center piece, with mirror in hand, reclining on a couch, and
friezes to correspond. Price, $1,001).

No. 6. Italian Renaissance, ornamented with fruit, flowers, and
foliage, i^ilasters on the angles, and bold flowered trusses to sup-
port the shelf. Price, $700.

No. 7. Italian Renaissance. This mantel is a composition of
fruit, flowers, and foliage, ornamented with rich pilasters on the
angles, of very tasteful design. Price, $700.

These mantels were exquisitely wrought, and were universally
admired, and were equal to the finest Italian work.

[Gold medal awarded.

OPENING ADDRESS

AT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL FAIR OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE,
AT THE CRYSTAL PALACE, OCTOBER, 1855.

[By the Hon. Henry Meigs, Recording Secretary.]

Ladies and Gentlmen — The managers of this fair charge me
with the duty of opening it; I obey them, and will try to do it to
their liking and yours; knowing that whether I shall be so fortu-
nate as to open it properly or not, when opened, the captivating
display of our beloved country's annuals will please you. This
palace, w4th its lofty dome, as we approach it, reminds us strongly
of our Cole's beautiful painting, the Temple of Fame — merit
climbs to its sublime portals — and merit enters our Crystal Palace
of American Industry.

On the 27th of September last, the day of our possession of this
palace, a great power was here, mighty in peace and in war — the
Press ! — the authors and publishers of our republic — almost olie
thousand of them w^ere here assembled with one hearty good will.
We hail this Areopagus of the wit and the science of this continent.
For us it was " an omen hand raalum^'' a good omen, for " Dum
stant literge stet Respublica — Quando cadent literse cadet Respub-
lica, as was said of the great pantheon at Rome. While know-
ledge stands, the Republic stand — when that falls, the Republic
falls. While all temples and monuments fall, letters still sur-
vive. What Horace said of his beautiful poems nineteen hundred
years ago, is not only true now, when those lines of his are more
universally read than ever — but there is not a doubt that they will
be nineteen hundred years to come ! Such is the immortality of
Letters. It is the greatest glory of man that he can frint and
read! Of all the exhumed relics of antique cities, as Nineveh, for
example, the gem sought for are Letters. If we could find a
JVineveh Times newspaper, the Directory of the city, the City
Manual, the approved Histories, &c., in their libraries — what a
prize ! — worth more to us than a temple full of diamonds.

One year of American genius and work is what the Institute

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

*

claims to exhibit, and calls for the grand result in the order in
which the Legislature of oui* State arranged in our charter — that is,

First — Agriculture.

Second — Commerce.

T/iird — Manufactures .

Last — The arts.

You see that the cultivator of the earth is here, as in our Holy
Bible, placed in the front rank of all the immense army of workers
on our globe. And thankful are we for this graad command, " In
the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, 'til thou return unto
the ground; for out of it wast thou taken : for dust thou art and
unto dust shalt thou return."

All nations who obey this law flourish ! — those who despise it
always die, as well individually as nationally. And tliis law is
delivered to each human being; so that no class, nor any indi-
vidual has a right to be idle, however he may be one of Virgil's
" Fruges consumer e 7iati" which I render into our language,
" Born to eat the corn.''^

We are bound to ' ' work until the day cometh wherein no man
can work." Since this Republic came of age, and tliat was in my
time, although I am still young I She has worried the earth with
her plow and the sea with her keels — she has loomed it so that
she can cover the nakedness of the world with her cotton cloth —
she has made myriads of pieces of it for sixpence a yard, worth
five times as much for strength and beauty as the old hum-hums
which for ages came from the poor hand looms of the East Indians,
those woven hum-bugs which had no merit but slazinessl And
we fetch and carry now, to the amazement of the world, in our
clippers and steamers — those clippers whose lofty sails and clean
long floors, and sharp runs, run away almost from the steamers,
and carry cargoes of four thousand tons — enough almost to sink
an old first-rate man of war.

There is an old saying, that there is " No royal road to learn-
ing." No age but this more fully illustrates that saying. The
destruction of the old law of primogeniture by the founders of
our republic, drew tears of joy from the early republicans of our
country. I have seen those tears shed. Now all share, and
share alike. There was anciently no road which was true, level,
and passable at high speed. Now, by railroads, if made around
the world, one might run from here to California in four days.

Bridges were made in all the world to be fixtures over streams.
Now, Field, the Jimerican^ makes them locomotives. They take

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 109

on board railroad trains, and whatever else, and carry them
over the river, thus leaving large spaces of river for boats and
ships to pass.

We call your attention to an American invention which has
attracted the attention of London and Paris; I mean the elevated
railway of John Randel, Jr., one of our most accurate engineers.
His plan has the approval of the celebrated engineer of England,
Brunei, who proposes to make the Eelt railway all around Lon-
don at a cost of one hundred and fifty millions of dollars. And
he is followed by most eminent French engineers, who propose a
like splendid belt railway for Paris. Mr. Randel was selected
by the distinguished commissioners, Clinton, Rutherford and
another, to lay out the island of New-York into its streets and
avenues. He did it with such mathematical exactness as to defy an
error of half an inch in ten miles. He also insisted upon a plan
which would save tliis city from entire destruction by fire. He
demanded avenues and cross streets at frequent spaces so wide
that fire could not cross them. He could not obtain as many as he
wished, because owners of land to be taken annoyed him exces-
sively in the progress of his survey, on account of the great space
taken for tliese^re arrestors.

You behold in the machinery department a very valuable novelty
in motive power. The ignition engine invented by Dr. Alfred
Drake, of Philadelphia. It is twenty horse power. The motive
power is coal or other gas, mixed with nine or ten times its hulk
of atmospheric air, confined in the cylinder, and there ignited,
and then exerting great pressure. It uses fuel in a gaseous state,
and has no separate heater, furnace, or smoke pipe or boiler. The
economy of it will be great, for it requires about one-twelfth part
of the space for its fuel that is now necessary for the stowage of
coal; and there is no danger from explosion or from fire, either
accidental or from the spontaneous combustion of its fuel. The
great saving of space for fuel will enable it to run rail cars or
vessels long distances without further supplies.

Wliy should I attempt to describe the rich oftering of our free
people now in the Crystal Palace. They exalt us; they fill us
with lawful pride; they constitute the ten talents which we have
of those the Lord gave us. He bid us leave the old world and
every thing but our Bible behind us. We put on one of our first
shiedls, our faith in his support. We said, " Qui transtulit sus-
tinetP He xoho transplanted iis sustains us. He appointed this
continent for our garden, and we are to till it.

110 TBANSACTIONS OF THE

The Messrs. As pin walls offered to the Institute gi-atuitous freight
of the splendid vegetable productions of that gold field, our Cali-
fornia— tliose vegetables distinguished from tliose of all the globe
by their enormous Brobdignagian growth. Some cunning agronomes
love to think that they should li]i;e to raise such vegetables by the
same special manure, for that an acre manured with about twenty
cart loads of gold dust would raise beets of sixty-four pounds
weight (one of which we had on our table at the Repository re-
cently.) But our mine of vegetable riches is the convpost heap.

I beg leave to ask for Lawton, of New Rochelle, a bow from
the lovers of blackberries for his zeal and indomitable industry in
making extensive the very valuable berry called by his name.
It ranks as a fruit among the upper ten, and its claims to that
rank, whether called Lawton or not, will be voted by every tongue
which tastes its delicious pulp. How can one man tell the merits
of the thousands of American production here. I give it up!
Our inventions continue to penetrate other countries. Austri.
avails herself through her intelligent Consul -General, of all that
is useful among us. She has recently established extensive fac-
tories of agricultural implement and machines from our models,
preferring them to those of Em-ope and her own together.

A citizen of Maryland is now here with recommendations from
Secretary Marcy, and other most respectable citizens, endeavoring
to establish in tliat beautiful island the '^siemprefeliz yfel isla de
Cw6a," {ever happy and faithful^) the Queen of the Antilles! a
depot for all the productions of our country. He adverts to the
valuable measures for like purposes taken by the Rev. J. C.
Fletcher, late Secretary of Legation to the Brazils, to cause a
mutual exchange of the two countries in such good things.

The Institute is always pleased to establisli relations of this
kind with all the nations of the earth. It is justly said, learning
and virtue are of no nation exclusively, have a free passport over
all the globe, but materials fall under restrictions for tax pur-
poses, and others wliich we wish to remove. We have said
steadily for years that we are ready for real free trade, at all
times with any brotherly minded people.

You will find here samples of the sea island cotton plant with
its balls, and the rice plant from Sullivan's island, South Caro-
lina, sent by the Hon. .lacob Bond Ion.

But how enumerate !

Here is utility rendered splendid by our people. Behold the
multitude of articles of the first necessity, made in the best man-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. Ill

nerj to us more precious than all the gorgeous splendor of
royalty.

Now, ladies and gentlemen, allow me to close these crude re-
marks by declaring that the managers and the whole body of the
Institute are most happy to see you here. Your smiles and your
approbation will be the great prize at which they aim, a thousand
fold more precious than the prize of Sebastopol, and let me beg
every one in America to aim at doing something which he or she
will glory to see in this palace, and let us all dress and keep this
great garden of America which God has so graciously given us. Oh !
give us clean hearts and free hands, and we will make a republic
from ocean to ocean, and from the Arctic circle, where one Frank-
lin was lost, through this zone, where a great Franklin was found,
to the tropic of Cancer, tilled with good things. Let all hands
be at work for such an immense good, and may our glorious Bible,
pure and uncorrupted, remain in every hand from infancy to old
age, that all may truly worship the God and Saviour of the world,
and so seek his blessing on all our doings.

AffllVERSARY ADDRESS

BEFORE THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, OF THE CITY OF NEW-YORK, AT
THE CRYSTAL PALACE, OCTOBER 25, 1855, DURING THE TWENTY-
SEVENTH ANNUAL FAIR.

[By LuTHEB R. Mabsh, Esq., of New-York.]

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen — Let us felicitate our-
selves on this most cheerful occasion. This is festal ground, and
this the season when the horn of plenty bestrews the earth with
golden grain. The purple grapes hang thick under the shelter-
ing leaves. The orchards bend with their delicious fruitage. The
gardens display their manifold productions. Our barns protect
unwonted treasures. And these lovely days in which the forest
leaf takes its bright, autumnal tinge, are gracefully conducting
us into a winter, against which we are guarded, in the kindness
of Providence, by an extraordinary prodigality. In spring, we
would not dare to rejoice; we would only hope; but, at this
autumnal festival, when peace reigns within our borders, and
plenteousness fills our palaces, and the varied fruits of the earth
are ripened and secure, we would mingle thanksgiving with joy,
and charity with praise .

It is, indeed, a fortunate season for our country. Never were
the labors of the husbandman rewarded with a more bountiful
harvest. The ground seems anxious to compensate us for the
meagre handsfull of the past year, with overfloAving bushels.
The coulter has cut its way through green-sward whicli never
knew the plough before. Large tracts of land have turned them-
selves, for the first time, up to the sun, to woo its genial rays.
Prairies, ignorant of culture, whose only labors were to raise
spontaneous vegetation, food for the annual fire that sweeps over
them with terrible devastation, have submitted themselves to
the dominion of the plough. The west is full of cereal treasures.
Pharaoh's lean kine last year were upon us, but this is a year of
fatness and plenty,

[Am. Inst.] 8

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Never, before, in our country, have we so deeply felt our de-
pendence upon agriculture. We were, indeed, in a hazardous
condition. Though the early season gave goodly token, yet the
drought dried up the roots and the sun wilted the blade. We
had nothing to send abroad, to meet the foreign demand upon us,
but cold, hard cash. The circumstances in which Europe found
herself, the withdrawal of her industry from productive depai't-
ments, the conversion of the pruning-hook into the sword, the
necessity of supplying the contending hosts on the shores of the
Euxine rendered the demands upon us yet more frequent and
imperious ; and the great magnet she applied towards our pre-
cious metals drew them all away. Still were we indebted to
her, and still her cry was gold. The busy diggers in the shining
sands of California, could not meet the deficiency. Fast as
steamers brought it to us, faster yet faster, steamers took it away.
A commercial crisis was upon us. Our banks were nervous.
Our merchants, some of them gave way, and others looked with
di-ead into the future. All was doubt and fear. It was evident
that another year of leanness would sweep away all our commer-
cial accommodations and break the country. Disaster and bank-
ruptcy thrust their haggard visages in at the door. Eut what
news was that which gave us sudden hope and joy, and dispelled
the fearful apprehension? It was, that the earth gave promise of
abundant increase. Every tongue became suddenly inspired to
talk of crops. Every newspaper rejoiced to send forth its hopeful
intelligence. Men, who had vainly supposed that their own oc-
cupations were the most important of all, began to feel, how in-
significant they were, if the farmer should fold Ms hands, or the
sun and sky withhold their blessing. Even commerce, who had
flapped her idle wings, and cried for bread, partook the general
joy. The promise was not illusory. Ne'er looked the sun on
broader fields of waving grain. Ne'er fell more laden swarths
before the scythe, the sickle and the reaper. Never stood up
sturdier sheaves as sentinels of prosperity, and never did the
searching hoe find thicker treasures waiting the light. All over
the land are granaries bursting with fullness; and every avenue
is crowded with the offerings of the earth, seeking the markets
by the sea. Placed beyond fear or doubt, by this profusion of
the soil, business resumes its wonted channels, the hammer again
rings on the anvil, the adze is active in the ship-yard, the builder
rears his free-stone palaces, the marts of the merchant are filled
with purchasers, and activity reigns in every department of life.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 116

The ocean is covered witli our grains, seeking to empty their
heavy bags at the feet of our creditors.

We are, therefore, compelled to appreciate the importance
of the tillage of the soil. It underlies all the other avocations
of men, as their basis and sub-stratum. Like the primal rock,
whose gigantic ribs and bones sustain the waters and their Heets,
the fertile ground and its array of verdure, the lordly tree and
modest tiower, man and his mansions, — so agriculture upholds
all other employments, and provides the foundation, too often
forgotten, on whicli they are erected. It is the fuel that feeds
them all. It gives motive power to the great locomotive of
human achievement. Without its aid, mortal activities would
stagnate and die. Art w^ould sink into the dust; science stop
in its triumphal demonstrations; commerce languish and expire;
and every avenue pursued by human enterprise, now margined
with beauty, covered and lost under the arid sands of the desert.
The merchant sends his stately argosies abroad, and, with far-
seeing vision, considers how the wants of one people may be
supplied by the productions of another; and yet he interchanges
but the results of agriculture in their original or modified forms.
If he brings over the waves the aromatic leaf of China, the
coveted berry of Java, or the spices of the Indian isles, he but
supplies our w^ants with the tillage of the Orient. If his glad
ship is freighted with the golden and mellow fruits of the Medi-
terranean, she yet spreads her canvass in the service of Pomona.
Whether cocoa or the almond, grapes or figs, cotton or tobacco,
flour or wool, meats or mahogany, appear upon his manifest, he
is yet transporting substances which derive existence from the
nurture of the soil. Nay, though his invoice may register only
the products of the loom, — whatever form the fabric may assume
— he traces back the origin of his cargo to the i^roliflc earth,
mingled, though it may have been, with mechanical, as well as
agricultural labor.

Unless a large portion of our race shall devote its time, indus-
try, and skill, with needful appliances, and due regard to seed-
time and harvest, in constantly inviting the good old earth to
pour its energies through branch and stem into the yellow grain
or rounded fruit, starvation, or at best a lean and scanty sub-
sistence, would await humanity, and check, at once, all eflfbrt
and aspiration. The muscles of the smith's arm, growing flabby
and diminished, could no longer wield the ponderous sledge.
The last human habitation would have been reared, and mason,

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

carpenter, and architect, sink together into inactivity. No fee
could tempt the lawyer's tongue. Considerations of a momentous
future would prompt no pulpitieal discourse; the surgeon's glit-
tering knife would rust; the pen of novelist or accountant would
not be plucked from its original wing, the marble would tarry
in its unquan-ied bed; and eloquence, poesy and music, flee to
their native heaven.

Successful agriculture calls for something more than the mere
application of sinew. It is not. enough to plant and hoe. Intel-
lectual must mingle with physical toil; a good head, as well as a
strong arm, is required. In the development of the best modes
of agricultural cultivation, observation, study, and experiment,
are as necessary, as in the progress of natural philosophy. It is
not only in itself a science, but other sciences contribute, and
are indispensable to its success. The study of soils — the best
mode of em-iching them — the proper alternation of crops — the
adaptation of ground to wheat or corn, oats or hemp, root crops
and vines, or clover and the grasses; the application of chemical
principles to the treatment of the ground — the exhausting powers
of certain productions — the best system of irrigation — the re-
clamation of swamp land — the true time for sowing or harvesting,
or felling of timber — the introduction of labor-saving machinery,
or of ncAV grains, plants or gi-afts — how provisions may be pre-
served— ^how cattle may be fattened, and breeds improved, and
a hundred other kindred topics, are subjects, it may be readily
seen, requu-ing something more than superficial examination;
calling rather for the highest efforts of scientific industry.

McCormick has sent off hundreds of his reapers, to gather foreign
harvests; some prostrating their sheaves in England, some in Ger-
many, and some in El Dorado. There was head work as well as
hand work in the invention of this implement. The idea would
never have dawned upon stupidity. Mere manual labor would
not have called it forth. It was an efiort of genius, and the oldest
husbandman of Europe acknowledged its superiority, and gladly
welcomed it to revolutionize their modes of labor. And now,
Manny, in the same department, has borne off the honors on the
fields of France. Surely there is room for the play of intellect
in the pursuit of agriculture The real farmer cannot allow many
cells of liis brain to remain inactive. The study of vegetable and
animal physiology, of agricultural geology, of entomology, of
chemistry and meteorology, might well divide his time with the
labors of the spade. It is supposed by many, that if a man can

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 117

do nothing else — if he has not mathematics enough to draw a
hand-saw through a slender branch, yet there is one employment
to wliich his gifts are adequate, to wit, the culture of the soil.
But though a man may sever a tree without a very accurate
philosophical idea of the attraction of cohesion, still it requires
some experience to know which way the sturdy trunk will fall. A
man may dig, though he never heard of gravitation, and be
entirely ignorant of the principle that renders muscle necessary
in the upheaving of the soil. He may plant, and not know why
his seed would not draw nutriment as well from a bed of stone or
fossiliferous ore. He may ply his industrious sickle, and not sus-
pect, that in some effervescing brain there is shaping out an ideal
form, which, when it has molded a material substance into its
own image, will run through the falling grain and laugh at the
strength of a thousand arms. But agriculture, in its true sense,
is an Encyclopcedia in itself— requiring great knowledge, fine
powers of observation, high mental cultivation, assiduous thought
and study, and opens its ai-ms to ingenuity and invention.

There are other reasons why the science of agriculture has not
been brought to the highest perfection in America. Our acres are
so broad, and every man's fences enclose such ample fields, that
it has not seemed necessary to devote so much labor to economical
production as in the more divided glebes of Europe. An English
patch receives the spade as many times as an American farm.
In the great valleys and mighty plains of the West— where seas
of land stretch to the setting sun — the common admeasui-ements
of roods, and rods and perches, are superseded by the more con-
renient expressions of miles and leagues. Certainly if we have
not more land to the acre, we have more acres to the land.

Besides, we have an unworn soil, in original freshness and
vigor, which for ages has been fattening itself with its own pro-
ductions, and is now rich with their accumulated strength.

But a man, on whom the heavens have showered their high
endowments, and filled with great capacities, is the more culpable
if he neglects these natural advantages, and hides his talents in a
napkin. So this country, fitted to become the producer for all
commercial nations, with its boundless area and unexampled
fertility, should yet the more bring all the secrets of science to
its aid.

Yet, with all these advantages, the business of the farmer is, I
think, as a general thing, more poorly conducted tlian that of any
other commanding class in the realm. The farmer likes to walk

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

in the steps of his father. He is too conservative easily to con-
sent to innovation. His fields lie out of doors, and he dislikes
to be laughed at by his neighbors. He is too much disposed to
disregard or treat with levity the labors of the laboratory. He
stands too l^ravely by the errors of the past. He thinks no light
can be gained in his vocation except from him who has trodden
the furrows. Eut science is gaining upon him, in spite of him-
self. He is driven in from one error to another. He is com-
pelled to receive the light. Here and there a farmer of science
and study, introduces new theories, imports new ideas, and
advances his neighbors in the knowledge of their calling. The
published discussions of your Institute contribute materially to
this improvement. And the opportunities your fairs afford, for
the display of the choicest productions, encoui-age rivalry and
stimulate ambition.

To help bend public attention to the importance and love of
agriculture, is a duty of patriotism. How many attestations
have we, of its influence on character, in most of those men, in
whose memories our country rejoices, and whose words and deeds,
in peace or war, have added to her renown. Their early years
have generally passed in the discipline of the farm. By its
healthful labors, their muscles were hardened and their constitu-
tions confirmed. Here they breathed the air of freedom, and
learned the great lesson of reliance on themselves. How Wash-
ington delighted to lay aside the insignia of chieftainship, and
retire to the peaceful labors of his farm. A man who works in
the soil, of which he holds the muniments of title, and who
watches and receives its growth, has an intenser attacliment to
the land, than he whose interest dies out with the expiration of
his lease. A greater love for agriculture would counteract the
tendency of oiu- countrymen to gather on the rim of the Atlantic,
and exempt us from such tender sensibility to the changes, the
reverses, and the oscillations of Europe.

For more than thirty years, efforts have been made in our own
State, to establish an Agricultural College, but they have not
yet been successful in founding any school, in which the science
can be adequately taught; yet, the cultivators of her soil number
half a million. Nor has any other State been more fortunate.
State Legislatures are deaf, and Congress will not hear. In
other countries the subject is better appreciated. Agricultural
schools and colleges are established in England, Ireland and
Scotland, in France and other Continental nations. The one at

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 119

Grignon, near Paris, with a farm of 750 acres, and with 80
pupils, embraces some of the mathematical sciences in its teach-
ings, with meteorolgy, mineral chemistry, mineralogy, geology,
botany, agricultural zoology, arboriculture, rural architecture,
farm accounts, rural economy and law, and a variety of other
subjects pertaining to rural affairs. The National Institute, at
Versailles, occupies near four thousand acres of land. In Europe
more than 350 schools exist for agricultm-al education. We have
not an institution of the kind in the United States. Let us hope,
that while we run ahead of the world in many departments, we
may not fall so far behind in this most important branch of
knowledge. Where more than one thousand millions of arable
acres spread out their inviting surface to culture, we ought to
expect that schools and colleges, where the best mode of cultiva-
tion may be taught, will soon take position with the educational
institutions of the country. This Institute is performing a great
duty, in hastening the day. An Empire, such as the world has
never seen, is rising up on this great continent. No language or
people, whose representatives are not pressing to its shores. The
tumultuous tide of population is surging westward, o'ertops the
summits of the mountains, and runs down to the Pacific. An
ocean greets us on our right hand, and another on our left. Be-
tween these seas, and touching each, is spread the amplest domain
of fertility that lies beneath the sun. In this, its earliest state of
cultivation, let us do our part towards the inauguration of a sys-
tem of education, which shall ultimately entitle this magnificent
dominion to be called the hope, the granary, and the garden
of the world.

Turn we now, for the brief remainder of our space, to that
other branch of industry and prosperity which comes, especially,
within the scope of this Society; for the two main abutments on
which the arch of your Institute reposes, are agriculture and
manufactures; the latter including those inventions, which are
at once the subject and the cause of manuflictures.

It is well to feel the assurance, that beneath the fertile soil of
our own land, there are stowed away infinite resources, which
can scarcely be perceptibly grazed by a century of consumption.
Day by day new store houses of wealth are uncovered to the light.
The metallic and mineral mountains of Pennsylvania are so
heavy, that we wonder they do not sink down to the central fires.
The red sands of Jersey conceal her veins of iron and her beds
of zinc. Maryland displays her seams of coal, and the Virginian

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Alleghanies are crowded with wealfh. New- York lifts up her
towering hills of solid iron. Vermont turns out her veined and
delicate marble, and her purple slate. The great lake beats on
a copper shore. The western slope of the Appalachian range,
and the vast valley beyond, are filled with wonderful deposits,
while the dreams of avai'ice and the visions of fancy are more
than realized in the uncounted gold that glows along the rivers
of the West, and veins the rocks of the Nevada. Our manufac-
turing resources, therefore, packed within our hills, are equal to
our agricultural; marked by Providence is this great land, for
every variety of production, for every source of opulence, and
for every description of labor.

But I would glance at the field of invention, which seems the
peculiar favorite of American genius.

This serial edifice has hitherto stretched its roof of glass over
the choicest results of the ingenuity of every nation. It was an
epitome of the industry of the world. Those curious strangers
have disappeared. They have gone to the homes where they
were spoken into being, to relate the story of their visit to the
Western world. There places are filled with the products of
American skill. Our eyes rest solely upon the acliievements of
our own genius. As we glance along these aisles, we leai-n what
our own country has been doing; what contributions she has
brought to the benefit of the race. Here are our representatives.
This is our Congress. By these let us be judged. No prouder
triumph need we ask than that of being foremost in evoking the
powers and capacities of nature to the aid of man. This is the
great battle-field in which we would seek for victory, where con-
tests do not result in human misery. No groans salute the ear;
no dismembered bodies cover the ground; no shouts of armies
frighten the air; nor in such contests are treasures expended,
friends bereaved, cities razed, or blight and desolation spread
over the land. Whoever is victorious, there is no enemy to suJBfer,
and all are benefited by the success of each.

One cannot help observing, as he visits the numerous models
you have called together, how American invention fixes its gaze
upon the substantial objects to be achieved. It wastes no time on
forms adapted merely to please the eye. Its energies are not
expended in the creation of the beautiful. It devotes itself to
the utilities. We live in a land where great work is to be done;
and the best mode of doing that work, is the j^roblem that our
inventors are busy in solving. How shall the wilderness be

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 121

prostrated; how shall cities be built; how shall our great rivers
be spanned; how shall the remote points of our territory be
brought together ; our vast fields be cleared and plowed, and their
productions garnered; our inland seas navigated; our two oceans
linked by railroads ; oiu' commerce extended ; how shall machinery
do all the varied work of hands, and supply, by ingenuity, speed
and power, the lack of laborers. Our territory and our popula-
tion are so disproportioned, that mechanical agencies are necessary
to be called in, and macliines required which can each perform
the labors of a hundred men. Therefore it is that these stout
engines of American growth has each a useful practical purpose
to perform. These silent forms by which we are sm-rounded, are
our aids — our workers — our executive body. They ai-e obedient
and willing servants, so many unconsuming and uncomplaining
laborers in the service of our country.

In the great Exhibition at Paris, in a conspicuous rotunda of
dazzling light, the crown-jewels, carefully guarded, flash upon
the beholder their rainbow hues. But these gems of royalty did
not grow in France, nor do they furnish evidence of the progress
of her people. Our crown-jewels stand along these aisles. These
useful forms, these ingenious powers, are the gems that burn in
the diadem of America.

Walk into the department of agricultural implements, and see
to what perfection they are brought. The reaper, the mower,
the hcirvester, some of them, as they reach out their long arms to
gather the fallen grain or grass, seem instinct with intelligence.

The workers in wood, how wonderfully have they superseded
the labor of the hand, and, with ease, rapidity and unerring
precision, producing shapes and curves and wreaths, which, even
recently, it was supposed machinery could not reach. The lathe
seizes its rough timber, and, in an instant, it is moulded into
smooth and graceful form. Another machine takes the rough
wood, and with a marvellous dexterity, converts it into drawers
and boxes, and hands them to you, dove-tailed, fitted and
complete.

There is the tough stranded rope, braided before your eyes, in
a moment of time, from the loose spools of flax.

Pour into that hopper a thousand bushels of grain, and, with-
out aid from man, it is self-weighed, and sell-discharged, the
results are accurately self-recorded, and a glance at the chal tells
you its pecuniary value in an instant. This is the automaton of
the mills.

122 TRANSACTIOjfS OF THE

That compact machine cuts the thick sheets of boiler-plate, in
straight lines, cm-ves, or angles, as if they were ribbons in its
hands — a demonstration of colossal power that fills us with
wonder.

How deeply interested are all who travel, in that potent car-
brake, by which, in sudden emergencies, the engineer, of his own
motion, without other aid, may bring the endangered train to a
speedy period, though plunging thirty miles an hour; or in that
life-preserving seat, whose value Napoleon has recently acknow-
ledged with substantial reward, or in that life-preserving boat,
which winds cannot break or surges drown.

Now, let the locomotive with its freighted train, pause, for a
moment, on those massive scales, and its weight will be accu-
rately measured, to a fraction of a pound, though it may reach a
hundred tons.

Various cities have sent hither their finest models of fire en-
gines; so highly polished, you would scarcely think them adapted
to the hard service they are called on to encounter. These are
our standing armies against the invasion of flame, and manned
by as sturdy and heroic soldiers as ever served artilery, or
stormed the threatening wall.

We have only time to cull these few specimens from the gen-
eral cabinet to illustrate oiu' purpose.

When we consider the growth of these children of the mind, —
the first pale glimmer through a loophole of the imagination, —
the half seen form of the idea which stai-tled the electric nerve
of invention; and made the frame to glow with hope; the stub-
born material determined not to respond to the idea; the inani-
mate wood, or metal, or clay, obstinately refusing to imbibe the
spirit of man's precious thought, — the difiiculties surmounted,
the obstacles vanquished, we may well know that these repre-
sentatives, which stand so quietly in their places, have been born
amidst untold trials, and baptized in tears. The history of in-
vention is one of sorrow, poverty, deprivation, toil, disappoint-
ment, and too often, of a lack of any adequate pecuniary reward,
though millions of men may have participated in its advantages,
and recorded honors gathered around the names of its authors to
endure forever.

In some measure to compensate these ingenious men, for their
labor, skill and perseverance, the Government has established
its Patent Oflice, from which protective charters, for a given
term, issue to the successful inventor. It is too true, that the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 123

protection thus afforded is not always perfect. It can only be
enforced by expensive and protracted litigation. And, some-
times, an invention proves to be of such general necessity, that
popular sentiment takes possession of it by storm, and justice, for
a time, flees from the earth. Thus, it is said of Whitney, that he
was so indignant that the South should have taken his great in-
vention from him by force, that he died with an unrevealed, but
yet greater invention, in the secret chambers of his mind. Im-
perfect though it is, however, if we will but think of it, we shall
perceive that the patent system is one of the mightiest agents of the
time, in advancing the civilization, the comfort, and the pros-
perity of the country. Strike that system from existence, and
all the ingenious devices and meclianisms it has fostered into
being, and you bring us into a rude and comfortless age, and shed
upon us the very night of barbarism. We should feel the depri-
vation ever hour and minute of oiu* lives. Steam would cease
to be a power on earth; but, sleeping in its native elements,
would no longer impel our locomotives, whirl the paddles of our
steamers, or move the infinite variety of machinery, that buzzes,
shrieks, and thunders through the land. Your messages, that
travel by lightning express on timipite of wire, would lumber
along on the backs of mules. A rude press might work off by
hand a few issues in a day, but where would be the astounding
engines that with steam fingers pick up the sheet with the quick-
ness of thought, and with steam arms hurl the imprinted pages
far and near. Stroll through the four thousand productive or
manufactui'ing establishments of the city of New- York, Avhich
have an invested capital of forty millions, employ a hundred
thousand hands, and turn out annually manufactui-ed articles to
the value of one hundred and twenty millions of dollars, and
you cannot find a motive power that does not work through
patented agencies, and scarcely an implement which has not been
called into existence by an ingenuity stimulated and protected by
the Patent Ofiice. Look through your own houses, and what
ai'ticle of adornment, luxury, comfort or utility, that has not been
the subject of profound study and protracted experiment, till the
trimnph of ingenuity was rewarded with a patent. Almost every
thing we wear, or eat, or use, has, at some stage, received impulse
or benefit from some patented device.

If it require such incessant labors, such repeated trials, such
happy inspiration, to catch the flickering hint, and evolve, one
after another, these successive inventions, how much should we

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

admire that Infinite Power, which planted these concealed capa-
cities in elemental nature, to what extent we have just begun to
discover. Each new invention is a step forward into this bound-
less realm, and widens the scope of our vision, and brightens and
enlarges the prospect for the futui-e. We mount, with each in-
ventor, to his Pisgah of discovery, from which new lands of
promise loom upon the view.

Why such capacities should be permitted to lie idle and un-
known, unless to supply an everlasting field for the employment
of man, we can no more tell, than why the sun should dart forth
such a profusion of rays, which do not touch any of the worlds,
but, so far as we know, uselessly expend themselves in infinite
space. This universe is not created on any principle of narrow-
ness or stint. The great effulgence floods vacant space as well as
tenanted worlds, and innumerable powers, and applications of
powers, sleep unknown and unsuspected, waiting development
thi-ough the endless years that are to come.

Each new discovery helps to others. If a new truth shines
upon us, its ramifications are inexhaustible. As we continue to
explore it, its applications multiply upon us, till it seems illimit-
able, and runs its tendrils round the world. If we had but one
great original principle to work at, we never could exhaust it,
for it links itself to all the universe. The farther back we trace
these principles to their original springs amidst the elements of
truth, the nearer do we come to their common origin, and the
better illustrate the simplicity and unity of all truth. Take the
apparently unconnected sciences of music and mathematics.
Where will you find more ungenial companions than melody and
figures? How can harmonious strains find sympathy in the mul-
tiplication table, or concord be developed in the rule of three?
What bond is there between the intricate calculations of Le Ver-
rier and the massive combinations of Beethoven? Yet music is a
mathematical science. In cannot exist independent of numbers
and proportion. Its tones are magnitudes of time, or magnitudes
of sound. Exact proportions exist between the different scales,
the various keys, the protractions of sound, the spaces between
sounds : the wht)le science rests on a mathematical basis. These
instruments of music, so attractive at your fail-, are as much
mathematical as the compass or the rule. The truths that sus-
tain both sciences are the same : one phase is abstract numbers ;
another, melody.

If a new power is unfolded, how various are the uses to which

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 125

it will be applied ! What a slave it becomes, toiling in our
ranks ! When steam first applied its infant shoulders to lift the
kettle-cover before the eyes of Watt, how limited its expectant
uses even to the wildest hopes of that fortunate thinker ! Now,
behold the Giant of the nineteenth centurj'^, how he is compelled
to tug and strain the tireless sinews of his strength, in boundless
fields of usefulness and labor ! See how bravely he bears us
through the storm. Insensible to cold and careless of sleep, be-
hold the snow that blockades our patli fly before liim in the dim
star-light ! With mouth full of fire, and nostrils expanded with
smoke, hear him laugh defiantly at the solsticial rays, beneath
which every other laborer would melt. See him fm-row the bil-
lowy brine for millions of miles, and interchange the growth of
different zones. He spans the seas with bridges. He enters the
factory, and, seizing its central crank, he plies its complicated
machinery with inconceivable velocity and power. He weaves
our garments and carves our furniture. He multiiDlies our
thoughts in book and newspaper, and impels them through the
world. He bores his way through rock and mountain, and leaves
an avenue for the flow of commerce. He grinds the grain of
continents, and carries it to meet the necessities of man. He
clinches the tough quartz, and, crushing it in his iron fist, com-
pels it to surrender the golden treasure it so tightly held. He
lifts and excavates; he planes, and saws, and hammers, and yet,
with infinite and ethereal delicacy, he points the finest needle
and draws the metallic threads. No labor is too undignified for
him to perform — no task too heavy for Mm to accomplish. He
delights in noise, and dirt, and soot, and smoke. He is not
afraid of his dainty fingers. Wherever work is to be done, there
is his home. Whenever a difiicult job is placed before him, his
iron muscles fairly thrill with joy. See how, in the few years of
his wonderful activity, whole forests have gone down his throat,
leaves, and boughs, and mighty trunks ! And who shall say that
this laborious Titan has yet fully got himself in harness 1 What
we have seen him do, is merely preparatory service — the first
trial of his boyish strength, before commencing the serious busi-
ness of his life. To search out for him new modes of toil, will
furnish employment for man, perchance, while the world
endures.

In stimulating the progress of these great interests of the coun-
try, your Institution, whose twenty-seventh anniversary we are
now celebrating, has been of eminent service. It was the first

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

upon this model, in America, if not in the world. States and
counties are following your example. We may hope that the time
is not distant when there will not be a State or county in the
Union, deprived of the benefits of such a society, and these socie-
ties, in their turn, more or less tributary to their original.

One thing, Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Institute, your
association seems to demand, and that is, a convenient, adapted,
and permanent depository for the offerings confided to your charge.
What structure so suited to your object as this arch of crystal that
stretches now between us and the clouds ? Well christened was
it for such a purpose. Let it become the perpetual home of
American genius. Hitherward tend all the contributions of
American invention, so that if any one would know what America
is, and can become, let him bend his steps to this Temple of Uses.
If a new Whitney shall arise, whose throbbing brain shall start an
idea to improve the condition of every man in Christendom, let
some perpetual niche be assigned him in these halls. If some
modern Fitch, or Fulton, or Evans, shall descry some undiscovered
force to whirl us o'er land or main, let his monument be erected
here, within tliis enduring network of iron lace. If some un-
known Whittemore, with intense but bafiled industry, strives for
a great discovery which yet eludes him, till the heavens, in kind-
ness, let in the secret to his soul in the visions of the night, here
let his production stand to catch the gaze of the future. When
ever a Blanchard, a Perkins, a Bushnell, or an Eckford arises, on
the scroll of this Institute let his name be recorded. If Colt or
Sharp infuses six times additional power into an arm of our na-
tional defence — if Hobbes aifords us new security from violence—
if Steers shall launch new models of fleetness and beauty to glance
upon the waves — if Morse shall invade the arcana of the sky, and
bring the very bolts of heaven to do oiu- bidding — here let their
achievements be displayed and their titles vindicated.

CLOSING ADDRESS

DELIVERED AT THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL FAIR OF THE AMERICAN
INSTITUTE, AT THE CRYSTAL PALACE, NOVEMBER 10, 1855.

[By D. Meredith Reese, M.D., LL.D., Vice-President of the Institute.]

Ladies and Gentlemen — The illness of oiir worthy President;
Eobert L. Pell, Esq., has deprived us, dui'ing this entire exhi-
bition, of his invaluable services; and the same cause devolves
the duty upon me, to close this Twenty-seventh Annual Fair of
the American Institute.

It is now nearly six weeks since our Eoard of Managers ven-
tured upon the experiment of opening our usual annual exhibition,
in this spacious and splendid edifice. Hitherto we had occupied
for our successive fairs, the Masonic Hall, Niblo's Saloon, and,
more recently. Castle Garden, until the latter building was trans-
ferred by the city authorities to the Commissioners of Emigration,
who have converted it into a depot for their beneficiaries. In the
absence of any other location, our managers have leased for the
purpose the temporary occupancy of this building, which, as you
all know, was erected for kindred purposes, and known as the
Crystal Palace, in imitation of that of London, and for the exhi-
bition of the industry of all nations, by a World's Fair. The dis-
astrous experience of the association, in the financial department,
notwithstanding their successful and useful exhibition, having
brought this edifice into the hands of a receiver for the benefit
of its creditors and mortgagees, our attempt to resuscitate this
Crystal Palace, and renew and even excel its former attractions,
was regarded by many as presumptuous, and amid a multitude of
predictions of its failure, our managers resolved upon the experi-
ment.

Their reliance for success was upon the multitude of contribu-
tors, from the agriculturists, manufacturers, mechanics, and ar-
tizans of our own comitry, whom the well-earned popularity of
the American Institute had never failed to call forth, in response
to their generous and patriotic appeals. And they presumed,

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

that when it should be announced that this magnificent building
was about to be consecrated to American Industry, and that all
foreign products were to be excluded from competition with those
of our own countrymen, in accordance with the genius and policy
of the American Institute, nay, they felt assured that such an
event would be hailed with gratulation by every lover of our
common country.

Nor had our managers any apprehension of their failure to at-
tract visitors to their Fair in sufiicient numbers to cover the
extraordinary expenses, which the occupancy of this edifice would
occasion, provided only that their exhibition should merit the
public patronage. To this latter object, therefore, they devoted
all their energies, and the result is before you, in an exhibition,
which for extent, variety, novelty, and utility, we venture on
their behalf to claim, has never been exceeded in this or any
other country. While the public patronage extended to this Fair
has far exceeded our most sanguine expectations, this immense
structure being often found insufi&cient to accommodate the
thronging multitudes, who, to the number of more than 15,000,
have eagerly hastened hither to our nightly illuminations..

Indeed, it has been computed that during the fair, which com-
menced on the 1st of October, and which, after six weeks of con-
tinuance, we are now about to close, more than half a million of
visitors, from city and country, have inspected the fruits of Ame
rican industry and American art, as here collected for exhibition.
The liberality of the Board of Managers, in profusely distributing
complimentary cards of admission to an extent never before prac-
tised, and encouraging the young, by reducing the price of tickets
for their admission, together with the favor of the American
ladies, which has been extended to us far beyond any former ex-
hibition, have all contributed to the success of the Fair which is
now to close. Nor can we forbear to mention among the attrac-
tions of the present exhibition, the grand military display of our
citizen soldiery, for which tliis building has afforded so ample
space; while from these spacious and lofty galleries thousands
of our country-women rewarded their tactics and skill with their
brightest smiles, and the inspiration ever beaming from the eyes
of a whole galaxy of beauty gave luster to the scene.

It now only remains to announce the awards of gold and silver
medals, diplomas, and other testimonials, which have been de-
creed to the meritorious products of American industry, which
have this year been offered for competition. Let the arduous la-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 129

bors of the Board of Managers, their Premium committee, and
the Judges selected for the various departments be appreciated by-
all concerned, and they cannot fail to receive your approving
thanks, which is their only remuneration, save the honor and
happiness of participating in the patriotic and useful purposes
and objects of this American Institute. The announcements will
now be made by the proper officers, and the whole list be printed
and circulated with all convenient despatch, after which this
Twenty-seventh Annual Fair will finally close. May the Ameri-
can Institute, which has thus far conti-ibuted so largely to public
utility, continue to thrive and prosper, and may its successive
annual exhibitions continue to add to the glory and renown of
our common country.

[Am. Inst.]

LIST OF PREMIUMS

AWAEDED BY THE MANAGERS OF THE TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL
FAIR OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, OCTOBER, 1855.

AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

Corn, Wheat, Sfc.

Judges — J. G. Bergen, Nicholas Wyckoff, E. F. Reaney.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best collection of Indian
corn. Silver cup, $8.

A. G. Hammond, Elatbush, L. I., for the best 20 ears of white
co:fn. Silver medal.

Alfred Williamson, Jr., English Neighborhood, N. J., for the
second best 20 ears of white corn. Farmer's Encyclopaedia.

E. C. Davis, Staten Island, for the best 20 ears of yellow corn.
Silver medal.

C. M. Saxton, (Jacob Salter, farmer,) Orange, N. J., for the
second best 20 ears of yellow corn. Farmer's Encyclopsedia.

Russell Sturges, Staten Island, N. Y., for the best 15 ears of
sweet corn. 2 vols. Horticulturist.

John C. Thompson, Staten Island, N. Y., for the best Wyandot
corn, (6 stalks and 13 eai^s from a single grain,) a new variety,
worthy of attention. Farmer's Diet.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best and very superior
bushel of wheat. Silver cup, $8.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best bushel of rye.
Silver medal.

S. D. Crispell, Hurley, Ulster county, N. Y., for the second
best bushel of rye. 2 vols. Working Farmer.

S. D. Crispell, Hurley, Ulster county, N. Y.,for the best bushel
of oats. Silver medal.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the second best bushel of
oats. Stephen's Book of the Farm

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Paul Buchanan, Newark, N. J., for the best bushel of barley,
(emir, very large.) Silver medal.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best bushel of buckwheat.
Colman's European Agr.

Flour, Meal, Sfc.

Judges — A. B. Hance, S. Valentine, John Romei.

Hecker & Brother, New-York, for the best and very superior
wheat flour. Silver cup, $10.

Ross & Davis, Rochester, N. Y., for the second best wheat flour.
Silver cup, $8.

Bensel & Holman, New- York, for very fine corn farina,
hominy, and samp. Silver medal.

Hecker & Brother, New-York, for superior prepared floiu'. A
gold medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

Hecker k Brother, New- York, for very fine wheat farina, grits,
&c. Silver medal.

Products of the Dairy — Butter and Cheese.

Judges — Chas. M. Carpenter, Jesse K. Weeks, Aaron Car-
penter.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best specimen of butter.
Silver cup, $10.

Mrs. J. S. Hopkins, Goshen, N. Y., for the second best butter.
Silver cup, $8.

L. G. Andi-ews, Goshen, N. Y., for the third best butter. Silver
medal.

Samuel G. Stryker, Gravesend, L. I., for butter of fine quality.
Farmer's Dictionary.

J. W. Dunsmore, New- York, for a shipping cheese of very good
quality. Silver medal.

Wine.

Judges— A. D. Frye, Wm. Ebbett, P. B. Mead.

N. Longworth, Cincinnati, Ohio, for the best American wine.
A gold medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

J. D. Park, Cincinnati, Ohio, for the second best American
wine. Silver medal-
Charles A. Hulse, Washingtonville, N. Y., for very fine Isa-
bella wine. Silver medal.

Paul Buchanan, Newark, N. J., for Isabella wine of fine quality.
Elliot's Fruit Book.

Mrs. M. C. Conover, New-York, for very good currant wine.
Trans. Am. Institute.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 133

E. Everett, Cranbury, N. J., for the best and very fine wild
cherry wine. Barry's Fruit Garden.

Mrs. M. A. Grover, New Brunswick, N, J., for very good wild
cherry wine. Trans. Am. Institute.

Stephen Knowlton, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best metheglin.
Trans. State Agr. Soc.

Mrs. D. B. Conover, New- York, for the second best metheglin.
Trans. Am. Institute.

J. D. Park, Cincinnati, Ohio, for the best Catawba brandy.
Barry's Fruit Garden.

Gabriel Sleath, Cincinnati, Ohio, for Catawba brandy. Trans.
Am. Institute,

Fruit.

Judges — Wm. Eeid, Geo. B. Butler, Thos. Hogg, Saml. J.
Gustin.

Jno. W. Bailey, Plattsburgh, N, Y., for the best collection of
named apples. Silver cup, $10.

Joseph Parker, West Rupert, Bennington county, Vt., for the
second best collection of named apples. Silver cup, $8.

Caleb H. Eai-le, Newark, N. J., for the third best collection of
named apples. Silver medal.

Theodore Fowler, Fishkill, N. Y., for the beat six varie-
ties of named table apples. Silver medal.

George Parker, West Rupert, Vt., for the second best six
varieties of named table apples. 4 Nos. Hovey's Fruits.

Caleb H, Earle, Newark, N. J., for the third best six varieties
of named table apples. Barry's Fruit Garden.

Alfred Williamson, Sen., English Neighborhood, N. J., for the
best 12 table apples, one variety. Downing's Fruits.

B. S. Noyes, Fordham, N. Y., for the second best 13 table
apples, one variety. Chorlton's Cold Grapery.

William B. Smith, Brooklyn, L. I.,. for the best 13 quinces.
Silver medal.

Job Angel, New Hamburgh, N. Y., for the second best 12
quinces. 2 vols. Hovey's Magazine.

Hovey & Co., Boston, Mass., for the best collection of named
pears. Silver cup, $10.

A. Saul & Co., Newburgh, N. Y., for the second best collection
of named pears. Silver cup, $8.

Jno. Brill, Newark, N. J., for the third best collection of named
pears. Silver medal.

William Cranstoun, gardener to E. A. Stevens, Esq., Hoboken,

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

N. J., for the best six named varieties of table pears. Silver
medal.

Thomas W. Field, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best six
named varieties of table pears. 4 Nos. Hovey's Fruits.

Job Angel, New Hamburgh, N. Y., for the best 12 peaches.
Downing's Fruits.

P. G. Eerry, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best 12 peaches.
Thomas's Fruit Culturist.

John Couzens, Dobb's Ferry, N. Y., for extra large and best
Isabella grapes. Silver medal.

William A. Underbill, Croton, N. Y., for the second best Isabella
grapes. 2 vols. Horticulturist.

Theodore Fowler, Fishkill, N. Y., for the third best Isa-
bella grapes. Chorlton's Cold Grapery.

William A. Underbill, Croton, N. Y., for the best Catawba
grapes. Silver medal.

Theodore Fowler, Fishkill, N. Y., for the best new grape
(Diana). Silver medal.

Mrs. F. B. Durfee, Fall River, Mass., for the best four named
varieties of foreign grapes. Silver cup, $10.

James McMillan, Throg's Neck, N. Y., for the second best four
varieties of foreign grapes. Silver cup, |8.

Mrs. F. B. Durfee, Fall River, Mass., for the best two named
varieties of foreign grapes. Silver medal,

Mrs. F. B. Durfee, Fall River, Mass., for the best black Ham-
burgh grapes. Downing's Fruits.

Mrs. F. B, Durfee, Fall River, Mass., for the best Muscat of
Alexandria grapes. Barry's Fruit Garden.

E. Bagley, Usquebaugh, R. I., for the best cultivated cranber-
ries, a superior collection of 20 varieties. Silver medal.

Mrs. R. L. Fox, West Farms, N. Y., for a collection of fine
pears. Parson's Rose Manual.

Clarence H. Livingston, Barry town, N. Y., for a superior seed-
ling pear. Silver medal.

David J. Patton, Newtown, L. I., for very fine apples. Par-
dee on Strawberry.

E. G. Hyde, Essex co., N. J., for fine Duchess d'Angouleme
pears. Pardee on Strav/berry.

Thomas McLelland, New-York, for extra large apples. Far-
mer's Dictionary.

A. Elliott, San Francisco, Cal., for very large and fine speci-
mens of pears from California. Farmer's Dictionary.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 135

General display of Flowers during the Fair.

Judges. — P. B. Mead, A, D. Frye, John Siittle.

Mateo Donadi, Astoria, L. I., for the best display of dahlias.
Silver cup and $15.

Charles S. Pell, New-York Orphan Asylum, for a very fine dis-
play of dahlias. Silver cup, $10.

George C. Thorburn, Newark, N. J., for a large and fine display
of dahlias. Silver cup, $8.

Charles More, Yorkville, N. Y., for a fine show of dahlias.
Silver medal. •

Charles Wood, Lakeland, L. I., for a good show of dahlias.
Boudoir Botany.

Mateo Donadi, Astoria L. I., for the best display of cut roses.
Silver cup, $10.

Charles More, New- York, for a very fine display of roses. Sil-
ver cup, $8.

John Suttle, New- York, for the best display of cut flowers.
Silver cup, $8.

Isaac Cummings, New-York, for a fine display of cut flowers.
Silver medal.

Mateo Donadi, Astoria, I^. I., for a very fine display of seed-
ling carnations. Silver medal.

Jno. Cranstoun, Hoboken, N. J., for the best display of bouquets.
Silver cup, $10.

William Fitzpatrick, New- York, for a very fine display of bou-
quets. Silver cup, .$8.

Isaac Cummings, New-York, for a very good display of bouquets.
Silver medal. »

John Suttle, New-York, for the best display of carnations. Sil-
ver medal.

William Fitzpatrick, New-York, for the best flower baskets.
Silver cup, $10.

John Cranstoun, Hoboken, N. J., for very beautiful flower
baskets. Silver cup, $8.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. T. , for very pretty flower baskets.
Silver medal.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., a special prize for fine orna-
mental baskets. Silver medal.

William Fitzpatrick, New- York, for the best 12 chrysanthe-
mums in pots. $8.

Charles S. Pell, New-York Orphan Asylum, for the second
best 12 chrysanthemums in pots. $5.

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Robert Reid, New-York, for the third best 12 chrysanthemums,
in pots. $3.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best collection of
cut chrysanthemums. $5.

John Suttle, New- York, for the second best collection of cut
chrysanthemums. $3.

H. A. Graef & Son, Brooklyn, L. I., for the third best collec-
tion of cut chrysanthemums. $2.

Isaac Cummings, New- York, for the best special display of
bouquets. $8. m

John Cranstoun, Hoboken, N. J., for the second best special dis-
play of bouquets . $ 5 .

Robert Reid, New- York, for the third best special display of
bouquets. $3.

William Fitzpatrick, for the best special display of baskets. $8.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best display
of baskets. $5.

John Cranstoun, Hoboken, N. J., for the tliird best display of
baskets. $3.

Charles S. Pell, N. Y. Orphan Asylum, for the best special dis-
play of dahlias. $5.

Mateo Donadi, Astoria, L. I., for a display of fine dahlias.
Boudoir Botany.

Charles More, Yorkville, N. Y., for a display of fine cut flowers.
Boudoir Botany.

Miss Ellen Eliza Jaques, New- York, for good specimens of Salvia
splendens. Florists' Guide.

Numerous contributions of very fine flowers from Messrs. Thomas
Hogg, J. E. Ranch, and other public spirited florists and amateurs,
are most gratefully acknowledged.

Roses and Dahlias — Exhibited October 9, 1855.

Judges — J. W. Degrauw, J. E. Ranch, G. Gamgee.

M. Donadi, L. I., for the best 20 named roses. Silver cup, $8.

Charles More, Yorkville, N. Y., for the second best 20 named
roses. Silver medal.

M. Donadi, Astoria, L. L, for the best 10 named roses. Silver
medal.

John Suttle, New- York, for the second best 10 named roses. 2
vols. Horticultm-ist.

M. Donadi, Astoria, L. I., for the best 12 named fancy dahlias.
Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 137

Thomas Wilder, gardener to Gen. Stryker, New- York, for the
second best 12 named fancy dahliahs. 2 vols. Hovey's Mag.

M. Donadj, Astoria, L. I., for the best 12 named self-colored
dahlias. Silver medal.

Andrew Richardson, Fordham, N. Y., for the second best 12
named self-colored dahlias. 2 vols. Country Gentleman.

William S. Biu-gess, Glen Cove, L. I., for the best seedling
dahlia (22), a distinct dahlia, of novel color and great promise.
Silver medal.

Thomas Wilder, gardener to Gen. Stryker, New- York, special
prize for 12 self-colored dahlias. The Horticulturist.

Floral Designs — Exhibited October 16, 1855.

Judges — H. A. Graef, Andrew Reid, Isaac Buchanan.

William Fitzpatrick, New- York, for the best floral design. Sil-
ver cup, $10.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best floral
design. Silver cup, $8.

Bouquets and Baskets — Exhibited October 23, 1855.

Judges — Robert Reid, Martin Collopy, P. B. Mead.

John Cranstoun, Hoboken, for the best hand bouquets. Silver
medal.

William Fitzpatrick, New- York, for the second best hand
bouquets. Boudoir Botany.

H. A. Graef, Brooklyn, L. I., for the tliird best hand bouquets.
Horticulturist.

James Park, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best floral basket. Silver
medal.

William Fitzpatrick, New- York, for the second best floral bas-
ket. Boudoir Botany.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the third best floral bas-
ket. ^Parson's Rose Manual.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best parlor bouquet.
Silver medal.

Walter Park, for the best formally-arranged bouquet. Boudoir
Botany.

Thomas Cavanach, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best formally-
arranged bouquet. Parson's Rose Manual.

Vegetables.

Judges — Isaac Buchanan, Wm. M. White, John Suttle.

Samuel Rutli, gardener to J. C. Beekman, Esq., New- York, for
the choicest assortment of culinary vegetables. Silver cup, $8.

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

E. C. Davis, Staten Island, N. Y., for the best collection of
cattle roots. Silver Cup, $8.

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for the best 12 blood beets. 2 vols.
Am. Agricultuiist.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best 12 turnip-rooted beets..
2 vols. Working Farmer.

Jacob Salter, farmer to C. M. Saxton, Orange, N. J., for the
best 12 sugar beets. 2 vols. Cultivator.

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for the best 12 mangel wurtzel beets.
2 vols. Working Fai-mer.

Louis Lazie, gardener to J. J. Johnson, Esq., Flatbush, L. I.,
for the best and very superior cauliflowers. Silver Medal.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best 12 table carrots. 2
vols. Am. Agriculturist.

A. G. Hammond, Flatbush, L. I., for the best 12 table parsnips.
2 vols. Am. Agriculturist.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best 12 roots of celery.
Silver Medal.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best 3 egg plants. Far-
mer's Dictionary.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best half peck of white
onions. Bridgeman's Gard. Assist.

Samuel White, Staten Island, N. Y., for the best half peck of
yellow onions. Farmer's Dictionary.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best half peck of red
onions. Allen's Farm Book.

E. Sherman, Searsville, N. Y., for the best seedling potatoes.
Silver Medal.

Wilson J. Hunt, Riverhead, L. I., for the best table potatoes.
Silver Medal.

James Weeden, Newtown, L. I., for the 2d best table potatoes .
Bridgeman's Gard. Assist.

Jacob Salter, Orange, N. J., for the best cattle potatoes. Far-
mer's Dictionary.

Louis Lazie, Flatbush, L. I., for the best 3 table pumpkins. 2
vols. Am. Agriculturist.

T. D. Southard, Peekskill, N. Y., for the best and largest
pumpkin. 2 vols. Cultivator.

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for the best 3 Boston marrow
squashes. 2 vols. Am. Agriculturist.

John T. Smith, Newtown, L. I., for the best 3 yellow crook-
neck squashes. 2 vols. Working Farmer.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 139

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for the best 3 green crookneck
squashes. 2 vols. Cultivator.

John Erill, Newark, N. J., for the best 3 white crookneck
squashes. Farmer's Dictionary.

D. B. Harlow, Harlem, N. Y., for the best and largest squash.
2 vols. Am. Agriculturist.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best half peck of tomatoes.
2 vols. Working Farmer.

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for the 2d best half peck of toma-
toes. Farmer's Dictionary.

John F. Feitner, New- York, for the best salsify. Bridgeman's
Gardener's Assist.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best peck of white turnips.
2 vols. Working Farmer.

John Brill, Newark, N. J., for the best peck of yellow tui-nips.
2 vols. Am. Agriculturist.

A. G. Hammond, Flatbush, L. I., a special prize for very fine
potato onions. Trans. Am. Inst.

John S. Biu'gess, Glen Cove, N. Y., a special prize for 16
varieties of seedling potatoes, some of them very fine, but deficient
in quantity for competition. Farmer's Dictionary.

J. P. Robinson, Astoria, L. I.,for 3 very fine squashes. Trans.
State Ag. Soc.

Joseph Hall, Staten Island, N. Y., for a large collection of fine
squashes. Trans. Am. Institute.

Russell Sturges, Staten Island, N. Y., for very fine pumpkins
and squashes. Trans. State Ag. Soc.

John Campbell, Newtown, N. Y., for two very fine pumpkins.
Trans. Am. Inst.

Louis Lazie, Flatbush, L. I., for six very fine roots of celery.
Trans. State Ag. Soc.

Samuel Ruth, New- York, for 3 varieties of very fine sweet po-
tatoes. Trans. Am. Institute.

Paul Buchanan, Newark, N. J., for 6 superior blood beets.
Trans. State Ag. Soc.

Daniel Boll, New- York, for specimens of Dioscorea Japonica, a
valuable new esculent. Silver Medal.

Charles S. Pell, New-York Orphan Asylum, for the best four
heads of Savoy cabbage. Farmer's Dictionary.

Charles S. Pell, New-York Orphan Asylum, for the best four
drumhead cabbage. 2 vols. Am. Agriculturist.

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Charles S. Pell, New- York Orphan Asylum, for the best 4 heads
of red cabbage. 2 vols. Cultivator.

Asa Vandegrift, Jersey City, N. J., for very fine Lima squashes.
Farmer's Dictionary.

William Simpson, West Fai-ms, N. Y., for very fine pumpkins.
Am. Agriculturist.

John Van Tassel, New- York, for extra large and fine Valpai-aiso
squash. Working Farmer.

R. H. Avery, Wampsville, N. Y., for very fine collection of
potatoes. Farmer's Dictionary.

Edmund A. Pelfers, New- York, for very fine cheese pumpkins.
Farmer's Dictionary.

John H. Grover, New Erunswick, N. J., for fine sweet potatoes.
Trans. Am. Inst.

Daniel Devlin, New- York, for good pumpkins. Trans. Am. Inst.

Theodore Fowler, Jr., E. Fishkill, N. Y., for pumpkin and
squash. Farmer's Dictionary.

George Hayward, New Rochelle, N. Y., for a good orange
watermelon. Trans. Am. Inst.

William Kericknor, New- York, for extra fine celery and leeks.
Farmer's Dictionary.

Mrs. Julia Hall, Staten Island, N. Y.,for fine beans and squashes.
Trans. Am. Inst.

B. J. Van Styck, New Baltimore, N. Y., for very superior seed-
ling potatoes (too late for competition). Silver medal.
Agricultural Implements.

Judges — Nicholas Wyckoff, G. E. Waring, Jr., Edward Finch.

R. L. Allen, 189 and 191 Water street, for the best display of
agricultui-al implements. Gold medal.

John Mayher, 195 and 197 Water street, for the second best
display of agricultm-al implements. Silver medal.

John Moore, 193 Front street, for the third best display of agri-
cultural implements. Silver medal.

T. F. Englebrecht, 229 Broadway, for the best,.hay press. Sil-
ver medal.

John Moore, 193 Front street, for the best hay and straw cutter.
Silver medal.

J. G. Hovey & Co., 24th and 25th streets, N. R., for the second
best hay and straw cutter. Diploma.

Daniels & Raymond, Woodstock, Vt., for the best corn stalk
cutter. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTK. 141

r. G. Johnson, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best windmill. Silver
medal.

E. L. Hagar, Frankfort, N. Y., E. A. Bowles, agent, 182 Fulton
street, for the best harrow. Diploma.

J. P. Kenyon, Morris, Otsego co., N. Y., for the best ox yoke.
Diploma.

Harvey & Son, Amsterdam, N. Y., for the best grain drill.
Diploma.

Enos Woodruff, Elizabeth City, N. J., Fowler & Wells, agent,
308 Broadway, for the best self-acting carriage gate, and best self-
acting hand gate. Silver medal.

D. Phillips, Shaftsbury, Vt., for the best farm gate. Diploma.

Meigs & Scofield, Buffalo, N. Y., G. T. Avery, agent, 41 Wall
street, machine-made wooden fence. Diploma.

Mowing and Reaping Machines.

Medals to be awarded, on trial, according to their respective
merits.

Mowing Machines.

Howard & Co., Buffalo, N. Y., Gale & Mills, Pouglikeepsie,
N. Y., R. L. Allen, 189 Water street, N. Y. Diploma to each.
Moioers and Reapers coinhined.

John S. Wright, Chicago, 111., Howard and Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
Diploma to each.

Minors.

James Sauze and C. More, apprentices to R. L. Allen, 189 and
1 91 Water street, for workmanship on a garden barrow. Books, ^5.

J. Beyrer, C. More and J. Baker, apprentices to R. L. Allen,
189 and 191 Water street, for workmanship on a plough. Books, ^5.

T. Collum, C. More and A. Vermilyea, apprentices to R. L. Allen,
189 and 191 Water street, for workmanship on a truck. Books, ^5.

William Fitzgerald, J. Baker, and A. Vermilyea, apprentices
to R. L. Allen, 189 and 191 Water street, for workmanship on a
threshing machine. Books, $5.

Horticultural Implements^ Ornaments., ^'c.

Judges — J. E. Ranch, Isaac Buchanan, P. B. Mead.

R. L. Allen, 189 and 191 Water street, for the best collection
of horticultural implements. Silver cup, $8.

John Jones, New- York, for a very fine double-action garden
engine and syringe combined. Silver medal.

Oxford Hoe and Edge Tool Co., Oxford, N. Y., for the best
(solid shank) steel garden hoes, very highly finished. Silver
medal.

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Eobert Burnett, 167 3d avenue, N. Y., for the best wire-work
for gardens. Silver medal.

Tellier & Gossin, for very fine garden vases, fountains, statu-
ary, &c., of native material. Silver cup.

William Hunter, New-York, for plant tubs of superior work-
manship. Silver medal.

Self- Sealing Cans.

Judges — Peter B. Mead, A. D. Frye.

Wells & Provost, 215 Front street, for the best self-sealing
cans (Spratt's patent.) Diploma.

Ludlow & Co., 60 Beekman street, for the second best. Trans.
Am. Institute.

Preserves^ Honey^ Pickles^ 8fc.

Judges — Mrs. Deborah F. De Gray, Mrs. Ann Maria Crane,
Mrs. Eliza C. Frye.

Reckhow & Larue, 157 Cedar street, N. Y., for the best pre-
serves. Silver medal.

Wells & Provost, 215 Front street, N. Y., for the second best
preserves, Webster's Encyclopaedia.

Wells & Provost, 215 Front street, N. Y., for the best pickled
oysters. Diploma.

Wells & Provost, 215 Front street, N. Y., for the best pickles.
Webster's Encyclopsedia.

James Broadmeadow, 227 Washington street, N. Y., for the
second best pickles. Beech er's Receipt Book.

James Broadmeadow, 227 Washington street, N. Y., for the
second best pickled oysters. Trans. Am. Institute.

Curtis Coe, Springport, N. Y., for the best honey. Webster's
Encyclopsedia.

Aaron N. Thompson & Co., 208 Fulton street, N. Y., for fine
tomato catsup. Diploma.

John B. Stratton, Brooklyn, L. I., for sugar ornaments for cake,
&c. Diploma.

Miscellaneous.

Superphosphate of lime, &c., from Messrs. DeBurg, Hildreth,
and others — hot water apparatus for heating green houses, from
Brown & Ellis, and other articles of a like nature, are now under-
going a practical test, and will be reported upon in due time by
the respective committees having these matters in charge.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 143

Poultry.

Judges — George Anderson, Lewis Radford, James Flynn.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best and
most useful collection of poultry. $20, and a Diploma.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N, J., for the second best collection of
poultry. $15.

P. Shaughnesy, Jamaica, L. I., for the best pair of tm-keys. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the second
best pair of turkeys. $2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best
gobbler. $2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of Bremen geese. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of white China geese. $3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of gray China
geese. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of white Muscovy ducks. $3.

J. Roberson, New- York, for the second best pair of white Mus-
covy ducks. $2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of Aylesbury ducks. $3.

P. Shaughnesy, Jamaica, L. I., for the second best pair of
Aylesbury ducks. $2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of common ducks. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for a pair of
fine Cayuga ducks. $2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best
pair of Guinea fowls. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best
pair of white Asiatic fowls. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best
pail- of black Asiatic fowls. $3.

H. B. Todd, Mott Haven, N. Y., for the best pair of gray Asi-
atic fowls. $3.

A. Alexander, Weehawken, N. J., for the second best pairo f
gray Asiatic fowls. $2.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of Dorkings. $3.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best pair
of golden Polands. $3.

144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Wm. Day, Morris town, N. J., for the second best pair of golden
Polands. $2.

John Gibson, 363 Sixth-avenue, for the best Dominick cock. $1 .

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of black Polands.
$3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of silver Polands.
$3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of black Spanish
fowls. $3.

John Suttle, New- York, for very fine half bred Shanghaes. $1 .

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of Irish game
fowls. $3.

A. W. Miller, New-York, for the best pair of English pile
game. $3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of golden Ham-
burghs. $3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of silver Ham-
burghs. $3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of black Ham-
burghs. $3.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best Java fowls. $2.

John Gibson, 363 Sixth-avenue, for the best pair of African
bantams. $2.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the second best pair of Afri-
can bantams. $1 .

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of golden seb-
rights. $2.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of Chinese ban-
tams. $2.

J. Balcove, Mott Haven, N. Y., for the second best pair of
Chinese bantams. |1.

Wm. Messinger, 602 Sixth-avenue, for the best pair of white
smooth-legged bantams. $2.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the second best pair of white
smooth-legged bantams. $1.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best collection of pigeons.

$3.

V. Kunkel, 91 Pitt-street, for the second best collection of

J geons. $2.

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best pair of tumblers. $1 .
Miss Hale, New-Yoik, for a pretty pair of ringdoves. $1.
G. W. Van Vaughner, 1 65 W. 39th-street, for the best canary. $1 .

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 145

H. Johnson, Paterson, N. J., for the best black and ten terrier.
$2.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for tlie second
best black and tan terrier. $1.

Richard C. McCormick, Jr., Woodhaven, L. I., for the best
Skye terrier. $2.

John Suttle, New- York, for the second best Skye terrier. $1.

MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT.

Baths.

Judges^ — Edward Gray, Edward Gray, M. D., John W. War-
ner, M. D., D. M. Reese, M. D.

The J. L. Mott Iron Works, 264 Water street, for a self-acting
overflow bath-tub. DijDloma.

Bells.

Judges — Richard M. Hoe, Paul Stillman.

A. Meneely's Sons, West Troy, N. Y., for the best toned
church bell. A gold medal having been before awarded, diploma.

Jones & Hitchcock, Troy, N. Y., for the best casting of bells.
Silver medal.

H. E. Coates, 316 Eroaclway, for alarm bells. Diploma.

N. Hayman, 20 Forsyth street, for the best engine bells for
steamships. Dijiloma.

Boats and Oars.

Judges — John E. Davidson, Quincy C. Degrove.

Francis' Metallic Lifr?-boat Co., Marshal Letforls. agent, 70 Broad
street, for the bestuiodei of metallic boat. A gold medal having
been before awarded. Diploma.

Newman & Randall, 215 Front street, for the best yacht-boat.
Silver medal.

George C. Newman, 245 Front street, for the best race-boat
(35 feet). Diploma.

James Everson, Williamsbm-gh, L. I., for the best working
boat for passengers. Diploma.

Ezekiel Page, Erie, Pa., E. W. Page, agent, 84 Barrow street,
for the best oars and sculls. A silver medal having been before
awarded. Diploma.

Scott & Swanton, 109 South street, for the second best oars,
sculls, and boat-hook. Dij^loma.

[Am. Inst.] 10

146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Bookbindi7ig.

Judges'— Wm. Matthews, Edward G. Taylor.

Edward Walker & Sons, 114 Fulton street, for an elegant dis-
play of bookbinding. Silver medal.

Gentlemen''s Boots and Shoes.

Judges— N. A. Kogers, Hugh Mai'tin.

E. A. Brooks, 579 Broadway, for the best patent leather boots
and gaiters. Silver medal.

John Ready, 127 Nassau-street, for the best water-proof, quilted
bottom, and calf pump boots. Silver medal.
Ladies'' Boots and Shoes.

Judges— Samuel Cantrel, 0. S. Watkins.

Benjamin Shaw, 73 Canal street, for the best ladies' boots and
shoes. A gold medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

John N. Genin, 513 Broadway, for the second best ladies' boots
and shoes. Silver medal.

J. B. Miller & Co., 134 Canal street, for ladies' boots and shoes.

Diploma.

Britannia and Tin Ware.

Judges— James Y. Watkins, Philip Teets.

Locke, Ketcham& Co., 193 Water street, for the best planished
and japanned tin ware. Silver medal.

Taylor & Hodgetts, 60 Beekman street, for the second best
planished and japanned tin ware. Diploma.

Brushes.

Judges— John Muckel, Richard B. Fosdick.

James T. Steer & Co., 250 Pearl street, for the best paint and
white- wash brushes. Silver medal.

D. L. Jones, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best paint and
other brushes. Diploma.

R. N. Stuart, Philadelphia, Pa., for white-wash brushes.

Diploma.

Goupil & Co., 366 Broadway, for the best artists' brushes.

Silver medal.

J. N. Parker & Co., 506 Pearl street, for the best jewelers' and
silversmiths' brushes. Silver medal.

F. P. Furnald & Co., 219 Pearl street, for the best feather and
bristle brushes. Silver medal.

Wm. Steele, 53 Nassau street and 305 Pearl street, for feather
brushes. Diploma.

J. M. Wynant, 15 Gold street, for very handsome peacock-
feather brushes. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 147

E. P. Cooley, 294 Pearl street, for the best broom corn brushes.
Diploma.

J. N. Parker & Co., 506 Pearl street, for stable and street
brooms. Diploma.

Building Materials.

Judges — Walter Roome, Chas. B. Hamblin, J. N. Wells, Jr.

Brooklyn Fire-Brick Works, J. K. Brick & Co., Brooklyn,
L. I., for the best fire-brick and retort. Silver medal.

Artificial Stone Co., 340 Broadway, for the best artificial stone.
Silver Medal.

John D. Norris, Elizabethtown, N. J., Alexander Young, agent,
West 41st street, between 2d and 3d avenues, for the best terra
cotta building material. A gold medal having l^een before
awarded. Diploma.

U. States Iron Beam Manuf. Co., 42 Duane street, for the best
closed tubulai- beam, and tube-top beams or girders. Silver medal.

The Corrugated Beam and Fire-Proof Floor Manufacturing Co.,
157 and 159 Hammond street, for a patent corrugated beam and
fire-proof floor. Silver medal.

A. Foster, 75 Nassau street, F. G. Luckey, agent, for specimens
of building blocks. Silver medal.

American Roofing Slate Co., Hydeville, Vt., Thomas Foster,
agent, 497 and 499 West street, for the best American roofing
slate. Diploma.

Eagle Slate Co., Castleton, Vt., G.Furman, Jr., 300 West 13th
street, for the second best roofing slate. Diploma,

E. A. Swan, Brooklyn, I-^. I., for the best machine-cut marble.
Diploma.

John Mitchel, 15 East 27th street, for a model of a balcony
window. Diploma.

John R. Anderton & Bro., 142 Grand street, for the best metal-
lic window-sash. Diploma.

Chas. Muller, 510 Sixth avenue, for a model of a cliurch roof.
Diploma.

Robert Hinvest, 81st street, Yorkville, N. Y., for fire-proof
and water-proof roofing material. Diploma.

The J. L. Mott Iron W(jrks, 204 Water street, for the best
hinge hook and staple. Diploma.

Matthew Caldwell & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, B. Homans, agent,
102 Pearl street, for the best metal roof. Diploma.

Novelty Marble Works, 62 White street, for the best inlaid
marble. Diploma.

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Minors.

Geo. M. Githens, 233 West 43d street, fur a small marble
monument. Books, $2 50.

Cah'met Ware.

Judges — Geo. Piatt, C. W. Hutchins.

H. C. Glinsmann., 57 Elm street, for the best cabinet work and
carving. Gold medal.

John H. Fraser, cor. Reade and Hudson streets, for superior
show-cases. A silver medal having been before awarded. Di-
ploma.

Matthews & Stacy, 514 Broadway, for the best suit of enamelled
furnitui'e. Silver medal.

J. C. House, Louisville, Lewis co., N. Y., for an alarm bed-
stead. Silver medal.

E. Volkert, 99 Elm street, for inlaid composition work.
Diploma.

R. Paton, 24 Grove street, for school furniture. Diploma.
Discretionary.

A. Kopper, Jr., Williamsburgh, L. I., for an inlaid box.
Diploma.

H. R. & J. L. Plimpton, 62 White street, for a secretary bed-
stead, a neat, compact and useful piece of furniture. • Silver
medal.

H. R. & J. L. Plimpton, 62 White street, for a superior canopy
for cots, bedsteads, chairs, &c. Diploma.

Wm. B. Carpenter, Brooklyn, L. I., Sammis & Rooney, 288
Bowery, for a convertible union chair, combining a child's high
chair, low rocker, and crib. Diploma.

Chrystal Paper Co., 125 avenue D, for the best sand paper.
Diploma.

Cakes and Confectionery.

Judges — Jas. R. Smith, Wm. Ebbitt.

John Taylor, 365 and 367 Broadway, for the best ornamented
confectionery. Silver medal.

Duncan McFarlane, Yonkers, N. Y., for a specimen of orna-
mental confectionery. Diploma.

Scholl & Walther, 215 Forsyth street, for specimens of con-
fectionery. Diploma.

J. M. Keppler, 252 Fourth avenue, for specimens of confec-
tionery. Diploma.

John Crawford, 396 Sixth avenue, for ornamental cakes. Di-
ploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 149

Geo. B. Fisher, 207 Ninth avenue, for fruit cakes. Diploma.

H. Tateosyan, 87 Bleecker street, for superior fig paste. Di-
ploma.

Carpeting.

Judges— J. B. Stewart, John T. Eailey, John W. Hoyt, John
Kelleher.

Maine Carpet Co., Boston, Mass., A. & A. Lawrence & Co.,
agents, 43 Broadway, for the best specimen of printed carpeting.
Silver medal.

Carriages and Sleighs.

Judges — Isaac Mix, Jr., Thomas Sparling, Joseph H. Goodwin.

Miner & Stevens, 368 Broadway, for the best light top wagon.
Silver medal.

J. h. Smith, East 29th street, for the 2d best light-wagon of
an improved style, without top. Silver medal.

James Gould & Co., Albany, N. Y., Wood, Brothers, agents,
410 Broadway, for the best light sleigh. Silver medal.

Castings.

Judges — N. M. Stratton, Henry Steele.

Abendroth k Brothers, Portchester, N. Y., and 109 and 111
Beekraan street, for the best light iron pipe and best plumbers'
castings. Silver medal.

The J. L. Mott Iron Works, 204 Water street, for the 2d best
light iron pipe and phunbers' castings. Diploma.

J. L. Jackson, 315 Stanton street, for very superior cast iron
capitals. Silver medal.

Abner Van Horn, 327 Fifth street, for very superior brass
castings. Silver medal.

Wm. H. Osborn, 261 35th street, N. Y., for very superior
bronze castings. Silver medal.

Wm. H. Talcott, Jersey City, N. J., for superior castings from
native iron. Diploma.

Alex. McKenzie, 341 Fourth street, for a very excellent cast-
iron kitchen sink. Diploma.

Clonks arid Mantillas.

Judges — Samuel Lounsberry, Thomas Greig, Harvey Hubble.

Molyneux Bell, 58 Canal street, for the best embroidered
velvet cloak, and best black velvet cloak. A Gold Medal having
been before awarded. Diploma.

150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Clocks and Watches.

Judges — John Y. Savage, S. W. Masters, John Smith.

T. E. Dillon, firm of Kline & Co., 20 Fulton street, for the
best chronometer in workmanship and finish. Gold medal.

P. L. De Mory Gray, 222 Water street, for the 2d best chro-
nometer in workmanship and finish, the principle of the escape-
ment highly recommended. Silver medal.

D. Eggert & Son, 239 Pearl sti*eet,for a chronometer. A Gold
Medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

D. Eggert & Son, 239 Pearl street, for the best astronomical
clock. Gold medal.

Frederick Kiddle, 3 John street, for a calendar clock for trav-
eling. Silver medal.

J. S. Curtis, Hartford, Conn., M. S. Dyer, 36 Vesey street, for
a calendar office-clock, showing the days of the week and month.
Silver medal.

The Atkins Clock Manufacturing Co., Bristol, Conn., Charles
Root, agent, 20 Cortland street, for improved tliirty-day clocks.
Silver medal.

John Sherry, Sag Harbor, L. I., for a model of a turret clock.
Silver medal.

James Glenn, 2 Staple street, for a night and day time indica-
tor. Diploma.

P. A. Guy, 206 William street, for silver and gilt clock and
watch dials. Diploma.

Mrs. L. G. W. Caldwell, 206 William street, for clock and
watch dial painting. Diploma.

Clothing.

Judges. — Anthony Arnoux, Peter C. Barnum, Harvey Hubbell.

Alexander D. Reeves, 299 Broadway, for an American dress
overcoat. Diploma.

Alexander D. Reeves, 299 Broadway, for the Alexander over-
coat. Diploma.

Peter J. Post, 113 Ninth-avenue, for specimens of pantaloons
and vests. Diploma.

W. Canfield, Brooklyn, L. I., for an improved sack overcoat.
Diploma.

N. Y. Juvenile Asylum, 55th-street, E. R., for specimens of
the costume of the Institution, made by the cliildren. Diploma.

Charles Herwick, 219 Spring-street, T. & W. Hendrick, agents,
7 Bowery, for tailors' charts. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 151

Alexander D. Reeves, 299 Broadway, for a system of cutting
garments. Silver medal.

H. P. Pettigrew, 2 Astor House, for plate of fashions, speci-
mens of cutting. Diploma.

Ryno & Fairchild, G5 Columbia-street, for specimens of drawers
with elastic waistband, a decided improvement over the old buckle
system. Diploma.

Scovill Manufacturing Co., Waterbury, Conn., for excellent
metal and brass buttoiis. Silver medal.

American Buckle Co., Middletowu, Conn., J. M. Wardwell,
agent, 55 Maiden-lane, for plated and steel vest, pantaloons, and
suspender buttons. Diploma.

r. H. Rathboue, Cliatham Four Corners, N. Y., Wood, Merritt
& Co., agents, 30 Piue-street, lor very superior wadding. Silver
medal.

Cutlery.

Judges. — A. W. Spies, Francis Many.

Union Knife Co., Naugatuck, Conn., S. J. Dennis, agent, 40
Dey-street, for the best pocket knives. Gold medal.

H. Wendt, Elizabethport, N. J., E. Corning & Co., agents, 81
John-street, for the best tailors' and other shears. Gold medal.

John Rowe, 205 Pearl-street, for the second best shears. Silver
medal.

Combs, Morocco Goods and Pocket Books.

Judges. — George R. Cholwell, Charles S. Westcott, Wm. Ely
Chilson.

John P. Burnton, 32Gold-street,for a very fine display of ladies'
work cases, pocket books, porte monaies, &c. Diploma.

Cotton and Linen Goods.

Judges. — Haynes Lord, Wm. E. Shepard, A. S. Cady.

East Haddam Duck Co., East Haddam, Conn., B. Flanders &
Co., agents, 80 South-street, for very superior specimens of cotton
duck. Gold medal.

Atlantic Duck Co., East Haddam, Conn., for cotton duck.
Dii^loma.

American Linen Co., Fall River, Mass., McCurdy, Aldrich &
Co., agents, 65 Broadway, for brown and bleached linen. Gold
medal.

American Linen Thread Co., Mechanicsville, Saratoga cc, N. Y.,
for superior linen thread. Gold medal.

152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Knowles Patent Linen Fibre Co., 33 Pine-street, for the most
superb specimens of the perfection of prej^ai-ing flax for spinning.
Silver medal.

A. Wilkinson, 229 Broadway, for bleached flax and hemp.
Diploma.

Timpson & Wilkins, 47 Broad-street, for very superior jacquard
diaper. Diploma.

T. J. Borden, Fall River, Mass., McCurdy, Akbich & Co., agents,
65 Broadway, for the best prints. Silver medal.

Manchester Print Works, Manchester, N. H., J. C. Howe &
Co., agents, 59 Broadway, for a specimen of prints. Diploma.

G. Engel, 5 Bleecker-street, for the taste and skill displayed in
designs for printing calicoes. Silver medal.

Wamsutta Mills, New Bedford, Mass., Willard, Wood k Co.,
agents, 57 Broadway, for specimens of bleached sheetings and
shirtings. A silver medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

Stephens & Whitaker, Wliitney Mills, Manaymik, Pa., L©rd,
Warren, Evans & Co., agents, 61 Broadway, for the second best
bleached shu"tings. Diploma.

J. J. Kilton, Coventry, R. I., Lord, Wai'ren, Evans & Co., agents,
61 Broadway, for the best Kilton brown sheetings. Diploma.

Stephens & Whitaker, Whitney Mills, Manayunk, Pa., Lord,
Warren, Evans & Co., agents, 01 Broadway, for the best mari-
ners' shirting stripes. Diploma.

Wm. Smith, Cohoquinoqne Mills, Frankfort, Pa., Lord, War-
ren, Evans & Co., agents, 61 Broadway, for the best apron checks.
Silver medal.

W. & J. Watt, Philadelphia, Pa., Lord, Warren, Evans & Co.,
agents, 61 Broadway, for superior apron checks. Silver medal.

Union Mills, Lord, Warren, Evans & Co., agents, 61 Broad-
way, for the second best apron checks. Diploma.

Wm. Smith, Cohoquinoque Mills, Frankfort, Pa., Lord, War-
ren, Evans & Co., agents, 61 Broadway, for the best furniture
checks. Diploma.

D. Lammot & Sons, Lenni, Pa., T. Putnam & Co., agents, 58
Pine street, for the best specimens of bed-ticking. Silver medal.

Stephens & Whitaker, Whitney Mills, Manayunk, Pa.; Lord,
Warren, Evans & Co., agents, 61 Broadway, for the second best
bed-ticking. Diploma.

Norfolk Manufacturing Co., Norfolk, Conn., J. J. Hinchman&
Co., agents, 26 and 28 Vesey street, for the most perfect specimen
of spinning and twisting cotton knitting yarn. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 153

Potter, McKeever & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., Lord, Warren,
Evans & Co., agents, (31 Broadway, for the best cloak and coat
linings. Diploma.

Daguerreotypes^ Photograjyhs and Amhrotypes.

Judges — W. J. Stillman, R. B. Brown, J. A. B. Besson.

J. Gurney, 349 Broadway, for the best daguerreotypes. A gold
medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

M. B. Brady, 359 Broadway, for the second best daguerreo-
types. Silver medal.

S. Root & Co., 363 Broadway, for the third best daguerreo-
types. Diploma.

Gurney & Fredericks, 349 Broadway, for the best plain proto-
graphs, and best photographs in oil. Gold medal.

S. Root & Co., 363 Broadway, for the best photographs in
water colors, and second best plain photographs. Gold medal.

W. A. Tomlinson, 373 Broadway, for the best ambrotypes — a
novelty in the art. Silver medal.

R. A. Lewis, 142 Chatham street, for the second best ambro-
types. Dioloma.

Daguerreotype Apparatus.

C. C. Harrison, cor. Elm and White streets, for the best daguer-
reotype instruments. Silver medal.

S. H. Holmes, 289 Broadway, for a double acting camera,
Silver medal.

W. & W. H. Lewis, 63 Elizabeth street, for an improved da-
guerreotype coating box. Diploma.

Dentistry, and Dental Improvements yS^'c.

Judges — H. C. Clark, George Clay, Benj. Lord, Jas. T. Stratton.

Jones, White & McCiu'dy, New- York, Philadelphia and Boston,
A. Jones, agent, 263 Broadway, for the best samples of mineral
teeth. These samples are, in the opinion of the judges, the best
ever exhibited at our fairs. Gold medal.

J. G. Ambler, 31 Washington place, for the best specimens of
mechanical dentistry. Silver medal.

T. C. Banks, 234 West Twenty-first street, for the second best
specimens of mechanical dentistry. Silver medal.

J. D. Chevalier, 360 Broadway, for a case of dental instruments
of superior workmanship and finish. A silver medal having
been before awarded. Diploma.

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Dies arid Chasing.

Judges — Robert Lovett, F. E. Smith.

L. T. Boland, 178 Fulton street, for superior crests and coats
of arms. Silver medal.

Arthur W. Francis, 33 Wooster street, for the best impressions
of seal engraving. Silver medal.

Samuel Dodd, Bloomfleld, N. J., H. Griffin, agent, 114 Nassau
street, for specimens of bookbinder's ornaments. Diploma.

Frederick Loew, Providence, R. I., for three hubs for jeweler's
dies. Silver medal.

Drugs and Chemicals.

Judges — J. Eryant Smith, M. D., Isaiah Deck, M. D., Lewis
Feutchwanger, Alex. H. Everett, Geo. D. Coggeshall.

T. Kingsford & Son, Oswego, N. Y., E. N. Kellogg, agent, 196
Fulton street, for the best pure Oswego starch. Silver medal.

Frederick Scholes, Brooklyn, L I., James Dixon, agent, 41
Barclay street, for the best sulphur. Silver medal.

C. E. De Eurgh, Williamsburgh, L. L,for superior sulphate of
ammonia. Silver medal.

Eoston Oil Refining Co., Eoston, Mass., for specimens of pure
oils — the watchmakers' oil especially commendable. Silver
medal.

W. Kendrick, 168 Fulton street, for the best linseed oil, very
limpid and clear. Diploma.

W. Wilbur, New Orleans, La., W. A. De Peyster, agent, 58
Seventh street, for a sample of cotton seed oil. Diploma.

Smith & Stratton, 141 Maiden Lane, for the best picture var-
nish. Diploma.

Quarterman & Son, 114 John street, for specimen of gold size.
Diploma.

Henry Waldron, 180 Front street, for the best American zinc
white. Silver medal.

H. A. Frost, Port Richmond, L. L, for specimens of remarka-
bly fine green paint. Diploma.

Clough & Hallenbeck, 1 95 West street, for a specimen of chrome
green. Diploma.

A. P. Clermontel, 15 John street, for the best specimen of alco-
hol extracted from beets. Silver medal.

Thaddeus Davids & Co., New Rochelle, N. Y., and 26 Cliff
street, for the best black writing ink, best indelible ink and seal-
ing-wax. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 155

Francis & Loutrel, 77 Maiden Lane, for the best copying and
colored inks. Diploma.

Jas. J. Butler, Cincinnati, Ohio, for mercantile writing fluid
and ink. Diploma.

Arthur Nix, McComb's Dam, N. Y., for very fine specimens of
wax. Diploma.

C. H. Phillips, 159 Front street, for bleached Cuban wax — a
fine article. Diploma.

Joseph Dixon, Jersey City, N. J., for the best stove polish.
Diploma.

John M. Davidson, 56 Frankfort street, for a very fine sample
of adhesive plaster. Diploma.

Obadiah Rich, Boston, Mass., for giue made from old leather.
Silver medal.

Fairbanks & Co., 189 Broadway, for a prescription scale.
Diploma.

Alden k Co., 334 Broadway, for extract of coffee. Diploma.

H. Thayer & Co., Cambridge, Mass., G. H. Bates, agent, 133
Water street, for medicinal fluid extracts. Silver medal.

John Van Deventer, 87 Barclay street, for the best paste
blacking. A Silver medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

Joseph Lombard, 81 West Fortieth street, for the best macca-
roni and vermicelli. A Silver Medal having been before award-
ed, Diploma.

H. H. Burrington, Providence, R. I., for the best nursery and
toilet powders. Diploma.

Discrefiojiary.

H. Davis, Clayville, N. Y., for water-proof paste blacking.
Diploma.

Stephen Paul k Co., 149 Chambers street, fur flavoring ex-
tracts. Diploma.

Kendall Co., Waterbury, Conn., for leather preservative. Di-
ploma.

H. Parmenter, 484 Broadway, for specimens of sylvic oil or
diamond light. Diploma.

Jacob Seabury, 156 Cliristie street, for specimens of jolumbago.
Diploma.

Metropolitan Soap Co., 29 and 31 West Forty-second street, for
superior family soap. Diploma.

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Edge Tools and Hardware.

Judges — Geo. 11. Swords, E. L. Cooper, J. W. Knapp.

Old Colony Iron Co., Taunton, Mass., Bussing, Crocker &
Dodge, agents, 32 Cliff street, for superior shovels. Gold medal,

Agur Pixley & Co., Portchester, N. Y., for shovels and scoops
Diploma.

New England Saw Co., Providence, R. I., for gimlet-pointed
screws. Gold medal.

Bay State Screw Co., Taunton, Mass., Bussing, Crocker &
Dodge, agents, 32 Cliif street, for excellent screws and bolts.
Silver medal.

Russell & Erwin Manufacturing Co., New Britain, Conn., for
the best display of building hardware. Gold medal.

Gaudeau & Sharpe, 96 Walker street, for chisels and turning
tools. Silver medal.

Ephraim Arnold, 329 Fifth street, for carpenters', coopers',
and blockmakers' tools. Silver medal.

John Bayliss, 54th street, and Lexington av., for a stone sledge,
striking hammer, &c. Silver medal.

Long & Davenport, 10 Piatt street, for augurs and bits. Silver
medal.

Thomas Douglass, 5 Piatt street, for a fine display of hard-
ware. Silver medal.

Blodgett Edge Tool Manuf. Co., Manchester, N. H., for w^ell-
finished edge tools. Diploma.

Christopher Wray, 38 Chatham street, for a good collection of
mechanics' tools. Diploma.

International Wrought Nail Co., Newark, N. J., for specimens
of horse-shoe nails. Silver medal.

Old Colony Iron Co., Taunton, Mass., Bussing, Crocker &
Dodge, agents, 32 Clifif street, for Old Colony nails. Diploma.

Jacob Brombacher, 1 Hague street, for tiimien's stock, shears,
and snips. Silver medal.

U. S. File Co., 34 Liberty street, for machine-cut files. Silver
medal.

D. B. & T. H. Bruen, Newark, N. J., for superior specimens
of malleable iron. Silver medal.

American Bed-Screw Co., New Britain, Conn., Clai-k, Wilson
& Co., 81 Beekman street, for specimens of screw-wrenches and
bed-screws. Silver medal.

Stanley Works, New Britain, Conn., for superior hinges. Sil-
ver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 157

E. B. Nortli & Co., New Britain, Conn., for the best saddlery
hardware. Silver medal.

F. T. Stanley, New Britain, Conn., for superior door bolts.
Silver medal.

Waterbury Hook and Eye Co., Waterbury, Conn., for excellent
brass and copper rivets, nails, &c. Silver medal.

J. Farris & Co., Plymouth, Mass., Locke, Ketcham & Co.,
agents, 193 Water street, for improved rivets. Diploma.

P. Home, Gl John street, N. Y., for a bevelling plane. Di-
ploma.

Wm, Betts, Williamsburgh, L. I., for a collection of branding-
irons. Diploma.

John H. Vonderlieth, 440 Cherry street, for steel and brass
wrenches, and screw brace. Diploma.

Jolm Carver, 6 Gouverneur Slip, for the best caulking tools.
Diploma.

R. J. Hanford, 25G Cherry street, for the 2d best caulking
tools. Diploma.

F. P. Hart, Chandlerville, Pa., Coleman & Williamson, agents,
6 Wall street, for improved saddlers' and cabinet makers' gauge.
Diploma.

Pascal Trinault, 20 Canal street, for T squares, &c. Diploma.

Cbas. L. Barnes, 9 Hammersley street, for expansion bits, &c.
Diploma.

W. S. Watson, for revolving parallel vices. Diploma.

John Most, cor. White and Centre streets, for turning and
piano stools. Diploma.

Gray & Brothers, 153 Broadway, for an improved ratchet bed-
key. Diploma.

Waterbury Brass Co., Waterbury, Conn., L. Wetmore, agent,
Piatt street, for superior brass kettles. A Gold Medal having
been before awarded, Diploma.

Jared W. Smith, Hartford, Conn., for well-finished improved
faucets. Diploma.

J. G. Wright, Louisville, Ky., 0. D. McClain, 107 Spring
street, for oil and sand-stones. Diploma.

Jones & Hitchcock, Troy, N. Y., for improved patent rotary
yoke for bells. Silver medal.

Enamelled Iron-Ware and Furniture.

Judges — D. C. Ambler, J. L. Jackson, Thomas Goad])y.

The J. L. Mott Iron Works, 264 Water street, for the best
enamelled cast-iron ware. Gold medal.

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Abendrotli, Brothers, Portcliester, N. Y., for the 2d best iron
enamelled ware. Silver medal.

Chas. Henry Sandford, 51 Green street, for good iron furni-
ture. Silver medal,

Demeure & Co., 382 Broadway, for an iron spring bed bottom.
A Silver Medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

G. Godone, 773 Broadway, for a cast iron gilded music-stand.
Diploma.

Engraving on Wood and Steel, and Lithograyhy.

Judges— T. C. Strype, Wm. Howland, H. W. Herrick.

A. H. Ritchie, 23 Chambers street, for the best engraving on
steel. Gold medal.

Wm. Pate, 16 Burling slip, for the 2d best engraving on steel.
Silver medal.

J. W. Orr, 75 Nassau street, for the best engraving on wood.
Silver medal.

Alexander M. Graff, 142 Eighth avenue, for the 2d best engrav-
ing on wood. Diploma.

Endicott & Co., 59 Beekman street, for the best lithography.
Silver medal.

Geo. W. Hatch, & Co., 29 William street, for the 2d best lith-
ography. Diploma. -

C. Copley, 331 Pearl street, for the best chart engraving.
Diploma.

T. N. Hickox, 294 Pearl street, for the best stencil marking
plates. Diploma.

Fine Arts.

Judges — S. N. Dodge, J. H. Shegogue.

W. G. Hays, 208 Foui'th street, for the best oil painting. Sil-
ver medal.

J. K, Fisher, 224 East Broadway, for copies of the old mas-
ters and portrait of a child. Silver medal.

Chas. W. Jarvis, 62 White street, for portraits. Silver Medal.

Goupil & Co., 366 Broadway, for artists' colors, materials and
picture frames. Silver medal.

W. J. Hanington, 418 Broadway, for beautiful specimens of
stained glass. Gold medal.

John Kennedy, 75 West Thirty-fifth street, for the best and
most artistic marble mantels. Gold medal.

Boyle and Lauder, 4 and 6 East Twentieth street, for an
Italian marble carved mantel. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 159

Chas. Muller, 437 First avenue, for very superior bronze fig-
ures. Silver medal.

Mrs. C. E. Parker, Brooklyn, L. I., for a crayon liead in an
ornamental leather work-frame. Diploma.

John Harding, Staten Island, New- York, for good portraits
cut with the scissors. Diploma.

Minors.

Miss Elsie Earle, G58 Sixth avenue, for two oil paintings.
Silver medal.

Nelson Place, jr., 33 Norfolk street, for two lead pencil draw-
ings. Books, $2.50.

J. H. Dunnell, West Twenty-third street, for pencil drawings.
Books, $2.50.

Marvin R. Clark, 25 Hubert-st., for pencil di-awings. Books,
$2.50.

Miss C. Johnson, Brooklyn, L. I., for a lead pencil portrait and
water-color painting. Books, $2.50.

Merritt Ferrill, 333 Broadway, for monochromatic paintings.
Books, $2.50.

Geo. E. Whitten, 460 Eighth avenue, for a crayon drawing.
Books, $2.50.

Thomas P. Simmons, for crayon drawings. Books, $3.

J. H. Dunnell, West Twenty-third street, for crayon head of
Napoleon. Books, $2.

W. N. P. Byron, 68 West Broadway, for a crayon drawing.
Books, $1.

Miss Ann Amelia Ripley, Franklin, Delaware co., N. Y., for
painting and leather work-frame. Books, $2.50.

Fire Arms.

Judges — John P. Moore, Thomas F. Peers, Joseph Hall, Joseph
Rose.

Saml. Colt, Hartford, Conn., for the best revolving pistols and
rifles. Gold medal.

Allen, Thurber & Co., Worcester, Mass., Onion h Wlieelock,
agents, 99 Maiden lane, for the second best revolving pistols..
Silver medal.

Allen, Thurber & Co., Worcester, Mass., Onion & Wheelock,
agents, 99 Maiden lane, for the best rifle for ordinary use. Silver
medal.

A. D. Perry, Newark, N. J., for the best breech-loading rifle.
Silver medal.

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Allen, Thurber & Co., Worcester, Mass., Onion & Wlieelock,
agents, 99 Maiden lane, for the second best breech-loading rifle.
Diploma.

H. N. Thistle, 763 Broadway, for a newly invented breech-
loading cannon. Silver medal.

Albertson, Douglass & Co., New London, Conn., S.W. Thomas,
agent, 129 Pearl street, for three miniature brass cannons. Di-
ploma.

r. Krupp, New- York, Thos. Prosser & Son, agents, 28 Piatt
street, for a cast steel cannon, in miniature, novel in construc-
tion. Dij)loma.

Wm. B. Hartley, 163 Broadway, for specimen of gun barrels,
and a new method of twisting gun barrels. Silver medal.

L. D. Towsley, 289 Broadway, for a rifle with eight cham-
bers, ingenious in construction, and a decided improvement
upon the Cochran rifle. Diploma.

Fii'e Engines.

Judges — Horace J. Poinier, Wm. Adams, Daniel Van Voorhies,
John Coger, jr.

Engines of the first class.

Engine Co. No. 8, of Brooklyn, for the best. Silver cup,
S15.

Engine Co. No. 13, of Brooklyn, for the second best. Silver
cup, $10.

Engines of the second class.

Engine Co. No. 8, of New- York, for the best. Silver cup,
$15.

Engine Co. No. 29, of New- York, for the second best. Silver
cup, $10.

Engine Co. No. 11, of New- York, for the third best. Diploma.
Engines of the third class.

Engine Co. No. 28, of New-York, for the best. Silver cup,
$15.

Engine Co. No. 45, of New- York, for the second best. Silver
cup, $10.

L. B. & W. H. Dodge, of Newburgh, N.Y., for fire-engines for
factories and small villages. Silver medal.

Hose Carriages.

Phoenix Hose Co. No. 22, of New- York, for the best carriage for
use and durability. Silver cup, $10.

Phcenix Hose Co., of Easton, Penn., for the second best carriage
for use and durability. Silver cup, $8.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 161

City Hose Co. No. 8, of New- York, for the third best carriage
for use and durability. Silver medal.

Amity Hose Co. No. 38, of New- York, for the best ornamental
work on carriage. Silver medal.

HgoIc and Ladder Trucks.

Crockett Truck Co. No. 2, of Newark, N. J., for the best truck
with long ladders. Silver cup, $15.

Marion Truck Co. No. 13, of New- York, for the best truck with
joint ladders. Silver cup, $10.

John H. Bowie & Co., 5 Ferry street, for superior fire and hose
buckets. A gold medal having been before awarded — Diploma.

Fishing- Tackle.

Judges — John G. Bolen, Chas. Turner.

J. & J. C. Conroy, 65 Fid ton street, for the best fishing-rods and
reels. Gold medal.

Thomas H. Bate, 35 Maiden lane, for the second best fishing-
rods and reels, and best artificial baits, flies, &c. Silver medal.

Henry Willsher, 137 William street, for the third best assort-
ment of fishing-tackle, artificial flies, &c. Diploma.

Harvey & Bassett, 84 Maiden lane, for very superior twine and
fishing-lines. Diploma.

Demai-est & Joralemon, 100 Barclay street, for very handsome
seine twine. Diploma.

J. W. Van Hou'ten, Haverstraw, N.Y., for a fike for catching
fish. Diploma.

Glass, China, and Earthenware.

Judges — Henry W. Haydock, James Neeves, Davis Collamore.

Geo. Dummer k Co., Jersey City, N. J., for the best cut, plain,
and colored glass. Gold medal.

J. Stouvenel & Co., 594 Broadway, for the second best cut,
plain, and colored glass. Silver medal.

American Porcelain Manufacturing Company, Greenpoint, I^.L,
for specimens of porcelain. Silver medal.

Frederick Hale & Co., 80 Nassau street, for glass tablets, signs,
&c. A gold medal having been before awarded — Diploma.

William Newsham, 70 West Eleventh street, for drilling and
mending china and glass clock dials. Diploma.

Minors.

Wm. Hoffe, 122 William street, for specimens of engraving on
glass. Books, $5

[Am. Inst ] 11

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Window and Rough Plate Glass.
Judges — Martin E. Thompson, Wm. A. Watson,
National Plate Glass Works, Wildes P. Walker, treasurer, 115
Chambers-street, for superior rough plate glass. Gold medal.

American Plate Glass Co., Williamsburgh, L. L, for the best
plate glass. Gold medal.

Cooper k Eelcher, 293 Broadway, for the best enamelled win-
dow glass. Gold medal.

Parlor- Grates.

Judges — Richai'd Moore, James L. Jackson, Thomas Goadby.
W. Jackson & Son, 246 Front street, and 930 Eroadway, for
the best parlor grates, fenders, &c. Gold medal.

Grainmg.

Judges — E. Ramsbottom, Alexander Gaw.

Eannon k Tyler, 74 Irving place, for the best graining. Silver
medal.

Wm. W. Fields, 102 Avenue C, for the 2d best graining.
Diploma.

Griffith k Blaisdell, 106 Spring street, for specimens of deco-
rative graining. Diploma.

Hats, Caps arid Furs.

Judges — Matthew Bird, Lewis Mealio, Edgai;F. Ryder.

John N. Genin, 214 and 513 Broadway, for the best silk hats.
A Silver medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

J. Small k Co., 118 and 120 Maiden lane, for the best speci-
mens of caps. Silver medal.

John N. Genin, 214 and 513 Broadway, for the 2d best child-
ren's caps. Diploma.

E. Mullen, 88 Sixth avenue, for the best specimens of child-
ren's hats. Silver medal.

J. W. Kellogg, 128 Canal street, for a case of hats and caps.
Diploma.

Straw Hats

Judges— T. A. Napier, J. H. Hills, W. C. Ravenhill.
W. J. Lewis, 241 Broadway, for the best straw hats. Diploma.
Hemp and Flax,

Judge — John Travers.

Troy Patent Cordage Co., Troy, N. Y., for well manufactured
rope. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 163

Indian Rubber and Gut fa Percha.

Judges— Wm. H. Ellet, S. T. Armstrong.

Beverly Rubber Co., Eeverly, Mass., W. D. Russell, agent, 78
Chambers street, for the best vulcanized rubber clothing. Silver
medal.

Ansonia & Wells Rubber Co., W. £. Eurlock, 78 Chambers
street, for the best camphene rubber clothing. Silver medal.

Union India Rubber Co., 41 John street, for the best vulcanized
rubber hose, and the 2d best vulcanized and camphene rubber
clothing. Silver medal.

U. S. Car Spring Co., 178 Broadway, for the 2d best vulcanized
rubber- hose. Diploma.

New- York Rubber Co., 43 Maiden lane, for India rubber balls,
toys, &c. Diploma.

Beacon Dam Co., 39 Maiden lane, for samples of hard rubber
articles. Diploma.

A. G. Day, Connecticut, Geo. Beecher, agent, 39 Maiden Lane,
for rubber pen and pencil-cases. Diploma.

Novelty Rubber Co., 39 Maiden lane, for rubber canes, but-
tons, &c. Diploma.

Henry Davenport, 265 Broadway, for rubber elastic bands,
&c. Diploma.

Prince & Co., 271 Broadway, for Protean fountain pens, &c.
Diploma.

North American Gutta Percha Co., 102 Broadway, for excel-
lent vulcanized gutta percha clothing, kc. Gold medal.

Jewelry.

Judges — Wm. Ebbitt, Jas. R. Smith.

L. & J. Jacobs, 407 Broadway, for specimens of California
diamonds. Silver medal.

F. Oertly, Chatham street, for fruit gilt as jewelry. Silver
medal.

Lamps and Chandeliers.

Judges — John Johnson, James Donaldson,

D. D. Miller, 190 Water street, for the best locomotive-lamps.
Silver medal.

Radley k Hunter, 48 and 50 Duane street, for the 2d l:>est loco
motive-lamps. Silver medal.

J. H. Williams, Utica, N. Y., Taulman & Low, agents, 157
Broadway, for the 3d best locomotive-lamps. Diploma.

C. N. Lockwood, Newark, N. J., for fine coach lamps. Silver
medal.

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

N. Y. Brass & Manuf. Co.. cor. Twentj-'Second street and Sec-
ond avenue, for specimens of gas-tubing. Silver medal.

Curtis & Ray, 13 Canal street, for the best 8 light chandelier.
Silver medal.

E. C. Overton, 115 East Broadway, for double tube lamps with
wick-regulators. Diploma.

C. W. Stearns, 540 Pearl street, for hand-lanterns. Diploma.

Stephen Philbin, 331 Fourth street, for display of gas-fixtures.
Diploma.

Starr, Fellows & Co., 74 Beekman street, for gas-fixtures and
a valuable fluid lamp, Diploma.

Wm. V. Adams, 328 Cherry street, for pier lamp and reflector,
and ship-lamps and reflector. Diploma.

Leather.

Judge — Chas. M, Leupp.

H. M. Crawford, Philadelphia, Pa., for the best calf-skins,
rough and dressed. Silver medal.

E. H. Smith, 32 Spruce street, for the best colored goat-skins.
Diploma.

Life- Preserving Scat.

Judges— H. B. Renwick, P. B. Mead, Wm'. Ebbitt, J. W.
Ay res, W. H. Dikeman.

Nathan Thompson, jr., Williamsburgh, L. I., for the best life-
preserving seat. Gold medal.

Bank Locks and Safes.

Judges — Geo. D. Lyman, George Tappan, Jr., Wm. Bellamy,
Stephen D. Tucker, James Rodgers.

World's Safe Co., 119 Pearl street, for the best burglar and
fire-proof safe. Gold medal.

J. H. Butterworth & Co., Dover, N. J., Geo. D. Baldwin,
agent, 40 Wall street, for a combination and permutation bank-
lock. Silver medal.

Holmes, Valentine &. Butler, 90 and 92 Maiden Lane, for a
rotary safety and door-lock. Silver medal.

Locks, Door Springs, and Hinges.

Judges — John Delamater, Wm. Bellamy, Wm. H. Smith, Chas.
F. Thurston.

G. M. Ramsay, 1080 Broadway, for the best pair of hinges for
hanging balcony windows. Silver medal.

W. S. Ford, 180 West Twenty-fifth street, for sliding and fold-
ing window-sashes. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 165

H. D. Clark, G8 Duane street, for door-fasteners. Silver
medal.

S. P. Kittle, Buffalo, N. Y., Spring & Collins, agents, 316
Broadway, for the 2d best door-fasteners. Diploma.

A. A. Starr, New- York, Spring & Collins, agents, 316 Broad-
way, for window and blind-adjuster. Silver medal.

Many, Baldwin & Many, 49 John street, for the mounting of
porcelain door-knobs. Silver medal.

C, Parker, Meriden, Conn., N. H. Camp, 15 Gold street, for
blind hinge, and fastener. Silver medal.

Discretionary.

Theodore F. Engelbrecht, 257 Broadway, D. D. Badger & Co.,
agents, 42 Duane street, for patent double and single-acting
spring hinges. Silver medal.

E. Brown, Lowell, Mass., for a patent alarm money-draw lock.
Silver medal.

Thomas Coles, 9 Rutgers street, for a blind regulator. Di-
jjloma.

American Alarm Lock Company, New-York, for a patent alarm
lock. Silver medal.

Alfred Speer, Passaic, N. J., for a window-fastener. Silver
medal.

Mi7iors.

Adam Bosch, 204 Bleecker street, for workmanship on a front
door mortise lock. Books, $2.50.

Hervey Bosch, 204 Bleecker street, for workmanship on a front
door mortise lock. Books, $2.50.

Machinery^ JYo. 1 — Railroad Mac/miery a?id Fixtures.

Judges — Philo Hurd, Wm, K. Thomas, J. B. Sargeant, J. Not-
tingham.

U. S. Railroad Car Brake Company, W. G. Creamer, agent, 70
Beaver street, for the best method of operating car brakes. Gold
medal.

Albert M. Smith, Rochester, N, Y., for the best car seat. Gold
medal.

C. P. Bailey & Co., 102 Broadway, for the second best car seat.
Diploma,

Lucius Paige, Cavendish, Vt., for the best car brake. Silver
medal.

D. A. Hopkins, N. Y., Taulman & Low, agents, 157 Broadway,
for the best car-coupling. Silver medal.

166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A. G. Heckrotte, New- York, for a self-acting coupling and bum-
ber. Silver medal.

Carpenter & Powers, 432 Tenth street, for the best railroad
jack. Silver medal.

A. P. Kobinson, 128 West Twenty-third-street, for a model lo-
comotive, tender, car, track, &c. Silver medal.

Peter Dorsch, Schenectady, N. Y., N. P. Dorsch, agent, 75 Beek-
man-street, for the best car wheel. Silver medal.

Paterson Iron Co., C. B. Raymond & Co., 45 Cliff street, for the
best specimen of railroad forgings. Silver medal.

Bridges & Brother, 64 Cortlandt street, for railroad furnishing
goods. Silver medal.

r. M. Ray, 102 Broadway, for the best car spring. Diploma.

Perry G. Gardiner, New-York, Richard Vise, agent, 15 Nassau
street, for a compound car spring. Dij)loma.

W. Cutler, 63 John street, for a self-regulating railroad switch.
Diploma.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass., for the best locomotive
yoke, &c. Silver medal.

A. J. Sufifern, Sufifern's Depot, N. Y., for 3 tread rail for rail-
roads. Dij^loma.

Machinery^ J^^o. 2 — Lathes^ Planers^ Boring and Slatting Ma-
chines^ Bolt Cutters^ Dividing and Cutting Engines for Iro7i^
and Models and Draivings of MacJmies for the same.
Judges — D. B. Cobb, T. H. Lang, Isaac Stanton.
Carpenter & Plass, Thirtieth street. New- York, for a superior
slotting machine. Gold medal.

William Webster, Morrisania, N. Y., for the best metal-bending
and tubing machine. Silver medal.

Mann k Weeks, Morrisania, N. Y., for an improved metal-bend-
ing and tubing macliine. Diploma.

Geo. Williston & Co., Brunswick, Me., for a good and useful
machine for bending railroad iron for curves. Diploma.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass., for the best upright drill-
ing machine. Silver medal.

Carpenter & Plass, Thirtieth street, for the second best upright
drilling machine. Diploma.

Sharts & Co., Albany, N. Y., C. A. Guinard, agent, 254 Water
street, for a good self-feeding hand-drilling machine. Diploma.
Leonard & Wilson, 60 Beaver street, for hand-clrilling machines.
Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 1G7

Warren Lyon, 8 Christopher street, for third best hand-drill-
ing machines. Diploma.

J. A. Tewkesbury, Lawrence, Mass., for hand-drilling machines.
Diploma.

Leonard & Clark, Moodna, N.Y., for the best iron-turning lathe.
Gold medal.

G. B. Hartson & Co., West Thu-ty-third street, for the second
best iron-turning lathe. Silver medal.

Carpenter & Plass, Thirtieth street, for an excellent lathe.
Silver medal.

A. Inslee, Newark, N. J., for an iron-tmniing lathe. Diploma.

J. M. Bottum, 169 Broadway, for superior watchmakers' lathes,
with improved chucks. Gold medal.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass., for the best universal
lathe chuck. Silver medal.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass., for the best iron-turning
lathes^ and slide rest. Silver medal.

Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J., for the best iron-planing machine.
Silver medal.

A. L. Ackerman, 163 Greenwich street, for the 2d best iron-
planing machine. Diploma.

Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J., for the best shaping planers. Sil-
ver medal.

Liddle, Kepler & Co., Erie, Penn., for the best shearing and
punching machines. Silver medal.

J. Rust, 40 Bank street, for a superior hand punching machine.
Silver medal.

Wm. Montgomery, Yonkers, N. Y., for the best bolt-cutting
machine. Silver medal.

Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J., for a compact bglt-cutting machine.
Diploma.

Wm. Taylor, Brooklyn, L. I., for cutting-press for tin-ware.
Diploma.

Jusephus Echols, Columbus, Geo., for the beat hydraulic rock-
drilling machine. Gold medal.

Thomas Prosser & Son, 28 Piatt street, for the best tubular
boiler tools, and specimens of work. Silver medal.

Daniels & Raymond, Woodstock, Yt., for a superior granular
fuel-cutter. Silver medal.

J\Iino7'.<;.

Charles Edward Stewart, 1 5 Canal street, for a jewelers' engine-
lathe of excellent finish and superior Avorkmanship. Books, $10.

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Machinery, JYo. 3 — Machines for Working Wood and Models and
Drawings for the same.

Judges — ^Benjamin Aycrigg, Isaac Stanton, Wm. A. Leonard.

D. G. Condit, 74 Spring street, for the best blind slat tenoning
machine. Silver medal.

C. P. S. Wardwell, Lake Village, N. H., for a superior tenon-
ing machine for heavy work. Silver medal.

A. & T. Brown, 395 First avenue, for the best machine for
turning and boring wood. Silver medal.

Samuel Carpenter, Flushing L. L, for the second best turning
and boring machine. Diploma.

Lane & Bodley, Cincinnati, Ohio, for the best power mortising
machine. Silver medal.

J. A. Fay & Co., Keene, N. H., for the second best power mor-
tising machine. Diploma.

Ezra Gould, Newark, N. J., for a good power mortising ma-
chine. Diploma.

Ball & Ballard, Worcester, Mass., for the best sash molding
and tenoning macliine. Silver medal.

J. A. Fay & Co., Keene, N. H., for a large foot mortising ma-
chine. Diploma.

J. A. Fay & Co., Keene, N. H., for a portable mortising ma-
chine. Diploma.

J. A. Conover, 130 Horatio street, for an effective and expe-
ditious machine for splitting kindling-wood. Silver medal.

L. T. Smart, Goffstown, N. H., for a window shade crimping
machine. Diploma.

Smith & Cowles, Amherst, Mass., for a superior upholstery
shaving machine. Silver medal.

Strange & Smith, Taunton, Mass., for a hoop sawing machine.
Diploma.

N. Y. Circular Molding Co., J. H. Doughty, agent, 11 Canal
street, for the best circular irregular molding machine. Silver
medal.

Albin Warth, cor. Franklin and Centre streets, for a self-
gauged lathe for turning all regular forms. Silver medal.

Crane & Tompkins, Newark, N. J., for a very ingenious ma-
chine for turning irregular forms. Silver medal.

Alfred Conger, 315 Broadway, for the best rotai-y wood planing
machine. Silver medal.

Ball & Ballard, Worcester, Mass., for a good planing macliine .
Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 169

N. Barlow, 345 Broadway, for an excellent improved circular
saw, and sharpener for saw-teeth. Silver medal.

P. C. & S. Ingersoll, Greenwich, Conn., Engelbrecht & Skil-
linger, agents, 229 Broadway, for a portable sawing machine for
felling trees. Diploma.

C. F. Packard, Greenwich, Conn., for a sawing machine for
fence jjickets. Diploma.

Wright & Huntington, Newark, N. J., Geo. S. Cummings,
agent, 118U Broadway, for a scroll saw. Diploma.

C. B. Hutchinson, Auburn, N. Y.,for a model of a saw-mill, an
admirable contrivance. Diploma.

C. M. Day, 45 Avenue D, for the best saw-mill feeder. Di-
ploma.

Smith & Cowles, Amherst, Mass., for a superior felloe machine.
Silver Medal.

C. W. Wyatt, Newburgh, N. Y., for a portable felloe dressing
machine. Diploma.

G. F. Packard, Greenwich, Conn., for a lath cutting machine.
•Diploma.

C. B. Hutchinson, & Co., Auburn, N. Y., J. G. E. Larned,
agent, 28 Pine street, for an excellent stave ^nd barrel machine.
Silver medal.

Geo. W. La Baw, Jersey city, N. J., Jno. Cotter, agent, 335
Broadway, for a mitre machine. Silver medal.

Burley & Putnam, Boston, Mass., for a superior dovetailing
machine. Silver medal.

F. A. Gleason, Rome, N. Y., for a mitre and dovetail grooving
machine. Diploma.

Ebenezer S. Peters, Kent, Conn., for a shingle cutting machine.
Diploma.

Southwick, Thomas & Co., Brooklyn, L. I., for an excellent match
cutting and framing machine. Silver medal,

Discretio7iary.

C. B. Morse, Rhinebeck, N. Y., for an improvement in a ma-
chine for preparing, tonguing, planing and grooving at one ope-
ration. Gold medal.

Machinery, JVo. 4. — Steam Engines, and all other machines^ and
jparts of machinery not otherwise apportioned.

Judges— T. B. Stillman, D. C. Ambler, W. H. Ellet, Thaddeus
Selleck, Alfred C. Bo wen.

J. S. Bunce & Co., 2G Washington street, for the best high-
pressure engine. Silver medal.

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Wm. Burden, Brooklyn, L. I., for steam engines of substantial
workmanship. Silver medal.

Philos B. Tyler, American machine works, Springfield, Mass.,
for the best truss engine. Silver medal.

Wm. H. Adams, New- York, for a steam engine. Silver medal.

Tousey & Reid, 95 Maiden lane, for a chronometer engine.
Silver medal.

Darlington & Co., corner Franklin and Centre streets, for the
best oscillating steam engine. Silver medal.

E. Morris, South Bergen, N. J., for oscillating steam engines
and hoisting machine. Silver medal.

Geo. Vail & Co., Morristown, N. J., Logan, Vail & Co., agents,
9 Gold street, for a portable steam engine. Silver medal.

Pease & Murphy, Fulton iron works, for a fine wooden model
of engines of U. S. Steamer Niagara. Silver medal.

Victor Giraud, jr., 410 Madison street, for the best model of
a steam engine of the highest order of workmanship. Diploma.

Alexander Ferguson, Troy, N. Y., for a Avorking model of a
steam engine. Diploma.

John A. Faulkener, 292 Tenth avenue, for a working model
of a steam engine.* Diploma.

Clark's steam fire regulator co., 208 Broadway, for the best
steam and fire regulator. A Gold medal having been before
awarded, Diploma.

Reading Iron Co., Reading, Pa., A. B. Wood, agent, 253 Pearl
street, for lap welded boiler flues. Silver medal.

American Steam Gauge Co., Boston, Mass., for the best steam
pressure gauges. Silver Medal.

American Steam Gauge Co., Boston, Mass., for superior steam
pressure gauges. Diploma.

Novelty Iron Works, foot of Twelfth street, E. R., for im-
proved syphon gauges. Silver medal.

Novelty Iron Works, foot of Twelfth street, E. R., for clocks,
registers, gauges, &c. Silver medal.

H. W. Metcalf, 140 Centre street, for a beautiful collection of
brass cocks, gauges, &c. Diploma.

James Rodgers, 421 Broadway, for steam engine clocks and
regulators. Diploma.

Sutton & Gregory, 114 and 116 Cannon street, for Sutton's
patent lubricating apparatus for steam cylinders and valves.
Silver medal.

A. C. Garratt, Boston, Mass., for oil sockets. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 171

Wm. Kumble, 33 Ferry street, for an assortment of oak leather,
machine stretched belting. Diploma.

G. W. Griffith & Co., 27 Spruce street, for leather belting. Dip.

Hoyt Brothers , 40 Spruce street, for leather belting. Diploma.

Danforth, Cook & Co., Paterson, N. J., for an improved cap
spinning frame. Gold medal.

Lowell Macliine Co., Lowell, Mass., for a superior bobbin and
fly-frame. Gold medal.

Calvin L. Goddard, 3 Bowling Green, for superior burring
machines for cleaning wool. Gold medal.

Jesse Whitehead, Manchester, Va., for a counter twist speeder.
Silver medal.

F. Ransom, Brooklyn, L. I., Boorman, Brothers, agents, 91 "Wall
street, for an anti-choking ship pump. Gold medal.

C. & G. M. Woodward, 77 Beekman street, for the best steam
pump with crank motion. Silver medal.

Guild & Garrison, Williamsburgh, L. I., for the best steam pump
without crank motion. Diploma.

W. C. & J. S. Burnham, Eighty-fifth street, near Fourth avenue,
for double-acting pumps. Silver medal.

James Smart, Philadelphia, Pa., J. & H. Jones & Co., agents,
38 White street, for double-acting force pumps. Silver medal.

L. P. & W. F. Dodge, Newburgh, N. Y., for a double-acting
valve pump. A silver medal having been before awarded —
Diploma.

N. Dodge, 42 University place, for anti-choking arch pump
valves. A silver medal having been before awarded — Diploma.

Thomas Hanson, 137 Third avenue, for the best hydraulic ram.
Silver medal.

W. & B. Douglas, Middletown, Conn., R. L. Allen, agent, 189
Water street, for the second best hydraulic rams. Diploma.

Josephus Echols, Columbus, Ga., for valve and valve-chambers
for hydraulic rams. Diploma.

H. S, Leonard, Moodna, N. Y., for a recording dynamometer,
for agricultural implements and other machinery, oil tester and
water metre. Gold medal.

N. Aubin, Albany, N. Y., for a universal portable gas-genera-
tor. Gold medal.

Wm. D. Porter, New-York, for a w^ood gas-generator. Gold
medal.

N. Y. Gas Regulator Co., 2G2 Broadway, for an admirable and
useful gas-regulator. Silver medal.

172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Samuel Down, 333 West Twenty-second street, for a dry gas-
metre. Silver medal.

Samuel Down, 333 West Twenty-second street, for a wet gas-
metre. Diploma.

A. Thos. Smith, 45 Green-street,for a wet gas-metre. Diploma.

A. Thos. Smith, 45 Green-street, for a gas-metre. Diploma.

A. Thos. Smith, 45 Green-street, for a common gas-metre.
Diploma.

A. Thomas Smith, 45 Green street, for an experimental gas-
metre. Diploma.

Summers & Calkin, 27 Avenue D, for a gas-heater and illumina-
tor. Diploma.

John G. Wilson, 39 Centre street, for a hatters' iron, heated by
gas. Diploma.

Rotary Smoothing Iron Co., 189 Broadway, for a self-heating
smoothing iron. Diploma.

American Patent Gas Cooking and Heating Co., 358 Broadway,
for the best gas cooking stoves. Silver medal.

Wm. M. B. Hartley, 163 Broadway, for gas cooking ovens. Di-
ploma.

Fairbanks & Co., 189 Broadway, for the best hay, coal and
cattle scale. Gold medal.

Vergennes Scale Co., Vergennes, Vt., for the 2d best heavy
platform scale. Silver medal.

Fah-banks & Co., 189 Broadway, for a true and correct plat-
form scale. Silver medal.

Duryee & Forsyth Manufacturing Co., Rochester, N. Y., for a
very perfect beam-scale. Silver medal.

Wm. H. Bramble, Cincinnati, Ohio, for an automatic grain-
scale. Gold medal.

Wm. P. Coleman, New Orleans, Louisiana, for a portable grist-
mill. Silver medal.

Prentiss & Page, 8 Seventh avenue, for the second best grain
and flour mill. Diploma.

Troy Portable Grain Mill Co., Troy, N. Y., for the best cob
and corn-mill. Silver medal.

Ross & Davis, Rochester, N. Y., for a conical burr stone-mill.
Diploma.

John M. Carr, 78 Madison street, for the best atmospheric flour
bolt. Diploma.

Rogers Fils Co., Brooklyn, L. I., for the best French burr
mill-stones. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 173

H. T. Hyde, Troy, N. Y., for an adjustable mill-stone pick.
Diploma.

Gideon Hotclikiss. Windsor, Broome county, N. Y., for im-
provements in tram blocks for flour-mills, and noddle pin for saw-
mills. Silver medal.

Harris & Brothers, Elizabeth City, N. J., A. L. Ackerman,
agent, 163 Greenwich street, for a useful smut machine. A gold
medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

Geo, Vail & Co., Speedwell Iron Works, Morristown, N. J.,
Logan, Vail & Co., agents, 9 Gold street, for an improved smut
machine. Diploma.

R. & J. E. Anderson, 114 Cliflf street, for a rice hulling ma-
chine. Silver medal.

American Stone Dressing Co., New-York, Edwin Street, agent,
62 William street, for a superior stone-dressing machine. Gold
medal.

A. Lindsay, Malone, Franklin co., N. Y., for a stone-dressing
and polishing machine. Diploma.

New England Mining and Quarry co., Brattleboro' Vt., Chas.
Smeade, agent, 94 Wall street, for a new and useful slate-dressing
machine. Silver medal.

G. Arthur Garchner, 33 Trinity Building, for a hand rock-
drilling machine. Silver medal.

Pettis & Stone, St. Johnsbury, Vt., for the best rock-drilling
machine, for quarrying purposes. Diploma.

Theodore F. Engelbrecht, 229 Broadway, for the second best
rock-drilling machine for quarrying purposes. Diploma.

Ellas Davis, Montpelier, Vt., for a superior improved toggle
joint press. Silver medal.

R. Dudgeon, 8 Columbia street, for a portable hydraulic press,
and hydraulic jacks. Silver medal.

Edward Clifton, 131 Cannon street, for wooden stock jack-
screws. Diploma.

L. N. Leland & Son, Grafton, Mass., for a simple iron jack-
screw. Diploma.

Jas. St. John, 97 Forsyth street, for a stirrup jack-screw. Di-
ploma.

C. Potter, jr., 29 Beekman street, for a patent printing press
with oscillating bed. Gold medal.

S. P. Ruggles Powder Press Manuf. Co., Boston, Mass., J. Furs-
man, agent, 12 and 14 Spruce street, for improvement in power
printing presses for jobs and cards. Silver medal.

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A. M. & G. H. Eabcock, Westerley, R. I., for a polycliromatic
printing press. Silver medal.

American Machine Stamp Co., Boston, Mass., Taiilman&Low,
agents, 157 Broadway, for a hand stamj^. Dij)loma.

N. T. Eldridge, 14U Nassau street, for fire annihilators (Phil-
lips' patent). Silver medal.

A. J. Morse, Boston, Mass., F. B. Nichols, agent, 77 Pine street,
for combination soda-fountain. Silver medal.

Wm. Gee, 58 Fulton street, for sui3erior soda-fountains, bot-
tling machines, silver-plated di-aught-tube, and self-acting water-
feeder. Silver medal.

Joseph Bernhard & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., Geo. Bernhard,
agent, 7 Cherry street, for improved soda-water fountains. Di-
ploma.

Howard & Davis, Boston, Mass., W. H. Willson, agent, 348
Broadway, for superior sewing machines. Gold medal.

Wheeler & Wilson Manufacturing Company, 343 Broadway, for
superior sewing-machines (Wilson's Patent). Gold medal.

J. B. Nicholls & Co., Boston, Mass., for a superior sewing
machine. Silver medal.

J. Seymour, Newark, N. J., for a sewing machine. Silver medal.

J. Jackson, 32 Beekman street, for Ellis' patent knitting ma-
chine, improved. Gold medal.

B. F. Lawton, M. D., Troy, N. Y., for anti-friction metal. Gold
medal.

Thaddeus Hyatt, 120 West Broadway, for patent vault lights.
Silver medal.

D. D. Badger & Co., 42 Duane street, T. F. Englebrecht, agent,
229 Broadway, for an iron pavement. Diploma.

C. W. Copeiand, 64 Broadway, for wire-rope. Diploma.

F. k T. Townsend, Albany, N. Y., for chilled rollers of supe-
rior w^orkmanship. Silver medal,

Geo. W. Wicks, 6 Liberty place, for a jewellers' rolling-mill.
Silver medal.

McCallum & Co., Erie place, for a model of an inflexible truss
bridge. Silver medal.

W. H. Allen, Brooklyn, L. I., for a model of a bridge. Di-
ploma.

Thos. W. H. Moseley, Cincinnati, Ohio, for a tubular iron
bridge. Silver medal.

L. F. Holmes, 52 Henry street, for models of arch, truss and
roof bridge. Diploma.

AJMERICAN INSTITUTE. 175

James Hamilton, 120 Waverly place, for a tree-felling machine.
Diploma.

Lowdon & Ahlstrom, 276 Eowery, Colman and Williamson,
agents, 6 Wall street, for an expansion bolt and screw-fastener.
Gold medal.

Cutting-Macliine Manufacturing Co., Boston, Mass., Taulman
& Low, agents, 157 Eroadway, for Ruggles' rotating cutting-ma-
chines for metal. Gold medal.

Joseph Dixon & Co., Jersey City, N. J., for superior black-lead
crucibles. A Gold medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

F. P. Flagler, 210 Water street, for portable forges. Diploma.
Wendell W^right, 809 Washington street, for a patent friction

clutch. Silver medal.

H. WhijDple, Shaftsbury, Vt., for a patent friction clutch. Sil-
ver medal.

Thwing & Whipple, Milford, Mass., for a patent nipper or
tackle block. Di2:)loma.

Mayher & Co., 197 W^ater street, for the best sausage-cutter.
Diploma.

Smith & Fenwick, New- York, Colman & Williamson, agents, 6
Wall street, for a superior machine for paring, quartering, and
coring apples. Diploma.

E. Brown, Lowell, Mass., J. B. Morrill, agent, 304 Broadway,
for the second best apple-parer. Diploma.

Samuel Gardiner, 212 Broadway, for a magnetic iron ore sepa-
rator. Diploma.

G. A. Meacham, 290 Broadway, for a convenient and useful
window-washer. Diploma.

F. Seiburt, Williamsbm-gh, L. I., for a model of morocco fin-
ishing and rolling, and paper-glazing machine. Diploma.

Troy Patent Cordage Co., Troy, N. Y., for an ingenious cord-
age machine. Silver medal.

J. B. Holmes, 16 Grand street, for a model of a patent boom
derrick. Silver medal.

Paterson Iron Co., Paterson, N. J., C. B. Raymond & Co., 45
Cliff street, for excellent forging of a water-wheel arm. Diploma.

Alfred Hall, Perth Amboy, N. J., for a brick-moulder. Di-
ploma.

Collins B. Baker, Troy, N. Y., for a double concave cylinder
brick-moulding machine. Diploma.

Geo. N. Keller, Philadelphia, Pa., for a fire-escape ladder.
Diploma,

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Henry F. Johnson, 392 Greenwich street, for silver faucets and
plumbing materials. Diploma.

A. Edgar, 593 Hudson street, for imiiiovements in faucets and
water closets. Diploma.

Samuel H. Gibson, 43 Eldridge street, for specimens of plumb-
er's work. Diploma.

James Cochrane, 8 Tenth street, for an improved method of
operating and lubricating valves in hydrants and cocks. Silvei
medal.

John D. Haines, Yorkville, N. Y., for a non-wasting hydrant.
Diploma.

John D. Haines, Yorkville, N. Y., for a handy and useful beer
and water cooler. Diploma.

Bridges & Brother, 64 Cortlandt st., for fine bolts. Diploma.

Backus & Peaslee, 289 Pearl street, for a paper stock washing
machine. Diploma.

R. W. & D. Davis, Yellow Springs, Ohio, for adjusting and self-
acting parallel vices. Silver medal.

C. Parker, Meriden, Conn., 0. L. Hatch, agent, 15 Gold street,
for a jeweler's patent vice. Silver medal.

A. M. Waterhouse, 150 Bowery, for a hose coupling. Silver
medal.

E. G. Alden, Boston, Mass., for superior lard oil for machinery.
Silver medal.

Discretionary.

Salamander Grate Bar Co., 30 Pearl street, for patent improved
grate-bars. Dilpoma.

S. Goodfellow, Ida Hill, Troy, N. Y., for a circular die-plate.
Silver medal.

Mathem,afical and Philosophical Instruments.

Judges — A. D. Frye, Alex. D. Eraser, J. Bryant Smith, M. D.,
Isaiah Deck, M. D., Alex. H. Everett.

Fenn & Baker, 45 Ann street, for ivory mathematical scales.
Gold medal.

G. Tagliabue, 298 Pearl street, for a variety of very superior
meters for philosophical purposes. Gold medal.

Luther L. Smith, 5 Canal street, for a galvanic battery, very
convenient and compact. Gold medal.

L. Brooks, Great Falls, N. H., J. B. Morrill, agent, 304 Broad-
way, for an improved bar level. Silver medal.

Benjamin Pike, jr., 294 Broadway, for philosophical instru-
ments. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 177

Benjamin Pike & Son, 518 Eroadway, for superior surveying
and optical instruments. Silver medal.

Adam Ehrgott, 69 Fulton street, for surveying instruments
with levels. Silver medal.

Felirens & Albrecht, 82 Fulton street, for fine drawing instru-
ments. Silver medal.

James Kelly, Sag Harbor, L. I., for very accurate fractional
scales. Silver medal.

B. Goetz & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., J. V. D. Wyckoff, agent, 152
Broadway, for a diffusive daylight reflector. Silver medal.

Samuel B. Smith, 77 Canal street, for a compact electro-mag-
netic machine. Silver medal.

J. E. Cheney & Co., Rochester, N. Y., Prescott & Shotwell,
agents, 63 Maiden Lane, for a very convenient rain-water filter,
(Redzie's Patent). Silver medal.

Thomas E. Dillon, 20 Fulton street, for an improvement in the
needle-point of the mariners' compass. Diploma.

John Tagliabue, 23 Elm street, for a photographic hydrometer.
Diploma.

Lyon Manufacturing Co., 11 Gold St., for Otis' improved
lightning conductor. Diploma.

R. D. Dwyer, 15 South William street, for an improved
Salamander conducting rod. Diploma.

Fairbanks & Co., 189 Broadway, for an ingenious gold coin
detector. Diploma.

Fairbanks k Co., 189 Broadway, for a post-office balance.
Diploma.

D. Minthorn, 47 Warren street, for inhalers and physiological
apparatus. Diploma.

Minerals.

. Judges — Lewis Feuchtwanger, A. D. Frye.

F. F. Thompson, 2 Wall street, for specimens of Breckenridge
coal, the products such as Kerosine, Naptha, &c. Silver medal.

N. J. Franklinite Iron Co., FraukUn, Sussex co., N. J.,
Thaddeus Selleck, agent, Greenwich, Conn., for specimens of
Franklinite ore, and cutlery manufactured from pig iron, separated
from the Franklinite. Silver medal.

Geo. Lambert, 648 Broadway, for specimens of Silesian marble.
Diploma.

[Am. Inst.] 12

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Musical Instruments.

Judges — Charles E. Converse, J. E. Kreutzer, T. J. Shepherd.

J. r. Browne, 295 Broadway, for the best harp. Gold medal.

H. Cottier, Buffalo, N. Y., W. Hall k Sons, agents, 239 Broad-
way, for the best diatonic tlute. Gold medal.

Franz Lauter, 21 Christie street, for the second best flute, best
hautboy and best bassoon. Silver medal.

W. B. Tilton, 18 Beekman st., for the best guitars and violins,
with Tilton's improvement. Silver medal.

Sewell Short, New London, Conn., Coleman & Williamson,
agents, 6 Wall street, for the best violin. Diploma.

JVaval Architecture.

Judges— A. V. Eraser, Eckford Webb, Peter B. Mead.
W. Foulkes, 98 Avenue D, for a model of the steamboat
" Commonwealth."'' Gold medal.

John L. Bushee, 271 Fifth street, for a model of a yacht. Sil-
ver medal.

Joseph B. Van Dusen, 257 Seventh street, for a model of a
yacht. Diploma.

J. Joraleman, 679 Sixth avenue, for a model of a sailing yacht.
Diploma.

Nelson Spratt, 4 Manhattan street, for a model of a side-wheel
steamship. Diploma.

Lawrence & Foulkes, Brooklyn, E. D. for a model of a brig.
Silver medal.

Jesse H. Harrington, Sailor's Snug Harbor, L. I., for a model
of the " Great Republic." Diploma.

J. L. Jackson, Bros. & Co., 55 Goerck street, for the best cap-
stan Avindlass, and anchor-stopper. Silver medal.

Ferry & Taylor, 273 Third street, for a flange capstan, cable-
stopper, &c. Diploma.

J. R. Pratt, 62 Attorney street, for a crank capstan. Diploma.
J. R. Pratt, 62 Attorney street, for a model of a windlass.
Diploma.

Ferry & Taylor, 273 Third street, for a chain-stopper. Diploma.
Samuel R. Bryant, 97 and 99 Columbia street, for an anchor-
stopper. Diploma.

Samuel R. Bryant, 97 and 99 Columbia street, for the best
anchor-tripper. Silver medal.

John W. Griffiths, 118 Cannon street, for an iron keelson.
Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 179

Isaac W. Hoagland, Jersey City, N. J., for an assortment of fine
machine treenails. Silver medal.

A. Hoagland, 55 Mercer street, for superior treenails. Diploma.

Eiirr & Co., 114 South street, for a beautiful specimen of ships'
blocks. Diploma.

Charles H. Pratt, Jersey City, N. J., C. B. Timpson, agent, 166
South street, for ships' blocks. Diploma.

J. & G. McCormick, 76 West Forty-first street, for the best
oakum. Diploma.

W. A. Freeborn & Co., 238 Madison street, for the second
best oakum. Diploma.

Minor.

A. C. Smith, 299 West Twenty-first street, for a model of a sail
boat. Diploma.

JYeedlework^ Embroidery, Sfc.

Judges — Mrs. H. E. H. Taylor, Miss S. J. Dunbar, Miss Anna
A. Smith, Miss Clara G. Smith, Miss Cornelia Montross.

Miss S. C. Y.Cox, Bernard, Vermont, for originality of design
and skillful execution of a piece of embroidery, without pattern.
Silver cup.

Mrs. John Wilcox, Albany, N. Y.,for specimens of embroidery,
viz. " Going to, and Returning from Hawking. Gold medal.

Miss Kempshall, Buffalo, N. Y., for a very richly embroidered
satin bonnet. Silver medal.

Miss Mary Kempshall, Buffalo, N. Y., for a very richly em-
broidered satin cushion. Silver medal.

Mrs. Ann Lovett, (70 years of age,) 55 Amos street, for an
embroidered skirt. Silver medal.

Mrs. William Simmons, 564 Broadway, for the best millinery.
Silver medal.

John N. Genin, 513 Broadway, for the second best millinery.
Diploma.

Mrs. G. Schlgel, 15i Division street, for ornamenting ladies'
hats. Diploma.

Mrs. Sophia Cooley, 112 Eighth avenue, for bonnets, feathers,
flowers, kc. Diploma.

Nathaniel Binns, 451 Hudson street, for hats made by a blind
girl. Silver medal.

Mrs. M. A. Schermerhorn, 299 Third avenue, for the best head-
dress. Silver medal.

John N. Genin, 513 Broadway, for the second best head-dress.
Diploma.

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

John N. Genin, 513 Eroad way, for the best display of ladies'
and eliildren's clothing. Silver medal.

Mrs. F. A. Donegan, 89 Canal street, for feathers and flowers
made from the down and wings of domestic fowls. Silver medal.

Mrs. J. L. Piper, 130 Dean street, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best
wax flowers, exquisite workmanship. Silver medal.

Mrs. Mary Scheifteler, 473 Eighth avenue, for well-executed
wax flowers. Silver medal.

Watson Havens, 124 Hudson street, for vases of fruit made of
gums, excellent nnitations of nature. Silver medal.

Mrs, E. R. Voorhees, Amsterdam, N. Y., for domestic goods
manul'actured from the raw material. Silver Cup, and Di-
ploma.

Institution for the Blind, for fancy articles, bead-work, tidies,
&c. Silver Cup, $10.

Miss Forbes, 277 Spring street, for a patch-work bed-quilt.
Silver medal.

Mrs. E. S. Collins, Brooklyn, for superior quilting on a silk
quilt. Silver medal.

Mrs. Sarah King, Middle Granville, Washington county, N. Y.,
for a counterpane — carded, spun, woven, and embroidered by a
lady 70 years of age. Silver medal.

Mrs. S. Cleveland, 102 E. 32d street, for a knit quilt, by a lady
78 years of age. Silver medal.

Miss M. Dummer, Jersey City, for a knit quilt, containing 700
pieces, by a lady 74 years of age. Silver medal.

Miss S. Luersen, 602 Sixth avenue, for the best crotchet- work
quilt. Silver medal.

Mrs. H. W. Coombs, Brooklyn, for the second best crochet-
work quilt. Diploma.

Madame Demorest, 375 Broadway, for the best system of dress-
cutting. Silver medal.

Mrs. Josephine Gibbins, 283 Spring street, for the second best
system of dress-cutting. Diploma.

Mrs. J. F. I homas, 4 Cottage place, Brooklyn, for the third
best system of dress-cutting. Diploma.

Mrs. Hortense Maury, 11 Amity street, for the best corsets.
Diploma.

Madam Girard, 97 Canal street, for the second best corsets.
Diploma.

Mrs. Van Houten, 82 Nassau street, for shirts of superior work-
manship, specimens of the best plain needle-work. Diploma.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 181

Jackson & Purdy, 281 Broadway, for improved shirts, stocks,
and ties, Diploma.

Lewis & Seacord, 655 Broadway, for the best display of gentle-
men's furnishing articles. Silver medal.

Mariners' Family Industrial Society, Miss S. A. Colwell, agent,
322 Pearl street, for a display of mariners' clothing. Silver
medal.

Ira Perego k Son, 61 Nassau street, for a good display of gents'
hosiery. Diploma.

Mrs. Martha Lompeck, 87 Franklin street, for the best plain
and embroidered stocks. Diploma.

Mrs. Usher, Port Richmond, S. I., for a bullion embroidered
pincushion. Diploma.

M. J. Drummond, 335 Grand street, for Free Masons' regalia,
beautifully embroidered. Diploma.

Mrs. A. W. Flint, 151 W. 23d street, for an embroidered lace
veil. Diploma.

Miss Julia J. Marcet, 94 Orchard street, for the best silk em-
broidery. Diploma.

Mrs. D. 0. Kellogg, 76 Remsen street, Brooklyn, for a piece of
embroidery in imitation of line engraving. Diploma.

Miss A. R. Ellis, 67 West 25th street, for a chair embroidered
in chenille. Diploma.

Miss Ann Brown, Conn., for superior embroidery. Diploma.

Miss Maria L. Belshaw, Brooklyn, for an embroidered portrait
of Washington. Diploma.

Miss Mary L. Francis, Newark, N. J., for the best raised worsted
work. Diploma.

Miss L. Randolph, 220 West 35th street, for the second best
raised work. Diploma.

Mrs. Ursula Curtis, West Stockbridge, Mass., for a hearth-rug
made of woolen rags. Diploma.

Samuel Brown, 56th street, between Fifth and Sixth avenues,
for a hearth-rug made with a sailmaker's needle. Diploma.

Mrs. R. A. Larkin, 12 Ridge street, for the best flowers and
frame made of leather. Diploma.

Mrs. T. Phillips, East 33d street, for the second best leather
work. Diploma.

Miss P. M. Fonda, Troy, N. Y., for the best specimen of hair-
flowers. Diploma.

Mrs. J. C. Winslow, corner 44th street and Sixth avenue, for
the second best hair-flowers. Diploma.

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Miss Addie F. Scott, Salem, Mass., for a case of sea-moss work.
Diploma.

Mrs. Sarah Hussey, 74 Fortieth street, for crystalized grass,
shell -box, &c. Diploma.

Miss Jane Smith, Astoria, L. I., for the second best shell work,
composed of very minute shells. Diploma.

Miss Gertrude Brown, 675 Sixth avenue, for blackberries in
bead work, a good imitation. Diploma.

Philip Eohner, corner Mott and Broome streets, for a very in-
genious paper basket. Diploma.

Mrs. Micheau, Brooklyn, for a knitted tidy. Diploma.

Miss Harriet W. Whale, 66 Sixth avenue, for the best crotcheted
tidy. Diploma.

Miss A. Gildersleeve, 17 Forty-first street, for a crotcheted
tidy. Diploma.

Miss S. Kinnersley, 2 Fourth street, Williamsburgh, for a
crotcheted tidy. Diploma.

F. Seybel, 107 Eighth avenue, for crotched hats and caps.
Diploma.

Margaret E. Dodge, 77 Fulton street, Brooklyn, for a very
meritorious bed-quilt. Diploma.

Miss. M. C. Secor, 604 Sixth avenue, for an ornamental
crotcheted quilt. Diploma.

Andrew Blackwood, 104 Laurens street, for an improved quilt-
ing-frame, a decided improvement. Diploma.

Minors.

Miss R. Woglom, 71 Third street, for the beat crotcheted tidy.
Books, $1.

Miss Eliza Luersen, 602 Sixth avenue, for a fine crotcheted
table-cover. Books, $2.50.

Miss S. M. Bonnel, 731 Eighth avenue, for an arm-chair.
Books, $2.50.

Miss Mary A. Abbott, City Hall, Brooklyn, for a patch-work
bedquilt, contains 4055 pieces. Books, $3.

Miss M. Foley, North Sixth street, Williamsburgh, for a knit
bed-quilt. Books, $2.50.

S. L. Scofield, 26 Suffolk street, for a knit quilt. Books, $2.50.
Paper-Hangmgs and Upholstery.

Judges — Abram Voorhis, Samuel S. Constant.

Thomas Faye & Co., 257 Broadway, for the best paper-hang-
ings. Gold medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 183

Cranston &'Gregory, 433 Myrtle avenue, Brooklyn, for a ladies'
portable retiring room, with fresco and marble decorations. Sil-
ver medal.

John Dixon, 152 East 40th street, for specimens of curled hair
and haircloth. Silver medal.

William Stratton, 90 Chambers street, for a mosquito-net and
canopy. Silver medal.

E. Johnson, Blind Institution, corner 33d street and Eighth
avenue, for hair mattresses. Silver medal.

Waterbury Hook & Eye Co., Waterbury, Conn., for the best
gilt brass cornice, and curtain-bands. Silver medal.

Penmanship.

Judges — W. H. Dikeman, William Bowne, Hiram Dixon.

A. H. Wheeler, East 30th street for the best specimens of pen-
manship. Silver medal.

John P. Tracy, Albany, N. Y., for specimens of card- writing,
well executed. Diploma.

Thomas Pollock, Ward School 45, Thirty-fourth street, for a
specimen of ink map-drawing, very creditable. Diploma.

Brown & Riley, 121 Nassau street, for gold pens. Diploma.
Perfumery.

Judges — Geo. D. Coggeshall, Eugene Dupuy, Isaiah Deck,
John Meakim, Alex. H. Everett, J. Bryant Smith.

Merchant Brothers, 567 Broadway, for the best extracts, best
cologne-water, second best pomades, second best cold cream, and
for milk of white lillies — a new and pleasing preparation. Gold
medal.

X. Bazin, Philadelphia, Pa., for the best pomades, and the sec-
ond best extracts. Silver medal.

E. Phalon, 507 Broadway, for the best cold cream, third best
extracts, and the third best pomades. Silver medal.

D. Gale, 106 Essex street, for a collection of various soaps —
best in exhibition, and deserving of special notice. Silver medal.
Piano-Fortes and Organs.

Judges — Charles Seymour, William Mason, W. H. SagSj^Thos.
Hagen.

Steinway & Sons, 88 Walker street, for the best semi-grand
piano-forte — characterized by purity of tone, elasticity of action,
and equality of scale. Gold medal

Schuetze & Ludolff, 85 Varick street, for the second best piano-
forte. Silver medal.

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

George F. Holmes, 20 Sixth avenue, for the third best piano-
forte. Diploma.

William Lindeman & Son, 56 Franklin street, for a grand piano-
forte. Diploma.

Geo. D. Prince & Son, William Hall & Son, agents, 239 Broad-
way, for the best melodion — a very fine, smooth, equal-toned in-
strument. Silver medal.

Preparations of JVatural History.

Judges — J. N. Audubon, Emile Guillaudet.

John G. Bell, 289 Broadway, for the best preserved quadrupeds,
birds, and fish. Gold medal.

J. L. Bode, 16 North William street, for the second best stuffed
quadrupeds, &c. Silver medal.

Samuel Jillson, Lynn, Mass., for the third best stufied birds, &c.
Diploma.

John Allston, Brooklyn, L. I., for stuffed birds, good workman-
ship. Diploma.

Refrigerators.

Judges — Wm. Ebbitt, James R. Smith.

Charles Peters, 213 West 18th street, for the best refrigerators.
Silver medal.

John C. Schooley, Cincinnati, Ohio, W. T. Gray, agent, 374
Bowery, for a model of Schooley's patent ice, pork, and fruit-house.
Silver medal.

John C. Schooley, Cincinnati, Ohio, Parker & Brown, agents,
20 and 22 Commerce street, for refrigerators. Diploma.

Wm. L. Townsend, 356 Washington street, for an improvement
in refrigerators. Diploma.

Saddlery^ Harness^ ^c.

Judges — John B. Bull, J. Jamison, Eobert R. Story.

Alexander H. Dunscomb, 568 Broadway, for the best saddles
and bridles, superior workmanship. Silver medal.

Isaac J. Stillings, 1022 Broadway, for the second best saddlery
and coach-pads. Diploma.

y Sign-Painting.

Judges — J. H. Briedenbah, Jr., H. Mason Dikeman, C. D.
Couenhoven.

C. D. Dubois, 265 Spring street, for the best ornamental sign.
Silver medal.

Minors.

John G. Quirk, 3 Canal street, for the best sign-painting.
Books, $3.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 185

Joseph Yates, 144 Lewis street, for the second best sign-paint-
ing. Diploma.

Raio and Manufacturing Silk — Raw Silk.
Judges — A. C. Van Epps, Geo. Hayward.
Mrs. C. Van Epps, Ovid, N. Y., for silli cocoons of the Nankin
pea-nut variety. Silver medal.

Gurney & Co., 22 Liberty street, for cocoons, raw silk, silk
twist on spools, &c. Silver medal.

Manufactured Silk.
Judges — Geo. Hayward, A. C. Van Epps.
C. W. Crosley, 627 Broadway, for rich upholstery, cords and
tassels of various colors. Silver medal.

Newport Silk Factory, Newport, Ky.,for beautiful silk fabrics.
Silver medal.

Bay State Mills, Lawrence, Mass., Lawrence Stone & Co.,
agents, 41 Broadway, for richly embroidered silk shawls. Silver
medal.

M. Hemingway & Son, Watertown, Conn., S. J. Dennis, 40
Dey street, for the best sewing-silk on spools, and embroidery
silk. Silver medal.

Excelsior Silk and Twist Co., Mansfield Centre, Conn., H. B.
Howell, agent, 27 Cortlandt street, for the best silk twist, for
machine use, and the best colored sewing-silk. Silver medal.

Silver Plating.
Judges — Ealph L. Anderton, Benj. Newkirk, Richard H.
Trestcd.

S. S. Day, Jr., 132 Mercer street, for the best silver-plating.
Silver medal.

John H. Whitlock & Co., Troy, N. Y., for the best electro-
plated ware. Silver medal.

Manhattan Plate Co., 267 Bowery, for the second best electro-
plating. Diploma.

Silver Ware.
Judges — Wm. Eljbitt, Jas. R. Smith.

Adams & Kidney, 38 White street, for the best silver ware.
Gold medal.

A. Coles & Co., 6 Liberty street, for the second best silver
ware. Silver medal.

Stationery^ Blank Books, Sfc.
Judges — Geo. C. Morgan, Wra. H. Arthur, T. A. Howe.
Gray, Nitchie & Cook, 18 Beekman street, lor splendid writing
paper. Gold medal.

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Latimer Bros. & Seymour, 15 Nassau street, for the best blank-
books. Gold medal.

H. Anstice & Co., 5 Nassau street, for blank-books well ruled
and finished. Silver medal.

Nathan Lane & Co., 63 Wall street, for the second best blank-
books. Silver medal.

Carson & Hard, 44 Beekman street, for superior binders' boards,
combining solidity with great smoothness. Silver medal.

Jas. Henry Bull, New- York, E. A. Lambert, agent, 119 and
121 William street, for a simple and accurate post office scale.
Silver medal.

J. K. Park, Ulster county, N. Y., W. E. & J. Sibell, 1 Wall
street, for improved crystalline tracing-cloth. Silver medal.

A. & F. Brown, cor. Hester and Elizabeth streets, for copying-
presses. A Gold medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

K. Hoe & Co., 29 and 31 Gold street, for the best improved
stand copying-press. Diploma.

E. Waters, Troy, N. Y., for improved paper boxes. Diploma.

M. Hoyt, 157 Broadway, for improved enamelled labels. Di-
ploma.

Franklin Mann, 24 Frankfort street, H. Griffin, agent, 114
Nassau street, for marble papers, colors judiciously blended.
Diploma.

E. A. Lambert, 119 and 121 William street, for porcelain ink-
stands. Diploma.

Thaddeus Davids & Co., 26 Cliff street, for superior wafers.
Diploma.

Francis & Loutrel, 77 Maiden lane, for diaries and daily jour-
nals. Diploma.

Stoves for Warming and Cooking, and Hot Air Furnaces and

Ranges.

Judges — Daniel Griffin, Thomas Southard.

The J. L. Mott Iron Works, 264 Water street, for the best
kitchen-range. A Gold medal having been before awarded. Di-
ploma.

William Camp & Co., 229 Bowery, for the second best kitchen-
range. Silver medal.

William Camp & Co., 229 Bowery, for the best patent baker.
Silver medal.

S. D. Tilman, cor. Broadway and Park place, for the best heat-
radiator. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 187

Sidney Smith, 134 Myrtle avenue, Brooklyn, for the best
sheet-iron radiator. Silver medal.

W. H. Bliss, Newport, R. I., C. A. Guinard, 254 Water street,
for the best hotel range. Silver medal.

William Cobb, 22 West Broadway, for a superior hotel range
and stews. Silver medal.

F. L. Hedenberg & Son, 258 Walker street, for the best hot-air
furnaces for coal and wood. Silver medal.

Jacob B. Kreemer, 77 White street, for the second best hot-air
furnace. Diploma.

F. L. Hedenberg & Son, 258 Walker street, for the best porta-
ble heater. Silver medal.

M. C. Hull, 288 Third avenue, for the second best portable
heater. Diploma.

Munsell, Thompson & Munsell, 1 1 5 Beekman street, for the
best coal cooking-stove. Silver medal.

A. C. Barstow, Providence, R. I., M. C. Hull, agent, 288 Third
avenue, for the second best coal cooking-stove. Diploma.

Truman Merrifield, 113 Beekman street, for the best parlor
Franklin, and the best parlor and cooking-stove. Silver medal.

A. C. Barstow, Providence, R. I., M. C. Hull, agent, 288 Third
avenue, for the second best parlor cooking-stove, and the second
best open Franklin. Diploma.

Munsell, Thompson & Munsell, 115 Beekman street, for the
best hall and parlor sheet-iron stove. Diploma.

Wm. Cobb, 23 West Broadway, for anti-metallic tea and coffee
urns. Silver medal.

Surgical Instniments.

Judges — D. M. Reese, C. R. Gilman.

H. Hernstein, 393 Broadway, for the best surgical instruments
and medicine chest. Gold medal.

0. H. Needham, 303 Broadway, Coleman & Williamson, agents,
6 Wall street, for the best cupping apparatus, breast-pump, and
nipple shields. Silver medal.

E. Waters, Troy, N. Y., for the second best cupping apparatus.
Diploma.

Marsh & Co., 2i Maiden Lane, for the best truss. Silver medal.

Palmer & Co., 378 Broadway, and Springfield, Mass., for the
best artificial legs. A gold medal having been before awarded,
diploma.

Robert Bates, Philadelphia, Pa., for instruments to cure stam-
mering. Diploma.

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Trunks and Carpet Bags.

Judges — John Elack, J. Johnson, R. A. Chambers.

Peter & Martin, 407 Broadway, for the best sole leather trunks
Silver medal.

P. Trainor, 378 Eroadway, for the second best sole leather
trunks. Diploma.

L. Cantel, 15 West Broadway, for improved combination of
travelling trunk and life-preserver. Silver medal.

TJmhrellas and Parasols.

Judges — J. MacGregor, James Davis.

Clyde & Black, 401 Broadway, for the best parasols, umbrellas,
and canes. Diploma.

Wool.

Judges — ^W. K. Strong, W. H. Annable.

Charles Colt, Genesee, Livingston co., N. Y., Beale & Adams,
agents, 166 Pearl street, for the best fleece wool, very superior
quality, and in good order. Silver medal.

Fleeces of the Cashmere or Shawl Goat.

Judges — Benjamin P. Johnson, Charles S. J. Goodrich, James
J. Mapes.

Daniel 0. Ambler, New- York, for fleeces of the Cashmere or
shawl goat. Silver cup, $15.

Woolen Goods.

Judges — F. J. Conant, James B. Parsons, J. W. Pinkney.
Ontario Woolen Co., Ontario, N. Y., T. H. Maghee, agent, 24
South William street, for the best woolen blankets, of very supe-
rior quality and worthy of the highest praise. Gold medal.

Rochdale Mills, Rochester, N. H., Nesmith & Co., agents, 69
and 71 Broadway, for the second best blankets. Diploma.

George P. Evans, Crescentville, Penn., Bowers & Beeckman,
agents, for the best fancy cassimeres. Gold medal.

Millville Manufacturing Co., Providence, R. I., Bush & Mun-
kittrick, agents, 10 Broadway, for the second best fancy cassi-
meres. Silver medal.

American Mills, Rockville, Conn., Richards & Van Wagener,
agents, 54 and 56 Exchange place, for the third best fancy cassi-
meres— good styles, and well made. Diploma.

Middlesex Manufacturing Co., Lowell, Mass., Lawrence, Stone
& Co., agents, 41 Broadway, for the best doeskin of superior make
and finish, and of established reputation. Gold medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 189

Platner & Smith, Saxony Mills, Lee, Mass., Richards & Van
Wagener, agents, 54 and 56 Exchange place, for the second best
doeskins — substantial, heavy, well-made goods. Silver medal.

Eay State Mills, Lawrence, Mass., Lawrence, Stone & Co.,
agents, 41 Broadway, for the best shawls and superior blankets,
beautiful specimens, and worthy of the highest praise. A Gold
Medal having been before awarded. Diploma.

DeWitt C. Erainard, of the United Society of Shakers, New
Lebanon, N. Y., for superior horse blankets. Diploma.

James Eoy, Watervliet, N. Y., Hoyt, Tillingkast & Co., agents,
63 Eroadway, for superior shawls. Silver medal.

Ludwig & Ummerle, 61 Rose street, for embossed shawls, table
covers, &c. Silver medal.

Caleb M. Dyer, North Enfield, N. H., Josiah Pierce, agent, 8
Varick place, for the best flannel, of superior make.

Manchester Print Works, Manchester, N. H., J. C. Howe & Co.,
59 Broad wa}^, for the second best opera-cloths, de laines, Prussian
cloths, and flannel, of beautiful patterns, and fine printing. Silver
medal.

Thomas Monroe & Co., 59 Liberty street, for the best fancy-
printed canton flannels. Diploma.

Union Manufacturing Co., Norwalk, Conn., Bowers & Beeck-
man, agents, 43 Broadway, for the best felt goods, substantial and
well made. Gold medal.

Hillard & Spencer, Manchester, Conn., Willard, Wood & Co.,
agents, 57 Broadway, for blue satinet, a well-made and well fin-
ished article. Diploma.

Chas. H. Adams & Co., Cohoes, N. Y., Joseph Torrey, agent,
41 Pine street, for superior shirts and drawers. Silver medal.

Hamilton Woolen Co., Southbridge, Mass., Merriam, Brewer
& Co., agents, for the best mousselin de laines. Silver medal.

Manchester Print Works, Manchester, N. H., J. C. Howe &
Co., agents, 59 Broadway, for the second best mousselin de laines.
Silver medal.

WigSy Toupees, Sfc.

Judges — Vair Clirehugh, James Laird.

R. F. Medhurst & Co., 27 Maiden lane, for the best -gents'
wigs. Silver medal.

C. Bourgard, 5 Frankfort street, for the second best wigs. Di-
ploma.

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Wood and Ivory Turning.

Judges — Frederick G. Ford, Samuel Shardlow.

D. H. Carpenter, 691 Wasliington street, for newel posts, of beau-
tiful •workmanship and finish. Silver medal.

G. W. Dennis, 327 Fifth street, for oval frames. Diploma.

John F. Beck, 151 Bowery, for specimens of carved wood and
ivory. Diploma.

H. Schreitmuller, 122 Fulton street, for superior specimens of
turning in coal. Diploma.

Miscellaneous.

Judges — Wm. Ebbitt, James R. Smith.

Farr, Briggs & Co., 134 Cherry street, for the best candle-
moulds. Silver medal.

Wm. Webb, 307 Bowery, for improved candle-moulds. Di-
ploma.

Lee & Co., 309 Bleecker street, for an enamelled wire sign.
Diploma.

Lee & Co., 309 Bleecker street, for gauze-wire stand-screens.
Diploma.

Isaac H. Benedict, Institution Deaf & Dumb, New- York, for a
brochial telegraph. Diploma.

Wm. Bolivar Davis, E. Brooklyn, L. I., for a life-buoy or
swimming-appai-atus. Diploma.

Waterbury Hook k Eye Co., Waterbury, Conn., for hooks and
eyes. Diploma.

W. E. Rose, 72 White street, for gold and silver-mounted
canes. Silver medal.

C. H. Watkins, 641 Broome street, for a patent self-cleaning
chimney-top. Diploma.

Hydeville Marble Works, 42d street, N. Y., E. Deming, sup't,
for marbleized slate mantels. Gold medal.

P. F. Smith, 50 Dey street, for self-adjusting stocks. Diploma.

Lyon k Lamb, 398 Broadway, for patent marble. Silver medal.

R. L. & H. Lundy, 192 and 194 Fortieth street, for vitrified
stone draining pipe. Silver medal.

Washington Smith, 251 West 18th street, for a vitrified drain-
pipe. * Silver medal.

Babcock & Van Vechten, Albany, N. Y., for a draining-tile
and pipe. Diploma.

John S. Willard, 440 Pearl street, for a carved and gilt frame
looking glass. Silver medal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 191

Rogers & O'Brien, 77 Third avenue, for a model of a pier glass
and connecting cornice. Diploma.

Heins & Smith, 538 Pearl street, for an ornamental frame.
Diploma.

Searles & Williams, 57 White street, for ornamental frames.
Diploma.

Calvin Van Zile, 744 Washington street, for a specimen of cir-
cular sawing. Diploma.

John Chunaman, 199 Hester street, for a model of a spiral
staircase. Diploma.

H. Murtaugh, 77 Fortieth street, for an improved dumb-waiter.
Diploma.

John Bell, Harlem, N Y., for an oblique tenon-box. Diploma.

Tgnaitus Helpic, 4 and 6 East 20th street, for an ornamental
mai'ble clock. Diploma.

Wm. F. Serrell, 293 Broadway, for a fanning-machine. DijDloma.

Newton Copper Type Co., 14 Frankfort street, for specimens
of copper type facing. Diploma.

The J. L. Mott Iron Works, 264 Water street, for an iron
sink. Diploma.

Mitchell, Bailey & Co., 85 and 87 John street, for specimens
of zinc pipe for plumber's use. Diploma.

J. Johnson & Brothers, 111 East 18th street, for superior foun-
tain-jets. Silver medal.

G. C. Wilkinson, 312 Monroe street, for superior bellows.
Silver medal.

Brown & Eggleston, 73 Fulton street, for hobby-horses.
Diploma.

Cornelius Lockwood, 25 Fulton street, and 205 Water street,
for childi-en's wagons, hobby-horses, sleighs and cribs. Diploma.

The J. L. Mott Iron W^orks, 264 Water street, for samples of
school-furniture. Silver medal.

American Silvering Glass Co., 23 Duane street, for a specimen
of silvered glass. Silver medal.

C. Mahony, Institution for the Blind, New-York, for a new
system of musical notation for the use of the blind. Silver me«dal.

Miss Adelia 0. Smith, 130 West 23d street, for superior speci-
mens of pastry. Diploma.

C. Humphrey, Perth Amboy, N. J., B. Humphrey, agent, 13
Minetta street, for whistling tops. Diploma

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

TOTAL PREMIUMS AWARDED.

Gold medals, 73

Silver medals, 382

Silver cups, 43

Diplomas, 415

Books (vols.), 123

Books to minors and apprentices, value, $ 82

Cash premiums, 304

MOTIVE POWER FOR THE FARMER.

[By Frank G. Johnson.]

The time has come when motive power to the farmer is indis-
pensable. Only a few years ago the farmer was compelled to do
everything by hand — not an apparatus or machine could be found
on all his premises which required motive power. But, by the
rapid progress recently made in science and the mechanic arts,
the farmer has come to be supplied with machinery for perform-
ing nearly every branch of his labor. Agricultural warehouses,
instead of containing farm tools merely, are now filled with hun-
dreds and thousands of farm machines^ the majority of which would
be perfectly useless without motive power. The utility of many
of these machines will depend almost entirely upon the facilities
of obtaining some cheap, simple, and universal motive power with
which to operate them.

It is evident that no one thing can combine all the advantages
in every application; so that steam, although, at present, standing
at the head of motive powers, is very poorly adapted to the far-
mer's use, for the reasons :

1st. They are too expensive in their first cost.

2d. They are not economical — consuming too much fuel, espe-
cially on prairies, where fuel is scarce.

3d: Steam, to be an economical power, needs to be used more
constantly, and more on its maximum capacity, than the farmer
requires.

4th. They endanger the farmer's premises with fires. The
boilers are also liable to explosion, thus endangering life.

5th. They are too complicated, and liable to require repairs,
whicli the farmer, for want of skill and tools, is unable to make.

6th. The fai-mer does not generally understand the ordinary
operation of the steam engine practically, so as to be able to "run*'
it himself

[Am. Inst.] 13

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Horse-power macnines, too, are not free from objections for the
farmer's use.

1st. Their first cost is much greater than a windmill of equal

power.

2d. The majority of them are very ruinous to horses. Some
kinds of them, too, affording a nice trap for breaking their legs.

3d. They are inadequate to the wants of the farmer in many
instances; as running mill-stones, draining and watering land,
&c.

4th. The horses being required for other purposes, sometimes
when power is needed, makes great inconvenience.

5th. Horse, or muscular force in any form, as well as steam,
requires fuel for its sujjport.

Some of the advantages of wi7id as a motive power for the
farmer, are

1st. The first outlay will be less than for any other power of
equal capacity.

2d. When the windmill is once erected, there is no expense
required to keep it in operation ; hence, when it will answer the
pui-pose required, it is the most economical power known.

3d. It requires no skill or attention for its operation.

4th. Once up, it is entirely out of the way.

5th. The force of the wind, being so variable, (being as the
square of its velocity,) will at times be enormously powerful,
thus, some of the time, supplying a7iy amount of power.

6th. Windmills, as they require no attention, will work nights,
making the night-time as valuable as the day, for watering and
draining land, elevating water for stock, &c., which is net gain
over any other power.

Among the many things which the farmer can accomplish with
a windmill, (and suitable apparatus,) are,

1st. Grinding grain — all such at least as is to be fed on the
premises— obviating the necessity of carrying it many miles often
"to mill" and bringing only a part of it back. Besides, it can
be ground in small quantities, and thus always had fresh.

2d. Threshing grain — a work which forcibly illustrates the
advantages of motive power to the farmer.

3d. Husking and shelling corn.

4th. Winnowing and cleaning grain.

5th. Cutting feed of all kinds, and thus working in and using
much that would otherwise be wasted.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 195

6th. Churning. What farmer's wife would not at once higlily
appreciate motive power, in this tedious and ever-recurring
operation.

7th. Turning grindstones. This, when required, is a very
laborious task — a real back-ache operation.

8th. Sawing wood. With a circular saw, one man can cut more
wood in one day, than he otherwise could in three weeks.

9th. Pressing hay and cotton.

10th. Grinding sugar cane.

11th. Breaking hemp andflax^ and ginning cotton.

12th. Making agricultural implements. With power, a little
skill, and a few tools, the farmer can make for himself and
neighbors, many useful articles, at times when nothing else can be
done.

13th. Elevating water for culinary and other domestic purposes
to a tank placed in the upper part of the dwelling, thence to be
conveyed by pipes to any part of the house; and with a hose,
to be used in case of fire. If no such tank be connected with
the barn, the pipes can extend there also.

14th. Watering stock. This unavoidable duty, on some farms
where a large stock is kept, and especially at some seasons of the
year, is one of the most chfficult and irksome tasks that the
farmer has to perform ; being necessitated sometimes, many
times, to drive his entire stock half a mile or a mile to a brook —
to dig paths through deep snows, to let down and put up bars,
to open gates, to cut holes through the ice, &c., all for want of
water in the stock yard ; besides cattle when driven out in cold
weather are always " hooking " each other — many times, too,
they slip and injury themselves. If a well is at the ham or yard.^
still it requires much time and labor to water a hundred, fifty,
twenty-five, or even a dozen head of cattle. When cattle are
pastured, often it is the case, tliey must be driven from one field
to another for water, when, too, tlie time and attention of the
men are much needed for something else. All these evils and
inconveniences of watering stock can be obviated Avith the greatest
ease, by a windmill, to elevate the water to a tank at sufiicicnt
height, for leading it oif in any direction, and thus conveyed to
any desired spot on the farm, with the smallest size lead pipe,
at the trifling expense of two or three cents per foot. Compare
this expense with the time, labor, cost, and annoyance required by
the former means to do the same work, for ten or fifteen years,
and behold the difference. Tlie benefit, too, of having water

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

before the cattle, is very great. Besides, by the latter means,
water can be conveyed into the har7i and house, almost without
cost, aside from the jnill.

15th. Draining land. Often several acres of a farm are worth-
less, which might be made very tillable by a little draining — the
water distributed on other fields to benefit thern at the same time.
The enormous extent of draining by windmills in Holland, is
sufiicient to convince any man, first, of the practicability and
advantages of surface draining, even on the most extensive scale,
and that, too, under such circumstances as would at first seem
to be utterly insurmountable ; and seccnd, of the capacity and
economy of the wind to perform the work, even with the crudest
and most expensive mills 1

16th. Irrigation. In preventing the evil effects of drotith, and
in the promotion of general irrigatio7i, the windmill will render
invaluable service. In such a drouth as that of last season,
(1854,) the entire expense of a good windmill could have been
saved on three acres — yes, with some crops, on o?ie acre. There
is not a year when the farmer cannot add very materially to
some of his crops by watering them. Especially is this true
with grass-fields and gardens ; which can be more than doubled —
yes, quadrupled — by proper irrigation.

We read of the fatness of Egypt's soil, notwitnstanding it is
wholly dependent upon the rains of Ethiopia, and artificial irri-
gation for all its waters. Does not this show the practicability
and profitableness of irrigation 1 For their uplands the Egyp-
tians first conveyed the water for miles and miles through arti-
ficial canals, then elevated it with pmnps worked by oxen, then
conveyed it with pipes before it reached its distribution. Now,
if Egypt, thousands of years ago, with inferior facilities, could
thus make an otherwise poor and sandy soil one of the richest
and most fertile in the world, and thereby, too, create a national
wealth, then why cannot the ingenious Yankee — the enterprising
American — with modern developments of scien'ce, and all the
facilities of such an advanced state of the mechanic arts, enrich
his soil and double his crops in a Similar manner ; instead of
skimming and scraping over and robbing his soil of its unusual na-
tural richness, and thereby undermining instead of creating a na-
tional wealth and prosperity 1

If such an enormous expense of tinderdraining can be afforded
and made to pay such extraordinary percentage on the outlay, on
English lands that are superabundantly moist, then it is absurd

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. J 97

to say that the agriculturist of this country cannot alford to
water his land, which would not require one-tenth, nor one-
fiftieth the expense of under-draining ; that, too, with more than
an equal increase of products.

•If several seasons be considered, it is well known that the ag-
gregate moisture is insuflQcient in most of our soils. If there
are some years when there is a sufficiency of natural irrigation,
so there ar6 others when there is a deficiency. And there is no
one year but that, in this country, there are some localities that
sufler for want of water. And to crown the evil, and give us a
kind of schoolmaster lesson there comes now and then an eighteen
hundred and fifty-four. Although in a given season, the aggre-
gate moisture may be sufiicient, still any farmer would consider
it an anomaly, if for owe season, each of his crops should receive
at just the right time., just the right araowit of rain to give the
greatest yield. Yet, by artificial means with the natural, he
could, with success and profit, accomplish just this result every
year.

Every farmer will appreciate the necessity of having the proper
degree of moisture, at a particular stage in the growth of a crop,
and without which, the evil is greater than it would be for an
equal or greater lack of moisture at any other time ; which shows
the necessity and advantage of having water at our commaiid for
purposes of irrigation.

Some will say, that to irrigate in time of any considerable
drouth, will cost all the crops will come to. This is not true if
the proper facilities be possessed ; but suppose it does cost all
the crop is worth, so that labor and all counted, the fiirmer comes
out just even — where he commenced in the spring — is this not
infinitely better than to 7iot irrigate, and allow the drouth to ruin
the crops, and thereby lose out of pocket — making a " dead" loss
of all he has done, l^esides coming short of m.anure in the spring 1
Theory and statistics — many experiments demonstrate heyond a
doubt., that irrigation is one of the most important matters in the
science and practice of farming — that its indispensability to the
greatest success has been too long neglected, and that it is still
too generally overlooked and but poorly appr ciated.

The earth is full of water,three-fourths of its surface is flooded
with it ; it bursts from the rocks, and trickles down their ragged
sides, it rushes down the mountains, and flows along the hill-
sides, sweeps through the valleys and over the plains — it under-
lies the sui'face everywhere, forming an under-net work of rivu-

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

lets — millions of small but inexhaustible streams. Sucli is the
bounty with which Heaven has supplied the earth with this
refreshing element. Man has come to know its use — he sees its
necessity, he sees that there is no vegetable development with-
out it — no fruit, no blossom, no stem, stalk or root, that without
it, every green and living thing of the field must die. Man, too,
by ingenuity and art, has come to apply the inanimate forces of
nature to such an extent, that his strength is as illimitable as the
boundless power of steam — equipped with iron charged with
the elements of nature, he tunnels rivers, spans them with gran-
ite arches big as the rainbow; he can excavate the earth, can
keep the sea out or shut it in, can ride the ocean and divide its
waves, can find his way among mountains of ice to the poles,
can bore the solid mountain as with a gimlet, and so walk
through them or over them as suits his convenience, can remove
hills, can make very large houses, and erect high monuments;
can beseige a city and destroy it in a night, can make a city in a
fortnight; he can pour o. flood of water upon a burning mass, and
thus make the elements overpower each other, he can lay under-
ground arteries of iron through a vast city, and fill them with
burning gas, that lights every dark hole, street and palace — can
divert and bring down to the metropolis whole rivers, and drive
them a thousand feet high, then make them fiow under the solid
pavements to every house, supplying every shop, laundry,
kitchen, dining-room and bedroom, with a living stream of water.
Yet he will sit down in despair and witness the destruction of the
fruits of his labor — the ruin of his fields, beholds the half-grown
grass, wither and die; he sees his entire fields scorching, crisping,
the ground baking, everything becoming dead and Aard, and with
all his art and strength he beholds the destruction going on, hears
and feels the cry for water, but acts as if he thought he were
powerless, as if all the water were in another world, and could
not so much as be prayed for, much less bought, at any price;
when, in fact, all he has to do is, first, think he ca?i, and then
turn around, take a cup, as it were, dip up some water and pour
it on to his thirsty fields — that is all; a very simple way, and
comparatively easy, withal, when we consider the advantages.
Water is the demand, and water it must he.

Where is there a farmer that expects to obtain a crop of corn,
for instance, without several times weeding and hoeing it — he is
willing and expects to labor, and be at the expense of hoeing it,

AMERICAN INSTIXrTE. 199

believing, knowing, that his crop will be good for nothing with-
out it.

Let there come a drouth, partial or severe, and let him be told
and believe, that by an extra hoeing his corn will entirely escape
the evil effects of the drouth, and how quick he will go to the
trouble and expense of hoeing it agairi. But let him be told,
that with proper facilities he can, and for less expense, water his
corn instead of hoeing it the extra time, and thus save it, and he
will at once demur; because it is what he is not accustomed to.
Still it is true that the irrigation would save the crop, — besides
all the labor and expense bestowed upon it up to the time when
the di-outh overtakes it. When, too, a farmer learns, by what-
soever means, that his soil lacks in a certain ingredient, how
quick he hastens to ascertain what kind of manure will supply
the deficiency, and go to the expense of supplying it; or when
he wishes to raise a particular crop, he ascertains what it is, and
goes to the expense of furnishing just the right kind of manure
for that crop, feeling assured that he will be amply rewarded in
the result. But let some portion of his farm, from peculiarity
of soil; or from drouth, let his whole farm be suffering, however
slightly or severely, for that one, great, simple, common manure,
water; without which, the fattest soil is barren and good for
nothing, and how little he thinks of trying to supply it, believes
he can do nothing, sits down, folds up his hands, takes the wind's
direction a hundred times a day, and looks in vain at every pass-
ing cloud, and finally takes a mournful view of his ruined fields,
and with a long face, sighs " what have I done that my crops
should be thus blighted ? '' Done nothing, and that is the worst
of it. Had the cry for water been heeded, the harvest could have
been saved.

If land and crops suffer by lack of moisture, as in a drouth,
and we see how, by machinery and other means, we can supply
the deficiency ourselves, it is erroneous, if not presumptuous, to
question the constancy of Providence in the matter, until we have
4one all in our power. Otherwise, we might do the same re-
specting the necessity of manuring, weeding, and all other proces-
ses which Heaven has made it necessary for us to perform, in*
order that bread shall be earned by the sweat of the brow.

Why do farmers make so little use of water? They are not
always afraid of expense, and never afraid of work; they will
toil early and late — dig, plow, manure, trench, drill, plant, weed,
hoe, watch and wait; these they will do faithfully, and never

800 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

dream of reaping the golden harvest without doing these things;
but, when the corn-leaf begins to roll, the grass to wilt, the
ground to parch, and all things around declare to him that with-
out water, his labor, his time and expense, are all in vain, instead
of continuing his eflbrts by putting his shoulder to the wheel and
turning on the refreshing element, he " lays down the shovel and
the hoe," and- only prays for water — he should pray and labor
too, for Heaven will help those that help themselves, respecting
water as well as manure. If nature has not made our soils rich,
we must make them rich ourselves; and if nature is sparing with
her showers, or mistimes them, we must not give up and distort
our countenances with anxiety, but seize upon the elements, wind,
rivers, lakes and ponds, and make rains and showers to suit our-
selves, and meet the necessities of the case.

Compare the expense of manuring an acre with the expense
of watering an acre; then. compare the benefits or results of the
two operations, and it needs no further argument in favor of irri-
gation. There is no reason why a farmer should not pay a dol-
lar as willingly for water as for manure, if it Avill return as good
percentage on the outlay. And when it is needed, there is no
expense in connection with agriculture that makes so large a
return as that of irrigation; yet it is not systematically practised
by one farmer in ten thousand. Of course, the evils of a severe
drouth cannot be wholly prevented, yet comparatively little
effort and expense will ward off the injuries of a partial drouth,
and do much, very much, to save the majority of crops from the
most severe drouth. What is the cost of a windmill ? A dozen
windmills, compared with the total or partial ruin of a years'
produce on even a very small farm — a few acres ? Let every
farmer impress this subject upon his mind, before he forgets the
drouth and his consequent losses of eighteen hundred and fifty-
four.

NOTES ON THE RURAL ECONOMY OF THE ITALIAN

FENIiNSULA.

[By the Hon. N. Burchard, late Consul near the Swiss Confederation.]

On crossing the Alpine regions, either through the Swiss or
German passes, the traveler is pleased with the beauty and variety
of the Italian landscape, which here and there shows mountains that
shoot up into the regions of eternal frosts, and ever and anon are
clad with stately forests, or green meadows and cornfields, and are
over the furnace of the liquid fires whose overllow is more terrific
than the rolling mass of snow from the icy pinnacles of the Yung
fraw. Italy, which extends from the iron bound coast of Calabria
to the frozen wall of the north, gives every variety of climate,
production and soil. The Alps shelter it from the cold piercing
winds that blow over Germany, and the Appenines soften the
hot sirocco that sweeps across the arid sands of Africa. These long
and lofty mountains are the water-sheet, that coasts the direction
of those magnificent rivers that flow into the German ocean and
the Mediterranean sea or its dependencies. But of all the rivers
that wash this highly favored clime, none exceeds the basin of
the Po, either for capacity, or excels it in fertility and culture.
No winter is here felt, save in the high regions, and intertropical
fruits are grown in sight of eternal snows. What prospect can be
more enchanting than a sail on Lake Como, with the hoary Alps
in the back ground, whose tall peaks pierce beyond the clouds,
and the smiling hamlets, villas and cities which lie towards the
south, embosomed in vineyards, oranges and evergreens. But this
is not the natural region of the vine, though introduced here
with the olive before the Christian era, by a Grecian colony.
The vintage is abundant, but through all the peninsula the grape
climbs the topmost branches of the elm and other trees. Though
this culture may please the eye with the luscious clusters hanging
down in graceful festoons over walks, yet the raisin loses in
sweetness and flavor. There is scarcely a vineyard in Northern

202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Italy from which is made a vine that can compare with the best
brands on the other side of the Alps. Delicious wines are made
from gra23es that grow on poles that keep the fruit near the
ground. To compensate for this, the mulberry is to be found
planted in every little farm, and its leaves either feed neat cat-
tle, or myriads of silk worms, from Avhich is derived one of the
most valuable articles of commerce, and the most reliable source
of income for the small farmers of the country. And here are to
be found those fine fields of rice, from which grow a grain only
inferior to that produced in our own Carolinas. On the moun-
tains, in the valley, and over the plains, graze countless herds
of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats. Its innumerable streams
fed from rills gushing out from the Alpine and Appenine ranges,
by a little aid of man moisten the meads and pasture grounds.
Here lie the scenes so graphically painted by the naturalist,
Pliny. The very olive yards that flourished in his day are still
to be seen here and there on his own enchanting lake, though the
stock has waxed old and become crooked and torn by the rude
hand of time, yet it yields the same delicious berry that once
formed the daily food of its ancient master. Who that has fol-
lowed the rapid Adda, or the meadows of the more gentle Mincio,
does not recall those admirable rustic scenes so vividly painted
by the poet, whose charming and truthful Georgics are the most
finished production that has come down from antiquity. And
his book farming (the sneer and butt of ignorant and obstinate
men in other times) did more to rouse his countrymen to the im-
portance and attractions of this indispensable art, than the decrees
of Senates and the ordinances of the Csesars. Nothing can be
more animated in rui-al economy than the annual peregrinations of
the countless flocks of sheep and goats and herds of cattle that
leave the plain of Lombardy in the spring in search of the sweet
food that grows in the high Alps, whose zones give every variety
of pasture during the season. Then go before them the rude
shepherd with their rural reeds, whose blasts, with the tinkling
of the bells suspended from the necks of the proud leaders, break
the monotony of the Alpine solitudes. Here are found almost
all the industry and good husbandry which have given to Lom-
bardy the richly merited title of garden. In fact, the basin which
the Po and its affluent drain may be called now what Sicily once
was, " the granary of Italy." Here may be seen tlie most judi-
cious rotation of crops and their best returns, and what is worthy
of all commendation, the most successful system of irrigation.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 203

It has been already suggested that the peculiar profile of the
country suits this wonderful, economical mode of enriching poor
and exhausted lands, and making arid plains yield the richest
grasses and most luxuriant plants. And what is more and most
of all, Northern Italy has the finest schools, the best workshops,
and the richest marts of trade to be found on the peninsula. The
next division lies south of the declivities of the Appenines. This
chain of mountains is so elevated as to stop the cold winds of the
north, and the nearness of the two seas, that both the shores of
Italy have a great influence in softening the climate. Though
you do not have here the piercing frosts of Switzerland, yet the
heat of summer is very great. The vine has more strength and
taste than those that grow near the Alps. The orange ripens its
rich fruit in the open air, and commands most every slope and
eminence. A series of terraces are raised, step by step, upon the
sides of mountains, artificially sustained by walks of grass, and
crowned with agreeable sites of a great variety of trees loaded
with the choicest fruits.

Here the eye seldom rests on pastures or meadows. Nature,
aided by the hand of man, shows her magnificent operations.
The palm and olive, natives of tropical climes, with the peach
and apricot demonstrate the refining influence of a volcanic soil
and sunny sky.

The country of Malaria, on those romantic plains which be-
gin near the river Arno, and stretch to Terracina, the Jinxur of
the Romans. It lies to the east, on the flanks of the Appenines,
and bounded on the west by the shores washed by the Tuscan
Sea. To speak more correctly, this region is the spot where the
marsh or intermittent fevers spread so nuich misery and desola-
tion among the inhabitants, and prove the greatest scourge to the
stranger. This sj^rings from the decay of vegetable matter,
which is certain death on the Campo Morto, a little south of the
city of Rome, when one is exposed to night air. The Malaria
never occurs while the plants are growing and it only thrives
when the naked earth has no shade and no trees to absorl) the
pestiferous gas. Were the Sacred Groves, the pride of the
ancient lords, restored, accompanied with orchards and copses of
trees scattered over tlie present desolation, this frightful curse
would flee the land. This i!l-lated waste has been the scene of
some of the most interesting events in ancient history, but is now
the abode of human l)eings swayed by the must savage propen-
sities, leading a life of indolence, and subsisting by pilfering and

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

lying, the source of every fraud, and blighted by a feeble gov-
ernment and the inroads of the Malaria, all its former glory has
departed. Its classical villas and populous villages are gone.
This lonely waste is covered with pasturages over which roam
flocks, the riches of its rude and sickly inhabitants whose haunts
are the lurking places from which issue those fiends that rob on
the highways and murder by stealth. Climate and a peculiar
geological formation give to Italy a great variety of agricultural
productions. What country, for its size, can show a more splen-
did exhibition of the fruits of the field and garden. Here grow
to perfection, wheat, maize, and the difl'erent grapes, by the side
of the olive, mulberry and cotton plant. To crown the pleasures
of the landscape from the hill tops, you have your senses regaled
by the odors wafted from orange groves and delicious peach
orchards.

A brief and rapid sketch of the rural economy of this far-famed
land, I propose for my subject.

Time will not allow me to go into an extensive survey of Roman
tillage, a delightful study for those who like to regale themselves
on the precious remains of antiquity, but oui" task is to enquire
into the present state of rural economy, of modern Italy. It
might be here premised that there is a great difference between
modern and ancient Italy in point of agricultural improvement.
The evil lies partly in bad government, but more in the degraded
condition of the peasantry. As a body they are passionately fond
of amusements and social assemblies ; the religion of the country
favors this natural indolence, and its abuse plunges them into a
vile superstition. The festival days take up near one-fourth of
the year, the monastic institutions which crowd the land are the
nurseries of idleness, and sure grave of morality ! The agricul-
ture of North Italy greatly suffers by reason of the discourage-
ment given to the small farmers arising from a wrong system by
which lands are rented. The tenure by which lands are held is
the Metayer system. I will endeavor to explain this plan of cul-
tivating the earth which prevails most every where in the South
of Europe. Metayer comes from the Italian word Meta, which
signifies " half." The practice in Lombardy is for the tenant to
pay in kind the moiety of the yield of the land to the proprietor.
The Metayer furnishes labor, cattle and rural instruments, the
landlord bears all the other burdens that fill on the land. The
evil of the system is, that it produces no intimacy between the
owner of the soil and him that tills it. The Italian proprietor

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 205

pays little or no attention to agriculture, but leaves the whole
aftair with his Metayer. In the districts where this kind of te-
nure prevails the tenant is narrow in his views, obstinately at-
tached to old plans in the rotation of crops and preparation of
soil, especially in the dominions of the Pope where agriculture is
at the lowest ebb ! The ancient Romans knew something of this
relation between the proprietor and cultivator of land. A Par-
tronius suggests the person who shares with another in tlie avails
of harvest. But his part was small, one basket for every eight
was his scanty allowance. The smallness of the share of the
Partronius in comparison with the present tenant arises from the
diiference of capital invested by the modern and ancient laborer.
The outlays of the latter were indeed very small. Apolitor, or
vine dresser had nothing but his naked hands, but the modern
Metayer comes to the Landlord with every thing and his sole
want is land. The proprietor concedes the use of the farm and
binds himself to keep it in repair and pay the taxes. The owner
of the soil never looks any farther, and an oppressive government
and the public burthens have benumbed his faculties. He heeds
not rural economy, so careless is he of his paternal fields, that he
leaves to hi^fattore or steward to collect the rents and profits.

Let land be tilled on this Italian method, and you will see
everywhere the same want of interest in the improvement of the
soil, and an ignorant, superstitious tenant will be wedded to old
systems and strongly averse to the results of science and the ex-
periments of practical men. This kind of partnership descends
often in the same family for hundreds of years. But who ever
met with a rich metayer, or saw one that aspired to amend his
circumstances or to excel in his avocations !

Irrigation is quite common in all the grain growing regions of
Italy. The pasture and meadow grounds are very much enriched
by this procedure. It must be recollected that there are parts
of the country where five crops of hay are mown every year, and
fields of rice often meet the eye in Loml)ardy. The Italians have
indeed, leai-nt the great value of irrigation. The rice plant seems
to delight in having its roots saturated with standing water, and
it is not unfriendly to every kind of cereal and pasture culture,
even to tlie vine and olive. Italy is admirably adapted to irri-
gation. The streams that rise in the Alps and Appenines, flow
off with a rapid current, which are diverted into thousands of
artificial communications that flow at will the land. Water, ju-
diciously applied, fertilizes the soil at the cheapest rate and drives

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

out the coarse grass and various weeds. This, in all its bearings,
is the best part of Italian rural economy. Plowing is done early
in March, and before the close of this month the seed is sown.
Then comes on the surface irrigation. Soon after follows the
weeding of the young plants. To this unhealthy task, groups of
female peasants may be seen wading in the water and plunging
down their hands, while crowds of idle spectators are gazing
over this arena of toil and death. When the plant reaches the
milky state, and the water is let off, then spring uj) a troup of
fevers that decimate the inhabitants. Subterranean irrigations
often takes place here on alluvial lands, but not continued on
the most approved methods. To succeed with this kind of irri-
gation, the ground must be cut into dykes; these ai'c filled with
water, which by a thousand secret ducts completely saturate the
soil and aid it to give out its nourishment. Irrigation was followed
in Italy from remote ages. Virgil, who makes allusions to it in
those admirable lines " et quam exustus ager morientihus herhis
estuat ecce I Supei'cilio clivosi tramitis undam elicit. Geo. 1.
107.

Who can count the blessings that must come to land panting
with a dying herbage from the gentle rills stealing over it after
nightfall, when a morning sun greets it in a most lively green 1
Italy, like Palestine, has from time immemorial, highly appreci-
ated this fertile source of fruitfulness and wise economy.

The attention of the reader has been already called to the fact
that the country abounds in artificial water-courses, but tliis is
almost solely done for irrigation. A judicious system of drain-
age is unknown among the Italians. Yet few countries could de-
rive more benefit from this kind of husbandry. The face of the
country is singularly adapted for reclaiming the morass from
sterility into a soil fitted for the growth of wheat or any of the
artificial grasses. Many unhealthy locations are made so by
stagnant water, which by a little management might teem with
fertility and health; but the bulk of the people, poor and de-
pressed, heed not employments, and much less provide against
the elements of their destruction.

It is a great pity that they would not leave off their old no-
tions of farming, and go over to England where they can see the
stiff clay soils, by good drainage, become loose and friable. Where
once the plow has passed through, and this tear soon closed, but
under proper drainage it has become a rich mellow soil, the re-
ward of enterprise and industry. Another handmaid to drainage

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 207

is sub-soil plowing, which is unknown in Italy. These two dif-
ferent modes of working wet and sickly soils go well, in many
cases, together. The ground must be made dry before the sub-
soil plow can break tlirough the hard pan.

But the Italian farmer uses the same plow as the ancient Ro-
mans. The instrument so neatly and circumstantially described
by the greatest Eomaii poet, will answer, by slight change of
names, for the one followed by the Italian peasant. The modern
Italians have lost none of the skill of their ancestors in working
straight fiurows. Some of the Tuscan plowmen have attained
to such perfection in this way as to turn over the furrow slice
in an unbroken line, and so true that the ej^e cannot detect any
divergence. They do not lay oflt' their land like us, into acres,
and go round it, but as we have already observed, the imple-
ment is poor, and the team that drags it is sorry in comparison to
those beautiful and strong English horses, that step so light and
majestic across the field, and in the same degree you see the
husbandry of the country lags behind better cultivated parts of
the world, where the yeomanry have not the mulish disposition to
follow old and continued systems of farming.

In the plains of Tuscany the eye is greeted with the sight of
patches of land, exceeding 500 feet in length, and about five
times less in breadth. What contributes greatly to their beauty
is the prospect of long fields bordered by ditches on the banks of
which grow the poplar or willow, or along the side a row of
mulberry whose leaves feed the silk-worm that spin those fine
and lustrous cocoons, the sure and valuable produce of the land,
the maple or ash from which issue the manna, once an article of
commerce, but now very little used in pharmaceutal preparations.
They all give a refreshing shade. Clusters of grapes hang from
the elm, and a green hedge wards off the steps of the intruder.

These often constitute the only enclosures between adjacent
owners. Hedge fences are also made here. Those in the most
common use are the hawthorn, evergreen, rose, and laurel. The
hedge and ditch with rows of trees beautifies the landscape in
Lombardy so favorable to vegetation, and constitutes to the lon-
gevity of man, and ever affords a shelter to the lower animals.
Cottage husbandry is followed in the neighborhood of the large
towns. Naples, Geneva, and Milan might be instanced where this
kind of husbandry meets the best returns. The drill is here
successfully used in a few places, but is very far from becoming
a universal mode of tillage. The furrows between the beds

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

answers for a channel to conduct the water in the process of irri-
gation which finds so much favor in Parma and the environs of
Mantua.

Trenching is resorted to by some Italian fai'mers, particularly
w^here spade husbandry is all in vogue. This mode of mingling
the soil is quite simple. The way to effect it is to sink the spade
below the earth about twice the depth of ordinary plowing.
The salts which have sunk under the surface are brought up, and
by a fine mixture of the new soil the plant obtains fresh food to
sustain its wants; besides it remains mellow and friable for
years when the operation has been effected with skill and proper
attention. This mechanical mixture of the soil, though on a
small scale, is but another substitute for the subsoil plow, one
of the most useful labor-saving instruments brought into use by
modern agriculture, but, alas, no where to be found in Italy.

Thus, reader, you see the Tuscan peasant bring about with a
spade, on his scanty acres, what is in your power to accomplish
at a much cheaper rate by horse power and agricultural ma-
chinery. It is only where labor receives its lowest reward that
the spade can supersede the plow. For example, in South Italy,
where the male day laborer gets, in harvest, about fifteen cents
for twelve hours toil in a broiling sun, and female, for the same,
has five cents less.

A crowded population and a minute division of the land
among the tenants have made the spade emphatically, in the Nea-
politan dominions, a substitute for the plow. It must be borne
in mind that, with the exception of the ecclesiastical estates, the
Metayer system everywhere prevails in Italy. Tlie usual quan-
tity of land cultivated by each tenant is from four to ten acres.
It may be safe to put the average at five. Such is the pressure
of taxation in an over populated farming community, that the
laborer seldom gets meat except on Sunday or festival occasions.
Indeed, it barely supports life, beset with discomforts and squal-
idness, and dwarfs the rising generation into a stunted being
without bloom and intelligence.

Primogeniture is as much an object of ambition among the
Italian peasants as it was witli the ancient Hel^rews. The tenant
of a lonely casale, though a dirty hovel, if he is the eldest son,
he alone marries, and when the father dies he is the sole heir to
the inheritance. All his l)rothers and sisters are bound to single
life, and serve him with the like fidelit}'' as they did their fiither.
But this unnatural state of the domestic circle, is the hot-bed

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 209

whence spring the various weeds of beggary, idleness, and un-
natural affections. Nor does the evil stoj) here, but prostitution
and vice of every kind follow in tlie train. Deprived of educa-
tion, and sunk in the lowest superstitution, no wonder the poor
girl is a prey to the vile soldier and the profligate priest, and her
shame is concealed in the neighboring foundling hospital, wliich
offers the only retreat for the fruits of impurity. How can it
be otherwise when those that move in the highest walks of society
form tlie most sacred tie on the vilest motives, to screen a gal-
lantry and intrigue, which, where there is no free press, no free
speech, and no stimulus to industry or deep philosophical inquiry,
are the sole study of either sex and their successful issue one of
the grea;test feats performed in Italian society. And what makes
it a more damning cui-se is that the idolatrous altars count it a
mere venal sin, allowed for by a graduated fee hill.

The temperature of the climate, the natural fertility of the soil,
and the very low price of labor one would think ought, with the
remunerating price of all the products of the soil be favomble to
a more rapid advancement in agricultural industry. But unfor-
tunate for Italy the religion of the country requires 89 days out
of the year to be consecrated to Sundays and Saints' days. And
it is not to be forgotten that the heat of summer is here debilita-
ting and when heightened by the faint breath of the Sirocco, the
African wind that blows over the country, man's energies are
lost, but these elements are the same as those which existed in
the palmiest days of the Roman Republic; but enough has been
said already on Italian degeneracy and the vulture that is gnaw-
ing her vitals, but there is another great drawback to the agri-
cultural industry of the land, local prejudices and jealousies and
the want of marts of commerce and manufacturing establishments,
which have converted countries like Belgium, where formerly
reigned sand-banks and frightful bogs into fruitful fields and the
abodes of joy and comfort. Let us look on the shores of the far-
famed Rhine , Thames and Seine. Their valleys are justly esteemed
for the fruits of the field, but in all cases their superior agricul-
tural industry is stimulated by a ready and certain market found
at their doors and all the seats of business.

Whatever may be the variety of the coui'ses of husbandry in

different parts of Italy the products of the soil, rotation of crops

can be effected as well on the mountain slope, as the sunny plain.

The change but seldom goes beyond five kinds of crops. Four

[Am. Inst.] 14

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

different sorts of grain are sown in succession, and occasionally a
meadow or pasture grassed makes up the fifth kind of production
in the order of succession. The land is tilled in many places
very neatly and a naked fallow is almost unknown. Where this
kind of husbandry is resorted to in order to restore an impover-
ished soil, you may know that the land has been cultivated by a
bad course of husbandry.

Rest is often useful to land that has become foul with noxious
weeds, or worn out by a slovenly and cruel master. Time will
affect in a few years a great change in the condition of the soil,
and at least give it strength to grow a good crop.

The soil, climate and market of Italy cannot invite the judi-
cious farmer to imitate the same kind of husbandry as that which
obtains in the British isles.

Butcher's meat on the table of an Italian peasant is a luxury.
Butter will never be considered an indispensable dish when man
can find a purer and more healthful food in the berry of the
olive. The turnip and potato obtain no size, and it is in vain to
look for the success of root crops in that warm climate.

Wheat is here sown in March and harvested in June. The pre-
paration of the ground for the crops is much better than could
be expected from the poor farming utensils. The soil is highly
enriched by manures scraped from every quarter and husbanded
with the greatest care. Warping or letting water deposit its mud,
rich in mold, impregnated with lime, or holding in solution
salts on alluvial lands, has been practiced from time immemorial
in Northern Italy. Liquid manures are in common use in the best
cultivated part of Italy. And it is to be hoped a false delicacy
will be laid aside among the enlightened American farmers, and this
much esteemed fertilizer take its place among oui- most valuable
manures.

White Lupine or clover follows the wheat. This grass is very
valuable food for cattle. When the ground is very poor it is
turned under by the plow, and makes a very cheap manure
for the impoverished ground.

Search the whole vegetable kingdom and you cannot find any-
thing that will compare with the white Lupine to restore an ex-
hausted soil. It will grow in any but calcarious and marly
ground. It strikes its root deep, far beyond the reach of other
plants, and hence it will thrive where most grasses have a sickly
growth, and unfetter the most stubborn soil. Where manure is
scarce and dear, it is the cheapest fertilizer to improve poor and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 211

worn out lands. The farmers on the Rliine and in tlie dells of
Tyroll make much compost from leaves of leguminous plants.
The rich and broad leaves of many leguminous plants seem to
have been formed for a country opened to the rays of a burning
sun, and where a crowded population and clear soil require a
rapid rotation of crops, there cannot be a more available store to
enrich land. Here again, reader, we have another exhibition of
the untiring efforts of man to pay that debt which he owes to the
most generous benefactress.

Maize is a favorite grain among the laboring population. It
grows well even at the foot of the Alps, and contributes the
great article of human food. It is not usual to plant it as we do
in the United States, but it is sown in drills, and kept clear of
weeds and highly manured. The harvest of this noble crop
causes as much joy to the peasant, as the harvest home among the
Forth American Indians. The Neapolitan olfers prayers to the
Virgin, who is thought to be the peculiar protectress of the Indian
corn, as the goddess Ceres was the patroness of Roman tillage,
whose altars smoked with the fruits of the field. At this yearly
festival the whole family group gather under the shade of a
venerable elm, from which hangs clusters of the grape mingled
with sweet viands and delicious fruits, wliich give a repast that
kings might envy ! This joyous occasion ends in a dance, in
which the young and old join in treading the lightsome maze.
But the Italian does not know the worth of this valuable cereal
in domestic cookery, or as food for animals. The blades and silk
afford a sweet fodder for the milch cow, and when the earth is
parched up by the summer heat, it is in a green state, and ex-
ceedingly sought after by all neat cattle and otlier domestic ani-
mals. Barley, and the various kinds of millets, often have a
place in the course of husbandry, and have from time immemorial
been reckoned a great staple. They only constitute a part of the
food of the lowest classes, such as the starved beggar, but are
largely consumed by poultry and other domestic animals. Malt-
ing is unknown. The Italians consume but little beer.

Rice grows abundantly in Lombardy. It is alternated by cer-
tain coarse grasses. The grain is not equal to that which is raised
on the Western continent, still it finds way into domestic use,
and is not disliked by the agricultural population. The rice crop
in Northern Italy surpasses every thing of the kind found in the
basin of the Mediterranean. Leguminous plants, which, under
different names, such as fabea, bean, pisum, pea, lens, lentil, or

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the pulmentarium of the frugal Romans, is no longer the food of
their degenerate sons. Some of these vegetables may occasion-
ally be found on the table of the wealthy, or the forlorn hope
of starving peasants. These simple lentiles are mostly consumed
by the domestic animals.

We have said that Italy has great capacity to grow the different
classes of plants. Oleaginous seeds were introduced long before
the days of the Emperor Augustus, and they still constitute a
part of the crops of the country. Patches of colza, rape (Brassica
rapa) and poppy, are frequently to be met with here. .Hemp
grows well in the neighborhood of the Adriatic sea, and the sail-
cloth and cordage formed from it is justly esteemed for toughness
and durability. Flax, that which is reared in the vicinity of
Bologna, is of superior quality, fine and silky, and grown in the
same country, notwithstanding an ancient prejudice that it is a great
exhauster of land. It thrives well, and no crop raised by the
former is better to purge the soil of foul weeds, and make it mel-
low and porous. During the last half century, some attempts
have been made to introduce a better mode of raising both hemp
and flax, but on a very limited scale. It is a fact, the great
operations of rural economy are brought about in Italy by a sys-
tem of routine laid down by the old Roman writers, without any
knowledge of chemistry, and vegetable economy, and it is pleasing
to see in what veneration the philosophers and poets that once
lived in this land, are held by the present generation, notwith-
standing the darkness and ignorance that brood over this doomed
country. Their j)recepts are the oracles of the day, and will sur-
vive the monumental brass and solid marble that was no vain
boast of one of her elegant poets, that he should live so long as
man delights in the beauties of nature and monuments of art.
The grasses that grow after the rice, wliich you know must be on
moist ground, or where the dampness of summer compensates for
the moisture, but not here without irrigation, is long and coarse.
Lucerne, the medica Vorro, is a deep rooted perennial, and the
delight of neat cattle. Flesh-colored clover (trifolium incarna-
tum) grows quite common on this side of the Apennines. There
is another clover sown soon after taking oif the wheat crop,
which I believe is an annual. This yields a sweet bite for do-
mestic stock. Few grasses are better for milch cows. It is a
rapid grower, and meets with great favor among the Italian
graziers, who require so much green succulent food in the fore

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 2l3

part of autumn, when every thing is dry and parched up by the
long summer heat.

The meadows and pastures in northern Italy, particularly near
the base of the Alps, claim the preference. The Tuscans surpass
all the other nations in making and economizing manures, and
particularly those made from the refuse of animals and vegeta-
bles. I cannot dismiss this part of the subject without observing
that their mode of top-dressing old pastures and meadows is de-
serving all praise. The very droppings of the fowls are saved,
and the excrements of domestic animals and mineral manures all
play their part in fertilizing the lands.

There is another feature in Italian grazing which maybe deemed
worthy of notice. At the close of summer the mulberry, olive,
elm and vine, are stripped of their leaves to make food for cattle.

The Cytisusj the favorite fodder of the ancient herdsman, is
still in use. It blossoms about April and grows above four feet
in height, and is justly esteemed for its tendency to produce milk
in cows. The spray or small shoots, cut from the extreme
branches of trees in the north of Italy and dried in the sun or
shade, are stacked in bundles for winter's use. The cattle are as
fond of this kind of fodder as many of the grasses made into hay,
and more so than the straws of most of the cereals.

The domestic animals reared on a small Italian farm, are a
yoke of oxen, a mule or two, an ass, a few goats, one or more
milch cow, and sometimes a small flock of slieep. As well the
Romans as the Italians have paid great attention to the rearing
of asses and mules. The present race to be found in the penin-
sula is distinguished for its courage, fidelity and sagacity. Many
of the terrible passes of the Alps and Apennines are crossed by
this sure footed animal and when left to its guidance the yawn-
ing abyss is avoided, but where the horse cannot be trusted.

The course of sheep husbandry here takes quite a pastural
shape. Under the guidance of a shepherd they range the moun-
tains in spring and summer. Their keeper goes before them, and
his flock may be seen climbing and cropping their food from the
most rugged steeps. Each flock has its particular bounds and
one of its number that w^anders beyond- is soon brought back by
the faithful dog, whose natural endowments supply the want of
enclosures. His wonderful docility is shown in collecting strag-
glers and driving flocks over rivulets and through towns.

The shepherd here passes an easy life amid the rude scenes of
nature. On the mountain he lies and almost sleeps in the open

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

air, and lives on milk and the coarsest food. He leads his
fleecy herds to fountains, clambers with them up mountains, and
beguiles his lonely hours with his wooden horn, and shelters the
ewes from the rays of a burning sun, lest the lambs be scrimped
in milk which scantily flows from mothers grazing on the hot,
arid plains of Apulia.

In southern Italy a cheese is made from the mixed milk of
sheep and goats. It enters into the diet of hardy inliabitants in
wild mountain districts, and it is needless to say that the article
has a bad flavor, and is very coarsely manufactured. When the
milk of the cows, goat and sheep are mixed, the cheese has a rich
flavor, and is much admired by epicureans. About the beginning
of chestnut harvest, which falls in November, the flocks leave
the mountains and graze on the plains below. The Moremmas in
winter graze thousands of heids. The herbage is always green
and tender, and all nature is joyful except man, who is assailed
on every side by disease and death. Few countries in Europe,
except Spain, and Silicia, and Hungary, have more extensive
sheep-walks than southern and even northern Italy. The pre-
sent flocks are but the degenerate progeny of that fine race of
Roman sheep that were fed on the plains of Apulia and Calabria,
and more especially white wooled sheep that were reared on the
Po. One that is acquainted with classical history knows that the
old Eomans excelled in raising fine wooled sheep,and their rustic
writers have entered into details in giving the process by which
it was brought about. They even covered the bodies of the ani-
mal in linen, moistened the filaments with wine, and soaked them
with oil, in order to produce a delicate staple. The wives and
sisters of the Emperor prided themselves on the dexterous man-
agement of the spindle and loom. We believe the Merino race
of Spain are but a progeny of the Oves molles, or the soft-wooled
sheep of the ancient masters of the world. Be that as it may,
the modern wool-growers expose, in the same country, the sheep
to the direct influence of the weather, but it seems the ancients
had a good reason for clothing the sheep from December to April,
and were amply rewarded for this extra labor in the manifest
superiority of the staple. . The present races of sheep of this land
have either a fine or coarse fleece, and their carcass makes very
inferior mutton, which will sell the lowest of all animal food.
The Alpine Ibex {capree Ibex) still feeds on the solitary slopes
of the Alps. These often descend to the cultivated regions, and
mingle with the domesticated goats fi-om which springs a healthy

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 215

and vigorous progeny. Great flocks of goats are fed on all the
high mountains of the peninsula. They are rich in milk, and
prolific. The dam brings forth two or three kids at a birth that
are very sportive and hardy. Its flesh is much sought after by
the peasantry, but the carcass of the male goat that has age is
tough beyond description.

Hogs are common, and kept on a variety of mixed food. The
stock is very ordinary and mean in appearance, except a large
race about Parma and a small one at Naples. The Goth and German
have so often laid waste Italy, their ravages may be traced in the
mighty w^astes that are the sad monuments of their barbarity.
These give fine ranges for swine to feed on roots and acorns. In
Tuscany near the sea coast we meet with great herds, and more
especially in Calabria. Their pork is well fattened, and has a
pleasant taste, A little before the time for slaughter, millet, bar-
ley meal and wild chesnuts are thrown before them. In the ar-
ticle of ham, Verona will almost rival Virginia and they both
are only behind Westphalia, though America, with great justice
in this line, claims the palm over all.

In regard to fattening neat cattle, Mantua and vicinity are the
most successful. No care is wanted to lay on the fat. The ox
intended for the shambles is tied up in a warm stable. Once or
twice he is bled, kept perfectly clean, and rubbed, brushed and
oiled every day. In summer, clover or other green herbage is
put in his manger; and to make his food have a better relish, the
meal of coarse grain is given to him. Even the pulverised kernel
of the walnut and chestnut are often to be met with while fat is
being put on him. During cold weather, hay and the dried leaves
of trees or spray are thrown before him; but in many parts of
Italy the grass is always green, the domestic cattle subsist in
depth of winter, on the open pastures. The cattle in the vicinity
of Rome are proverbial for their fleetness and ability to undergo
labor. But the ox that falls before the Milan butcher, must be
almost as fine as his garland fellow that once smoked on Pagan
altars.

The Tuscan ox is of a dun color, good for the yoke, and be-
comes when grown about the size of a Devon. The cows are not
first rate milkers, and even those imported into the country from
Switzerland or Tyrol, lose their excellency in dairy business often
in a couple of seasons. In the ecclesiastical estates, the cattle
are not submissive to the yoke, and the cow yields but little but-
ter. They are almost as wild as the American Buffalo. A chase

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for them calls out all the address of the nomadic Tartar in pur-
suit of the savage breed which roam over the immense plains that
overspread central Asia. They are pursued by horsemen mounted
upon fleet chargers, holding their lance and lasso. The famous
Parmesan cheese does not come from Parma, but is made out of
the milk of cows that feed on the irrigated pastures and meadows
near Lodi. The great part of the time they are stalled, and while
shut up their mangers are filled with clover and other vegetables.

The cheese is made of skimmed milk, one-half of which stands
six hours, and the other sixteen. The milk is warmed and cur-
dled in a kettle in the shape of an inverted cone. This is put in
an archway made to fit its sides. Fuel to w^arm it is placed un-
der the vessel. The casein matter is not taken out of the cold
room, but broken in it, until the pieces become very small. This
is done by a stick, the end of which is crossed by wires. Then
it is again scalded until most of the whey is pressed out, and the
curd has attained considerable hardness. Then it is taken away,
salted and pressed, and in four days it is fit for the cheese loft.
As we have stated the customary diet of shepherd, goatherd and
swineherd, is skimmed milk cheese, and w^here little or no
butcher's meat is consumed, its daily use must be considerable.

The horse which came from the East and was highly esteemed
by the old Roman, is still a noble animal; and whether j)ut un-
der the saddle, or before a Cardinal's chariot, has many admira-
ble i3oints, and deserves all the honor paid to him by the ancient
warriors. And those piebald and clouded steeds show to this
day that the Goth and Vandal overrun the empire and left their
permanent traces behind.

I have come to the bounds that I had set to my labor. The
subject cannot be without interest to one, who is conversant with
the agriculture of foreign countries; and I did not deem it un-
worthy of some consideration from the American farmer. We
have seen one of the finest countries in existence, cultivated for
more than twenty centuries with almost the same routine of
rural economy. What is needed in Italy is scientific agricul-
ture, and the introduction of new and improved rural imple-
ments which have added much to the melioration of soil, in re-
gions wrapped almost incessantly by fogs, and chilled by frosts,
but blessed with more enlightened government. The peasant is
enfeebled by a sort of slavery. His mind is prone to the worst
superstitions. The proprietor and the metayer are alike igno-
rant of the first rudiments of husbandry. The pages of a Spren-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 217

zel, Boussingault and Johnston, have never been opened by them.
Take away their knowledge of irrigation, and they are a long
ways behind the agricultural classes of the same rank in the
British Isles on the w^estern part of the European continent.

Not a lesson in an Italian University is given on Rural Econo-
my, nor any associations established to promote the object.
The cultivator of the soil knows little or nothing of animal econo-
my or vegetable chemistry. Italy demands a free press and a
diffusion of popular education among the masses.

CcEsar's household ought to be cleansed, and those that minister
at the altar should move in their own appropriate sphere and not
soil their holy vestments with the things of time. And the eye
of beauty instead of languishing in the lonely cell ought to come
forth from captivity and be the sprightly mother of a joyful
family, and thus fulfil her destined mission on earth. The pres-
ent unnatural state of society in this ill-fated land is the source
of all its misfortunes. Priests tinkering with governments, and
men and women taught to lead a life of sloth, and that feats of
gallantry and the more ferocious crimes of murder and robbery
are venal, and that feeble and sinful man can wipe out the foul
spots is the canker which is gnawing one of the most interesting
lands to be found in Christendom. But we believe the school-
master is over here teaching the rising generation. Railroads and
Telegraphic lines are opening regions of cruelty and blood, and
that the present race that dwell where once were acted those
most wonderful scenes, that are the admiration of posterity, will
rise and shake off the present incubus, and Italy will become the
abode of comfort and the home of the free.

HALF BISON (OR BUFFALO) HEIFER.

This extraordinary animal curiosity of the half-breed, or cross
of tlie Bison bull and Durham cow, exhibited at the fair of the
American Institute, at the " Crystal Palace,'' was raised and fat-
tened by James Dunlap, Esq., of Jacksonville, Morgan county,
Illinois. He started her on foot in company with a drove of cat-
tle, but being naturally wild and leaving her associates behind,
she became unruly and ran back several times, and could not be
driven without sending with her an associate in the shape of an
old thin ox, when she came quietly through on steamboat and
rail car to our city, being the first specimen ever known in the
city of New- York.

She was sold at the Washington drove yard to Thomas F. De
Voe, a butcher of Jeflferson market, at a "fancy price," for the
purpose of inmiediate slaughter; but at the request of the Mana-
gers of the American Institute, Col. DeVoe (who is a member)
was induced to gratify the thousands who were afterwards inte-
rested in this animal curiosity.

She was withdrawn a few days before the close of the "fair''
and slaughtered. Her age was between three and four years
old — alive weight, nearly 1,700 lbs. The four qxtarters {dieadi)
weighed 940 lbs. On the hump ^ fat measured 2>l inches; on the
loin two inches, and cut beautifully marbled.

Her color almost black, with tlie tan colored long hair on her
shoulders, and also long hair under the chin and at the fetlock,
with the turn up horns, round nose, and the wild flashing eye of
the Bison. When fastened up in a large pen, she was so cross
and vicious that no person dare go in the pen with her, and when
a red object presented itself, whether a shawl on a lady or the red
shirt of a workman, she would be much excited, and pitch directly
at them, or as far as she could go.

Col. DeVoe reported that he had sold all her "beef," witliout
giving an opinion, either in favor or against the eating qualities,
but wished those to whom he sold cuts to report on this point,

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

after having partaken. There was but two who reported unfa-
vorable, some ten or twelve^ who, thought "they never eat finer
flavored or more tender beef/' and a very large number, among
whom was Lieut. Gen. Scott, reported that the "beef was very
high flavored, with a taste of game, but not so juicy as our first
quality "beef.''

(This was the opinion also of the Col. who gave it a fair trial
in steak, roast and soup.)

Col. DeVoe also reports as having purchased the greatest /owr
year old steer, '"''Lieut. General,^^ (noticed in the cattle reports of
the Tribune and Times, 24th Jtinuary, 1856,) it is said ever
shown to our citizens. His reported weight (by Mr. Harman
Rhoba, of Columbia county, N. Y., who fattened him,) was 3,180
lbs., but after the sale of him to Col. DeVoe, (which was three
weeks afterwards), who had him weighed alive (empty,) exactly
2,750 lbs. His four quarters, slaughtered weight was 1,788 lbs.
Fat, 225 lbs.

About three parts "short-horn," and beautifully made up in
all points. We had the pleasure of glancing at the " beef after
being hung up on the Colonel's "silver hook." It was like a
beautiful painting.

ANALYSIS OF INDIAN CORN AND CORN COBS.

BY CHARLES T. JACKSON, M. D.

[Made at the reciuest of R. L. Colt, Paterson, N. J.]

State Assayer's Office, 32 Somerset-st., Boston,

April 9th, 1856.
Roswell L. Colt, Esq. :

Dear Sir — At your request, made through our mutual friend,
Mr. D. Jay Browne, I have made analysis of Indian corn, aud of
the corn cob, which I have now the honor of communicating to
you.

The variety operated upon was a very prolific one, produced
by mixture of the " Red cap" and " Canada'' corns, and was
grown upon the farm of Mr. Thomas Andi-ews, in Smithfield,
Rhode Island. There were generally four or five ears of corn
on each stalk, the average being four ears.

To determine the relation of the corn to the cobs, I shelled,
counted, and weighed the grains or kernels, and weighed also
the cobs.

The corn is an eight-rowed variety.

First sample of the lot :

The cob weighed, .' 260 grains.

The corn weighed, 1 . 970 grains.

Number of kernels on the ear, 332 kernels.

Increase from one kernel, 1 . 328 kernels.

Second sample :

The cob weighed, 280 grains.

The corn weighed, 2 . 070 grains.

Number of kernels, 325 kernels.

Increase from one kernel, 1 . 300 kernels.

One hundred grains weight of this corn, on analysis, yielded to
ether 4.75 grains of fat fixed oil, and to alcohol 4.11 grains of
zeine and sugar. (Zeine is the peculiar gluten of Indian corn.)

222 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Proximate Analysis of the Corn Cob.
One hundred grains of the finely ground corn cob yielded to
ether, hot alcohol and boiled water — 3,145 grains. These ingre-
dients were :

Grains.

A siccative yellow fixed oil, 0 . 323

Grape sugar, or glucose, 0 . 242

Dextrine (gum) with some Albumen and extractive bitter

matter, 0.557

Loss, 0 . 023

Nutritive matter per cent, 3.145

Chemical Analysis of the Cob for Mineral matters and Salts.
One thousand grains of the cobs dry at 212*^ F, burned in a plati-
num bowl at a red heat left 9 . 5 grains of ashes, which by analy-
sis was sepai-ated into —

Potassa, 3 .204

Soda, 0.492

Phosphate of Lime, 1 . 000

Phosphate of Magnesia, 0 . 260

Phosphoric acid from the Alkalies, 0 . 300

Silica, 0 .800

Chlorine, 0 . 196

Per Oxide of iron, 0.360

Unburned charcoal, 1 . 500

Carbonic acid and loss, 1 . 388

9 . 500

From these analyses it appears that corn cobs contain 3^-0-^-5-
per cent of nutritive matter, but there can be no doubt of the fact
that the mechanical stimulus of ground corn cobs is also benefi-
cial to animals, especially to ruminants, and probably also to
horses which are known to be benefited by chopped straw and
mere fibre of poor grasses.

The analysis of the cobs for mineral matters shows that their
principal useful constituent as a fertilizer to soil is potash, which
is very abundantly contained in them. This is valuable as a sol-
vent of humus, and acts whetlier eliminated by combustion or se-
parated by decay of the carbonaceous matters.

Charred corn cob will also make an excellent absorbent of ammo-
niacal gases derived from animal matters or from the atmosphere.
Most respectfully, your obedient servant,
CHARLES T. JACKSON, M.D., Assayer to State of Mass. ^ §-c.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FARMERS' CLUB,

[ORGANIZED JUNE 22, 1843.]

The Farmers' Club of the American Institute is under the di-
rection and control of the Committee of Agriculture.

The meetings are held on the first and third Tuesdays of each
month, at 12 o'clock M., except the months of March, April a^d
May, when they ai-e held weekly, at the rooms of the Institute,
No. 351 Broadway.

The meetings are free to the members of the Institute, and all
other persons connected with the pursuit of Agriculture or who
may desire through this medium to diffuse information on the
subject of cultivation.

The Club will be happy to receive written communications at
its meetings on the subjectof agriculture, horticulture, the raising
and improvement of stock, and chemistry applied to agriculture.

April 3, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Judge Livingston, Burr of Washington City,
Birdseye of Ohio, Toucey, Gritfing of Jersey, George E. Waring,
jr., President Pell, Avery, Judge Van Wyck, Mr. Lodge of Jer-
sey, Judge Scoville, Mr. Clapp, Coleman of Maryland, Leigh, Vail,
George Bacon, Van Borkerck, Taylor and others — 78 members.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston, in the chair. Henry Meigs,
secretary.

Some good practical remarks on budding and grafting were
made by Messrs. Augustus 0. Moore and Lodge. Mr. Avery
presented very fine seeds of cheese pumpkin, of which he has
been very careful in cultivating and keeping pure, for the last
fifteen years.

Mr. Lodge — I bud roses in May, and also plum, apricot, cher-
ry and peach. In June I take in hand pears and apples, for it is
sometimes too dry in August when sap is ripe. He practiced his
graftings before the club, wliich was much pleased with such capi-
tal real instruction.

224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Burr of Washington city, employs an able graftsman in
his nursery. He uses stocks of three years' growth to engraft.
The yellows in peach trees are produced by red spiders, invisible
except with microscope. Tillage generally conquers this evil.
Sulphur properly applied, oftsn cures it. The eai-th in the peach
orchard must be well stirred.

Eev. Mr. White of Staten Island, stated his mode of saving
cabbages from club-foot. One is to avoid the use of hog manure.

Mr. Lodge who has been a constant farmer and gardener all
his tife time (over fifty years,) said that to raise cabbages per-
fectly good, he breaks up well his soil two feet and a half deep I
uses some of the phosphates as fertilizers, presses the eai-th about
the root of the cabbage with his dibble. Cabbage loves nev) soils
and deep tillage!

The Secretary had seen the effect of hog manure on cabbage,
so as to spoil the cabbages entirely.

Mr. Lodge — And yet it is excellent for onions and leeks !

The thanks of the Club were unanimously voted to D. Jay
Browne, Esq., of the patent oflB.ce, for large parcels of valuable
European seeds, collected there by him — some of which are sent
to this Club for distribution.

Mr. Avery presented fine sweet corn seeds.

Mr. George E. Waring, jr., stated that Prof. Mapes on deep
tilled land on his Jersey farm, grew twelve thousand cabbages on
a single acre — they formed a perfect mulch — no ground can be
seen.

Mr. Lodge — We often see great leaves on them with little heads.
I plant my drumhead cabbages four feet apart.

Mr. Vail — But excellent drumheads are raised at two feet
apart !

Mr. Waring — That's ten thousand per acre.

The Chairman — Of early Yorks probably.

Mr. Lodge — The cabbage field wants much of the plow and
hard hands work.

Next subject ordered, " Pruning and Transplanting." Ad-
journed.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

April 17, 1855.
Present — ^Messrs. Stafford, George Bacon, Prof. J. J. Mapes, Dr.
Swift, Mr. Antonides, George B. Rapelye, Hon. R. S. Livingston,
Geo. E. Waring, Jr., Solon Robinson, Dr. Edgar S. Peck, of

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 225

Brooklyn, Alderman Jones, Judge Van Wjck, Samuel Fleet, Rev.
Mr. White, of Staten Island, Mr. Vail, Paul Stillman, of the
Novelty steam engine works, Mr. Leigh Van Eoskerck, Fisher,
Dr. Gardner, Mr. Phcenix Orange Judd, Chai-les Oakley, Law-
ton, of New Rochelle, and others, 75 members in all.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

Buel's bayonet hoe was exhibited by William Lawton, of New
Rochelle, and its working qualities explained. It is an excellent
worker in loosening the soil about plants without hurting the
roots, and also acts somewhat like a hoe when its side edge and
not its point is used.

Prof. Mapes exhibited plowshares highly polished, and pointed
out the Jefferson straight lines in its curvatures. Also his sole
plow models. He will exhibit his new digging and forking tiller
next Friday and Saturday, at work on his farm.

Rev. Mr. White, of Staten Island — I ask why are not carrots
more used here ? The English have eaten freely of carrots, gen-
eration after generation. Twenty years ago I had twenty acres
of them. The carrot of England is smaller but sweeter than oui'S.
It is a very valuable food for animal or man. I am astonished
that we do not raise more of them in the United States.

Solon Robinson — Potatoes now sell by retail at from two dol-
lars and a half to three dollars a bushel, and a bushel of carrots
for fifty cents ! No vegetable is of so healing a nature as the
carrot. Stew carrots in lard for an ointment excellent for bui-ns,
old sores, sore backs of horses, &c.

Mr. Leigh — I have paid $2.50 a barrel for carrots for my horse.
They cure sores.

Rev. Mr. White — I cured myself of bad symptoms in my inte-
rior by using carrot poultices on the exterior. I felt the effect
throughout my whole body so strong that I occasionally took it
oif, but I was cured, after having sufiered before this cure for two
years .

Mr. Phcenix — I scrape the carrot and then stew it with lard.

Dr. Gardner — Americans are more dyspeptic than Europeans.
We eat too much and too rich soup, albumen and fat, which are
not easily digestible. The boarding houses fiu-nish strong, rich
soups, and of course, dyspepsia. Carrots are good food for ro-
bust working men. Carrots contain a great deal of nutrition, so
that moderation as to the quantity eaten per day, must be ob-

[Am. Inst.] 15

226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

served. The same is in a measure true of peas and beans. As
to the curative properties of carrots, a poultice of it is stimula-
ting, and therefore good for old, indolent tumors.

Professor James J. Mapes — My views, often expressed as to the
value of the carrot, beyond public opinion, past or now, are con-
firmed by the opinions of those who are expert in the stomachs
and the conveyance of food fit or unfit for our race. Carrots
aid oats greatly in feed to stock. They fiirnisli gelatinous matter.
They help digestion, and such is the opinion of cUstinguished ob-
servers, and of physicians in Europe as well as here. No sick
animal if it eats carrots.

Dr. Gardner — Great nutrition (though windy) exists in peas
and beans, and pectic acid in carrots and them.

Pruning and transplanting were adopted for the next meeting
of the club.

The club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

• April 24:th, 1855.

Present — Messrs. R. S. Livingston, Prof. Mapes, Dr. Green, of
the Japan Expedition, Munn, Hon. Ogden Edwards, Judge Sco-
ville, Messrs. Toucey, Vail, Paul Stillman, of the Novelty Works,
Thomas B. Stillman, do, Pepper, Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn, Downer,
Jacob Freeman of Jersey, Allis of the Genesee Farm, Wells,
Charles Oakley, Judge Van Wyck, Dr. Wellington, Mr. Wat-
kins, and others, upwards of eighty members in all.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

Mr. Jones exhibited a corn planter which plants in rows four
feet apart.

The Secretary read the following translations and selections
made by him, viz :

Journal De La Societe Imperiale et Centrale D'Horticulture. Napoleon III. Protecteur.

Paris, April, 1855.

CAPERS.

By Hardy and So?i, Algeria,
The caper belongs to the family of capparides. It is well
known that the caper is a flower bud. Those most esteemed are
the smallest and firmest. They are grown near Marseilles and
Toulon. As to the species of capers, there are 80 or 85 admitted
to exist. This variety seems to be from cultivation, for the bota-

AMERICAN INSTITTTTE. 227

nists recognize but 30 species. Many species have no thorns.
These have been tried in Ferrara, Italy, but they proved unpro-
ductive in a measure. The caper grows well in lands little suited
for agriculture — stony, barren. Eut it does rather better in good
soil and some humidity, as proved at the mouths of tlie river
Ehone.

[London Farmers' Magazine.]

STEAM CULTIVATOR.

Every one expects a steam cultivator to perform the deep work
at present taxing the strength of our horses, and testing the
frame work of our plows. Agricultiu'ists ought not to rest con-
tent until they have a trenching or digging machine. The spade
teaches what we want.

To cut up land one foot deep and one foot wide, it requires to
lift about three million nine hundred thousand pounds. Now a
horse power can lift 33,000 pounds per minute. Locomotive en-
gines, with the diggers attached, will probably be adapted to this
work.

ROTATION BOOK.

Every farm should have its rotation book, all the fields being
numbered,

Fields. 1S50. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854.

No.

Is.

1850.

1851.

1.

Turnips.

Barley.

2.

Tallow.

Wheat.

3.

Grass.

Oats.

4.

Oats.

Turnips

5.

Hay.

Pasture.

This Rotation Book should be fit for the pocket, with the map
of the farm, on a small scale, in it, and pages for notes to be made
on the sjjot. A larger Rotation Book at home, with larger maps,
for the main record. It is an essential requisite on every Avell
conducted farm.

THE TURNIP FLY.

The loss this year by this fly is, we fear, more universal than
has happened in many years past. Complaints have reached us
from every part of the kingdom — from the midland counties es-
pecially. The devastation was so great that in forty-eight hours
every plant disappeared from thousands of acres. These were the
Swedish, and the only chance now is to replace them with com-
mon varieties.

How extraordinary that this be suddenly so universal, over
extensive districts at the same time, in some seasons, and not the

228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

least in others. We confess our astonishment that such myriads
of living insects should become animated at the exact period of
time wlien food was abundant for them, and that they sliould
disappear until another opportunity for tlieir reproduction.

We have observed that when nortli and northeasterly winds
are most prevalent, our vegetables are invariably most infested
with insects — the aphides (plant louse) in particular. In some
seasons certain kinds of plants become greatly affected, wliile
others entirely escaj)e. Hop, bean, and mangold wurtzel were
last year nearly destroyed by them. Now all these have escaped.
Our osier willow is now covered with them. We never noticed
this before. Last year our wormwood and fennel were covered
with aphides. Now our fennel escapes, while wormwood is at-
tacked by them.

The Turnip-beetle, {altica-nemoj-um,) (it should be i/a/^ica —
the leaper of the woods — Meigs.) is a minute beetle, which
jumps, when disturbed, to a considerable distance. It has, like
all beetles, wing-cases, and wings contained in them — and al-
though rarely seen upon the wing, there is no doubt that it is
attracted by scent to its food, and approaches it upon wing up
wind, from various quarters. Many common w^eeds are infested,
at all times, with it; the common yellow and white charlock es-
pecially. The wild hedge mustard, and common horse radish
invariably abound with them.

The fallacy of steeping the seeds as a prevention is very appa-
rent, for it never attacks the seed vessels or seed, but deposits its
eggs under the underside of the leaves of the young plants — •
from these small maggots are produced, which burrow in a tor-
tuous manner beneath the article, until it assumes the chrysalis
state, it then falls to the ground. All this is accomplished in
about sixteen days. One of the best methods of getting rid of it
is destroying all the hedge rows and weeds. Plants most exposed
to the sun are most attacked — those in the shade, least. Soot is
useful; lime, too, soon loses its caustic power. Swedes, and the
common white turnip drilled together, saves the sAvedes to some
extent; for Haltica loves the common white turnip best. Their
attack is sudden, and action against them should be prompt.

Alternate rows of swedes and common turnip is good. A great
many unerring remedies have been tried in vain.

JYote by H. Meigs. — The tons of vegetable matter consumed in
a few days by this little beetle, would load a navy. It reminds
one of the expense of feeding our wild piegons. Audubon said

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 229

that one flock of them was known to cover one hundred and
eighty square miles, over 115,000 acres, at one piegon a square
yard. Eacli pigeon eats fully a half pint of food per day; thus
one flock in one day, of our American wild piegon, consumes
eight millions, seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels.

Prof Thaddeus Wm. Harris, of Cambridge, Mass., in his " In-
sects of New England," speaks of this insect as a Chrysomela
tribe called Halticadse.

The Haltica cucumeris, or cucumber beetle, or flea beetle, is a
little downy or pubescent. They have been charged with the po-
tato rot in consequence of the holes they make in potato leaves,
&c. I do not believe the potato rot comes from any insect
whatever.

Soapsuds is good sprinkled over plants; there ai-e several spe-
cies of these jumping beetles — Halticas which attack vaiious
plants.

TRIAL OF AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AT THE PARIS
EXHIBITION, JUNE 7, 1 855, AT THE FARM OF TRAPPES,
TWENTY-FIVE MILES FROM THE CITY; SEVEN HUN-
DRED AND SEVENTY ACRES.

Forty plows were there. The JBentall Dynamometer was used
under the care of Messrs. Amos and Appold. Depth of furrow,
1. Seven inches, breadth ten inches from Baden.
No. 2. Busby English, depth 7, breadth, lU.

3. Prague, do 7, do 10.

4. Belgium, do 7, do 9.

5. Bree plow, France, do 4^, do 11.

6. Toronto, Canada, do 8, do 11; work beautiful.

7. Grigrion, do 7^, do 9; lightest draught

of all.

8. Tixon, of Belgium, do Ih, do 10.

9. Howard of Eng., do 7, do 9A; this w^as the

lightest of all, and went around without being held
by the plowman, and the work was well done.

10. Jasher, of Parage, do (ji? do 10.

11. Ball, English, do 8,"

12. Thaer, Saxony, do 7i,

13. Ransom &May, Eng. 7-^,

14. OdiersofBelg'm, do 0^,

15. Canada West; do 8,

do

1 0 ; work adn

do

9|.

do

9A.

do

1 1 ; a favorite

do

10.

230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A plow from Tuscany appeared to be the highest draught. It
required some six strong oxen to drag it through stiffish soils, or
even those of medium tenacity.

A subsoil plow from the south of France, had circular teeth in
an axle dug into the subsoil. It left blanks in its work as large
as bricks, forming hollows to hold waterj injurious.

What excited most surprise at this trial of implements was the
almost total absence of proprietors, farmers and sightseers gene-
rally. At no time were there in the field more than two hun-
dred persons, part of these were laborers.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JULY, 1855.

Cheering advices as to our potato crop ; scarcely any traces of
disease are to be met with; fewer losses are likely than ever
known before.

180U. — " The necessity of promoting Agriculture, Manufactures
and the Useful Arts." By Logan : Philadelphia. 2d Edition.

We invite the attention of the club to a few extracts from this
pamphlet :

"The local and physical advantages enjoyed by the United
States afford to her citizens the means of being supplied within
themselves^ with most articles useful in life or necessary. This
being an unde7ii able fact, it becomes criminal in her citizens not
to derive all tlie advantages in their power from these circum-
stances.

" It is computed that mechanics and manufacturers, &c., com-
prehend one twentieth and that eighteen twentieths are engaged
in agriculture.

" The farmer should give every encouragement to the mechan-
ics and manufacturers, by which they may procure a certain and
steady market at their own doors, which never could be inter-
rupted by foreign nations or their measures."

The above was extracted by Logan from an address delivered
before the Tammany Society, at their anniversary. May 12th, 1798.

Logan finishes with urging the establishment of patriotic so-
cieties for these objects, in every district, however small.

" The breast of every Republican will glow with the import-
ance of the cause in which he is engaged. No man deserves con-
fidence who is shaken by every wind or wlio can endure no ad-
versity in the cause.

"Upon the emancipation of our country from the political
yoke of Great Britain, we deemed and called ourselves a free and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 231

independent people. But there are means of inferior and indi-
rect subjugation from which our country is not emancipated !
So much for 1798 ! Nor are we yet, 1855 !"

PEOSPECTS OF AMERICAN FARMERS FOR 1855.

Never was a brighter prospect for you ! Two hundred mil-
lions of men are engaged in mortal combat ! The immeasurably
extended and fertile plains of Austria and Southern Russia are
hermetically sealed against the export of a single cargo of the
Staff of Life. The withdrawal of such an immense amount of
human labor from the farms !

Farmers of the United States ! You have the most honorable
calling tliat ever engaged a class in any nation, ancient or modern.
Now you can make it lucrative ! Do not allow your children to
be withdrawn from agriculture ! You need not apprehend pro-
ducing an over supply ! Our granaries and those of Europe are
so exhausted that there is no danger of filling them to repletion
for two years to come, even if a universal peace was proclaimed
to-morrow.

QUANTITY OF WATER USED BY VEGETABLES.

In 1796 Dr. Hales, of England, carefully examined and re-
ported, that a growing sunflower used 22 ounces a day, while
its whole weight was 48 ounces only; nearly half of its weight a
day.

Dr. Woodward found that a sprig of spearmint weighing 28^
grains, used up in 77 days, 3,004 grains of water; between July
and October, that is more than its own weight each day. Cabbage
uses half of its own weight a day. Water is decomposed within
the vegetable by the aid of light. Its inflammable parts form oil,
resin, gum, &c., and the vegetable acids. Van Helmont long ago
tried the interesting experiment on vegetation as using up the
soil. He planted a willow weighing five pounds in an earthen
vessel containing soil dried in an oven first and then moistened
with rain water. He sunk this vessel in the earth ; he watered
it most generally with rain water, but occasionally with distilled
water. At the end of five years his willow weighed one hundred
and sixty-nine pounds. He then dried all the soil in the earthen
vessel, weighed it, and found that it had lost but two ounces of
its original weight.

Dr. Peck commented on the extremely high prices of agricul-
tural products.

232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Allis, of Rochester, N". Y., exhibited a clover seed saving
machine. It works rapidly, gatliering the heads short and tall
at difierent cuttings, as it 'moves along.

Messrs. Erowne & Chata exhibit hot bed frames, the glass
secured in lead ; to be had at No. 69 Gold street, New- York.

Dr. Wellington — At Lexington, Mass., it is a practice to bury
the rocks on the place where they lie, instead of carrying them
off', and then plow up the sub-soil. A friend of mine has a sandy
place near Medford — land not fit for cultivation — having clay
within a reasonable distance, he carted it to a sandy field, left
it there in heaps until the following spring. He then spread it,
and cultivated it in beets and carrots. Some of those beets I saw
which weighed twenty pounds each. Seven acres of land so
treated with clay, yielded good crops where nothing grew befo.^e.

Solon Robinson — The excessive prices of all crops show us that
we have taken to gold finding instead of corn planting and stock
raising. Necessity ought to compel us to go to work this year in
good earnest or look for some starvation.

Mr. Enos Woodruff" exhibited his excellent self-acting gate.

The club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

May 1, 1855.

Present — Messrs. President Pell, Rev. Mr. Ganz, Martin E.
Thompson, Gritfin, of Jersey, Henry Sheldon, Pardee, James De
Peyster, Solon Robinson, Gibbs, Paul Stillman, Geo. E. Waring,
jr.. Dr. Peck, of Long Island; Enos Woodruff", of Jersey; Dr.
Wellington, Toucey, Judge V. Wyck, Frederick W. Geissen-
hainer, jr.. Napoleon Bonaparte Mountfort, M. Chilson, Pepper,
Brown, of Brattleboro' Vt., Vail, Wells, Green, Judge R. S. Liv-
ingston, and others.

President Pell in the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

Addison P. Brown, of Brattleborough, Vt., exhibited nis new
patent windmill for farm and other uses. It acts so as to feather
edge its fans, and thus equalise its power. It was thought very
well of.

The Secretary adverted to a plan for farm purposes, invented,
he believes, by himself, thirty or forty years ago, and drawn and
described in his common place book. That is, select a suitable
tree on the spot where the buildings are, or where they are to be,
of course on rather elevated land than on low. Build the barns

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 233

around the tree; cut off all its brandies which are in the way; fix
the windmill on the top, bringing the power down into the barn
by a vertical shaft or spindle; from which power is carried by
hands readily, to sawing, grinding, pounding, sifting, washing,
churning, &c. The trunk of the tree is stronger than any tower
which could be built for one thousand dollars; and this Ameri-
can tower can be put in due condition to bear the windmill, for
a five dollar bill, or more likely a one dollar one.

Mr. Enos Woodruff exhibited and explained his self-acting
gate. It is moved on its centre by means of weights inclosed in
the outside posts, and operated by the inevitable pressure of
wheels laid in the track; so that with any animal, especially a
badly broken horse, the driver need not leave his seat to open and
shut it, it does that per se. It was much liked, as saving great
trouble in opening and shutting gates.

Mr. Mundy, of New Jersey, said that it was strange to see
such great extent of land near this city, utterly uncultivated.
Suppose that speculators call them building lots, nevertheless they
could produce capital crops of things better than dollars or brick-
bats, that is, fruits, vegetables, poultry, milk, &c.

An onion and root cultivator was exhibited and explained. It
is for sale at Allen's, 189 Water street, N. Y.

Mr. Wm. Lawton, of New Rochelle, brought in one of his
blackberry stems, twelve feet six inches long. The root three
inches round the stem, two and a half inches round; all grown
in one year. Seeds were distributed. The Club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

May 8, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Paul Stillman, Geo. B. Rapelye, Thomas H.
Field, of Brooklyn, Prof. Mapes, Hon. Robert Swift Livingston,
Chilson, Dr. W^ellington, Charles Oakley, Stacey, Toucey,' J. K.
Fisher, Vail, Plon. John G. Bergen, of Gowanus, L. I., Pepper and
others — forty-nine members.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in the Chair. Henry Meigs,
Secretary.

The Secretary read the following translations and extracts
made by him, viz :

London Fakmers' Club, Dec. 7, 1854.

The founder of this club — the amiable and worthy Robert Ba-
ker, of Writtle, said that a member of the House of Commons

234 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

said jokingly " how is it that after all jour discussions you come
to no very definite i3roposition or resolution : " to which Mr.
Baker replied — " I can't tell how it is, except that we are too apt
to imitate our betters in that respect." But joking aside, he must
say that a most imi^ortant era was opening upon the agricultu-
ral world. Science had stepped into the field, and promised to
do very much for it; chemistry, not appreciated by farmers ten
years ago — necessary in all questions of manure, both as to its
proper qualities, but also to detect the vile frauds in artificial
manures.

The Secretary, Meigs, said that a fundamental rule of our
Farmers' Club was to state facts and never contradict one another,
however violently members diflFer in opinions.

[From Alexander Vattemare to the American Institute; with several valuable works on

Agriculture.]

The Almanack of Algeria and Guide for Colonists, contains
the following accurate details :

The climate of Algeria resembles that of Provence in France.
The year is divided — instead of into four seasons, into two — the
hot and the temperate, and into wet and dry. You may say we
have three — summer, winter and spring. Summer begins with
July and ends with September. In October begins the wet tem-
perate season, which lasts until the end of Februarj^ The dry
temperate season or sj)ring opens in March and lasts till the end
of June.

In the wet temperate season, there may always be expected
some periods of fine weather, much as we have in France in our
spring.

The dry temperate season, sometimes has rainy days in it.
The rainy season, seldom exceeds sixty days, but in that time
there falls double the quantity in a whole year. The nights
in summer are very cool with ahundant dews. The level country
is often covered with fogs which are dissipated by tlie first moving
rays of the sun.

In winter the air and the ground are very wet. The end of
summer is strongly marked by the hot wind — sirocco from the
desert of an exceeding dryness. During the temperate season
vegetation is very rich. It suffers in the dry season but grows
again vigorously with the first rains.

The general aspect of the country presents high chains of
mountains cut up by ravines or plains — many of the latter being
swampy.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 235

Parallel with the mountain chains are high grounds often "wa-
tered by streams. No great rivers.

The climate of Algeria is healthy. Uncultivated lands and
swamjjs, and marshes, cause the principal maladies of the Euro-
peans here.

The crops of the country are as rich as they are various — Eu-
ropean and tropical plants flourishing side by side. Soon will
these make their appearance in Paris to the exclusion of all other
foreign products, thus delivering us from the payment of an erro-
neous tribute to foreigners. With the first rains in November,
the hills and plains become covered with the best grasses for for-
age, and feed numerous flocks. Notwithstanding the diminution
of stock by the long war, the price of butcher's meat in Algiers
has never been above twenty-five centimes — the half kilogramme —
about ten cents a pound. We are beginning to have an important
trade wuth the Arabs in Avool and raw skins, for which we pay
foreigners sixty millions of francs per annum.

As to grain we can only say that this country was named the
Granary of Rome anciently ; and its ability remains. The olive
becomes a large tree here; mulberry also; orange not excelled by
any; citron, pomegranate, almond, fig, grape, extraordinary vigor.
Forests covering 800,000 hectares, (about two million acres.)
Tobacco, cotton, cochineal and madder, grow here admirably.

It is already demonstrated that Algerian cotton can successfully
compete with those of Egypt and the United States, and give us
a supply for which we now pay those foreigners 114 millions of
francs.

The Georgia long staple, Sea Island, Nankin, Louisiana white,
are most profitable and are introduced.

Around Algiers, in a semi-circle, extends the Metidja — a plain
of about ninety miles radius. The Arabs call it so — the mother
of the jwor. Their song calls it enemy of hunger — the blessed of
God, for its fertility, &c. But it is no garden — but it is the Em-
pire of Fever.

COTTON.

Report of A. De Saint- Arnaud, Ministre, Secretaire d'Etat, an
department de la guerre, Sire ! to the Emperor of France, Oct.
1853.

In conformity to the orders of your Majesty to submit to you
propositions with the view of an energetic development of the
growth of cotton in Algeria. But I Ijelieve it to bo indispensable

236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

to show some details relative to the present state of that question.
France has the deepest interest, in view of its manufactures, in
growing its cotton in Algeria. On one hand the production of
the United States, which furnishes Europe with the largest por-
tion of the raw material, finds difficulty in keeping pace with the
manufactures of the continent, and every year consumes herself
more and more in her own factories. On the other hand — other
cotton yielding countries afford insufiicient supplies. England is
occupied with this question at this moment; she has been trying
for several years to grow cotton in India and Australia, the only
territories she has capable of doing it on a large scale, so that she
may secure her independence of a rival-nation.

France consumes every year about one hundred millions francs'
worth of cotton, which she obtains from the United States and
Egypt. Algeria is destined hereafter to come to our aid.

The experiments made there, in the nurseries of the govern-
ment, within the last ten years, and latterly by some intelligent
colonists, have proved that the cotton growing was not only prac-
ticable but profitable to the agriculturists, and that the cotton
rivaled the best qualities raised in other countries.

Among the numerous sorts of cotton tried in Algeria it is found
that the Georgia Long Staple, the Jumel, the Nankin, and the
Louisiana "White succeed best, and they are the very kinds most
sought for by the trade. The French Chambers of Commerce
unanimously testify the good qualities mentioned. And at the
London Exhibition of 1851, these cottons were decreed eleven
premiums. The Sea Island cotton grows near the sea, (whence
its name,) and the lands which can grow it are limited in extent,
so that the crop does not exceed tliirty thousand bales, and can
hardly be increased beyond that for want of suitable soils. In
Algeria there are lands near the sea, as in Georgia and South
Carolina where this Sea Island cotton succeeds in growth perfectly.
The whole Sahel of the Province of Algiers, the Plain of Me-
tidja, the coast of the province of Oran, principally between that
city and Mortaganem, the plains of Tlelat, of the Habro, and of
the Sig, those of the Bone, and of Philippeville, in the province
of Constantine, without counting other localities, are susceptible
of the culture of cotton of excellent qualities. It would be easy
to procure from these territories 15,000 bales of Sea Island cot-
ton. The first crop of Georgia long staple Sea Island was grown in
Algeria in 1 850. It was examined by an able spinner of the north,
Mr. Cox, who pronounced it to be worth nine francs the kilo-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 237

gramme — (about 75 cents a pound.) Thread has been made of
it of number 250 to 260, simple thread, and 400 twist. On the
other hand Mens. Feray, who was requested to try experiments
with this cotton, (the growtli of 1852,) reported it to have the
same fineness, strength and length of staple of the American, and
sells in the Havre market for from 7U0 to 900 francs the 100
kilogrammes. The product per acre in Algeria is worth about 300
francs. Some fourteen hundred acres have been planted. The
first thing to be done is to obtain good sea island cotton seed for
the planters. In 1850 government obtained the seed and distri-
buted it among the colonist planters. The seeds should be of the
first quality.

Premiums must be given for the introduction of gins — the
roller gin and saw gin. A ginning establishment has been made
to gin all the cotton of the province of Oran, on the farm of
Abal, belonging to St. Maur, the prefect. Premiums of 2,000,
3,000 and 5,000 francs should be given to growers of cotton.
With the proposed necessary encouragement, I have no doubt
that in less than ten years cotton will be a fixed crop of Algeria.

DECREE OF THE EMPEROR ON THIS REPORT.

Napoleon, by the Grace of God and the national wall. Emperor
of the French. Henceforth cotton culture shall be a state sub-
ject for encouragement.

1 . Seeds sliall be furnished by it.

2. For 3 years from 1854, the state will buy all that is raised,
and at a price to be fixed annually.

3. At the end of 3 years, and for two more years, premiums
shall be given on Algerian cotton brought to France.

4. For five years from 1854, premiums shall be allowed for
gins brought into Algeria.

5. Provincial premiums, (three for each province,) 2,000,
3,000, 5,000 francs shall be granted to colonial planters for the
best and largest crops of cotton. .

Considering its high importance, we decree :

1. 100,000 francs from our civil list for encouragement of cot-
ton growth of Algeria.

2. From 1854 a prize of 20,000 francs, (called the Emperor's
Prize,) to that planter of the three provinces of Algeria who shall
raise the largest and best crop of cotton.

3. A special committee annually to be appointed by the Gov-
ernor General of Algeria, to decide on the competition.

238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

4. If no one fulfils the requisite conditions, the prize shall be
divided among those who come nearest to the conditions pre-
scribed.

Oct. 1853. By the Emperor,

The Marshal of France, Minister Secretary of
State for the Department of War.
(Signed,) A. De Saint Arnaud.

PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, LONDON, 1731.
Extrdcts hy Henry Meigs, 1854.

SOME ACCOUNT OF VIRGINIA BY THOMAS GLOVER.

" Virginia is bounded west by the ^ppal-lean mountains. The
country lieth within a bay called the bay of Chisepeck. Into
this bay do issue so many large, pleasant and commodious rivers,
as I verily believe no space of ground of equal dimensions in tlie
whole world, can boast of the like. At the head of the bay do
enter three large rivers, one whereof is called Sus-cahannah,from
the name of a nation of Indians so called, bordering on the same.

In the rivers are great plenty and variety of fish. One kind
whereof is by the English called a sheep's head from the resem-
blance the eye of it bears with the eye of a sheep. It is about
15 or 16 inches long and about half a foot broad, it is a whole-
some and pleasant fish and of easy digestion. There is another
sort called a drum, many of which are two and three feet long —
plenty of them. At the heads of the rivers are sturgeon, perches,
crokers, taylors, cells and divers others; and such plenty of
oysters as they may load ships with them. At the mouth of
Elizabeth river, when it is low tide, they appear on rocks a foot
above water. On the bay and rivers feed so many wild fowl as
in winter time they do in some places cover the water for two
miles. The chief of which are wild swans, geese, cormorants,
brants, shield-fowls, duck and mallard, teal,wigeons, with many
others. There likewise keep in the rivers, bevers and otters.

They distinguish their soil into three sorts (viz) high, low and
marshy land, all of which have some sand mixed in them. Their
high lands are most sandy but do notwitlistanding bear very good
crops of tobacco only it does not hold its strength so long as the
low ground, which is very rich, being a blackish jnould about a
foot deep or somewhat more and will hold its strength for seven
or eight crops without manuring. When the strength of tlieir
land is worn out, they never manure it to bring it in heart but

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 239

let it lie for pasture for all men's cattle to graze upon, and clear
more ground out of the woods to plant in.

Some farmers have orchards of 1200 trees and upwards bear-
ing all sorts of English apples — as Pearmains, Pippins, Eusse-
tins, Costards, Mangolds, King-apples, Magitens, Eatchelours and
many others, of which they make great store of cyder.

Here are likewise great peach orchards which bear such an
infinite quantity of peaches that at some j)lantations they beat
down to the hogs forty bushels in a year. Here are also great
store of quinces, larger and fairer than those of England, of the
juice of which they make also quince drink. Here ai-e likewise
Apricocks, and some sort of English plums but these do not
ripen as kindly as they do in England. There are some sort of
pears but at very few plantations. I have seen the Berganny^
wardens and two or three other sorts as fair, large and pleasant
as in England. Here grow as good figs as in Spain, but there
are few planted as yet. I had almost forgot to mention their
Mulberry trees whereof they have good store about their houses.
These were planted to feel silkworms, but that design failing
they are now of little use. The meanest planter hath store of
cherries. Abundance of grape vines in the woods — a kind of
closet grapes — of which some few planters make wine — I have
tasted it, it somewhat smaller than French claret. Their gardens
have all sorts of English pot-herbs and sallads; they have cabba-
ges, coleworts, cally-flowers, jiarsnips, carrots, potatoes nud yams.

They have plenty of horses and as good as we have in England.
Sheep few — wolves being all over the country.

The Indians live uj^on Indian corn, venison, w^ild turkies,
oysters and all kinds of wild beasts of the woods.

Their money is of two sorts, one whereof is made of a white
kind of shell, which Ijeing divided into two small parts they put
them on a string after the manner of beads — this they call
Peacke: the other is of a blue shell ordered in the same manner,
which they call Rounda, this last is the meaner sort — about half
a yard whereof is of equal value with our nine pence.

All the Indians carry a powder about them to cure the bites
of snakes, and in almost every town this powder hath a different
composition I and every one an efiectual cure — neither is it known
to us that any Indian suffered much harm from these bites, but
in a day's time he Avould be as well as if he had never been bit-
ten— whereupon some of the English for want of speedy reme-
dies have lost their lives.

240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The tobacco is mucli hurt by an earth worm and a caterpillar.
Thunder storms severe.

In May, 1686, on my return to England, off the banks of New-
foundland, at 100 leagues from shore, we saw several prodigious
floating islands of ice — no less our wonder than our terror, for
they were very dangerous. One was a league long, and as high
as our mast (vessel of 250 tons) the snow drove to and fro upon
it, as upon a large plain. There was a great flock of small
black divers, not much bigger than a fieldfare came to us a little
before, but all of them left us and betook themselves to this
island of ice — we saw, as I remember, nigh thirty of these islands
of ice.

There were neither horses, bulls, cows, sheep or swine in the
country before the coming of the English, as I have heard and
believe.

Mr. Solon Robinson read some passages from a letter written
to him by Mr. Durand of Derby, Connecticut, in which he doubts
the new ideas of Messrs. Mapes, Waring and others, in agricul-
ture.

Prof. Mapes said that Mr. D. reminds of the singular fact that
many of our worthy fellow citizens who always stay on their
farms and never see any new thing, continue still to vote for
General Washington for President !

Mr. Meigs called attention to young Waring's plow, weighing
one hundred and ninety pounds ! What a power for deep tillage.

Mr. Bergen said that he went down twelve inches with a plow
of half that size and weight.

Mr. Field of Brooklyn — During the last fifteen years, instead
of learning and striving to improve cultivation, we have multi-
tudes of men, and public papers of one sort or other, doubting
from doubt to doubt, and finally doubting to doubt.

Prof. Mapes — In our clubs we should never allow contradic-
tion— get out all the facts. That is, suppose a member irom be-
low Canal street, in Broadway, should inform the club of a heavy
fall of snow there which was brown! Another member above Ca-
nal street may state that the snow there is all white!

The Chairman called up tlie subject of transplanting.

Prof. Mapes directed attention to the place near the surface of
the ground, where the peach grub is to be sought for in the trans-
plants. Trim their roots before you set them in then- places —
shorten in the heads — Downing did successfully for years — you
get a better looking head and more thrifty bearer.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 241

Mr. Meigs .called up Mr. Charles Oakley, who had for a long
period maintained a garden for his pleasure, in the 9th ward of
this city, in which numerous fruits, flowers and vegetables were
grown by his intelligent industry, equal to any I have ever seen,
peaches especially.

Mr. Oakley — Forty years ago I had a noble peach, six of them
filled a half peck measure. After 1810 I procured peach pits
from Bloodgood's nursery; I raised trees from them and some of
them stood twenty-five years. One of them gave a fine cling-
stone, called the Old Mixon clin^.

In 1811 I received the first Lima bean I had seen, from Gov.
Ogden of New Jersey. I had four sorts of that bean. They grew
well, blossomed, but bore no beans. I then tried some beans in
thimble pots. I believe that Gov. Ogden and I made it fruit.
It became mixed afterwards and degenerated into the old white
runner.

Prof. Mapes had success in pinching off' the tops of his Lima
bean vine at about five and a half feet above the ground, which
caused side shoots to grow large and bear well. I have seen
them flourish on sod grown upset and the beans put in at about
four feet rows — setting tlie eye of each bean down — which saves
the plant the painful necessity of turning round to get up. The
true Lima bean is known to have a dent on one side — a pint of
them may be had from each pole.

Mr. Field of Brooklyn — I grow potatoes among my young trees.

Mr. Vail — Good crops can be had that way, and we may grow
raspberries in the same field, corn, grass for hay. This species
of mulch benefits the land.

Prof. Mapes — Salt hay is well used for that end.

Dr. Sayre remarked that the Williamsburgh glass manufactory,
in which he had an interest, would supply glass plates of any
size and thickness for graperies and conservatories.

Subject for next meeting, " Root crops." Adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

JWay 15, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Prof, Mapes, Field, Solon Robinson, Mr.
Leonard, Mr. Chambers, Mr. Benson, Martin E. Thompson,
Bergen of Gowanus, Hon. Ogden Edwards, Judge Van Wyck,

[Am. Inst.] 16

242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Charles Oakley, Mr. Pepper, Paul Stillman, Judge Scoville,
Leigh, Austin Church, M. D., Mr. Hite of Morrisa:nia, D. Poole,
Dr. Wellington, Toucey, Vail, Stacey, Geo. Bacon, and others —
49 in all.

Hon. Eobert Swift Livingston in the chair. Henry Meigs,
Secretary.

The Secretary read the following paper and translations pre-
pared by him, viz :

SOUTH DOWN SHEEP.

The models on the table, presented by Messrs. Morris of Ford-
ham, and Thorne of Dutchess, are without doubt worthy of their
high reputation.

We extract some account of the race from the general review
of the agriculture of the County of Kent, England, published in
London, in 1796, with a respectable drawing of "a small South-
down ram, weighing alive only 169 pounds in July 1793.''

Kent has long been famous for a fine breed of sheep, called there
Eomney Marsh sheep, remarkable for arriving at an extraordinary
degree of fat at an early age, and for a large fleece of very long
fine wool; no horns; face and legs wiiite. The fat wethers weigh
from twenty-two to twenty-eight a quarter, at two years old.
The fatling wethers' fleece weighs eight or nine lbs. each.

These sheep are on sale in the town of Lewes, on the Downs, in
the October fairs. In feeding them, much use is made of turnips,
oil cake, grain, hay, sainfoin, &:c. Great caution is necessary in
feeding tliem on clover in summer and on turnips in the first part
of the winter — by their being hlown — a great swelling by wind,
which kills them. South Down farmers say however that half a
pint of linseed oil given to a sheep when it is first blown, is a cer-
tain cure.

[London Farmers' Magazine, June 1855.J

Ed. Wilson quotes Varro : " Our experiments (says the learned
o d Roman,) should be directed by reason and not by chance.
We should obtain all that which is obtainable by rational inquiry
into nature and her laws."

On drainage Mr. Wilson says : "Agriculture has almost ceased
to be a ' gee- wo' occupation and is taking its station among the
kindred and dignified sciences."

[From the London Farmers' Magazine.]

BUTTER.

Mr. Horsfall informed the council that the greatest amount of
butter obtained in his dairy from a given amount of milk, was

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 24'3

in December 1854, from cows on stall food, when it reached 27|
ounces from IG quarts of milk.

CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK.

Professor Way consulting chemist to the society, delivered a
lecture on the subject. We extract the following, (viz :) " The
milk of an animal is intended to form the sole food of its young
for a period.''

Prof. Way called attention to the great and fundamental doc-
trine from whence all our reasoning on the subject of animal nu-
trition now started, namely, the identity or almost identity of the
principles of vegetable and animal body. The conclusion founded
upon this identity, was that with slight modifications, the vege-
table principles were assimilated by the animal frame; the albu-
minous being converted into flesh and muscle, the oily ingredi-
ents into fat, and the mineral salts into bone and other solid
parts.

Prof. Way adverted to the process for preparing and preserving
butter. Cream is supposed to rise best from the milk when all
is perfectly still; but he seemed to think that a combined gentle
centrifugal and ascending motion of the fluid might help the
rising of the cream. Such a motion may be given by slowly ro-
tating tables, the sides of the pans having flanges on the inside
sloping from top to bottom, which would communicate an ascen-
sional motion to the liquid. Cream although sweet when put
into the churn, becomes soured by the churning ; this result was
due to the absorption of oxygen by the casein and the conversion
(under its influence), of the milk sugar into lactic acid. He
thought that adding lactic or acetic acid to the cream before
churning and then churning free as much as possible from air.
There is no reasonable doubt that the small quantity of altered
casein was the insidious enemy to long keeping of butter. Salt-
ing of butter was a delicate point. A machine has been invented
in the United States, for butter curing, (viz :) The butter inclosed
in an endless bag, was drawn between grooved rollers, immersed
in a vessel of water, the salt being added by a hopper. He thought
that a machine somewhat like Clayton's screening cylinder with a
disk perforated through wiiich the butter is forced like vermicelli,
salted — pistons to force the butter in this way backwards and for
wards, and in the mean time air exhausted from it. Prof. Way
believed that butter so preserved would keep any length of time.
From the report of the condition of the Rojal Agricultural

244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Society in December last, it appears that the number of mem-
bers was 4,882. Its funded property about $4G,0u0. Its income
about $10,000 from subscriptions.

Weekly meetings of Councils of the Royal Society are held in
London, at which from twenty to thirty or forty members are
attending. These Councils discuss all agricultural matters, much
in the same way as our Farmers' Club.

The London Farmers' Magazine says, " that from the various
statements in history, it may be safely concluded that the discov-
ery of butter is attributable neither to the Greeks nor Romans,
but that the former were made acquainted with it by the Scythi-
ans, Thracians, and Phrygians, and the latter by the people of
Germany,

It appears, says Beckman, that when they had learned the art
of making it, they employed it only as an ointment in their baths,
and particularly as a medicine. It is never mentioned by Galen
and others as food, though they have spoken of it as applicable to
other purposes.

No notice is taken of it by Apicius, nor is" there anjthing said
in that respect by the authors who treat on agriculture, though
they have given accurate information regarding milk, cheese, and
oil. This may be easily accounted for by the fact that the an-
cients were entirely accustomed to the use of good oil. In like
manner butter is very little employed, at the present day, in
Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the southern parts of France, but is
sold in the apothecaries' shops for medicinal purposes. During
the ages of paganism, butter appears to have been very scarce in
Norway. Mention is made by liistorians of a present of butter so
large that a man could not carry it, and it was considered a very
respectable gift."

It is a curious fact that the milk of mares and asses, though
considered to be highly nutritive, affords scarcely any cream.

HIGH LIVING IN LONDON.
In the year 1363, an alderman had a dish of eels so cooked as
to cost $400. In 1550, at the annual Spittal feast, the cost to the
sheriff who gave it, for wine only, was more than $6,000. There
were drank, (best wines,) 48,000 bottles. In 1554 the common
council tried to restrain such intemperance and cost. So they
ordained that no mayor, sheriff, alderman, or commoner should
have, at dinner or supper, more courses than one, and no more
than six dishes in a course, hot or cold. Some reservations, how-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 245

ever, were made to soften so rigorous restrictions, viz : That
" one or two of said six dishes may come to table hot after the
first three or five have been served up. And by way of farther
indulgence, the following are declared not to be mentioned as the
dishes, (viz:) brawn, collops, eggs, sallads, pottage, butter,
cheese, herrings, sprats, shrimps, nor shell fish of any kind, nor
unbaked fruit, but they shall have no Merry Andrew in the
house. When a foreign ambassador, or one of the privy council
was at dinner, then all restrictions were taken off. In 1553 the
consumption of venison at tables, taverns, &c., was so great that
the court was offended, and the practice suppressed.

SEWERAGE.

The Hon. Dudley S. Gregory's recommendation as to the utili-
zation of city fertilizers, meets the just approbation of the com-
munity. This important question is up in all modern cities for
discussion. We cite London to-day, (viz :)

[London Mechanics' Magazine, May, 1855.]

ON THE SEWERAGE OF TOWNS AND CITIES

After alluding to the ill health resulting from the pernicious
vapors from rotting vegetable and animal matter in the confined
places of cities, after alluding to the numerous methods recom-
mended tor relief, the conclusion seems to be that the best por-
tions of city refuse fertilizers may be safely gathered in suitable
places of deposit, rendered inodorous and innoxious by suitable
supplies of deodorizing matter, such as pulverized charcoal and
others. The matter being conveyed in tight covered vans at
every short period from the collections to the depot, and imme-
diately^ deodorized, and from the depot to the country. It is
proposed that in the depots the various matters, animals, dung,
street sweepings, &c., &c., shall be disposed in layers with the
deodorizers, so as to begin in these depots, the compost fit for the
farmer. Dry sweepings are specially recommended for use as
between layers. Galvanized tanks for privy purposes are recom-
mended. In these tlie liquids and solids can be deodorized.
This process of deodorizing not only saves us from bad smell and
injury, but is a positive saving of the valuable element ammo-
nia for use in the land. Peat charcoal is found to be an excel-
lent deodorizer. On a railway, near London, a large free school
house was established. The exuviae were used to manure a gar-
den in wliich some of the boys were working. The manure was
found to be a nuisance. The trustees were threatened with pro-

246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

secution on account of it. They then put peat charcoal into the
cess-pool whence the manure had been taken. The nuisance was
forthwith abated, and the liquid from it became an innoxious
clear stream, from which, at some distance, a pic-nic party, un-
conscious of its source, were supplying themselves with drink.
Probably better and more manageable things than peat charcoal
may be found, and many improvements made, when the establish-
ment of a system of manure saving in towns and cities shall be
generally and properly taken up.

AGEICULTURAL PREMIUMS IN OLD TIMES.

The trustees of the Massachusetts society for promoting agri-
culture, publishes the following, viz :

' ' To the person who shall discover a cheap and effectual
method of destroying the canker worm, and give evidence there-
of to the satisfaction of the trustees, on or before the first day of
October, 1803. A premium of one hundred dollars or the So-
ciety's gold medal.

2. For a heap of best compost manure from the common mate-
rials on a farm — for not less than two hundred tons — with a de-
scription of the method — fifty dollars.

9. For the most thrifty trees, from seed not less than 600, and
not less than at the rate of 2400 per acre of oak, ash, elm, sugar-
maple, beech, black or yellow birch, chesnut, walnut or hickory,
twenty -five dollars ; if all of oak, fifty dollars; claim on or be-
fore 1st October, 1806.

10. For accurate analysis of the constituent parts of several
fertile soils, respectively so of poor soils. And how by actual
experiment to remedy the evils, so that it can be practised by com-
mon farmers, fifty dollars. And if it shall appear to the satis-
faction of the trustees, that the improvement is more than equal
to the expense, then an additional one hundred dollars.

JOHN AVERY, Sec>y.

CRIMSON CLOVER— (Tn/o/iMm iiicarnatum).
" Many of us remember the fate of it when first tried here
nearly a quarter of a century since, how it generally failed, and
how very striking were its mass of rich crimson blossoms in tliose
fields where it did succeed. Such places, however, being com-
monly those where the farmer had bestowed the least labor; where
he had without the aid of the plow, merely scarified the surface
or harrowed its seeds upon the hard stubble lands. One over
kind to this clover, almost lost it, while on the hard ridges in a

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 247

field road, the Trifoliura was a capital crop; but in carefully
plowed and pulverised soil, the crop was worthless. Tlie same
remark was made in almost all parts of England. It seemed to
be almost impossible to succeed; yet it has succeeded in good
hands. Prof. Anderson has analyzed it, and says that in nutri-
tive qualities it excels red clover, cow-grass, yellow clover.

In 1852, the Trifolium was grown in Ayrshire, by Mr. Fulton;
and in three months after sowing, it was found to weigh 21 i tons
per imperial acre. It had attained three feet in height.

The late Junius Smith brought from London a quantity of its
seed for the American Institute, some years ago. I planted some
of it. It is still thriving from the roots which have survived the
very severe frosts of the last four years.

Alfred G. Benson, President of the American Guano Club, was
introduced by Martin E. Thompson, and being requested to speak
of the newly discovered guano islands, proceeded to state their
extraordinary mass of guano, and their being uninhabited, un-
known and unclaimed by any nation or people; and requesting
this club to call on all American agricultural societies, to unite
in asking the U. S. Government to take immediate possession for
the good of the whole people of these United States. It will cost
but twenty-five dollars a ton to bring it here !

Mr. Eobinson remarked that he was informed of the discovery
of some other rich guano islands recently.

The club unanimously approved of an application to the U. S.
Government, without delay to protect the American Guano; and
the Secretary will transmit these proceedings to the Secretary of
the U. S. Navy, forthwith.

Mr. Cowley exhibited his wire fence and mode of fixing it; and.
the opinion of Messrs. Wilder and others, favorable to it.

Prof. Mapes — I do not see in this plan, any allowance made for
the contracting and expansion of the metal from cold and heat.
He had contrived to provide for this, by screws, which were
turned to give room for expansion in winter, and then screwed
up for summer.

Iron will not rust as long as any motion is given to it. You
see that a carpenter's tools which are used daily will not rust.

A meml^er from New Jersey Avas sorry to say that all his wire
fence trials have failed.

Solon Robinson — they are nuisances, unless properly fixed.
Col. Capron has after much trial managed to keep his wires in
tune for 3,000 feet, after several years' experience.

248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Cowley — Our fence does not suffer from contraction or expan-
sion, because, you see it — it is composed of web or net work.

Paul Stillman observed Stockton's wire fence in California —
several miles in length, is not good. The wire ends were at-
tached by thongs of raw-hide which caused some elasticity.

Questions — " root crops, grapes and grape vines." The Club
adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Sec'y.

May 22, 1855.

Present — Hon. Robert Swift Livingston, Paul Stillman of the
novelty works, Martin E. Thompson, Mr. Gray late from Cali-
fornia, Mr. Solon Robinson, Mr. Pepper, Mr. Vail, Mr. Gause,
Charles Oakley, Dr. Waterbury, Dr. Gardner, Dr. Watson of
Staten Island, Capt. -, Mr. Burr of Washington city. Secreta-
ries Leonard and Chambers, Toucey, Meyer, Orange Judd, Judge
Van Wyck, Judge Scoville, Joseph P. Simpson and others — about
75 in all.

Hon. Judge R. S. Livingston in the chair. Henry Meigs,
Secretary.

John M. Merrifield called the attention of the club to the fol-
lowing article :

A NOTABLE HISTORICAL FACT.

Wheat was first sown in North American colonies in 1602, on
the Elizabeth Islands, in Massachusetts, by Gosnold, at the time
he explored that coast. That was more than 250 years ago, and
since that time so great has been the increase of this cereal, that
in the year 1849, according to the census of 1850, the product
amounted to 100,503,899 bushels. Up to 1610, and perhaps
later, England supplied the colonies with the greater part of their
breadstuflfs. How changed is it now ! All Europe is looking to
us for bread. The cry of famine reaches us with the arrival of
every steamer, and we respond by sending cargo in the wake of
cargo from our abundance to save them from starvation. The
bread sent to the colonies in 1610 was not cast upon the waters
never more to return. Two hundred and forty-four years after-
wards it rolled back in a continuous stream to gladden the hearts
of half famished millions in England, France and Belgium. The
descendants of men originally lashed and scourged from their
shores, and forced to make their future habitations beneath the
shades of an almost boundless wilderness, bleak, desolate and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 249

uninviting, more humane than the task-masters of their fathers,
are now striving to return good for what was considered an evil,
by supplying them with bread.

The Secretary read the following papers prepared by him :

A NEW DELICIOUS FRUIT— LOYNET TREE OF JAPAN.

Some of its exquisite fruit is presented by Henry Suydam, Jr.,
of New- York, grown here.

The climate of Japan has cold weather, snow, &c. Probably
this Loynat fruit may be found to flourish in such situations as
apricot will do well in.

It is the I. Eriobotrya of Linn — 12th Order.

It is one of the Rose family — Rosacese of Lindley.

A NEW QUESTION IN VEGETATION.

The seed of a fine large beet of three pounds weight grown in
the rest of the world, is planted in California or Oregon and pro-
duces a beet of sixty-four pounds weight. Such a one set for
seed in New-York, produced seed, which, when planted in New-
York, reproduced beets of three pounds !

At Astoria, when first established by John Jacob Astor, who
sent out an expedition to the mouth of the Columbia in 1811,
sent out seeds. His men planted them and were amazed at their
growth. Turnips three or four inches in diameter here, became
twelve or fifteen inches there. Radishes one inch in diameter
here, became four inches there, &c., &c.

Is there a region on the globe where these results are found
besides ? And what is or are the cause or causes of such immense
diflerence in vegetation 1 I include the mammoth trees.

H. MEIGS.

PLUMS— PRUNES.

Europe makes prunes of her plums to a great and very useful
extent. We desire to have our native plums made prunes. We
extract from the very valuable volume of the Patent Office for
1853, the following on this subject :

" The common domestic cultivated plum is believed to be in-
digenous to the south of Russia, Caucasus, the Himalayas and to
many parts of Europe.

" In England and in some parts of the United States, it is found
sometimes growing in hedges, but never truly wild. This species
and many of its varieties are cultivated for ornament, or their
fruit, in all the temperate countries of the .habitable globe.

250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Faulkner in his ' Kensington,' makes the plum a native of Asia,
and an introduction into Europe, of the Crusaders.

" Gough in his ' British Topography,' says that Lord Cromwell
introduced the ' Perdrigon plum' into England in the time of
Henry the seventh.

" The introduction of it into the British North American colo-
nies, probably dates back to the early periods of their set-
tlements. The stones were ordered from England by the Gov-
ernor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay, in Ncav England,
in 1629. Several valuable and interesting varieties have origin-
ated in this country, among which the Bolmar or Washington
plum stands conspicuous. The parent tree is said to have been
purchased in a market, in New- York, about the end of the last
century. It remained barren for several years, 'til during a vio-
lent thunder storm, the entire trunk was severed to the earth by
lightening and destroyed. The part remaining in the ground,
afterwards threw up several vigorous shoots which were allowed
to remain and finally produced fruit. Trees of this variety were
first sent to England in 1819, to Mr. Robert Barclay of Bury
Hill, and several others were sent to the London Horticultural
Society."

ACCOUNT BY THE SHAKERS OF KENTUCKY.

We have twenty-five varieties of plums, of the finer kinds, in
bearing. The curculio is occasionly very destructive to this
crop ; but the past season it was almost wholly exempt from it.
The trees were loaded to their utmost capability of bearing with
the finest fruit. Many of the Duane's Purple, French, Yellow
Egg, Imperial Gage, Green Gage, and the Lombard variety, pro-
duced nearly four bushels of beautiful sound fruit. The best
remedy for the curculio is to plant the trees in a poultry yard,
or a lot where pigs are reared. In either case the larvae will be
destroyed before they enter the ground.

TRINITY, NEAR CHATAHOULA PARISH, LOUISIANA.

From H. W. Huntington.

" The common plum, both red and yellow, is grown here
abundantly; but no efforts of mine, protracted through twenty-
five years, have been successful in the cultivation of the finer
varieties of the north."

Bangor, in the state of Maine, is acknowledged to be the head-
quarters of the plum. Curculio does not injure it there as it does
in other states.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 251

Union Society of Shakers, Harvard, Massachusetts, raise pro-
digious crops of Green Gage, Imperial Gage, Jefferson Gage, and
others. We scatter air-slacked lime on the trees for six weeks,
once a week, beginning soon after the fruit is discoverable, when
the dew is on, or on a damp day. Sprinkle the lime on until
the whole tree appears white, as with snow in winter. We have
tried other methods, but have found this to be the best.

Sprinkle with flour of sulphur just as the fruit is setting.

Plums carefully dried make prunes— a useful and even im-
portant article of commerce. We should add much to our plea-
sure and profit if we should cultivate the Bolivar, the Jefferson,
and some other of our best on a large scale, to make prunes. The
northern states ought to pay in prunes for the oranges of the
south. When ripe the plums will not bear much handling or
transportation, but as prunes can go any distance.

GRAPE-HOUSES, &c.

From the condensed correspondence of the Honorable Charles
Mason, Commissioner of U. S. Patents, in the Agricultural Re-
port for 1853, we extract the following. In this we think that
we follow the noble plan of Smithson, of London — diffuse know-
ledge:

San Francisco, Los Angelos county — James S. Waite. Mexi-
cans have given most attention to the culture of grapes. Three
varieties are cultivated, two of them are black, and the Muscatel,
which is white. Large quantities of grapes are annually sent to
San Francisco and to the mines. The entire product of grapes in
this country, last year, was estimated at two thousand tons, (four
millions of pounds,) of which this county yielded about three-
quarters. They are carefully picked and packed in saw dust.

Bangor, Penobscot county, Maine. Henry Little says : — We
raise, under glass, Black Hamburgh, Chasselas, and other fine
foreign varieties. In open culture we raise Isabella, Black Clus-
ter, and White Sweet Water. Isabella is rather too late for us;
we seek for others.

Maryland. Catawba and Isabella are hardy, full, and constant
bearers.

Anthony Miller, of Portland, Calloway county, Missouri : — To
cure rot in my grapes, I take fresh cow manure, mix in a ditch,
or hogshead, with offals of tobacco, ashes, lime, hops and rain
water. I stir it daily till it ferments; let it stand several days.
I make a ditch about five or six inches deep around the foot of

252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the vine, and pour into it about one gallon of my mixture, and
cover up with earth. A month after the blooming of the vine, I
repeat. My grapes have thus been preserved sound. Try it on
a few vines to convince yourself.

Frederick Munch, Marthasville, Warren county, Missouri : —
Catawba, Herbemont, Isabella, and some others suffer from the
rot — a mildew in chilly weather. The Halifax grape and all the
native grapes of the Mississippi Valley, are dark colored, make a
dark red wine. From one Halifax vine I have made two gallons
of wine this year, while my Catawba was nearly a failure. Next
year I shall have about half a dozen new varieties, natives of
the Mississippi Valley, cultivated by me, and to bear for the first
time.

A. Marshall, West Chester, Chester county, Pennsylvania : —
Twenty years in grape culture. Imported vines failed. Cataw-
ba, Isabella, and others tried, but after giving a few tolerable
crops they dropped their leaves in August, and failed.

H. R. Robey, Fredericksburg, Spotsylvania county, Virginia : —
Catawba and Isabella are the only grapes extensively grown.
Rot sometimes destroys a good part of the crop. One bushel of
the grapes makes a gallon of wine.

Sidney Weller, Brinckleyville, North Carolina : — Twenty years
a grape grower. Has the largest Scuppernong vineyard of the
south. It was said that this vine needed no trimming. A great
mistake. No young grape vine wants it more. It cannot be
successfully propagated by cuttings. The grapes ripen in suc-
cession for nearly two months. I have berries four inches
round.

Mr. Burr, of Washington city, a scientific cultivator, desired to
have reliable statistics of the guano business here. I have paid
from $36 to $50 per ton.

Martin E. Thompson introduced to the Club Mr. Gray, re-
cently from California, who was requested to speak of California
and the utmost west of our country, and of Peru.

Mr. Gray said he had remarked many very interesting facts.
It never rains in Lima, and islands where birds deposit guano
are, some of them, subject to rain, which destroys it. In Lima
the roofs of the dwelling houses are paved with bricks. That
climate seemed to me destined to making silks on a large scale,
without any cost, (comparatively.) Because the silk worm eggs
may be placed on the leaves of the trees, where they spin and
perfect their silk without any aid from man. The only danger

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 253

will be from birds. This fact is true also of California, where it
never rains from May to October; and their horses are out all
the year, living on the wild oats, and keeping seal fat. On one
occasion some of the people, oppressed by the multitude of horses,
speared 7,000 of them in order to lessen the crowd of them.
The cattle were encouraged. On one ranch there was ten thou-
sand head of cattle, and after being out all winter they were, in
April, as fine as our show beef. They live on the inexhaustible
wild oats. The soil of California is wonderfully fertile. I be-
lieve that one hundred and twenty-five bushels of wheat have
been raised there on one acre of land. The largest crop ever
raised in England was from 80 to 90 bushels an acre. I exam-
ined wheat on one ranch. The farmer had sown one bushel of
wheat on an acre and a quarter of land. The crop was reaped
by Indians, and yielded 102 bushels. I pulled one bunch of the
wheat, having only one tap root, and having 90 heads of wheat,
so very extensive was the tillering. I was very anxious to find
out, if possible, the cause of such astonishing fertility. The air,
and all other circumstances do not appear to be diflierent from
from those of many other regions. I looked carefully at the soil.
I had no means for making an analysis, but I was drawn to one
peculiar circumstance in the soil, that is a white, fine powder,
which is visible at every tread of my foot. I supposed it to be
potash in some form. I found the inhabitants very indolent. I
wanted some milk at a ranch, and the man, (a Spaniard,) said he
had none. He had a thousand cattle, but was too lazy to milk
the cows! One man with whom I put up was in a melancholy
condition, ruined, (as he said,) had only eight hundred cattle
left, had been robbed of the rest by Fremont. Mr. Gray spoke
of Captain Sutter as a man of the most noble, generous character,
whose immense estate has been taken from him, and he left in
poverty.

On this side of the Rocky Mountains I met with several singu-
lar circumstances: A natural fountain of perfect soda water, which
I drank, adding a little lemon syrup— all New-York could not
in the hottest August drink it up. I saw a plain covered six
inches deep with pure snow white sal-ajratus— it almost blinded
me. I saw one drove of buffaloes which was ascertained to ex-
tend about five miles in breadth by about fifteen miles in length;
I thought the earth fairly trembled under their tread. We then
had plenty of meat, and I do not know more delicious meat than
the humps and tender loins of the buffalo— it was tender as

254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cliickeu. Those vasi territories seem to me fitted only for In-
dians and butfaloes, the constant moving creatures, and not to be
permanently settled by white men.

I found Virginia lately profiting on some lands by use of guano
and lime— making two bushels of wheat where she made but one.
The joint worm is playing havoc with the wheat there.

Mr. Robinson called on Judge Livingston, the chairman, for
some account of his successful grape cultui-e, in and out of

doors.

The Chairman made some remarks upon the plan of a cold grape-
ry. He said : My rule is to fill my drain under the vine a foot at
the bottom with broken stone, brick, &c.; then a foot of good
earth; then a foot of compost made of rich soil, ground bone
dust and other rich ingredients. I would make a border ten
feet wide, and plant my vines one-and-a-half feet apart in the
row. It would be an old vine that extended its roots forty feet.
I plant all my out-door vines along stone walls. Grapes cannot
have too rich a spot for their growth, though if manured care
must be taken to use the right sort. Eank manures may injui-e

the flavor.

Henry C. Vail— I have just commenced planting a vineyard
upon a rough waste piece of land. I dug holes two feet deep and
put in bones, waste- wood, &c., and rich earth. I then planted
pie-plant between the rows so as to insure a good crop from the
land while the vines are coming forward. There are thousands
of acres of waste rocky land in the vicinity of New-York that
might be producing abundant and profitable crops of grapes.

A NEW ORNAMENTAL TREE.

Dr. Watson of Staten Island, spoke about a tree that he calls a
hop tree, that grows on Staten Island and bears a small ho||^os-
sessing the same qualities as the common hop. The tree pows
sixteen to twenty feet high, and only one insect ever troubles it.
It is used for ornamental purposes, and is a very pretty tree. He
thinks it worthy the attention of those who have lawns or other
grounds to plant with trees.

Paul Stillman spoke of the great distance to which tlie roots of
the grape vine run— much greater tliau that of the vine itself.

Mr. Ganse presented a machine for clearing the weeds from
garden vegetables. It is a great improvement upon any hand
implements. Two light iron wheels are fixed upon an iron axle
that carries two knives which do the work of nice hoeing. It is

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 255

not harder work than hoeing, and one man can do as much as
five with hoes. The retail price is eight dollars. The inventor
is the Rev. H. D. Ganse of Freehold, N. J., son of the exhibitor.
The implement is a good one, but like all new patent machines it
is held too high. It is called a truck-cultivator. A more ap-
propriate name would be a wheel-hoe. Jerseymen say its use will
largely increase the cultivation of carrots and other root-crops
which require a great deal of hand-hoeing.

Dr. Watson of Staten Island, presented hops from a hop tree,
indigenous with us. He observed that it contained one-third
more of lupuline, the bitter principle of the hop, than our com-
mon hop. They were distributed among the members.

The Chairman called up the subject of thq day :

THE ROOT.

Henry C. Vail of Newark, said he was sorry to find so few per-
sons ready to speak upon this important subject. It might be
said it was hackneyed ; but knowing as he did the value of in-
creasing the production of roots, he wished he had the ability to
impressjts importance upon farmers. But he came to hear, not
to speak. Yet he thought it was the duty of every one to lend
all his influence to increase our supply of food. He was satisfied
that oats could not be raised on land worth over thirty dollars
an acre without a loss to the grower. English journals are just
beginning to concede that this is a great country; and yet we,
with all our fertile acres are upon the point of suffering for food.
No root-crop can be grown but by deep culture, and then great
products may be obtained. Every root is surrounded with a
mass of fine roots that feed the main root. The soil must be rich.
Coarse manure is unsuitable. If the soil is deep and rich a root-
crop may be grown upon reversed sod if plowed deeply. Cattle
can be fed cheaper on roots than any other crop the fiirmer grows,
and they are more profitable probably than any other crop. I am
satisfied that horses will do much better on an equal amount of
money invested in oats and carrots than when all oats. My fa-
ther has raised and fed carrots extensively and is perfectly satis-
fied of the profit of the crop and economy of its use on tlie farm
as well as for sale.

Mr. Judd doubts the value of carrots for feeding horses. He
wants information from more persons who have used carrots.
He has no faith in them.

256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Dr. Waterbury said he had fed 800 bushels one season, and he
had faith in them.

Mr. Vail went into a minute calculation to show what an im-
mense sum of money might be saved by substituting carrots for a
part of the oats in feeding horses. Carrots can be raised for $60
an acre, and average 600 bushels, including all the items of cost.

The turnips, beets, ruta bagas, and parsnips are all equally
profitable, and w^ould save immense sums of money if more ex-
tended.

POTATOES.

Mr. Joseph P. Simpson spoke of the value of the potato-crop. I
only came here to learn. I wish somebody would tell me how
to plant potatoes.

Solon Robinson — I w^ould plow ten or twelve inches deep, first
spreading the manure on the surface. I would then mark off the
rows three feet apart, with a small plow, and if the nature of the
surface would admit, always running the rows north and south.
I would use large potatoes for seed, dropping them a foot apart
in the drill. I would cover the seed by two small furrows turn-
ed each way. I would afterward cultivate upon the level sys-
tem. The best soil for potatoes is a vegetable muck. I have
seen good potatoes grown by dropping the seed on a grass sward
and turning a furrow each way, so as to cover a strip of sod with
the seed under the furrow-slice. If the summer is a wet one
they will grow well; if dry, as last season, you will get no po-
tatoes. The cheapest method of fertilizing land for potatoes is to
turn down a clover-sod. The roots furnish food to make the
plants grow, and the ground is kept mellow. You never can
raise good potatoes on any land, however rich, unless it is mel-
low. The tubers must have room to expand. I deprecate hill-
ing potatoes except by turning two furrows to the row at the last
plowing. Our system of hilling corn is derived from the Indians,
who had no plows and no hoes better than sharp sticks, or clam-
shells, and were obliged to scrape up the loose earth around the
roots. It is a heathenish, old practice, adopted by our fore-
fathers, and followed by us without a shadow of reason or iota of
benefit.

Mr. Judd — A friend of mine has cultivated the same variety
of potatoes in the same way for 25 years, with good success. He
always plants middle-size potatoes, and always in hills. He
thinks that a good plan of planting, and I believe in it both for
corn and potatoes.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 257

Mr. Burr, of Washington city, related an Irish plan of growing-
potatoes by covering the vines as fast as they got about six inches
high. The potatoes kept forming, and the bed was fairly filled
with tubers.

The Chairman — What sort of land was it?

Mr. Eurr — The land was rather swampy, and the season suffi-
ciently wet.

Solon Robinson — I have seen the same plan pursued in Indiana
by Irish settlers. They threw up a swampy piece in beds and
set the seed thick all over the surface, and covered it with earth
from the ditches, and cultivated in the same way by tlu-owing
up earth on the vines. The first season was wet and the crop
good. The next season there was a drouth, and the potato-bed
would have burnt like pine wood.

Judge Meigs — I have planted potatoes in the same way, with
the same results.

H. C. Vail — I think medium-sized potatoes best for seed. One
word more about carrots. I know from experience that carrots
mixed with oats are better than all oats, and I believe they help
the digestion of any grain, so that it is not as likely to be voided
whole.

Dr. Waterbury did not coincide with those who gave so very
great importance to the carrot, compared with oats as a feed for
horses. He had tried them faithfully, and believed that they
were very good, gave the horse a glossy coat, &c., but were not
to be relied on as a substitute for oats.

Orange Judd — My father, with whom I learned practical agri-
culture, had a good kind of potato which he continued to plant
on the farm for twenty-seven years; and there was no deteriora-
tion in its quality. He planted the large ones. Hilling potatoes and
corn, is very useful in all wet lands. The potato in the hill ob-
tains all the moisture which it requires by the capillary attrac-
tion of the soil in the hills.

Mr. Vail — The method mentioned by Mr. Judd, was used by
my father, and has been adopted by the New Jersey Phalanx.

AIR-TIGHT PRESERVE JARS.

John D. Myers, of Brooklyn, submitted to the Club specimens
of new air-tight preserve jars. These jars are made either of
glass, porcelain, stone, earthenware or tin. The cover has a
groove wherein is inserted a ring of gutta percha, India rubber,

[Am. Inst.] 17

258 TKAKSACTIONS OF THF,

or any other elastic or adhesive substance, and is secured by an
iron clamp, tightened by a screw in the centre, which presses on
the rim of the jar, making it perfectly air-tight.

RESOLUTIONS ABOUT GUANO.

The following preamble and resolutions on a subject of daily in-
creasing importance were read by the Secretary and unanimously
assented to by the Chair :

Whereas, The Peruvian government has monopolized the sup-
ply of guano throughout the United States, and

Whereas, On account of said monopoly the farmers of this
country have heretofore been obliged to pay for said article
about $50 a ton, and by a recent announcement of that govern-
ment there is no prospect hereafter of any reduction, and

Whereas, There is reason to believe that islands containing
large and valuable deposits of ammoniated guano have recently
been discovered by citizens of the United States, who have made
application to the government at Washington lor protection
therein, and

Whereas, If said protection shall be afforded, the farmers of
this country will reap the benefit of said fertilizer at an allow-
ance of but $1 a ton on the freight of the same to our shores, in-
stead of an onerous tax of more than $25 per ton now paid Peru;
therefore.

Resolved, That it is the duty of the American government to
assert its sovereignty over any and all barren and uninhabitable
guano islands of the ocean which have been or hereafter may be
discovered by citizens of the United States, and Avhich are situa-
ted so far from any continent that, according to the laws which
govern nations, no other power can rightfully exercise jurisdic-
tion over them, and to guarantee the right of property therein to
the discoverer, his successors or assigns.

Resolved, That the agricultural societies of the several states
be invited to concur in the foregoing, and to unite in calling upon
our government at Washington, and the distinguished public
men now^ before the country, for their views on this important
question.

Resolved, That bread being the staff of life, its abundance fur-
nishes the basis of national prosperity.

Resolved, That the foregoing resolutions be printed in the form
of a circular, signed by the President and Secretary, and trans-
mitted to the County and State Agriultural Societies of the sev-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 259

eral States, to the President of the United States and heads of
departments at Washington.

The Hon. Hamilton Fish, of tlie United States Senate, pre-
sented to the Club a large and valuable assortment of seeds,
which were very acceptable to the members.

AIR-TIGHT PRESERVE JARS.

INVENTION OF JOHN D. MYERS, BROOKLYN, L. I.

These jars are either made of glass, porcelain, stone, earthen
ware, or tin. The cover has a groove, wherein is inserted a ring
of gutta percha, India rubber, or any other elastic or adhesive
substance. The cover is confined by an iron clamp, tightened by
a screw in the centre, which presses on the rim of the jar, makes
it perfectly air tight. The clamp can be used without the screw,
it only being used for greater security.

For family use it is the most complete article of the kind
as yet invented.

The Club adopted as subjects — Root Crops; Grape-Houses and
Grape Culture.

Adjourned to May 29th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

May 29t/i, 1855.

Present — The Rev. Samuel White, of Staten Island, Prof.
Mapes, Dr. Waterbury, Messrs. Lawton, of New Rochelle, Adrian
Bergen, of Long Island, Dr. Poole, of Jersey, Alderman Robert
Jones, Mr. Toucey, Mr. Pepper, Prof. Waring, Mr. Vail, Prof.
Youmans, Mr. Pardee, Solon Robinson, Orange Judd, Charles
Oakley, Geo. B. Rapelye, George Bacon. John W. Chambers, Dr.
Field, of Brooklyn, Messrs. Phoenix, William B. Leonard, Van
Boskerck, Chilson, Stacey and others — sixty-one members.

Rev. Samuel White, of Staten Island, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers prepared by him :

[London Farmer's Magazine for May, 1855.]

ON FARMERS' CLUBS, &c.

Joseph Plowman, secretary of the Oxford Fai-mers' Club, de-
livered a prize essay on Societies and Clubs for agricultural
benefit.

260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Extracts by H. Meigs.

In 1723 a society established iu Scotland of Improvers in the
Knowledge of Agriculture, and its transactions were published.
It became extinct, and in 1755 was succeeded by another,
and that one in 1784 by another, "The Highland Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland." This society received a
Eoyal Charter in 1787. In 1834 it received another Royal
Charter. Premiums to the amount of je2,0,)0 sterling $10,0U0
are annually given.

In Ireland, in 1747, such a society was established, which gave
rise to many others.

In England, in 1777, the "Bath Agricultural Society," was
estabhshed, and its transactions published.

In England, in 1838, The Eoyal Agricultm-al Society was
founded. Adopting the motto, " Practice with Science^ The
Royal Agricultural Society, founded in 1838, had in seven years,
viz: in 1845, been the means, in some measure, of establishing
about 400 societies, and those more practical societies, the Far-
mers^ Clicbs, which in 1845 amounted to 150. At present the
societies and clubs amount to upwards of 700.

The London Central Farmers' Club is so rooted and supported
that its influence is widely felt, and it has earned for itself the
appellation of the " Bridge Street Parliament:^ These clubs
awaken the spirit of enquiry. In the words of a great living
statesman, "neither our fleets, however well manned, nor oiu-
armies, however valorous, nor our diplomacy, however successful,
can do so much as the plow," &c.

SEASONS OF NEW ENGLAND FOR 200 YEARS.

We owe gratitude to Charles L. Flint, secretary of the Board
of Agriculture of Massachusetts for his reports. In the second
annual report in January 1855, we find extensive accounts of the
seasons since the first settlement of New-England.

At that early period the land was covered by thick and bound-
less forests — yet we find severe drought more frequent than in
the last fifty years. The people often suffered.

In 1642 a cow worth £22 was sold for X6.

1646 and 1649 remarkable for caterpillars.

1658, '59, '60 and 61, canker worms destroyed the apples in
Boston.

In 1623 to 1630 corn parched up short in the hills.

We refer for interesting details to the report.

american institute 261

American Institute Farmers' Club,
May 28, 1855,

Rec'd from (probably) Mr. McGowan of India, by the hands
of E. Richardson, Esq. :

Pods and seeds of a soap plant — the pod being very sapona-
ceous.

Seeds of the latropha — which produces an oil useful in the arts.

Seeds of the Pe-Bo — a fruit tree.

No mention of it in Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom.

Solon Robinson read the following letter from a Westchester
county farmer :

Westchester Co., N. Y., 5th Mo. 3d, 1855.

Friend Robinson : Will thee please to read this letter, Avhich I
address through you to the "American Institute Farmers' Club?"
and thus oblige an absent though often interested reader of the
reports which I find in The Tribune of the sayings of members of
that body concerning their experience in the business of farming,
as well also as in other matters which are sometimes talked over
by the intelligent persons composing the Club. I am an " old
farmer," having cultivated the earth, or as I suppose you, my
progressive friends would say, the surface of the earth, to the
depth of from six to ten inches for about forty years. I continue
in that business, in that old-fashioned Avay, not being able to
adopt your new method of plowing eighteen inches into the clay
or sub-soil in the expectation of increasing the yield of my crops.
It is not because I am unwilling to adopt new methods that I do
this. I am always ready to meet an improvement in farming
with a generous welcome. Experiments I often try; not only
such as I chance to fall upon, as I pass along in the quiet pursuit
of my own labors, but I not unfrequently am able to benefit
largely by adopting the suggestions and discoveries of my observ-
ing neighbors. Indeed, I gratefully acknowledge myself in-
debted to Prof. Mapes and others of your Society for many very
valuable hints. I do not therefore consider myself, ho\^ever
much you may differ from me in that opinion, as prone to dis-
card everything but '' personal experience." Nor do I wish to
be understood as undervaluing in the least my own or others'
personal experience. It is a very thorough and eificient teacher;
the most so perhaps of any other. It may no doubt be greatly
aided by " Scientific Agriculture," but it should not be con-
demned totally if it occasionally explode the teachings of fancy
farmers, or even some of those who are styled " scientific" agri-

262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cultiirists. My "personal experience" for instance, nay, my
observation, reason and common sense all combine to utterly
explode tlie idea of " eighteen-incli" plowing with the view of
improving the land where I live and increasing the yield of crops.
I do not wish to be understood however as asserting that there
may not be localities or districts of country where deep plowing
may not be beneficial. Where lands have been worn out by long
and constant cropping it is not unlikely that they may be aided
very materially by tui-ning up the lower soil to the surface, and
by manuring, the evil effects of the exhaustion may be got over in
due time. Land thus circumstanced requires rest. Thorough
seeding is also very beneficial, and the grass should not be pas-
tured too closely. But where, as in this country generally, the
surface soil is good, the land not having been overtasked, six to
ten inches plowing I contend is far better than fifteen or eighteen.
At all events this is my " personal experience " in the matter,
and I shall hold that to be good against all " scientific" remark
merely, or until some one shall practically demonstrate that the
yellow clay is better than the dark loam for the production and
growth of vegetation.

In conclusion, I suggest a seasonable subject, viz : What is
known as the " Gapes,'' or chicken disorder, a disease which
proves fatal to at least one-third, if not one-half, of all the broods
brought off on every poultry-yard in this country. The trouble
is occasioned by a little knot of red worms, as I think, which
may be found in the windpipe of every chicken so troubled.
These worms increase in size and work up toward the head until
the chicken is suftbcated. I have found these worms in every
instance out of many examinations which I have made. Some-
times I have cured the chicken when in a very advanced stage
of the disease, by running my finger and thumb down on the out-
side of the neck, pressed pretty closely against the windpipe, thus
forcing the worms down into the stomach or crop of the chicken.
At other times it will kill the chicken immediately. The best
remedy I know, however, is to feed with dry feed — whole grains
of corn or buckwheat is best from the start. Give them no meal
or other ground feed. If your corn is very large crack it be-
tween a couple of stones for a while, until the chicken is able to
swallow whole grains. This treatment will have a tendency to
keep the worms described above out of the throat. Perliaps some
of you may know a better remedy.

The most profitable fowl is the Leghorn, in my opinion. They

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 263

lay more eggs and require less feed than any otlier variety. They
are small bluish birds, with their combs lopped down quite on
one side, and often hang over their beaks. They were called
Leghorns by the person from whom I obtained them. But any
fowl requires to be well fed to lay well. Especially should this
be the case in winter. Meat scraps are excellent occasionally
for fowls. I fed my fowls well through the winter, and they
commenced laying in February, and have paid me handsomely in
consequence. I hope your Society will be frequently enlighten-
ed by useful contributors, that it may do much good in the way
of disseminating sound instruction in farming.

Prof. Mapes — Our Westchester friend writes a pleasant letter,
but he is mistaken about our advocation of plowing — tliat is with
a turning plow — 18 inches deep. Mr. Waring stated at one
time that he was ploAving his land at Chapaqua to that depth.
Many soils may be plowed 18 inches to advantage. Some prefer
to go down half an inch at a time. My idea is to run a subsoil
plow in all clay land before turning it up to the sun. This will
always prove a benefit, unless where the soil is replete with sul-
phuret of iron. But the atmosphere will change in one year the
sulphuret into sulphate of iron.

The Chairman, Rev. Samuel White, left the chair, and William
Lawton, of New Rochelle, was called to it.

Rev. Mr. White — I have just returned from a tour as far as
Iowa. I have passed through several states, and carefully ob-
served the condition of the great crops of our country. I have
thought that speculators have had a hand in the unfavorable re-
ports spread through our press as to the coming crops. I have,
within the last three weeks of my journey, been deeply pleased
with the appearance of the fields, and the zeal with which our
noble farmers are at work to make more land come into bearing,
and better tillage too. Sir ! I found one farmer who had obsti-
nate lands to plow, who was using a heavy plow and eight yoke
of oxen, and plowed it deep !

■ Orange Judd wished to correct a false impression as to his re-
marks on hilling corn and potatoes. He never did or could, from
his own experience, hill the crops, except in cases where it was
known that too much water might prove injurious to the crop.
In wet fields hills were proper, because the earth in the hills, by
capillary attraction from the surrounding wet, would always
draw as much moisture as was good for them.

As to the supposed great value of carrots, as food for stock or

264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

men, he desired further information, especially from such farm-
ers and others as had fairly and largely tried the carrot experi-
ment. As to men, I know several who cannot, with health, eat
carrots, and I have heard of it as a quite common aflair. Eut
let us have proof, beyond a doubt, of the precise value of the
carrot crop for stock and men, before we substitute oats and
grains to great extent. I beg to be excused for venturing to
suggest doubts; but surely we ought, if possible, to farm on the
most certain principles.

Professor Mapes — My own experience is favorable to the use
of carrots, in very considerable proportions, with oats, hay, &c.,
and I have many correspondents whose extensive experiments
agree with mine as to the strength, health, fine coat of cattle and
horses, and as to the milk of the cows fed liberally with carrots,
grain and hay. I know that these facts have become pretty
generally known, and that the consumption of carrots has greatly
iucreased.

Dr. Field, of Brooklyn, remarked that Mr. Bennet, of Brook-
lyn, livery stabler on an extensive plan, has given his horses a
fair and full trial of the carrots, that he has made contracts with
farmers to supply him this fall with several hundred bushels of
carrots for his horses.

As to taking oft' from fruit trees their excess of flowers and
young fruits, how can it be done best?

The Chairman, Mr. Lawton, wished, that the carrot crop be
considered — the question as to moistening the seed before plant-
ing, &c.

Prof. Mapes — In relation to the use of carrots, we have re-
ports from horse-feeders to great extent that one-half oats were
better than all oats. I never believed that a bushel of carrots
had as much nutriment as a bushel of oats. I have no doubt
that carrots do tend to gelatinize the food in the stomach, and
render it more digestible. With carrots for cows, as good milk
and butter can be obtained in winter as summer. Experience in
feeding horses with carrots has largely increased the consump-
tion. Mr. Field, a livery stable keeper in Brooklyn, has become
so convinced of the value of carrots, that he has engaged a far-
mer to raise four hundred bushels of carrots for his use next
winter. My experiments in carrot crop are planting but half an
inch deep, long radishes with the seed. At the time of planting
there must be, for success, a fair amount of moisture. I plant in
rows. The radishes show themselves soon, and thus enable me

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 265

to distinguish the rows, so that I can cut up weeds v. itliout hurt
to the carrots. To moisten the carrot seeds I have put them in
a cloth bag, and buried the bag in moist light soil until the seeds
were sufficiently damp. I doubt the utility of rubbing the seeds
to separate them. I mix sand with my seeds, ten parts of sand
to one part of seed. By pulling up the radishes for market, the
carrots are left in good condition, on account of the space left by
the radishes in the soil. I find that this plan leaves me about
the right quantity of carrots in a row. On my carrot field I
never use long manure. I sow the artificial manures broadcast.
One-half the quantity for one acre at planting, and the remaining
one-half when I cultivate the field. Some plant oats with car-
rots in the rows. The Germans sometimes plant flax seed with
their carrot seeds. I get about 1,000 bushels of carrots per acre.

Solon Robinson — As to the protein described by Dr. Water-
bury, wliether in the carrot or in the luscious blackberry of the
Chairman, (Mr. Lawton,) I suppose that the more refined chem-
istry of our animal organization decides the value of the protein
vastly better than all our analysers.

I propose for a subject — Insects in Wheat.

Dr. Field proposed as a subject — Summer pruning and treat-
ment of Fruit Trees.

Henry C. Vail read a letter from Germantown, Pa., which
spoke highly of the use of carrots for horse feed. The writer
feeds half a peck a day, deducting the same amount from the
usual quantity of oats.

Prof. Mapes — I have received a long letter from Levi Durand,
of Derby, Coim., who claims to be the " inventor'' of the gee-
about system of plowing, and is sadly grieved that the Club have
not given him the credit and honor of the invention. Unfortu-
nately for the claim of originality, the gee-about system is not new
either with Mr. Durand or anybody else in this generation.

Solon Robinson — I received a long letter, written in quail
tracks, that I had no time to decipher, farther than to learn it
was a complaint upon the same subject from Mr. Diu'and, but as
I was aware that the idea of his being the first man that ever
practiced geeing about in plowing was preposterous, I threw the
letter aside.

• Geo. E. Waring — It is curious to observe the crude remarks
that the mention made here about geeing about has occasioned.
One writer says that we advocate a system of plowing that would
make a hill in every field by continually turning tlie furrows to

266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the center. Mr. Robinson did not advocate any system of con-
tinually geeing about. He said if it was practiced it would turn
back many a worthless ridge from the old stone walls now filled
with elders and blackberry bushes. The recommendation is a
good one, but not new.

Solon Robinson — I suggest the subject of insects which destroy
wheat, as a good subject for discussion at the next meeting. And
preparatory to that I recommend members to read this article
upon wheat in the June number of the United States Magazine.
It is very full upon all the enemies the wheat-grower has to con-
tend with, with well executed cuts. It will disseminate much
useful information among farmers. This is the insect, the Hes-
sian Fly, that is now, I suppose, destroying the wheat fields of
Michigan. It is too early for the Clear Winged Wheat Fly,
{cecidomia tritici.) That comes in July and August, and preys
on the pollen and soft kernels.

Adrian Bergen, farmer. Long Island, called attention to the
transplanting of trees. He had been successful with some by
taking care to have the soil to which they were to be transplant-
ed good. I have planted the nuts of black walnut and of horse
chesnut trees, and tried which was best in practice, the growing
trees from their seeds, or transplanting. My walnut plants grew
as high as my head the first year, the horse chesnuts only a few
inches. I dig and manure about them to make them grow, and
they do grow fast, instead of standing almost stock still, of one
size, till one gets tired of them.

Geo. E. Waring — Some critics have found fault with what was
said here about geeing and hawing all one way, so making a hill
or a dish in the middle. Now this criterion is wanting in only
one particular of any importance, and that is, Mr. Solon Robin-
son said then what seems extremely natural — gee one way this
plowing, and haw the next, and your field will neither become a
hill or a hole.

I see that the distinguished agricultui'al chemist, Mr. Liebig,
has in some measure changed his views as to manures. He finds
that there is much in the chemistry of nature which eludes the
laboratory.

Mr. Judd — Analysis of soils, for our farmers' use, ought to be
perfect. Is it so? If not it avails little our practical farmers.

Prof. Mapes felt now assured that for every practical farmer's
use, analysis of his soil can he made without error in any particu-
lar, so as to show exactly what is wanted to amend the soil.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 267

Subjects for next meeting — Grape-Houses, Grape Culture, and
Insects in Wheat. The Club adjourned to June 5th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

June 5, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Prof. J. J. Mapes, George Bacon, Paul Still-
man, E. Pardee, Solon Robinson, Dr. Austin Church, Mr. Knox,
Dr. Waterbury, Prof. Geo. E. Waring, Mr. Vail, Orange Judd,
Messrs. Chilson, Russ, Fisher, Moore, John D. Howard of Jersey
city, Dr. Poole of Newark, Adrian Eergen of Long Island, Secre-
tary Leonard, John W. Chambers, &c. — 42 members in all.

Austin Church, M. D., in the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers, translated or j»repared
by him, (viz:)

[Revue Horticol, Paris, May 1855.]

Translated by H. Meigs.
RAMIE — URTICA-UTILIS.~(JVe«; Textile Plant.)

Ten years ago (April 1845) I published in the Journal of Prac-
tical Agriculture a note on the importation of this plant for cul-
ture in our southern provinces and colonies. It has been culti-
vated in China from time immemorial on account of the fineness
of its fibre, the solidity, w^hiteness of wliich is equal to tlie most
beautiful flax. I obtained some seeds and planted them at the
Museum. They grew about seven feet high in the open air.
Plants were also sent to Algeria. In 1852, Mon. de Jussieu,
Professor of the Botanical Museum of Leyden, and Mon. Dueos
Minister of Marine, sent it to the south, particularly Guyana.

This plant is of the Ortie (nettle) family. It is known as China
grass — is cultivated in China in small garden plants for lamily
use, along the rice field borders. In Java it is called Ramie. In
Queen Elizabeth's time, some clothes made of it were imported
into Europe ; and it was specially valued in Holland where stuffs
were made of it preferred to those of flax. It obtained th,e name
of Netel-Dock, a name still given to muslin. This name is formed
of nettle and dock, a stuff" (i. e.) nettle stuff" or duck! This fibre
is more durable in wet, &c. than flax or hemp. Messrs. Craw-
ford and Raffles observed this of the nets of Java, &;c. Marsden
called it Calovie. Our canvas for land and sea service have been
unhappily injured by using with hemp the Calcutta Jupc (Cor-

268 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cliorius Olitorious.) In Java, it, Eamie,is sometimes called Kip-
aroy. In the interior of Sumatra it is called Kloie and Ramie,
In the Celebes it is named Gambe. In Banoa l7ian. The quan-
tity of fibre in this plant is greater than that of flax, and so fine
that of the thread from a common foot spinning wheel cloth is
made worth 25 cents a yard. The tenacity of the fibre is such
that we have spun a fine thread 175 feet long without winding it
up, and a thread of over six miles long contained only 500 gram-
mes, in Aveight, of the Eamie. It is fifty per cent stronger than
flax. When properly prepared we have it more beautiful than
flax in whiteness.

We have recently noticed the Vandal efforts to use up the
mummy cloth of Egypt, for paper making. The Vandals calcu-
late that there are twenty millions of metrical quintals of the
mummy cloth there, (a metrical quintal is 250 lbs.) We hope
that this monstrous profanation will not take place, and that
these last remnants of ancient civilization from which our own
civilization comes, may resist a vile cupidity — that of some mer-
cenary millionaires. It would be a deed of impiety! a robbery
of posterity ! The conscience of civilized men would not allow
this thing to be done.

[Re^Tie Horticole Paris, May 1855.]

ORCHIDIA.

Translation by H. Meigs.

For twenty-five to thirty years past, these daughters of the air
have had great attention paid to them by the lovers of horticul-
ture The English began it, and the continental amateurs quickly
followed them.

Now the family of these orchids surpasses, in amount, those of
all the other groups of the vegetable kingdom. To give some
idea of this, Mr. Lindley, in 1840, published an account of them.
The Epidendi-ums (grow on trees) 71 species. Octontoglossum,
5 species; Stanhopea, 5 species. Now, according to Lindley, we
have 310 on the trees (Epidendrum) G7 Octontoglossa; 20 Stan-
hopea— 397 different kinds of these daughters of the air.

Many changes have been made (in the 25 or 30 years past) in
the modes of culture, and with much success — by giving them re-
spectively, the moistui-e, temperature, root and activity suited to
each species.

Mr. Morel has published, lately, in Paris, his descriptive list
of about 550 species of them, classed according to merit. This
mode of cultured — an octavo volume of 196 pages, with draw-
^-r-s. To be had of Dusacq, No. 21 Jacob street, Paris.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 269

RhododencLrum lanatum. One of those beautiful Himalayan
flowers — recently discovered by Doctor Josej^h Dalton Hooker.

It is a small tree, or rather a large shrub, as thick as a man's
thigh at bottom. The leaves only on the ends of the branches.
The branches of one year old are covered with a fawn colored
floculene^ or thick tomentrum. Flowers, bell shaped — (campa-
nuliform). Petals of a pale sulphur color, with purplish dots
and points.

Grey Town, mh Jli)ril, 1855.
Henry Meigs, Esq.,

Rec. Sec. Jim. histifute^Sbl Broadway, JV*. Y.:

Dear Sir — In accordance with my promise made to you, I send
you a few specimens of what can be found on the banks of our
harbor, in the shape of stones and a few specimens of wood, and
a piece showing the effects of the worms on wood; the entrance
of the worm is about the size of a pin's head, and gradually in-
creases to a large cell; the worm will neither live in perfectly
fresh or salt water, but in a brackish or medimn of both.

The stone marked No. 1, is a petrifaction of the nut known as
the cocoon nut antidote used with success in cases of poison. The
nut 2, is a cocoon nut in a natural state, but slightly varying
from No. 1.

Since my return from New- York, my attention has been wholly
taken up by business, and consequently have had no spare time.
The things I now send were handed to me, and I have thought it
best to send them; if there is anything curious among them, I
shall be glad — although I do not much think there is with the
exception of two or three petrifactions. I shall endeavor to send
you something more worthy your attention in a short time.

The staff is a piece of cabbage wood; the piece of wood three,
is, I believe, fustio.

I shall be glad by your wu^iting, the result of your investiga-
tions. There are several smooth stones, something like a blood-
stone; I should like to know if they could cut them to any pur-
pose.

When you write to me, I beg you to see that the letter is
placed on board the Nicaragua steamship, as otherwise it may
miscarry.

Please present my respects to Capt. Barnard and other friends,
and believe me,

Yours very truly,

BENJAMIN MOONLY, per F. S.

270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Edward Warren, of Sandusky, Ohio, June 1, 1855, places be-
fore the Club his plan for purifying grain by wliat he terms self-
acting process — that is showering the grain in order to pass air
through it.

THE STORAGE OF GRAIN.

The attention of warehousemen, and dealers in grain, gene-
rally, is directed to the important communication of Mr. Edward
Wai-ren, on the subject of " Warehouse Weevil," which may be
found in this morning's Register. It contains much valuable in-
formation, from one who is thoroughly posted up in the subject
he discusses. For the past five or six years Mr. Warren has been
engaged in the large grain house of the Sandusky, Mansfield and
Newark Railroad Co., at this place; and, according to the written
statement of A. H. Earber, Esq., late President of the Co., and
J. A. Pinto, Esq., late general freight agent, his skill and labors
were eifectual in saving some 200,000 bushels of wheat from se-
rious damage, if not entire loss, during the heat of a single summer.

Mr. Warren has hit upon a method of carrying out his sugges-
tions relative to the preservation of game, at once simple and
effectual. It is a self-acting, shifting apparatus, by which the
grain is carried from floor to floor of a warehouse, in such a man-
ner that every particle is brought in contact with the air and kept
in motion; thus preventing injury from confined air and inert
contact of the particles with each other. Nothwithstanding its
simplicity and the small cost of applying it to houses constructed
in the ordinary mode, the principles of its operation are purely
philosophical and it must prove eminently valuable. He has
taken the necessary steps to secure the benefits derivable from
the authorship of his ingenious plan, by caveat. So far as we
can judge, this method of preventing loss in the storage of grain,
particularly in the large depreciation to which corn is subject,
must come into general use.

The Secretary called the atteittion of the Club to the good
doings in the Legislature of Michigan State Agricultural College,
and experimental farm. The executive committee meets at Lan-
sing on the 12th of June, instant, to select the farm which is to
be not less than 500 acres nor more than 1,000, to be located
within ten miles. Micliigan has given for premiums for 1855
and '56, $2,000 each year, to the State Agricultural Society — the
Society to provide like amounts.

Messrs. C. M. Saxton & Co., presented to the Club B. Munn's
essay on practical land draining with drawings.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 271

Chairman — The preservation of grain contemplated by tlie
Warren method — showering it so as to pass air freely through it,
leads me to remark on the singular invention of New England
long ago. That of putting a stout stone in the heart of a barrel
of meal. This w^as found to keep the meal sweet for a long time.
What is the rationale of this ?

Mr. Giles of Moulton, Vermont — The fact is so.

Prof. Mapes — The rationale probably is the attraction of mois-
ture by the stone and of heat also. It probably causes an equali-
zation of the heat and moisture.

Paul Stillman — That is, I suppose, the theory of it.

Solon Kobinson — A better equalizer has been tried. Nail
three strips of boards two inches wide together, and bore the tube
thus formed full of small holes and set it up in the centre of your
barrel. This conveys air to the center, and that is the spot where
all mustiness or moldiness commences.

The subject of the day was now taken up.

Prof. Mapes — I have twelve acres of vines, eight feet between
vines and twelve feet between rows, cultivating the land be-
tween. I dug the holes four feet deep and four feet wide, and do
not return the earth to the holes, but fill them with good soil.
This gives large room for the roots. I set the vine against one
side of the hole. I put bones and leather-chips on the bottom of
the hole. Neither of these decay soon. I cut the vine back to
two buds the first year. Don't let the vine bear too many at first.
Break off the vine beyond the branch at the third joint, but do
not trim off leaves near the branches. Continue to nip off the
new shoot twice as it forms anew, and then let the last sprout
grow. The bugs will feed on that branch before they will touch
the fruit. You may water with weak guano water and very weak
solutions of potash. Ashes are good. I trim in November and
cut back to two eyes. It is better to have a lai-ge number of
roots than a long vine. I prefer if I can to turn one good branch
each way on a vine, and from those train upright branches,
which may be cut back alternately to one eye every year, so that
you have one branch growing while the next one is bearing.

Prof. Mapes related an anecdote of a vine at Astoria that grew
more grapes than any other he ever knew; and this came from
cutting up and burying a dead horse near the vine. The best
Isabella grapes are those that are most round in form. I use
phosphates upon my vines, and am always successful wherever
I have taken sufficient pains in preparing the land at first. That

272 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

is all important as well as rich manuring, for the vine is a gross
feeder of certain kinds of manure.

Mr. Pardee corroborated the opinion that round grapes are the
best. He says he has seen at one show six kinds of Isabella
grapes. One of the best vines he ever saw stood where it took
all the soapsuds from the kitchen. The wood of last j^ear'?
growth, and that only, produces the growth of this year which
produces the fruit. The hardiest North-of-Europe grape does
not generally do well here. The Concord grape is not generally
conceded to be equal to the Isabella, and cannot be recommended
where the latter will ripen well.

Prof. Mapes — I think the loose bark should be peeled off the
grape-vines. Near Burlington, N. J., there is a very extraordi-
nary grape-vine ten inches diameter ten feet from the ground.
It is a mere stump and no one can remember when it bore grapes.
Isabellas grafted on the fox grape-vine are not improved with me.
JEE-ABOUT IN PLOWING.

George E. Waring showed a letter of eight pages of Egyptian
hieroglyphics, or some other unreadable manuscript, from the
Connecticut Jee-about man, who pertinaciously persists in claim-
ing that he is the first man who ever thought of such a practice,
and thinks it very hard that we will not give liim the credit of
the invention.

Mr. Waring offered a resolution voting him that honor, but
the rules of the Club don't allow the passage of any resolutions
on disputing any fact stated.

The members of the Club are perfectly willing that all the
honor of the first Jeeing-about in Connecticut should be claimed
and enjoyed by Levi Durand of Derby, though they cannot de-
clare him to be the inventor, because they do not believe it.

Mr. Moore of Orange, N. J., inquired of Prof. Mapes what he
cultivated between two grape rows 1 He had found the prepara-
tion of the ground very troublesome. He had succeeded in
plowing eighteen inches deep. He had planted corn between his
rows.

Prof. Mapes — The ground must be dug deep and thoroughly
drained to raise grapes. It is not so much matter what you grow
between rows so that the ground is kept clean, though I would
not grow corn. Wires should be coated by wliite oxyd of zinc
combined with gutta-percha. Heat the wire with a spirit lamp
and rub on the compound, which may be done almost as rapidly
as a man can walk.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 273

A great deal of other interesting matter in relation to grapes
was given, and it was resolved to continue the subject next week.

A writer at Fairfield, Ct., says that a white worm one-fourth
of an inch long has located upon his grape-vines, and that the
end of every shoot is blighted. " The ' little villain' is coiled
up in the leaf. They like sulphur. What shall I do to crush them?"

The Chairman called up the regular subjects of the day, viz :
grape houses, grape culture, and insects in wheat,

Mr. Pardee, on request, as to the cost of the grape houses, said,
that Mr. Suydam, of Geneva, had built one for two hundred
dollars, wliich had answered very profitably. Mr. Messer has
made them for seventy to two hundred dollars. Catawba grapes
were perfectly ripened in them. Dr. Warder, of Cincinnati,
whose knowledge of the grapes is great, says the Geneva Cataw-
bas were excellent — even superior in sweetness to some raised in
Cincinnati, Mr. Suydam's grape house is forty feet in length.
I call the notice of the club to subject of a better employment of
the yards of our cities. I have several times done so, and I de-
sire to repeat it. By a deep and thorough tillage of the ground
in our yards, and attention to plants, we can have (say in this
city) an immense supply of grapes, apricots, and some other of
the richest fruits, and flowers enough to decorate every table and
to perfume the air.

I say this, because we all knovf how very wretched the condi-
tion of the ground in our yards is, almost without exception,
a mere skin of old soil on a hard, barren subsoil.

As to the grape houses and culture, we have found Allen's
Book on the Grape very useful.

Mr. Meigs, had seen lately at Bedford, Long Island, on the
southerly side of a wooden building, inhabited by Charles A.
Meigs, an apricot spread on trellis wliose apricots are estimated
to about 2000 or 3000, and in perfect liealth.

Prof. Mapes — I have 1200 grape vines which I set out when
they were three years old. I made lioles for them 4 feet Avide
and 4 feet deep, filled in with surface, soil, and suital)le manure.
I set the vines on the northerly sides of the holes, to enable me
to run a plow along near them without disturbing the roots,
which of course were extended chiefly southerly through tlio soil
in their holes. I disturbed the ground a little where the vines
stand to retain such fluid fertilizers as should be applied — as well
as the rain water, but not to hold tlie water long, tliat would be

[Am. Inst.] 18

274 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

hurtful. I prefer many vines ^ to many slioots from one vine. In
due time, I rub off the growing buds from the alternate shoots of
the vine. Say the shoots are 1, 2, 3, 4. I rub off" the buds this
year, from Nos. 1 and 3; next year I rub them off" from Nos. 2
and 4.

I have found that among our Isabellas, those which most nearly
round were much sweeter than the oblong berries — I therefore
select my cuttings from the vines of the roundest berries.

Mr. Pardee — There are now admitted to be five distinct varie-
ties of the Isabella. A committee of the State Agricultural So-
ciety, at the fair, pronounced the roundest Isabella berries the
best. Perhaps these are seedlings of the old Isabellas.

I have found the soap suds of family washings good for the
grapes. It may be freely applied about their roots, at some little
distance from the main vine, but must not be allowed to stand,
for that is bad. The vine wiiich grew last year is the one which
sends forth the fruit bearing shoot or new vines. Our Norton's
seedling, Isabella and Catawba, appear to be our best native fruit.
German grapes (some of them) seem as yet to succeed here.
Bland's Virginia and the Hebbermour did so.

Prof. Mapes — I peel old bark all off my vines and believe it is
good for them — that old bark hides insects. I have grafted the
Isabellas on the Fox grape by way of experiment — result not de-
cided yet.

Paul Stillman thought suds on the vines would be destructive
if there should be a sub-soil close enough to hold the water.

Prof. Mapes — I wash my vines with a solution of soda, it is a
cheap and good one.

Orange Judd — At a Lady boarding house in New Haven, he had
observed Catawba grape-vines upon which very hot water had
been thrown, which seemed to grow the better for it.

Mr. Moore of Orange county — I learned grape culture under
Dr. Underbill of Croton Point. I put my vines (as Prof. Mapes
does) six to seven feet apart, three or four years old, in holes not
so deep as his — I have the vineyard plowed deep — eighteen to
twenty inches. I go to the bottom of the natural soil — but where
the sub-soil is hard I have found it retain water sometimes and
rot, or blight, or mold my grapes. My experience in plowing is
that it always pays well for your trouble.

Prof. Mapes — Whenever wheat roots reach a hard bottom they
cease to tiller.

Mr. Moore — Guano put on too much is injurious.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 275

Prof. Mapes— It always requires a division — its particles must
be perfectly separated to do well. We should mix — mix care-
fully before we apply it.

Mr. Moore— I have seen in Ohio, the grape-vines in a vineyard
only foui' feet apart every way on the whole vineyard. No growth
allowed among them.

Prof. Mapes— I raise many sorts of crops between my rows of
vines.

Mr. Moore— I have tried corn between mine. I have used
bows for my vines as well as stakes— one stake or two bows to
each vine. I found wire trellis bad for some of my vines— the
tendrils injured by the hmt of the wire in very hot days.

John D. Ward, Esq., of Jersey City, presented specimens of
the water of that city's aqueduct from the river Passaic. It was
tasted by members, and pronounced very good.

Mr. Ward, who has been principal in the introduction of this
great blessing into Jersey City, states that upon a careful analy-
sis this water is found to contain about twenty per cent, less of
solid or inorganic materials than the water of our Croton aque-
duct. ^

The Club warmly expressed its pleasure at the accomplishment
of this noble aqueduct, and gave all honor to Mr. Ward and his
associates who have done it.

Paul Stillman called for glasses of the Passaic water to drink
the health of Mr. Ward, which was done heartily.

A conversation ensued relative to a proper coating for the iron
wire trellis.

Prof Mapes recommended a coating of gutta percha and white
oxide of zinc melted together. It forms an enamel on the wire.

Orange Judd— Some have supposed that plants are injured by
applying hot water. That is true of mere plants, but not of
trees. At a lady boarding house in New Haven, Conn., some
little time ago, a catalpatree in the yard was pointed out to me as
being in better condition tlian usual, a grape vine, a Catawba also,
and both had been sometimes treated with doses of boiling water
about their feet. As to the wire fence, I found on William R.
Hazard's farm a considerable extent of it in good condition, made
of wire Nos. 7 and 8, with seven wires in the fence, strained up
occasionally at the strong posts, 40 rods apart, by a wrench.
Some of it had stood well three years, other posts seven years.
Cost, fifty cents a rod.

The Chairman called for questions for next meeting.

276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Solon Robinson proposed— Market Gardening, and the manner
of selling, and the ordinances regulating them.

Adrian Bergen— I repeat that if others have succeeded with
the iron fences, some of us have not. I hope they may yet he
more successful. Once in order, and capable of remaining so,
the iron fences will be great gains to farmers. The wood of our
fences is of incalculable amount in timber and in labor, and per-
petually rotting down, and demanding more timber and more

labor.

The Chairman called to mind the native grape from Mount
Holyoke, an excellent grape. We have also a white native grape,
a very good one, and has been cultivated by some.

Henry Miles, of Moulton, Vermont, exhibited on the floor the
action of his Hand Corn Planter, which he calls a Quaker Gu7i,
(Mr. Miles is a Quaker.) a^his is a common hoe, having a small
tin hopper on the upper side of the handle. In this the corn is
put. One hand grasps a loose wooden tube around the handle,
the other, as usual, near the end of the hoe. As the hoe enters
the ground it is drawn back an inch or two, and instantly grains
of corn pass down from the hopper through a small tin tube to
the bottom of the hoe handle, and there, by a recurved bit of
thin iron, is thrown into the hole opened by the hoe. The planter
then advances his foot, and plants in on the spot where the grain
is dropped, thus giving to that hill a suitable pressure.

Questions adopted for next meeting— Grape-Houses; Insects
in Wheat, and Market Gardeners, and Ordinances relating to
Sales, &c.

Adjourned to June 12th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

June 12, 1855.

Present— Captain Holmes, Dr. Field of Brooklyn, Prof. Mapes,
Solon Robinson, Orange Judd, Messrs. Stacey, Russ, Gore of Jer-
sey, John W. Chambers, Geo. Bacon, Pardee, Wm. B. Leonard,
Lemuel Leonard c£ Taunton, Mass., a farmer of hard work at 73
years of age. Prof. Geo. E. Waring, Judge Van Wyck, Charles
Oakley, Rev. Samuel White of Staten Island, Dr. Austin Church,
Kurios Charestus Evangelides of the Lyceum of Athens, Greece,
and many others— fifty members in all.

Dr. T. W. Field of Brooklyn in the chair. Henry Meigs, Sec-
retary.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 277

The Secretary read the following translations and extracts made
by him, (viz:)

[Revue Horticole, May 1855, Paris.]

A NEW LAYER POT.

An English gardener, Mr. Keir, now resident in Paris, gives
us the following account of his new mode of raising plants by
layers :

Pots with a slit on one side to admit a layer have been long in
use. But there is often some difficulty in them, especially in the
open air. Mr. Keir has contrived pots which have a socket in
which is fixed a perch or pole of suitable length, which is fixed
in the earth by one end and supports the pot at the desired
height above the ground. The slit in the side of the pot to be
of proper size to admit the desired layer, and by suitable pieces
of board fixed in side of the pot about the layer, the earth in
the pot is held in place.

SOWING FLOWER SEEDS ON SNOW.

The florists who grow auriculas much, find it best to sow the
seeds upon the snow which covers the beds. The seeds of auri-
culas, rhododendons, azaleas, calceolarias, ferns, and epacris and
leptospermum, germinated eight days sooner, when sown on the
snow than in the soil, or in pots in conservatories.

AMERICAN CHERRIES.

Mr. Henry A. Hildreth, a member of several American horti-
cultural societies, while he was in Paris, told us of three new
very late cherries grown by Mr. George Walsh, a horticulturist
of Boston, which are for sale. We know of no such cherries in
Europe or elsewhere. They ought to draw the attention of the
fruit growers (pomiculteurs) of Europe. Tliese come from three
out of thousands of cherry pits planted. H. A. Hildreth, 15
Trinity Building, No. Ill Broadway, New-York.

ADULTERATION OF FOOD.

The London Quai'terly Review for April, 1855, devotes 17
pages to this subject.

A very unpleasant theme — but one which in many cases, goes
beyond nauseum and profound disgust even to poisonous adulter-
ations.

In 1820, the world was awakened to this serious matter by the
celebrated book by Frederick Accum, of London, entitled,
" There's Death in the Pot."

278 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Dr. Hassall, chief analyst of the Sanitary Commission of the
Lancet, from 1851 to 1854, just published in London, made re-
markable discoveries of infamous adulterations in human food,
by means of powerful microscopes — discoveries which chemical
analysis was unable to effect. The list is long. Ground coffee,
pure Mocha, made chiefly of oak and mahogany saw dust. Best
Durham mustard of flour and turmeric, a dye-stuff. Vinegar, the
best, of sulphuric acid water, and a little vegetable acid. Pep-
per out of oiled linseed cake, clay, and some cayenne, made up
in mass and granulated, 17 per cent of this stuff added to real
pepper. In the cayenne pepper crust we have twenty-four sorts,
made of white mustard seed, brick-dust, salt, ground rice and
deal saw-dust, for bulk. Tremble ! lovers of high seasoned food !
It is made of a good red color by a deadly poison — Red lead !
Curry powder ! Red lead is here also ! Imagine a man paint-
ing his stomach with red lead !

Sausages ! The public is prejudiced against them, and not
without reason. The Smithfield Market Commissioners, in 1850,
took testimony. The old joke that there are no live donkeys
within twenty miles of Epping, would not supply our sausage
meat. Other supplies are needed. Mr. J. Harper, under exam-
ination as a witness before the commissioners, testified that the
diseased meat brought into London is purchased by the soup-
shops, sausage makers, the alamode and meat pie shops, &c.
There is one soup house, I believe doing business to the value
of five hundred pounds sterling, ($2,000,) a week in diseased
meat ! The shop has a large foreign trade. The trade in dis-
eased meat is alarming. It is sold for o?ie jyenny a poundl A hun-
dred dead cows, no matter of what disease, in the vicinity of
London, can all be sold in the city in a day. Diseased meat
comes from the country in large quantities.

Bread is made with addition of plaster of Paris, bone-dust,
white clay, alum, sulphate of copper and potatoes. Tea ! La-
dies ! There is death in the tea-pot ! We fear this will fall like
a bomb shell upon many a tea table. Green tea drinkers bewai-e !
Since the introduction of tea, it is certain that nervous complaints
of all kinds have greatly increased. There is no such thing as
pure green tea ia England. The Chinese color it for us with
Prussian blue and gypsum. They say the foreigners will have it
so. They (the Chinese) never drink that. They say tea is bet-
ter without it. In every hundred pounds of our green tea we
drink over half a pound of prussian blue and gypsum, a deleteri-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 279

Oils matter. Eut the green tea which we make in England to a
great amount, is made of old used tea leaves, sloe leaves, and bay-
leaves, with some gum and copperas, and an exact imitatio7i of
green tea is made. The j^oor, innocent tea drinker wonders what
kept him awake all night ! Chickory coffee is charged, by Prof.
Beer, the celebrated oculist, of Vienna, as being a cause of
amaurotic blindness. In London, livers of horses and oxen, are
baked and ground to powder, and sold for coffee at 8 to 12 cents
a pound ! Eoasted wheat, acorns, carrots, beans, parsnips, man-
gold wurtzel turnips, lupins, dog's biscuits. Horse chesnuts, all
make coffee.

Cigars are, to some extent, made out of dock, colt's foot, and
other leaves. Snuff is vilely adulterated, and some poisonously,
red and yellow ochre, chromate of lead, red lead, bi-chromate of
potash. Loss of the use of limbs is produced by this adulteration.

The pickle makers are shocking.

THE GAPES, OR PIP IN CHICKENS.

Solon Robinson — I hold in my hand a letter from a gentleman
at Duncan's Falls, Ohio, which gives some valuable information
for the cure of a troublesome disease in the poultry yards. As
it is so well written that I can read it almost as well as though
in good print, I will do so, as it appears to me to contain inte-
resting matter.

I take it for granted that a few lines from a stranger will re-
ceive decent treatment at your hands, provided it is not on the
"gee-about system of ploughing," and is not written in " quail
tracks !"

In the Tribune of the 30th of last month I read of the meeting
of the "American Institute Farmers' Club," held on the 29th, at
which meeting you read a letter from a friend in Westchester
county. New- York, in which he speaks of " gapes" in chickens.
That is the subject I wish to say something about. I have till
this spring lost many young chickens with that disease, but now I
feel perfectly easy on the subject. I can in fifteen minutes cure
any chicken of the gapes.

Your Westchester friend is right about the worms being in the
windpipe; they are there, and unless removed will cause the
death of the chicken by crawling to the opening of the windpipe
and suflbcating it. Your friend cannot force them dow7i into the
crop or stomach of the chicken, because at the bottom of the wind-
pipe the lungs are situated, and it is by pressing the thumb and

280 , TRANSACTIONS OF THE

finger too liai-d upon tliem which causes the death of the cliicken.
He may kill the worms by pressing his thumb and finger " pretty
closely" on the windpipe, but he cannot remove them.

I get a stiflt" hair from a horse's tail, double it, tie a knot about
an inch from the doubled end, and turn the short part up against
the long part or handle, with a fine cotlon thread wrapped a few
times around the hair above the knot, and tied securely; then cut
oflf the short part (which was tm-ned and tied) and leave about an
eighth of an inch, which forms a kind of hook. It is with this I
cui-e my chickens of the gapes. The handle should be about six
or seven inches long for convenience in handling.

My mode of operating is this. I take the chicken on my knees,
have some one to hold it steady, (for it kicks for the dear life,) take
its head between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and open
its mouth; at the same time its windpipe will open; then insert
the horse-hair hook, which by whirlmg and gently drawing it out
with the other hand, will bring out the worms. Sometimes two
or three will be drawn out at once and entire, sometimes they
come out in pieces. They are the color of raw beef, about an inch
long, and as thick as a common sized pin. I have taken as many
as six out of a chicken at one time.

Care must be taken to prevent the hook from going too low
down the windpipe, for if it touches the lungs immediate death to
the chicken is the consequence. I have inserted the hook in
some cases twenty times before I got all the worms out, and some-
times after a day or two has passed, if I see the chicken has
worms yet, I catch it again, and very soon relieve it of the gapes.

I have never heard any reasonable cause of gajDes, but I am led
to think it comes from the common method of feeding, and per-
mitting the chickens to run in the wet grass. Ea,w corn meal,
softened bread and such things, being the handiest feed for them,
is oftner given than any other, and in almost every brood more or
less die.

An esteemed fiiend and relation of mine raises a great many
chickens, and until she adopted a pai-ticular way of preparing their
food, she, like others, lost a great many of them. This spring she
has lost none, nor have any of them had the gapes. She feeds
them corn bread made simply with water and very little salt,
baked and fed to them cold. This is by some considered too much
trouble; they feed corn meal, gapes is the consequence, and if the
horse-liau' hook is not used death is the result.

Had I your Westchester friend's address I would send him a

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 281

hook sucli as I have descril^ed, as I feel a lively interest in any-
thing tliat will aflbrd relief to my favorites among the feathered
tribe. He speaks of his Leghorns as being the best for laying,
and by " good feeding they begin to lay in February." I do not
know what he calls good laying if his hens cease laying to go to
hatching. I have the Shanghai breed, and not one of my hens
quit laying duiing the winter, and as early as January some of
them wanted to hatch, but as the weather was too cold to raise
the chickens I did not allow them to have their way. I prevented
it by tying a red rag to their tails and let them run. That soon
put the notion of setting out of their heads.

Mr. Gore, of Bloomfield, Jersey, observed that he had found it
best to keep his chickens in floored coops, feeding them occasion-
ally with crumbs of bread. His chickens w^ere never troubled
with the gapes (pip)-

Eev. Samuel White, of Staten Island, saved the chickens on his
farm by having a red cayenne pepper chopped line, and thoroughly
mixed with Indian meal. One red pepper to tw^o quarts of the
meal.

Mr. Judd brought forw^ard a plan of treating plum trees which
had the effect of curing the fruit after it had been punctured by
the curculio. A friend of his prepared a mixtm-e, consisting of
one peck of unslacked lime, one barrel of water, and six quarts of
salt, and with a syringe sprinkled over the fruit that had been
punctured, wdien the w^ounds healed up and they came to ma-
turity.

Professor Mapes w^as of opinion that after the fruit W' as punc-
tured, and the egg of the insect deposited, nothing could destroy
the egg that would not also destroy the fruit itself. Some appli-
eations might be used that would scare away the insects for a
time, and one simple plan was to tie two pieces of tin to the top
of a tl-ee, and allow them to be blown about by the wind. The
tinkling produced, and the shining in the sun, would have the
etfect of scaring off the curculio until it became accustomed to them.
He also alluded to other modes of treatment fomid beneficial in
some cases.

Mr. Judd said that he had received the communication from a
friend in whose word he had perfect confidence, but he thought it
right to state that his friend recommended the application of this
remedy l^efore the fruit liad been punctured, although it was per-
fectly successful last year, even after they had been stung by the
curculio.

282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

President — Is there not a chemical compound found, when salt
and lime are mixed, that is more effectual ]

Mr. Judd — It has been published far and wide that when salt
and lime are mixed there is a chemical change of elements, the
result being carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium; but this is
a popular error; salt is a binary compound, consisting of chlorine
and sodium — lime is composed of calcium and oxygen ; when
salt and lime are united under ordinary circumstances there is
no transfer; the much talked of salt and lime mixture is good for
muck, however, as the lime produces decomposition of the orga-
nic substance, and the salt, if it does no more, retains the ammo-
nia. Salt is good to mingle with guano and other manures, to
assist in retaining the ammonia.

Professor Mapes — I and others have for years used salt and
lime, and have found it to produce carbonate of soda.

Mr. Judd — I do not say that under some circumstances, as where
there are vegetable substances present, &c., some such change may
not partially take place; but the attempted scientific teaching on
this point has been wrong. There is not a transfer of elements
when salt and lime only have been mixed under ordinary circum-
stances.

Mr. Waring had long read and ler^irned from the highest autho-
rity that there was such a change, and called upon Mr. Judd to
prove that such a change did not take place.

Mr. Judd — ^I am not called upon to disprove the thousand and
one theories of superficial chemists and others. If gentlemen as-
sert that a change of elements does not take place, we will be
glad to have them produce their authority. Until they do this, I
maintain that lime and salt, when mixed under ordinary circum-
stances, do not undergo a chemical change to any great degree,
and the proof rests with the assertors of the contrary theory.

Prof. Mapes has fed his chickens on Chandler's greaves
which have been under hydraulic pressure, so that one of the
blocks of it weighing 100 lbs. is nearly as hard as granite. This
is sweet, and when broken up and swelled in water, is much rel-
ished by poultry with their other food. Hogs are fond of it.

Mr. Gore — I invariably use the Chandler's greaves.

Prof. Mapes gives Mr. Galbraith's grape house and grape bor-
ders third preparation, &c.

The following is a summary of remarks elicited from Mr. James
Galbraith, who has long been known as one of the best practical
landscape gardeners, horticultmust, etc. His article on Isabella

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 283

and Catawba grapes, at p. 12, vol. i., and on Mushrooms, at p.
201, vol. vi., have never been surpassed by any other writer on
these subjects.

Mr. Galbraith states that in preparing a border for a grape
house, the first object should be thorough drainage, so as to ren-
der it impossible for water ever after to occupy any part of the
border, except in the downward passage of rains, dews, etc.; as
standing water on any part of the root of the grape is deleterious
to its growth, while a continued moderate supply of water in
motion, as in its downward passage through the soil, is always
advantageous.

GRAPE EOEDER.

We will suppose a grape house fifty feet long — this should be
dug out to a width of fifteen feet, and four feet deep. In addi-
tion to placing in draining tile with an outlet where practicable,
the space between the rows of tile, which should not be more
than four feet apart, should be filled in with stone, first of large
size, then smaller, ending with broken stone and capped with
coarse gravel. This should be covered with straw or other analo-
gous substance, to prevent the earth settling into the gravel, thus
secimng a fair circulation of air, and the entire absence of stand-
ing water. The base of the border being thus formed, the com-
post to fill it should be made as follows :

A piece of old sod-ground should be pared to a depth of not
more than two or three inclies, and the richest old pasture field,
with a sod of a mellow kind, would be best for this purpose.
For every wagon load of sods add one load of stable manure, and
to every six loads of sod and manure, half a load of leaf-mould,
and three or fom- barrels of charcoal dust. When these are fairly
mixed, then commence to fill the border with them, beginning at
one end, placing in tlie end slanting to the bottom, the mixture,
breaking the sods and leaving the face of the first portion slant-
ing from the top to the bottom of the border. So continue on
until the border is filled. The surface should then be covered
with eight or ten inches of charcoal dust, and so leave it until its
fermentation is over. Then tlie border must be trenched, com-
mencing at the end, and digging down a space two or three feet
wide, removing the compost so taken out to the other end, thus
enabling each two feet to be dug, stirred, and thoroughly mixed.

All this should be done in tlic fall, and so left: until the first
open weather in the spring, when the contents of the grape bor-

284 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

der should be again trenched, breaking the material still finer by
forking, and permitting it again to remain until it is evident that
fermentation has ceased, when it should be dug and turned until
rendered fine, and all the materials intimately divided, then
trench it again, and mix through it two tons of broken bones, a
portion of which, say one-fifth should be fine. In the mixing
of these bones the trenching should be performed in layers in-
tervening the bones, and then one general trenching after this
admixture, until the whole mass is rendered homogeneous — then
cap with charcoal dust to retain the ammonia. The elevation of
the border should be one loot above the adjacent ground. Where
bones cannot be readily procured, the Improved, or Nitrogenized
Super-phosj)hate of Lime may be used, and the same for all after
manuring of this border, together with unleached wood ashes
separately applied, will be found entirely sufiicient.

The bones are used in the first formation of the border, to se-
cure their mechanical effect in leaving the border loose ; for, as
they are consumed by the plants, they necessarily leave spaces.

The mechanical effect of the charcoal in this border, will be
readily understood as keeping the soil light, in addition to its
effect of. darkening the soil so as to render it readily susceptible
to solar heat, while the non-conducting power of the charcoal
prevents freezing to any material depth, and its power as an ab-
sorbent retains all ammonia liberated by the decomposition of the
more putrescent portions of the manure.

The vines should be put out the first or second week in April,
but they have succeeded when planted at a much later date, even
as late as July.

They should be two or three year old plants, and in planting
all the soil should be carefully shaken from the roots. The im-
mediate soil surrounding them should be leaf-mold, and they
should be inserted at a depth of not more than lour inches. The
roots will soon travel beyond this leaf-mould, and avail of the gen-
eral texture of the border.

The early planted vine should be mulched, and regularly sup-
plied for a time with water.

Mr. Galbraith stated that he had put out vines tliQ first Aveek
in April, and by the fourth of July they had made wood to the
top of the house, where the rafters were twenty feet high. After
planting, the whole border should be mulched. The object of
this is to secure surface travel of roots during the first summer,
so that a portion of the roots occupying the upper strata may be

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. i 285

ready to' receive stimulants whenever applied, wliicli they do
more easily in the warmer portions of the soil.

As to the management of the house, Mr. Galbraith stated that
when the vines were growing freely in hot weather, he gave all
the air possible, from six o'clock in the morning until six in the
evening, syringing the vines twice or thrice in the day with
tepid water; and not only the vines, but the walls, thus render-
ing the amosphere moist, and preventing mildew. Equal care is
required to keep the roots in balance of moisture ; for excess of
moisture in the house, as compared with the roots, or excess of
water at the roots as compared with the dryness of the house,
will produce mildew, while plenty of air and moisture, both at
roots and leaves, will prevent mildew.

MILDEW.

Mildew always occurs in the absence of moisture. It will also
occur with excess of moistui^e without a proper amount of air,
but will never occur when both air and moisture are freely used,
provided the roots are similarly treated. A judicious amount of
air secures continued evaporation, and no moisture in a state of
activity, when excess of heat is acting on the vines, will prove
hurtful in our climate. In England the practice is somewhat
different ; the climate is more moist, and hence, instead of grape
houses being open from six to six, they are only open from eight
o'clock until four. Such practice would not be judicious in this
climate. Syringing or watering inside the house should not oc-
cur late in the day, but the foliage should be permitted to dry
off before closing the house. If the waterings have been suffi-
cient during the day, in its early and middle part, it will be
shown by a slight deposit of moisture on the inside of the glass
after the sashes are closed; for when the sun has passed off, tlie
cold atmosphere on the outside will secure such inside deposit.

If the dew has not been sufficient on the glass at night, the
watering should be heavier the next day, being sure to give an
equivalent portion of water to the roots. It should be remem-
bered that the grape vines have leaves which perform functions
in some respects analagous to the roots, such as the receipt of
gases from the atmosphere, including ammonia and carbonic acid,
and these will not be arrested if the leaves be not kept soft (sup-
ple) by the application of water, lubricating the parts, and thus
permitting them to perform their proper functions. Even the
use of a strong magnifying glass will show us that when tlie at-
mosphere is dry and the leaf dry, it compacts its fibres most sen-

286 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

sitively, and refuses its functions. It is for these reasons that
graperies lieated by hot water, and other analagous means, radia-
ting low heat from a larger amount of sm-face, instead of a high
temperature from a lesser radiating surface will succeed best; thus
a flue-house, deriving its heat from the action of fire, so rapidly
distends the moisture of the atmosphere without its altering its
hygrometic proportions too fast, and the leaves give note of the
fact by yellowing at their edges, which soon spreads itself over
the whole leaf, as a telltale of the continued neglect in supplying
moisture.

During the first year's growth no artificial heat is required.
One shoot alone should be taken from the vines and trained up
to each rafter, and in its after management the laterals for the
first eight feet, or to the point where the roof commences its an-
gle, should be pinched oft' at two eyes, and thus continue shorten-
ing them at a joint from the original eye ; but the laterals above
this point should be left to run wild for the first season, for the
leaves on these laterals are the true lungs of the plant, and have
recipient powers like those of the roots, and the leaves of the vine
are dependent upon the healthy and natural condition of these
terminal laterals. The intense action of the sun's heat on the
lower part of the vine should be abridged, by a light coating of
■whitewash on the lower tier of sashes.

The angle of the grape house from the point of insertion of
rafters, should be about 30°, and this will permit the fruit to
hang clear of the foliage. When this angle is, as in many houses,
at 45'=', the fruit will touch the foliage, and in a moist house will
damage both fruit and foliage.

PRUNING.

The vines should be pruned early in December, cutting them
back to within eight eyes of the insertion of the rafter at the
front, usually called the angle, below which the eyes should be
rubbed off as fast as they appear. The vines should then be taken
down from the rafters, after pruning, and laid along the front
wall for protection during winter, so as to prevent their bursting
by alternate freezings and thawings, and action of the sun. They
thus remain in an abnormal condition, until required to be ele-
vated in the spring.

The frequent watering before recommended, secures the proper
supple condition of the cutis^ or skin, and all the functions of
growth may be availed of more healthily, than if the vines dui--
ing this early stage be forced by unnatural means.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 287

The second year being the first fruiting year, the crops should
be light — a healthy \»ine not giving more than five or six clusters,
and proportionably less with those that have made less growth.

Mr. Galbraith h/is promised me a continuation of these instruc-
tions for the second, third, and after years.
The Chairman proposed as a subject-Summer pruning of fruit trees.

Prof. Mapes — I follow the plan of Mr. Birkman, of Jersey, one
of the greatest of cultivators of pears, applying all the knowledge
extant, and his large pecuniary means. To balance a pear tree I
break such limbs as are out of figure instead of cutting them.
Some take out an upper portion of the main shaft of the tree to
form a better head. The pear may be shortened in at this time
of year.

Chairman — The pyramidal figure is preferred in a pear tree.
The Louise hon de Jersey is naturally of that form; so is the
Flemish Beauty.

Judge Van Wyck — The original figure of one of the best pears,
the Duchesse d'Angouleme was a beautiful pyramid. It was found
growing wild in a forest in France.

Prof. Mapes — Sj)oke of the blight on -the pear, and thought
that experience had shown that a slight mulch for a time, j^re-
vented it. And then the mulch should be removed. He spoke
of the frozen sap blight.

Chairman — I found mulching a trouble — that bugs and slugs,
and moles were apt to get under it and hurt trees. I have
mulched potatoes.

Mr. Gore — A parcel of quince trees on my plan had long
remained thriftless. I mixed caustic lime and saltpetre, obtained
the compound dust of the mixture, applied some of it to the
quince tiowers, and have had in consequence some of the finest
quinces I ever saw.

The members of the club were highly pleased with the inspec-
tion of the splendid work, Naturselbtdrucke, from the imperial
press of Vienna. Imprints from natural objects by a new process
claimed by Austria. The prints are greatly admired. This work
is given to the American Institute, by Mr. Charles F. Loosey,
Consul General of Austria, to Avhom we are indebted for many
valuable works.

Subjects for next meeting, " Market gardening — The market
ordinances as relates to the gardeners — Milk, butter and cheese —
Summer pruning of fruit trees "

The club adjourned. H. MEIGS, Secretary.

288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

June 19th, 1855.

Ppesent— Messrs. Prof. James J. Mapes, Dr. Austin Cliurcli,
Dr. Waterbm-y, Dr. Field, of Brooklyn, Dr. Watson, of Staten
Island, Rev. Samuel White, of Staten Island, Hon. M. Bergen,
of Gowanus, Long Island, Dr. Sliepard, Prof. Geo. E. Waring,
of Jersey, Paul Stillman, of the Novelty Works, the venerable
Benjamin Pike, of Jersey, optician, between 80 and 90 years of
age, George B. Rapelye, George Bacon, Charles Oakley, Mr.
Pardee, Orange Judd, Esq., John Handel, Jr., of Maryland,
Rutherford M. Whiufield, of Poughkeepsie and others— nearly
fifty members.

Austin Church, M. D., in the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following extracts made by him, viz :
BOTANY. — Illustrated by

First Period —

Hippocrates, A. C. 400

Theophrastus, ^'^^

History of 500 plants.

Dioscorides, History of 600 plants, P. C. 70

Pliny's Compilation, do 1000 do 74

Galen, ^^1

In Arabia.

Then after the decline of learning, we begin with a series
of translators and commentators, &c., 1 500

Second Period —

First accm-ate prints of plants, 1^32

First botanic garden, at Padua in Italy, 1533

Oonrad Gesner. First museum of natural history and first

suggestion of a system— class, order, genera, species, . 1 500

Csesalpinus — Improvement on Gesner, 1583

T. Columna, first copper plates of plants— improved

genera and botanic language, 1 592

Twenty-two wi-iters down to Catesby's Natural History
of Carolina, &c.

Royal Society of London established, 16G5

Royal Academy of Science, Paris, 1666

Third Period —
Lmnseus — Sexual system, ITS5

This our period has employed a large number of writers, and
between 500 or 600 practical botanists, almost all of whom have
passed the best portion of their lives (like Theophrastus) in
traveling all countries in search of plants.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 289

INSECTS.

Total destruction of the turnips near London, in 1714. In
October, we Iiad easterly winds; dry for a week or ten days.
Several thousand acres of turnips well grown, turned yellow and
decayed, except where sheltered by hedges, houses or trees.
The hedges and trees kept green for a week when insects
destroyed them too. Some of the farmers thought that the great
flocks of birds did the mischief, and did all they could to destroy
them. But they were our friends instead of enemies — they came
to devour the caterpillars which were in such numbers that each
turnip plant had not less than a thousand on it. They did not
touch the other greens in the fields such as cabbages, carrots,
parsnips, and the like. I suppose that nature designs the plant
for peculiar insects. Oil is the greatest enemy of insects. Some
of them live sometime in spirits but not a minute in oil, it
suffocates them. Pellitory (Anacyclus pyrethrum, a powerful
rubefacient and stimulant,hot5acrid and permanent) placed in hand-
fulsliere and there in a granary, keeps ofiTor destroys the weevil.

Tlie Secretary read from the valuable little duodecimo hardly
larger than an almanack, the " Principles of Agricultural Chem-
istry,'' with special reference to the late researches made in Eng-
land by Justus Von Liebig, printed by and given to the Farmers'
Club, by John Wiley, the publisher, 851 Broadway, 1855; and
the secretary drew the attention of the club to this interesting
fact — that here, in fifty verses (as we may say) he says " arc con-
tained one proposition. That the nutrition, the growth, and the
development of a plant, depend on the assimilation of certain
bodies, which act by virtue of their mass or substance. The fifty
paragraphs, occupy but thirteen pages duodecimo! Here is a boon
to agriculturists ! Here is the pure gold washed from a thou-
sand times as much refuse sand ! The thanks of the club were
unanimously voted to Mr. Wiley, for the volume.

The Secretary remarked that very recently Prof Faraday has
complained of the farrago of words in which chemistr}^ has be-
come darkened. He reduces the components of all matter to 64,
and these may be further contracted to about a dozen.

The Chairman called up the subjects of the day. Market
gardening — ordinance of the common council relative to the mar-
kets— pruning fruit trees in summer, milk, butter and cheese.

Chairman — It seems to me that experience proves that the
more we prune a tree the more we must.

[Am. Inst.] 19

290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Meigs adverted to the peculiar condition of sap in June —
it being inspissated, thick — so that an orchard of apple trees
barked in June by a villain — immediately made new bark, and
became none the worse for his felonious intent.

I have seen an apple tree of about twelve years of age, stripped
of all the bark of the trunk, in June, make a beautiful new bark
before frost came.

Branches of apple and other fruit trees girdled so as to away
the bark for an inch — bear better and larger fruit. Has not all
this something to do with the principle of summer pruning ?

Hon. Mr. Bergen of Gowanus, on request, gave some of his
views on the subject of the market ordinances relative to gardens.
Washington market and Fulton market were, 25 years ago, about
alike; but now Washington market has become a great depot for
wholesale purposes, crowded with market wagons so as to be al-
most impassable. It was necessary to order the necessary open-
ings for passing. Some years ago, vessels loaded with sweet po-
tatoes from our Southern States used to deliver their cargoes at
Fulton market, now all go to Washington market, so that people
who want the sweet potatoes prefer going to that market. Much
has been said against what are termed middle men of our mar-
kets. I do not agree to war upon them; on the contrary — they
are necessary there as well in all other business whatever. I
know middle men who are as honorable as any other men. Few
farmers can stop to retail their produce, while the middle men
make it their whole business.

The Chairman— It has lately been recommended to sell all farm
products by weight.

Mr. Bergen — I see no objection to that — it would be equally
just to buyer and seller. That transfer of potatoes, &c., from
the farmer's baskets into smaller ones.

Mr. Waring— The complaint is and has been, that country
wagons coming to Washington market, with the farmer's own
vegetables, &c., are apt to have their traces cut, linch pins drawn
out, and otherwise the annoyance operates to deter the farmer
from trying to sell his produce at the markets. Some articles,
for instance, lettuce, large heads of which, when first come, sell in
market by the single one, at even ten cents, while our farmer can
hardly get one cent for his of equal value.

Prof. Mapes— Some heads of lettuce from my farm weigh
three pounds and more— and I cannot get for them more than
from 75 cents to one dollar for one hundred of them.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 291

Mr. Waring moved for a committee of three to examine the
mai-ket ordinances and report. Adopted.

The Chairman appointed Messrs. George E. Waring and Solon
Robinson, and Hon. Mr. Bergen.

P. C. Ingersoll of Greenwich, Connecticut, exhibited a small
model of his patent saw for felling trees. A crank turned by
one man gives quick motion to a saw of the form of a segment
of a circle. This saw can act close to the ground, and thus save
so much of the tough but-ends of timber, and leave no stumps in
the hill. When the saw has entered the but sufficiently, a wedge
is driven in behind the saw and relieves the saw, and at tlie same
time cants the tree so as to secure its fall from the operator. A
machine will cost twenty dollars. This macliine can also be used
vertically for sawing wood.

Eev. Samuel White, of Staten Island. I raise Jfine Silesia let-
tuce on ground well tilled and manured for celery. I can afford
to sell these heads for a cent a piece. They ai-e very wholesome;
my pigs thrive upon it — for a time they are as good as grain for
the pigs.

Mr. Judd — The dull soporific efiect produced by eating lettuce,
resembling that of tlie poppy, renders it best to eat but little of
It.

Dr. Waterbury— Lactucarium (lettuce milk) is quite feeble in
this plant at any state of its growth, and what strength it posses-
ses is much weakened by high cultivation.

Dr. Church (the Chairman). Dr. Fully tried doses of it of
two ounces each — with very little effect as an opiate.

Mr. Eergen— Tliere is then but verv little opium in lettuce alter
all?

Prof. Mapes said tliat he had tried the experiment of gathering
the Lactucarium by making small incisions in the stalk; I found
next day a small button of it formed. These buttons have been
gathered by others and sold for four dollars a pound.

I prick out my young lettuce plants into a cold frame bed; they
stand the winter well, become stocky; and when spring comes
they grow better than the plants from hot beds. I set them a
foot apart, so that an acre holds more than 40,000 of them. I
also set them between rows of cabbages,' among radishes, and in
any row crop as that is taken out. One man can set out 3,000
of them in a day, if he understands dibbling.
Dr. Field read the following paper, viz :
Mr. Chairman — The recent publication of Baron Liebeg's Re-

292 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

lations of Chemistry to Agriculture, in which he lays down in
fifty propositions a digest of the whole scheme of agricultural
science, reminds me of a paper which I had prepared some
months since as a compendium of all that I had learned in fifteen
years reading and study of the subject.

All that has been written or said upon the action of manures
as food for plants is reducible to the following propositions :

1st. Condition of all manures to be appropriated by plants is
solubility. You may spread animal charcoal over the soil by
tons, and plants will derive but little phosphoric acid therefrom.
Pulverise the Feldspar rock to powder and its potagh will not be
yielded up to the tender radicles of plants. If your field con-
tains y\^o <^f silex, your corn and wheat may never mature for
want of silica. The animal charcoal must become superphosphate
by the action of sulphuric or carbonic acids. The Feldspar must
be changed to Carbonate of Potash by chemical decomposition.
Silica must be reduced to Silicic acid or a Silicate of some alka-
line base, before plants with their delicate appetites will taste
them. I have put eight tons of animal charcoal, or Phosphate
of Lime upon an acre without perceiving the least benefit, while
I have dissolved 150 lbs. of the same in an equal quantity of
Sulphuric acid to which was added fifty lbs. of guano, and ap-
plied it with surprising effect.

2d. Durability or Solubility, by its very essence becomes a
very tempor.".ry condition of the soil, unless the latter contains
such elements as will retain soluble or dissoluble food of plants,
or such as will but slowly prepare it by chemical change to be-
come soluble in only sufficient quantity for their use. Upon a
porous sandy soil, you may pour the richest elements of vegeta-
tion in profuse abundance and they will need constant renewal.
Each year of enrichment leaves nothing for the next. But give
that ever hungry soil (that like the horse leaches' daughters, cries
always, give, give,) a fair proportion of carbonaceous matter in
the shape of prepared peat, or charcoal dust, or of aluminous
matter in well divided and pulverised clay, and its hunger is
easily appeased; it will retain for ages something of all Avhich
you may give it.

3d. The third condition of manures is communication, or com-
plete mixture with the particles of soil. No amount of the rich-
est manures will produce the maximum of vegetation, or even
mediocrity, if the soil to receive them is not rendered pulveru-
lent by tillage, and the manure reduced to its finest divisibility

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 093

by trituration, handling or decay. There must be contact of eacli
sensible particle of manure with particles or proximate atoms of
soil, to produce a high result.

Thorough pulverisation, or liquifying of manures, combined
with complete pulverisation of soil, and then perfect mixture of
the two are absolutely necessary for the best use of manures.

We then derive these general laws which govern the action of
manures upon vegetation, as useful though not as sublime as Kep-
ler's great laws which govern the heavenly bodies. Premising,
that to find these laws useful to us we must first know what ele-
ments of vegetation we need, by analysis of the soil.

1st Law. All plants derive their nutriment from solutions or
gases, (and solubility is a necessity of gaseous formation,) and
manures are valuable in the ratio of their solubility, or the
chemical condition of the soil to render them so.

2d Law. Manures must either be capable of solution or reduc-
tion to the gaseous state only in the quantity needed by plants,
or the soil must be fitted to absorb and retain, or neutralize
them.

3d Law. Every sensible particle of manure must be divided
from another by sensible particles of soil— by manipulation or
liquifaction. Or in other words, the soil and the manure must
be thoroughly commingled and intermixed.

Prof. Mapes, in reference to what Mr. Judd has said, remark-
ed, that he used charcoal dust and braize freely; has a load a day
of that made on the railroad. Covers manure heaps with it, and
thus stops all smell and escape of the ammonia. Covers a heap
of 500 barrels of rusty bad salt fish, and stops the smell. The
fish being mixed with gas lime, the spot where the barrels were
opened smelt bad from the liquor of the fish, he charcoaled that,
and it ceased. He puts muck in the charcoal in the rear of his
cattle, covers it with straw. The urine, &c., penetrate and mix
by the treading of the cattle, &c. He cleans all this out once in
about ten days, charcoal on it, puts in fresh muck, straw, &c.

Dr. Field— I covered bad smelling fish with dry muck, and it
stopped the smell.

Mr. Judd— Pulverized clay or saw dust, if moistened with
water will give the like results. It will retain the ammonia.

Prof. Mapes— Alumina absorbs it. Many years, ago in one of
my public addresses, I mentioned that fact. Common soil also
absorbs the ammonia to some extent.

Prof. Mapes moved as subjects for the next meeting— Pruning

294 TRANSACTIONS Or THE

Pear Ti^es, Market Gardening, Milk, Eutter and Cheese.
Adopted.

T. B. Thorpe, Esq., of No. 87 Pineapple street, Brooklyn, pre-
sented a sample of the soil from " The great WestP It resem-
bles cannon powder in its granular structure and blackness.

Prof. Mapes, to a query replied, that he practiced the pump-
ing up of the drainage from his manure heaps, on to the tops
frequently, and thus improved their quality very much.

Mr. Pardee spoke of the power of charcoal applied to barrels
of rusty, bad smelling barrel pork in grocers' cellars. One peck
of pulverized charcoal to each barrel made all sweet and salea-
ble. Its power in this respect is extraordinary.

Several members concurred in the sterling power of charcoal
dust in rendering meats that have become tainted sweet and good.

Dr. Field moved that when the Club adjourns that it be to
Tuesday next. Carried.

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

June, 26th, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Prof. Mapes, Judd, Waring, Lowe, Backus,
Solon Robinson, Van Wyck, Goodsell, of Oswego, Dr. Waterbury,
Mr. Seba Smith, Dr. Gardner, Dr. Ross, Wm. B. Leonard, John
W. Chambers, George B. Rapelye, Mr. Stacey, Paul Stillman of
the Novelty Works, Hon. Mr. Bergen, of Gowanus, John Ran-
del, Jr., Dr. Watson, of Staten Island, Mr. Sewall Short, of New
London, Colonel John Travers, and others— fifty-five members in
all. Hon. John G. Bergen, of Gowanus, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following extracts made by him :

PARAGUAY TEA.

Lieut. Page, of the U. S. ship Waterwitch, now exploring the
sources of the La Plata, has obtained the tree which yields it.
It is a highly ornamental tree, and thrives wlierever our magno-
lia grandiflora flomishes The Paraguayans attribute to it fabu-
lous virtue. It is aperient, opiate, and diuretic. Universally
drank (the infusion) in Paraguay, Uruguay, the Argentine Re-
pubhc, Peru, Chili, and Ecuador. They drink it from the spout
of the tea pot, having put into it burnt sugar, cinnamon or lemon

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 295

juice. Rich people suck it through a bombilla — a silver pipe,
terminating in a little colander, to stop the fragments of leaves.
About an ounce of leaves serves one person. It is usually kept
boiling, and is drank quite hot. When this tea stands long it
assumes an inky color.

LIEBIG'S PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

This little volume of 100 pages contains his 50 sentences em-
bracing the whole science, within thirteen pages. At page 36
we like his JVew Rotation^ viz : that of manures rather than
crops, by which the farmer can grow such crops as are most pro-
fitable to him in the location he has. Liebig asks, " How vastly
would the labors of the farm be simplified if the farmer could
uninterruptedly grow the same crop without injury to the soil."

To solve this question has been one of my efforts for the last
seven years. There is no guide but logic that is sound common
sense, w^hich tells us " to give to the land what we have removed
from it, neither more nor less.'''*

LORD KAIMES AND AGRICULTURE.

Henry Home, of Kaimes, descended from a noble family of
Home, Earl of Home, of the 1 5th century. He was born in 1096.
He studied law, published his essays on several law subjects, be-
came judge of the Scotch supreme civil court, and then of the
criminal. After many valuable works, he, in 1762, published his
most justly distinguished work. Elements cf Criticism. During
his long career as a lawyer, philosopher and man of letters, he still
more highly distinguished himself as a patriotic, strenuous pro-
moter of genuine agriculture, and every other useful art. He
wrote Essays on Farming, on Flax, Linen, Fences, Planta-
tions, Breeding of Sheep, on Wool, Bleaching, Statistics, Sec.
He first suggested the formation (in Scotland all this) of
a Board of Agriculture. He procured a survey of the
state of agriculture in Scotland. He succeeded in recovering
morasses, by paring off the peat, by drainage, and by putting on
these peatlands lime and ashes. He first planted potatoes on
them and then wheat. He gave great attention to the making
good roads, he labored to stir up every Scotch landholder to do this.
He published his Gentleman Farmer in one octavo volume in
1772, an excellent work. He died in 1782.

1796. — Kent turn-wrest plough, 15 inches, level as spading.

Provisions.— ^e^i, 11 cents; veal, 16; pork, 14; cheese, 14;
bacon, 16; butter, 25; potatoes, $2.50 per 200 lbs.

296 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

1796. — Value of an experimental farm fully displayed; 200
acres agreed to be about right size; XI, 000 to furnish stock, im-
plements, machinery.

MR. BERGEN, OF GOWANUS, READ HIS NOTES.

The following crops and dates show the comparative differences
of season for maturity, as prepai-ed for market, the kinds being
the same and from the same farm.

Dates. Cherries. Mohawk Beans.

1839, June, 18th,

1840, 15th,

1841, all rotted.

1842, June, 17th,

1843, 23d,

1844, 12th,

1845, 14th, 18th.

1846, 19th, 22d.

1847, 22d, 26th.

1848, 16th, 16th.

1849, 26th, 26th.

1850, 26th, 30th.

1851, 19th, 26th.

1852, 28th, 28th.

1853, 15th, 2ath.

1854, 22d, 22d.

1855, 22d, 25th.

It will be observed that cherries ai-e earlier than 1843, 1849,

1850 and 1852, and as forward as last year; that beans are earlier
than 1847, 1849, 1850, 1851 and 1852, or, taking the last 11
years, five were earlier and five later than 1855.

THE GAPES IN CHICKENS.

Solon Robinson — I have received several letters upon this sub-
ject, which was discussed by the Club some weeks ago. As there
is a full attendance to-day, I will read portions of these letters.
Perhaps some one will learn something useful :

Jacksonville, 111., Tuesday^ June 12, 1855.

"A friend'' inquires how he can cure the "gapes." Take a
wire of suitable size, attach to the end of it a small brass or cop-
per wire, and wind it around the larger one spirally, something
after the manner of a corkscrew; pass this into the windpipe,
turning it in the same way as you would a corkscrew; withdraw it
carefully, continuing to turn it in the same direction, (care should

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 297

be taken not to introduce it too far down,) and it will bring the
worms out. The end where wires unite should be made smooth,
so as not to irritate the passage. K.

T. J. Cope, of Hemphill, near Greenbush, (he does not tell
what State,) says prevention is better than cure, and gives the
following :

"A few years ago we annually lost large portions of young
chickens through the disease mentioned. Of late, w^e have fed
them upon crumbs of bread, moistened corn meal or chopped
rye, with onion tops cut fine, and mixed with either of these
substances. We have a neat house, 12 by 20 feet, floored, in
which they are kept over night, and in the morning until they are
fed. They then roam over the form at large. We have no cases
of ' gapes ' since this regime has been pursued."

The Chairman — My chickens never have the gapes since I
adopted the plan of mixing the meal the day before it is fed to
the chickens. This allows it to swell in the dish instead of in
the chickens.

Dr. Waterbury — I want to know if there is anybody here who
ever saw one of these said worms that live in chickens' throats.
I would give something for the sight of one.

Paul Stillman — I dissected a chicken the other day that died
with the gapes, and I found what I supposed to be a w'orm, in
the throat, seven-eighths of an inch long.

Mr. Goodsell, of Otsego — I have followed the plan for years of
mixing onions or garlic wath feed. It is a complete preven-
tive.

Solon Eobinson — Another letter from Irvin Robins of Greens-
burg, Ind., says the poultry in that neighborhood are visited by a
peculiar epidemic :

"About the middle of AjDril I had 100 young chickens, which
' grew and waxed strong,' till about two wrecks since, when the
mortality began and increased daily; and now at least four-fifths
are dead, and the rest are complaining, and stand drooping around.
On a close post-mortem examination I discovered nothing inter-
nally, but observed that their outer surface was completely cov-
ered by an innumerable multitude of vermin, supposed to be a
degenerated race of those whicli invest the caputs of the genus
homo."

He wants to know what will cure that disease. Perhaps some
other correspondent will tell him. I would recommend the onion
diet, as I know that is very healthy ; also, sulphur mixed with

298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the food, and lime and ashes in abundance in the nests and
poultry-house.

JEE-ABOUT IN PLOWING.

I have a letter from H. Watkins of Poughkeepsie, on this sub-
ject. He says :

" I, too, like the 'Jee-about' plan. But to begin in the middle
of the field, as suggested before the Club some time since, seems
to me objectionable, as it would require too much and too nice
engineering to adjust matters to the shape of your field so as to
avoid an awkward finish. However, as it is easier to point out
defects in the plan of another than to discover them in our own,
I propose to give you the procedure that after many years' prac-
tice proved so satisfactory to me (don't remember that I origin-
ated it) and let you look after defects. To wit : If, e. g., you
wish to plow your field in the direction of north and south, draw
a furrow parallel to and of sufficient distance from the fences at
the north and south ends to accommodate the length of your team,
say four paces, or so that it can come square out. Then go to the
side you wish to begin at (east or west, as the case may be) and
at each corner, end on the line of these furrows, pace off from
the side fence first four paces, (or a distance corresponding with
that between the furrow and fence at the north and south ends,)
then add seven paces more, and with your team at this point and
a monument at the other end of the field, commence what is termed
by most farmers a back-fui-roiv, setting the plow in at the furrow
where you are and throwing it out on reaching the one at the
monument end; Jee-abotd, and so on until your back-furrow is
about fourteen paces wide, when the strip unplowed between it
and tlie fence will be about four paces, or the width desired ; then
measure off seven paces from the inner edge of the back-furrow
and proceed as at first, taking care only to arrange so that your
last back-furrow when done shall leave a strip of unplowed land
of equal width around the entire field, which can be neatly and
beautifully finished, as you will see, by a grand Jee-about.

MISSOURI CHALLENGES THE UNITED STATES.

Solon Robinson read a letter from Walter Sigerson inclosing tne
challenge of John Sigerson & Brother of St. Louis, to show farms
with any or all competitors in the United States for a sweep-stakes
of $500, to be paid by each owner of a farm who enters the lists.
Entries of farms to be made before August; to be examined in
September and October, and the premium to be awarded after

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 299

deducting expenses of the Committee, to the owner of the farm
which shall excel in these particulars, viz : Variety of Produc-
tion; Amount of Production; and Extent of Surface Cultivated.
We are anxious to let the world know what has been and what
can be done west of the Mississippi River, and make this offer in
good faith and with a full determination to carry it out. xill ne-
cessary preliminary arrangements will be made in a liberal man-
ner. Who will enter the list l Communications with reference
to the above may be made directly to John Sigerson & Bro-
ther, or to E. Abbott, Esq., editor of The Valley Farmer, St. Louis,
Mo. This farm will be a formidable competitor, though it has
only been in cultivation ten years. It is located on the old Cawn-
doht Commons, a tract as barren and useless as the Hempstead
Plains, and is situated about seven miles from St. Louis, in a
Slave State, but cultivated by free labor.

EXPORTING INDIAN CORN.

Solon Robinson— Another letter inquires how long American
grown Indian corn has been exported to England, and if it is
generally used by the English as an article of food or as feed for
fattening cattle, &c.

Judge Meigs— In 1845, during the Irish famine, the first to any
extent was exported. It is not well liked as food there.

Henry S. Clubb— That is because it is so apt to spoil on the pas-
sage. It has not that sweet taste there that it has here.

The Chairman— That is a good deal owing to the cooking.
Those unacquainted with corn meal never cook it enough. Mush
needs two hours boiling.

Solon Robinson— It is also the fault of grinding it too fine.
The English grind the corn and bolt it like flour. That abso-
lutely spoils corn meal. Exported corn should always be kiln
dried.

Chairman— The account given of jee-about plowing is nothing
new.

Henry S. Clubb, Esq.— Indian corn seems difiicult of introduc-
tion into Great Britain as food for men. Whatever may be the
foundation of the prejudice against it there, one thing I know
from experience is, that most of the Indian meal I tried there was
actually damaged, whether by going over the ocean or otherwise,
it all had an unpleasant acid taste. They feed stock with it.

The Secretary— This club took a deep interest in the Indian
question during the late fiuuine in Ireland, when many distin-

300

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

guislied gentlemen devoted time and talent to it. Mr. Consul
Barclay, of England, brought before the club and public his ex-
cellent method of preparing our Indian corn for the table. Mr.
Strafford, of the West, exhibited his patent mode of so drying In-
dian meal that it would keep sweet on any voyage, and for a great
length of time. Commodore Dekay, a member of the club, com-
manded the U. S. frigate Macedonian, loaded with breadstuff's,
corn meal among them, for the Irish people. Consul Cowdin, at
Glasgow, (a member, and an active and valuable one, of our
American Institute,) gave time, talent and money to the intro-
duction of our Indian corn, and the proper cookery of it, into
Great Britain, and with great effect.

Paul Stillman reminded the club of our long-ago custom of sup-
plying Indian meal to the West Indies, where it was found to
have preserved its purity notwithstanding their tropical heat.

Dr. Waterbury— My profession learns me that the foreigners
among us generally dislike Indian meal, so that they generally
ask me for oat meal gruel instead of the Indian meal gruel.

Mr. Robinson supposed that our corn suffers injury by being
ground ^ne, the coarser it is ground the better; besides, in cook-
ing it, for the most part the stupid cooks just scald it a little (not
cook it), and so fix it up raw, that I would as soon eat a raw dog
as thin raw meal.

Paul Stillman— Mill stones of granite are much better than
those of burr stone for grinding Indian corn. The following is
about right as to cooking it, viz :— I know that it may be shipped
and kept sweet, for I have eaten it in the West Indies as good as
at home. The following is a good recipe for making corn bread :
Mix with foui- cups of corn meal one cup of wheat flour, dissolve
in a cup of hot water one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, or by
weight one drachm, with which thoroughly wet up the meal, and
if an egg or two is added all the better; then mix in a little
water — one-half of the same measure— or an equal weight of muri-
atic acid, and stu- it thoroughly with the mass; spread in a tin pie-
pan and bake immediately in a quick oven. In this recipe the
carbonate of soda and muriatic acid combine, and forming muriate
of soda (common salt) give out carbonic gas to inflate or raise the
bread. The salt formed in raising the bread is no more than
should be used were it added before its combination, and cntii-ely
avoids the common objection, where saleratus is used, of having
potash in the bread.

Mr. Clubb said that there was one house near Charing Cross, in

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 301

London, where good Indian corn bread is always to be had, but
that is the only one I know.

NEW KIND OF HORSE SHOE.

Mr. Sewell Short, of New-London, Conn., exhibited a horse
shoe of novel construction. The main merit claimed for it was
that it could be used without the ordinary nails, the mode of
fastening it was by means of a thin iron cap fitted as an external
covering to the foot to which the body of the shoe is appended,
the whole being kept on the hoof by a small nail rod, attaching
the sides at their ends. It was alleged to be cheaper and more
durable than the common shoe. The case would answer for many
shoes, and each fai-mer could shoe his own horses.

Several objections to its practicability were raised — that it
would infringe upon the hoof, cause contraction of the same, and
prevent the proper exudation.

Mr. Short insisted that these objections would be found obvi-
ated upon trial.

The Chairman suggested that the proof of the pudding was in
the eating.

THE MEASURE WORM.

Dr. Gardner read the following letter relative to the molesta-
tions of the measure worm, from Dr. Harris, of Harvard Uni-
versity.

Cambridge, Mass., June 19, 1855.
Dr Augustus K. Gardner, No 141 East Thirteenth street, New-
York:

Dear Sir: The " measure worms" referred to in your letter
are probably identical with the insects here called " canker
worms." They Avere prevalent in the vicinity of New- York
sixty years ago, as appears by the remarks made uj^on them by
Dr. Mitchill, and published in the New- York Magazine for April,
1795, with a plate containing figures of the male and female
insects. Wherever these insects have been once established, they
are sure to return again at irregular intervals of time. You
may satisfy yourself whether the measure worms are the same as
our canker worms by comparing them with the description of the
latter contained in my Treatise on Insects Injurious to Vegetation,
which you will find in the Astor Library, and at Mr. C. M. Sax-
ton's Agricultural bookstore. That you failed to discover the
adult insects when they issued from the ground in the autumn
and spring, and were ascending the trees, may have been owing
to your not looking for them carefully at the right time

302 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Tarring the trees in October and the beginning of November,
and again in March, if faithfully done, and repeated as often as
necessary, will be found a good remedy. Circular troughs sur-
rounding the trunks of trees and secured as described in my
Treatise, and kept filled with cheap oil, have proved to be elfec-
tual in preventing the ascent of the insects when crawling up the
trees.

During high winds many of the canker worms are shaken down,
and will immediately crawl towards the trees and ascend the
trunks. If during the time when they are eating, the leaves of
the trees ai'e occasionally tarred, or if the troughs are kept filled
with oil, or- with diluted gas tar, many of the Avoi-ms will be
caught and thereby destroyed. This has been the case here within
the past ten days, during which thousands of the worms have
been seen caught in the tar and unable to extricate themselves.
By jarring and shaking the trees many of the worms will be dis-
lodged, and if they hang suspended, their threads can be broken
with a long stick, and then they will fall and loose their clew to
the limbs, and will have to get up again by the trunks, in which
case the tar and oil will effectually arrest their progress.

These insects have done a great amount of damage in the
vicinity of Eoston during the present month; and though their
numbers have lessened very much witliin the past three days,
many still remain on the trees. The time of their entire depart-
ure is, however, at hand. Eirds and toads have been feasting
upon them, and have done their share in lessening their numbers.
The ichneumon flies, peculiar to these vermin, are very abundant
this year, and will render important service in preventing their
increase. Yours truly,

Thaddeus William Harris.

Dr. Gardner then proceeded to review this letter : He said that
these worms differ from the " canker worm," in the lact — accord-
ing to his observation — that they do not descend into the ground
to change into the chrysalis, but undergo this change in a rude
cocoon which they form on the end of the branch; that they then
come forth — both sexes winged — and unite in the branches and
lay their eggs. That there is evidently, therefore, only a waste
of time and money in tarring trees for this species of worm — ex-
cept to catch the fiew dislodged by the wind. He requested in-
formation for some effectual substitute. He recommended a
light kept burning, into which these millers would fly and be con-
sumed.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 303

Dr. Watson, of Staten Island, states that a cordon of hop leaves
around a tree will act as a perfect safeguard against the ordinary
canker worm — not one of which would pass over it.

Mr. Goodsell, of Oswego, N. Y., thought that the difficulty as
to Indian meal, in England, and elsewhere, consisted in the want
of knowing how to cook it properly. When I was in London,
some years ago, I found in a London eating-house a landlord who
understood it. He sold large quantities of Indian meal, coarse
ground, under the name of Tuscarora rice! He made money by
it until a live Yankee came, who cried out — what we give our
pigs ! Mush and milk ! And the landlord was ruined.

Prof. Mapes believed the same experiment would do well here.
Indian meal was disrelished and thought unhealthy, and the
reason was because it was not cooked long enough. Instead of
half an hour, it should be cooked two houi'S.

HORSE-SHOES WITHOUT NAILS.

Mr. Sewall Short, of New London, Conn., exhibited his patent
horse-shoe, the principal advantages of which, he said, are, first,
the doing away with all necessity for nailing the shoe on the
hoof; second, the ease with which the shoe can be fitted to the
hoof and the hoof to the shoe; third, the conveniencs in the
winter season, when all of a sudden the ground becomes covered
with ice, as the smooth shoe can be removed, and the corked or
roughed shoe fixed on with almost the same ease as one pair of
boots is exchanged for another. The economy of this arrange-
ment would be readily understood by those who have had to w'ait
several hours at the blacksmith's to have their horse-shoes
corked, at a time when every smithy is thronged with horses.
The patent shoe consists of an upper portion or cap, and a lower
portion, or shoe proper The upper portion resembles the shape
of a peak to a boy's cap, but made the proper size and shape to
fit close round the upper side of a horse's hoof, and to fasten at
the heel by means of a small iron screw. The shoe is made of
malleable iron; the lower edge of the cap is turned inside so as
to form a ridge or ketch which fits into a groove round the out-
side edge of the lower portion or shoe proper, which resembles in
other respects the ordinary horse-shoe, except in having no nail-
holes. When the upper and lower portions are placed in their
proper positions, and fitted on the hoof, they are fixed firmly and
tightly together, and on the hoof by simply turning the screw
above described with a small wrench. The growth of the hoof is

304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

favorable to this invention, because it keeps the shoe tight, and
all that IS required is to occasionally take off the shoe and rasp
the hoof so as to keep it from becoming too confined in the shoe.
In experiments of using this kind of shoe, made of malleable
iron, it has been tried for three months, and found to answer well.
In reply to several questions, Mr. S. said it did not make more
noise than the ordinary shoe, and is not more expensive, being
made easier, and the upper portion being made separate from the
lower, does not require renewing.

Professor Mapes did not rise to object, but to state that some
years ago an experiment was made in England to avoid the neces-
sity for nails in horse-shoes, by means of two fastenings coming
upon each side of the hoof, and a small pin made to run through
the hoof from the fastenings on one side to those on the other,
but this kind of shoe was abandoned from the fact that it confined
the hoof, and consequently caused inflammation. He feared
there would be trouble here in the present instance.

Mr. Short said he would leave it to the judgment of the gentle-
men present which would be the most likely to cause inflamma-
tion, nails driven into the hoof all round, or a shoe which is
made to fit the hoof, and which can be taken off at pleasure so as
to fit the hoof to it when it shall have outgrown the shoe. He
would recommend the taking off of the shoe every evening when
the horse is in the stable — an operation which would add much
to the liealth and comfort of the animal, as the hoof could be
kept perfectly clean.

Judge Meigs inquired how the horses were found to like the
new shoe.

Mr. Short — It has been tried on a very fine, high-spirited ani-
mal, and its owner said the horse was proud of his new shoes.
In some of them the upper portion is coated with silver. I have
no doubt if the horses could speak, I should soon have a vote of
thanks. [Laughter.]

Mr. Robinson, after examining the drawings of the English
plan spoken of by Professor Mapes, said, although by that plan
they did away with the necessity for nails, yet, as they drove
wires through the hoof, and clinched them on the other side, it
amounts to almost the same thing, as the shoe could not be re-
moved at pleasure. I am inclined to believe that the invention
of Mr. Short is the first by which the necessity for nailing and
clinching has been removed by the cap over the upper portion of
the hoof. Let the plan be fairly tried. It can soon be deter-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 305

mined by the horses. They will give the vote of thanks, if it be
worthy.

It Avas announced that a pair of horses would be exhibited in
a few days, shod in this manner, and as soon as shoes can be manu-
factured the public will have a chance to give them a thorough
trial.

Dr. Ross exhibibited the operation of his Hygrcmetric Self-
Regulator. The experiment was gratifying to the Club. A
miniature room was placed upon the table. Inside of it there
stretched several small flax cords at an equal tension and close
to the wall of the room. These cords were connected above the
middle with a valve in the side of the room which led to a small
half-pint boiler outside of the room. This boiler contained
water. A spirit lamp under it soon caused the w^ater to boil and
the steam to rise, pass through a tube to the valve hole and so'
into the room. While the flaxen cords WTre dry the valve re-
mained open, but as they contract moisture from the steam they
contract in length raise the valve attached to them and close the
aperture. The steam thus shut off' soon raises another valve in
the escape pipe of the boiler and so the steam j)asses off". So long
as the Hygrcmetric condition of the room is all right the room
valve keeps shut, but whenever the cords relax, this valve re-
opens and admits the steam and so on constantly. Dr. Ross gives
this single room as an example of his plan which is as true of
the largest as well as the smallest buildings. It is peculiarly
useful in cold weather when tlie air is dry, especially when still
more exhausted by radiant heat of fires, by stoves, &:c.

The Club was highly pleased with it.

COUNTRY FARMERS AND MARKET STANDS.

The Committee to whom was referred the subject of inquiry as
to the disposition of market stands and the ordinances relating to
them, reported progress, but not having completed their invasti-
gation, the Chairman stated that the provisions of the law were
plain enougli, and that it admitted the undoubted right of any
farmer wishing and Avilling to pay for a stand to have one.

Prof. Mapes said he knew that, but he would like to see an
outsider get a stand. The fact was, the whole matter was in the
hands of speculators.

Mr. Robinson adverted to the numbers of pedlars of vegeta-
bles, fish, &c., who have no license, and to some of their meas-

[Am. Inst.] 20

308 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ures with the bottoms driven up a little and the tops paired down
a little, so as to take nearly two of t'lem to huM a true one.

John P. Decatur, Esq., of the United States Navy, lately from
the Mediterranean, presented some seeds to the Club. Wheat
from Syria, white, but its awns or heard perfectly black. He saw
very fine and abundant crops of it growing in Syria.

He gave us also seeds of a fine melon from Athens, Greece,
given to him by Mr. Black, the husband of Lord Byron's Maid cf
Athens ! Also, Cauliflower seeds of Constantinople.

The Club ordered the regular subjects of the day to be con-
tinued at the next meeting, (viz :)

"Pruning pear trees, market gardening, milk, butter, cheese."

The Club adjourned to the next regular day, (viz :) Tuesday,
July 3rd at noon.

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

July 3, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Field, of Brooklyn; Tuttle, of Boston; Vail,
of Jersey; Bowyer, Lowe, Clubb, Prof. Mapes, Dr. Waterbury,
Wm. B. Leonard, J. W. Chambers and others.— Twenty-four
members in all.

Thomas W. Field, Esq., of Brooklyn, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

THE SIZE OF ANIMALS IN DIFFERENT AGES OF THE

WORLD.

Dr. W^aterbury said he had obtained, from the collection of
Egyptian antiquities in Broadway, a specimen of the jaw of an
Egyptian bull, which, from high European authorities, they had
reason to believe belonged to the bull known as a god Jipis.
Hi had compared it with the jaw bone of an average sized Ame-
rican ox, weighing about ten hundred pounds on the hoof. He
had carefully measured both in all directions, and compared the
measurements with each other, and the variation in the dimen-
sions of the two he found to be so trifling as to be scarcely worthy
of notice. To find any difference at all in the dimensions of the
Egyptian jaw bone and the American he had to examine numer-
ous jaw bones, with a view of ascertaining the average dimensions.
He had also consulted Cuvier's Comparative Anatomy, and satis-
fied himself that the antique jaw had belonged to the same race

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 307

as the common American bull did, and the conclusion to which
he had come from these and similar investigations was, that the
races of animals remained, on the average, of the same dimen-
sions in the various ages of the world.

Prof. Mapes w'as of an entirely different opinion. He contend-
ed that the facts adduced had nothing to do with the average;
that the god Apis might be an extraordinary specimen of his
race in that period, and was therefore no indication of what was
tlie real average at that time; and as hew^as accompanied by two
smaller gods of the same species, it would seem that he was of
unusual dimensions then. The average weight of cattle in Smith-
field market, London, a record of which has been kept for three
or four hundred years, shows that within that period the aver-
age -weight has increased from 4(JU or 500 pounds to 1,000 pounds
a head. It would be remembered too that a pair of animals was
exhibited at Worcester some time since which weighed 4,780
pounds, which showed that enormous animals might at any time
be produced which would not much aflect the average. From all
the sculptures of the oxen of antiquity which had been preserved,
it was clear that that animal had greatly increased in its average
size since the time of the Pharaohs. Fortunately exact plaster
casts of Eelzoni's ancient sculptures, from the originals in the
British Museum, can be seen in Twenty-third street in this city.
It is believed by the best artists that they are the size of life, and
if so, they substantiate the view that the races of animals as well
as of man have increased in their average structure dui'ing the
progress of the ages.

Dr. Waterbury, in reply, contended that the paintings and
sculptures of antiquity might or might not be the size of life. It
was a question they w^anted to settle, but had not done so. Prof.
M. appeared, however, to take it for granted that they were the
size of life. He (Dr. W.) could not. These measurements of
this most ancient bone did not necessarily contradict modern im-
provement in weight of cattle. The hypothesis by which they are
most readily explained is, that there is a typical size from wliicli
the varieties of the ox have come by processes of artificial feeding.

In the days of the Pharaohs an ox Avas produced equal in size
to large modern oxen, and probably by the same means, for we
are to suppose the sacred animals were well fed. There was cer-
tainly ample time during the intermediate period, from the an-
cient Egyptian ox to the early Smithfield ox, for an obliteration
of varieties and a return to the original type. There nmst be

308 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

some limit beyond which the size of animals cannot be increased,
and we see every day a tendency in fine breeds, poorly fed, to re-
turn to the original type. Besides this, as to the increase in the
weight of oxen at Smithfield market, was not that attributable to
the fattening of the animals being done with more system and
certainty?

Judge Meigs — A fat man weighing 400 pounds might not have
any longer jaw bone than a thin man weighing 150 pounds. The
weight is generally the result of fat, rather than any great in-
crease in the size of the frame. It does not follow that the jaw
shall be larger on account of the weight of the animal.

Prof. Mapes— It does not follow, but fat is not always the cause
of great weight. Take our working oxen for example. They
weigh heavily but are not fat.

Mr. Lowe, thought that it was contrary to the teachings of Geo-
logy to suppose that the races of either man or animals had mate-
rially changed their average dimensions.

Prof. Mapes replied that man, and those animals which he had
bred and domesticated for his own purposes, had increased in
stature, while those which he had not attended to had degene-
rated in this respect. The great Russian elephant, or mastodon,
was an instance of the degeneracy, and all the animals of labor of
the improvement referred to. The feet of some men being called
giants rather proved that great muscular men were the exception
rather than the rule in former times. The Eglinton tournament,
where the young men found that the coats of mail of former
warriors were too small for them, and many other instances fur-
nished by history, showed that the average statiu'e of man was in-
creased. He would be understood, however, as having made most
of his remai-ks for the sake of bringing out the Doctor.

Dr. Waterbury made accurate chalk drawings of the Egyptian
and American ox jaw, with their measurements. The length of
the Eg}Tptian mummy jaw, lih inches; American, 14| inches.

The absolute measurements of the Egyptian bone, (viz :)
From the back side of the chin or surface of union with its fellow

to the extreme upper point of the bone, 14^ inches.

From ditto to lower angle, 13 j

From extreme upper point to extreme anterior point,

(latter slightly imperfect,) 17 "

From surface of condyle to extreme anterior point,, 17| "

Width of bone at lower angle, 4^ "

Distance of lower angle from articular surface, 7 "

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 309

Distance of articular surface from extreme upper

point, 2| «

Distance of posterior nerve foramen from angle, 3j "

From articular surface, 4 "

From extreme upper and posterior point, 5^ "

PRUNING PEAR TREES.

The regular order of business being called for, the subject of
Pruning Pear Trees came up for discussion.

The Chairman said he had found that to thin the blossoms of
the pear tree, as had been recommended by eminent pomologists,
■vvas not a good method. No knowing which blossoms would be
fruitful and which prolific, which would be subject to fly and
maggot and which would produce sound fruit; by thinning the
blossoms they were almost sure to destroy Avhat would produce
the best part of the crop. Whereas, by allowing the tree to re-
main untouched until the fruit was half grown, nature would rid
herself of the superabundant fruit; the worm-eaten ones would
be sure to fall first. He had allowed his Bartlett's "Dutchess
Pears" to continue in this way, with good results. When the fruit
becomes so close as to dangle together so as to bruise each other,
his plan was to take away sufficient, when about half-grown, to
leave every pear intended fur mature growth perfectly free and
not liable to be touched by any other. Those he gathered at this
period would ripen if placed on shelves, while those which were
left on the trees would attain to full maturity. He would not
recommend the grafling of the Bartlett pear on to the quince
stock. It should be grafted on pear stock. It will not assimi-
late with the quince.

Prof. Mapes spoke approvingly of the remarks of the Chairman,
and entered into a description of his method of planting pears,
wiiich our limits will not allow us to insert.

NEW WHEAT.

The Chairman exhibited an excellent specimen of new Medi-
terranean bearded wheat, grown on Long Island, of which he has
an excellent crop. It is nearly " white for the harvest," and he
will lose no time in gathering it in.

The conversation then turned on the pruning of pear trees, and
the best method of determining the quantity and kind of blossom
to be removed.

Prof Mapes said that when pears are growing, those that touch
might advantageously be removed.

310 TRANSACTIONS OF THK

The Chairman related his experience : This year he had not
plucked off a single blossom, but the trees spontaneously threw
off the excess. Much ought to be left to nature.

Prof. Mapes said the depth of hole, and the supply of proper
chemical pabulum was all important, but the pear tree takes in
more water than other trees; a dry, thin mulch that keeps the
tree free from Summer blight is very necessary.

J. Payne Lowe said that the beetle known to naturalists as the
Oreoda Lanigera sometimes does much injury to the pear tree by
feeding upon the leaves. During the day these insects secrete
themselves by drawing together some leaves, and may be seen
flying about during evening and morning twilight. This insect
finds a place among the group known as "Rutilians," in conse-
quence of the shining appearance of the head and thorax.

In order to prevent in part the ravages of this insect, if the
trees frequented by them be shaken, they will fall to the ground
from which they may be taken and destroyed, and this will pre-
vent very materially their rapid increase.

The Chairman expressed his belief that neither smnmer nor win-
ter blight will occur where the soil is deep and well supplied with
the proper materials that are needed. The application of the
mineral constituents of the pear (chiefly superphosphate of lime)
was essential. If nothing be used but ordinary fermenting stable
manure, the fruit will soon degenerate. He commended the use
of the improved superphosphate to cabbages, and, from his own
observation, to wheat, especially on Long Island, where it had
been said nothing but horse manure would enatlo the sandy soil
to yield wheat. Experiment proved that wheat there would not
cost $6 per bushel !

Dr. Waterbury asked if the superphosphate was nitrogenized 1

In reply, the Chairman said, that from a quarter to a third of
Peruvian guano was used with it.

Prof. Mapes adverted to the most extensive knowledge of the
Pear possessed by Mr. Birkmann of New Jersey, whose collection
of trees exceeded any in America as well.

I have on one acre, 2,350 young pear trees. By spading among
them they become sufficiently root-pruned.

Mr. Lowe — There is a beetle which injures the leaves of the
pear tree ; by smart shaking they drop off and their mischief is
prevented.

Wm. R. Prince & Co., of Flusliing, Long Island, presented to
the Club seeds of the Sida-MoUis, a valuable fibrous plant of the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 311

West India Island, Jamaica, as calculated to be useful and to suc-
ceed in our Southern and perhaps Middle States.

Mr. Birkmann received a quantity of young pear trees from
Europe, out of the right season for planting. He applied mineral
manures to every other tree when set out. The pear trees which
were treated to the mineral manure were saved, the others died.

Chairman — I imported some hundreds of pear trees one season.
When received, they were (some of them) almost dry. I covered
them with earth a few inches; shoots grew up from them; these
I let grow by cutting the rest of the wood away.

Prof. Mapes — I treated some of the Charter Oak grape vines
with the phosphates, and they grew seven feet during the same
time that those without it grew three in length.

Chairman had noticed the effects of the phosphates on the
growth of cabbages. Some of his acquaintances were growing cab-
bages for market, and when the phospliates had been applied, he
measured some of the plants four and one half feet in diameter
of leaves and thirteen in circumference.

Chairman — Guano judiciously applied is cheaper than barn-
yard manure.

Prof. Mapes spoke of the extraordinary growth and promise of
fruit of the Lawton blackberry, and believes it to be a new variety.

Subjects continued to next regular meeting, July 17th, at noon —
Milk, Butter, Cheese, and Market Gardening.

The Club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

July 11th, 1855.

Present — Messrs. George B. Rapelye, Prof. Mapes, Solon Robin-
son, Clubb, Vail, J. K. Fisher, William B. Leonard, Dr. Water-
bury, Sewall Short, John W. Chambers, Orange Judd, Buckland
of the New Jersey Phalanx, Charles Oakley, Paul Stillman, Stacy
and others, forty-three members in all. George B. Rapelye in the
chair.

Henry Meigs Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers :

The mountains about Sebastopol are of red and white marble,
much cracked on their surface. The sand on the shores glitters
like gold. It is very fine gold colored mica, fit for most beauti-
ful writing sand. Nothing of the kind sold by the stationers
equals it for beauty. The ink retains its brilliancy for years. This
was the gold dust with which the Roman Emperor Gallienus

312 TKANSACTIONS OF THE

powdered his hair. The Armenian and other ladies use it now
for the same purpose.

On the eastern coast of the Isthmus of Perecop, wagons are
driven into the shallow water and loaded with salt. Hundreds
of wagons are seen at a time thus shoveling in salt, the constant
natural formed salt; and so it was from the most ancient days.
Caravans of these salt Avagons travel as far as Eiga. The wagons
have sometimes camels, but generally from two to six white oxen
each.

The Isthmus is low, the Elack Sea and the Sea of Azof are seen
from the road. The waters formerly covered it, and the Crimea
was an island.

The Greek geographer Strabo, described the Crimea perfectly —
the harbor of Sebastopol, length, breadth, depth, perfectly, more
than 1800 years ago. Inkerman means the town of Caverns, from
the wonderful excavations in the rocks at the mouth of the little
river. Sebastopol, from the whiteness of the rocks about it, was
called Aktiar.

SEBASTOPOL. {August City.)

The Ealtic is joined to the Black Sea by the Beresinski canal,
which unites the rivers Duna Avith the Dnieper, consequently the
Bay of Riga with the Black Sea; this is done by means of the
river Ulla, which falls into the Duna, and the Sergatcha which
falls into the Beresina, a branch of the Dnieper. The Beloje and
Beresina lakes lying between greatly facilitates this junction.
Fleets of large boats pass down the Duna G\try year, besides
large rafts of timber and masts and large boats laden with salt.
This canal was commenced in 1797, and finished in 1803. It
forms a complete line of navigation from Riga to the Black Sea,
through the heart of the country.

The Polish Count Oginsky, at his own expense, completed a
union between the rivers Niemen and Dnieper by a canal of 34
miles, for vessels to pass from Koningsburg to the Black Sea.

Sebastopol is a Greek title meaning August city, on the west
side of the Crimea, latitude 4-i degrees and 36 minutes, east
longitude from London 33 degrees 30 minutes. The harbor was
called by Strabo (1830 years ago) Otenus — is about five miles in
length, and a mile, varying less in breadth. Depth of water
from 36 feet to 48 feet; close to the shore of Sebastopol 30 feet
deep; bottom of clay and mud, and there are no rocks or shoals
in it. It is not excelled by any harbor in the world for safety, &c.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 313

The Crimea is between latitudes 44 degrees 28 minutes and
46 degrees; and longitudes 32 degrees 33 minutes and 36 degrees
22 minutes east. The Isthmus Perecop unites it to the main laud,
and is five miles wide.

INKERMAN.

Dr. Clarke and Prof. Pallas traveled over this ground, and
quote Bronovius, brief account of it, as transcribed, in Latin, by
Th nanus.

Ingermenium arcem satis et magnificam, &c. It was formerly
a noble town, its location admirable, fertile, a citadel built by
Grecian chiefs, ornamented with Greek inscriptions, splendid
buildings, wells and excavations on a great scale, many of which
are still sound. Two well paved streets still remain. The air of
the place is now bad. If you drink water after eating fruit, a
fever follows. If you eat eggs, or milk, or butter, a fever. If
you neglect your clothing in the most trivial way during the
scorching heat of the day, a fever. If you venture out to enjoy
the delightful breezes of the evening, a fever. Russia considers
it a cemetery for the troops sent to maintain the possession of it.
The climate does not act so upon the native Tartars. On the
slightest change of weather they wrap themselves up in sheep
skins and thick felts, their heads with numerous bandages of Imen,
or they wear warm stuffed caps, fenced with wool. Tertian fevers
ai'e caught at Inkerman.

The principal amusement of a Tarter is taking care of his gar-
den. Every dwelling has one. As you approach a village you
first behold a tufted grove of trees. Nearer you see cottages, one
story high only, with low ilat roofs, under the spreading branches
of large trees, the walnut, mulberry, fig, olive, peach, apricot,
plum, grape-vine, pomegranate, cherry, or tall, black poplar.
These form the most beautiful and fragrant canopies over these
cottages that can be imagined. Every cottage has one or more
copies of the Koran in it, all written in beautiful characters.
Their children are all taught, not only to read, but to write copies
of it.

BALACLAVA.

Supposed to be from the Italian — Bella-Clava — the beautiful
port. The naXaxiov — (Palakion of Strabo) was exactly described
by Strabo upwards of 1800 years ago. The port seen from the
town looks like a small lake, land-locked by precipitous moun-
tains. Ships can hardly enter it, it is so very narrow at the en-

814 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

trance, but there is good anchorage and safety from all weather,
and depth of water for ships of war.

The measurements of Strabo, and all the facts stated by him —
which are now examined are found to be exact. He died A. D.
25, at an advanced age.

The account he gave of the climate of England, about the
mouth of the Thames and the site of London, was so precisely
the same as the last dates from there, we almost conclude to shut
up our meteorological books, and note weather no more. For
w^hen Strabo was there 1850 years ago, the fog and mist and rain
were just as they are now.

The little river Salghi runs from west to east through nearly
the midddle of the Crimea. The climate is very different on the
two parts divided by the river. The northern half is almost
wholly level plains or steppes with scattered marshes, salt lakes,
and heaths almost destitute of trees — but has much good pasture.
It is cold and damp in winter and excessively hot in summer, and
very unhealthy, especially so along the coast of the Sea of Azoft'
(the Putrid Sea). The southern half of the Crimea is totally
different. It is a succession of lofty mountains, picturesque
ravines, chasms, and most beautiful slopes and vallies. The
mountains are of stratas of calcarious rock. The Tchadyadag or
Trent mountains are over 5,000 feet high above the sea. The
climate is the most delicious that can be imagined, Clarke says
it is a terrestrial paradise, abounding in wheat, oil, grapes, pome-
granates, figs, oranges, olives, mulberries, and almost every deli-
cious fruit. No venomous insect or reptile; no unwholesome
exhalations; no chilling winds. The inhabitants seem to have
the golden age. The soil, like a hot bed, produces everything
with the least labor. Continual streams of crystal water from
the calcarious mountains, supply the valleys. Anciently tho
Crimea w^as a granary to Athens.

The most valuable crop of the Crimea is the salt, made in the
salt lakes, on the northern half of it. In 1853, the product was
242,000 to7is.

Immense numbers of sheep, black cattle and horses are raised
on the plains of this northern half.

AJVIERICAN INSTITUTE. 315

[From the Revue Ilorticole. Extracts translated by Henry Meigs.]

THE GREAT HORTICULTUEAL EXHIEITION NEAR THE
CRYSTAL PALACE OF PARIS, JUNE, 1855.

The exhibition opened on the 3d of May last, to a great con-
course of distinguished persons, among whom were the Emperor
and Empress.

Tlie garden of this exhibition is an oblong square lying from
north-west to south-east, with its great monumental iron gate in
front of that of the crystal palace. On all sides it is concealed
by a trellis and. thick curtains of green trees; all this is not in
symmetrical order but seems so disposed by chance. They in
fact look well in connexion with the green turfs and massive
verdure and flowers which they enclose ; among which the sinu-
ous walks and alleys pass. All monotony is broken up. The
garden is to last fv.'r six months, and the plan serves to keep
alive the interest in it.

There are four glasses. One of which shelters the Aquarium.
But the largest glass (conservatory) is in the north-west part of
the garden, and is entirely devoted to palms, cycadeas and other
tropical plants. On one side is a ditch (with an artificial rock),
for a smaller aquarium — a cascade falls from the summit of this
rock, occasionally it forms showers to refresh the mosses, kc.
of the rock. The visitor admires this, but feels the small scale
on which this, like all other works of man, appears when com-
pared with nature.

The collection of plants is superb. An elliptical conservatory
in the middle of the garden is consecrated to Pelargoniums,
among which are many exquisite specimens. In the midst of
these Pelargoniums which are raised by successive stories or
stages, on a mound stands tlie finest sample of Chamoerops we
ever saw, A third glass (or conservatory) shelters Rhododen-
drons and Azaleas, magniflcient Calceolaria of every shade and
variety. The fourth glass is devoted to aquatic plants. The
Victoria Regia with its vast leaves surrounded by a numerous
cohort of Nymphea. Open pavillions and kiosks are ready for
the visitors as shelters from the weather. The most beautiful
collection of roses ever seen in Paris.

We must stigmatize that famous green rose which is puffed as
coming from New-York. It has been trumpeted as a green rose
by almost all our political journals. It should by good title
belong to the collections of the celebrated Barnum, and not to a

316 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

serious and sober Horticultural e?-:! libit ion, for it is neither more
nor less than a Chloranthe (green flower) formed by an un-
natural alteration of the corolla to the condition of leaves, of
which we have examples in strawberries and potentillas which
are plants of the rose family.

The beautiful tulips of Messrs. Eouillard & Tripet would be
worth a fortune if tulip mania was in fashion. The violets
(Pensees) of Mon. Vilmorin are very large, round, almost per-
fectly so, admirably colored, and in a word, such as Pensees
ought to be according to conventional fashion. The enormous
pseonies of M. Modeste, Guerin, and those still more beautiful
ones of M. Dufoy, (and to close this list) a specimen of the
Lilium Giganteum of Mr. Lemicher, a plant stocky, corpulent
(ventrue), leafy (feuillue), the thick stalk not above five feet
high, bears five or six enormous flowers of a greenish white
color; nothing curious or interesting about it, but size and singu-
larity. It must be agreed that in the age we live in, and in our
country, whatever is Bizarre (whimsical), strange or enormous
passes for something fine !

A more just interest attaches to the collection of trees in-
tended for useful as well as ornamental purposes, to be natural-
ized among us; and we look for the day when favored by an
intelligent government, the melancholy solitude of much of our
south-western provinces will be done away by new and beautiful
trees. The rapid communications now being established in France
will soon make an intimate connexion between all parts of the
empire, and the grand centre, Paris, with its Horticulture,
Arboriculture, &c., &c.

We advise our readers to see the garden of the Exposition,
and judge for themselves; for the memory of it as one of the most
magnificent displays will be on the records of France.

On the table to-day were models in plaster; first — of an
imported Southdown ewe, four years old, bred by Jonas Webb,
Esq., and presented by him to Jonatlian Thorne, as a perfect spe-
cimen of the breed; property of Samuel Thorne, of Thornedale,
Washington Hollow, Dutchess county, New-York. Also, another
of a Southdown, presented by Lewis G. Morris to the Institute;
the fleece, in 1854, being ten pounds and a half.

A third was the prize Southdown ram, a Avinner at the Royal
Agricultural Society Show at Lewes, in 1853. Ered by Jonas
Webb, Esq., imported by Jonathan Thorne, and the property of Mr.
Thorne, of Thornedale, as above. These models are very valuable.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 317

The Secretary read a letter from the Consul General of Austria,
who has established a house there for the sale of American agri-
cultural implements and machinery. This house has branches
in all the principal cities of Austria. It would appear that the
American ash answers better than any Austrian wood. The
prices there are much in advance of the prices here.
LIQUID MANURE.

A letter was read from Dudley S. Gregory, Esq., of Jersey City,
which is of importance sufficient to warrant its being copied in
extenso :

Dear Sir: My thoughts have been directed to the preservation
of liquid manure now, when I am enlarging my stable, and it
seems to me this subject is very much neglected in this country.
Allow me to refer you to an interesting account and extraordinary
yield in consequence of the use of this manure. You have pro-
bably in your library, and if not, ought to have — [it is there] —
the work of Henry Colman, called European .>6grictilture and
Rural Econcnnj, at page 162, vol. 2, you will find the account
I refer to, and also an extract of the value of human urine, of
which Liebig says 100 joarts are equal to 1,300 parts of the fresh
dung of a horse, and 600 of that of the cow.

If this be so, what an opportunity for your corporation to
develope through the action of your institution the preservation
and use of the immense quantity of this liquid every day running
to waste on the public temple in the rear of the City Hall, as well
as in the city generally.

It seems to me that a premium might be well bestowed in
inducing the stables for omnibus horses, car and baggage livery
stables, to preserve and encourage the use of liquid manure, so
much more valuable than the substance of stables.

Yours, D. S. GREGORY.

ERRORS IN FARMING.

Solon Robinson read a letter from a farmer in Cumberland
county. Pa. The writer says :

" It is written with the hope that it may attract the attention
of some person — perhaps some members of the American Insti-
tute Farmers' Club — to the greatest evil that exists in our whole
system of farming, and is a subject worthy the attention of every
one who values the agricultural prosperity of our country.

" I have watched with much interest the call on the farmers,
and the response which has come from many sections of the

318

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

country to farm ' one acre more.' If it had been to farm one acre
less, and give more attention to what they did farm, more would
have been accomplished. The whole system of farming has been
upon this principle of planting more acres, and, as a necessary
consequence, our lands are becoming exhausted. Where one
farmer is improving his land, nine are practicing upon the plan
of gradually exhausting the soil. The consequence is, crops fail;
too much rain produces rust and mildew; vermin destroy the
weak and feeble plants, and a hard or soft winter is alike inju-
rious. By farming less land well, and manuring well, more can
be accomplished ; one grows as much wheat on ten acres as others
grow on twenty, and yet in defiance of practical experiments,
farmers persist in sowing many acres and reaping small crops.
A ride through the interior of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia
at this season of the year, would convince any one of the perni-
cious effects of this system of farming; and I have no doubt the
same remarks apply to western New- York and Michigan.

Earlier in the season when the fields look green and luxuriant,
farmers flatter themselves that the late rains and a favorable
season w^ill make up for the deficiency of manure, but the ripen-
ing crops tells a diflerent tale. Wheat that should be turning
yellow remains green, the meadows are waving with sorrel and
blue-grass instead of timothy, and the corn is stunted, short and
yellow. They are perhaps members of the County Agricultural
Society, have sowed choice seed, have the most approved patent
plows, and plow in the most approved manner, but all won't
do. The crop is short; they never seem to suspect that they are
farming more land than they are able to manure well, and there-
fore practice upon the old system and grow indifferent crops.
When manure can be purchased this may not generally be the
case, but in the country at large it is too true. Then if by chance
a field yields a bountiful crop of wheat, instead of sowing it in
clover, as should be done, many farmers are induced to sow it in
wheat again, and the consequence is that they have a crop
inferior in quantity and quality, and the soil is left in an
exhausted condition to produce a poor crop of grass.

But in no way is this grasping propensity more fully developed
by farmers than by the quantity of cattle they keep; more than
they are able to feed ; often twice as many, and they are conse-
quently always poor and hungry. Everything about the barn in
the shape of feed is eaten up by the 1st of May, and then they
are compelled to turn them out to pastm-e, whether the fields are

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 319

sufficiently forward or not. The young grass is soon eaten oif
and the cattle are driven from field to field, destroying but never
satisfied, until before midsummer, such farms are more barren and
desolate in appearance than they should be in November. Un-
filled barns are followed by barn-yards containing little manure,
and that is spread over extensive wheat fields as grudgingly as
possible; frequently only upon the high grounds, leaving the low
land to take care of itself. In this condition thousands of farms
are placed by their owners to contend with every variety of
season, and every form of insect-life; the soil exhausted and un-
able to resist any of the numerous evils to which the best soil
and the most approved system of farming will, to a certain extent,
be exempt. In Pennsylvania and Ohio for several reasons,
among which may be enumerated the high price of seed grain,
less wheat was sown last fall than usual. As it respects corn
and oats, it is different. The excessive drought last summer
destroyed, to a great extent, the grass crop, and many farmers
were compelled to plant more corn and oats than usual, in order
to procure feed for their cattle. The evil I speak of is not in
farming too extensively any one season, for which there may
occasionally appear to be some necessity, but it is in overwork-
ing the land continually by a system of excessive cropping,
which is gradually and most surely exhausting all the productive
powers of the soil, and which is the sure forerunner of incalcul-
able evils in the increased amount of labor required to produce
the same amount of crops, and the enormous high prices for the
necessaries of life, which this wretched system of farming has
imposed upon the consuming interests of the country.

GAPES IN CHICKENS.

Mr. Robinson said, I must bring this subject forward once
more. A correspondent at Newburgh, who writes through the
newspapers, because his chirography is so much like our jee-
about friend in Connecticut tliat he supposes I could not read it
except in print, says : There is something ludicrous in the fact of
a lawyer writing about the gapes in chickens; but so it is, and he
can scarcely keep his face straight while doing so. And so he
treats the whole subject of Avorms in the throat as ludicrous.
As they cannot get anything to live on there, and tliey prevent
the chickens from getting anything to eat, they are wor.-e tlian the
"dog in a manger,'' and ought to be expelled by any means short
of gunpowder. He gives many good reasons in support of his

320 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

theory, which is "that what yovu- correspondents aver to be
worms iu the windpipe, causing gapes, is nothing more nor less
than coagulated blood, extravasated into the windpipe, and
caused by the too early and great exposure of the chicken to
damp, cold weather ; or, in other words, the chicken has taken
cold, and has a kind of croup, the extravasation filling up the
windpipe, making it sick and preventing its eating. All besides
this is nonsense and unphilosophical."

MARKET GARDENING.

Portions of an article were read, prepared by Col. Devoe,
of Jefferson Market, which give a condensed history of the first
establishment of markets in New-York.

The policy of the city in 1656, when the first market-place
was established by law in this city, seems to have been to give all
who produced food an opportunity to sell it direct to those who
buy for consumption. Things have sadly changed since then.
Under date of 1656 we find the following proclamation:

" The Director-General and the councilors of New-Netherlands,
to all persons who sliould see these presents, or hear tliem read-
greeting : Whereas, now and then the people from without are
in the habit of bringing into the city different commodities, such
as veal, pork, butter, cheese, turnips, roots, straw, and other
products of the land, for the purpose of selling them, and it
frequently happens, particularly here at the Strand, (I now
locate between Whitehall and Eroad streets, and near the
corner of Moore and Pearl streets,) that they are o'oliged to tarry
long, and to lodge to their great damage, for the reason, because
the community or at least the greater part, especially of those
who live away from the Strand, are not awai-e that such commodi-
ties have been brought for sale, not alone to the discommoding
of the Burghers, but also to the notorious injury of the enter-
prising man from without who frequently has to lose more in
his time than the profit on liis commodities will warrant, there-
fore for the purpose of making provision in the premises, tlie
Director-General and the councilors aforesaid, by these presents
do ordain that from this time forth in tliis city, Saturday shall
be the market-day, and market shall be held at the ' Strand,' at
or around the house of Mr. Hans Kierstede, wliere, after him,
every one shall be permitted to enter that has anything to buy or
sell. This done in the session of their High Mightinesses the
Director-General and the councilors, held in the Fort Amster-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 321

dam in New-Netherlands, this 12th day of September, A. D.
1656. Signed by the Director-General and councilors of New-
Netherlands. Attest,

C. V. EUYVEE, Sec'yy

In 1676, the first market-house was built by the people, upon
land given for the purpose, and that continued to be the case up
to 1800, or later. The object throughout has been to provide
conveniences for the country people to sell their produce free
from taxation or hindrance, directly to the consumers, up to a
very recent period.

Among the first ordinances passed to regulate markets, it was
enacted that " No person shall engross any provisions or victuals
which is in the market, or by the market, to retail there again,
especially such as be known as huckster, butchers, or other peo-
ple occupying their living by such provisions or victuals as they
shall so engross, under pain of such provisions and victuals so
engrossed," and "No unwholesome or stale victuals sliall be sold
in the market under the pain of forty shillings." "No blown
meat or leprous swine shall be sold, under pain of forfeiture of
the same and forty shillings." "That there be a person appointed
by the Mayor and Aldermen to be Clerk of the Market, who is to
take care that the above orders are duly observed, and present
defaults, and set out and appoint convenient booths, stalls and
standings for all persons that come to the market."

In April, 1735, a law was passed for the better regulating the
public markets within tlie City of New- York, showing where the
country people and others may stand or sit in such part or parts
not appropriated and allotted to other persons by leases from the
Corporation, &c.; and be it furtlier ordained that (in regard the
markets are principally intended for the benefit of housekeepers
who buy for their own use) that the hucksters and retailers within
this City who buy to sell again shall not enter into any of the
aforesaid markets to make their provisions, &c., until the after-
noon of every day, to the end that the housekeepers may provide
themselves in the forenoon of every day at the first hand with
provisions at moderate rates, &c.

What if this state of things existed now 1 What if Fourteenth
•street, that broad avenue from river to river through the center
of the City, was open to country wagons to come and stand every
day from early dawn till noon, selling the produce of the country?
Then might housekeepers provide themselves atjirst hand with

[Am. Inst.] 21

322 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

provisions at moderate rates. Have we so degenerated in common
sense that we compel people to buy all they eat at second or third
hands instead of first hands ?

PRICE OF PROVISIONS ESTABLISHED BY LAW.

The Market-laws and Ordinances also established the prices of
provisions, on many of the articles brought to the markets, and
were otherwise rigid and rigidly enforced on any person who dis-
obeyed them. Part of an "Ordinance" dated May 1744, reads :
That from and after the 1st day of April next, no beef, pork,
veal, mutton and lamb shall be sold in any of the public markets
in this City, by any butcher, country people or others, in any
other manner than by the pound, under the penalty of ten shil-
lings for every offense. Tlie price of each article was established
by law, on the 24t]i of May, 1763. The price "for beef from and
including the 1st day of March to and including the last day of
August, a price not exceeding four pence by the pound weight,''
and from 1st of September to the last day of February, three
pence by the pound weight, &c. A cock-turkey, 4s. ; a hen-turkey,
2s. 6d.; a duck. Is.; a heath-hen. Is. 3d.; a quail, l^d.; a teal,
6d.; a wild goose, 2s.; a brandt, Is. 3d.; a snipe. Id.; butter,
per lb., 9d.; sea bass, 3 coppers per lb.; lobster, 6d. per lb.;
milk per quart, 4 coppers; clams, 9d. per 100."

A butcher who disobeyed this ordinance and sold his meat too
high was turned out of market as an extortioner. Bad meat, one
hundred years ago, was seized and burnt. Tliat is the present
law in some places of England, and it is done at the expense of
the seller, besides fining him for offering unwholesome provi-
sions. If that law was enforced here, we should have a great
deal of burnt meat. There would be a roasting of two days old
calves.

Mr. 0. Judd asked whether a farmer had any right to sell pro-
duce of any kind in the City streets. No; it is $25 penalty for a
farmer to drive his wagon through the streets and sell any kind
of farm produce.

EARLY TURNIPS.

Mr. Bucklin of the N. A. Phalanx, said that his success in
growing early turnips was owing to good manuring. He used
compost and also guano, at the rate of a table spoonful to a row
of three feet in length. He stated that the retail price of early
turnips in this market was equal to one hundred and twenty-five
dollars a barrel.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 323

TOMATOES.

In growing tomatoes he trims off limbs and grows bigger and
nicer tomatoes than he can upon untrimmed vines. He sold last
year from less than two acres $600 worth, besides making a large
quantity of catsup.

BRUSSELL'S SPROUTS.

Prof. Mapes — Brussell sprouts are an excellent green vegetable.
They are usually planted the same distance apart as the larger
size flat Dutch cabbage. They run up a straight stalk with a
small head which is of no particular value and is cut off". Then
all the way up the stalk little compact rose-like buds or sprouts
appear which you may gather off and others will shoot out until
the frost stops the growth.

CELERY.

Prof. Mapes — When celery plants commence to be bushy I find
they do best to be cut down, and I rej^eat that process some three
or foiu' times, and each time I give them solulable manure. This
plan renders them so strong that when I plant them out in rows
they do not require shading with leaves even as is usual. It is
wrong to plant celery in low damp places wliere the laud is not
drained. But if the land be drained so as to let off the water,
you will do well to keep up a constant stream all day. It is a
good plan to have a trough made with two boards a V shape and
place it across the highest part of the celery rows. Have a plug-
hole over each row so as to allow the water to run into any row
required to be irrigated. The stream should always be kept up
until the water has reached the extremity of the trench. It will
pay well to keep a man pumping all day; if the land be such as
to get rid of the water and not allow it to become stagnant.
Celery cultivated in this way will grow six feet long.

OKRA OR "GUMBO."

Mr. Bucklin — I have cultivated okra twelve years. My mode
of cultivation is to plow deeply; manure the ground pretty well;
plant fifteen or tv.-enty seeds in hills three feet apart eacli way.
I prepare my hills pretty much as I do for cucumbers. When
the plants are fairly up I thin to two plants and afterwards to one.
I then continue cultivation witli the cultivator f)r some two or
three weeks. They bear very early and are now ready for mar-
ket. I have five acres of them and fi.nd that quantity sufficient

324 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for the New-York market. I judge others raise some. It is
known in the South as "gumbo" and is used for soup.

Prof. Mapes — It contains a large quantity of gelatinous matter,
and is justly prized for soups.

HORSE-SHOEING WITHOUT NAILS.

Judge Meigs read a letter stating the description given in The
Tribune of Mr. Short's horse-shoe with cap instead of nails, the
writer should judge it was like that used by the Roman soldiers.
He suggested the use of India rubber lining to secure a perfect fit.

Mr. Sewall Short exhibited his horse-shoe improved so as to do
without the long screw at the heel, by connecting the lower with
the upper portion by means of two small set-screws, rendering the
shoe perfect. The suggestion of India rubber lining had been an-
ticipated. The shoe has been tried almost ever since the previ-
ous meeting of the Club — a fortnight since — and has been found
to answer well. The horse that is wearing the shoes is at the
livery-stable in Duane street, just below the recent improvements
in that street, where it can be seen at any time.

Dr. Waterbury — As far as the principles inculcated in this
letter apply to the extent of surface over which we annually
spread our manure, they may pass unquestioned. It is very
probable that we should obtain a greater quantity of produce
from manured lands, not only of corn, which is generally the
first crop, but also of the succeeding crops, by cultivating less
ground more highly. Yet it does not follow that we ought to de-
prive ourselves of that larger portion of crops annually raised on
land that has never been manured. Indeed we are absolutely de-
pendent on this larger portion, as those crops which we do raise,
or could raise, are quite too small for our exclusive support.

Besides, the recuperative processes of nature are continually
restoring the soil, so that farms large enough may be so managed
by long rotations, and if necessary, intervening seasons of fallow,
as to actually improve in quality, although subject to waste, and
receiving no foreign fertilizer.

It is well known that lands devoted exclusively to dairying and
stock growing do thus improve, while, on the other hand, lands
devoted exclusively to grain raising deteriorates. The conditions
of no variation are to be found then somewhere between these
two extremes.

But after all, land, like manure, has a cash value, and while
that value remains low in this country, we shall find our true

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 325

economy in processes of management that are wasteful in coun-
tries more thickly populated, where the value is greater. We
certainly ought to employ to the fullest available extent the
powers of nature for the restoration of the soil, as we are depen-
dent on unmanured land to-day, notwithstanding all the " modern
improvements," for more than two-thirds of our annual national
sustenance. If our agriculture were entirely contingent on tlie
use of manures, we should within three years perish from the
face of the earth.
AMERICAN AGEICULTURAL MACHINES IN AUSTRIA.

[Translated by F. W. Geissenhainer, Jr., for the Farmers' Club.]

Commission warehouse of all kinds of American agricultural im-
plements and machines of C. H. Warrens, by Alexander
ScHOELLER, Vienna. Leopold^s city.) Schoeller court.) JYo. 4,
Magazine JVo. 22.
American thrashing machines for 1 and 2

horses. No. 1, 180 florens. $87 30

do do for 2 horses, No. 2, 200 97 00

do do for 3 horses, No. 3, 230 11155

do do for 4 horses. No. 4, 275 133 37^
Thrashing and cleaning machines for 3 and 4

horses, 500 242 50

Barrett's thrashing machine with horse

power, 1,000 485 00

Emery's American treading . horse power,

for 1 horse, 450 218 25

do do do for 2 horses, 475 230 37|
Warren's draw horse power, with wooden

teeth, for 2 and 4 horses, 450 218 25

American iron cbaw horse power, for 2

horses, 400 194 00

do do do for 4 horses, 450 218 25

American straw cutting machines. No. 2,. . 45 21 82^

No. 4,.. 55 26 67^

No. 5,.. 60 29 10

100 to 125 48 50 to 60 62^

125 60 62^

100 to 200 48 50 to 97 00

American carrot cutting machines, 40 19 40

Kukumtz's American revolving machine,

single, 35 16 97

do do do double, 50 24 25^

do

do

do

do

do

do

Garrett's

do

do

Bottinger's

do

do

Allen's

do

do

326 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Kukumtz's club-mashing maclime, 75 florens. $36 37|

do do do 100 48 So"

Grist mills, c . 185 89 72^

Cleaning mills, Saxonian, 165 80 62^

do American, large size, 125 60 62|

do do small size, 100 48 50

do do No. 2, 90 43 65

do do No. 3, 80 38 40

do do Hornsby's, .... 185 89 72^

American hay raker, 25 12 12|

Thermometer butter churns. No. 1, 20 9 70

do do No. 2, 15 7 27^

do do No. 8, 12 5 82"

• do do No. 4, 10 4 85

A set of drainage implements, 75 36 37^

Kukumtz't cultivators, 65 31 52i

Drill machine, 65 31 52^

Hand drill machines, 25 12 1 2i

Cultivators, No. 1, 20 9 70"

do No. 2, 25 12 12^

do Reaper's, 40 19 40

Grass mowing machines, 450 218 25

Grain mowing machines, 450 218 25

Extra additions to each thrashing machine, 20 9 70

These agricultural implements and machines are sold only for
cash. At the time of ordering half the cost of them to be paid
in advance, the other half on delivery, according to order.
An Austrian florin is 48i cents.

Mr. Meigs — Experience has taught me long ago that the same
perfection attained by exclusive devotion to one thing, is also
true of farming and gardening. Let a man raise but one kind of
vegetable as his crop for the year I The consequence very natu-
rally is a degree of excellence far above those who have many
things to attend to. Division of labor is as important to the
farmer and gardener as it is to the mechanic. I mean to say: That
however extensive the farm or garden be, one product only is to
be relied on for profit. Many years ago I tried to raise celery
equal to that raised at the Royal garden at Kew, by George 3d,
who was my Boss when I was born, (I got clear of him in 1783).
He raised besides (his famous mutton as Peter Pindar has it,
scented^) the largest and finest celery I ever heard of, viz.: plants
six feet in length and full breadth. I labored to come up to

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 327

m

that, but was stopped at 4^ feet, with blanch two feet. I used
large puncheons with straw, &c. at bottom, then filled in with
every manure, vegetable, animal, mineral — the cow, horse, hen,
men, pig, ashes, lime, soot, sweepings of wood cellar, urine and
omnium gatherum — filling in with rain water. This I draw off
from the bottom of the puncheon. It was of the color of brandy
and too strong for vegetables. I mixed water with it and fre-
quently at evenings sprinkled my celery with it, and it certainly
caused a fine growth. This preparation obtained the name of
Purin, many years afterwards.

Mr.Hite of Morrisania exhibited currants from his garden, one
berry of which carefully measured by Col. Travers and others,
proved to be five-eighths of an inch in circumference.

Messrs. Wells & Provost exhibited tin cans calculated to pre-
serve fruit, &c. The mouths of the cans are about half theii'
diameters and are closed by screw top. A tunnel as large as the
mouth is kept with the can in order to pour in the fruit in a neat
and convenient way ; a suitable wrench of cast iron is also in
company; with this the tops are screwed down. After twice be-
ing in hot water, first when the cans are filled, and last when they
are screwed tight, then the small channel around the mouth at
the bottom of the screw top is filled with a little melted beeswax;
so that permanent fiistening is secured by the screw, and air
excluded perfectly l^y the wax. These cans are opened with per-
fect ease, and can serve many years with reasonable care in hand-
ling them, The club was very much pleased with them, seeming
to think it almost if not quite a ne plus ultra article.

The club continued to next meeting. Subjects " Market gar-
dening, milk, butter and cheese."

Adjourned to first Tuesday of August, being August 1st, at
noon. H. MEIGS, Secretary.

Aug. 1th, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Field, of Brooklyn, George B. Rapelye,
Orange Judd, Palmer, Adrian Bergen, of Long Island, Dr. Bart-
lett, late of the Albion, Dr. Waterbury, Dr. Dummer, of Jersey
City, Henry S. Clubb, Griffing, of Jersey, and others — twenty-
nine members in all.

Mr. Griflftng, of New Jersey, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

According to the standing rules of the Club, the first hour is
devoted to miscellaneous matter.

328 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The Secretary read extracts from the last agricultural papers
received by the ocean steamers.

[Journal of Agriculture and the Transactions of tte Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland, July, 1855.]

REAPING MACHINES.

Extracts from Report.

The patent of Mr. Johnson, (No. 726,) refers to the reaping
machine now attracting so much altention among farmers, and
known as " Atkins' Self- Raking Reaping Machine." It is cha-
racterised by an able authority in mechanical matters, as "a
very extraordinary piece of mechanism, rivalling even the ' cop-
ping motion' of the self-acting (cotton) mule in intricacy and
beauty of action."

The inventor is Mr. Learned Atkins, of Cliicago, Illinois, for-
merly a mill-right, now a crippled and disabled man. The
knife-bar in this machine was invented by Brownson Murray,
Esq., of Salle county, Illinois. For several years this gentleman
had used reaping-machines, and was much annoyed in rainy
weather, or when the grass was wet with dew, by the choking of
the knife, and the time lost in picking it out with tlie lingers.
The thought occurred to him that by cutting out triangular pieces
at the back of the knife, and roughly toothing them, the difficulty
would be obviated. It proved so. It is now impossible to
choke it I

The Secretary said he was much gratified in laying the follow-
ing before the Club :

[London Farmers' Magazine, July, 1855.]

It has ever been our custom to test any very attractive theory,
or wonderful achievement, in the pursuits of agriculture, by the
experience of the practical man.

And what is, after all, a practical man? Simply, as we take it,
one who contrives to live by his business.

Enthusiasts are, proverbially, a little wild, and as famed for
clothing their own fancies with the brightest colors. There is no
word in the English language, just now, so much abused or li-
belled, as this same " Progress.^'' It is the presto of every would
be conjuror. " Hey ! Progress !"

" Progress," if you please. We are no opponents of progress.
Far from it we hope. But we are opponents of humbug. We
cannot shut our eyes and open our mouths, and swallow all that
is told us. We must have these things tested.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 329

COTTON.

The valuable Essay on Cotton, prepared at the request of the
New- York Historical Society, by J. G. Dudley, in 1853. Pub-
lished by Putnam & Co., 10 Park place — contains, among other
interesting matter, some account of the very interesting manner
and progress of American genius and enterprise in the home man-
ufacture of it, from those of Samuel Slater, of Massachusetts, who
established the first cotton manufactory in the United States, at
the town of Pawtucket, in Rhode Island, to this day. The Mat-
teawan Factory became distinguished under the care of the Cor-
responding Secretary and agent of the American Institute — Wil-
liam B. Leonard. That gentleman has devoted his life to it, and
has improved the machinery. He has, at great expense and
difficulty, introduced the British improvements. He sent his
son, William A. Leonard to England /or, and he obtained the
celebrated " self-acting mule."

The chronological table of the growth and trade in cotton, &c.,
appended, is a valuable one.

In 1801, the entire stock of American cotton in Liverpool was
one bag!

1855. Cotton used in American factories, tivo hundred and
sixty millions of jjounds!

The American Institute contends for home manufactures, na-
ture is with the Institute in this. America is a great producer,
and America will make up her products for the use of the world,
and she will out of tile products make profits. Who is against
her? when God, and the mighty continent he has given her, are
on one side only !

The Secretary read the following from Scotch authority, which
he said was very apt to be of solid w^orth.

PHOSPHATE OF LLME.

The basis of bone. This salt was pointed out in 1774 by
Scheele and Gahn. The first precise account of its properties is
due to Eckleberg, Fourcroy and Vauquelin.

Calcine bone to whiteness, pulverise it, then wash it thoroughly
in pure water to separate the several salts that are soluble. The
residue is phosphate of lime, and a little cai-bonate of lime. Add
weak acetous acid, and it dissolves the carbonate; then wash the
remainder well, and you have pure phosphate of lime as a white
powder. It is found native in the form of regular six sided crys-
tals, and is called Apatite, from the Greek w^ord Aacraoj, to de-

330 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ceive, because it so much resembles some other minerals. It has
no taste, is insoluble in water, and not liable to alteration by ex-
posure to air, bears strong heat unchanged, but in very high heat
takes the form of semi-transparent enamel, or rather porcelain.
It is dissolved by sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, fluoric, and some
vegetable acids. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, show that these acids
, can take away only forty per cent of it, and that the remainder
is combined with the phosphoric acid, thus making super-phos-
phate of lime ^ which is composed of 41 of the acid and 59 of the
lime.

Dr. Waterbury said that within four or five years there had
been a change of practice with many of the best farmers of Con-
necticut in regard to shocking grain, a change which he believed
to be founded on correct principles, and which was said by those
who had practiced it to lead to improved results. He quoted
from a correspondent :

" Instead of first j)utting it into open or Dutch shocks, and af-
terwards into cap shocks, or small stacks, the sheaves are simply
set up on their buts, near enough to each other to prevent them
from being blown down, and allowed to stand in these groups of
ten or twelve, until they ai-e diy enough to l)e made into mow.
Notwithstanding what is said by some of your agricultural cor-
respondents, in the agricultural journals, in regard to the sjorout-
ing of wheat in the ear, standing, I must doubt it; for after forty
years experience with grain crops, I have never known it happen
unless the grain had been blown down and lodged. In order to
grow, grain must be more than wet; it must be in contact with
something to encourage the formation of roots, and must be, to
a certain extent, secluded from light. In the common method of
shocking, these circumstances that favor sprouting are all pre-
sent, as the sheaves are, in the first place, left out because they
are too damp to go in, and in the second place, the stouts never
perfectly shed rain — so that it is necessary when grain is in cap
shock frequently to open it and set it out to dry. Now, by sim-
ply setting up the sheaves, without putting the heads together,
the grain is almost as free from any disposition to sprout as it is
while standing uncut. The heads do not remain long wet at any
one time, as the wind, between showers, dries them out in a few
minutes. They are not in contact with anything to encourage
the disposition to sprout, do not heat in the least, and are freely
exposed to the light. The old fashioned cap shock often sheaves
has very generally given place to that of five, as the disposition

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 331

to heating and sprouting lias been found to be less, and the same
princiiDle, carried a step further, indicates single sheaves set upon
the butts, near enough to each other to prevent them from being
blown down by the wind, as the best possible condition of grain
that has been cut and remains out in a rainy time, next best to
remaining uncut. When we have substituted for the old fash-
ioned practice of opening the shocks for the advantage of an
hour's sunshine — that of unbinding the sheaves for a like expo-
sure when circumstances will admit of it — we have reached the
best possible practice short of artificial covering, and it remains
yet to be proved that even that exceeds it.

The only objection that can be urged against this process, is,
that the straw is more likely to be damaged by it, but the straw
is of very little value when compared to the grain. Managed in
this way, grain may be cut and set up in the most catching
weather, with no risk of damage, if care is only taken to see that
the sheaves are set up as often as they may be blown down.

When the rust begins to strike grain, it should be immediately
cut and cured after this method, as the disease then stops, and
the shrinkage is less than if allowed to stand until ripe.

Adrian Eergen, of Long Island, remarked, that he had long
been in the habit of growing rye on his farm, and that although
he cultivated it as thoroughly as formerly, yet his crop- had fallen
off from twenty or thirty bushels an acre to ten bushels. He
manured as well and plowed better than formerly.

Mr. Field, of Brooklyn, said the same remark would apply to
the barley crop on Long Island, and no reason had been discovered
for this retrogression.

Dr. Bartlett suggested the use of forty to fifty bushels of lime
to the acre, as it was probable the soil had become exhausted of
that element by the growth of grain crops.

THE SOIL OF LONG ISLAND.

Mr. Field said : It is a remarkable fact that there is on Long
Island a tract of land 70 miles long and varying from three to
five miles broad, which, in consequence of a particular prejudice,
although within an hour's ride of New- York city, has been
allowed to remain as unpopulated and uncultivated as the deserts
of Arabia. He contended that there was no good reason for this
prejudice, but that with proper cultivation those lands were capa-
ble of becoming very productive.

Mr. Judd expressed his views at length on the subject. He
stated that there was much good land scattered throughout the

332 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

island, while other portions were lacking in finely divided' parti-
cles necessary to form the medium of growth for the spongioles
and fine roots of plants. These were so very small that they
could not grow among sharp sand; there must be impalpable soil
for them to lodge in. This was more important than the parti-
cular chemical constitution of the soil. The plant grew mostly
from the air gathering in its joabulum through the surface of the
leaves, and a free circulation of sap was necessary, that this food
might be carried down to the points where needed. Without a
full supply of fine roots this could not be had, and clay, which
is an impalpable earth, was the very best manure for a sandy soil.
The coast lands of Long Island were of superior quality for
farming in many cases, but had lost their reputation, especially
upon the south side, from the habits of the occupants, who would
at any time pass by the proper seed time, or leave a growing crop
uncultivated, if fishing chanced to be good, as the latter pursuit
was often more profitable.

Dr. Bartlett produced a remarkably fine specimen of oats in the
ear, with straw of a thickness which could only have been pro-
duced on a fertile soil. It was grown on his farm on Long Island.
He defended the central part of the island from the unjust asper-
sions usually cast upon it by those who are ignorant of its value.
The fertility of those scrub or dwarf lands, he said, is not one of
theory or opinion, but of fact; as these lands have been in many
instances cleared, and with little trouble found to be highly pro-
ductive. Mr. Wilson, of Brooklyn, bought a tract of this much
abused land for $5 or $10 an acre, and in two years he has made
it worth from |50 to $100 an acre. His first crop was rye, which
yielded thirty bushels to the acre. This year his clover, potatoes,'
&c., are luxuriant beyond description. If any one doubts the
fertility of this scrub-oak land of Long Island, let him visit Mr.
W.'s farm at the present season.

Judge Meigs corroborated what had been said in favor of the
land of Long Island. He said a committee of the Club examined
it seven years ago, and found in many parts, at least two feet
deep of workable soil.

THE LAWTON BLACKBERRY.

Mr. Field said he had been experimenting with the common
Ijramble, to see whether the improvements effected in the black-
berry by Secore, and carried into extensive operation by Lawton,
were the result of change in the soil and cultivation, or whether

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 333

it could be traced to a peculiar variety of tlie bramble. He took
a plant from the woods, where it had grown in fine soil, a^id
planted it in poor soil, and yet it produced berries as large as
Lawton-s, although only a small crop. Several berries measured
four inches each in circumference. ' From his experiments he was
convinced that there were distinct varieties of the bramble, some
of which were more favorable tlian others to produce the fine
fruit now grown by Lawton, and that it is to the variety rather
than to either the soil or the cultivation that the superiority is to
be attributed.

CHERRY CURRANTS.

Mr. Andrew Caywood, of Modena, in Ulster county, exhibited
a cutting of a bush full of currants, grown by him in sandy
loam. He calls them " Cherry Currants^'' a new variety. A
single currant measured one inch and seven-eights in circumfer-
ence. He used no special care in growing them.

OCTAGON PLAN OF SETTLING LANDS.

Judge Meigs exhibited Mr. Clubb's plan, wliich can be viewed
at any time at the Institute, by wliich the settlers of new lands
are enabled to locate together in a village, around an octagon
green or park, each dwelling-house being at the same time conve-
niently situate on a farm of from forty to one hundred and sixty
acres, according to the scale adopted. The social and educational
advantages of the plan, he said, are important, as it would secure
to first settlers the civilized influences of society, the want of
which is one of the greatest objections to pioneer life. The plan
is so arranged that, in its ultimate design, the whole settlement
would become a town, with streets around tlie octagon park, each
street preserving tlie octagon form, intersected by avenues,
radiating from the angles of the central octagon. A combination
of suce settlements forming eventually, as population increases, a
city well ventilated by spacious parks, squares and octagons, on a
liberal scale, so as to avoid that over-crowding, which is the chief
evil of established cities. The originator is our friend Mr. Clul)b ;
let us hear him.

Mr. Henry S. Clubb further explained the object of the plan,
and stated that its pecuniary advantages were, that the forms were
so situated as to be convertible into smaller estates, for gardens
and detached residences, which must increase the marketable
value of the farms in any country where the population is on the

334 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

increase. A company has already been formed for carrying the
project into execution in Kansas. About 4,000 shares, of $5
each, are taken in the company j and the pioneer party are to
start in a few days from New-Yorl^, to select a site.

NEW METHOD OF PRESERVING SPECIMENS.
Dr. Dummer, of Jersey City, exhibited a small glass tube with
an entymological specimen enclosed, and stopped by means of a
blow-pipe, which made it air-tight, forming a vessel well adapted
for preserving specimens of insects without spirits. The doctor
does not intend to patent the invention, but desires it to become
known to entomologists and naturalists.

CURING GRAIN— SPROUTED GRAIN.

Dr. Waterbury introduced a communication from a Connecticut
farmer, describing a change in the method of curing grain, which
had obtained within the last few years in Connecticut. Instead
of putting grain first into the open or Dutch shock and afterward
into the cap-shock or small stacks, the sheaves are simply set up
on their buts, near enough to each other to prevent them from
being blown down, and allowed to stand in these groups of ten
or twelve until they are dry enough to be made into mow.
Notwithstanding what the agricultural journals say about the
sprouting of standing grain in the ear, I must, said the writer,
doubt it; for after forty years' experience with grain crops, I
have never known it to happen to uncut crops unless the grain
had blown down and lodged. In order to grow, grain must be
more than wet ; it must be in contact with something to encourage
the formation of roots, and must be, to a certain extent, excluded
from the air.

The club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Sec'y.

Farmers'' Club, August 21 5^, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Griffing of New-Jersey, Lodge do, Hays,
Leigh, Field of Brooklyn, Hite of Morisania, Lawton of New-
Rochelle, Clubb, Van Wyck, Vail, D. Vv'atson of Staten Island,
Orange Judd, Waring of Jersey, Dr. Evans of Ohio, Charles
Oakley, Addington D. Frye, Joshua L. Pell, Philo S. Mills, J.
Payne, Lowe, and others, forty-nine in all.

Mr. Griffing of New-Jersey in the Chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretar3^

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 335

The Secretary read the following papers prepared by him :

Sir Walter Scott {on Drainage) says iu "Old Mortality."
" Trenches filled with water, out of which peats and turf have
been dug, and some straggling thickets of alders, which loved the
moistness so well that they continued to exist as bushes, although
too much dwarfed by the sun, soil and stagnant bog-water to
ascend into trees.''

The plants of every former period of the earth's history are
distinguished from those of the present by the inconsiderable de-
velopment of their roots. The fruit, leaves, seeds and nearly
every part of the plants of a former world, except the roots are
found in the brown coal formation. Eut when we examine oaks
and other trees, which in consequence of revolutions of the same
kind occurring in latter ages, have undergone the same changes.
We never find the roots absent.'' The earth was not then drained.

A timber tree on bog or wet soil is stinted in growth, false at
heart, gnarled in appearance. The roots refuse to enter the stag-
nant, unw'holesome water, send oif a few slender horizontal roots
which soon exhaust the surface soil and all that is therein con-
tained, and his race is run. Again a plant is placed in a closed
vessel, in which, therefore, the carbonic acid cannot be renewed,
dies exactly as it w^ould in the vacuum of an air pump, even
though its roots be fixed in the richest mold ; and small better
luck has the plant stuck in an impervious, undrained soil, even
though its roots be bathed in a never failing pool of stagnant
water. Perfect drainage is the only eifectual means by which
such land can be sweetened and rendered fertile.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

The excellent advantages gained by the talented and industrious
men who have directed every effort to aid practical agriculture,
deserve golden praises from mankind. When they have discovered
any error in their course they promptly admit, and try again.
The problem which they have undertaken to solve is a mysterious
cause, and no w^onder that it is slowly revealed to the most zealous
of the seekers.

We find very valuable remarks as to this matter, in the Journal
of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland Agricultu-
ral Society of Scotland for July, 1855.

Liebig has the merit of being the first who laid distinctly before
the public sound views as to the sources of the constituents of
plants.

336 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

All chemists are agreed as to the source from which the oxygen
and hydrogen of plants are derived, the principal of which is
water. All of them agree that tlie carbon of vegetables, is de-
rived principally from the air, partially only from the soil.

It becomes evident that, from most conclusive proofs, that
humus, in the form in which it exists in soil, does not yield the
smallest nourishment to plants.

Mr. Stephens, the author of " The Book of the Farm," has at
the request of the Marquis of Tweeddale, stated the operations
at Tester, carried on under his Lordship's superintendence. The
great dilference between the ordinary and the Tester plan is thus
stated. " The only object in using the plow and some other
large implements is the pulverization of the soil-surface and sub-
soil in part. The ordinary and the yester treatment of either
soil both aim at the same object, but the difference is this, that
the ordinary practice attains only an imperfect and temporary
pulverization of a little more than surface soil seven or eight
inches deep, for subsoiling is very seldom practiced, while the
Tester plan attains an effectual and durable pulverization of both
soil and sub-soil to the depth of twenty-two inches. It does not
like common plowing lay over smooth furrow slices, glazed by
the plow, but deep, broad, and broken furrow slices in immediate
precedence of the upraising of the sub-soil from a great depth as
far as and no farther than to mix it completely with any desired
portion of the surface soil.''

We consider that great merit is due to the Marquis of Tweed-
dale for foreseeing the good effects of deep pulverization, &c.

It cannot be denied that agriculture is much indebted to science
for its unprecedented progress during the last fifteen years.

ON CHINCH BUGS.
Farmington, N. Eichmond, Henrico Co., Va.,
August 18tk, 1855.
Dear Sir : — Knowing your deep interest and ardent enthusia-
ism in the advancement of the agricultural interest, as also that
all important facts have not simply an individual but also a
general interest, I presume to call your attention, and tlirough
you the Farmers' Club, to the enclosed bugs. In this section of
country they are known as the " Chintz Bug; " when mashed or
crushed they smell like a bed bug, which are also called ' ' Chintz
Bugs " here.

American institute. 337

They frequently manifest themselves in all the early grain
crops, and their ravages are so destructive as sometimes to result
in the entire destruction of the crop. When the wheat, oats or
rye are harvested they frequently migrate into contiguous corn-
fields, and sometimes as is the case this year, they prove as in-
jurious to the corn as to the small grains; nay indeed, I think
from what I witness in my own cornfield, that they are likely
to be more destructive, for the rapidity with which they multiply
passes belief; and the late maturity of the corn crops affords them
the entire summer for the development of their reproductive
powers, and wiiich I should presume is several thousand fold in
one season, for when they first made their appearance in my field
about the last of June, it was in a bottom which I presume had
always been w^ater sogged for the want of drainage, and in order
to drain which I was at the time opening a large ditch, but until
completed it remained in a condition that I could not work it,
that is subsequent to the heavy rains that fell in the latter part
of June — as a consequence the grass got the advantage of us for
several wrecks in this particular place, which however was not
more than a rood in extent, and when we could work it, w^e found
perhaps fifty hills of corn pretty thickly infested wuth these
bugs. My first resort was pulverized caustic lime, this seemed
to clear them out, and for two weeks, I was consoling myself that
I had remedied the evil; but was undeceived by finding that it
had only driven them from one locality to another. Hence they
developed themselves all around their original locality and
spread themselves very rapidly. I then made a mixture of lime,
guano, and salt, and dusted every hill I found infested, but that
also had no other effect than to drive them through the field,
they are now entirely through fifteen acres of my best corn, and
during the last three weeks which has been very dry, they have
utterly ruined several acres in the bottom where they originally
appeared. The stalks of all sizes lay prostrate in all directions,
literally covered with the bugs, it is no exaggeration to say that
a cup full can be shaken from one stalk; and though they seem
to prefer the younger and more tender corn, yet they have no
respect for any size, but prostrate stalks seven inches in circum-
ference laden with large ears already glazed.

You will perceive the relative proportions of young and old in
the samples sent. No body here knows of any remedy. Bo you 1

[Am. Inst.] 22

33& TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Will you please call the attention of the club to the subject;
and if there is a remedy I shall esteem it a great favor to be

informed.

Trusting you will not esteem this an improper intrusion, I
subscribe myself with the highest esteem for your zealous devo-
tion to the noble cause of agriculture.

Yours, very respectfully,
To H. Meigs, Esq., Secretary of the G. B. STACY.

Farmers' Club, New-York city.

The Secretary hoped that the club would pay close attention
to this little devastator of our glorious own Indian corn.

I find in Harris' excellent treatise on American insects,
accounts of this dangerous little creature, which ought to be
known throughout our country, and not locked up in our libraries.
See Prof. Harris, 2d edition, page 172, &c.

" The wheat fields and cornfields of the south and west often
suffer severely from the depredations of certain minute bugs long
known there by the name of Chinch hugs, which fortunately have
not yet been observed in New-England." (While this sheet is
passing through the press, I have to record the discovery of one
of these bugs in my own garden, on the 17th of June, 1852.)

They are mentioned in the 11th volume of Young's Annals of
Agriculture, published, I believe, about 1788. From this work
Messrs. Kirby and Spence probably obtained the following
account, contained in the first volume of their interesting intro-
duction to entomology : " America suffers in its wheat and maize
from the attack of an insect, which, for what reason I know not,
is called the chinch bug fly. (It is like the bed bug which hides
in chinks. H. Meigs.) It appears to be apterous (without
wings), and is said, in scent and color to resemble the bed bug.
They travel in immense columns from field to field, like locusts,
destroying every thing as they proceed ; but their injuries are
confined to the states south of north latitude 40^" From this
account add Kirby and Spence: " the depredator here noticed
should belong to the Geocorisse of Latreille, but it seems very
diflacult to conceive how an insect which lives by suction,^and
has no mandibles could destroy these plants so perfectly." I
have ascertained from an examination of living specimens, that
the Chinch bug is the Lygmus leucopterus or white-winged
Lygseus described by Mr. Say, in December, 1831, in a rare little
pamphlet on the Heteropterus Hemiptera of North America."

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 339

It appears moreover, to belong to the modern genus Rhyparo-
chromus (pretty trifles, H. M.). In its perfect state it is not
apterous, Ibut has wings, and then measures about 3-20th of an
inch in length. It is readily distinguished by its white wing-
covers, upon each of which there is a short central line, and a
large marginal oval spot, black. The rest of the body is black
and downy, except the beak, the legs, the antennse at base, and
the hinder edge of the thorax, which is reddish-yellow, and the
fore part of the thorax which has a grayish lustre. The young
and wingless individuals are at first bright red, changing with
age to brown and black; a7id are always marked with a white hand
across the hack.

It is a mistake that these insects are confined to the states
south of the 40 "^ of north latitude, for I have been favored with
them by Professor Lathrop of Beloit College, Wisconsin, and by
Dr. Le Baron, of Geneva, Illinois. The latter gentleman had no
difficulty in obtaining a suflacient number without going out of
his own garden.

The eggs of the Chinch bug are laid in the ground in which
the young have been found in great abundance at the depth of
an inch or more. They make their appearance on wheat about the
middle of June; and may be seen in their various stages of growth
on all kinds of grain, on corn, and on herds grass, during the
whole summer. Some of them continue alive through the winter
in their places of concealment.

The summer of 1838, the early part of it, was very dry, and
our gardens and fields swarmed with immense numbers of little
bugs, that attacked almost any kind of herbaceous plants. My
attention Avas first drawn to them by the injury they did to
dahlias, marigolds, asters and balsams. In the garden of my
friends Messrs. Hoveys, at Cambridge, they were committing sad
havoc, and all means of destroying or expelling them had failed.
They were in great numbers on the potato vines, and diminished
the potato crop. In St. Johnsbury, Vermont, they were charged
with the potato-rot.

The Chairman called up the subjects of the day — Fall Dressing
of Meadows, and Preparation of Ground for and Planting Wheat.

Orange Judd stated that the first question was from Dr. Water-
bury, who was now absent at two funerals.

Mr. Judd being called upon, said he had not proposed the
question for the purpose of speaking upon it, but to draw out in-
formation needed at this season. He had raised some wheat, and

340 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

seen much grown by others. The first requisite was good seed.
He had made considerable effort to ascertain the comparative
value of the Mediterranean variety, and from all accounts it ap-
pears that this had generally escaped the attack of insects, but
not always. He had accounts from a few localities where the
midge, or clear- winged fly had preyed indiscriminately upon all
varieties. This was to be expected; indeed this species of insect
was quite as apt to attack early as later grain. But, every-
thing considered, the Mediterranean is decidedly superior to all
others. He further remarked, upon the importance of saving
large, plump seed, in order to furnish sustenance to the first
germs and roots, and give them a vigorous start; upon manuring
with clover, plowing it under Avhen in blow, and not disturbing
it with the plow afterward, but to stir the surface well with a
heavy, sharp harrow or cultivator; upon plowing in all kinds of
manures, especially guano, as soon as possible, so that they may
become mingled with the soil before the seed is sown. A remark
that ammonia, or manures containing large quantities of this ele-
ment, such as guano, urine, &c., were the only profitable manures
for wheat, called up the phosphoric acid advocates.

Prof. Mapes referred to the fact that as soon as the wheat plant
touches the cold soil beneath, it ceases to " tiller." As to the
question of manures, (said the Professor,) I will mention two in-
cidents. When the National Agricultural Society held its meet-
ing at Washington City, George Washington Custis, the adopted
son of General Washington, stated that he was owner of the Ar-
lington estate, containing some 5,000 acres of land, and several
hundred negroes. For several years he had found it necessary,
in order to pay his own expenses, and those of his iamily, (in-
cluding the negroes,) to mortgage the estate. He had an analy-
sis made of his soil, with a view to ascertain its deficiencies for a
wheat crop, and under proper instructions he had those deficien-
cies supplied; and "now," said he, "gentlemen, I can say in-
stead of mortgaging my estate, I am continually lessening the
mortgages I had previously obtained, and this year I have ten
thousand bushels of wheat for the miller, while until the analy-
sis was made I never was able to sell a single bushel of wheat
above what was used for the hands." Mr. John Jones, of Dela-
ware, the largest wheat-grower within 200 miles of Washington,
said he bought a favm for $10 an acre, which he agreed to pay in
small installments, and on a very long mortgage— the owner be-
ing glad to sell at that low price and on those easy terms. When

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 341

he commenced operations his first crop of wheat was some seven
or eight bushels to the acre, on tlie plan of cultivation usual in
the neighborhood. He sent his soil north to have it analysed.
On the basis of the analysis he planned his operations, and "gen-
tlemen,'' said he, "I raised a larger crop of wheat than any other
man within the same distance of Washington. The assessors this
year valued my land at $70 an acre, calculating from the value
of the crop of wheat." These cases had come under his (Prof.
M.'s) supervision, and the preparation of manure which he re-
commended, after analyzing the soils, was a mixture of guano
with bones, dissolved by sulphuric acid. They had added sul-
phate of ammonia, which had cost them only as much as the
carting of barn-yard manure had usually cost. The soils of those
gentlemen contained rather more potash than usual. Euthe had
yet to find the first soil which is not capable of being benefited
by the addition of the super-phosphate of lime.

John A. Brush, of Bowronville, near Williamsburgh, Long
Island, presented Harving apples from a tree imported by him
from Rotterdam, two years ago. The tree is very thrifty, and
has just commenced bearing at seven years of age. The apples
are of a deep, dark, red color, very tender and delicate flesh and
taste. At the proper season grafts can be obtained from it.

Mr. Brush presented also what is commonly called the Indian
apple, since called, by some. Lady's Tomato; grows wild, size of
a small cherry, round, yellowish green; seed like tomato; taste
sweet. Each tomato is wrapped in withered petals.

Philo S. Mills, Esq., of New- York, presented a very large tas-
sel from the sugar cane of the West Indies.

Addington D. Fiye explained the specimens of sea weed pre-
sented by him as being designated in algology by the term Lami-
naria. It is one of the most important of the sea weeds for
manure. It is covered on one side thickly with pure white sugar
and soda!

The careful observation and selection of alga made by Mr. Frye
in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans are known to and acknow-
ledged by the Smithsonian Institution and others.

Prof. Mapes — From theory and practice recommended deep
tillage. He gave the rationale of the tillage of wheat.

Mr. Lawton said : I have been induced to present this speci-
men of fruit to the Farmers' Club as an annual tribute, because
in pursuing the legitimate objects of the association, they have
widely circulated an account of the plant, and endorsed my state-

342 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

raents in regard to its quality. The members who have seen the
fruit in former years will observe that the quality is unimpaired,
and as no plants of this variety are found growing wild in New-
Rochelle or any other part of the country, I shall preserve with
the greatest care the original stock, believing it too valuable to
hazard the introduction of seedlings or any other variety near
them. I design enlarging my plantation by several additional
acres, so as to furnish an extensive supply at reduced rates, and
shall have, the ensuing season, twenty thousand plants for sale at
$25 a hundred, or $5 for a package of one dozen. The cultiva-
tion of this fruit will no doubt give ample returns to those
w^ho reside near large towns. Fruit dealers purchase readily all
I can supply, at the rate of one dollar a gallon, deliverable in
pint and quart baskets like those before you, and when in season
they can be seen and purchased at Mr. Taylor's Saloon in Broad-
way. My grounds are near to the village of the New- York and
New-Haven railroad, in the village of New-Kochelle, and open
to visitors at any time.

THE LAWTON BLACKBERRY.

Professor Mapes said he had bought some of the plants, and
was told that if he went into the swamps and selected some
blackberry plants, he could find some that by cultivation Avould
be as fine as the Lawton berry. He did not believe it, but tried
it, and found it was not so. They were entirely distinct from the
Lawton berry.

Mr. J. P. Swain of Bronxville, said he had found the fruit
growing wild along the Bronxville river. Water or wet land
was essential to the full growth and perfection of the fruit. He
had conversed with persons who had picked the berries thirty-
eight years ago, and found thirteen berries to fill a pint measure.
He said, there are plants now growing wild which far exceed any
of those cultivated. They can be found near the mill of Mr-
Lawrence Underbill and elsewhere.

Some discussion here arose on the propriety of the name, as it
was suggested that others besides Mr. Lawton had produced as
fine blackberries.

Professor Mapes said there never was a new thing yet but after
it had succeeded there w^ere many to claim the honor of having
originated it. It is the man who prosecutes an invention so as to
make it available to the uses of the people who deserves the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 343

honor, and on this ground Mr. Lawton is certainly entitled to the
distinction. [Loud cheers].

The Lawton Blackberry.

A crate of the Lawton blackberries was then opened and dis-
tributed among the members of the Club. The berries appeared
to be quite equal in size and flavor to the former specimens ex-
hibited.

A NEW DIGGEE.

Dr. Evans presented a new plan for a digging machine, which
differed from all others in having the spades attached to an endless
' chain moving around the driving wheel or roller, and a cylinder
placed behind it. Dr. E. had expended all his means in experi-
ments, and having perfected it he was unable to bring it before
the public. He hoped some gentleman with means would take
hold of it.

Mr. Hull exhibited to the members a new patent corn planter,
invented by Charles A. Wakefield, and manufactured at New-

344 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Haven, Connecticut, by Chauncey Jerome, where they are for sale
at five dollars each. This little machine is used with one hand;
it puts the grains down at any depth desired not over four inches
and covers them at one motion. Grains of various sizes, and
peas, beans, &c., can be planted by it, and the number of grains
such as the planter pleases to regulate. A man can plant from
five to eiglit acres in a day, all at one exact depth, so that the
crop is found to grow with distinguished uniformity. The Club
thought well of it. It weighs about six pounds.

Dr. Evans, of Miami county, Ohio, explained his new patent
porcupine spading machine for agricultural purposes — will cost
about $300 — will dig a furrow about three feet wide; the spades
or diggers are fixed on an endless chain.

The questions of the day were ordered to be continued to next
meeting : viz.

By Dr. Waterbury — Fall dressing of meadows.

Ey Mr. Judd — Preparation of the ground for sowing wheat.

The club then adjourned to the first Tuesday of September
next, the 4th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

Sept. 5M, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Dr. Underbill, of Croton Point, Dr. Gilman,
Solon Robinson, Orange Judd, Adrian Bergen, of Flatbush, Long
Island, Dr. Bartlett, formerly of the Albion, Dr. Waterbury,
Prof. Mapes, Geo. E. Waring, Jr., Mr. Griflfing, of New-Jersey,
Judge Van Wyck, Wm. B. Leonard, John W. Chambers, and
others. Forty members in all.

Richard T. Underbill, of Croton Point, in the chair. Henry
Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers, viz.:

[Revue Horticole, Paris, August, 1855.]

Translation by Henry Meigs,
Our readers will recollect, perhaps, that the traveling botanist,
M. Fortune, who is already celebrated by two journies through
China, has been sent back by the British government some time
ago, to obtain from them Tea plants for planting in the northern
provinces of India. This third journey of his will, in all proba-
bility, be as fruitful to Botany and Horticulture, as the two for-
mer. Letters received from him in England some months ago,
announce that he had returned to Chang- Hai, after a long excur-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

345

sion throiigli the central provinces of the Celestial empire. He
had (Nov. 28, 1854) caused 23,892 tea plants, 178 plants of a
new kind ofchesnut, wliich is extensively cultivated in China;
also 628 Camas-Palms, the Chamcerops excelsa ; many specimens
of grafts from the Yang-Mai, or Myrica, with its eatable fruit;
also a multitude of other interesting vegetables. Among them is
Gree7i Indigo, the color of which, notwithstanding its name, is
neither green, nor blue, but is yellow. Here is cause for the
partizans of the naturalization of exotic plants to rejoice that
even a portion of these may be Europeanized. Mr. Fortune will
come back to England with his hands full. There will soon be
some pretty gleanings to be had by our horticulturists.

GUANO AND ITS SUBSTITUTES.

[London Farmers' Magazine, August, 1855.]

Extracts by Henry Meigs.
There appears to be on all the islands wliich contain guano,
about . On the Chincha and Chipana islands, on the

coast of Peru, 27,000,000 tons, of which, perhaps,

11,000,000 is good.
On Lobos islands, &c., 10,000,000 "

20,000,000 tons.

USE OF IT.

During the twelve years since guano was imported into Eu-
rope, there have been bought in about 1,500,000 tons, rather
more than 100,000 tons a year.

The present consumption is from 300,000 to 320,^00 tons per
annum. In five or six years more it will reach 500,000 tons; the
increase will also take place in other countries, so that in a few
years the annual demand will be 2,000,000 tons; then, unless a
substitute or more deposits are found, it will be all used up in
twelve or fourteen years.

Fortunately the desideratum has been discovered in France by
a committee of the Imperial and Central Agricultural Society,
Messrs. Payen and Pommier. Tliat is a manure made of fish or
refuse of fish. Messrs. de Malon and Thurneysen, had estab-
lished such a manufacture at Newfoundland, and not at Concar-
neau. It is not easy to estimate the importance of this manufac-
ture, when it is considered that the raw material is inexhaustible!

The materials are boiled, pressed, dried and pulverized, and

346 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

then are fit for use. The establishment at Concarneau, can man-
ufacture from four to five tons per day, in a perfectly dry state,
■working only twelve hours per day. The perfect desiccation
(drying) of the manure, secures the purchaser against a possibil-
ity of loss from damp.

The guano and this manure are both made of fish. There is
no essential difference between them, as analysis has proved, (but
something in favor of this artificial guano.)

ANALYSIS.

Fish manure per 100 — Azote, 12 Phosphate, 22

Guano, " " .... 10 « ... 14

In favor of the fish manure, 2 8

They constitute the very essence of all manures, for cereal
crops especially. And great saving is made of cartage, and men
and horses, used in common manures. The farmers in France
are using it extensively. It is sold as fast as it can be made at
about $45 a ton. Scientific men are busy with this subject.
The learned Professor Way is lecturing upon it.

Dr. Oilman requested members to send to him some leaves and
stems of potatoes affected by the potato rot. They are desired
by his friend Prof. Cassaly, of Berlin, who is investigating the
malady.

The Chairman — I have never had the disease in my potatoes.
I attribute my exemption on Croton Point to the alluvial mate-
rials with which I have fertilized the land.

Adrian Eergen, of Flatbush, Long Island — I have seen it lately
at Gravesend and New Utrecht, on the west end of Long Island,
near me. It affects my early planted potatoes. Generally
hitherto those escaped it, and the late planted were ruined by it.
I believe that the disease is worst where horse manure is used.
Four brothers near me have two hundred acres in potatoes, and
they think that they shall lose by the disease four thousand
bushels of their crop. I do not hear of the rot elsewhere parti-
cularly.

F. D. Tucker, of Bushwick, Long Island, presented a Christina
melon raised by him ; it has deep reddish orange -colored flesh
about two inches thick, external color yellowish green; ripens
earlier than the ordinary citron melon by two weeks.

The members tasted, and unanimously agreed that it was very
delicious.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

347

Dr. Stark, of Brooklyn, a grandson-in-law of Henry Meigs,
presented the orange melon raised by him from seed obtained
from Mr. Peabody, of Columbus, Georgia. These water melons
attain about ten or twelve inches length. The rind peels off
readily, leaving the segments containing the tlesh and seeds,
looking like so many honey combs. This new and singular
melon has a most delicate structure and delicious taste.

Mr. H. H. Randall, of Morrisania, presented some of his culti-
vated ground cherries. This delicate little fruit is extremely like
a potato-apple, and is about the size of a middle sized gooseberry;
each fruit is wrapped in a delicate husk. Its seeds are like those
of tomatoes. The taste is sweetish, and is much admired by some
persons, both raw and cooked in pies. Some call it Indian apple,
others call it lady's tomato. It is a physalis; it is of the potato
family— the solanum; it is most near the lycopersicum— love
apple; or, finally, it is a tomato, and the ladies should adopt it.
The Secretary has saved some seeds for farther trials.

POTATOES GONE.

Mr. Adrian Bergen, of Greenfield, on Long Island, (near Coney
Island,) stated that two of his neighbors— the brothers Cowen-
hoven— have lost almost entirely twenty to twenty-five acres of
potatoes, which would have yielded nearly 4,0U0 bushels. They
have plowed up the ground, picking up what sound ones re-
mained, as they did not consider the crop worth digging with a
hoe. They were planted in April, on loamy soil. The rot pre-
vails considerably in that vicinity.

WHEAT SOWING.

The regular subject being called for, Mr. Bergen stated that on
the potato ground above alluded to, they remove the potatoes and
let the ground lie, (if it is strong enough, if not they add manure,)
and sow the latter part of September and first of October. He
had never tried subsoiling. He sows timothy seed in the fall,
and sometimes clover in the spring; prefers timothy to lover if
but one is used. Usually does not prepare the seed. Has tried
brine, but found no benefit. He sows early to avoid " the fly."
He tried Soule's wheat, obtained from Western New-York, but
found it very uncertain, as sometimes 90 per cent of the crop was
lost. He now raises the Mediterranean, and finds it reliable.

Dr. Underbill suggested that eating down the wheat in the
fall would destroy the insect. The insects destroy more than the
dogs, and that is saying a great deal.

348 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The Secretary alluded to the fact that Mr. Glover is now em-
ployed by Government at $2,000 a year, to investigate the sub-
ject of insects, and strongly commended the investigating tact
of Mr. Glover, " whose head and eyes were a traveling micro-
scope."

PEACHES AND PLUMS.

Mr. Bergen has lost his peaches and plums by curculio.

Mr. Mapes had saved his fruit of various kinds this season, by
rapping the tree with a mallet frequently, to jar off the diseased
plums and curculios, which he then destroyed. His peaches,
plums, pears, &;c., are very prolific.

Dr. Underbill had found that during this season the curculios
have been far less destructive than for ten years past, except on
high ground. He had planted one hundred and fifty trees lean-
ing over water, and not one of these had been injured by the
curculio. The parent will not deposit the egg where it will be
subject to destruction. Dr. Underbill exhibited several varieties
of these plums, in a perfect state, among which were the Jeffer-
son, a very large yellow plum; Lawrence's Favorite, and others.
In his experience, he prefers for cultivation the following varie-
ties, in the order named :

1. Lawrence's Favorite. 6. Green Gage.

2. The Jefferson. 7. Imperial Ottoman.

3. Imperial Gage. 8. Golden Drop.

4. Smith's Orleans. 9. La Empress.

5. Washington.

CATERPILLARS ON FRUIT TREES.

Mr. Bergen had been greatly troubled with these pests, and he
and others wished to know how to get rid of them. Mr. Mapes
recommended using a long shaped lamp filled with a mixture of
camphene and alcohol, the latter in excess, and burning them on
the trees. Dr. Underbill had found nothing so good as destroy-
ing them with the hand. He had been obliged to cut down every
wild cherry tree on his place, and this, with the hand remedy,
had nearly freed him from the pest. Mr. Judd had precisely the
experience of Dr. Underbill. With the destruction of the wild
cherry trees, large and small, and a thorough destruction by the
hand in early summer, the caterpillars were nearly eradicated,
where before they had stripped the trees entirely bare of leaves.
The pinching operation should be performed early in the morn-
ing, while they were in their webs, and soon after their first ap-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

349

pearance, for after full growth the caterpillars did not return to
their nests at nightfall.

MULES VERSUS HORSES.

Dr. Waterbury introduced a paper giving the experience of the
Sixth avenue Railroad Company, as given by Mr.William Ebbits,
the superintendent of the stables, which leads to the conclusion
that for labor furnished rates of speed, mules are preferable to
horses. These hybrids may be put to labor younger than horses,
being as fit for service at three years' old as horses are at five.
They are less liable to the accidents of disease, so that on an av-
erage they wear one and a half times as long. The amount of
feed they require is at least one-third less than that of horses of
the same weight, performing the same work.

The horses and mules of the Company do an equal daily labor,
the average travel being 16^ miles. Of hay they receive the
same daily allowance — eight pounds— but in the additional feed
of meal, the mules receive but half as much as the horses, and
yet, as any one may observe, keep in better order. For this rea-
son the Company are substituting mules for horses as fiist as may
be. They pay, on an average, $300 per pair for mules, while the
average for horses is not over $225. The expense of raising
mules is no greater than that of other costs.

To offset economy in feed, mules cannot compete with horses
in point of speed. This is due in part to their smaller size, but
mostly to difference in composition. The material of which a
mule is made seems to be tougher, and less given to motion, so
that with the effort a horse uses in making four miles an hour, a
mules makes not more than three. Over-sized mules, as over-
sized horses, do not wear well. The most economical weight for
either animal is about eight or nine hundred pounds. A mule
will draw a heavier load than a horse of the same weight.

The meal fed is composed of equal parts, by the bushel, of
maize and oats ground together. Of this, a horse gets one hun-
dred pounds a week, and a mule, fifty pounds. The drivers pre-
fer the horse teams on account of their more stylish action.

Mr. Mapes spoke very strongly in favor of mules for farm
work, alluding especially to their long lived qualities, their hardi-
ness, docility, &c.

Mr. Bergen had found that though mules were good and profit-
able while they did live, yet tliey were in hi? hands rather sliort
lived. When sick, little benefit resulted from " doctoring." It

350 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

was natural for them to be strong mouthed and to use their hind
feet.

Mr. Mapes said their disposition depended entirely upon
training.

Dr. Waterbury thought more care was desirable in breaking
young animals, whether mules or horses, to keep their mouths
tender. They should be tauglit to always obey the rein. To tie
up colts with a bitted rein, and leave tliem thus twelve or twen-
ty-four hours at a time, as is usually practised, was the surest
way to spoil them for obeying the bit.

MELONS.

A fine Christina melon, of excellent flavor, high color and
large size, was presented by F. D. Tucker, of Eushwick, L. I.

Dr. Stark, of Bedford, L. I., presented an orange watermelon,
from seed obtained from Mr. Peabody. This attracted much at-
tention. The rind peals off mucli like that of an orange, and
the internal divisions are similar to that fruit. The specimen
was not fully ripe; the flavor of the perfected fruit is represented
as delicious.

Mr. Geissenhainer presented a Patagonian gourd about four feet
in length, by its largest diameter over four inches. He was
pleased with the taste of it, when cooked as we do egg plant.

The Secretary observed that Lindley states that the gourds,
generally, are not fit for food; and that water, contained in some
dried gourd shells, for some time, became poisonous.

A member asked if any one present had ever seen a dead ass
or mule ?

Mr. Adrian Bergen said that he had, but they are long lived;
have very hard mouths; it is hard to make them go when they
don't please, and they are very free with their hind legs.

Prof. Mapes — That is true, because they resent bad usage;
they can't bear a Connecticut rider.

Solon Robinson — Prof. Mapes, you have mules, did you ever
ride one?

Prof Mapes — No, yet his character can be made good; he
learns easily, but forgets soon — bad memory. His duration is
great. I have a pair of mules which I bought about five years
ago as being then forty-five years of age, and they are so still;
there is no alteration in them at all. They are very easy to keep.
They eat a thistle off the top of a measure of oats, after having
first eaten their beds; after that they take a shy at the oats !

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

351

Dr. Waterbury — The experience of the Sixth Avenue Railroad
Company is in favor of mules. They eat only half as much meal
as horses— the same quantity of hay. The company's mules cost,
on an average, ^300 a pair. They do the same amount of work
as the horses, but are slower gaited. Their average speed seems
to be about three miles an hour.

Prof. Mapes says he has two teams, one of four mules and one
of four horses, that do the same amount of w^ork. The load of
each team is 60 cwt. — They are easy to train to work and very
enduring. I find them more than one-third cheaper than horses,
and it is said they never die.

PREPARING GROUND FOR FALL WHEAT.

Mr. Bergen — We plow and manure well land that has been in
potatoes, and sow after the second plowing, in the last of Septem-
ber or first of October, and always sow grass seed with the wheat.
Some sow clover also in the spring. I think timothy alone is
best. I don't think either injures the wheat crop, unless sown
very thick. I sow my wheat without washing. I have never
done anything to prevent the ravages of the wheat fly. A few
years ago I lost my entire crop. We try to sow early wheat early
in the season. I now sow Mediterranean wheat. I do not feed
ofl' the crop in the fall. I did not know that feeding off w^heat
in the tall would destroy the eggs of the fly. The chairman
thought it would.

PLUMS— CURCULIO.

Prof. Mapes says that he practised this year jarring off the
plums in the early part of the season that were bitten, all of
which were burned, and thus he so far destroyed the curculio
that he now has bushels of the very finest plums.

Geo. E. Waring — The best manner to jar plum trees is when
the tree is small to cut off a limb, and heal it up so as to leave a
shoulder to strike upon. This is better than the plan mentioned
by Prof. Mapes, of having a board cushioned to strike upon with
the mall.

CATERPILLARS.

Dr. Underbill — My plan to get rid of the trouble of caterpillars
is to cut down every wild cherry tree about my place. Some
preserve these trees for the worms to breed upon. It is an error.
They are the great breeding places of all caterpillars that are de-
structive to fruit. My opinion is, that every wild cherry tree
should be exterminated.

352 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Judd detailed some facts corroborating this statement.

By invitation of Mr. Waring several members of the club, on
Saturday, September 8, are to visit Mr. Greeley's farm at Chapaqua,
which is cultivated by Mr. Waring the present year.

Solon Robinson — Mr. Chairman, I think the most important
question for us to take up at the next meeting is the preservation
of fruits and vegetables for winter use. The country is now full
of green fruit, in a few weeks it will be gone, and instead of
having it preserved we shall be importing foreign fruits, not half
as good as we might have of home growth if we knew how to pre-
serve them. My object is to awaken an interest in the all-im-
portant subject of increasing the consumption of fruit, and adding
to the supply of cheap human food. This question will include
every manner of preserving all kinds of fruit and succulent vege-
tables.

It was agreed that this should be the only subject this day
fortnight.

Prof. Mapes remarked that we were about to have the bene-
fit of a new steel hnplement for the field and garden, which will,
he believes, prove very useful.

Dr. Waterbury had used mules and horses, and found that
their mouths can by proper treatment be kept tender, and they
manageable consequently, but by bad management their mouths
become hard, and then they are difficult to manage.

On motion of Mr. Judd and Mr. Robinson the question for
next club, exclusive of all other questions, shall be " Preserving
fruits and vegetables in every form."

Adjourned to September 18, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

September IS th, 1855.

Present — Messrs. D. Bartlett, Paul Stillman, Wm. B. Leonard,
John W. Chambers, Solon Robinson, Messrs. Clubb, Stevenson,
Provost, Ambler, Griffing, Parker, Geo. E. Waring, Jr., Dr.
Waterbury, Dr. Wellington, Mr. T. W. Field, of Brooklyn, Rev.
M. White, of Staten Island, M. Van Boskerck, M. Pardee,
Counsellor de Hamel, of the Russian government, a lady, Charles
Oakley, and others. Fifty-five members in all.

Mr. Paul Stillman in the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The chairman called up the subject " Preservation of fruit and
vegetables," as the exclusive subject of the day. Mr. Orange

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 353

Judd wlio was one of the proposers of the subject, not yet having
appeared, desultory business was taken up.

Solon Robinson made the following report of a visit to a young
farmer : Agreeable to invitation to the club, I made one of a half
a dozen that enjoyed the hospitality of our friend George E.
Waring, Jr., at Chapaqua, the other day. These pleasant farmer
visits are not sufficiently often interchanged. We can always
learn something by seeing what others do and how they do it.
I learned how he plowed eighteen inches deep, and what the
effect of it was. It is a product of at least seventy bushels of
ccrn to the acre, with a very large growth of stalks, valuable for
fodder, upon land that before it was drained by Mr. Greeley was
a bog swamp. It was plowed by the big plow described here by
Mr. Waring, of which our jee-about Connecticut friend is so
sceptical, and manured one-half with poudrette, and one-half
with Mapes' super-phosphate, at the rate of $12 an acre. Both
parts are good, but the phosphate will give the greatest yield,
and if the season had been a dry one, the crop would without
doubt have been one hundred bushels per acre. There is a fine
field of carrots on another part of the swamp, that will give, in
the opinion of the visitors, a thousand bushels an acre, notwith-
standing the wet season. Eut the greatest crop is three-quarters
of an acre of Lima beans, that by estimate of the part gathered,
will yield four or five hundred bushels in the pod. They sell for
56 cents, and shell out eight quarts per bushel, and are without
dispute, the best in market this season. These are grown upon
upland, but they are the fruit of swamp muck. Other crops,
from the same cause and a judicious money-making application
of fertilizers, are equally fruitful. I picked the only good
tomatoes that I have eaten this year, from a plat where scores
of bushels are decaying because the vholesale — mind, the whole-
sale— price is so low in this market that they are not worth the
picking. Mr. Waring sent down the day I was there, a load of
excellent cabbage, large, white, tender heads, that sold for less
than one and a half cents a piece. Consumers will pay six to
twelve for the same, owing to the beauty of our market system.
The Harlem railroad system is equally beautiful. The company
charge such high freights that Mr. Waring finds it to his
advantage, notwithstanding his place is within a few rods of the
station, to wagon his freight seven miles to the river, and he can
even leave home in his wagon at the same time the cars start and

[Am. Inst.] 23

354 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

drive the seven miles and reach the city by the Hndson River
railroad ahead of the one direct. This is not all the fault with
that old fogy managed road. On Satm-day he picked forty
bushels of those fine beans to send by the Harlem freight train
Sunday evening. They were all ready at the station, but the
officials did not think proper to be accommodating enough to put
them in the cars. Perhaps they wanted to punish him for trying
to get part of his freight down at a cheaper rate. So the beans
lay over till Monday evening. On Tuesday morning his agent
could have sold them if he could have got them in market; but
by a rule of the company freight is not delivered until after 10
o'clock. The beans having laid three very hot days shut up in
close packages, were found to be just in the condition of the
management of this unaccommodating company — a good deal
rotten at the heart. It is to be hoped that the time will come
when railroad officers will learn that the true way to make their
roads profitable to any one beside those who receive salaries is to
offer every accommodation and facility within reason to the
farmers along the line.

A CONVENIENT FARM-GATE.

I want to mention a convenient farm-gate that Mr. Waring has
erected on the road that leads out of the farm to the railroad-station,
which, of course, requires to be often opened. It is tlie one patented
by Woodruff, of Newark, N. J., who exhibited a model to the club
some time since, which was then admired for its simplicity. As
you drive up to the gate upon either side, the wheel passing over
two iron rods connected with the latch, which is tripped, and
immediately the gate opens upon its center post, like a turnstile
and swings half round and catches on a post. It now stands up
and down the road, with a wagon-way open upon each side. As
the wheels pass out on the other side they go over another rod
that uncatches the latch and the weight which operates it carries
it forward and closes the gap. It has simply changed ends; the
next wagon will change it again, and so on till the weight runs
down. It is wound up again by reversing the motion and giving
the gate a rapid whirl by the hand. This little farm is still in a
rude state, but it will be a monument to Horace Greeley, long
after the Greenwood marbles have gone to decay. The swamp
that has been drained and made like a garden-spot, will never be
a swamp again ; and the barren hill-sides that have been black-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 355

ened with muck, and had their ribs broken with a big plow, will
long remember the treatment long after the man wlio set his
neighbors such an example, has gone to fertilize a farm only two
feet by six, where it is to be hoped his spirit will grow and infuse
itself into the owners of a thousand hills and useless swamps, till
the frogs will rise up and not call them blessed.

Mr. Waring doubted whether he had more than six hundred
bushels of carrots per acre.

Mr. Henry S. Clubb, spoke of his recent visit to the Rhode
Island fair, was highly pleased with it; but observed that the
fast liorses there were many, and tlie draught or working horses
were few. He wished that the subject of preparing peat for f^iel,
the best method may be discussed by the Farmers' Club.

Mr. Waring moved that the peat question be then taken up
next after the fruit. — Carried.

PRESERVING FRUIT, &c., &c.

WHITFIELD D. PARKER, 9 KING STREET, NEW-YORK.

From the Penny, Rural, and London Cyclopedieas, also from
Downing, Barry, Mcintosh, &c., &c., on the culture and manage-
ment of fruit trees, and fruits, I condense the following on pre-
serving apples, pears, &c., &c. No precise time can be specified
for plucking or gathering fruit. It is strongly recommended by
all, that it should be plucked when the trees and fruit are per-
fectly dry. The best general rule is, when the fruit stalk sepa-
rates easily from the spur, also the trees that produce good
keeping fruit should not be disturbed till the frost would mellow
and ripen them, so that they would have all they can collect of
grape sugar, this helps to preserve them. Generally those defect-
ive fall off first. Those for preserving should have their stalks
partially separated from the tree; but nevev plucked from the
apple. This should be done very carefully by the hand, if possi-
ble not injure the bloom. Those defective or in the least bruised
should be rejected. Some place the fruit in heaps for three weeks
or more, till they pass through the sweating process. This 'm
my opinion destroy their flavor. To assist the perspiration some
cover with straw or flannel, then spread them out when the air is
dry; to expedite the evaporation also wipe off the moisture.
This should never be done. It has been proven by experience
that certain methods successively practiced by some, have turned
out a failure when attempted by others.

356 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The following are the different methods : Apples and pears
have been deposited for winter use.

1st. In single layers on the bare shelves of a fruit-room.

2d. In the same manner, but covered with light canvas, which
must be dried according as it absorbs the evaporation.

3d. In close drawers one layer, or several layers in depth.

4th. In dry casks, without any interposing material between
them. A few weeks after they are kept shut they require to be
carefully picked over, the casks made perfectly di-y and refilled,
the heads closely fitted, and the fruit on no account disturbed till
unpacked for use.

5th. In boxes, casks, large garden-pots, or jars, with pure and
dry sand interposed between the layers of fruit.

6th. In jars in which no sand, or other substance is allowed to
come in contact with the fruit. The mouths of the jars being
covered with a piece of slate, and the whole plunged into a quan-
tity of dry sand so as to be several inches from the free atmo-
sphere. The sand being a slow conductor of caloric, the sudden
changes of temperature, and their powerful influences in causing
the decay of fruits, are avoided.

7th. In heaps in a dry airy loft, with a slight covering of straw
to prevent the frost from injuring the fruit.

8th. In baskets lined with straw.

9th. In close cellars, excluded from the light, which is in all
cases very injurious.

1 0th. In dark but airy vaults.

11th. On a small scale, under a bell of glass, cemented down
air tight. This must be done on wood free from resin, else it
will communicate its flavor to the fruit by the confined and ac-
cumulating exhalation.

12th. Buried in a box placed on four bricks, under another box
inverted, in an excavation so deep that the upper portion of the
fruit may be one and a half or two feet below the sui'face of the
earth.

13th. In thrashed grain or corn stalks.

14th. Reposing on wheat straw, with or without a covering of
the same.

1 5th. In chaff of wheat or oats.

16th. In flax seed chaff.

17th. In powdered charcoal. This, if it cannot prevent, will
in no degree contribute to the decay internally, or externally. It
is the substance in which the Newtown Pippins, sent to England,

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 357

are packed. Were it not for the bruises they appear to have re-
ceived before put on board, they would arrive much sounder
than they do.

18th. In dried fern leaves.

19th. Loudon, 2,308, aflBrras that he kept apples at a tempera-
ture from 32 to 42, for a whole year. Their flavor was good, and
they Avere in perfect order for eating.

20th. M. Panquet, of Paris, received from the Royal Society
of Horticulture, a medal. He produced, on 12th June, one hun-
dred apples and pears, fresh and of good flavor. The building
used by him consisted of an inner and outer house. This depo-
sitory of the fruit was kept at a temperature of 50 degrees (Fahr.)
constantly. He says 39 would not be injurious, but 66 to 73
proved destructive. Eight parts of sawdust, (not pine) and one
of charcoal; this mixture highly dried in an oven. Fruit kept
in drawers, with layers of this interspersed with the fruit. He
says fruit should be gathered with the greatest care, and not in
the least bruised. The fairest and finest specimens should be se-
lected, and on no account to be wiped previous to being deposi-
ted in the fruit room. What are the circumstances that have
been universally found most detrimental to the preservation of
fruits, &c. 1 As was remarked when mentioning the sixth mode,
atmospheric changes have very great, if not the most powerful of
all influences. First, as regards their calorific effects; second,
their hygrometical. In the former respect the expansion and
condensation, occasioned by the rise and fall of temperature,
must work a change in the state of the juices, doubtless often at
variance with the gradual chemical change which those juices na-
turally undergo. Hence those fruits, &c., that are most exposed
to vicissitudes of temperature, are found to be most apt to fail in
attaining their full, sugary, mellow perfection. Again, when
warm Aveather suddenly succeeds cold, the air in the room is of
a higher degree of temperature than the fruit, and until snch
time as the latter acquire from the former an equality of tempe-
rature; the fruit from its coldness acts as a condenser of the va-
por existing in the warmer atmosphere by wliich it is surround-
ed. The surface of the fruit consequently becomes covered with
a great deposition of moisture, as will be the case Avith a glass
filled Avith Avater colder than the atmosphere of the room into
AV'hich it is brought. It is a knoAvn fact that fruits and vegeta-
bles possess a temperature higher in Avinter than that of the air
generally, by which they are surrounded. This, as Avell as other

358 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

reasons given, causes chemical action, in different degrees, to take
place. In some substances opposite effects are produced, al-
ways in these, eremacausis or decay. It therefore follows that
where fruit is not kept closely packed, it should be exposed to as
little change of temperature as possible, and should also be pre-
served from the full effects of an atmosphere saturated with
moisture. It may be here observed, all good authority agree that
wiping the fruit is injurious, as it takes off the hloom^ the use of
which is a protection from moisture. Some fruit-growers are so
well aware of this that they will not handle their choice fruit in
gathering, except by the stalk. Light is found to be injurious.
All men of experience say fruit keeps best in the dark. Total
darkness is recommended. This arises from a specific stimulus
being exercised upon the vegetable tissue by this agent. Light
causes evaporation. As soon as it is withdrawn it ceases.

It is evident decay is greatly promoted by heat and light^ and
by the presence of alkalies. It is on the contrai-y arrested or re-
tarded by cold, dryness, many salts and absorbents being used.
Gay Lussac has shown that the atmosphere coming into contact,
for a short time, with fruit will cause fermentation. This
would continue in fruit, though not long exposed to the air.
Fruits decaying produce ammonia, hydrogenic acid, and water.
These when brought into contact with muriatic are decomposed
into formic acid and ammonia. Charcoal being the most indiffer-
ent, has the power of condensing ammonia and formic acid, (be-
fore reaching the freezing point.)

As soon as the action of the air ceases, that is, as soon as de-
prived of oxygen, the humus suffers no farther change. Sub-
stances that contain nitrogen are, on examination, most prone to
putrefaction. When the decomposition of such substances is
effected with the assistance of water, their nitrogen is invariably
liberated in the form of ammonia. "TVm is a fixed rule without
exceptions^ whatever may he the cause that produces the decompo-
sition. Every azotised constituent of the ajiimal or vegetable
organism enters spontaneously into putrefaction.^ when exposed to
moisture and a higher temperature.'''' Fermentation may be con-
sidered as a process of combustion or oxidation of a similar kind
taking place in a liquid between the elements of the same matter
at a very slightly elevated temperature, and putrefaction, as a
process of oxidation, in which the oxygen of «// the substances
present comes into play. Eremacausis or decay takes place in
organic substances, in contact with air or oxygen. But these

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

359

changes do not occur when water is exchided, or when the sub-
stances are exposed to the temperature of 32 deg. In Liebig's
Organic Chemistry, in its application to agriculture and physi-
ology, I have found much. I have given it as the best authority
on this most important subject. It seems to arrest the attention
of more minds at present than at any former period. As so much
fruit is lost to the farmer, not even his stock can consume sub-
stances that may be preserved as good, healthy and most accep-
table food for the human family in the cold season of the year,
when they cannot be procured in our fertile soil, but should be
kept till the coming season again affords us the same oppor-
tunity.

The phenomena of animal and vegetable life are peculiar to
themselves; they stand in certain relation to each other, and de-
pend upon certain causes. Heat alters the original mode of
arrangement of the atoms, and consequently the equilibrium of
their mutual attraction. No organism, no portion of an animal,
vegetable or plant, is capable, after the extinction of vital energy,
of resisting the chemical action which air and humidity exercise
upon it. In No. 45, " Scientific American" for 1855, the prin-
ciple and construction of my preservatory are explained and
illustrated. Apples, pears, &c., should be packed in good oak
barrels, resting on their sides in tiers, not more than four high.
If the ice be kept as directed, the temperature will be from 40 to
45. Then the seven conditions indispensable for preserving fruit
are attained. 1st. The temperature be 10 degrees above freezing.
2d. That it be uniformly equal. 3d. The fruit room be dark.
4th. That the atmosphere be more dry than humid. 5th. That
the carbonic acid, disengaged from the fruit, be retained by the
absorbents. 6th. These and the construction of the preservatory,
will cause the air to be sweet. 7th. That the fruits so placed,
diminish the pressure as far as possible. I have given twenty
methods for preserving fruit. I hope fruit growers and consu-
mers will thoroughly investigate and practice the best, so that
sound fruit retaining its ai-oma, be plentiful at all seasons of the
year. Other substances, such as alcohol and sugar, need not
be substituted for well flavored fruits. By using the preser-
vatory dairy, products, eggs, meat, &c., are kept fresh at all
seasons.

Mr. Wm. J. Stevenson, on behalf of Messrs. Wells & Provost,
explained their process, as follows :

360 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

DIRECTIONS FOR PRESERVING HERMETICALLY BY
SPRATT'S PATENT CAN.

First. Be convinced it is best to pay some regard to the direc-
tions, and not to deviate from them, for the alteration that may
be made by the party preserving may be fatal to success.

Second. Select only good fresh fruits or vegetables. Stale and
fermented articles can never be preserved, nor the decay already
commenced arrested.

Vegetables decomposing quickly, such as green corn, green peas,
asparagus, &c., should be preserved within six hours after being
picked; and berries, or other summer fruit, within twenty-four
hours.

Peaches, quinces, pears and apples, should be peeled, and the
seeds removed, before preserving. Both seeds and peel embitter
and otherwise injure the flavor of the fleshy part of the fruit.

Fruits may be preserved either with or without sweetening.
We recommend that it be done at the time of preserving, as the
fruit will be more palatable than when the sugar is applied at the
time of using. To sweeten fruits when preserving, a syrup
should be made, and poured on the fruit in the can until it rises
nearly to the top. To make a syrup for summer fruits, add at
the rate of one pound crushed sugar to a pint of water, and boil
two minutes.

Fruits that are very acid, such as quinces and plums, require
a syrup of greater consistency, say one and a half pounds to tlie
pint of water. When preserved without sugar, a quarter of a
pint of water to every quart of fruit should be poured over the
fruit while in the can. Whether water or syrup is used, it should
always be poured on the fruit in the can before boiling. All
fruits should be put in the cans when in their raw state. Vege-
tables should be partially cooked before being put in the cans,
and a half pint of the water in which they are first cooked slioukl
be added previous to their being boiled in the cans. Corn, peas,
beans and asparagus should be boiled five minutes ; tomatoes fif-
teen minutes. All articles require twice boiling in the cans.

After screwing down the cap Avith the fingers tightly, put the
cans in a boiler of cold water, and bring them to a boiling heat;
then boil the length of time mentioned below; then unscrew and
remove the cap one minute, when it should again be screwed on,
and fastened very tightly with the wrench made for the purpose,
and boil again the second time, as stated below. On removing
from the boiling water the second time, fill up the little bowl or

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 361

sealing chamber below the cap with melted beeswax. If the heat
has been properly applied, steam will always issue from the aper-
ture in the can, upon the cap being removed the first time, and
if it should not issue, it is certain that the water has not been
kept at a boiling point the time directed : the can must then be
placed again in the boiling water. It is the beeswax in the
chamber, in combination with the rubber compress (which should
always be placed in the cap with the rubber side down, or to-
wards the fruit), that prevents access of air to the contents; and
neither can be dispensed with, as both are important for security,
for any length of time. Should the wax draw or suck under the
cap soon after being placed in the sealing chamber, it is certain
that the rubber is badly placed, or that the cap is not tightly
screwed down, in which case it is necessary to rearrange the cap,
&c. The water, during the heating process, should be kept con-
tinually boiling, and the cans should be completely submerged in
the water; it matters not about the position of the can, whether
sitting up on the end or lying down. The length of time for
boiling, is as follows :

First boiling. Second boiling.
Minutes. Minutes.

Berries of all kinds, 15 5

Cherries or currants, 15 5

Rhubarb, 15 5

Peaches, 20 5

Plums, 20 10

Quinces, pears or apples, 45 15

Tomatoes, 30 15

Asparagus, 60 30

Green peas, corn or beans, 3 hours. 3 h'rs.

Sweetmeats, such as are ordinarily preserved by families, may
be effectually kept without danger of fermentation, by pouring
them, while boiling hot, in the cans, and immediately screwing
them down with the wrench, and sealing without being boiled in
the cans.

Large fruits, such as quinces, pears, apples, peaches, &c., pre-
served as sweetmeats, may be dropped in the cans with a fork or
spoon, and the syrup poured over them in a boiling state.

When sweetmeats are encased in the cans, and sealed, it is best
to set the can immediately in cold water, as it prevents the fruit
from becoming darkened in color by the confined heat.

362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

N. B. — It is expected that all who preserve fruits and vegeta-
bles with the Spratt self-sealing can, will use the directions above
given without deviation.

Be careful not to bruise the caps by dropping, as an indenture
prevents them from fitting.

Mr. Stevenson was asked what amount of experience they had ?
and he replied that when these instructions were sU-ictly followed,
the failures were not more than two in a thousand ; and that had
been a practical hermetical sealer of these cans for fourteen years
past. The price of the quart cans was two dollars and a half
per dozen. The cans can be used for several years.

Dr. Waterbury stated his experience on the subject. He had
procured cans for ten cents apiece.

Paul Stillman requested Dr. Wellington to take the chair, and
said he had quart cans of tin at eight cents a piece A minister
of the gospel was concerned in the business. I have sold a
thousand of those cans. The top is soldered on, and can be
opened with a chisel or knife. I have soldered with my own
hands a dozen of these cans in twenty-five minutes. During
these operations my house became quite attractive to my neigh-
bors, who all evidently took strong interest in the fruit preserv-
ing business.

Mr. Waring expressed his approbation of the method here ex-
hibited by Messrs. Wells & Provost. Every method demanded
exactness in execution, or the results could not be warranted.

Mr. Pardee spoke of his own experience in this business, and
more particularly of that of Mr. Smith and his wife, who follow-
ed it with the greatest delicacy, zeal and knowledge, yet failed
after all in the business, so far as profit is concerned. It is abso-
lutely essential that the fruit to be preserved should not be too
green or too ripe. I came here to listen, for we want more
knowledge about it than we have. Messrs. Wells & Provost are
successful in the use of their own cans. They have put up, with-
in a month, twelve millions of cucumbers, and about fifteen thou-
sand dollars' worth of peaches. Their outlay in a year will pro-
bably be five hundred thousand dollars in this preservation busi-
ness. They are very worthy operators in it, and are improving.
There is no fault in their cans. The preparation of the fruit, and
the condition of the fruit, are very delicate points and constitute
a diflicult job in common hands. I have made a pin-hole in a
can, then in an air pump exhausted the air in the can until its
sides of strong tin collapsed. After all my experience I still

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 363

want more liglit, and came here to look for it. I apprehend that
preserving fruits in vacuum will never be successfully practiced
among the common people. A community that do not make
half their butter good are not likely to be successful in putting up
fruit in this way. They have not the experience of Wells k Pre-
vost, and I should be surprised if people generally save half that
they put up. The operation is a delicate one. People don't
know how, and, generally speaking, cannot learn the art from
any written description. The subject of preserving fruits is one
of the most important that we can discuss.

Dr. Waterbury — I want to say a word before this subject is
dropped, I don't like to have such notions go out to the world.
The air must not only be exhausted, but the fruit must undergo
heat enough to perfectly cook the albumen, and then must be
hermetically sealed. It cannot be kept in any other way.

Paul Stillman said that he thought the patentees of these cans
had done the public a great favor by their efforts to introduce
preserved fruit into general use. He confirmed the idea that the
albumen must be cooked, and the air driven out and kept out.

Mr. Judd thought the day had been nearly exhausted in dis-
cussing the merits of one or two varieties of cans, and in a few
general statements. The great mass of farmers will continue the
old way, and our object should be to draw out from practical men
hints in regard to the best method of putting up fruit in common
jars. How much boiling was wanted, how much sugar used,
how ripe the fruit should be, in what part of the house should it
be kept, how should fruit be dried; by the sun or by steam, or in
ovensi These and other such like questions should be discussed.
Then, again, the question embraced vegetables as well as fruits.
How is it best to keep beans, green corn, potatoes, turnips, &c.;
as, for example, should potatoes be packed away with all the
loose soil upon them, or be washed? He proposed that a special
meeting to further discuss the question of " Preserving Fruit and
Vegetables," should be held on Tuesday, Sept. 26th, at which
this should be the only subject introduced. He was pleased to
see a lady among the attendants to-day, and proposed to invite
ladies generally to attend the next meeting. Both of tliesc pro-
positions were unanimously adopted. The next regular meeting
will occur during the Fair of the Institute, and will be held in
the Crystal Palace.

Solon Robinson— What we want is not how fruit may be sealed
up in quart cans to be preserved for the use of the few, but it is

364 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

some great cheap method of saving the millions of bushels that
are rotting upon the ground, or fed to the hogs. We want a plan
for the farmer — one that he can use where the fruit grows, so as
to save it for the use of the human family in winter. Probably
the only feasible plan is some improvement in the manner of dry-
ing fruit. I look for that by the use of steam. Here is a speci-
men of dried peaches, put up two years ago by the simple process
of sugaring ripe fruit and drying it in a stove oven. It is deli-
cious. It is not so important for us to discuss how it is to be
done, as it is to wake up the public mind to the subject of saving,
in some way, the superabundance of perishable fruit that Heaven
bestows upon us in its season, for the use of those who suffer for
food when the earth is wraj)t in snow. If we continue to agitate
the subject, depend upon it processes will continue to be invented
until we shall get one by and by that will answer the purpose.
Every process that facilitates the preservation of fruit is a bless-
ing to the nation, I look upon an apple farm as of more impor-
tance to the mass of people than the electric telegraph, great as
it is.

Dr. Wellington — I have had some experience in the air-tight
preserved fruit. I have used two hundred gallons of such fruit
a year. The principle is that all the atmospheric air must be
driven out, and a perfect vacuum formed. I am very anxious to
see this process succeed. I do not use these cans, because I think
the price too high. The price of $2.50 a dozen for the cans is
extortionate. I use a cheaper kind, equally good, and only half
price. With the ordinary experience of people, I question very
much whether fruit can be put up at a loss of only ten per cent.
A neighbor of mine lost twenty-five per cent of the fruit put up
in Spratt's cans.

Rev. Samuel White, of Staten Island, had planted an orchard
of fruit trees with his own hands, and paid close attention to the
fruit, and the means of preservation of it throughout the year,
and the high importance thereof. He disliked the term " extor-
tion," as applied to Messrs. Wells & Provost, on account of their
charging twenty shillings a dozen for their cans.

The Chairman thought that the public were indebted to Messrs.
Wells and Provost for their successful eiforts in this very im-
portant business — one of great national importance.

Dr. Bartlett, recently of the Albion, presented peaches from
his Long Island farm. They were Rare-ripes of the very largest
size, full seven inches in circiunference, perfectly freestone and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 365

delicious. The Secretary said that the lands of Long Island,
condemned as worthless for two centuries by every know-nothings
were good for these peaches, as we see and taste.

Mr. Charles Wilson, from the bad lands aforesaid, presented
fine samples of tomatoes of the best kind, having three fruits on
one stalk; the finest, not yet ripe, but measuring in circumference
about fourteen inches each; some carrots of best quality, and red
peppers equal to any raised anywhere. The ground on which
these grew was, in April last, covered with its ancient dress, the
scrub oak, sometimes called hear oak, because originally the for-
mer bears of the island fed upon the abundant acorns grown
on this singular oak, which seldom grows so high that a bear
cannot stand upon his hind legs and eat the acorns. Mr. Wilson
cut away these oak bushes, plowed well, manured with horse and
cow-dung mixed, and has excellent crops of all sorts on this bad
land which no one would take as a gift seven years ago, but now
deemed by the know-somethings worth nearer one hundred dol-
lars an acre.

Mr. Coleman exhibited in operation an admired apple parer,
which pares the apple perfectly at one motion of a lever, moving
in a circle, leaving a paring about half an inch wide, and as thin
as blotting paper, entire, and instantly at a blow the core of the
apple is turned out a little cylinder, just including the seeds and
the two ends, leaving the four quarters of the apple perfect.
Smith & Fenwick are the patentees of it.

Paul Stillman presented bean pods containing white beans (pole
beans), raised from a bean found in the crop of a wild goose by
one of his ancestors, and long cultivated by his descendants; it
has scarcely any string in it; also some of Freeman's stringless
bush beans; also some turtle-soup beans, the Frijoles of Mexico;
also a white bean pod containing dark blue beans, almost trans-
parent when young; this was obtained from a German; also apples
of an oblong figure, red, medium size, cooking very tender in ten
minutes, pleasant acid, ripe by the 15th of July. These apples
are from the farm of Mr. D. B. Rogers, of Short Hills, near Plain-
field, New- Jersey.

Mr. Stillman also exhibited a singular egg laid by a Chittagong
hen ; the shell is about as thick as a common small clam shell.
It is a lusus naturce in the egg line.

Addington D. Frye exhibited splendid specimens of the Lami-
naria from the east end of Long Island sound, where the bottom
is extensively covered with it and other algse, forming an ocean

366 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

meadow where many kinds of fish graze and grow fat. This
Laminaria is gelatinous, contains much sugar and soda, which,
as it dries, exude and look like thick frost upon it, and the plant
is excellent as manure.

Messrs. Wells and Provost opened many of their cans of pre-
served fruit for trial ; the members generally tasted of their con-
tents, strawberries, gooseberries, &c., and were pleased with them.

Dr. Waterbury moved that instead of adjourning the meetings
of the Club (as usual) over the fair into November, the meetings
be continued weekly, and held at the Crystal Palace while the
fair continues. Seconded and carried unanunously.

The Club adjourned to Tuesday next at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

September 25^/i, 1855.

Present — ^IVIessrs. Dr. Shelton of Jamaica, Long Island, Dr.
Drummer of Jersey city, Mr. Judd, Mr. Solon Robinson, Mr.
Pardee, Mr. Parker, Mr. Clark of Brooklyn, Paul Stillman, Judge
Van Wyck, Mr. Barlow, Mrs. Chapin, and others, fifty members,
of whom twelve were ladies.

Paul Stillman in the Chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

ORANGE JUDD.

Mr. Judd, in response to the call of the President, said he came
to hear and learn more than to give information. He hoped the
discussion would be confined to best common methods — those
adapted to general use. He objected to the use of any metallic
cans, and especially to those soldered with the common " soft
solder'' which contains lead. Sugar of lead (acetate of lead) — a
powerful poison — is produced by the action of acetic acid (vinegar)
upon lead, and it is well known that this acid is produced
abundantly in the fermentation of fruits.

The chairman — I am careful in the cans I use to let no solder
enter the can.

Mr. Judd — This is next to impossible, and if it were the tin is
itself acted upon. Glass bottles of any shape and size, or glazed
stoneware jars are the best preserving vessels. To make bottles
tight, fit in a dry cork or wooden stopper; remove this and put
in the cooked fruit and let it cool. Next dip the cork or stopper
in melted beeswax, and while still warm, thrust it into the dry
mouth of the bottle. It can then be covered over with bees-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 367

wax, or a wax made by melting together beeswax and resin
in almost any proportion, and you have the vessel really air-tight.
The little air left over the fruit if the vessel be not full, as it
should be, is of no account. A cubic inch of air weighs only
one-third of a grain, and but a small part of this is oxygen — not
enough to do any harm to the fruit. The effort constantly made
to shut out all air in sealing up fruit is labor lost to a great ex-
tent. Get the fruit rightly cooked, and otherwise rightly pre-
pared, then put it up cold taking time to close it well afterwards
with wax, and it is safe. Common stoneware jars, if of good
material, and having wide mouthed covers set into the top, are
convenient, safe, and cheapest. When the prepared fruit is put
in, pour over the dry cover a layer of melted wax, and the v/ork
is done.

Mr. Judd said he had 25 or 30 quarts of tomatoes which he
wished to put up in the best manner for him to use. How much
or how little should he cook them 1 Should sugar be added 1
A good old lady of his acquaintance, who put up most excellent
preserves, added a little salt and some sugar to tomatoes. Would
experienced gentlemen present give some information, some of
the particulars for preserving these tomatoes 7

The Chairman detailed his practice. He used wide mo ithed
bottles as well as cans. He had formerly cooked tomatoes, but
he was trying some this year with simply removing the skins by
scalding in hot water. He did not recommend sugar or salt for
tomatoes. He got the cork cutters to fit his bottles of different
sizes, and after putting in the tomatoes cooked or uncooked, he set
the bottles in cold water, and heated it to a boiling, when he
thrust in the corks which had been made soft by the hot water,
and drove them down even with the top of the neck, and after-
wards sealed them over. Last fall he had put one half of Spit-
zenberg apples with his quinces, on account of the scarcity of the
latter fruit — and found the mixture superior to either fruit alone.

Mr. Judd inquired if any one present had succeeded in keeping
uncooked tomatoes. No one replied except the Chairman, who
is now making his first experiment.

Mr. Judd thought the use of soldered cans would be dangerous
on account of the poison of the lead in the solder.

The chairman thought not, and exhibited a can that bursted in
the operation, to show that if there really would be any danger
of fruit in connection with solder, it did not come in contact with
it in these cans.

368 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The chairman — I find it easier to put up in glass than tin. I
got my corks cut in sizes to fit my bottles. I put fruit and
tomatoes in the bottles and corked and boiled an hour; then drive
the corks home and tie, and when it is cool enough seal with
sealing-wax; put the wax on very hot. The fruit looks better in
glass bottles, and glass is cheaper than tin cans. I bought two
quart bottles at three cents each. I mix apples and quinces half
and half in the same bottle. I cook tomatoes an hour, but use
no salt.

Mr. Pardee exhibited a specimen of tomato figs. Figs made
of tomatoes are really better than those made of true figs. It is
easy to preserve fruit by keeping it in a temperature of 40° In
France it is kept in a clay house, made with double walls. Make
the house any size, with a wall outside, twenty inches from the
inside wall.

Tomato figs are made in the following manner : Pour boiling
water over the tomatoes to remove the skins; then weigh them
and put into stone jar, with as much sugar as tomatoes; let them
stand two days; then pour off the syrup and boil and skim till
no scum rises; then pour it over the tomatoes, and let them stand
two days as before; then boil and skim again. After a third
boiling and skimming, let them stand in their syrup until drying
weather; then place them on earthen plates or dishes, and put
them in the sun to dry — that takes about a week; then pack them
in small wooden boxes, with fine white sugar between every layer.
They will keep for years. These figs, made by this recipe, were
exhibited at the Massachusetts Agricultural Show, and pro-
nounced superior to two-thirds of the figs imported. It is a mat-
ter worth the attention of all farmers.

DRIED FRUITS.

Solon Robinson — In my opinion the most valuable invention
to preserve fruit for winter use will be one that improves and
renders more easy the preservation by drying. In fact there is
no other plan that is suited for universal use among those who
grow the fruit. Let us take a retrospect of the rude appliances
in use in this country for that purpose. What New-Englander
does not remember the apple-pearings of youth, where the apples
were quartered and strung upon twine, and hung upon nails on
the sunny side of the house, or else spread upon sheets to be car-
ried out and in every morning and evening; or at every shower
what a scrambling to save the dried apples. It is no wonder

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 369

that by such rude means only enough was preserved by each
family for their own use. At the west, where apples and peaches
grow in such luxuriant abundance as to be utterly valueless in a
grain state, a very rude kiln is in common use. They are built
in this way : parallel walls of stone are built about a foot high,
and covered with flat stones, the joints plastered with clay, and
the flues between the walls connected at one end with a short
chimney, to carry off the smoke of the fires built at the other
end. Upon these flat stones, when heated, the fruit is spread
until dry. I have known these kilns built, where there were no
stones, all of clay. A smooth log is laid down, as a mold for the
flue, and the clay built over it, and then it is withdrawn, and so
on a succession of flues, w^hich are all covered and smoothed off
on the top, and thereon the fruit is placed to dry. It is some-
times badly burnt.

There is another rude kind of drying kiln at the west. A
wooden house, say six feet square, has such a flue as I have de-
scribed, or a stove with the mouth open on one side of the house,
for convenience of firing, with the pipe or flue carried out on the
opposite side. This heats the air on the inside of the house very
hot. Then one side of the house is filled with drawers that pull
out like a bureau. These are made only two inches deep, with
basket-worked bottoms to hold the fruit and let the hot air pass
through. This plan is better than the kilns I described, but
not perfect. The North American Phalanx in New-Jersey had a
drying kiln built in the form of a large brick chiimiey, with draw-
ers in three stories of the building, that operated very well in
drying fruit, green corn, beans, okre, and other vegetables, but
the mistake in its formation was that it was not open at the top
to create a draught and carry off the moisture. If such a chim-
ney were very tall, with the heat in an oven at the bottom to
heat the air drawn in from outside, I think fruit would dry very
rapidly. Any and every farmer can have one of these drying
flues; and where fuel is cheap and fruit plenty, I have no doubt
that the profit would be very large. It is worth trying. There
is another plan of building a drying chimney that may be more
effectual than one with an open top, and that is the plan adopt-
ed in some foundries to dry the wet-clay work of cores used in
casting. There the current of heated air is introduced at the top
and draws downward and escapes at the bottom. But after all
I do not thinlj: that we have arrived at the true way of drying
[Am. Inst.] 24

370 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

fruit. I have full faith to believe that the time will come when
fruit will be made into a pulp, and freed from skins and cores
and seeds by machinery, and the water evaporated by heat, some-
what upon the same plan it is now from pulp of rags to make
paper. What we want is an invention to facilitate this purpose.
That it can be done I know, for it is done in a rude way at the
west in an article called "peach leather,'' or, as the Chairman
suggests as a better name, we will call it peach marmalade.
Peaches are pulped and spread upon plates or tin platters, and
dried in the sun or a slow oven.

A lady suggested that tomatoes may be dried in the same way.

Yes, that is a fact, and though not quite as good as fresh from
the vines, they are excellent food for winter, and it is the cheap-
est method of preserving tomatoes. Let me observe that tomatoes
make excellent sweatmeats, cooked with sugar like any other
fruit.

Pumpkin Meal is an article made by the Shakers, and sold in
this market to a limited extent. The process ought to be better
known, and more widely applied. And if so juicy a fruit as
pumpkins can be dried and ground into meal, I want to know
why apples cannot be treated in the same way. I want the ladies
here to try the experiment of preserving a few sugared peaches,
just to see what delicious food they can make. Take ripe mel-
low peaches and pair and cut in halves or quarters, and lay them
upon plates, and sprinkle with powdered sugar, about as much
as you would to eat, and diy them in a slow oven or hot sun,
taking care not to cook the fruit. If you like you may pulp very
mellow peaches, by squeezing in the hands, and spread the pulp
upon plates or dishes, and sprinkle with sugar, and dry. It will
be found delicious.

I am glad the ladies take an interest in this fruit question. I
thought they would when I proposed it for discussion. I hope
it will be continued until there is a spirit aroused among fruit
growers not to be fruit wasters.

A gentleman present said that he had preserved tomatoes very
cheaply by pulping them, and spreading the pulp to dry upon
oiled paper.

We hope every one who has any good plan for preserving fruits
and vegetables, either in a natural or artificial state, will commu-
nicate it to the Club, or make it more extensively known among
fruit growers and consumers.

Secretary Meigs, in behalf of a lady present, Mrs. Barlow,

AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 371

said she was quite familiar Avitli a plan of preserving tomatoes,
which she had seen adopted extensively in Western JNTew-York,
and was now pm-suing herself. The tomatoes were squeezed
through a culender, and spread upon oiled paper and dried, form-
ing a beautiful marmalade. (Mr. R. had called it leather.) In
this manner this fruit could be packed in small space. It pre-
served the original flavor, and kept exceedingly well. A day's
time, with little or no expense, was sufficient to j^repare a supply
for the family. It might be dried on plates in a slow oven.
Mrs. Barlow treated peaches and other fruits in the same manner,
and was now preparing a number of quarts for home use.

Mr. Robinson said dried peaches were better than imported
raisins.

Mr. Barlow had seen a great quantity of fruit in Illinois dried
in a similar manner — as well as in' bulk.

Mr. Robinson observed that the preservation of the rind was
desirable if possible^ as this retained the delicious flavor of many
fruits.

The Chairman said, that in boiling bottles intended for the
preservation of fruit, it was well to throw in a handful of nails
to the bottom of the boiler, to keep the bottom of the bottles from
cracking.

Dr. Dummer, of New-Jersey, exhibited some fruit hermetically
sealed in glass. The vessel's neck is closed by a spirit lamp and
a jet, which fuses the glass. The plan was thought to be excel-
lent, but not generally practicable. The Doctor imagined
differently, and that the ladies might adopt it.

The Chairman recommended double layers of India-rubber tied
over the top of the preserving vessel.

Dr. Dummer thought sweetmeats might he well preserved from
external influences by white of egg.

Solon Robinson did not think cooked fruits well sweetened,
required much protection from the external air. He highly com-
mended tomatoes as a most excellent sweetmeat.

Mr. Parker repeated some of his remarks at the last meeting,
urging ice-houses as the most feasible plan of preserving fruit.
In these a variety of fruits keep remarkably well. It is objected
that if frozen the flavor will not be good. The temperature
(according to his process) ought to bo about ten degrees above
the freezing point, and be uniform. He thought his plan quite
adequate to the preservation of fruit on the large scale. He
would use barrels of a moderate size, freed from all causes which

372 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

produce eremacausis, fermentation, or chemical decay and decom-
position.

Mr. J. G. Pardee called attention to a specimen of " tomato
figs," made from the common red tomato, and exhibited at a
meeting of the Pomological Society at Boston, last fall. The spe-
cimen was a year old, and had been kept in a loose piece of
paper.

A member explained how in France fruits are kept at an uni-
form temperature, a hole is dug, a clay-house is formed; no
weather, either in winter or summer, wall effect them more than
two degrees.

Mr. Robinson said that tomato figs were not a new thing. At
the suggestion of Henry L. Ellsworth, of Washington, a lady put
up the first drum of figs in this country. (The Americmi Agri-
culturalist w^as sent for from the Library, and Mr. Pardee read
the formula for the preparation of the tomato figs.

Mr. Robinson said, for the sake of the ladies who had recently
come in, he should be glad to call theh attention again specially
to the drying of ripe peaches, which might be effected in a com-
mon range oven. As Mrs. Barlow had observed, the sugaring of
them removed all the bitter taste. As a luxury it might be tried
here, but in New- Jersey, where the ripest are thrown away, the
plan would be one of rational economy. He was anxious the
ladies should try it.

Mr. Judd remarked that he had known large quantities of
fruit dried by setting it in the oven after removing the bread,
While going from St Louis to New-Orleans on a steamer in 1850.
tlie boat stopped at St. Genevieve, in Missouri, and took on shore
two thousand bushels of peaclies which had been dried in ovens
with the skins unremoved; they were simply cut open and the
pits removed. The quality of the different parts of this lot
varied greatly, owing entirely to the degree of care exercised in
drying. The only difiiculty in drying fruit on quite a large scale
in farm-houses, was in not guarding carefully against a moment-
ary elevation of temperature. A single moment of elevated heat
changed and destroyed the natural aroma of the fruit. He then
stated, that after summing up all the information brought to-day,
in reply to his question first proposed, he should proceed to cook
his tomatoes thoroughly, but carefully, " to coagulate the albu-
men;" put them into glazed stoneware jars of two to eight quarts
each, filling the vessels full; let them cool; put on the covers,
with a piece of paper under them; pour melted beeswax on some.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 373

and cover over others with a paper dipped in the white of
eggs.

The Chairman promised to report hereafter how he succeeded
in keeping tomatoes.

It was suggested that preserving grapes, plums, potatoes and
other roots, &c., should also be discussed at the next meeting.
TOMATO FIGS.

To some it may be a new fact, that a variety of figs may be easily
prepared from the common tomato, which are quite superior to
many of the imported figs in the market. We have seen them
after being kept a year, simply wrapped in paper, and found
them moist and quite delicious. Mrs. Eliza Marsh, who has put
up the best we have seen, pursued tlie following method :

" Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, in order to remove the
skin; then weigh them and place tliem in a stone jar, with as much
sugar as you have tomatoes, and let them stand two days; then
pour off the syrup, and boil and skim it until no scum rises.
Then pour it over tlie tomatoes, and let them stand two days, as
before; then boil and skim again. After the third time, they are
fit to dry, if the weather is good; if not, let them stand in the
syrup until drying weather. Then place on large earthen plates
or dishes, and put them in the sun to dry, which Avill take about
a week, after which pack them down in small wooden boxes, with
fine white sugar between every layer. Tomatoes prepared in
this manner will keep for years."

A few apples cut up and boiled in the remainder of this syrup
makes a very nice sauce.

John W. Hanford, of 125 Ainslie-street, Brooklyn, presented
a seedling peach from a tree four years raised from the pit; this
tree bore this season twenty peaches of nine to ten inches in cir-
cumference. On trying the quality of this peach the ladies pre-
sent gave the opinion, which was seconded by the gentlemen, viz :
that the peach was a very good one, and ought to bear the name
of the raiser, the "Hanford Peach," Avhich was unanimously
adopted by the Club.

Mr. Henry Weld, a recent settler on the banks of the Lake
Ronkonkoma, on Long Island, presented fine corn grown on his
land near the lake, dressed with common barn-yard manure.
Also good red potatoes on same land, without any manure what-
ever. These lands are about fifty miles from New- York, and in
sight of the Long Island railroad. Those lands, long neglected,
are now being settled. The agent, Charles Wood, at 208 Broad-

374 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

.vay, is always attentive to those who seek information and
purchase.

Mr. Robinson moved an adjournment for three weeks.

Mr. Judd — Let it be to the regular day, the first Tuesday in
October, at the Crystal Palace, and invite the ladies.

The Club unanimously adopted the motion and adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

JYovember 20, 1855.

Present — Twenty-four members. Austin Church, M. D., in
the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read a report of a committee appointed by the
managers of the fair to view and report upon the farm of Mr.
Charles Wilson, at Deer Park, Long Island. (For a report of
tills farm see Index.)

Adrian Bergen, farmer, of Long Island — A deep prejudice
against the fertility of Hempstead Plains, &c., is felt by a large
number of the inhabitants of the island, and by the oldest settlers,
being with them deepest. I have now farmed about fifty years.
1 do not believe the land naturally barren, but that it can be
farmed with proper work and manure. On preservation of vege-
tables, I have lately tried potatoes by putting some in cellar and
some in barn. Those in cellar commenced rotting, and I had to
pick them over carefully and throw away the bad ones, while
those in my dry ham are all sound.

Solon Robinson described a new potato digger, very superior
fur taking them out of the ground without bruising or cutting
them as the hoe often does, and also leaving fewer undug than
by the old hoe process. It does as much as ten hoemen can do.

Mr. Bergen — I have one, and like it. They call it the potato
plough.

Mr. Pardee — I like the doctrine of the report of the committee
as to Long Island land, on the interesting trial so successfully
made by Mr. Wilson on the condemned dreary tract of Deer Park.
I have tried it. The drainage mentioned as due to the sub-stratum
of pebbles, the actual quality of the soil, climate, &c. Soon will
intelligent me?i till it. One man can make of ten acres of it a
noble market garden, and here are now a million of people to buy
the vegetables, and in twenty or thirty years double that number
must look chiefly to Long Island gardens for their mighty de-
mands.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 375

Solon Robinson reminded the Club that the doctrine of leachins
down has been perfectly and finally exploded by Prof. Mapes and
some other intelligent observers and practical men. No organic
manure can go down through Long Island soil. I have observed
that the roads through that land have been drained of what clay
there was among the pebbles, so that the road does not exhibit
the true character of the soil on both sides of it, I call the soil
a gravelly loam. A considerable part of Jersey is no less sandy
than Long Island, but thanks to her green sand marl she can en-
rich her lands with that. And allow me to say, from my full
experience on the rich soils of the far west, I prefer the Long
Island lands to them. Now such paradoxes need explanation
and justification. Sir, the wheat straw of the far west is a per-
fect burthen — heavy to handle, worse than useless. Sir, I have
lent my team and wagon to my neighbors to carry it away. The
land is m itself manure. Ten bushels of wheat is a fair crop
from much of that excessive growth of straw, and ten per cent of
that is often lost by their careless method of thrashing it out
upon the ground. If the western land could show its richness in
wheat rather than in straw, you would see, sir, one hund/>-ori nnd
fifty bushels of it on one acre.

Tlie Chairman recalled the subject of the frozen potato, and
desired to remove a prejudice as to them. When the potatoes
are frozen care must be used in regard to them; keep them steadily
frozen until wanted for use, then let the water in the kettle boil,
and carefully, gently put in one frozen potato at a time, so that
the water cannot be chilled at any moment so much as to stop
boiling. Then your potatoes will prove to be as good as if they
had not been frozen at all.

Solon Robinson — Just so, if the frozen potatoes are put into
cold water, the frost comes out of them and forms a crust of ice
all over them; and after that they can be cooked as fresh pota-
toes are, and just as good as if they had not been frozen.

Mr. Pardee was requested to speak of his experience in the
preservation of fruit. He said that the plan of preserving apples
whole has been abundantly talked of, but he thought the recent
plan of paring and quartering them, then boiling them in sweet
cider until the whole became a perfect pulp, then nicely put up
in new wooden tubs of two or three gallons each; such sell now
for about thirty-seven cents a gallon. One lady out west worked
at apple butter (that's what we call it), so that (as she said) she
kept her old man in liariiess Cher liusband in clotlies) and set out

376 TRANSACTIONS OF THK

her daughters in marriage — all by apple butter. It is much more
delicious than apple sauce. A spoon is used to eat it as with
honey. It is so sweet that some persons add a portion of tart
(sour) apples to diminish the excessive sweetness. In our New-
York, sweet cider costs one dollar a barrel, and apples, one shil-
ling a barrel. Apple butter sometimes costs a half dollar a gal-
lon.

Mr. Robinson — Much of it is made in our far west.

The Chairman asked Mr. Pardee, w^hose experience in fruit is
great — How do you keep fresh apples 1

Mr. Pardee — Whatever plan may be adopted, one thing must
not be omitted — the apples must have air.

Chairman — I am aware of that, and am in the habit of taking
them out of their barrels once a month to dry them, and then
put them back again, once every month.

Mr. Pardee — Cellars are generally unfit places for the apples,
because of their want of ventilation; for bad air often exists in
dry cellars, as well as in damp ones ! Apples must be over-
hauled once in every two to three months. I find, on trial, that
the pure white sand, from our Coney Island, when perfectly dried,
keeps apples buried in it in barrels, &c., very well indeed. Their
flavor is preserved — and in most ordinary methods, it is much
injured.

Chairman — Dry upper rooms, where there is no frost, keep
them well ; but they must -not be bruised.

Mr. Robinson — Bruises on apples are very commonly found to
dry up, and do not rot the rest of the apple.

Mr. Bergen — Who knows the best way to preserve our pump-
kins, for we easily raise vast quantities, but we are apt to lose
largely by their decay ?

Mr. Robinson — Go to the Shakers and they will show you.
They first cby them and then grind them into a meal, that keeps
perfectly.

Chairman — To keep them whole, there must be an escape for
all moisture, a steady, cool temperature. To keep sweet pota-
toes, they should be packed in straw and placed near a chimney.

Mr. Robinson — That sweet potatoes keep best in a moderate
temperature — cold, heat and moisture readily spoil them.

Mr. Pardee — I find them keep best in baked sand and kept in
cellars.

Mr. Robinson — In Carolina, they pile up the sweet potatoes
in pine straw — that is the leaf of the long leaved pitch pine with

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 377

a shed over all to carry off the water. Eice hulls are good to
keep the potatoes in. These hulls are almost pure silex — will
not absorb moisture, nor mold, and are always sweet. I por-
pose to continue the subject to next meeting. Preservation of
fruit and vegetables. Ordered unanimously.

Mr. Disturnell moved that the subject of the camel for Ameri-
ca, be then considered. It was so ordered.

Mr. Foster, of Oregon, presented a large pear, one and a half
poimds, from Oregon, for the trial of quality. It was rather
ordinary for flavor — not very tender. Dr. Church presented
stalks of the sugar millet, almost as sweet as some sugar cane.
Mr. Adrian Eergen presented some ears of his late crop of Flint
corn, well grown — the eight and twelve row sorts. Some Came-
lina Sativa, from the Patent oifice, was distributed. The Club is
earnestly engaged in sending out the Colzas, received from the
Light House Department, that we may avail the United States
of their oil. The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Sec'y.

December 4:th, 1855.

Present — Hon. Robert Swift Livingston, Prof. Mapes, Messrs.
Solon Robinson, Adrian Eergen, Say, the venerable Eenjamin
Pike, Judd, Hite, Van Wyck, McGauran, Disturnell, Waring,
Parker, Leonard, Chambers, Olcott and others — forty-two mem-
bers in all.

Judge Livingston in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers of extracts and trans-
lations made by him, viz :

[United States Patent Office Report. Part Third. Agriculture. 1854.]

Extracts by H. Meigs.
Distinguished service has been rendered to the great depart-
ment— Agriculture, by D. J. Erowne and Townend Glover. The
former, by his interesting, because intelligent selection of valua-
ble seeds in Europe and elsewhere, for distribution throughout
the United States by the Patent Office. The latter for eminent
service in his most careful, minute, and learrftd labors in the
science of entomology, as relates to those destroyers of our crops,
the little insects which for the most part have escaped all eyes
and manipulations but those of our most worthy, learned, and in-

378 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

defatigable friend Townend Glover, of Fishkill, in the state of
New- York, who does not fail to render justice to all who labor in
that department. We make the following extract relative to the
wheat destroyer :

THE HESSIAN FLY.

The Hessian Fly is subject to the attacks of several parasitic
insects, which serve more or less to lessen their numbers, the
chief of which is ceraphron destructor of Say, a shining, black,
four-winged fly, about one-tenth of an inch in length. This fact
is mentioned because it has often been Tnistaken for the true Hes-
sian Fly^ from its being seen in wheat fields, in vast numbers,
and from its being known to come out of the dried larva skins of
the Hessian Fly, which it had, however., previously destroyed.

Burning the stubble immediately after harvest, and then plow-
ing and harrowing the land, are also highly recommended.

Dr. Harris is fully and deservedly credited for his very valua-
ble works on Insects. The conclusion, says Mr. D. J. Browne, is,
that without particular observation the Wheat Midge, the Hes-
sian Fly, and the Joint- worm, so destructive to wheat or grain
crops, are scarcely to be distinguished by the naked eye, and
their very minuteness causes them to be overlooked both by birds
and men, until their ravages show where the destroyers have
been after it is too late.

Mr. Browne has given a-highly useful and interesting essay on
Climatology, which every man who cares for his garden, or farm,
ought to read, and then study for himself. So long as " seed
time and harvest" shall come, the farmer must keep himself in-
formed on this point. Linnseus thought that a universal rule
was established as to sowing seeds, viz : the bud, leaf, and flower
of trees and shrubs differing in every country by soils, exposures,
seasons, but in most instances uniform as to tlieir succession, being
bound down by nature herself. There is a certain kind of genial
warmth which the earth should enjoy at the time seeds are sown,
and the budding, lealing and flow^ering of plants seem to indicate
this happy temperature of the soil and air.

This U. S. volume contains tables showing periodical phenomena
of certain trees, plants and animals, from observations made in
various places, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,
viz : General period of the flowering of the peach, cherry, apple,
red maple, dogw^ood, and straAvberry. Flight of Wild Geese to the
North. First appearance of the bai-n swallows, whippoorwill,

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 379

salmon', shad, lierring, sturgeon, fire-fly. The Opening and Closing
of the Hudson River since 1824.

TURNIP

The London Farmers' Magazine of Nov., 1855, speaks in very
discouraging terms of the bad condition of that important crop.
First, almost total destruction of plants by a fly, then drought and
mildew, then succeeded the smother-fly, (aphides,) and the leaves,
in many localities, withered and diied up entirely, so that scarcely
any vegetation is now apparent. We sj^eak of the Swedish va-
riety, but our common, or white turnip is little better. What
with failure of plant, excess of drought, black caterpillars, and
fingers and toes, and besides other pests, consisting of grubs in the
crowns and at the roots — the crop is, upon the whole, worse than
we have witnessed for many years past, and whether in our gar-
dens or fields, the entire Rrassica tribe has failed beyond a prece-
dent, but the Mangold-wurzel is an exception, and promises an
abundant crop.

And the potato depreciates. Change of land or crop is obvi-
ously necessary.

Upon a proper rotation of crops the main success of all culti-
vation depends; the grain alternating with the peas and beans,
root crops, and grasses, constitutes the true application of the
science of agriculture.

[From the same.]
KNIGHTON farmers' CLUB, ON THE BEST MODE OF PRESERVING, ETC.

Pull them when the land is tolerably dry, so that the dirt can
be well shaken from them, and cleaned without touching them
with the knife! Only the top and the small roots, and the tap-
root should be cut ofl' the latter at about one inch from the bulb,
all on the spot when pulled up by the hand, that the refuse may
be very evenly spread for manure. The rind of a turnip should
by no means be cut. A great deal of damage is done by too free
use of the knife. They keep well in the field, stored under a
cover of earth and straws but not in very large masses. They
should be stowed away dry.

[From tbe same.]

HOW TO PRESERVE EGGS.

Pour a gallon of water upon a pound of quick lime in a jar,
let it remain about twenty-four hours to cool after its cServes-
cence; procure eggs as fresh as you can, and drop them into the
jar gently; place the jar Avhere you can take out the eggs without
disturbing it, so the eggs will keep good for a twelvemonth.

380 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

LA TANGUE.

A word not in the dictionaries. It is used in Brittany, France,
to designate a peculiarly fine sand, which is borne by the sea at
every tide into the bay of Mount St. Michael, on the coast of
Brittany. The fertilizing principles of this sand, and its uses as
a manure, were discovered by accident; trials of it as a fertilizer
soon established its reputation on a firm basis, so that Brittany,
formerly very limited in its agriculture, raises fine and abundant
crops by the application of " La Tangue.'' Immense numbers of
carts, wagons, &c., are loaded with it.

By experiment of its quality, like portions of a field were
manured, one with a good double dunguig of farm yard manure,
the other with about eleven bushels of " La Tangue;" both pieces
of ground were planted with potatoes on the same day; during
the first two months of vegetation little difi'erence was visible, but
towards the end of June the haulms of the potatoes manured with
" La Tangue'' became extremely large, and of a very deep
color.

When dug in September the crop was more than double that
produced by the dung, and the potatoes remarkable for size,
weighing, some of them, between two and three pounds each. The
trial on these lands was colza Avith like results. La Tangue,
mized with dung, fermented violently, so that the heap became
reduced to half size. It was applied to wheat, and the crop was
such a one as was never heard of.

Something similar has been effected on the coasts of Devon
and Cornwall by farmers there for many generations, and so on
the north east coast of Norfolk. They call it " Sea-wave."

What of the green sand of Jersey, and why are Long Island
barrens so rich for vegetables ?

TRUFFLES— HOW TO GROW THEM.
We are pleased to find in this volume also plain directions for
a hitherto almost unknown culture, viz : that of trufiies, a deli-
cacy always admired, exceedingly rare, and distinguished by a
jeu des mots of France in the days of Talleyrand. One said,
voulez vous des truffles ? 11 faut alter en Pcrigord, because that
department of France (Perigord) was peculiarly productive of
them. Now it appears that although its culture has not been
successful in the United States, or in England or France, that
Prussia does it, and Count de Borcli has succeeded in Italy.
His method is as follows :

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 381

An artificial soil, seven parts good soil of the garden, two parts
of well pulverized clayey soil, one part of oak saw dust; all
these intimately mixed together. Decayed oak or beech leaves
would be better than the saw dust. Where he used natural soil
he trenched it two feet deep, removed all large stones, added saw
dust of oak, and about one-tenth part of powdered snail shells.
Where the soil was too stiff, choosing an aspect rather exposed
to the north than to the south, where no reflected rays can fall
upon it, and with every precaution that it be wet with pure rain
water thoroughly. After standing thus soaked for a day or two,
he made rows half a foot deep, and in these rows he placed good
sound trufiles, six inches apart, each truffle surrounded with
two or three handfuls of oak saw dust, taking care to make the
rows accurately; then ridges of earth were made over each row,
to prevent the truffles from being injured by too abundant mois-
ture, and the bed left until the following autumn, with no other
precaution than in dry weather to take care that the bed does
not become too dry. The result was an abundant crop of truffles
every year from October to January.

Mon. A. P. Clermontel read the following paper :

THE CULTIVATION OF BEETS IN THE UNITED STATES
FOR AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL PURPOSES.

In setting before the public the different essays, by which I
have obtained interesting results, useful to agriculturists, farmers
and scientific men in general, I have endeavored to give an exact
idea of the advantages to be gained by the cultivation of beets,
and the interest it possesses for all those inclined to study this
question.

There are few plants which have been the subject of so much
study, and which offer more brilliant results for the future.
The culture of beets on plantations will hereafter serve to enrich
farmers, both great and small, as well with the alcohol obtained,
as from the pulps which serve for the nourishment of animals
and their greater multiplication, making a healthier and better
meat at a less price.

I shall give an example of the advantages obtained by a planter
of beets and manufacturer of alcohol, in the environs of Orleans.

One hectare of ground, properly cultivated, will produce from
75 to 80 thousand kilo, of beets, from which may be obtained, by
distillation, 33 hecto at 94 deg., sold at 135, 140, 145 francs.

382 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Taking the av^erage price 140 francs,

Alcohol at 94 dec. gives 4,455 fr.

Allowing only 12 per cent of pulp for the nourishment

of animals, 80,000 kilo, produce 9,600 kilo, at 10 frs., 96 fr.

Total, ■ 4,551 fr.

The expense of a distillery for cultivation and purchase of beets
and other general expenses are from 60 to 70 or 80 francs for the
hecto., at 94 deg. pure.

Average expense for 33 liecto., 2,310 fr.

Profit, 4,551 fr.

Leaving a balance of 2,241 fr.

Each distillery in France nourishes and fattens a large number
of cattle with the last residues which cannot be sent into the
market.

On my last visit to the environs of Magdeburg, Prussia, I found
that the culture of beets for the last few years had more than
doubled, and the price of meat was one-fourth less than else-
where, also of a better quality than formerly, which goes to
prove that the culture of beets is not only profitable by the
making of alcohol, but also a benefit to the population in gene-
ral, by its healthiness for the nourishment of domestic animals.

I here give a short account of the results of experiments I have
already made, hoping later to give a more detailed account of the
cultivation of beets in the United States.

The following is the result of experiments I already made on
a small scale :

Pennsylvania, from 7,457 to 8,420 per cent.

Ohio, 7,429 to 8,347 "

Kentucky, ' 7,672 to 8,537 "

Jersey, 7,496 to 8,434 "

The result on an average is 8 per cent alcohol at 94 deg. pure;
15 per cent pulp fit for sale for the nourishment of animals, and
also a residue remaining in the distillery that may be used for
the nourishment of animals belonging thereto, also as manure.

I think that 20,000 beets may be planted on one acre of land,
which on good soil w^ould produce about 40 tons, from which
may be obtained from 440 to 480 gallons pure alcohol, moreover
the residue which would partly pay the expense of cultivation,

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 383

for I may here remark, that if farmers were to cultivate beets
merely for tlie nourishment of cattle, it would be more advan-
tageous to them than any other feed, producing better and more
abundant meat, consequently cheaper.

Another consideration for pursuing this question is the great
abuse in alcohol made from grain, which are generally not pure,
containing quantities of oils and essences injurious to the dif-
ferent organs and fibres of the human frame.

It is quite sure that notwithstanding all the temperance laws,
it is impossible to make way with the use of alcohols, wliicli I
believe to be necessary to the wants of man, if taken in reasona-
ble quantities and of good quality. If the friends of temperance
would enact a law for the inspection of all liquors before their
being sold to the public, they would be doing a real and lasting
good to humanity, and forward tlieir cause more than by the pre-
sent Maine law, which is, and always will be, infringed upon.

It is greatly necessary to turn the attention of scientific men
to this spirit, so as to endeavor to make it beneficial instead of
prejudicial to the consumer, and for this end I entreat the con-
sideration and attention of all those inclined to pursue this
question.

There are quantities of alcohol from beets now imported from
Europe of excellent qualities. Why not manufacture it here, and
by mixing it with good cogniac make a good and wholesome
beverage? whereas we buy good cogniac at from $5 to $6 per
gallon, which is mixed with our bad alcohol, and afterwards sold
for pure French brandy.

When alcohol from beets made here may be mixed with French
cogniac, there will be quite as much cogniac imported, perhaps
more. Merchants will be able to deliver to consumers a good,
pure, wholesome article, with the 5a?ne profits; profits being, after
all, the -chief end in almost all cases.

Another great consideration is the immense consummation of
alcohols in manufacturing purposes of all kinds, which far ex-
ceeds other uses, also its adaptation to light used in navigation,
as it is called upon to take the place of oils which are increasing
in price so as to exclude their use.

The planting and distilling of beets, if increased, will materi-
ally affect the price of meat, as the residue may be sent to large
cities for the nourishment of cattle. A cow which consumes a
few. pounds of residue of beets in a day gives more and better
milk.

384 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

I shall at some future period give an exact account of the ex
pense of distillation, price of machinery, &c. I should be happy
to have the experience of farmers and agriculturists, and if they
Avill favor me with a call at my office, No. 15 John-street, they
may see and taste samples, the results of my limited experiments.

Mr. Disturnell read his paper on the subject of the Camel foi
America, that subject being now taken up by order of the Club.

THE CAMEL INDIGEi\OUS TO ARAEIA.

Aral)ia is the original country of the horse, the camel and the
wild ass. There is also a race of oxen in Arabia with a hump
on their back like those of Syria. Rock goats inhabit the hills
of Arabia Petraea, and the plains are stocked with gazelles.
These imimals may be considered indigenous to this jjart of
Asia.

But amongst the animal productions of Arabia, the horse and
the camel hold deservedly the first rank. Of the former the
different breeds have multiplied almost beyond the power of
enumeration, every tribe having carefully preserved the genealogy
of its horses and mares. All these breeds, however, may be re-
duced to five difierent sources, which have originated as many
races. It is in the great deserts of Nejed that the best breed are
reared. So much is the Nejed breed valued that a poor Arab at
Antioch was known to refuse 36,000 piastres for a blood mare of
that species. The Arabs give the preference to mares, and the
dam, not the sire, determines the nobility of the individual ani-
mals among them. The power of enduring fatigue and hunger
by these animals is astonishing.

The camel, however, is the most serviceable animal of Arabia,
for without it the Arab could not cross the expanses of sand with
which his country is covered. Its hoof is formed to tread over
burning sands, it is patient of thirst, and the cartilaginous texture
of its mouth enables it to feed on the hard and prickly plants of
the desert Its milk is copious, and the flesh of its young tender,
its dung supplies the deficiency of fuel, and its hair is manu-
factured into garments. In general the camel has a clean, sleek
coat, usually of a light brown color, with a fringe of dark hair
along the neck, but the covering in the Arabian or Desert camel
is less profuse than in that of upper Asia, where the climate re-
quires a warmer coat. The eye of the camel is large, dark, soft
and prominent, resembling that of the gazelle, and it retains
brilliancy, under the fiercest glare of the sun and sand.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 385

The Arabian camel is distinguished from the Eactrian species
by having only one hump. The dromedary varies from the camel,
not in species, but in breed; it is of a slight and slender frame,
and is used for running, the other for bearing bui-thens. It is a
commonly received notion that traveling Arabs, in their distress
for want of water, are frequently reduced to slay their camels for
the sake of finding a supply in their stomach. This expedient
never came imder the observation of Euckhardt, and he is in-
clined entirely to discredit it. Nothing like a supply of water
could be found in the stomach of a camel, except on the same
day on which it had been watered. Four complete days form tlie
extreme length of time during which the Arabian camel can
endure the absolute Avant of water in summer. The Darfur
camels bear thirst much longer, often it is said to the extent of
nine or ten days. Eut it is to be observed that, as in the case of
several other ruminating animals, where a sufficiency of succu-
lent herbage is obtained, the camel does not require water.

A recent popular author describes vividly the impressions
created by a journey over " the great waterless waste,'' as it is
called by the children of Hagar. Of the noble animal so poeti-
cally but appropriately styled in their language " the ship of the
desert,'' the writer says : —

" 'A child is born unto us!' exclaims the joyful Arab, when
another camel is added to his numerous herd; and neighbors
crowd eagerly around the newly arrived friend of the tribe. In
joy and in grief, at home and abroad, the camel is the Arab's best
friend. When he remains behind, it misses its master's familiar
face, and groans and growls like a bear until he returns. How
beautifully bright those large, lustrous eyes — the only thing
beautiful in him — shining upon his master, when he walks with
measured step in the grateful shade of his towering friend, and
speaks to the listening animal of the joy of return and the sweet
greeting of his children, or when he sings to him the ancient
songs of his fathers. At a slight sign, the long lines of camels,
often counted by thousands, stand instantly still; the Moslem, the
faithful believer, spreads his carpet, washes his face with sand,
and, turning his brow to the holy grave of the prophet, humbly
says his prayers. At sunset the cry is heard, " Kerri, kerri," and
at the word, the weai-ied animals bend tlieir knees to be relieved
of their heavy burdens.

[Am. Inst.] 25

386 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Thus, ever since the days of Moses, the camel has been the
very centre of nomadic patriarchal life in the desert; without it
neither trade nor intercourse, nor life itself would be in the
Arab's power. As soon as the horse takes its place, as in the
desert of Gobi, lying between 36 and 44 degrees north latitude,
where both camels and horses are said still to exist in original
wildness, pastures become more fertile, occupations more varied,
and all relations more complicated; each province grows into a
state, each camp into a village, and soon there is but one more
step to feudalism and despotism. So close is the connection be-
tween climate and soil, and man and nature,"

RELATIVE POSITION OF COUNTRIES, &c.

Arabia lies between 15 deg. and 30 deg., N. Latitude.

Sahara; or, the Great Desert of Africa, 3,000 miles long, by
1,000 miles in width, being about the same latitude as Central
America and Mexico.

Egypt lies between 23 deg. and 32 deg. N. Latitude, about the
same as Louisiana and Texas.

Persia lies between 25 deg. and 40 deg. N. Latitude, the same
as the southern portion of the United States.

Tripoli lies between 30 deg. and 32 deg. N. Latitude, the same
as Florida.

Turkey, in Asia, lies between 30 deg, and 42 deg. N. Latitude,
being bounded on the north by the Black sea, which occupies the
same parallel of latitude as Lake Erie.

Mecca, in Arabia, is in N, Latitude 21 deg., about the same as
Tampico, Mexico.

Cairo, in Egypt, in N. Latitude 30 deg., is about the same as
St. Augustine, Florida.

Jerusalem, in Syria, in N. Latitude 32 deg., about the same
as Savannali, Ga.

Ispahan, in Persia, in N. Latitude 33 deg., about the same as
Charleston, S. C, or San Diego, California.

Tunis, capitol of Tunis, in North Latitude 37 deg., same as
Norfolk, Va., or Monterey, California.

Smyrna, in Turkey in Asia, in N. Latitude, 38 deg., about the
same as Richmond.

Constantinople, in Turkey, in Europe, in N. Lat. 41 degrees,
about the same as New York.

Paris, situated in about 49 deg. N. Latitude, enjoys the same
mean temperature as the city of New York, being 52 degrees
Fahrenheit.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 387

ACCLIMATION AND AMERICAN CAMEL REGION.

The natural abode of the Camel is in regions abounding with
sand or dreary deserts Avhere food and water are scanty, and ex-
posure to long protracted privations unavoidable ; and as deserts
exist in comparative cold as well as wai*m climates, so does the
Camel or Dromedary.

Recent explorations demonstrate that the high table lands of
Texas, New Mexico, Utah, California, Sonora and Chihuahua,
lying between the 30th and 40th degrees of North latitude, are
fitted for camel travel ; for over those lands the varieties of the
cactus abound, and the soil is sandy and unproductive, save in
the small valleys found contiguous to streams. The climate in
these regions maintains about the same isothermal lines with
those of Tiu'key, in Asia, or Algeria, in Africa.

Mr. Bartlett, late commissioner for running the boundary line
between the United States and Mexico, thus remarks : " From
my experience of nearly three years with horses, mules, asses
and oxen, and with wagons, carts and hacks, I do not hesitate to
hazard the opinion that the introduction of camels and dromeda-
ries would prove an immense benefit to our present means of
transportation, that they would be a great saving to animal life,
and would present facilities for crossing our broad deserts and
prairies not possessed by any other domestic animal now in use.
The entire route from the Mississippi to California, particularly
that south of Santa Fe by the Gila, where there are no mount-
ains to cross, and also the great highway over the table lands of
Mexico, are well adapted to his habits.

INTRODUCTION OF THE CAMEL INTO THE U. STATES.

The proposed introductipn of the Camel or Dromedary into
the U. States of America, if successful, will prove an event of
great importance, both in a commercial and in a military point
of view. It also v;ill interest and benefit the agriculturist in
the region of country wliere they may become acclimated and
are found to propagate, which will no doubt prove to be in the
southwestern portion of the Union, west of the Mississippi river.
Here the climate, soil, and productions of the earth nearest ap-
proaches to similar parallels of latitude in the eastern continent,
where the Camel is found of the greatest value — converting the
otherwise desert waste into a pathway for the pursuit of com-
merce, emigration and pilgrimage to the holy shrine of the Ma-
hometan.

388 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

EFFORTS AND LEGISLATION ON THE SUBJECT.

The government of the U. States, as well as enterprising indi-
viduals having interested themselves in this laudable undertaking,
I will give a brief statement of their efforts and the legislation
on the subject.

In December, 1853, the present Secretary of War alluded to
this subject in his report, and recommended the same to the con-
sideration of Congress; and in March, 1855, an act was passed
appropriating " the sum of thirty thousand dollars, to be expended
under the direction of the War Department, in the purchase and
importation of camels and di-omedaries, to be employed for mili-
tary purposes."

Soon after the passage of this act or appropriation, a govern-
ment vessel was despatched to the Mediterranean, having on
board Major Wayne, U. S. A., chief of the expedition.

VOYAGE OF THE UNITED STATES SHIP SUPPLY.

Tunis, Aug. 18, 1855.

The United States store ship Supply, Lieut. D. D. Porter, com-
manding, reached here on the 4th inst., on her way to the Levant
in search of camels. Major Wayne, the chief of the expedition
on which the Supply was sent out, was presented to the Bey, with
several of the officers. The Major, in behalf of the United States
government, offered congratulations to the Bey on his accession
to the throne, expressing the desire of the United States for more
extended intercourse and closer commercial relations between the
two countries, and for a long, happy and prosperous reign for his
highness. The Bey reciprocated these friendly sentiments.

His highness hearing of the Major's desire to purchase on
government account a camel in Tunis, sent hmi two of the finest
among all he possessed, which were accepted with proper acknow-
ledgments in the President's name, &c. I have seen both the
camels, the larger being the finest I ever saw; and the other, a
younger one, bidding fair to equal his companion in time.

The Bey is highly interested in the improvement of his people
in agriculture, and shows a great desire to acquaint himself tho-
roughly with its progress in the United States, which does his
true benevolence and enlightenment great credit indeed.

Constantinople, Oct. 15, 1855.

The American store ship Supply, commanded by Lieut, comdt.
David D. Porter, son of the first minister to Turkey, In her
arrived also Major Wayne, of the United States army. You are

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 389

aware that the Supply has been attached to the War Department
by the Secretary of the Navy for the purpose of conveying a
number of camels to the United States. In pursuit of this object
she has visited Tunis, Smyrna and Salonica. At the former place
she took on board three camels, two presented to the United
States government by the Bey, and one purchased. These have
already been on board some sixty-five days, and from their excel-
lent appearance clearly show that an ordinary voyage across the
Atlantic would not aifect their health in the least. They are
growing quite fat under the diet and idle life which they lead on
shipboard. I hear that the Sultan designs offering Captain Porter,
for his government, a number of the best camels to be had at this
place. Capt. Porter, Major Wayne and Mr. Heap have gone to
the Crimea, to examine the Bactrian camels with two humps, in
use there.

Extract from a letter, dated Constantinople, Nov. 4, 1855.

I came down in a large English steamer, called the Emprada,
in which were Capt. Porter, United States navy, Major Wayne,
Purser Heap, and a darkey named Jim; all belonging to the
United States store ship Supply, now staying here for camels.
Prom this the Supply goes, I learn, to Alexandria, and Major
Wayne will proceed to Arabia and to Damascus, to see the dif-
ferent species of camels used there. The Bactrian camels, with
two humps, used in the Crimea, are more fitted for draught than
burthen; and those of Arabia are the reverse. I hear that the Sul-
tan has offered Capt. Porter a cargo of camels from one of his
estates near this city. The route between this and Persia being
interrupted by the Turcoman hordes of the Turkish frontier, it
is not practicable for Major Wayne to proceed to Teheran and the
southern shores of the Caspian, to study the breed of camels used
there.

It will thus be seen that this interesting experiment is in a
fair way of being successful, as far as transit of the camel is con-
cerned. The next subject to be considered will be the probability
of its b^ing acclimated on this continent, and finally its adapta-
tion to the wants of the American public for commercial or mili-
tary purposes. '

AMERICAN CAMEL COMPANY.

In addition to the foregoing efforts and legislation, two or three
enterprising individuals applied for and obtained a charter from
the Legislature of the State of New York, authorising the forma-

390 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tion of the "American Camel Company/' passed April 15, 1854.
This company have issued a document, giving a history of the
camel and its commercial value.

By the above act three commissioners were appointed with
power to create capital, and introduce the camel and dromedai-y
into the United States of America.

Edward Magauran made some interesting remarks on the same
subject.

George E. Waring, jr., spoke of his late crop of corn at Cha-
paqua, as being about sixty-five bushels per acre.

Thomas Bell writes to the Club that on his new farm at Eat-
ontown, Jersey, by the use of the marl of his farm, has raised
upwards of three hundred bushels of good and large potatoes per
acre, and from fiffcy to seventy-five bushels per acre of Indian
corn. He uses no hoe — all the work is done by plows and cul-
tivators. The potatoes are large — best for the table in the spring;
but on trial at the table — they were generally deemed of good
quality, especially for spring consumption. Mr. Bell offers two
hundred and fifty bushels for sale for seed.

Mr. Selleck, of Greenwich, Connecticut, presented a ruta baga
turnip grown by Mr. Morrell, on his little two acre island in the
Long Island sound, near the shore of Greenwich. This turnip
weighs eighteen pounds, having a leaf stalk four inches in diam-
eter, and much resembling the elephant's trunk. The soil there
is thin, on a rock which has been tried as proper for making por-
celain; small snail shells are in the soil, and birds have been in
the habit of visiting it much, formerly.

Mr.Wells sent a red onion from California, measuring eighteen
inches and a half in circumference.

Mr. Elliott, of Oregon, presented a white onion from Oregon,
of sixteen inches circumference, and a yam of twelve pounds
weight, very compact and solid. Specific gravity equal to green
oak wood.

Judge Livingston presented pears from his seedling trees, here-
tofore called by the Club, the Livingston pear — having in the
opinion of all a very high, spicy delicious flavor, a Haut Gout.

C. Edwards Lester, recently United States consul in Italy, laid
on the table, apples from his place at Spencertown, which on one
bough, had twenty-five apples, weighing twenty-seven and a
half pounds. The trees were grafted in a peculiar way; that is,
by uniting two grafts upon one stock. One graft from the En-
glish greening apple, and the other from the Piedmont pippin.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 391

The Club had no time to look into the question whether the fla-
vors and qualities of the two apples are here combined to form
a new flavor.

Mr. Robinson proposed " muck " on a subject for the next
meeting. Adopted — with continuation of preservation of fruits
and vegetables. Adopted.

The new French mode of keeping eggs in lime water elicited
some remarks.

Mr. Judd had examined, recently, great quantities of those
sent to this market, with a view to learn the best modes of pre-
servation; lime water has preserved them well. The eggs sent
to this market last year, numbered about one hundred millions.
Adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

December 18, 1855.

Present — Messrs. Solon Robinson, Dr. Waterbury, Field, Par-
ker, Benjamin Pike Senior, Geo. E. Waring, jr., Silliman, Judge
Van Wyck, Wheeler, Disturnell, Elliott, Alderman Jones and
others — thirty-three in all.

Dr. Waterbury in the chair, Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following translations and extracts from
works received by the last steamer from Europe — for the library
of the Institute.

[Revue Horticole, Paris, Nov. 16, 1855.]

Extracts translated by H. Meigs ^ Dec. 10, 1855.

The Igname, or, Dioscorea Batatas, of China. Great hopes
have been entertained that this root would prove to be a substi-
tute for the potato for five years past; and experiments in grow-
ing it north and south, in England and France, have been made,
and are being made. The agricultural world may be said to have
its eye fixed upon it with anxiety as to the result of the experi-
ments. Will it really prove to be a sucedaneum for the potato 1
or must we give up those hopes which the first trials excited ?
That is the question. While we are uncertain about it, we will
report the experiments as they are made, so that intelligent farm-
ers may profit by them.

Before we proceed let us say that no plant, however endowed
with fine properties by nature, is suited to all soils and climates.
The Igname may not suit us. The English have gone into it with
(perhaps) more ardor than we have; but their success has not
well answered their attempts. Whether the climate, or rather

392 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

defective cultivation have caused it, the fact is that the plants
have remained feeble, and the crop insignificant. Trials have
been made by planting the little bulbs which grow at the union
of the leaf stalk with the main stem, about as large as a pea and
hardly that. Who would expect a crop of proper sized potatoes
from bulbs so trifling 1 Certainly it would require three years'
successive growth to make them over small potatoes. South of
Paris, and in the sandy soil of the Bordelait, it grows much bet-
ter than in England. It is ascertained that the plants should
grow as near to each other as carrots.
DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES OVER THE EARTH.

[Hevue llorticole, Paris, Nov., 1855.]

Extracts translated by H. Meigs.
Man is the great cause of the migration of vegetables. It is
now not half a century since the island of Van Diemen received its
first European colonists, and already everywhere the vegetation
has changed its aspect by the mixture of a crowed of wild or half
wild plants brought from Europe, some of which have so multi-
plied, that they have become as troublesome to the farmer of Van
Diemen as of Europe. The common Hoarhound, {Mai-rubium
Vulgare,) the Chamomile, (^Anthemis Arvensis Mohilis^) infest the
farms and gardens of Van Diemen, and sometimes to that amount
as to exclude all other plants. Thistles of various species already
cover the whole island. It is not rare to see hundreds of acres
there covered alone and entirely by the thistles or some other
weed. You walk over some fields so close in weeds that tliey
feel like down as you walk ankle deep over them. The Eglan-
tine (wild rose) was carried there to put in quick hedges, but it
has escaped from cultivation a long time ago, and now in many
places forms thick brushwoods. Its multiplication is so rapid
that unless great care be taken, it will soon become a formida-
ble enemy to cultivation of the lands. The Hawthorn grows
here with the same rapidity as in Europe, and makes excellent
quick hedges, but does not spread like the Eglantine, although
it beai's abundant fruit every year. The plants and trees natura-
lized here, indicate the analogies between this climate and that
of Great Britain, from whence they come. In Van Diemen, as in
England, the pears, apples, plums, cherries, are the principal
productions of the nurseries and fruit gardens, and have become
quite extensive articles of export to our neighbor Australia.
Gooseberries, strawberries and rasj^l^erries are gathered in great
quantities, and are fully as good as those of England. Peaches

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 893

do not thrive here, they are apt to fall off of the trees half ripe.
Grapes do not succeed, they are small and hardly ripen so as to
be eatable. The summer of Van Diemen is pretty nearly the same
as that of London, but not so rainy, and has more clear days.
Almost all the colonists complain of the sudden changes of
weather here. You hear this complaint from everybody.

The potato disease is visibly on the decline. Our markets have
now sound i:>otatoes for sale in plenty. However, we think it
best to follow all successful experiments in growing potatoes, and
we therefore borrow from the London Gardener's Chronicle, for
October, 1855, the following article from one of its subscribers in
the southern part of Wales : " Take as much barn-yard manure
as will suit your land, and mix well with it as much refuse salt
as you judge will not injure the vegetation of the potatoes, put
this compost in the furrows, and then before you plant the pota-
toes, put in over the compost a small shovelfull of ashes, then
cover all with earth, and make a ridge of it over the furrow.
Plant good sized whole j^otatoes. ' I have always succeeded in
this way, in raising a sound and abundant crop, and so have all
those who have followed my plan. Chlorine and potash are ne-
cessary to the potato, and the salt and ashes furnish them, for they
are not always sufficient in soil. That is not all, worms and in-
sects are kept away from the roots by it. I do not say that my
plan will succeed everywhere, but it is worth trying."

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.

Prof. Mapes, in his Working Farmer, gives excellent advice as
to turnip keeping. The strap-leaf red top, and other white tur-
nips, require the greatest care, for if stored in too large bulk,
without proper ventilation, they become pithy in a short time.
Many methods are appealed to, but the one we have found suc-
cessful is to place a ridge of turnips on the surface of the ground,
three tieet wide at the base of any required length, forming a point
at top, like the letter A. This ridge should be covered with soil
dug from the sides so as to leave a tiat fourteen inches wider than
the heap, and surrounding it, thus leaving a ditch around the
pile to prevent the admission of moisture at the base. The first
covering of soil should not be more than four inches in thickness.
On top of the heap, at distances not greater than five feet, tufts
of straw should be inserted which will leave holes sufficient for
ventilation, suffering the escaping moisture to pass off during the
sweating of the turnips. When the weather becomes more severe

394 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

more dirt may be tlirown on, until the whole thickness is twelve
inches, which will be sufficient for the severest weather. Carrots,
beets, and ruta bagas may be kept the same way.

Mr. Disturnell made some observations on the vegetation of
New-Zealand. Originally ferns and wild hogs were the chief
articles in that country, and both are now enormously in-
creased in prevalency. What are the cu'cumstances that deter-
mine any development of special forms of vegetable or animal
life? Captain Cook had stated he saw there no animals larger
than rats.

A member observed he had heard of animals that worried and
ate up the missionaries in New-Zealand. [A laugh.]

A member observed that cannibals were now much less addicted
than formerly, to eating missionaries.

Thomas W. Field, of Brooklyn, who is a successful cultivator
of pears, and fertilizer of poor land, said that upon this point he
would take issue. He knew the value of muck, swamp mud, or
peat. He knew and contended that digging muck was a profita-
ble business. He says that the best muck-beds are always to be
found in the vicinity of the poorest land. He instanced Long
Island — the upland a bed of sand, the lowland a bed of muck.
The peat is almost pure carbon. He had found but three per
cent, of ashes in burning. It may be treated with potash, or
mixed with stable manure. He had found a great benefit in the
use of guano, but it did not answer a good purpose on the same
land year after year without an addition of vegetable matter; and
he had found peat, treated with potash, the best application that
he had ever made. Then, a little guano made good crops. He
thought the best manure for sandy land was pulverized clay. It
is a great mistake to apply manure in a coarse state. One of the
best axioms for a farmer would be : use small quantities of ma-
nure, very fine, and well mixed into the soil.

The Secretary said the last observation of Mr. Field was an
exceedingly valuable one.

Mr. Meigs then referred to some proceedings which this Asso-
ciation has taken, prompting the American Government to obtain
exclusive i)ossession of a certain barren guano island. He stated
that the American Government had, in consequence, sent out a
frigate to take possession of that island, and that something fur-
ther would be heard on the return of the vessel. Of course, the
precise latitude and longitude of this uninhabited heap of fructi-
fying treasure is known only to certain parties.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 395

Mr. Field said that lie had learned some facts upon the subject
of preserving pears, from Mr. Earry, of Rochester. He puts his
pears into barrels, and leaves the barrels out doors, only covered
by loose boards or straw until cold weather, and then put away
in cool rooms. He mentioned several interesting facts about the
want of knowledge among those who grow pears, as to how to
keep the fruit. He lately saw a lot of Winter Nellis, in Fulton
Market, for sale at ^1 per basket, when they were really worth
$12 per basket, because the owner did not know that these pears
were good for anything but cooking.

Mr. Field also suggested thepropriety of cultivating asparagus
upon drained salt marsh. A Holland gentleman thinks the whole
area of Newai-k meadows would grow great crops of asparagus.

Mr. Wheeler, of New Haven, happening to be present in the
repository with some of his newly patented Volcanic Arms.

A member said that farmers often wanted such arms to pro-
tect themselves from wild beasts, and exhibited a pistol and rifle
constructed by the " Volcanic Repeating Arm Company," of New
Haven. With the rifle, upwards of twenty bullets may be sepa-
rately discharged in twenty seconds, or with incredible quickness,
and without removing the instrument from the shoulder. Many
members thought the invention most admirable.

THE USE OF MUCK.

Solon Robinson said that for the purpose of getting somebody
up to talk on this subject, he should take the position that digging
muck was only valuable to the farmer so far as di-aining swamps
was concerned. He Avas going to contend that muck was not
worth hauling, much less the dirty job of digging out of the
swamp or some hollow in the woods among the roots.

George E. Waring said he fully appreciated Mr. RolDinson's
remarks in opposition to the use of muck, since, as we all know,
he has long been one of its most earnest advocates, and has only
noAv got up a seeming opposition, to force some of the muck
advocates to stand up to the defence of their favorite fertilizer,
which, with some considerable experience he Avas ready to do.
There is probably no single subject connected with agriculture
which is so worthy of our consideration as that of muck, or, to
make it more general, decomposed organic matter. So great is
the action of this form of matter in the production of vegetation,
that until the researches of Liel)ig, nearly all the vegetable phi-
losophers believed it to enter bodily into the plant as pabulum

396 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for its sustenance, indeed at this time, thougli philosophers have
changed their opinion, the farmers, as a class, incline to the an-
cient theory. That we may more clearly examine its true charac-
ter, let us briefly review its various actions with reference to
growing crops.

1. It furnishes by its decomposition, fertilizing gases and
minerals which are immediately available as food for plants.

2. It acts as an absorbent and retainer m transitu^ of plant-feed-
ing materials wliich may come within its reach — readily yielding
its accumulated stores to the roots of plants, but not readily to
other influences.

3. It increases the power of the soil to absorb moisture.

4. It adds to its heat.

5. It improves its mechanical condition, rendering it more easy
to cultivate and less liable to become crusted on the surface.

First: When partially decomposed vegetable matter, such as
the muck of swamps, the leaf-mould of forests, or the decayed
roots accruing to the soil from the growth of plants whose upper
parts only are removed, is located in the soil, we notice in nearly
all instances an increase of fertility. This result is due, in great
measure to the nutriment furnished to the crop by the organic
matter, or rather by its constituents. No matter how finely pul-
verised, nor how largely present, it cannot in any manner enter
into the organism of the plant as original matter^ already formed
— powdered wood or a solution of sugar applied to the roots of a
plant would fail to be incorporated as a part of its integrants;
they might exist in the sap as impurities, but (unless in rare cases
concerning the introduction of sugar,) they could not become
parts of the woody fibre or sugar of the plant. Notwithstanding
the fulminations of old philosophers on the subjects of humus^
geine, etc., they are all dead letters as far as their imme-
diate availability is concerned. It is only when the organized
body is resolved into its elementary parts that it becomes food for
the growing plant. When its carbon shall have allied itself with
the oxygen of the air, and become soluble carbonic acid; when its
various proximates shall have yielded theu' oxygen and hydrogen
in the form of water, and when its nitrogen shall have assumed the
form of ammonia, then can the growing organism avail itself of
its assistance and reconvert the old matter into healthy wood or
grain. In proportion as we hasten the ultimate decomposition of
organic matter in the soil, in that proportion do we increase the
benefit resulting from its presence. This decomposition is simply

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 397

a slow burning, and serves the same purpose of throwing off in
gaseous form the principal part of the substance, and leaves as a
residue those mineral constituents which in ordinary combustion
remain as ashes. After such liberation these ashes become sub-
servient to the necessities of growth. It is highly improbable
that in the soil any organic matter is completely evaporated; a
portion of its carbon is sure to remain in the form of pure (or
nearly pure) charcoal. After it once assumes this form it is im-
possible, under natural circumstances, for a cubic inch of charcoal
placed in the soil may remain for centuries unaltered in quan-
tity, and resisting all of the destructive influences of air, water
and vegetation. The existence of this form of carbon in the soil
is not without its use, as we shall see in the consideration of the
next proposition concerning it.

Second: The absorbent power of charcoal which it possesses in
its various forms of muck, &c., constitutes by far its greatest
agricultural value. I buried a dead mule last summer in a pile
of muck only a few inches deep, but it absorbed all the efiluvia,
so that none escaped into the air. Since that time the work of
purification has been completed, and that stubborn piece of flesh
has assumed an airy form, and has taken its temporary abode in
the pores of that serviceable muck-heap, where it awaits future
commands. But seriously, Mr. Chairman, since this power of
muck has been doubted, I have deemed it proper to make some
further investigations among the best chemical authorities, and I
have obtained the following results :

1. Boxwood charcoal, perfectly dry, absorbed thirty-five vol-
umes of carbonic acid gas, and when moistened, it absorbed but
fifteen volumes. In the first case the absorption required twenty-
four hours; in the second, fourteen days.

2. Bottles filled with tobacco-smoke, or asafcetida, may be
rendered inodorous in from one to three hours by the insertion
of dry charcoal.

3. Stagnant waters, emitting offensive odors, are rendered pure
by the action of charcoal .

4. Liebig says : " Some gases are absorbed and condensed
within the pores of the charcoal into a space several hundred
times smaller than they before occupied, and there is now no
doubt that they become fluid, or assume a solid state." I think,
Sir, that any man, no matter how unlearned he may be, will have
sufficient common sense to understand, from his own experience,
and from the foregoing testimony, the following points, namely :

398 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

1 . Animal matters, when decaying, throw off essential portions
of their substance in a gaseous form.

2. Charcoal, in some form, is capable of absorbing those odors,
and of retaining them until required by plants.

3. Farmers will find it to their advantage to take their fer-
menting manures from imder the eaves on the sunny side of the
barn, and compost them with muck.

Mr. Waring continued his remarks at some length, recom-
mending the use of muck, and urging all farmers to study its
value.

Mr. Disturnell presented the following paper from Mr. Jas. M.
Hamilton, which was read :

ON PRESERVING POTATOES, APPLES, &c

Mi\ John Disturnell,

Dear Sir : — I j^roposed a few days ago to place in your hands,
in writing, the result of my experience in preserving root crops
during winter, which you are at full liberty to dispose of as you
see proper.

As the most important, I begin with potatoes. These I pre-
ferred to leave in the ground as late in autumn as the weather
permitted. Just before commencing taking out the crop, I had a
pit or pits dug, of sutficient capacity to contain so much of the
crop as I designed keeping over winter. The usual size of the
pit was three feet deep, four feet wide and of any required length.
Having commenced taking up, the best only were immediately
gathered, and with whatever moist earth adhered to them, placed
in the pit, which was fitted so as to form a ridge, and directly
covered with dry straw or other material, and that again with
earth, about two feet deep, still forming a ridge, the top of which
was carefully thatched to shed the rain, the access of which would
infallibly have ruined the entire contents of the pit. In this
condition it remained until it was judged the frost had penetrated
at least twenty inches, which it will do more readily than in the
solid ground, which conveyed to the potatoes a degree of cold
which greatly aided in preserving them, besides preventing the
burrowing of vermin. It now became necessary to add more
covering; and for this purpose I preferred a plentiful supply of
cornstalks, placed but-end up; this shed the rain, prevented
alternate thawing and freezing, and preserved the potatoes at an
equal temperature. A trench should be dug, to carry ofl' surplus
water, occasioned by r^in or thawing snow.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 399

Preserved in this manner, I have on opening the pit in the
middle of April, found its contents as fresh in every respect as
the day they were dug. The small potatoes were gathered at the
same time, and put in some convenient place for the use of the
stock during winter.

Apples, if covered in a similar manner, keep very well, though
with them a pit is not necessary. They should be well covered
with straw, top and bottom, as the earth, when in contact imparts
to them a bitter taste.

I have preserved cabbage, &:c., very well through winter, in
pulling them up with the root and placing them in a prepared
trench sufficiently deep to admit root and stalk until the first
leaf touched the surface of the ground, they should be placed
upright in single rows, and quite close together, the trench should
then be filled up and firmly tread, and finally a light covering of
loose straw or hay thrown over the heads, nothing more is neces-
sary. It may be proper to add that these operations were con-
ducted within a few miles of New-York city.

A conversation ensued in which the chairman said that apples
should not be wiped.

Mr. Waring said that apples give out their flavor to the earth
in which they are buried, not receive taste from the earth.

Mr. Field approved the method of leaving potatoes buried, for
he had found that such potatoes yielded the following season
greater crops than those which have been dug up as usual.

Mr. Waring — That is Roberts' plan you know to avoid the
potato disease.

Mr. Robinson said, my theory is that every ray of light which
strikes a potato injures it, long exposure to the light spoils it.

Chairman — Calls for a subject for next meeting of the club.

Mr. Field wished " Muck" to be continued.

Chairman — Winter feeding of stock.

Mr. Field — Salt meadows for asparagus.

Mr. Waring — Windmills for farm use.

These were adopted. Adjourned. H. MEIGS, Secretary.

mmra

January 2, 1856.

Present — Twenty members. Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in
the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary, according to the rule as to miscellaneous mat-
ters, read the following translations, papers and extracts pre-
pared by him. viz :

400 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

HEDGES INSTEAD OF FENCES.

Patent Office Report, Part 3, 1854.

Sweet Brier — {Rosa rubiginosa). «

A good hedge may be formed of tliis plant, by sowing the
" heps" (fruit) in the autumn as soon as ripe, or, what is better,
early in the spring, having kept them, in the mean time, mixed
with sand. But it is far more convenient to try young plants,
and set them a foot apart, in November. Let them grow as they
like for the first year, then cut them down to the ground the
second, and they will afterwards spring up and require no other
care than occasionally trimming with the pruning-knife or shears,
to keep the hedge in shape. When the stalks become naked at
the bottom, they should again be cut down to make them grow
thick.

It seems to us that such a hedge has one great superiority over
others ; that is the beauty and most grateful perfume of its flow-
ers and leaves. — H. Meigs.

The China roses (rosa indica) form a very handsome evergreen
hedge, (in temperate clhnates). They flower almost the whole
year.

Our cultivated rose is too rambling in its growth, and leave
too open spaces below. Pear trees grown in hedges, 20 or 30
feet apart, do well.

Girard, who wrote on this subject three hundred years ago,
says : " The poore will breake down our hedges, and wee have
the least part of the fruit. Forward ! in the name of God graft,
plant, set, plant and nourish up trees in every corner of your
ground; the labor is small, the cost is nothing; the commodity is
great; yourselves have plenty; the poore shall have somewhat
in time of want to relieve their necessity, and God shall reward
your good minds and diligence."

FOR hedges LINE FENCES.

The following plants have been recommended more or less :

The Evergreens.
Alaternus — south of Europe.
Arbor vitse — Thuija occidentalis.
Box.

Furze — Ulex Europceus.
Holly, the European — Ilex aquifolium.
Holley, the American — Ilex opaca.
Ivy, the Irish — Hedera helix vegeta.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 401

Juniper, or White Cedar — Cupressus Tliyoides.

Laurel, or Sweet Bay — Laui'us Nobilis.

Laurestinus — Viburnicus tinus.

Common Myrtle — Myrtus communis.

Oak, Evergreen — Quercus Ilex.

Orange, Wild — Cerasus Caroliniana.

Phyllyred, Broad-leaved — Phyllired Catifolid.

Phyllyrea — South of Europe.

Privet — Ligustrum Vulgare.

Rose, Cherokee — Eosa laevigata.

Rosemary, Wild — Rosmarium officinalis.

Spanish Bayonet — Yucca aloifolia.

Spruce Hemlock — Abies canadensis.

Spruce Fir, Norway — Abies excelsor.

Yew — Taxus baccata.

Ailanthus.

Alder, Eur opens. "

Alfred fratex — European Beech.

Ash, prickly — Berberry or Pipperidge.

Beach plum — Birch, West Indian.

Birch, White, European — Bramble European.

Buckthorn, Purging — Buckthorn Sea.

Caper Bush — Chinguapin.

Christ's Thorn — Hawthorn.

Hornbeam, European — Hornbeam, American.

Larch, European — Lilac.

Locust, Honey — Maple, European Field.

May, Italian — Mulberry, White.

Oak, European — Orange, Osage.

Pear tree — Poplar Lombardy.

Sloe or Black Thorn — Thorn, Washington.

Willow — 53 Hedge plants.

JUJUBE PASTE,

Is made from the plums of a small, thorny shrub or tree,
(Ziziphus sativa) of the south of France; it is about the size of
an olive, of a reddish color; has an oblong pit; is used in Italy
and Spain for desserts in winter. Seeds of it has been distributed
in the middle and southern States.

Am. Inst.] 26

402 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

[Revue Horticole, Paris, Nov. I6th, 1865.]

Extracts Translated by Henry Meigs.
RHODODENDRON UODGSOM.— {Hodgson's Rose Tree.)

One of the most interesting among the remarkable Rhododen-
drons of the Himalaya Mountains. It was first discovered by
Dr. Josepli Hooker, who found it growing in all the valleys of
Sikkim, of an elevation above the sea of about ten thousand to
fourteen thousand feet. He considers it as one of the characte^^
istics of that Alpine region of- the Himalayas. From its high
station it pairs with the other Rhododendrons Arboreum Camp-
bellise, and is surpassed only by the Anthopogon, Setosum, Eleag-
noides, and above all by the R. Nivale, which grows at the height
of about nineteen thousand feet above the level of the sea.

This R. Hodgsoni is a tree of the third rate, growing from
thirteen to twenty feet high, it has many stems from one base,
which together form enormous bushes, of from forty to seventy
feet in diameter, the stems severally as large as a man's thigh and
sometimes larger, but not often large enough to square one foot.
The wood is white, soft to the touch, close fine grain, very tough,
never splits by wet or chyness, is employed by the natives in
making handles for tools, bowls, vases, spoons, yokes for beasts of
burthen. The flowers are large aud magnificent, pretty nearly
hemispherical, and always rose-colored. It will of course stand
our winters, and will form a beautiful part in our landscape, and
of great utility as a wood.

[U.S. Patent Office Report, Part 3, 1854.]

GRASSES.
The weight when green and when dry.

Pounds when dried.

100 pounds of green White Clover, 29

do do Red Clover, 25

do do Herd's grass, (Timothy,) 39

do do Fresh meadow, 44

do do English Rowen, (second crop,) 19

do do Salt grass, 60

do do Corn stalks, 25

do do Spinked Oat grass, 50

do do Red- top, (Herd's grass,) 46

do do Rliode Island grass, 40

do do Couch grass, 48

do do Marsh Black grass, 38

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. '403

The Couch grass, called also Phin grass after Phineas Virgen,
on whose land, near Concord, New-Hampshire, it was first culti-
vated, is a strong, hardy, sweet plant, and when properly cut
commands a higher price than timothy, where it is known.

It is propagated from the root as well as the seed, on side and
poor soil, wet or dry. When once in the soil it is unconquerable
by plow, harrow or hoe; it is there for a lifetime. And when
established it wants only top dressing for five and twenty years.
Easily renewed by heavy harrowing and sowing its seed.

Fifty years ago it was considered a curse by farmers and gar-
deners.

JVote by H. Meigs. — I have labored to exterminate it from my
garden longer time ago than that; its vitality is extraordinary.
It was called sixty years ago by gardeners Twitch grass. I always
supposed it was so called because we had to gather its roots scat-
tering and twitch them out of the ground. I think it is the same
thing nearly as the Crab grass of Bermuda, which is a sweet
relishing plant to stock, but grows very close to the ground. It
grows in Alabama and in Georgia.

How strange are the mutations of taste. In 1795, by advice
of a French physician of St. Domingo, I and my father first
planted tomato. Always before that deemed a poisonous and
disgusting plant, its leaves having the smell of bedbugs.

The Frenchman gathered some from a love apple plant, in a
neglected corner of the garden, and cut them in slices, adding
salt, pepper and vinegar on a plate, on our tea-table, and insisted
on our tasting it. Setting the example by eating freely and with
apparent relish. But we all voted them bedbuggy. He under-
took to explain their virtue. He said that they had no acid as
other vegetables have, that therefore they never caused acidity
of stomach, but that they acted like calomel on the liver, purify-
ing it, without any of the evil effects of calomel, but with much
of its virtue.

TRANSPLANTING OF LARGE TREES.

A large tree fit for transplanting must be an isolated one.

Prince Puckler-Muskau transplanted successfully trees about
eighty feet high, but he advises not to transplant one above 35
feet, or 70 feet high. Mr. Jseger advises that in clearing away
the earth from a tree to be transplanted, no spade or hoe or any
such tool be used, because they cut the roots, but forks only.
That when the roots have been rendered naked, if the work must

404 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

be suspended, cover the roots with leaves or any other thing, to
keep them from becoming dry.

CUCURBIT A 'PERENNIS.— {Perpetual Squash.)

Is an ornamental and useful one ; grows rapidly on walls or
trellisses, has a beautiful, velvety, heart-shaped leaf; flowers ex-
hale sweet odors in the morning; fruit round, first green, then
yellow; as large as a stout peach, (that of Montreuil) the vines
die down to the ground in winter, but again send up the vines in
spring. The roots are very large.

Fifteen years ago M. Lindley gave us his Theory and Practice
of Horticulture. He entered his subject with a learned disserta-
tion upon Life, or Vital Force in Vegetables. What is that life,
either in a plant or in an animal ? The great insoluble difficulty
which always did and always will divide the learned, must, we
admit, with the materialist school, so powerful now-a-days, that
it is only the result of organization, that is to say, an act of mat-
ter which spontaneously, and by intrinsic and inalienable virtue
fashions itself into vegetables, or into animals, or into men, pre-
sently. A monstrous doctrine, which contains in itself the Death
of Society, and which would accomplish its wicked work, If it
was not unceasingly kept in check by the reason and the most
immovable instincts of men.

It would be well for many plants that our gardeners and farm-
ers should believe they had souls, for they would then treat them
better than they do. How can we explain the growth of some
plants at the freezing point, such as the Poa anntia'i How ex-
plain the mysterious properties of seeds 1 &c., &c.

Hon. Judge Bur well, formerly of Buffalo, strongly recommended
to the Club, by the late President of our New York State Agri-
cultural Society, the Hon. R. L. Allen, and by the Department
of Public Instruction at Albany, and by the State Commissioner
of the Common Schools of the State of Ohio, for his distinguished
capability of giving instruction in agriculture. Mr. Bur well
having received a liberal and collegiate education, and having
been a lawyer and a judge, found his health declining, and went
on a farm to amend it. He has studied the science, and labored
diligently several years.

The Secretary interposed, saying that he hoped that the Hon-
orable gentleman would shake hands with members, which he
did, and they found his hand as hard as labor can make a man's
hand ! The Secretary said that he had the honor to possess such

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 405

a hand for more than fifty years, and that it had never wanted
nor had a glove, or his body a great coat or cloak, although now
between seventy and eighty years of age. That his education, and
that of his father — early to bed, 9 o'clock, and early to rise, 4^
o'clock, A. M., to labor at every sort of work, garden, wood-chop-
ping, &c. &c., every day in season; and then, often, from the ma-
nure and mud, to cleaning up perfectly, fine linen, and even lace
ruffles, and silks and perfumes. The doctrine was that no one
was a gentleman who did not work at least his garden. U. S.
Senator James Hillhouse worked like a common laborer, both in
his own fields and on the public parks and streets. In 1794 he
dug holes for planting elms on New Haven Green, and I held
them between my finger and thumb, standing them as ordered by
him in their holes, wliile he shovelled in the earth and stamped
it down. He worked with sleeves rolled up, and an old hat on,
as hard as any man. I saw Noah Webster at work in his garden,
and a more beautiful one is rarely seen. I saw Madam Heyliger,
a lady of wealth, at hard work in her large garden, cultivating in
broad plat bands some ten thousand tulips. One of the richest
citizens cultivated a garden of one or two acres, in the most per-
fect manner, with his own hands entirely. He was always at
work at 4 o'clock, a. m., and never out of bed at 9 o'clock, p. m.,
He had been wealthy in youth, got the gout at 30, went to work,
and saved himself in fine health and spirits until past 70 years
of age.

Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn, reminded the Club of the fine lines of
Goldsmith on the virtue of labor in the garden and field. He
remarked that the book of Judge Burwell would in all probabi-
lity be much prized. Such a one is extensively wanted.

Judge Burwell said that although there were several books of
a like kind in some measure, yet that his differed from them in
being, as he believed, more plain for ordinary readers.

George E. Waring observed that his little volume had consid-
erable circulation, but not a supply for the public want in that
line. He said that we cannot have too many good books on agri-
culture, both scientific and practical, and was happy to find his
honorable friend, Judge Burwell, at work in this great cause.

Professor Youmans gave the same sentiments more at large on
the same subject.

Dr. Peck called the attention of the Club to the very interest-
ing example of Mr. Charles Wilson, of Brooklyn, in redeeming
from the ancient and monstrous prejudice of many as to the lands

406 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of middle Long Island, at Deerpark. He spoke of the committee
of examination, and their report in November last, on that new
farm, on which that large and highly respectable committee fonnd
among other products, ten acres of as line turnips as ever grew,
on land which, in the preceding spring was original wild land,
scrub oaks and pines ! Dr. Peck deemed it just and proper to
pass resolutions in support of so worthy and valuable an exam-
ple in redemjotion of wild lands and wilder prejudices.

Resolved, That the thanks of this Club be presented to Charles
Wilson, Esq., for his prompt and successful cultivation of a farm
upon or from the hitherto wild land of Deerpark, on Long Island,
and that we recommend that farm as a specimen, or an example,
of the practical use to which those wild lands may be easily and
immediately appropriated.

Seconded by G. E. Waring, Jr.

The resolution was unanimously adopted.

David Cotheal, Esq., of New- York, presented to the Club some
seeds of the new and interesting plant from Cafifraria, the Dourah,
which were given to members for trial.

A note from the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder was read. He is
pleased that there is a prospect of the possession by the American
Institute, of the Crystal Palace, for the American Institute has
been a pioneer in the great cause of agriculture. He thinks that
meetings of the United States Agricultural Society would be ad-
vantageously held there.

Members considered the regular subjects proposed for discus-
sion to-day quite important ones, and as this meeting is not so
full as is desirable, in consequence of misunderstanding as to its
time, the same subjects be taken up at the next meeting. It was
so decided unanimously, viz :

By Mr. Field, of Brooklyn — Muck; and Salt Meadows for
Growing Asparagus.

By Geo. E. Waring, Jr., — Windmills for Farm Use.

By Dr. Waterbury — Winter Feeding of Stock.

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

The Chairman appointed the following committee to examine
Judge Burwell's new work on agriculture, viz :

Messrs. Edgar F. Peck, Austin Church, and R. L. Waterbury.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 407

January 15, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Simon Brown, late Lieutenant Governor of
Massachusetts, Mr. Wagener, Hon. Eobert Swift Livingston,
Thomas W. Field, of Brooklyn, President Robert L. Pell, Mr.
Parker, Solon Robinson, Secretary Leonard, J. W. Chambers, Mr.
Charles Turell, Mr. Paixlee, Dr. Waterbury, Hon. Hugh Max-
well, recently collector of New-York, Mr. Clapp, Mr. Olcott,
Judge Samuel Van Wyck, Dr. Dummer, of Jersey City, Consul
Goodrich, Lyons, France, Nicholas Wyckoflf, of Long Island, and
others — forty-three in all.

President Pell in the chair — Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers prepared by him, viz :

ON THE PRESERVATION OF MEAT, FISH AND VEGE-
TABLES.

[Newton's London Journal of Arts and Sciences, December, 1855.]

Ebenezer Hartnall, of St. Mary Axe, patent for improvements
in preserving animal and vegetable substances for food, dated
February 5, 1855.

First. Take two-thirds gelatine and one-third treacle, place both
together in a vessel heated by steam : the gelatine must be previ-
ously soaked in water to enable the two to unite; add a small
portion of spirit to remove the watery particles.

Second. Have another vessel at hand, containing a composition
of two-thirds treacle and one-third gelatine; this having once
boiled, must be kept in a liquid state, by the smallest degree of
heat being applied necessary for that purpose.

Raise No. 1 composition up to the greatest degree of heat with-
out its actually boiling; then immerse the meat therein, and there
let it remain for a time sufficient to neutralize the gases; which
time must be determined by its size and weight, and the quantity
of bone it contains.

"When the heat is withdrawn from No. 1 vessel, its internal
heat will cause the liquid to run off; it is necessary, therefore, to
immediately immerse it in No. 2 vessel, and there let it remain
till it may be withdrawn with safety. On being exposed to the
air, the substance becomes hardened — but is as elastic as India-
rubber. The meat is hermetically sealed. A third coating may
be applied when the first has set, and the meat be immediately
wrapped in canvas which firmly adheres to it.

" Having thus stated the nature of the said invention, I will
proceed more fully to describe the manner of performing the same :

408 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

" First. Meat — have in a vessel, treacle and gelatine, in the
proportion of three-fourths treacle to one-fourth gelatine; bring
this composition up by steam or otherwise to 21 5 deg. heat. Then,
and not till then, immerse the meat therein — keeping it down
by means of a weight made to fit the vessel ; let the meat remain
in this vessel for the space of fifteen minutes to each pound, when
it may be withdrawn. By this process the decomposing gases in
the meat are completely neutralised; and it has, at the same time,
undergone a rapid process of curing or pickling. On no account
must the composition be allowed to boil, and great care must be
taken to have the heat uniform and regular. To improve the
flavor of the meat, salt, spices, garlic, &c., may be mixed with
the treacle. This meat may be smoked or otherwise dried.

Second. When the meat is withdrawn, hang it up in a cool dry
place for about twenty-four hours, and wipe off wdth a sponge
the moisture from the exterior; then immerse it in a vessel con-
taining one half treacle and one-half strong gelatine, with a small
portion of isinglass, dissolved together, and sufiiciently heated
to be kept in a liquid state. This process hermetically seals the
meat and causes it to retain its moisture.

Tliird. When the coating has hardened on the exterior of the
meat, re-dip it, and then cover the surface with charcoal powder.
This process protects the coat from mildew, and facilitates the
handling of meat in the packing.

Fourth. Fish : subject — mackerel, salmon, cod-fish, &c., to the
same degree of heat as in No. 1 process; but in olive oil, when
cold, hermetically seal them, according to No. 2 process.

Fifth. Vegetables coated according to No. 2, are protected as
with a coat of India rubber, from the influence of the external
air."

We are glad to meet with suggestions and experiments so use-
ful ; hoping and expecting that our inventive people will render
perfect the crude ideas of other nations.

H. MEIGS.

It may not generally be known that a similar composition is
used to make printers' ink rollers; and that it is as hard and
tough almost, when cool, as India rubber. It seems reasonable
that a piece of meat covered with this substance w^ould be her-
metically sealed, and we see no reason why it should not thus be
preserved. It is easily dissolved in hot water, and has no flavor
injurious to the meat. The details of the process are given in the
Journal.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 409

[From the Ninth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1854.]

METEOROLOGY.
H. Meigs^ Extracts.

" Air brought down from the tops of the highest mountains and
from the greatest elevation reached by seronants, is nearly the
same in composition as at the surface of the earth. This fact was
rather perplexing because the different gases of the atmosphere
have not the same specific gravity. A cubic foot of oxygen weighs
more than one of nitrogen, while one of carbonic acid was fifty
per cent heavier than either.

Common Air, 1,0000

Carbonic Acid 1 ,5240

Nitrogen, 0,9760

Oxygen, 1 ,1026

Steam 212c» 0,6235

The carbonic acid being the heaviest gas, it should chiefly occupy
the lower stratum of the atmosphere ; and the nitrogen the top.
The diffusive velocity of the various gases ascertained by actual
measui-ement. This velocity is inversely as the density of the
gases ; in other words, the lighter the gas the greater its rapidity
of diffusion. The vapor of water, or steam is subject to the same
law ; and this is the solution of the difficulty."

Among the visitors to the club to-day w^as Lieut. Gov. Brown,
of Massachusetts, who made a short but very interesting address
on the subject of " Swamp Muck and Salt Marsh.''

T. W. Field, of Brooklyn introduced the subject, and gave some
items of his own experience in the value of muck as a deodorizer
and fertilizer.

Gov. Brown said he found great encouragement in thus meet-
ing a Farmers' Club in a large city, since throughout the country
the farmer's interest is more neglected than any other. He
thought it a matter worthy of especial notice, that in a city like
this, amid all the busy pursuits of life, a club of men can be
found devoted to the purpose of discussing and bringing before
the world such useful matters as emanate from this society; for
however little these matters may be studied in the city, they are
widely read in the country, and commented on and acted upon
by those most deeply interested. He had often republished the
matters discussed in this room to the advantage and satisfaction
of New-England farmers. [Mr. Brown is editor of The JYew-
England Farmer^ Boston, and owns a farm at Concord.] He
thought the subject that had been just called up, upon Avhich Mr.

410 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Field had made some useful remarks, one that could not be
talked about too much. The people need line upon line to
awaken them to the importance of swamp draining, and the use
of muck as a fertilizer. On the subject of salt meadows he said
that their influence in Massachusetts upon the farmers was any-
thing but beneficial. If they had never owned an acre of salt
meadow, they would be better off now. In some parts of that
state the farmers resort to such land for hay and sell all from the
upland; thus the farms are deteriorated. As to the use of muck
as a fertilizer, not one man in ten knows the value of salt or fresh
muck, or how to use it. It is a very common practice, but an
error, to carry muck direct from the swamj) to the upland, because
thence comes an almost irradicable lot of weeds and grasses. It
never should be applied to any land in its raw state. The value
of both salt and fresh swamp muck is but little known, and some
who have used it in its raw state have ever since condemned it,
because its sourness injured rather than improved the crop. He
composts it with oyster shell lime, and finds it of immense value
for all crops. He knew of one man who made a pile over a large
surface two or three feet deep, and composted it with lime
and stable manure, and then sowed it with herds-grass seed,
which yielded him from three to five tons an acre, which he
cut away from the pile for manure, for herd crops, and grass
land.

Mr. Brown said it ought to be more generally knoAlvn that
muck is a perfect deodorizer. He never saw a vault so foul that
muck would not correct it. He buys all the dead animals he can
get and cuts them up and covers them over with muck, and thus
obtains a manure of the most valuable kind at a very small cost.
He finds great benefit to fruit trees from putting a wheelbarrow-
load of composted muck in the fall around the boles, and spread-
ing it abroad in the spring. Mr. Brown spoke of the great value
of muck in stable and barn cellars for manui-e -heaps. He thought
no good farmer would ever be without a supply.

Mr. T. W. Field, of Brooklyn, said all that was wanted to make
swamps productive, was to relieve the surface of stagnant water.
The general use of muck as commonly applied has been deleterious,
and it is difiicult to induce men who have once made such a mis-
take to try again in a proper manner. But he finds nothing so
valuable to mix with guano or potash, or any other concentrated
manure, as decomposed muck. He supposes there is one-
thirteenth part of tliis State now lying idle as worthless swamp.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 411

Here good garden land near New- York is worth $300 or $400 an
acre, and yet the swamps are everywhere lying idle.

There are millions of loads of muscles within a mile of Brooklyn,
not one pound of which is ever used, while all around men are
complaining of the failure of crops on light sandy land.

Mr. Field gave the following formula for forming a compost-
heap with substitutes for swamp-muck :

COMPOST.

There is nothing within the whole range of his labors that gives
the genuine lover of fruit and vegetable growth such complete
satisfaction as the increase in size and excellence of his compost-
heap. In it the imagination has hidden the subtle essences which
will ripen into the golden pear, color the blushing cheek of the
melting peach, give lustre to the green foliage and beautiful
growth of the trees on which his care is bestowed.

For it the cultivator is storing up the chemicals for natm*e's
laboratory, and is thus prepared to restore to her the elements
which shall reappear in the purest gold. Untold wealth lies
hiding in its dark and unseemly mass; and at the magic touch of
the wand of the great enchantress, shall burst forth in a blaze of
glorious beauty.

No single substance or kind of manure contains all the virtues
or manurial requisite for tree or fruit growth ; and a compost
which should contain all or most of the fertilizing agents I have
found in practice to produce the finest growth of fruit. My own
grounds do not afford good evidence of the comparative results of
particular manures, as all parts of them have been highly
fertilized to the depth of three, and even four feet, but the best
results have been obtained from a compost of swamp or peat muck.

At one time, as this was difficult to obtain at that season of the
year, a heap was made in the following manner : An old post
and rail fence was removed, and a layer 25 feet square of the
tough, spongy sods of the headland laid down, about six or eight
inches thick, and on this a layer of leather-shavings, three or
four inches; above this an inch of refuse brine (a portion of this
was brine from hide vats, where it had been used to deprive skins
of hair, which last formed, perhaps, one-sixth of its bulk). To
every second layer of sods, one inch of bone-meal was used instead
of the mild brine, and twice a layer of eight or ten inches of fresh
horse-manure, to aid in starting the fermentating heat. The whole
was encased and covered with sods, with a narrow rim, turned

412 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

up on the edges, and 500 lbs. of potash, dissolved in water, poured
upon it.

The heap contained 100 cubic yards, and was intended more as
a medium of distributing the potash, lime, and 500 lbs. of super-
phospate of lime afterwards added, and of forming, with the sods
and leather-shavings, a good retainer of ammonia in the soil.
Aside from the leather-shavings, a somewhat better compost could
have been formed by substituting peat or swamp-muck with one-
fifth unfermented horse-manure, and applying 50 lbs. of potash
to the cord, and applying the superphosphate to the plants or soil
separately.

Let every fruit-raiser, each spring and fall prepare such a com-
post as the following, and the result of its application to trees and
vegetables will astonish and delight him :

A heap of leaves, old headland sods, bog or swamp-much, peat,
charcoal dust, weeds, or rubbish of any kind should be placed at
a convenient distance from the house or stable, to receive the
wood-ashes; and when the soil is clayey, the coal ashes, the pot-
ash, soapsuds, chamber-slops, night-soil, liquid manure from the
stables, and all the old fish and meat brine — all the kitchen
slops — the bones — the refuse and spoiled meat — the carcasses of
animals — and especially the contents of the hen-house. All these
can be effectually deprived of alloflensive smell, by keeping a fresh
supply of the muck to cover over, whenever an escape of nitro-
genous matter is perceived. Applied to fruit trees, the effect of
such a compost is almost startling in the rapidity and hardiness
of growth it induces, and in the luscious and highly-colored fruit
such a soil will bring forth.

And as its dark and seemingly loathsome mass swells in its pro-
portions, the cultivator, who knows it is but the uncouth form
which covers a beautiful soul, sees gorgeous flowers and golden
fruits emerging with the colors no mortal hand can bestow.
What labor or pursuit can afford such a noble delight as witness-
ing the product of one's own skill in moulding the rich bounties
of nature to higher excellence and beauty, when such delight is
softened by gratitude to Him who giveth the early and the latter
rains.

Mr. Field related the effect of a slight covering of muck upon
a pile of fish, by which it was perfectly deodorized.

Solon Robinson spoke of the New- York meadows, and other
vast tracts of similar land near this city, and of its small value at
present, and what it might be made by draining and cultivation.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 413

A gentleman called attention to the fine nursery near the
Hackensack river, and how the trees grow in that drained soil.

Mr. Olcott spoke of the value of a compost heap, used as an
absorbent of all the liquid manures about the farm, and other
things that are apt to be wasted. Poor farming that will not pay
on 50 acres will not pay on 500. Mr. Olcott stated that H. C.
Vail and himself wish to establish a farm-school near the city,
where some valuable experiments may be made, one of which will
be the value of compost-heaps, as soon as they can obtain a suita-
ble location.

Dr. Waterbury said that he had some experience in the use of
fresh- water muck. It may be used in its fresh state to kill out
part of the grass, and still increase the crop. Peat for bedding
is very valuable, because it not only absorbs ammonia in the sta-
bles, but it adds to the comfort and health of the animal. He
used 100 cart-loads a year to six head of stock, and always kept
the stables and pig-pen sweet.

Dr. Dummer, of Jersey City, spoke of the great value of these
researches into the invaluable placers of manurial wealth.

Mr. Pardee called on the President, Mr. Pell, for his views on
this subject.

The President replied, that he thought it best for the speaker
in the chair not to speak.

Mr. Field adverted to the Austrian mode of having the power
of oxen exerted from the head and horns instead of our yoke, and
that the ox was thought to do better with the former.

Mr. Robinson — That Austrian method exists in our own coun-
try. Many still use it near our St. Louis, but it is quite inferior
to our Yankee yoke.

Judge Livingston gave to the Club some of the pears from his
Livingston seedling, in sound condition, excepting in some of
them shrinking. Their flavor was admired, as before, when the
Club named it the Livingston pear. It is a very valuable addi-
tion to our stock of good pears.

Mr. Wagener explained by drawings, and by a model, his new
patent machine for gathering clover seed.

The Club adopted for next meeting the subjects proposed.

By Dr. Waterbury — Winter Feeding of Stock.

Geo. E. Wai'ing — Windmills for Farm Use.

The Club then adjourned to the first Tuesday of February
next, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

414 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

February ^th, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Clapp, Livingston, Pardee, Frye, Judd,
Chilson, Dr. Shelton, of Jamaica, Dr. Waterbury, Benjamin Silli-
man, Esq., of Westchester, Mr. Leonard, Mr. Chambers, Mr.
Riggs, President Pell, and others — twenty-seven members.

Hon. Eobert Swift Livingston in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretai-y read the following papers, translated and pre-
pared by him, viz :

La Presse of Dec. 23, 1855, from Mr. A. B. Archibald, of the
Institute, relative to the use of the horse-chesnut for food, viz :

" In our paper of the 10th of June last we gave an account of
the experiments of Mr. H. de Callias, as to making the horse-
chestnut wholesome food. He obtained results which enable us
to express hopes that these chesnuts which are now trodden
under foot, to be made useful food for society, as was the view
of the celebrated Parmentier. The flour making from horse-
chesnuts is in full activity at this time, and with a success be-
yond all expectation. Not only is the flour made as cheaply as
that from potatoes, but at least a tenth more of flour is made.
Starch made of it is as fine as that from wheat, and those Avho use
it say it has more body. We recall to mind that working in pure
water takes away all the bitter contained in the horse-chesnut,
and thus converts it into flour fit for food. It is used by adding
37 per cent, of it to wheat flour for bread making, and it makes
excellent bread. It makes grits, which some pastry cooks have
mistaken for tapioca ; and as to its nutritious property, the learn-
ed Beaume says, that it is as heavy and has more starch in it
than the potato. When we recollect the enormous quantities of
wheat flour and potatoes which are used up by our bleaching,
paper-making, cloth-making, distilling, &c., every year, we see
the great advantage of the use of the flour-chesnut. It would be
no exaggeration to say that this new invention will greatly benefit
society. A premium of 10,001) francs was offered by the Belgian
government for a nutritious substance other than our ordinary
grains. M. Callias may claim it. Another idea, no less useful,
is that the fallen leaves of that tree may be subjected to pressure,
and thus be converted into solid fuel."

AMERICAN GUANO ISLANDS.

The members will recollect that some time ago Martin E.
Thompson (an old and valuable member of the Institute) intro-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE-

415

duced to the club Mr. A. G. Benson, President of the American
Guano Company, and invited him to speak of the recent very
important discovery by friends of his, citizens of our country, of
an immense deposit of guano in islands hitherto unknown and
uninhabited, and Mr. Eenson described them without, however,
disclosing their position, and desired the club to represent to the
government at Washington, the propriety of possession being
secured forthwith. The honorable Secretary of the navy on re-
ceiving a note from the club, took measures to possess. The
Journal of Commerce of January 31, and of February 1, contains
the following viz. :

THE NEW GUANO DISCOVERIES.

"The following is an extract of a letter received by the last
California steamer, from the special agent of the American Guano
Company, despatched to co-operate with the Commodore of the
Pacific squadron, in his expedition to the guano islands in the
Pacific, recently discovered. It appears that the Commodore
has decided to proceed in person to the islands designated."

"San Francisco, Jan. 4, 1856.
'^A. G. Benson, Esq., President of the

American Guano Company, JYew-York:

"I have the pleasure to inform the company of which you are
president, that the Commodore (Merwin) has decided to take me
to the islands in the United States frigate Independence, and that
he will take possession of both islands, it being within the scope
of his powers.

"I am waiting orders with instructions to be in readiness within
twenty-four hours' notice, and in my next, expect to advise you
of my departure. The Commodore has treated me with marked
consideration and kindness diu-iug all my business intercourse
with him, and has crowned the whole by inviting me to mess
with him in his cabin on the voyage. At first, he intended to
detail the steamer Massachusetts for this service, but upon exa-
mining the subject, he came to the conclusion that the magnitude
of the interest involved, would not permit him to entrust it to
second hands; consequently he goes in person in the flag-ship.
"Your obedient, GEORGE W. BENSON,

" Special agents

GUANO.
D. Jay Browne, Esq., of the Patent office, submitted a paper on
the subject of guano at the recent session of the U. S. Agricultural

416 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Society at Washington, in which allusion is made to the alleged
new discoveries in the Pacific, with reference to wliich the Ame-
rican Guano Company was recently organised. The quantity of
this fertilizer imported during the year, by the last annual census
returns, exceeded 200,000 tons, and was sold for not far from $60
per ton. In view of a material reduction in this price,as a result
of the new discoveries, Mr. Browne remarks, that the return of
the expedition sent to the islands by the government, and which
has, no doubt, already set forth, will be looked for with no little
anxiety by all interested in agriculture, and adds : "Should the
expectation of this company, as to the quantity and quality of
this guano deposit be realized, they propose to sell it to the Ame-
rican fai-mer at the rate of from $3U to $40 per ton, or at about
two-thirds of the present price of Peruvian guano. With such a
reduction in the cost of an article of prime necessity to the culti-
vator of the soil, we may naturally look for a vast increase in the
production of grain, and in the general amelioration of the econ-
omy of farming."

WOOL.

[London Journal of Arts, August 31, 1855.]

" It has been ascertained, by actual experiment, that the fol-
lowing are the results of feeding different kinds of roots and
grains, for the production of wool, viz :
1,000 lbs. of raw potatoes, with salt, make .... 6^ lbs of wool.

do mangel wurtzel, raw, 5| do

do wheat, 14 do

do oats, 10 do

do rye, with salt, 14 do

do rye, without salt, 12^ do

do barley, 1 2^ do

do peas, 16^ do

do buckwheat, 10 do

COCHINEAL.
An article of great value as a dye ; is from an insect which
feeds upon that species of cactus called the " Prickly Pear," whose
ripe juice is of that beautiful color, crimson.

[London : Journal of the Society of Arts, September 21, 1855.]

Extracts by H. Meigs.

" I have sent you, by this packet, two more bottles of the juice

of the prickly pear. I feel firmly persuaded that this extract, if

not equal to the cochineal, would in many cases be an excellent

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 417

substitute for it. The Cochineal insect is only crimson because
it feeds on Cactus; if it fed upon a different plant, it would,
doubtless, be of a different color.

There is this distinction between the crimson of the prickly
pear and that of the Cochineal ; the former is elaborated by natu-
ral, the latter by artificial means. What change the sap of the
cactus (for it is upon the green leaf that Cochineal feeds) under-
goes by the deglutitive and digestive process of the insect, to
render the animal dye superior to that of the vegetable, I am
unable to say; but supposing the Cochineal to be superior to the
juice of the prickly pear, in what consists that superiority 1 cer-
tainly not in the brilliancy of the color. It must consist, then,
in the permanency of the dye. If it be so, it would not, I ap-
prehend, be very difficult to fasten the color of the prickly pear
by some chemical process not injurious to the fabric. The prickly
pear is not an unwholesome fruit — the juice of it would, there-
fore, be very useful in confectionary, to color jujubes, bon-bons,
and the various preparations of sugar; and also in cookery, to
give either" a rich glowing crimson or a delicate roseate tint to
jellies, blanc-manges, ices, and such like dainties.

The honest wine merchant, also, might find his account in it.
It would communicate to his vin de-Bordeaux or Chambertin, of
the Philpot-lane vintage, or grown in the rural solitudes of Far-
ringdon without or Bishopsgate within, a hue far more preferable
and more wholesome than that of logwood, of which the world is
becoming somewhat weary.

R. TEMPLE.

J\'ote by H. Meigs. — With regard to the color which is so rich
in the prickly pear when ripe, I showed to the Farmers' Club,
several years ago, a Cactus, whose pears were as green as the
leaves — but upon dissection, an artery leading from the root of
the Cactus to the pear, was found full of the Cochineal crimson
fluid as red as blood, and being in quantity sufficient to fill the
pear. I had supposed that the color was formed in the pear.

WINTER FOOD OF STOCK.

Dr. Waterbury, the proposer of the question, proceeded
with a general view of the uses and effects of food, &c. He
stated that the process of nutrition is the same in other animals
as in the liuman. After birth, all further development depends
upon the food. Col. Pratt, a large tanner who used many horses,

[Am. Inst.] 27

418 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

came to the conclusion that that horse was the most profitable
which would consume the greatest amount of grain. The animal
thus fed could be worked a greater length of time continuously,
the exact quantity of food required for a given amount of force
has not been definitely ascertained. When a horse is fed on hay,
for example, a considerable portion of heat-producing material is
required to be digested beyond what the animal needs while
laboring. If a horse be high fed while not in active exercise, he
becomes diseased in various ways. It is difficult to estimate the
quantity of work represented by a bushel of oats. However, the
matter is practical. The experience of every farmer will deter-
mine the truth of the position that an animal can also adapt
himself to the varying conditions arising from an altered kind of
food. The doctor alluded to dyspepsia as a disease not exclusively
incidental to humanity. A horse was occasionally dyspeptic, or
hide bound, from being fed upon improper materials, and from
other causes.

Mr. Judd asked whether Dr. Waterbury thought the more
concentrated the food the better ? Particularly as to corn meal,
was it true that it " would heat the blood'!''

The Doctor, in reply, said that for two months he was forced to
feed a horse on half a bushel of oats per day, and the animal,
though unable to get at hay, increased in power; nevertheless he
did not recommend the plan altogether; it was putting too much
steam on, and he would be done up the sooner. The horse, with
that high feeding was often driven fifty or sixty miles a day.

It was here proposed to pass over the subject for the day.

Mr. Judd hoped they would not pass on Avith so little said
upon a subject so important, especially just at this time of the
year. To say nothing of the country, there w^ere thousands of poor
cartmen in the city who could scarcely obtain feed for their
horses during the present " cold term." They want some light
on the question as to what is the best, the cheapest provender for
their animals. Is it hay at ^20 to $30 per ton, or oats at 62 cents
to 75 cents per bushel, or corn at $1 ? Or what is the best ? He
hoped those experienced in feeding animals would give their
views, for this question was of more practical importance than a
hundred wind-mills, the merits of which they might discuss at
any time. He would throw out another hint for discussion. In
the upper part of the city were any number of cold, bleak stables
or sheds where horses were kept. A trifle of labor expended in
" corking up'' some of the air gaps would save bushels and

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 419

bushels of grain, now required to keep up the animal heat in
horses thus exposed to the piercing winds. Our chemical know-
ledge plainly teaches us that a fire must be kept up within the
system, to shield it froni cold, and the food eaten is the fuel which
must sustain that fire. With more of external shelter, more
outward warmth, there would be less of heat, producing fuel re-
quired within. But we do not need theoretical teaching on this
point. We who have traveled fifteen to thirty miles daily, during
the past month, to get from our country homes to our business
here, well know that we lay in an extra supply of " steak and
buckwheat'' before starting in the morning, that our lunch hour
is apparently long in coming, and that we can do our part when
we get home to the late dinner on the supper table. Mr. Judd
gave as a further illustration on this subject, the experience of a
farmer of his acquaintance who kept several hundred sheep
which he had formerly fed at open stacks, but now he allows them
a close shed which they can run in and out of at pleasure. The
owner is sure he now saves at least one-third of the food
formerly required, and his sheep come out in the spring in better
order. He is entirely freed from the former necessity of doctor-
ing the sheep for running noses, so common under the old system
of feeding. The same principle api^lies to the care of all
animals — warm shelter saves food and promotes health.

The Secretary spoke of the ShaAvlgoat and the Spanish sheep.
He said that —

Dr. Ambler has rendered a great and memorable benefit to the
United States by his perseverance in bringing among us the ad-
mirable Shawl goat, whose hair, almost as fine as silk, makes the
best garment in the world, and almost first in beauty.

The worthy gentlemen ought to be immediately employed by
the government to go to Persia and bring liome as many as possi-
ble to stock the chains of worthless mountains of our country.
W^e want more than Spain had in 15r)5, that is, 30,000,000 of
sheep. We want three times as many Merinos, and no less
Shawl goats.

In 1555, Spain had thirty millions of sheep, the two kinds,
one Stationary, (Estante,) the other Merino, (Trasbumante.)
The gold and silver of South America came in, and the sheep
went out, for in 1755, Spain had not one-half of that number.
By diminishing her number of sheep one half, she has lost, at
only $2 a liead every five years, thirty millions of dollars worth
of bodies,and at least as much more of fleeces; and all that valua-

420 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ble population engaged in the care of sheep. So that estimating
the bodies and fleeces at $4 a year, and the average lives of the
sheep five years, each fleece was worth in five years, $10. Total
loss every five years, 30,000,000 of bodies at $2, and $150,000,000
worth of fleeces. Then her total loss, since the gold came in,
has been, in sheep, only $36,000,000,000 and that is three times
more than all the gold and silver she has ever received from
America since its discovery. Add to which a corresponding loss
in people, arts, agriculture, &c.

Mr. Clapp expressed a caution against keeping horses, or other
animals, in too small, close stables, where they lacked a supply
of pure air. He would keep horses warmly dressed in a good
blanket.

Another member thought horses should not be kept too warm,
or they would take cold when going out into the cold air.

Dr. Waterbury stated that the several City railroad companies
in this city kept careful accounts of the kind and amount of food
required for their hundreds of horses and mules in daily use, and
that they could furnish statistics upon the relative cost and value
of the different kinds of food for working animals.

Mr. Clapp said that in changing the feed of horses, if concen-
trated food were employed, a mass was requisite, for if a horse
were fed exclusively on oats, he will afterwards devour even
buckwheat straw, if he can get at it. He assume d that " a va-
cuum" existed in the animal's stomach. The natural food of a
horse was hay or grass, and his strength under that diet will
continue many years He recommended oats ground with Indian
corn, when feeding corn is necessary. Corn at a dollar, and rye
or wheat bran at eleven shillings a bushel, will be cheaper and
better than oats. It is an erroneous idea that because a horse has
been driven, he must have a feed of oats. Put him into the sta-
ble, let him get rested, and the grain he requires, let him have
it all at night, so as to allow digestion to go on while he
is resting. Oats will pass through the intestines unchanged
if administered thrice a day, but not if a proper quantity be given
at night. Much depends upon how a colt has been raised, as to
how he should afterwards be fed.

Dr. Waterbury was glad to hear attention called to the fact
that during the period of digestion an animal ought not to be
called on to employ his muscles. If the blood be drawn to the
muscles from the stomach, where it had become concentrated du-
ring digestion, the result would be that digestion would be more

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 421

or less imperfect, and subsequent power for effort would be
diminished.

Mr. Judd moved that a committee, consisting of Dr. Water-
bury and two others, be appointed to visit the keepers of the
railroad and other stables in this city, and make such further in-
quiries as might be in their power in reference to the cheapest
food for horses as the present prices of hay, oats, corn, barley,
ship stuffs, &c., and report at tlie next meeting of this Club,
Tuesday, Feb. 19. The motion was adopted, and a committee
appointed, consisting of Dr. Waterbury, Dr. Field and Mr.
Clapp. [We shall look for an interesting and valuable report
from this committee.]

The discussion of Windmills was passed over for the day

EGYPTIAN CURIOSITIES.

Dr. Deck exhibited a very singular specimen of a flower for
which no place in natural history has yet been assigned. The
doctor has had it nine years, and exhibited it a thousand times
by dipping it into w^ater for a few minutes, when it gradually ex-
pands or blossoms. It is, when open, about one inch in diameter.
Its age is unknown. It was presented to the doctor for his medi-
cal services in Egypt, by an Arab who asserted that he had taken
it from the breast of an Egyptian mummy, a female high-priest,
and it was considered a great rarity. It has the appearance, in
its dry state, of a small, dry poppy head, but when expanded by
soaking in water, it has the appearance of a beautifully radiated
starry flower, resembling the crysanthemum. It was carefully
examined by the many naturalists present, but all failed to dis-
cover its proper classification; so it still remains "a flower
without a name." The doctor also exhibited some curious speci-
mens of Egyptian insects and reptiles preserved in spirits. One
is a frog no larger than could be covered by a shilling.

Mr. Couzzens, of Dobbs' Ferry, who exhibited at the Crystal
Palace, at the late Fair of the American Institute remarkable
grapes from vines, some berries of which measured three inches
and a half in circumference, exhibited a bottle of wine made
from them by him. The Club tasted it, but as it was found to be
in fermentation, of course its real value could not be found.

William Lawton, of New Rochelle, exhibited some of his wine,
or cordial, made of the pure juice of his blackberries. The Club
pronounced it very good.

422 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

George E. Waring gave several apples of fine quality for ex-
amination, among them " Peck's Pleasant," fair and sound, had
a fine flavor.

The Club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Sec'y.

February 19, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Robert L. Pell, President of the Institute
Dr. Wellington, Dr. Waterbury, Dr. Johnson, Dr. Peck, of Brook-
lyn; Mr. Thomas W. Field, of Brooklyn; Mr. Olcott, Mr. Geo.
E. Waring, jr.. Judge Samuel Van Wyck, Wm. B. Leonard, John
W. Chambers, George B. Eapelye, Mr. Birdseye, of North Caro-
lina; Mr. Chilson; of Jersey; Mr. Clapp, Mr. Green, Mr. Judd,
of the Agriculturist; Solon Robinson, Mr. Brown and others — in
all forty-six members.

President Pell in the Chair, Henry Meigs, Secretary.

According to the standing rule of the Club, as to communica-
tions for the first liour of the session, the Secretary read the fol-
lowing extracts from Europe, received since the last session of
the Club — saying : We take very great pleasure in following the
idea of the benevolent and wise Smithson, in gathering the best
information on the best subjects, and diffusing them — or as our
Washington Irving said in his Analectic Magazine, about forty
years ago, in reference to the flowers of literature — " Sparsas
colligere flores;" to collect the scattered flowers.

We quote the London Society of Arts, Nov. 30, 1855: That
Society has more than three hundred affiliated societies, so that
we happily receive every week, the results of the large amount
of talent and research contained in that large body of Englishmen
with whom we delight in a free mental trade at all events.

UNDERGROUND MANURING.

[London Society of Arts, November, 1855.]

Mr.Wilkins states the results of his experiments at Caversham,
as follows : the examination took place about a week since, in the
presence of Mr. Elliott, one of the commissioners of sewers of the
city of London, several members of the Oxford corporation, seve-
ral gentlemen of the town, and Johnson, head gardener at Strat-
fieldsaye, the seat of the Duke of Wellington.

A mangold wm-tzel grown on the new system, was found to be
26^ inches in circumference, while one on the old plan measured

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 423

only li'l- Hops on the new system were very strong in the vine,
full of hops, and measured 20 feet high, while those on the old
plan were only 14 feet high; two plants of grown potatoes, in
earth, on the new system, yielded 22 pounds 6 ounces, while the
same number on the old plan weighed only 14^ pounds. Two
plants of ash-leaf kidneys, grown in one foot of sand, from Mr.
Collier's sand rock, on the new system, yielded 10| pounds, old
system 5 pounds. One potato grown in this garden last year and
planted this year, on the new systeni, produced 101 line potatoes,
weighing together 24 pounds; one of ihese was 1 pound 3 oz.,and
was grown, in eight inches of earth only. The beet root, peas,
clover, Italian rye grass, rhubarb, &c., grown on the new system,
greatly contrasted with those on the old plan.

This underground manuring is thus tried : remove the soil and
make a water tight pavement — drain pipes communicate with it,
a raised rim of bricks on edge, surrounds the spot and rises a lit-
tle above the soil, which is thrown in to the depth of about 18
inches; liquid manure is forced into the bottom of the beds once
or twice a week, stands there a short time and then drained off.

The mangold wurtzel thus giving at the rate of sixty-nine tons
per acre. Cows fed on the rye grass on this plan, gave seven
quarts, on the old plan, six. The beds were 100 feet square.

JYote by H. Meigs. — Deep manuring has long been known and
practised by the most intelligent cultivators. All vegetables
form their bodies, branches, leaves and fruit by an ascending force.
All those elements which form vegetables, we call organic; and
they will not descend even in sand. The sand within a few inches
of the bottom of sinks, privies, &c., is free from taint; the mine-
ral salts descend, but no organic matter.

The Secretary, Henry Meigs, then read an interesting and valu-
able description of the different kinds of gum and resin used in
commerce.

Gum, properly so called, is used in large quantities in the arts.
It is generally distinguished into soluble gum or gum arable,
which readily and perfectly dissolves in water, forming a clear
mucilage, and cherry tree gum, or gum tragacanth and those dif-
ficultly soluble kinds of gum, which, though they soften easily,
do not ftjrm mucilage readily. Gum is extensively used in fin-
ishing and giving luster to crapes, silks, goods, &c., by calico
printers, shoemakers and in other trades.

One Liverpool firm miported in three years Gum Senegal to
the value of ^500,000 or $2,500,000. Gums to the value of 3^

424 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

millions of francs, or nearly $700,000, have been annually ship-
ped from Alexandria.

The exports of gums from Morocco reach from 200 to 300 tons,
and India from 1,500 to 1,600 tons.

Gum arable of commerce is the produce of various species of
Acacia, particularly vera (true Acacia), a native of Arabia and
of Africa, from Senegal to Egypt, which supplies the finest qual-
ities.

Gummifera (gum-bearing Acacia), a high thorny tree, found
near Mogador, the coast of Guinea, and in Ai"abia, form the Bar-
bary gum, a darker variety. The Senegal yields part of the Sen-
egal gum, the tears of which are usually in larger masses than
the Arabic, of a dark color, more clammy and tenacious. This
trade is chiefly in the hands of the French, from whom we occa-
sionally import it. In Cape Colony (Good Hope) gum is col-
lected by the Kaffirs from an acacia resembling the vera, which
Burchall calls capensis — probably it is the karoo of Hayne, Nies
and Ebermaier, which is abundant on the banks of the Orange
river, which reaches the Southern Atlantic Ocean, at about south
latitude, 29 degrees. It is of a pale yellow color and is not con-
sidered by the dealers so good as the gum of Northern Africa.
The ordinary Cape gum exudes spontaneously from the bark both
of the trunk and branches of the thorn tree (acacia horrida).

A considerable trade was carried on a few years ago with Kaf-
firland, for the gum gathered from the mimosa tree. It was ex-
tensively used by calico printers, calenderers, makers of station-
ery, and in various industrial arts. The export has declined
from 4,876 cwt., in 1849, to 72 cwt. in 1853. The reason for
this decline is cimous. By mere accident it was discovered that
a gum could be manufactured from potatoes or wheat, wliich ar-
ticle, now called British gum (Dextrine), or gum substitute, has
superseded the more expensive in almost every department of
manufacture and art in which it was used.

British gum is found to possess adhesive properties equal to
gum arable; being less liable to be affected by climate, it is
therefore used for postage stamps, envelopes, &c., as well as in
manufactures; and it can be produced for less than one-fourth
the cost.

Some fortunes have been made by the discovery, which origin-
ated in pure accident. A fire took place in a manufactory of
starch from potatoes near Dublin. The burning building was
deluged with water from the fire engines, and the starch washed

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 425

out in every direction. A man fell down in the flood of calcined
starch and water. He thought no more of it until next morning,
when dressing himself he found the legs of his pantaloons, sleeves
of his coat, pockets, and every other opening firmly obstructed.
On examination he thought he had fallen into gum, but on re-
visiting the scene of fire he discovered that the properties must
be contained in the potato starch, and by a few simple ex-
periments he made a discovery wliich has resulted in large
profits.

According to Dr. Vaughan of Aden, the acacia which yields gum
arable is generally a small shrub of a dry and withered appear-
ance; occasionally, however, it shoots out into a tree from 20 to
30 feet high. The gum is collected on the northeast coast of
Africa in December and January — long incisions are made in the
stem and branches from which the juice flows, which when dry
is removed. There are three kinds, styled severally Felich,
Zeila and Berbera. None of the first named (Felich), which is
esteemed the best, finds its way to Aden, the mass being usually
bought up by the Banians or Hindoo merchants, and shipped
direct to Bombay, where it realizes about 50 shillings the cwt.
(about $12). The other two gums fetch about half price.

In 1851, 250 tons of gum arable passed through the Aden
Custom House. Selling price there about 24 shillings ($6). The
local names for the gum arable or Summuk are Adad, Wadi and
Anhokib, the latter considered the best. The tree is found on
the mountain sides in good red soil and varies in height from 19
to 20 feet. The gum is highly nutritious. During the harvest
of it the Moors of the desert live almost entirely upon it, and
experience proves that a man is supported 24 hours by 6 ounces
of it. The harvest lasts about six weeks, during which time the
Moors encamp on the border of the forest.

In the Indian Bazaars the gums of many trees are mixed and
indiscriminately vended as Arabic by the native druggists.
Among them gum from the Neem, Mango, Babool (Jlrabica).
Cassia — Auriculata — Cotton tree, and several others, which are
much inferior to the Arabic.

A large quantity of excellent gum is obtained from the wood
apple. {Feronia elephantum.)

The bastard ebony tree of Central India, and also many other
of the forest trees which abound there, yield large quantities of
rich and valuable gums. Dr. Spry collected as many as fifteen
varities in one locality.

426 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

There are more than one hundred and tliirty species of the
acacia in Australia, and from them exudes the purest gum
arabic. It is so plentiful that at particular periods several
pounds can be collected in some places in an hour or two.

The Acacia Senegal or Mimosa Senegalenses, a tree rising to
fifteen or twenty feet high, affords the Senegal Gum of commerce.
In 1849 England imported of it, direct from Senegambia, 5,696
cwt., &c.

In the Algerian collection at Paris, mention is made of Mesteba,
an indigenous gum of Northern Africa, of which little seems to be
known.

Mezquite Gum.
Attention has been recently called in the United States to the
discovery in great abundance of a species of the acacia, known as
the Mezquite tree, which furnishes large quantities of gum nearly
equal to the gum arabic of Africa. The Mezquite trees cover
thousands of miles of surface, and always flourish most luxuri-
antly in elevated and dry regions. The gum is collected in July,
August and September— best time in latter part of August. A
good hand can collect from ten to twenty pounds weight in one
day.

A simple, pure gum is lately obtained in Travancore, East
India, from the Maraca^iga hidica, which is used for taking
impressions of leaves, coins, medallions, &c. The exudation
appears to be an entirely unknown production. The medal im-
pressions from it are as sharp as those taken in sulphur.

Tragacanth is a gummy exudation obtained from various species
of Jlstragulus verus the Gummifera creticus (Lamarck). Tra-
gacanth is called "Kitteret" by the Turks, who collect it in
large quantities in the hills about Buldur, from a low prickly
plant resembling a species of furze. The white flaky gum is
obtained by making an incision near the root and cutting through
the pith. A spurious Tragacanth in the east, from the sterculia
urens and the sterculia fatida.

Resins.
It is strange that of the origin of substances at once so valua-
ble and so familiar to us, so little should be known. The sources
of the Dammer and many of the Wood Oils from Singapore and
the Eastern Archipelago are little known, nor are the Copals,
the Anime, the Myrrhs, and other valuable gums and resins from
Africa, Zanzibar, &c., well defined. Colophony, the ordinary
resin of commerce, is the residuum remaining in the still after com-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 427

mon turpentine has been distilled for common spirit of turpen-
tine or oil of turpentine. The black resin of Colophony, is the
cooled brittle mass in the state in which it leaves the mill. The
amber or yellow colored is the same resin mixed with about one-
eighth part of water, while it is yet fluid.

Mastic is from the Pistacia lentiscus of Africa, a very common
shrub in Northern Africa.

Botany Bay gum, a yellow resinous exudation from the Xan-
thorrhea hastilis and other species of the grape tree of Australia.

The gum resin of the New-Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) is
admirably adapted for sealing letters. It is insoluble either in
water or spirit, and so thoroughly penetrates the envelope as to
become part and parcel of it; nor is it possible to get at the con-
tents of a letter so sealed.

One of the gum trees of Popayan, in Columbia, yields a resin so
remarkably tenacious that when used to varnish ornamental work
it resists boiling w^ater and acids; tables, &c., so varnished by the
Indians, are much valued in Quito.

Amber.

The source of it was long unknown, by some considered a car-
bonaceous mineral, but now it is universally supposed to be a
vegetable resin, the product probably of a pinus (pine tree.) The
beautiful black varnish used by coachmakers is a very carefully
prepared compound of amber, asphaltum, linseed oil and oil of tur-
pentine. Our chief supplies of amber are from Prussia, on the coast
between Memel and Koningsberg. Late imports are about 40 cwt.
yearly. Large deposits of it w^ere found a few years ago in some
lakes on the eastern coast of Courland, not far from the Gulf of
Riga. In January, 1854, a bed of yellow amber, apparently of
great extent, was found on sinking a well at Prague, from w^hich
pieces, weighing tw^o and three pounds, w^ere extracted. The
largest block known is in the Royal Cabinet of Berlin, and w^eighs
thirteen pounds. This fossil is also found in Madagascar, Japan,
on the shores of the Indian Archip»elago, and in small quantities
on the coast of China.

JjAc.
This important resin is from the incrustation made by an insect,
the Coccus-lacca. The lac is formed by it into cells somewhat
like the honeycomb, in which the insect is generally found entire,
and owing to whose presence stick-lac yields by proper treatment
a red dye, nearly if not quite as bright as cochineal.

428 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The broken branches with the lac incrustations upon them at
various distances, is called in commerce stick-lac. The coloring
matter exhibited by grinding stick- lac and then treating it with
water, constitutes seed-lac.

The resin in stick-lac is, 68 per cent.

do seed-lac is, 88 do

do shell-lac is, 91 do

Exports of it from Calcutta, twelve months ending August 31,
1855:

Shell-lac.

To Great Britain, Indian maunds,* 26,147

To France, do 7,609

To North America, do 124,630

Dragon's blood is collected from the seed-vessels of a Eupho-
ribaceous tree, the Rottlera tinctora of Roxburgh, occurring in
Arabia, Eastern Africa, and various parts of India. It is highly
esteemed by the Chinese. There are two kinds in Socotra. The
best is of a dark crimson color. This gum was the cinnabar of
the ancient Greeks. In the time of Dioscorides it was believed
to be the indurated blood of the dragon. A red juice flows from
the wild nutmeg, an incision being made in the bark. Gum
Guiacum from the lignum vitse. In May it exudes from incisions
in the tree. Also made by burning the wood with a hole bored
through it; so that the heat drives the gum to the center, where
it comes out and is received in a calabash. Also by boiling the
chips in water.

Fragrant Incenses.

In the East, Gum Benjamin, (the most costly,) Olibanum, (the
ancient Frankincense,) Gum Benjamin, or the Benzoin of Com-
merce, the product of a lofty tree of Siam, Sumatra and Java, and
also of a smaller tree in Borneo.

AsPHALTUM.

The pitch lake of Trinidad, covering a surface of about a mile
and a half in length, by one-eighth of a mile in width. Billions
of tons of the Asphaltum seem to have here boiled up from the
bowels of the earth. It is extensively used. Mixed with peb-
bles and sand, makes good roads, floors on the ground, &c. The
best and latest account of it is in Silliman's American Journal of
Science and Art, vol. 20, page 155, for September, 1855.

* Maund, 82 lbs. English.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 429

Gum Scammony

Is the milky juice, or gummy resinous exudation of a plant of
the Convolvus tribe; it is exceedingly difficult to get it genuine.
The consumption of it is not large. We imported into England
in 1853 on 9,704 pounds, and nearly all from Turkey.

Terra Japonica.

Much valued for tanning, dyeing, and is the product of the
leaves and branches of the Uncaria Gambia of Roxburgh, cultiva-
ted chiefly at Singapore by the Chinese, and of which our imports
average upwards of 91,000 cwts. per annum.

The President called up the first question of the day, viz : by
Dr. Waterbury, " Winter feeding of stock."

Dr. Waterbury — I proposed that question and also the appoint-
ment of a proper committee to examine the extensive system of
this city in relation to the vast number of horses and mules used
in our city travel ; because those most interested to keep cheap
and greatest power in the animals may well be supposed to know.
When the committee has acquired the required statistics it will
report to the Club. I therefore move a postponement to the next
session of the Club. Carried.

Dr. Frank G. Johnson, exhibited a splendid model in polished
brass, of his newly invented windmill for farm uses. By means
of weights free to move from the centre to the circumference on
the radii of the mill, the fans feather edge proportionably to the
force of the wind, so that at a certain degree of violence the fans
are all brought edge to wind and suffer no injury.

Dr. Wellington asked members to express their opinions as to
the relative value of vegetables for feed of stock.

Thomas W. Field of Brooklyn, asked the president as to the
use of apples as feed for hogs.

The president said that he hsfti experimented with the apples,
of which the product of the Pelham farm was large; he had fed
two of the animals entirely with apples; one day with sour ones
and the next day with sweet ones. On killing them, their pork
was found to lose about one-third of its weight in the boiling.

Mr. Field — believed that the evidence from the western country
was that apples fed with corn and other feed made excellent pork.

Dr. Wellington spoke of Phinney's prize farm in Massachusetts,
and Ills experience in turnip feed for hogs; he raised many, and
from three hundred pounds to nine hundred pounds weight
a piece, and he had fed them freely with apples. That to pre-

430 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

vent the wasting of this pork in boiling, the hogs were corn fed
for some weeks previous to killing.

Mr. Field thought that the apple feed rendered important ser-
vice in the formation of the cells in the structure of the animal
which become properly filled with adipose or tatty matter formed
by other food. He had no idea of feeding the creature entirely
on apples any more than feeding a human being entirely with
apple-saiice. He had found a singular case of the apparent
value of ripe fruit in a child of his own, which being seriously
affected by bowel disease, had contrived repeatedly to get away
to his fruit garden, gather ripe plums from the ground and eat
them freely and recover its health in spite, perhaps of the

plums.

Solon Robinson thought that there was no doubt that feeding
on ripe fruit was a good preparatory to the fattening food. My
love of good fruit is so great that I seize on this occasion to
beg all the farmers of America to raise good fruit. I wish our
w^o^rthy friend Field of Brooklyn, who raises so much of the most
excellent fruit, pears especially, to go and raise enough to perfect
the pork of America.

Mr. Field said— I am an enthusiast in fruit, and as to feeding
our hogs with the most luscious pears, I say that I can grow
more of such pears on an acre of ground than I can potatoes.

Mr. Robinson— Many farmers let their hogs run in the forest
where they fatten on beech-nuts, but that fat, when the killed
hogs are piled on the floor, cover that floor with oil so that it
may be scooped up. But when these animals are penned and
fed for a time with corn, the pork becomes good.

Dr. Waterbury— The shrinkage of the pork in boiling will be
found to be evaporation up the chimney as well as the grease left
in the pot. The animal is dropsical. So hogs fed with some
madder color their bones, and with corn and other food than the
beech nuts, the pork becomes harder. I have tried beech nut
pork and it was, I may say, more greasy than corn fed pork. We
always drove our hogs in the fall, into our orchard that they
might eat up tlie windfall apples; we then put them in the stye
and corn fed them till they were solid.

Dr. Edgar Peck, of Brooklyn, had long noticed the effect pro-
duced on the hog by his feeding on the shell fish, &c., on the
shores of Long Island. The effect of that feeding was such that
nobody could eat the pork ! But such feeders as those can be
rendered solid, good pork by finishing them off with a competent

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 431

corn feed. Steers fed upon turnips look fine, skin smooth, &c.,
but when slauglitered the beef almost dries up, and the kidneys
nearly disappear !

WIND-MILLS FOR FARM USE.

Geo, E. Waring said that farmers would find wind-mills very
valuable and economical power. He looks upon them as very
valuable in draining land. He thinks a swamp of a dozen
acres, with a wind-mill of three horse power, could be kept per-
fectly dry.

Dr. Johnson explained the model of his patent wind-mill,
which was on exhibition in the club room.

Mr. Brown had a working model of his mill also present, which
he explained. It is regulated by weights by centrifugal force;
the faster the fans circulate, the more they turn the edge to the
wind. Brown's mill is a good machine, and is known as the
Vermont wind-mill. Our friends, Fowlers & Wells, have some-
thing to do with it, and can give information. There are ten
sizes, costing from $50 to $350. Farmers and others in want of
a cheap motive power should look to the inducements offered of
putting up a wind-mill on their premises. It may be very econo-
mically used to pump water for draining or irrigating land,
household use, or for supplying railroad stations, for which it is
especially adapted. For irrigation alone there are hundreds of
situations where the mill would pay for itself in a single season.
It may be used, and will give good satisfaction, to thresh, win-
now, shell, or grind all kinds of grains, peas, beans, and to grind,
cut, or mash apples, roots, paints, &c. These mills may be at-
tached to a barn, or other building, or placed up a tower erected
for the purpose.

Judge Meigs again suggested that in clearing land, a tree might
be left for this purpose. It would be very solid and strong, and
last many years. The model of Johnson's mill shows a good deal
of ingenuity, and he thinks is so regulated that it will withstand
a sudden squall, as the fans open by pressure of the wind as well
as by the increased speed. It was understood, however, that it
had not been practically tested upon a large scale,

halliday's wind-mill,

Solon Robinson said the patentee of the mill known as Halli-
day's wind-mill is entitled to credit as the pioneer of improve-
ments. He first produced a perfect self-regulating wind-mill,

432 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

one that can be set to work and keep at work without an
attendant.

The Tribune gave its indorsement to the value of Halliday's
wind-mill at an early day; and it is pleasant now to meet ample
evidence to prove that the opinion then expressed was a sound
one. The following letter fully confirms it. It is from the chief
engineer of the Illinois Central Railroad. It says :

" We put up one of these mills at a station on this road last
fall, and its operation has given entire satisfaction, and has very
much exceeded my expectations. The following is the result of
one week's work with the mill :

Days. Hours run. No. engines watered.

Monday 5 7

Tuesday 3 7

Wednesday 6 1ft

Thursday 1 8

Friday 12 10

Saturday 3 10

" Our reservoir is sixteen feet diameter, and the greatest
amount of water pumped in a given time during the week to fill
the reservoir, three and a half feet in two hours. The only im-
provement that I would suggest would be to so arrange the ma-
chine as to be able to disconnect the mill from the pump, so as to
apply hand power in case of a long continued failure of the wind.
This, by the by, is not very likely to happen on our prairie
region. The mill has not been one dollar expense to us since it
was put up, nor has it failed, except in one instance, to pump all
the water required, and that only for a short time. As soon as
the weather moderates, I shall put up one a size larger at another
station, and I feel fully persuaded that it will be greatly to the
interest of railroads generally to adopt them.

" Respectfully, R. B. MASON."

So it will be for the interest of farmers generally to adopt them.
Only think of the immense benefit such a tank of water in an
elevated position would be to a farmstead, to say nothing of its
advantages in the way of irrigation, or for watering cattle in
fields that had no living water upon the surface. It is not to
promote the interest of railroad companies that we should warmly
advocate the introduction of self-regulating windmills ; nor the
interest of manufactures ; but whatever we can do to induce far-
mers to adopt them will promote the real interest of America,
because wind-power is the cheapest and most universal. Upon

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 433

the western prairies it will be impossible to keep cattle upon im-
mense tracts of unwatered land without some cheap power like
these mills to pump water from wells. Some of the most enter-
prising farmers of the west, who are now using them, state as
their opinion, that this invention will increase the value of the
great western prairies some millions of dollars, as many hundred
thousand acres can now be profitably used as stock farms, which
could not be before this invention was introduced.,

A large joint stock company is to be formed in the spring, in
Illinois, by some of the wealthy leading men of the State, who
have fully tested the mills and are now enlisted in the enterprise.
The manufacturers say :

" We have found that two or three horse power mills made on
this principle work admirably, and Mr. Halloday is now engaged
in making patterns for a large size designed for saw and grist
mills, which we shall introduce the coming season.

This will he good news for farmers, particularly on the prai-
ries, where there are but few days in the year that a mill would
not be able to do part of a day's work.

Parties in this city who are desirous of having something more
definite about the work of a self-regulating windmill would do
well to call upon J. H. Prentiss & Co., No. 166 Water street, who
have one at work that discharges 30,000 gallons of water a day.
Think of that, ye drouth-parched or frozen up farmers. How
easy it would be for you to have a tank in your barn, surrounded
by hay, so that it would not freeze, constantly full of water
drawn from a well, and ready for your stock this terrible win-
ter, in which stock upon many farms have suffered more for wa-
ter than for hay. Do farmers need any more evidence of the
value of these windmills for their use beside what is here given?
If they do, they can have it from H. D.Whitcomb, chief engineer
of Virginia Central railroad, or J. M. Davison, superintendent
of Saratoga and Whitehall road, upon which they have these mills
in use. The manufacturers say in a very recent letter :

" We find that by a cheap and simple device' recently attached
to the mill, when the well is exhausted, or the tank is full, the
mill will stop itself with the edge of the fans to the wind. We
think this adds much to the value of the mill.''

Undoubtedly; and undoubtedly other valuable improvements
will be made until we shall have a perfect wind-engine. Farm-
ers, however, should not wait for perfection, but when an arti-

[Am. Inst.] 28

434 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cle SO near perfect is oifered them, and one of such vast benefit,
we are justified in urging them at once to adopt it, both as a
great labor-saving machine, and one that is well calculated to
promote the happiness of man and beast. We do not wish to in-
dorse any man's invention as the best,but wish there were twenty
more, and better than any of these, and that farmers could be in-
duced to put up such cheap machinery for so many purposes that
it could be applied to with such inexpensive motive power. The
use of windmills upon farms should be discussed by all fai-mers
until they are as fully satisfied as the few who have used them
of their great advantage.

On motion of Mr. Solon Robinson, the questions for next meet-
ing of the club were adopted, viz :

" Winter feeding of stock," proposed by Dr. W^aterbury. " The
necessary and most advisable prej^aration for spring work.''

Mr. Meigs said that he had, as he thought, made a useful dis-
covery in relation to windmills for farm use, about forty years
ago, and had made a drawing and description of it in his common
place book, viz : That when our farmer makes a new settlement
let him select the strongest tree on the spot where he desires to
build his dwelling and barn, and trim that tree of its largest
branches, so as to suit his convenience. Build the barn, stables,
&c., all around it. That tree is the tower to support his wind-
mill. It might cost five dollars to trim it; and a tower of equal
strength cannot be built for two hundred times that sum. It will
last a long time, and defy all gales of wind ! The windmill at-
tached to it (Brown's) costs a mere trifle in comparison with the
work it can do in the year, grind, saw, pump, churn, &c., &c.

The club then adjourned to the first Tuesday in March next,
at noon, March 4.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

March 4, 1856.

Present — Messrs. President Pell, Judge Livingston, Solon Rob-
inson, Anderson, Birdseye, of Ohio ; Leonard, Pardee, Turell,
Jean Blanc, of New Orleans; Robinson, Rev. Mr. Carter, of
Brooklyn; Elliott, Theodore D wight, Barney, Chilson, Geissen-
hainer, Judd, Ireland, of Fire Place, Long Island ; Geo. Waring,
jr., and others — forty-three in all.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in the Chair, Henry Meigs, Se-
cretary.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 435

ORIGIN OF CHERRIES.

Mr. Targioni in his work on the introduction of vegetables into
Italy, is of opinion that the wild cherry, common in the woods
of Italy, in many other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, is
the first and only source of all the cherry trees now cultivated
for their fruit, Mr. Tai'gioni is a learned professor at Florence.
His views are in opposition to those of the majority of botanists,
who, after the example of De Candolle, admit four species of
cherries, viz : Cerasus Avium, or wild cherry, Cerastes Duracina,
or, bigarreautin, the Cerasus Juliana, o\ guignier cherry, and the
Cerasus Caproniana, or griottier cherry.

Cherries^ then, are indigenous in Europe, a fact which contra-
dicts the assertion of Pliny (1,800 years ago).

In fact, that great Roman naturalist pretended that there were
no cherries in Italy until Lucullus conquered Mithridates, in
about 680 of the Roman Republic, when he brought the first
cherry trees into the Republic ; and he goes on to say that in one
huncbed and twenty years that fruit tree was propagated through-
out the whole Roman Empire, even into Great Britain. From
all this talk of Pliny's the idea has generally prevailed that the
cherry came originally from Cerazonte, the modern Zefano, and
that the Latins called it Cerasus for that reason. It is, however,
possible that Lucullus may have imported the first cultivated
varieties of cherry; and that the Romans did not discover their
identity with their own wild cherry of their forests. It is how-
ever certain that cherries were known in Greece a long time be-
fore Lucullus lived.

GUANO.

In the month of June last, resolutions were adopted by the
Farmers' Club, recommending to all agricultural societies of the
United Sta'tes to ask our government to take possession of certain
uninhabited and unclaimed islands in the Pacific ocean, valuable
for their deposits of guano, which had been first discovered by
American citizens, and whose interest was represented by the
American Guano Company, established under the presidency of
Mr. Alfred G. Benson, of Brooklyn, Long Island.

It is now proposed, and as we tliink, with perfect propriety,
that all the agricultural societies of the United States unite in a
petition to our government to take possession of all other islands
of like character, which have been or may be first discovered by
American whalers, or other Americans for the tencfit of the

436 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

United States and the discoverers. And that the taking such
possession shall only occur in islands uninhabited and entirely
out of the maritime jurisdiction of any other nation.

The chairman called up the questions of the day, viz : winter
feeding of stock. The proposer of the question Ur. Waterbury,
who is" also on the special committee to examine in extenso in
what way the horses, mules, &c., of this city are fed; not being
ready to make that report, ordered continued to next meeting.
The next question " The necessary and most advisable prepara-
tion for spring work in farms and gardens."

LIVE STOCK.

President Pell remarked— It is a matter of much importance
to farmers to raise such breeds of domestic animals as are pos-
sessed of gentle and tame dispositions, without being sluggish, such
animals are not disposed to ramble about and break out from
enclosures, and are easily reared, and made fat on much less food.
The production of this peculiar disposition depends upon the
manner of rearing them. My beasts are all so gentle and tame,
from particular care in this respect, not only the oxen and cows,
but even bulls, that they can be managed with great ease.

Hardy constitution in stock is a property 1h:it should receive
particular attention from breeders, especially those living in ex-
posed positions, as they are not so liable to disease, and thrive
far better than those possessing a delicate nature. Cattle of
rough hair, and red or dark color, are supposed by many to
denote this disposition. I think however that it does not depend
so m jch upon the color, as the manner of rearing. Another pro-
perty of very great consequence to the breeder of stock, as his
profits in a great degree depend upon it, is of arriving rapidly
at the mature state. Judicious feeding has much influence in
this respect; when by constant and full supplies of proper food
they are kept constantly in a thriving condition, they must
inevitably arrive early at maturity, whatever the nature of the
stock may be. Ey this mode the feeder will make greater pro-
gress in three years, than may be effected by the pinching method
in six. Animals never must be stinted in their early growth,
by want of food, care, or warmth. The difference in the flavor of
the flesh of different breeds of animals depends on the nature of
their food; while that of color is the effect of breed. Wherever
deviation from the natui-al color of flesh is met with in meat, as

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 437

is often the case, it is probably the effect of a morbid condition
of the animal.

While living, good flesh may be proved by a mellow, firm,
elastic feel, without harshness; and in the dead carcass by similar
signs, with a fine grain marbled. Age and sex afford variety in
the quality of flesh; in old animals it is particularly firm and
free from elasticity, and not so tender or juicy as those that are
young; fineness of grain in the meat is far greater in female
than male animals. Another property furnishes the means of
determining disposition to fatten in animals, namely, the feel of
the skin, when it is soft and silky it indicates a tendency to take
on fat. It is evident that a soft skin is more easily stretched to
cover an extraordinary quantity of flesh, than a harsh, thick,
tough one.

The property of supplying milk in large quantities should be
the object of breeders. The question of the propriety of having
a distinct breed exclusively for this purpose, or that of having it
partly calculated for this use, and partly for that of the butcher,
has not yet been fully decided. It has been found by many, that
such cows as have great propensity to fatten, very seldom answer
the purpose of the dairy.

By great and devoted attention for ten years, I have produced
a breed of animals admirably calculated for both these uses;
from three to eight years old they give enormous quantities of
rich milk, and at 9 years old are easily fattened. A breed of
greater value cannot be produced. I have often taken 28
quarts of milk per diem from each of several of my cows, and often
more, without other food than good pasture. Another property
that is requisite for the breeder to take into consideration in the
improvement of stock, is that of blood; which signifies the natu-
ral and inherent propensities of a breed, as exemplified in their
outward appearances. It enables him to discriminate with cor-
rectness in the choice of such animals as are adapted to the im-
provements he has in view. In selecting animals, both male and
female, he must choose such as are the most perfect and exact in
their ditferent parts and properties, and breed from them without
suffering any intermixture of inferior grades. This together with
proper and abundant food at all seasons, with suitable shelter and
warmth, will improve animals to a state of unequalled excellence.
As first rate stock is in but few hands, comparatively speaking,
in our country, and the owners demand higher prices than the
farmers are willing, or perhaps, able to pay. It would be par-

438 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ticularly advantngeous, if the leading agriculturists in the
diiferent counties of our several states, would provide well bred
male stock for the use of the people, either gratuituously or for
small remuneration. By encouragement of this kind, the highest
in the most important department of husbandry can he attained.
Every variety of pasture is fitted to raise animals to a certain size;
when a larger size are put in than the quality of the grass is
able to support, they, whether horses, sheep or cows, or in fact
any stock will degenerate, a smaller herd placed upon the same
pasture will increase, until they come up to the pitch which is
suittd to their nourishment.

The breeding and rearing of cattle may be accomplished on all
iarms advantageously where coarse pasture abounds, and at the
same time means of raising green vegetables for winter use, that
they may be constantly kept in the best manner, this is of immense
importance in the raising of stock. Where young animals suffer
for food at an early period of their growth, or are fed on a poor
quality, they never thrive afterwards, or make good stock. This
applies to swine, sheep, horses, &c. In addition to good feeding
cleanliness is likewise essential in raising young stock. In win-
ter they should be fed with cut hay, carrots and turnips without
stint, a contrary practice will stop their growth, and it will never
be recovered by the kindest attention. At two years old the pro-
per food is hay, or if too dear, cut straw with an occasional
sprinkling of bran, or sliced turnips. A small portion of green
food in winter, given daily to stock under three years old, will
benefit them greatly, and there is no way that a breeder will be
better paid for his carrots, turnips, &c. than by so appropriating
them. At the same time it is necessary that the animals should
receive their food at regular periods, and never more than they
will entirely consume. If they are allowed to waste they do not
thrive as well. It is particularly necessary to keep young ani-
mals well sheltered and warm, and they will repay you for the
trouble by consuming much less food. My cattle are always
kept in stalls during the winter months, and daily curried; in
fair weather they are permitted to run in the barn yard in the
middle of the day. Young cattle of different ages should always
be kept distinct from each other, both in winter and summer, and
they will always feed without interruption or inconvenience to
each other. Some years since, when I permitted my cattle to run
more at large, winter and summer, I found they were unfit to take
the bull before they were fully three years old. Now by proper

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 439

feeding and good winter keeping they are always fit at one year
old, and if I were to put them at that early age they would come
soon to profit, but I usually wait until they are two years old,
which brings them in at three without in any way stinting their
growth. Unless your animals are remarkably well kept they will
not take the bull either at one or two years old. This operation
should be so timed that the heifer will calve when there is a bite
of grass, particularly when she has her first calf, this causes her
to be a better milker afterwards, in consequence of the secretion
of milk being more completely established. Cows in calf require
to be well fed in winter and kept warm, they should on no ac-
count be exposed to wet and cold, this will induce them to calve
with great facility, take the bull readily at the proper season, and
add much to their milking qualities. Foddering such stock with
straw, the usual practice, should be avoided. The bull should
be well fed, and not used until he is two yeai-s old, he will then
be vigorous until five yeai'S old. If put to cows at one year old,
the present practice, he will loose his energy at. three years old.
He should always be kept in an inclosure, and have the cows
brought to him.

In rearing young bulls, my practice has been to allow the calf
to remain with the dam until eight months old, during a small
portion of which period he will take the milk of two cows, when
he eats grass his dam affords him a full supply. This appears to
be an expensive way of raising stock, but I can assure the breeder
that it will amply remunerate him to raise all his calves in this
manner. At the State Fair in 1844, my calf at eight months old
was awarded the first premium. She remained with the dam
until she was two years old, when she weighed nearly two thou-
sand pounds. The mother of this animal gave twenty-eight
quarts of milk per day. In raising oxen, they should be allowed
the milk of two cows until four months old, then the milk of
their dam until eight months, after which skim milk fed by hand
for the period of one year, and then never stinted in winter or
summer. At one year old they should be brought into training;
at two years old yoked, and made to follow an old team; at three
years old worked lightly, and at four years ^Id they will do more
work, and endure more hardships, than any three yoke of cattle
raised in the ordinary manner. An ox will never reach a large
size unless he is worked. Take two calves and feed them pre-
cisely alike until they are three years old, then put one to work,
and permit the other to remain idle until six years old, still feed-

440 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ing both the same, and you will find the worked ammal superior
to the other, in weight, size, and appearance. Never permit your
working oxen to get in low condition, if }ou do, it will cost you
one-third more to bring them up again, than it would to keep
them where they were, and always get rid of them at eight years
old. Four oxen will plow an acre of land properly in a day, and
six oxen two acres. The best method of managing them is by
means of the yoke and bows, the pole and yoke form the proper
lever for an ox. The age of neat cattle is shown by their mouths
and horns.

When turned two years old, the places of the calf-teeth are
supplied by two new ones, and in every succeeding year two more
are added, until five, when the mouth is said to be full, but not
truly so, as the two corner teeth are not fully protruded till six
years old. In the horn the first ring or circle does not take
place till three years old, after which a fresh one is added every
succeeding year, as long as the horn continues. Cattle are sub-
ject to many diseases, which it is impossible to consider to-day,
but a few remedies that have been found beneficial iij common
cases of disease, may be mentioned. In obstinate scourings,
which often occur, much advantage may be derived from a strong
decoction of common chalk, hartshorn, shavings, and cassia, in
the proportion of half a pound of the first to four, ounces of the
shavings, and one ounce of the cassia; boiling them in two
quarts of water to three pints, the last articles being put in
towards the close of the operation. To this may be added, when
cold, a pint of lime water, and two drams of the tincture of
opium. Half a pint may be given twice a day. In the yellows,
a disease that cows are very subject to, advantage has been found
from the use of soap. Give an ounce twice a day, dissolved in
a quart of meal cordial. The garger is a disease affecting the
glands of the udder with hard swellings, arising frequently from
not being milked clean. This may be removed by anointing the
part twice a day with camphor and blue ointment. If the dis-
ease is violent, give half a dram of calomel in warm beer three
mornings in succession. In fresh wounds nothing is necessary
but to keep the parts. clean, and well protected from the air.

Sheep are of great value for their flesh, fleece, and other well-
known products, and constitute an object of great consequence to
the farmers, as they may be kept with advantage on most farms.

In disposition sheep are naturally tame, inoffensive, and quiet,
possessed of no means of defence. They seek society in flocks.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 441

Tliey continue to increase in growth until three years old, when
they are in great perfection for being fattened, or for breeding,
but as a quick return is the object of most farmers, they are
generally fattened at this age.

The breeds and varieties of sheep that are scattered over our
country are very numerous, and are distinguished under differ-
ent classes, as from their having horns, or being without them,
from the nature of their wool, and other circumstances. They
all possess characteristic differences, that serve to discriminate
them into distinct original breeds. As in cattle, there is a cer-
tain form and connexion of parts that bespeak excellence or per-
fection of the breed of sheep. The head should be small, eyes
prominent, nostrils expanded, ears thin, breast and shoulders
full, loins broad, quarters long and full. I w^ould prefer admit-
ting the rams early in November, as the ewe goes with lamb about
five months. They would then come in on the first of April.
When the rams are young, the number of ewes should not exceed
sixty. The older and more vigorous the ram, the greater num-
ber may be admitted without inconvenience. But never, on any
consideration, let the buck cover too many.

Where sheep husbandry is carried on extensively, the ewes are
put at much earlier periods, as eariy lambs are very profitable.
It is well to allow the rams to remain with the ewes for a month
or six weeks, in order that the business of impregnation may be
complete, the breast of the ram may be smeared with ochre, he
will then mark the ewes; during the time they are in lamb,
they should be kept free from disturbance, and be carefully
watched to prevent accidents — such as, slipping a lamb, &.c. At
this season they should be well fed, which will induce them to
produce healthy, strong lambs, capable of contending with an in-
clement spring. By a proper supply of turnips, the milk of the
ewes is much increased, and the growth of the lambs promoted;
if stinted at this period, they never turn out well. They should
never receive more food than they will entirely consume. The
farmer can regulate their daily supply by this rule. .

When the weather is extremely wet, or there is much snow
upon the ground, the sheep should be sheltered, as it will be of
great benefit to them. Lambs shoidd be weaned in July, and in
order that they may not suffer any check in being taken from the
mother, they may be turned into a field of clover in blossom, and
the mothers removed to distant pastures, that they may not be
heard by their olfspring. Old ewes should be annually removed

442 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

in August from the flock, and their places supplied by the best
lambs, to keep up the greatest perfection. In making this selec-
tion the farmer must reject all that manifest any departure from
the true breed; for example, a white face on South Downs, no
matter how well formed the animal is, must be rejected. Where
sheep husbandry is conducted on an extensive scale, the sheep
are divided into old sheep, such as wethers and two years old,
and breeding and young sheep, the former are put upon the
elevated and exposed pastures, and the latter on those that are
fertile and sheltered. With all the grasses that do not decline
from age, the more sheep you keep, the more you may keep, and
the more corn you will reap when such are plowed.

The time of sheafing sheep should be regulated by the state
of the weather, and the maturity of the wool; for if clipping
precede that period it is weak, and can scarcely be spun, and
if protracted later it is yelloAV and imperfect. The usual method
is to shear longitudinally of the sheep, by which at least two
ounces of wool on an average is left on each sheep, and by that
means much injury is done to the following growth. They should
be clipped circularly round the body, and the work will be evenly
executed. An expert clipper, with a man to assist him in turn-
ing the sheep, will shear many in a day.

It is necessary to have a proper person to wand the wool after
the shearer, who should perfectly understand the business, as
much iA the sale depends upon this being well done, and that
no improper substances be enclosed in the fleeces. The coarsest
of the wool on the thighs should be clipped six weeks before the
time of washing and shearing, it keeps the sheep clean and cool,
and prevents the ewes from becoming sore in the udder. Lambs
may be castrated, if strong, when two weeks old, if weak,
three weeks or a month accoi-ding to circumstances. The usual
method of ascertaining the age of sheep, as in cattle, is by their
teeth, a sheep one year old, has two broad teeth before; a two
year old has four; a three year old six; and a four year old eight;
when it is full mouthed, after four, the teeth begin to break and
fall out. Sheep are liable to a great variety of diseases both
internal and external. The fly is a disease to which they are
constantly exposed in summer; many remedies are in use for the
j)revention of the effects of this dangerous insect ; but that which
is most effectual, with the least injury to the wool, is the flowers
of sulphur in combination with lard, or butter, which can be
.drawn thinly over the wool by the hand. Where maggots are

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 443

formed, the wool must be pai-ted, and the maggots picked out
with a knife, without breaking the coat; and white lead scraped
from a lump among the wool.

Foot rot, is another disease that frequently attacks sheep, and
shows itself by moisture oozing from between the claws, with a
disagreeable smell. It is infectious, and spreads rapidly if not
immediately eradicated. The part should be pared and cleaned
without touching the quick, and the gravel dislodged, if there be
any; a solution as follows may be dipped on the part, and the
foot kept dry and free from dirt.

Two ounces of blue vitriol, same quantity of rock alrnn, one
ounce of verdigrease, and a quarter of an ounce of muriated
quicksilver, dissolved in a quart of good vinegar. The scab is a
cutaneous disease, like the itch ; if taken in time, washing with
tobacco-water will often remove it. If far advanced, a sulphur
ointment will, in most cases, be efifectual. The rot is a disease
that affects sheep on wet lands. . It is an affection of the liver
and lungs, attended with dropsy, and is almost incurable. The
chief thing to be depended upon in three cases, is that of
exchanging the sheep to a dry situation, and feed them upon
dry food.

Tlie structure of the sheep closely resembles that of the ox,
like him, he experiences great variation in form, size and quality;
the vertebral column and ribs are strikingly alike; he has four
stomachs wiiich i^erform similar functions, and is a ruminating
animal; the skin differs from all other animals in some of its func-
tions, it is deficient in powers of excretion and absorption, and is
surrounded by a singular secretion, perfectly impenetrable to
moisture, which preserves the wool in a healthy state; they suffer
less than any other animal from being crowded together, and do
not communicate infectious diseases readily; a healthy sheep has
a fine color on the inside of the eyelids and gums; fast teeth,
sweet breath, dry nose, and cold feet.

Immense flocks of sheep have, in every age of the world, been
kept by man, chiefly for their avooI and hides, their flesli has
never been particularly relished. The Cossacks prefer the horse
and the camel; the Spaniard rarely eats it; the American would
rather have beef. The English eat more mutton tlian any otlier
nation ; but the taste is said to be of modern origin. In England,
from the time a lamb is weaned, until he is shorn, he is called by
many names — such as a hog, a hogget, a hoggerel, a lamb hog, a
tup hog; and if castrated, a wether hog.

444 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

After he is a year old, he is called a shearing, a shear hog, and
a shearling wether when castrated. At three years old, a three
shear ram, &c.

Sheep were, probably, the earliest of domesticated animals, and
formed the chief wealth of the patriarchal tribes. It is not known
when they were introduced into Europe; they have an advantage
over nearly all other quadrupeds from the fact that they can be
reared upon soils and in situations where horned cattle could not
exist, on account of the scantiness of the herbage. In usefulness
they rank next to the cow. Their fleece varies according to the
temperature of the climate. In cold countries, the wool is exces-
sively fine; and in warm countries, it resembles hair; nature
covers the animal, according to the heat or cold it is intended to
bear. I believe sheep are the only animals entirely dependant
upon man for support aiid care, when left to themselves, they
become subject to disease, and a prey to wild beasts. The varie-
ties of sheep in the world are, almost endless; and even in our
country, they can scarcely be accurately described. Some are
valuable on account of their fleece, others for the quality of their
meat; some are particularly large and fatten with ease, but their
flesh is coarse; others are small, and although they cannot be
made fat, produce fine flavored meat, with a close fine grain. The
quality of flesh is aifected by food; those animals that range over
mountainous countries, and feed upon wild grass, possess a much
finer flavor than those fed upon rich and luxuriant pastures. If
sheep are managed for the purpose of producing long wool, they
will not yield fine mutton. A species of sheep is common in Asia
and Africa, which have large flat tails, weighing from thirty to
forty pounds, consisting entirely of fat and marrow, which is used
for cooking instead of butter and lard; both sides of this tail are
covered wath wool. The best variety of sheep for profitable pro-
duction of wool in our climate, is the Merino; they are undoubt-
edly superior, on this jiointjto all other breeds. There are three
varieties of them among us, and they are all equally valuable —
the French, Silesian and Spanish; they are descended from the
Merinos of Spain, and have been bred by us for more than forty-
five years. If well kept, a flock will average four pounds of
•clean wool to the fleece, worth thirty cents per pound, and will
each cost to keep a year, about seventy-five cents. The profit of
keeping sheep is about 22 per cent on the capital invested, inclu-
ding the expense of keeping.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. " 445

The importance of salt to the health of sheep is generally ad-
mitted, and they should have it regularly; one thousand will
consume in six months, one hundred and thirty-eight pounds. In
fact, all stock should have salt administered to them daily, in the
following quantities on pasture :

I'or a sheep, from 2 to 3 ounces per day.

cow, 3^ do

ox, ' 5 do

calf, 1 J do

yearling, 3 do

horse, 5 do

If feeding oh green food, they must have salt always before
them, and they will never be subject to the bot. In these de-
scriptions, the language of others has been occasionally employed,
and I acknowledge my obligations to Arthur Young and Sinclair.

ROBERT L. PELL.
Extracts from a letter from Mr. Horace Nye, of Putnam,
Muskingum county, Ohio, Feb. 28th, 1856.

" I saw an article in a late Tribune, relative to the question of
feed for stock, before your Farmers' Club, and as to the effect of
apples fed to hogs. I feed some for my own use. I bought a
three months shoat, the poorest of a litter of nine, let him run
in my orchard where apples were dropping off, I rung his nose,
he fed on the apples and slops of the house, and at the end gave
him as much corn as he wanted for two weeks. I killed him
about Christmas, when he was about fourteen months old, and he
weighed three hundred and forty-three pounds. Fat on his
shoulders four to five inches thick. No shrinkage in the cooking.
I think that if he is killed while fattening the pork will not
shrink, but swell in the pot, but if he is not thriving from any
cause whatever, his pork will shrink. From the experience of
many years, I have come to the conclusion that apples wdll make
the fattest and best pork of any feed I have ever used. Eut as
to cows, if you turn them into an orchard, they often founder on
the apples and their milk dries up. Sweet apples are best for
stock, especially for horses. . From long experience I find apple-
fed pork harder than that fed on corn. So is tallow of grass-fed
beef harder than grain fed."

Jean Blanc of New Orleans, patent for newly discovered fibre,
viz: From the Hibiscus palustris (cotton stalk), melva, Veronica
virginica (wild indigo,) palma christi, Asclepias asnarma, Ascle-
pias cornuta, Asclepias incarnata or gigantea tuberosa, Asclepias

446 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

curastinica, hollyliock, mallow, nettle, wild saintfoin or luzerne,
altheas, black and white mulberry (Morus multicaulis), Otalieitan
mulberry, yellow willows, manilla, okra, passion-flower plant,
lizeron, -Snothera serotina, Kentucky or ordinary hemp, ordinary
flax, sugar cane, and the grape vine. Patent dated October 9th,
1855.

Mr. Blanc made an interesting exhibition of the fibres of many
of the above plants. Members were highly pleased and instruc-
ted, this method appears to be new.

William Lawton, of New-Rochelle, spoke of the great impor-
tance of Blanc's discovery, and the propriety of a special com-
mittee to investigate the method and report to the next meeting
of the Club.

Chairman appoints Messrs. Lawton, Geissenhainer and Waring.

During the spring the meetings will be held every week, and
seeds, cuttings and grafts distributed,

The subject of feeding omnibus horses having been alluded to,
Solon Robinson stated that a new invention of great importance
had lately been made by S. H. Mix of this city, to prevent the
horses from falling upon slippery pavements, or, when smooth
shod, going over ice. The plan consists of a crane made of iron
attached to the axle and projecting forward over the carriage-
tongue, from which straps are attached to the harness or saddle
and girth, which holds the horse from going down when he
stum])les or slips. Solon Robinson said the stage proprietors gave
the invention their unqualified approval.

CHINESE SHEEP.

Solon Robinson made some statements in regard to the Chinese
sheep and their great prolificness, but did not consider them
worth the attention of sheep growers in this country. Their
bodies are small and fleeces light and coarse.

[The importer of some animals heretofore noticed under this
name writes us that his sheep are not the small bodied kind, but
quite the contrary, and their meat of the most delicious kind.
Their great value consists, however, in their wonderful powers
of reproduction.]

Rev. Mr. Carter of Brooklyn, who introduced the well known
potato bearing his name, spoke of the methods of feeding and
keeping sheep. In Ireland a thousand sheep form a flock under
the care of only one shepherd and his assistants. In cold countries,
stacks of hay &c., are made, surrounded often by movable fences

AMERICAN. INSTITUTE. 447

about twelve feet liigli, to keep off wolves. As the slieep often
pull off from the stack more than they eat, the shepherd throws
that outside for the cattle. It is not profitable to pen the sheep
on the same spot for more tlian one year at a time. Farmers cal-
culate on sheep doubling their numbers amiually.

Mr. Blanc said that his plan for preparing fibre was to excavate
a suitable spot about one foot deep, in this set upright on the but-
ends as many of the plants as desired ; surround them with leaves
or something paramount, and then cover the leaves with a good
coat of earth as high as the tops of the jDlants, but not the tops.
In this position they soon ferment, the woody parts are separated
from the fibre so as to be readily disengaged by the usual methods
of scuteling and hackeling. Many of the plants exhibited were
partly converted into fibre to show how large a quantity they
contained.* The cotton and okra seemed to contain more fibre
than it was possible to be in them before tliis process.

Mr. Augustus Ellicott, late from San Francisco, exhibited a
watermelon from Nicaragua, picked about sixteen days ago. It
measured eleven inches in its longest diametre, and nine inches
in its shortest, and weighed thirteen pounds avoirdupois. All
pronounced it very heavy for its size. Mr. Elliot had brought it
for Mr. Greeley of the Tribune.

Mr. Solon Robinson cut it in two and gave a half to the Club,
all thought it a very sweet one.

Col. Devoe, of Jefferson Market, presented a singular specimen
of apple in Siamese twin growth.

Mr . . George E. Waring Jr. thought that Blanc's plan would pro-
duce very important supplies for paper makers.

Subjects for the next meeting — Winter feeding of stock, and
the necessary and most advisable preparation for spring work in
farms and gardens.

The club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Sec'y.

March Uth, 1856.
Present — Messrs. President, Pell, Lawton, Robinson, Solon
Robinson, Waring, Jr., Vail, Olcott, Prof. J. I. Mapes, Clapp,
Hite, of Morrisania, Lapagh, John A. Miller, Wm. B. Leonard,
John W. Chambers, F. W. Geissenhaimer, and others. Fifty,
including three ladies, Mrs. Philo Hurd, Mrs. J. H. Penfield, and
Mrs. Emily Ward.

448 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

President Pell in the chair. Henry Meigs Secretary.

The Secretary read the following extracts from a communica-
tion from one of our most active, successful and venerable farm-
ers, L. D. Clift, Esq., of Putnam county, New-York, whose splen-
did grazing farm was in competition for the highest premium of
our State Agricultural Society. He has redeemed one of the
rudest surfaces in the State by great labor and intelligence, and
has made a noble grass farm. He believes in the truly right
honorable business of the tarmer, as is now rapidly becoming pub-
lic sentiment among all civilized nations. He says :

1st. Many of us own and attempt to cultivate too much laiids.

2d. There is and has been, for si long time past, a growing dis-
position with us to evade the life of the farmer, m6re especially
by our ycuth^ of both sexes, and a reSort to almost every other
occupation, or means for a livelihood, rather than to cultivate the
earth to get their bread.

3d. In close connection with the defect last mentioned, is an
extravagance of expenditure, of both time and money, not devoted
to the useful purposes of life.

4th. When the respectability and independence of farming
labor comes to be despised or underrated, by the rural districts
of our country and nation, we are in the fast road to ruin both in
regard to character and prosperity as a people.

5th. The men who are promoted to the offices of honor and
trust, should (wliether rich or poor) be w^ell fitted for their sta-
tions, and such only as we would entrust with our private inte-
rests, especially those who teach our schools.

6th. Our youth have less veneration for the aged and sympa-
thy for the unfortunate and afflicted than when I was a youth
fifty years ago.

7th. Life, character, and property are less protected also than
at that time.

8 th. Some of our best laws remain a dead letter upon our sta-
tute books. The transgressor goes unpunished; and virtue
and good character have not their proper influence with
us. A wise man said some thousands of years since, that "when
the wicked bear rule, the land mourneth."

9th. I will particularize but a few more defects, which I con-
sider to be most primary. One is, the great want of intelligent
labor existing among us, both among the employer and the em-
ployed. Volumes upon volumes are now being written and cir-
culated in th© community upon the subject of agriculture, but I

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 449

have noticed but little respecting the right and proper uses of
the implements of hu^ndry. This is a sermon of itself, and a
thousand to one more useful than much that goes by that name.
For instance, we see the manufacturer tlirowing aside his machi-
nery and substituting new implements, that will turn off the
work with more efficiency, care and profit. Just so the military
man in his profession. How exact and procise are his movements.
So I would that the farmer and laborer, might understand the
best possible uses of the implements of husbandly, that at every
motion made with them, in the performance of labor, they would
accomplish the full design. How vastly this one thing would
increase the value of labor, to both farmer and laborer, if this
thing were better understood. I see nothing better that our
agricultural societies should encourage than all of our manual
farm labor, should be better understood and practiced. A school
for this science would be a new thing under the sun, would it
not ? If a laborer accomplishes at every motion he makes more
than another, at several, and do his work better at the same time,
how valuable are such. I have often witnessed this in many
parts of farm work.

It was remarked not long since, by a noted man, very recently
dead, " that there are two kinds of labor, intelligent and unintel-
ligent labor. The former is that which gives character to a
nation, and in giving character it gives wealth and power also —
hence, he said, encom-age the education of the people, for by so
doing you will promote the elevation of character and give that
dignity to the founders of wealth, which is so justly their due.''

I have now given what I conceive to be some of the most promi-
nent deficiencies, which retard the prosperity of our agriculture,
and must close this article in respect to the remedies to be applied
to the deficiencies by making some general observations. These
in part have already been mentioned, or may be anticipated by
you. If the premises I have laid down are correct, and I think
they are, the remedies to be applied are perfectly witliin the reach
of every individual. Not that Putnam county is worse in regard
to her morals and agriculture than any other communities, by no
means would I assert this, but in many respects, I am glad to
say, she is much better. What we want, and what we need, is
a better improvement of them.

I have said that many of us own and attempt to cultivate too
much land; I would add, if he who has them has not found this

[Am, Inst.] 29

450 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

out, at fifty or sixty years of age, he is incorrigible — let him alone.
As there is a prevailing disposition in owe farming community,
to grasp for more lands. I will offer some reasons against such
a course.

1st. Our lands, much of them, are naturally stale, swampy, or
stony, and unproductive. It takes a life time for a farmer with
ordinary means, and a large area of lands to bring them into use.

2d. The altered position of Putnam county, and the probabili-
ties in the future, require us to have less lands, and the better
improvement of them.

3d. I deny the common sentiment among us altogether, that
none, but the rich and wealthy can afford to improve their lands,
&c. I speak now of large land holders. Where if these lands
were in the hands of two or three individuals with equal enter-
prise, it could be done in a very few years, and be continued
more and more in progression, with less capital, less labor and
less, much less toil, to its owners.

Another thing. Rich and wealthy men are too apt (in the im-
provement of their farms), to follow more what they call their
fancy or taste, irrespective of the cost or profit of such improve-
ment. This example would be unsafe to follow. Good taste, in
my judgment, -is always connected with economy, and bad taste,
with extravagance, the one leads to comfort and competency; the
other to waste and want.

Whatever may be the diversity of the manners of men, in the
cultivation of the soil, there are a few simple rules to be observed
in all good culture and that are indispensible with us in Putnam
county. I have already remarked that much of our lands were
natm-ally unproductive. Tiie surface of such must be made
smooth as possible, all subteraneous waters taken off by deep and
thorough underdrainings, the soil enriched, clean cultivation and
the irrigation of them wherever it is practicable.

If every farmer in Putnam county would begin this system,
and follow it up, as they are perfectly able to do, only for a few
years, our farms and our country would more than double, or
treble their present value, and lay a permanent foundation for
increased wealth and improvements in our agriculture, in all
time to come. I will press this point a little further. Look at
the large farmer or little farmer that have been doing this for
years gone by, and perhaps not half done yet, have they grown
poorer and gone down, on this account 1 I have not seen it iu
one instance.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 451

Another thing. It is a great defect I think, that Putnam
county does not, nor has not, for years gone by, raised her own
home consmnption of bread stuflfs . Gentlemen who have addressed
us at some of our previous fairs, have told us from the statistics
of our county that we are on the decline in the value of our pro-
ductions. I have been unwilling to believe this, but I begin to
think it too true.

Take a ride through oui* county, wiien harvest is over You
will not see men ditching, walling, fencing and clearing their
farms as in years gone by. We seem to have come almost to a
stand still in this matter, and that we are trying to get our liveli-
hood without work, both the rich and the poor. Certainly tliis
is not because w^e have none of these things necessary to be done,
or is it because we are unable to do them, then have we become
poor indeed. Such had better go west, as they say, where land
will produce without cultivation.

The Secretary read the following translations made by him :

PEPPERS.

I take the following valuable method for raising peppers, from
the U. S. Patent office report for 1854 :

" When the plants are about six inches high, put some guano
or poultry dung on the ground about the plants (not on them),
stir it perfectly into the soil, and the crop of peppers will be
greatly improved." (Forty years ago, I w^ould have given a hun-
dred dollars to have known so much as that.)

Chinese Yam (Dioscorea Eatatas), translated from the Journal
De La Societe Imperiale et Centrale D'Horticulture. Napoleon
3d, Protecture, Paris, November and December, 1855.
Sessio7i of JYov ember 8, 1855.

Mon'r. Cappe, chief gardener of the economical plants, in the
Museum of Natural History, in the name of Mon'r. Decaisne,
presented magnificent tubers of the Dioscorea Batatas. The small
pieces of the roots were planted in April, 1854. These all ac-
quired a considerable size, w^eighing from 500 to 1,000 grammes.

Many of them have voluminous ramifications. M. Decaisnes
says that the plants raised from pieces of the root, are preferable
to those from the Bulhilles — little balls which grow on the vine,
as others do on the Dragon lily. The pieces of root or bulbilles
should be planted without being too dry. The Bulbilles should
remain in the ground the first year, when they attain the size of
a finger, Messrs. Chevet, Pepin and de Montigny, had tasted

452 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the Dioscorea which had been only two days dug out of the
ground, and found them excellent.

Mon'r. J. Dumas, on the contrary, said that he had tasted some
of them and found fade — faded, insipid, unsavory, and looked
like mucilage. Some said that perhaps the tubers he had tasted
were not matured.

Mon'r. Eourgeois said that he had, last year received some Di-
oscoreas, whicli differed from others on the table, for they were
flattened instead of being round.

The President said that they were probably of different species,
as the Dioscorea Alata and Sativa, which will not grow in cold
climates, but require hot houses.

Session of JYovember 22, 1855.

Mons. Drouart presented cuttings of a Dioscorea, cut into sixty
pieces. The cuttings from the upper end of this yam produces
the largest tubers.

Mons. Remout of Versailles, presented many specimens of his
first attempt to cultivate the plant. They are the product of
little balls — bulbilles, of about twelve to thirty millemetres in
circumference. Some grew on some newly cleared ground near
Dax in the Department of Des Landes. Others in rich, well ma-
nured land near Versailles. These last, very inferior to the
former, but perhaps owing to the time of planting (viz) : The
first in the last of March, and the last in about May 15th.

Mons. Remout promised to give directions for the culture of
the Dioscorea, by cuttings of the root.

An essay on panification (bread making) with a starch of the
Dioscorea. This bread before us was made of wheat flour, con-
taining one-fifth part of the starch, and the bread is excellent.
Mons. Remout hopes that thirty-five per cent of this starch may
be added with advantage.

When planted in April, 1855, can produce 65,000 kilogrammes
of the tubers per hectare (about 35 tons per acre).

M. Decaisnes estimates the yield from a hectare about 60,000
kilogrammes.

M. Payn said that if we can attain 40,000 kilogrammes, it will
be of immense advantage to agriculture. He desired M. Remout
to make trials of dry roots, in order to show how much starch
they contain exactly. It is a singular fact that the upper part
of the root contains always much more starch than the lower. Ey
the analysis made it appears that those grown in Algeria have
more starch in them than those grown near Paris. A like difie-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 453

rence, however, is found in potatoes, for the starch in them va-
ries from fourteen to twenty-seven per cent; and in small as well
as in large potatoes of the same kind.

M. Decaisnes said that Dioscorea Batatas had yielded, immedi-
ately after being dug, from seventeen to eighteen per cent of
starch. He announced that the Marshal, minister of war, had
sent to him seeds of the plant gathered in Africa, and that per-
haps we may obtain from these new varieties of the plant, or at
least get some female plants!

Mons. Guerin Menneville observed that the agents of M. de
Montigny had sent to him bulbilles of a variety of Dioscorea Ba-
tatas, and hoped that gentlemen would examine and try them
cai-efully.

Messrs. Decaisnes and Remont remarked upon the singular pecu-
liarity in the culture of these plants, and that is, they hate dung !
M. de Montigny says that the Chinese never use any in the cul-
ture of them — although they are great partisans for manures.

As to the difficulty of getting the roots out of the ground, M.
Bourgeois thinks that as we raise out carrots with an appropriate
plow, we can make one to lift the Batatas.

M. Remont announced that he meant to try the cultivation of
them in six of our departments, on a great scale.

A premium of the first class was awarded to him for his Dios-
corea work. And the grand medal of honor to M. de Montigny,
for his introduction of it. Unanimously.

Sessio7i of December 13, 1855.

Messrs. Bossin and Louesse presented tubers raised from the
bulbilles, weighing 45 grammes.

M. Decaisne presented tubers of the Dioscorea Batatas, and of
the Aroides direct from China. The first long, with both ends
truncated. This is sold in the Chinese markets in bundles as we
do salsify; the other roots resembles Arum, and are probably the
Colocasse. This has a turbinated (top-shape) form. A third one
is oblong and roundish, and appears to be a new variety which
the Chinese grow in their temperate places.

Mr. William Lawton, from the special committee, presented the
following report, prepared by Mr. Geissenhainer, wliich was
read :
To the Farm.ers'' Club of the American Institute:

The committee appointed at the last meeting of your Club to
examine Mr. Jean Blanc's patented " Improvement in Preparing
Vegetable Fibre," beg leave to submit the following report :

454 TRANSACTIONS OF TH£

The art cf making cloth is very ancient, and doubtless before
the flood spuming and weaving of some sort Avere known. The
first covering which our own original parents used was formed of
the leaves of the fig-tree. Next men used the skins of animals;
then they learned to manufacture the long hair of beasts into a
rude kind of cloth, and then brought the discovery to greater de-
grees of perfection by the use of wool, cotton, and flax, the spin-
ning of which became the province of Avomen almost exclusively,
as is fully revealed in the Proverbs.

In the time of Abraham the art seems to have been well un-
derstood. Flax, as a material of linen stuffs, was produced in
Egypt, (Isaiah, xix, 9,) and was an article of extensive com-
merce. In Genesis, xli, 42, we find Pharaoh clothed Joseph in
vestures of fine linen, so that the art of preparing the fibrous
stalk of the flax plant is easily traceable to the time of Joseph, a
period of three thousand five hundred and seventy years.

For some time the preparation of flaxen thread was confined to
Egypt. Solomon obtained this material from that country, and
linen cloths were made with it for the Jews, even as far down as
the time of Heroditus, (484 B. C.,) we are told by him that in his
time linen was obtained by the Greeks from Egypt.

In every country Avhere flax has been cultivated, it has been
applied to this manufacture, except in Hindus, where it is only
valuable for the oil derived from its seed, the stalk not being
used.

The raising of flax, now grown in every quarter of the globe,
was but sparsely cultivated in Europe in the time of Pliny, and
was not introduced into England until after the Roman invasion,
and introduced then principally for the purpose of making nets.

Thus having seen this article in use for a period reaching to the
remotest periods of civilization, we are forced with the reflection,
how did these ancient peojole of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Bri-
tain prepare these fibres from which to weave these fabrics 1

The nature of the plant is such that iu order to get the fibre, it
is necessary to free the bark from the woody part to which it is
held by a glutinous substance. It requires something capable of
dissolving this gluten. In the first use of flax warm water was
used; then came the steeping in rivers and ditches. In no part
of the preparation of flax is more care needed than the steeping,
as both the color and the strength may be utterly ruined in it.

The usual method seems to have been to encase the stalks in
an open square frame, and then to imbed the frame in the muddy

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 455

bottom of a river, or creek, whicli process required about two
weeks to loosen the wood from the fibre.

The other method, or what is commonly called dry rot. was by
laying the flax in thin layers on a grassy bed, and turning it
carefully, which, having the action of the sun and moisture of the
earth, served to loosen the fibre.

The former of these methods was used for centuries, and from
the renown of the Holland lace, and the fabrics steeped in the
Lys, in Flanders, we would almost hesitate to look into and ex-
amine any new method of separating the back and fibre of flax,
after a trial of thirty-five centuries, but as water and fire, which
have existed from the creation, never were brought into usefnl
contact for man's employment until a century ago, so in the pre-
paration of fibrous fabrics perhaps our age and country may be-
come the pioneer of a new system, far outstripping the lands of
Pharaoh and Scythia, of Prussia, Holland, Belgium and Ireland.

The fact that various plants of the nettle family contained fibre
we iiave shown was known to the ancients, and modern discov-
eries have brought to light an almost unlimited number of plants
containing ^6ri;2.

The subject matter therefore referred to this committee for in-
vestigation, so far as it relates to the fact that the Hibiscus palus-
tris (cotton stalk), Veronica virginica (wildindigo), palma christi,
Asclepias arvonica, Asclepias cornuta, Asclepias incarnta
ve] gigantice, Tuberosa, Asclepias cumastinica, hollyhock,
mallow, nettle, wild sainfoin, or luzerne, althea, black mul-
berry, white mulberry, Morus multicaulis, Otaheitan mulberry,
yellow willow, manilla, okra, passion-flower plant, lizeron,
iEnothera serotina, Kentucky or ordinary hemp, ordinary flax,
sugar cane and grape vines, as plants, contain useful fibres, is not
altogether new, nor can the discovery thereof be awarded to Mr.
Elanc. The simple claim he is entitled to the merits of, is his
improvement in separating the bark and fibres of these plants.

There have of late arisen several new processes for this separa-
tion; among these, one known as the India, another as the south-
ern process, to both of which Mr. Blanc mal^s a full disclaimer.
The first, as used in India, is as follows :

The fibres of succulent, fleshy plants, are obtained by cutting
them when in full vigor, and burying them in wet sand on the
banks of a running stream, or in the mud at the edge of a tank,
and leaving tliem there to soak and rot from one to two or three
weeks, according to temperature and the weather. The plant is

456 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

then taken out and spread in the sun to dry, after which it is
stacked or put up in heaps and covered with a matting of dry-
leaves to shelter it from wind or rain. It is afterwards beaten
with heavy sticks upon the dry, hard ground, and Avell rubbed
between the hands to separate the chaff and the dust.

The southern process consists in simply setting the plants on
the end with the buts down, on the surface of the ground, and
so forming a stack.

It will be observed then, that previous to the granting of Mr.
Blanc's patent, it was ascertained that most of the plants men-
tioned above, contained fibrin; that in the process of steeping
these plants, leaves were used to promote fermentation; that the
plants were set on their ends, the buts being down, and bury-
ing them in wet sand would produce the requisite fermentation.
It will be seen by reading the specification in Mr. Blanc's patent,
that his principle is neither the joint nor separate actions of the
processes known or discovered before October 5, 1855, the date of
his patent. His specification is as follows :

" The nature of my invention consists in the discovery of certain
new and useful plants containing important fibres and textile sub-
stances, which can be used as either cloth, thread, ropes and pa-
per, and a new and useful process of extracting the fibre from
the woody substances of the plants, without injuring the fibre as
to its strength or beauty. In my process, I cut the plants in
August or September, close to the ground, and sink a pit in the
field where the plants grow, from six inches to two feet deep,
throwing the earth outside, forming an embankment around the
pit. I then commence in the centre of the pit, and set the plants
in a perpendicular position with their buts downwards, (and as
soon as the plants are cut, before they have time to die, and while
they are still green and alive,) and continue to set up around the
same, keeping them as near perpendicular as I can, and pressing
them closely together until I have filled the pit with the plants
or the sprouts of the trees, which I cut when young and tender.

I then commenced covering the sides of the same with leaves
or straw, so as to sift-round it perfectly; then I commence throw-
ing the earth against the sides on the leaves, or straw, making it
several inches thick, until the whole is encased in a wall of earth
as high as the tops of the plants, leaving the top of the stack or
pile uncovered. The reason for my doing so is, that by exclud-
ing the surrounding current of the atmosphere, and the heat of
the sun, from the plants, I cause the^ gas contained in the natu-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 457

ral state of the plants to be evolved by degrees, or slowly, and as
it is carried oft' at the top of the plants, the moisture of the earth
rises up and through the plants, and destroys the glutinous par-
ticles thereof, and causes the fibre to separate from the woody
substance, preserving its strength and elasticity, and changing
the color to a light yellow. After I have prepared my pit, or
stack, whicli may be of any size that the quantity to preserve may
indicate. I let it remain in this state from eight to fifteen days,
when generally the process will be sufficient. This may be
known by taking from the stack at different points and trying it.
If the bark will separate easily from the woody substance, and a
light, mouldy appeai-ance is visible, then it is time to break up
the pit and spread it on the ground to dry.

When the plant is dry, which will be in from five to ten days,
the woody portion is separated by passing the plants through any
ordinary rollers, or beaters, or by horses treading on them. By
this process I get the fibre from the wood, and have all its strength
and elasticity preserved, and am now able to manage it without
having such great quantities to handle. Several of the fibres of
the finest qualities will be perfectly prepared by this process for
manufacturing. The coarser fibres can be water-rotted for a few
days, say six to eight, when they can be fitted for market or manu-
facturing by the common process of breaking, scutching and
hackling flax or hemp.

I do not claim burying the plant in dirt, sand, or mud, as de-
scribed in the " India process,'' found in the Agricultural Report
of the Patent Office for 1854, page 174, nor do I claim simply
setting the plants on the end with the buts down, as described in
the Southern Cultivator."

Specimens of these plants were shown in different stages of
manufacture, some of them having parts of the whole plant at one
end, and the beautiful flax at the other. Among others were the
following plants : Cotton stalk, wild indigo asclepias, (milkweed)
hollyhock, mallow, marsh-mallow, nettle, wild sainfoin or lu-
cern, althea, black mulberry, white mulberry, morus multicau-
lis, Otaheitan mulberry, yellow willow, manilla, okra, passion-
flower stalks, Kentucky, or ordinary hemp, flax, sugar cane, grape
vine, and eight or ten others, including several of the most com-
mon weeds, and such as are, in many parts of the country, con-
sidered a nuisance.

The half prepared specimens showed conclusively that a good
and strong fibre can be made from all these plants. How fine

458 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

these may be made, or how well tliey may be adapted to fine
fabrics, is, perhaps, an open question.

The process, as described, is original, and will doubtless prove
valuable in many respects. " For to preserve the color and
strength of fibres all that is necessary is to separate the pulp, bark,
or wood, as soon as possible, and by the least complicated process."
This Mr. Blanc certainly has shown us he can do by his method.
But your committee, from the sliort time they have had the mat-
ter in hand, are not prepared to say what effect " the changing of
the color to a light yellow" will have on the value of the fibre.
If this " yellow" be a stain resulting from the coloring matter of
the plant, in most cases it could not be removed by bleaching, as
it is 3 species of natural tanning which occurs in the plant.

Again, it is true that this process can be applied to various
wild plants, as milk weed, mallow, marsh mallow, wild indigo,
&c., but it will be a question of some importance whether being
adapted to these plants, the process will be sufficiently profitable
to ensure its adoption. It is true that these plants grow sponta-
neously; but it requires the same care to dig the trench, set the
vines, attend them and prepare the fibre, that it would a crop of
flax or hemp, and all with an almost absolute certainty of yield-
ing a revenue below the commonest and coarsest of either; at least
your committee would hesitate to recommend the experiment as
a matter of profit. The flax in addition to the value of its fibre,
bears a seed which, in the market, has a valuable standai*d, medi-
cinally as well as in the arts, and even its refuse may be turned
to use.

Your committee in investigating this subject, have been amazed
at the great want of disposition in agriculturists in raising flax in
the country at large. It has been said to be an impoverishing
crop, but with the new appliances and fertilizers, and especially
in the vicinities of large cities where street manure can be had,
your committee are led to believe that its impoverishing power
has been greatly overrated.

Mr. Blanc's improvement we consider most valuable where its
application may be resorted to in a seed- bearing plant, and in no
section of country more so, than in cotton-bearing countries.
The cotton plant tree although of the size of person's small finger,
will, when discharged of its gluten exhibit fibres the thickness of
the wrist, and on this account will make perhaps the most pro-
fitable plant on which Mr. Blanc's process can be used either for
the manufacture of fabrics or rope.

AMERICAN IN15TITUTE. 459

The increasing demand for the fabric of paper would seem at
first blush to render Mr. Blanc's process very valuable, but when
carefully investigated we find that the material must be furnished
at two cents a pound, in order to bring it into use; we hesitate in
saying it can be done even as simply as Mr. Blanc's patent
describes the process, at a remunerative price at that sum. All
questions like this are rather matters of economy than of specu-
lation, and practice alone can reveal the truth of our impressions.

Mr. Blanc is certainly entitled to much praise for the import-
ant step he has taken, if it be extended to the seed-bearing plants
only, for if it give an impetus to them and become the means of
encouraging our agriculturists to raise the 500,000 pounds of flax
annually imported, many millions of dollars will annually be
saved to our country and distributed to our citizens. The demand
is constantly on tlie increase — each ship equipped requires
150,000 lbs. — are we to let this important and increasing trade
remain in foreign hands, or shall we by the industry and inge-
nuity of our citizens, aided by that Hand that gives us the sun-
shine and the rain, plant the seed and raise the crops ourselves ?

WM. LAWTON,

F. W. GEISSENHAINER, JR.,

G. E. WARING, JR.,

Committee.

Mr. Solon Robinson read the following communication from
Mr. E. C. Goodrich, of Utica, N. Y. :

Utica, Friday^ March 7, 1856.

Having noticed in the Tribune of Feb. 20, some commendatory
notices of the Chinese potato, and of its adaptation to this cli-
mate, but particularly of its free and general use in the diet of
the Chinese, permit me to cite some historical facts upon the lat-
ter point to show that th6 writer in your paper is probably mis-
informed.

I have before me a new work on China, entitled " The Middle
Kingdom," in two volumes, embracing more than 1,200 pages.
Its author, S. Wells Williams, L.L.D., went out to China as a
missionary printer, about 1832. He was engaged for many years
in printing " The Chinese Repository,'' at Canton, and, perhaps,
is still so employed. He has traveled somewhat extensively in
the East, having once made an overland journey home (to Utica)
and having been engaged also as interpreter to Commodore Perry,
in his recent visit to Japan. The history of Mr. Williams was
written after his visit to his native land, in 1847. It enters very

460 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

largely and minutely into the botany, dietetic habits and domes-
tic manners of the Chinese. A few quotations from his work will
set the subject of the extent of the use of the Chinese potato as
an article of diet at rest.

" Several species of the aroidese are cultivated for food, among
which the caladium, cuculentum, arum esculentum, and indicum
are the most common. The tuberous roots of the sagittaria sinen-
sis also contain much farinaceous matter, and are much esteemed
for food. The roots of these plants, and of the water chesnut are
manufactured into a powder resembling arrowroot, much in re-
quest among the people." [Vol. 1, p. 278,

"The Yam is not much raised in China, though its wholesome
qualities as an article of food are well understood — its native
name being tashu, meaning the great potato." [P. 279.

This language of Dr. Williams is as explicit on the point in
question as could be desired. It pointedly denies the extensive
use of the yam as an article of diet ; of course, its extensive cul-
ture for food.

" The same group (musales) to which the yam belongs, fur-
nishes the custard apple, one of the few fruits introduced into
China frora abroad. * * * xhe plantain, said to stand next
to the sago-palm, as producing the greatest amount of wholesome
food in proportion to its size, does not furnish the Chinese so
great a portion of food as it does the inhabitants of the Archi-
pelago of South America, though it is the common summer fruit
in Canton." [P. 279.

" Rice, millet and wheat, furnish most of the cereal food. The
first is emphatically the staif of life, and considered indispensa-
ble all over the country. * * * Maize, buckwheat, oats and
barley are not ground, but the grain is cooked in various ways —
alone, or mixed with other dishes. * * * The quantity con-
sumed of cabbage, broccoli, kale, cauliflower, cress and colewort,
is enormous. The Chinese have a long list of culinary vegeta-
bles, and much of their agriculture consists in raising them. Leg-
uminous and cruciferous plants occupy the lai-gest part of the
kitchen garden." [P. 423.

" Carrots, gourds, squashes, cucumbers, watermelons, tomatoes,
turnips, radishes, brinjals, pumpkins and okras, are among the
last of vegetables seen in the streets of Canton. *****
Most of the vegetables raised are inferior to the same articles in
the markets of western cities, where science has improved their
size and flavor. * * * xhe sweet potato is the most common

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 461

tuber; for although, the Irish potato has been cultivated about
Canton and Whampoa for scores of years, it has not become a
common vegetable among the people." [P. 44.

Thus, then, it would seem that the yam, though cultivated, and
its qualities known, is not extensively used. On the other hand,
the sweet potato, rice, the arumes, leguminous and cruciform
plants make up the great amount of their food.

The two chapters of this work — 6th and 13th — are both well
worth reading on this subject.

Climate of China. — "At Shanghae, 31 deg. 24 min. north, the
minimum temperature of winter is 24 deg., and the maximum of
summer 100 deg. Ice is uncommon.'' [Vol. 1, p. 46.

"At Pekin, in the extreme north, water is frozen from Decem-
ber to March. The \vinter ranges from 10 deg. to 25 deg., and
the summers are like those of Washington and Naples, the tempe-
rature rising from 95 deg to 105 deg., but more usually to from
75 deg. to 90 deg. The autumn is the pleasantest part of the
year. The air is then mild, the sky serene, and the weather
calm." [P. 45.

These remarks, it will be seen, are made of the climate of the
north of China, Pekin being in latitude 40 deg. north.

" The average temperature of the whole empire is lower than
that of any other in the same latitude, and the coast is subject to
the same extremes as that of the Atlantic States in America."
[P. 45.

From all this it will also appear that the yam, however valua-
ble in an appropriate climate, is not probably adapted to the tem-
perature of our country north of Central Virginia, since nearly
all of China, where the yam is asserted to be cultivated freely, is
south of that point.

Mr. Robinson fully concurred in this opinion. He thought it
might be a valuable plant for Florida, but not for New- York.

NEW PLAN OF FENCING.

D. R. Prindle of Genesee County, introduced models of a new
plan of fencing, made by nailing boards upon posts that are set
on the top of the ground, and two panels connected together by
wire pins, so as to set the panels at an angle to each other — which
makes a much cheaper fence than where the posts were set in the
ground. It is more durable and economical, he contends, than
any other fence.

462 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Lawton inquired as to what was the economy of this kind
of fence. He stated that the New-Haven railroad fence cost only
one dollar a rod.

Mr. Prindle stated that one point was that it could be made of
timber that would not be durable if set in the ground. Another
thing was its portableness. The panels can be easily taken apart,
and moved, and put up again. The posts are cut upon a certain
angle, so that they bind when the panels are set up in place, and
thus the whole stands firm . The same plan can be applied to
mortised posts and rails as well as to boards nailed on. The cost
he stated at sixty-two and one-half cents a rod. The great ad-
vantage of this kind of fence is that it can be made in the winter,
under cover; and it can be used in one place one year and the
next year in another place. He thinks the time has come when
strict economy and improvement in fencing should interest our
entire community. The cost of fencing in the United States is
variously estimated at from $400,000,000 to 600,000,000— the
fences of Pennsylvania alone having been estimated a few years
since, by Mr. Biddle, before the Philadelphia Agricultural Society,
at $100,000,000, or $10,000,000 annually. It is said that in many
instances the fences alone have cost more than the lands they in-
close are worth. It is this enormous fence tax that keeps down the
agricultural interests of our country. This is a perfect hurdle
fence, being constructed in separate panels or lengths, and can be
removed conveniently from place to place. The fencing of stacks,
folding of stock, and other necessary small inclosures, is but the
work of a few moments when tlie panels are on hand. This fence
is accessible at any point for a gate, with a slight alteration. The
panels can be made in bad weather, at odd times, in Avinter season,
or by machinery. One great advantage proposed in my fence is
its being moved in whole or in part with little trouble; another
eminent advantage is that it stands firm on the ground without
having posts or anything else in the ground to decay; another is
that making both ends of the posts sharp, no water can enter the
bodies of the posts, the lower ends being supported on flat stones,
bricks or other things, to keep the bottom sharp end of the post
clear of the ground. And in the bays formed by the angles of
the fence fruit can be cultivated and the ground kept free of
weeds which give shelter to destructive insects who harbor in
those neglected borders of our fields, and at their convenience
sally out upon our crops and do us millions of dollars of damage
in a few days; as, for instance, the little insect which sometimes

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 463

destroys our turnips, the turnip flea or haltica — harbors in these
marginal strips of wilderness, from whence they cover the field
just when the tender turnip leaf is suitable for them; and it has
been found that in large and clear fields, these little crea-
tures cannot reach far enough, nor can they stay in the field. The
last advantage believed to be gained is duration. For while we
find posts and rails sound for a lifetime out of the ground, we
find the bottom in the ground rotted in the tenth part of the time
that the rails or the bodies of the posts do, and again when the
tops of the posts are as common left about squai-e, water settles
and injures the body of them.

William Lawton of New-Rochelle — What a glorious improve-
ment would this plan be ! While our chestnut rails last a life-
time, and actually w^aste slowly away by rain, storm, heat and
tempest, and by often being bored into by the bumble-bees who
live in them; the posts rot in the ground and we tui'n them end
for end and then they ai-e rather too short. As for the cost of
the post rail fences, the New-Haven Railroad Company made
theirs in most places for one dollar a rod, six years ago.

Mr. Clapp, from his long experience argued with those who
applauded durable and cheap fencing, for it is truly stated that
oui- United States fencing is of vast expense unnecessarily, for it
can be made many times more lasting than it has been made for
several generations.

Professor J. J. Mapes mentioned the very good plan of Mr.
Coleman, which w^e had before us some time ago, that is making
posts, rails, and round pickets rapidly, accurately, and cheaply,
by machinery, and out of unseasoned wood, with benefit. The
holes for the pickets are bored through the rails, and at such
angles as are suitable to the variable surfaces of ground, so as to
keep all the posts and pickets vertical, and moreover when a
picket is inserted in the holes of unseasoned timber, they are
held firmly in place as the rails become seasoned, or are held in
place by a single nail driven through the rail into the picket.
The Professor recalled the very good fencing adopted and carried
out by Pennington, of New Jersey.

Solon Robinson spoke at some length against the wiiole system
of fencing, as a foolish, useless, old fogy fashion, highly com-
mending the good sense of Massachusetts, where beautiful gardens
and large fields may be seen by the roadside entirely free of fence
or obstruction of gates across carriage drives. If fencing is to be
used until all means of inclosing land are exhausted, then I com-

464 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

mend this particular form, as time and labor-saving, and because
it is both movable and portable. It will answer a good purpose
upon the western prairies.

PREMIUM BUILDINGS.

John Jay introduced the following resolution :

Resolved, That it be referred to a committee to report upon the
expediency of offering one or more premiums for the best plans
of agricultural buildings, adapted to the wants of American far-
mers; and that the said committee report plans and specifications
calculated to aid the various wants of those intending to build;
and generally to improve the style and convenience of farm
buildings, without materially increasing the cost.

The Club will continue to meet weekly for some time to come,
and the same questions will be continued, to which miscellaneous
matters are always added as they occur from time to time.

Questions for the next meeting on the 18th of March, 1856 —
"Winter Feeding of Stock,'' and "The necessary and best pre-
paration for Spring Work in Farms and Gardens."

Orange melon seeds, and Stowell's evergreen corn were pre-
sented by the Hon. Mr. Bergen, of Gowanus, Long Island, raised by
him on his farm, were distributed.

Seeds of a very heavy and rich watermelon, presented to Mr.
Greeley, of the Tribune, by Mr. Augustus Elliott, of San Fran-
cisco, who picked tliis melon in Nicaragua about the twentieth
day of February last, were laid on the table by Mr. Solon Robin-
son, and were distributed among the members.

Members will bring to Club every Tuesday, at noon, some of
their best seeds for mutual exchange, grafts, cuttings, &c. One
member may bring only one kind of seeds, and take forty kinds
away, and besides, members are upon honor and reputation in
such a seminal intercourse.

The Club then adjourned to March 18th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

March 18th, 1856.
Present — President Pell, Judge Livingston, Messrs. Ronton,
Clapp, Dr. Wellington, Dr. Waterbury, Mr. Prince, of Flushing,
Prof, Youmans, Solon Robinson, Pai-dee, Wm. R. Leonard, John
W. Chambers, Benjamin Pike, Sen., Thomas R. Stillman, N. R.
Mountfort, George R. Rapelye, Geo. Andrews, Engineer Van

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 465

Wyck, Lapaughj Chilson, B. Silliman, Esq., and others — sixty in
all.

Robt. L. Pell, of Pelham, President of the Institute, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers, viz :

Mons. L. A. Hiiguet Latour, of Montreal, Canada East, sends
to us the Fai-mers' Journal, of March, 1856, containing extracts
from the North British Agriculturist, of Edinburgh. We extract
the following :

" The late Mr. Pusey, of Pusey, successfully raised beets and
carrots together, in alternate double rows. This gave a fuller
crop of each. The seeds of both the beets and carrots should be
steeped in liquid manure before planting until they chip !"

Dr. Waterbury — I have seen the experiment tried of growing
beets and carrots in the same drill. The beets were dropped first,
and carrot next. The land w^as quite dry in June. E.uta bagas
were drilled in between the rows. The crop of carrots was large.

William E,. Prince, of Flushing Long Island, spoke at large of
his endeavor to establish here the culture of the dioscorea batatas.
He has taken great pains in France to make himself acquainted
with this new root. He has strong hopes of success, and had ex-
pended considerable sums of money already on them. He had
some in the ground all winter at his garden, where the cold has
been as great as ten degrees below zero of Fahrenheit's thermom-
eter, and if the roots stand that, they will be proof against injury
from our climate, and our common potato is destroyed. Mr.
Prince invites all the members to visit his garden at the time this
dioscorea is in good order, to examine it thoroughly for them-
selves.

Solon Robinson entertained great doubts of the success of the
experiments, although Mr. Prince has expended so much money
about it already.

Dr. Wellington said that beets and carrots planted in the same
row gave larger crops. In one case a farmer, thinking that his
beets and carrots so planted were likely to fail, planted ruta
bagas between the rows, and got a good crop of each of the three
roots. The beets and carrots are thinned out at the right time,
so as to leave one beet and one carrot all through the rows.

Dr. Waterbury, of the committee to enquire into tlie method
of feeding adopted by the different stage lines of this city, made
the following report :

[Am. Inst.] 30

466 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The amount and kind of food consumed by animals depend on
the amount and kind of labor they perform. Fattening animals
are generally fed dilferently from working animals. Species and
age make marked differences in the kind of food required by the
same habits; climate and season of the year, also, to a certain
extent.

Exercise produces with animals both an increased consumption
of food and an increase in weight to a certain limit. Beyond this
point there is increased consumption of food but a diminution in
weight to a second limit, beyond which both are diminished and
the animal is "used up."

The committee have received returns from the following stage
lines in this city, as shown in the accompanying table :

Stage Lines. «g 'S =->, wg 'Z % '^ 2^

^ 2 „-3 ^-^ ^g ?, i^ °

e^ ™ a G G ajUj_,

^ S ° ° ° n

[z; F=5 P^ Ch &H 1-1

Eed Bird Stage line, 116 17 U 18 1^ 3^

Spring St. do 105 21 14 20 4 3 1-7

Seventh av. do 227 22 10 18^ 1 2^

Sixth Avenue Kailroad, Ulorses, 117 17 10 14 2

J Mules, 211 17 10 7 2

N. Y. Consolidated StaReCunipany, ... 335 24 8 17 2-9 2^

Washington stables, six livery horses, .. 12 7^*

It is the object of the stage proprietors to get all the work out
of their teams possible without injury to the animals. Where
the routes are shorter the horses consequently make more trips,
so that the different amounts and proportions of food consumed
is not so apparent when the comparison is made between the
different lines, as when it is made also with the railroad and
livery horses. The stage horses consume most, and thfe livery
horses least.

The stage horses are fed on cut hay and corn meal wet and
mixed in the proportion of about one pound of hay to two
pounds of meal — a ratio adopted rather for mechanical than phy-
siological reasons,' as this is all the meal that can be made to ad-
here to the hay. The animals eat this mixture from a deep
manger.

The New-York Consolidated Stage Company use a very small
quantity of salt. They think it causes horses to urinate too
freely. They find horses do not eat so much when worked too
hard. The large horses eat more than the small ones. Prefer a

* And Eix quarts of oats at noon.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 467

horse of 1,000 to 1,100 pounds weight. If too small they get
poor and cannot draw a stage; if too large they ruin their feet,
and their shoulders grow stiff" and shrink. The principal objec-
tion to large horses is not so much the increased amount of food
required, as the fact that they are soon used up by Avear. They
would prefer for feed a mixture of half corn and half oats, if it
were not more expensive.

Horses do not keep fat so well on oats alone if at hard labor, as
on corn meal or a mixture of the two.

Straw is best for bedding. If salt hay is used the horses eat it,
as not more than a bag of 200 pounds of salt is used in three
months. Glauber salt is allowed occasionally as a laxative in
the spring of the year, and the animals eat it voraciously. If
corn is too new, it is mixed with an equal weight of rye bran,
which prevents scouring. Jersey yellow corn is best; horses like
it best.

The hay is all cut, mixed with the meal and fed moist. No
difference is made between day and night work. The travel is
continuous, except in warm weather, when it is sometimes divi-
ded and an interval of rest allowed In cold weather the horses
are watered four times a day in the stable and not at all on the
road. In Avarm weather four times a day in the stables, and are
allowed a sip on the middle of the route. The amount that the
company exact of each horse is all that he can do. In the worst
of the traveling they fed450«bags per week of meal, of lOO
pounds each. They now feed 400. The horses are not allowed
to drink when warm. If allowed to do so, it founders them.
In warm weather a bed of saw dust is prepared for them to roll
in. Number of horses, 335. Speed varies, but is about four
miles an hour. Horses eat more in cold weather than in warm,
but the difference cannot be exactly determined. The company
are dead opposed to the Russ pavement; had rather have cobble
stone.

Dr. Waterbury introduced a letter from Dr. A. Bigelow, of
Attica, Indiana, from whicli the following is an extract :

" I am a great lover of horses — generally keep good ones, and
do some fast driving in my business, and notice its effect upon
horses; and having used them five years in Vermont, and ten
here, I will give you the result of my, observation. Vermont
horses, like its inhabitants, are almost invariably raised on plain
diet, but if the former arrive at maturity without having the
" heaves," and the latter consumption, they can beat the world

468 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for power of endurance. The horses seldom see oats or any other
grain till they are old enough to work, and then " mighty little,''
as everything there must be done up on "the cheap." The
Indiana colts are generally allowed to eat all, or nearly all
the corn they like, summer and winter, commencing as soon
as they have teeth to masticate it. The result is, for fast
driving, they are comparatively useless forever, though at slow
work they do very well. When I first came here I was struck
Avith the multitude of diseases that horses are afflicted with here,
that are seldom or never known in Vermont; and although some
of them may be attributed to the climate, I am convinced most
of them are caused by giving them too much corn. These dis-
eases are in part the following : Stiif complaint, (something like
a horse foundered all over,) fistula, sweeny, (perishing of the
scapular muscles,) pole evil, general lameness without any appa-
rent cause, and blindness, which is very common. Now are not
all these diseases nearly allied to the gouty inflammations that
follow high living in the genus homo'? (Hope I do not hit any
member of the Club.)

"A fine colt that perhaps never had a halter on him, will be
attacked with inflammation of the eyes, one or both, generally
sclerotitis or conjunitivis, and in spite of knocking out the "blind
teeth,'' or "cutting for the hook,'' if the corn diet is continued
the eyes are lost.

" I find that if I keep a horse pn corn instead of oats, he will
surely "fail up'' sooner or later. He will endure through the
winter, but it will tell the following summer, though corn be dis-
continued in the spring. I happened accidentally to find a mare
five years old, who was so vicious that her master could not use
her, and he said he did not care if she starved to death, and
treated her accordingly. I bought her, tamed her down, and she
is the first sound and hardy horse I have ever had since. I would
like to give some of your Long Island boys a chase with her.
Therefore my directions for feeding a western horse would be to
give him five ears of corn twice a day, and all the good oats and
hay he will eat, for a horse raised on corn, will grow poor on oats
and hay alone, but if he has been properly raised do not poison
him with corn."

Mr. Bergen of Long Island said that the best feed for his farm
work horses was corn and oats mixed half and half, and then
g-round and mixed with cut hay.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 469

Dr. Wellington — This is a valuable report, and the subject of
adaptation of food to this purpose is worthy of our most careful
attention, not only in feeding animals, but man. I am satisfied
from many experiments, that^od has a magnetic influence upon
the system, as well as nutritive. Hence the invigorating effect
we feel from taking food into the stomach, before it has digested.
This is the magnetic effect, and hence when it is necessary to in-
vigorate the parts of the system most affected by that subtle fluid,
we must take the right kind of food. I am satisfied that all kinds
of grain are better for nerve and brain work than roots or
edibles that mature out of sunlight. Of all food for this mag-
netic power, dry peas will give the most. Next, oats and ripe
grains eaten Avith the outer covering or bran. In short, no man
who feeds exclusively ujion potatoes can equal the eater of peas
and oats as a brain-worker, or any action that requires great
power of nerves and muscles. Magnetic food is hair or wool-
producing, and hence peas, beans, oats, &c., are fed to sheep to
increase the fleece. If a man is subjected to continual currents
of electricity, it will increase the growth of his hair and beard.
When a man is charged with electricity, the effect is very visible
upon his hair. The same effect, in a smaller degree, may be pro-
duced by food. It is a matter that needs investigation. The
fact that certain kinds of food give more agility to horses is well
known — the reason is not well understood.

John Jay — Why does animal food refresh a man quicker than
vegetable ?

Dr. Wellington — ^Because it gives off its electric power quicker,
and is sooner spent. For long endurance, or for continued mental
or muscular exertion, I have no doubt but a meal of pea soup, or
of oatmeal, or Graham bread will be found of far greater value.

George E. Waring, jr., concurred generally Avith Dr. Welling-
ton as to the value of different kinds of food for different purpo-
ses; but he thought it would be hard work to induce farmers to
enter into the scientific research necessary to prove that oats were
better for horses because they contained a greater amount of latent
magnetism than potatoes.

Some personal discussion ensued, upon which the Secretary
quoted the fundamental rules of this Club, viz. : Facts only can
be stated by the members. No argument is allowed. So that,
according to an illustration of this rule, given by Professor James
J. Mapes, several years ago, one member might say that he had
to relate an extraordinary fact to the Club, viz., that last night a

470 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

snow storm occurred, and that all of it in Broadway below Canal
street was brown! He had not been above that street. Another
member stated, that a snow storm prevailed last night above
Canal street, where he lived, and that all the snow was white!
Another important rule is, not to decide any question in agricul-
ture or horticulture, but to state facts alone, and let all gardeners
and farmers decide, each for himself.

Charles A. Meigs, of William street, sends a glout morceau
pear, given to him by Alfred Smith, Esq., President of the Con-
necticut river Banking Company, of Hartford. Preserved by
him in a temperature a little above 32° Fahrenheit. On tasting
it the Club found it admirably preserved, juicy, and as good as
when picked.

Mr. Pardee presented the northern si'>j apple, in perfect keeping.

Dr. Wellington said that tlie Waterbury report, read to-day,
was a very important one. Such exact enquiries lead to the best
possible rules for diet and keeping of our most valuable animals,
and that we ought to follow it up by extending the researches for
the use of our fellow-men.

Mr. Solon Robinson moved that we adopt for next meeting, in
addition to " Winter feed of stock " and " Best way of preparing
the soil for spring work in farms and gardens," " Fitness of food
for man and animals."

The Club then adjourned to Tuesday, March 25th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

March 25, 1856.

Present — Messrs, B. Silliraan, of Westchester and New- York;
Bouton, Anderson, Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn; Dr. Wellington,
Thomas B. Stillman, Edwards, of London; Olcott, Judd, Prof.
Toumans, George Andrews, John W. Chambers, Geo. E. Waring,
jr., Solon Robinson, Madame Penfield,and another lady — fifty in
all.

Hon. Robert Swift Livingston in the chair, Henry Meigs Se-
cretary.

The Secretary, in the absence of Mr. Pell at Albany, read his
papers on feeding stock, viz :

FEEDING ANIMALS,

And the purposes served by their food, and the manner in
which these substances are derived, is a subject of deep interest.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 471

Wo all know that the bodies of animals consist of fluid and
solid parts. The solid portions are formed of fat, muscles and
bones; the dry matter contained in 100 parts of the muscles is
about 25 per cent, and the water 75; so that if we add one hun-
dred pounds to the weight of an animal in the shape of muscle,
only 25 pounds of solid matter requires to be incorporated Avitli
its system. If you will take the trouble to wash the lean part
of mutton or beef, for a short time, the blood will entirely disap-
pear, and the muscle becomes perfectly white, and is called by
chemists fibrin, one hundred pounds of Avhich contains about onu
and a half pounds of saline, or inorganic matter, two-thirds of
which is phosphate of lime.

The fat of beasts consists of a solid and fluid portion; this may
be observed when fat is submitted to pressure, the fluid immedi-
ately runs out, it is identical in all animals, and is called, chemi-
cally speaking, oleine. A larger quantity is found in the fat of
the hog, than the sheep, and that is the reason why the fat of hogs
is softer than mutton suet. Thus we manufacture oil from lard,
and stearine from suet. The fat of animals varies much among
dilTerent races. The solid fat of human beings is almost precisely
like the fat of geese, and is called margarine. But that of the
horse, cow and sheep, differs from that of man, and is called
stearine.

The bones of animals like the muscles, consist of combustible
and incombustible portions; from the combustible we extract glue,
gelatine, &c., and from the incombustible, phosphate and carbo-
nate of lime; about five and a half per cent of an animal consists
of hair, wool and horn.

Of the fluid parts of the body, blood is the most abundant; the
body of a man contains generally about twelve, and an ox seven-
ty-five pounds, varying a trifle in each according to the size; and
it consists by analysis of water eighty per cent., organic matter,
nineteen per cent, saline matter, one per cent.

Now the question is, from whence does the body obtain all these
matters 1 may they all be found in the food '? one would naturally
imagine this to be an easy question to answer, that they must be
obtained from the food. The organic part of the food certainly
contains the elements of which the organic parts of the body are
composed. The inorganic matter, also, in the food, such as mag-
nesia, potash, soda, sulphur, &c., exist in the inorganic parts of
the body.

472 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It would therefore seem that the body obtains from the food
all the elements necessary to build it up and sustain it. But the
chemist asks, in what state do these elements enter into the body 1
Are the substances of which the food consists decomposed after
they are eaten by the animal ? are their parts torn to pieces, and
then re-united, so as to form the compounds of which the mus-
cles, bones and blood consist? Do the vital powers Avork for the
existence of the body ? Do they build up the various elements
which compose the body 1 or are all these substances prepared in
the food which is fed to animals '? Chemical researches answer
these important questions, thus :

1 . Flour of wheat, and our other cultivated grains, consists, in
part of gluten, of albumen, or of casein. These substances all
contain nitrogen, and are identical in constitution with each
other, and with the fibrin of which the muscles of animals chiefly
consist. The substance of the muscles, therefore, exists ready
formed, in the food which the animal eats. The labor of tlic
stomach is restricted merely to select these substances from the
food, and despatch them to the parts of the body Avhere they arc
required. We see then that the plant prepares and compounds
the building materials of the muscles, and the stomach selects and
sends them forward to perform their several duties.

2. We observe, therefore, that in all our crops, there exists a
proportion of fatty or oily matter, analagous to the several kinds
of fat which exists in the bodies of animals; so that in regard to
this portion of the body, the vegetable performs nearly all the
labor.

3d. The bones, muscles and blood contain phosphates of lime,
magnesia and common salt. These all exist ready formed in the
vegetable food, associated with gluten and albumen, and the plaufc
extracts them from the soil. Therefore it will be seen that the
elements of which the bodies of animals are formed, exist in the
food, put together in the state in which they are wanted to form
the solids and fluids of the animal body. The plant tliereforo
affords the raw materials, and the animal puts them into proper
shape, and conveys them to the parts to be built up. When a
cow, sheep or ox is turned into a meadow, they eat from sun to
sun almost without interruption, and their systems possess the
power of converting into organized tissues all the food they
devour beyond the quantity required for merely supplying the
waste of their bodies.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 473

All the excess of blood produced is converted into cellular and
muscular tissues, and the animal becomes fleshy and plump.

A stall-fed animal eats, and reposes for digestion. It devours
in the shape of nitrogenized compounds far more food than is
required for re-production or the supply of waste alone. Tliis
overplus is converted into carbon, and thus thrown off at the rate
of five or six pounds in 24 hours. The animal eats, therefore,
not merely to add to the weight of its body, but to supply the
carbon which is wasted by respiration. The question will now
be asked, how the respiration is fed, and what part of the food
supplies the waste caused by it 7 In carnivorous animals, it is
the fat of their food from which the carbon given off by their
lungs is derived. When the fat fails in quantity, the lean part
of the flesh they eat is decomposed for the purpose of supplying
carbon to their lungs. If we starve an animal for a time, he feeds
from the fat first, and then upon his body. The fat first disappears
with his heart, and afterwards the muscular part is attacked.

In herbivorous animals, it is the starch, gum and sugar of the
food which supply the carbon for respiration, when the food does
not contain a sufficient quantity of these compounds, the oil first,
and then the gluten, ai-e decomposed, and made to yield their
carbon to the lungs.

Man, the dog and pig eat indifferently both animal and vege-
table food; the carbon of respiration in these cases may be derived
partly from the fat and partly from the starch and sugar which
they eat, according as they are chiefly supported by the one or by
the other kind of food.

. The flesh of wild animals is devoid of fat; while that of stall-
fed animals is covered with that substance. A pig, when fed
with highly nitrogenized food, becomes full of flesh; when fed
with potatoes, containing starch, it acquires little flesh, but a
thick layer of fat. The milk of a cow when stall-fed is very
rich in butter, but in the pasture is found to contain more caseine
and less butter and sugar of milk. In the human female, beer
and fai-inaceous diet increase the proportion of butter in the milk;
an animal diet yields less milk, but is richer in caseine. A full-
grown woman requires to be kept in condition, as far as the loss
of nitrogen is concerned, sufficient food to restore three and a
quarter ounces of dry fibrin daily, and to supply this she must
eat 32 ounces of wheat flour; or 47 ounces of wheat bread; or 16
ounces of fresh beef or mutton; or 14 ounces of peas or bean
meal; or 6 ounces of cheese. And if she lives entii-ely upon

474 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

milk or potatoes, she must drink 6 pints of milk, or eat 7 pounds
of potatoes, daily. To supply all the waste that takes place every
24 hours, she would be compelled to eat one-half more than the
quantities above named. The loss of dry fibrin in an ox would
amount to 26 ounces in 24 hours; to supply this the animal must
eat the following quantities of one or other of the kinds of ibod
here mentioned :

122 lbs of turnips; 117 lbs of wheat straw; .22 lbs of meadow
hay; 69 lbs of potatoes ; 77 lbs of carrots; 19 lbs of clover hay;
7 lbs of beans; 12 lbs of oats; 14 lbs of barley.

Any animal will grow far faster by mixing either of the above
articles, than by feeding them separately.

A full-grown ox rejects in its excrements and perspiration as
much saline and earthy matter as its food contains, therefore the
benefits derived from frequent use of salt is clearly shown.

The health of our domestic animals can only be sustained by
mixing food. Vegetable matters eaten by a full-grown animal to
keep it in condition, must contain, 1st. Starch, to replace the car-
bon respired. £d. Fatty matter, to form that substance. 3d.
Gluten to supply the waste of the muscles. 4. Phosphates to
supply the daily waste. 5. Salt, sulphates and chlorides, to re-
place daily excretions.

In an animal which is increasing in size or weight, the food
forms a double function, it must sustain and increase the body
at the same time; but the nature of the food will depend upon
the kind of increase the farmer desires; if he desires his animals
to lay on fat rapidly, he will, in addition to his ordinary food, ad-
minister oil cake or linseed oil mixed wilh cut straw, cracklings,
or the skinny part of suet, or cheap oils; bran is very fattening
from the fact that it is derived from the outer skin of grain,
which holds the oily matter of seeds; rice dust will flitten ani-
mals, but rice will not; so barley dust and oat dust is good for
that purpose.

I can take a calf of the purest Ayrshire breed, which would
naturally have a fine bone and splendid limbs, and b}^ feeding,
convert it into a raw boned, ill-shaped and ungainly animal ; and
on the other hand, I would engage to take a calf of common
breed, which if left to nature would disgrace any barn yard, and
by the same means make it an ornament to a gentleman's lawn.

A pregnant cow requires much more food, than one not in that
condition, as she has to nourisli the calf in her womb, and the
quantity must be increased as pregnancy advances, to supply the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 475

growing bones and muscles of the fcetus, these bones and muscles
may be increased by administering proper food to tlie mother
while in calf. After the calf is born, milk is the most perfect*
food that can be given to it, as it contains the curd which is to
form the muscles, the l)uttcr which is to supply the fat, the
phosphates which are to build up the bones, and the sugar which
is to feed the respiration. There is nothing wanting in milk, A
dairymen once informed me that he never added water to his
milk, yet never sold his customers milk that was not excessively
watered. His plan was to feed his milch cows on succulent
food, containing at least eighty per cent of water, thus adding a
very large percentage to his milk.

The size and condition of an animal will regulate the quantity
of food necessary to sustain it. The larger the muscles and bones,
the greater will by the daily waste, and consequently the greater
the quantity of food necessary to be given it. If you wish to
convert the hay, straw, &c., of your farm into manure, keep large
animals, and feed them generously in dark stables, this prevents
them from being disturbed, and becoming restless; anything that
excites, or causes an animal to become alarmed, increases the
natural waste, and diminishes the effect of food. In India the
habit prevails of sewing up the eyelids of animals intended to be
fatted. The absence of light, however produced, soothes and
quiets all animals, disposes them to rest, and makes less food
necessary.

Sour feed fottens animals more rapidly than sweet, green herb-
age of all kinds, collected and allowed to get sour in water, will
fatten pigs that would not thrive on it before, because lactic acid,
the acid of milk, is formed, which favors the growth of the pig.
Brewers' grains when sour, will fatten cows and other animals
more rapidly than when sweet. Eoiled or steamed potatoes,
turnips, carrots, &:c., is a far more economical food for growing
stock, and even working horses and oxen, than when fed raw.

It is a curious fact that the age of food affects its value in the
nourishment of animals. New oats for example, are not fit food
for horses until they are seven or eight months old, they affect
the heels, legs, and kidneys, and make the horse unfit for work.
You may even dry new oats in a kiln, and they will still be un-
fit for use. In the time specified, some unknown chemical change
takes place in tlie interior of tlie grain. The potato on the other
hand, by keeping, loses much of its nutritive value, even before
it begins to sprout; turnips, carrots, parsnips, &c., which have

476 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

started into flower, add much less than before to the weight of
fattening stock.

• The production of manure is an object of equal importance with
the production of milk or the fattening of stock. The quantity
of manure depends upon the quantity of food necessary to sustain
the animal, with the exception of the carbon, which escapes from
the lungs in the shape of carbonic acid; nearly the whole of the
food which sustains the body is supposed to be rejected in the
form of excrement. The quality of the manure depends entirely
upon the kind of food given to an animal, and the purpose for
which it is fed. A full grown animal which does not increase in
weight, returns in its excretions nearly all that it eats.

With the fattening animal it is different, the food must sustain,
and at the same time form additional fat. As fattening cattle are
fed corn, oil cake, &c., besides their ordinary food, their manure is
much richer than other stock differently fed. You all know of cer-
tain old pastures that time out of mind have been celebrated for
their fattening qualities, and although no manure has been arti-
ficially placed upon them, still they never become less valuable.
The reason is that full groAvn stock have been turned upon them
annually, that have already their full supply of bone and a suffi-
cient quantity of muscle, they consequently only extract fat from
grass they eat, and return to the soil phosphate of lime, saline
matters and nitrogen, and thus they are only indebted to the
land for fat, and as the atmosphere supplies this matter to the
grass, the land has not been robbed of anything, and continues
fertile.

Suppose you were to place milch cows upon such a pasture,
they would exhaust the food that passed through their digestive
organs, of the phosphates, salts, gluten and starch, and transform
them into milk, the consequence would be rapid sterility. All
the varieties of food we feed our stock contain a greater or less
proportion of three different classes of chemical substances — an
organic substance containing nitrogen, an organic substance con-
taining no nitrogen, and an inorganic substance. Thus,

1st. In the seeds of the corn plants — wheat, oats, &c. — the pre-
dominant ingredient is starch, in connection with gluten, and a
small quantity of phosphate of potash and magnesia.

2d. In the seeds of leguminous plants — the pea, the bean,
&e. — starch is still the predominating ingredient, connected with
legumina and a large portion of inorganic matter, in which phos-
phate of lime abounds.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 477

3cl. In the oil-bearing seeds, such as hemp, &c., oil is the pre-
dominating ingredient, connected with a nitrogenous substance
resembling curd of milk, and with phosphate of lime.

4th. In tlie potatoe, starch predominates united with albumen.
The inorganic matter abounds in potash and soda, and is more
rich in earthy phosphates than the ash left by wheat and oats.

5th. In the turnip, sugar and pectin take the place of starch,
and are associated with albumen, and with a proportion of inor-
ganic matter about equal to that of the potato, abounding like
it in potash and soda, but more rich in the phosphate of lime and
magnesia.

6th. In the stems of the grasses and clovers woody fibre be-
comes the predominating ingredient, associated with albumen,
and with a larger proportion of inorganic matter than in any of
the other crops. In the straw of the grasses cut for hay, silica
forms a large portion of this inorganic matter. In the clovers
lime and magnesia take its place.

The natm-al differences above described not only exercise an
important influence upon the mode of culture by which the dif-
ferent crops may be most successfully raised, but also upon the
way in which they can be most economically employed in the
feeding of stock.

In one hundred parts of wheat there are

Husk or Stnreh, gum Gluten, Fatty Salino

Water. wood fibre. and sugar, albumen and matter. matter.

legumin.

Wheat, 16 15 55 10 2 2

Oats, 16 20 50 14 5 3

Peas, 13 8 50 24 2 2

Potatoes, ..75 5 12 2 1 4

Clover hay, 14 25 40 9 3 8

Corn, 14 15 50 12 9 1

An acre of wheat growing twenty-five bushels will yield fifteen
hundred pounds at 60 lbs. to the bushel, this will produce 226 lbs.
of woody fibre, 826 lbs. of starch and sugar, 1 52 lbs. of gluten,
60 lbs. of oil, and 30 lbs. of saline matter.

An acre of oats yielding 40 bushels, the grain will weigh
1,7*'0 lbs., and they will contain 350 lbs, of woody fibre, 852 lbs.
of starch and sugar, 231 lbs. of gluten, 96 lbs. of fat, and 61 lbs.
of saline. matter.

Indian corn yielding tliirty bushels to the acre will weigh
1,800 lbs., contain 272 lbs. of woody fibre, 902 lbs. of starch and

478 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

sugar, 220 lbs. of gluten, 170 lbs. of fat, and 27 lbs. of saline
matter.

Peas growing 25 busbels to an acre, and weighing 66 lbs. to the
bushel, would yield 1,650 lbs. of grain, 132 lbs. of woody fibre,
802 lbs. of starch and sugar, 382 lbs of gluten, 46 lbs. of fat, and
46 lbs. of saline matter.

The quantities of the above grains are materially charjged by
the mode of culture, soil and manures. The dung of sheep or
horses imparts a better flavor to the pea, and renders the husk
thinner than when that of hogs and oxen have been used.

The effect of gypsum and other sulphates upon leguminous
plants is very striking. A soil which will not bring a bean to
perfection, although richly manured, if once limed will produce
abundant crops for years. The grasses we feed our stock are
distinguished from all other animal food by the large quan-
tity of woody fibre and of earthy matter which they contain.
Red clover contains 28 per cent of fibre, and rye grass 35 per
cent; this, although insoluble in water, is mostly digested by ani-
mals, it not being entirely destitute of starch, gum and sugar.
The rii3er our grass is when it is cut, the less soluble matter it
contains, the value depending on the mode in which it is har-
vested. In order to retain all these valuable properties, it has
been my custom for the last twelve years to take into barn or
stack in the evening all the grass cut in the morning, and pre-
serve it b}' means of salt. I thus secure not only the green
coloring matter but the starch, gum, gluten, and about five per
cent of fat. You may draw your own conclusion as to the value
of grass so cured for feeding stock.

Before closing my remarks to-day, I wish to acknowledge my
indebtedness to Liebeg and Johnson for many valuable hints and
experiments made by them.

ROBERT L. PELL.

The secretary lays before the club an interesting pamphlet just
presented to the Institute, being the proceedings of the Fruit
Growers' Society of western New- York. Rochester, 1856. 139
pages 8vo.

This acceptable book contains the labors of a large body of
intelligent citizens who earnestly take care of fruit and seek the
best. Their Fruit Convention, on the 27th of February, 1855,
at Rochester, organized a Pomological society for the west. In-
cluding all the counties west of, and including that of Onondaga.
So that the nineteen counties, Chautauque, Erie, Niagara, Catta-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 479

raugus, Orleans, Genesee, Allegany, Monroe, Livingston, Steuben,
Ontario, Wayne, Yates, Seneca, Chemung, Tompkins, Cayuga,
Oswego, Tioga, Onondaga, and Cortland, are embraced.

A constitution and laws are adopted. One dollar a year for
membership, and life membership for ten dollars. At the Sep-
tember meeting in Euflfalo, Mr. P. Earry, g-^neral chairman of the
fruit committees in these nineteen counties, stated, that as derived
from the returns made to him, there in twenty-three counties now
included. Four thousand acres occupied as nurseries of fruit
trees. And that in these w^ere contained ten thousand young
trees on each acre, thus showing /or/y millions of them, of which
one-fourth part would annually be set out. An interesting
enquiry immediately arises — What portion of these ten millioiis
reach successful hearing ? On discussion it seems that great
numbers are lost for want of proper attention. The president is
John S. Thomas, of Macedon. The sectetary, J. B. Eaton, of
Eufialo.

An excellent address was delivered by President Thomas. He
said that after fair examination of the vast family of pears, only
eleven were agreed upon as best for us to cultivate. And of
these all but the Seckel and. Bartlett had dissenting votes. He
alluded to the great convention of fruit growers, assembled by
the American Institute, in New-York, in 1848, who came to the
above judgment.

He mentions the benign eifect of the lakes, Seneca, Cayuga,
Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Onondaga and others, in intercepting
the cold winds from the western prairies, because the most of
these lakes never freeze over. In 15 years, he had known but one
peach crop to fail.

The colors of the apples grown here, excel those of Pennsylva-
nia, Massachusetts or New-Jersey, as well as the excellence of the
flesh and glossy surface.

Dr. Wellington — I was for twelve years in Avretched health,
dragging along a weary existence. I had always used salt freely.
At last, on considering my case, I determined to try what absti-
nence from salt would do for me, and I began gradually to mend,
and for the last twelve years have become as you see, as stout
as need be. The bears and catamounts, squirrels and birds
of my native mountains are strong without one atom of salt.
Why not we 1

The Secretary laid before the Club an interesting pamphlet,
just presented to the Institute, being the Proceedings of the Fruit

480 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Growers' Society of Western New- York for 185G. A pomologi-
cal society for the west was organized on the 27lh of February,
1855, at Kochester, including Onondaga and all the counties west
of it. The terms of membership are one dollar a year and ten
dollars for life. At the September meeting in Buffalo, the Chair-
man stated that there are 23 counties now included in the organi-
zation, four thousand acres occupied as nurseries of fruit trees,
with ten thousand trees to each acre. Great numbers of them
are lost for want of proper attention. After a fair examination,
only eleven, out of the large family of pears, were agreed upon
as profitable for cultivation. Some objections were brought
against all of those excepting, the Seckel and tlie Bartlett varie-
ties. The great convention of Fruit Growers assembled by the
American Institute in New- York, in 1848, came to the same con-
clusion. The effect of the Lakes, Seneca, Cayuga, Canandaigua,
Skaneateles, Onondaga, and others, in intercepting the cold winds
from the western prairies, is spoken of as highly beneficial to the
fruit. In 15 years only one peach crop had been known to fail
in that region. The apples grown thereabouts are better in re-
spect to color, excellence of flesh and glossiness of surface, than
those of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and New-Jersey.

Benjamin Silliman of Westchester and New-York — I am trying
to improve my farm while I may — I have 100 acres — I am trying
to get working power in my barn to do much work cheap, and
that is by a windmill, as is recently considered advisable. I have
witli others lamented the painful struggles of your horses this
winter on the smooth and slippery Russ pavement. I have tried
to suggest a remedy, and here it is, a horse shoe having six invert-
ed steel pyramidal points whose bases are firmly screwed into the
horse shoe plate with a wrench. These points when dulled are
readily unscrewed and sharpened ones put in their places. As
steel tools will cut this Imrd trap of the pavement, these six
points will by the horse's tread secure a hold for his foot.

Solon Eobinson — The same plan has been adopted recently,
with the difference only that cast iron chilled corks to screw into
the shoe plate do about as well at a much cheaper rate, but either
of them are liable to the objection of wearing down rapidly on
our Russ pavements. I believe that plan was invented about
three months ago.

Mr. Silliman — My invention is older than that.

The subject adopted for the next meeting is — The necessary

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 481

and most advisable preparation of soil for spring work in farms
and gardens.

Professor Youmans remarked that he admired the method of
treating important questions by first giving a history of what has
been done in relation to it, and then adding what is new.

Seeds from the Hon Charles Mason, U. S. Commissioner of
Patents, are expected soon for distribution. Mr. Mason is supply-
ing those parts of the United States first whose climates are earlier
than ours.

The Club adjourned to April 1st, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

April 1, 1856.

Present — Messrs. President R. L. Pell, Thomas B. Stillman,
Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn 5 Judge Scoville, Palmer and Skilton of
Troy; Dr. Smith, Dr. Waterbury, Mr. Bouton, Mr. Thomasson,
Solon Robinson, F. W. Geissenhainer, jr.. Secretary Leonard, the
venerable optician, Benj. Pike, Judge Livingston, John W. Cham-
bers, Mr. Brower, Mr. Olcott, Dr. Reese, V. Wyck, Judd, Joseph
Blunt, Mr. Stacy, Mr. Vail, Geo. E. Waring, jr., Mr. Sanford
and others — seven ty-tlu-ee members.

President Pell in the chair, Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following selections and transactions
made by him from papers, by the last steamer from Europe (viz) :
A GOOD PLAN.

I saw in the New York Evening Post, last week, the following
very good recommendation as to growing melons. Put soil into
a wicker basket, or any open wicker work. Plant the seeds in
it, in any warm sunny place, hotbed, &c., early in the spring.
When the weather suits, set these in proper places in the garden.
The roots have no trouble in passing through the wicker, and of
course we have the benefit of the longest summer and the best
part of it. Extract from the Evening Post, by

H. MEIGS.
THE CHINESE YAM—{Dioscorea Batatas).

The Imperial and Central Society of Horticulture, Paris, Janu-
ai'y, 1856.

Napoleon 3d Protector, has decreed the gold medal to Mr. Mon-
tigny, for the introduction of this new plant and others.

Mr. Remont, of Versailles, presented an essay on the plant and
bread made of it.

[Am, Inst.] 81

482 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

NEW METHOD FOR ACCELERATING THE GERMINA-
TION OF SEEDS,

(13y a Professor of Botany in the North of England) .

It is the result of general facts ascertained by long experience.
The new method is particularly good for seeds long kept and dry.
From the experiments made by Mr. Charles Maltuen, and report-
ed in Brewster's Jom-nal, it is shown that the negative or alkaline
pole of a pile, makes seeds germinate much more promptly than
the positive pole. On this ground, Mr. Maltuen has made seeds
germinate in water, acidulated with acetic acids (the pure acid in
vinegar) in nitrics, sulphuric, in water rendered alkaline by ad-
ding potash and ammonia. In the alkaline water, seeds germina-
ted in thirty hours, and at the end of forty houi'S, were well de-
veloped; while those in the nitric or sulphuric require seven days.
Those in the acetic acid had not begun to germinate at the end of
one month. He recommends placing on a board or plate, and
moisten them with slaked lime w'ater, and stir them until all are
properly wet; then put in a little slaked lime, and mix it in with
the seeds well; when the mass of seeds begins to dry, wet them
again. They must not be allowed to get dry, for then the lime
will injure them.

THE SUGAR SORGHO

Seems destined to become, one day, perhaps, the giver of alco-
hol than ordinary sugar itself — because of the uncrystallizable
matter it contains.

President Pell left the chair to Judge Livingston, and remarked
as follows on the adulteration of food and drugs as determined by
scientific analysis recently :
Gentlemen of the Farmers'' Club :

In July last a select committee was appointed in London to
enquire into the adulteration of food, drinks and drugs; and as
their report may be of immense importance to our community, I
will lay before you this morning a few extracts from it. The fol-
lowing is a classified list of the articles analysed, and the various
substances ascertained to be employed for the different purposes
of adulteration.

Annatto is adulterated with wheat-flour, rye-flour, salt and
soap, for bulk and weight; for color, turmeric, a ferruginous
earth. Arrowroot with sage, potato and tapioca starches, and
various mixtures and combinations of these with the inferior ar-
rowroots. Anchovies are mixed Avith Dutch, French and Sice-
lian fish, and sometimes those fish are passed off as the anchovy

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 483

itself; bole and Venetian red are used to color the liquid which
surrounds the fish. Eread is adulterated with mashed potatoes,
alum, and sometimes with sulphate of copper. Bottled fruits
with salts of copper, usually the sulphate or acetate. Cinnamon
with cassia, and most of the articles to be mentioned under spices.
Colored confectionary with East India arrowroot, wheat and po-
tato flour, hydrated sulphate of lime ; and it is colored with
cochineal, lake, indigo, Prussian blue, Antwerp blue, artificial
ultramarine, carbonate of copper, white lead, red lead, vermillion,
the chrome yellows, lemon, orange and deep gamboge, emerald
green, Indian red, brown umber, jeluna, Vandyke brown, and
various combinations of the above i3igmeuts. Coffee, with chicory,
roasted wheat, rye and potato flours, roasted beans, mangel-
wurtzel, and acorns. Chicory, is adulterated with roasted wheat
and rye flours, burnt beans, saw dust, mahogany dust, carrot;
and is colored with ferruginous earths, as amber, burnt sugar and
Venetian red. Cocoa and chocolate, with maranta, Tahiti arrow-
roots, tous-les-mois, the flours of wheat, Indian corn, sago,
potato, tapioca and various mixtures of these, sugar, and chicory;
and it is colored with Venetian red, red ochre, and other ferru-
ginous earths. Custard and egg powders contain wheat, potato,
and rice flours, colored white chrome yellow, or chromate of
lead, and turmeric. Curry powder, with ground rice, potato
farina, and salt; colored with red lead. Flour, with alum, gin-
ger, with wheat, sago, potato flours, and turmeric powder. Gin,
with water, sugar, cayenne, cassia, or cinnamon, and flavorings
of different kinds, and for juices, alum and salt of tartar. Rum,
w^ith water and cayenne pepper. Isinglass, with gelatine. Lard,
with potato flour, water, salt, carbonate of soda, and caustic
lime. Mustard, with wheat flour and turmeric. Milk, with
w^ater and annatto. Marmalade, with pulp of apple or turnips.
Oatmeal with barley flour, and the integuments of barley, called
subble.

Porter and brown stout, with water, sugar, treacle and salt.
Pickles with salts of copper, usually the sulphate or acetate of
copper. Potted meats and fish, with boiled wheat flour, colored
with bole, Armenian and sometimes Venetian red. Preserves,
with salts of copper, including the acetate. Pepper, with wheat
and pea flour, ground rice, ground mustard seeds, linseed meal or
pepper dust. Snuff", with the chromates of potash, chromate of
lead, umber, red and yellow ochre, oxide of lead, carbonate of
ammonia, lime, powdered glass or silex, and powdered orris root.

484 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Pimento, with mustard husk. Mixed spice, with wheat, sago,
potato flour, ground rice, linseed, &c. Sauces, such as the essen-
ces of anchovies, lobsters and shrimps, and tomato sauce with red
earths, as bole, Armenian and Venetian red. Tea, wdth exhausted
tea leaves, those of the sycamore, horse-chesnut and plum; with
lie tea, husk, sand and starch; colored with plumbago or black
lead, gum, indigo, Prussian blue, turmeric, Chinese yellow, China
clay, French chalk; and is flavored with sulphate of iron, catechu
gum, la veno beno, and Chinese botanical powder. Tobacco with
water, sugar, molasses and salts of various kinds ; cabbage leaves,
sea weed, bran, &c. Vinegar with w'ater, burnt sugar, pyrolign-
eous acid, sulphuric and tartaric acids. Jalaps, "with powdered
wood of two different kinds. Ipecacuanha, with chalk, wheat
flour, pow^dered w^oods and other vegetable substances. Opium,
with poppy. Capsules, wheat flour, sugar, gum, powdered wood,
and sand. Scammony, with w^heat flour, chalk, resins of guai-
acum and jalap, sand and woody fibre. This list does not em-
brace nearly all the substances employed in the adulteration of
articles of food, drink and drugs. It contains only those w^hich
have actually been discovered in the several articles named. Many
of these are injurious to health, and some of them poisonous. All
the articles experimented upon, were purchased from respectable
traders who exposed them for general sale ; and from thirty to
forty samples of the same articles were subjected to examination
before any report was made. With respect to coffee and its adul-
terations, the conclusions resulting from microscopical examina-
tions and analysis, were as follows : That 34 coffees, with three
exceptions, were adulterated; that chicory was present in 31 in-
stances; roasted corn in 12; beans and potato flour, each in one
case; that in 16 cases the adulteration consisted of chicory only;
in the remaining samples, chicory, roasted corn, beans, or potato
flour; and that in many instances, the quantity of coffee was very
small ; and in others, not less than one-fifth, fourth, third, and so
on of the whole article. Twenty-nine packages of canister coffee
were examined by analysis and microscope; and with one excep-
tion they were all adulterated; and in 28 chicory constituted the
chief part, notwithstanding the fine for every offence if brought
home to the parties, w^ould have been five hunch-ed dollars.

Thirty-six samples of brown sugar were subjected to examina-
tion; and the conclusions arrived at by the committee were, that
fragments of cane, frequently so minute as to be visible only with
the microscope, w'ere detected in all the sugars except one; that

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 485

the disgusting insects, acari, were present in thirty-five out of
the thirty-six, and in nineteen cases in very considerable num-
bers; that sporules and filaments of fungi were present in at least
ten cases; that grape sugar was detected in the whole thirty-six
sugars, often in a great quantity; that the whole of the sugars
contained a variable proportion of vegetable albumen, woody
fibre, stony particles, grit, flour in the form of free granules, &c.
Fifteen samples of lump sugar were then examined, and in none
of them were fragments of cane present, or acari, they having
been separated by filtration, and traces of grape sugar were only
detected in three samples. I believe this sugar insect, acarus, is
present in all brown sugars, and likewise the sporules of fungi.

The next article examined was arrowroot, and the conclusions
were, that out of fifty samples submitted to analysis twenty-two
were adulterated; that in sixteen cases the adulteration consisted
in the addition of a single article, much cheaper in price and very
inferior in quality to genuine arrowroot; this in ten instances be-
ing potato flour, in five sago meal, and in one case tapioca starch;
in five instances potato flour and sago meal; in two instances
potato flour, sago meal and tapioca starch or fecula; that ten of
the arrowroots contained scarcely a particle of West India arrow-
root, for which they were sold. West India arrowroot is an
article which is commonly used by invalids, and therefore it is
very important that it should be pure.

From the examination of forty-three samples of black and
white pepper, the conclusions were that they were adulterated
with wheat flour, pea flour, ground rice, powdered mustard seed,
linseed meal, pepper dust, &c.

As to mustard, the conclusions resulting from the examination
of forty-two samples of this article were, that genuine mustard,
whatever be the price paid for it, is scarcely ever to be obtained;
the whole of the forty-two samples were adulterated with large
quantities of wheat flour, highly colored with turmeric.

Mustard is not only used as a condiment, but very largely by
medical men in many extreme cases, sometimes in apoplexy. It
is used principally in medical practice as an outward application,
in the form of cataplasms, and these adulterations would mate-
rially affect the utility of mustard in its medical appliance.

The conclusions in the case of chicory, deduced from the ex-
amination of thirty-four samples, were, that fourteen were adul-
terated; that in nine the adulteration consisted of roasted
corn; that scorched beans were present in four of the samples;

486 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

that in one case ground acorns were detected, and in others roast-
ed wheat, mahogany saw-dust, mangel wurzel, roasted carrot,
roasted farina. The ashes of several of the samples were highly-
colored, indicating the presence of some red earth.

In the case of bread, the whole of the twenty-four samples ex-
amined were adulterated with alum, and from the analysis of a
second series of twenty-five samples, including three sold by the
League Bread Company, contained alum, in some cases 5U0 grs.
in a loaf; potato flour was not detected in any of the parcels. It
is not easy to detect the presence of alum in bread without analiz-
ing it. If two slices are cut and placed in water, the good bread
would absorb far more water than the bad bread.

From an examination of eight samples of flour, the important
fact was ascertained that four of the flours used by tlie bakers in
whose bread alum had been detected, and who had questioned
the accuracy of the analysis, also contained alum, and in some
cases muriatic acid, containing arsenic.

The conclusions arrived at from the analysis of samples of
cocoa Avere, that eight of the fifty-six samples were genuine; that
sugar was present in forty-three samples, the amount forming
from five to, in some cases, as much as fifty per cent of the article,
and consisting either of wheat, potato flour, sago, meal, &c., or
mixtures of these in various proportions That out of ten sam-
ples of cocoa which were incinerated, six contained earthy color-
ing matter; out of fourteen samples of soluble cocoa, earthy mat-
ter was discovered in thirteen; that five of the fourteen homceo-
pathic cocoas contained colored earth; two were free from earthy
coloring matter; that earthy coloring matter was found in seven
out of nine samples of rock cocoa; that the ash in two of the
cocoa pastes incinerated was colored; that of the twelve samples
of chocolate, in powder and in cake, examined, earthy coloring
matter was present in four. Sixty-eight other samples of cocoa
and chocolate being submitted to examination, twenty-nine were
free from admixture with eartliy coloring matter, while the re-
maining thirty-nine sam2:)les all contained colored earthy sub-
stances in greater or less amount.

With respect to oatmeal, the conclusions resulting from the
examination of this article were, that sixteen of the thirty sam-
ples submitted for examination, were adulterated with barley

N OTE. — If bicarbonate of soJa, which contains a large quantity of carbonic acid, be mixed
with bread, n.nd muriatic acid be poured upon it, an effervescence will take place which will
raise the bread and dispense with the use of ycost.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 487

meal in large proportions, while others contained the refuse musk,
termed rubble.

Many pauper children were taken ill at one time in the estab-
lishment at Tooting, and in the course of the coroner-s inquiry, it
was found that the oatmeal was very largely adulterated with
barley meal; and as the children were all sufl'ering with nearly
the same symptoms, being reduced by diarrhoea, and barley pos-
sessing an aperient property, and having been in daily use, was
considered the cause of the diarrhoea.

I now proceed to the conclusions arrived at by the committee,
from the analyses of different samples of black and green tea, both
as imported, and as purchased of dealers in the country. The
chief points ascertained with regard to black tea vrere, that the
priacipal black teas (viz : the Congous and Souchongs) arrive in
England for the most part in a genuine state; that certain descrip-
tions of black tea, as scented orange, pekoe, and caper, are in-
variably adulterated; the adulteration in general consisting of the
glazing of the leaves with plumbago or black lead; the caper
likewise being subject to the admixture with other substances, as
paddy pusk, lie tea, and the leaves other than those of tea; that
several varieties of a spurious caper or black gun powder, are pre-
pared, which consist of tea dust and sometimes the dust of other
leaves, and sand, made up into little masses with gum, and faced
or glazed with pliunbago, Prussian blue, and turmeric powder.
(Turmeric is the root of the cm-cuma longa, and yields a fine
yellow powder, and forms one of the ingredients of curry; paper
stained with turmeric is often used in the chemical laboratory as
a test of the presence of free alkalies and their carbonates, by
which its yellow color is turned into brown.) In some cases
these imitations are sold separately, but most frequently they are
used to mix with and adulterate the better qualities of caper, viz:
those which are made of tea faced with plunil)ago only.

With respect to green tea the principal conclusions were, that
these teas, with the exception of a few of Eritish groAvth and
manufacture, from Assam, are invariably adulterated; that is to
say, are glazed with coloring matter of different kinds. The
coloring matter used in general are Prussian blue, turmeric pow-
der and China clay, other ingredients being sometimes but not
frequently employed. Of these coloring matters, Prussian blue,
or ferro-cyanide of iron, possesses properties calculated to alfect
health injuriously. And you may rest assured gentlemen of the
Club, that there really is no such thing as a green tea ; that is a

488 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tea which possess a natui-al green hue. Green teas, and more
especially the gunpowders, in addition to being faced and glazed,
are more subject to adulteration in other ways than black teas,
as by admixture of leaves not those of tea, with paddy husk, and
particularly with lie tea. That lie tea is prepared so as to re-
semble green tea, and is extensively used by the Chinese them-
selves to adulterate gunpowder tea ; it is also sent over to this
country in vast quantities, and is employed for the same purpose
by our own tea dealers and grocers. In many cases it is marked
lie tea by the Chinese themselves. It is an article expressly man-
ufactured for the adulteration of tea, and is made up with a cer-
tain proportion of tea dust, gum and sand; it is formed into
little masses, and those are afterwards faced with Prussian blue
or indigo, tm-meric and China clay; this clay forms a very fine
powder, which gives a smoothness and gloss to the leaves. Teas
undergo further deterioration; exhausted tea leaves are frequently
made up with gum, and artificially colored and glazed, then sold
to the public as genuine black and green tea. Ladies will say
that they have examined the leaves coming from their tea pot,
and that they never have found other than tea leaves. The reason
is that when the leaves of the plum or other plants are used, they
are prepared in a special manner, being broken into pow-
der and mixed with catechu and gum, and formed into little
masses in the same way as the Chinese fabricate them, and
mixed with genuine tea. When hot water is added to those
masses, the catechu and gum are dissolved by the hot wa-
ter, and nothing remains but the leafy matter at the bottom
of the tea pot. The teas sold to Americans by the Chinese are
much higher glazed than those sent to England. The coloring is
not intended as an adulteration, but to suit the capricious taste
of the foreign buyers, who judge of an article used as a drink by
the eye instead of the palate. The American merchant disliked
the yellowish appearance of uncolored green tea so much that the
Chinese merchant had scarcely a chance of selling his tea unless
he gave it a face that would suit their fancy. I think the small
quantity of Prussian blue required for coloring must preclude the
idea of adulteration with this substance as a matter of profit.
Still even the poorest classes of Chinese cannot be induced to
drink glazed teas. There is an establishment in Manchester,
England, that collects the tea leaves after they have been used,
glaze, color, and sell them as a geuuine ai-ticle.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 489

The conclusions deducted from an examination of 26 samples
of milk, purchased of different milkmen and dairy-keepers, were
that 12 were genuine. That of these, two showed a deficiency
of cream; that eleven were adulterated; that this adulteration
consisted in all cases of water, the per centage of which v^aried
from 10 to 50 per cent., or one-half of the article. Milk will bear
an enormous quantity of water, without being much deteriorated
in appearance. You may introduce three-fourths of water into
milk, and yet it will still appear to be milk, only having a bluer
tinge. In this examination there was no gum, chalk, size, sheep's
brains, or any of the other substances said to be occasionally used
for the adulteration of milk, detected. Annatto was found in
cream, and supposed to be used for the purpose of improving the
color. One of the committee reported that he saw a spectacle
near London that prevented him from tasting milk for six months,
to wit, forty cows in the most disgusting condition, full of
ulcers; their teats in a horribly diseased, ulcerated condition, and
their legs full of tumors and abscesses; in fact it was terrible to
look at; and the fellow was milking these poor cows in the mid-
dle of all this purulent abomination. I have been told that this
is by no means an exception, but that the animals of a great many
cow-keepers are in the same condition; so that what is introduced
into the milk besides the water, (which was taken within a foot
of a cess-pool,) is actually the product of disease. The excreta
certainly were never meant to be taken in again, and I am satis-
fied that a great many of the diseases and epidemics which visit
and devastate London, are referable to such causes.

With respect to isinglass, the conclusions arrived at were, that
out of twenty-eight samples submitted to examination, ten con-
sisted entirely of gelatine. The genuine isinglass was w^orth
thirty-three cents per pound, and the gelatine twenty cents.

The conclusions resulting from the examination of thirty-three
samples of vinegar purchased from grocers , were, that the amount
of acetic acid, the most important constituent of vinegar, and
which ought not to be less than four per cent., did not come up
to more than two per cent., and eight of the samples contained a
large quantity of sulphuric acid. A second series of samj^les of
vinegar, purchased of the principal manufacturers, twenty-eight
in number, were as follows : That seven of the samples were en-
tirely free from sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol; that twenty-one
were adulterated with that powerful and corrosive mineral acid,
the amount of which was often very considerable, over five per

490 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cent, above the standard of strength, the quantity of acetic acid
in these samples was exceedingly small.

The conclusions deduced from the examination of samples of
pickles were, that nineteen out of the twenty samples of pickling
vinegar submitted to analysis owed a large portion of their aci-
dity to sulphuric acid. The largest quantity of this acid was
detected in jjickles of red cabbage; that in the whole copper was
present in considerable quantity; and in one copper was present
in an amount deleterious; and in two, in amount which might be
considered poisonous. The pickles which contained the largest
quantity of copper were those which consisted entirely of green
vegetables, as gherkins, beans, &c.

Out of twenty-one samples of ground ginger submitted to ex-
amination, no less than fifteen, being more than two-thirds of the
whole, were found to be adulterated; that the substances detected
were various in character, including sago meal, potato flour,
wheat flour, ground rice, cayenne pepper, mustard, rusks, and
turmeric powder; these occurring in various quantities, but in the
majority of cases constituting the principal part of the article.

Thirty-one samples of cinnamon were submitted to examina-
tion, and out of the whole seven were genuine, and five consisted
of nothing but cassia. The prices per ounce for cassia is twelve
cents, and for cinnamon twenty-five cents. That out of nineteen
samples of ground cinnamon, three consisted entirely of cassia;
that ten samples were adulterated with baked wheat flour, or
sago meal, separately or in combination. East India arrow-root
and potato flour were likewise detected.

Eighteen samples of nutmegs were examined, and found to con-
tain their essential oil, a result contrary to the opinion commonly
entertained on this point, as it was supposed that they were de-
prived of this before they reached the consumer.

As to mixed spice, the conclusions were, that out of 26 sam-
ples subjected to microscopic examination, no less than 16, or
considerably more than one-half, were adulterated.

With respect to cayenne pepper, the conclusions deduced were,
that out of 28 samples subjected to analysis, 24 were adulterated;
and out of these 22 contained mineral coloring matters; that red
lead, often in large and poisonous quantities, was present in 13
samples; that Venetian red, red ochre, or some other analogous
ferruginous earths, were contained in several samples; that cinna-
bar, Vermillion, or sulphuret of mercury, was discovered; that
six of the samples consisted of a mixture of ground rice, turme-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 491

ric, and colored with red lead; that six samples contained large
qunntities of salt, sometimes alone, but more frequently combined
with rice and a red ferruginous earth, or with red lead; that one
of the samples was adulterated with a large quantity of the musk
of white mustard seed; that two contained rice only, colored with
red lead, which latter substance is often present in sufficient
amount to produce unpleasant symptoms in" the system of those
using cayenne pepper. Snuft' is adulterated with another prepar-
ation of lead, chromate of lead, and not to a larger extent than
red-lead is present in cayenne, and several cases have been re-
corded recently of the production of paralysis by the use of snuff
containing lead; now if snuflf, which merely passes up the nostrils,
will give rise to paralysis, it is extremely probable that cayenne pep-
per will do so when introduced into the stomach, especially when
taken in curry powder, in which far larger quantities are con-
sumed than when taken alone. Now this red lead is cmnulative
upon the system, and is not discharged very easily; in fact none
of the metals are easily expelled from the system; they are all
apt to accumulate, but lead of any kind, and mercury are par-
ticularly liable to accumulate and often do so; and though the
symptoms might not go to the extent of paralysis, the health
might be very much disturbed. I have known serious illness to
result from taking curry powder, which must have been caused by
the red lead introduced through the cayenne into the powder.
Cayenne pepper, in many cases, is exposed to the light of the sun
in shop windows, and it is very apt from that exposure to loose
its color. If any mineral coloring matter is used the Cayenne
will stand exposure, and not appear to fade. It really does fade,
but then the coloring matter added makes up for the deficiency
of color. When you see particularly red pepper, there is good
reason to suspect that it is not genuine. It is a suspicious cir-
cumstance in itself, but is not conclusive, because the addition of
salt to cayenne peper heightens its color in a very remai-kable
manner, and makes it more vividly red than even red lead would
do. Much of the red pepper which is imported in a ground
state from India contains salt.

The conclusions arrived at by the committee from the exami-
nation of twenty-six samples of curry powder were, that seven
only were genuine; that nineteen, or nearly four-fifths, were
adulterated; that ground rice, usually in very large quantities,
was present in nine samples; that potato farina was detected in
one; that salt was present in eight; that the highly poisonous

492 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

metallic oxide, red lead, was detected in no less than eight; thai
in seven tlie adulteration consisted of ground rice only; that in
one sample the adulteration consisted of ground rice and salt;
that in one sample the adulteration was ground rice and red lead;
and in many samples red lead alone.

BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.

With respect to bottled fruits and vegetables, the conclusions
were, that of thirty-three samples of preserved fruits and vegeta-
bles, seven were free from contamination with copper; that
twenty-seven samples were more or less impregnated with that
metal; that traces of copper were discovered in three of the
samples; that in seven, copper was present in small amounts only;
that eight samples contained it in considerable amount, that in
six samples it was present in very considerable amount; that
four contained this poisonous impregnation in exceedingly large
quantities; that the two samples of limes examined contained
copper, one in small amount only, the other in amount quite con-
siderable; that gooseberries, as commonly preserved, contain a
large amount of copper, and. some samples even a very large
quantity; that rhubarb usually contains an amount of copper
quite considerable, some samples being contaminated with it to a
very large extent, this is done entirely for the sake of the color,
and is altogether an unnecessary practice, because the color which
is produced by means of copper is by no means a desirable or
natural color. The effect of the addition of copper to bottled
fruits is such as to be detected by the eye alone. A practiced
person can generally tell which has copper in it, and which has
not. French olives contain a large amount of copper, but Spanish
olives do not, as they are allowed to get riper, and consequently
are not intended to look green.

The conclusions resulting from the examinations of twenty-
eight samples of anchovies were, that seven of the samples con-
sisted entirely of Dutch fish; that two consisted of a mixture of
Dutch fish and anchovies; that the brine in twenty-three samples
was charged with either bole Armenian or Venetian red, the
quantity varying considerable in amount; but in most cases the
brine was changed with these earthy powders to such an extent
that they might be obtained and collected from the bottom of the
bottles almost by teaspoonfals.

Out of twenty-eight samples of potted meats and fish subjected
to analysis, no less than twenty-three were more or less impreg-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 493

nated with the red earthy material, bole Armenian, which con-
tains iron, and would have a medicinal effect upon most consti-
tutions.

From the examination of thirty-three samples of sauces,
the conclusions were, that molasses and much salt form-
ed the basis of the five samples of the India soy exam-
ined, if they did not entirely consist of these two ingre-
dients; and in Harvey's fish sauce much oxalate of lime,
and numerous minute chips of charred wood were detected, pro-
bably used to impart color ; that of the seven samples of tomato
sauce analysed, six were artificially colored, one probably with
cochineal, and the rest by the addition of considerable quantities
of the ferruginous pigment, bole Armenian. That the samples
of essence of lobsters, shrimps, and anchovies contained flfour, and
were adulterated with immense quantities of the ferruginous
oxide, bole Armenian; that out of eighteen red sauces, no less
than sixteen contained bole Armenian, far exceeding in quantity
what was detected in any of the potted meats and fish. Traces
of copper were discovered in a few instances.

The jams examined contain very considerable quantities of
copper, arising, no doubt, from the copper vessels in which jams
are generally prepared, as the preparers would gain no advan-
tage from the introduction of copper. I think it desirable that
copper should not be employed in the preparation of sweetmeats.

Orange marmalade was adulterated Avith large quantities of
turnips, and copper was found in thirty-three out of thirty-five
samples of sweetmeats in considerable amount.

Lard was found to be extensively adulterated, the ingredients
employed being water, potato flour, salt, potash, alum, carbonate
of potash and soda, and lime, these being intended either to cause
the lard to hold water, or to improve its consistence and color.
The description of lard most liable to adulteration is that put up
in kegs.

Butter is adulterated with salt to the amount of thirty-five per
cent., which induces it to take up a large quantity of water.

The results obtained from numerous analyses, chemical and mi-
croscopical, of various descriptions of tobacco, were to the follow-
ing effect : That the tobacco-leaf itself presents certain peculiari-
ties of structure by which it may be readily distinguished from
the leaves of all other plants said to be employed in the adulte-
ration of tobacco, especially in the form and structure of the hairs,
and of the midribs and veins. These peculiarities are so decisive

494 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

as to enable the observer, by means of the microscope, at once to
distinguish tobacco in all the forms of cut and roll tobacco, and
even when the leaf is still more minutely divided, as in some
kinds of snufif. The gum of the tobacco is composed chiefly of
chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and phosphates, combined with
much lime, leaves of tobacco, when burned to an ash, are re-
markable for the large amount of soluble salts which they con-
tained. The common adulterations of tobacco consist in the
addition of water, sugar, and salts, and the presence of these can
only be declared with certainty, when they are in considerable
excess.

Fifty-eight samples of cigars were examined. Some of them
were made up of liay and brown paper, but in the majority of
cases tl^y were entirely of tobacco.

From their examination of 43 samples of snufif of different kinds,
the conclusions were, that chloride of sodium or salt is added in
large and very variable quantities, to all descriptions of snufif,
ranging from 1 to 18 per cent. That the alkaline and earthy
carbonates, chiefly of potash and lime, are likewise added to snufif,
sometimes in large quantities, l)ut usually to a less extent than
chloride of sodium. In some cases alkaline and earthy phos-
phates and sulphates were in excess. That oxide of iron derived
from different descriptions of colored ferruginous earths, as red
ochre, yellow ochre, and some of the brown earths, as umber,
was present in upwards of two-thirds of the samples; and all the
Scotch snuffs contained iron; chromate of lead was detected in
eighteen of the samples. The presence of this metallic compound
in snuff constitutes an adulteration. Bi-chromate of potash was
present in three samples, and silica in several. In most of the
silicious residues of the ashes shining particles were observed,
which, under the microscope, presented all the appearances of
powdered glass. The average proportion of water in the moist
snuffs was about 25 per cent. Looking, then, at the whole of the
above results, it is evident that snufif is subject to a very large
amount of adulteration, and tliat of a kind wliich is not only
detrimental to the revenue, but highly injurious to health. The
addition of water to tobacco and to snufif, constitutes a very
important means of adulterating it. Many of the articles that I
have mentioned, which are not poisonous in themselves, would be
very prejudicial if taken up through the nostrils to the brain.

From the examination of upwards of one hundred samples of
colored sugar confectionary, the following important conclusions

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 495

and particulars were arrived at. The principal colors employed
are yellows, reds, including pink and scarlet, browns, purples,
blues and greens. Of the yellows, it appeared that seven were
colored with lemon chrome, or the pale variety of chromate of
lead; that five* were colored with orange chrome, or the deep
variety of chromate of lead; that forty-seven were colored with
the bright-colored variety of chromate of lead ; that eleven were
colored with gamboge; while the color of the majority of the
above samples was confined to the surface, in many cases it. was
diifused equally throughout the whole mass of the sugar used.
Of the red, sixty-one of the samples were colored with organic
pink coloring matters, consisting in most cases of coccus cacti; in
twelve of the samples, the coloring matter was red lead, red oxide
of lead, or minium.

In six cases the coloring ingredient consisted of vermillion,
cinnabar, or bisulpliuret of mercury. Of the browns, eight
were colored with Vandyke' brown, umber or sienna; of the
purples, two with a mixture of Antwerp blue, consisting, ot
Prussian blue and cochineal; of the blues, one with indigo,
eleven with Prussian blue or ferrocyanide of iron, eleven with
Antwerp blue, a modification of Prussian blue, fifteen with
German or artificial ultramarina, which is a sulphuret of sodium
and aluminum; of the greens, five were colored with a pale
variety of Erunswick green, four with middle Erunswick green,
consisting of a mixture in different proportions of the chromates
of lead and Prussian blue, one with verdite or carbonate of cop-
per. The above colors were variously combined in different cases;
as many as three, four, five, six, or even seven colors occurring
in the same parcel of confectionary, including many poisons. It
further appeared from these analyses, that thirteen of the
samples were adulterated with hydrate sulphate of lime, twentj^-
one with different kinds of flour, seveateen wheat flour, three
potato flour, and in one East India arrow-root.

There are many well attested instances of serious illness, if not
death, arising from the consumption of articles of sugar confec-
tionary which have been colored with those poisonous materials.
Scarcely a year passes without serious accidents happening, arising
from the employment of such j^igments in sugar confectionary;
there are instances of persons who hdve been killed outright by
them, and many more instances of persons being taken seriously
ill immediately after eating them.

The adulteration of sugar confectionary is not alone confined to

496 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

color, but is extremely adulterated by the addition of liydrated
sulphate of lime, and with wheat flour, alum, starch and plaster
of paris, of this last named substance, as much as forty-three
per cent were met with in some samples; this is very injurious
to the system, being utterly innutritions and apt to interfere with
digestion.

The conclusions respecting the adulteration of London brown
stout and porter were that water constitutes the principal but not
the .only adulteration to which these beverages are subjected.
The addition of water reduces the strength, flavor, and color to
such an extent as to necessitate the further adulteration of the
beer, and this is usually effected by means of a very coarse de-
scription of brown sugar containing much molasses and salt,
sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, salt of steel or sulphate of iron,
cocculus indicus, tobacco leaves and sweet flag are likewise not
unfrequently used, both by the brewer and vender.

Thirty-eight samples of gin Avere submitted to examination,
some of which only contained half as much alcohol as was present
in other samples, and therefore their commercial value was re-
duced more than one half This variation in the strength of the
spirits is doubtless principally attributable to dilution with water,
the quantity of sugar ranges from three to thirteen ounces per
gallon. Two of the samples contained oil of cinnamon; seven
cayenne pepper, in very large quantity. Most of the samples
contained combined sulphates, derived from the water and alum
employed in their adulteration and clarification, and also from
white vitriol, white copperas, or sulj^hate of zinc, these adultera-
tions are calculated to prove injurious to health.

It appears from the analysis of nineteen samples of rum, that
six, or nearly one-third were adulterated with cayenne pepper,
others with white vitriol and sulphate of zinc. I would ask
what human stomach c^uld stand the combined influence of alco-
hol and cayenne pepper.

Annotta is a vegetable coloring substance. It is used largely in
dying and also in coloring cheese, butter and cream. It is a
very expensive substance in its pure state. Thirty-one samples
were submitted to a micoscropical and chemical examination,
chalk was present in twenty-one samples, wheat flour in four,
rye flour in nine, turmeric in three, salt in nineteen, an oily sub-
stance (probably soap) in several, Venetian red in nineteen, cop-
per in three, whilst red lead was detected in five samples.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 497

I will now take up the subject of drugs, and give you the
analysis of only four important ones.

The first is jalap. From the examination by analysis of thirty-
three samples of powdered jalaps, it appears that of the thirty-
three no less than fourteen were adulterated, or nearly one-half;
that this adulteration was in all the samples of the same kind,
and consisted in the addition of large quantities of wood in a
minutely divided state; that the wood employed amounted to at
least one-third, the properties and strength of the jalap being,
of course, impaired to that extent; that one of the samples
yielded 5.37 per cent of extractive; and there is therefore much
reason to believe tliat the resin had been previously extracted
abroad from the rest.

From the analysis of thirty-tliree samples of poAvdered ipecacu-
anha submitted to examination, eighteen were adulterated, that
is more than one-half of the entire ; that of these one contained a
very large quantity of tartar emetic; that two of the samples were
adulterated with large quantities of carbonate of lime or chalk;
two with wheat flour ; one with a vegetable substance containing
mucli starch; twelve with various and often considerable pro-
portions of extraneous woody fibre, of more than one kind.

Of twenty-three samples of gum opium examined, as imported,
it appeared that no less than nineteen of the samples were adul-
terated, from only being genuine, the prevailing adulterations
consisting of poppy capsule and wheat flour, many to a very large
extent; in several cases sand, sugar, and another gum, were dis-
covered.

From the examination of thirty -four samples of powdered
opium, purchased of ditt'erent chemists, wholesale and retail,
it appeared that thirty-three were adulterated, and only one
genuine, the principal adulterations, as in the previous case, being
with poppy capsule and wheat flour ; that four of the samples
were further adulterated by the addition of powdered wood, in-
troduced, no doubt, in the process of grinding. Out, therefore,
of fifty-five samples of gum and powdered opium, the results of
the microscopical and chemical analysis of which liave been now
recorded, five only were genuine. Now, gentlemen, when we con-
sider that there are few articles in the materia medica more gen-
erally used tlian opium, and the effects of which are more essen-
tial in very severe cases, opium is, undoubtedly, one of the
most important medicines contained in the whole materia medica,

[Am. Inst.] 32

498 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and any adulteration of it must be projDortionally injurious, and
sometimes even fatal. You know it is generally used in cholera
cases, but especially in cases of delirium tremens it is adminis-
tered to the extent of many grains per diem; and it is essential,
in such cases, that the opium should be pure. If you were to
employ opium largely adulterated, the consequence in many .cases
would be, that you would lose your patient. Now I say without
the fear of contradiction, that medical men run great risk in the
administration of opium, if they make an allowance for what may
be called an average amount of adulteration, they would be liable
to kill by administering over-doses, if the dose happened to con-
sist of genuine opium. They would incur that risk certainly;
they know not how to calculate with certainty upon the eifect of
a given quantity of any remedy, where that remedy is subject to
an uncertain amount of adulteration. All adulterations of drugs
may be divided into two classes; the adulterations which are
practiced on those drugs before they reach tlie countr}^, and the
adulteration which they experience after their arrival. Therefore
the whole matter resolves itself in this, that you cannot insure
obtaining a genuine drag from any seller of drugs, because he
cannot answer for what may have been done Avith the drugs be-
fore they reach his hands. Drugs are unfortunately subject to
three sets of adulterations; one to which foreign drugs are ex-
posed to abroad ; then they are sent by the wholesale druggist to
the drug grinder, whose business it is to reduce them to powder,
in the process of grinding, a part of the moisture which all vege-
table substances contain escapes, this loss must be made up by
him by adulteration, as the matter must be returned of its full
previous weight; third, the retailer may increase his profits, if he
chooses to be dishonest enough by final adulteration.

The last drug I will mention is scaramony. The conclusions
deducible from the examination of thirty specimens of this drug
were these; that out of the thirteen samples of scanomony as im-
ported, one only w^as genuine, it yielding seventy-nine per cent
of resin, the active principle; that eleven of the samples were
more or less adulterated, the amount varying between eight and
seventy-five per cent, and the proportion of resin was in some as
low as fourteen per cent; that one sample was entirely factitious,
being composed of the resins of guaiacum and jalap, with woody
fibre, cellular tissue, and other insoluble matter; that the adulte-
rating ingredients detected in most of the other samples consisted
for the most part of impure carbonate of lime or chalk, wheat

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 4€9

flour, sand, or other earthy substance, gum, and considerable
quantities of woody fibre and cellular tissue.

That of 17 samples of powdered scammony purchased of
various chemists and druggists, analysed, one only was genuine;
it affording 79 per cent of resin; that the whole of the remain-
ing samples were adulterated, frequently to an enormous extent;
the adulterating ingredients constituting from 18 to 65 per cent.,
that is to say, some of the samples contained little more than one-
fourth the proper quantity of scammony, and of course were defi-
cient to that extent of the active properties which they should
possess; that the adulterating ingredients in these samples con-
sisted principally of large quantities of wheat flour, with fre-
quently chalk, sand or other earthy substance.

You all know that scammony is a very important article of the
materia medica; it is the gum resin of the convolvulus scammo-
nia, chiefly imported from Aleppo and Sm}rna, in packages called
drums. It is an excellent drastic purge, and is used sometimes
by itself, and sometimes in combination with other purgatives.
To adulterate medicines even with harmless substances, destroys
the very foundation of the healing art, and renders nugatory the
wisest and best directed efforts of the physician. In the second
place, adulteration acts prejudicially to the public health, when
substances are employed possessing injurious properties. Now,
a great variety of such substances are used for the purpose of
adulteration. Among others, the following : The three chromates
of lead, the three Brunswick greens, which are mixtures of the
chromates of lead and indigo, red oxide of lead, or red lead, arse-
nite of copper, sulphate of copper, carbonate of copper, carbonate
of lead or white lead, bi-sulphuret of mercury or vermillion,
acetate of copper, sulphate of iron, gamboge, cayenne in spirits,
bronze powders, which are mixtures of copper and zinc, sulphate
of lime, &c. This list, it will be observed, contains the names
-of some of the most virulent poisons. Sometimes the quantity
of these substances used is so considerable, that immediate ill
effects are produced. These substances, although taken in but
minute quantities, gradually accumulate in the system, until at
length serious consequences are produced. In proof of this,
several cases of paralysis have recently been traced to the use oi'
snuff adulterated with lead. With regard to drugs, I wish to
state, til at many drugs imported into our country are examined,
and in the event of their being found adulterated, are sent back,
and not allowed to be admitted. I believe the system works well

BOO TRANSACTIONS OF THE

generally, but has no effect upon the venders, "who may adulterate
to any extent. As I have mentioned the microscope frequently,
I will make a few remarks upon the means which are afforded by
it for the detection of the adulterations of which I have been
speaking. Vegetable substances possess an intimate organization
or structui'e, visible only by the aid of the microscope, different
in the case of most of such substances. These differences of
organisation are so great and decisive, that by them most of these
substances may be distinguished one from the other, and this
when they are pulverized, and even scorched and roasted. All
that is required for this purpose is a knowledge of the structures
by which the different substances are characterized. Thus, the
structure of coffee is very different from that of chicory; of
wheat flour from that of oats, and s(\ on. A sample of vegetable
powder termed pheasant powder, used to feed pheasants, was
examined l^y the microscope, and no less than 1 1 distinct vege-
table matters were discovered, such as ll^iseed, aniseed, cayenne,
black and white mustard, wheat flour, the seed of cytisus, and
four other substances. This could never have been effected by
chemistry; the most accomplished chemist would hardly have
succeeded in detecting more than one of these substances, and
hence the great value of the microscope as a means of discovering
adulteration. Until recently the power of the microscope in this
particular application was nearly unknown. So recently as 1850,
the then Chancellor of the Exchequer was enabled to quote in
the House of Commons the opinions of three of the most distin-
guished chemists of the day, that had been employed by the
government specially to report upon the subject, " that neither by
chemistry nor by any other means was the admixture of chicory
with coffee to be detected." Until the microscope was brought to
bear upon the subject, no means existed whereby the great
majority of adulterations could be discovered, and the parties
practicing them little dreampt that an instrument existed capable
of bringing to light even these secret and guilty proceedings.
Adulteration was then practised in security, and with compara-
tive immunity; now this feeling of security has been destroyed,
and the adulterator knows that at any time he is liable to discovery.
Now, gentlemen, with evidence such as the above, I think it is
impossible to contend that the use of such a variety of injurious
and even poisonous substances is unattended with danger, and
that adulteration does not affect the public health. It may so
happen, and it doubtless does sometimes occur, that the same per-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 501

son, in the course of a single day, receives into his system some
eight or ten of the articles Avliich I have enumerated. Thus,
with potted meats and fish, anchovies, red sauces, or cayenne,
taken at breakfast, he would consume more or less bole Armenian,
Venetian red, red lead, or even bisulphuret of mercury, or cin-
nabar. At dinner, with his curry or cayenne he would run the
chances of a second dose of lead or mercury. With pickles,
bottled fruits, or vegetable, he would be nearly sure to have
copper administered to him; while if he partooli: of bon bons at
dessert, there is no knowing what number of poisonous pigments
he might consume. Again at his tea, if mixed or green, he
would certainly not escape without the administration of at least
a portion of Prussian blue, and it might be much worse things.
If he is a snuff taker, he would be pretty sure to put up his
nostrils, from time to time, small quantities of chromate of lead,
chromate of potash, or red lead. And if a very convivial man,
he might finish the day with a glass of gin, and take in it a con-
siderable c|uantity of white vitriol and cayenne; or if a glass of
porter, nux vomica, which is the fruit of a species of strychnia,
growing in the East Indies. It produces the alkaloid salts,
strychnia, and bruchia, and is a very virulent poison. Lastly, if
an invalid, his condition would be still worse; for then, in all
probability, he would be deprived of much of the benefit of the
skill of his physician, through the dilution and sophistication to
which the remedies administered for his relief were subjected.

This, gentlemen, is no lanciful or exaggerated picture, but one
based upon the legitimate conclusions derived from the analyses
of different articles as sold to the consumer. I believe that adul-
teration is going on very extensively in our country, and remedies
should be adopted for the purpose of preventing the practice, and
I now propose that the American Institute shall form a commis-
sion, composed of three scientific analysts, microscopical and
chemical, under Avhose direction purchases of articles shall be
made from time to time, analysis of them ii:-?tituted, and peri-
odical reports published, illustrated with wood cuts, showing the
microscopical appearance and structures of the different articles,
both genuine and adulterated, and containing plain directions for
the discovery of adulteration. There are in the United States,
hundreds of microscopical observers ; many of whom, if furnished
with the means which this report would supply, would gladly
apply themselves to the detection of adulteration. A gentleman
a few days since remarked to me, that if the majority of substan-

502 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ces were impure, water, that indispensable to vegetable and ani-
mal life, was pure. It is never found in nature perfectly so;
that which descends in rain is contaminated by the impurities it
v/ashes out of the atmosphere, that which rises in springs by the
impure matters it meets within the earth.

In snow, the impurities can be observed by the naked eye. It
is frequently of a red color as it flows through the red marl, con-
taining oxide of iron. It descends with a milky hue from the
glaciers of Iceland, holding white earth in solution. It is grey in
muddy English rivers, and brown when issuing from boggy places;
it is black where vegetable matter abounds, as in the Rio Negro,
of South America; and is green in the geysers of Iceland and
Swiss lakes, because of the yellow substances which it holds in
suspension. The presence of many materials which it dissolves
in its passage through the earth cannot be detected by the sense
of sight. Therefore the clearest and most transparent waters,
even when filtered, are never pure. Much has been said recently
at the meetings of this Club against the use of salt, and as I con-
sider it, next to bread, by ftu' the most important necessary of
life, perhaps I may be excused for speaking of it in this paper.
Why is it that God furnished the wild buftaio of North America
with instincts to guide him on the boundless prairie hundreds of
miles to the salt-licks; the wild animals in the central parts of
Southern Africa to the salt-springs; and om- domestic cattle to
come peacefully to the hand of the agriculturist that offers them
a taste of this most delicious luxury. From time out of mind
it has been well known that without salt man Avould have
wretchedly perished; and among awful punishments, entailing
death that of feeding prisoners on food devoid of salt, is said to
have been practised in barbarous times.

Maggots and corruption are spoken of by ancient writers as the
destroying symptoms which saltless food engenders. Chemistry
has taught us why the animal man as well as beast craves salt,
why they suffer discomfort, why they ultimately -fall into disease,
if salt is for a time withheld. More than half the saline matter
of the blood, says Johnson, to whom I acknowledge indebtedness,
consists of common salt, and as this is partly discharged every
day through the skin and kidneys, the necessity of continued
supplies to the body becomes sufficiently obvious. The bile also
contains salt as an ingredient constituent, and so do the cartilages
of the body. Stint the supply of salt therefore to your children
or your beasts, and neither will the bile properly assist the diges-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 503

tion, nor the cartilages be built up again as last as they naturally
waste. KOBT. L. PELL.

After Mr. Pell's remarks,

Mr. Meigs exhibited spitzenberg apples, singularly parti-color-
ed, harltquin like. One of them has one-half red, and also a
tenth part red strips, and all the rest yellow. The seeds to be
planted in order to try whether this peculiarity belongs to the
seed, or whether it is a hybrid fruit.

Seeds of the fine cocoa-nut squash, from Mr. Hite, of Morrisa-
nia, were distributed.

Messrs. Palmer & Skilton, of Troy, agents for the Whitaker
patent machine for destroying noxious insects, exhibited one of
them, so as to show its operation in blowing the destroying smoke
or gas, through small hose, which can be fastened to a light rod
and placed against worm nests, kc.

The Chairman called up the regular subject of the day — Pre-
paring soil for Spring Work.

George E. Waring, Jr., was listened to by the large num-
ber present with much attention. The first question, con-
cerning the preparation of the soil, should be: How can I
strengthen it '? It has an arduous task to perform, and unless I
fortify it in those parts which are most subject to the plant, it
must be weakened. This weakening may not be apparent at
once, but in one year, or in ten or more years, it must be very
evident. The treasury of a nation may withstand the drain of an
expensive war for a long time without receiving the least reve-
nue, but it must be a very well-filled treasury, and even then its
final impoverishment is inevitable. A soil may raise good crops
without manure, but it must be a very good soil to endure this
course for a long time, and in any event it must sooner or later
suffer from tlie practice. Its loss is as positive as that of the
war-drained exchequer. This being the case, we should manure
every field on which we expect to raise a crop, no matter whether
it is as rich as the Deerfield meadows, or as poor as Bear Ridge.
In applying manure we should bear constantly in mind that all
undecomposed organic matters produce, in decaying, fertilizing
gases whose invariable tendency is to escape into the air, and
that, to secure their greatest action, they should be plowed under
the soil — when these resultant gases will be absorbed and retain-
ed fbr the uses of plants. Mineral manure, on the contrary, such
as lime and plaster, have a tendency to settle in the soil and
should consequently be applied to its surface after plowing.

504 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Having spread our organic manure over the soil we should pro-
ceed to plow it, and in this work we have certain rules for our
guidance. No lands, except very light sands, should ever be
plowed while wet, as they work more easily, and are left in
much better condition when tolerably dry. For Spring work the
more completely sod can be covered, and the more smooth the
surface can be left the better will be the plowing — other things
being equal ; because the object being to produce an even and
friable surface, free from grass or weeds, the course to be jjursued
.is just the opposite of that which should be employed in the Fall,
when the object of plowing is simply to leave the surface so
rough that the largest possible amount of soil shall be exposed to
the action of frosts.

In spring-plowing the surface-plow should be run as deep as
may be without interfering with the smoothness of its furrow,
provided, in case the subsoil is much poorer than the surface
soil, that so much of this be not elevated as will interfere with
the early growth of the plant. When this marked distinction
exists between the surface soil and the subsoil, the surface fur-
row may in all cases be run one or two inches deeper than at the
previous plowing with advantage.

The jee-about system of i:)lowing, supposed to have been in-
vented by Mr. Levi Durand, of Derby, and so lucidly described
by him, may be adopted with advantage at alternate plowings, as
it prevents the continued turning of the soil towards the fence.
The loosening of the subsoil by the use of the subsoil plow may
be made highly profitable in all soils not containing an excess of
water. The subsoiler should follow in the furrow of the surface-
plow, and be run as deep as possible. This will insure to any
crop a full supply of water, and will greatly extend the feeding
sui'face offered to its roots.

In no case should the aggregate depth of the surface furrow
and the subsoil cut be less than fifteen inches when the depth is
attainable. Harrowing, as a means of attaining an even surlace,
is, on a majority of soils, a condemnable practice. Still, as nearly
every farmer in America employs this means, and as they cannot
be made to abandon it by coaxing or driving, we can only recom-
mend that the surface of the soil be left in plowing so as to re-
quire as little of it as possible. The wedge shape of the harrow
tooth causes the soil to be compacted below the immediate surlace
which is pulverized, while the necessity for passing repeatedly
over the soil to complete the operation causes further compact-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 505

ing by the feet of the team. Could the harrow frame be furnished
with cultivator teeth, it would become a more sensible imple-
ment. The cultivator teeth, being large at the bottom, elevate
and loosen the soil, like double plows, while the spaces between
the teeth are so small that once going over the ground in most
soils will complete the operation. The harrow, however, even
witli this imj^rovement, is a primitive tool, and must in time be
radically changed. Perhaps a cheaper modification of Croskill's
Clodcrusher is destined to occupy its place in general use. Hav-
ing our land manured, plowed, and harrowed, it is in condition
to receive the crop, and when in this state of preparation it is
usually esteemed perfect. Many soils — indeed all that are not
either very wet or very stiff — are susceptible of still further im-
provement by the use of the roller. This, having a broad surface
of contact, does not compact the soil to any great extent while it
completely pulverizes the upper portion of the soil which receives
tlie seed, completes the levelling process, and presses all small
stones into the soil, so that if the land is to be mowed, no impedi-
ment will be oflfered to the scythe or mowing-machine. If the
roller can bs used after seeding, it hastens and insures the germi-
nation of the seed, because it com]3resses the earth more closely
about it and excludes the air more perfectly, which tends to aid
the process of sprouting. My own roller is preceded by a heavy
rake, which assists in pulverizing the soil, and covers the foot-
tracks of the team. This rake is supplied with a foot-brake, so
that the driver may raise it at pleasure to pass over stones, or to
and from the field. I consider it a very valuable addition.

SPRING PREPARATION OF GROUND

Mr. Olcott.

Before any attention can be given to the ground, the farmer
must look to the instruments he will employ in working it, viz :
his teams and tools ; therefore

If any one has not been enough of a truly practical farmer to
have had his plows, harrows, rollers, drills, &c., properly housed
throughout the winter, they should be at once brought up from
the field or fence corner where they are lying, cleaned, scraped,
painted, and thoroughly repaired. There should always be an
extra plow point or so on tlie place, to be instantly used as old
ones are worn out.

I have been compelled to lose half a day in the busiest season
of plowing, to send after a plow point, or have the old one sharp-

506 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ened. The tools should be kept in a dry shed, whenever they are
not in actual use.

The team.* should be carefully attended to, and those intended
for working be fed as follows : say

per diem; 15 lbs. cut hay, ( corn, ^
8 lbs. feed, . . ( oals, |
and about one peck of carrots (sliced).

This may be varied by replacing some of the feed by bean meal,
ground barley, linseed meal, &c. It is exceedingly foolish to feed
the team only on w^orking days for they lose strengtli in place of
keeping in usual condition. The harness should be thoroughly
repaired and oiled; also, all manner of carts and w^agons.

In the purchase of plows, great discrimination should be used.

Those are best which combine lightness of draught, with ability
to till deeply, and thoroughly pulverize the soil. State diiference
in cost of working soil ? It is not desirable to have the furrow
slice laid like a smooth board upon the surface. The particles of
the soil should be thoroughly separated from each other, so as to
be acted upon by air and moisture. The soluble portions are
thus washed and crumbled from exposed surfaces, and are ready
to be dissolved in w^ater and sucked into the bodies of plants.

In the early stages of j^lant growth, it is absc/,utely necessary
to give the roots every opportunity to ramify in all directions in
search of food. <

Describe composition and early growth of plants — whenever
and wherever practicable soils should be drained — the materials
most suitable decided by locality — tile most enduring and efi'ec-
tive; but they should be laid so that their introduction into the
soil shall not be a mere interment of pipes and money.

Sub-soiling — I would as soon be without a knife and fork, as
without a sub-soil plow^ Every foot of ground reclaimed from ori-
ginal compact condition, gives some 120 tons pr acre of plant food.

Sub-soiling is not good on wet lands, they should be drained.
This may be partially, but only temporarily accomplished on wet
lands which are rolling or have a considerable slope, by running
the cuts of the sub-soil plow up and down the hill. The sole of
the plow would thus make a sort of mole drain, which would
last perhaps an entire season or even less; but this is shown
simply to enable the farmer to make a shift until the fall, when
he should underdrain any land of this description. The loss of
one crop of wheat on wet land, would pay the cost of draining.
Draining companies of England make much money, &c.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 507

The first two or three weeks through tilth ensures a good crop.
Carrots, for instance, if not attended to in early periods of growth,
are a faihire often.

Wlieu a farmer cannot spare his team from ordinary plowing,
to run a subsoil plow, he may partially advantage by it in the
marking out for field crops (often exjdained here). Run the lift-
ing subsoil plow where the rows of corn or potatoes are to come,
and you thus give them a drainage and pulverise the earth be-
neath them, which is very impoi-tant. When roots have a fair
chance to grow, they run to incredible depths. Mechi states that
on the brink of a clay pile his parsnip roots attained a length of
fourteen feet six inches; but I would not be understood that it is
absolutely necessary to jdIow fourteen feet six inches deep, nor
to grow root crop this long, for they would somewhat resemble
the Chinese j^otato.

TRENCHING.

Mr. Judd stated that many of the most valuable operations in
gardening and ftirming, though often referred to in agricultural
lectures and periodicals, were not well understood. He had often
been asked in regard to trenching, for example, and he found
comparatively few persons who understood the medics operandi.
As the subject was specially interesting at this season, he would,
by the aid of a simple diagram or two upon the blackboard, de-
scribe and illustrate the process, repeating essentially what he
had recently published on the subject in the April ^Agriculturist.

The word trenching is often used indefinitely to signify any
method of stirring the soil deeply, either with the spade or plow.
Trenching, as used by gardeners, implies digging the ground
deeper than a single length of the spade, and is termed " true" or
" bastard" trenching, according to the method in which it is per-
formed. True trenching consists in inverting the soil, placing
the surface below the sub-soil. The following figure will illus-
trate the process :

t

b d

f

a

c

e .

Fig. 1.
a, b, c, and d severally represent the ends of long trenches ex-
tending across the garden.

508

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

In the plot of ground represented by fig. 1, dig out the earth two
spits or spades deep from t and a, and carry it over to the right
side of the plot; next take out the depth and width of the spade
from h and jout it in the jDlace before occupied by o; then take up
another spit from c and place it in t^ over fc, in the new j^osition.
Continue the process in the same manner, putting d in place of c,
e in place of &,/in e, g in d^ kc. The last trench on the right
side can be filled with the soil carried over from t and a.

Eastard trenching consists in stirring the soil two or more spits
deep, without sinking the surface soil, and is performed as fol-
lows : Take out of the plot f and set it aside to the right, as be-
fore described; then loosen the soil in a without removing it;
next set 6 over upon a and loosen up c. Continue the process in
the same manner, putting d over c, loosening e, placing /upon it,
and so on across the plot.

During the spading process, whether by the first or second
method, manure may and should be worked into both the surface
and sub-soil. It is always advisable in bastard trenching to bury
as deeply as possible a little of the surface soil, including weeds &c.

Few soils, not before worked deeply, are in proper condition
to admit of true trenching at first, since the sub-soil in a, c, and
e is not so well fitted for plants as the air exposed surface soil.
On this account he advised to practice bastard trenching first for
a year or two, or else to make the trenches a, c, and e only one-
fourth or one -half a spit deep the first year, so as not to bring up
too much of the raw soil at a time.

Trenching three spits or spades deep, is performed as fol-
lows :

t

V

d

g

u

b

e

h

a

c

f

i

Fig. 2.

For true trenching, three spits deep, dig out t, u, and a, and
carry them to the right as above; then put v in place of a, h in
place of u, c in place of t, and so on, moving d to c, c to b,f to
V, &c.

For bastard trenching, three spits deep carry away t, u, and v;
then loosen a, working manure into it if need be; this done set b

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 509

in II, and d in t. We now have d^ v and h vacant, and can con-
tinue the process by stirring c, putting e in h, and g in v^ kc.

True and bastard trenching may be combined in three spits deep,
thus: Eemove t and w, loosen c, put v in «, and h in if; then
loosen c, and put rf in &, e in t', loosen/, and so on.

The process is very simple, is readily performed by the most
unskillful workman after a little showing, and it is an effectual
method of treating all garden soils. What sub-soiling is to the
field, trenching is to the garden, only that the latter is more
thorough and effectual, and gives an opportunity of applying
manures to any part, either of the surface or subsoil.

Few who have not tried it have any adequate idea of the pro-
ductiveness and value of a soil thoroughly trenched. Such beets,
and currants and parsnips as will grow upon a soil thoroughly
worked and manured two to three feet deep, must be seen to be
appreciated; and the same may be said of all other vegetables,
although they be not usually ranked as deep-rooted.

Give the roots of any jjlant a cliance to grow downward, and
they will go where they will always find moisture, no matter how
hot or how long the sun may shine upon and parch a few inches
of the surface.

The Secretary indorsed the value of the statement just made
by Mr. Judd. He spoke of a spot in the west of England where
the whole soil, not of a garden, but of farm lands, had profitably
been inverted from a depth of five feet.

Mr. Waring referred to the practice of trenching as being uni-
versally practised in the vineyards around Cincinnati.

Mr. Robinson thought that though little might be known of
the mcf7i7ier of trenching, the advantages were still less understood.
No garden should be planted that had not been first well trenched.
Such gardens will always pay the cost. It would be wise to try
to wake up the public to the value of this process, even at the
cost of ^300 per acre. Vineyards in this country cannot be cul-
tivated except upon trenched land.

Mr. Olcott (hought it a very important matter that farmers
should use good tools, and not leave them out all winter lying
in fence corners. He advocated the use of carrots as feed for
working animals, and deprecated the practice of not giving
horses full feed upon off days from their usual work.

Mr. Judd — The first principle is to have a soil sufficiently pul-
verized for the useof idants. The best manure for sandy land
is clay. Iron in soils is poisonous to nearly all plants. Deep

510 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tillage is a matter of the highest importance. Trenching for
gardening purposes is very important, and yet I find there are
many persons in this country who do not fully understand the
meaning of the term. It is deep spading, and so reversing the
soil as to make the ground for two or three spades deep of a
good tilth.

SolcJn Robinson said that what was wanted most was to con-
vince men that tunneling almost any land would be profitable;
that the increased product would pay the increased expense. For
my part, said Mr. E., I am fully satisfied that no gardener can
allbrd to cultivate land that has not been thoroughly tunneled,
at least three feet deep; and as for vineyards, we know very
well that it is useless to try to grow them upon untunneled soil
in any situation in this country.

George E. Waring — I saw land at Cincinnati that had been
trenched at a cost of $60U per acre. This was for grapes, but I
never seen such garden vegetables as were growing upon deep-
trenched land near that city.

Braining. — I take pleasure in announcing the establishment in
this country of a company for surveying larms and draining land.
That is, farm engineers, who will make all the necessary surveys
and estimates of cost of draining or otherwise improving a farm.

Salt for stock. — Solon Robinson said he would put on record
the following opinion of an intelligent Illinois farmer upon the
use of salt for stock. It is from Mr. A. Churchill, Kranesville,
111., who writes in February as follows :

" We are now keeping our stock without salt, and all look well
and are doing well, with the exception of a calf spoken of in a
previous communication. Our horses require less water and less
oats than last winter, when they were fed salt regularly once a
week; and our brood mares and colts are in better condition,
less bloated and more lively."

Mr. Waring moved that one of our next subjects be "The cul-
tivation of oats."

Mr. Pell seconded it.

Mr. Vail proposed " Irrigating Machines."

Mr. Judd — Let the spring work be continued.

The three questions were adopted, and the Club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 511

^pril 8th, 1856.

Present — Messrs. President Pell, Hon. Robert Swift Living-
ston, Solon Robinson, Waring, Anderson, Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn,
Judge Scoville, Engineer Van Wjck, Adrian Bergen, of Long
Island, Vail, Olcott, Lindley, of New Haven, Lindsay, of Malone,
N. Y., Brewster, of Princeton, N. J., Hinsdale, Stacy, Jolinson,
Dr. Poole, N. J., F. W. Geissenliainer, Jr., Prof. Nasli, of Ver-
mont, Dr. Wellington, Prof. Youmans, B. Silliman, of West-
chester and our city, Mr. Covey, of our city, Joseph Blunt, Esq.,
Mr. Hill, some ladies, Dr. Phelps, and many others — about
ninety-seven members in all.

President Pell in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following translations and selections
made by him, viz :

We have received from Paris by the last steamer, since last
meeting of the Club, a copy of "Bulletin Mensuel De La Societe
Imperiale Zoologique D'Acclimatation. Eonde le 10th Fevrier,
1854." Paris A La Libraire de Victor Masson, Place De L'Ecole
De Medicine, et Au Siege De La Societe. Hotel Lauraguais, Rue
De Lille, 19.

Eeb. 1st, 1856, session.

Mons. Geoftroy Saint Hilaire, chairman of the committee on
premiums, and other encouragements, said :

Extracts — " We have already received animals and vegetables
from almost the whole world, not only from the vai-ious countries
of Europe, but from Asia, Africa, and the two Americas, and we
are anxious to divide all these new riches with Italy, Switzer-
land, Germany, England, Spain, and (out of Europe) with Brazil,
Egypt, and India herself. This society is not merely French.
It intends reciprocal useful exchange with all the countries on
earth, of useful animals and vegetables.

The premiums will be given to men of all nations, as well as
France, for the following, viz :

1st. The introduction of new species and new" races of vegeta-
bles and animals, useful or ornamental.

2d. For their acclimation, domestication, propagation and
amelioration.

3d. For the employment or application, either agricultural,
industrial, medicinal, or otherwise, of such new animals and ve-
getables recently introduced, or acclimated, either for useful or
ornamental purposes.

512 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Session of January 4tli, 1856. — Mons. Dareste, at the request
of the president, spoke of Australia.

He said that the Fauna (animals) and the Flora (the plants)
differ entirely from those of any country on earth, and have not
yet been studied by naturalists, except very imperfectly, so that
we may hope and expect that Australia has in reserve for the
human race treasures far more precious in its animal and vegeta-
ble kingdoms than all that which draws to it such a host of
emigrants. And althougli the fauna and flora of it differ so com-
pletely from those of Europe, yet the climates are very much
alike. Australia lies between 10° and 40'^, south latitude,
France between 45^^ and 55*^ north latitude, but the peculiar con-
ditions of the Austral hemisphere compensate partly for this
difference of latitude. The eastern and southern parts of it,
where the English have established their colonies, are situated
between the isothermal (equal temperature) lines of 15*^ and 20°,
centigrade in about 57° to 67° fahrenheit, which is analagous to that
of Spain, Italy, and part of the south of France. Van Dieman,
whose fanna and flora belong to Australia, is, like France itself,
for the most part between the isothermal lines of 10° and 1 5° conti-
grade, 47° to 57° fahrenheit. The English colonists have since
the first, in 1788, introduced there some European animals and
plants which have succeeded perfectly. Every one knows how the
merinos introduced there by McArthur, father of the present
commissary, have flourished to an immense development, and
their fine wool now exported. The acclimated wheat averages
there twenty-eight bushels per acre, while ours in France is only
about one-half of that, and the Australian wheat weighs sixty-four
pounds per bushel, which is considerably more than ours in France.

M. Vandercolme, near Dunkirk, has raised wheat from it, and
had from it about sixty bushels per acre. Quinine barks are of
spontaneous growth in Australian forests. A leguminous plant,
called Tabernamontana, from the environs of the river Clarence,
is remarkable for its very bitter principle, and possesses very
distinguished febrifuge power.

The Tokay grape vine, from Hungary, has been for many years
successfully cultivated in the south of France, in Languedoc, by
M. Emile Nourrigat, a member of this society. It does not de-
generate. Connoissem-s say it gives excellent wine.

Dr. Gosse read the first part of his essay on the advantages of
domesticating the African and the American ostriches in Algeria.

Breeding fishes occupies attention and practice.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 513

POTATO.

At tlie annual meeting of the Peterborougli Agricultural So-
ciety (England) on the 18th of December, 1799 :

" It may be noticed as a proof of the improved culture of this
most valuable root, that the bailiff of T. Williams, Esq., at Hor-
ton, in Euckinghamshire, planted three potatoes which he had
from Fort George, in Scotland, on the 1st of June, 1799. On dig-
ging up the ground on the first day of November last, he found
07ie hmidred and thirty potatoes^ weighing one hundred and twenty
pounds. In Berkshire, also, from eight acres, Mr. Williams ob-
tained, last year, 3,520 bushels, or 440 bushels an acre, of the
very first quality., which, at 2s. 6d, (62i cents) a bushel, made
the product jE55 sterling per acre; and after digging the crop, the
neighboring poor gleaned twelve bushels.

"The pigeons of Great Britain are estimated to consume grain
enough to support 100,000 people.

"A three shear wether sheep of the New Leicestershire breed,
raised by Mr. Earl, of Darlington, w^as lately slaughtered at North-
hampton.

Pounds.

Live weight, 316

Blood, skin, fat, entrals, ) «ni

Head and 23luck, ) ^

Neat weight, 236^"

The Secretary had consulted Col, Devoe, of Jefferson market,
as to the size of sheep here now. He said they seldom weighed
over 200 lbs.; were not esteemed better at that. The heaviest
four year old he recollected, was 325 lbs.

Mr. Hinsdale exhibited patent horse shoes, invented by Tow-
ers, and manufactured by Messrs. Newbold and Safford, in Phila-
delphia.

Mr. Hinsdale who has not tlie slightest pecuniary interest in
the matter, was so pleased with it, that brings it to the club for
examination. The ordinary horse is used. At the heels for the
space of about three inches, a steel spring fits in a slot of the
shoe at the inner end, and there secured by a screw. The point
is also of steel inserted in a slot. The heel springs play about
one-eighth of an inch, and is found very acceptable to the foot
treading on pavements. These three parts, that is the springs

[Am. Inst.] 33

514 TKANSACTIONS OF THE

and points can be removed and new ones inserted by any body in
five minutes. Shoes worn by a horse drawing a spring cart in
Philadelphia for eight weeks, lately, were shown not to be yet
worn out. JOHN W. CHAMBERS.

The Clerk of the Institute announced that he had received
from the Hon. Charles Mason of the Patent office, Washington
city, seeds for distribution. These were very acceptable to the
members. Among them we notice the white flint corn, from New
Mexico. We rejoice in this most noble and wise operation of our
government in tliis grand introduction of seeds from all the
world.

President Pell remarked that our blacksmiths object to this
use of steel, and will not change their habits.

Mr. Hinsdale — Planing machines encountered as much oppo-
sition in Philadelphia, for some time, from the shovers of the old
plane.

Professor Nash, of Vermont, was requested to explain the ope-
ration of the stump extractor, invented by Willis. The model
exhibited is about four to five feet long. It is a w^ooden lever
plated with iron, having iron chains and hooks, &c., to secure it
to the stump at suitable points. The short end of the lever is
supported by a wheel of broad tire, while the long end is support-
ed by a wheel of larger diameter. The lever, is, therefore, an
axle of these two wheels. Where the chains are secured around
the stump, the power of horses or oxen is applied at the long
end of the lever, exerting its greatest force to partly lift the
stump from its place, then the force is exerted the other way, so
that the hold of the stump to the earth is loosened both ways —
and in practice reacUly comes out. On fair trials, this machine
pulls average sized stumps out at the rate of one in five minutes,
drawing all of them out of an acre of forest at a cost of about ten
dollars. Stumps of pine trees, four feet in diameter, drawn in
five minutes.

Mr. Alexander Lindsay, of Malone, New York, desired to show
to the club samples of glass made here and polished by Sage's
new patent polishing machine. The samples shown were of trans-
lucent and of opaque glass of thicknesses from half an inch to
more . Tlie opaque were of a lovely blue and light marble tint —
the two latter being intended to be applied to use as table tops,
&c. The model of the polishing macliine was exhibited. This
patent aims at producing surfaces perfectly level as well of high-
est polish. Members were pleased with it.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 515

Mr. Lindley, of New-Haven (Conn.), exhibited a working model
of a grain sowing machine to sow more evenly than any broad
casting, and at tlie rate of from twenty to thirty acres a day of
suitable smooth land, and to harrow it in at the same operation.
Tlie machine for practical use is drawn by a single horse with a
driver seated upon the machine.

James N. Brewster, of Princeton (N. J.), exhibited a model of
his new windmill, self-regulating, may be made by almost any
man out of wood only — cannot be damaged by wind, and costs
(if made by Mr. Brewster) al^out thirty dollars. Members exa-
mined it, and general approbation of it was heard.

President Pell announced the regular subjects of the day (viz):

" The necessary and most advisable preparation for spring
work in farms and gardens." " Cultivation of oats,'- and " Irri-
gating machines.''

A NEW TEXTILE PLANT.

Solon Robinson read a letter from Ezra S, Carr of Albany
Medical College upon the subject of a new textile plant, found
growing wild upon the prairies of Wisconsin. This plant is pro-
bably the Jisclepias Cornuti and may be worth the attention of
inquirers after new plants of the kind. The letter states as
follows :

In the summer of 1853, one Mrs. Abby L. Beaumont, of Area,
Wis., discovered growing wild upon the prairies a singularly
beautiful flowering plant, probably of the Jisclepias family. She
marked it, and later in the autumn, after saving the seeds, trans-
planted it into her door-yard. Attracted by the beauty of the
flowers, and because she observed innumerable fine fibres inclosed
the brittle stem, and the seeds imbedded in silky cotton in the
pod-lining, Mrs. Beaumont planted the seeds, and found that
plants could thus be multiplied rapidly, and still further by divi-
sions of the original root. From her somewhat rude description,
the root is capable of propagating the species, like asparagus ; and
though the plant is biennial, bearing flowers and seeds the second,
year, when the flowering stalk dies and the new stools or root-
buds are ready to send up the following year's crop without the
trouble of seeding. The first year the plant grows from three to
four feet high, bearing abundance of fine soft flax; the second
year from five to seven feet in good soil, bearing flax, cotton and
seed, and the roots continue to send up seed bearing stalks after-
ward, I have not Mrs. B.'s statement by me of the amount, by

516 TRANSACTIONS 0I<^ THE

weight, of flax obtained from the first root, but think it was seven
ounces. I have shown this to Mr. B. P. Johnson, of the State
Agricultural Society, and Mr. Luther Tucker, of Tlie Cultivator,
who concur with me in thinking tliis plajit deserving the notice
of cultivators. The cotton is worthless for cloth, the fibre is so
short; but she experimented upon the flax with success. This
is the plant lately noticed as the " American Papyinis or Paper
Plant," in the papers, a name which was given through the advice of
some clergyman who probably would not know papyrus from broom
corn if he were shown both together. My reason for troubling
you with this communication is the desire to benefit Mrs. Eeau-
mont, and protect her in insuring the benefit of her discovery,
should it prove of value, to herself, by obtaining some information
with regard to the best means of bringing it into notice. She
sent specimens to Washington, and is almost daily receiving let-
ters from speculators, who wish to get the matter into their hands
by making liberal offers for her stock of seed. She is a simple-
minded, hard-working woman of the old school, and deserves
attention for her patient investigation and experimentation in
this and other economic matters.

" Please give your opinion concerning this plant, and what
steps Mrs. Beaumont should take in introducing it, and in what
way she could realize profit for her chscovery."

From the specimens of the flax inclosed it is evident that the
fibre is a valuable one; but whether the cultivation of the plant
can be made profitable is a question that the Club could not de-
cide, or what advartage this plant has over a hundred other
fibrous plants no one can tell without long- tried, careful experi-
ments. Our opinion is that if Mrs. B. can sell her seed at a sort
of Chinese yam price, she had better let the " speculators " take
it.

POTATOES.

After sundry miscellaneous remarks by those present, Mr. Judd
stated that it was desirable to gather as much practical instruction
as possible adapted to the season. He would ask those present
to state what they considered to be the best variety of potatoes for
eai'ly planting.

Mr. Eobinson expressed his preference for the New-Jersey nut-
meg potato, remarking that he had never found any so good for
early culture, but they Avere of exceedingly small size.

Mr. Olcott remarked that tlie mammoth nutmeg was his favorite
for the purpose from all his observations.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 517

Mr. Bergen, of Long Island, who raises large quantities, did
not have much preference. He planted any good variety, but
got them into the ground as soou as possible. He was planting
this week. Early planting, soil, and weather had most to do
with an early crop.

Dr. Peck called attention to the excellence of the New-Jersey
Mercer, and asked Mr. Bergen's opinion on that variety.

Mr. Bergen call-ed them the best in the market, and the Dyke-
man very, good but not equal.

Dr. Wellington spoke very highly of the Mountain June, as
grown in the state of Vermont and elsewhere at the North.

Mr. At wood and others spoke very highly of the early June.
He had known this potato cultivated with great success in Rens-
selaer county. New- York, and in the neighborhood of Bennington,
Vt. There is a potato resembling the early June, and scarcely to
be distinguished from it, but far less excellent than that variety,
sold for them at times.

Dr. Peck stated that the New-Jersey Mercer was the finest po-
tato for all seasons and all purposes, which had ever fallen under
his notice. He inquired of Mr. Bergen if he should understand
him to say that the kind of potato planted would make little or
no difference as to the time of its fitness for market, other things
being equal ?

Mr. Bergen said that very little difference would be perceptible
if the care of cultivation was the same..

Mr. Atwood spoke of the policy of thawing the ground intended
for hot-beds, by putting over it glass frames very early. Some
took great pains to thaw the ground by making fires over it — glass
was better.

A gentleman suggested that it would be better to make such a
top dressing in the fall as would prevent the freezing of the
ground to any depth.

Mr. Judd recalled a subject touched upon at a former meeting —
as to planting early melons and other vegetables of the kind. He
regarded it as a good suggestion, to take an old l^asket, or some-
thing of that kind, and plant in the earth put into it, so tliat the
plant could be removed into the cellar at night to guard against frost.

Mr. Robinson suggested that the best basket in the world for
this purpose would be a piece of sod cut out, and the seed put
into it.

A suggestion was made that with the basket, melons might be
ready for market before the ground was thawed deep enough to

518 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

cut up, which Mr. Robinson replied to by stating that it should
be cut up in the tall.

Dr. Peck stated that the plan for raising early vegetables, of
taking a thin strip of picket or board, making a square box, and
covering it with gauze, so as to let in light and air, and exclude
frost, was a good one.

Mr. AtAVood remarked that he had seen the plan extensively
pursued at the North American Phalanx, witlrthe boxes covered
with common millinett; and anather gentleman that he had seen
many thousand of these boxes successfully used, with the covering
made of coarse and cheap white muslin.

Mr. Waring inquired what was the best variety of oats for the
latitude of New- York.

Mr. Bergen considered the raising of oats near New- York city
as poor business, from the fact that it was necessary so much to
enrich the ground for market gardening purposes, that oats when
grown would run to straw and tumble down continually. Oats
raised on Long Island were light. He would not recommend the
sowing of seed oats from that neighborhood, but to change as
often as possible.

A gentleman considered the subject of oats one of great im-
portance. It was necessary, so far as possible, to procure such
varieties as would be heavy and clear of woody fibre.

Mr. Bergen considered it best to use as little sod ground as pos-
sible, and to depend most upon light and mellow lands for oats.

Mr. Had seen oats seven feet high, raised in Maine, with-
out falling or lodging. He asked what was the proper quantity
to be sown per acre.

Mr. Bergen remarked that he considered two and a half bushels
as the proper quantity.

Mr. Vail said that in Columbia county, N. Y., and near Plain-
field, N. J., the best oats were raised on the heaviest soils.

Mr. Atwood said that in Monmouth county, New-Jersey, the
best farmers selected the lowest and wettest of the tillable lands
for the raising of oats.

Mr. Judd had noticed that New- Jersey oats were commonly
quoted as considerably lower in the market than Western.

A gentleman suggested that the reason was that they were
raised upon light soil.

Mr. Atwood said that some of the heaviest lands in Monmouth
county, raised the very lightest oats.

Mr. Waring stated that it was well known that oats raised

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 519

farthest north, possessed more ghiten,and that those farthest south
were lightest and nearest worthless. He had obtained liis opinions
on the subject from books on cattle feeding, and from observation.

Mr. Robinson said that if oats from Quebec were in our market
they would range above those of Ohio, as the Ohio did above tlie
Southern. It was not uncommon for them and for the Scotch oats
to weigh 40 pounds to the bushel. The oat was a northern, as
the cotton was a southern plant.

Mr. Waring had attended the Aroostook Agricultural Fair in
Maine, and saw very fine oats, with scarcely any woody fibre,
weighing 42 pounds and averaging 100 bushels to the acre.

A gentleman stated that he had known the whole result of a
crop of oats to be materially benefitted by a shower falling very
sooh after sowing.

The attendance at the Club was very large — in lact it has been
so at all the meetings for some months, and occasionally the
ladies lend their countenance to the discussions of these matters
about farming.

William R. Prince of Flushing, Long Island, exhibited some
of the Chinese yams, the Dioscorea JBatata, about fifteen inches
long and about one inch in diameter at the largest. In color and
figure they resemble closely our yellow sweet potato. They were
just from the earth where the frost ha^ been several feet deep.
They were quite solid to the touch, the flesh as white as milk,
brittle as an icicle, juicy which ropes slightly when cut or broken.
About forty of the members tasted it raw, and the general opinion
was more favorable than was expected. Some consider it a
valuable addition to our stock of vegetables, although it may not
take the place of good potatoes.

Mr. Prince distributed cuttings of the liquorice roots raised
by him at Flushing. They are about one-quarter of an inch in
diameter.

Seeds of valuable plants, sent to the Institute for distribution,
by the Hon. Charles Mason, the U. S. Commissioner of the Patent
Office, and seeds given by members were distributed among those
present. It was a most agreeable sight to behold so many oi our
most intelligent citizens so zealous in seeking for good seeds.

Subjects for next meeting — Irrigating machines and Potatoes.

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

520 " TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A^ril 15, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Atwood, R. L. Pell, Dr. Smith, Dr. Welling-
ton, Dr. Holcomb, Solon Robinson, Judd, Bouton, Ganse, Ander-
son, Wm. B. Leonard, Chambers, George Dunn of Newark, Dr.
Edgar F. Peck of Brooklyn, Prof. Marsh of Vermont, Prof.
Mapes, Rev. D. White of Staten Island, Judge Samuel Van Wyck,
Mrs. Penfield, Mrs. Hurd, Hon. Robert Swift Livingston, Mr.
Brower, Mr. Doughty of Jersey, Mr. Benyne, Mr. Stacey and
others — 60 in all.

President Pell in the Chair.

Henry Meigs, Seeretaiy.

The Secretary read the following papers selected by him :

W^NES OF OPORTO AND THE DISEASE.

We extract the following useful knowledge from the Agricul-
tural Bureau of the Patent Office of the United States :

Consulate of the U. S., )
Oporto, Jan. 28, 1856. )

" The disease made its appearance early in March, and spread
with great rapidity over the wdiole kingdom. By the middle of
April the young shoots became spotted and did not grow with
their usual vigor. The leaves assumed a yellowish-green, curled,
and during the month most of them became covered with the
Oidium. (This word is from the Greek oiSri^j^a, a swelling, H. Meigs)
The bloom was rather better than usual, but much of the fruit
became shriveled and dropped off. In many instances, after the
branches had been well developed, a small black spot appeared
on the stem of the bunch where it united to the branch ; this
gradually extended down the stem, covering the whole bunch
with oidium. Many of the bunches thus aftected died on the
vine. It was impossible, in the district, to find a vine not affected.
The w^eather of May, June, July and August was very favorable,
and it was supposed that the fruit which had escaped early in the
season might become mature, but as soon as they began to color,
they shriveled and dried up, very few cracking as they did the
preceding year. They did not contain the usual quantity of
juice, and it was sour and unpleasant to the taste and smell.
Almost all of it, when nearly matured, commenced rotting on the
vines ; and many farmers, to save what remained, gathered it
and made wine of it. It took double the usual quantity of grapes
to make the wine. Throughout September, excessive cold rains.
I believe in fact that there was not a basket of good, healthy

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 521

fruit produced in the wine district last yeai*. In the district of
Douro, in regular years they liave 1,190 pipes, in 1855, 200
pipes. The export of wine in 1855 to all the world was 34,386
pipes, of which 683 went to the United States. This failure has
produced great distress, because this rugged and rocky mountain-
ous district is adapted exclusively to the vine and olive, and is
incapable of raising grain.

William B. Leonard, corresponding secretary and agent of the
Institute, exhibited his new patent Dynamometer, and explained
its properties — I think it will entirely supersede all other instru-
ments for ascertaining the expenditure of motive power. This
instrument was first intended to show the expenditure of power
in plowing. For instance, wiien applied to a number of plows,
drawn over an equal space or surface of groimd, the instrument
will show the exact amount of power exerted upon each plow.
I now propose to apply the same principle or the same instrument
to every machine, or in any place wdiere it is desirable to ascer-
tain the amount of power used in doing a certain amount of work.
The importance of the matter will readily be recognised by all
who are using steam or other motive power in any kind of busi-
ness. Apply it between the locomotive and a train of cars, and
it will show not only the amount of power necessary to haul the
train over a level road, but up every different grade on the road.
The instrument is self-registering, and will note with great accu-
racy any variations of power used. After it has once been ascer-
tained w^hat amount of power is actually necessary to haul a
given load over a well constructed road, with the rolling stock
in good order, this instrument applied would instantly note the
effect of defects in the track or the machinery, because it would
indicate that more power was being expended than the load
ought to demand. This will lead to enquiries whether the defect
was in the track or in the machinery, or wiiether from want of
good lubrication. The defect once being known, the proper
remedy could be applied before it had become a matter of serious
import m the matter of expense or danger. This invention is
now used to test the quality of the different lubricating oils
and compounds used in railway service. I can easily arrange a
machine that will measure tlie quantity of rain falling in each
month or year, or the strength and amount of wind blowing at
any time. The same plan can be applied to measure water drawn
through any pipe. Attached to the log of a ship, it can be made
to register not only the distance run, but the quantity of power

522 TRANSACTIO^'S OF THE

used. It can also be used to measure the amount of steam power
used where power is hired so much per horse power.

Dr. Holcomb exhibited an album witli descriptions and draw-
ings of villas with ornamented grounds, by Messrs. Gildemeister
and Benjne.

Mr. Ganse exhibited a hand cultivator invented by his son, the
Rev. Mr. Ganse, for small plants, beets, carrots, onions, &c. It
acts as a small double plow. Cost of it seven dollars. Found
at 134 Thompson street, New- York, and at agricultural stores.

President Pell proposes a committee for examination of food,
&c., as to adulteration, to be appointed by the Institute; the mi-
croscope to be employed as well as chemical analysis.

The President called up the regular subjects of the day — oats,
irrigating machines and potato, and requested members to give
opinions. No one offering to speak, Mr. Pell said :

The cultivation of this grain has, of late years, been considera-
bly increased, on account of the greater demand tor them, in con-
sequence of the increase in the number of horses that have been
kept.

It is a species of grain of which there are many varieties in
cultivation, as the white and the black oat. There are likewise
other varieties which are distinguished by the names of the coun-
tries from which they have been introduced; as the Poland, the
Tartarian or Siberian, and the Friesland oat. The white oat is a
valuable kind, and where the soil is dry, rich, and in a good
state of cultivation, may be grown to great advantage, as it usu-
ally brings the best price at the market, and yields the most
abundantly, producing often seventy-five bushels to the acre. I
have sown and improved the seed of this oat, from 20 lbs. to 48
lbs. per Ijushel, and have exhibited the original seed, and the
improved at our fair, and been awarded the premium. It should
be cultivated extensively where the use of oat bread is general,
as it affords the whitest meal and is not liable to lodge.

The black oat may be grown where the land is inferior in
quality. It is nearly equal in value, from its being found so
highly nutritious as a food for cattle and horses; it will yield
sixty bushels to the acre, if three bushels of seed are sown upon
well plowed and thoroughly cultivated land; the cost of raising
is about sixteen cents a bushel.

The potato oat is proper for the stronger sorts of land; it is a
very hardy kind, and affords a great increase. The grain is full,
heavy, and weighs with me forty-four pounds to the bushel; it is

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 523

an admirable grain for meal, but not for the purpose of feeding
animals in an underground state, as it is covered "vvitli a hard
husk, rendering it difficult for them to masticate, and is conse-
quently voided whole. The Poland oat is much cultivated with
us, and I am surprised at it, as the straw is short, the grain sets
single without awns, and the rind is exceedingly thick.

The Friesland, known with us by tlie title of the Dutch oat,
has a thin-skinned grain, and a large proportion of straw\ The
grains are for the most part, double, the larger of which is in
some cases awned, the awn being situated high. It requires the
better kind of land, and should be sown at the rate of four bush-
els to the acre.

In the Siberian or Tartarian oat, the grains are thin and small,
the largest of wiiich are awned, but the small ones without awns;
the straw is tall and seedy, on wiiich account it is improper for
the purpose of food for cattle. It may be grown on the poorer
sorts of soil, as the grain is hardy, still, it is, of course, the most
productive on soils that are strong, rich and adhesive, and which
have been newly broken up from the state of grass. It is sug-
gested, that though this sort of grain generally sells lower than
barley, yet, from its being a more certain crop, the superior utility
of the straw for the food of cattle, and the increase in the quan-
tity of produce, it is equal to ]>arley on medium soils; and on
strong lands greatly superior to it, though very apt to leave the
land in a more foul and compact condition. On cold, tenacious,
and wet descriptions of soils, the oat may, indeed, in many cases,
be sown with more advantage than any other kinds of crop, and
likewise where lands cannot be put in a proper condition for bar-
ley crops.

Oats succeed well after almost every variety of green and root
crops, but should not be cultivated after wheat, rye or barley,
where it can possibly be avoided, as the soil, by such cropping,
would be too greatly exhausted. It has been observed that, in
districts where improved methods of husbandry are adopted, oats
are generally grown upon such lands as have been newly broken
up from the state of grass, and that the practice is shown to be
perfectly correct, by the abundance of the produce in such cases.
The custom prevailing in many parts of our country, of cultiva-
ting oat crops in succession for several years, is equally absurd
and improper, and should be generally exploded. In regard to
the preparation for this crop, I would recommend, if they are to
be sown on land planted with potatoes or corn, that immediately

524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

after tlie removal of the crop the land should be sub-soil plowed,
and allowed to lie during the winter season. As early in the
spring as the soil will admit, sow from three to four bushels of
oats, according to the richness of the land, and harrow twice north
and south, and twice east and west; and if grass seed is to be
sown, which is always my practice, harrow it in with a bush
harrow; and if the soil is a sandy loam, roll it. If I Avere to
sow spring wheat instead of oats, I would harrow it when four
inches high, and then roll it. In other sections of the country
where the season will admit of it, I would prefer to plow such
land once before sowing the oats, as there can indeed be little
doubt but that, by the lands undergoing a more full and complete
preparation than is usual for tliis crop, the quantity of produce
may be greatly increased, as the fibrous roots of the plants are
more enabled to extend themselves in the loose earth, and thereby
to afford a more perfect support to the stems. In some cases, as
where the land has been much reduced and exhausted by the i3re-
vious crops, or in breaking up their poor soils where the propor-
tion of turfy material is inconsiderable, it will be necessary to
have recoiu'se to the use of manure, as by such means it is proba-
ble that a third more produce at least might be grown.

After the oats are sown, if manure is required, and the farmer
prefers barn yard, as I do, to guano, or other similar substances, in
order that they may produce their effects in the most perfect man-
ner, they should be spread before harrowing, over the surfaces of
the ground as evenly as possible. This may be greatly facilita-
ted by placing the manures out at first in very small heaps, as by
such a practice it may be spread with much greater ease and
exactness, and less injury will be done by the bottoms of the
heaps. In spreading, much advantage will he gained by breaking
and reducing the lumps into as fine a state as possible, as by such
means they are not only applied more perfectly, but washed by
the rains more readily to the roots of the oats. The springing of
the young stems is also less retarded where the manures are ren-
dered fine and powdery, than where they are left in a cloddy
state. By applying manure thus, the whole strength of it is made
to contribute directly to the support of the crop, when it begins
to shoot. Another economical mode of employing manure for
land intended for oats, is by placing it in the drills formed for the
reception of different crops cultivated in rows, a»3 beans, cabbages,
potatoes, &c., by this method, that part of the ground which is
intended to bear the crop, is only manured, the intervals or spaces

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 525

between the rows not receiving any, from which, where the busi-
ness of putting the manure into the drills is properly peribrmed,
a great saving must of course be made — and so great is it, that it
constitutes one of the chief advantages of the diull system of
cultivation. For example, if the drills are two feet asunder,
and each drill six inches wide at the bottom, there will be just
one-fourth jDart of the ground covered wath manure; for as six
inches multiplied by four, gives two feet, which will be the dis-
tance from hill to liill; and as four multiplied by four, makes
sixteen, it follows, that if the whole of the land had been covered
with manure, sixteen loads would have been required for what
is as fully and beneficially performed by four. This method
keeps the manure closely together, and the seeds or plants being
placed immediately upon it, receive advantage in a full and com-
plete manner; and when the land is plowed for oats, it is equally
distributed over the Avhole field, and a luxuriant crop is the
result.

TIME OF SOWING.

In this business it is necessary to keep in mind that the earlier
the seed is put into the ground, the sooner in general the crop
will be ready to cut and less apt to rust. At the south, it is sown
to-wards the end of February, when the season is dry and fine;
but March is in general the oat seed season. On all soils that are
naturally dry and parching, it is much the best practice to sow
early, in order that the crop may be well establislied before the
hot weather commences. Last year, I sowed twenty-six acres of
reclaimed swamp land, with oats, on the first day of May, and
was surprised by a magnificent crop, owing, probably, to the cool
and moist nature of the soil; but I have, with this exception,
always found in practice, that the earliest sown oats constantly
aftbrded the most perfect sample, and abundant produce. I have
usually sown timothy and clover seed, mixed, with oats, which is
not considered good farming, but have been invariably success-
ful, the seeds being covered by the brush, or iron harrow, suita-
])ly to the condition of the land ; and where the soil is mellow, a
roller is passed over it as soon after as j^ossible, in order to press
the mold to the seeds. Under other circumstances, I have found
it more advisable to defer the rolling until the season is dry, and
the crop somewhat advanced in its growth.

The practice of sowing oats under furrow, which I have tried,
IS not by any means to be advised, as in such a method the seed

526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

is apt to be deposited at too great a depth, and to be in danger of
either being in some measure destroyed, or of coming up in an
irregular manner. I have practiced the drill culture with this
crop and found great utility in it.

Oats are supposed to be more liable than other kinds of grain
to degenerate, by being too long continued on the same land;
which has led to the practice of some districts, to change it for
such as has been imported from other countries. In my opinion
tliis is an erroneous idea with regard to this particular grain, as
I have shown an improvement in successive years, from 20 lbs.
to 48 lbs. per bushel. And I believe this expensive practice may
be rendered unnecessary with regard to all our cereal productions,
by collecting and sowing the best and most perfect of our own
produce, we may greatly improve them both in quality and ap-
pearance.

The only culture necessary for the oat crop while growing is
that of keeping it as clean and free from weeds as possible, by
means of hand weeding, and to pass a light roller over the crop,
under certain circumstances, after it is advanced a few inches in
height, when the ground has I^een sliglitly moistened by rain, by
which the cloddiness of the surface is reduced, and the plants in
some measure earthed up, and the progress of the crop not only
much promoted, l^ut where tliin, the plants rendered more thick
upon the land by the tillering that is thus produced.

Oat crops are ready for the cradle when the straw exhibits a
yellowish cast, and the chaff' opens in such a manner as to render
the grain in some degree naked. This crop does not require to
be so dry when put into barn or stack, as those of either wheat
or barley.

It is often the practice in this crop, as well as that of wheat,
when the farmer thinks there is danger of its being too rank or
luxuriant in its growth, to feed it down with sheep in tlie spring
months. This method in my opinion is wrong, particularly with
oats, as this grain is not in general apt to be injured either by
the luxuriance of its growth or being lodged, so says my friend
R. W. Dickson.

Rev. Mr. White confirmed for the most part what was said by
Mr. Pell.

Orange Judd said that 100 bushels an acre had been produced
in Maine on new land. So stated recently by Mr. Waring.

Prof. Mapes — One half oats and the other carrots form excel-
lent food for working horses and mnles. The pectic acid in

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 527

carrots gelatinizes the mass of oats and hay too. Roots generally
are useful mixed with hay. As carrots can be raised at the rate
of several hundred bushels per acre, the great economy of their
use is very evident. 800 to 900 bushels are raised by some.
Carrots cause a horse's coat of hair to be much improved. I plant
oats with carrots, they keep the weeds down and do not harm the
carrots — Carrot is my horse doctor; most complaints of my
cattle are cured or relieved by them.

Coleman — Do you mix them with other feed 1

Mapes — Yes sir, and I find it best to cut them up in the usual
way, with the soil on them ; mix with oats or hay, and sprinkle
a little Indian meal over the mass.

Prof. Marsh confirmed the opinion of Prof. Mapes, as to the
valuable property of carrots for cattle, owing to the pectic acid
in it. Parsnips are good for some stock. All roots have more
or less value as food for stock.

The Chairman called for subjects for the next meeting.

Solon Robinson proposed ' ' The advantages of a garden to a
farmer.'' Adopted in addition to " Irrigating machines" and the
"potato.''

Seeds were distributed ; among them many packages from the
Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents.

The Club adjourned to April 22d5 at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

April 22, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Judge Scoville, Hon. Ogden Edwards, Dr.
Smith, Mr. Oakley, Mr. Birdseye, of North Carolina; Winthrop,
Atwill, of Iowa; James 0. Miller, of Orange co.; Mr. Daniel C.
Robinson, Solon Robinson, Dr. Peck, of Brooklyn; Mr. Coleman,
of Canandaigua; Mr. Brower, of Hoboken ; Mr. T. W. Field, of
Brooklyn; Mr. West, Geo. Andrews, Mr. Bouton, Adrian Bergen,
of Gowanus; Prof. Marsh, of Vermont; Dr. Wellington, John
W. Chambers, and others — nearly eighty in all.

Ro])ert L. Pell, President of the Institute, in the chair, Henry
Meigs, Secretary.

The Secretary read the following extracts translated by him
from an interesting botanical paper by Professor Klotzsch of the
Academy of Science, in Berlin :

628 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Revue Horticole, Paris, September, 1855.

UTILITY OF HYBRIDS,

J?Y M. KLOTZSCH, OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF

BERLIN.

Translated by Henry Meigs .—{Extracts.)
" Camerarius, who lived in the second half of the 17th cen-
tury, had some notion of the crossing of plants ; but it was in
reality, Bradley, who, in 1739, was the first to speak of it as a posi-
tive fact. He says in fact that in England there were known only
two varieties of Auricula, the yellow and the black; that these
two being by chance cultivated along side of each other, experi-
enced the cross fecundation by means of tlie pollen caiiied by the
wind; they produced seeds which became the sources of all the
varieties having mixed colors. He reports, also, that the celebra-
ted gardener, rairchild,of Hoxton, fecundated a Dianthus Caryo-
phyllus (a clovewort), with tlie pollen of Dianthus barbatus,and
thus obtained the first seeds which produced the Hybrid Pinks,
so remarkable for their resemblance to the two plants from which
they proceeded.

In 17G1, appeared the little work of Kcelreuter, soon after-
wards celebrated, containing his experiments on crossing plants.
This v/ork had, in a few years, two supplements ]3ublished. Kcel-
reuter had no idea of the development of the pollen, and did not
know, except very imperfectly, the vesicles containing the pollen j
but he knew that they have, ordinarily, more than one membrane,
and said that their envelopes had openings in them through which
the pollen escaped. He had no fixed notion of the mode in which
the pollen acts upon the pistil ; however, he had a perfect un-
derstanding of the two sexes and their relations. He knew, and
was the first to publish a crowd of methods for securing the fe-
cundation. He already had reason to, and he did complain that
many botanists were in a hurry to admit as Hybrids, a crowd of
plants that were not so, and so their conclusions were, of course,
inexact. By great pains and perseverance he succeeded in trans-
forming, by crossing of their pollens, JMcotiana rustica, into JYi-
cotiana paniculata, reciprocally. He divided hybrids into three
categories : hybrids perfect, or totally sterile; liybrids imperfect,
or feebly fertile; and lastly, hybrid varieties, which are perfectly
fertile. As to the cause of the sterility of hybrids, he distin-
guished such as are sterile on account of the imperfection of tlie
pollen, and those resulting from tlie imperfect state of the i^istil,
&c.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 529

Linnseus, in 1761, admitted the hybridization of jDlants; but
in liis communication to the Academy of Sciences of Russia, ho
pretended that lie had produced a hybrid by fecundating a Trago-
fogon porrifclius (an aster), witli tlie pollen of the Tragopogon
pratensis, and he laid it down as a principle that in hybrids the
interior parts of the plant and its fructification, resembled the
mother, while the exterior reproduced the form of the father.
But the plants from those seeds which he sent to St. Petersburg!!
with his memoir, were submitted to the examination of Kcelru-
ter, who recognized in them not as hybrids, but retrogade. Other
naturalists have, by experiments, confirmed those of Kcelruter,
and enlarged that circle of knowledge. Thus, Sageret extended
the crossings to the cucurbitacese, his object in doing it w^as purely
scientific, but it had the merit of aiding in awakening France to
the crossing of plants.

Knight, President of the London Horticultural Society, no
sooner obtained the knowledge of Kcelruter's success, than he
repeated and verified his experiments. He obtained, in that way,
new varieties of fruit trees, some of them extremely remarkable.
Besides he established the fact that hybrids from crossing two
species, are incapable of fecundation by themselves; but those
from two varieties of one and the same species, are as fruitful as
their parents were; nevertheless, Knight found no partizans for
his doctrine then either in England and much less on the Conti-
nent.

W. Herbert (who died in 1817) cultivated a greater number
of the Amaryllises, and observed that their seeds sometimes pro-
duced plants exactly intermediate of the two which were regarded
as two difierent species.

In Germany, after the discoveries of Kcelruter, there were few
practical hybridizers, till Schelver, in 1812, laid down this prin-
ciple : " that animals have ditference of sex, but not plants." The
polemics which followed this assertion caused the Academy of
Sciences of Berlin, to propose, in 1819, a prize to settle that ques-
tion, viz : " Is there cross fecundation in the vegetable king-
dom ? " No memoir having arrived at the time fixed for them,
the question was continued over for two years, and the premium
was doubled. At the time appointed only one presented himself,
that was A. F. Wiegmann, he obtained only one-half of thepre-
mium. Since that two very estimable and extensive memoirs on
the subject have been published by C. F. G£ertner — the fii'st in

[Am. Inst.] 34

530 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

1844, the second in 1849, which contains a great number of facts
as to hybridation.

The duration of the ilowers of hybrids is much longer than
those of the parent plants, and they are in all cases much larger
than those of the parents.

Crosses in forest trees may result in producing timber of greater
durability and much more rapid growth. Chemists have estab-
lished the fact that the seed is richer in carbon than any other
part of the plant.

Mr. Klotzsch crossed the Pinus nigricans with the Sylvestris —
Quercus robur with Quercus pedunculata, two kinds of alder and
two-of elm. Their seeds produced trees which are in eight years,
one third larger than those from the seed of the parents, all
planted on the same day and in like circumstances.

The Secretary read the following letter from Dr. Underbill of
Croton Point :

Croton Point Vineyards, April 15^'i, 1856.
Hon. Henry Meigs, Secretary of the New-York Farmers' Club,

Dear sir : I herewith send you a lot of grafts of choice pdums
for the use of the members of the Club and Institute. They
were cut from very fine healthy trees which surround and hang
over the water of my small artificial lake. The trees have been
producing very fair — I may say beautiful fruit for a number of
years, entirely exempt from the ravages of the curculio. I com-
menced the experiment over eight years ago — have about two
hundred trees, the largest portion have come into bearing, and
over fifty have produced fine crops of fruit fur a number of years,
free from the attacks of not only the curculio, but all other in-
sects. I am trying the same experiment with the apricot and
nectarine, and I have no doubt of a favorable result, though my
trees have not been planted long enough to produce a crop of
fruit. When passing througli the country, I notice the plum
trees marked by disease, covered with knots and decaying limbs,
the fruit stung and tailing prematurely to the ground, in sight,
perhaps, of a deep valley, rich in all that makes nature prolific,
with the virgin soil that once gave freshness and vigor to the
verdure that covered a hundred hills — a fine rivulet running
through it fed with perennial springs — in other instances a
morass partly covered with stagnant waters. 1 cannot help
saying to myself, why will the owner of the fiirm spend his time
experimenting on articles of doubtful character, that may or may
not prove useful as chemical agents, and leave a deposit — nature's

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 531

palladium for the growth of all fruits, grains, and flowers,
untouched. His hills barren, or nearly so, his fields impoverished,
while a mine of wealth, a supply of enriching materials, for a
life-time lie at the very base of those hills, now only fostering
the growth of wild grass, briars and bogs. Why will he not
remove these deposits to the uplands, enrich his whole farm,
forming at the same time a beautiful ai-tificial lake, fill it with
fish, cover its banks with the plum, the apricot and nectarine,
so planted that the tops of the trees will hang quite over the
water, and he would soon have an abundant supply of fruit,
which he can gather in a little boat as he sails under the bending
boughs. If he is a lover of nature, and has a tincture of romance
in his composition, he may glide under the tops of the trees in
the stillness of the evening, at spring time, and inhale the
delightful aroma that fills the air, when they are covered with
bloom. The farmer should not say he cannot get the time to do
this, for in many localities the deposits can be removed in the
winter when he has more leisure, and he will soon begin to receive
a return in the increased production of his farm. When his little
lake is completed, his fruit will be a source of revenue and pleas-
ure, and the fish a fine addition to the usual farm-supply of
the table. I should often attend the meetings of the Club if I
could command the time. This season I am very much occupied
in putting my vineyards in order, and preparing to plant a new
one at Croton Point this spring ; also packing plants for, and
giving instructions to others who are commencing the grape
culture as a business in preference to entering the far more
hazardous though beaten path of mercantile life, whose termi-
nation in our large cities has been found disastrous or unsuccess-
ful to from eighty to ninety of every one hundred that have
entered it. The young and enterprising can find in the culture
of fruit, and especially the grape, an open field where competi-
tion has not gone so far as to prevent its securing a competency
to all those who enter this department of industry.

Yours very truly,

R. T. UNDERHILL, M. D.
Mr. West, as agent of Chapman W. Warner, of Louisville,
Kentucky, exhibited his new patent pump of iron. One man at
the brake, throws a stream of water through a half inch nozzle,
ninety feet. It is exhibited under the call for one of the subjects
of the day, viz : " Irrigating machines." It costs (of this size)
from eighteen to twenty-five dollars; and can be had at No. 118

532 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Maiden lane, in this city. It can be worked by a small sized
windmill, and by hose, convey a stream up to suitable reservoirs
on higher ground, whence it may be distributed readil3\ This
force pump can be worked by a child of four years old, who
can force the water through hose, one hundred and twenty feet
high.

Mr. Brewster, of Trenton, Jersey, said that his new windmill
of about eight feet diameter, raised water at the rate of two hun-
dred gallons a minute, twenty feet high. The price of this mill
is about fifty dollars.

Mr. Wild has known Mr. Warner's pump since last July, and
considers it a useful one.

Mr. Atwood, of Jersey, has been endeavoring to get a good one;
has seen Brewster's and likes that best. It will do the work of
a fire engine in case of fire.

President Pell calls Dr. Wellington to the chair as he is obliged
to leave the club.

Mr. Winthrop Atwill, of Iowa, at the invitation of the club,
proceeded to give an /interesting description of that State : he
said the climate of Iowa is equal to any in the United States; the
impression has been that the country is one of fever and ague.
This is not so. It is a beautiful rolling country, interspersed with
little clusters of oaks. The constant rolling of the surface secures
a perfect drainage. Illinois is flatter. Mr. A. had seen but one
case of fever and ague, in Iowa. There is much said of cholera
in the valley of the Mississippi. There was a great difference
between the upper and lower portions of the valley of the Mis-
sissippi. Some cases of cholera had been landed at Davenport,
from steamboats from St. Louis. Iowa is one of the most pro-
ductive States in the Union. A fruit growers' convention was
held last year at Burlington. Some of the delegates brought fine
specimens from the east, but they were so impressed by the fine
fruits of Iowa, that they did not choose to show their fruit.
Twenty-five to thirty bushels of corn to the acre, are yielded on
the first sowing of the field, which is called " sod corn."

The field is then burnt over and put down in wheat, and it
will yield on an average, fifty bushels to the acre. The reaping
and threshing are generally performed by machinery. The soil
is fat and unctuous, like the mud on Broadway. There are corn
fields of a thousand acres, inclosed in a wire fence. Coal crops
out in almost every part of Iowa. The houses are balloon houses,
and are considered even stronger than the houses framed as at

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 533

the east. The soil anywhere will make excellent brick, and some
hoijses are built of atlobe, or sun-dried brick.

Adrian Bergen, of Gowauus — The churches and schools are the
salt of the earth !

A member — What is your timber and your stone for build-
ings 1

Atwill — Coal is our fuel; timber is scarce. Our planted lo-
cust trees grow fast. We make balloon houses with small timber,
and yet they prove to be as strong as any old fashioned timbered
houses. We use the earth for adobe building, and w^e can make
good bricks of it. We plaster the outside of our adobe houses,
and so exclude the wet which they w^ould otherwise absorb.

Solon Robinson — The water of Iowa is affected by limestone —
is it so?

Atwill — It is; and some persons are so constituted as to suffer
from it; generally rot so.

Solon Robinson — Then one who goes to Iowa to live, ought to
know his peculiar constitution relative to lime water?

Atwill — Limestcne of course abounds, and we have it in the
water, and we have the stone for building houses, bridges, &c.,
&c., and excellent it is for that. We shall plant trees as fast as
we can — they thrive.

Adrian Bergen — I have always been fond of trees. I plant
tree seeds and delight to see them grow. I plant walnuts, and
my neighbors are surprised to see how fast and well tliey grow^
I plant the walnuts in ihe fall, they come up next spring. Trees
form the beauty of a country ! I am always in love with them.
A friend of mine traveled with me — late in the day, tired and
hungry, we came in sight of two taverns or inns — one had trees
about it, tlie other had none. "Come," said I to my fellow-
traveller, " that with the trees is the place for us, you may de-
pend.''

Dr. Wellington had noticed a singularity in the growth of trans-
planted trees in this city. He had seen some ready for setting
out, which were so trimmed of roots as to seem impossible to
live; but to my astonishment subsequently, I had never seen
transplanted trees flourisli so well as these almost rootless trees
did. I reasoned about, and liad to conclude that it was owing to
what we call mulch, that it is the stone slabs about the trees had
performed the office of mulcli.

James 0. Miller, of Orange county, a young farmer, spoke
with just enthusiasm of the noble and most happy life of a true

534 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

farmer, and his true dignity as an almoner of God's bounty to a
world which must starve without him !

Dr. Wellington — The potato is one of the subjects for this day •
We have not had time to touch it. It is a very important ques-
tion. What can be the cause so wide spread and now of some
years duration, of the universal falling off of the quantity of the
crop, as well as of its malady. We formerly manured and culti-
vated well, and had commonly several hundred bushels per acre.
I recollect when I was a boy, on my father's farm, to have dug
two bushels and a half of them from twenty hills only. Was our
land then more rich in starch than it is now ?

Subjects — " Gardens for farmers," and " the potato."

President Pell furnished many grafts from his finest apple
trees on his Pelham farm.

Dr. Underbill grafts of fine plums.
. Mr. T. W. Fields, pear grafts; and the valuable seeds sent by
the Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of the Patent Office, and
some contributed by members, were distributed among the mem-
bers, who all showed pleasure in receiving them, to add new
plants to our general stock.

The club then adjourned to next Tuesday at noon, viz : Aprli
30th, at noon.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

April 29th, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Bruce of Canada, Doughty of Jersey, Jud^e
Livingston, Judge Scoville, Solon Robinson, Anderson, Dr. Smith,
Dr. Waterbury, Child and others, 34 members in all.

Judge Scoville in the chair.

Henry Meigs Secretary.

The Secretary read the following papers translated and selected
by him :

[Journal de la Societe Imperiale et Centrale D'Horticulture. Napoleon 3d Protectenr.]

Sitting of January 24th, 1850, at 2 o'clock p. m.

Mons. Morel in the Cliair.

On the table — An invention of M. Tardiff, glass painter at
Vernon, Depart. Eure, a specimen of his pliant bell glass as for
plants. They are referred to the committee on industry for ex-
amination. Plates of glass of any required dimensions are
united by India rubber cloth so that they may be folded up and
are realily transported. They cost but little.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 535

Two magnificent roots of the Chinese Yam, Dioscorea Batatas,
the product of one root, weigliiiig five pounds, was presented by
M. Limet, the gardener of Mons. Le Compte Lanjuinais, of Grisy,
of the Seine and Marne.

About the last of May, 1854, M. Liniet planted a small fragment
of a root in a hole, four or five feet square, which he had filled
with leaves well lieaped in, and on top of tliem good clean fresh
earth and pure vegt'tuble mould. He gave the vine sticks to run
on, lie watered the plant durin-; the summer, and during the
Avinter covei-ed the sp >t with leaves. These tubers were dug out
on the first day of Se})teniber, 1855.

Some discussion took place with regard to tiie best mode of
culiivating it. It was assumed as a ftict that the Chinese never
use any sort of animal niimure in its culture, notwithstanding
their great fondness for it in cultivating almost every other
vegetable.

M. Paillet did not think that large crops were to be expected
of tubers so large as these.

A premium o^ the second class was then awarded to M. Limet.

Two angora pears from trees sent from Turkey to M. Poiteau,
and cul ivated in his garden of the barriere duTrone, were tasted
and acknowledged to be very mediocre.

THE TOMATO DISEASED.

Mons. de Saint Projet read a note from Mons. Hubert Briere,
on tlie malady of the tomato, and on the success in curing it by
sulphate of ir.m. Three years ago, (1853) our tomatoes were
completely lost by disease. It was tl e first time it had raged in
our district. I planted early varieties of it, and also the large
red kind. The disease showed itself strongly. My early sorts
died first. I tried to save them; I found benefit in sulphate of
iron, which I had found beneficial on the chlorose of fruit trees.
But the early tomatoes turn black for the most part, the stalks
not yet too much spotted. I put two drachms of sulphate of
iron into a quart of water and sprinkle the plants, eight days
after sprinkle again. I w.-is t-o late ibr the early ones, they died,
but it helped the later plants. This year I planted early but the
malady came. The stalks had black spots and two of the toma-
toes before I could prevent it. I immediately used the sulphate
of iron, and the malady stopped, and I saved my tomatoes. Solu-
tions of other metallic salt would probably have like effect.

536 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

LASIOPETALE^, OF HOLLAND.

Allgemtine Gartenzeitung, Jan. 185(3.

This beautiful group of Australian plants is not yet found in
many collections. When cultivated, they form very handsome
shrubs, always green and full of Howers. The flower bracts are
of a rose-red as well as the flowers, and give an elegant appear-
ance. They are very easily cultivated.

Jfote by H. Meigs. — Lindley, in his Vegetable Kingdom, places
this plant among the Byttneriacece. This family is wholly tropi-
cal, or of temperate climates. The Lasiopetalese are Australian,
the Hermannese are of Southern Africa, the Dombeyese African
and Asiatic, the Eriolanese exclusively Asiatic, and the Philippo-
dendresB from New- Zealand, (not Nepal, as Mr. Poiteau says,) are
both African and American. Cocoa, from which Ave have our
chocolate, is of this order, and the most remarkable one. Theo-
broma cocoa, a small tree, makes some forests in Demerara ; an
ardent spirit is distilled from ils fruit. One of this family, the
Gauzuma-Ulmifolia, is filled with a sweet and agreeable mucilage,
which Brazilians are fond of smoking. In Martiidque, the young
bark is used to clarify sugar, for which the copious mucilage it
yields when macerate 1, qualifies it.

Extracts translated by the Secretary, Jlpril, 1856.

From Maison Rustiquo, (the farm-house of France,) Vattemare's Exchange.

MEZEMBFJANTHUM,

A name formed of the Greek w^ords, meaning Moon-day Flower.
Although there are many of this class of flowers which bloom
only in the evening and others during night, gardeners have called
them generally by the name of Ficoides, (like figs,) because tlie
fruit of many of them resemble figs. In the vicinity of the Cape
of Good Hope, the Hottentots eat this fruit; it is rather unsavory,
not very agreeabl «, but it does them no harm.

Some of these flowers are annual, some two year flowers, others
perennial. They sometimes thrive among rocks where there is
hardly any soil. Their stalks and leaves are fleshy. They resist
drought and heat very well.

FAT STOCK IN OLD TIMES.

Dec. 1800. — Christmas market at Smithfield, London, a prize
ox by Mr. Westcar, of Buckinghamshire, weighed 3,374 lbs. A
round of it sold for twenty-five-cents per pound.

Mr. Edmonds' prize ox weighed 2,730 lbs., and was sold for
about ^300. Two years ago he w-as bought by Edmonds for
about $100. This is a Herefordshii"e ox.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 537

In the winter of 1799, Mr. Westcar not only received a prize,
but sold twenty of his oxen for $5,750.

Solon Robinson calLd the attention of the club to specimens
of imitation guano presented by Mr. Eruce, made from fish and
animal ofial, and can be made into thi:^ form, a granular dark
mass, at about $10 per toji, in some districts. Any person can
make it, barrel it up, and keep it any length of time. How valua-
ble, in any form of mariure, to have alj the essentials in it without
water ! Farmers weary out their oxen by hauling immense
quantities of water on to their lands. Mr. Robinson spoke of the
value offish, and the necessity of bringing back that fertility from
the sea which has run oif our hills. Great etlbrts have been
made to convert the vast quantities that come on the coast of
New-Jersey, into manure. The ex23eriment has been eminently
successful, and farmers are very anxious to obtain this new fish
guano. Something has been done by a gentleman in Providence,
Rhode Island, in concentrating the fertilizing materials of fish
into a dry powder that can be kept or transported as easy as
guano. Mr. Bruce's plan is to reduce the fish first to a fluid
state, add other substances, and then reduce to dry powder.

It is a fact that cannot be controverted that fiirmers generally
haul more water than manure to their fields. Look at the loads
of manure going out of this city ! What is it ? Straw one part,
horse dropping one part, Croton water tliree parts. Three-fifths
of the weight nothing but water, not one whit better tlian the
water of the farmer s well, or brook running through the farm.
It is beyond dispute that we are washing the fertility of the earth
into the sea. It is an attendant upon the march of civilization.
First we denude the land of trees, then leaves and leaf mould, and
then the soil ; all that is productive is washed away.

We are filling tlie sea and fatting the fish, while the earth
grows barren. To the sea we must look for a restorer of earth's
fertility. We must bring back what we are sending away. Fish
is the most feasible source to which we can look, and all the sea-
board dwellers know their value; but we cannot carry tliem in-
land, unless the water is evaporated, and the remainder deodo-
rised. And this must be by some easy, cheap process. We hope
this has been discovered, as well as reducing the ofial of cities
into some transportable form. To the sea we have sent the fer-
tility of the earth — to the sea we must look for its restoration.

Dr. Waterbury thought the elements of fertility originally ex-
isting in the surface of the earth, were far from being exhausted.

538 * TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The primary formation was originally broken up and comminu-
ted by meclianical means, forming Ibe diluvium. The action on
this detritus of the atmosphere, of wa'er, of carbonic acid, and
of the gases evolved by the decay of successive vegetative
growths, has disintegrated its mineral j^articles, and set its solu-
ble portions free, forming the alluvial coating. This action has
been going on during the present order of things, and is still ta-
king place. Man hcis learned to accelerate it by processes which
open the surface of the earth to the action of the elements. In-
deed the processes of tillage universally adopted by common
consent, in all countries, and in all ages, from the rude plow and
irrigation of ancient Egypt, to tlie subsoiling, underdraining and
green crops turned under, of our day, have all one end — the dis-
integration of the crude elements of the soil by their exposure
to these chemical agents. We must not forget the well es'.ablished
effects of high culture, of frequently stirring the earth; and this
effect can be accounted for in no other way. Fall plowing and
the different methods of following, with or without green crops,
also, are well known powerful agents for renovating land.

Tlie mechanical action of water carries away the alluvial ac-
cretions only from the more rugged and broken portions of tlie
earth's surface, and their leaves by far the greater portion of them
in the form of deltas and intervales of increased fertility. .The
part which goes to the ocean is quite inappreciable when com-
pared with Avhat remains. In fact the existing alluviun is the
sum of the differences. .

The natural salts of the earth carried from this country in
grain exports, are, after all, of insignificant importance when
compared with the resources of the soil. The amount of them
which leaves an ordinary farm in the course of a year, may be
much more than replaced by judicious methods of culture, and
careful home manuring He is not the most successful farmer in
this country, who makes two blades grow where one grew before.
There is little necessity for crowding the plants. Give us rather
the man who cultivates the most land, who takes from it tlie
largest crops, and yet who leaves it most improved.

A NEW MILL.

Mr. Thomas Blanchard of Boston, the inventor of the electric
turning lathe, and also that very extraordinary machine that
bends ship timber out of straight sticks without breaking the
grain, exhibited a model of a new grain mill, constructed on an

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 539

entirely different principle from any other grain mill ever invented.
Altliough this model is upon a very small scale, it was a work-
ing model, and excited the intense admiration of all the members
present. The principle iijDon which it acts we will attempt
briefly to describe. In short, instead of grinding it, it saws the
grain or w hatever substance is put into the hopper.

For a handmill, steel disks, about two inches diameter, are
struck out of sheet steel, with serrated edges, so as to make a
notch or tooth every half-inch or inch around the edge. These
disks are put upon an arbor with plates or washers between each
pair, of the same thickness as the saws, till the arbor is covered
about an inch in length. Another set exactly like this are placed
upon another arbor, so arranged that the edges come between the
saws on the other arbor — the two being geared together so as to make
them revolve toward each other. These sets of plates may be contin-
ued to an indefinite length — each set being finer than the prece
ding.

The hopper is made to discharge fast or slow by the same
motion of the driving crank, to suit the strength of the operator.
It is also made to slide so as to bring the opening over each set
of disks. Now suppose you w^nnt to grind corn just fine enough
for hominy, the hopper is set over the coarsest set of disks, and
the corn run through falling upon a shaking serene that sifts out
all the finer portion. Now if you wish to grind that still finer,
push the hopper forward and run the meal through again and
again if you like.

As the teeth never can touch each other so as to wear off dull
by the grinding operation, like the cast iron mills or burr stones,
they will continue sharp until worn out by the grain itself, which
they have failed to do in six months' use. As before remarked,
the grain is not ground; it is cut up by these little circular saws,
and whatever comes in contact with them is reduced to sawdust,
either coarse or fine, according to the saws in operation. A mill
can be built upon a large scale to go by power, so as to grind
grain of half a dozen degrees of fineness at the same time.

The inventor fully believes that this principle of reducing grain
to fineness, will take less power than any other ever before ap-
plied to that purpose, and we believe every one present concurred
fully in this opinion. It grinds every description of grain with
equal facility, and will not clog with wet oats or buckwheat.

Dr. Waterbury suggested that it would supersede all other mills
for grinding woody fibre used by druggists.

540 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The inventor said it would grind bones with great facility.
He thought it would answer to grind fish guano.

George Pumpelly of Owego, thought the invention one of in-
calculable advantage to farmers, as it would enable them to reduce
all their grain, and perhajDS hay, to meal before feeding it.

Solon Robinson thought the invention worthy of all considera-
tion as developing an entire new princij^le in the mode of reducing
grain to meal. He wished to know the expense of a mill of
suitable size for a family — say one horse power.

Mr. Blanchard said the mill ran so easy that one man would
do the work of one horse upon ordinary mills.

He thought such a mill could be built for |25. Arrangements
will be shortly made for their manufacture on a large scale.

FARMERS' GARDENS.

The time of the Club having been taken" up with other interest-
ing matter, but little was said upon this subject, and it was con-
tinued till the next meeting.

Solon Robinson said it was a great error of farmers to endeavor
to raise vegetables in a small enclosure, when all the work must
be done by the spade. He advocated planting everything in long
rows, where they could be cultivated with a horse hoe.

Mr. Atwood of Jersey — The inquiry into the causes of the
lessened crops of potatoes and of some grains, wheat for ex-
ample, among us. of late years, deserves all our investigation.
For it is not true in a vast number of farms that tillage and
fertilizing are more wanting than of old; on the contrary, much
of it is very greatly improved ; Still a falling off". Of old, we had
several hundreds of bushels of potatoes per acre ; now seldom
half as many. And this truth belongs to several classes of the
vegetable kingdom, such as grapes for example, decrease over
almost the whole world. It is time for us very seriously to
investigate the cause, and seek preventives and curatives.

Mr. Megs directed attention of gentlemen to Peters' new
patent refrigerator, an affair of the most important character to
our city, whose inhabitants must keep their Croton water cool,
and who would preserve the food, milk, butter, and the remnant
of meals for next day, sweet and wholesome, thus saving con-
siderable sums of money, and more considerable and valuable
appetite for the perfect condition of those remnants, instead of
taint, frowzy, musty, very unpleasant savors and. smells. Tliis
safe lias externally a jacket of pulverised charcoal, next to this
a jacket of ice some three inches thick. At the spot which would

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 541

be mistaken for the key-liole, a tube of about half an inch bore
passes down through the ice jacket into the bottom of the inteiior
to admit the outward fresh air to enter, pm-ify the inner by issu-
ing out of a like key opposite to the first, on the opposite side of
the box. This interior keeps sweet and cold. Fahrenheit's
thermometer in it indicates from 31 degrees (one below freezing)
to about 35 degrees (or three above freezing). A temperatiu-e at
"which preservation of animal and vegetable matter is complete.
The price of this family box is about twenty to thirty dollars,
which would be saved by any careful family in less than one
summer.

The Chairman called up the subject of the day, but as miscel-
laneous matter had occupied the day, the Club ordered them to
be continued to next meeting, May 6th.

The Club then adjourned to the 6th May, 1856.

H. MEIGS. Secretary*

MECHANICS' CLUB.

Organized March 2, 1854.

January 23, 1856.

The first meeting of the season was held on Wednesday, the
23d day of January, 1856, at the rooms of the Institute, No. 351
Broadway, at Ih o'clock, p. m.

Present — Messrs. R. L. Pell, Edwin Smith, Barney, Elihu
Smith, J. K. Fisher, J. P. Simpson, S. D. Backus, John W. Cham-
bers, Wm. G. Creamer, S. H. Maynard — in all 37 members.

President Pell in the Chair.

The following rules of the Club were read :

This Club is under the supervision of the Board of Sciences and
Arts.

RULES ESTABLISHED BY THE BOARD, MARCH 2, 1854.

First — A club for the promotion of manufactures, arts, and for
the discussion of mechanical subjects, is created under the name
of the Mechanics' Club.

Second — The Mechanics' Club is an agent of the committee of
arts and sciences, and is under its enth-e control, in the same man-
ner as the Farmers' Club is of the committee of agriculture. The
transactions of the Club are in the name of the American Insti-
tute.

Third — The committee of arts and sciences appoint annually the
Chairman and Secretary of the Mechanics' Club. In the absence
of the Chairman and Secretary, persons to supply their places
will be chosen at the meetings of the Club.

Fourth — Such papers read at the Mechanics' Clul) as are ac-
cepted for that purpose will be printed under the direction, and
at tlie expense of the American Institute, which also provides a
place of meeting, lights and fires. No other expenses are to be
incurred, except by special appropriation of the American Insti-

544 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tutc, according to the rules and by-laws; nor any liability incur-
red by the Institute, except on special resolution.

Fifth — The meetings of the Mechanics' Club are free of all ex-
pense to those who attend them.

Sixth — The Mechanics' Club shall select in advance, a subject
for discussion at each of its meetings, which subject shall be an-
nounced in the call of meetings.

Seventh — Written communications to the Club are to be read
by the Secretary, unless objection is made; and if objected to,
will be read, if it be ordered by a majority of the members
present.

Eighth — The Mechanics' Club will recommend what papers
read before them, or what part of other transactions they judge
worthy of publication, to the committee of arts and sciences, by
which the publications may be ordered in its discretion.

Ninth — No person attending the meetings of the Club shall
speak more than once on any one subject, nor shall occupy in
such speech more than fifteen minutes, except by permission of
the Club.

Tenth — No argument is allowed between members. Facts alone
are to be stated.

Eleventh — All questions of order are decided without appeal,
by the presiding officer.

Twelfth — The meetings of the Mechanics' Club are held at the
Repository of the American Institute, No. 351 Broadway, in the
city of New-York, on the second and fourth Wednesdays of every
month, at 7h o'clock, p. m.

The committee of arts and sciences reported that they had
appointed Samuel D. Backus Chairman of the Club, for the cur-
rent year, and the Hon. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

Mr. Backus, on taking the chair, expressed his thanks for the
honor conferred on him, and explained the course to be pursued
by the Club.

The following were appointed a committee for the selection of
questions to be discussed at the meetings of the Club : Messrs.
Wm. B. Leonard, J. K. Fisher, Chas. Turner.

Capt. Hedgcock, whose new quadrant had been made the sub-
ject of consideration by the Club this evening, not being present,
Mr. Edwin Smith called on Mr. W. G. Creamer to explain his
railroad brake, now in the Repository of the Institute.

Mr. Creamer complied, and at some length, satisfied the Club
that his invention was worthy of full investigation; and that the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 546

public may have it fully before them, voted unanimously that
Mr. Creamer should give fall explanation as soon as convenient.
Mr. Meigs said that the terrible accidents on our steam travel
by land and water, had alarmed our community, and that the
pride of the Republic was ashamed at such an exhibition of want
of science, of caution and humanity. That all good and inge-
nious men ought to do all they can by closer investigation, and
calling out all American genius to reconcile high velocity with
safety ; for since we began to use steam travel, the killed and
wounded men, women and children, far exceed the killed and
wounded in our great revolutionary war.

It is proposed among other things, that as our ships always
have pilots in all dangerous passages, and as railroads are liable
to unforeseen and unknown dangerous obstructions, from numer-
ous causes, therefore let a locomo-tive engine with a competent
engineer, be always sent ahead of the train as a pilot; let this
pilot have the best signals, and especially when a great danger is
discovered, to fire a small cannon towards the train ! One cannon
in front and another in the rear, so as to alarm the trains in either
direction. By means of percussion cocks the engineer can pull a
string and fire the gun !

As to the person having command of the engine and trains
with hundreds of our citizens of all ages and sexes. Surely he
should be possessed of the highest qualifications in science and
character. He should be an officer of more importance than any
colonel or general of any army that ever mai'ched !

This suggestion for competent engineers on trains, was many
years ago made to this Institute by one of its members, the late
Major Charles Mapes, of the U. S. Army. That as the steam
travel was national, the United States government should edu-
cate in the most perfect manner that science and practice can do,
men best fitted to be so educated. That our government should
commission them as officers of rank, to have absolute command
of trains.

To obtain safety with the desired velocity, demands all our ge-
nius and caution.

A discussion on the character and operation of the clogs used
in braking took place, the effect they had on the wheels, the
effect often of a brake on a wheel to restrain it for a short time
from rolling, and thus bringing a small surface of the wheel to a
plane by the friction on the rail ; the consequent jolting move-

[Am. Inst.] 35

546 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ment of that wheel subsequently, and the danger thereof, the
weight of the train being brought violently on tlie defective
place, so that in a recent case, such a wheel burst in pieces, and
passing upwards tore a young lady passenger all to pieces. The
irregular motion caused by the rests of ends of long rails (18 feet).
These things were spoken of by Messrs. Elihu Smith, who also
mentioned the necessary rejection of some two hundred wheels by
the railroad company on account of their hazardous character.

Mr. Thomas Godwin — The committee on questions say that
they are not ready to report.

On motion. Resolved, That when they have selected questions
they hand them to the Secretary for the second Wednesday of
February next.

Mr. Edwin Smith — The meetings of this club will be held on
the second and fourth Wednesdays of each month.

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

February 13, 1856.

A meeting of the Mechanics' Club was held this Wednesday,
the 13th of Feb., at 7i o'clock.

Present — Messrs. President Pell, Ayling, Walker, Croft, Hedg-
cock. Prentice, Fisher, Disturnell, Mountfort, Barney, Chambers,
Creamer, A. D. Frye, E. Smith, Turner, Godwin — 50 members
in all.

Mr. Backus, the chairman, being absent on account of the
death of his sister,

Mr. Pell, tlie President of the Institute, was called to the
chair.

Capt. Hedgcock desires Geo. C. Ayling, Esq., to explain his
quadrant.

Mr. Ayling proceeds to demonstrate by diagrams of globes and
the two suns, as they appear in this quadrant.

Capt. Hedgcock takes his quadrants and explains their actual
uses. At our request he determines the latitude and longitude
of the repository by one of our gas-lights, 40^ 30", longitude, 74°,
Capt. Turner assisting in the observation.

Extracts by H. Meigs.

From the Journal of the Society of Arts, London, Sept. 21, 1855.

The distinguished iron-master, Mushet, says, of great inventors:
" It is a truly painful case; we read over and over again, in every
kind of publication, for youth or for age, the names of our public

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 547

benefactors. Now the nation owes her spinning mills to Ark-
wright, her canals to Brindley, her philosophy to Bacon, steam-
engines to Watt, steamboats to Fulton and Miller, railways to
Stephenson. The names of these men and others are familiar in
our mouths as household words; we forever meet them employ-
ed 'to point a moral or adorn a tale' besides their permanent
achievements/'

Mr. Wm. G. Creamer read the following paper upon the mo-
mentum, theory and practice of arresting railway trains :

THE MOMENTUM, THEORY, AND PRACTICE OF
ARRESTING RAILWAY TRAINS.

Railroads have, in the short space of twenty-five years, become
a fixed fact among the institutions of the world; their economies
and advantages cannot be for a moment questioned. While we
for a moment acknowledge the fact that their construction and
management are succeptible of vast improvement, that the disasters
and loss of life of the past are matters of course or necessity we
disbelieve. In fact a railroad properly constructed and managed
need scarce ever have an accident causing the loss of human life.
The far reaching navigator provides for every possible contin-
gency, even though the danger be ever so remote, he provides
every available security. While we would not condemn the
practice of having life boats on the dangerous beach, we should
think it just as necessary to have them on board the ship at all
times; there may be places where the life boat is not provided.
The able mechanic, in his combinations of the mechanical powers,
anticipates every difiiculty and provides the remedy beforehand,
he calculates with exactness the strength af materials, the speed
of the pully, and power of the engine. The experienced engineer
too estimates the cost of removing mountains, filling valleys,
cutting rocks and bridging rivers, with an exactness correspond-
ing to his knowledge of his business.

The wise statesman looks for into the future to judge of the
success or policy of any popular scheme, he sees with almost
prophetic vision the results of measures which perhaps at the
time, to the unthinking or superficial multitude, seem wise and
salutary. And so too the railroad superintendent who will
achieve the top round of his ladder of greatness, will anticipate
and provide for every possible contingency. Every known com-
bination of mechanism or improvement calculated, even in a
remote degree, to save life and property will demand his attention.

548 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It is not really necessary iii thousands of cases that human life
sacrificed before the remedy is providtd for ihe preveiition of
future causes of accidents, in fact I am so well convinced that in
proportion as we may hope or expect to achieve success in every
pursuit of life, whether it be mechanism, trade, philosophy, poli-
tics or what not, our success depends upon earnest, deep, and
intelligent thought of the future; and depend upon it, he who
whether he be philosopher, politician, tradtsman, mechanic, mer-
chant or inventor, who cannot carefully and earnestly study
and analyze, his theory, measure, scheme, machine, enterprise or
invention, is doomed in 99 cases out of the hundred to failure.
A true plain principle or invention never loses by this cour^e,
truth is eternal in mechanics as well as minerals and philosophy^
and one of the most striking beauties of it is that the mi-re
earnestly and thoroughly it is searched and investigated the
brighter it appears. This remark is based on \he experience cf
ages, and yet we every day see around us thousands who do not
seem to realize it. To illustrate, take the true man, does not
every step in analyzing his character prove his truthi'alness, do
w^e not have our esteem and regarl for him increased the more
we know of him; and yet we see around us daily thousands
whose sole object in life seems to be an endeavor to pass them-
selves off for what they are not. This general remai-k holds good
in everything in life true greatness or merit of anything is not
know^n by the mass at first sight. It is true we can judge of the
prominent traits or characteristics of men often, at a glance, but
art, science, mechanism, &c., must be analyzed and studied before
a correct judgment can be formed.

Real accidents are of rare occurrence. An accident to my idea
is something which takes place that cannot by any ordinary
degree of forethought be prevented;

I do not consider a steam boiler explosion an accident; it is
culpable carelessness on the part of some one, because a proper
degree of knowledge and care will prevent it. We daily sre
chronicled in the papers railroad accidents, a large proportion of
which are not accidental, but a culpable neglect of the applica-
tion of known principles of mechanical science.

It is an acknowledged principle in mechanics, that what can
be done by mechanism can be better done than by manual labor.
A moment's thought of clocks, pins, nails, hooks and eyes, ^loth,
and a thousand things that are noAT better made by machinery
than formerly by hand, will convince any one of the superiority;

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 549

lience I hold that as we increase the mechanical perfection of
railroad science we shall in so far jnc:e;ise its safety and profit.

Ail railroad casualties occiu- d.stinctJy to or in consequence of
trains in motion, and in proportion as the momentum is great or
small is the damage that naturally takes place. The weight of
a first class locomotive and tender is about 35 tons; the weight of
bjg^age and passenger cars is about 12 tons each, so that the
weight of a train of seven cars, engine and tend r is in round
numbers, 119 tons. Such a body of matter moving at the rate
of 3U miles per hour exerts an impulsive force of t'lree thousand
tons, that is, presupposing that the entire troia was one solid mass,
perfectly unyielding in all i:s parts. But it is well known that
there is considerable elastici'y between the cars, trucks, &:c. Sec,
so that in all probability the actual force of a train, of weight
an 1 speed as above, at the moment of striking does not exceed
seven hundred tons. How shall this terriiic power be averted or
checked in times of sudden or uaexpecled danger. For all ordi-
nary purposes when no danger is near, w^e are w^ell enough pro-
vided already. This question naturally brings us directly to the
subject matter of this paper, viz : railroad car brakes. My
earliest recollection of railroad car brakes were those used on the
Palerson and Hudson River Railroad, about the year 1833 and 4.
The cars that w^ere at that time used were similar to those now
in use on most of the European railroads, viz : single truck cars
with three divisions in each calcula'ed for twenty-four passengers;
on the top at each end was a seat for a brakeman, and one was
provided for each car. My impressions are that no whistle was
used on the engine, or signal of any kind; the brakemen were
constan'ly on the lookout, and applied the brakes where in their
own judgment they were required. The plan of brakes was as fol-
lows : between the wheels on each side were hung blocks of wood
cut out to fit the surf ice or tread of the wheel, to each block was
attached a rod pointing downward about thirry degrees from a
horizontal line, these rods were connec^^ed again to a vertical
rod, which being pulled upward spread the blocks apart pressing
tliem against the wheels. Cross ways the car was a shaft with an
arm at each end attaching to the vertical rods between the brake
block-', there was also a vertical arm projecting from the centre
of the sliafr to which was attached a horizontal connecting rod,
connecting wi;h a verlical rod npon which the brakeman pressed
his fiot when he applied the brake. This plan was in use, I
thinkj as long as the single truck cars were in this country.

550 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

In the year 1839, a plan was proposed and a patent obtained in
England, by Mr. Curtis, the principal features of which were as
follows : A shoe was hung in front of the wheels of the engine
which, when the engineman wished to stop the train, he pressed
forward a lever which pressed the shoe against the wheel and on
the track at the same time. In 1843 a patent was issued to Mr.
Davies for an improved brake, which was to apply clogs or shoes
to the wheels as we do now, but the manner of application was a
little peculiar. On the frame work of the truck were eight arms
something like a letter S. The principal feature of this plan was
to press the shoes on both sides of the wheel uniformly, avoiding
all strains on the axle. In 1845, a plan was made and patent
issued to Mr. Thornton, for a self-acting brake, but it was opera-
ted only by a separation of the train. There are many cases
where a device of this kind would be of great advantage, as where
a train uncouples, or when the engine runs oif; accidents of that
kind would be greatly mitigated by the use of such a device.

In 1847, a patent was issued to Mr. Crawford, which was for
the attachment of a braking apparatus (actuated by atmosiDheric
pressure or a spiral spring) on one of the cars, the brake levers
of each car were connected with each other backward and for-
ward by a series of counter chains, pullies and levers; this appa-
ratus could be operated by means of a cord in the engine.

In 1848, quite a number of patents were issued, among them
Mr. Chaplin's plan covering the tire of the wheels with belts of
skin or leather to make the clogs hold the wheels tighter. Rob-
ert Heath's plan was attaching a weight to a brake lever, which
the brakeman would release when required, a powerful applica-
tion of the brakes for the purpose of assisting him. Lister's plan
was to provide an air pump, and cylinder and piston to each car.
George Taylor's plan was to have a block of wood with the
grain endways press against the rail, the brake lever being at-
tached to it. Hepbun's plan was also the same with a different
modiiication of the levers. Crane's plan was a block or shoe
held in front of the wheels and let down on the track, and the
wheels of the car running on it stopping the wheels and sliding
the blocks or shoe along with the car.

Burnett's plan was next, which was to attach to the bumper or
what we call draw head (which was to be made with a spring to
allow it to draw out to the same length) a rod of wood or iron
which, when the engine was reversed, the momentum of the cars
pressed the brakes against the wheels, this would apply^the brakes

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 551

to the first car string, and diminish the force as the distance of
the car from the engine. In 1850 a steam brake was applied to
one of the engines of tlie Liege railway, Belgium. The plan was
a shoe between the driving wheels of the engine, which was
pressed on the track by steam from the boiler actuating a piston
connected by levers to the shoes on the track. In 1846, Mr. Car-
rum's self-acting brake by reversing the engine and having to hold
the brakes against the wheels. Wm. Clayton's plan was to gripe
the edge of the wheels instead of the tread, to avoid weai* on the
surface and relieve the axle from strain. La Hayes' plan is byre-
versing the engine. This is said to work well, and has been used
on the Reading road with some success. McLaughlin's is worked
also, by reversing the engine. I have seen this on two of the
cars of the Camden and Amboy railroad; but like all plans of that
kind, where the power is transmitted from car to car, there seems
to me %fatal objection to the whole principle, modify it as you
may. The brakes will be powerfully applied to the first car, and
diminishing from one car to the other, so that beyond the third
car it is of no efficiency.

Moody's plan was also by reversing the engine.

Leech's plan the same. Bachelor's the same; the brakes con-
nected to the draw head and operated by the windlass also; this
is rather complicated. Reimer's plan was a block hung between
the wheels by a chain connecting to a bar operated by reversing
the engine. Cone's was a wedge shaped block operated by a cam
and bearing on the wheel and rail simultaneously.

Skimer's was a shoe with an elastic band in front of the wheel
for the purpose of checking the sudden jar of the shoe taking
under the wheel. Norton's was a mechanical management, with
the brake bearing in the forward side of the wheel, to avoid the
lifting movement on the truck when the pressure is on both
wheels. It was very complicated. Treadwell's plan was a shoe
of soft iron bearing on the track between the trucks of the cars.

It appears to me that if any plan of track brake is used, it
must be between the truck v/heels rather than between the
trucks, for the reason that when operated the trucks should re-
main close to the body of the car, instead of raising the car from
the truck as would be the case when the brake was pressed on
the track.

Many persons suppose that the wearing of car wheels is caused
by the friction of the brakes; I think the idea is erroneous, ex-
cept in so far as the brakes stop the wheels. The wear of the

552 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

wheels is caused by the weight of the car, and the continiml con-
cussion on the track, the whole weight resting upon a mere point
as it were of the circumference of the wheel, and that continually-
shifting as the wheel revolves, this causes a constant concussion
of the particles of iron on the tread of the wheel, whereas the
brake shoe presses over a wide surface of the wheel at the same
moment. I think were eight wheels of the same make and uni-
form chill put under a car, and the brakes applied to one track
only, and geared so as not to slide the wheels, the difference in
the wear between those with brakes and those without would be
hardly perceptible. Miller's steam brake has been used in one
train on the New Haven road. This is a cylinder and piston
attached to the brake levers and actuated by steam from the
boiler passing through iron pipes and connected between the cars
by india-rubber hose. The cost of maintenance for sucli an ap-
paratus for 75 cars would not be less than $4,000 per^annum.
Stevens & Tanner's brakes, the kind in general use in all the cars
in the Union, need no description. Hotchkiss's plan, owned by
Mr. Collier, seems to me a desirable plan; the brake is applied
to the top of the wheels. There may be objections to it on ac-
count of repairs that are unknown to me, but judging from a
small model shown to me last summer, I incline to the opinion
that it is a good apparatus. Marks and Howarth's was a spring on
the top of the car, with a separate brake shaft and chain connect-
ing to the brake levers. The spring is wound by a pinion, and
was let off by a cord or wire from the engine. Creamer's plan was
a spring or weight in combination with the ordinary brake shaft,
and worked on each car separately or by the bell cord from the
engine or any part of the train. Paige's adjustable blocks of
wood for brake shoes is a good device. Wood brake shoes will
hold the wheels with far less strain on the axles than iron, and
the feature of this invention is that as the shoes wear they can
be adjusted to the wheels by screws. The last invention for
brakes, and which come with such a high sounding title, was
the great American car brake by Loughridge of Weverton Mary-
land. This was a chain attached to a counter shaft on the engine,
on one end of which was a friction pully playing against the
flanges of the driving wheel, the chain passed under the cars of
the train over a series of pullies or fixed and movable bearings.
The tendency of the chain to straighten when pulled applied the
brakes which were attached to the movable pullies. The engine-
man pressed the Iriction pully against the driving wheel which

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

drew the chain tant and thus applied the braises. In addition to
tliis there was a supplementary cliain on the same shaft winding
in an ojiposite direction which checked tlie pull at the desired
point. The inventor claimed that his device applied the brakes
to the last car of tiie train first, to all with exactly uniform pres-
sure, and by means of the supplementary chain prevented any
possibility of sliding the wheels. The whole affair in order to
success must completely ignore the principle of friction in all
of the representations as when it was on the public trial a signal
failure. The brakes were applied to the first oar with sufficient
force to slide every wheel, while at the same time there would
be a comparatively sliglit brake on the fourth car. It is not pos-
sible so to adjust a compensating chain on the engine as to release
the brcikes with certainty at any desired point before sliding the
wheels. The variable grades of the road, the different elasticity
of the draw heads, the changeable load, &c. &c., make it impos-
sible in railroad mechanism so to adjust any device to so nice a
point. It is barely possible to obtain such a result with fixed
machinery, and I am convinced utterly impossible on railroad
cars. It is difiicult to conceive how the inventor could ever
imagine that his plan would apply the brake to the last car first,
or that he could ever fix a supplementary chain to apply the
brakes with full force and not slide the wheels.

It would seem, Mr. Chairman, that the resources of invention
would be nearly exhausted in the production of braking appli-
ances for railroad cars, in fact Sir, I think they are. I should
consider it a thankless job to undertake the construction of any
new car brake. Among all the plans I have seen, and among
those I have enumerated, I think Hotchkiss's the best; this ap-
plies the friction to the top of the wheel giving it a wider bear-
ing. There is only one objection that I can see to it, and perhaps
that is of no importance, namely, the narrow space between the
top of the wheel and the body of the car. There may be other
objections to Collier^s plan in the manner of gearing that will
prevent its-coming into use, as I have not examined it closely. I
am clearly of opinion, however, that it will bea long time before
the present ]ilan of car brakes will be superseded.

There is one idea about brakes, and by the way, it applies to
everything else, it is this, and the great mass of inventors over-
look it. It is not enough for a machine to work and accomplish
the effect intended; an ingenious mechanic can accomplish almost
anything by combiuatious of mechanism. Inventors can so seldom

554 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

stop to think and calculate, and analyze their own inventions, that
the market is constantly full of new and perfectly impracticable
devices, and railroad men are constantly besieged with the greatest
quantity of new things, good, bad and indifferent, in fact, so
much of a bore has it become that superintendents pay no atten-
tion to anything that is offered them, however good it may be,
they no doubt are losers in many cases by this course. I have
thought many times that thousands of dollars would be saved,
and great gain also would be made to railroads by the appointment
of an able board of examiners on the part of the companies, who
should meet, say every two months, in some central place, and
let them carefully examine everything new, and if it was found
desirable, their recommendation should be sufficient to induce its
adoption; or in the absence of that, why not have a mechanical
adviser to each company; almost every corporation has its counsel
or legal adviser, and I see no reason why it would not be as valuable
to them to have a competent mechanical adviser. It might save
them a large amount of money now paid for legal expenses.
Thousands of dollars are constantly paid by superintendents
(with the laudable desire to have everything connected with
their roads as perfect as possible) in trying the most impracti-
cable experiments, which a competent mechanical engineer would
pronounce worthless or of little value on examination. There are
many superintendents of talent and great administrative capacity,
but whose mechanical skill or judgment of mechanics is not
worth a rush. To show such men a new combination of mechan-
ism would elicit about as satisfactory an opinion as that of Capt.
Cuttle concerning the loss of Walter Gay.

Mr. Chairman, I have no disposition to dwell or particularize
on accidents that occur to railroads, they are bad enough and
terrific enough, and it does seem as though they should teach us
lessons not soon to be forgotten. I have no great devotion to
the past or old, merely because it is such, but in so far as it teaches
us to avoid the shoals, rocks, and quicksands, and I might add
railroad wrecks that lie on our journey; I am willing and bound
to study its lessons with the most profound attention. It was
said by the unfortunate engineer of the New Haven train, at the
time of the Norwalk disaster, that had the brakemen done their
duty the train would not have gone off. I infer from that remark
that the accident was not beyond the control of appliances
already in the train, had the means been at hand for their instant
action. The invention of which I have previously spoken, made

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 555

by myself in 1851, and for which patent was issued in 1853, was
radically different from any device heretofore made. Although it is
constantly called a patent brake, it is not a patent brake, but a pa-
tent brakeman. It always appeared to me that the present brakes
were good enough if they could only be brought to bear when most
needed. I do not believe, in fact all experience demonstrates the
truth of my position, that for the prevention or mitigation of
accidents, the present brakes applied by hand are totally useless,
not because the brakes are not good enough, but because they are
not brought into action. A short time since I was present on the
Hudson Eiver railroad, at a trial of the great American car brake,
previously spoken of; the train was stopped by the usual methods
within 450 feet. I could hardly conceive of a better illustration
of the efficiency of the present brakes. Now if I could only
satisfy myself that the brakeman Avould always be at his post,
would always understand perfectly the signals, would never
jump off amid the crashing of timbers, I should be about willing
to stop and say perfection was attained, blit the sad calamities of
Norwalk, Burlington, Gasconade and others too numerous to men-
tion, teach a far different lesson.

Transmitting information by signals, however perfectly con-
structed, is by no means as certain as direct action; and the
human machine is not near so reliable in the performance of its
duty as the metal. I stated in the preceding part of this paper
that it was an acknowledged principle in mechanics that what
could be done by mechanism could be better done than by manual
labor, hence I hold that a mechanical device for closing the
brakes is infinitely more certain and reliable than manual labor.
Mr. Chairman : I recollect reading, some years ago, a most
vivid description of the behavior of the steamship " Great Wes-
tern" in a storm; it may be familiar to most of you while the
storm was at its height, and the ship rolled and tossed like a
feather, and the passengers all panic stricken with fear, expect-
ing every moment to go down; the ponderous engine, true to its
duty, continued to revolve, perfectly regardless of the danger
around it, and at length the storm abated and the ship was saved.
The incident made an impression on my mind of the superiority
of mechanism in times of danger : and so, too, I have seen the
wheels of a factory revolving with their accustomed speed amid
the circling flames and the crashing timbers around them. Can
we not have a mechanical brakeman to each car, tliat will do his
duty even through an open draw, or an approaching train be within

556 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

a hundred feet of him ? Mr. Chairman, yonder is such a brake-
man, that is ready at all times, and under all circumstances, when
called on, to hold, if need be, the wheels from moving; no de-
gree of cold, or wind, or rain, or sleet, affects him; he is con-
stantly at his post and always ready ; he performs his duty per-
fectly unconscious of the danger which may be present; he dees,
promptly, the bidding of the engineman, the conductor, brake-
man, or even a passenger, if necessary, and from any point on
the train, front or rear; he asks nothing for maintenance, beyond
the interest on the first cost, about four dollars a year. Is he
not with the equivalent ?

I am perfectly well aware of the difficulties and cost of intro-
ducing new inventions, especially those for the prevention of
danger or damage.

It is always hai-d to make a man realise the want of an article
that he has done without all his life. We are, to-day, using a
thousand things that were unknown to our ancestors; and yet
we should feel as if it "*rere impossible to do without them. The
continual advance of society creates continual new wants to be
supplied; and thus it should be as it is, a pow^erful lever to dis-
tribute the wealth and knowledge that is accumulated. Hence,
Mr. Chairman, I find no fault with marble and brown stone
palaces, wuth all their attendant refinements of art, science, beauty,
silk and satin, &c., &c.,or steamers like the Commonwealth, Me-
tropolis, Persia, Atlantic or New World, only let us guard well
the safety of human life, and not overlook that in our creations
of the beautiful and elegant.

Mankind do not realize the dangers to which they are exposed;
and even when we know there is danger, we let our hope out-
weigh our judgment.

We take the first step in the path of vice, we do not realize the
danger, we hope it will be all right, we will indulge in this grati-
fication this time and never again; but the first step taken the
rest are easy, and we see annually 30,000 drunkards filling dis-
honored graves. Few railroad superintendents have any idea
they will have an accident on their roads, they think their regu-
lations are about perfect, and so indeed they are, or nearly so,
but there is not a road in the Union where the instructions are
not constantly violated, it is only when some disaster occurs that
we find it out. It is infinitely better for the railway train to
carry with and about it, as far as possible, the elements of its own
security, as it is fur the ship to carry with it its boats, pumps,

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 557

life preservers, water tight partitions, &c.,&c.; of course the
signals, track repairs and light houses are none the less necessary.
I trust, Mr. Chairman, that before another year passes away, we
shall see this device added to the passenger trains, at least, of all
our great thoroughfares, unless something better should be devised,
and if there is no person will urge its claim stronger than myself.
Notwithstanding the best regulations that can be made, we are
constantly exposed to danger; the murderous . assassin will put
obstructions on the track, the rails or chairs are sometimes defec-
tive, the drove of cattle sometimes get on the track, the flood %ill
wash the earth or stones on the rails, wheels and axles will break,
the flagman will neglect his duty, a hundred things occur which
human foresight cannot prevent, how important then to provide
every known security. A few years ago it was a matter of
course to look for a terrible steamboat disaster as often as once a
week, that time has passed away, we now have instead railroad
accidents, not so numerous 'tis true but far too many of them.
Accidents will occur notwithstanding all the precaution we may
take, but our duty is to take advantage of every security so far
as known. I have very great faith, Mr. Chairman, in the time
honored proverb that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure. And I trust that our far seeing railroad superintendents
will soon give us an example of a perfectly secure railroad train
so far as present knowledge extends.

On motion of Mr. Edwin Smith, the thanks of the Club were
passed to Mr. Creamer for the valuable paper read by him, and a
copy requested for publication in the " Transactions.''

Mr. R. L. Pell made the following remarks on car brakes :

When car brake comes in contact with the wheel of a locomo-
tive, friction is produced, by rubbing the surfaces of two solid
substances against one another. If these surfaces were polished,
the engine would slide along without suffering resistance from
contact; but as this state of perfect polish can never exist, the
brake does exercise an impediment, and the wheels cease to move.
In order, therefore, to ascertain the real value of a brake, it is
necessary to discover the amount of the friction, and to add the
new resistance to that given by the common theory of mechanics.

The laws of friction, with respect to certain substances, have
occupied the minds of hundreds of experimental mathematicians
and philosophers, among whom may be named Desaguliers, Vince,
Euler, and Amontous. But Culomb, so early as 178U, made the

558 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

first complete set of experiments on this most important subject,
and they are of inestimable value to the practical engineer.

Between similar substances, under like circumstances, friction
is a continuous retarding force. It is greatest between bodies the
surfaces of wliich are rough, and is much lessened by polishing
them. If the two surfaces that come together remain precisely
the same, the friction will, most certainly, increase directly, ac-
cording to the pressure ; and it will not be changed by diminish-
ing or increasing the surfaces that rub each other, except in ex-
tretue cases, when the surfaces are reduced to minute dimensions.
Culomb inferred that the frictioa increased as the natural num-
bers, when the velocities are increased as the squares of those
numbers.

When metal brakes are used on railroad cars, the friction is but
slightly affected by motion; when wood is used to rub against the
wheel, it is necessary that the two bodies remain some time in
contact to enable the friction to acquire a maximum. If the
pressm-e is permitted to remain the same, the friction can have
no relation to the size of the sui'face. The friction of an iron
rail can brake on an iron wheel, is proportional to the pressure,
the intensity is the same, whether they have been long in contact,
or are moving with a uniform speed. It is different with two
wooden bodies, they must rest on each other for a long time,
without the use of grease, to occasion the resistance by friction,
to be proportional to the pressure.

Much greater friction may be effected by using wooden bridles
for rail car brakes, than iron, as friction is greater with soft, than
hard substances. With metals, the friction is directly as the
pressure, without regard to surface or velocity. But with fibrous
matters, friction is much increased by time and surface, and de-
creased, by velocity and pressure.

It is surprising to me that rail car, and locomotive wheels last
as long as they do, when I consider the continuous strain they
have to endure, a constant disturbance of the particles of iron
takes place, deteriorating and ultimately breaking them.

Heating, from time to time, will consolidate these particles; but
the wheel never retm-ns to its original size; it constantly ac-
quires an increase of volume, as often as it is heated and cooled.
This maybe proved to you by examining the bars of our common
house grates, in which hot fires are made, they elongate for a
time, and then become curved. Four years since, I placed eight
iron bars in the furnace of my green house, in such a manner

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 559

fhat the ends came in close contact with the frame; the result
was when taken out last fall, they had elongated fully three per
cent in a bent form. In refitting, I allowed four and a quarter
per cent in the length of the bars, for permanent elongation.
Metals, when used as girders for buildings, become sooner fa-
tigued by a reiterated strain repeated at intervals, than by a con-
tinuous strain.

A Mr. Paul Moody has taken out a patent for a car brake,
which is said to involve a new and important improvement. It
consists of an extra steam chest on the engine, in which is placed
a piston, precisely similar to those generally used in steam cyl-
inders, connecting with the necessary machinery for braking.
This is a movable lever, connecting with another lever, and so
on continuously to the last car in the train. All these several
levers come in contact with the brakes, and impede the further
progress of the cars, whenever the engineer applies his hand to
the proper spring attached to the steam chest on the locomotive.

Messrs. Kimball and Rice, of Concord, N. H., have patented
an improved brake, which has given satisfaction.

The invention consists in placing a tube coating of India rub-
ber around a link passing through a box or casing, which is
attached to the brake. The rubber is inclosed in the box, to hold
it in a permanent position, except so far as its elasticity is affected
by the pressure of the link, whenever the brake is used, thereby
causing the rubber to act and re-act within itself, without any
rubbing or friction of the links in which it is inclosed, thus
avoiding the wear and rattling of the machinery, as well as un-
pleasant shocks.

Mr. John Lane, of Liverpool, in 1850, invented a brake that
locks, simultaneously, the wheels of all the cars that follow the
first; it is done by means of an ingenious continuation of the
arrangement of piston rods, springs, and other machinery, all
simple in construction, and therefore not liable to get out of
order. The brake itself, when in operation, clips around a drum
in the middle of the axletree of the two wheels of each car to be
stopped. The whole is placed, under the car bodies, and the sin-
gle operation of pulling the brake handle in front, effects the
stoppage of every car in the train.

How would it do to place a looking-glass in front of the engi-
neer on the locomotive, so inclined that he might see the entire
train behind him, without being compelled to turn round. He

560 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

would then observe at once if a car became detached, an axle
broken, or, in fact, any accidents that might occur.

I beg leave to propose a subject for future consideration, " The
cause of the oscillating motion in locomotiv^e engines at high ve-
locities, and a method of correcting it."

The Club then adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

February 27, 1856.

A stated meeting of the Club was held this Wednesday, Feb.
27, 1856, at 7^ o'clock.

Present — The Chairman, Mr. S. D. Backus; the Secretary be-
ing absent, John W. Chambers was appointed Secretary pro
tem.

Messrs. R. L. Pell, Wm. B. Leonard, Edwin Smith, Wm. G.
Creamer, Geissenhainer, Fisher, Godwin — in all 36 members.

The minutes of the last meeting was read and approved.

The Chairman stated that the two subjects adopted by the com-
mittee fur discussion, this evening, were viz: "The future of
locomotion," and " The best method of raising sunken vessels."

Mr. A. L. Holly being present, read the following paper on
the " Future of Locomotion."

The discovery of natural forces and their laws, the invention
and adaptation of mechanical combinations, and the securing of
regulated, multiform, yet unlimited power, is the highest success
of intellectual labor. No philosopher, nor school, nor people,
can claim such achievements. They are the work of laborious
ages, and they will only be complete when tlie final struggle of
matter and force shall work the rene"wed dominion of chaos, and
the end of time.

But in the solution of this grand problem of motion, the present
age is brilliant -with victory. On that boundless arena, where
mind struggles with force and matter, signal success is rather the
issue of an arduous campaign, than the rapid triumph of a battle.
A few honored heroes discover and attack the enemies' vulnera-
ble point, but the steady march of improvement can alone ensure
complete success.

The future of such enterprises is prophesied by the history of
the steam engine. The vacuum and its deceptions, in the hands
of the Greeks and Egyptians, the exploits of Hero, and the re-
membrance of the ^lopile. had well nigh been forgotten, when
De Caus proposed to navigate the ocean by steam. The damps

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 561

of a dungeon had dethroned the reason of De Cans, and oblivion
had swallowed up his memory and his prophesy, when the Mar-
quis of Worcester, and his famous cotemporaries again provoked
the sleeping giant. Smeaton and his followers feebly called forth
his ability, and Watt roused him into partial action. But, that
giant is half slumbering yet, and he but plays with the devices
which men have made to bind him. Anon shall he spring into
living energy, and every creature shall feel and rejoice in his
power. Development of such quality, though of limited extent,
has been associated with every attempt to apply the other natural
forces.

Locomotion, at high velocities, with heavy loads, and at such
cost as will render it universally convenient and remunerative,
is the most backward, and preeminently the most difficult branch
of engineering. Thus far the motor has been caloric, and its
most effective and adaptable agent has been water. Two grand
eras have marked the history of steam locomotion. The first
was in 1804, when the original reduction of the idea to practice
by Oliver Evans, was embodied in his " Oructer Amphil)olos;"
the second was in 1829, when the general arrangement, and at
least the principles which now prevail, were introduced with the
" Rocket," by George Stephenson, and less signally, though per-
haps not less meritoriously and really, by John Ericsson, in the
" Novelty.'' Trevithick, Murdock, and cotemporaneous engi-
neers almost immediately instituted those combinations and modi-
fications, which complete this momentous era.

It is now ninety-three years since a new fundamental princi-
ple has characterized the steam engine, sixty-five years since the
introduction of the grand idea upon which boilers depend for
efficiency and economy, and twenty-seven years since the loco-
motive has been radically changed. The time is ripe for another
revolution. Within a few years, renewed, vigorous and promis-
ing exertions have employed the first mechanical engineers of
every progressive country. Some grand combination of the
products of many fertile minds is about to fulfill the prophesy of
the enthusiast. That er/i may have arrived; but since a steam-
ship crossed the Atlantic while a philosopher demonstrated the
impracticability of such an achievement, and since a hundred
years will hardly have witnessed the perfection of that which
Watt projected, we may safely conclude that the full appreciation
and development of a new principle, or power, will not distin-

[Am. Inst.] 36

562 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

guish a single generation. It is at least unpliilosophical to be-
lieve that speed, and power, and tractability may not be attained
wliicli would, in the detail, rouse more wonder now, than would
the present successes have excited among the incredulous a hun-
dred years ago. A century's siege has but exhibited the real
power of steam. Caloric is prolific of revolution in every form
of matter, and the same electricity which rends a mountain, can
play with a feather. Shall the roving forces run wild in the
abundance of their energy 1 Shall not the air, and the earth,
and the ocean, be the theatre of their regulated action, and the
witnesses of their obedience to master minds 7

The march of improvement is soon, accelerated, and irresistiljle.
In speculating upon the future of locomotion, we may contem-
plate, with approximate accuracy, the more immediate results of
present labors, we may anticipate some of the more important
changes, whose development may yet be the work of a century,
but shall we stand hopelessly, as well as in ignorance, on the con-
fines of the great unknown] While earthquakes yawn there is
power, while incessant change is the law of creation, it is abun-
dant, and while pulses beat it can be controlled.

But the practical question is cost. In applying a natural
motor, then, conformity to only one of its essential conditions can
in practice render success difficult. Power must be generated
at such rates, that each individual will consult his personal ad-
vantage and convenience in its appliance. And it cannot be
urged that in such an extremity the natural forces would be em-
ployed at any cost, for economy must be relative, as well as
positive. To compete with rival agents is the problem.

The question of safety is often urged by those in the operation
of whose devices a given amount of carelessness and ignorance
will necessitate less hazard. Although safety is morally a grand
desideratum, it is practically and comparatively an insignificant
condition of success, and its promotion is not a question in
physics. Inasmuch as a certain standard of excellence in marine
locomotion is attainable with greater comparative economy of
power and space than in locomotion on land, we may conclude
that whatever is established in the latter case will be at least
equally advantageous in the former. What forces, then, are
henceforth to be employed in the production of that power?
Till some new force or principle is discovered, the comparative
values of those already employed, may be justly estimated by
reference to their nature and history. Gravity is universal, but

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 563

doubly limited. Either its most formidable agent, a fall of
water, is not found where the work is to be done, or else an
equal amount of power, obtained from other soui-ces, must re-
peatedly restore the opportunity for its brief action. When it is
asserted by the deviser of a so-called " perpetual motion," that
because so slight a consumption of power at distant intervals will
propel a small wheel, propoitionably slight expenditures and
distant intervals, will promote the rotation of a large one, and so
on unlimitedly, the practical fallacy is exposed by a fact, that
just so much force is required to produce a given amount of
motion, and that if his apparatus is entirely abandoned, and con-
sumes none at all, so much the more force is left to do the work.

But the use of gravitation as a motive power on railways, is
not a mere speculation. When an abundance of water flows
down an inclined plane, up which loads are to be carried, by the
introduction of common appliances, the cost of transportation
may be made a question of mere w^ear and tear of machinery.
And wlien such application is made at the bottom of the incline,
that same steepness which necessitates increased power, at once
furnishes that power, in the additional head and velocity of the
stream. But if the water is applied to the locomotive as it
ascends the grade, as an European engineer has proposed, and
perhaps applied, a force at the bottom which would sweep away
the entire enginery, would, at the top, hardly overcome its fric-
tion. Gravitation may primarily and remotely facilitate loco- •
motion, but it is evidently not the grand motor.

Electricity is the most powerful, though by far the most subtle
of natural forces. Next perhaps to steam, its nature and appli-
cation to locomotion have invited the greatest amount of scien-
tific research and inventive talent. Electrical engines have, so
far, depended for the generation of power upon the galvanic bat-
tery, and they have failed in that important item, economy. If
zinc, in combination with copper, be decomposed by sulphuric
acid, it is burned by the oxygen of the acid, thereby producing an
electrtc current of sufficient power to raise a given weight. If
this current be continually broken and renewed by certain me-
chanical appliances, the weight may be made to assume a recipro-
cating or a circular motion, and to impel any variety of ma-
chinery, with a force exactly proportionate to the oxidation and
consumption of the zinc. But if the zinc be burned under a steam
boiler, the power generated will be only one-sixth of that which
would be produced by a given amount of r^arbon in the shape of

564 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

coal. Now even if the zinc, when burned in the battery, evolves
six times as much force as when burned under the boiler, it only
equals steam in point of economy. But its proportionate value
in the battery, though not precisely ascertained, does not nearly
approach this estimate, while in the production of a given power,
in so-called successful galvanic engineering, the cost of zinc was
nearly two hundred times greater than the cost of coal.

A recent galvanic engine, in behalf of which the most sanguine
hopes and liberal patronage have been manifested, has demon-
strated in its so far complete failure as a motor, the stereotyped
fact, taught by all its predecessors, that new combinations and
complications do not materially decrease the cost of the original
power. Whether change of polarity, or the demagnetizing of
masses of iron without change of polarity, or the adoption of the
arrangement supposed to exist in the production of muscular, or
of any other natural action, are employed, so long as motion is
only derivable from the action of the galvanic battery as it now
exists, electrical, cannot compete with steam engines. But it is
unphilosophical to conclude the matter here. Boats, and loco-
motives, and stationary engines of considerable magnitude, have
established the fact that this motor can be employed; its very
abundance and amazing energy indicate that its creator designed
it to yield to the mastery of mind, but its subtlety, and the mys-
tery which overshadows even its most common phenomena, teach
us that long and diligent research is the price of such a servant.
Either the producers of the electric current must be very consid-
erably cheapened, or that current must be obtained on a new
basis, before success can be insured. The perhaps existing know-
ledge of that basis, like the ancient knowledge of the vacuum,
may precede its satisfactory appliance by centuries.

It Avould appear, then, that the age of electric locomotion, is
not chimerical, but distant.

Whether electricity is, or is not at the foundation of all the
physical changes promoted by the vai'ious qualities and states we
call caloric, galvanism, attraction, affinity, etc., is not an essen-
tial question in this discussion. Caloric, whether it be a primary
or a produced force, is by far the most adaptable and tractable of
the natural motors.

Its power may be applied either as it performs a labor to which
nature has already set it apart, as in the case of wind, or by gene-
rating it as required, through the chemical process of combus-
tion.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 565

Wind, the application of Avhicli to locomotion on water, has
been the subject of improvement from time immemorial at this
day hardly competes with steam, whose marine career dates back
but sixty years. And upon land, this agent must be obviously
unsuccessful, for its force and direction are almost the emblems
of uncertainty.

Through the process of combustion, however, that most feasible
of all sources, caloric has been employed with signal success.
The question now arises, by its application to what agent will it
produce the greatest power, at the least cost. Air, the cheapest
element, has been applied with comparatively indifferent, yet
positively marked, success. When we consider tliat all vapors
and gases expand equally by increase of temperature, it would
appear that the true economist w^ould start with a gas, which like
air is ready made, rather than to waste heat enough to vaporize
a fluid. The conversion of water into steam requires more than
1000° of heat, after wiiich expenditure, its jn-essure is only equal
to that of the atmosphere. But the moment such an idea is re-
duced to practice the fallacy appears. To be rendered productive
of power the gas or vapor must be forced into a heater, made the
maximum pressure, and then expanded. Then since the volume
of air at 15 pounds per square inch, w^hen it enters the pump of the
air engine, is 1,700 times greater than the volume of steam at the
same pressure, in the shape in which that steam enters the pump
of its engine, viz : water, increased friction and bulk, at once
reverse the comparative values of these agents. If air is used
at a high pressure, the vessel in which it is supplied with its
power-giving heat, though composed of the most costly materials
will hardly last through a trial trip. If it is employed at a low
pressure, say 15 pounds, the enormous capacity of the vessel in
which its power is converted into motion, would at least in land
locomotion, entirely destroy its utility. But on the other hand,
in the generation of steam, the presence of the w^ater in the one
case prevents the destruction of the heater, and in the other it
diminishes by lialf, the size of the cylinder, through the agency
of another property of steam, viz : instantaneous condensation,
by the absence of heat. While the temperature of the air heater
must be 5'JO degrees, the sensible heat of the water, and of its
heater, in the production of the same force, is only 25') degrees.
A still greater difference arises as the pressures increase. At 90
lbs., the sensible heat of water is 324 degrees, while that of air
would be more than 3,000 degrees or near tliat of melting iron.

566 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Steam or hot air being exhausted into a surface condenser, may
bs made to yield the heat which vitalized them, to the feed water
or air. But the condensation is so slow, that the saved heat does
not compensate for the lost time. Again, hot air or steam may
be exhausted into the external air, through the feed water, thus
saving a fraction of their heat. Yet this operation does not re-
move the grand objection — comparative bulk. Again, steam,
unlike air, may be instantaneously reduced in volume, 1,700
times, by the withdrawal of the heat which originally expanded
it. Practically, an approximately vacuum may thus be formed,
and a portion of the escape heat may also be returned to the
boiler, an invaluable result in marine locomotion.

But again, it is proposed to obviate the destruction of the
heater, by bringing the feed air into direct contact with fire, thus
allowing the gaseous products of combustion to expand with the
air, and thereby applying to some good purpose, whatever is sup-
plied to the heater.

The radical difficulty is now, not only more moved, but it is
increased; lor combustion under the maximum pressure must be
supported by an additional supply of air; but it is proposed to
generate steam, by the injection of water into the same heater,
and to work the die, the gases, and the vapor in the same cylin-
der. Now if such a locomotive proves successful, inasmuch as
the superiority of the steam dementis mathematically and prac-
tically certain in other cases, why should that success be attribu-
ted to the source which is in all cases known to be inferior 1

The application of steam to the cylinders prevents in propor-
tion to its quantity, that serious drawback, oxidation, and im-
msnssly increased friction; or does it remove any radical and
primary objection, or does it impart any efficacy to the air ? Sepa-
rate estimates of the dynamical effects of these agents, can alone
lead to a correct knowledge of their relative or combined value.

But again, it is proposed to obtain power by the repeated re-
generation of the same fixed quantity of air, under high artifi-
cial pressure. Assume that one ounce of coal will double the
volume of one cubic foot of air by raising its temperature 500
degrees. Take 100 cubic feet at the atmospheric pressure :

1st. One hundred ounces will double them, giving an effective
pressure of 1,500 lbs. upon a piston.

2d. If they are first compressed artificially into one foot of
space, thus exerting a pressure of 1,500 lbs., one ounce will
double their volume, giving as before, an effective pressure of

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 567

1,500 lbs., on a piston. By the second case, then, we obtain a
certain power at the expense of one ounce of coal; but in the
first case, by the use of tlie very same air, we obtain the very same
power, at one hundred times that cost, merely by the adoption of
a smaller heater. This is anomalous, and appears absurd ; but
if proven to be true, or approximately true, it establishes the
fact equally important in the case of other agents, that a certain
amount of expansion, by a given degree of heat, is due to vol-
ume, and not to weight.

But the water employed to heat the wire gauze which regene-
rates this air, must itself be heated to 50U degrees, to double the
artificial pressure once. The attaining of a heat nearly 300 de-
grees above the boiling point, must be in the absence of air, and
under immense pressure; while any accidental break or leakage,
would cause a violent and fearful explosion; hence the appara-
tus is eminently unsafe; and cold water must be applied to a
wire gauze condenser; while incessant circulation, and artificial
pressure of both hot and cold must be preserved. The rapidity
with which wire gauze regenerators will absorb and impart 500
degrees or more, of heat, is also problematical. However com-
pletely such a machine may overcome radical and practical diffi-
culties, its success must be relative. Steam is susceptible of
similar changes in its method of application; and if this theory
be true, one method of applying steam indirectly, promises the
highest success. Let a stationary steam engine, consuming two
pounds of coal per hour, for one horse power, be employed to
condense air. This air will give back nearly as much power as
can be generated by a less economical locomotive, through the
use of the same fuel. Now if the air occupy 100 cubic feet, and
exert a pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch, the addition of as
much heat as would double 100 cubic feet at the atmospheric pres-
sure, will at once develope a power equal to 200 lbs. per quarter
inch .

Allowing even fifty of these additional lbs. to balance the in-
creased fuel, and we gain fifty per cent over the ordinary loco-
motive, besides avoiding the difficulties and uncertainties of the
regenerator. By sufficiently increasing the original pressure and
the heat, the cost of locomotion might be reduced many hundred
per cent. Above all, the railway would no longer monopolize
the steam carriage.

Locomotion, by atmospheric pressure, through the use of a

568 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

vacuum, though comparatively impracticable, is but a means
whereby some other power is applied.

Caloric is again rendered productive of motion, through its
ability to promote chemical change. The expansion of gunpow-
der, of carburetted hydrogen and oxygen, and of other explosive
mixtures, when applied to driving a piston, involves a grand
objection, the shock of the explosion. This incessant percussion
certainly, though perhaps gradually, destroys the machinery; thus
condemning such an appliance, for the defect is remediless.

The expense of apparatus, the cost of repairs, the liability to
derangement, the friction of the piston, and the irregularity of
movement, are greatly increased; while the two motors, gas and
steam, though so far about equally expensive, are also equally
susceptible of increased economy in generation and use.

The most important office of caloric, is its production and
expansion of the vapor of liquids. There is one grand objection
also, to the use of any vapor except that of water, viz : neces-
sity of perpetually supplying the waste fluid at a cost which com-
pared with that of water, at once decides in favor of the latter
element.

If volatile fluids are adapted because less heat prepares them,
they should be abandoned, because this heat generates a propor-
tionably small force. No power is gained, but the agent itself is
gradually lost.

Steam is, thus far, the most trustworthy, convenient, and eco-
nomical of the natural motors. Such direct comparison of quali-
ties most clearly illustrate its advantages over all others, and its
peculiar and wonderful adaptedness to the converting of force
into motion.

It is evident, then, for three reasons, that caloric is the force,
and that steam is the agent, whereby locomotion will be accom-
plished for many years. 1st. Comparatively, its nature is better
known, audits economical production and management are enga-
ging the majority of talent and labor. 2d. Theory and practice
have proved it to be superior to any known power. 3d. History
and reason teach that a rival can attain to success only in accord-
ance with that universal law, gradual developeraent.

The future improvements in steam locomotion, may be antici-
pated by reasoning. 1st. Upon the undeveloped nature of steam;
and 2d. Upon the principles elicited by past changes. Such
speculation may refer, 1st, to generation; and 2d, to use.

Suppose a locomotive to be toiling up a grade, the wind is

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 569

adverse, the train is heavy, and the steam is waning; the pulsa-
tions at length become ominously tardy, and on a sharp curve
while our engine is on its center, the giant stops for want of
breath. Such engineering, though it may occur every day, is
libelous, if not ridiculous.

Suppose a locomotive to be standing at rest, there is no motion,
no noise, no appearance, save that of immovable solidity; sud-
denly, like a thunderbolt, a power is created, instantaneous, and
tremendous. The locomotive is torn into fragments; iron sheets
are ripped; iron bars arc rent and ponderous machinery is crushed
and mutilated like dry leaves in the gripe of a giant. Here is a
solution of the problem. Here is a commentary on the future
power of the steam engine.

Now, what are the internal causes of these two phenomena 1
The one is understood as well as the other. In the first case, the
pressure is limited to 100 lbs., because some other engineers
adopt this standard; adverse wind retards combustion; cold feed
water chills and condenses; and at last, the friction and pressure
form a grand equilibrium. The result, ift rest. In the second
case, the water and steam being low, by the time the compliment
of steam has been quietly generated, the uncovered crown sheet of
tlie furnace has imparted to that steam, without augmenting its pres-
sure, several hundred degrees of heat. The safety valve suddenly
opens; there is a general tendency of steam and water towards
this vent; the super-heated steam absorbs the water, without
which it cannot expand, and its volume is, perhaps, ten, perhaps
fifty times increased. The result is a terrific explosion. These
are extreme cases; but there must be a safe and economical
medium.

It may be urged, that since repeated attempts to use stame
(so called) have proved unsuccessful, by reason of the rapid de-
struction of the heaters, any nearer approach to using high steam
would be unprofitable.

This crowning objection may be overcome by forming and su-
perheating by steam, in direct contact with the fuel. Experi-
ments with both steam and air, have proved this to be possible,
if not already feasible.

Suppose a heater, or a firebox of a locomotive, surrounded with
water, to prevent radiation, to be supplied Avith enough fuel to
last six hours, and then made temporarily steam tight, by a sim-
ple apparatus now in use. Combustion being promoted by the
injection of air, a graduated quantity of water is thrown upon the

570 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

coals, flashes into steam, and is suddenly superheated. This
anhydrous steam, or steam, if heated in the absence of moving
water to 500 deg., (its pressure in the meantime being but
slightly changed,) will, upon the subjection of the proper quan-
tity of hot water become saturated steam, and instantly develope
the amazing force of 750 lbs. per square inch. This hot water
may be supplied from the water space around the heater, and it
may be absorbed by the high steam in the cylinder, at the mo-
ment of admission. The latent heat of steam diminishing as the
sensible heat increases, the quantity of fuel required would be
even less than enough to produce a similar degree of heat in the
same quantity of atmospheric air. And if it is true that expan-
sion is by volume and not by weight, we then have a force of 750
lbs. per square inch on the piston of a locomotive, at the trifling
cost of the fuel required to raise a heater full of steam at 15 lbs.,
500 deg.

But are these objections proportionate to the advantages ?
Manifestly not.

This power is entirely under control. The combustion may
be instantly increased or stopped by the variable throw of the air
pump, and the saturating water may be regulated by a similar
and absolutely trustwortny apparatus. The coal itself being the
heating surface, direct contact is doubly advantageous. No in-
tervening tubes are turned out, and the heat which would other-
wise destroy them, is not delayed in its action. The grand ob-
jection attending air, under such treatment, is in the nature of
steam avoided, for its volume is 1700 times smaller than air, in
the form assumed when entering the supply pump. . Nothing
except the incombustible portion of the fuel is useless ; ,the se-
rious disadvantage of priming, condensation and cooling, by
opening the fire door, back pressure due to contracted exhaust
nozzles, the immense loss of exhaust heat, draft killing spark
arrestors, the weight of tubes and water, and the necessity of a
tender, which accompany ordinary locomotives, are in this case
entirely avoidable, while economy of space renders it possible to
place the entire weight of the engine and the feed-water on the
driving wheels.

Thus, increased speed, which is now only attainable by rapid
destruction of rails, under the weight of ponderous machinery,
is possible at the wear and tear expense of ordinary freight
trains.

Economy of space and weight are equally valuable in marine

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 571

locomotion, while on land and sea safety is rather enhanced than
diminished.

If the cloud engine be based on correct principles, and will
accomplish its prophesied saving of 50 per cent, then that modi-
fication of the steam engine may be applied with equal success in
the present case, and again the already trifling expense may be
diminished by half. And lastly, assuming that air in any statu
will fill the globules of steam and double its force, and that a
certain heat expands all volumes alike, the application of 500°
to a condenser charged with 50 atmospheres, will double their
volume, and necessitate half the supply of air and half the
power to di'ive the pump.

If the use of this high steam be found impracticable, " stame"
may be economically generated by a part of the same apparatus;
and " stame" has been found to save 50 per cent, the objection
lying wholly in the method of production. These speculations,
unliiie those which rest wholly on mathematical deductions and
uncertain theories, are already partially demonstrated and reali-
zed. The existence of practical objections in the early career of
steam, did not insure their continuance and supremacy, nor will
it now.

Before such success can be completely achieved, however, the
expense of generating steam- is yet susceptible of essential modifi-
cations. Past changes suggest the principles of future improve-
ment, and contribute to its realization. In land locomotion, in-
creased fire surface, both in fire-box and flues, more perfect com-
bustion by chambers, hollow stay-bolts, and better proportioned
smoke arches and draft promoting parts, the variable exhaust,
and the saving of exhaust heat, and the heat evolved in coking
and charring, are among the most important changes yet attempt-
ed. The downward draft, greater direct contact of iron and fire,
grates for heating water and better holding and disposing fuel,
and increased protection against radiation and condensation, are
highly suggestive of improvement.

That locomotive which preserves the complement of steam with
the damper almost closed, is thrice economical. It directly saves
wood, it produces that most excellent fuel, charcoal, and it pro-
motes free exhaust, by allowing large nozzles. When unconsum-
ed gaseous and solid fuel is saved, and when waste heat is allowed
to raise both feed water and air, to approximately the maximum
temperature, railway economy will be very considerably en-
hanced.

573 TEANSAGTIONS OF THE

To establish the best coal-burning boiler, is now the grand
desideratum, of locomotive engineering, ciu-ved, spiral, diagonal,
and branched water tubes, combustion chambers, and flues, ver-
tical tubes, and fire boxes of innumerable shapes, each develop,
with more or less success, some particular doctrine. The great
aim is the securing, with limited cost and repairs, an abundant
fire surface. The importance of such a change is fully apprecia-
ble to those who have seen its results in their own experience.

It would appear, then, that the perfection of boilers, so long as
the water and the fire are separated, must be accomplished by
the better application of principles universally known, and at
least theoretically established. The importance of each of these
principles will contribute to almost incredible advantage in the
general result, while success is eminently promising.

Use, or application, the second brancli of steam engineering,
having reference to the engine proper, is far advanced, but still
imperfect. Its history is also suggestive.

The distribution and exhausting of steam, appeared most pro-
mising to its early employees, when the closing of a port, and the
passing of a centre, were the work of the same instant. But the
efficacy of the lap and the lead were soon apprehended and
demonstrated. These modifications of motion having amounted
to a fixed cut-off, the value of the three changes was found to
lie in somewhat opposite directions. An additional valve reme-
died this difficulty, and a variable independent cut-off, at first in
a separate chest, then on the main valve, completed the improve-
ments of this variety. The stationary link afforded a variable
cut-off with one valve, and the shifting link, with its variable
lead and cut-off, together with unequal steam and exhaust lead,
and the widening of ports, was at length almost universally
adopted.

And it may not be inappropriate to remark, that the complica-
tion of its motions and principles, and the simplicity and dura-
bility of its parts, render the link-motion at once the most beautiful
and triumphant of mechanical combinations.

These changes pomt to the principles which they have so dis-
tinctly developed and proved.

To use steam with the greatest economy, 1st. The boiler pres-
sure must be preserved in the cylinder, to the point of cut-off.
2d. The exhaust must oppose no resistance to the return stroke.
3d. All friction, save that of joints and packing, must be omitted.
In detail, these laws should thus appear, viz : ample and smooth

^ AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 573

throttle and steam ports and pipes; balanced valves, admitting
steam by rapid and equally Avide openings, while cutting oif at all
parts of the stroke, and at the extreme end of the cylinder; slightly
increasing lead; an exhaust port suddenly uncovered and held
open throughout the entire stroke, and large exhaust pipes and
nozzles. The reasons are evident. A locomotive with bh feet
drivers, while running between 11 and 12 miles per hour, by
steam which is cut off at one-quarter stroke, holds open the ports
only about one-eighth of a second at a time. Since, by the nar-
rowness of the opening, steam is reduced at least 12 lbs. below
the boiler pressure, at stick speed, what must be its reduction
when the engine in attaining the velocity of from 50 to 60 miles
per hour, opens its ports less that three-eighths of an inch, and
preserves the opening but the fortieth of a second. If the reduc-
tion of pressure is proportionate to this reduction of time, steam
with an initial force of 90 lbs. is not allowed to begin its work
till 40 lbs only are left, wdiile the wasted 50 must be renewed by
the boiler.

Again, if the steam pressure on the valve be due only to
the size of the openings, it is at least 7500 lbs. in engines of
the larger class. How^ much of this pressure is cancelled by the
exhaust steam, at full stroke, may be estimated by the stripping
of valve stems, and the springing of rocker arms; how much is
relieved when steam is working very expansively, may be ima-
gined by listening to the exhaust, which, though it pass through
two inch nozzles, is hardly audible.

Again, by reason of the premature closing of the exhaust port,
the maximum back pressure with the link-motion, and without
inside lead, is from 40 to 50 lbs. when steam expands through
three-quarters of the stroke.

Each of the common forms of valve apparatus, wastes from 75
to 100 cubic inches of steam in the ports, twice every revolution,
or perhaps, 80,000 times in a day.

The fixed independent cut off", necessitates the throttling and
strangling of steam, in the varying of speed and load, and both
the fixed and the variable, in all cases, increase the length of
ports, and often waste a valve box full of steam at each stroke.

The fulfilment of some of the essential conditions, however,
has been approximately accomplished by long double valves, by
various balanced valves, by the combination of a steam and a
steam and exhaust valve, covering the same ports at different in-
tervals, by two valves covering different ports at different inter-

574 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

vals, and by two steam and two exhaust valves on each cylinder.
Since these changes involve new difficulties, and leave many old
ones unremoved, the success though not complete, is, neverthe-
less, appreciable, and in the right direction.

The nature of steam, then, and the history of its appliance,
teach us, 1st. That the grand valve apparatus which shall distin-
guish future locomotion, is not yet devised; 2d. That the princi-
ples which will forever and alone lie at the basis of success, are
known and proved.

The facilities for the accomplishment of this difficult work,
could not be more abundant. The uncertainty of theories, in the
cheap generation of steam, involves costly experiment, and doubt-
ful issue; but in its use there are two invaluable devices which
criticise and appraise with undeviating accui-acy. The judicator
tells what the problem is. The model shows how far and how
well it is done.

In conclusion — without dwelling on those interesting questions,
the form of engines, the effects and philosophy of complication;
and those causes not resident in the motors or their appliance,
which so materially affect the progress of locomotive engineering,
it appears that the production and use of the natural forces are
still in their infancy, and that full development will be the work
of ages.

Rapid and cheap locomotion, is a subject of the deepest mo-
ment to them of every grade and condition. It promotes moral
reform; it stimulates intellectual labor; it enhances physical
weal.

The time is not distant, when the achievements of engineering
shall be at once the wealth and the glory of the civilised world.

After some remarks by Messrs. Creamer, Leonard, Tillman,
Geissenhainer and others; on motion of Mr. Geissenhainer, it was

Resolved, That the thanks of this Club be given to Mr. Hol-
ley for his able paper, and that he be requested to furnish a copy
for publication in the Transactions of the Society.

Mr. St. John then proceeded with the second subject, " The
best mode of raising sunken vessels;" and explained a plan of
his own for that purpose, by various models and by drawings on
the blackboard.

The thanks of the Club were passed to Mr. St. John, for his
explanations.

The committee proposed the following subjects for the next
meeting :

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 575

" The cause of the oscillation of locomotive engines at high ve-
locities, and a method of correcting it;" and " Iron for build-
ings."

Mr. Holley was asked to prepare a paper on " The history of
the steam engine." Adjourned.

JOHN W. CHAMBERS,

Secretary pro tern.

March 12th, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Samuel D. Backus, President Pell, Edwin
Smith, Chairman of the Boai-d of Managers of the Fair at the
Crystal Palace, Charles Turner, Esq., also one of the Managers,
Mr. Cowdin also, Mr. Fisher, Mr. Tillman, Mr. Holley, Mr.
Secretary Leonard, Mr. Chambers, Mr. Butler, Mr. Stetson, and
others — twenty-six members in all.

The regular chairman, Samuel D. Backus, in the chair.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.

Chairman — The question before you is, " The cause of the
oscillation of locomotive engines at high velocities, and a method
of correcting it.''

President R. L. Pell said — When we consider what the intro-
duction of the steam engine has done, we have but little difficulty
in suggesting that this great invention may be destined to achieve
objects, the magnitude of which we cannot now form the remot-
est idea. All persons who obtain facts relating to this great
motor, should record and publish them for general information
and the benefit of mankind. The subject this evening is "The
cause of the oscillating motion of locomotives at high velocities,
and its remedy." Oscillation in a locomotive is caused by the
unequal concussion of the pistons when they reach the dead
parts of the stroke which causes the frame work to vibrate trans-
versely several inches from its place alternately at each end, as
if working backward and forward on a pivot in the centre. Our
bodies are kept upright by a counteracting motion. When we
walk, our right hand follows our left leg, and our left hand is
thrown back with our right leg, thus an equilibrium is obtained,
and upon this principle a Mr. Heaton, of England, prevents
transverse oscillation in locomotives, which sometimes throws
them off the track. He illustrated his plan by a working model,
which was driven at a velocity of forty-two miles per hour, and
the oscillation taking place from the unequal concussion of the

576 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

pistons at the dead parts of the stroke, was very great. He then
placed weights on tlie wheels on one side to balance the force of
the crank motion, which at moderate speed had some effect, but
did not cure the oscillation at the highest velocity. It will be
found when an engine of twenty inch stroke, with six feet driv-
ing wheels, goes fifteen strokes per minute, or three miles per
hour, it requires one-tenth of the weight moving along the hori-
zontal line, that is, the j^iston and gearing moving backwards and
forwards within the engine framing, to stop it, and tui-n it again;
at thirty-five strokes per minute, or about seven miles per hour,
one-half its weight; at seventy -four strokes, fifteen miles per
hour, one and a half times its own weight; and at twenty miles
an hour, four times its weight.

Mr. Heaton's improvement consists in connecting to an auxili-
ary crank-pin a rod of similar length with the piston rod, on the
other end of which is a pulley, working between guide-rods
placed on the opposite sides of the axle to the cylinders, thus ob-
taining a counteracting fjrce, preventing concussion. The weight
must ])e equal to the piston and its gearing, so as to make the
weight run to the left hand at the same instant the piston goes
to the right; the blow to stop the piston, and make it return at
each end of the stroke, will be received in the auxiliary crank,
instead of in the wheels, producing a neutral point in the centre,
and steadiness of motion; for, when the blow is received in the
wheels, the cranks being at right angles, it is communicated
through the axle, and gives a twisting motion to the whole
framing of the engine. This being repeated with regularity,
produces an effect similar to rocking a boat. This oscillation is
found to be greatest when the engine is running most regular for
speed, and the piston going the same way with the oscillation of
the carriage. The effect of this counteracting motion, when
in operation, was so great, that not a tremble could be detected
in the model.

There are several objections to oscillating engines. Ernst
Alban, of Plan, says, that to set so great a mass in motion as a
steam cylinder causes great concussions, and requires a considera-
ble expenditure of power; since every time the motion is reversed
the inertia of the mass must be arrested, and an impulse given
in a contrary direction. It is supposed that by this the cylinder,
piston, and piston rod receive injurious shocks and side strains,
whereby the cylinder and the stufiing-box of the piston are
caused to wear unequally.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. " 577

It is further supposed " that the piston, acting by its weight,
sometimes on one side of the cylinder, sometimes on tlie other,
will produce unequal wear.

Eut the most weighty objection which affects nearly all oscil-
lating engines, is the great friction of the trunnions upon which
the cylinder swings. This friction is much greater than is gen-
erally supposed, on account of the high temperature to which the
trunnions are subject from the steam passing through them; with
high-pressure steam, the temperature reaches a point at whicli
metals move upon each other with difficulty, and are subject to
great, attrition. As an example, a brass cock, which may be
turned in its seat when cold, with ease, under eight atmospheres
of steam, will stick so fast as to be scarcely movable.

When the distance from the trunnion axis to the crank shaft is
too small, the rotations are unequal, as is also the force trans-
mitted to the machine.

These are some of the objections. Now for the advantages.
The oscillating cylinder simplifies the steam engine, particularly
the high pressure, against unnumbered scientific apparatus ; the
massive beam, the colossal connecting rod, the parallelogram
with its twenty joints, the oscillating cylinder lays nothing in
the scale, except two trunnions, with their bearings, and a single
connecting piece between the j)iston rod and the crank pin, not
the thirtieth part of the former. An oscillating steam engine
consists properly of nothing further than the cylinder, the crank,
and the fly wheel, between which parts the beam engine, the
most elaborate, complicated and expensive organs of the whole
machine, lie. Instead of a costly array of apparatus to convert
the rectilinear into the circular motion, the crank is worked di-
rectly by the piston rod.

Oscillating engines thus being more simple, require less trouble,
labor and time, in their manufacture, and are consequently less
expensive. It has a compact and compendious form, is more
compressed, and requires but little space, and is much lighter
than ordinary engines. A tliree horse power, without the boiler
and fly wheel, can be carried by two men. An oscillating loco-
motive engine would be simple in management, require but little
care and knowledge on the part of tlie engine attendant. Its ap-
paratus is simple. Its construction is founded on no scientific
calculations unknown to the attendant. The connection and
action of its parts, the combination of theii' motions, and their

[Am. Inst.] 37

578 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

dependence on each other, lie so clear before the eye, that the
least gifted capacity cannot fail quickly to understand them.

There is but little friction in an oscillating engine, on account
of the small number of rubbing parts. It requires less repair
than the ordinary engine, because the principal parts are in such
a position that if they become defective, the defects are sooner
discovered and more easily rectified. The piston rod requires no
guiding, as the stuffing box suffices. The oscillating engine
solves one of the most difficult problems in the construction of
the steam engine, namely : to convert rectilinear into circular
motion. A locomotive engine will oscillate far more at high
velocity on a straight road, than on one gently curving, and will
not oscillate at all if one track is lower than the other.

The resistance diminishes as the number of cars are increased;
as the direct resistance of the air takes place only on the loco-
motive of the train, deduct the resistance of it, and you will dis-
cover the resistance of the intermediate cars.

The wind has a velocity of twenty feet per second, and causes
on a surface of a square foot, a pressure equal to one pound and
a fraction. Thus a locomotive presenting a surface of 22 square
feet, would meet a resistance from the atmosphere of about twenty
pounds per ton. The direct resistance of the air against the
locomotive once deducted, the resistance per ton no longer depends
upon the number of cai-s. When the wind blows oblique to the
line of road it acts by direct impulse upon the cars, and also im-
pels the wheels to come in contact with the edge of the rail,
increasing the friction and retarding the train. When the rails
are either very wet or exceedingly dry, they present the least fric-
tion. When partially dry they collect dust, and offer great
resistance. The friction by the rolling of car wheels is undoubt-
edly a uniform retarding force, both with respect to weight and
velocity. An engine working upon a level undergoes, from its
load bearing upon the wheels, a certain degree of resistance, and
in going up an inclined plane the load presents not only the same
friction of the wheels, but also a surplus of resistance, proceed-
ing from the tendency of the train to roll back towards the foot
of the plane. The force that draws the train backwards depends
on the weight of the train and inclination of the plane. The
friction of wheels is as the diameter of the axle directly, and as
the diameter of the wheel inversely.

At a former meeting of the Club I made a few remarks on the
subject of friction, relating to car brakes. I will now complete it.

AMERrCAN INSTITUTE. 579

The friction of a locomotive engine is the resistance which it op-
poses to motion. It is the force that must be applied to it to over-
come all the frictions that oppose its progress at the moment it exe-
cutes the traction of a train. At that instant it must possess,
lat. A power sufficient to make the train overcome the resistance
of all the loaded cars. 2d. And also a power sufficient to pro-
pel the engine itself along, and overcome its own friction. The
2d power that propels the engine, is the friction of the engine;
while the first is the resistance of the load, and both together
constitute the total power applied. If an engine is compelled to
draw after it a load, the resistance of which, creating an increase
of pressure on all parts of the mechanism, must augment the
friction on every one of its points, and necessarily, the total
resistance of the engine. At every turn of the wheel there is a
complete revolution, and consequently, a complete friction of the
whole mechanism, and proportional frictions on all the com-
pressed points, upon the crank of the axletree and all the points
in general. Friction increases in proportion to the load an en-
gine draws. In the wheel and axle the friction on the axis is
nearly as the weight; in the diameter of the axis and the angu-
lar velocity, it is very small. In most screws made use of on
locomotives, the friction of the screw is equal to the pressure.
The friction of smooth woods and highly polished metals, without
oil, on each other, is nearly equal to one-fourth of the pressure.
The gudgeons of locomotive and car wheels should be made of
highly polished steel, and collars of solid brass, which will
conquer friction.

The aim of our researches must be to discover the amount of
friction for different loads, in order to deduce from it the surplus
resistance created on the engine by each ton of the load. When
an engine executes the traction of a train, we know the pressure
in the boiler by inspecting the guage; but we do not know pre-
cisely the pressure of the steam in the cylinder, because, in pass-
ing from the boiler to the cylinder, the elastic force of the steam
changes. If we could know the pressure in the cylinder, or on
the piston, by calculating the total effect of that pressure on the
area of the piston, we might find the exact valuation of the power
applied by the engine. We know the resistance opposed to the
motion ; it being composed of the resistance of the train and
engine.

If an engine when drawing a load, increased in velocity con-
stantly, it is certain that there would be an excess of power over

580 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the friction. If, on the other hand, the velocity were to dimin-
ish gradually, the power would be inferior to tlie friction ; but if
we take the engine at the moment it has acquired a certain uni-
form velocity, and if that velocity be maintained without altera-
tion, the jpower of the engine thus applied must be exactly eq\ial
to the friction it undergoes, or else there would be acceleration
or retardation in the motion. Thus knowing the power obtained
by the engine, we necessarily know the resistance to the motion,
which is the sum of the friction of the train and that of the
engine; and, besides, this sum is equal to the power applied ;
consequently, the friction of the engine is equal to the power
applied, less the friction of the train.

This would give us the precise friction of tlie engine, if we
knew the pressure in the cylinder. But there are cases in which
the pressure in the cylinder is equal to the pressure in the boiler.
These cases are those in which the engine attains the limit of its
power with the pressure at which it is working; or when it draws
the largest load it can draw with that pressure. When the engine
has arrived at the limit of its power, the pressure in the cylinder
cannot be less than in the boiler. The friction of engines is
always increased by the load ; it is a principle in statics, and
shown by the lever or pulley, that two forces to equilibrate on
that machine, the fulcrum, must support the resulting eflbrt of
the two forces; friction follows precisely the same rule, being
itself in proportion to the pressure. The curves on our railroads
offer an additional friction, which is greater according to the
degree of their incurvation.

The cars on a railroad, being oblong, have a tendency to con-
tinue their motion in a straight line; consequently if they are
compelled to follow a curve, the flange of the wheel no longer
passes in a tangent along the rail without touching it, as it does
in a direct motion. The rail presents itself crosswise before the
wheel, and forces it to deviate from its direction. And the wheel
that follows the exterior rail of the curve, has farther to travel
than that which follows the interior rail. On passing the curves,
the cars are thrown by the centrifugal force of the motion against
the outwai'd rail, the result is a lateral friction of the flange of
the wheel against the rail, which does not exist in direct motion.
The air forms a resistance to a train in motion; when five cars
move together, the air resists about 9 lbs. per ton; if each moved
separately, the average resistance would be about 11 h lbs. per
ton.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 581

Mr. Tillman gave his opinion with illustrations upon the black
board.

The chairman also spoke, and illustrated his views upon the
black board.

Mr. J. K. Fisher — Mr. Chairman : The effect of the oscilla-
tions of locomotive engines was not fully appreciated until within
a few years; nor was a remedy adopted until long after it was
proposed by Mr. Heaton, who was one of the steam carriage pro-
prietors. He explained the cause of the fore-and-aft motion,
and the slueing or serpentine motion which results from the fore-
and-aft motion taking place at different times on the two sides;
and he first proposed to neutralize by counter-weights, moving in
a direction contrary to that of the pistons. The utility of this
counter-weighting is shown by a statement in Clark on Railway
Machinery, that an engine on the Orleans railway, which never
could attain a speed above 25 miles per hour with a given train,
was counter- weigh ted, and run with the same train at 40 miles.
This result was supposed to be partly due to the correction of
some unobserved derangement, while the engine was in the repair
shop, and to make sure on that point, the counter- weights were
removed, but the speed fell to 25, and rose to 40 when the counter-
weights were replaced. Now by the formula of Eussell, the
resistance at 40 miles per hour is 25 pounds per ton, and at 25
miles it is 18 pounds; hence the power to overcome the resistance
to forward motion at the higher speed was greater than at the
lower in the proportion of 40 to 18; and from this it follows that
55 per cent of the power existing at the lower speed had been
expended in shaking the engine, and in the wear and tear conse-
quent on that shaking.

In the best shops these irregular motions, resulting from the
unbalanced momentum of the reciprocating and revolving parts,
are now avoided by counter-weighting. But there are other
oscillations which still .remain uncorrected, for we cannot con-
sider as correction the avoiding of them by the expedient of stiff
springs, as is recommended by Clark, and practiced by builders
generally.

If rails were perfectly straight and even there would be no
necessity for springs to prevent vertical oscillations, or pitching
and rolling; but as this condition never exists or can exist while
rails are flexible, or could be maintained at any cost that could
be afforded, there must be this dilemma : the unevenness and
flexure of the rails will pitch and rock the whole machine if

582

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

there be no springs; and if there be springs intervening between
the engine and the driving wheels, the oblique direction of the
connecting rods, through which the power is applied, will pitch
and rock the suspended parts. This dilemma, Scott Kussell
states, was met by the steam carriage men, by tying down, and
thickening and stiffening the springs until they become little
better than rigid blocks of metal. Gm-ry left his engines entirely
unsuspended in one of his latest carriages. Russell himself suspen-
ded his engines and boiler on springs so still tliat he had to put
on extra springs to bear his carriage body, in which the passen-
gers rode; and tliis plan was adopted by Hills, one of the latest
inventors. Hancock, Church and others, used a parallel connec-
tion, consisting of a geai-ing chain to transmit the power from the
engine crank shaft to tlie driving wheels; this completely avoided
the pitching caused by the engine when the connection was
oblique, but the pitching and jolting caused by the unevenness
of the road soon broke the chain, if the springs had much action;
and practically, this theoretically perfect device would not allow
more than half springs, three feet long, whose play could not
have exceeded eight-tenths of an inch without straining them.

The effect of the irregular motion caused by the road may be
judged of by the experiments of Morin, who found that, at nine
miles per hour, a carriage with its springs blocked required
twice the power that drew it when the springs were in action;
and that the enormous difference increased with the increase of
speed. Estimating from the results of Morin's experiments, I
conclude that at a speed of 23 miles per hour on a McAdam road,
a carriage with half elliptic springs three feet long, would require
three times more power than one with elliptic springs six feet
long, the bores being of equal thickness.

The power lost by irregular motions is equal to what would
be requii-ed to shake the mass to the same extent when it is not
moving forward. Let any one jump like a cart on a rough road,
or shake himself like an unbalanced locomotive, and he will
soon be fatigued. Let him then consider that some locomo-
tives have actually expended in this way at least twelve hun-
dred times more power than he can exert, and he will have a
general notion of the loss of power resulting from the deviations
from the proper line of motion.

In 1847, or tliereabouts, Robert Stephenson took out a patent
for an arrangement to prevent sinuous motion and rocking. It
consisted in the use of three cylinders, one acting on a crank in

AMERICAN IKSTITUTE. 583

the middle of the axle, and two, of half size, acting simultane-
ously on the wheels outside. To prevent pitching he placed
tlie guide-bars near the centre of gravity of the suspended mass.
There would have been no rocking, and but slight pitching, in
this arrangement; but if the springs were easy there would have
been a lift of the whole suspended i^ass — enough to waste con-
siderable power, and to wear the springs. The plan was not
successlul, on trial, and the conception of it, by such a talented
engineer, only proves his sense of the greatness of the evil he
sought to remedy.

Hai-tworth, who at that time altered the vertical cylinder,
w^hich pitched and rocked excessively if there w^ere any springs
at all, applied a crank-shaft working in fixed bearings, from
which he transmitted the power by parallel rods to the wiieels,
whose axles woried in jaws in the usual way. Stephenson and
Sinclair have since tried the crank-shaft, with horizontal cylin-
ders, and transmitted the power to the wheels in the same way.
But the ar-rangement has not been adopted ; nor is it possible to
use any springs with it, without danger of breaking off" the crank
pins, or other parts of the connections ; for if the axle is much
out of its normal level at the time the crank pin is at the dead
point, the parallel rod cannot reach it without straining. The
jaw might be curved, which would meet this objection ; but in
that case there would be other difficulties.

I claim to have solved the problem, perfectly, by using radius
rods, instead of jaws, to keep the axle at a constant distance from
the crank-shaft; and by transmitting the power from the crank-
shaft to the axle by means of parallel rods, as was done by Hart-
worth and the others. This arrangement, of course, obviates
the tendency to rock and pitch; and it also obviates the friction
of the axle box against the jaw, which causes waste of power and
considerable wear, and obstructs the action of the springs. The
pressure on a piston 16 inches diameter is sometimes more than
12 tons; and when the oil has worked out, and dust has worked
into the jaw, the friction may be a sixth of this, or 2 tons, which
must be slid up or down by power drawn from the engine, or
must cause a greater disturbance of the suspended parts than
would occur if there were no such resistance to the free action
of the springs.

The question is often asked, " Why has not the locomotive
been applied on the common road, since it is known that it can
draw eighty times its own weight, at ten miles per hour, on rails,

584 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and the traction on the common road is not more than from
eight to twenty times greater than it is on rails 1" The reply
of some English engineers, who had seen steam carriages, has
been, that the suspension was so imperfect that the jolting caused
excessive wear and tear, and great expense for repairs. Eussell
declares this to have been tjie case with all carriages built pre-
vious to 1832; and he adds that unless steam carriages could
have as perfect suspension as common carriages, all future experi-
ments must share the fate of the past. He was, nevertheless,
confident that the difficulty could be solved, and built six car-
riages for a company in Scotland, which w^ere better suspended
than their predecessors, but still far from fulfilling the " indis-
pensable" condition of their inventor. And the echtors of the
Mechanics' Magazine and Herbert's Encyclopedia, both familiar
with the subject, and intimate with professional engineers, have
stated it as their opinion that to suspend a steam carriage as. well
as a common carriage, and yet preserve steadiness of motion, was
simply a mechanical impossibility. The case seems to have been
abandoned as utterly hopeless. Gurney no longer puts his en-
gines on springs at all; Russell and Hills used two setts — those
which bore the engines being too rigid for the passengers ; Han-
cock had settled on a low speed as the most economical ; and the
rest Avere in no better condition; all agreed that the only question
remaining was that of durability, and this depended on suspen-
sion. If the noncontinuance of steamers on common roads, was
in consequence of any difficulty except that of prohibitory tolls,
and the manifest determination of the House of Lords not to
abate them, this was the difficulty. It is, however, positively
affirmed that, in spite of mechanical defects, the steamers worked
with profit at half the fares of horse coaches; and that nothing
but fair play was wanted to enable them to beat horses off the
road. And I am of opinion that steamers without springs at all,
if their wheels be large, can work cheaper than horses, at any
speed attainable by horses ; but it is unquestionable that easy
suspension would give them foui'fold advantage, as to durability
and economy of power.

On common roads, as all agree, elasticity, and a very great elas-
ticity, is the condition without which both carriage and road will
be rapidly worn, and power ruinously wasted; but on rails, it
seems to be assumed, there is little need of springs — the rails
being supposed to be true. This supposition is manifestly gratu-
itous; the jolting on railways, with the rigid springs they use, is

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 585

as bad as on common roads, with the spiings used in good car-
riages; and the loss of power must be great — how else could the
effect of what is called collision, increase so as to make the resis-
tance at twenty miles per hour, double what it is at four miles 1
It is to the rigidity of the engines and trains that I attribute from
half to two-thirds of the wear of wheels over rails, and the tear
and loosening of fastenings on the track and running gear ; and
to this rapid and unanticipated destruction the railroad companies
now ascribe the unprofitableness which they can no longer con-
ceal. The whole system is diseased; it has something analogous
to chronic rheumatism in its very constitution, which must be
cured before its powers can be fully developed ; and until it is
cured, the locomotive will continue to be as inferior to what it
should be, as an old man whose interrosseous substances are
hardened, is inferior to a young man whose joints are in the
prime of their elasticity; the one is injured by the slightest vio-
lence; the other is tough, and can endure, without injury, colli-
sions that would break down the rigid structure.

Mr. Holley gave his opinion, stating that he has observed six
different oscillations in locomotives, whicli he described.

Mr. Meigs, the Secretary, remarked that he had been deeply
attentive to the steam engine and railroad, since 1799. That the
oscillations complained of would vanish on a perfectly firm right
line rail, the yielding of rails with irregularity, was the sole
cause of the oscillations, the slightest irregularity of rail, at high
velocity, produces great effect. By way of gross evidence of the
effect of rough railroad, look at the miserable oscillation of our
omnibuses in Broadway, recently, over the icy hillocks which
have incumbered it so long.

Mr. Stetson spoke of the balancing of engines, and did not
believe that oscillation could be corrected by balancing.

Mr. Butler spoke of a machine illustrating the motion of
heavenly bodies.

Mr. Meigs — An Orrery?

Mr. Tillman proposes as a proper question for the Club —
" building walls impervious to heat and moisture," which was
ordered for next meeting.

The Secretary requested members who speak on the question,
to prepare in writing all which they would desire publication in
the Transactions of the Institute, in order that their own views
may be stated.

586 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Mr. Holley, of Buffalo, was invited to speak on the question
before the Club. He did so.

Mr. Meigs, the Secretary, said that the oscillation was owing
to tlie irregular surfaces of the rails, none of whose bars could
maintain the right line under pressure of the locomotive and
train; and that upon a solid right line there could be no oscilla-
tion at any velocity whatever.

Mr. Stetson, Mr. Butler, and others, spoke on the subject.

Mr. Holley said that the history of the steam engine in the
United States ought to be written. It is a great desideratum,
and he was disposed to undertake it, although it would be a
heavy one, requiring study in all the engine makers' establish-
ments. It would require steady work for a year or two.

The question for next meeting adopted by the committee is,

" The building of walls impervious to heat and moisture," pro-
posed by Mr. Tillman.

The Club then adjourned. HENRY MEIGS, Sec.

March 26, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Samuel D. Backus, President Pell, Judge
Scoville, Messrs. Ebbitts, Wright, Dr. Reid, of Edinburgh, Till-
man, Butler, Stetson, and others. Thirty members.

Samuel D. Backus, the Chairman of the Club, stated the sub-
ject for discussion, selected by the Committee on Selection of
Questions, viz : " The building of walls impervious to heat and
moisture."

President Pell said that the first thing necessary is to secure
proper stone, or building materials. By a series of experiments
recently tried in Washington to test the strength of various stones
used for building purposes, it was found,

1st. That the sand stone of which the Capitol is built, broke
under a pressure, per square inch, of 5,245 pounds.

2d. Several marbles broke under a pressure varying from 7000
to 10,000 pounds.

3d. The compact red sandstone of which the Smithsonian In-
stitute is built, broke under a pressure of 9,518 pounds.

4th. The granite or blue micaceous rocks employed for the
new foundations at Washington, broke (as the average of seven
samples) under 15,603 pounds pressure.

Gth. The Malone sandstone, broke under 24,105 pounds.

7th. The most compact sienite from Quincy, under 29,220
pounds.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 587

Trinity Church in New- York is built of New- Jersey sandstone,
which I fear will not prove a very valuable or lasting material,
from the fact that it absorbs about five-eighths per cent of rain
water, and parts with it readily. It is therefore natural to con-
clude that it will be liable to crumble from sudden expansion
or contraction. It is thought quite probable that the Washington
Monument will fall by its own weight, before it is completed, on
account of the inferiority of the stone composing its structure.
Specimens have been examined, 4 cubic inches of which sustained
a weight of 9,000 pounds, while 1 cubic inch of another specimen
sustained 18,000 pounds. The stones of which the Treasury
building and Patent Office are constructed at Washington, are
decaying and actually falling. Dr. Johnson says that those rocks
which amid decomposing influences, whether derived from cur-
rents of water, meteoric agencies, or vegetable growth and decay,
have been able to sustain themselves in high naked and angular
cliffs, unprotected by sojl, and yet unfurrowed by irregular dis-
integration, ai-e manifestly those to which the engineer and archi-
tect are to direct their attention, when they seek materials for
durable works of art. And after having found them, the next
step is to build a proper wall, impervious to heat and moisture.
A recent number of the Allgemeine Zeitung contains an inter-
esting account of the progress of building a wall called Cyclo-
pean, near Kiel, in Schleswig-Holstein, the execution of which is
far superior to any of the numerous remains called by the same
name in Italy, and it is considered superior to any other kind of
wall, so far as the plain, vertical surface of the material, apart
from ornamental accessories, is concerned. The stones are poly-
gonal, and exert their pressure in all directions, insuring stronger
work than squared stones, however closely jointed, which only
act in the direction of gravity. Indeed, the innumerable many-
sided and multangular stones of all sizes seem run together into
one compact mass, of which neither time nor age will get the
better. Neither mortar nor any other means of building the stones
together is employed, but the greatest care is taken in fitting the
granite blocks one into the other, the vacant spaces in the wall
as it is carried up being accurately taken off with a lead tape
forced with a hammer into all the angles of the openings, and
then applied to the flat hewn face of the block best suited, and
next to be brought to its proper shape by the workmen. Five-
sided and six-sided blocks; seldom four-sided are used; and they
are placed according to the tape in obtuse angles, joint upon angle

588 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and angle upon joint, with inclined junctions in every gradation
between the perpendicular and the horizontal, without coinciding
with either of them.

In this obliquity you will detect the arch principles of con-
struction, that each stone either pressed or supported, with every
one of its sides, however numerous. This polygonal kind of
building is particularly applicable in, first, hydraulic works, as
it oifers nowhere a continuous joint to the water; second in forti-
fications; third, for railways in substruction and steep coverings,
and for large buildings and palaces. In these the walls would
be impervious to heat and moisture, as air would always be present
between the interstices in sufficient quantity to overcome both.
I would recommend the adoption of this method of building ac-
cordmg to determined and clearly defined principles and rules,
wherever the material for polygonal blocks is found. Our
government would do well, before they commence the construc-
tion of the intended post-office, courts, mint, &c., in this city, to
inform themselves with regard to this most imj)ortant matter.

The Roman circus at Toulouse in France, and the very ancient
castle at Hastings in England, have endured for centuries, and
their walls are formed by building flints up in frames, and then
pouring cement into the interstices; they are supposed to be im-
pervious to heat and moistui-e. In Paris many external walls of
houses are constructed of framed timber, rubble and plaster;
thus, the frame timber structure being completed, strong oak
battan laths from two to three inches wide are nailed to the
quarters horizontally at three, five, or seven inches apart, accord-
ing to the character of the work, and the spaces between are
loosely built up with rough stone rubble; a strong mortar is then
laid on at both sides at the same moment, and pressed completely
through from the opposite sides at the same time, so that the
mortar meets and entirely embeds the stone rubble by filling up
all the hollows, and with so much body on the surface as to com-
pletely cover up and embed the timber and laths. This wall is
supposed in France to be impervious to heat and moisture.

The ancients adopted several modes of constructing walls, in
which more or less masonry was used; they had verticular and
incertain walls; the verticular were esteemed the most beautiful,
the joints being so arranged, that, in all parts, the corners have
a regular position; whereas, in the incertain, the materials rest
irregularly upon each other. In most cases the wall should be
filled up with liquid mortar, called jointing. It consists in mix-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 589

ing fresh lime with water, and pouring it while hot, among the
masonry in the body of the wall. The walls called by the
Greeks Isodomum, are those in which all the courses are of an
equal thickness, and the Pseudo-Isodomum, are those in which
they are unequal — both these walls are firm. In the kind of
walls called amplection by the Greeks, the faces are all built with
dressed stones, with the other sides left rough; and the two faces
were secured by occasional bond stones. Walls entirely of hewn
stone may be made one-fifth thinner than those of brick. A wall
should be reduced in thickness as it rises, for the same reason
that a column is diminished, and if the wall be a part of the
house, it should be reduced in a greater degree by internal offsets.
In building a wall, impervious to heat and moisture, the first pre-
caution that is required, is to dig deep enough to ascertain the
nature of the ground and of moist to guard against it; the next
to lay a sufiiciently extensive and firm foundation. The disposi-
tion of the stones or bricks is of much importance, as the strength
is greatest when all the surfaces are either horizontal or vertical.
If they be oblique, they must have a tendency to slide away lat-
erally, and the wall be liable to crack. It is not of much advan-
tage in walls to use stones which have a greater length than three
times their thickness; otherwise from the difficulty of binding
them equally, they are. liable to break in the wall. It is not un-
usual in building to make the external of an inclosing wall of
hewn stone, and the internal part of rubble work; but these set-
tle unequally, and wliere the walls support much weight danger-
ous cracks and bulges take place. The walls of St. Peter's church
at Rome, show some serious defects arising from this cause ; such
walls are not impervious to heat and moisture.

A wall should be so constructed that the resultant of the pres-
sures should everywhere fall within the thickness of the wall ;
and a careful investigation of this problem will show that a curved
wall is the strongest possible. If a plain wall be not thick
enough to admit a curve to be drawn within it, there will be a
tendency to bulge at one-third of the height from the base. The
utility and common practice of building nearly all our (edifices of
brick, arises from motives too obvious to need a definition; since
it is generally considered to be much the cheapest, as well as the
most eligible substance that can be invented for the purpose, both
in point of beauty and duration, and inferior to nothing but
wrought stone. The use of bricks, in buildings, may be traced
to the earliest ages, and they are found among the ruins of almost

590 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

every ancient nation. The earliest edifices of Asia, were
constructed of bricks, dried in the sun, and cemented with
bitumen. Of this material, was built the ancient city of Nine-
veh, the walls of Babylon, some of the ancient structures of
Egypt and Persia, the walls of Athens, the Rotunda of the
Pantheon, Temple of Peace, and the Thermse, at Rome, were all
of brick.

The earliest bricks were never exposed to great heat, as appears
from the fact, that they contain seeds and straw, upon which no
sign of burning is visible, and they owe their preservation to the
extreme dryness of the climate, since they crumble to pieces
when immersed in water, after having kept their shape for more
than two thousand years.

Walls may be built of hollow brick, and possess many advan-
tages over those in common use. Mr. Chadwick, of England, says
they are superior to common brick and stone.

1st. They prevent the passage of humidity, being drier.

2d. They prevent the passage of heat, and ai'e warmer in win-
ter and cooler in summer.

3d. They are a security against fire,

4th. They prevent the passage of sound.

5th. They have less unnecessary material, and are lighter.

6th. They are better dried, and burnt harder and stronger.

7th. They are more cleanly and capable of ventilation.

8th. They are cheaper, and applicable to inner partitions.

9th. They are impervious to heat and moisture. A dry house
will always be a healthy one in any climate.

The Chairman read the following :

Of all the qualities essential to a place of human habitation,
the first and most indispensable is protection against the severi-
ties of climate. In the matters of architectural design and deco-
ration, magnitude and durability, or the number and completeness
of the appliances for comfort and household convenience, there
may be great diversity; but in one respect the smallest and
meanest cottage, and the most magnificent mansion are upon a
perfect equality. Unless they guard their occupants against the
intrusion of stornft, the scorcliing or the sweltering heats of
summer, and the rigors of winter, they are alike wanting in that
which should give them their chief value. A property so uni-
versally requisite, must depend on principles alike universal in
their application. The materials of which buildings are com-

i.:,li:KICAN INSTITUTt:.

591

posed may differ greatly in their character, and the costliness and
mode of construction may be as various ; but the same natural
laws will apply to all, .and are to be alike studied by the buildejs
of every class of structures. The mode of their application is to
be determined in each case, according to its peculiar circum-
s.'auces.

In building, as in many other arts, failure is often caused by
ati endeavor to accomplish something before unknown, or to
arrive at results by principles and methods entirely new. In the
few hints which follow attention will be turned the other direc-
tion, in the hope well known principles, and the most commonly
observed facts, may suggest the means of improving our dwellings
by simple and easy processes — a matter in which all who live
under roofs have a personal interest.

The precaution most obviously necessary in building is that
against the direct intrusion of rain or wind from without. The
prevention of this evil is simply in walls and roofs, air and water
tight; and while they remain so, whatever their nature in other
respects may be, their purpose in this regard is answered. But
other hostile influences are more subtle. It is the impenetration
of heat, or caloric, without the actual passage of air or water,
that presents to us the greatest difiiculties, by increasing the
temperature of oiu* apartments in w^arm weather or depriving
them of their heat in winter. This in two ways greatly difier-
ent in their effects and in the means required for their counter-
action.

The first is by direct radiation. Radiated heat is only trans-
mitted through transparent media which are themselves not
affected by it. As but a small portion of ordinary buildings is
of this character, the trouble from this cause is comparatively
small, and easily avoided by curtaining the windows. The air
of the interior being transparent, is but little affected by radia-
tion either of solar heat or that artificially produced.

The other source of difficulty is the transmission of heat
through conducting substances. That we may the better under-
stand the operation of this influence, let us take two extreme
cases and analyse the facts in each. The walls of the Merchants'
Exchange are of solid masonry, in great part granite, of enormous
thickness. Within the building, whatever may be the changes
in the external atmosphere, the temperature is equable, never
reaching within several degrees of the extremes of the seasons,
and in its changes much slower than that of tlie open air. The

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Crystal Palace is built of iron and glass, each of single thick-
ness, without other lining or covering to the walls. In the
SQuthern offices in that building, occupied by the clerks of this
Institute at its late exhibition, the heat became almost intolera-
ble so soon as the sun shone upon that part of the building,
though late in November, but when the sun iiad set, or a shadow
fell upon the wall, the temperature instantly fell and in a very
short time was the same as that out of doors.

In the first case, the dark walls readily absorb the heat from
the sun's rays, but being poor conductors are exceedingly slow in
transmitting it to their internal substance, or in showing any rise
of temperature upon their inner surfaces. When these warm
beams are withdrawn, these massive blocks are equally slow in
imparting to the outer air, the heat they have been so long in
acquiring, or which has been contributed to them from the inte-
rior apartments. They become, in fact, great reservou'S of caloric,
slow both in filling and exhausting.

In the other case^ the iron portion of walls is an equally ready
recipient of solar heat, but being thin, and moreover a good con-
ductor, soon becomes throughout its substance of a higher tem-
perature than the air of the room within, and at once begins to
impart to it of its own heat. In the same manner, the floor and
all other opaque substances, upon which the smishine from the
windows may fall, become, in turn, absorbents and radiators, and
the air which was more unaffected by tiie direct solar rays, when
they passed through it, readily absorbs the heat from the hot sub-
stances with which it is in contact, and rising, gives placet© other,
until the whole is much warmer than the open air circulating
outside; now remove the heating cause, and the current begins
to set in the other direction through the same channels. The
walls, in turn, give up their heat to the external wdnds, and
absorb it from the internal air, which continued to derive it from
any substance warmer than itself, till all are again reduced to
the same temperature. Here we have in one day, the phenomena
of both winter and summer.

It will be seen that in either Qf these cases the air of the inte-
rior is heated or cooled only by contact with the walls or other
substances, themselves heated or cooled from the outside. The
remedy for these effects then is evidently to form the walls in
such a way that they shall not transmit caloric from one surface
to the other. To accomplish this, a thick and solid stone wall
has often been resorted to at enormous expense and with much

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. , 593

inconvenience of arrangement. The objections to this plan have
already been alluded to. All stone or other masonry is, to a cer-
tain extent, a conductor and consequently an absorbent of caloric.
The noted pendulum experiment in Bunker Hill monument,
demonstrated the fact of the alternate expansion and contraction
of the sides of that structure, in perfect accordance with their
exposure to the bright sunshine. Increasing the thickness of
walls will, of course, prolong the time necessary to heat them
through, but it produces another eifect which fully counterbal-
ances this advantage. It renders their temperature more uni-
form, and, of course, more nearly the average of the temperatui'e
of the open air day and night the whole year round. This is so
far below that which is required in occupied apartments, that the
interior of such walls are almost always cold, and, as a conse-
quence, damp ; for the air which has been rarifled in a warmer
place, and charged to its capacity with moisture at that heat,
will, on being brought in contact with a cold wall, lose its reten-
tive power, and its vapors will be condensed upon the cold sur-
face, to be again evaporated at the next fall of the mercury.

To obviate these objections, hollow bricks have been used to
reduce the mass of masonry, while strength and thickness of wall
is retained. To the extent of the material removed, this plan may
be effective in this respect, no more. Even hollow walls bound
together by bricks, will show on warm, damp days, through the
plaster coating, where the bond bricks are placed.

For health, as well as comfort then, we need for our protection,
some substance which is neither a conductor nor an absorbent
of radiated heat. It is also important that this material should
be easily and cheaply obtained and applied. Better than any other
known substance, answering the required conditions most per-
fectly in every respect, and free as the air we breathe, the desired
material is everywhere at hand.

It has long been known that confined air was among the best
non-conductors of caloric — that this fact has not been more ap-
plied to practical purposes, is in a great measure owing to a
failure to distinguish between confined air and circulating currents.
The latter may answer a good purpose in their way for heating
or ventilation, but the former affords the nearest approach to a
perfectly non-conducting wall which has yet been produced. It
neither conveys the heat from the one side to the other, nor does
it retain it to give it out again as occasion may arise. To render
walls perfect protectors between heat and cold we believe it is

[Am. Inst.] 38

594 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

only necessary to make them air tight cells. How to do this is
the practical question.

It is common in the Eastern States to cover the frames of
wooden buildings with rough boards, and to place clap boards
outside of them. Though this affords but an imperfect barrier
against piercing winds, it forms a tolerable shield against still cold.
A better practice prevailing in this vicinity, is to fill in with
bricks and mortar between the parts of the frame; this makes
one thickness air-tight, or nearly so, but there is often great
carelessness in the finish of the interior plastering. A better plan
than the first named is to lath and plaster roughly but tightly
upon the back of the clapboards, and in either case care should
be taken that no open spaces are left at the floors and ceilings,
and a means of circulation afforded to the air confined between
the two shells of the wall. Filling in the whole space, several
inches in depth, at each floor, not only accomplishes this purpose,
but is an obstacle to the rats and mice, who may often, if allowed
free scope, break up the best laid plans for isolation and venti-
lation.

In brick walls built with hollow spaces, the advantages of
their form are often lost by making cold air flues of the air cells,
thus reducing the inner wall to the condition of an exterior one,
the air space and outer wall being rendered useless as protectors.
As already mentioned, the leaders or bond bricks needed in such
work materially interfere with the perfect results which such an
arrangement, well carried out, seems to promise.

Furring, or setting of the lathing at a little distance from the
masonwork, serves by far the best purpose of all the plans yet
devised, and is based on the most scientific principles. The ob-
jections to this method, are the additional expense of the furring
and lathing, and danger from fire. These, however, are difficul-
ties which may be overcome, and at any rate are not properly to
be considered in this connection.

If what has here been advanced is true, the perfect protection
of buildings from the weather, is an easier matter than it is often
made to appear. The thickness of the air space is nearly or quite
immaterial. The conducting properties of the material composing
the cell make no diSerence. Two thickness of pasteboard fitted
tightly into an aperture of a wall, so long as they remain in good
condition, would be as effectual as solid blocks of stone of the
most massive size. This may seem extravagant, but facts will
show its truth.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 595

The methods which an observation of these principles would
suggest, have been often adopted, but more frequent from conven-
ience than an intelligent regard to tlie reasons of their efficiency.
Wooden walls are nearly always made double, but more reliance
being placed upon the wood and the plaster than upon the air
between them, care has not been taken to make the enclosed
spaces air tight, especially at the top and bottom. Double win-
dows are generally supposed to derive their value from the addi-
tional thickness of glass solely. The common custom of placing
a temporary sash upon the outside, has the objection that the
windows cannot be opened. A better plan is to make the sash
thicker than is usual, placing permanently one thickness of glass
near the outer edge, and inserting a thin sash of hard wood, con-
taining another plate of glass, upon the inside, fastening it with
screws, so that it may be removed for cleansing the interior sur-
faces. If both plates are permanently secured with putty, the
glass will in time become dimmed, either from oxidation or the
condensation of the impurities of the confined air.

This arrangement would be specially valuable in conservato-
ries, graperies, &c., where it is occasionally desirable to open the
sashes. In railroad cars, too, it would prevent the annoyance of
frost upon the windows, which so often obstructs the view in
the winter season.

Another class of structure, from which all external heat is to
be excluded, has given occasion for the display of much inge-
nuity, and to this the principles laid down are peculiarly appli-
cable. Formerly ice houses were invariably built under ground.
This reduced their temperature to that of the earth around them,
but as that was found to be a better conductor than even the
unconfined air, it was exceedingly difficult to maintain at any
lower point. Of late years tlie favorite plan has been to erect
them above ground, and fill them in with straw, tan, saw-dust,
or other substances, whose chief value consists in confining the
air held within the interstices. If, however, the filling itself
becomes damp by any means the walls are made to acquire a con-
ducting power equal to that of the water they contain, and a loss
of ice must always be calculated upon from this cause. For
domestic uses, an ice-house may readily be made below the
earth much more efficient than any other in use, by enclosing a
pit with cemented walls, covered with an air-tight roof. In this,
and a few inclies from it at all points, a tight wooden box is to
be erected, leaving an air space all around it, as well as above

596 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and below. It may be entered, if convenient, directly from the
cellar of the house, through double doors, and a veranda floor
will often make a good outer roof. All requisite ventilation is
easily secured by means of tin pipes which can be closed by
plugs when desired. At the time of filling, the ice can be let
down through hatches in the two roofs, which are then to be
tightly battened down. Such an ice-house has the additional
advantage of being readily converted into a cold larder for the
farm or the family, by placing the ice entirely upon one side,
enclosing it by a thin partition of zinc or sheet iron.

These brief hints, hastily thrown together, are offered with no
pretence of having exhausted the subject, but with the desire of
suggesting modes in which, by forethought and ingenuity, and
without great expense, the " homes of the people,'* may be im-
proved in those things which promote health and enjoyment.

[This article was illustrated by diagrams of a double sash, an
'ce-house, &c.]

Secretary Meigs observed, during the late severe cold weather,
that the double windows of the parlor of his eldest son Henry
Meigs, jr., on the corner of the Seventh Avenue and Thirteenth
street, exposed to the northwest, have never shown frost or ice
on them, either on the outer or inner window; while the rooms
with liigh windows were occasionally covered so thickly with
frost as to intercept view entirely.

A gentleman said they were very commonly used in the cotton
and other factories of the Eastern States.

Mr. Stetson wished to ask what were the practical difficulties
in the formation of windows with double glass 1 He detailed
some interesting experiments in his efforts to regulate the tempe-
rature of railway cars in winter. Plates of glass, even very
slightly apart, meet the difficulty.

The Chairman said that it might be noticed that in picture

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 59"/

frames in which the glass was pasted to the engraving, they will
always at certain times present a moist film.

Dr. Reid of England, the ventilator of the new houses of Par-
liament, next spoke — Some stones are undoubtedly so porous that
they will serve as filters. Glazed bricks are extremely valuable
for the opposite reason." Draining tiles often crumble because of
their porosity. A porous wall is therefore a bad wall. As to
foundations, it is necessary that walls standing in damp places
should be well protected from springs and other places of mois-
ture. In this way concrete often ceases to be concrete. As to
the silicate of lime, ten or twelve years ago many interesting
experiments were made. A patent had been taken out for the
formation of a sort of hard glass — a silicate such as exists in
nature. Capt. Smith had pointed out a remarkable fact — the
conclusion being that pure oxide of iron, free from acid, will pull
down lime from its solutions in water. No doubt the hardness
of the old Roman cements arose from the gradual formation of
a true silicate of lime in the compound, and the hardness of
mortar generally may be in ratio to the formation of this peculiar
body. Dr. Reid spoke very approvingly of double windows.
Some persons thought it advisable to place the panes as far apart
as possible.

The Chairman called up the subject for the next meeting.

Mr. Tillman requested that the subject selected by the com.
mittee, viz : The extent and mode of using iron in building, in
place of other materials. The question was unanimously adopted.

The Club adjourned.

H. MEIGS, Secretary.

April 9t/i, 1856.

Present— Messrs. President Pell, Backus, Leonard, Chambers,
Dr. Smith, Slater, Lindsay, Cowdin, Fisher, Godwin, Creamer,
Tillman, Thompson, and others, 33 members in all.

Samuel D. Backus in the chair; Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read in part; on motion
the reading of the residue was dispensed with, and the minutes
approved.

On motion, Mr. Lindsay was requested to exhibit his model
machine for grinding and polishing glass plates, kc. The trans-
lucent and the opaque plates exhibited had very perfect polish
and true surfaces. He described the whole modus operandi at

598 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

length. How large a plate can you polish'? Answer, We don't
know a size that we cannot polish.

On motion of Mr. Leonard, the following resolution was
unanimously adopted :.

Resolved, That we have witnessed with pleasure and pride the
specimens of polished plate glass exhibited to us this evening, by
Mr. Lindsay, partner and owner with the patentee, Mr. Broughton,
affording as they do a gratifying evidence of the initiation of a
new and highly important branch of manufacture in this country.

The chairman called up the regular question " Use of Iron in
Buildings.

Mr. John W. Thompson read a paper that he had prepared for
Mr. Bogardus on Cast Iron Buildings, their construction and ad-
vantages.

CAST IRON BUILDINGS.

So much that is erroneous has been said and written concern-
ing Iron Architecture, and so little that is authentic, that but
few are yet acquainted with either its merits or its history. To
furnish correct information on this important subject is our
object.

The first complete cast-iron edifice ever erected in America or
in the world, was that of the inventor, James Bogardus — being
his manufactory on the corner of Centre and Duane streets, New-
York. Its foundation was laid in May, 1848: but" a cast-iron
model of it had been freely exhibited to visitors at his factory,
since the summer of 1847. Previous to this period, the opinion
of most men of scientific reputation, was unfavorable to its use
for this purpose ; and, amongst all classes, there was also a very
strong and general prejudice against it. Some accidents had
happened from the breaking of cast-iron beams in England, and
their cause was ignorantly attributed to the material employed ;
whereas, the fault lay in the want of proper knowledge and skill
in constructing them. These accidents, however, helped to swell
the popular prejudice against cast-iron as a material for buildings,
and they were frequently quoted in opposition to the inventor ;
until, by the erection of the building already mentioned, he
demonstrated their untrustworthy character. Since that period,
he has erected many structures of the same description, not only
in New- York, but also in various other cities, such as Philadel-
phia, Baltimore, Washington, and San Francisco ; and persons
capable of passing judgment on their merits, have, after a care-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 599

ful investigation, been profoundly convinced of their superiority —
that they alone embrace the true principles of safety, durability,
and economy. And the inventor himself firmly believes, that
were the public fully aware of its great advantages, cast-iron
would be employed, for superior buildings, in every case, in pre-
ference to granite, marble, freestone, or brick.

It was whilst in Italy, contemplating there the rich architec-
tural designs of antiquity, that Mr. Eogardus first conceived the
idea of emulating them in modern times, by the aid of cast-iron.
This was in the year 1840 ; and, during his subsequent travels in
Europe, he held it constantly in view ; and cherished it the more
carefalh', as he became convinced, by inquiry and personal obser-
vation, not only that the idea was original with himself, but that
he might thereby become the means of greatly adding to our
national wealth, and of establishing a new, a valuable, and a per-
manent branch of industry.

It is impossible for the reader to realize to their full extent, the
difficulties which Mr. Eogardus had to encounter in the erection
of his first building. Whilst burdened with the care of his fac-
tory, and with limited means at his command, he had not only to
superintend every detail of its construction, but to hear and an-
swer daily, the same predictions of failure. One would not live
in it, if he had it as a gift, for fear lest it would crush itself by
its own weiglit ; another would not, for fear of lightning : a third
was sure that it was not perpendicular, and that sooner or later
it would topple to the ground; and a fourth foretold, that if a fire
should happen, it would melt -the columns, and the whole would
fall with one tremendous crash. Others declared, as the uni-
versal voice of science, that, in consequence of the expansion and
contraction of the metal, it contained within itself the elements
of early and rapid decay; and some even asserted that the experi-
ment had already been made in England; that its disastrous fail-
ure had been attended with a great public calamity; and that, in
consequence thereof, an Act of Parliament was actually then in
force, forbidding the erection of cast-iron buildings. Eut these
and other objections, Mr. E. had already thoroughly considered,
and found them either to be groundless altogether, or to involve
only such difficulties as might be obviated by mechanical means.
Meantime, the work on the building, which had been steadily pro-
gressing, though but slowly, wholly ceased for a time. This was
to many a convincing proof that something was wrong ; and the

600 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

poor unfinished skeleton was christened Eogardus's folly — not
knowing that, in the interval, he had commenced and finished the
fronts of several stores, on the same pattern, at the corner of
Washington and Murray streets.

It may be also added, that complaints were made to the City
Authorities against it, and that some of the tenants of neighboring
buildings left their houses through fear of danger : this created
some delay, until informed by the chief engineer of the fire de-
partment, tliat the committee had made a favorable report.

This first cast-iron building, Mr. Eogardus's present factory, is
of five stories, and was designed to be a model of its kind. Since
its erection, it has not been difl&cult to convince any one who will
take the trouble to examine it, that such buildings combine un-
equalled ADVANTAGES OF ORNAMENT, STRENGTH, DURABILITY, AND
economy; whilst they are, at the SAME TIME, ABSOLUTELY
SECURE AGAINST DANGER FROM FIRE, LIGHTNING, AND AN IMPERFECT
FOUNDATION.

Whatever be the advantages of cast-iron as a building material,
they would be all unavailable, were they not accompanied with
stability of structure. But, simple as this problem now appears
to be, had it not been hitherto esteemed impracticable, it would
not have been left for Mr. Bogardus to solve it. As it is on this
point, mainly, that his merits as its inventor depends, a short
description is subjoined; and the reader should remember, that
the greater the simplicity of an invention, it is the more merito-
rious.

The cast-iron frame of the building rests upon sills which are
cast in sections of any required length. These sills, by the aid of
the planing machine, are made of equal thickness, so as not to
admit of any vai'iation tliroughout the whole : they are laid upon
a stone foundation, and are fastened together with bolts. On the
joints of the sills stand the columns or pilasters, all exactly equal
in height, and having both their ends faced in a turning lathe so
as to make them perfectly plane and parallel; and each column
is firmly bolted to the ends of the two adjacent sills on which it
rests. These columns support another series of sills, fascias, or
cornices, in sections, of the same length as the former, but of
greater height according to the design of the architect: they are
separately made of equal dimensions by the planing machine, and
are bolted to the columns, and to each other, in the same manner
as before. On tliese again stands another row of columns, and on
these columns rests another series of fascias or cornices ; and so

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 601

on, continually, for any required number of stories. The spaces
between the columns are tilled up with windows, doors, and
panels, which may be ornamented to suit any taste.

It may be here remarked that, in certain cases, the first layer
of sills may be dispensed with altogether; and also that, immedi-
ately before uniting the pieces, it is the practice of Mr. Bogardus
to apply a coating of paint to those parts which are designed to
be in contact with others; thus rendering the joints absolutely
air-tight.

From this description it is plain, that the separate parts are so
united as to form one stable whole, equivalent in strength to a
single piece of cast-iron. Hence, such a structui-e must be far
more firm and solid than one composed of numerous parts, united
only by a feeble bond of mortar. On this account it may be raised
to a height vastly greater than by any other know^n means, with-
out impairing its stability in the least; and, were all the columns
of any story removed or destroyed by violence, except the four
corner ones, or others equivalent in position, the building would
still remain firm as an arch; and the greater its height, the firmer
it would be.

It is also plain that such a building may be erected with extra-
ordinary fixcility, and at all seasons of the year. No plumb is
needed ; no square, no level. As fast as the pieces can be handled,
they may be adjusted and secured by the most ignorant Avorkman :
the building cannot fail to be perpendicular and firm. Wedges,
mortises, and chaii's, are all ignored : tliey are the subsequent in-
ventions of interested individuals, in order to evade the patent;
and to render less dangerous, or less apparent, their imperfect
and unstable joints. Strength is secured in the simplest and
surest way, and at the least possible expense.

It also follows that, a building once erected, it may be taken to
pieces with the same facility and despatch, without injuring or
destroying any of its parts, and then re-erected elsewhere with
the same perfection as at first. The size and form of the pieces
greatly favor their portability, which has enabled Mr. Eogardus
to construct them in New- York, and export them to distant cities.
This quality is of the greatest importance; for it renders every
cast-iron building not only a present, but a permanent addition to
our national wealth. Who can estimate the annual saving to the
city of New-York alone, \vere all its buildings of this character ?
The progress of improvement would no longer be accompanied
with the work of demolition; instead of destruction, there would

602 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

be a removal only — a simple change of location. And to make
the calculation properly, we should know not only the present
worth of the buildings destroyed, but what was their original
cost.

These superior qualities of cast-iron buildings depend mainly
upon their mode of structure, without which the rest would be
of little avail. We now proceed to consider those superadded
advantages which arise more directly from the character of the
material employed.

Cast-iron does not indeed possess the character of wrought iron
for resisting tensile strain, but it is far superior to it in resisting
a crushing force; and it is vastly superior to granite, mai'ble, free-
stone, or brick, in resisting any kind of force or strain. It may,
however, for building purposes, be considered crushing-proof.
According to the tables of our best authorities, which have been
often verified, a cubic inch of cast-iron can sustain a weight of
eighty tons. Now, since a cubic foot weighs four hundred and
fifty-five lbs., it follows, by an easy computation, that a column of
cast-iron must be ten miles in height, before it will crush itself by
its own weight. It will be readily seen that the joint invented
by Mr. Bogardus, effectually secures the whole of this important
quality ; and that thereby he would be enabled to erect a tower
or building many times the height of any other edifice in the
world, which would be perfectly safe to visitors, in the face of
storm or tempest, though they filled it throughout every story, to
its utmost capacity.

The great strength of cast-iron, enables us also to enlarge the
interior of a house, by lessening the thickness of its walls : a very
important item in this city, where ground is of great value.

Cast-iron also possesses the quality of great durability. Unlike
wrought iron and steel, it is not subject to rapid oxydation and
decay, by exposure to the atmosphere. And whatever tendency
it may have of slowly imbibing oxygen in a moist atmosphere, can
easily be prevented by a proper coating of paint, and thus, at a
very small expense, be made to endure a thousand years, unaf-
fected by the winds or the weather. On account of this quality,
cast-iron houses do not tax their owners with the cost and the
trouble of repairs, which are incident to other buildings, in con-
sequence of their perishable character.

Another recommendation of cast-iron is, " its happy adaptabil-
ity to ornament and decoration." Were a single ornament only
required, it might perhaps be executed as cheaply in marble or

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 603

freestone: but where a multiplicity of the same is needed, they
can be cast in iron at an expense not to be named in comparison,
even with that of wood; and with this advantage, that they will
retain their original fullness and sharpness of outline long after
those in stone have decayed and disappeared. Fluted columns
and Corintliian capitals, the most elalDorate carvings, and the rich-
est designs, which the architect may have dreamed of, but did not
dare represent in his plans, may thus be reproduced for little
more than the cost of ordinary castings. Ornamental architec-
ture— which, with our limited means, is apt to be tawdry, because
incomplete — thus becomes practicable; and its general introduc-
tion would greatly tend to elevate the public taste for the beauti-
ful, and to purify and gratify one of the finest qualities of the
human mind.

Indeed, so apparent have become the advantages and economy
of cast-iron for ornamental purposes, that there is danger lest the
public overlook the character of the structure of a building, in
the contemplation of its architectural beauty; and that, deceived
thereby, and by the name of the material employed, tliey imagine
themselves to be admiring a building which has all the superior
qualities already described : whereas, being without stability in
the combination of its parts, it is in reality more insecure than
our ordinary buildings.

Some have asserted, and it is generally believed, that, as iron
is so good a conductor of heat, it would expand and contract so
much by the changes of temperature, as to dislocate its joints in a
short time, and render the building unsafe. It has been already
mentioned, that the assumed impossibility of forming a safe and
economical joint for massive structures of cast-iron, was the pro-
bable cause why such buildings had not been earlier introduced.
It may now be added, that the supposed necessity of making some
provision for the expansion and contraction of the metal, was the
probable reason why efforts were not made to overcome this difiB.-
culty. Indeed, such has been the prevalence of this belief, that,
even within a few weeks, a writer in the Daily American Organ,
published at Washington, has said : — " Nothing prevents the
speedy and general adoption of iron for building purposes, but
the practical difficulty in applying it to the substantial portion of
architecture, resulting from some of its elementary properties :
these are, its expansive and contractible action under the inllu-
ences of heat and cold, and its extraordinary conducting powers.''
And in support of his statement, respecting the destructive effects

604 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of metallic action, he makes the following quotation from another
writer : —

" The first difficulty arising from this source, is the compara-
tively slight but constantly disorganizing force exerted ujDon
structures of iron or other metals, by expansion from solar heat
and contraction by severe cold — a difficulty great in Europe, but
much more formidable in tliis country, where we have such extra-
ordinary extremes of temperature. A distinguished scientific
gentleman, speaking of this subject, refers to the monument Colon
de la Place Vendome, erected in honor of Napoleon the 1st, and
covered with bronze made from captured cannon. ' In this monu-
ment,' he says, ' there was experienced much trouble from con-
traction and expansion. The bronze plates, firmly united by
rivets, acted as one stupendous sheet, and buckled under the sun's
rays in a most extraordinary manner, acting as a real great pyro-
meter."

If these statements are intended to apply to cast-iron build-
ings— as they are doubtless meant to do — they are nothing more
than the reiteration of all previous writers on the subject, and
arise from sheer ignorance : they have been the great bugbear to
inventors in this department of artj for, although more or less
true in reference to copper, bronze, and certain other metals, they
are utterly unfounded when applied to cast-iron. We do not say
that cast-iron is without expansibility : we simply assert that the
temperature of our climate, throughout its utmost range, from the
greatest cold to the greatest heat,exerts upon it no appreciable effect.

A complete proof of this assertion may be had, by examining
any of the numerous cast-iron structures, erected by Mr. Bogar-
dus. His factory building has now, for a number of years, been
exposed to every change of atmospheric temperature without,
and to the heat of steam boilers and the operations of a steam
engine and heavy machinery within — and, it should be observed,
his engine of twenty-five horse power is placed on the second
story, purposely to show the great stability of the building — and
yet, so perfect are all its joints, that the blade of a lancet cannot
be thrust into one of them; nor can there be discovered, by con-
tinual and close observation, where its walls adjoin the neighbor-
ing houses, the displacement of a single grain of dust.

The writer of the quotation in the Americ^i Organ, continues
thus :

" Although ingenious and complicated devices may have par-
tially overcome the effects of expansion arising from this source.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. C05

they have been wholly inadequate to overcome the much greater
expansion from artificial heat in contiguous conflagrations. Iron
buildings, as usually constructed, although expressly designed to
resist conflagrations in compact cities, have been wholly ineffec-
tual for this purpose. It was found in the great fires at San Fran-
cisco that the iron columns and framework of buildings were
expanded, and thus warped and thrown out of line, by the heat of
fires across the streets, and that the buildings were ruined even
before contact of the flames."

From these remarks it may be inferred, that their author either
did not know that there was such a thing as cast-iron buildings
in existence, or that there was any difference between them and
those made of wrought iron. The houses of San Francisco, which
are described as shriveling like paper before they came in contact
with the flames, were built of sheet-iron, either plain or corru-
gated; nailed, in most cases, to wooden posts; or, like the better
class of English iron houses, riveted to cast-iron columns, and
thence ignorantly described as cast-iron buildings.

Cast-iron houses are perfectly fire-proof. Were such a building
as Mr. Bogardus's factory filled with the most combustible goods,
such as cotton or resin, and the entire interior in flames at once,
until the whole was consumed, the building itself would remain
firm and unimpaired. Some have said that the columns might
melt, and thus precipitate, the whole; but this is simply an ab-
surdity, said without reflection : for, it is well known, not only a
high and intense heat, but the use of a blast, as required to reduce
iron to a molten state; and never yet, in any conflagration, has it
been found melted, except in pieces of minute dimensions, and
in such situation that the current of the flames created around
them an artificial blast. Others compare iron houses to stoves,
and tell us that if certain parts be made red hot, and cold water
then tlu-own upon them, it will warp and crack the metal : but
this only shows a mechanical defect in their construction; for it is
quite possible so to construct a stove that it would stand such a
test without damage, though it were repeated many times a day,
for years. And that the several parts of Mr. Bogardus's buildings
are carefully modeled so as to run no risk of this disaster, he has
ascertained by direct experiment for this purpose.

This experiment has been repeatedly verified since in the fol-
lowing way. It has sometimes happened that his columns would
be found warped when they came from the foundry. To remedy
this defect, he made the column red hot; and whilst in this con-

606 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

dition, by means of powerful screws, forced the parts, not only
to the position required, but in some cases, as much as six inches
beyond it : yet, after cooling, he has invariably found them to be
warped, exactly as at first. It may be here added, that, in his
later experiments, he endeavored to secure the set of the column,
by dashing cold water upon it when red-hot, but equally without
success.

It is desirable, in most cases, that the floorings and partitions
should be also fire-proof; so that, should a fire occur, it may be
confined to the room in which it originated. This may be accom-
plished by various well known devices, extensively practiced in
Europe, but too much neglected in our country. Mr. Bogardus
has also devised for this purpose, and secured by letters patent,
a plan of iron flooring, to be supported by Cooper's iron bejims,
or by his own new sectional truss girders, which he is now taking
measures to patent, and which may be seen in use in the build-
ings of Messrs. Harper & Brothers, the well known publishers.
These girders, besides having other advantages, can sustain a
heavier load than any others of the same weight yet known, and
are therefore more economical. And to those who prefer a wood-
en floor, Mr. Bogardus offers another plan, in which the flooring
rests upon the aforesaid truss girders, in combination with a sub-
stratum of solid brick-work, and a net-work of iron wire as a
substitute for laths. Of this latter plan a model is now on exhibi-
tion at his office.

Cast-iron buildings are also perfectly safe during thunder storms;
no accident from the electric fluid can happen to any person with-
in them. The metal being a good conductor, and presenting so
great a mass to the overcharged clouds, conveys all the electricity
silently to the earth, and thus obviates all danger from disruptive
discharges. An iron building, for this reason, requires no light-
ning rods, because it is a huge conductor itself. This is a feature
deserving consideration; for many ordinary buildings with rods
attached to them, have been struck with lightning, whereby a
number of persons have lost their lives ; accidents which can
never occur in cast-iron buildings. In them the intensity current
is instantly diff'used throughout the entire mass, and thus changed
into a current of quantity : so that, in any one part, the electricity
must be very feeble, and therefore not dangerous to life.

Every style of architecture, and every design the artist can con-
ceive, however plain or however complicated, can be executed
exactly in cast-iron; and, in consequence of its having greater

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 607

strength than any other known building material, it furnishes us
Avith new ideas of the proportional fitness of parts, and thus opens
a wide field for new orders of architecture. Hitherto its use has
been confined to factories, stores, lighthouses, and bell towers;
but we hope the day is not distant when we shall see it in our city
halls, our state houses, our churches, and their spires. And Mr.
Bogarrlus himself firmly believes that, had his necessities required
him to construct a dwelling house rather than a factory, it would
now be as popular for this purpose, as it is for stores. They
would have, moreover, this advantage : being free from damp, they
are ready for occupation as soon as finished ; nor can they absorb
it afterwards, and are consequently, not liable to mildew, and
therefore more healthful.

When Mr. Bogardus commenced this business, the use of cast-
iron for building purposes, was, in this city, only to be seen in the
occasional substitution of a water pipe, or a rude solid pillar, for
the ordinary stone posts of the first story. It needs not be told
here how extensively it is now used. There is scarce a street in
our city, and scarce a city in our country, in w^hich are not to be
seen either copies or imitations of his beautiful and costly patterns.
His mode of forming capitals, a valuable invention which he did
not patent, is noAV in universal use : and, not content with this
great and honest addition to their business in the construction of
columns for the first story, some have already attempted to evade
his patent for house building. As a substitute for his safe and
simple joint, wedges, mortises, chairs, and other complicated de-
vices, have actually been patented ; and in order to secure their
columns, some have fastened them with tie-bai's to the wooden
girders ! Of these contrivances, which are, all of them, mere
subterfuges for the evasion of his rights, some are absolutely
dangerous ; and of the remainder, the best are not only inferior
in stability — being liable to dislocation by the displacement of
the. wedges — but so much more expensive, that the value of the
extra iron necessary for their construction, without any regard to
the work spent upon it, would alone be suflEicient to pay for the
cost of erecting a superior building. Far from attempting or
desiring to monopolize the business — for the demand promises to
be sufficient to support very many large establishments — he is
ready to grant the privilege to build, for a fair remuneration, so
small as to leave no inducement to infringe his rights as the in-
ventor.

Mr. Meigs — The buildings of the myriads of men of the last

G08 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

4,000 years have disappeared ; the wood, the soft brick, unburned
bricks, all have vanished. If they had been constructed of iron,
what mines of that metal ready for service? what rescues from the
myriads of conflagrations, destroying all the writings, books,
paintings, &c.

President Pell commented on the importance of iron buildings,
and quoted the pamphlet of Dyott's patent, presented hj Mr.
Barney, Iron plates, resembling cut stone, to incrust brick walls.

It claims the following advantages over other systems of erect-
ing remodeling or facing fronts :

First, it is the cheapest of all methods that are durable. Fronts,
as handsome as any in the country, can be put up for one-fourth
the cost of brown stone, and so accurate in their resemblance as
to deceive a practiced eye, and warranted to retain their color
a«id appearance for years. It can be put upon the front of an old
building without disturbing the walls in the least, with as much
ease, and will be as strong and substantial, as upon a new wall.
No matter how rough and old the wall may be, it will be so
strengthened as to be as solid as a new one. The iron facing and
the wall are so firmly united together, as to form them into one
solid mass, so that all dampness and air are perfectly excluded
from between them, and, consequently, the iron cannot oxidize
or be defaced, A front put up on this plan is superior to brown
stone, because it is impenetrable, and is not affected by moisture or
Jire ; any amount of ornamental work can be put upon it without
increasing its cost. The sharp corners, edges and projections
always remain perfect, whilst those of stone become defaced by
time, external violence and accident^ and cannot he repaired. If
desirable, at any time, the appearance of the iron front can be
changed, at a small expense, to resemble any stone that may be
desired.

This method of erecting iron fronts is superior to others, because
not more than one-fourth the quantity of material Is required,
and being of light weight, are cast smooth and perfectly free from
scale, therefore the paint and other substances .used to cover it is
in intimate contact with the iron, for which it has an aflinity,
and becomes so firmly united with it, that it will never blister
or peel off, as it does when put upon heavy castings which have
a scale upon them. It is also superior because a thin facing of
iron is used, which is backed by a non-tonducting cement on rough
walls of masonry, so that the interior of the house is not affected
by the intense heat of summer or the severe cold of winter. It

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 609

can be put upon a new or old building without disturbing the
plastering or internal arrangements of the house, and does not
interfere with its occupancy diu'iiig the progress of the work. It
can be put upon a wood or frame front, and will make it fire and
weather proof from without, and as handsome as any brown stone
building. A whole front can be packed in a very small compass,
and sent to any part of the country at a trifling expense. Any
ordinary mechanic can put it up without the aid of machinery.
It is superior to the customary method of refacing buildings with
brick, because the strength of the front is destroyed by the split-
ting of the wall, which cuts off all the ties that are indispensable
to bind the walls together, and cannot be replaced, consequently
there are but two-four-and-a-half inch walls standing, perhaps
three or more stories high, with no ties to bind them together,
whilst facing the walls with iron, adds greatly to its original
strength, besides admitting of an infinite variety of designs and
any style of architecture, and relieves the tedious and endless
monotony of bricks and mortar.

I need not say it is superior to stucco or mastic, as that is but a
frail temporary make-shift, adopted because supposed to be the
cheapest method of imitating stone work; it proves not only to
be costly, but a frail and imperfect apology for an imitation of
stone, and is in the end, expensive, because it absorbs a large
quantity of paint, and requires constant repairs, and when painted
the color is almost immediately destroyed by the lime and other
components of stucco or mastic.

The cost of painting the iron front is not one-half that of
mastic, as the paint is not absorbed by it, and should the building
at any time be torn down, the front can be put up again, or the
metal would be of more value than the difference between the
first cost of the iron and the mastic, so that in the end it is far
the cheapest. It presents great advantages in the adoption of
uniform design and pattern in the erection of rows of buildings,
enabling the architect or builder to carry out any style of archi-
tecture complete, at less expense than to diminish the amount of
ornamental work as the height of the building is increased, which
is uniformly done to diminish the cost of carved or ornamental
stone work.

This system of facing fronts, not only presents unequalled ad-
vantages in point of economy, durability and beauty in the erec-
tion of new buildings, but when put upon old or dilapidated
stores or dwellings will enliance their value from fifty to one

[Am. Inst. J * S9

610 TRANSACTIONS OF THK

hundred per cent upon the outlay. In a word, it is not only the
most economical, but the best method that is known, being end-
less in duration, unchanging and beautiful in appearance, and
susceptible of the richest and most elaborate design that artistic
skill can devise. A new residence has been built about four years
in Philadelphia, the front of which will compare favorably with
any stone front in the country, and seven stores, which were old,
unsightly buildings, having these fronts upon them, are referred
to as specimens in that city. Also five stores and dwellings in
Baltimore, Md.,and two stores in Norfolk, Va., and the right has
already been granted for several first class dwellings in the city
of New- York, now being erected in the most fashionable part of
the town.

James K. Fisher — The difference of strength between iron and
all other building material is so great that new orders of architec-
ture must aiTive and greatly increased amount of light admitted
to the interior.

A member from Michigan seemed much pleased with the future
demand for iron, and said — our Michigan can furnish you with
all the iron you can use !

The Chairman took the floor, and Mr. Pell the chair.

He referred to the peculiar tendency of the American people,
in their disregard of old customs and precedents, to carry new
discoveries and inventions to excess in their application, and to
be governed by changing fashions. I consider the increasing
attention given to the use of iron as ill directed. Instead of
making better buildings, men only seek by its means to make
them cheaper. Instead of applying iron to purposes for which
other materials are not adapted, and thus accomplishing new and
desirable results, they imitate old forms of ornament and con-
struction better produced by stone or brick, for which they were
originally designed. Instead of making larger roofs, and stronger
and more durable structures than the ancients could achieve with
any resources available to them, the prevailing desire is to imi-
tate in inferior casting the richly wrought ornaments of costly
marble. The value of ornament was greatly dependent upon its
cost, and the labor bestowed upon it as the term " elaborate'' in-
dicates, any imitation in inferior materials, or by cheaper pro-
cesses, would not only be vastly inferior in point of execution,
and soon be considered mean from the fact of its being a cheat,
like gilt jewelry or paste gems, but was a kind of deception, de-
moralizing to the principles and taste of the community. Espe-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 611

ciaHy our veneering I consider an imitation, a cheating show of a
false original, which was only to be rejoiced at because its impro-
priety is so apparent as to lead to the detection of false principles
less obviously shown by other examples. Architecture I believe
would be greatly benefitted by the cheapening and improvement
of the manufacture of iron, but only when builders shall encourage
the first principles of that art, viz : the studious and conscien-
tious application of every material to the purposes and forms for
which it is best adapted.

The Chairman announced that.

The subject for the next meeting proposed by the committee,
would be " Wire rope."

Adjourned. HENRY MEIGS, Secretary.

April 23, 1856.

Present — Messrs. Backus, Wallace, Stetson, Tillman, Fisher,
Lamb, Eell of Kingston, Wm. B. Leonard, Breisach, Cham-
bers, Trask of Pittsburgh, Penn., Professor Nash of Vermont,
Larned, Reynolds of Concord, and others, thirty-three members
in all.

Samuel D. Backus in the chair. Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Mr. Leonard spoke of the advantage to inventors of having this
repository to exhibit their machines before competent judges, free
of expense, and that the publicity thus given to their new inven-
tions was a security against piracy. He moved that this Club,
when desired, should devote the first three-quai-ters of an hour
of its sittings to the examination of new machines. Carried.

The Chairman called upon Mr. Lamb of Mystic, Conn., to ex-
plain Whipple's patent nipper block and hook,

Mr. Lamb — This is an invention of Jonathan Whipple, Jr., of
Hopedale, Milford, Massachusetts.

It forms the subject of two patents, the last of which bears date
May 22, 1855.

For a minute drawing and description of this invention, see
Scientific American of March 8th, 1856.

Its advantages over the common pulley block are,

1st. It securely holds what is gained from pull to pull without
loss. Thus an exhausting outlay of strength in holding the rope
is avoided, and the operator enjoys a renovated strength to ex-
pend unon every successive effort. To say nothing of other ad-

613 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

vantages, tliis single one will frequently allow the dismissal of
one person's labor.

2d. As all that is gained from pull to pull is securely held in
suspension, any belaying of the rope becomes entirely unnecesary,
and this single advantage of itself again frequently allows the
dismissal of still another person's labor.

3d. As all that is gained from pull to pull is securely held, the
operator is enabled to ai3ply in putting upon the rope instead of
hand power, a most surprisingly advantageous lever power, by
means of the nipper hook, which can be made to hold fast or
slide upon the rope, at the pleasure of the operator. In this way
the available power of the machine can be made enormously great
and limited only by the strength of the hooks employed.

4th. This improved pulley power can be applied in any required
direction; not only in a perpendicular form in raising heavy
weights, but also in a horizontal form in drawing and moving
them about from place to place.

5th. It is clearly evident that this invention adds wonderfully
to the value of the pully as an available and practical power.
And its simplicity is so great and its cost so trifling, that its in-
troduction is certain to be almost universal, among nearly all
grades and varieties of practical working men.

6th. But the crowning advantage of this improved pully power
is in the fact that it is always available in the hands of a single
person. It enables one man alone and unassisted to do the work
of two or three and often of five or six. To raise, suspend, and
lower at pleasure, with the most perfect safety and ease, ponderous
weights of from 1 to 5 or 6000 pounds; or used in a horizontal
direction, to draw upon the ground, or upon rollers, and move
from place to place on a level or up an inclined plane, what
otherwise would require the strength of several yoke of oxen.

Prof. Nash introduced Mr. Reynolds of Concord, Mass., to ex-
plain Wm. W. Willis's new patent stump extractor. Mr. Trask
of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, who has used it much, aided in the
explanation. It consists of a lever of sufficient strength, at whose
short end is a wheel, and a larger one on its longer end, so that
it is sustained while in operation. Chains and hooks are made
fast to the stump ; a pair of oxen or horses by chains attached to
the long end of the lever, start the largest stumps partly out of
the ground, which appear to spectator lifted. It is then drawn
in the opposite direction, and is drawn out with all its roots. An
acre covered with the ordinary number of stumps can be cleared

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 613

for ten dollars in one day by this extractor. And tlie stumps are
sometimes hauled to tlie boundary lines of the field and arranged
so as to form a powerful fence. The extraction of all principal
roots is very important, since these are great impediments to the
plow, &c. Mr. Trask said that he was able to haul down with
ease, trees of one and two feet diameter. It is an important
macliine for clearing also tracks of railroads through our forested
regions.

Mr. Secretary Leonard said that he, as being acquainted with
mechanic powers, had been called upon for such a machine as this
of Willis's, and was gratified to be able to say that he believed in
its efficiency, with economy in the highly valuable process, to any
forested country, of clearing the land for agricultural uses.

Prof. Nash remarked that its power was by no means confined
to stumps of trees, but was equally effective in removing rocks
and stones. Ordinary fresh stumps of trees were removed by it
in an average time of five minutes each. It will be useful in
removing buildings, &c.

Mr. Bell, of Kingston, Ulster county, New-York, a partner of
Mr. McEntee, presented a specimen of the Esopus mill stone,
with a view to its examination as an excellent paving stone for
cities. Some roads had it in the natural way there, and had been
used for a century and more, and seemed to bear the travel ex-
tremely well. It never wears smooth so as to be slippery, and
the farmers there say that tlie horses' shoes seem to stick to
it rather than slide over it.

Mr. William Henry Wallace delivered his opinion as to the
subject of the evening, wire rope, as follows :

Gentlemen — I was informed on the 13th instant, by a gentle-
man of your Club, my w^orthy friend, Mr. Eackus, that I should
be expected to read a paper before you this evening, on the sub-
ject of " Wire rope and its applications." Though feeling sen-
sible of the compliment conferred, I still knew that other engage-
ments would prevent me bestowing that time in its preparation,
that consideration for yourselves and the subject should demand.
However, I have devoted what hasty leisure I have had at com-
mand in preparing the following, and submit it under the circum-
stances to your indulgence.

As society has advanced in knowledge, and men have become
more familiar with the natural mineral resources at their com-
mand, attention has been given to their fullest development; and
thus we find there is a steady yet progressive action continually

614 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

going on to supplant the vegetable by the use of the mineral,
and nowhere will this be found more general than in the applica-
tion of iron in our times to almost all conceivable purposes. It
is not alone left for railroads, and steamships, and telegraphs,
and naval armaments, to consume this valuable product, but in
these parts, at least, we draw largely from it for our dwellings,
warehouses, public buildings, railroad stations, &c., and each year
as we advance in our experience, the demand becomes greater,
until we are most ready to accept the proposition of the great
English writer and political economist, that the civilization of a
community is in direct ratio to its consumption of iron.

I leave these general ideas, however, to dwell more particularly,
though briefly, on iron a^ manufactured into rope, and purpose
showing some of its advantages in this application.

RIGGING.

As shipping generally furnishes the greatest market for the
consumption of rope, I will endeavor to compare the wire rope
with the hempen rope, and show some points wherein I conceive
lies its superiority for this purpose. You will please note I shall
refer entirely in this paper to standing and not running rigging.

One advantage, then, I will proceed to say is, that wire ropes
of equal strength with hempen ropes, are but one-fourth part as
bulky, from which I argue that the sailing qualities of the vessel
must be improved just in the proportion that the surface exposed
against the wind is decreased. For example, the main stay on a
steamer of three thousand tons, if made of hemp rope would re-
quire to be twelve and one-half inches circumference, whereas,
if made' of wire rope of same strength, it would be decreased to
only five inches circumference. This advantage would be appre-
ciated on a vessel having auxiliary steam power when making
way against the wind. Another advantageous feature, and are of
still more importance, is the great economy in weight, being about
fifty per cent less. The standing rigging of a steam vessel of the
same size as before, three thousand tons, from her shrouds and
stays on her lower masts, including those of top masts, top-gallant
masts, royal masts, and gib gear, would weigh if made of hempen
rope 12.74 tons, of 2000 lbs each, while if make of wire rope, and
same strength, the weight would be reduced to 8.24 tons, leaving
a saving in favor of the wire rope of about 4.5 tons, and in a
sailing ship of thirteen hundred tons, the saving in weight would
be about the same.

This large saving in weight, when it is remembered that the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 615

average of the standing rigging is placed above the centre of
buoyancy, must naturally increase the stability and particularly
the steadiness of a ship. And tlie comparison will hold good in
smaller classed vessels, as in an eighty ton yacht the saving would
be about .5 of a ton.

Another point I would offer in its favor, but one however, in
my experience with nautical gentlemen, I find there is an unusual
difference of opinion, is that while some maintain the greater the
elasticity the better; others hold that the less elastic the rigging,
the better display the vessel has for her sailing qualities. The
question I think has been clearly settled in favor of the latter,
in the published experiments made by Messrs. Newall & Co. of
London, when well seasoned hemp and wire shrouds, of equivalent
strengths, under strains equal to one-third that which would
break them, or more than they are usually exposed to.

These experiments show that while the stretch or permanent
lengthening of the wire rigging is nothing compared with that of
hemp, the difference in spri7iginess is not more than one inch in
favor of hemp in the largest shrouds ; practically therefore, the
less elasticity of wire rope can be of no importance. And again
by the use of turnbuckle secures at the ends of shrouds and stays,
in place of lanyards and dead eyes, the slackening or tightening
is accomplished with much greater facility and readiness, saving
thereby a great deal of labor.

It has sometimes been suggested by those who have not given
duo reflection to the subject, whether there was not more danger
from lightning in using wire rope than in using hemp rope;
whereas, if the bulwark irons holding the shrouds are extended
to the copper, every wire* shroud will become a lightning con-
ductor, as may also be the case with the stays, so that the vessel
is rendered perfectly proof against lightning.

For our naval vessels especially, wiie rope is decidedly prefer-
able, not more on account of its greater safety from fire than from
the enemy's shot; and these two points alone should be of suflGl-
cient importance to call for a careful consideration of the subject
on the part of our naval bureau of construction.

Here our English friends are in advance of us, its introduction
having been made in the Royal navy over fifteen years ago, and
its adoption steadily followed both in the navy and by the mer-
cantile marine service, down to the present time. The steamers
" Bosphorous," " Himalaya," "Pazana," "Orinoco," "Bengal,"

616 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

" Simla,'' "Atrato," " Enice,'' and " Persia," being among tlie last
built, having more or less of their standing rigging of wire rope.

I will take the liberty of reading to you an extract from a
paper read by Mr. Andrew Smith before the Mechanical Section
of the British Association for the advancement of Science, at St.
George's Hall, Liverpool, in September 1854.

" In the year 1848 the British navy had in commission 376
ships of every class. The expense for hempen rope for standing
rigging, for the above number of ships, (hempen rope being at the
rate of about .£40 per ton,) amounted to about <£l 14,330. In
consequence of wire rope being twice as strong for the same
weight of hempen rope, the cost for the standing rigging of the
above number of ships, made of wire rope, amounted to about
ii86,000 thus showing a saving of about .£28,000, for one outfit
of the Royal navy. At that time wire rope was £66 per ton.

"As there are now more than double the number of ships in
commission, and the price of hempen rope is also doubled, or £80
per ton, the cost to the country for an outfit of standing hempen
rigging would be .£914,640.

" Wire rope on the contrary is reduced to £40 per ton, instead
of £60 as in 1848. The use therefore of wire rope instead of
hempen, would effect a saving in an outfit for the whole navy of
£457,320. Beyond this the Avire rope is much more durable.

" Speaking from an experience of twenty years, it may be taken
as three times more durable; in fact, unlike hemp, the older the
wii*e is the stronger it gets. Several ships in the Royal navy
have been fitted from 15 to 16 years with this rope, and it is now
as good as when first put over the masthead. Hempen rope in
the Royal navy is fitted every three years, or every time the ships
are put in commission. In the port of Liverpool a great number
of vessels have been fitted with wire rope about fifteen years;
consequently if it is admitted to be three times more lasting or
durable than hempen rope, there would be a saving effected in
three commissions, or nine years, for the standing rigging of the
Royal navy of £1,371,960.

As enormous as this aggregate saving may appear when the
comparison is applied to the royal navy, I will venture the asser-
tion, that an equally economical pro rata result will be arrived
at, when the comparison is made with our own navy; and I
regret that I have not been able in the brief and periodical leisure
I have had to devote in preparing this paper, to ol^tain data and
make the comparison. The foregoing, however will answer the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 617

present purpose of relieving the economy of the wire rope, espe-
cially in the point of service

The ditierence iu price in this country, however, between the
wire ropes and hempen ropes, is not so large; the great disparity
iu England being, I suppose, partially attributable to the late war
witli liussia. Again: wire rope, unlike hemp rope, is not affected
by the sudden changes of temperature ; as in a northern climate,
when tarred rigging gets hard, unyielding and brittle, or under a
tropical sun, where the tarred rigging becomes soft and flows —
giving thereby great annoyance.

Neither is it liable to those sudden changes in lengths, to which
hemp is subject, and which, as every sailor knows, gives rise to
inconvenience, and great labor in setting up the rigging, and to
serious accidents, when, as often happens, the change takes place
in a single night, in circumstances that render it impossible to
set up the rigging before trouble has ensued.

I have endeavored, at some length, to call your attention to
this field for the application of wire rope, not only because the
great bulk of ropes manufactured are for this purpose, nor alone
from the fact that its advantages are so numerous and well sus-
tained abroad; but because its manufacture in this country is of
modern date, and its introduction for vessel's standing rigging
not yet made, or so limited only as not to be known.

However, when it shall have tecome developed by our own
experience in the naval and mercantile service of this country,
as I am convinced it soon must, I feel assured that its advantages
will be as generally appreciated here, as they now are with our
friends across the Atlantic, and its application become common —
as general.

Bridges — With regard to the application of wire rope to bridges,
I need only to mention the " Niagara suspension railway bridge,"
the complete success of which stands as a noble monument to the
skill and persevering energy of its projector and builder, Mr.
John W. Roebling, whose success is the more gratifying from the
general distrust that was felt at its commencement.

The cables of this bridge are four in number, each being ten
inches in diameter, and containing seven strands, each strand
having 520 wires of size No. 9, wire gauge, or 3,640 wires for a
cable. Sixty of these wires form one square inch of solid section,
making the solid section of each cable, 60.4 square inches, wrap-
ping not included. Tlie aggregate strength of the whole four
cables being about 23,878,400 lbs.

618 TKANSACTIONS OF THE

Wire rope is also soon to become the medium for telegraphic
communication between the continent of Europe and America.

If entirely used in this great trio of modern advancement, the
telegraph, steamships and railways, the demand would be greater
than the present means at command could furnish, a hypotheti-
cal deficiency, however, that American enterprise would soon
supply.

But in addition to the foregoing, it is already in extensive use
all over our country for working inclined planes on railways, for
heavy hoisting in coal pits, in iron and other mines, and sugar
houses, far exceeding both in economy and safety, either hide,
hemp, or manilla ropes and chains.

It is equally applicable to store and ware-houses, foundries,
fec.jfor staying derricks, cranes, shears, chimneys, masts, &c., for
steering purposes in vessels, for tow lines, lightning conductors,
for dmnb waiter, cord and hanging sash weights in windows, &c.

On inclined planes and in mines, they are not only safer but
more economical; the degree of economy depending on other cir-
cumstances; always being, however, in direct proportion to the
speed of its working, and to the consequent degree of vibration.
When worked at a velocity of eight to twelve miles an hour, driven
by badly arranged machinery, continually getting out of order,
it will last about two yeai-s, and pass 300,000 tons, gross weight,
over planes half a mile in length, and rising one in ten.

The Pennsylvania coal company have ropes of less size on their
planes, performing five times the work.

Those in use on the inclined planes of the Morris canal, are
two inches diameter, draw loads of one hundred tons over incli-
nations of one in twelve, at a speed of five miles an hour; and
last, in consequence of perfect management and good usage from
seven to eight years.

Manufacture — I will close this paper by briefly describing the
process of its manufacture, which, like the production of many
other similar valuable commodities, is simple; yet, combining
with much ingenuity a great deal of well arranged machinery.

The Iron, then, first of all, should be of the best quality of
Norway, or some other equally good.

The bars are first heated to a welding heat, then passed a num-
ber of times through a train of three rolls, running at a velocity
of about five hundred revolutions per minute, reducing the run
down from one and one-eighth inch diameter, to about a quarter
of an inch.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 619

It is then scaled or cleaned by being placed in warm water
with a little sulphuric acid or vitriol, mixed ; afterwards coated
with a preparation of leece or paste made of rye flour.

One end being filed down, it is passed through a thick drawing
plate, containing a series of conical shaped holes, and drawn
down to No. 5 thickness of wire asauge, which is about the prac-
tical limit of reduction it will sustain until softened.

The process of annealing next takes place, occupying from five
to eight hours, and then follows another course of cleaning and
drawing.

The number of times this is repeated depending on the firm-
ness of wire required ; for very fine wire it may have to be half
a dozen times.

The wires now being prepared for use, next comes the laying
from them of the strands, and finally the laying of the rope itself
from the strands.

Each strand usually consists of three, seven, or nineteen wires,
the ropes leaving nine, forty-nine on one hundred and thirty-
three wires.

The two most important considerations to be effected in laying
up the rope are, that when the rope is made and subjected to its
duty, that the tension of each wire shall be equal, and .that there
shall be no twist take place in the wires while being laid into
strands, nor in the strands while being laid into the rope.

The first is effected by a simple mechanism of weights suspended,
one at the end of each wire, which is passed over pullies, and are
slackened as the strand is forming, and the weights drawn up;
and the same is the case with regard to the strands, the weights
being proportionally increased.

The latter requires more machinery, very ingeniously arranged,
(and is patented by the manufacturer,) causing a continual re-
volving of each wire, while the strand is being formed, and also
of each strand while the rope is being laid.

A striking and peculiar feature in this arrangement is, that it
enables the centre strand to be made similar to the others, of wire ^
instead of using hemp, so that where rigid ropes are required, as
in stays, their strength is very materially increased.

The foregoing I hope may give you a general idea of the pro-
cess of making, but a correct knowledge of the machinery could
hardly be imparted unless by observation when in operation.

To the ends of the wire rope there can be attached when re-
quired, a socket, hook, device, tnrnbuckle, or any similar appen-

620 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

dage,in a perfectly secure and safe manner, or tliey can be easily
spliced.

As I understand the object of this paper to be, rather as an
introduction to a discussion on the subject of " Wire rope and its
applications," than otherwise, I have only treated of it in a gen-
eral way, and dwelt but briefly on its principal merits for promi-
nent purposes, and omitted much that might prove interesting to
individuals but perhaps tedious to the Club.

Mr. Leonard — What size wire is adopted ?

Mr. \Vallace — Number /i^e, American wire.

Mr. Tillman — What diameter in parts of an inch.

Mr. Wallace — One-eighth.

Chairman — No. 18 copper wire, forming three strands, each
wire being twisted alike, so as to be laid together without any
twisting, thus having each equal tension.

Mr. Wallace — Each wire having equal weights attached, so as
to have all equal tension. The strands of the Niagara together
constitute a rope of about ten inches in diameter, wires all equally
strained, and first w^ell annealed.

Mr. Tillman — Mentioned the flexibility of such wire rope, when
properly made, as instance those in use on the Morris canal.

Mr. Wallace — They will do for sash cords, and safety from fire.

Mr. Leonard — Especially in tiller ropes for steamers over 7
inch pullies.

Mr. Wallace — Iron wire will do well. Our best American iron
wire bears test beyond the breaking point of the English.

Mr. Leonard — Washburn has succeeded in making the finest.

Mr. Stetson — I am related to the Washbui'ns. They make use
of foreign iron sometimes. What can be done to secure the inte-
rior of iron ropes from rust, &c.7

Mr. Wallace — Wire rope never breaks like vegetable fibre.
First one wire breaks, and then others, so as to give full notice
to the observer before it finally breaks wholly.

Mr. Leonard — The external strands sustain more strain than
the internal ones.

Chairman — Care must be taken of the centre of them.

Mr. Leonard — I have invited the inventor of the fire steam
engine to explain before this Club at the next meeting. Some
persons think there is danger to the inventor in exposing his
article. Not so, Mr. Chairman, I believe this full explanation
before such a Club as this, will fortify the true discoverer in his
legal claim to a patent.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 621

The question of the injurious effects of vibration on metallic
rope was spoken of.

Mr. Chairman — After certain periods they break at tlie fixed
points.

Mr. Tillman — Spoke of the long duration of proper piano wire.

Mr. Stetson moved that the paper read to-night by Mr. Wallace,
be published in the Transactions of the American Institute

Mr. Leonard moved, that the next subject for consideration
be the " Fire steam engine." Cai-ried unanimously.

Some conversation as to the propriety of suspending the meet-
ings of the Club during the hot weather.

Mr. Tillman and Mr. Meigs opposed it.

Mr. Leonard had no doubt of the propriety of continuing the
meetings even more frequently rather than less.

Mr. Tillman moved that the Club meet once a month until
September.

After some discussion, the Club decided to meet as usual on
the 2d and 4th Wednesdays.

Mr. Tillman moved the appointment of a committee to examine
and report on technology, (the application of science to the arts.)
Carried.

The Chairman appointed the committee, Messrs. Tillman, Fisher
and Stetson.

The Club then adjourned to the second Wednesday of May
next, the 14th, at 7^ o'clock, p. m.

HENRY MEIGS, Secretary.

A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE
JERSEY CITY WATER WORKS.

BY A MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE.

Jersey City, 30M Sept., 1856.
Henry Meigs, Esq., Rec. Sec'y of the American Institute :

Dear Sir — In compliance with your request, I have much
pleasure in furnishing you an account of the legislative proceed-
ings, preliminary examinations, construction and cost of the Jersey
City water works, with a short description of the works them-
selves, and some account of their present management and future
prospects.

It may be proper to state by way of introduction, that a large
proportion of the lands lying within the chartered limits of Jersey
City, are a part of what was formerly an extensive marsh, the soft
mud of which reaches in some parts to a depth of seventy feet,
or more, and over which the high spring tides regularly ebbed
and flowed. From this marshy soil, no water fit for domestic use
could be obtained; nor was it found by boring the underlying
rocky strata to the depth of 300 feet; and in that part of
the city which in its natural state was above the reach of tide,
the formation is of such character that water found by sinking
wells was poor in quality, and the supply small and uncertain.

In consequence of this peculiarity of the site upon which the
city is built, the want of good water began to be felt almost as
soon as it was occupied, and became more pressing and incon-
venient with every addition to the population; the few public
wells which afforded water fit for household purposes being, at
some seasons, surrounded from early dawn till a late hour in the
evening, with crowds waiting to secure a small portion of the
scanty supply which they furnished : and it became a trade to
transport water in casks from Bergen hill, and sell it in the streets

624 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of tlie city to consumers who were unable to obtain tlieir supply
from tlie public wells.

This scarcity was so severely felt in the autumn of 1850, that
an ai^plication was made to the Legislature at its session in the
succeeding January, for the passage of " An act for the ap-
pointment of Commissioners in relation to supplying the town-
ships of Hoboken, Van Vorst, and the city of Jersey City, with
pure and wholesome water."

The Legislature passed the law as desired, and it was approved
18th March, 1851. The commissioners named in it were Edwin
A. Stevens, Edward Coles, Dudley S. Gregory, Abraham L. Van
Boskerck and John D. Ward; and it was made "their duty to
examine and consider all matters relative to supplying the said
townships of Hoboken, Van Vorst, and Jersey City, with a suffi-
cient quantity of pure and wholesome water for the use of their
inhabitants, and the amount of money necessary to effect that
object." These commissioners entered upon the performance of
the duties assigned to them in June, 1851, electing John D.
Ward, President, and Edward Coles, Secretary, and shortly
afterwards engaging the services of William S. Whitwell as
engineer.

They first considered a plan which was proposed for obtaining
water from a small reservoir which had been excavated by the
New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company, at the side
of their road where it passes through Bergen hill; a report in
favor of this as the source of supply having some time before been
made to the municipal government of the city.

Another plan brought to their notice was, to pump the water
required directly from Hackensack river, after building a dam
at some point not far from Snake hill, and extending embankments
each way from the dam across the meadows to the high ground,
to prevent the salt water below from being carried at any time
by the tide and mixed with the fresh water above.

It was supposed by some that a good supply could be obtained
by converting the Western slope of Bergen hill into a gathering
ground, and collecting the water from the net work of under-
ground drains, into a canal extending along the foot of the hill,
from which it was proposed to raise it by a steam engine to a
reservoir upon the summit.

It was also proposed to take water from the Passaic river
above the falls at Paterson, and conduct it to Jersey City in
pipes; and another proposition was to take it at the Dundee

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 625

dam between Paterson and Acquackanonck, and raise it to the
required height by water power furnished by the river.

Rockland lake, and Greenwood lake or Long pond, were
also proposed as sources of supply, both of which are sufficiently
elevated to render pumping unnecessary. But to each of these,
and sundry other projects, which were brought to the notice of
the commissioners, objections were found sufficiently serious to
cause their rejection, and the plan of raising the water by a steam
engine, directly from Passaic river, at Belleville, was, after
extensive and careful examinations, surveys and estimates, con-
sidered by the board the one best adapted to furnish to the in-
habitants of Hoboken and Jersey City a permanent supply of pure
and wholesome water at a reasonable cost.

The commissioners, as directed by law, made a report of their
proceedings to the legislature in January, 1852, and presented a
copy of the same to the municipal authorities of Hoboken and
Jersey City, the township of Van Vorst having, during the year
preceding, been annexed to and made part of the latter corpora-
tion. In their report the commissioners, after describing and
discussing the merits of the various plans which had received
their consideration, recommended the construction of works in
conformity with the plan approved, the estimated cost of which
was $653,359.

The people of Hoboken, however, after seeing and deliberating
upon the commissioners' report concluded that it would be
inexpedient for them, at that time, to be concerned in the con-
struction of works so large and expensive as those proposed ;
and declined uniting with the citizens of Jersey City in asking
the legislature to grant authority for that purpose. The citizens
of Jersey City, though disappointed at the determination of
their neighbors to withdraw from any share in the prosecution
of the enterprise, were not discouraged, but determined if assist-
ance could not be obtained, to proceed with the work alone. At
their request the legislature passed " An act to authorize the
construction of works for supplying Jersey City, and places
adjacent, with pure and wholesome water;'' and for that purpose
to borrow, on the credit of the city, the sum of $600,000 at a
rate of interest not exceeding six per cent per annum, and for a
term not exceeding fifty yeai'S. The construction of the works
was, by the act, placed under the direction of five commission-
ers, three of whom, (J. D. Ward, D. S. Gregory, and M. B.

[Am. Inst.] 40

626 TRAXSACTIONS OF THE

Bramhall,) were named in the act, one was directed to be
elected at the next ensuing charter election, and the president,
for the time being, of the board of aldermen, was constituted a
member ex-officio. This board was first regularly organised on
the 28th April, 1852. The members constituting it at that time
were John D. Ward, Dudley S. Gregory, Moses B. Bramhall,
Thomas A. Alexander, then recently elected, and David S.
Manners, then president of the board of aldermen, commissioner
ex-offi,cio. Of this board John D. Ward, was elected presidentj
and as the law under which they acted required that before an}'
work could be undertaken, they should obtain a loan for at least
one-half the estimated cost of tJie whole, the attention of the
commission was first necessarily directed to the financial part of
its duties, and inquiries were instituted to ascertain where and on
what terms the requisite amount of money could be obtained.
The result of their inquiries was a conclusion to advertise for
proposals for a loan of $300,000, or one-half the sum required
for the works, for twenty-five years at an interest of six per
cent per annum, jiayable half yearly. When the bids for this
were opened on the 9th June, it v»tiS found that the sum of
$1,421,000 was oifered at rates varying from l-i- to Sy^Q- per
cent premium. The average rate of premium on the bids ac-
cepted was 2,006 per cent. The commii^sioners being thus
furnished with the means of proceeding, engaged Wm. S. Whit-
well, the engineer employed in making the preliminary surveys
and examinations, to direct and superintend the construction of
the works.

Contracts were soon after entered into for the principal part
of the iron pipes required, for the stop-cocks and fire hydrants,
for excavating and refilling the trenches for water pipes in the
streets, and for the construction of the distributing reservoir on
Bergen hill; and the contractors entered almost immediately
upon the execution of Hie work which they had tindertaken.
Contracts for the pumping engine, and pipes for the rising
main, for the engine house, the inlet conduit, and the receiv-
ing reservoir at Belleville were made during the succeeding
winter.

The number of contracts entered into, and the progress made
by the contractors in executing them, admonished the commis-
sioners that the remainder of the loan which they were author-
ized to contract would ])e required at no very distant day to
enable them to meet their engagements ; they therefore on the

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 627

10 til December, 1852, invited proposals for the further sum of
$300,000. These were opened on the 19tli January following,
and found to amount to $976,000, at rates of premium varying
from 2| to 5 per cent, and the average rate on the bids accepted
was 4.266 per cent — the amount received for 300 bonds of $1000
each being $312,798.80. Such parts of the work as could be
executed during the winter without injury were carried on with-
out interruption, and such as were necessarily suspended during
the severe weather were resumed as eaidy as the return of the
warm season permitted, and prosecuted regularly until their
completion.

In June, 1854, the steam engine was first started, and the
several parts of the works were so far completed that a small
quantity of water raised by it reached the distributing reservoir,
when the failure of a valve chamber of the large pump caused a
suspension of its operations for some weeks; and it was not until
the latter part of August that the water commissioners were able
to commence the regular distribution of Passaic water to their
tenants, which since that time they have regularly continued.

These works take water from the Passaic river at Belleville
and raise it to the height of 157 feet, into a receiving reservoir
on Belleville ridge, from which it flows through iron j^ipes to
the distributing reservoir on Bergen hill, and thence through
distributing pipes to all parts of Jersey City, and will no doubt
soon be furnished to the citizens of Hoboken, as negotiations are
now in progress between the municipal authorities of that city
and the water commissioners intended to effect that object. The
works comprise.

First. The inlet conduit and pump-well which receive the
"water from the river.

Second. The engine house, pumping engine and boilers,
pump, and rising main tlirough which the water is raised to the
reservoir.

Third. The receiving reservoir.

Fourth. The pipes which conduct the water from the receiv-
ing to the distributing reservoir.

Fifth. The distributing reservoir.

Sixth. The distributing pipes which conduct the water from
the reservoir to the consumers.

The inlet conduit, the bottom of which is four feet below ordi-
nary low water in Passaic river, is about 375 feet in length, and
of the form and dimensions shown by the annexed drawing. It

628 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

has sliding gates and wire screws at its mouth, which are placed
in proper vertical grooves in the masonry, and these are protected
by a small brick gate-house erected over them, which in its
turn is protected by a row of piles driven a few feet in front
of it, and parallel with the course of the river. The pump-
well, into which the water is received from the conduit, is
divided into two parts by a wall through its centre, making
each, twenty-six feet nine inches, by sixteen feet three inches.
Large arched openings are formed in the lower part of this wall,
for the passage of the water, and it is carried up through the
engine-house to the same height as the beam walls, dividing it
into two equal and similar engine rooms. The pump-well was
sunk to the red sandstone rock which underlies that region, and
which, though somewhat loosely stratified, was found sufficiently
firm to sustain the weight of the pump, together with the water
which it contains, and the plunger loaded to the extent required
to raise the water into the receiving reservoir. The foundation
for it was prepared by simply levelling and smoothing that part
of the rock on which the pamp stands.

The engine house, which is a handsome brick structure, 127
feet in length, including the boiler house, and 39 feet in breadth,
was built and fitted for receiving two Cornish pumping engines,
with steam cylinders of 80 inches diameter, and stroke of 1 1 feet,
each intended to work a pump with a stroke of 11 feet, and
plunger 34J inches in diameter. But one of these is yet erected;
the present demand for water not requiring half the power of the
one now in operation. But as the consumption is constantly in-
creasing, the time may not be far distant when it will become
necessary to provide the means for increasing the supply.

The Rising Main, which at present passes out through the side
of the engine house, in the rear, is 36 inches in diameter, and
2305 feet in length. It is taken through the embankment of the
receiving reservoir at its nortliwest angle, on a level with the
bottom, from which it rises with an easy curve to the height of
the top water line, in order that the amount of work to be per-
formed by the pumping engine may remain constant whether the
reservoir be full or empty (a condition necessary to its good per-
formance) ; and also to guard against the possible injury which
might be caused by the current if a failure in the lower part of
the main should occur, and its mouth within tlie reservoir be so
placed as to permit the water to re-enter and flow back through
it. This latter contingency is to some extent guarded against

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 629

by a set of self-acting stop valves, placed in the main near its
lower end; and it is also furnished with two stop-cocks of the
ordinary form, which may be closed when required.

Tke Receiving Reservoir. — This is situated on Belleville ridge,
about 3,000 feet from the bank of the river. Its form is that of
a parallelogram; the length is 390 feet, the breadth 318 feet, the
depth 19 feet, and it is intended to contain 16 feet water, or about
10,334,229 imperial gallons. Nearly half its depth was exca-
vated, and the remainder was obtained by .raising an earthen
embankment, with a puddle wall in the middle of its breadth,
to the top water line, which is 157 feet above ordinary high
water in the Passaic.

The embankment is twelve feet wide on the top, and has a
slope of one foot vertical to two feet horizontal on the outside,
and one vertical to one and a half horizontal on the inside. The
outside slope is sodded to the top, and the inside is faced with
bricks laid in cement, as high as the top water line. A small gate
house at the southeast angle encloses the gates and screens of the
outlet pipes, of which there are two, one of 20 inches, and one of 36
inches diameter. The smaller one only is used at present, the
larger, extending no further than the outside of the embankment,
to be used when the demand for water shall render a larger sup-
ply necessary than the 20 inch will convey to the distributing
reservoir. A similar provision exists at the opposite angle, a 36
inch pipe being laid through the embankment, to which another
rising main may be attached whenever such addition shall become
necessary.

The Connecting Pipes between the Receiving and Distributing
Reservoirs. — These are 20 inches in diameter, cast in the usual
form, with spigot and faucet joints, and were laid in the ordinary
way wherever the ground was sufficiently solid, but at least
three-fourths ol them were laid upon a marsh so wet and soft, and
containing so many stumps and roots, that any attempt to lay
them in a trench would have proved impracticable.

In that pai-t of the line they were therefore laid upon the
surface, and have a covering of earth forming a low embank-
ment, which is composed partly of marsh mud and partly of
gravel, taken from Eelleville ridge.

For short distances, near the solid ground at each side of the
marsh, two rows of piles were driven and capped to serve as a
foundation for the pipes; but the largest proportion of them were
laid upon a bed formed by cutting away such portions of the

630 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

stumps as projected much above the surface, and levelling up the
lower parts with such materials as could be obtained from shallow
ditches excavated at the sides. In this way the bed was raised
from 4 to 6 inches above the general level of the marsh ; on this
was laid a flooring, of two inch hemlock plank, about eight feet
in width, and in some parts of double thickness, the planks
crossing each other at right angles. The pipes laid upon this
have remained in good condition, notwithstanding a trifling set-
tlement of the line in some parts. At Hackensack river a narrow
bridge about lOUO feet in length was built, upon wliich a box,
made of timber six inches in thickness, strongly bolted and trussed,
was laid to receive the pipes, which are furnished with what is
technically termed a slip joint near each end of the bridge, for
the purpose of preventing the lead joints from being destroyed
by the contraction and expansion of the iron, caused by changes
of temperatiu-e. As the Hackensack is a navigable river, it was
of course necessary to provide for the passage of vessels through
the bridge. This was done by sinking about 60 feet of the box and
pipes, opposite to the draw in the adjacent turnpike bridge, to
12 feet below low water, which places the whole completely
out of reach of the keel of every vessel that navigates the
river.

The diameter of the pipes used for this inverted syphon, is 24
inches, the larger size being adopted to compensate for the obstruc-
tion to the flow, caused by the four changes of direction which
the water receives in passing through the syphon. The distance
between the two reservoirs is nearly six miles, and the difference
of level of the water in them is generally about 25 feet. With
this head, the 20 inch pipe will deliver into the distributing
reservoir a little more than 2,000,000 imperial gallons in twenty-
four hours, the quantity that would be raised by working the
engine eight strokes per minute for twelve hours, a rate at which
it may be worked if a proper stand pipe is erected. This addi-
tion to the works will, no doubt, indeed, must^ be made as soon
as the increased demand for water requires more than can be
raised by working the engine constantly at the present rate of 4^
to 5 strokes per minute, a rate which, with the present arrange-
ment, cannot be exceeded with safety, because the water being
sent from the pump directly into the rising main, the friction and
inertia of a column 2305 feet in length must be overcome, and
the whole set in motion at each separate stroke. This slow rate
of working, however, is favorable to economy, the duty obtained

iMERICAN INSTITUTE. 631

having oeen as high as 60,000,000 or 65,000,000 lbs. of water
raised one foot with 90 lbs. of Cumberland coal.

The Distributing Reservoir. — This is situated on Bergen hill,
about two miles from the Jersey City ferry. Its form is oval,
being 897 feet in length, and 722 feet in breadth, with an average
depth of about 15 feet. The top water line is 128 feet above
ordinary high water in the harbor of New- York, and extends over
an area of nearly twelve acres. The average depth of water,
when filled, is about 12 feet. The upper or northern part is
principally formed by excavation, and the lower or southern part
by an embankment wliich, on the loAvest ground has a breadth at
its base of something more than 100 feet, and is about 20 feet in
height. The slope of tlie embankment on the outside is 1 per-
pendicular to 1-J horizontal, and on the inside 1 perpendicular to
2 horizontal. The inside is protected by a slope wall of stone
extending from the top water line to a level 1 1 feet beloAV it, or
14 feet below the top. The outside is sodded, and the top, which
is 16 feet in width, has a gravelled w^alk of 10 leet bordered
by sods at the sides, which on the inside reach to the stone
w^all.

The capacity o f this reservoir is about 45,000,000 hnperial
gallons, and of this and the receiving reservoir together 55,334,-
229 — a quantity sufficient to supply a population of 100,000
persons with 30 gallons each for nearly 19 days.

At the southeasterly side is the gate-house, through which the
influent and effluent pipes pass, and in which are placed stop-
cocks for regulating the flow of the water; and near to this,
within the reservoir, is the screen-house, a low brick structure,
without a roof, in which are fixed wire screens, for })reventing
fish and floating substances from entering tlie effluent, or distri-
buting pipes, and being carried to the mouths of tlie service pipes
where they would become troublesome to the water-tenants. A
36 inch influent pipe is laid througli tlie embankment at this
reservoir, as was done at Belleville, and also a 26 inch effluent
pipe in addition to the one now used, and arrangements made for
connecting new lines of influent and effluent pipes when required,
without interfering at all with the operation of those already in
use. Provision is also made for taking the water into the city
without allowing it to pass into the Bergen hill reservoir — an
arrangement which will permit alterations, or repairs to be made
in that, when necessary, without interrupting the regular supply
to consumers.

632 TRANSACTIOXS OF THE

Distributing Pipes. — Of these ^there are now laid about 19 1-5
miles, of the following sizes and^engths, to wit :

Of 26 inches diameter, 3,420 feet.

"20 '' 8,472 "

"16 " 1,411 "

"12 " 12,124 "

" 6 " 69,195 "

" 4 " 6,778 "

101,400 feet, or
19 miles, 1080 feet. And there are used in the rising main,
connecting pipes and distributing pipes, 143 stop-cocks, varying
in size from 36 inches to 4 inches, and in the streets of Jersey-
City are fixed 186 fire hydrants, from anyone of which, by at-
taching a hose of sufiicient strength, the water may be thrown
over the highest buildings yet erected within the city limits.
And if the same proportions are hereafter adhered to in laying
down distributing pipes, which have hitherto been observed in
that department of the work, the same effective head will be
retained as the city is extended, and fire engines continue to be
an entirely useless apparatus, so that the municipal govermnent
may not only be saved the expense of purchasing others, but with
perfect propriety may dispose of most of those now on hand, and
place the proceeds of the sales in the city treasury.

The quality of Passaic water, as received by the consumers,
after resting as it does in the reservoirs, is excellent; and careful
analyses have shown that it is superior to the water furnished to
the people of Albany, New- York, or Philadelphia; and experi-
ence has shown that it is well suited for domestic use, and for all
manufacturing or other purposes where pure and wholesome
water is required, and the quantity which may be brought to the
distributing reservoir is only limited by the power of the ma-
chinery employed to raise, and number and dimensions of the
pipes to deliver it; and as these may be increased indefinitely, it
may be safely said that the water supply in Jersey City is inex-
haustible.

The actual cost of constructing the works made up from the
statement of receipts and expenditures contained in a semi-an-
nual report of the water commissioners, to the mayor and com-
mon council of Jersey City, on the 1st July, 1854 (after the steam
engine had been actually at work), was $594,885.78, or a little
more than $5,000 below the original estimate; although vari-

AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 633

ous parts had been made larger and more complete than was
originally contemplated; the length of pipes had been increased
from about 19^ miles to 25i; the engine house had been built and
fitted to receive two pumping engines, instead of one; the Eelle-
ville reservoir was enlarged to contain four or five times the
quantity proposed, besides other extensions of the plan. Some
parts of the works and grounds were not, at that time, in a com-
pletely finished state, and the expenditures required for their com-
pletion, together with the additions and extensions which have
been called for, during two years which have elapsed since the
introduction of. the water, had, on the 1st July, 1856, increased
the cost to $640,828.04 as appears from the subjoined statement
furnished from the books of the water commissioners. This excess
of expenditure, over the original estimates, is sufficiently ac-
counted for by the construction of works of greater extent and
more eflicient character than were at first supposed necessary,
but which the rapid growth of Jersey City, and the almost abso-
lute certainty that Hoboken would require to be supplied from
them, appeared to render necessary and proper.

Summary of cost of the works, 1st July, 1856.

Pumping engine and pump, $37,323 07

Engine house, inlet conduit, dock, &;c., &c., 92,593 96

Rising main, check valves, stop cocks, &c., 37.652 00

Belleville reservoir, 35,946 63

Bergen hill reservoir, 53,416 27

Connecting pipes between reservoirs, 127,50 > 00

Distributing pipes, 189,571 34

Pipe bridge and syphon, 9,31 5 14

Land, 38,005 00

Engineering expenses, 1 9,499 63

$640,828 04

The works continue in eifective operation completely realizing
the wishes and expectations of their projectors and the citizens
generally, who are not backward in availing themselves of the
advantages which are afforded by an abundant supply of excel-
lent water. The income derived from the sale of water, is steadily
increasing; the receipts for the present year are estimated by the
water commissioners, at $47,669.53, and the expenditures, inclu-
ding interest on the whole water debt, $58,212.00, leaving a de-
ficiency of $10,512.47 to be provided from other sources; of this

634 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

about $5,000 will be supplied by a small tax of fifty cents per
lot, levied equally on all grounds improved, or unimproved within
the city limits (the collection of which is to cease when the re-
ceipts from water rents are sufficient to pay the current ex-
penses), the balance will be raised by an addition to the general
tax. And it is confidently believed, that within two years, the
receipts will exceed the expenditures, and enable the commis-
sioners to make investments in securities to form a sinking fund,
out of which to pay the water debt as the bonds severally become
due.

The law authorising the construction of waterworks, made it
"the duty of the commissioners to cause all such surveys and exa-
minations to be made as w^ould enable them to decide upon and
recommend a suitable plan for a general system of sewers for the
whole district proposed to be supplied with water.'' These sur-
veys and examinations were made as directed, and after mature
consideration a plan was drawn up and submitted to the munici-
pal government for its consideration.

That body, after careful examination and inquiry, adopted the
plan, and by an orcUnance directed that all sewers hereafter au-
thorised in the city, shall be constructed under the direction of
the water commissioners, and in conformity with the plan submit-
ted and adopted. This contemplates a canal at the foot of Bergen
hill, in rear of Jersey City, to be connected at one end with Hud-
son river, and at the other with the Morris canal, and into which
water from the river will be admitted and retained by gates at
high water level; the sewers are to be made in the streets, run-
ning from the canal to the river, with lateral branches in the
cross streets; and each main sewer to have a fall in its whole
length of four and a half feet. With this arrangement the water
in the canal will be let into the sewers at the time of low water
in the river; and as at spring tides there will be a difference of
level of six feet between the water in the canal and that in the
river and bay, all the sewers may be perfectly cleansed as often as
required; and, in the language of the late Nicholas Dean, Esq.,
" will leave Jersey City nothing to desire in the important matters
of public health and individual convenience.''''

I remain your very obedient servant, W.

INDEX.

A.

Address, anniversary, 113

closing, 127

opening, 107

Adulteration of food, 277, 482

Agricultural chemistry, 335

premiums in old times, 246

Air-tight preserve jars, 257, 259

Alcohol from beets, 382

American agricultural machines in Austria, 325

guano islands, ; . . . 414

Analysis of Indian corn, by Prof. Jackson. 221

Anniversary address, by L. R. Marsh, 113

B.

Balaclava, 313

Blanchard's new mill, 538

Brussels sprouts, 323

Burchard on the rural economy of the Italians, 201

Butter, 242

C.

Caterpillars on fruit trees, 348 , 351

Celery, 323

Chemical principles in the production of milk, 243

Cherry currants, 333

Chinese sheep, 446

Chinch bugs, 336

Closing address, by D. M. Reese, 127

Comparative differences of seasons, 296

Compost, 411

Cotton, 235, 329

636 INDEX.

Country farmers and market stands, 305

Crimson clover, 246

Cucurbita perennis, 404

Cultivation of beets in the United States, 381

the plum, 530

Curing grain, 334

D.

Dioscorea batatas,- 391, 451,465, 481, 519

Dried fruits, 368

E.

Early turnips, 322

Egyptian curiosity, 421

Errors in farming, 317

Evergreens, list of, 400

Exporting Indian corn, 299

F.

Farm gate, 354

Farmers' club, extracts for the —

agriculture, 377

botany, 288

cochineal, 416

cotton, 329

fat stock in old times, 536

guano and its substitutes, 345

hoTV to preserve eggs, 379

Lord Karnes and agriculture, 295

meteorology, 405

new method of accelerating the germination

of seeds, 482

Paraguay tea, 294

phosphate of lime, 329

preservation of meat, fish and vegetables, . . 407

reaping machines, 328

Sir Walter Scott on drainage, 335

turnip, 379

Virginia, by Tlios. Glover, 238

wines of Oporto, and the disease, 520

wool, 416

proceedings, 223

Farmers' club, subjects —

camel for America, 384

INDEX. 637

Farmers' club, subjects —

feeding animals, 436

grape houses, grape culture, and insects in

wheat, 273

live stock, 436

oats, irrigating machines and the potato,. . . . 522

preparing soil for spring work, 503

pruning pear trees, 309

root crop, 255

wheat sowing, 347

Fanners' club, translations —

American cherries, 277

capers, 226

distribution of vegetables over the earth, . . . 392

great horticultural exhibition at Paris, 1855, 315

igname or dioscorea batatas, 391, 451, 481

lusiopetalese of Holland, 536

Mezembrianthum, 536

Orchidise, 268

pliant bell glass, 534

Ramie — urtica utilis, 267

Rhododendron Hodgsonio, 402

sowing flower seeds on snow, 277

tomato diseases, 535

utility of hybrids, 528

Farmers' clubs, 259

Feeding stock by stage proprietors in New- York city, 465

Finances of the American Institute, 9

Fourteenth annual report of the trustees, 7

Fruit convention at Rochester, 478

G.

Gapes or pip in chickens, 279, 296, 319

General agricultural report for July, 230

Grape border, 283

houses, 251

Grasses, 402

Guano, 415, 435

imitation of, 537

resolutions in relation to, 258

Gums, 423

638

INDEX.

H.

Half bison or buffalo heifer, 219

Hedges instead of fences, 400

Hessian fly, 378

High living in London, 244

Historical and descriptive accounts of the Jersey City water

works, 623

Historical notes of Long Island, 46

I.

Imitation guano, 537

Inkermann, 313

Iowa, description of, 532

J.

Jee about in plowing, 272, 298

Jersey City water works, 623

Johnson on motive power for the farmer, 193

Jujube paste, 401

L.

La Tangue, 380

Lawton blackberry, 333, 342

Leibig's relations of chemistry to agriculture, 292

Leonard's new dynamometer, 521

M.

Market gardening, 320

Marsh's anniversary address, 1855, 113

Measure worm, 301

Mechanics' club, proceedings, 543

building of walls impervious to heat and

moisture, by R. L. Pell, 586

remarks on the same by S. D. Backus ,. . 590

cast-iron buildings, by John W. Thompson, 598
cause of the oscillation of locomotive en-
gines at liigh velocities, and method of

correcting it, by R. L. Pell, 575

remarks ou the same by J. K. Fisher,. « . 581

Creamer's railroad brake, 544

Dyott's patent iron plates to incrust brick

walls, 608

future of locomotion, by A. L. Holly, . . 560

Hedgcock's new quadrant, 546

INDEX. 639

Mechanics' club, momentum, theory and practice of arrest-
ing raikoad trains, by Wm. G. Creamer, 547
Whipple's patent nipper block and hook, . 611

Willis's patent stump extractor, 612

wire rope, by Wm. H, Wallace, 613

Meigs's address at the opening of the 27th fair, 1855, 107

Melons, 350

Mildew in grapes, 285

Missouri challenges the United States, 298

Motive power for the farmer, by F. G. Johnson, 193

Mules vs. horses, 349

N.

New delicious fruit, 249

digger, , 343

fibres, by Jean Blanc,'. 445

horse shoe, 301, 303, 324, 380

method of preserving entomological specimens, 334

plan of fencing, 461

texile plant, 515

wheat, 309

Notable historical fact, 248

Notes on the rural economy of the Italian peninsular, 201

0.

Octagon plan of settling lands, 333

Ofiicers of the American Institute, 3

Okra or Gumbo, 323

Opening address at the 27th fair, 1855, 107

Origin of cherries, 435

P.
Peaches and plums destroyed by the curculio,. . . . 348, 351, 531

Peppers, 451

Peters's refrigerator, 540

Philosophical transactions of London, 1731 , 238

Potatoes, 256, 513, 516

Premium buildings, 464

Premiums awarded at the 27th annual fair, 1855, 131

Preserving fruits, 355, 376, 398

in Spratt's patent cans, 360

vegetables, 393, 398

Prices of provisions established by law, 322

[Am. Inst.] 41

640 INDEX.

Proceedings of the Farmers' club, 223

Proceedings of the Fruit convention at Rochester, 478

Mechanics' club, » 543

Property held by the American Institute, 11

Prospects for American farmers for 1855, 231

Prunes, 249

Pruning grapes, 286

Q.

Quantity of water used by vegetables, 231

R.

Receipts and expenditures of the 27th annual fair, 1855,. . . 19

Reese's address at the close of the 27th fair, 1855, 127

Report of the judges on machinery at the 27th fair, 1855,. . 51

managers of the 27th fair, 1855, 13

on fire engines, hook and ladder trucks, &c., 97

Fisher's steam carriage, 27

Holmes's patent crank capstan, 35

Jean Blanc's improvement in preparing vegetable

fibre, 453

lathes, planers, boring and slotting machines, &c.,

for iron, 55

machines for working wood, &c., 61

railroad machinery and fixtures, 51

steam engines, &c., 75

the farm of Chas. Wilson at Deer Park, L. I., . . . 39

fleeces of the cashmere or shawl goat, 48

scales of the Vergennes scale manufacturing

company, 33

steamer New World, 38

Thompson's graduating life preserving seat, 37

Reports of special committees of the American Institute, ... 27

managers, ^ . . 37

Ross's hygrometric self-regulator, 305

Rotation book, 227

S.

Seasons in New-England for 200 years, 260

Sebastopol, 312

Size of animals in different ages of the world, 306

Soil of Long Island, 331, 374

South down sheep, 242

Steam cultivator, 227

INDEX. 641

Storage of grain, 270

Sugar sorgho, 482

Swamp muck and salt marsh, 409

T.

Tomatoes, 323

Tomato figs, 373

Transplanting large trees, 403

Trenching, 507

Trial of agricultural implements at Paris, 1855, 229

Truffles, how to grow them, 380

Trustees and committees 1855, '56, 3

Turnip fly, 227

U.

Use of muck, 395

V.

Visit to Greeley's farm at Chapaqua, 352, 353

W.

Warner's pump, 531

"Windmills for farm use, 431

Winter food for stock, 417

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Babcock's polychromatic printing press, 90

Barlow's rotary wood planing machine, 72

Bryant's friction stopper, 102

patent anchor supporter and tripper, 101

Carpenter and Plass's slotting machine, 59

Clark's steam fire regulator, 78

Conover's wood splitting machine, 66

Couzen's Greenburgh grape, 99

Creamer's method of operating raikoad brakes, 52

Daniels and Raymond's granular fuel cutter, 73

machine for cutting corn stalks, . . . 101

Dodge's suction and forc^ pump, 82

Fay & Co.'s foot mortising machine, 68

portable mortising macliine, 69

Flagler's portable forges, 93

Goddard's burring machine, 81

Gould's bolt cutting machine, 58

iron planing machine, 55

power mortising machine, 63

shaping machines, 56

642 INDEX.

Holmes's patent crank capstan, 35

Inlet conduit of the Jersey City water works, 626

Johnson's patent self-regulating windmill, 100

Kennedy's statuary marble mantles, 1 04

Lawton blackberry, 342

Leonard and Clark's iron turning lathe, 60

Liddle, Kepler & Co.'s shearing and punching machines, ... 58

Machine for paring, quartering and coring apples, 94

Montgomery's bolt cutting machine, , 57

Morse's machine for preparing, planing, tonguing and groov-
ing, 74

Porter's wood gas generator, 83

Potter's printing press, with oscillating bed, 89

Ruggles's patent rotating shears, 92

Sutton's patent lubricating apparatus, 79

Tousey and Reed's chronometer steam engine, 76

Vail & Co.'s smut machine, 88

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