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TO VOL. THE THIRD.

An Effay on thofe inquiries in Natural Philofophy, which at prefent are moft
beneficial to the Unrrep Stares oF NortH AMERICA. By
Dr. NICHOLAS COLLIN, Reéfor of the Swedifb Churches in
Pennfylvania.

Read before the Society the 3d of April, 1789.

Painosorures are citizens of the world; the fruits of their
labours are freely diftributed among all nations; what they fow is reap-
ed by the antipodes, and blooms through - future generations. It is,
however, their duty to cultivate with peculiar attention thofe parts of
feience, which are moft beneficial to that country in which Providence
has appointed their earthly ftations. Patriotic affeGtions are in this, as
in other inftances, conducive to the general happinefs of mankind, be-
caufe we have the beft means of ri lactin thofe objets, which are
moft interefting to us. In the prefent circumftances of the United
States fome problems of natural philofophy are of peculiar importance ;
-afurvey of thefe may contribute to the moft ufeful direction of our own
inquiries, and thofe of our ingenious fellow citizens. I fubmit, gen-
tlemen, my reflections on this fubject to your candid indulgence and
enlightened judgment.

1. ARTICLE, Medical Enquiries.

Ail countries have fome peculiar difeafes, arifing from the climate,
manner of living, occupations, predominant paffions, and other caufes,
whofe feparate and combined influence is but imperfeCtly known. In
North America we may count five—nervous diforders, rheumatif{m, in-
termitting fevers, lofs of teeth, and colds. It is remarkable that ner-
vous complaints are at prefent more frequent in Europe than they former-
ly were. ‘They fpring in a great meafure from the indulgencies of a
civilized life; but im America thefe fiends infeft with lefs difcriminati-

a2 on

( iv }

on the dwellings of induftry and temperance... Proteus-like they affume
every thape, and often baffle the beit phyficians. Their baneful effect
on the mind requires the ferious attention of legillators, divines,. and
moral philofophers: I have myfelf often feen their amazing influence on
‘religious fentiments. When extreme, they derange the whole fyftem;.
obfcure the inteleéts, bewilder the imagination; prevent the natural or-.
der and operation of all the paffions: the foul vibrates between apathy
and morbid fenfibility:. the hates when fhe fhould love; and grieves when
fhe ought to rejoice: the refembles.a difordered clock, that after a long
filence chimes till you are tired, and often inftead of one ftrikes twelve—
Thefe extremes are indeed rare; but the more general. degrees are {till
analogous, and produce a great fum of evil.

Slight rheumatic pains are almoft epidemic in fome feafons of the
year. Yet, thefe are fcarcely worth mentioning in comparifon to the
fevere fits that affliét a great number of perfons, even in the earlier parts
of life, growing more frequent and violent with age;. not feldom attend-
ed with. lamenefs, and contraétion of limbs.. . .

Fever and ague is here, as in other countries, the plague of marfhy
and fenny fituations, but what is fingular, it alfo vifits the borders of
limpid ftreams.. The lefler degree of it generally called dumb ague, is
not rare in the moft falubrious places during the months of Septem-
ber and.O@tober.. Through ali the low one from north to fouth
this difeafe rages in a variety. of hideous forms; and chiefly doth the fu-
ry guartan with livid hue, haggard looks, and trembling fkeleton-limbs,
embitter the life of multitudes: I have known many to linger under it
for years, and become fo, difpirited, as not even to feek any remedy.
It is a foul fource of many other. difeafes; often terminating in deadly
dropfies and confumptions.

Premature lofs of teeth is in many refpeéts a fevere misfortune. By
impairing maitication, and confequently digeftion, it difpofes for many
diforders. It injures the pronunciation; and is a particular difadvan-
tage in a great republic, where fo many citizens are public fpeakers.
It expofes the mouth and throat to cold, and various accidents.. It di--
minifhes the pleafure of eating, which is a real though not fublime,.
pleafure of life; and which I have heard fome perfons very emphatically
repret. Finally, it is a mortifying ftroke to beauty; and as fuch deep-
ly felt by the fair fex! Indeed that man mutt be a ftoic, who can wich-
out pity behold a blooming maiden of eighteen afflicted by this infirmity

of

(i ))

of old age! This confideration is the more important, as the amiable
affections of the human foul are not lefs exprefled by the traits and mo-
tions of the lips, than by the beaming eye. . I have not mentioned the
pains of tooth-ach, becaufe they are not more common or violent in
this country than in fome others, where lofs of teeth is rare; many per-
fons here lofing their teeth without-much pain, as.I have myfelf experi-°-
enced.

The complaint of catching cold is heard almoft every day, and in every
company. ‘This extraordinary diforder, little known in fome countries, -
is alfo very common in England... An eminent phyfician of that country
faid that “colds kill more people than the plague”... Indeed many fevere
diforders originate from it among us: it is probably often the fource of
the before mentioned’ chronic difeafes. . When it does not produce fuch
funeft effects, it is neverthelefs a ferious evil; being attended-with lofs
of appetite, hoarfenefs, fore eyes, _head-ach, pains and fwellings in the
face, tooth and ear-ach, rheums, liftlefs langour and lownels of fpirits :
wherefore Shen/ione had fome reafon to call this uneafinels a checked perfpi-
ration. Great numbers in the United States experience more or lefs
thefe fymptoms, and are in fome degree valetudinarians for one third of
the year. -.

Eminent medical authors have indeed treated of thefe diftempers
and fome American phyficians deferve applaufe for their theoretical and -
practical exertions. Still, it is devoutly to be wifhed that thefe national
evils may draw a more pointed attention. The limits of my defign
permit enly a few additional remarks. .

Thefe ditempers frequently co-exiftinthe moft unhealthy parts of the
country ; and not feldom-affliG individuals with united force. Compaf-
fion for fuffering fellow citizens ought inthis cafe to animate our invefti-
gation of thofe general and complicated local caufes. . The extreme va-
riablenefs..of the weather is univerfally deemed a principal and general
caufe of colds, and-of the diforders by them produced; the fall and rife
of. the thermometer by 20 a 30: degrees within lefs than four and twenty
hours, difturbing the ftrongeft conftitutions, and ruining the weak. . A
mit important defideratum is therefore the art of hardening the bodily
fyftem againft thefe violent impreffions; or,-in other words, accommo-
dating it tothe climate. _ The general ftamina of ftrength fupport it under
the excefles of both cold and heat. The latter is, however, the moft
oppreiiye as we can lefs elude it by artificial conveniencies. We fufter

efpecially

(wei ))

-efpecially during the fummer four, til 6 a8, critical extremés, when the
thermometer after 86 a 92 degrees, falls fuddenly to 60. Could means
be found to blunt thefe attacks on the human conftitution, they would
{ave multitudes from death and lingering difeafes. Sometimes this cri-
fis happens as late as medium September, and is in a few days fucceeded
by the autumnal frofts: in fuch cafe weak perfons receive a thock, from
which they cannot recover during the autumn, and which will aggravate
the maladies of the winter, efpecially when it is early and rigorous.

Searching for general caufes of the mentioned diftempers in the po-
pular diet, we fhould examine the following circumftances—exceflive
ufe of animal food, efpecially pork : the common drink of inferior fpi-
ritous liquors both foreign and home made; ‘not to mention a too fre-
quent intemperance even in the beft kinds: the ‘conftant ufe of tea a-
mong the fair fex, drank generally very hot and ftrong ; and often by
the poorer clafles, of a bad quality.

In the general modes of drefs we plainly difcern thefe defects :—the
tight-bodied clothes, worn by both fexes, encreafe the heat of a fultry
fummer; the clofe lacing and cumberfome head-drefles of the ladies are
efpecially injurious to health. The winter-cloathing is too thin for the
climate of the northern and middle ftates, which is for feveral months
at times equally cold with the North of Europe. Few perfons preferve
their feet from the baneful dampnefs of the fluth occafioned by the fre-
quent viciflitudes of hard frofts and heavy rains during the winter: wo-
men generally wear ftuff-fhoes: the American leather, though otherwife
good, is very fpungy; a defect owing to the precipitate procefs of tan-
ning. Nor does either fex guard the head againft the piercing north-weft
wind which is fo general for five or fix months: on journeys efpecially,
the men fhould exchange their hats for caps that cover the ears and
cheeks.

In the modes of lodging thefe improprieties are obfervable:—the poor-
er, or more indolent people, efpecially in the lefs improved parts of the
country, frequently dwell in houfes that are open to the driving fnow,
and chilling blaft: good houfes often want clofe doors; a chafm of fix
or eight inches near the floor admits a ftrong current of cold air, which
-fenfibly affects the legs. Such houfes cannot be fufficiently warmed by
the common fire-places; hence the frequent complaint, that the fore
part of the body is almoft roafted, while the back is freezing: a fituati-
on very unnatural, productive of rheumatifin and other diftempers. The

larger

vii)
Jarger towns of North-America have, with their fpacious ftreets, a nuni-
ber of narrow alleys; which are peculiarly detrimental in a fultry cli-
mate, and in co-operation with the flovenly habits of their poorer in-
mates, are nurferies of difeafe.

Among the general cuftoms which may influence health, the moft
ftriking is an exceflive, and in fome cafes ill-judged cleanlinefs: the con-
tinual wafhing of houfes, efpecially in the cold feafon, has, I am confi-
dent, coft the lives of many eftimable women, and entailed painful dif-
eafes on their families.

In the bufinefs of life we often remark a very irregular application ;
indolence fucceeded by hurry and intenfe fatigue. ‘This muft particu-
larly injure our hufbandmen, as the neglect of a day may damage a pre-
cious crop, if it is not compenfated by exertions, which in the fultry
heat of fummer are very trying to the ftrongeft conftitution.

As to nervous diforders, philanthropy compells me to remark, that,
befides their general connexion with a fickly conftitution, they have in a
great meafure originated from two fingular caufes. One is the convulfion
of public affairs for a confiderable time paft, which occafioned many and
great domeftic diftrefles: the natural events of the late war are univerfal-
ly known: numbers of virtuous citizens have alfo felt the dire effets of
the fucceeding anarchy; efpecially in the lofs of property.* The operati-
ons of this caufe are, however, continually leffened by time that cures our
griefs, or buries them in the grave ; and fuch evils will under Providence
be for ever prevented by the new confederation of the United-States—
The other caufe is that gloomy fuperftition diffeminated by ignorant illi-
beral preachers; the bane of focial joy, of real virtue, and of a manly
fpirit. ‘This phantom of darknefs will be difpelled by the rays of fcience,
and the bright charms of rifing civilization.+

2. ARTICLE, Inquiries relative to rural economy.

The United States poffefs a vaft territory fertile in many valuable pro-
ductions. They will therefore, if truly wife, make agriculture the
principal fource of profperity and wealth : to prefer other objets, how-
ever ufeful in afecondary view, would be perverting the order of nature,

nays

* Not by violencc, but the well known diforders of paper money in various forms.

+ It is pleafing to fee how fanaticifm declines with agricultural improvement in many new _
fettlements ; and how refinement of public manners keeps pace with a preference of enlight-
ened teachers,

( vii )

ney, oppoting the will of nature’s God. Agriculture has made a won

derful progrefs in feveral countries, fince it became the bufinefs and fa-
vourite amufement of philofophers and men of tafte. We may reap
great advantage from the many excellent writings on this fubject in the
Englith, French, German, and Swedifh languages; but much improve-
ment is yet wanting in every part of this noble -feience. Befides, our
local circumftances require in fome cafes peculiar methods. The United
States extend through feveral clunates; and the .general irregularity of
the feafons mingles the diverfity of climate in every ftate: Pennfylvania
f. e. ‘as often within two or three months the climates of Sweden, En-
gland, and Italy. ‘This points out the propriety of adopting fome practices
from different countries, and.eftablifhing others as our own.

On our tillage the following remarks appear:to me very interefting.—
The fucceflion of fevere froftsand deep thaws during winter in all the
northern and-middle ftates makes a variety of drains neceflary in moft
foils and fituations; yet an almoft general negle@ of this deftroys a great
part of the feed: a judicious treatife.on the forms and courfes of fuch
drains would be very ufeful. A large-portion of the arable lands in this
and fome other ftates being hilly, is detrimentally wafhed by heavy rains
in every feafon of the year: efpecially is the manure thereby totally loft.
This would be much prevented by tranfverfe ploughing in a proper
degree of horizontal inclination, which may be traced by computing the
force and quantity of the water..

The Indian corn * isan effential article.among American grains; and
peculiarly fuitable to an extenfive country. It might be raifed at fo mo-
derate a price as to bear exportation to Europe; in the northern parts of
which it would be very valuable as nourifhment for.domeftic animals du-
ring the long winter. The mode of planting this grain by four or five
feeds together in hills at the diftance of feveral feet, appears lefs reafona-
ble from the vonfideration, that one part of the ground: is left vacant,
while the other is over charged; that the contiguous ftalks muft impede
each other; that their {pindling height, and clofe pofition fubje&ts them
more to the high winds, which not unfrequently fweep down whole
fields. Lam informed by natives of Italy, that in that country the corn
is planted fo as to cover the ground equally, with convenient intervals
for weeding.

The culture of meadows has gained a confiderable perfe€tion in the
middle ftates; but {till is capable of much improvement. We mutt dif-

cover
* Maize or zea.

( ix )
cover a mode of banking effeCtual azainft the floods that often ruin the
beft marfh-meadows: in open fituations a clofe row of fome aquatic trees
beyond the bank is indifpenfible for breaking the force of a ftormy tide.
We want graffes that will flourifh in dry and fandy foils: fuch f.¢. as
were lately introduced in Spain, and are faid to have proved fo beneficial
to that dry and warm country.

The heat of our fummers is unfavourable to grafs, where the ground,
though fertile, has mot a degree of moifture; it is therefore advifeable to
try, whether barley, rye, or wheat, if cut young, would make good
hay; and whether a fecond crop or the fucceeding pafture, may help to
make a full compenfation for an eventual harveft? I remember to have
heard this method much recommended by fome cultivators ina European
country. ‘The divifion of pafture grounds by enclofures is generally
neglected. Clean feeding is an advantage of admitting cattle, horfes, and
fheep in rotation, that deferves attention.

The value of land, and clofe neighbourhood, makes good fences very
neceffary in old fettlements. Worm-fencing and fimilar expedients of
infant cultivation, fhould never be feen; they occafion lofles, vexation
and contention. ‘The regular frames of rails and boards would be much
improved by hardening againft heat and moifture: to render the lower
part of the poft more durable, burning, encrufting with mortar, and
foaking in falt water, are expedients partly ufed, and worthy of trial.
Live hedges are in general preferable to any, but yet very rare; though
the country prefents many fhrubs of promifing qualities.

The vaft domains of the United States can vie with any country in
the variety, utility, and beauty of trees and fhrubs. Our ftately forefts
area national treafure, deferving the folicitous care of the patriotic phi-
Jofopher and politician. Hitherto they have been too much abandoned
to the axes of rude and thoughtlefs wood-choppers. What perfon of
fenfe and feeling can without indignation behold millions of young oaks
and hickories deftroyed, to make bonfires in open fmoaky houfes, or
trucked inthe cities for foreigntoys! fome parts of Europe were thus
laid waftein former centuries; and the prefent generations muft with
great labour and expenfe repair the ravages of their forefathers. In ma-
ny parts of this country a prefervation and encreafe of the timber for fuel
and other domeftic ufes renders thefe queries important.—What trees
are of the quickeft growth? at what age do they encreafe moft? what is
the proper diftance between them? what is the beft mode of pruning, for

b promoting

(=)
promoting the growth, and taking off’ all fuperfluous branches? what
kinds are fuitable to different foils? what fpecies thrive beft together?:
a judicious lopping of the branches, thinning clofe the clumps of trees,
and clearing the ground of underwood, will make many woodlands.good -
paftures, and form them into beautiful parks. ‘This management would
alfo improve the quality of timber by procuring the benefit of fun and_
air: the want of this may be regarded as one. principal caufe of the
{punginefs of our timber, which defect fo inimical to durability, ftrength, |
and prefervation of a given form, is further encreafed by a too common
ignorance or negleét of the proper feafon for felling the. materials of
building, furniture, ftaves and various utenfils. Some -valuable trees —
and fhrubs are yet obfcurely known: among thefe the fo called coffee-tree
*in the weftern country, that bears a,hard. nui, the kernel of which
is generally ufed by the inhabitants as a fubftitute for coffee; the- native.
plumb trees on the Miffiffippi, faid to be far fuperior to thofe in the mid-.
dle ftates; the newly difcovered and much extolled grape of Scioto.+
Many of.thofe which have long been familiar to us, ftill poffefs. ufeful_
qualities little explored. Oil might be extracted frem acorns, and efpe- -
cially from the large and-greafy.fpecies of the -chefnut-oak;. as: lately,
though but in few places, is done from the various kinds of walnuts.
Spirits may be diftilled from the berries of the red cedar, which fo much .
reflemble thofe of the European Juniper. . Wine far better, than what is.
generally done, can be made from the late grapes, as I know by.my own.
experiments. From all kinds. of. grapes, the Perfimon. fruit, the
berries of the four-gum, + and white-thorn,§ the crab-apple, the wild-
pears, plumbs, and cherries, with fimilar fruits, fpirituous liquor, and
vinegar may be obtained. This white-thorn will, if it can be kept clofe
and low, make an impenetrable and beautiful hedge, by its long fharp and
folid fpears, and by its cluftering bloffoms-and large red berries. . The
new experiment of grafting foreign kinds.on our native grape-wines, faid -
to be very promifing, may prove a good prefervative againft the rigour of
winter. Inall probability many fpecies of leaves would make good fod-.
der for cattle, if gathered in the proper feafon, and well cured: this ex-
pedient practifed in the north of Europe* is of great importance to one
half of the American ftates, which have according to fituation no pafture

for
® Gnuilandia.
+ A branch of the Ohio,
} Nyfla
§ Crus gally. ‘
* Afpin leaves f, ¢. are a pleafing and falutary food for horfes,

(xi )
for. five a feven months. Finally we may fincerely with that the owners
of venerable woodlands might recard themas principal ornaments of their
country; and while they clear a part fox the purpotes of agriculture, leave
thofe hills crowned wiih towering pines, and (lately oals; fuffering like.
wile the groves of tulip-trees and magnélias to wave among yellow harveits
and blooming meadows. In fome of the old countries many gentlemen
would purchafe fuch rural charms at aay expenfe, but muft wait till che
evening of life for the fhade of their plantations; isit not then deplorable,
that fo many American farmers daily deftroy what their offspring of better
taite will deeply regret! this evil might ina great meafure be leflened by
a treatife on ornamental planting adapted to the prefent circumitances of
this country.

Half a century ago, philofophers thought it beneath them to invefti-

_gate the ceconomy of domeftic animals. By this ridiculous pride Euro-
pean countries have fuffered much. The Swedith naturalifts were rouf=
ed near thirty years ago, to a ferious attention, by a peftilence among
horfes and horned cattle, which deftroyed many thoufands in fome pro-
vinces. In America, this important fcience has been much neglected.
Not to enlarge upon a fubjeét which efpecially concerns agricultural fo-
cieties, I fhall only mention two or three particulars— This country is not
unfavourable to horfes ; yetthofe of good quality are not very common,
becaufe the natural hiftory of thefe noble animals is but little cultivated.
They are often difabled by want of proper care ; and perifh by various
diforders ; efpecially by fwelling in the throat, cholic, and the botts.*
Sheep thrive well in fome parts, but in others I have feen them die by
dozens, without the owners knowing or inquiring into the caufe.

Horned cattle fuifer much when expofed to the winter’s cold, which
deftroys their hoofs even under the 39 degree. Both they and horfes
are affected by excefs of heat in fummer: which not feldom caufes a fever,
difcernible by their want of appetite, dulinefs, and a yellow tinge of the
mouth and eyes. The beft European treatifes on domeftic animals will
more or lefs apply to diverfe parts of this country: a book written on
fheep, in Swedith, by Haftfer, has great merit, and is applicable to the
colder ftates.

Goats would be very valuable in the rocky woodlands of America, as
they are in thofe of Europe. They are very hardy: their maintenance

is cheap, as they browfe fummer and winter on moft kinds of trees and
b 2 fhrubs;

* Akind of werms that devours their maw,

xii)

fhrubs: they yield a great quantity of rich milk: and their fkins are
very ufeful.* ‘The Angora goat, whofe fine gloffy hair is amaterial of the
mohair, may alfothrive as well here as in Sweden, where he was intro-.
duced by the>patriotic Ahftromer. |

Good orchards eminently unite the ufeful and pleafing; gratifying.
through the greater part of the year, the tafte, feent, and fight. Horti-.
culture was an early objeét in America, and has made confiderable pro-.
grefs. At prefent our firft care fhould be, to prevent diftempers of the
fruit-trees, of late become very alarming—Peach-trees, have till within
20 or 30 years been very flourifhing » fome Englifh writers relate with
amazement that the Americans fatten their hogs on this fruit, which is
fo coftly in the North of Europe; and it is true, that many common
farms abounded fo far in a promifcous colle€tion of better and worfe.
But at prefent the peach-trees are few, and generally in a fickly conditi-
on, through the greater part of the country. Of this one principal caufe
is a fly, that depofits her eggs within the ftem near the ground, which
producea great number-of worms, who quickly confume all the lower
bark. Moft kinds of plum-trees are liable to decay, and the fruit is de-
{troyed by a fpecies of fly; but the ravages of this infect have been
for along time. Pear-trees have never indeed flourifhed well, but of
jate far lefs: fome afcribe the blights of them to lightning, and hang
pieces of iron in the branches, to*anfwer the purpofe of electric rods.
In fome places lately cherry and apple-trees have been attacked by va-
rious diftempers, which caufe the fruit to rot, and the limbs to decay in
rapid fucceffion till the tree dies. This grangrene in fruit trees bears
a {trong refemblance to the mortification of members in the human body;
the corruption fpreads quickly over a large limb, and amputation is the
only prefervative of the tree yet known. ‘The lofs of peach-orchards is
a confiderable difadvantage, as. their early bloom is the principal beauty of
fpring ; and the fruit is not only very pleafing both green and preferved,
but alfo yields by diftilling an agreeable and wholefome liquor, well
known by the name of peach-brandy. ‘The apple-orchards. claim a folici-
tous care merely as great ornaments of the country; much more as they
fupply 2 great article of dict anda falutary beverage equal to feveral fpe-
cies of wine. We want an American treatife on fruit-trees, which would
_ fhow how far the beft Englifh authors are applicable to diverfe parts of
the United States; give a full account of all the beft fruits here culti

. vated,
* Their mifchievous agility in climbing is impaired by cutting the finews of the hindfret.

( sii}

vated, with their variation from local caufes 3 collect all the various
names of thefame fruit, and fix one as national, to prevent a confufion
that often fruftrates information both foreign and domettic.

Fifh-ponds are ufeful decorations in places diftant from lakes and rivers.
I have often wondered why this advantage is not derived from ponds
and ftreams which are fo common: a ufelefs and unwholefome fwamp
may thus be changed into an elegant improvement. A German author
has wrote a valuable treatife on the fifh-ponds of Bohemia. The fubje&
has alfo been well treated by feveral ceconomical writers of Sweden : in.
which country fith-ponds of all kinds are very common.

ARTICLE. Phyfico Mathemacical enquiries.

Machines for abridging human labour are efpecially defired in Ame--
rica, as there can be no competition between them and the arms of in-
dufrious labour, while thefe have full employ on her extenfive lands ;
which mutt be the cafe for ages. Agriculture has the firft claim to the
exertions of mechanical genius, as the principal fource of national prof-
perity. Extent of territory, improved by artificial induftry, mutt yield
a great quantity of products at fo cheap a rate, as to bear exportation
to very diftant markets. It is moreover a weighty confideration to the
humane philofopher, that agricultural’ mechanifm would in the South-

ern ftates fupply the labour of flaves. Among important defiderata we
‘may place thefe A machine for fowing broad-cait, fo as to fpread
the grain even and in proper quantity: another for cutting drains, and
making banks on our extenfive marfh-meadows : an apparatus for clear-
ing new lands; which ought to bea compound of coulters, faws, axes,
and fcrews; fo that the trees may be pulled out of the ground, cut
in convenient pieces, and heaped: a better inftrument for reaping than
the common fickle, fuch f.e. as the cradling fcythe of Northern Eu-
rope: temporary fheds of eafy and light conftruction for the pre-
fervation of the reaped’ grain in wet feafons.

The many fhipwrecks that Happen.on the extenfive, and often ftormy
coaft of this country render diving bells very neceflary ; thefe machines
are yet but little known.

A pienty of naval ftores, and numerous ports render fhip-building an
‘important branch of national induftry. This noble art, which has long
been cultivated with fuccefs, would ftill be much improved by more
expeditious. modes of hauling timber, and of preparing the main pieces
for thg finifhing workmanship.

An

( xiv. >)

An extenfive inland navigation by locks and canals, is now become a
great object of legiflative care in feveral ftates 5 it is to be hoped, that
fuch perfons may be entrufted with thefe important works; as have a
perfect theory of hydraulics, and a practical knowledge of local cir-
_cumftances, among which the force of ice in-winter, and of rainy tor-
rents in fummer, are to be duly eftimated. .

As many new towns and villages will gradually rife with the encreafing
population of the country, their fituation and form fhould be chofen with
a view to permanent circumftances. A fure fupply of water is one great
object. If the advantage of ports is defired, enquiry fhould be made
whether the prefent water-courfes are likely to continue; as in the old
countries, feveral towns have been immerfed, and others left far within
land, by the encreafe or diminution of the water, or by the change of
the channels. Health and conveniency require feveral open fquares,
wide ftreets, anda direétion of them calculated for fhelter in the winter,
and for fhade and ventilation in the fervent fummer months.

Our archite@ture claims the following remarks—The pofition of houfes
ought to fecure the fanning fummer breeze, and exclude the wintry blaft.
Another object fhould be to exclude from fummer-rooms, the burning
fun, during the hotter part of the day. Entries throughout the houte
are very common, but not generally in directions that beft anfwer thefe
purpofes. The length, and by frequent intervals, feverity of winter in
the northern and middle ftates, makes warm rooms not only agreeable,
but in a degree neceflary. For this purpofe the moft improved chim-
neys and iron-ftoves are inadequate expedients: efpecially as the open
kind of thefe, though the more pleafant, yet confume a great quantity
of wood. The ftoves, which have long been in ufe through Sweden,
and a part of the neighbouring countries, are unqueftionably the bef
ever yet devifed: they warm the room uniformly, with a quarter of the
wood required for thefe laft mentioned ; are free from any difagreeable
fteams; and have the appearance of elegant furniture*. Larger farms
require,feveral buildings ; efpecially in cold countries, where ftore-houfes,
and warm dwellings for domeftic animals are neceflary. If all thefe
ftru€tures are formed on regular plans calculated for the values of eftates,
and refpeétive local circumftances, the ufeful and agreeable may be

united
“ They are conftruéed by an iron grate-work, and panes of a fine clay fitted therein,

which are varnifhed according to tafte and ability. At Bethlehem, in Pennfylvania, an infe-
rior kind of thefe are already in ufe.

( xv )

united. ina very high degree: a well-written treatife on this fubject,
would be very valuable.

To form with {peed and conveniency a tolerably accurate map of the
United States, aftronomical obfervations ought to determine the latitude
and longitude of thofe places, which are moft effential to the figure of
the whole country, orto the fituation of certain parts ina political, and»
ceconomical view.

Exact furveys of private eftates are indifpenfible for the fecurity of
landed property: from adefeé& of fuch many law-fuits. have originated
and will enfue for years. I omit what.is the province of government
inthis matter ; and only fuggeft a with, that a fmall treatife on the fur-
vey of woodlands might be compofed ; as the beft Englith guides, being
calculated for:an open country, do not particularly. attend to this branch. -

4. ARTICLE, Inquiries..in Natural Hiffory. ~

Natural hiftery, like a faithful guide, leads us through the myfterious -
mazes of nature, and opens to our enraptured eye her fublime and beau-
tiful wonders. . How many precious plants areas defpicable weeds trod ~
under foot in every part of the world! How many new: qualities are
from time to time difcovered in’ productions, which have been known
for centuries in countries long ago perluftrated with this facred lamp!
what treafures may we not then expeét in this new and vaft divifion of
the globe! in the forefts of a thoufand. miles hitherto traverfed only by
favage tribes, and mercenary traders; in our lakes, fome of which are
inland-feas; and rivers that wander through feveral ftates before they
meet the ocean! * neglect of natural hiftory under circumftances fo al-
luring would indicate a want-of rational tafte. . I often heard the great
Linneus with that he could have explored the continent of. North. Ame- -
rica; may this wifh animate American philofophers. .

The vegetable realm claims our firft attention. Let us begin with a
refearch of the {lores it offers for the prefervation and recovery of health.
The frequent appearance of trees, fhrubs, and plants, whofe tafte and
fcent, or analogy with. well known pharmaceutics, is very promifing,
would lead us to expect a very confiderable ftock of native Materia-Me-
dica. But, although above an hundred of thefe fpecies are, or have
been, more or lefs in ufe among the inhabitants, + very few of them

are

* The United States extend from the Atlantic to Mif_liflippi, and from Florida to Canada :

taking in half of the great lakes, and of all the rivers, by the boundary-line.
t Indefinite calculation from written and verbal accounts, with perfonal obfervation.

( eu }}

are well known as to the extent and peculiarity of their qualities, and
a very fmall number is adopted either by the apothecaries, or regular
phyficians. On this view the following expedients merit attention—to
fubftitute indigenous medicines of equal value for thofe imported, which
by quantity or price caufe a great national expenfe; and that are liable
to adulteration, or depreciation by age: to point out the beft native
plants in local diftrits, with fixed names, clear defcriptions, and accu-
rate medical inftruCtions, for fafe convenient and general ufe: to appre-
ciate the merit of thofe drugs, which are efteemed fpecifics in the worft
epidemic or particular diftempers. Colle@ting all the botano-medical in-
formation at prefent attainable, we may judge what plants are moft in-
terefting, in what degree they are known, and how this knowledge may
probably be moft improved*—the Indians have feveral remedies againft
the difcafes and accidents arifing from the climate, and their favage
mode of life; ‘as fevers, rheumatifm, wounds, bruifes, fcalding, chill-
blains, bite of venomous ferpents; befides emetics, cathartics, fudoriftcs,
and dietics. ‘Thefe have the fanétion of time and fimplicity. It is alfo
generally believed, that they poffefs very important fecrets, of which
only a few extraordinary fpecimens are related with plaufible au-
thenticity-——In domeftic pra€tice, particularly of the country peo-
ple, we obferve medical plants of general falubrity, ufed as de-
tergents, tonics, fudorifics, and laxatives; and others of particu-
lar virtue in rheumatifm, fevers, peCtoral ailments, vifceral obftruCtions,
ulcers, external hurts, poifons, female complaints, and difeafes
of children. Among the great number of thefe popular drugs, par-
ticular attention is due to thofe that are recommended by their falu-
tary effects, attefted by the patients or other perfons of credit; and
more fo, when the teflimonial is attended with a precife ftatement of
facts. In cafe of defective information, we may expect valuable qua-
lities in thofe which are in vogue over large diftricts; becaufe this general
efleem cannot be owing to imitation in a country, where intercourfe be-
tween diftant places has tillof late been very limited, and where botani-
cal curiofity is yet very rare.—The medical plants we have in common
with other countries, poflefs the fame virtue, under variations from cli-
mate and local circumftances; the too common opinion of their inferi-
ority

* See materia medica Americana potiffimum regni vegetabilis, by David Schoeph, printed in
Germavy 1727. The author has great merit in collecting the accounts of preceding writers,

whole authority he cites, with addition of popular information received, and perfonal re-
mnarks made during his rclidence and travels in this country.

[Shik ¥

erity will often be changed by a fair trial. Different {pecies alfo promife
a reward of examination from the generic fimilarity: when thefe are
actually in ufe among the people of this country, the probability of their
value is the greater.

An application of thefe principles will bring the following plants to
our particular notice—Agrimony, Potentilla~quinquefolium, P lygonum-
biftorta, Gentiana, Fumaria, Angelica, Cochlearia, Eryfimum officinale,
Arum, Symphitum, Jnula campana, Afarum, all growin thenorthern and
middle ftates; and are the fame with, or near a-kin to thofe clafled
among the beft fimples by Dr. Cullen in his Materia Medica*. The gen-
tiana growing in the g/ades of Pennfylvania, is by Dr. Sch. efteemed
the belt of our feveral fpecies. The Arum of North America is generally
called Indian turnep, from its ancient value among the Indians ; and of-
ten ufed with other ingredients by the country people, in that general
debility, confequent on tedious fevers.—The beft recommended remedies,
againft intermittent fevers, are Cornus Jlorida, Dogwood ; Quercus phel-
bs, Lave-oak; Perfmon ; Lonicera Symphoricarpos ; by their barks: Pyrola
maculata, with the Indian name pipfffeva: Sambucus canadenfis :
Laurus 2/ivalis, Spicewood, Benjamin-tree, Benzoin. The firft is more
generally known: a decoction of the bark has in many cafes been ef-
fetual; it is by fome deemed equal, when frefh, to the Peruvian :}
The fecond is much valued in the fouth, its native place: that of Perfi-
mon in North Carolina; and of Lonicera Syphoricarpos in Virginia.t
Aninfufion of the plant Pyrola maculata has been frequently ufed for
fome years in Pennfylvania, under.the name of pipfifeva.§ The Sam-
bucus canadenfis, Red berry elder, is by the Indians called the fever-bufh ;
a decoétion of its wood and buds being of ancient renown among them.
The laurus @/fivalis, Spicewood, Benjamin-tree, is alfo diftinguifhed with -
that name by the people in the northern parts, for the falutary decoétion
of its wood and leaves.|| The bark of the Liriodendron, Tulip-tree, is
alfo very generally efteemed a good fubftitute for the peruvian : efpeci-
ally that of the root. We may obferve on thefe and other febrifuges,

c that

* Confer this book with Dr. Schoeph’s, and John Bartram’s notes to Short’s Medicina Brie
tannica, reprinted in Philadelphia, 1751.

+ Kalm fays that in Weitt-Jerfey many were cured by the bark of the root, who had in
vain tried the peruvian: in that fickly country, I have myfelf made ufe of-it, and think it
worthy of a full trial. 8 elie

¢ Called St. Peter’s wort, Indian currants; a {pecies of honey fuckle; fee Arbuf. Amer.
of Marfhal.

§ See ditto: a fpecies of winter green.

4 Gefchichte der Miffion der Evangelifchen Briider unter den Jndianern in Nord Ameqica,

by Lofiel, publifhed 1787.
) Memoirs of the American Academy etc, printed in Bofton, 1785,

(xx )

is called poor Robins plantain ; and faid to fruftrate the bite both of the
rattle fnake, and of his fuppofed precurfor the pilote/nake. Erigeron,
likewife called Roberts plantain in Pennfylvania, is defcribed by Dr.
Schoef thus (radix repens; folia radicalia ovata, bafi attenuata, dentata
dentibus paucisa medio ad apicem glanduliferis, obtufa, pilofa, venis
paucis. Scapus biuncialis, pedalis, {triatus, villofus, uniflorus etc. etc.)
Dr. Otto, a refpeétable practitioner, informed him that the herb ought
to be given in a plentiful deco€tion, and alfo applied with. the root to the
wound. The herb of Solidago virga aurea, Golden rod, is ufed in the
fame manner. * The root of Aletris farino/a is taken in powder, or bruifed
and fieeped in liquor : this root is called /far-root, blazing flar, devil's bit;
and greatly efteemed, both by the Indians and the people of feveral ftates,
for many qualities. + The Polygala Senega is wellknown. ‘The plantain
of Negro Ceefar I juft mention with a with, than an authentic account
could be obtained of the experiments for which he obtained a public re-
ward. Many credible teftimonies agree.in the fact that Indians have
extraordinary {kill in curing the bites of ferpents;. but whether any fpe-
cific antidote is known, appears doubtful: the plantsin ufe act however
as powerful fudorifics and abforbents: a narrative of my own obfervati-
ons on this matter would here be too prolix..

Of late years madnefs of dogs has been more frequent: the Swertia.
difformis recommended by Clayton, fhould be tried.*

In the fearch of new medicines, fpicy trees and balmy ever-greens are
particularly inviting. ‘The fwamps of the low country sbound in plants
of aromatic feent: the magnolia glauca fo frequent in them feems to hold
out her fragrant lillies and crimfon-berries to the fkeleton-prey of Stygian
vapours; probably her lovely fifters are alfo compaflionate.}

Indigenous efculents claim attention in feveral views. Thofe roots,
herbs, grains, and barks, that in cafe of need can fupport life, may be
ufeful to travellers in the wildernefs and to troops that carry on an Indi-
an war: the favages, make this ufe of the inner bark of the elm, and the
roots of Aralia nudicaulis. ‘The fallads of many kinds, gathered in di-
verfe parts of the country during {pring, fhould be generally ; known.
Several wild, fruits might be improved by culture; as walnuts, crab-ap-

ples,

* Schoef defcribes it as birfuta, radice amara: Bartram as “‘ having flender purple italks,
rifing a foot high, with a {pike of fine yellow flowers, for near one third part of the length
of the plant.” fays it is much extolled.

+ Bartram {peaks of it principally as a ‘‘ remedy in grievous pains of the bowels;” and
fays it has a ftalk cighteen inches long with a fine {pike of white flowers fix inches, blooming
in June, growing plentifully in the back parts of the country. * See Gron. Virginia.

} Serpent. Virg. Sarfaparilla, etc. want no mention; feveral cannot here find room,

(otek)

ples, papaws, (annona) plumbs, grapes, perfimons, honeylocutt ( Gleditfia
Triacanthos ) ; fome perfons have planted orchards of this and made plenty
of metheglin from the fweet pods. While the Sugar-maple is of late
juttly valued, its kindred alfo merit more attentions I am credibly in-
formed that in Canada, equally good fugar is made from the weaker
juice of the Red maple; a tree that abounds through all the ftates. The
Chefnut oak is faid by Schoef, to yield in {pring a copious agreeable
‘drink: other trees may have fimilar faps.. Aromatic plants-deferve notice:
the barks of young Saflafras, and of Calycanthus Floridus * much refem-
ble cinnamon: the Acorus calamus is under name of Spice-wort, ufed in
Maflachufetts. . The plants ufed as tea in diverfe parts deferve examina-
tion: the Caffine, called South fea-tea-tree, is gb{curely known by us,
but has long been famous among the Indians. +. 5

Many vegetable dies are already in ufe, both among the Indians, and
the inhabitants: fome of them are alfo recorded by writers: but acol-
lection of fcattered pra€tice, and afele€tionof the bef in every kind,
are yet wanted. In this branch, the practice of other countries may
alfo be adopted:- thus the Rhws-toxicodendron-vernix, Varnith-tree, Poi-
fon-afh, is probably the fame with the valuable {pecies of Japan.t

Saps, roots, leaves, flowers, barks, may be ufeful in a variety of
modes ; for example The roots of Aefculus Pavia, Jcarlet horfe chefnut,
and of Jucca flamentofa, //k-gra/t, are ufed for foap.:§ chefnuts can be
‘prepared forthe fame ufe. The two kinds of Myrica, Candle berry
myrtle, are known: the Melia azedarach grows in the South, under the
mame of bead tree; but its berries.are not yet in ufe for tallow, as in
Japan*. The Afclepias, called //kweed, has a fine white down in its
pods, which in Maffachufetts, is carded and fpun into very good wick-
yarn. While oaks abound, an extra& of. their barks might, as an ar-
ticle in tanning, be a valuable export.

Vegetable medicines for cattle are very interefting : a critical com-
parifon of European treatifes, with what is written and practifed here
will point out the beft.

The

* Called Carolina allfpice.

t They callit Yeupan, and drink an infufion of the leaves in copious draughts, both asa
diztic andinebriating. It grows near the fea in the fouthern ftates, ten or twelve feet high.

} Sy thetravels of Prof. Thuaberg (in Swedith, [ find great analogy between Japan and
N. America: thus the Perfimon grows there: the cones of the Alder are in common ufe for
black dye.

§ They growin the fouthern ftates.

* An oilis prefled which becomes equally folid with tallow. Thunberg.,

( xxii }

The beauties of our Flora are yet difplayed. only to thofe admirers,
who have fought them, in fields and woods, from fpring to autumn, in
northern and fouthern climes, in the grand Magniflora and the humble
lilly of the vatles. Many of the wild flowers would adorn gardens,

vand embellith groves and meadows: but a great part of thefe are
known only in their native places, and fome have not even obtained a
vernacular name. Flowery fhrubs are gradually coming into more no-
tice; and fome of the fineft will endure the winter of Pennfylvania:
the Chionanthus (Snow drop, Fringe tree, ) Calycanthus floridus, Bigno-
nia radicans (Trumpet flower) and the beautiful Lranklinia, all grow
well near Philadelphia. * Several of the trees moft agreeable by foliage,
bloom or lofty growth, have a {fpontaneous wide range; and others will
under a fkillful hand pafs their natural limits.+

My remarks on the Animal domains fhall begin with the {mall tribes,
becaufe fome of thefe do us remarkable mifchief. The Heffan fly has
for feveral years made great havock in the wheat fields through all the
middle-ftates. { The canker worms, eaterpillers, and other vermine
lay wafte our orchards: fome remedies will hopefully refult from the
enquiries of late begun in feveral places. Holts of locufts fome years
infeft the woods, and caufe confiderable damage by devouring the leaves
of trees over large diftri€ts, many of which decay when ‘thus expofed
to the burning fun: they He in the ground for a period of years, not
yet afcertained; appear in the latter part of the fpring, when the oaks
are in perfe@t foliage; and in afew weeks difappear.§

Venomous infeéts are rare, and obfcurely known, as they feem con-
fined to the woods. A fpecies of thefe, called mountain fpider, that
haunts the inner parts of the fouthern flates, is faid to be large; {trong
“enough to take {mall birds in his net; and by his fting to produce violent
pains at the heart, inflammations with alternate cold fweats, tremors,
frenzy, and death, if proper cure is not-obtained. Inthe middle ftates
there is a black fpider, whofe bite caufes great pains and a tranfient
blindnefs, butis not mortal. A largeant witha long fling, common in
Maryland and further fouth, is alfo very noxious.

Among

* The laft-is in Mr. Bartram’s garden fifteen a twenty feet high; and has ‘hot been afiect~
ed with the five fevere winters within twelve years, though its native place is Georgia. ‘The
flowers are large and fragrant, with lilly-like petala, and a tuft-of gold-coloured flamina.

+ Bignonia Catalpa flourifhesin and beyond Pennfylvania.

+ Neftling in the joints of the ftalk, they bite it off before the grain is ripe.

§ They feem to extend far, as many hundred acres upon the Ohio are faid to be fpoliated
by them; yet is their depredation local and varying, fo that dificrent parts have their turn:
they were in Pennfylvania eighty years ago, and with the fame qualities, as 1 find by the
old Swedifh records, which alfo add that the Indians fed upon them.

( xn )

Among our handfome infects the Jire-fly is the firft : thoufands of thefe
iflumine our fummer nights, and by their gambols in the air, prefent 2
fky full of falling ftars;* but we know not where thefe lamps are hid
in the long winter-nights.

A ftriking mechanifm is remarked in the horn-beetles of various kinds;
and efpecially the wood fawer, who with two curve mwardly dentated
prongs, can cut off {mall twigs of trees. I venture to add a zoophyton
in the Ohio country, which alternately is vegetable and animal.+ But
without fuch extraordinary phenomena, the ceconomy of the numerous
little animals is wonderful enough to awaken our attention, efpecially in
this country, where it is yet unexplored.

Thirty a forty fpecies of fnakes are counted; but feveral are ver
imperfectly known; efpecially thofe who are rare or local. _ The Jorn-
faake is now feldom feen ; but many accounts agree, that the fpur of his
tail is fo venemous, as to kill young trees, if by accident it ftrikes them;
which has with minute facts been told me by fome ancient Swedes. The
king-/nake of the South, is not feen (I believe) far North. ‘The double-
headed {nake may be a monftrous production ; but two fpecimens of it
are found in New-England, and two more are now in Mr. Peale’s Mufe-
um. That fome kinds of ferpents charm birds and fquirrels is.a fa@;
but in what manner we know not. Fortunately the {maller number is
venomous 3 but which fpecies fhould be avoided is an interefting quefti-
en: though the green /nake, unperceptible in the grafs, is harmlefs;
fome that occafionally come near houfes, are not fo. -

On quadrupeds in general, two inquiries are interefting : what is the
fpecific difference from thofe of the fame genus in the Eaftern world ?
and how doth the fame {pecies vary here under different latitudes? in
the firft our zygers and panthers require particular notice: in the fecond
the bear, who frequents the interior country from North to South ; and
this panther, who has alfo a wide range. Among thofe peculiar to
North America the J40/e-deer is yet undefcribed, and known to few

perfons

* Thunberg defcribes thofe of Japan in the fame manner, under name of Lampyris Faponica.

+ This was communicated to me by a refpectable Miffionary, who had long been among
the Indians, and had feen this animal; but would not have his name mentioned, asthe matter
may appear incredible : it is 3 a 4 inches high, and after having crawled about the woods,
is fixed in the ground, becoming-a plant with a ftem through its mouth etc. It is analogous
to the vegetable fly of Dominica, that buries itfelf in the ground, dies, and fprings up like a
young coffee-plant; for which it is often miftaken, untill the root upon examination is found to
be the head, feet, and body of the animal; fee the Natural hiftory of Dominica by Th. Ats
wood, publifhed. 1791.

( xxiv )

perfons below the South of Canada*. The Opefium common among
us, and long known for fingularities, is yet unexplored in the greatcit
of all—to wit that the female breeds her young at her teats within the
falfe belly; many perfons in diftant quarters affert that they have feen
them adhering to the teats when {mall as a pea. The vait Mahmot, is
perhaps yet {talking throughthe weftern wildernefs ; but ifhe is no more;
let us carefully gather his remains, and even try to finda whok fkeleton
of this giant, to whom the elephant was but a calf.

The great herds or buffaloes in the Weftern country, are a valuable
national poffefiion; a wanton deftruction of them fhould be checked 5
and trial of domeftication would perhaps be both practicable and ufeful.

The greater number of birds in the old fettlements have been defcrib-
ed; but many equivocally: and our knowledge of their habits is in
general very fmall. We fhould not indifcreetly deftroy thofe deemed of
no value; who knows what part is afligned to them in the economy of
nature? perhaps our numerous tribes of woodpeckers fave many trees
from deftructive worms? as to the ufeful and ornamental birds, they
demand our protection againit licentious and greedy tyranny: the beau-
tiful and melodious birds diminifh faft; and the Turkeys once fo abun-
dant, have long ago been drove into the remote woods.

General knowledge of our fifhes isvery limited and confufed: of thofe
in the weftern waters we have here only reports; I never had even from
eye witnefles a tolerable account of the cat-f/b that weighs 70 a 100
pounds. Thofe proper in fifh ponds cannot be fele€ted without knowing
what kind of water, food, &c. they require.

Natural hiftory demands more efteem from our feminaries of learn-
ing: the principal among them fhould immediately form botanical
gardens, on a plan fo liberal as gradually to receive all the trees, fhrubs,
and plants moft valuable in every refpect. Mufeums are alfo very im-
portant, for exhibition of both native and foreign productions}. Fin-
ally, itis neceflary to fix general names for every vegetable and animal
of public utility, that great numbers may receive and impart information.

5th
® Some years ago one was exhibited in Philadelphia: it isa large animal with very high
forelegs, a fhort neck, &c. On the American Elk fee Jefferfon’s Notes on Virginia.

+ Great quantity of his bones are found on the Ohio: fee Jefferfon’s Notes.

¢ That of Mr, Peale in Philadelphia, commenced a few years ago, is by his laudable care
coming into reputation both at home and abroad, and merits the public patronage.

( “Saev 2)
$th ARTICLE, Meteorological Enquiries.

Changes in the atmofphere have fuch important confequences on the
affairs of human life ; that the art of prognofticating them is very bene-
ficial. ‘It has of late years been cultivated with great affiduity in various
parts of Europe; and the feries of obfervations will gradually form a
fyitem, that may at leaft, unite probable conjectures with much certain
knowledge. Several circumitances of the United States point out cor-
re{ponding inquiries—We are fubject to fudden gufts of wind, and fome
tornados that rapidly pafs over a {pace of one a two hundred miles : from
the beginning of Spring till the fetting in of Winter, thefe occafion many
unhappy atcidents on our extenfive coafts, and ample navigable rivers.
Their tranfient ftrokes are, however, not comparable to thofe fevere
ftorms that generally vifit us two or three times in that feafon: after
thefe the gazettes anounce numerous deplorable fhipwrecks, and other
difafters: coming from the Eaft with heavy rains, they generally caufe
inundations, which overflow a vaft extent of meadow grounds, on the
lengthy rivers and winding creeks, and fometimes damage wharves and
ftoresof commercial towns. A forefight of all thefe would enable us
to elude their fury: veffels might ftay in port, or feek a fhelter: mer-
chandize might be fecured: the hay might be removed, and the cattle,
which fometimes perifhes by the fudden rife of the water. In fummer
the fudden gufts happen generally towards evening, after a fultry calm
for fome hours: when attended with thunder and rain, warning is given
by the rifing clouds: thofe with a clear fky are lefs frequent, and pre-
ceded only by light eddies in the air for fome minutes*. |The tornados
are probably announced by fome remarkable fymptons, though their
happily rare occurrence has prevented attention: the air is (I believe)
very fultry for two or three preceding days, and on the laft, fomewhat
hazy with tremulous light breezes fromthe Weft. The eafterly ftorms
are ufhered in by the gradual thickening of the clouds, and encreafe of
the wind for many hours :f

The irregularity of our feafons, is a great impediment in the bufinefs
_of focial life—The fallacious appearance of an early fpring often invites
the hufbandman and gardener to planting and fowing, which will be in-
jured by fevere froftsand cold rains. The beginning of winter varies
alfo by feveral weeks : after the firft of December, mild weather is often
‘changed into acold, that within two or three days fills the rivers of the

d northern
* ‘Thefe are yenerally called whirlwinds from their verfatile direction:
+ When they continue for twe a three days, they are not at their hight before twelve hours.

{ sen}

northern and middle ftates with ice; by which veffels outward bound
are detained, and thofe coming on the coatt fuffer feverely. A greater .
difadvantage of this variation, is uncertainty of the feeding-time, on
which much depends the future crop: if it is too early, the luxuriance

of autumnal vegetation exhaufts the root; if too late, it cannot acquire

fufficient firmneds to bear the trcft. We have two prognoftics of winter
which are founded in nature:, the migration of wildgeeie fhows that the:
northern waters are freezing, and that we may expect fevere north weft-.
erly winds: abundance of rain, by cocling the air, and wetting the

earth, prepares both for the impreflton of the frofts : encreafing number

of partridges, pheafants, and other ground birds in the populous parts,

with the appearance of bears, doth alfo indicate that the weftern woods

are already covered with fnow. Mild winters are always fucceeded by
cold fprings*. Early thunder is a fure token of immediate cold weather
for a week ortwo. The progrefs of the vernal feafon would moft pro-
bably appear from an accurate Calendarium-Florea: the bloom and folia-
tion of fome trees being unfolded not by an occafional warmth of the
air, but by a gradual penetration of the heat to their deep roots, proves

at leaft an afcendancy of the vernal temperature not eafily overcome

by the northerly gales. x

A continuance of wet weather in time of hay-making, is not very
common, but, when it happens, very deftrudtive by the heat of the {ca-
fon. It is to be apprehended after a long drought; and is generally fore-~
boded by a moifture in the air, vifible on glafs, walls, wocden furniture,
falt, and other attractive bodies, for two days. As grafs may be cut
fomewhat fooner or later, its prefervation may be obtained by this fore-
fight.. ‘The harvefl of grain can bear no delay, efpecially in a hot cli-
mate ; but difpatch is neceflary in a critical time.

The fudden alterations of cold and heat throughout the year, would
often be lefs injurious to health, by forefeeing them: generad rules are
thefe—exceffive warmth for the feafon feldom continues above a few days,
and quickly changes into the oppofite extreme: fine days in winter,
fpring, and latter part of autumn are immediately fucceeded by cold and
wet, rain or fnow, according tO feafon and latitude ; wherefore they are
called weather-breeders.

The

*J.ong experience has given rife to the adage, winter newer rots in the fhy, and to the Jndias.
gle ftill generally fo called, chat winter mui come when the ponus are Sule

( RRYH

The limits of an-eflay exclude a detail of obfervations made by myfelf,
or collected from judicious perfons, and of their more general, or local
and temporary application: J with that curiofity roufed by faéts may be
further animated by this reflection In ‘the works of Almighty power
and infinite wifdom there can be xo chance; the feafons revolve on the
fame fixed principles as the planets; and the apparent diforders leflen
with our encreafing knowledge. The bountiful Creator difcovers his
marvels in proportion to our wants; if man has by a fublime fagacity
traced the intricate: path of the moon, why may he not explore the fource
of the tempeft? every country has native remedies again{t its natural de-
fects; is it not then probable that as the Polygala Senega was given us
againft the rattle-{nakes, fo may we have faithful prognoftics of the
dangerous caprices of our climate? Let us therefore ftudy nature, and
nature’s Ruler hall reward our labour.

43 CON-

( xxvii )
nr

LIST or tue OFFICERS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

Held at Partapetrura for promoting Ufeful Knowledge.

For the Year 1793-

Patron. The Governor of the CommonwEALTH for the time being. —
‘Thomas Mifflin.

Presipent. David Rittenhoufe, L. L. D.

{ Thomas Jefferfon, Secretary of State to the
United States.
‘Vicr-PRESIDENTS. 4 Rev. John Ewing, D. D. Provoft of the Uni-
verfity of Pennfylvania.
Rev. William Smith, D. D.

‘TREASURER. John Vaughan.

{ Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. Correfpondent
Member of the Society of the Antiquaries of
Scotland, and Profeffor of Natural Hiftory, and
Botany in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.
“Curators. Cafper Wiftar, M. D. adjuné Profeflor of Ana-
tomy, Surgeryand Midwifery in the Univerfity
of Pennfylvania.

Charles W. Peale.

Adam

LIST or MEMBERS. XXIxX

Adam Kuhn, M. D. Profeflor of the Pra€tice
of Phyfic in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.
Jared Ingerfoll, Attorney General of Pennfylva-
nia.

Andrew Ellicot.

Samuel Powell Griffiths, M. D. Profeffor of
Materia Medica, in the Univerfity of Pennfyl-
vania.

Charles Petit.

CounseLLors. <¢ Rev. Nicholas Collin, D. D.
> Benjamin Rufh, M. D. Profeffor of the Inftitutes

and Clinic Medicine, in the Univerfity of
Pennfylvania.

Rev. William White, D. D.

William Thornton, M. D.

Thomas M‘Kean, L.L. D. Chief Juftice of Penn-
fylvania.

William Barton.

|. Rev. Robert Blackwell, D. D-

( James Hutchinfon, M. D..Profeffor of Che-
miftry in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.
Jonathan Williams, Jun.
Rev. Samuel Magaw, D. D..
Robert Patterfon, Profeffor of Mathematics
in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.

SECRETARIES

List of Members of the AMERICAN PHiLosopHIcaL Society elect-
ed fince 1ft January, 1786.

AmeERICAN MEMBERS.
A

Rev. John Andrews, D. D. Vice Provoft of the Univerfity of
Pennfylvania.
lexander Addifon.
John Adams, L. L. D. Vice Prefident of the Unitéd States.
Alexander Anderfon.
Benjamin

NN, B. All thofe members whofe places of abode are not fpecifed are of Pennfylvania,

xxx LIST or MEMBERS.
Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D.
Rev. Robert Blackwell, D. D.
Wilham Barton.
Edward Burd, Prothonotary of the Supreme Court, Pennfylvania.
William Bingham.
John Bayard. .
David Brearly, Chief Juftice of New-Jerfey.
John Bleakley. ;
George Buchanan, M. D. of Maryland. sg
Samuel Beach, of South-Carolina. pe
Abfalom Baird. ye |
John Beckley, Clerk of the Houfe of Reprefentatives U. S.
Richard P. Barton, of Virginia.
Cc
Rev. Nicholas Collin, D. D.
George Clymer.
Benjamin Chew, Jun.
Ifaac Craig.
John Coxe, of New-Jerfey.
Dr. William Curry.
Benjamin Duffield, M. B.
Alexander J. Dallas, Secretary of the Commonwealth of Pennfylvania:
E

Dr. Enoch Edwards.

E
William Temple Franklin.
William Findley.
Major William Fergufon.

G

Albert Gallatin.
Robert Gold{borough, of Maryland.
. H

Jonathan Hoge.

Jofhua Humphry

Ale eee r Hamilton, Secretary for the Department of the Treafury of
the U. 5.

John "aa I

Francis Johufton, Receiver General of the Land-Office, Pennfylvania.
Joifeph

WISa. of MEM BERS& ‘xxxi

Jofeph James.
John Jay, Chief Juftice of the United States.
Dr. David Jackfon. ;
K
Henry Knox, Secretary for the Department of Wer in the U. S:
John W. Kittera.
L
John Lowell, Judge of the Diftri& Court U. S. of Bofton.
Peter Legaux.
George Logan, M. D.
M
Robert Morris.
John Morris, M. B.
Robert Milligan.
George Monro, M. D. of Delaware..
S. L. Mitchel, M. D. of New-York.
James Maddifon, of Virginia.
N
John Nicholfon, Comptroller General of the Commonwealth of Pennfyl-
vania.

Dr. David Naffy..

e
Charles W. Peale.
John Pennington, M. D.
Stephen Du Ponceau.

R

William Rawle, Attorney U.S. for Pennfylvania,
Thomas Rufton, M. D.
John R. B. Rogers, M. D.
David Reddick.
James Rumfay of Virginia:
Edmund Randolph, Attorney. General U. S,
James Rofs. :
Andrew Rofs, M. D.. .
John Rouelle, M. D. of Virginia,

Ss
Dr. William W. Smith.
John Stephens, of New-Jerfey.

_Ainthrop:

XXXii LIST or MEMBERS.

Winthrop Sergent, Secretary of the Weftern Territory.
John Smilie.
Thomas Lee Shippen.
T
William Thornton, M. D.
George Turner, Judge of the Weftern Territory.
John Trumbull, of Conneticut, Painter in Hiftory, &c.
W
Jonathan Williams, Jun.
Charles W. Wharton, D. D. of Delaware.
Simon de Wit, of New-York.
Cafpar Wifter, M. D.
Nicholas B. Waters, M. D.
William Waring.
Benjamin Waterhoufe, M. D. Profeffor of Natural Hiftory in the Univer-
fity of Cambridge in Maflachufetts.

— LS ee a

FOREIGN MEMBERS.

A
James Anderfon, M. D. of Madrafs.
Count Paul, Andreani of Milan.
B
Rev, Samuel Beattie, D. D. of Aberdeen, Prof: Moral Philofophy.
Robert Barclay, of London.
Sir Jofeph Banks Bart. P. R.S. of London.
William Baker, of Herefordfhire in England.
Rev. Thomas Barnes, of Manchefter in England.
Dr. Charles Blagden, of London, Sec. R.S.
Palifot de Beauvois, Member of the Academies of Arts and-Sciences
at Paris, and Cape-Francois.
Nicholas L. Burmann, M. D. Prof. gh Hift. in Amfterdam.
C
The Marquis of Condorcet, Secretary perpetual of the ie of
Arts and Sciences at Paris.
M. Charles, of Paris, Le€turer in Experimental Philofophy and one
ofWbiec firft Aronauts,
Cabanis, M. D. of Paris. Lorewz

ator OF MEME ERS See

Lorenz Crill, M..D. of Helmftead in Brunfwick.
Count de Caftillioni, of Milan.
De Vaux Cadet, Both of Paris, and members of feveral Academies
M. Cadet, ; in Europe.
Hector St. John de Crevecoer, Conful of France, at New-York.
Petrus Camper, of Friefland F. R. S. and Member of Academies at
Paris, Peterfburg, and Edinburgh.
Jofeph Ceracchi, Statuary of Rome.
M. Coupigny, of Cape-Francois.
D
The Princefs Catharine Romanowna Dafchkaw, Chevaliere of the order
of St. Anne, Diredtrefs of the Imperial Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences at Peterfburg, and Maid of Honor to her Imperial Majefty.
Erafmus Darwin, M. D. F.R.S. of Darby in England.
F

M. Feutry, of Paris.
Anthony Fothergill, M. D. of Bath in England.
Antoine R. C. M. de la Foreft, Conful General of France, to the Unit-
ed States.
John Reinhold Fofter, of Halle in Soxony, and F. R. S. of London.
G

Don Francis de Gardoqui, Auditor for the Rota, for the Crown of Caf
tile at the Court of Rome.

—— Gafttilleir, M. D. of Montarges.

M. Grivel, of Paris.

Hubert de Garbier, M. D. of Paris.

M. M. de Grauchain, Major General of the French Navy.

Don Diego Gardoqui, Envoy from the Court of Spain, to the United
States.

Benjamin Gloxin, M. D. of Colmar in Alface.

John Grofche, M. D. Prof. Nat. Hift. in the Univerfity of Mittau, in
Courland.

H
Dr. Thomas Henry, of Manchefter in England.
John Hunter, of London, Surgeon.
Baron de Heinitz, of Berlin, Minifter of the Mineral Department.
Baron de Hupfch, of Cologne.

€ John

-

xxiv Lal Sear SME M BAER S,

I
John Ingenhonfz: M. D. F.R. S. of Vicnne, Phyfician to his ims.
perial Majeity..

K
Richard Kirwan, F. R. S. of London.

L
John Coakley Letfom, M. D. and F. R. S. of London..
John Lufac, of Leyden, Profeflor of Greck.

M
Andrew Murray, M.D. Profeffor.of Botany in the Univerfity of Got~
tengen.
N

M. Noel, M. D. of Paris.
Sir Edward Newenham, Bart. of Dublin..
O
Lewis William Otto, late Chargé des affaires of France, to the United.
States..
P
Thomas Purcival, M.D. of Manchefter in England.
Thomas Pennant of Flintfhire.
Peter Simon Pallas, M.D. Profeffor of Nat. Hift. at Peterfburg.
R
The Duke of Richmond, of England.
M. Alphonfus le Roy, of the Academy of Arts and Sciences at Paris...
The Abbé de Soulavie of Paris..
George Spence, of Jamaica.
M. Stainfby, of Prague Prof. Nat. Philofophy.
Dr. Andrew Sparrman, Prof. Nat. Hiftory and Botany, at Stockholm.
Dugald Stewart, Prof. Moral Philofophy, at Edinburgh.
Ug.
Charles Peter Thunburg, Prof. Nat. Hiftory, at Upfal.
Rev. Uno. von Troil, Arch Bifhop of Sweden..
V
Samuel Vaughan, Jun. of Jamaica.
M. Le Veillard, of Paris.
Benjamin Vaughan, of London.
George Vaux, Surgeon of London. ?

Rodolph:

LIST or MEMBERS, XXXV

Rodolph Valtravers, F.R. S.

Louis Valentin, M. D. Cape-Francois.
W

John Whithurft, F. R. S. London.

Thomas White, of Manchefter England.

Caleb Whitford, of London.

John Walker, D. D.and M. D. Prof. Nat. Hiftory in the Univerfity of
Edinburgh.

© 2 CON-

{* sxxvi );

ed NG LB IN eee

OF

VOLUME Tl.

N°.
1 Con FECTURES concerning the formation of the Earth,
toc. in a Letter from Dr. B. Franklin, zo the Abbe Soulavie.

Il. Anew and curious Theory of Light and Heat ; in a Letter from
Dr. B. Franklin ze David Rittenhoufe, E/g.

Ul. Defeription of the proce/s to be obferved in making large fheets of
paper inthe Chinefe manner, with one [maoth furface. Communi-
cated by Dr. B. Franklin.

TV. Queries and Conjectures relative to Magneti/m, and the Theory of
the Earth, in a Letter from Dr. B. Franklin to Mr. Bodoin.

V. Explanation of a fingular phenomenon, firft obferved by Dr.
Franklin, and not hitherto fatisfactorily accounted for. Ina Let~
ter from Mr. R. Patterfon, fo Dr. B. Ruth.

VI. An Account of an Earthly Subftance found near the Falls of Nia-
gara and vulgarly called the Spray of the Falls: together with fome
vemarks on the Falls. By Robert M‘Cauflin, M. D. communi-
cated by Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D.

VII. Odfervations on the probabilities of the Duration of Human
Life, and the progrefs of Population, in the United States of Ame-
rica ; ina Letter from William Barton, Efg. to David Ritten-
houfe, L. L. D. Prefident A. P.S.

VII. Extra of a Letter from Andrew Ellicott to David Rit-
tenhoufe, E/q. dated at Pittfburg, November 5th, 1787, contain-
ing obfervations made at Lake-Erie, on that fingular phenomenon,
by feamen termed looming.

IX.

Page

190

ag

Ay

Op New Taker Me Th: So XXXVI

x An Account of the Sugar Maple-Tree of the United States, and
of the methods of obtaining Sugar from it, together with obfervati-
ons upon the advantages both public and private of this Sugar. In
a Letter to Thomas Jefferfon, E/y. Secretary of State to the United
States, and one of the Vice Prefidents of the American Philofophical
Society ; by Benjamin Ruth, M. D. Profeffar of the Infiitutes
and of Clinical Medicine in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.

X. Memsir of Jonathan Williams, on the ufe of the Thermometer
in difcovering Banks, Soundings, &S°c.

XI. An Account of the moft effectual means of preventing the delete-
rious confequences of the bite of the Crotalus Horridus, or Rattle-
Saake. By Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. .

XII. Magnetic Obfervations, made at the Univerfity of Cambridge,
( Maffachufetts) in the year 1785. By Dr. S. Williams.

XU. Accurate determination of the right afcenfion and declination of

Rh. Bootes, and the Pole Star: in a Letter Jjvom Mr. Andrew E]-—

licott ¢o Mr. R. Patterfon.

XIV. Account of feveral Houfes in Philadelphia, frruck with Light-
ning, on Fune 7th, 17809. By Mr. David Rittenhoufe, and Dr.

John Jones.

XV. An Account of the effetts of a frroke of Lightning on a Foufe
Surnifoed with two Canduétors,—in a Letter from Meffrs. David
Rittenhoufe, and Francis Hopkinfon ; to Afr. R. Patterfon,

XVI. Experiments and Obfervations on E vaporation in cold Air, b ry
C. Wiftar, M. D.

’

XVI. Pofifcript to Mr. Barton’s Letter, to Dr. Rittenhoufe, of the
17th of March. 1791.

XVII. Nez Notation of Mufic, in a Letter to Francis Hopkinfon,
fy. by Mr. R. Patterfon.

Page

64

82

Too

Tig

116

TI9

125

134

139

XVUI. Obfervations on the Theory of Water Mills, &5°c. by W. Waring, 144

XIX,

xxxvii C-O N T EN T S,

N°,
XIX. Afronomical Obfervations. Communicated by David Ritten-
houfe.

XX. A Letter from Dr. Rittenhoufe zo Mr. Patterfon, relative to
a method of finding the fum of the feveral powers of the Sines, Sc.

XXI. Index Florae Lancaftrienfis, auftore Henrico Muhlenberg, D. D.

XXII. Inveftigation of the Power of Dr. Barker’s Mill, as improved

by James Rumfey, with a defcription of the Mill, by W. Waring.

XXUI. 4 Thermometrical Fournal of the temperature of the Atmof-
phere and Sea, on a voyage to and from Oporto, with explanatary
obfervations thereon, to David Rittenhoufe, L. L. D. Prefident of
the American Philofophical Society.

XXIV. Firft Memoir of Obfervations on the Plants denominated
Cryptogamick. By M. De Beauvois.

XXV. A Letter from Major Jonathan Heart, zo Benjamin Smith
Barton, M.D. Containing obfervations on the Ancient Works of
Art, the Native Inhabitants, {S'c. of the Weftern Country.

XXVI. An Account of fome of the principal Dies employed by the North
American Indians. Extraéted from a paper, communicated by the
late Mr. Hugh Martin.

XXVIL. An Account of the beneficial effects of the Cafia Chamacrifta
in recruiting worn-out lands, and in enriching fuch as are naturally
poor: together with a botanical defcription of the plant. By Dr.
James Greenway, of Dinwiddie-County, in Virginia.

XXVIN. An Account of a Hill, on the borders of N. Carolina, fup-
pofed to have been a Volcano. Ina Letter from a Continental OF
Jiucer, refiding in that neighbourhood, to Dr. J. Greenway, near
Peterfburg, in Virginia.

XXIX. An Account of a poifonous plant, growing fpontaneoully in the
fuuthern part of Virginia. Extraéted {rom a paper, communicated
by Dr. James Greenway, of Dinwiddie-County, in Virginia.

Page

150

155

159

185

194

202

214

222

226

234

XXX. Defcription

C) ONG AD ae IN AT g XXXIX

UME
KXX. Defcription ofa Machine for measuring a foip’s way: ina Let-
ter from ¥rancis Hopkinfon, Ej. to Mr. Jghn Vaughan.

XXX. An Inquiry into the Queftion, Whether the Apis Mellifica,
or True-Honey-Bee, is a native of America. By Benjamin Smith
Barton, M. D.

XXX, da Account of a Comet, ina Letter to Jr. R. Patterfon,
by David Rittenhoufe, Ey.

XXXIUT. Cadmus, or a Treatife on the Elentents of Written Language,

iluftrating, by a Philofephical Divifion of Speech, the Power of

each Chara&er, thereby mutually fixing the Orthography and Orthoc-
py. With en Effay on the mode of teaching the Surd, or Deaf and
confequently Dumb, to Speak. By Wm. Thornton, M.D. 9 Hon-
cred with the Magellanic Gold Medal, by the Philofophical Society,
in December, 1792.

XXXIV. Obfervations on the Theary of Water-Mills, (continued from
page 193) by W. Waring. i

XXXV. An Improvement on Metalic ConduGors or Lightning-rods ;
iz a Letter to Dr. David Rittenhoufe, Prefident of the Society,
Jrom Robert Patterfon of Philadelphia. Honored with the Magel-
lanic Premium, by an Award of the Society in December 1 792.

XXXVI. An eafy and expeditious method of difipatine the noxious Va-
J &
pour commonly found in Wells and other fudterraneous places ; by

Ebenezer Robinfon, of Philadelphia.

XXXVI. 4 method of draining Ponds in level grounds, by Jefle
Higgins, of Delaware.

XXXVI. Obfervations on the feverity of the winter, 1 779; 1780,
by the Rev. Matthew Wilfon of Lewis, dated 22d Fune, 1780.

XXXIX. 4 Defcription of a new Standard Sor Weights and Mea-
fures; ina Letter from Mr. John Cooke, of Tipperary in Ireland,
to Thomas Jefferfon. Efq.

Page

nN
Nn
nN

321

324

a5

326

328

XL. Deription

xl C: Dy IT AP os Ne TT oS.

N°.

XL. Defeription ofa SPRING-BLOCK, defigned to affift a Veffel in
failing. By Francis Hopkinfon, E/y. of Philadelphia. Honor-
ed with the Magellanic Gold Medal, by an Award of the Society
in December 1790. :

se

XLI. 4 Botanical defcription of the PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM
of Linnaeus, in a Letter to Charles Peter Thunberg, M. D.
Knight of the Order of Wafa, Profeffor of Medicine and Botany in
the Univerfity of Upfal, (Sc. &S'c.

XLII. Odfervations on the confiruétion of Hofpitals, by Mr. Le Roy.
Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences-—( Extraéted from an
Effay on the fubjed?, which, with feveral elegant plans, was tranf-
mitted by the author to the Society, but could not be inferted entire, as
it contained many remarks of a local nature, refpecting Paris only.

¢

Bk Re a AS

Page 86 line r for 600° read 60°, é
$3 at bottom for appendix N°. iv. read N°, Vv.
89 line 1 dele or.

Page

33%

334

348

Page 194. after the Title of the piece N°. 23. read 'To David Rittenhoufe, L. L. D.

Prefident of the American Philofophical Society.
247, line 16 for fpot, read pot. Page 251, line 4, for the, read they.

TRANS-

TRANSACTIONS

OhiT HS

American PHILOSOPHICAL Society, &. ~

ia hee ;

Conjectures concerning the Yoh fion of the Earth, rc.
an a letter from Dr. B. Franklin, to the Abbé Soulavie.

Pafley, September 22, 1782.
STR, .

Read Nov. f@ RETURN the papers with fome corrections.
rb RES i I did not find coal mines under the Calcareous
rock in Derby Shire. I only remarked that at the loweft
part of that rocky mountain which was in fight, there
were oyfter fhells mixed in the ftone; and part of the high
county of Derby being probably as lees above the level
of the fea, as the coal mines of Whitehaven were below
it, feemed a proof that there had been a great bouleverfe-
ment in the furface of that Ifland, fome,part of it having
been deprefled under the fea, and other parts which had
been under it being raifed above it. Such changes in the fu-
perficial parts of the globe feemed tome unlikely to happen
if the earth were folid to the centre, I therefore imagined
that the internal part might be a fluid more denfe, and of
greater {pecific gravity than any of the folids we are ac-

quainted

2 CONJECTURES On THE

quainted with; which therefore might {wim in or upon
that fluid. Thus the furface of the globe would be a fhell,
capable of being broken and difordered by any violent
movements of the fluid on which it refted. And as air
has been comprefled by art fo as to be twice as“denfe as
water, in which cafe if fuch air and water could be con-
tained in a flrong. glafs.veflel, the air would be feen to
take the loweft place, and the water to float above and
upon it; and as we know not yet the degree of denfity
to which air may be compreiled; and M. “Amantons cal-
culated, that its denfity increafing -as it approached* the
centre in the fame proportion as above the furface, it
would at’ the depth of leagues be heavier than gold,
»poflibly the denfe fluid oceupyiag the internal parts of the
globe might be air com prefled. And asthe force of ex-
panfion in denfe air when -heated is in proportionsto its
denfity ; this central ait might afford another agent to
move the furface, as wellas be of ufein keeping alive the
fubterrancous fires: “Though as you obferve, the fudden
rarefaGlion of water coming into contact with thofe fires,
may alfo be an agent fufliciently’ ftrong for' that. purpofe,
when acting between the incumbent earth and the fluid on
which it refts.

If one might indulge imagination in fuppofing how
_fuch a'globe was formed, | fhould conceive, that all the
~€lements in feparate particles being originally mixed in
confufion and occupying a great face, they would as foon
‘as the almighty fiat‘ordained gravity or the mutual attrac-
tion of certain iparts; and the mutual repulfion of other
parts to exift, all move towards their common centre:
Fhat the air being ’a fluid whofe parts'repel each other,
though drawn to “the ‘common “centre by’ their gravity,
would be denfeftt towards the: centre, and rarer as more
remote 5 confequently all. matters lighter than the central
part nid that air and immerfed in it, would recede from the

: centre

FORMATION‘ oF THe EARTH. 3

centre and rife till they arrived at that region of the air
which was of the fame fpecific gravity with themfelves,
where they would reft; while other matter, mixed with
the lighter air would ‘defcend, and the two meeting would
form the fhell of the firft earth, leaving the upper atmof-
phere nearly clear. The original movement of the parts
towards their common centre, would naturally form a
whirl there; which would continue in the turning of the
new formed globe upon its axis, and the greateft diameter
of the fhell would be in its equator. If by any accident
afterwards the axis fhould be changed, the denfe internal
fluid by altering its form muft burft the fhell and throw
all its fubftance into the confufion in which we find it.

I will not trouble you at prefent with my fancies con-
cerning the manner of forming the reft of our fyftem.
Superior beings {mile at our theories, and at our prefump-
tion in making them. I will juft mention that your ob-
fervation of the ferruginous nature of the lava which is
thrown out from the depths oftour valcanos, gave me great
pleafure. Ithas long beena fuppofition of mine that the
iron contained in the fubftance of this globe, has made it
capable of becoming as it is. a great magnet. That the
fluid of magnetifm exifts perhaps in all fpace; fo that there
isa magnetical North and South of the univerfe as well
as of this globe, and that if it were poffible for a man to
fly from ftar to flar, he might,govern his courfe by the
compa{s.. That it was'by the power of this general mag-
netifm this globe became-a particular magnet. In foft or
hot iron the fluid of magnetifm is naturally diffufed equally;
when within the influence of a magnet, it is drawn to one
end of the iron, made denfer there, and rarer at the other,
while the iron continues foft or hot, it is only a temporary
magnet: If it cools or grows-hard in that fituation, it be-
comes a permanent one, the magnetic fluid not eafily re-
fuming its equilibrium. Perhaps it may be owing to the

2 permanent

4 | CONJECTURES on tHe
permanent magnetifm of this globe, which it had not at
firft, that its axis is at prefent kept»parallel to itfelf, and
not liable to the changes it formerly fuffered, which occa-
fioned the rupture of its fhell, the fubmerfions and emeér-
fions of its lands and the confufion of its feafons. ‘The
prefent polar and equatorial diameters differing from each
other near ten leagues ; it is eafy to conceive in cafe fome
power fhould fhift the axis gradually, and place it in the
prefent equator, and make the new equator pafs through
the prefent poles, what a finking of the water would hap-
pen in the prefent equatorial regions, and what a rifing in
the prefent polar regions ; fo that vaft trats would be dif-
covered that now are under water, and others covered that
now are dry, the water rifing and finking in the different
extremes near five leagues,—-Such an operation as this,
poffibly, occafioned ae Europe, and among thé reit,
this mountain of Paffy, on which I live, and whieh is cOoMm-=
pofed of lime ftone, rock and fea fhells, to be abandoned
by the fea, and to change its*ancient climate, which feems
to have been a hot one. ‘The globe being now become
a permanent magnet, we are perhaps fafe trot any future
change of its axis. But we are ftill fubje@ to the acci-
dents on the furface which are occafioned by a wave in the
internal ponderous fluid; and fuch a wave is producible
by the fudden violent explotion’ you mention, happening
from the junction of watersand fire under the earth, which
not only lifts the incumbent earth that is over the explofi-
on, but imprefling with the fame force the fluid under it,
creates a wave that may run a thoufand leagues lifting and
thereby fhaking fucceflively all the countries under which
it paffes. I know ‘not whether T have expreffed myfelf fo"
clearly, as not to get out of your fight in thefe reveries.
If they occafion any new enquiries and produce ‘a better
hypothefis, they will not be quite ufelefs. You fee I have
given a loofe to imagination ; but I approve much more
your

>) =

FORMATION ofr THe EARTH. ¥¢

your method of philofophizing, which proceeds upon ac-
tual obfervation, makes a colle€tion of faéts, and concludes
no farther than thofe fa@ts will warrant. In my prefent
circumftances, that mode of ftudying the nature of this
globe is out of my power, and therefore I have permitted
myfelf to wander a littlein the wilds of fancy. With
greate fleem Lhave the honour to be, &c.

P. S. I have heard that chemifts can by their art de-
compofe {tone and wood, extracting a confiderable quan-
uty of water from the one, and air from the other. It
feems natural to conclude from this, that water and air
were ingredients in their original compofition. For men
cannot make new matter of any kind. . In the fame man-
ner may we not fuppofe, that when we confume combuf-
tibles of all kinds, and produce heat or light, we do not
create that heator light; but only decompofe a fubfiance
which received it originally as a part of its compofition?
Heat may thus be confidered as originally ina fluid fate,
but, attracted by organized bodies intheir growth, becomes
a part of the folid. Befides this, I can conceive that in
the firft afflemblage of the particles of which this earth is
compofed each brought its portion of the loofe heat that
had been connected with it, and the whole when _preffed
together produced the internal fire which fill fubfifts,.

NeSIL.

Anew and curious Theory of Light and Heat ; ina letter:
from Dr. B. Franklin to David Rittenboufe, E/q.

Read June NIVERSAL fpace, as far as we know of
Thshe it, feems to be filled with a fubtil fluid, whofe
motion, or vibration, is called light, This:

6 THEORY oF

This fluid may pofflibly be the fame with that which
being attracted by and entering into other more folid mat-
ter, dilates the fubftance, by feparating the conftituent par-
ticles and fo rendering fome folids fluid, and maintaining
the fluidity of others; of which fluid when our bodies
are totally deprived, they are faid to be frozen; when they
have a proper quantity, they are in health, and fit to per-
form all their funétions; it is then called natural heat ;
when too much, it is called fever; and when forced into
the body in too great a quantity from without, it gives
pain by feparating and deftroying the flefh, and is then
called burning; and the fluid fo entering and ating is
called fire.

While organized bodies, animal or vegetable, are aug-
menting in growth, or are fupplying their continual wafte,
is not this done by attrating and confolidating this fluid,
called fire, fo as to form of it a part of their fubftance ;
and is it not a feparation of the parts of fuch fubftance,
which diflolving its folid ftate, fets that fubtil fluid at lib-
erty, when it again makes its appearance as fire?

For the power of man relative to matter, feems limited
to the feparating or mixing the various kinds of it, or
changing its form and appearance by different compofiti-
onsof it; but does not extend to the making or creating
of new matter, or annihilating the old: thusif fire be an
original element or kind of matter, its quantity 1s fixed and
permanent in the univerfe. We cannot deftroy any part
of it, or make addition to it. We can only feparate it
from that which confines it, and fo fet it at liberty, as when
we put wood in a fituation to be burnt; or transfer it from
one folid to another, as when we make lime by burning
ftone, a part of the fire diflodged from the fuel being left
in the ftone. May not this fluid when at liberty be capa-
ble of penetrating and entering into all bodies, organized
pr not: quitting eafily in totality thofe not organized, and

quitting

LIGHT #4axp. HEAT. 5

quitting eafily in part thofe which are; the part afumed
and fixed remaining till the body is diffolved ?

Is it not this fluid which keeps afunder the particles of
air, permitting them to approach, or feparating them more
in proportion as its quantity is diminifhed or augmented?
. Is it not the greater gravity of the particles of air,
which forces the particles of this fluid to mount with the
matters to which it is attached as fmoke or vapour?’

Does it not feeny to havea great affinity with water,
fince it will quit a folid to unite with that fluid, and go off
with it in vapour; leaving the folid cold to the touch, and
the degree meafurable by the thermometer?

The vapour rifes attached to this fluid, but at a certain
height they feparate, and the vapour defcends in rain re-=
taining but little of it, in fnow or hail lefs. What be-
comes of that fluid? Does it rife above our atmofphere, and
mix with the univerfal mafs of the fame kind?

Or does a fpherical fhell or ftratum of it, denfer, as lefs
mixed with air, attracted by this globe, and repelled or
pufhed up only to a certain height from its furface by the
‘greater weight of air, remain there furrounding the globe.
and proceeding with it. round the fun?

In fuch cafe, as there may be a continuity or commu~
nication of this fluid through the air quite down to the
earth, isit not by the vibrations given to it by the fun that
light appears to us; and may it not be, that every one of
the infinitely {mall vibrations, ftriking common matter
with a certain force, enters its fubftance, is held there by
attraction, and augmented by fucceeding vibrations, till
the matter has received as much as their force can drive
into it

Is it not thus that the furface of this globe is continually
heated by fuch repeated vibrations in the day, and cooled
by the efcape of the heat when thofe vibrations are difcon-
tinued in the night, or intercepted and reflected by clouds?

Is

& T EO. RAY? ior

Is it not thus that fire is amaffed and makes the greateft
part of the fubftance of combuftible bodies ?

Perhaps when this globe was firft formed and its origi-
nal particles took their place at certain diftances from the
centre in proportion to their greater or lefs gravity, the
fluid fire attracted towards that centre might in yreat part
be obliged, as lighteft, to take place above the reft, and
thus form the {phere of fire above fuppofed; which would
afterwards be continually diminifhing by the fubftance it
afforded to organized bodies, and the quantity reftored to
it again by the burning or other feparating of the parts
of thofe bodies ?

Is not the natural heat of animals thus produced by fe-
parating in digeftion the parts of food, and fetting their
fire at liberty?

Is it not this fphere of fire which kindles the wandering
elobes that fometimes pafs through it in our courfe round
the fun, have their furface kindled by it, and burft when
their included air is greatly rarefied by the heat on their
burning furface ?

May it not have been from fuch confiderations that the
ancient philofophers fuppofed a {phere of fire to exilt above
the air of our atmofphere?

EE
ae i

Defcription of the proce/s to be obferved in making large
Sheets of paper in the Chinefe manner, with one Jmootk
Jurface. Communicated by Dr. Bb. FRANKLIN.

Read Jone N Europe to have a large furface of paper con-
ae neéted together and fmooth on one fide, the
following operations are performed.

1. A number of {mall theets are to be made feparately.
2. Thefe

PROCESS 1n maxing PAPER 9

2. Thefe are to be couched, one by one, between
blankets. ral .

3. When a heap is formed it muft be put under a firong
prefs, to force out the water. |

4. Then the blankets areto be taken away, one by one,
and the fheets hung up to dry.

5. When dry they are to be again prefled, or if to be
fized, they muft be dipped into fize made of warm water,
in which glue and allum are diffolved. .

6. They muft then be preffed again to force out the fu-
perfluous tize. | ,

7- They muft then be hung up a fecond time to dry,
which if the air happens to be damp requires fome days.

8. They muft then be taken down, laid together, and
again prefled. ! 3

g. They muft be pafted together at their edges.

10. The whole muft be glazed by labour, with a flint.

In China, if they would make fheets, fuppofe of four
and an half ells long and one and an half ell wide, they
have two large vats, each five ells long and two ells wide,
made of brick, lined with a plafter that holds water. In
thefe the fluff is mixed ready to work.

Between thefe vats is built a kiln or ftove, with two
inclining fides; each fide fomething larger than the theet
of paper; they are covered with a fine flucco that takes a
polifh, and are fo contrived as to be well heated by a {mall
fire circulating in the walls.

The mould. is-made with thin but deep fides, that it
may be both light and ftiff: It is fufpended at each end
with cords that pafs over pullies faftened to the ceiling,
their ends connected with a counterpoife nearly equal
the weizht of the mould.

‘Two men one at each end of the mould, lifting it out
of the water by the help of the counterpoife, turn it and
apply it with the fluff for the fheet, to the f{mooth fur=
VOL. Il. B face

10 THE CHINESE MAnwner.

face of the ftove, againft which they prefs it, to force out
great part of the water through the wires. The heat of
the wall foon evaporates the reft, and a boy takes off the
dried fheet by rolling it up.. The fide next the ftove re-
ceives the even polith of the ftucco, and is thereby better
fitted to receive the impreflion of fine prints. If a degree
of fizing is required, a decocticn of rice is mixed with the
ftuff in the vat.

Thus the great fheet is obtained, fmooth and fized, and
a number of the European operations faved. '

As the ftove hag two polithed fides, and there are two
vats, the fame operation is at the fame time performed by
two other men at the other vat; and one fire ferves.

a a
N°. IV. |

Queries and CONJECTURES relating to Magneti/m, and
theTheory of the Earth, ina Letter Jrom Dr. B. FRANK-
LIN, ¢o Mr. Bopoin,

DEAR SIR,
Read Jan. RECEIVED your favours by Mefirs. Gore, Hilli-
jdliick iol ardand Lee, with whofeconverfationI was much

pleafed, and wifhed for more of it; but their flay with us
was too fhort. Whenever you recommend any of your
friends to me, you oblige me.

I want to know whether your Philofophical Society re-
ceived the fecond volume of our Tranfaétions. I fent it,
but never heard of its arriving. If it mifcarried, I will
fend another. Has your Society among its books the
French Work fur les Arts © les Metiers? \tis voluminous, |
well executed, and may be ufeful in our country. I have
bequeathed it them in my will; but if they have it already,
I will fubftitute fomething elfe.

Our

CONJECTURES.on MAGNETISM 1x.

Our ancient correfpondence ufed to have fomething
philofophical in it. As you are now more free from pub-
lic cares; and I expe& to be fo ina few months, why
may we not refume that kind of correfpondence? Our
much regretted friend Winthrop once made me the com-
pliment, that Iwas good at ftarting game for philofo-
phers, let me try if I can ftart a little for you.

Has the queftion, how came the earth by its magnetifm,
ever been confidered? _

Is it likely that zron ore immediately exifted when this

lobe’ was firft formed ; or may it not rather be fuppofed
agradual production of time?

If the earth is at prefent magnetical, in virtue of the
mafles of iron ore contained in it, might not fome ages
pafs before it had magnetic polarity?

Since iron ore may exift without that polarity, and by
being placed in certain circumftances may obtain it, from
an external caufe, is it not poffible that the earth received
its magneti{m from fome fuch caufe?

In fhort, may not a magnetic power exift throughout
our fyftem, perhaps through all fyftems, fo thatif men
could make a voyage in the ftarry regions, a compafs
might be of ufe? And may not fuch univerfal magnetifm,
with its uniform dire@tion, be ferviceable in keeping the
diurnal revolution of a planet more fteady to the fame
axis?

Laftly, as the poles of magnets may be changed by the
prefence of {tronger magnets, might not, in ancient times,
the near pafling of fome large comet of greater magnetic
power than this globe of ours havebeena means of chang-
ing its poles, and thereby wracking and deranging its
furface, placing in different regions the effeét of centrifu-
gal force, fo as to raife the waters of the feainfome, while
they were depreffed in others?

B.2 Let

r2 anp THEORY or tut EARTH.

Let me add another queftion or two, not relating indeed
tomagnetifm, but, however, to the theory of the earth.

Is not the finding of great quantities of fhells and bones
of animals, (natural to hot climates) in the cold ones of
our prefent world, fome proof that its poles have been
changed? Js not the fuppofition that the poles have been
changed, the eafieft way of accounting for the deluge, by
getting rid of the old difficulty how to difpofe of its waters
after it was over? Since if the poles were again to be
changed, and placed in the prefent equator, the fea would
fall there about 15 miles in height, and rife as much in
the prefent polar regions; and the effect would be pro-
portionable if the new poles were placed any where be-
tween the prefent and the equator. !

Does not the apparent wrack of thefurface of this globe,
thrown up into long ridges of mountains, with ‘ftrata ‘in
various pofitions, make it probable, that its internal mats
isa fluid; but a fluid fo denfeas to float the heavieft of our
fubftances? Do we know the limit of condenfation air is
capable of ? Suppofing it to grow denfer within the furface,
in the fame proportion nearly as we find it does wzthour,
at what depth may it be equal in denfity with gold?

Can we eafily conceive: how the ftrata of the earth could
have been fo deranged, if it hadnot been a mere fhell fup-
ported by a heavier fluid? Would not fuch a fuppofed in-
ternal fluid globe be immediately fenfible of a change in
the fituation of the eatth’s axis, alter its form, and there-
by burft the fhell, andthrow up parts of it above the reft?
As if we would alter the pofition of the fluid contained in
the fhell of an egg, and place its longeft diameter where
the fhorteft now is, the fhell muft break; but would be
much harder to break if the whole internal fubflance were
as folid and hard as the fhell.

Might not a wave by any means raifed in this fuppofed
internal ocean of extremely denfe fluid, raife in fome de-

gree

A SINGULAR 13

gree as it paffes the prefent fhell of incumbent earth, and
break it in fome places, as in earthquakes? And may not
the progrefs of fuch wave, and the diforders it occafions
among the folids of the fhell, account for the rumbling
found being firft heard at a diftance, augmenting as it ap-
proaches, and gradually dyingaway as it proceeds? A cir-
eumftance obierved by the inhabitants of South-America
in their laft vreat earthquake, that noife coming from a
place, fome igprees north of Lima, and being traced by
enquiry quite down to Buenos Ayres, proceeding regular-
ly from NorthtoSouthat the rateof—Leagues per minute,.
as | was informed by a very ingenious Peruvian whom.
1 met with at Paris.

EE

NS Ve

Explanation of a fingular phenomenon, firft obferved by Dr.
FRANKLIN, and not hitherto fatisfactorily accounted
for. Ina Letter from Mr.R. PATTERSON, to Dr. B. Rusu.

Sar re

Read O&. REMEMBER, feveral years ago to have read,
pijeritt in one of Dr. Franklin’s philofophical tracts,
an account of a fingular phenomenon, obferved when a
veflel, containing oil and water, is put in motion—Thus
ifa glafs tumbler, for inftance, about two thirds filled;
with equal parts of water and oil, be moved gently back-
wards and forwards in the hand; or, fufpended by a cord,
be made to fwing like the pendulum ofa clock, the fur-
face ofthe water in contact with the oil, which floats up-
on it, will be thrown into a violent wave-like commotion,
while the upper furface of the oil will be comparatively
placid and even.

The Doétor obferves, that having fhewn this experi-

ment toa number of ingenious perfons, * thofe who are
but

14 PHENOMENON.

but flightly acquainted with the principles of hydroftatics
gc. are apt to fancy immediately, that they underftand it,
and readily attempt to explain it: but their explanations
have been defficient, and, to me, not very intelligible.
Others more deeply {killed in thofe principles, feem to
wonder at it, and promife to confider it. And Y think,
adds the Door, it is worth confidering. For a new ap-
pearance, if it cannot be explained by our old principles,
may afford us new ones, of ufe, perhap in explaining
fome other obfcure parts of natural knowledge.”

When I read this account I formed in my own mind a
folution of the phenomenon which (perhaps from the
caufe mentioned above) fatisfied myfelf, and have not
fince confidered the fubjeQ, nor feen any thing written
upon it, till the other day, when looking over the 2d Vol.
of the Mancheffer Society’s Memoirs, 1 found the matter
mentioned there, and two different folutions attempted ;
one by Dr. Thomas Percival, of Manchefter, and the o-
ther by Dr. Wall of Oxford. Dr. Percival fuppofes “ that
the fact in queltion may arife from a repulfive power, fub-
fifting between the particles of oil and water, and depend-
ing poflibly upon the vibrations of that fubtile ether, which
Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes to pervade all bodies. For when
this ether is excited into motion, by percuffion or agitati-
on, its elaftic force is augmented, becaufe it becomes den-
fer in the pulfes of its vibrations, than ina quiefcent ftate.”

Dr. Wall thinks * that the commotion, which the water
undergoes while the oil remains tranquil, depends upon
the different fpecific gravity of the two fluids (whereby
they receive the force of the impulfe in unequal proporti-
ons) and upon the difpofition of the oil, from its. fuperior
levity, to preferve its place, upon the top of the water,
whatever agitation the water beneath may be fubjected to.”
That is, as { underftand it, the water, being fpeci-
fically heavier than the oil, will, from the action of a giv

en

A SINGULAR Is

en impulfe, acquire a greater motion than the oil, and
that therefore the waves excited on the furface of the one,
will be greater than thofe on the furface of the other—Up-
on this principle, then, if quickfilver be fubftituted in
place of the water, the commotion excited in it would be
ftill greater than that in the water; asit would “ receive
the force of the impulfe, form its fuperior fpecific gravity,
in a much greater proportion.” But zm fac? the dire con-
trary will be found to be the cafe.. Moreover, if two flu-
ids, of unequal {pecific gravities, be put feparately into
two different glafles, and moved with equal velocities, the
commotion excited in the Heavier fluid will be apparently
fe/s than that in the lighter; the former, from its greater
{fpecific gravity, preferving its level furface with more ob-
ftinacy than the latter; which is contrary to what ought to
take place upon the above principles.

But without entering further into a refutation of the
above folution, I fhall {ubmit to your confideration one,
which to me, at leaft appears better to account for this
fingular phenomenon.

t. When the tendency of a body upwards is juff equal
to its tendency downwards, it will then, upon the /eaf
impulfive force, move indifferently in either direction.

This is the cafe of a body immerfed in a fluid of the
fame fpecific gravity; where the buoyancy of the fluid, to
raife the body upwards, is juft equal to the power of grav-
ity, to draw it downwards.

2. When the tendency of a body xpwards is nearly
equal to its tendency downwards, then, a /mall impulfive
force upwards, will move it in that direCtion. .

This is the cafe of a body immerfed in a fluid of early
equal fpecific gravity; for then the relative gravity, or
tendency of the body downwards, will be only the excefs
of its {pecific gravity above that of the fluid in which it
is immerfed.—But water immerfed in common oil is juft

iy

16 PHENOMENON.

in the circumftances laft mentioned ; and therefore a {mall
impulfive force, fuch as that communicated by {winging
the veflel backwards and forwards, will be fufficient to
raife the water into waves, and produce that commotion
which is defcribed by Dr. Franklin in the experiment al-
luded to.

If this reafoning be juft, then, the lefs difference there
is between the fpecific gravities of the two fluids, the
greater will the agitation excited in the lower fluid be, and
vice verfa; and accordingly you will conftantly find this
tobe the cafe. For if quickfilver be one of the fluids, the
waves excited in it will be but very fmall, if water and
oil be ufed, the waves on the water will be much greater ;
but if fpirits and oil, of nearly equal fpecific gravities, be
made ufe of, the commotion excited in the lower fluid will
be very confiderable indeed.

Hence we fee the reafon why the motion given toa mug
of cyder or beer, after having ftood before the fire to
warm, by {winging itbackwards and forwards in the hand,
as the common cuftom is in the winter, before one drinks,
will fo effetually mix the cold and warm parts of the li-
quor together, which before occupied different places in
the mug.

The placid appearance of the upper furface of the oil,
in the above experiment, is no doubt to be attributed, 2
part, to the tenacity, or glutinous confiftance of that fluid;
but the chief caufe undoubtedly is the great difference
between its {pecific gravity and that of the air—the fluid
in which it is immerfed. For if oil be made the lower
fluid, by ufing with it any other fluid of lefs {pecific gra-
vity, it will, notwithftanding the tenacity of its particles,
while any confiderable degree of fluidity remains, be af-
fe€tedin the fame manner as any other fluid in like:cir-
cumftances,

An

( 17 )
N°. VI.

An Account of an ‘Earthy Subftance found near the Falls of
Niagara and vulgarly called the Spray of the Falls :
together with Jome remarks on the Falls. By RoBERT
M‘CausLin, M. D. Communicated by BENJAMIN SMITH
BARTON, M. D.

&

Read O@. HIS fubftance is found, in great plenty, every
XA BAAD: where about the bottom of the Falls; fometimes
lying loofeamongft the ftones on the beach, and fometimes
adhering to the rocks, or appearing between the layers up-
on breaking them. ‘The maffes are of various fizes and
fhapes, but feldom exceed the bulk of a man’s hand.
Sometimes they are of a foft confiftence and crumble like
damp fugar; whilft other pieces are found quite hard, and
of a fhining foliated appearance; or elfe opaque and re=
fembling a piece of burnt allum. It often happens that
both thefe forms are foundin the fame mafs. Pieces which
are taken up whilft foft foon become hard by keeping ;
and they are never known tocontinue long in a foft ftate,
as far as I have been able tolearn. In order to determine
the nature of this fubftance, I made thefollowing experi-
ments.

Exp. tf. I put an opaque piece, weighing 14 grains,
into the vitriolic acid diluted with three times its quantity
of water; And letitremain there twenty-four hours, fhak-
ing it now and then. Not the leaft effervefcence enfued,
and on taking out the piece it weighed near one grain more
than when it was putin, although care was taken to ab-
forb the moifture which was upon its furface. This ex-
periment was repeated with a fhining piece, and with ex-
adtly the fame refult.

Exp. 2d. When put into vinegar it did not produce the
leaft effervefcence. The vinegar having ftood upon it fome-
VOL. IL. C time

18 ACCOUNT or tHe SPRAY

time was then poured off and f{pirit of vitriol dropped into
it, yet not the leaft precipitation enfued.

That I might not be led into error by the vinegar not
being good of its kind, I repeated thefe experiments with
chalk ; and as both effervefcence and precipitation took
place it was evident that there was no defed in the vine-
ral.

Exp. 3d. A-fmall piece was expofed to the heat of a
blackimith’s forge during fifteen hours. Upon taking it
out and pouring water upon it, no ebullition enfued: ne-
verthele(s it tafted like weak lime water; being then di-
vided into two portions, a folution of mild fixed alkali
was dropped into the firft, and immediately a precipitation
enfued. The fecond portion being expofed to the air in a
tea-cup foon. contracted. a changeable coloured film, which
next morning was become very thick, refembling in every
refpect that of lime water.

Exp. 4th. Hot water being poured on fome of this fub-
ftance reduced to powder and the whole fuffered to fettle,
the clear liquor had not the tafte of lime water as in the
3d experiment ; neverthelefs a folution of mild fixed alkali
being dropped into it as copious a precipitation enfued as
when the earth had undergone calcination.

As I had-neither the nitrous nor muriatic acids, nor even
cauftic fixed alkali, [ had it not in my power to make any
trials with them.

From thefe experiments we may, perhaps, be authorized
to draw the following conclufions.

1ft. That this concrete is not an alkaline earth, as it is
not affected either by the vitriolic or vegetable acids.

adly. We may, with more probability, fay that it is a
combination of an acid witha calcareous earth, and that it
might with propriety be ranked amongft the felenites.
This fuppolition is founded on the following reafons: 1ft,
It appears from the 4th experiment that it is partially fo-

luble

oF THE FALLS or NIAGARA, &c, 19

luble in water, and that its earth can be precipitated bya
mild fixed alkali: a2dly, the 3d experiment thews
evidently that its earth is of the calcareous kind, as ap-
pears by the ftyptic tafte and changeable coloured film,
agreeing exactly with common lime water. It feems pro-
bable that the vehemence of the fire had in part expelled
the acid, leaving a portion of the mafs in the fate of
quicklime. itis well known that moft waters are ‘more
or lefs impregnated with a felenitic matter. It is faid that
agitation difpofes water to depofite a part of its earth.

It is alfo agreed that water becomes more pure by being
freed from its earthy parts.

Thefe three confiderations, together with the refult of
the above experiment, inclined me much to favour an
opinion which univerfally prevails in this part of the
world, viz. That the water is purified by coming down
the Falls. They alfo fuggefted a thought to me, that this
purification might depend upon the latter depofiting part
of its earth in confequence of the violent agitation it had
received in pafling over rapids upwards ofa mile in length,
and then tumbling down the falls. Such a fuppofition
received great fupport from the fubftance called the Spray
being only found at the bottom of the Falls, which feem-
ed to fhow that a depofition did actually take place. This
theory was very plaufible, and gave me, at firft, much plea-
{ure in contemplating it: neverthelefs fucceeding obfer-
vations and more ftri€t enquiries have led me to entertain
many doubts upon the fubjet.———That the water is much
better at Niagara, which is about thirteen or fourteen miles
below the Falls, than it is at Fort-Schlofler, which is about
a mile and a half above them is an unqueftionable fact:
neverthelefs, I do not think that this can with ftri@ juftice
be alone attributed to the depofition of the earthy parts.
There are feveral low marfhy grounds, which empty them-
felves by {mall creeks into the river immediately above the

C2 Falls ;

20 ACCOUNT or tHe SPRAY

Falls ; and itis reafonable to fuppofe that fuch an impregna-
tion will be more fenfibly perceived at its fource than af-
terwards, when it is mixed and diluted with the water of
the river. To this may be added that at Fort-Erie, about
twenty miles above the Falls, the water is thought not to
be inferior to that of Niagara. In the fecond place, it oc-
curred to me that if any confiderable depofition of earth
took place, as I had fuppofed, the fpecific gravity of the
water below the Falls muft be lefs than that of the water
above.———To determine this point, 1 weighed a quantity
of water at Niagara with all the care and exactne(fs I was
mafter of; and the very fame day madea journey up to
Fort-Schloffer, and weighed the water immediately above
the Falls. The fpecific gravity was found to be exactly
the fame. As I conduted this experiment with all pofli-
ble caution, meafuring the temperature of the water and
alfo that of the room, in which it was weighed, each time ~
by Farenheit’s thermometer, [think I can depend upon its
being pretty accurate——In enquiring into the formati-
on of this fubftance called the fpray, it muft be obferved
ift, That the rocks near the Falls are kept conftantly wet
by the vapour whichrifes inform of athick mift ; and even
thofe at the diftance of a quarter of a mile, or more, are
affected by it, when the wind blows down the river. adly.
That thefe rocks, either from thenature of their ftructure,
or from the circumftance of their being kept conftantly
wet; or perhaps from the fpray accumulating between
their layers, and a&tingasa wedge, are very apt to crack
and {plit; and hence are almoft conftantly tumbling down
in larger or {maller pieces.
adly. That upon feparating the layers of thefe rocks
there is generally more or lefs of this fubftance called {pray
found between them and almoft univerfally in a foft ftate.
From the beft enquiries I have been able to make, during
arefidence of many years, this fubftance is never found a-
bove

or THE FALLS or NIAGARA, &c. 21

bove the Falls, perhaps never ata much greater diftance
than one mile below them. Clofe to the Falls it is found
between the layers of moft of the rocks, the quantity lef-
{ening in proportion to thediftance from the Falls. Upon
comparing all thefe circumftances together, it feems pro-
bable that this fubftance is formed by the moifture arifing
from the Falls conftantly and flowly filtering between the
layers of the rocks; and it feems very poffible that the vio-
jent agitation which the water has undergone may difpofe
it to part with its earth more eafily than it otherwife would
do.—The circumftance of this{pray not being found above
the Falls feems to fuggeftan opinion that that part of the
vapour which hangs upon the furrounding rocks is the
heavieltas being moft loaded with earthy particles, whilft the
remainder which mounts up is the pureft and contains lit=
tle ornoearth. The want of proper rocks to filter through
and to attract the earthy particles may likewife be a reafon
why the {pray is not found above the Falls, and the {peci-
fic gravity of the water which runs down the channel of
the river below the Falls being equal to that of the water
above them (which feems to argue that from want of fome
attracting body it had parted with little or none of its earth)
favours fuch a fuppofition.

The reafon why fo little progrefs has hitherto been made
in inveftigating the natural formation of this concrete
feems to be, that travellers who have only an opportunity
of feeing the Falls once or twice, have fo many more in-
terefting objecis within their view, that they have little
Jeifure, and lefs inclination, to fearch for it amongit the
rocks; and generally content themfelves with the pieces
which they find amongft the ftones on the beach. To thofe
who find itin this fituation, and who do not attempt to dif-
cover how it came there, its formation muft appear utterly
incomprehenfible. To explain this matter clearly we have
only to recolle&t what has been faid of the frequent fall of

parts

22 ACCOUNT or tue SPRAY

parts of the neighbouring rocks: when thefe are dathed in
pieces it is evident that the {pray which they contain bet-
ween their layers mult be broke off and fcattered about.
To this may be added that travellers who colle& pieces of
this {pray as they go along generally throw away what
they have gathered when they meet with other fragments
which are larger or pleafe them better: hence we often fee
this fubftance at fome diflance from the rocks, and in places
where otherwife it would be difficult to account for its be-
ing found in.

Several. attempts have been made to afcertainthe height
of thefe Falls at different times and by different perfons;
but their accounts have varied from 138 feet to 174.

Upon an attentive view it evidently appears that the ftra~
ta of the rock over whichthe river is projected are inclined
tothe plane of the horizon: this is diftinQly feen in the
land which divides the Fall into two parts. It is likewife
very certain that a much larger body of water comes down
the South-Weft channel than down the North-Eaft one.

From thefe confiderations I began to fufpe&, that the
height of the South-Weit fide was lefs than that of the
North-Eaft; and fuppofing this to be the cafe it account-
ed eafily for the variety in the different meafurements.
To afcertain this point, I, inthe year 1781, undertook te
meafure both fides, in company with the ating engineer.

The firft attempt which we made was by trigonometry,
but in the execution of this we found many difhiculties from
the great inequality and ruggednefs of the rocks. I even
{ufpeéted that the rays of light pafling through the medi-
um of a thick mift, might fuffer more or lefs refraCtion,
and occafion a deception in the angle taken. As we had
previoully determined to meafure them in every poflible
manner, we next proceeded to let a cord down with a
{mall weight hung to it. From the inequality of the rocks

at the bottom, it was impoflible to let thecord quite down,
We,

or THE FALLS or NIAGARA, &c. 23

We, therefore, took the level fromthe water’s edge below,
to the weight. By this method it appeared that the South-
Weft fide was actually twenty feet lower than the North-
Eaft one, the former being 143 feet, and the latter 163.
It may, perhaps, be alledged that the ftretching of the
cord muft occafion fome error. Suppofe it to have ftretch-
ed fix inches, or even twice that length, the difference is
very trifling; and although it might occafion the Falls to
appear § or 10 inches lower than they actually were, yet
it could not, inany manner, affe&t the comparative mea-
furement of the two fides. The breadth of the cataract, in-
cluding all the windings andal{fo the Ifland in the middle,
is unqueltionably upwards of a mile: it may not appear
to be fo much ; but it is well known that high banks al-
ways feem to be much nearer each other than they actual-
ly are. In the prefent cafe I have not formed my opinion
from my eye alone, but chiefly from obfervations on the
oppofite bank. The line which the Fall forms upon a
horizontal plane has fome refemblance to a reaping/hook.

I have never had fuficient leifure totake the level of the
rapids immediately above the Falls; but lam much inclin-
ed to think that they amount to about half the height
of the Falls themfelves.—If the level of all the different
currents, rapids and falls which are found between Lake-
Superior and the mouth of the river St. Laurence could be
afcertained, | apprehend that the furface of the water in
the former would be found to be at leaft one thoufand feet
higher than that of the latter.

At the diftance of fix or feven miles below the Falls,
the face of the country defcends by a very confiderable
and fudden declivity—This ridge runs many miles and
divides the high land in the vicinity of the Falls from
the low land upon which the Fort of Niagara ftands.

It is univerfally believed that the cataract was original-
ly at this ridge, and that it has by degrees worn away ri

broke

24 ACCOUNT or tue SPRAY

broke down the rock for the fpace of thefe fix or feven
miles. Some have fuppofed that from thefe appearances,
conjectures might be formed of the age of this part of the
world.—To enter upon fuch a calculatioa, it would pre-
vioully be neceflary to afcertain how much the fall had re-
tired in a hundred years, or any other certain period—
Suppofe that we were even in pofleffion of fucha fad, ftill
the conclufions drawn from it would be liable to the
greate{t uncertainty, as it is evident that the {pace of rock
broke down and worn away in a certain number of years
would not always be the fame.—The more or lets hard-
nefs and brittlenefs of the rock in different parts; the
greater or lefs feverity of the frofts in different years; and
the quantities of water that flowed at different periods in
the cataract of the river, would all occafion confiderable
variations. This retroceflion of the Falls does not by any
means go on fo quickly as fome have imagined. During
nine years that I have remained at Niagara, very few
pieces of the rock have fallen down which were large e-
nough tomake any fenfible alteration in the brink; and in
the {pace of two years I could not perceive, by a pretty ac-
curate meafurement, that the North-Eaft brink had in the
leaft receded. If we adopt the opinion of the Falls having
retired fix miles, and if we fuppofe the world to be 5700
years old, this will give above fixty-fix inches and an half
fora year, or fixteen yards and two thirds for nine years,
which I can venture to fay has not been the cafe fince 1774.
But if weaccede to the opinion of fome modern philofophers,
and fuppofe that America has emerged much laterthan the
other parts of the world, it will neceffarily follow that
this retrograde motion of the Falls muft have been quicker,
which is a fuppofition ftill lefs confonant to the obfervati-
ons of late years.

Obfervations

easy

N°. VIL. .

Obfervations on the probabilities of the Duration of Human
Life, and the progre/s of Population, inthe United States
of America; in a Letter from WiLLIAM BARTON, EEO.
to Davip Rirrennouse, L.L. D. Prefident, A. P.S.

DEAR SIR,

Read Mar. J BEG leave to communicate to our Philofo-
*, 479% HA phical fociety, the following obfervations, on
the probabilities of the duration of human life, in this
country ;—-and, likewife, on the progre/s of its population ;
together with the caufes which accelerate that progreffli-
on, ina degree unparalleled elfewhere. By comparing the
refults, with fimilar eftimates made for fome European
countries—the advantages on the fide of the United States,
in thefe refpects, will be readily difcerned.

There is not, perhaps, any political axiom better efta~
blithed, than this,—That a high degree of * population
contributes greatly to the riches and ftrength ofa ftate.
In fact, the progreflive increafe of numbers, in the peo-
ple of any civilized country, is reciprocally the caufe and
effe& of its real wealth: and, therefore, there cannot be
a furer criterion by which we may judge, whether a na-
tion be, in reality, on therife or on the decline, than by ob-
ferving, whether the number of its inhabitants increafe or
diminith. .

If, then, numbers of people conftitute (or, at leaft, con-
tribute to) the ftrength and riches of a ftate; that coun-
try, whofe population is rapidly advancing, may fairly
be faid to be increafing in both thefe concomitants of na-
tional profperity, with proportionable celerity. For, if a
country exhibits fo unequivocal a teft of ftrength and
VOL. IU. D riches,

* “The encouragement of population ought to be one of the firft objects of policy, in eve~
sy State.” Dr. Price.

2

26 OBSERVATIONS on Tus

riches, as that circumftance indicates,---a good fyftem of
government, well adminiftered, muit infure its profperity
(fo far as humanefforts can produce the end ;) notwithftand-
ing the tranfitory effect of fuch incidents, as have no ne-
ceflary connection with, or permanent influence upon,
the fundamental fources ofa nation’s welfare : Thefe could
only occafiona temporary derangement in the political
ceconomy of the ftate, whereby the operation of the nati-
onal refources might, for a time, be fufpended ;, during
which interval there might be an appearance (or even an
actual exiftence, in fome degree,) of public debility and
diftrefs. |

If thefe obfervations be applied to the United States of
America, it will appear, that this country poffeffes, in a
fuperior degree, an inherent, radical and lafting fource of
national vigor and greatnefs :—For, it will be found, that,
in no other part of the world, (at leaft, in none of thofe
parts with which we are beft acquainted) is the progrefs
of population fo rapid, as in thefe ftates.—And this in-
creafe arifes from the falubrity of the climate; the great
fruitfulhels and refources of the country ; the confequent
facility of acquiring the means of a comfortable fubfift-
ence, which, aided by the benign influence of our govern-
ment, produces* early marriages ;—and, laftly, from thet
virtuous and fimple manners of the great body of our in-
habitants. Thefe are either the proximate or remote caufes
which accelerate the population of this favoured land ;
independently of acceflions to our numbers, occafioned
by migrations from foreign countries. — As

* Inaletter written in the year 1768, by our venerable Franklin, ‘to John Alleyne; Efq.
Gn anfwer to one wherein Mr. Alleyne had requefted to know the Doctor’s impartial thoughts,
on the fubjeét of an early marriage,) there is this paflage.—‘* With us in America, marriages
are generally in the morning of life,---our children are therefore educated, and fettled in the
world, by noon; we have an afternoon and evening of chearful leizure to ourfelves,---fuch as
your friend at prefent enjoys. By thefe carly marriages, we are bleft with more children ;
and, from the mode among us---founded in nature---of every mother fuckling and nurfing her
own child, more of them are raifed. ‘Thence the fwift progrefs of population, among us,--~
unparalleled in Europe!” ;

+ © Anation fhall be more populous, in proportion as good morals and a fimplicity of tafte
and manners prevail; or, as the people are more frugal and virtuous.”’=--Wallace’s Daffertati-
On on the numbers of mankind, in ancient and modern times.

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 24

As a plenitude of inhabitants is of fo much importance
to the interefts of a nation, numerous eftimates have been
made, of the ftate and progrefs of population in divers
countries ; and the circumftances are defignated which oc-
cafion its growth or declenfion, in different places and at
particular feafons. . The refults of t eftimates, on this fub-
jeQ, furnifh ufeful refleCtions to a contemplative mind:
they are not only inftructive to the moralift and pleafing
to the mere fpeculative philofopher ; but they are peculi-
arly interefling to the ftatefman and the medical enquirer.

In order to fhew the difference between the progrefs of
population in thiscountry, and that in fome parts of the
old world, as well as in the probabilities of the duration
of life in each, refpeCtively,—I fhall offer fome remarks
from fuch data, as, I prefume, will be fatisfatory on the
occafion. Although the kind of documents, on which
-calculations of this nature are ufually founded, could not,
in relationto this country, be obtained in fo perfec a ftate,
as to warrant very accurate inferences from them, in eve-
ry particular,—the deductions, in general, are neverthe-
lefs not far from the truth—lIt is greatly to be wifhed,
that the feveral religious denominations of chriftians,
throughout the United States,—at leaft, in our confidera-
ble towns and well fettled parts of the country,--would be
atthe pains of obtaining and publifhing, every year, lifts
of the births and deaths in their refpeClive parifhes or
congregations; together with the proportion of the fexes
in each lift, the ages of the deceafed, their difeafes, and the
numbers dying in each month. The number of marriages
fhould alfo be added: and it would, moreover, be ufeful

wei to

} ‘* La population eftan des plns firs moyens de juger de la profpérité d’un empire. et les
variations q’elle €prouve, comparées aux événemens qui les precedent, font la plus jufte mefure
de influence des caufes phyfiques et morales, fur le bonheur on furle malheur de l’efpéce hu-
maine.”---See a paper on the births, marriages and deaths, at Paris, &c. by M. de la Place,
Hift. Royal read fciences, for 1783.

“< La connoifiance des probabilities dela durée dela vie, eft une des chofes les plus interef= *
fantes dans l’hiftoire naturelle de l‘homme.”---See M. de Buffon’s eflay on the probabilitics
of the duration of life---in the fupplement to the Nat. Hiftory.

28 OBSERVATIONS on THE

to notice in what inftances thofe dying after eighty years
of age wete foreigners. But a laudable fpirit of enquiry
is gaining ground among us, fo faft, that there is reafon |
to expect the introduction of great regularity and precifion
in fuch arrangements, in the feveral departments of our
public ceconomy, as may lead to further attainments in
ufeful knowledge, and particularly to improvements. in
this branch of {cience.

In purfuing this fubje&t, it becomes necefiary to flate
thofe facts, from which, as data, deductions are ufually
made, for the purpofe of afcertaining the condition of any
given country, with refpect to its population. And, after
thewing the refult of fimilar ftatements, here, and com-=
paring them with fuch as have been made the ground
work, in eftimates relating to European countries, the
balance in favor of this country will be evident.

Marriage is the fource of population. Therefore, the
greater is the proportion of marriages in any country,
the greater willbe its proportion of births.—lIt appeared,
by a colleGtion of the yearly bills of mortality, publithed
in London, in 1759, by Mr. Corbyn Morris,—that, in
England, each marriage produces four children. Dp.
Short, in his comparative hiftory of the increafe of man-
kind, fays, that, in order tovbe fully fatished refpeCting
the numbers of perfons to-be allowed to a family, he ob~
tained the true number of families and individuals in four-
teen market-towns, fome of them confiderable in trade
and populoufnefs; and that they contained 20,371 fami-
lies, and 97,611 individuals ;—or, but little more than
4% toa family. He adds, that, in order to.find the dif-
ference in this refpect, between towns and country-parifh-
es, he procured, from divers parts of the kingdom, the
exact number of families and individuals, in fixty-five
country-parifhes. The number of families was 17,208,--
individuals, 76,284; or, not quite 4} toa family. Dr.

Davenant,

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 29

Davenant, from the obfervations of Mr. King, sived 45h
as the number of perfons to a family, Sor the whole king-
dom.- By the ftate of births, marriages and deaths, in
the city and Fauxbourgs of Paris, from 1771 to 1784
(both inclufive,) each marriage produced the proportion
of 3.23, births. The marriages and births at Paris, for
22 years (viz. from 1745 to 1766, both inclufive) as ftat-
ed by the Count de Buffon, give the proportion of 43°,
births toa marriage. But M. Buffon fuppofes, that about
one half the foundlings (les enfans trouvés) ought to be
included in the lift of births for that city; inftead of their
whole number, which averaged, during thofe twenty-two
years, 4,509 per annum: deducting, therefore, one half
of the foundlings from: the total sagen of births, and
each marriage gives the proportion of 3° births. The
Abbé D’Expilly has given a f{tatement of the births, deaths
and marriages for the whole kingdom of France, includ-
ing Lorraine and Bar, from 1754 to 1763, comprehend-
ing aterm of nine years; and likewife one for France,
exclufive of thofe provinces, during the fame term. By
both thefe ftatements it appears, that each marriave gives
the proportion of 4% births, for that kingdom. In the
Pais de Vaud, in Switzerland, on a medium of ten years,
the proportion of marriages to births, was—as I to 3.2.
According to Dr. Price, the proportions of marriages to
births are, at Berlin, § to 3°3,—at Copenhagen, 1 to
3-5.—and at Amfterdam, r io 1,°2..—In the Ifland of
Corfica, indeed, during the years 1781 and. 1782, there
were five births to a marriage, according to the tables of
births, deaths and marriages, within the French Domini-
ons in Europe (publifhed: by M. de la Place, in the
memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1783.)
But this is a folitary inftlance of fo large a proportion of
births to marriages: and, being fora imall ifland, fcarcely
containing 129,009 inhabitants, it is not proper to take-it
into an eflimate, on this occalion. From

30 OBSERVATIONS on the

From the foregoing ftatements it may be prefumed, that
four and an half perfons to a houfe, and the fame propor-
tion of births to a marriage, are anallowance quite high
enough for fome of the healthieft parts of Europe, com-
prehending a large extent of territory.—There is but one
inftance, in which I have been enabled to obtain the actu-
al proportion of marriages to births, in this country—At
the firft parifh in Hingham, in the ftate of Maflachufetts,
during the courfe of fifty-four years, there -were two
thoufand two hundred feven and forty births, one thoufand ©
one hundred and thirteen deaths, and five hundred and
twenty one marriages; which gives the proportion of fix
and a quarter births to amarriage. If the number of
inhabitants in this parifh had remained ftationary, during
the whole term of fifty-four years,—and if one out of forty-
five had died there, annually 3 it would have contained
nine hundred and twenty-feven fouls—Therefore, the
proportion of births to marriages, in that parith, being tak-
en out of fo confiderable a number of perfons, and for
fo long a time, inclines me to think it may ferve as a pret-
ty juft flandard for the country parts of the northern, and,
perhaps, of the middle flates.—But, not being poffeffed of
documents of this kind, for other parts of the Union, I
fhall affume the proportion of perfons to a houfe, or to a fa-
mily, as the next beft means for afcertaining the propor-
tion of births to marriages—When we find a large pro-
portion of perfons to a family, taking a country ex gros,
it may be reafonably prefumed that the births are nume-
rous in the fame ratio: And the moft obvious caufes, which
produce this effet, have already been noticed. It has
been obferved, that, in fome of the healthieft and moft
confiderable portions of Europe, four and an half perfons
to a houfe is a large allowance for thofe countries. The
late cenfus of the inhabitants in.the flate of Maflachufetts
fhews, that there are in that flate, upwards of five and

two

DURATION cr HUMAN LIFE. 31

two thirds fouls toa family, in that ftate---exclufive of In-
dians and Negroes—The proportion to a houfe is 6 23.3
For, the famzlies are to the houfes, in that ftate, as fix to
five. In Bofton, there are to a family, 532, fouls: and
in the three next largeft towns, placed in the order of
their magnitude, the proportions of perfons to a family,
areas follow, viz.Salem, 53,0. , Marblehead, Sco Newbu-

1 0

ry-Port, 4°: At Ipfwich, containing four thoufand five

hundred and fixty two inhabitants (and. which. will be

mentioned hereafter,) the proportion. is, 5,°... In. this

eflimate for Maffaclfufetts, the diftriG of Maine is not in-

cluded: but the ftate contains 373.324 inhabitants, exclu-

five of that diftri&.—When the cenfus in completed, for

the feveral ftates in the Union, the refult it will furnith,

on this fubje@, will prove highly interefting—It appears,.
however, by the cenfus for the large and populous flate

of Maffachufetts, that the proportion of births to. marria~

ges, there, greatly exceeds that which obtains in fome of
the principal countries of Europe: And, it is probable,

the refult will be found nearly the fame, in this particu-
lar, with relation to the major part of the Union.

‘There is, however, another means, by which the -fu—
perior number of births in proportion tothe whole number
living, in this country,---compared with the proportion
which obtains, in this refpe&, in profperous European
countries,—may be afcertained.—In an eflay for afcertain—
ing the population of France, by Meffrs. Du Sejour, the
Marquis De Condorcet and De La Place, (in the memoirs
of the Royal Academy of {ciences for 17343,) it is aflumed
as an hypothefis---that multiplying the medium of annu-
al births in the whole kingdom, by 252, will give the
number of inhabitants; and that, for the cities of Paris
and Verfailes, thirty muft be the multiplier, The Count
De Buffon fuppofes, that the number of thofe who die in.
France, annually, is “, ofall the living; and, confe-

quenthy

$2 OBSERVATIONS on THE

quently, if the medium of annual deaths in the kingdom
be multiplied by thirty five, the produ& will be the num-
ber of inhabitants it contains---Accordingly, by the firft
hypothefis, France fhould contain 24,812,877 inhabitants
(taking the medium of births in that kingdom, exclufive
of Corfica, in 1781 and 1782,---as {tated in the mem-
oirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, for 1783) :—-And
by the fecond hypothefis, the number would amount to
25,916,170, (taking the medium of deaths in nine years,
viz. from 1754 to 1763,---as ftated by the Abbé D’Ex-~
pilly.) The variance in the refult of thefe two hypothefes
thews, that both cannot be juft.—I am induced to believe
that the fecond proportion approaches neareft the truth,
for the following reafon---Each marriage gives four and
an half births, duringthe nine years eftimated by the Ab-
bé D’Expilly; whereas the fame gives only the proporti-
on of 423, births, for the years 1781, and 1782,—as
ftated by M. de la Place: and it may be prefumed, that
the longeft term gives the trueft proportion. If, therefore,
the proportion of births to marriages from 1754 to 1763
(the laft, included,) compared with the proportion of births
to marriages, in 1781 and 1762, be admitted as a Daf-
uty from which any probable eftimate of the number of
inhabitants in France may be deduced, for the latter pe-
riod,—that number would be 26,396,667; which exceeds
the higheft number above ftated. But 4%, births to a
marriage—an intermediate ratio—will give the number of
inhabitants the fame, as thirty five of the whole number,
living in a given term,to each death during the fame time;
and this accords with M.de Buffon’s hypothefis.---Aflum-
ing, then, the truth of this pofition---there are in France
26 £3, perfons living, in proportion to each birth—Hence
the number of annual births in that kingdom, multiplied
by 26,°3¢5 will yield the number of its inhabitants.---It ap-
pears, alfo, by an enumeration of the inhabitants of the
| kingdom

DURATION of HUMAN LIFE. 3

kingdom of Naples, taken in the year 1769,---that by
multiplying, by twenty-five and an half, the births of a
common year, in that kingdom, the product pave the real
number of the inhabitants: and, further, that, on comparing
the number of births and that of the inhabitants, in the
city of Turin, in the years 1767 and 1768,---the propor-
tion of the former was to the latter, as one to twenty-fe- .
ven.---Confidering thefe feveral circumftances, I would
infer-—-that the proportion of about twenty-fix and an
half exifting perfons to each birth, is nearly right wit
reference to France. In this eftimate for France, the Ifl-
and of Corfica, fubje&t to that crown, is not comprehend-
ed.---If there be one birth to every twenty-fix and an
half inhabitants, in that Iland,---the latter muft amount
to 136,077; and, if this number be divided by the me-
-dium of annual deaths,---thefe will be to the whole num-
ber of the living, as one to 32,7,",. But, taking the me-
dium of marriages and births, refpectively, for Corfica,
there were five births for one marriage. For this reafon, a
greater number ought not to be aflumed, for afcertaining
the aGtual population of that Ifland, than twenty-five per-
fons to each birth. This reduces the total number of in-
habitants to 128,375; and makes the number of thofe
who die annually, compared with the whole number liv-
ing, asone to 30,°°,: a degree of mortality, which in-
dicates the unhealthinefs ofthe climate; notwithftanding
the high proportion of births to marriages, in that coun-
try, makes the number of deaths appear low, in compa-~
zifon with the births.
With refpe&t to England—although Sir William Pet-
ty and other Englith writers agree in faying, that, in the
country in that kingdom, there dies one in thirty-two,---
M. Buffon eftimates the proportion to beonein thirty-three.
And Petty fuppofes that five are born, to four that die, in
that country.--~This ratio gives one birth to nearly twen~
VOL, III. EF ty=

34 OBSERVATIONS on THE

ty-fix and an half inhabitants.---Dr. Price prefumes, that
591,580, is nearly the true number of inhabitants, in
London; but, that 651,580, though fhort of the number
fappofed in that city, is very probably greater, and can-
not be lefs, than the true number.—In the firft cafe, the
number of inhabitants in London, divided by the annual
number of deaths (including therein an addition of 6,000,
for omiffions,) gives 21,°°,,asthe proportion out of which
one dies annually:—and, in the fecond cafe, that pro-
portion will be one out of 23 ,4°.. There are, notwithftand-
ing, fome circumftances, which difpofe me to conclude,
that London contains 711,516 fouls---Firft ; we find, by
taking the medium of two eftimates (one by Mefirs. du
Sejour, Condorcet and dela Place, and the other by M.
Buffon,) that Paris contains about 626,285 fouls, and
that there are nearly thirty-two and an half living in that
city, to each annual death.— We alfo find, that the mor-
tality of London exceeds that of Paris, about one fourth:
part,—as eftimated from the births and deaths for each ci-
ty, refpeQtively: confequently, the number of perfons liv-
ing, to each annual death, in London, will be twenty-
fix; agreeably to my hypothefis---Secondly; although
Graunt, Petty, Morris, Smart, and other Englith authors,.
have adopted the number of thirty of the living, to each.
death, for London; yet the Count de Buffon fuppofes---
that thirty-one to one, is near the truth: and Dr. Price
ftates the proportion to be twenty-one to one :---The me-
dium, therefore, of M. Buffon’s and Dr. Price’s eftimates
is twenty-fix to one. Now, if we aflume the proportion of
one birth to twenty-fix inhabitants, annually, for France,
which is lefs favorable, with refpectto theratio of births to
inhabitants in that kingdom, than the eftimate of M. du
Sejour, &c.---and, if it be aflumed as a fad, that one in
twenty-fix dies, annually, in London; the proportions of
the births in a year, for the feveral places herein mention-

. ed,

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 35

ed, are, to the number of fouls in thofe places, refpects
ively, as follow, viz.

In France i birth to 26 inhabitants
England—-1 do.- for262.. .).do.
Paris-- I do.- to 30 do.

London—--1 do. 0} 228-4), 0.

Yet, even in the city of Philadelphia, the annual births
amount to one in twenty-two and an half, of all the inha-
bitants. A bare infpeCtion of the feveral proportions, in
this particular, willenable one to form a judgment of
the increafe of population in this country, beyond that of
the two moft confiderable in Europe.

Another circumftance, from which the ‘extraordinary
progrefs of population, in this country, may be inferred,
is the high proportion of thofe under the age of 16 years,
to thofe above that age, out of the whole number of the
living.—Dr. Halley computes the number of the living,
under 16, to be but a third of all the living at all ages.
But it appears from the cenfus of the inhabitants of New-
Jerfey, taken by order of the government at two periods,
viz. 1738 and 1745, that, in the year 1738, the number
of thofe wnder 16, was to the whole amount, as 47,°%3,
to 100; and, in 1745, the proportion was, as 49,55, to
100. The proportion of free white males, to the whole
number of perfons of that defcription, in Maflachufetts,
taken from.the recent cenfus of inhabitants in that ftate,
is as 48.2. to 1co.—Hence we find nearly * one-half, in-
fiead of one-third, is the proportion, here, of thofe un-
der 16, out of the total number of our inhabitants.—The
proportion for the city and fuburbs off Philadelphia, is,

E.2 by
* Mr. Jefferfon obferves—in his notes on Virginia—that, to find the number of free inha-

bitants in that flate, it is to be noted---that thofe above and thofe below-16 years of age, are

nearly equal.

+ The celebrated founder of Pennfylvania, in a letter to his friends in London (dated at
Philadelphia, the 16th of Auguft, 1783)---acquaints them, that the planted parts ofthe pro-
vince were then erected into fix counties, containing about four thoufand fouls; and that the
«apitol had advanced, within lefs than a year, to about four fcore houfes and cottages, fuch as
they -were,—<Philadelphia now contains about 44,0Co inhabitants!

36 OBSERVATIONS on THE

by the cenfus,* 41,°.8, to 100: but this inferiority of the
proportion of perfons under 16 to thofe above that age,
in Philadelphia, may be attributed to a greater proportion
of children dying in large cities, than in country places.
The next circumftance, from which I fhall infer that the
progrefs of population is much more rapid inthis country,
than elfewhere, is, that the births exceed the deaths, in
number, in a fuperior degree, among us.—The Abbé
D’Expilly, in his eftimate before mentioned, gives the
births to the deaths, in France, as 100 births to 762%,
deaths. In the Pais de Vaud, on an average of ten years,
the proportion was, to roo births, 79,%% deaths. In
great cities, the degree of mortality is much higher. By
the tables of births and deaths in Paris, for twenty-two
years (viz. from 1745 to 1766,) the births and deaths
give the proportion of 100 of the former, to 993. ‘The
medium of four other ftatements (two by M. de la Place,
one by Dr. Price, and the other taken from Anderfon’s
hiftorical and chronological dedu@tion of the origin of
commerce,) gives, for Paris, roo births to 100;,°,%, deaths:
and the Count de Buffon fays, that, in fifty-eight years,
the deaths in Paris exceeded the births only about “7, part.
This is a fa orable proportion for fo great a city.—Mr.
Anderfon has given the numbers of annual births and
deaths in London, during a term of twenty-fix years ;
from which it is found, that the deaths exceed the births,
in that city, at the rate of five to four, very nearly. This
ftatement, which gives the proportion of births, in Lon-
don, rather higher than others, fhews, that the mortality
of that city is about one-fourth greater, than that of Paris.
At Amfterdam and Berlif, according to Dr. Price, the de-
gree of mortality is flill higher than in London; there
being, in the former, to roo births 169,°.°, deaths, and
in the latter, to 100 births 131 deaths. In the city of
Norwich, Great-Britainy on a medium of thirty years,

there

* Since the cenfus has been compleated, the proportion appears to be 42 5-100 to Loo.

DURATION ofr HUMAN LIFE. 39

there were, to 100 births, 114+. deaths—That city is
fuppofed to contain about 33,000 inhabitants. And at
Breflaw, which contains about as many inhabitants as
Philadelphia, the births are to'the deaths (taking the me-
dium of two ftatements) as roo births to 119{ deaths.
The proportions of births to deaths vary, in different coun-
tries; and, in large towns, the proportion of the latter is al-
ways higher than in country places, ceteris paribus. But,
taking the principal countries of Europe, ex.gros, the births
do nat exceed the deaths in any great degree—I have fub-
joined a feale of thefe proportions, for feveral cities and:
countries, not enumerated in the foregoing ftatements.
The births (eftimated from the chriffenings) in Phila-
delphia, in the year 1788, were 15833 and the burials,
exclufive of negroes, amounted to 872s "The number.of
negro births for this city, as appears by the bills for the.
years 1789 and 1790, average.144 per annum. Suppof
ing one-third of this number to be included in the chriftens
ings, forty-eight muft be deducted from the lift of births.
This will give 1536 births, to-872: deaths, for the year
1788 :—and, taking the average proportion of births to
deaths, for four years, it gives to 100 births, 5G: deaths.
The average number of deaths, among al// the white in-
habitants of this city, for the three laf years, is Q24 per
annum. The proportion of births to deaths, in the Ger-
man Lutheran congregation of this city, which compre-
hends about one-fifth of all the white inhabitants, is, on
an average of* fixteen years; as one’ hundred births to
forty-five deaths: and therefore, taking the medium of |
this: proportion and that above ftated, it gives to 100 births,
50: deaths. The bills, for the white inhabitants in this
city, for 1789 and 1790, give the proportion as only roo
births to. 49,24, deaths; and, as thefe bills-are the mo?
full:

* The Rev: Dr. Helmuth, reétor of the German Lutheran church, in Philadelphia, -was fo
obliging as to furnidh me with thele-lifts,

38, OBSERVATIONS on THE

full and fatisfactory of any I have yet feen, for Philadel

phia, I think the births may be fairly ftated.as being dou-
ble to the nnmber of deaths—At Salem in Maflachuietts,
on a medium of the years 1782 and 1783, the births were
to the deaths, as 109 births to 49 deaths, including the
ftill-born in the number of deaths —Dr. Holyoke iays
(in the memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Bofton,) that both 1782 and 1783. were fickly
at Salem ;—particularly the latter years, in which, during
the months of May and June, the meafles were epidemic.
The births and deaths at Hingham, inthe fame ftate, dur-
ing s4.years, gives to 100 births 49: deaths.——-Hence
it may be inferred, that, fo far as deductions from thefe
documents may be relied on, there are two births to one
death, in this country.

The peculiar circumftances of this mew country will
not permit me to afcertain, from the deta ufually employ-
ed for fuch purpofes, the comparative longevity of our in-
habitants.—Agreeably to Dr. Halley’s table for Breflaw,*
34 perfons, out of 1000, furvive 80 years cf age. In the
paper on the longevity of the inhabitants of Ipfwich and
Hingham, in Maflachufetts (communicated to the Bofton
Academy, by the Rev. profeffor Wigglefworth,) the writ-
er obferves, that, out of 164 perfons who died at Ipfwich
Hamlet, in ten years, twenty-one perfons furvived eighty
years complete; being one in about eight: whereas, at
Breflaw, the proportion is one in about thirty—He alfo
ftates, that, out of 1,113 deathsin 54 years, at Hingham,
84 perfons furvived 80 years complete; being one in 134,
It is obferved by Mr. Morfe, in his American Geography,
that the flate of Conne@icut, though fubje@ to the extremes
of heat and cold, in their feafons, and to frequent, fudden
changes, is very healthful. He fays, that as manyas one in

. 46

® This docs not; however, by any means, correfpond with M. Buffon’s eftimate; as he
makes the proportion to be only 27 63-100 out of 1000,—-

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 49

46 of the inhabitants of Conneticut, who were living in
1774, were upwards of feventy years old: and that it is
found, from actual calculations, that about one in eight
live to the age of feventy years; one in thirteen, to the
age of eighty; and one in about thirty, to the age of nine-
ty years.— From the 1ft January 1771, tothe 1ft January
1777>---239 perfons died at Milford, (Connedticut;) of
which thirty-three, or about one feventh part, were up=
wards of feventy years old---and eighty four.. From Jan.
ift 1771, to June 3d.1782, died at Milford, 417 perfons;
of which, thirty-one (or about one thirteenth part of the
whole number) were eighty years old, and.upwards. O-
ther calculations of a fimilar kind, continues Mr. Morfe,
made in different parts of the fame ftate, from the bills of
mortality, confirm the juftnefs of the above proportion.”--
The number dying in Philadelphia, aged upwards of eighty
years, during the year 1789, isin the proportion of a-
bout twenty-four and an half out of 1000 perfons. Thole
dying after that age, and upwards tothe age of roy in-
élufive, muft have been born between: 1688 and the end
of 1709. During this term of twenty-one years (commenc-
ing about fix years after the firft fettlement of iuropeans,.
on this {pot,) it is not probable that more than 1000 chil-
dren were darmhere; and, even admitting thata// of thefe
died here, the proportion of /uch could not, agreeably to
Dr. Halley’s eftimate, exceed thirty-four, during the
year 1739. Butit-is probable, that many of thofe who.
were born here, during the above mentioned term of
twenty-one years, had removed from the city, prior to
the year 1789; and it is alfo probable, that fame of thofe
who died at Philadelphia in that year, aged upwards of
eighty, were not natives of this city—It may, therefore,
be prefumed, that the chances of an.addition to. the num-
ber of thofe dying after eighty, which have been loft by
the removal of natives before that age, may be balanced by
the:

40 OBSERVATIONS on THE

the fame number of non-natives, who died here after eigh-
ty, in the courfe of that year. In this cafe, the number
of thofe who die at Philadelphia, after completing the
Soth year of their age, compared with the total number of
deaths in the year 1789, will and in the proportion of
24‘. of the former, to 1000 of the latter. It muft be ob-
vious, to any perfon confidering this fubje&, that every
calculation of the probabilities of the duration of life, at the
later periods of life, and of the proportions, which the
numbers of thofe dying at very advanced periods of its exif-
tence, bear to the numbers of fuch as die, at its early and
middle ages,--muft neceflarily give a more unfatisfactory
refult, than fimilar eftimates for the anterior periods of
life —This is the cafe, in fome degree, when applied to
any country; under whatever circumftances the applicati-
on may be made: the obfervation is true,in a greater de-
gree, when applied to towns, whether great or fmall:—
and itis ftill more juft, with refpe& to American towns;
by reafon of the infant ftate of our country,—the continu-
al flu@uation in the migrations of the inhabitants,—and
the rapid increafe of population, as well in our capitals as
in the country generally.—The reafon of my not having
gone higher than the age of ror years complete, is, that
M. Buffon, in his general table of the probabilities, &c.
makes no calculation for any age beyond that period of
life: out of 23,994 deaths, he eftimates only two to be liv-
ing after the completion of the ro1ft year, and none at 102.

A further datum for afcertaining the fuperiority of this
country, inthe progrefs of its population, is founded on
the proportion which the annual deaths bear to the whole
number of the living, in different countries.—In Dr. Price’s
efflay on the expectation of lives, ftate of London, popu-
Jation, &c. it is laiddown, as the refult of various cal.
culations, that in Londonand Edinburgh, there die an-
nually about one in twenty-one; in Dublin, one in twen-

ty

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 41

ty-two ; in Rome, one in twenty-three; in Amfterdam,
one in twenty-four, &c. M. Sufmilch makes the pro-
portion of thofe who die, annually, in great towns, to be
from {, to ,',3 1n moderate towns, from ,', to 3 and,
in the country, from:.*, to ,*,. But Dr.-Price fuppofes the
following proportions more juft, viz. Great towns, from
+7 OF =5) to “, or 7.3; moderate towns, from ;'.to {',;
and the country, from 2 or ., to. or ,: and he is
of opinion, with M. Sufmilch * that, taking a whole
country in grofs, including all cities. and villages, man-
kind enjoy among them about thirty-two or. thirty-three
years, each, of exiftence; or,—which amounts to the
fame thing,--that one out of thirty-two or thirty-three dies
annually.—Sir William Petty, in his ¢ffays on political
arithmetic, fays—that in the country, in England, one dies
out of thirty-two; and, that five are born to four that die.
“This laft fact, “faysM. Buffon,’ agrees pretty well with
what happens in France: but if the firft fa&t be true, it
follows, that the falubrity of the air in France is much
greater than in England,—in the proportion of thitty-five
to thirty-two ;—for, it iscertain, that, in the country in
France, no more than one dies out of thirty-five.’—M,
Sufmilch makes the proportion, as deduced from 1098
country parifhes in Germany, to be one out of forty-three,
He likewife givesthe proportion of one to forty-five for a
country parith in Brandenburgh: and M. Muret eftablithes
the fame, for the Pais de Vaud,--(See Dr. Price’s obferva-
tions, é&c.) The two laft are the higheft propertions I find
for any part of Europe. In Madeira, (an African
ifland) Dr. Hicberden ftates.the proportion to be one in
fifty—the climate of that Ifland, it is true, is remarkably
jalubrious: but Dr. Price thinksthe eftimate of Dr. Heberden
1s exceptionable. . Large towns give the proportions dying
outof the whole number, much higher,—even at Brellaw—
which has, inthis kind of calculations, been ftiled the
VOL, IIL. F Briti/p

42 OBSERVATIONS on THE

Briti/h ftandard of life,—the proportion is ftated as being
one to twenty-eight.—It appears, however, by the number
of inhabitants in Philadelphia and Salem, that in the form-
er—a town about as populous as Breflaw—the proportion
is one to forty-five; and in Salem, one to forty-feven.
There is no circumftance that affords a more ftriking
proof of the rapid progreflion of population in this coun-
try, than the prodigious increafe in the numbers of our
people, fince the original fettlements of Europeans on
thefe fhores. The firft fetthement made by Europeans,
within the prefent limits of the United States, was in
Virginia, by a eolony confifting of about one hundred
Englith, inthe year 1607. The honorable Mr. Jefferfon
{in his notes on Virginia) remarks, that, about the year
1654, the progreffion in the population of that ftate be-
came pretty uniform ; importations having in a great mea-~
fure ceafed, and the inhabitants become too numerous to
be fenftbly affected by Indian wars. Beginning, at that
period, therefore, fays this gentleman, we find,—* that
from thence to the year 1772, our tythes had increafed
from 7,029, to 153,000.”-—The whole term being of 118
years, yields a duplication once in every 27; years. The
intermediate enumerations, taken in 1700, 1748 and 1759,
furnifh proofs of the uniformity of this progreflion.”—
A very inconfiderable colony of Englifh formed a fettle-
ment at Plymouth, in New-England, in 1620. In 16435
21,200 perfons, alio emigrants from Britain, fettled in
New-England : and, fince that period, itis fuppofed more
have emigrated from thence, than the numbers who had
gone thither would amount to.* In the year 1760, they
were increafed half a million. Therefore, as Dr. Price
obferves, they have all along doubled their own number,
in twenty-five years. Two years fince, Mr. Morfe efti-
mated the number of people in New-England, at 623,000.

Our

* See a difcourfe on Chriftian union, by Dr. StilesBofton, 1761.

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 43

Our late Prefident, the illuftrious Franklin, was of opi-
nion, that the people of thefe ftates double their number
in twenty years.* Dr. Price feems to think---that, “ in
the back fettlements, where the inhabitants apply them-
felves entirely to agriculture, and luxury is not known,
they double their own numbers in fifteen years; and all
through the Northern colonies, in twenty-five years ;----
which, continues Dr. Price, is an inftance of increafe fo
rapid, as to have fcarcely any parallel.’---Even in Ma-
deira---where, according to Dr. Heberden, only .. part
of all the inhabitants die annually,---it is faid they do not
double their number in lefs than eighty-four years.

To affift us in forming a fatisfactory judgment, refpect-
ing the probabilities of the duration of life, in this coun-
try---a confideration intimately connected, in the prefent
enquiry, with the caufes of the quick progrefs of its po-
pulation,--~it becomes neceflary to examine into the} lon-
gevity of the inhabitants.---Having noticed, in the pre-
ceding part of thefe obfervations, that nearly one half of
the people, in the Northern and middle ftates of the union,
are under fixteen years of age—although Dr. Halley
{tates, that,in Europe, the proportion of fuch is only one-
third----the inference, neceflarily refulting from thefe
facts, is---either, that the probability of the continuance
of life is greater here than in Europe, between the birth
and fixteen years of age, out of equal numbers born; or,
if the probabilities are equal, prior to that period of life,
inthe two countries ref{pectively—that the proportion of
births to the number of inhabitants, here, exceeds that in
Europe ;---or, on the other hand, that the probabilities of
life are lower in this country, fubfequent to that period.

F;,2 From

* Obfervations concerning the increafe of mankind, peopling of countries, Xc.

¢ ‘* Thofe inhabitants of Pennfylvania, who have acquired the arts of conforming to the
ehanges of our weather, in drefs, diet, and manners, efcape moft of thofe acute difeafes, which
are occafioned by the fenfible qualities of the air: and faithful enquiries and obfervations have
proved, that they attain to as great ages, as the fame number of people in any part of the
world.”’----Dr. Ruth’s account of the climate of Pennfylvania, &c.

A4 OBSERVATIONS on THE

From circumftances which have been already ftated, it is
evident the proportion of births, to the exifting number
of the whole people, is greater here than in Europe: but
it is not probable that this excefs is greater than in the pro-
portion of one-half to’ oiie-thirds—I prefume it is rather
lefs.---If, however, this'excefsS be in the ratio of three to
two, the-chances. of lite from the birth to fixteen ‘will, in
this cafe, be the famein both countries. On this fuppo=
fition, then, the probabilities in. favor of the continuance
of life afrer fixteen, through all the fubfequent ftages of
its poflible exiftence, muft be higher here than in Europe:
becaufe, as I have fhewn, only one in forty-five die an-
fually, even in: the’ city” of. Philadelphia ; > whereas, in
France; the proportion 18 one if ake e piiey in En=
sland, one in’ thirty-three. ° cits
In addition to what has been faid, refpeéting the longe=
vity of the inhabitants of Connedticut, and of Hingham
and Ipfwich-Hamlet in Maffachufetts, I fhall meatiol 2
few remarkable inftances of longevity, which have occurred
in other parts of the union--They are not adduced as being,
of themfelves, proofs of American” longevity; but rather
to evidence its reality, in fuch cafes as ferve to corrobo-
rate the truth of the pofition, that the people of this coun-
try are long-lived.---The inftances are the following.---Iit
the year 1765, a Mr. ‘Temple died in the county. of Wor
cefter, Maflachufetts, aged ‘eighty- -{ix years--He left eight
children, four fons ‘and ‘four daughters, all of whom were
living in September 1788; and their ages were as follow,
Viz. 89,853 '83,°8r; 793°775 75;'and 73. “‘fohn: Sydenham
(commonly éatled Sidman) was living near Mount Holly,
in the ftate of New-Jerfey, on the oh of November-1788:
he was then 106 years and three months old—This man
was born near Exeter; in England; but was brought to
America, when only eighteen months of age.—Edward
Drinker was born in Philadelphia, December 24th, 1680,
and

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 45

and died November r7th, 1782.—Mr. Hooton, a native
of the city of New-York, was living laft fummer (and [
believe is fill alive,) in the diftri@ of Southwark; aged, ab
that time, upwards of 107 :years.—In'the bill of mortali-
ty for Chrift church and St. Peter’s, in this city, in the
year 1775, Lobferve the death of one perfon, aged P20
years. The Pennfylvania Mercury of the 1% of March,
1788, has, republithed from a Wilmington paper under
the date of February 27th, the names: of fifty perfons
then living, in Anameflex and Pocomoke: Hundreds, So=
merfet county, in the ftate of Maryland,--all of great ages:
of thefe, twenty-three were upwards of ninety years of
age; fixteen, upwards of eighty-feven ; and eleven, aged
eighty-five. In the year 1775, Mrs. Lear died at Porte
mouth, New-Hampfhire, at the age of 103 years. Inthe
fame year, Mrs. Abigail Mayo died at Cambridve, Mafla-
chuffetts, aged 106 years. And Mr.. William Ward, a
native of Fairfield, in. Conneicut,-died in the fate of
New-York, allo in the year 1775, aged 105 years, four
months andtwenty days. LRA ay) i
On the 2oth of Sept. 1788, died at his featin Albemarle
country, Virg. Daniel Maupin, who was born on the 25th
of March, 1700. At the time of his death; there. were ]j-
ving, of his offspring, upwards of 200 perfons, including
fome of the fifth generation. His wife was then alive and
in good health; and it was not known that:any female of
Her generation, after attaining tothe years of a woman,
died under the age of eighty-five: years.---About three
years fince, Arthur Bibbington died at Wyndham in Con-
necticut, aged 107 years:+--And, about the fame time
Mrs. Jane Brafher died in the city of New-York, at the
age of a 102 years.---Timothy Matlack, Ef. clerk of the
Senate of Pennfylvania, has favored me with a communi-
cation of the following facts, tranfcribed from a note made
by him, about twenty-four years fince—Upon reading a
7 paragraph:

46 OBSERVATIONS on THE

paragraph in a Philadelphia paper, republifhed from an
Englifl paper, mentioning that five brothers, the fons of
one mother, had met, whofe ages, added together, amount-
ed to 311 years,—his mother (a widow) obferved, that
fhe had five brothers and fifters, then living—the children
of one man and one woman, whofe ages, added to her own
amounted to upwards of 400 years—He alfo mentions,
that there were then living, of the brothers and fifters of
his father, fix perfons—the children of one man and one
woman,—whole ages added together amounted to 426
years; allof whom were born in weft New-Jerfey---At
the fame time, his wife obferved, that her father had fix
brothers and fifters---the children of one manandone wo-
man,---all born in Pennfylvania and then living,~-whofe
ages added together, including his own, amounts to 470.
To thefe circumftances, his mother added, that fhe and her
two fifters had borne thirty-feven children; of whom thir-
ty were then living,---and the youngeft of them, feven-
teen years old. Hence it appears, that the mean age of
thefe nineteen perfons---who may be confidered as of one
family---exceeded fixty-eight years. Mr. Matlack adds,
that he is not certain whether any of his father’s brothers
be now living; although fome of them were alive, within
a few years paft: But, that the laft of his mother’s fifters
died four years fince, and the laft of his wife’s uncles di-
ed within a few months paft.*

But

Additional Infiances of Longevity, in America.

* On the ath of February, 1787, died in Pennfylvania, in the ro3d year of his age, Jacob
Wifmer, a native of Germany. In on Anne’sreign, he emigrated to N. Carolina, where
he lived ten years; after which he fettled in Bucks county in Pennfylvania, where he marri-
ed his third wife, with whom he had 170 children, grand-children and great grand-children ;
and left his widow, about 84 years old.—He muft have refided in America, at deaf 72 years.

Zachariah, regent of the Mohegan tribe of Indians, died inhis Wigwam, in Pomichang
near Norwich, in Connecticut, in the 100 year of his age—in the year 1787.

Mrs. Hannah Flagg, died at Bofton, at the age of 102 years—in the year 1787.

Dr. Bernard Vanlear died in Delaware county, Pennfylvania, in the 104th year of his age—
in the year 1790.

At Exeter in New-Hamphhire, in 1790, Mr. Thomas Hayley,—aged Ior years.

At Southborough in Maffachufetts, ina 790, Mrs, Newton,—aged 106 years—Her mother
lived 113 years, and her filter x02 years. At

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 47

But numerous and remarkable inftances of American
longevity are, by no means, confined to the Northern and
middfe siates. On the authority of two gentlemen of re-
fpetability and obfervation one from Virginia—and the ¢
other from North-Carolina,---I am warranted in faying,
fuch inftances occur in thofe ftates,as induce a belief,
that their climates are favorable to along duration of hu-

man

At Thomfon in Connecticut, in 1790, Mr. Henry Elthorp—aged 105 years.

At Albany, in the ftate of New-York, in 1790, Mr. Abraham Vanverts,—aged 124 years.

At Eaft-Haddon, in Maflachufetts, in 1790, Mr. Weeks Williams,—aged 100 years.

At Windham in Connecticut, in 1788, Mr. Arthur Ribbins—aged 110 years and ten
months.

At Chefterfield in Virginia, in 1788, Danie] Nunally—aged 105 years.

At Wilmington in the ftate of Delaware, in 1789, Mr. Chriftopher Hendrickfon,—aged
upwards of 100 years---He wasone of the firft Swedith fettlers on the Delaware.

At Northampton in Maffachufetts, in 1788, Mr. Jofiah Clark--aged 92 years. He was the
youngeft of rr children (fix fons and five daughters,) three of whom lived to be above 90,
four above 80, and three above 70 years ofage. From the fix fons, only, have defcended 1158
children, grand-children and great-grand children; 925 whom are now living.

At Dover in New-Hampfhire, Mrs. Margant Wight, in 1787---aged 102 years.

In Berks county, Pennfylvania, in 1789, Jofeph Mountz,---aged 100 years.

At New-London, Connecticut, in 1789, Mrs. Dowfett,---aged 102 years.

In the city of New-York, in 1789, Mrs, Elizabeth Lynch,---aged 104 years.

At Great Barrington, in Mafiachufetts, in 1789, Mrs. Chapman,---aged 101 years.

In South-Carolina, not long fince, Mrs. Dedcot,---aged upwards of 100 years; Mrs, Maffey,
aged ro2; and Mrs. Maffey’s nurfe, aged 115 years.

I am indebted to Jonathan Williams, jun. Efq. one of the Secretaries of the A. P. 8. for the
following inftances of American Longevity, which he was fo obliging as to tranfmit to me,
from Richmond in Virginia, in June lait viz.

Abraham Eades, now living in Albemarle county Virginia, is 110 ycars old.---His wife died
at 100, and they were married 80 years.

A man of thename of Ige, Monongalia county Virginia, is now living---106 years old.

A Mr. Crafton, King and Queen county Virginia, is 1¢4 years old, now living.

John Dance, of Chefterfield county Virginia died at 125 years eld. He began to cut teeth
before his death.

$ Dr. Williamfon. This Gentleman has given me permiffion to make ufe of ibe following letter, on this
ocea/ion.
SIR,

It is not poffible to give a general rule which fhall apply te che feveral parts of North-Caro-
Jina, in anfwer te your queitions concerning the] duration of human life in that ftate. In theeaft-
ern part of the ftate, within fifty or fixty miles of the fea, where the country. is flat and there
are many marshes, the inhabitants are much afflicted during the fummer and autumn by inter-
mitting and other bilious fevers. During the winter, as the coldisfeldom intenfe and by no means
con{tant or certain, the inhabitants in general are not fufficiently careful to defend themfelves
againft the cold: hence many, inthe vigor of life, menefpecially, are cut off ina few days
by pleuritic or other inflammatory fevers. Such isthe ftate of the fluids in thofe who have been
reduced by intermittents during the autumn, that they feldom refift inflammatory fevers.
‘Time and obfervation will doubtlefs teach the inhabitants, by keeping themfelves dry and
warm, to prevent what they cannet readily cure. There are inftances neverthelefs of a con-
fiderable degree of old age, in that very climate. In the weftern parts of North-Carolina, to-
wards the mountain, the inhabitants enjoy a great degree of health. Many of them have ve-
ry numerous families and attain to old age. As that country was long the refidence of a mae
ternal ancestor, I have probably been more attentive to the progrefs of population there. be

6

48 OBSERVATIONS own THE

man life. The fame may be obferved, with refpec& to +
South-Carolina and Georgia, in which ftates the climate
is falubrious; although low, flat parts of the country,
and tuch as lie in the vicinity of the rice and indigo {wamps,
as well as the bad quality of the water in fuch fituations,
render fome parts of thofe countries unhealthy.—Even in
Faft-Florida (if Captain Bernard Romans is to be credit-
ed), the climate is very healthful—St. Auguftine, the

, capital

We have fome reafon for believing, that on the weft fide of the Apellachian mountain, in the
territory ceded by North-Carolina, the period of human life may be extended to what would
be called a great length in any part of the world. 4

In that country, there are few marfhes or ponds.of ftagnant water. The foil is dry, and lime
ftone abounds every where: the water is confequently very good.

In or near the latitude of 36 degrees, we are neither to expect the extremes of heat nor cold;
but we have noted caufesin this very latitude, which are very injurious to health : thefe caufes
however do not exilt in the country of which lam fpeaking. ‘The Apellachian mountain efle@tu-
ally proteéis the inhabitants from the moift and cold -eafterly winds with which we are afflitted
in the Atlantic ftates; and the North-Weft wind, in fuch a latitude, at fucha diftance from the
ocean and on the weft fide of thofe great mountains, haslittle of that piercing quality by which
it is diftinguifhed in this part of the world. From the.circumftances mentioned you would in-
fer, and experience fupports the inference, that the inhabitants of that country are neither af-
flicted with intermitting fevers, inflammatory fevers, confumptions, nor other difeafes, which
are ulually induced by heat and moifture or by afudden check to the perfpiration. As no part
of that country has been fettled much more than twenty years, we are not to expect many in-
{tances of extreme old age, among the inhabitants; but appearances are in favour of long life.
In the year 1789, Jonathan Tipton died, in Wafhington County near Halfton River, aged ros
years: he had lived there 20 years. Benjamin Cobb, Val. Sevier, and others, have been mention-
ed to me, as perfons now living in that country, above 99 years old, who enjoy perfe& health;
and ride about, as ufual, in purfuit of bufineis or amufement.

Tam Sir,
With the utmoft refpe&
Your obedient Servant,
Philadelphia, 17th March, 1791. HV. WILLIAMSON,

+ The author of a work, entitled—** An hiftorical account of the rife and progrefs of the
Colonies of South-Carolina and Georgia” (printed in London, in 1779,) obferves,
that in South-Carolina, in the months of July, Auguit and September, the heat inthe fhaded
air, from noon tothree o'clock, is often between 90° and 100°: but, that fuch extreme heat is of
fort curation. He fays, he has feen the mercury, in Fahrenheit’s Theremometer, rife in the
frade to 96° in the hotteft, and fall to 16° in the cooleft feafon of the year; and that others have
obferved it as high as reo? and as low as To°--He obferves that the mean diurnal heat of the dif-
ferent feafors, in South-Carolina, basheen, upon the moft careful obfervation, fixed at 64° in
{pring, 79° infummer, 72° in autumn, end 52° in winter; and the mean nocturnal heat, in
thofe feafons, at 56° in fpring, 75° in fummer, 68° in autumn, and 46° in winter: The mean
temperature of the air is, therefore, in South-Carolina, (at leaft, in the leyel and maritime
parts of the ftate) 64°, which is 11° lefs than whet Dr. Ruth mentions to be the ftandard tem-
perature of the air, in the city of Philadelphia, viz. 52°3-——*‘ Jt has been obferved (fays the
author of the hiflory of Czroiina, &c.) that, in proportion as the lands have been cleared and
improved, and fcope given for a more free circulation of air, the climate /has hkewife become

more

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 49

capital of that province, is, in his opinion, as healthy a
fpot as any on the continent. He afferts, that the Spanifh
inhabitants lived here to a great age; and that the people
of the Havanna confidered it as their Montpelier, fre-
quenting it for the fake of health.---According to Captain
Romans, the climate of Weft-Florida agrees, in every re-
fpect, with that in the Northern divifion of Eaft-Florida ;
excepting that the winters are fomewhat more fevere, in
the former---He fays there were fuch inftances of longe-
vity in Weft-Florida, as were not to be outdone in any
part of America. Yet circumftances, fimilar to thofe
which render particular /twations, in fome of our Southern
ftates, unfavorable to health,---produce fimilar effets in
fome parts of thefe two provinces; though in a greater
degree. Clavigero (in his hiftory of Mexico) afferts that
Calmecahua, one of the Tlafcalan captains who aflifted
VOL. III. G the

more falubrious and pleafant. This change was more remarkable in the heart of the country,
than in the maritime parts, where the beft plantations of rice are, and where water is carefully
preferved to overflow the fields: yet even in thofe places, cultivation has been attended with falu-
tary effects---tzme and experience had now taught the planters, that, during the autumnal
months, their living among the lowrice plantations fubjected them to many diforders, from
which the inhabitants of the casita! were entirely exempt: ‘This induced the richer part to
retreat to Tow, during this unhealthy feafon. Governor Ellis has mentioned that, on the 7th
of July, while he was writing in his piazza, in Savanna, the Mercury ftood at 102° in the
fhade ; that it had twice rifento that height, during the fummer, feveral times to 100° and,
for many days together, to 93°; and inthe night, it did not fink below 89°. He had the
fame thermometer with him, in the equatorial parts of Africa, in Jamaica, and in the Lew-
ard iflands: yet itappears, that he never found it fo high in thofe places ;---its general ftation
was between 79° and 86°. Heacknowledges, however, that he felt thofe degrees of heat, in
a moift air, more difagreeable than at Savanna, when the themometer ftcod at 84° in his cellar,
at 102° in the ftory above it, and in the upper ftory of his houfe, at ro5°.—And he afferts,
that few peopledied at Savanna, out of the ordinary courfe; though many were working in
the open air, expofed to the fun during this extreme heat, (Sce notes to the tables, N°. 11.)
The town of Savanna being fituated ona fandy eminence, greatly increafes the heat’ of that
fpot: But the climate of Georgia, in general, like that of South-Carolina, is more mild and
temperate in the inland, than in the maritime parts. And the late Dr. Moultrie,—who re-
fided, and practifed phyfic with great reputation, in South-Carolina, fifty years—was of opie
nion, that Charlefton is as healthy a fpot, as any upon carth.—A writer, ima late Charlefton

aper—who fubfcribes the fignature H. L. and dates from St. Johns, Berkeley, (fuppofed to
ie Henry Laurens, Efq.) fays he has frequently heard Dr. Moultrie declare that opinion : and
this writer gives the names of fifteen perfons, who had died in South-Carolina, within a fhort
time paft, whofe ages average 83% each:—three of the fifteen averaged 105% years, each.
He mentions, alfo, thata great number of other inftances might be adduced, of perfons who
within his own memory, lived to the like great ages;—feveral, upwards of roo years.

On the whole, it is evident—that, in South-Carolina and Georgia, the flat, marfhy parte
of the country,. and the artificial fwamps which the culture of Rice and Indigo render necefla«
ry,—are, only, unhealthful: but that high, airy anddry fituations, in thofe ftates, experi-
ence no fuch effect, from the Aeat of the climate.

50 OBSERVATIONS on THE

the Spaniards, in the conqueft of Mexico, lived 130 years.
He alfo makes mention of a Jefuit, who died in that coun-
try at the age of 132; and of a Francifcan, who died in
Somberete, aged 117, making preachings to the people,
until the laft month of his lite. ‘* We could (fays this
author) make a long catalogue of thofe, who, in the two
centuries paft, have exceeded one hundred ycars of life,
in thefe countries :=--particularly among the Indians, there
are not a few, who reach go and roo years; preferving,
to old age, their ‘hair- black, their teeth firm, and their
countenance frefh.”—-Don Ulloa (in his Noticias Ameti+
canas) fays, that, in general, the American Indians live
to a great age.---This longevity, attended in general with
uninterrupted health, is thought, by fome writers, to be the
confequence in part of their vacancy from ferious thought
and employment, joined alfo with the robuft texture and
conformation of their bodily organs. If, continues this
writer, the Indians did not deftroy one another, in their
almoft perpetual wars-- and if their habits of intoxication
were not fo univerfal and incurable, they would. be, of all
the races of men who inhabit the globe, the moft likely:
to extend, not only the bounds, but the enjoyments of ani-
mal life, to their utmoft duration.

In the courfe of thefe obfervations, I have endeavoured
to fhew---and, I flatter myfelf, not altogether without fuc—
cefs,---that the probabilities of life, zz all its fages, from
its commencement to the utmoft poflible verge of its du-
ration, are higher in thefe United States, than in fuch Eu-
ropean countries, as are efteemed the moft favorable to life.
And, if this pofition be well founded, it follows---that the
bodily conftitutions of the American people are proporti-
onably healthful. For, although it may be deemed pro-
blematical by fome, whether an extraordinary degree of
vigor, in the fyftem of the human body, affords a greater
probability of attaining to extreme old age, than, ceterzs

paribus,

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. gt

paribus, is annexed toa more delicate frame ;---yet it will
not admit of a doubt, that a great portion of vital energy
and ftrength muft neceflarily exift, where the probabilities
of life are high throughout all its periods---from the birth,

until the ufual term of its duration be compleated. >
The climate of much the greater portion of the United
States furnithes great degrees of * heat and cold, in their
refpeCtive feafons; but neither of the extremes is of long
continuance. Our climate is alfo very ¢ variable, the tem-
perature of the atmofphere being liable to great and fud-
den viciffitudes. Neverthelefs, taking the whole rontine
of the feafons; we enjoy a larze proportion of fine and
moderate weather; with more days of{ fun-fhine and
ferene {ky, than, perhaps, any part of Europe exhibits,
A very confiderable part of * France experiences greater
Gre extremes

* Dr. Rufh has noticed—in his account of the climate of Pennfylvania---that ‘the greateft
degree of heat upon record, in Philadelphia, is 95°: but the obfervations made at Spring-
mill (13 miles from Philadelphia, in lat. 40°. 9’,) fhew---thatithe Mercury rofe to 96°, at
that place, on the 34 of July, 1787; yet the mean degree of heat, during that day, was only
$5° 6-10.----See Columbian Mag. for Auguft 1787. .

+, Dr. Ruth.--in his account of the climate of Pennfylvania---has cited the authority of Dr.
Hiuxam, to thew---that the healthieft feafons in Great-Britain have often been accompanied by
the moft variable weather. And Dr. T, Bond---in his oration before the Philofophical fociety,
in 1782---remarks, that ‘‘ we live in a healthy, though the moft variable and adtive climate,
‘in the univerfe’’---‘* Hiftery (he obferves, further) and the firft fettlers of this country agree,
that the native Indians of North-America were found, by the Europeans, to bea ftout, hardy,
brave, virtuous, héalthy, and remarkably long-lived people.” After other obfervations on
this fubje@t, the Doctor continues thus---‘¢ I am fenfible this opinion, of the advantages re-
dulting from a changeable atmofphere, is counter to the common notions of mankind :---it is
neverthelefs true, and adopted by the beft writers ;---and not only confirmed by meteorological
and morbid regifters, and the general laws of creation; but will further fand the teft of hif-
torical enquiry.”

¢ ‘* The month of May, 1786, willlong beremembered, for having furnifhed a very un-
soramon inftance of the abfence of the fun for fourteen days, and of conftant damp or rainy
weather.’’---Dr. Rufh’s account of, &c.

* Mr, Jefferfon (in his notes on Virginia) makesmention, that, ‘at Williamfburg, in
Auguft 1766, the mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer was at 98° correfponding with 294
of Reaumur---At the fame place, in January 1780, it was at 6° correfponding with 114 be-
low 0, of Reaumur. At Paris, in 1753, the mercury in Reaumur’s thermometer was at 304
above 03 and, in 1776, it was at 16 below o:---the extremitics of heat and cold, therefore,
at Paris, are greater than at Williamfburgywhich is the hotteft part of Virginia.”’---Captain
Romans fays---that, in Eaft-Florida, on fome fultry-hot days in July and Auguft, he has
known the mercury rife to 94° of Fahrenheit’s feale : but that, during the fummer, the gene-
ral height of theymercury wasbetween 84°, and 88°, when the thermometer was placed in the
fhade, acceflible to a free circulation of the air.---At the Norriton obfervatory (in lat. 40°,
g/. 31”, and about twenty miles Weftward from Philadelphia,) the mercury in Fahrenheit’s
thermometer---not expofed to the fun fhine, but open to the air---was at 94%, on the sth ot
July, 1769; which was the greateit height it had ever been obfervedto rife to, at that ph

(trons

52 OBSERVATIONS on THE

extremes of heat and cold, than the United States in gene-
ral: yet we find that country to be more favorable to fe-
cundity and life, than England, where the fummers
and winters are }lefs intemperate. And in the Swifs Can-
tons and Sweden, where the frequent and fudden changes,
in the temperature of the atmofphere, are very fimilar to
the viciflitudes which prevail in our own climate,—the na-
tives are a hardy, vigorous and healthful people. Accord-
ing to M.Catteau, in his general view of Sweden, the win-
ters in that country are long, dry and extremely cold;
the fummers fhort, and exceedingly hot; and the inha-
bitants experience a rapid change from the former of thefe
feafons to the latter, {prig and autumn being almoft un-
known to them. The pure and fharp air which the Swedes
breathe (this writer further obferves,) renders them vigo-
rous, and preferves them from epidemical difeafes: and
he refers to a memoir publifhed by M. Wargentin, to
fhew, that there are numerous inftances of their attaining
toa very great age. The

(From a letter dated July 26, 1769, from Mr. Rittenhonfe, to the late Rev. Mr. Barton--penes
W. Barton.)—Dr. Rufh, in his account of the climate of Pennfyivania, obferves—that the
mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer ftood at 95°. onthe 15thof Auguit 1779, at Philadel-
phia, (which is the higheft degree to which it has ever been known to rife in this city;) and
that it fluctuated between 93°. and 80°. for many weeks. ‘The Dotor fays it ftood, for feve-
ral hours, at 5°. below o, in January 1780, at Philadelphia; and, during the whole of that
month, excepting one day, it never rofe to the freezing point, in the city.---It appears by
Mr. Wigglefworth’s thermometrical obfervations --(publifhed in the memoirs of the Bofton
Academy, for the year 1783,) that, at Cambridge in Maffachuffetts, in Auguft, 1780, the
mercury was at 92°. of Fahrenheit’s fcale,

+ I have faid ‘* ef intemperate”---The climate of England is, by no means, a temperate
one. That country not only experiences great extremes of heat and cold; but the weather is
remarkably variable and inconftant, with very frequent rains: ‘The tranfitions from heat to
cold, and from moifture to drynefs---and vice verfa---are fudden, and confiderable in their
degree. On the 18th of June 1788, the mercury, by Fahrenheit’s fcale, was at 88°. in Lon-
don; and, onthe 3othand 31ft days of December, in the fame year, it fell to 44 at the city
of Canterbury---On the sth of January following, the mercury was at 54 at the !atter place.
The weather was very fevere, in England, from the 2rft of December 1788, to the rith of
January 1 789; during which term, the mercury roft twice to 44%. and once to 45°. Even at
Sienna in Italy---in lat. 43%. 10/---during the fame interval of time, the mercury fell, on the
31ft of December 1788, to 10°; and, on the 11th of January following, it rofe to 53°.---=
The obfervations at Canterbury and Vienna, were taken from two Sixian thermometers.
(See Gent. Mag. for February and May, 1789.)---Ialfo find, that, on the 21ft and 22d days
of laft June, the mercury was at 86°. in London, by Fahrenheit’s thermométer : and an En-
glith gentleman affures me, he has knowna froft happen, in England, in the laft weekin Ju-
ly---Dr. Ruth, in his account of the climate of Pennfylvania, mentions Mr. Rittenhoufe’s hav-
ing informed him, that he had never paffed a fummer, during his refidence in the country,
without difcovering froft in every month of the year, excepting Fuly.

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 53

The winters, in our own country, { brace and invigo-
rate the bodies of the people: and the genial warmth of
our fummers increafes the* generative principle of animal
nature :—the cold is accompanied with a pure andf elaftic
atmofphere ; and, during the continuance of the greateft
heats, the air is frequently { corrected by thunder-gufts
and plentiful fhowers of refrefhing rain.—The face of the
country, too, is of fuch a nature, as muft contribute to the
falubrity of the climate—The United States are, in gene-
ral, diverfified with hills and vallies, mountains and
plains: and Ariftotle obferves, that people do not feel
the effedts of age {fo foon, inhilly, as in flat countries.

What has been premifed, concerning the longevity of
the inhabitants of thefe ftates, will, I prefume, be an am-
ple refutation of thofe writers, who, influenced by Euro-
pean prejudices, or confidering the fubje&t in a fuperficial
manner, have aflerted, that the Americans are not fo long-
lived as the Europeans.

On the whole I truft, that the points, which it was m
principal defign to afcertain, have been fatisfactorily efta-
blithed. With a view, however, to a further illuftration of
this interefling fubje&, I have formed the tables (which
are annexed hereto,) fhewing the numbers dying annually

out

¢ Zimmerman, treating of the effeds of a cold climate, fays--- “ Frigoris igitur perennitas,
et artus, et integra corpora, comprimendo corroborat, efficitque ut naturam longé firmiorem,
valentioremque induant.”’---Zool. Geograph.

* Froma table of the baptifms, marriagesand deaths, at Paris, from 1745 to 1766 (both
inclufive,) the Count de Buifon has fhewn,---that the months in which the greateft number of
children were born, are March, January and February; and that thofe in which the feweft
were born, are June, December and November: from which circumftance, he infers---that,
in the climate of France, the heat of Summer contributes to the fuccefs of generation.---(Sup-
plement to his nat hift.) :

+ ‘The air in Pennfylvania, when dry, has a peculiar elafticity, which renders -the heat
and cold lefs infupportable than the fame degrees of both are, in moifter climates. It is only
in thofe cafes when {ummer-fhowers are‘not fucceeded by North-Weft winds, that the heat of
the air becomes oppreflive and diftrefiing, from being combined with moifture.”” Dr. Ruth’s
account of, &c.

¢ ‘* Theheat of Summer feldom continues more than two or three days, without being fuc-
ceeded by fhowersof rain, accompanied fometimes with thunder and lightning, and afterwards
with a North- Weft wind,---which produces a coolnefs in the air that is high!y invigorating and
agreeable” ‘* There are feldom more than three or four nights, in ajummer, in which
the heat of the air is nearly the fame asin the preceding day. After the warmeit days, the
evenings are generally agreeable, and often delightful.”---Dr. Rufh’s account of the climate
ef Pennfylvania.

s4 OBSERVATIONS on roe” «= 4

out of 1000 perfons, in the city of Philadelphia, and the
town of Salem in Maflachufetts, at eleven different peri-
ods of life. The table for Philadelphia, (No. 1.) 1s con-
ftructed from the bills of mortality for the congregations
of Chrift-church and St, Peter’s in this city, fort twenty-
two years; viz. from Chriftmas 1754, to Chrifimas 1790,
exclufive of fourteen years during that term. And the
table (No. 2.) is formed from the bills for the fame con-
gregations, for the years 1782, 1788, 1789 and 1790:
from which it will appear, that, although one-eighth of
the whole number, in the bill for 1782, are {tated to have
died of the {mall-pox, the mortality has been lefs, taking
the medium of thefe four late years, that the medium of
eighteen preceding years gives it—The table for Salem,
in Maflachufletts, is formed from the bills of mortality,
for that town, for the years 1782, 1783, 1788 and 1790:
But I have before obferved, that the years 1782 and 1783
were unufually fickly; and this circumftance has, no doubt,
exhibited the probabilities of life too low, for that town;
efpecially, as I find the bill for 1788 makes the probabilities
confiderably higher, than the average of thofe four years.
I have alfo given a general table of the probabilities of life,
at the fame periods of its duration,—formed from the efti-
mates of the Count de Buffon ;—one for thecity of Paris,
alfo from the eftimates of that celebrated author ;---and,
likewife, tables for fundry other cities and places; which
I havetaken from thofe fubjoined to Dr. Price’s eflay on
the expectations of lives, and adaptedtothe fame feale and
the fame periods of life, as the others.—Belides thefe, I
have ftated the proportions dying, annually, out of the
whole number of the living, in a variety of places ;—and

the

+ 1 was favored with thefe bills by Michael Hillegas, Efq.---The earlieft is from Chriftmas
1754 to Chriftmas 1755; andthe lateft is for the laft year, ending at Chriftmas. Mr. Hil-
Jegas furnifhed me with two others, viz. for the years 1756 and 1759; making, in the whole,
twenty-four years: but, as there appears to have been a very extraordinary degree of mortality,
among children under three yearsof age, during thofe years,---I left them out of my calcula-
tions. ‘The bills for twelve other years, between 1755 and 1790, could.not be obtained.

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 55

the proportions of thofe who die, after compleating the
Soth year of their age, out of 1000 annual deaths,---for
various cities, towns and countries.---A comparifon of the
refults of thefe feveral tables, furnifhes very interefting
conclufions, in regard to the fubje& of the foregoing ob-
fervations.

Although, in treating this fubject, I have protracted
my obfervations to a greater length than I had defigned,—
I cannot conclude without remarking, that the refult of
this inveftigation has afforded me great pleafure.—- Mutt
not the mind of every American citizen be imprefled with
gratitude, and glow with emotions of a virtuous pride,
when he refle&s on the bleflings his country enjoys? Let
him contemplate the prefent condition of the United
States,—enjoying every advantage which nature can be-
ftow—inhabited by more than three millions of the free-
eft people on earth—and poflefiing an extent of territory
amply fufficient to maintain, for ages to come, many ad-
ditional millions of freemen, which the progreffion of its
population is fupplying, with wonderful celerity;—let
him, alfo, contraft this fituation of his country, with the
condition in which it was found by our anceftors, fearcely
two centuries ag0;—and it will be impoffible for him not
to experience, in an exalted degree, thofe fenfations, which:
patriotifm and. benevolence ever infpire!———

I am, Dear Sir,
With great Refpea,
Your affetionate Nephew,,.

W. BA.R-T.O N..
Philadelphia, March:

17th, 1791.
TABLES,

56

OBSERVATIONS on tHe.

‘TABLES, thewing the Probabilities of the Duration of Human Life, from the Birth up to
ninety years of age---for divers intermediate Periods of Life;---at the City of Philadelphia,
and at the Town of Salem in Maffachufetts; and alfo in feveral parts of Europe. ————=

GENERAL Table of the Probabilities of
Life, from the Calculations of M. Buffon.

Periods of
Life.

Between the
Birth and 3
3 and 5
5 and Io
Io and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
40 and 50
50 and 60
60 and 70
70 and 80
80 and go

Perions hiv-

ing.

1,000

J59t
540
499°
45°
39%
323
252
180
101

27-63
3-54

Decreaie of

Life.

N®, 2. (a) Puirapeeuia, for 1782,
1788, 1789 and 1790.

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
g3and 5
5 and 10
ro and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
49 and 50
soand 60
60 and 70
70 and 80
80 and 90

Perfonsliv-

ing.

1,000

Decreafe of

Life.

39

Satem (in Maffachufetts,) for 1790.

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
gand 5
5 and Io
Ioand 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
4o and 50
scand 60
6o0and 70
70 and 80
80 and go

(d)

Perfonsliv-

ing.

¥,000

559

Decreafe
Life.

of |
}

=

¥

N°, 1, Poitaperrnia, for twenty-two

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
3and 5
5 and 10
ro and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
40 and 50
soand 60
60 and 70
70 and 80
80 and 90

Years.

Perfonsliv-

ing.

1,000

—_——_- —_——

Decreafe of
Life.

14.39

Satem (in Daffachufetts) for 1782,
(b ) 1733, 1789 and 1790.

Periods of
Life.

Between the
Birthand 3
3 and 5
sand 10
Io and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
4oand 50
50 and 60
60 and 70
7© and 80
80 and 90

Perfonsliv-
ing.

1,000

Decreaie of
Life.

Paris, From the Calculations of

M. Buffon. (¢)

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
3and 5
5 and Io
Io and 20
20 and 30
30 and 4o
40 and 50
s5oand 60
60 and 70
70 and 80
80 and go

Perions liv-
ing.
_

I,000

_—

Decreaie of
Life.

DURATION of HUMAN LIEE.

Periods of
Life.

Between the
Birth and 3
3 and 5
5 and ro
Io and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
40 and 50
50 and 60
60 and 70
70 and 80
80 and go

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
gand 5
5 and 10
toand 20

30 and 4o
4o and 50
soand 60
60 and -70
»oand 80
$0 and 90

20 and 30 :

Perfons liv-

ing.

VIENNA.

Perfonsliv-

Lonpown; from the calculations of
M. Buffon, (e¢)

Decreafe of
Life.

Decreafe of
Life.

Lonpon; from the calculations of

Periods of
Life.

Betweenthe
Birth and 3
3 and 5
5 and 10
10 and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
40 and 50
soand 60
60 and 70
70 and 80

80 and go |

Periods of
Life,

Betweenthe

Birth and 3
3and 5
5and 10

Io and 20
20 and 30
30 and 40
40and 50
50 and 60
60 and 7o
yoand 80
80 and 90

Dir, Price,

Perfonsliv~
ing.

Perfonsliv-
ing.

1,000

57

Decreafe of
Life,

BReEsLaw in Siesta, from the Calcn-
lationsof Dr. Halley.

Decreafe of
Life.

Norwics, G. Britain. |

I
Decreafe of |

NorTHAMPTON, G. BRITAIN.

H

Periods of | Perfonsliv- Periods of Perfons liv- | Decreafe of
Life. ing. Life. Life. ing. Life.
1,000 aT Te ae I,000 ee
Between the — | Betweenthe | ——___—
Birth and 3 544 456 Birth and 3 585 AIS
gand 5 49 46 gand 5 544 “at
5 and Io 440 58 5 and Io 496 48
Io and 20 394 46 zioand 20 448 48
20 and 30 341 53 20 and 30 379 69
30 and 40 290 St goand4o | 318 65
4oand 50 233 57 40 and 50 247 a1
50and 60 168 65 5o0and 60 177 40
6oand 70 94 74 60 and 70 107 70
40 and 80 31 63! zoand 80 40 67
80 and go 4.22 26.478 80 and 90 3.48 36.52
PaRisz

OBSERVATIONS on THE

38

ora Saree oc eee 5 Ran TERR RE

965 ‘op § Japun t ‘
gS ‘op € gopun typrugag “yt Aq ward syftq ay) wosy “NITHAg
£gE ‘op § s9pun
ieee ‘op § aapun ‘sreak PS jo umipowe uo ‘WVHONIPY
rQt ‘op = § z9pun
ae ‘sreak § aopan t sieak of Jo UINIpow ve uO ‘LATNVEY HOLASay
‘syzv9q .

a= uprog jo Ay19 ayy roy pite “oyey ourey 9) UT ‘wey surpy
Ssqqagoeyeyy Ut apap Yraydy 30) ---‘{yoarjgodjaa “savak § pur £ yo sadeoqi Jopun ‘ooo! t yo Jno syIeaqT 2Y9 Jo Jaquinyy

tv £ 06 pur og Iv s o6 pur cg £3 , 06 pue og
cr AN ty og pur of ca ov og pue od 1g 06 0g pur of
git 99t of pure og grt got of pue o9 7OL xlt of pur o9
26 ZQet 09 pue of Lit bie og pue os 0g £L% 9 pue of
gf re o§ pure oF SL 1th of pure oF el ese of pur oF
+s atv oF pue of LS gos ob pue of og gcv ob pur of
Iv 984 of pur 0% ly £9S of pur 0% 6s ogt of pur 0%
os Les O% pue oF |! £v org ov pur Or by sys ov put OL
$9 Lea or pue S$ fj gv €S9 or pue § of 695° OI pue £
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€1f 439 £ pure yqwig Sz St € pur yg £9% LiL £ pur wig
Stated dy} uaaA\jzOg |) aen-—ee | BY} UODMIIT ay} WIM
en--- | O00%t — 000‘ coor _|
“ORT “Bur ‘IIT *oIVT “Sut ‘VT ary “Sur ‘aU

jo ayeasracy | -ary suojiag | Jo sporting | Jo ayrasracy | “Ary suojszed | JO sported JO ayeasraq | ~aty suojtay | JO Sported
TS — : .
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“puryiszyimg ur ‘anVvA 3d SIvq *ureig -3eaIH ‘sjor-A[OPy JO ASTuVG

DURATION; op HUMAN LIFE. 59

The numbers of thofe who die, after compleating their 8oth year of age---proportioned to
- the whole numbers of Annual Deaths;---at the following places, refpeCtively ; - viz.

—aeaeaEaEaeaaCooaaaanaqaoa0nnnnaqoaq@®«®q®«q08sSS

Names of the Places,

Proportions, out of 1000
deaths.

1. Ipfwich-hamlet, Maffachufetts ro years,

2. Parifh of Holy-Crofs, Great Britain,

3. Hingham, Maffachufetts—54 years,

4. Connecticut—the whole ftate,

5. Milford, Connecticut--12 years,

6. Europe, averaged, according to Mr. Kerfseboom,
7. The Pais de Vaud, in Switzerland,

8. A country parifh in Brandenburg,

g. Northampton, Great Britain,

10. Breflaw, according to Dr. Halley,

11. Paris, deducting children fent to the country; M. Buffon,
12. Norwich, Great Britain,

13. According to M. Buffon’s general table,

14. Berlin,

15. Salem, Maffachufetts—1788, 1790,

16. Philadelphia---1782, 1788, 1789, 1799,

“ London---according to M. Buffon, See note (jJ
hy Do. according to Dr. Price,
18, Edinburgh, do.

Ig. Vienna,

128 furvive 80 years.
90. 91
75+ 47

The proportions which the numbers of annual deaths bear to the whole numbers of the
living---at the following places, refpectively; viz.

- The Ifland of Madeira---

Salem, in Maffachufetts--- (/f)
Philadelphia---The city and fuburbs,
. Acountry parifh in Brandenburgh,

. The Pais de Vaud,

1098 Country parifhes in Germany,

. The kingdom of Sweden,

- Montbard, in Burgundy--- /g)
France,

zo. England,

OO An aw DH

11. ‘The parifh of Holy-Crofs, near Shrewfbury, Great Britain,

12. Paris.
13. The Dukedom of Wurtemberg,
14. Savanna, in Georgia---(h)
15. Breflaw,
16. Berlin, (7)
17. Northampton, Great Britain,
18 London, (j/
oF do. according to Dr. Price,
Edinburgh---(Z)
19. } do. according to Dr. Price,
do. according to Mr. Maitland,
20. Amifterdam,
21. Rome,
22. Dublin,

23. Leeds, in Yorkfhire, Great Britain, (/)

H 2

x! ‘to’ 50
I te 47
Ete” ORS:
a to 4§
I to 45
2 Sto 45
1 to 38. 60
a totreG
¥ to °35
BE Ato-4G
¥ ta "33
Ztail) B25" 56
I to “32
EF! €0* 31.-70
I to 28
I to 26:50
Ente 20.- 59
§ ¥ “to °26
a teeigo? 45
t Vto °°26
} 1 .to 20. 80
I’ to 28°
I*to 24
a tO. 2
tio. 22
% to. 4re. 6o

60

OBSERVATIONS on rue

The proportionate numbers of Annual Deaths, to reg Annual Births; at the following

places, refpectively ;—viz.

Names of the Places.

t. Salem, in Maffachufetts, for 1782 and 1783—including the

ftill-borm in the number of deaths,

- Hingham, in Maflachufetts, for 54 years,
. Philadelphia---City and’ fuburbs,

« The Ifland of Madeira,

2

3

4. The kingdom of Pruflia, for 4 years, ending in 1718,
yf !

6

. Allthe king of Pruffia’s dominions in Germany, &c. exclu-

five of Pruffia; 4 years, as above,

- The kingdom of Pruflia, in 1766,

. Sweden, for 1774, 1775, 1776.and 1777,

. France, from 1754 to 1763,

. England,

. City of Brunfwick, in Germany---1764 and 1767,

. The Iland of Corfica,

- Manchefter, in Great Britain---1764, 1766, 1768, 1771,

and 1777,

- Dantzic---1717, 1718, 1720 and 1721,

. Koning{berg---1766, 1768,

+ Duchies of Holftein and Slefwic---1765, 1767,

. Whitby, in Yorkfhire, Great Britain---1767, 1768, 1772

and 1777,
Norwich, Great Britain---1768, 1774 and 1777,

» Denmark and Norway, in 1764 and 1765; and do. includ-

ing the Danith dominions in Germany, in 1766,

. Paris---14 years, viz. from 177% to 1784.---M. de la Place, |

Do.---22 years, viz. from 1745 to 1766..--M. de Buffon,

. City of York andfuburbs, Great Britain---1768, 1770,
-. Paris, 1784, and 1782, M. de la Place,
- Do. according to M. de Buffon,

Do, according to Dr. Price’s ftatement of the numbers
of births and deaths, there,

. Copenhagen---1765, 1766, 1767, 1771, and 1772,

City of Freyberg, in Saxony---for a whole century, ending
int717,

. Paris---from 1764 to 1773, both inclufive, and 1775, 1778, |

according to Mr. Anderfon,

. Chefter, Great Britain---4 years;
. Liverpool, Great Britain---5 years,

Norwich, Great Britain---30 years,
Breflaw, in Silefia,

33. Vienna,

. Copenhagen,

Northampton, Great Britain,
London---26 years.---From the bills of births and deaths,
during that term,

. Berlin---5 years, ending in 1759,

Rome,

. Amfterdam,

do. fron. 1764 to ¥768, both inclufive, and 0771, 177%,

[r 100 Birth

s] N°. of Deatha,

DURATION or HUMAN LIFE. 6r

fa y as Out of 193 deaths, in the congregations of Chrift-church and St. Peter’s, from Chrift-
mas 1781 to Chriltmas 1782,---24 died of the fmall pox, 21 of purging and vomiting, and 27
of fits andconvulfions. ‘The average. number of deaths, in the fame congregations---during
the ‘years 1788, 1759 and 1790---is only 145; and not quite 145. 7-8, during the, 22 years,
from which the table for Philadelphia N°. 1 is formed--'The deaths, therefore, in 1782, exceed-
ed the average number of thofe for the 22 years, in the proportion of £36 to 109: and, con-
fequently, the year 1782 was unufally fickly in Philadelphia, as wellas at Salem in Maflachu-
fetts. Inthe year 1789, alfo (viz. from Chriftmas 1788 torChriftmas 1789,) out of 164 per-
fons, who died in the congregations of Chrift-church and St. Peter’s, 29 died of the meailes.
From thefe circumitances, it is reafonable to fuppofe---that even the /econdtable for Philadelphia
gives the probabilities of life too low, for this city; becaufe, out of the four years above menti-
ened, one was more fickly than common; and, during another, near one eighth of the deaths
from which that table is formed, were occafioned by a diforder not annually epidemic.----In
the year 1782, there died between the age of 80 and go years, out of 198,---3 perfons; in 1788,
outot 126,---1; in 1789, out of 164,----3; and in £790, outof 145,---5; being, in the whole,
12 out of 633: and this gives the proportion of 6 perfons, out of 1000, attaining to go years of
age.

(6) The meafles having been very mortal at Salem, in 1783,---that year has been omit-
ted, in calculating the proportion of deaths, for the firft twenty years of the ages. AOR

(¢) ‘The number of deaths at Salem, exclufive of the fill-born, during the years 1782,
1783, 178y---av-raged 1674 per annum; and the number of thofe who died between Soand
go years of age, during the fame term, averaged 4 per annum---This gives the proportion of
thofe dying, between the 80th and goth year of life, in that town, as 23. 88 out ef 1000 deaths.
‘The biils for 1782 and 1783 do not notice any deaths, afler 90 years of age, and this is alfo the
cafe; with the bill for 1789 : but, in the two former, the lifts of ages comprehend 36 deaths
of “ages unknown,” and, inthe year 1790, three furvived go'years of age. See the tabis
for Salem, for the year 1790.

(¢) Out of 191 deaths, from which this table is found, two were between the age of go
and 109 years, and I at 103 years. . 3

fe) According to M. Buffon, the proportion of deaths, at Paris, in the two firt years of
life, is 313, 21 out of 10003 and, at London, 334..59, out of tooo. The number of deaths, “he
obferves, is greater at Paris than.in London, from two years of age to five; lefs at Paris than
at London, between § and 50 years ;- pretty nearly equal, in both cities, between 50 and 60;
and much greater at Paris than at Londen, from the both year of age to the end of life --'This
fhews, continues M. Buffon, that o/d age is, in general, much lefsin London than in Paris?
for, out of 1000 perfons,) 222 died after compleating their Goth year, at Paris ; whereas, only
138, out of rooo, died after that age, at London.--The continual fupply of peopie, moftly from
about twenty years of age and: upwards, which great cities draw from the country, gives the
proportion of thofe who die at o// age, in fuch cities, much higher than the number of thofe
born in them would give. Hence the favorable appearance, with relpect to longevity, which
many great cities exhibit, is cxtremely fallacious: and this obfervation is particularly applica-
ble to London, where the continual diminution of the number of its inhabitants, occafioned by
the great excels of deaths beyond the births, renders fuch fupplies neceflary, to fupport its po-
pulation. $ eae sre ae

(f) The ftill born are included, in the number of deaths. ; “

(g)- This town contains, according to M. de Buffon, 2337 inhabitants. | _

(b) From the rit of July, 1790, to the rft of fuly, 1791, the number of deaths at Sayan-
na, was inthe proportion of one out of every 31 7-10 of the total number of white inhabitants
(exclufive of Mariners and Sojourners) in that city. It appears by the cenfus, that, in Janu-
ary 1797, Savanna contained 1712 white inhabitants--- j ;

(i) Berlin contains, according to Dr. Price, 134,000 inhabitants, if

(j) Dr, Price fuppofes the p-oportion of annual deaths to the whole number of the living in
Edinburgh, to be nearly the jame as in London---I have therefore given the proportion of ons
to twenty-fix, for both cities; and my reafons for affuming ‘bis proportion---which differs
confiderably from that ftatec by Dr. Price---willappear, in the courfe of the foregoing obfer-

tions.---
v2 (4) By the London Bill of Mortality, made up from the 16th of Dee. 1788, to the 1sth
Dec. 1789, it appears---that, in the 123 parifhes in London and Weitmintter, and the 23
Out-parifbes in Middlefex and Surry, 20,749 perfons were buried within the year. Of this
number, thofe who died after compleating the feveral periods of age, after mentioned, give
the following proportions, viz. \ ;

{4) This town contained, in the year 1770,---16,330 inhabitants, Out

62 OBSERVATIONS on THE

Out of 1,000 deaths, there dicd---upwards of 100 years of age. 0. 48
Do. 90 3. 66
Do. 80 23. 66
Do, 40 76. 34
Do. 60 146. 46
Do. 50 227. 7%

Do. 40 31% 95
Thefe proportions correfpond fo nearly with thofe given by M. Buffon, in his eflimate of
the probabilities of life, for London, as to inducea belief, thatthe calculations of that cele=
brated Philofopher may be depended upon, in this inftance,

Sieeeemememepensiemnenemnemtmmmnentemmmmmntensin OsTo* WETTRICTUOTCS S55 aT ae eS

N°. VIII.

Extract of a Letter from Andrew Elhcott, to Davip
RitteENHOUSE, E/q.dated at Pitt/burg, November 5th
1737, containing obfervations made at Lake-Erie.

Read Nov. N the thirteenth of laft month, while we lay
Breas on the banks of Lake-Erie, we had an
opportunity of viewing that fingular phenomenon, by Sea-
men termed looming. It was preceded by a fine Auro-
ra-borealis, on the evening of the 12th the 13th was
cloudy; but without rain: about ten o‘clock in the morn-
ing, as I was walking on the beach, I difcovered fome-
thing that had the appearance of land, in the direction of
Prefque-Ifle; about noon it became more confpicuous and;
when vieweft by a good Achromatic-Telefcope, the branches
of the trees could be plainly difcovered krom 3 o‘clock
in the afternoon, till dark, the whole Peninfula was con-
fiderably elevated above the horizon, and viewed by all
our company with admiration. There was a fingular
appearance attending this Phenomenon, which I do not
remember to have feen taken noticeof by any writer—
The Penin{fula was frequently feen double, or rather two
fimilar Peninfula’s, one above the other, with an appears
ance of water between:—the feparation, and coincidence
was very frequent, and not unlike that obferved in fhifting
the index of an adjufted Godfrey’s quadrant. As fingu-

lar

OBSERVED at LAKE-ERIE., 63

Jar as this may appear, it is not more fo than the double
refraction produced by the Ice-Land cry{tal—The next
morning Prefque-Ifle was again invifible, and remained fo
during our ftay at that pofition. Prefque-lle was about
twenty-five miles diftant, its fituation very low.

‘The fame evening the wind began to blow brifkly from
about two points weft of North, and continued to increafe
till the evening of the 14th, when it was more violent than
any thing of the kind I had ever been witnefs to before,
and continued till the evening of the 16th without the
leaft intermiffion—Our tents were all blown down, and
we were under the neceflity of fortifying our camp, by
driving pofts near to each other, firmly into the ground on
the windward fide, and filling up the vacuities with bufh-
es in form of an hedge.---Duriny the continuance of this
wind, we frequently obferved fmall black clouds hanging
over the lake ;---they had but little velocity, and were
fometimes exhaufted, and difappeared without reaching
the thore.

From the large bodies of timber blown down about the
Jakes, it appears that hurricanes are not uncommon;
Coxe obferves in his travelsthrouch Rufiia, that the lakes
in that country are fubje@t to terrible ftorms..

*

Wo. IX,

(64) >
———
ss a Set

An account of the Sugar Maple-tree of the Vaited States, and
of the methods of obtainag Sugar from tt, together wilh
obfervations upon the advantages both public and private
of this Sugar. Ina letter ig Tuomas JEFFERSON,
Eq. Secretary of the United States, and one of the V 1Cé
Prefidents of the American P hilofophical Society by BEN-
ymin Rusu, M.D. Profeffor of the Inflitutes and of
Clinical Medicine in the Univerfity of P ennfy/vania.

DEAR SIR,

Read Aug. WB N obedience to your requeft, I have fet down
hg io to communicate to our Society through the me-
dium of a letter to you, a fhort account of the Sugar Ma-
ple-tree of the United States, together with fuch fa&ts and
remarks as I have been able to collet, upon the methods
of obtaining Sugar from it, and uponthe advantages both
public and private, of this Sugar.

The Acer Sacharinum of Linnzus or the Sugar Maple-
tree grows in great quantities in the weftern countries of
allthe middle ftates of the American Union, Thofe which
prow in New-York, and Pennfylvania yicld the Sugar ig
a greater quantity than thofe which grow on the waters
of the Ohio.—Thefe trees are generally found mixed with
the Beach, (a) Hemlock, (b) white and water ath, (c) the
Cucumber tree, (d) Linden, (e) Afpen(f) Butter nut, (g)
and wild cherry trees.(h) ‘They fometimes appear in
groves covering five or fix acres in a body, but they are
more commonly interfperfed with fome or all of the foreft
trees which have been mentioned. From 30 to so treesare

generally
(a) Fagus Ferruginea. (b) Pinus abies. (c) Fraxinus Americana. (d) Magnolia acu-

minata. (e) Vilia Americana. (f) Populus tremula, (g) Juglans alba (oblonga.) (hy
Pruaus Virginiana, of Linnzus.

SUGAR MAPLE TREE 6s

generally found upon anacreof ground. They grow chiefly
in the richeft foils, and frequently in ftony ground. Springs
of the pureft water abound in their neighbourhood. They
are when fully grownas tall as the whiteand black oaks, and
from two to three feet in-diameter, * They put forth a
beautiful white bloflom in the {pring before they fhow a fin-
gle leaf. The colour of the bloffom diftinguifhes them from
the acer rubrum, or the common maple which affords a
blofiom ofa red colour.. The wood of the Sugar Maple-
tree is of an inflammable ‘nature, and is preferred upon
that account by hunters and furveyors for fire wood. Its
{mall branches are fo much impregnated with fugaras to
afford fupport to the cattle--horfes, and fheep of the firft
fettlers during the winter, before they are able to culti-
vate forage for that purpofe. Its afhes afford a great
quantity of pot ath exceeded by few or perhaps by none
of the trees that grow in the woods of the United States.

The tree is fuppofed to arrive at its full growth in the
woods in twenty years.

It is not injured by tapping; on the contrary, the often-
€r itis tapped, the more fyrup is obtained from it. In this
refpect it follows the law of animal fecretion. A fingle
tree has not only furvived, but flourifhed after forty-two
tappings inthe fame number of years. The effets of a
yearly difcharge of fap from the tree in improving and in-
creafing the fap is demonftrated from the fuperior excel-
lence of thofe trees which have been perforated in an hun-
dred places, by a {mall wood-pecker which feeds upon the
fap. The trees after having been wounded in this way
diftil the remains of their juice on the ground, and after-
ward acquire a black colour. The fap of thefé trees is much
{weeter to the tafte than that which is obtained from trees
VOL. Ul. I which

* Baron LaHonten, in his voyage to North America gives the following account of the Ma-
pletree in Canada. After defcribing the black Cherry tree fome of which he fays areas tall
as the loftictt oaks and asbig as a hogfhead, he adds ‘* The Maple tree is much of the fame

Beight and bulk. 1 bears no re{embiance to that fort we have in Europe.”

66 ' AN YTACCOUNTT Jor Tae

which have not been previoully wounded, andit affords
-more fugar, rnofks | ets: eal ite ois ot

Fromtwenty three gallons and:one quart of fap procu-
‘red in twenty bours from only two of thefe dark coloured
trees, Arthur Noble, Efq. ofthe ftate of New-York obtain-
ed four pounds and thirteen ounces of good grained fu-

ar. |
; A tree of an.ordinary fize yields in a good feafon from
twenty to thirty gallons of fap, from which are made
from five to fix pounds of fugar.. To this, there are fome-
times remarkable exceptions. Samuel Low, Efq.a Ju
tice of Peace in Montgomery County, inthe ftate of New-
York informed Arthur Noble, Efq.thathe had made twen-
ty pounds, and one ounce of fugar between the 14th and
23d of April in the year 1789.from a fingle tree that had
been tapped for teveral fucceflive years before. | |

From the influence which culture has upon foreft and
other trees, it has been fuppofed, that by tranfplanting
the Sugar Maple tree into a garden, or by deftroying fuch
other trees as fhelter it fromthe rays of the fun, the
quantity of the fap might be increafed and. its quality
much improved. I have heard of one fa& which favours
this opinion. A farmer in Northampton County in
the ftate of Pennfylvania, planted a number of thefe trees
above twenty years ago in his meadow, from three gal-
lons of the fap of which he obtains every year a pound of
fugar. It was obferved formerly that it required five or
fix gallons of the fap of the trees which grow in the
woods to produce the fame quantity of fugar.

The fap diftils from the wood of the tree. Trees which
have been cut down in the winter for the fupport of the
domettic animals of the new fettlers, yield aconfiderable
quantity of fap as foon as their trunks and limbs feel the

rays of the fun in the fpring of the year.

¢

It

SUGAR MAPLE TREE 67

It is in confequence of the fap of thefetrees being equal-
ly diffufed through every part of them, that they live
three years after they are girdled, that is, after a circular.
incifion is made through the bark into the fubftance of the’
tree for the purpofe of deftroying it. | one

It is remarkable that grafs thrives better under this tree
ina meadow, than in fituations expofed to the conftant
ation of the fun.

The feafon for tapping the trees is in February, March
and April according to the weather which occurs in thefe
months.

Warm days and frofly nights are moft favorable to a
plentiful difcharge of fap. *’The quantity obtained in aday
from a tree, is from five gallons to a pint, according to
the greater or lefsheat of the air. Mr. Low, informed
Arthur Noble, Efq. that he obtained near three and twen-
ty gallons of fap in one day (April 14, 1789,) from the
fincle tree which was before mentioned. Such inftances
of a profufion of fap in fingle trees are however not very
common. ; :

There is always a fufpenfion of the difcharge of fap in
the night if a froft fueceed a warm day. The perforation
in the tree is made with an ax or an auger. The latter is
preferred from experience of its advantages. The auger
is introduced ‘about 2 of an inch, and in an afcending
direGtion (that the fap may not be frozen in a flow current
in the mornings or evenings) and is afterwards deepened
gradually to the extent of two inches. A fpout is intro-
duced about half an inch into the hole, made by this aug-
er and projects from three to twelve inches from the tree.

| , T2 | The

* The influence of the weather in increafing and leffening the difcharge’ of the fap froma _
trees is very remarkable.

Dr. Tonge fuppofed long ago (Philofophical Tranfactions No. 68) that changes in
the weather of every kind might be better afcertained by the difcharge of fap from trees than
by weather glaffes. 1 have feen a journal of the effects of heat, cold, moifture, drought and

thynder upon the difcharges from the fugar trees, which difpofes me to admit Dr. TF. onge’s opie
nion.

63- ‘AN ACCOUNT of tur

The {pout is generally, made of the *Shumach or Tt Elder,
which generally growin the neighbourhood of the fugar
trees. The tree is farft tapped on the South fide; when the
difcharge. of its fap. begins to leflen, an opening is. made
on its North fide, from which an increafed difcharge takes
place. The fap flows from four to fix weeks, according
to the temperature of the weather. ‘Troughs large enough
to contain three or four gallons made of white pine, or
white- ath, or of dryed water-ath, .afpen,., linden; .t pop-
lar.or common maple,.are placed, under. the fpout, to re-..
ceive the fap, which is carried every day to a large receiv~
er, made of either of the trees before mentioned. From
this receiver itis conveyed, after being ftrained, to the boiler.

To preferve the fap from, rain and impurities of. all
kinds, it is a. good praCtice to cover. the troughs with-a
concave baard, witha hole inthe middle of it.

It remains yet to be determined whether. fome artificial
heat may not be applied fo as to increafe.the quantity and
improve the quality of the fap. Mr. Noble informed me,
that he faw a tree, under which a farmer had accidentally
burnt fome brufh, which dropped.athick-heavy fyrup. re-
fembling-Melafles. This fact may probably-lead to fome-
thing ufeful hereafter. mr 4

During the remaining part of the {pring months, as alfo
in the fummer, and in the beginning of autumn, the ma-
ple tree yields a thin fap, but not fit for the manufadtory
of fugar. It affords a pleafant drink in-harveft, and has
been ufed.inftead of rum; in fome inftances by thofe farm-
ers in Connecticut, whofe anceftors have left to them here,
and there, a fugar maple tree, (probably to fhade their cat-
tle,) in all their fields). Mr. Bruce defcribes a drink of the
fame kind, prepared by the inhabitants of Egypt, by in-
fufing the fugar cane in water, which he declares to be
“ the moft refrefhing drink in the world.”* =. There

* Rhus. + Sambucus canadenfis. } Liriodendrum Tolipifera.
* Baron La Hontan, gives the following account of the fap of the fugar maple tree, when.
ufed

SUGAR MAPLE TREE, 69

There are three methods of reducing the fap to fugar.
1. By freezing zt. This method has been tried for many
years, by Mr. Obediah Scott, afarmer in Luzerne county,
in this ftate, with great fuccefs. He fays that one half of
a given quantity of fap reduced in this way, is better than
one third of the fame quantity, reduced by boiling. If
the froft fhould not be intenfe enough, to reduce the {ap to
the graining point, it may afterwards be expofed to the
action of the-fire for that purpofe..

2. By fpontaneous evaporation. The hollow ftump of
a maple-{ugar tree, which had been cut down in the fpring,
and which was found fometime afterwards filled with fu-
gar, firft fuggefted this method. of obtaining fugar to our
farmers. So many circumftances of cold and dry weather,.
large and flat veffels, and above all fo much time are necef-
{ary to obtain fugar, by either of the above methods, that
the moft general method among our farmers is to obtain
it. 3. by doling. For this purpofe the following faats.
which have been. afcertained. by many experiments, deferve
attention.

1. Yhe fooner the: fap: is boiled, after it is colle@ed
from the tree, the better. It fhould never be kept longer
than twenty-four hours before it is put over the fire.

2. The larger the veflel in which the fap is boiled, the
more {ugar is obtained from it.

3. A copper veflel affords a fugar of a-fairer:colour than an:
iron veflel..

The
ufed as a drink, and of the manner of obtaining it. ‘** The tree yields a fap which has a much
pleafanter tafte than the beit lemonade or cherry water, and makes the wholefomeft drink in
the world. This liquor is drawn by cutting the tree two inches deep in the wood, the cut
being made floping to the length of ten or twelve inches, at the lower end of this gafha knife
is thruft into the tree flopingly, fo that the water runs along the cut or gafh, as through a
gutter and falls upon the knife, which has fome veffels placed underneath to receive it.
Some trees will yield five or fix bottles-of this water in a day, and fome inhabitants of Canada,
might draw twenty hogfheads of it in one day, if they -weuld thus cut and notch all the maple
trees of their refpective plantations. The gath does no harm to the tree. Of this fap they make
fwgar and iyrup; which is fo valuable that there can be no better remedy for fortifying the
ftomach, ‘tis but few of the inhabitants that have the patience to make them, for as common:

thingsare flighted, fo there are {carceany body but children that give themfelves the trouble-
of. gafhing thefe trees,”

70 AN ACCOUNT or tut

The fap flows into wooden troughs from which it
is carried and poured into ftore troughs or large cifterns
inthe fhape ofa canoe orlarge manger made of white afh,
linden, bafs wood, or white pine, from which it is conveyed to
the kettle in which it is to be boiled. Thefe cifterns as well
as the kettle are generally covered by a fhed to defend the
fapfrom therain. The fugar isimproved by ftraining the
fap through a blanket or cloth, either before or after itis
half boiled. ,Butter, hogs lard or tallow are added to the
{ap in the kett e to prevent its boiling over, and lime, eggs
or new-milk are mixed with it in ordertoclarify it. Ihave
feen clear fugar made without the addition of either of them.
A {poonfull of flacked lime, the white of one egg and a
pint of new-milk are the ufual proportions of thefe articles
which are mixed with fifteen gallons of fap. In fome
famples which [ have lately feen of maple-fugar clarified
with each of the above articles, that in which milk alone
was ufed, had an evident fuperiority in point of colour.

The fugar after being fufficiently boiled, is grained and
clayedand afterwards refined, or converted into loaf fugar.
The methods of conducting each of thefe proceffes is fo
nearly the fame with thofe which are ufed in the manu-
factory of Weft-India fugar, and are fo generally known,
that I need not fpendany time in defcribing them.

It has been a fubje& of inquiry whitherthe maple fugar
might not be improved in its quality and encreafed in its
quantity by the eftablifhment of boiling houfes in the fu-
gar maple country to be conduéted by affociated labor.
From the fcattered fituation of the trees, the difficulty of
carrying the fap to a great diflance, and from the many ex-
penfes which muftaccrue from fupporting labourers and
horfes in the woods in a feafon of the year in which nature
affords no fuftenance to man or beaft, I am difpofed to be-
lieve that the moft productive method both in quantity and
profit of obtaining this fugar will be by the labor of private

| families |

SUGAR MAPLE TREE, 71

“families. For a great number of years many hundred pri-
vate families in New-York and Pennfylvania have fuppli-

-ed themfelves plentifully with this fugar during the whole
year. I have heard of many families who have made from
two to four hundred pounds ina year; and of one man
who fold fix hundred pounds all made by his own hands
in one feafon.*

Not more knowledge is neceffary for making this fugar
than foap, cyder, beer, four trout, &c. and yet one or all
of thefe are made in moft of the farm houfes of the Unit-
ed States. The kettles and other utenfils of a farmer’s
kitchen, will ferve moft of the purpofes of making fugar,
and the time required for the labor, (if it deferves that
name) is at a feafon when it is impoflible for the farmer
to employ himfelf in any fpecies of agriculture. His wife
and all his children above ten years of age, moreover may
aflift him in this bufinefs, for the profit of the weakeft of
them is nearly equal to that of aman when hired for that
purpofe.

A comparative view of this fugar has been frequently
made with the fugar which is obtained from the Weft-In-
dia fugar cane, with refpe& to its quality price, and the
poflible or probable quantity that can be made of it in the
United States, each of which 1 fhall confider in order.

1. The quality of this fugar is neceflarily better than
that which is made in the Weft-Indies. It is prepared in
a feafon when not a fingle infec& exifts to feed upon it, or
to mix its excrements with it, and before a particle of duft
or of the pollen of plants can float in the air. The fameob-
fervation cannot be applied to the Weft-India fugar. The

infects

© The following receipt publifbed by William Cooper, Efy. inthe Albany Gazette fully Plablifbes this

Vege Cooper’s Town April 30th 1790, of William Cooper, fixteen pounds, for fix

hundred, and forty pounds of fugar made with my own ands, without any affiftance in lefs than

four weeks befides attending to the other bufinefs of my farm, as providing fire wood, taking
eare of the cattle, &c. John Nicholls. witnefs R. Smith.

A fingle family confifting of a man and his two fons on the maple fugar lands between the
Delawareand Sufquchannah made r8colb of maple fugar in one feafon,

72 AN ACCOUNT of Tue

infe&ts and worms which prey upon it, and of courfe mix
with it, compofe a page in a nomenclature of natural hif-
tory. I fhall fay nothing of the hands which are employ-
ed in making fugar in the Weft-Indies but, that men who
work for the exclufive benefit of others, are not under the
fame obligations to keep their perfons clean while they are
employed in this work, that men women and children
are, who work exclufively for the benefit of them/elves,
and who have been educated in the habits of cleanlinefs.
The fuperior purity of the maple fugar is farther proved
by its leaving a lefs fediment when diflolved in water than
the Weit-India fugar.

It has been fuppofed that the maple fugar is inferior to
the Weft-India fugar in frength. The experiments which
led to this opinion, I fufpe&t have been inaccurate, or have
been made with maple fugar, prepared in a flovenly man-
ner. Ihave examined equal quantities by weight of both
the grained and the loaf fugar, in hyfon tea, and in cof-
fee, made in every refpect equal by the minuteft circum-
ftances that could affect the quality or tafte of each of them,
and could perceive no inferiority in the ftrength of the
maple fugar. The liquors which decided this queftion
were examined at the fame time, by Alexander Hamilton,
Efq. Secretary of the treafury of the United States, Mr,
Henry Drinker, and feveral Ladies, who all concurred in
the above opinion.

2. Whoever confiders that the gift of the fugar maple
trees is from a benevolent Providence, that we have many
millions of acres in our country covered with them, that
the tree is improved by repeated tappings, and that the
fugar is obtained by the frugal labor of a farmer’s family,
and atythe fame time confiders the labor of cultivating the
fugar cane, the capitals funk in fugar works, the firft
coft of flaves and cattle, the expenfes of provifions for
both of them, and in fome inftances the additional Aer

)

SUGAR MAPLE TREE. 73

of conveying the fugar to a market, in all the Weft-India
Iflands, will not hefitate in believing that the maple fugar
may be manufactured much cheaper, and fold at a /e/s price
than that whichis made in the Weft-Indies.

3. The refources for making a fufficient quantity of
this fugar not only for the confumption of the United
States, but for exportation, will appear from the follow-
ing facts. There are in the {tates of New-York, and
Pennfylvania alone at leait ten millions of acres of land
which produce the fugar maple-tree, in the proportion of
thirty trees to one acre. ow fuppoling all the perfons
capable of labor in a family to confift of three, and
each perfon to attend 150 trees and eachtree to yield slb of
fugar in a feafon, the produc of the labor of 60,000 fami-
lies would be 135,000,000 pounds of fugar, and allow-
ing the inhabitants of the United States to compofe 600,000
families each of which confumed 200 pounds of fugar in
a year, the whole confumption would be 120,000,000
poundsina year, which would leave a balance of 1 5,000,009
pounds for exportation. Valuinz the fugar at .°, of
a dollar per pound thefum faved tothe United States would
be 8,000,000 dollars by home confumption and the fum
gained by exportation would be 1,000,000 dollars. The
only part of this calculation that will appear improbable
is, the number of families {uppofed to be employed in the
manufactory of the fugar, but the difficulty of admitting
this fuppofition will vanith vhen we contider, that double
that number of fanitlies are employed every year in mak-
ing cyder, thetrouble, rifks and expencesof which areal
much _reater than thofe of makiny maple jugar.

But the proiit of the Mapletree 1s not contined to its
fugar. It affords an agreeable Molailes, and an excellent
Vinegar. The fap which is fuitable for thefe parpofes is
obtained after the fap which a!fords the fugar has ceafed to
flow, io that the manufactories of thefe different products
of the maple tree, by /ucceeding, do not interfere with each
You. If, K other,

“4 JAN ACCOUNT or THE

other. The Molaffes may be made:to compofe the. bafis
ofa pleafantfummerbeer. The fap ofthe Maple ismoreover
capable of affording a fipirit, but, we hope this,.precious
juice will never be ptoftituted! by, ouncitizens to this izno-
ble purpofe. ; Should the ufe.of fugar in diet become more
general in our country, it may tend»to leffen the inclinati+
on or fuppofed neceflity for fpirits, for Lb have obferved a
relifh for fugar in diet to be feldom accompanied by a love
for ftrong drink. | Jt is the: fugar which. is mixed with;tea
which makes it fo generally ;diflagreeable. to drunkards;
But a dict confifting of a plentifulomixture.of .fugar. has
other advantages to recommend it which! hall briefly enu-

merate. | |
1. Sugar affords the greateft quantity of nourifhment
ina given quantity of matter of any fubflance in natures
of courfe it may be preferved in lefs room in our houfes,
and may be confumed in lefs time, than more bulky and
lefs nourifhing aliment, It has this peculiar advantage
over moft kinds of aliment, that it is not lable to have
its nutritious qualities affected by time or the weather;
hence it is preferred by the Indians in their excurfions from
home: ‘They mixa certain quantity of maple fugar, with
an equal quantity of Indian corn, dried and powdered, in
its milky ftate. This mixture is packed in little bafkets,
which are frequently wetted in travelling, without injuring
the fugar. A few fpoonfulls of it mixed with halt a pint
of {pring water, afford them a pleafant and flrengthening
meal. From the degrees of ftrength and nourifhment,
which are conveyed into animal bodies by a {mall bulk
of fugar, I conceive it might be given to horfes with great
advantage, when they are ufed in places or under circum-
ftances which make it difficult or expenfive to fupport
them, with more bulky or weighty aliment. A pound of
fugar with grafs or hay, | have been told, has fupported the
ftrength and fpirits of an horfe, during a whole day’s la-
| bor

SUGAR MAPLE FREE. 75

bor in one of the Wef-India Iflands. A larger quantity’
given alone, has fattened horfes and cattle, during the war
before laft in Hifpaniola, for a period’of feveral months,
in which the exportation of fugar, and the importation: of

grain, were prevented by the want of fhips. ~
2. The plentiful ufe of fugar in diet, ‘is one of the bef
preventatives that has ever been difcovered of the difeafes
which are produced by worms. Nature feems to have im-
planted a love for this'aliment’ in all children, as if it were
on purpofe to defend*them from thofe ‘difeafes... T know
a gentleman in Philadelphia, who early adopted this opi-
nion, and who by indulsing ‘a large family of children,
in the ufe of fugar, has preferved them. al! from the di-
feafes ufually occafioned by worms,” | |
+3. Sir John Pringle, has remarked that the plague has
never been’ known im any country where fagar compofes!
a material part of the diet of the inhabitants: “I think it
probable that the frequency of malignant’ fevers’ of -all
kinds has been leffened by this diet, and that its more ceneral
ufe-would defend that clals of people, who are moft fubje&
to malignant fevers from being fo often affe&ted by them:
4. In the numerous and frequent diforders ofthe bréaft,’
which oceur in all countries, where the body is expofed to
a variable temperature of weather, fugar affords the bafis
of many agreeable remedies. It is ufeful in’ weaknefles,’
and acrid defluxions upon other parts'of the body.» Many’
fa&ts might’ be ‘adduced ‘in favor of this affertion. | I fhall
mention only ‘one,’ which from the venerable name of the
perfon, whofe cafe furnifhed it, cannot fail of command-
ing attention and credit. Upon my inquiring of Dr.
Frankhn, at'the requeft of a friend, about a year before.
he died, whether he had found any relief from the pain of
the ftone, from the Blackberry.Jam,.of.which he tookJarge
quantities, he told me that‘he had, but’ that’ he believed
the medicinal part of the jam, refided'wholly in the fu-
| “yagi Nels wat cl ' gar,

'

76 AN ACCOUNT of rie

_gar, and asa reafon for thinking fo, he added, that he often
found the fame relief, by taking about half a pint of a fy-
rup, prepared by boiling a little brown fu.ar in) water,
juft before he went to bed, that he did from a dofe of opi-
um. It has been fuppofed by fome of the early phyficians
of our country, that the fugar obtained trom the maple
tree, is more medicinal, than that obtained from the Weit-
India fugar cane, but this opinion | believe is without foun-
dation. It is preferable in its qualities to the Weft-India:
fugar only fromits fuperior cleanline/s.

Cafes may occur in which fugar may be required in me-
dicine, or in diet, by perfons who refufe to be benefited,
even indireQly by the labor of flaves. In fuch cafes, the
innocent maple fugar will always be preferred.*

It has been faid, that fugar injures the teeth, but this o-
pinion now has {fo few advocates, that it does not deferve
a ferious refutation.

To tranfmit to future generations, all the advantages
which have been enumerated from the maple tree, it will
be neceflary to prote& it by law, or by a bounty upon the
maple fugar, from being deftroyed bythe fettlers in the ma-
ple country, or to tranfplant it from the woods, and cul-
tivate it in the old and improved parts of the United States.
An orchard confifting of 200 trees, planted upon a com-
mon farm, would yield more, than the fame number of
apple trees, at a diftance from a market town, A full
grown tree in the woods yields five pounds of fugar a year.
If a greater expofure of a tree to the action of the fun,
has the fame effeéts upon the maple, that it has upon other ©
trees, a larger quantity of fugar might reafonably be ex-

pected from each tree planted in an orchard. Allowing it
to.

* Dr. Knowles, a phyfician of worthy charaéter in London, had occafion to recommend
a diet to a patient, of which fugarcompofed a material part, His patient’ refufed to fabmit
to his prefcription, and gave as a reafon for it, that he had witneffed fo much of the oppreffion
and cruelty which were exercifed upon the flaves, who made the fugar, that he had made a
vow never to tafte the product of their mifery as long as he lived.

SUGAR MAPLE TREE 44

to be only feven pounds, then 200 trees will yield 1400
pounds of fugar, and dedu@ting 200from the quantity for the
confumption of the family, there will remain for fale 1200
pounds, whichat ,°, ofadol. per pound will yieldan annual
profitto the farmer of 80 dollars. But if it thould be found
that the fhade of the maple does not check the growth of
grain any more than it does of grafs, double or treble that
number of maple trees may be planted on every farm, and
a profit proportioned to the above calculation be derived
from them, Should this mode of tranfplanting the means
of obtaining fugar be fuccefsful, it will not be a new one.
The fugar cane of the Weft-Indies, was brought originally
from the Eaft-Indies, by the Portuguefe, and cultivated at
Madeira, from whence it was tranfplanted dire@tly or in-
directly, to all the fugar iflands of the Weft-Indies.

It were to be wifhed, that the fettlers upon the fugar
maple lands, would fpare the fugar tree in clearing their
lands. Ona farm of 200 acres of land, according to our
former calculation, there are ufually 6,000 maple trees.
If only 2,000 of thofe original and ancient inhabitants of
the woods were fuffered to remain, and each tree were to
afford only five pounds of fugar, the annual profit of fuch
a farm in fugar alone, at the price formerly mentioned,
would amount to 666 dollars, 150 dollars of which would
probably more than defray all the expences of making it,
and allow a plentiful deduGion for family ufe.

According to the ufual annual profit of a fugar maple
tree, each tree is worth to a farmer, two dollars and 2 of
a dollar, exclufive therefore of the value of his farm, the
2000 fugar maple trees alone confer a value upon it of
5333 dollars and 22 ofa dollar.

It is faid that the fugar trees when deprived of the thel-
ter and fupport they derive from other foreft trees are lia-
ble to be blown down, occafioned by their growing in a
rich, and of courfe a loofe foil, To obviate this, it will

only

“8 AN ACCOUNT of tHr~

only be neceflary to cut offfome of their branches fo as to’
alter its center of gravity, and to allow the high winds to
have an eafy paflage through them. Orchards of fugar ma-
ple trees, which grow with an original expofure of all their
parts to the a¢tion of the fun will not be liable to this in-
convenience.

In contemplating the prefent opening profpe&s in hu-
man affairs, Lam led to expeét that a material part of
the general happinefs which Heaven feems to have pre-
pared for mankind will be derived from the manufactory:
and general ufe of maple fugar, for the benefits which I
flatter myfelf are to refult from it will not be confined to
our own country. They will I hope extend themfelves to
the interefts of humanity in the Weft-Indies. With this
view of the fubje& of this letter, I cannot help contemplat-
ing a fugar maple tree with a fpecies of affection and
even veneration, for | have perfuaded myfelf to behold
in it the happy means of rendering the commerce and
flavery of our African brethren in the fugar Iflands as un-
neflary, as it has always been inhuman and unjuit.* |

I fhall conclude this letter by wifhing that the patronace
which you have afforded to the maple fugar as well as the:
maple tree, by your example } may produce an influence
in our country as extenfive as your reputation for ufeful
{cience and genuine patrioti{m. Vid. )

From Dear Sir your
- Sincere Friend and Obedient Servant,

BENJAMIN RUSH.

_* This letter was written befofe the a¢count. of the war- which has lately taken place in
Hifpaniola, between the white people and their flaves, /had reached the city of Philadelphia.*

-+ Mr. Jefferfon ufes no other fugar' in hisfamily than that which is obtained from the fugar
Maple sree. He has lately planted an orchard of maple trees on hisfarmin Virginia | - .

Pro,

SUGAR MAPLE TREE. 79

. P.S. Since writing the above letter, I have procured
through the friendthip of M. Henry Drinker a copy of
Mr. Botham’s account of the; method of manufacturing
Sugar inthe Eaft-Indies..It is extracted: from the report
“of the committe of the Britith privy Council for trade on
the fubject of the Slave trade. .1 fhall infert in this poft-
_cript only fuch parts of it as will throw light upon the me-
thed of manufacturing the maple fugar which has been
mentioned and to fhow. how much it is to be preferred in
point of ceconomy to that which is ufedin the Weft-In-
dies,

‘Extract from the report of the Committee of Privy Coun-
cil for trade on the Jubjedt of the African Slave trade,
oc. To the King, Part 3. No. 3. Mr. Botham on the
mode of cultivating afugar plantation in the Eaft-Indi-

oC. ) |

BS

= | been for two years in the Englith and
_ French Weft-Indian Iflands, and fince conducted

fugar eftates inthe Eaft-Indies; before the abolition of the
flave trade was agitated in parliament, it may be defirable
to know that fugar of a {uperior quality and inferior price,
to that in our Iflands, is produced in the Eaft-Indies;
that the culture of the cane, the manufacture of the fugar
and arrack, is with thefe material advantages, carried on
-by free people... China, Bengal, the coaft of Malabar, all
produce quantities of fugar and fpinits; but as the mof
confiderable growth of the cane is carried on near Batavia,
I fhall explain the improved manner in which fugar eftates
are there conducted. ‘The proprietor of the eftate is gen~
erally a wealthy Dutchman, who has ereéted on it fub-
ftantial mills, bailing and curing houfes. He rents this
eftate to a Chinefe, who refides on it as a fuperintendant;
and this renter (fuppofing the eftate to confift. of 300 or
more

80 AN ACCOUNT or tue

more acres) re-lets it to freemen in parcels of 50 or 60 on
thefe conditions.

That they fhall plant it in canes, and receive fo mucls
per pecul of 133!lbs. for every pecul of fugar that the
canes fhall produce.

When crop time comes on, the fuperindant collects a
fufficient number of perfons from the adjacent towns or
villages, and takes off his crop as follows.

Yo any fet of tradefmen who bring their carts and buf-
faloes he agrees to give fuch a price per pecul to cut all
his crop of canes, carry them to the mill and grind them.

A fecond to boil them per pecul.

A third to clay them and bafket them for market per

ecul.

- So that by this method of conducting a fugar eftate the
renter knows to a certainty what the produce of it will coft
him per pecul. He has not any permanent or unnecefla-
ry expence; for when the crop is taken off, the tafkmen
return to their feveral purfuits in the towns and villages
they came from; and there only remains thecane planters
who are preparing the next year’s crop. ‘This like all o-
ther complex arts by being divided into feveral branches,
renders the labour cheaper and the work more perfe@ly
done. Only clayed fugars are made at Batavia: thefe are in
quality equal to the beft fort from the Weft-Indies, and are
fold fo low from the fugar eftates as eighteen fhillings fterling
per pecul of 133i1bs. Thisis not the felling price tothe trader
at Batavia, as the "government there is arbitrary, and
fugar fubje&t to duties impofed at will. The Shabander
exacts a dollar per pecul on all fugar exported. The price
of common labor is from gd to 10 pence per day. By
the method of carrying on the fugar eftates, the tafkmen
gain confiderably more than this not only from working
extraordinary hours, but from being confidered artifts in
their feveral branches. They do not make fpirits on the

fugar

SUGAR MAPLE TREE. Sy

fugar eftates. The Melaffesis fent for fale to Batavia
where one diftillery may purchafe the produce of an hun-
dred eftates. Here is a vaft faving and reduGiion of the
price of {pirits; not as in the Weft-Indies, a diftillery, for
each eftate; many center in one; and arrack is fold at Ba~
tavia from 21 to 25 Rix dollars per Leaguer of 160 gal-
lons; fay 8d per gallon.

‘The improvement in making the cane into fugar at
Batavia keeps pace with that in its culture. Evaporation
being in proportion to the furface, their boilers are fet
with as much of it as poffible; the cane juice with temper
fufficient to throw up its impurities is boiled down to the
confiftence of a fyrup; it is then thrown up into vats cal-
culated to hold one boiling, then f{prinkled with two buck-
ets of water to fubfide its foul parts; after flanding fix
hours, it is-let off by three pegs of different heights into
a fingle copper with one fire. It is there tempered again
boiled up and reduced to fugar, by a gentle fire. It yra-
nulates, and the fugar boiler dipping a wand into the
copper ftrikes it on the fide, then drops the fugar remains
ing on it into acup of water, fcrapes it up with his thumb
nail, and is by this means able to judve to the utmoft ne=
ceffity of the fugar having its proper degree of boiling :
the vats or receivers I mentioned are placed at the left hand
of a fet of coppers; after running off for boiling all that
is clear, the remainder is paffed through a ftrainer, on the
outlide of the boiling houfe; what is fine is put into the
copper for fugar ; the lees are referved for diftilling.”

VOL. II, Ls No. X.

ue se ( Qo f} f ae.

N°. X.

MeEmoIR of JONATHAN WILLIAMS, on the ufe of the
Thermometer in difcovering Banks, Soundings, Gc.

Read Nov. ff HLAV E hitherto delayed making a public com-
ras munication of my fea journals, from an appre-
henfion of being thought too forward in calling the attenti-
on of the Philofophical Society to the fubje&t of them; but
being imprefled with a belief; that by noticing the changes
in the heat of the fea water, a navigator might ayare know
when he is in foundings, and thereby be able to efcape the
dangers ariling from unexpected currents, and erroneous
reckoning, I cannot think mytelf juftifiable in longer he=
fitating to fubmit my remarks to their learned and judici~
ous examination,

This fenfe of duty is ftrengthened by the recolleCtion of
many melancholy inflances;where mariners, in full confi-
dence of being);at a diftance from land, have, with
crouded fails, raalineds: on to defiruction; and f was once

within half an. hour’s time of being fifswrécked on, the

rocks of Scilly, dls, the return of day prefented to our
view the dreadful fate we had fo narrowly efcaped.

If it fhould be found that the ufe of the thermometer would
be an improvemeatin theart of navigation, I fhall be abun-
dantly. rewarded. by the refleGtion of having contributed to
the fervice of humanity, which is the common caufe of all
men. If it fhould, on the contrary, appear that Iam mif-
taken, either in the faéts or the conclufions deduced, I
truft that the defire of doing good, the only motive that
actuates me, will meet with indulgence from every can=
did mind.

In the months of Auguft aly: September, 1785. I was
a fellow paflenger with the late DoGtor Franklin from Eu-
rope to America, and made, under his direction, the ex-

periments

a. ”
MA ITIME OBSERVATIONS. 83

periments mentioned in his defcription of the courfe of
the gulph ftream, an account of which w as annexedto his
maritime obfervations, and publifhed in the. Philofophi-
cal Tranfactions Vol. Il. page 328, I then determined to
repeat theie experiments in my future voyages. Accordingly
on a paflage from Bofton to Virginia in OGober 178g, I
kept a journal of the heat of the air and water at funrife,
noon and funfet; I then noticed that the fea water out of
foundings was about ten degrees warmer than that on the
coait, and it very naturally occurred to me that the ther-
mometer might become an ufeful nautical inftrument to
indicate an-approach to the fhore. I thought it prudent,
however, to keep this idea to myfelf till after I had made
a courfe of fair and repeated experiments, which I ac-
cordingly did during four paflages, 1ft, the one from Bof-
ton to Virginia abovementioned, 2d from Virginia to
England, 3d, from England to Hallifax, and 4th, from
Hallitax to New-York. By confulting thefe journals and
the obfervations made at the dates written, to»ether with
thetracks of the fhip’s way marked on the chart annexed,
it will not only appear that Doctor Franklin’s account’ of
the warmth of the gulph ftream has been amply confirm-
ed, but alfo that banks, coalts, iflands of ice, and rocks
under water, may be difcovered when not vifible, and
when the weather is too boifterous to found, with no other
trouble than dipping the thermometer into the fea water.”
It is well known to failors, that the water on the banks of
Newfoundland is cold, but as they only try this, with
the hand, their remarks are contradictory owing to the
varicd temperature of the hand, and I never heard of any
further application of what they think merely a matter of cu-
riofity. Dod. Franklin’s obfervations had the knowledge of
currents fortheir object, and this extenfionof his difcovery
did not occur; butas I am indebted to his inftruGive con-
verfation and example, for my inducement to purfue

L 2 philofophical]

e om .
84 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. —

philofophical refearches when in my power to do fo, he
may be confidered as the original author of what is now
prefented for examination.

It will be proper to fufpend any conclufions till the
journals have been attentively confidered, butas a guide
to the object of them, it may not be amifs to ftate fuch

facts as it is prefumed the experiments have a tendency to
eftablifh.

1. The water over banks is much colder than the water
of the main ocean, and it is more cold in proportion as it’

is lefs deep.

2. The water over fmall banks is lefgs cold than that
over large ones. ie!

3. The water over banks that are near the coaft is war-

mer than that over banks far diftant, but it is colder than

the adjacent fea.

4. The water over banks of the coaft, z. e. thofe imme-

diately conneCted with the land above water, 1s warmer

than that over thofe which admit deep water between them

and the coaft; but ftill it is colder than the adjacent fea.
5. The water within capes and rivers does not follow

the above rules; itbeing lefs agitated, and more expofed’

to the heat of the fun, and to receive the heat from the cir-
cumjaccnt land, muft be colder or warmer than that in
foundings without, according to the feafons, and tempe-
rature of the atmofphere. !

6. The paflage, therefore#from deep to fhoal water may
be difcovered by a regular ule of the thermometer, before
a navigator can fee the land; but as the temperature is
relative, no particular degree can be afeertained as a rule,

and the judgement can only be guided by the difference.
Thus in Auguft I found the water off Cape Cod to be ie

by Fahrenheit, and at feait was 69°; in October the wa:
ter off Cape Cod was 48°, and at fea it was 59°. This

difference was equally.a guide in both cafes, though the
heat was different at different feafons. et

Ae face magic 84, F00..3-4 v= ea” of i

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wp. L- hel made rH ec Hencur, fom Lignan te Sy il

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Qvezec 4

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S\o 75 7\o 65 6lo ~ 35 310 AS Ala 35 3lo Ns ala 15 1\o : G ae

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 8%

I do not prefume to fay what is the caufe of this differ=
ence of heat between the fea and bank water, but if a na-
vigator were to obferve it when near an Ifland of ice, he
would very naturally fay that the ice condu&ted the heat
from the circumjacent water, and left it colder than that
ata diftance. And asit is well known that ftones and
fand are great conductors of heat, it feems probable that
banks alfoconduct the heat from the adjacent water, though
not fo rapidly as the ice. ‘The heat of the water may in-
deed be fuppofed to feek its equilibrium, but as long as
the Iflands of ice and banks continue to condu&, there
muft be fome difference, and thisit is, which, by attenti-
on, maybe made a faithful fentinel to give an alarm when
danger is near.

have thought it my duty to prefent my journals as they
were written at fea, to avoid the fufpicion of having added
any thing from the fuggeftions of the imagination. While
this will be received as a circumftance favourable to the
truth of them, I hope it will alfo operate as an apology
for their many imperfections.

The journal A. from Bofton to Virginia, fhows that the
water on the coaft of Maflachufetts, was at 48°; atfea be-
tween that coaft and the ftream, 59°; in the gulph ftream
at its edge, 67°; between that, and the coaft of Virginia
farther fouthward 64°; and in foundings on that coaft,
56°. At that feafon (in Oober, juft after the warm
weather) the water grew warmer as we approached the
land.

The journal B. from Virginia to England, fhows that
in December, the water in the coaft of Virginia, was at
- 47°53 between the coaft and the ftream, 60°; and in the
ftream, 70°. ‘This current being in our favour, we did
not avoid it, and the water continued with little variation,
till we came near the banks of Newfoundland, when the ther-
mometer fell from 66 to 54; pafling thefe, it rofe again

to

ae

=

86: MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.’

to Goo°, and then continueda very gradual defcent as we

went to the Northward, ’till we ftruck foundings, when it

was at 48°.

It may be here obferved, that the decreafe in the heat of;
the water was fo gradual as to give but one degree in a’
days run, while in going to, or coming from the coatt of.

America, the thermometer will alter 8 or 10 degrees in a
fewhoursrun. It is well known, by founding, that the
Englifh coaft extends with a very gradual defcent to a
greatdiftance. It is alfo known that the American coaft
does not extend very far, and the water is fuddenly deep.
Let thefe facts be compared with the changes in the ther-
mometer, on the two coafis, and they will agree with what
has been faid about the ufefulnefs of that inftrument.

It may be obferved in Doétor Franklin’s journal on board

of the Reprifal, that in November 1776, when near the-

banks of Newfoundland, his thermometer fell ten degrees,
thouh confiderably to the Southward of them, and after
paffing them, it rofe nearly to its former flate: the Do@or

did not make any obfervation on this circumflance;/ but it)

agrees ‘with my journal, innearly the fame, place made
nine years afterwards. .
The journal C. from England to Hallifax, fhows the

changes in the heat of the water as we failed over banks.
and deep water alternately, with an accuracy, that I con-:

fefs, exceeded my expetation, the land appearing as the
thermometer indicated:our approach to-it.

The journal D from Hallifax to New-York not only |

fhows the variety of depths we pafled over, but indicates

the inner edge of the gulph flream. . As by the thermo-’

meter and foundings it appeared to me that the fhip wasa

head of the reckoning, made allowances for the eddy cur-}

rent of that fiream in our favour, and comparing thefe
with the chart, I noted in the journal, the longitude IL

thought we were in, under that calculated by the thip’s
officers :

“MARITIME OBSERVATIONS, 87

‘officers: what encouraged this opinion, was the difagree-
-ment between the foundings by the lead, and thofe marked
onthe chart in the places where, by the common reckon-
ing, the fhip was fuppofed to be; while upon the other
-fuppofition they both agreed. When we made the land
this latter reckoning turned out accurate, and’ I won a
‘{mall bett of the Captain who' candidly acknowledged the ©
ufefulnefs of the thermometer, and declared that he would
in fature always have one on board.

Finding the coaft of America to grow fuddenly deep as:
it approaches the gulph ftream, and finding continued’
-foundings from Cape Sable’'to New-York, Iam induced
to believe that it has its fhape according to the courfe of
that current, and that it 1s connected ina: fweep from the
banks of Newfoundland to Florida, the various banks be-
tween being only eminences of the coaft. If my appre-
henfion of the accuracy of thermometrical obfervation is
well founded, it would bean eafy thing to make a gene-
ral furvey of the coaft under water, more particularly than.
has hitherto been, or could be done by founding.

On-the chart annexed the tracks-of my feéveral paflages
‘are marked with the daily heat of the water in degrees ac--
cording to Fahrenheit, by which the variations on the ap-
proach to land may be feen at one view. The edge of the:
gulph ftream is alf traced according to the: experiments
as far as the hanks of Newfoundland? how far it runs to
the eaftward Ido not pretend to fay;. but | having found a
current inthe natural direction of its {weepamong the weft-
ern iflands, I am inclined-tothink it extends fo far, before
it turns off to the fouthward. It may be obferved, howe-
ver, that as this ftream, like all other currents, muft be af
‘fected by tempetts on either fide; it may, as thefe prevail, run
fomewhat nearer or fomewhat farther diftant: from the
coaft.

88 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

Tn confirmation of what has been faid about the eddy
current of the gulph ftream, | have extrated from the
journal of an officer belonging to the Britith fhip of war
Liverpool, fome obfervations which defcribe this eddy on
both iides of the flream * two other extra&ts from the
fame journal } defcribe a current among the weftern Ifles,
which is perhaps the gulph ftream then turning to the
fouthward. ‘This journal was communicated to me by
Capt. Schuyler of the Britifh packet, on board of which
_ Imade my laft experiments and obfervations.

t In addition to my journals | have fubjoined an account
of fome experiments on fifh which fhow that theiranimal
heat was 16° degrees colder than the water atthe furface;
from which it may be fuppofed that the water at bottom is
in proportion colder than that above. It may be natur-
ally fuggefted, that trying the heat of the water atthe fur-
face, (the only way in one’s power when failing rapidly
through it,) is too inaccurate to be depended on, fince
the furface muft be heated by the atmofphere. To this it
may not be amifs to anfwer.—1. That by repeated expe-
riments at the depth of 30, 40, and 60 fathom I have
found the water below, out of foundings, to be no more
then fix degrees colder thanthat above; andat four or five
fathoms depth, when the fea was agitated, there was no
difference worthy notice. 2. When the fea is not agitat-
ed and the furface, by being expofed to a hot fun, is warm-
er, the weather being calm, it is eafy to have water from
a confiderable depth; this I have found to make a differ-
ence of one or two degrees only, and it is eafy to make
the allowance. 3. ‘Lhe difference of heat which marks an
approach to land is fufficiently fenfible at the furface for
the purpofe of giving notice of danger, I have generally
found it to be 6° in three hours run, andlong before we

were
“ Appendix N°. I.
+ Appendix N°. If and III.
$ Appendix, N®%. IV.

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 89

were near enough for to be in danger. Upon the whole,
as itis fact, and not argument which fhould infpire be-
lief, I with every doubting navigator to endeavour to
confute me by making other experiments, and thereby,
if he can, dete& the fallacy of mine.

JONATHAN WILLIAMS, Juv.

VOL. III, M Thefe

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

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B. <A thermometrical J

Nov. 30

Dec. 3.

ao

‘

MARITIME. OBSERVATIONS. gr

noon
fun fet
fun rife
noon
s0 Pye:
fun fet
noon
fun fet
fun rife
noon
fun fet
8 A.M.
fun fet
noon
fun rife
fun rife
noon
fun fet
noor
noon
fun rife
fun rife
noon
noon
fun rife
midnight
noon
noon
noon

Ey of
36 30

36 30
36 30

75° 43/

4I2

68 47
65 39

62 13

54 4
52 12

48 52
46 12

43 39
39 35
36 04

32 27
29 00
2I 02
13 54
Io 14

3 32

2 2%

Temperature of
Lat. iN. | Lon. Ww. { Air. | Water.

ournal of the temperature of the atmofphere, and the feavon v paflage
from Virginia to England, on board of the Brig Mercury,

Captain Thompfon, by J. W,

NoTes.

} | Places in at Noon. :

Nov. 30. Sailed this morning
from Hampton Road; at noon
Cape Henry bore Weft dift. 2
leagues.

Dec. x. Entered the Gulpk
Stream, at 10 P. M,

T fuppofe this coldnefs to be
owing to the Banks of New-
foundland, which are in this
Longitude.

Dec. 22. Since the 16th there
has been little or no alteratio
till te-day.

Dec. 25. At 8 P.M. founded
in 75 fathoms.

Dec. 27. At noon founded im
40 fathoms.

Dec. 28. At noonfaw Portland

92 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

C. A thermometrical Journal of the temperature of the atmofphere and the fea, on @
paffage from Falmouthin England, to Halifax in Nova-Scotia, on board of the Britith Packet
Chefterfield, Captain Schuyler, by J. W.

Piaces in at Noon. |’
Dates. . fp eebaeede BE chediwsle, Seca Temp. of
1790. | TMME | Lat. N. | Long. Wl air pat.) Ne
June 12 | Noon. | 49°57! | s® x4’ | 61% i552
6P.M. $74 457
14} Noon..| 48 4x2 12 18 61} 58
x5.J8 P. M..| 47 25 16 16 60 | 59
21 | Noon 48 -4 25 16 62.1 57
22 |8A.M 47 “39 26 II 59} 58
23 | Noon 46 38 27°55 62 | 60
24 |6 P.M 45:33 28°29 | 64] 62
25 | Noon 44 46 30 32 67 | 63
2617P.M. | 44 53 32 25 66 | 62
27 | Noon A4 51 33°29 63.] 61
30 | Noon 44 56 36 21 64 | 60
July 1 | Noon. 44 © |- 37°52 1.66] 64 ply I. ‘In the evening, I ftrained
2{8P.M.] 44 35 38 25 65 | 61 | a bucket of water through a towel,
3 |8P.M. | 44 52 | 39 56 | 62] 60} andthe luminous appearances fo com-
4 | Noon. A4 23 40 53 66 | 62 | mon in the fea, remained upon the
5 }6P.M.'| “44 20 43 25 66 | 63: cloth.
6 |6 A.M. 66 | 62
Noon. -| 44-43 | 46 7 | 62157
IP.M. 62 | 1552
4P.M 58 | 53
5P.M 55 | 51 | I fuppofe we are on Jacquet’s Bank.
6P.M. 60 | 56
7 P.M. 59 | 57°] Lfuppofe we are between Jacquet’s
Midnight 59 | 55°} and the Grand Bank of Newfoundland
4|4A.M 58 |) 54 rThefe irregular degreesiof heat in-
6A. M. ‘56 | 50.] dicate eminences in the valley be-
7 A.M. 56 | 49%] tween Jatquet’s andthe Grand Bank.
1o A.M. 56 |.52
11 A.M. Ret ee
Noon. | 45 00 | 47 57 | 55) SE
6P.M. 55 | 49
3 j6P.M.] 45 14 | 49 13 | 53 | 47 :
9 |8A.M. |} 45 Io FE \ 19 530az Sounded in 40 fathoms,
zo |8 A.M. | 44 54 53 40 31 57 Sr Do. in 45 do.
iz j8A.M.} 44 52 Kae577 i FO 53 Do. in 56 do.
6 P.M. 60 | 54 Do. in 75 do.
12 |8P.M-]| 44 49 56 16 RES do. no bot. in rr0 F. over the G. Bank.
13 |[8A.M. | 44 30 58 28 es i528 Do. in 42 perhaps on the whale bank
8 P. M. 56 | 54 Do. 40 fathoms,
10 do. 56] 53 Do. 35 do.
ay 8A.M 60 | 56 Do. 38 do.
| Noon 44 33 | 59 54 | 60] 61 Do. 60 do. calm and bright Sun.
Midnight | 57.4 57
*y5 2P.M.] 44 50 61 20 ‘| 6o'} 57 | Saw land.
5P. M 60 | 53 Tack’d, ftood offland, foun. 13 fath.
i8 P.M 60 | 56 Land out of fight.
16 | Noon 44 34 62 17 61 | 57 Standing in for the land.
i8 P.M 60 | 53 Tack’d and off the land.
17'6A.M 59 | 52 | On Jeddore Bank,
Noon 621 57 Off the Bank.

38 \4. A. M.'At the mo. of Hal.H.! 54° 52

OLfervatiens

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 93
Obfervations on a paffage from Falmouth to Halifax by Fonathan Williams.
The very gradual increafe in the heat of the water as we leave England indicates a fmall de=

fcent of the coaft, which, 2s farasfoundings go, is known to be the cafe.
Here we find a fudden change of 7 degrees in the heat of the water, which indicates our ap-

t. 44.43. N. proach to the Banks of Newfoundland, though not in fuch foundings aswe could obtain.
lon. 46. 07. W. We tried with r6ofathoms but the lead was only about 12 pounds, and the line was a very

Tat. 45. oo. N:

thick one: perhaps the line floated the lead. At 5 .P. M. the water was ftill colder 4degrces;
but at 8 A. M. it grew warmer again 6 degrees, this feems to indicate a paflage, over a bank,
into water as deepas when we difcovered the firlt change.

We are now in cold wateragain (49) 13 degrees colder than the ocean water had regular-
ly been during 12 days previous to the firft change, exceptionly the {mall variations of a more

lon. 47. 57 W. northern or more fouthern courfe, thefe changes feem to indicate our entrance onanother bank.

Jat. 44. 49. N.
lon. 56. 16. W.

lat. 44. 30. N.
jon. 58.28. W.

t. 44. 33. N.

Jon. 59. 54. W.

lat. 44. 50. N.
jon. 61. 20. W.

There isa bank laid down in the charts, by fome called Jaquet’s bank, but by the older charts
called falfe bank, over which we have probably paffed. In this longitude, but farther fouth,
‘both by Dr. Franklin’s and my own obfervations, the water grew fuddenly cool, This feems
to confirm the fuppofition of this outer bank, the fouthermoft point of which { fuppofe to ex-
tend as far as lat. 4o. 00. N. We hove too in order to try the foundings but the torce of the
back fail carried away the main top maft head, and brought the top gallant fail, maf and rig-
ging down, thisconfufion interrupted the founding; and we had only 80 fathonvof line out,
when it was hauled in.

At 6 P.M. the water was only 2 degreescolder (47°) than when.we were interrupted in
founding, and we got bottom in 40 fathoms. ,

‘From the laft found to thistime the thermometer has varied, ,regularly as.the founding
varied, the water being warmer when deeper, and cooler when fhoaler. It is now at 55,
which is 8 degrees warmer than when we had wo fathoms. We now founded and could not
reach bottom with 110 fathoms ofline. ‘This indicates that we are off the grand bank, and
within it. By taking our diftance from the time the thermometer firft fell to 54, to the laft
time it ftood at that degree, we may give an account of the width of the foundings on this

‘grand bank, though it probably extends much farther, but in deeper water. This is noted
on the chart. ‘Fhe variations|in the thermometer between laft night and this morning, indi-
cate our paflage over an eminence of the bank, called the Whale)Bank, fituated on its inner
edge.

Therese at-8 A. M. wasat 53. two degrees colder than when we could not reach
bottom with r10 fathoms of line: and we founded in 42 fathoms. ‘This indicates our entrance
on another bank, which is calledin the charts Banquereau... It is ebfervable that the water of
fmall banks is not fo cold as'that of large banks, and this feems natural, ifitis fuppofed that
the conducting power of the land, taking away part of the heat of the water, is the caufe of the
changes in the thermometer; for that pewer muift have lefs effe&, 2s the quantity of the ground
under water is lefs: and this mui be itill more remarkable when the bank is immediately con-
nected with land above water, for fueh land conduéting heat away from the atmofphere, and
receiving much from the fun, mutt require lefsfrem the water. Thisremark has been uni-
formly confirmed in all my experiments within capes, where the water is much warmer than
in foundings without them. ‘Andit is further obfervable, that the water on the coait of Ame-
rica on the edge of foundings,|is not above |6 or 8 degrees colder than deep water; but on the
‘banks of Newfoundland it is frum.12 to.15 degrees colder, nf

‘Here we have the water §7/ which is2° warmer than when we coald not get bottom be-
tween the banks, yet we have 65 fathoms, at noon it was up to 61, and we had the fame found-
ings; but asit-was calm weather, and as we had ahot fun, allowance mutt be made for its in-
fluence, and therefore no certain concluficn can be drawn. ‘The depth of the water however in-
dicates our going off Banquereau, and the white fand of the bettom indicates that we are on the
edge of the bank which is connected with the Ifle of Sable. ‘Thisalfo accounts, from the above
mentioned principle, | for the unexpected warmthiof the water: ‘

We faw the land at 2 P. M. and now we.are in 13 fathoms of water thermometer 53. This
land agrees with the defeription of that about St..Mary’s river, and tracing owrcourfe back,
fhews us to have been laft night, and the preceding days, in. the very places indicated by our
reckoning, thermometer, and foundings. We tacked and ftood off.

‘The thermometer, when we ftood off the land, rofe upto 57. and when we came on and
made the high lands of Jeddore it indicated Jeddore banks by falling to 52. when being becalm-
ed-we caught fifth, leaving the bank it rofe to 57, and now weare in fight of our port it Rands
at 53.

D, A

94

Dates.
1790.

uly at,

22,

24,

255

26,

273

28, °

3I,
Aug. 4,

July 31, 3 A.M. bottom 63 fathoms mud
fhoals and banks of the Coaft.

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS

D. Athermometrical Journal of the temperature of the atmofphere at fea on a pafiage from
Halifax to New-York, on board uf the Britifh Packet Chefterfield, Captain Schuyier.

Places in at Noon.
| Time | Lat. N. | Lon. W.
g A.M. tiallitax Harbour
11 A.M. | without the har-
4P.M. bour.
6A.M.
Noon. 43 12 64° 6
4P.M.
47 3Py M.
8 A.M.
ao A.M,
Noen. Al 57 65).%
6P. M.
Midnight.
Noon. AI 53 65 33
4P.M.
6 P. M.
Midnight.
3. ME
6A.M
Noon. 41 8 66 56
4P.M
3 A.M.
7 A.M.
Noon. 40 44 67 32
4P.M. . 68 30
8 P. M.
10 P. M,
1 A.M. |
6A.M.
Noon. 40 44 68 06
8 P. M. * 1 69 40
10 P. M.
4A.M. {
Noon. 40 25 68 20
10 P.M mt 70 30
Noon 40 23 69 14
AP.M * 9I 10
8 P.M
Midnight
3A.M.] 40 29 70 SE
4 A.M. ¥ 7% 30
9 A.M
4P.M 40 29 | *73 40

| Temp. of

66

Notes.

Sailed at 8A. MM.

Land out of fight.

I fuppofe we are on Rofeway bank.

I fuppofe we are between Rofeway
and Brown’s bank.

July 22, 4P.M. I fuppofe we are
on Brown’s bank.

July 22, 7 P. M. I fuppofe we are
off do.

Triedcurrentand foundit NE. t knot
no bottom in 80 fathoms.

Much Gulph weed, a whale 2, fharks
and many porpoifes.

Bottom in 42fathoms, no gulph weed.

Bottom in 32 fathoms, ftood N.

Bottom in do. fathoms, ftood South-
ward.

Bottom in 50 fathoms, ftood N.
Bottom 35 fathom, ftood Southward.
Stood Weft.
*N.B. by the foundings and the
Bottom 28 fathoms ( thermometer, I
Bottom 40 do. fuppofe the true
Bottom 30 do. long. to be as
do. 32do. ftoodSE. (marked under
Do. 4300. flood S.W.the reckoning.
Do. 36 do. ftood E. S. E.
Do. 65 do.worefhip, almoftcalm.
No bottom, I fuppofe we are within
the influence of the gulph ftream;
in its.eddy perhaps.
July 29,4A.M.ottom ing 7 fathoms
ftood W.

July 29, 10 P. M. bottom 45 do. the
water being warmer than in the
fame depth when I thought we
were near the fhoals, I am: induced
to believe that this bottom is that
of the Coaft.

July 30, 8 P. M. bottom 56 do.mud

. The muddy bottom fhows that we are within the

Auguft 1,9 A. M. Saw the land off Long-Ifland, bearing N.

Auguft 1, 4P. M. New-York Light Houfe in fight, bearing Weft. N. B. fince 2 A. M. we
have been going from 5 to 7 knots i. ¢. about 50 miles Wett, which makes the longitude by
thermometrical reckoning: and foundings 73, 40 W. at noon, which turns out accurate, the
land being in 74. 00 W.

OLfervations

“MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 95

Obfervations on a voyage from Halifax towards New-York.

1790. July 21. - Sailed this morning from Halifax. ‘The water at the harbour’s mouth and juft within Che-

22.

Eat. 40. $77
Long. 65. ol.

July 25,:Noon.
Lat. 41. 53.
Long. 65. 33.

26th.

ath,

july 27-

July 30.
Lat. 40. 25.
Long, 70. 30-

bucta head, was at 53. but without it was at 52.—In landlocked places I have generally
found the water warmer than in even greater depths, on the borders of the ocean.

When we loft fight of land the water was at about 56 but at 6 this morning it having cooled
to 50 Ifuppofe we are paling over Rofeway bank.

At noon the heat of water had rifento 53 which mdkes me fuppofe we are overthe ground
between Rofeway and the other bank called in fome charts Brown’s bank, and at 4 the water
cooling again to 50 Liuppofe we are on this laft mentioned bank.

The water at noon yelterday growing as warm as 56 I fuppofe we are onthe S. E. edge
of Brown’s bank. As we afterwards hauled up more to the weltward, and as the water at 8 this
morning cooled te 50 again, I fuppofed we had returned more on the bank. But at noon
the thermometer rofe to 58. Asit was calm, andthe fun hot,I made fome allowance for that
caufe, but fuppofed we had got off foundings, and as at 6 (the air being 6° cooler than at
noon) it was at 57 I was confirmed in this.—It being ftill calm, and there appearing fome
gulph weed, we hoifted out the boat to try the current which we found to fet N. E. nearly
knot. This puzzled me, I could not conceive ourfelves to be in the gulph ftream, becaufe
the water was not hot enough for that fuppofition, andas thé iron pot by which we anchored
the boat, was not at bottom though 80 fathoms of line were out, Ithought the heat 57 fully ac~
counted for by the depth of water; but about 7 when we had made alittle way through the
water, it became again calm, and we then faw and heard the ripple ofa current as evidently
aswe could have expected over a fhoal. I could not account for this any otherways than by
fuppofing it to be the gulph dlream, yet it appeared impollible that it fhould come {fo near the
bank. Our Captain refolved to try again if there was a current here at a-diftance from this
ripple andinacalm. He accordingly hoifted out the boat again.and the current was found
tofet S. E. by S. about ¢ knot. Theevidence of this various current info fhort a fpace, the
heat of the water not being raifed to the heat of the ftream, and our fituation to the Nerthward
made me conclude this te be the whirlpools of the eddy of the gulph ftream juft on the northern
edge of it.

The water ftillcontinuing till noon nearly at the fame temperature, and our courfe being tothe
Weft Southerly I concluded that our fituation with refped to the ftream was nearly thefame as laft
remarked, this was confirmed by the paflage of immenfe quantities of gulph weed, a deal of
fcum and mucus with a Whale two or three Sharks and a {chool of Porpoifes in the courfe of
the merning; but in the afternoon we fell off further to the Northward, and at6P. M. the
water was from 55to 53. no gulph weed to be feen, and in foundings of 42 fathoms. We tacked
and ftood fouth at § P. M. and I was aftonifhed to find at midnight thatthe water was heated to
60, though the foundings were only 32 fathoms. Here again I could account for this only b
the influence of the guiph ftream, which the Capt. feemed to think probable, and tacked to the
Northward, the wind being ftillat about W. and by 3 A.M the thermometer fell to 53 with
the fame foundings, when we again tacked and ftood to the fouthward. 1 then tried the
heat ofthe water bythe thermometer, regularlyevery hour, andby 5 P. M.it wasup to 62. The
foundings then were 464athoms:—we tacked and ftood North, and at midnight it was again
down'to 55, at 3A. M.to54 the foundings them about 35 fathoms we then ftoodfouth when it
returned to 60. Vhus upon three fucceflive tacks each way we cooled or warmed the water as
we were ftanding either Northward or Southward'from 6 to 9 degrees.——I could only ac-
count for this (the foundings varying but very little). by fuppofing that when we ftood fouth-
ward we gotinto the warm influence of the guiph ftream, and as we ftood Northward we got
out of it. Ido not think we got into the ftream itfelf, becaufe I fhould in that cafe have ex-
pected the water to have been much warmer, but probably we have been very near, perhaps
upon the edge of it : and perhaps we have had a benefit inftead of a difadvantage, by an eddy
wefterly current: that we have been nearit, feems pretty clear, for when we warmed the water
we faw plenty of gulph weed, and the weather was clear, when we cooled the water we faw no
gulph weed and the weather was foggy.

Perhaps we may be farther to the weftward than we think : time anda good look out will
difcover,

Since the laft obfervation relative to the ftream and foundings I have kept the thermometer:
going almoft every hour except when we were {tending off the fhore, and by exanmning the
foundings according to thofe marked inMr. Des Barres chartjl have regularly traced them and
if we were to fuppofe that a current was fetting us about t knot per hour tothe weftward, the
foundings would agree very well, When in about lat. 40. 25. we were ftanding off fhore, wae

Walmed

Aug. 1,9 A.M.

96 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

warmed the water to 64, and got 45 fathoms this heat I account for by the influence of the
ftream, it being greater than the proportion as to foundings, for in 40 fathoms farther toward
the fhore it was only 60. In looking over my journal from Bofton to Virginia in Capt. Brace,
1 found that in nearly the fame latitude the heat increafed in about the fame time from 52 to
59 but in afomewhat longer run. It wasthen October, itis now July, and the difference in
the number of the degrees is eafily accounted for by the feafon. By going more fouth and wett
in Captain Brace the water was raifed to 67 when we found ourfelves within the ftream, it
would at this feafon probably be upwards of 70. 1 therefore conclude that we are within the in-
fluence of the heat, but pot the current of the ftream, and I am in hopes to find that we have had
that eddy current in our favour.

Having the land in fight we are confirmed in the fuppofition that a favourable current: has
carried the Ship fafter than the Captain reckoned.

7 ee sige kes eS See 9 a Sa,

NOTES TO THE MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

iy eaiets

Extracl from the Fournal of an Officer on board the Britifh
Ship of War, Liverpool, in November and December,
1775, on the Coaft of Carolina and Virginia.

HEN Cape Henry bore N. W. 160 leagues found
a current fetting to the Southward at the rate of
ro or 12 miles per day, which continued fo till Cape Hen-
ry bore W. N. W. 89 or go leagues, then found a current
fetting to the N.E. at the rate of 32 or 34 miles per day,
this current continued till within 33 or 30 leagues of the
land on the above coafts, then it fets to the Southward
and Weftward, at the rate of 10 or 15 miles per day, till
within 12 or 15 leagues of theland. ‘his current which
is only the eddy of the gulph ftream, fets mofily S. W.
or as the land lies.
In lat. 37. 50 founded, and had 65 fathoms, fine fand,
being 25 leagues from the land. In the fame latitude
and only 26 leagues from the land, had no bottom, with

180 fathoms.
From

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. oF

From lat. 35. 30. to lat, 37. co. there are no foundings
20 leagues from the land, but at 19 leagues diftance there
are foundings in 60 fathoms, at 18 there are only 35 fath-
oms, and ‘rom thence gradual foundings to the fhore.

From Cape Hatteras to Cape Henry, the ground is fine
fand, and to the Northward of Cape Henry, coarfe fand
with fome fhells among it,

wy
N°. Il.

Extra from the Fournal of an Officer on board the Brit-
ifh Ship of War Liverpool, between 20th Sept. and oth
October, 1775.

N lat. 45. 43. N. long. 21. 20 W. from Greenwich,

found a current fetting to the Southward 12 to15 miles
per day, which continued till we made the Ifland of Corvo,
the North part of which is in lat. 39. 56. N. and long. 3r.
8. W. from Greenwich by celeftial obfervation, which a-
greed within 12 miles of the longitude per account, that
being 30. 56. The variation of the compafs off this Ifland
is 18°. rg. W. and in failing to the Southward and Weft-
ward, it gradually diminifhed, till we arrived in lat. 2Q.
oo. N. long. 66. 40. W. where we had no variation.

INS. LH.

Extract from the Fournal of an Officer on board the Britifb
Ship of War, Liverpool.

N the 18 of Odtober, 1775, in lat. 42. 4, N. long.

10°. 8. W. from the Ifland of Corvo, it bearing S.

75 E. diftant 156 leagues, the fea being then very fmooth
it was fuddenly agitated into a fhort irregular fea (without
VOL. II. N any

98 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

any fhift or increafe of wind) fuch as is generally occafioned
by currents, and the next day we found we were 30 miles
to the Southward of the reckoning. This current conti-
nued till the 22d of O&tober, having then arrived in lat. 37:
long. 13. 30. W. It fet S. by W. 5 W. 1 miles
per hour.

Having a fair wind, and a good obfervation every day,
and alfo good aftronomical obfervations for determining the
longitude, we had the greateft reafon to depend on the
authenticity of the above.

No. IV..

Extradt from yi “fot of an Officer on board the Brit: Mb
Shipof War, Liverpool. Fuly, Auguft and September, 1775.

HE bank from Cape Cod extends almoft as far as

Cape Sable, where it joins the banks of Nova Scotia
decpening gradually from 20 to 50.0r 55 fathoms, which
depth there is in lat. 43. In crofling the bank between lat.
ar. 44. and lat. 43. the bottom. is very remarkable; on
the outfide it is fine fand, thoaling gradually for feveral
feagues on the middle of the bank, it is coarfe fand or thin-
gle with pebble ftones, on the infide it is muddy with
pieces ‘of fhells, and agin nie Si from 45 or 48 to
150 or 160 fathomse owns palit

Ee re
No. V..

I lat. 44. 54. N. long. 53.19. W. on board the Britifh
Packet Chefterfield, Capt. Schuyler. Fuly 105.179.

1H E Gaptain caught a codfith, andina fat minutes
after it was opened and gutted, I put ithe: thermo-
meter into. its belly, the inftrument markedy39 when in air
it

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 99

it was 57, and in water onthe furface 52. Depth 46
fathoms, ° ! whe

Jn lat. 44s 52. N. long. x. 57.W.. July 11, 1790.

HE people caught feveral codfith and hallabot, the ther-

mometer was put into three codfifh and one hallabot
fucceflively, the inftant they were hauled up, and the in-
{trument marked 37 in every cafe. The air was at 57,
and the water at the furface was 53. The firft experiment
was repeated after the fifh was gutted, and it then marked
one degree warmer. I thence conclude that the difference
between the two experiments was owing to the time the
fifth was in the air before the trial, and that in all the in-
ftances the animal heat of the fifh was about 16°
colder than the water at the furface; and as it feems natu-
ral, from analogy, to fuppofe that animal heat is at leaft
as warm as the fluid in which the animal lives, I conclude
that the water at the bottom was as cold as 3712. e 16%
colder than atthefurface. In a former voyage it was found by
decifive experiment, that near the coaft in very hot weather
the water at the bottom in 18 fathoms was 12 degrees
colder *than at the furface.

Another reafon to fuppofe that the water was colder at
bottom than the animal heat, was the great diftenfionof the
cods founds when they were opened, although they had
fent out innumerable bubbles of air in the paflage up; the
air, therefore, within the found, muft have been much
more comprefied, (either by cold or the power of the ani-
mal) below, than above,where it was at 37. Several fith
that had been hauled up to the furface of the water, and
then d roppedfrom the hook, fwam light on the furface

Nr2 till

* See Philofophical Tranfactions, Vol. Hl. page 329.

100 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

till they recovered their vivacity, although they loft mucls
air in coming, up the fpecific gravity was therefore much
lefs than at bottom, and this was probably owing to the
diftenfion of the found. ‘That fith rife and fink in the
water, by this power of increafing and diminifhing their
bulk, and confequently their fpecific gravity, is well
known to naturalifts, but I was pleafed to fee the truth of
that fat confirmed hy thefe experiments.

JONA. WILLIAMS, Jun.

NOs, Bake

An account of the moft effectual means of preventing the de=
letcrious confequences of the bite of the CROTALUS Hor-

RIDUS*, or RATTLE-SNAKE. By BENJAMIN SMITH
Barton, M.D.

Read Aug. URING my paflage through feveral of
ible the weftern fettlements of Pennfylvania, and
the adjoining States, in the year 1785, I made it an ob-
jet of attention to acquire every poffible information re-
fpecting the effects of the poifon of the RatTLe-SNAKE,
and the methods of prevention, orof cure, which are com-
monly employed in thofe parts of our country. A very
confiderable number of vegetables were either mentioned,
or fhown, to me, all of which, I was affured, were good
for the bites of Snakes. Without being much of the fkep-

tick

* TL think it proper to confine my remarks to this fpecies of RatTLz-SNaxr, becaufe it is
that with which I am beft acquainted; becaufe it isthe moft common {pecies in thofe parts of
our country which are beft known tome, and becaufe I believe itisthe moft deleterious fpe-
cies that has yet been difcovered within the limits of the United-States. I have little doubt,
however, thatthe plan which I have recommended, and the remarks which I have made,
will equally apply to the Crotalus miliarius, the Crotalus Duriffvs and the other fpecics of this
formidable family of ferpents which are defcribed by Linnzus, and by other writers,

BITE or tne RATTLE-SNAKE. tor

tick in medical matters, I might have doubted either the
veracity of my informers, or the accuracy with which
their experiments and obfervations were made. It, cer-=
tainly, did not require a very extenfive acquaintance with
botanical or with medical fcience to difcover, that thefe
reputed {pecificks were frequently pofleffed of proporties
the moft oppofite; and, confequently, that the effects of
the poifon of our venemous ferpents, which are fo uni-
form in their appearance, were capable of being obviated
or removed, by a number of vegetables, perhaps no lefs-
different in their influence on animal bodies than they are:
in family, and in fpecies. I might have doubted, tor a
moment, whether the activity of thefe poifons was fo
great, and the effects of their operation fo dangerous and
foiatal, as has been generally imagined. I was not ig-
norant that in the feafons of fupervening languor and tor=-
pidity the RAaTTLE-SNAKE, in particular, bites with feem-
ing reluctance, and without any, or with but little, ill con=
fequence ariling from the wound. _J, likewife, well knew,
that even in thofe feafons when.the fun powerfully exerts-
its influence, at which times thefe animals are be quali-
fied to ftrike and to injure, individuals of the fpecies muft-
often be found, the cavities of whofe venemous fangs are
entirely, or nearly, deftitute of their ative poifon, from:
the introduction of which into the body, thofe alarming
fymptoms, which charaéterife the fuccefsful bite of this
animal arifet. I couldimagine that, in fome inftances, the
poifon:

+ Several years fince, a gentlemen made the following experiments in Philadelphia. He
hada large Rarrie-Snake brought to him alive, which he fo managed by a ftring that he
could eafily lead it into, or out of, a clofe cage. On the firft day, he fuftered this Snake to bite
a.chickea, which had been aliured to the mouth of the cage by crumbs of bread. Ina few
hours, the bird ‘* mortified” and died. On the fecond day, another chicken. was bitten in the
fame manner, and furvived the injury much longer than the firft, On the third day, the ex-
periment was made upon athird chicken, which {welled much, but, neverthelefs, recovered.
On the fourth day, feveral chickens were fuffered to be bitten, without receiving any injury.
After this, itisfaid, the Snake grew larger and fatter. JZ. S. by my father, penes me. The-

truth of thefe experiments feems to be confirmed by the original” and very. well-written ac-

count of the fecond volume of the Count de la Cepede’s Hifoirenaturelle des Serpens, Ge. ee:
uhed

102 REMARKS ON’ THE

poifon might be thrown into ligamentous or tendinous mat-
ter, from which there would be little probability of an
abforption into the mafsof blood. ‘Thefe laft mentioned
circumftances enabled me to underftand how, in fome in-
ftances at leaft, the internal ufe of the various vegetables
which were employed, might have led my informers to fup-
pofe that thofe vegetables had accomplithed a cure.

Upon examining the fubje&t more minutely, I found
that although the principal dependance feemed to be placed
on the internal ufe of vegetables, yet the employment of ex-
ternal means was evidently the moft important part, both
of the prevention and of the cure. In general, the firft
thing that was attended to, after a perfon had been bitten
by the RaTTLE-SNAKE, was to throw a tight ligature a=
bove the part into which the poifon had been introduced :
at leaft, this was the practice whenever the fituation of the
wounded part admitted of fuch an application The
wound was next f{carified, and a mixture of falt and gun-
powder, fometimes either of thefe articles feparately, was
laid upon the part. Over the whole was applied a piece
ef the bark of the White-Walnut*. At the fame time,
fome one, frequently more than one, of the vegetables
which were mentioned to me, were given internally, ei-
ther in decodtion, or infufion, along with large quanti-
ties of milk. ;

Such is the rude and fimple practice of our weftern fet-
tlers for preventing, or for curing, the dangerous effe&s
of the bite of the RaTTLE-SNAKE. ‘They likewife ex-
tend this practice to the bites of feveral other kinds of fer-
pents, the hiftory of which will form the fubje@ of a me-

moir,
lifhed in the Appendix to the fecond ante off the monthly review enlarged : fee page 511. The fimple
experiments which I have juit related delerve to be attendedto. ‘Ihey enable us to affign a
reafon why perfons who have actually been bitten by the Rarrie-Snake have fometimes ex-
ptrienced very inconfiderable, or no bad, confequences from the wound: they enable us to
difcover in what manner many vegetables have acquired a reputation for curing the bites of
ferpents, without our recurring to the very difagreeable neceflity of arraigning the veracity of
thofe from whom our information is derived: and, laftly, they teach usa phyfiological fact,

that the poifen of the RatTLe-Swaxe is fecreted very flowly.
* The Juglans a/da of Linnzus.

BITE or tus RATTLE-SNAKE. 103

moir, which I hope to Jay before the Society, fome time in.
the courfe of the enfuing year. At prefent, I thall only
remark that there is reafon to believe, the praétice which
I have defcribed has often beenemployed for the bites of
ferpents which do not belong to our venemous tribes. ThisI
know tobe the cafe with refpect to our Wampum-Snake, the
Coluber faf/ciatus of Linnzus: for, a careful examination of
this ferpent and a curious inquiry into its hiftory, have
convinced me that its bite, likethat of many other fpecies of
the exteniive genus of Coluber, is really harmlefs. Ie
would be uncandid not to obferve that Mr. Catefby, who.
has given a delcription and a good figure of the Wampum-
Snake, in his Natura! Hiftory of Carolina, &c .* was of the
fame opinion long before me. I may alfo remark that
Linneus, in his Sy/ema Nature{, has not annexed to the
Coluber fafciatus that mark by which he defignates the fer«
pents which he fuppofed to be venemous. But the Swedifly
naturalift does. not feem to have been. certain that:
his Coluber is that deferibed’and figured by Catefby,
under the name of the Wampum-Suake. From comparing,
however, the animal itfelf with: the defcriptions of Cateiby
and Linnzus,fam confident that the Wampum-Snake of
Pennfylvania, Carolina, &c. isno other than the Coluber
fafciatus of the Sytem of Nature.

But to return from what is rather a digreffion, In the
fimple practice which I have deferibed, I am difpofed to
repofe great confidence. Nor can I have any doubt that
the beneticial effe€ts which have been experienced under:
the employment of the multifarious means I have menti-
oned, are to be attributed principally to the ufe of the li-
gature, tothe fcarification of the wounded part, the appli-
cation of the falt, the gunpowder and the blifter. I thail
not deny that fome of the vegetables which were exhibit

ed

* See Volume 2d, p. 58 and t. 58.
+ See Volume rift, p. 373. Vienna edition of 1767,

104 REMARKS on THE

ed internally may be of ufe. Such, perhaps, are the vari-
ous deco€tions which are made of the more ftimulating vege-
tables, the infufions and exprefled juices of vegetables, ac-
companied with the ufe of large draughts of warm water,
the fteam-bath, &c. Thefe, by exciting a moft profufe
perfpiration, may contribute to the difcharge of the poi-
fon from the mafs of blood. Some of them a& powerful-
ly as diuretics, and in this way may alfo be of fervice.
The Indians in the State of Jerfey, [have been informed,
formerly made ufe of the exprefled juice of the leaves of
the common Garden-Rue * as a remedy for the bite of the
RaTTLe-SNake. It is well known that this vegetable
poffeties very active powers, and in the large dofes in
which the Indians prefcribed it, it excited a moft violent
fweat. They gave to an adult, about two table-fpoons
full of the juice every two hours, uatil this effect was pro-
duced. I think, there can be little doubt, that it has been
uf confiderable fervice.

It deferves, however, to be mentioned, in this place,
that during the ufe of the Rue, and even before this vege-
table was adminiftered, external means were employed, the
principal of which was the application of the ligature.

We fee, therefore, that without a knowledge of the
name, much lefs of the ftructure and office, of the abfor-
bent-fyftem, the rude favages of our continent, from whom
it is probable the white inhabitants derived their experi-
ence on the fubje&, had learned the propriety of applying
a ligature, in order to prevent the farther introduGiion of
the poifon into the body. From the nature of the favage
life, man in this ftate of his political exiftence is more lia-
ble to be injured by the bites of ferpents than inthe more
polithed ftaves of his improvement. It is fortunate, there-
fore, that even among fome of the rudeft nations of men,
the mode of treating the bites of thefeanimals is fo rational.

| If

* Ruta graveolens, Lia.

BITE or THE RATTLE-SNAKE. 1o¢
If, along with the ligature and the application of different
ftimulants to the wounded part, they make ufe of various
internal means, many of which are probably impotent,
and fome of them, perhaps, pernicious, let us remember
that even among the moft polifhed nations, where medi-
cine is cultivated as a fcience, phyficians are accuftomed
to adminifter many articles whofe effe& on the fyftem are
known to be inconfiderable or ufelefs.

The falt and gunpowder applied to the fcarified part
ac powerfully by exciting a difcharge of blood, and.par-
ticularly of the ferous part, fromthe wound; whilft the
bark of the White-Waluut, already mentioned, which pof-
feffes the evacuant power of cantharides, in no inconfidera-
ble degree, contributes to the farther difcharge of this ferum,
and along with it the poifon thrown in by the animal. :

I do not know that any vegetable fubftance befides the
bark of the White-Walnut is ever employed in thefe cafes
asa blifter.. I know, indeed, that both the Indians and the
white inhabitants of this country are acquainted with the
bliftering property of other indigenous vegetables: fuch are
the Common-Wintergreen (Pyrola rotundifolia, Lin.), fome
{pecies of the genus Ranunculus, or Crow-foot, &c. In
fome parts of Pennfylvania, the roots of the firft of thefe
_ plants are pounded, and then applied to parts where it is
required to raife a blifter. The roots of this Pyrolaare,
however, principally ufed in rheumatick affections, and I
have never heard of their being employed in cafes of the
bites of venemous ferpents. I have heard of one inftance
‘in which a blifter of cantharides was applied to the wound
occafioned by a RATTLE-SNAKE, and was attended with
the beft effea*.

If the method of treating the bite of the RatTTLF-
SNAKE which I have defcribed, is ever of fervice, it
VOL. III. O is

* Since I wrote the above, I have read, with no fmall degree of pleafure, that the bark of
the Daphne Mezereum of Linnxus {the Commen-dMenerevn, or Spurge-Ojive) hasbeen applied to the
wourd

1660). | (REMARKS on Tur,

6 : i errnena Ft TS trie

is obvious that no time fhould be loft in the employment
of the means that have been mentioned, or of fome means
of afimilar nature. In thofe cafes where the poifon is ap-
plied near to the orifice of an abforbing-veflel we have rea»
fon to fuppofe that it will be conveyed into’ the mafs of
blood with great celerity. The mildeft fluids pafs along
the lymphatick-veflels with rapidity, but when thefe veffels
are expofed to the influence of cold, or when they are fti-
mulated by poifons of any kind, their propelling aétion is
greatly encreafed. ‘Even, however, after we are convinc-
ed that a portion-of the poifon has ‘been abforbed,’ we
ought not, I think, to omit the ufe of the ligature, and of
fome of the other means which have been mentioned.

As poifons of various kinds in their paflage through the
fymphatick-veflels are liable to be detained, for fome time,
in the glandular appendages of this fyftem,’ it would,
perhaps, be of ufe to fcarify thefe parts, and to apply a
blifter to them, in order to promote the. difcharge of the
poifon. Let usfuppofe, for inftance, that the poifon of
the RaATTLE-SNAKE isthrown intothe fole, orend, of the
foot clofé to the mouths of anumberof lymphatick-veflels,
In mott cafes, the ftimulant effets of this fingular fluid
are obferved to take place in.afew minutes. The lympha-
ticks partake of the inflammation whichis excited: the poi-
fon is quickly propelled along them, but its paflage into
the blood-veflels is fomewhat retarded by the conglobate-
DL el a glands
wound occafioned by the bite’ of a poifonousferpent, and that the application ‘Was attended.
with the happieft effects. See the Flora Swecica of Linnzeus, p. 128. It has alfo been lately.
recommended, ‘and its beneficial effects have been experienced, in the fame cafe, and in the
bite of the mad-dog. See what Acrel has faid on the fubje@ in the Yet. Acad. Handl. for
the year £778, p. 104. . All the fpecies of the genus Daphne, with which the botaniits are ace
qnainted, are indued with the fame property. ‘The bark when chewed ftrongly ftimulates
the mouth and fauces, exciting a confiderable degree of heat : when applied externally to the
fkin, it produces-a blifter and a confiderable difcharge of ferous matter. Its good, efleéts in
the inftances juft mentioned, are,therefore, I prefume, to be referred to this’ {timulating pro-

rty. The bark of the White- Walnut, as thave already obferved, atts in-the fame way, though

Lj fo readily, or fo powerfully. The Mezereon or the cantharides, perhaps more efpecially
the Daphne Gnidivm, would, imagine, be very properly fubitituted for it,

BITE or rar RATTLE-SNAKE. 109

glands, which form an eflential part of the abforbent-fyf-
tem in man, In a fhort time, however, if the ligature
has not been very.early. and. very carefully applied,’ the
glands of the groin are obferved to fwell, and inflame. In
this ftate of the complaint, I would advife an extenfive
{carification of thefe glands, and the application of fome
powerful blifter, the effects of which, at the fame time,
are very fuddenly exerted. «I know-of no article of the
materia medica {o likely to anfwer both thefe intentions as
the Ecorce de Garou of the French, the bark of the Daphne:
Guidium, whichI have already mentioned.

Jt often happens that the poifonof the RATTLE-SNAKE,
like that of the mad-dog, being merely thrown into muf-
cular, tendinous,. ligamentous or cellular parts, is depo-
fited there fome time without being abforbed intothe mafs
of blood. Inthefe-cafes the fuccefs of the plan which I
have defcribed will, probably, be very great. Whatever
preference may be given to the ufe of the knife, or of the
cauftick over that of {carification, the application of the blift-
er, Gc, I think, there:can be very little doubt of the pro-
priety of employing the ligature. Iam convinced, indeed, .
that on the ufe of this fimple application, the fuccefs of
our cure, or to {peak more properly of our prevention
will, ima great meafure, depend, 7

Hitherto, I have proceeded on the fuppofition, that
the poifon of. the RaTrLe-SNAKeE is conveyed into the
blood-vellels through the medium of the abforbent-lym-
phaticks. But, unfortunately, cafes fometimes occur in
which this active matter is thrown immediately into a
vein or artery. When this happens, the effects of the
poifon will be the more readily propagated to the remoteft
parts of the fyftem; and the powers of medicine will then
be found to be lefs confiderable. I have received an ac-
count of the cafe of a perfon who, whilft he was repofing
himfelf under a tree in a wood, was bitin the neck by a Rar-

Or2 TLE-

108 REMARKS on THE

TLE-SNAKE: remedies were immediately applied; butto no
purpofe, for the unhappy fufferer expired ina few minutes.’
This very fudden operation of the poifon will not excite
much wonder, when we confider the proximity of the
wound in this cafe to the fource of circulation. For al-
though experiments are wanted to demonftrate the preci/e
action of the poifon of the RATTLE-SNAKE on the human
and other animal fyftems, we are already in pofleffion of
fa&ts which warrant us to conclude, that it exerts its prin-
cipal effects on the fanguiferous fyftem, and, as I believe,
immediately on the blood itfelf. In what manner it affects
this important fluid I am unable to decide with certainty.’
That it induces a preternatural tenuity of it cannot, I
think, be doubted.
~ But whatever may be the particular operation of the
poifon of which I am fpeaking, we are certain that the
introduction of the {malleft portion of it into a: blood-
veflel is generally attended with the moft ferious confe-
quenees. Mr. Catefby fays that, “ where a Rattle-Snake
“* with full force penetrates with his deadly fangs, and
« pricks a vein or artery, inevitable death enfues; and
“ that, as I have often feen, in lefs than two minutes.
¢¢ The Indians,” he continues, *“* know theirdeftiny the
** minute they are bit; and, when they perceive it mortal,
«¢ apply no remedy, concluding all efforts in vain*.” Mr.
Catefby is frequently very accurate in relating facts, and
in making obfervations, What he has here faid refpec-
ting the fatal confequences of the zmmediate introduCtion
of the poifon into the blood-veflels perfectly correfponds
with the information which I have received frém a variety
of fources. Iam unwilling, however, to believe that, in
every cafe, fuch an introduction is neceffarily mortal. I
eannot but fuppofe that al the many cafes of the bites of
the

* The Natural Hiftory of biked, &c, vel. a, p. 4F-

BITE oF THE RATTLE- ‘SNAKE, 10g

the RATTLE-SNAKE which fo enieution occur in the les
inhabited parts of our country, the number of thofe in
which the poifon has been immediately applied to a blood=
veffel cannot be inconfiderable. And yet, at prefent, how
feldom does the bite of this animal prove mortal! What-
ever may be the event of this opinion, I think we ought
not to negle&t the application of the ligature, @c. even
after we are confident the poifon has been thrown into a
blood-veffel. Perhaps, in this cafe, the Aue, or fome
other powerful fudorifick, may be of fervice. How far the
ufe of milk, &c. will tend to the recovery of our patient,,
T cannot decide with confidence. JF confefs, however, I
fhould be unwilling to place much hopes in the admini-
ftration of this fluid, although the pradcticeis very gene-
rally adopted in moft of our new fettlements.

I have now defcribed the modes of peventing the dan=
gerous confequences of the bite of the RATTLE-SNAKE,
as they are practifedin various parts of our country. At
the fame time, I have ventured to throw out fome conjec-
tures of my own, which I thought would not be impro-
per, nor altogether unacceptable. As my object in prefent-
ing this paper to the Philofophical Society is more utility
than curiofity, I have avoided mentioning feveral other
means which are daily employed for the fame purpofe,
both in the countries to the Eaft and in thofe to the Weft
of our mountains. I cannot, however, help obferving
that fucking of the wounded part, is very generally prac-
tifed by the Creeks, and fome other native tribes in the
fouthern parts of our States, &c. as I have been inform-
ed by my ingentous and worthy friend Mr. William Bar-
tram, who received his information from the traders a=
mong thefe people. It appearsfrom Mr. Catefby’s elegant
work, which I have already quoted, that fome of thele
tribes have learned the importance of cutting out the wound-

ed

110 REMARKS on THE

ed part, wheh, from the fituation of the bite, this can
be done*.

‘When the poifon of the Rartie-SNAke has adtually
been introduced into the general mats of blood, it begins
to.exertits moft alarming and characteriftick effects. A con-~
fiderable degree of naufea is a very early fymptom t. We
now difcover an evident alteration in the pulfe: it be-
comes full, ftrong, and greatly agitated. The whole body
begins to {fwell: the eyes become fo entirely fuffuled, that
it is difficult to difcover the {malleft portion of the adnata
that is not painted with blood. In many inftances, there
is an hemorrhagy of blood from the eyes, and likewife
from the nofe and ears: and fo great is the change in-
duced in the mafs of blood, that large cuantities of it are
fometimes thrown out on the furface of the body, in the
form of fweat. The teeth vacillate in their fockets, whilf
the pains and groans of the unhappy fufferer too plainly
inform us that the extin@tion of life is near at hand.

In this ftage of its action, and even before it has indu-
ced the moft alarming of the fymptoms which I have men-
tioned, the powers. of medicines can do little to check the
rapid and violent progrefs of this poifon. The employ-
ment of the ligature, the ufe of the blifter, and of the o-
ther modes of treatment which I recommended in the lo-
cal ftage, itis obvious toremark, will be of very little, if
any, benefit ‘here. When there is no hemorrhagy, how-

eVET;

* See vol. 2, p. 41. Mr. Catefby alfo ilies mention of the ouititah op fucking the wound,
which, he fays, “ina flight bite, has fometimes a good elect 5 tho’ the recovered perfon
‘* never fails of having annual pains at the timethey were bit... Wol. 2. p. 41. The Abbé
Clavigero fays, the molt effectual remedy for the bite of che RatrLe-SNAKE, “is thought to be
« the | holding ‘of the wounded partfometime.in the earth.” The Hiffory of Mexico, &c. vol. rt,
P- 59s Englifh Tranflation. :

+ lt is remarkable that a naufea, and fometimes a vomiting, is induced in many cafes in a
few minutes after the poifon has heén thrown, into a. mufcular parti and long before it can”
poflibly have entered the blood-veilels, throug hthe medium of thea Morbent-lymphaticks; or, ad~
mitting that it has been introduced direly: into a (blood-veffel; before this active poifon can
have cifeGted in the general mafs any change whatevef. Dozs not this very fudden appearance
of the naufea and vomiting feem to render it probable that the poifon of the Rarrie-Ssake
exerts confiderable effects on the nervous matter of animals?

BITE or vue RATTLE-SNAKE. ive

ever, and when the fymptoms of a violent. aétion of the:
heart and arteries take place, mercy may, perhaps, dic-
tate tous the ufe of the lancet, with the view to mode
rate this action. T fay nothing of the employment of the
other parts of whatis called by phyficians the antiphlogif-
tick treatment, asthe condition of the unhappy fufferer:
will; in moft cafes, preclude the poffibility of it.

I'fhould have been glad to have annexed to this imper-
fe& paper, a more accurate’ account of the effets of the
poifon of thé RATTLE-SNAKE, on the fyftem of man and
other animals; and, likewife, an analyfis of this fingular
fluid. The fubject is, certainly, a curious one, and one:
the minute inveftigation of which would, probably, throw
fome lights‘on the phyfiology of animals, whilf it would,
no doubt, ultimately tend to the eftablifhment of a: more
certain mode of treating the bite of one of the moft formi-
dable ferpents that has hitherto been difcovered in North-
America. But fuch an inveftigation would require much
time and patience, and, perhaps, I may add, a portion of
fortitude. Fully imprefled with a fenfe of the richnels of
the field, I mean to undertake the inquiry. Meanwhile,
I fhalljuft obferve thatthe poifon of the RaTTLE-SNAKE
1s generally of a yelowith, fomewhat greenith; colour, and
that it changes to a darker hue with the heat of our feafons.
During the period of the animal’s amours, the poifon is
obferved to be of a much darker green than at any other
time, and itis certain that itis now alfoof a much more ative
and deleterious nature.. Whether this increafe of activity
depends on the procreative’ paffion of the animal, or whether
itis not merely a confequence of the heat of the feafon, I.
fhall not decide, at prefent.

From the facts and obfervations which I have fubmitted
to the Society, it appears that, in many cafes, the pre-
vention of the deleterious’ effeéts of the poifon of the
RAaTTLE-SNAKE, may be accomplifhed by means which.

are.

rim REMARKS on Tut

are fimple, and within the reach of almoft every perfon.
To this fubje@ I anxioufly wifh to turn the attention of
phyficians and of phyfiologifts; becaufe the analogies
which fubfift between the effects of this poifon and thofe of
fome other animals, both of the fame and of different fami-
lies, are numerous and ftriking. It is highly probable,
therefore, that our refearches into this fubje&, would con-
dudt us to the knowledge of means whereby we might
fometimes, perhaps not unfrequently, be enabled to pre-
vent the confequences of the bite of the mad-dog, &c.
Our fuccefs in one cafe ought, at leaft, to flimulate us to
make the experiment in another, Let us not, any longer,
look for ab/olute /pecificks. Let us be content that, in the ful-
nefs of her benevolence, nature, ever attentive to our welfare,
has enriched her feries of animals, of vegetables, and of
minerals, with beings, with objects, and with means,
which man, in every ftage of his improvement, is in-
ftructed to employ for preventing, for alleviating, or for
curing at leaft fome of thofe infirmities the whole of which
conftitute, as it were, a part of his eflence, or nature. The
rage for fpecificks is, indeed, nearly at an end. I exceed-
ingly regret, however, that it is ftill, in fome meafure,
fupported by the botanifts, who cultivate an ufeful and
an amiable branch of natural knowledge. ‘Thus, the
Flora of almoft every country, and even of a narrow dif-
trict, or of the fuburbs ofa city, is too frequently crowded
with the moft unqualified recommendations of certain ve-
getables in different difeafes. But the partiality of the
botanifts for remedies for the bites of poifonous ferpents
appears to be peculiarly ftriking. Perhaps, this partiality
may be placed among thofe errors which difgrace even the
primordia of medicine. It is certain, that we very eafily
trace it to a ftate of fociety of which credulity, fuperitition,
and ignorance are the moft prominent and diftinCive fea-
tures.

Of

BITE or rut RATTLE-SNAKF. 113

Of the many travellers who have vifited the countries
of North-America, there are very few, indeed, who have
not recorded in their journals at leaft one or two fpecificks
againft the bites of ferpents. M. le Page du Pratz, who,
in fome refpects, is a judicious writer, ferioufly informs
us that the RatTie-Snaxke “ fhuns the habitations of
** men, and by a fingular providence, wherever it retires
“to, there the herb which cures its bite, is likewife to be
“ found*.”” Had this gentleman obferved that wherever
the animal, of which we are {peaking, retires, we find
vegetables which the full credulity of the Americans has
led them to imagine are antidotes to its bite, he would not
have expofed himfelf to the imputation of credulity with
thofe who are more intimately acquainted with the works
of nature, or with the powers of medicines. But the
truth is, that there is no branch of natural hiftory in the
inveftigation of which even men of f{cience have more pro-
minently difcovered their ignorance and weaknefs than in
that of the ferpents. Here, even a Linneus, forgetting
the cautious dignity which became the character of him
who was deftined to reform the {cience of nature, ferioufly
relates thofe tales which ought to have been confined to
the wigwaum of the favage, or to the cabin of the
moft uninformed hunter.

To this account of what I deem to be the mof effefual
means of preventing the deleterious confequences of the bite
of the Croratus Horripus, or RATTLE-SNAKE, I
fhall fubjoin a catalogue of a number of vegetables which
have been recommended for the fame purpofe, either by
the Indians, or by the white inhabitants of our continent.
{n enumerating thefe vegetables, I have thoughtit proper to
give both the Linnzan, or claffical, and the Englith, or vul-
gar, names. Some of thefe reputed fpecificks are ufed inter=
nally, others are employed externally, whilft others, again,
VOL: TE: P are

* ‘The Hiftory of Louifiana, &c. p. 269. English Trandlations

114 REMARKS on THe &c.

are ufed both internally and externally. To fuch as are
uled znternally I have prefixed this mark}: to fuch as are
applied externally, | have prefixed the mark*: thofe which
are employed both znternally and externally are defignated
by both thefe marks, whilft to thofe of which I have not
learned, with certainty, the particular exhibition, I have
prefixed no mark whatever.

Sanguinaria canadenjis (*Puccoon, Blood-root, Turmerick),
Hypoxis erecta ({Erect-Hypoxis,Star of Bethlehem), Laurus
Saffafras (* Saflafras), Polygala Senega ({* Seneca Snake~
root), Prenanthes alba ({White Ivy-leaf, Dr. Wirt’ s Snake-
root), Hieracium weno/um (> Veiny-Hawk-weed), Cuni-
la mariana ({ Dittany, Wild-Bafil), Collinfonia canadenfis
( | Horfe-weed, Knot-root), Hydrophyllum canadenfe (+
Scaly-root), Ribes mgrum (ft Black-Currant), Eryngium
foetidum (+ Fetid-Eryngo), Ar&ium Lappa ( * Burdock),
Uvularia perfohata ( * Perfolate-Uvularia), Aletris fari-
nofa (Star-gra/s, Star-root), Afarum—virginicum? (Heart
Snake-roots), Marrubium vulgare (+ White-Horehound),
Scorzonera h7/panica (Garden Vipers-gra/s), Solidago (* F
Golden-rod. Different {pecies are ufed.), Ariftolochia Serpex-
taria ( > Virginian Snake-root), Juglans oblonga (* White-
Walnut, Butter-nut), Cynogloflum wvirginicum (T Virgi-
aian Hounds-tong ue), Convolvulus arvenjis? (* Leaft-
Bindweed). A&tzxa racemofa ({ American. Bane-berry, Black
Snake-root,. Rattle-weed), Sanicula canadenfis (> Canadi-
anSanicle\, Veratrum luteum (Rattle-Snake-root), Erige-
ron—philadelphicum? (+ * Robin’s Plantain) Lirieden-
dron Tulipifera ({ Tulip-tree, Poplar §), Crocus /ativus

(+ Common-

& Among the Cheerake, and probably among other American 'tribes, the inner bark of this
tree, after being bruifed, isinfufed in water, and the infufton given to horfes which have been
bitten by the Rarrie-Swaxe. It isnot improbable that this medicine may fometimes be of
fervice in thefe cafes, as it is certain that the bark of the American Liriotendron poflefles very.
active powers, asa fimulad® and fudorifick. I have never heard that this bark has been em-
ployed for the bite of the RatrLe-Snaxke in man.

MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS, 1r¥s5_

(+ Common-Saffron\, Fraxinus (+ White-A/h) Chry-
fanthemum? (St. Authony’s cro/s) Convallaria (+ Solo-
mons feal. Different fpecies are ufed.), Ulmus—America-
na? (* +? American Elm) Ofmunda virginiana sim
an Ofmunda, Fern-Rattle-Snake-root), Jufliea?—( * +
Wood-Plantain, Rattle-Snake-Plantain) Hieracium Kalimit
(* + Rattle-Snake-P lantain, Poor-Robin’s Plantain).

NN?
MAGNETIC: OBSERVATIONS,

Made at the Univerlity of Cambridge (Maffachufetts) in the year 178 Se
By Dr. S. WILLIAMS,

ee ee
Great- Leaft [pie- |, Mean | Mean | Mean

Months. Days. eft Va- Varia~ | fer. | ¥4tation) Variation] Variation
riation. tion. jence.
January 13 P.M. | 6° 50! 6228’ | 3%
~)
February IZ P.M. | 6 39 5 49 | 50
March 1a P.M. | 6 52 6 28 | 24
April ges MEM 7112) 6 20 |] 52
May w%zP.M./7 5 6 28 | 45
June 1ZP.M.]7 8 -M. | 6 29 | 39
July ti P.M. 1 7 11 .M. } 6 33 | 38
Auguft 13 P.M. | 7 13 -M. | 6 25 | 48
Septem. t rz P.M. | 6 55 -M. | 6 13. 42
Gctober rP.M. [7 11 -M. | 6 27 | 44
Novem. t 1P.M.|6 59 |29 9 P.M. | 617] 42
Decem t IP.M.| 658 |19 7A.M. | 6 28 | 30
Ja thes | eee lt eb 6 edible 6
Year, Jsuguit 6and 21.) 7 13 | February 23.] 5 49 [1 24 40 | -6 51 39

“The above Obfervations were made with an excellent Variation Inftrument, with a twelve
Inch Needle.

2 Accurate

(* 196° )

N°. XIII.

Accurate determination of the right afcenfion and declina-
tion of & Bootes, andthe Pole Star: m a Letter from
Mr. ANDREW Exuicotr to Mr. R. PATTERSON.

Dear Sir, Odober 17th, 1788.

Read Nov. fF HEREWITH fend you the right afcenfions
ie oe | and dechnations of #4 Bootes, and the~ Pole
Star. ‘The Declination of ~ Bootes was determined by
comparing its zenith diftance, with the zenith diftances of
« Lyre, Capella, « Cygni, y Andromedez, 4 Medufz, and
’ Cygni, whofe declinations have been accurately deter-
mined by the European aftronomers. The zenith diftan-
ces, were taken by the fector which was ufed on the North-
ern boundary of this ftate, and was made by our own
countryman Mr. Rittenhoufe, and graduated by a method
of his own; to fay more in its favour, would be fuper-
fluous. The right afcenfion was determined by comparing
its paflage over the meridian, with the moft convenient of
thofe contained in the roth table, annexed: to the firft
Volume, of the Rev. Do&. Mafkelyne’s aftronomical ob«
fervations. ‘This flar will be found very ufeful, in de-
termining latitudes within the Northern, and Southern
limits of the United States.

The right afcenfion and declination of the Pole ftar, I
have deduced from the obfervations of the Rev. Do€or
Mafkelyne. This ftar is of fuch confequence in tracing
a meridian, thatitis a wonder fo little attention has been
paid to it by the European aftronomers : it is however lia-
ble to one inconvenience, on account of the change in its.
annual variation in right afcenfion; but this may be near-
ly correted for many years, by ufing an arithmetical pro-
greflion, an example of which will be found at the end of
the tables of aberration and nutation. In

*
R. AscENSION AND DECLINATION OF £BooTEs. 1 17

In applying the correétions contained in the tables of
aberration and nutation, it is only necceflary to obferve
this rw/e. When the Sun’s place or place of the Moon’s
afcending node is on the left fide of the firft column,—
ufe the fign on the left fide of the column required, and
vice Ver/a.

The Right Afcenfion and Declination of @ Bootes to the beginning of
Sun’s place and 1789.

place of the : ce = See tL 7 ‘e
Nigonie eivend. Right Afcenfion, 7), 13 30 a5 Ann. Var. B34. F
ing node. Declination, 41 13 47,94 — 14. 53

TMGaSE tLAasT To OMG EES CUT Ger rll to ee oe eee ee

Ss. D. Ss Aberration in Aberration in Nutation in Nutation in
5 SE ATEs R. Afcenfion. Declination. R. Afcenfion. Declination:
O. VI. Ui " ; ” u
° E274 76— —14. 30-4 + 6..07— —6. 57
Io 20. 61 12. 34 3- 98 5. 57
20 22%. 9O TOL Tr eae 4. uaa tt < J
Lee On Wil. 24. 48 7. 61 —o. OS Te | 3: a
: Io 25. 32 4. 81 3. 09
i 20 |. 2§. 40 I. 87 Teen fe) nt %
i WI. .o VIII 24. 70 $I. 13— 7. 43 re I. 19—
Io 23. 25 4..10 9. 39 2. 623
20 21. 09 6. 94 To. QI 3. 96
Ii. o IX 18. 30 9: 57 12. 1c
Io T4. 95 II. 90 I2. 92 é sy
20 II. 14 13. 88 ‘13. 43 Mai ue San It
UVE? O48 pe 6. 99 15. 44 IF ¥T pina e 77
Io 2. 61 16. 53 GSH re 8. 19
20 —1. 79 4 Caen 12. 3 8. 36
Vt Oe) ele 6. 18 Fy ikea 1 II. 30 8. 28
IO Id. 37 16. 72 9. 83 7- 95
20 T4. 30 5. 95 8. 03 7- 37
VI (9) 17. 70 T4. 30 } 6. 07 6. 57

118 R.Ascension and DecLinaTi6n of the Pott STAR.

The Right Afcenfion and Declination -of the Pole Star to the beginning
Sun’s place and of the year.1789. * Watehe

o orn "
AP h 2
Raaih teed Right Afcenfion, 9 12 3% 7306 ‘ Ann. Var, } - 183,03" |

1 ing Node, Declination, 88 10 40,8 19,4
S.°D, § Aberration in | Aberration in Nutation in | Nutation in
2 Sin $4 R, Afcention. Declination. R. Afcenfion, Declination.

oO. V1, t “ " Pea (A | W

° —9. 19h 3. 72— —4 49-+4- ch 2. TI—

10 9» 34 OF 29 J 5. (00° 0. 86
20 9. 32 —3. 18 | 4. 54 —o0. 4i-f

L. 0 evil g. 12 OS A. 43 I. 67

ite) 8. 35 9. 69 4. 23 2. 86

20 7+ 43 12. 56 3. 55 3. 98

Il, 0. VIII 6.85 I5. 04 3. 20 4. 98

Io 5. 18 17.07 2. 39 5. 82

20 3.50 18. 57 T55 6. 49

Ill, o IX 2315 19. 51 Toiwad 6. 96

10 0. 36 Ig. 86 Onis VDRO

20 4-1. 40— 19. 61 + 0. 39-- 7. 26

TNs: Ons ga. 2. 4% TS. 75, I. 29 7. 08

ho ia 4. 16 17. 30 2. 17 - 69

20 5. 41 T5. 39 Be) a 6. 09

Vit On ORL 6. 573 12. 97 3. 39 Ge Re

be) 9. 59) Yo. 16 4. 9 4. 36

20 8. 47 7. 05 4. 34 3. 28

Vi. oO 9. 19 3. 7% 4s 49 3. II

* Phe right Afgenfion of this Star (independent of the Ann. War.) muft be increafed by
‘an arithmetical progreffion, the firft term and common difference of which is 1.01, and the
number of terms will be the years olapfed fince 1789 :—as for example, let it be required te
findthe Right Afcenfion of the Pole Star, on the rft of January 1800. Then 1./01XT1==
rx./1t1 the laf term, and 11./11. 441." or = 12."£2== the fum of the extremes ;—then

W
=x 11 = 66."66 which is the fum of the progreffion,—then the Annual Variation

183/.03 X 11 = 2013”,83 = 3333.” this added to os. 12° 3% 7%. 6. will give
os. 13° 5/ 40.” 39, and thisfum increafed by the fum of the progreflion 1/ 6." 66 will give
os. 13. 6! 47. 05, forthe mean Right Afcenfion of the Star: but if the Right Afcenfion
of the Pole Star is required before the beginniag of the year 1689, then the Ann. Var. and
fum of the progreffion will be deductive.

Account

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Account of feveral Houses in Philadelphia, rack with
LicHtTninG, on June 7, 1789. By Mr. Davin:
RitTreNnsouse, and Dr. Joun Jones.. i

Het Jyty N Sunday the 7th of June, 1789, whilft’

a thunder-guft from the South-weft was
pafling over this city, a flath of lightning ftruck two ad-:
joining buildings, the kitchens. of houfes:on the Soutly
fide of Drinker’s Alley..

The annexed*drawing reprefents an infide view of part
of the Scuth end of thefe buildings. The funnels of the
two kitchen chimneys, and thofe of the two chambers:
over them are carried up feparately by the fide of each
other... They had been originally of the fame height, but:
that on the right hand next the middle has been raijfed)
fince about two feet hizhers. There was a fire burning aj:
the time in the two: kitchen chimneys, whofe funnels are:
carried up in the midft of the flack.» The lightning at.
the fame inftant paffed througiythefe two funnels, and by:
rarifying the enclofed air, forced out: the wall on the
North fide of each down to the roof. It continued down
that to the left, until it came to the iron hook fufpendedy
on the crane, where-a woman, who was ftanding by the
firelide, fays fhe faw it like a large ball’ of-fire.. From:
thence it paffed either along the hook or the crane, or’
probably both, and entered the hearth at A. clofe to the:
back wall, throwing up the bricks and earth, and making
a cavity as large asa man’s head.. That part of the light~.
ning which. came down the right hand funnel, came out
of it at B. making a flight erafure of the roof, clofe along
the chimney, until it came to C. where: it proceeded
through the roof, and along the furface of the wall to D..

. Here.

,

100 EFFECTS or LIGHTNING.

Here it entered the chamber, tearing off fome of the ciel=
ing and plaiftering of the wall. AtE. hunga glazed pic-
ture with a gilded frame, which was fhivered to pieces.
It appears to have pafled both ways along the gilding of
the frame to the oppofite corner, from thence it paffed
along the furface of the wall ina crooked line, which it.
has marked pretty ftrongly, about halfan inch wide, to
the upper end of the lower hinge of the clofet door. From
the bottom of this hinge it feems to have paffed, by the
rivets through to the infide of the clofet, and probably by
a nail through the floor, burfting off the cieling and
lathing of the clofet of the kitchen below. This ctofet
door was broken to pieces, and thrown toa diftance by the
explofion, the left hand ftile only remaining. From this:
clofet it feems to have difpérfed in every dire@tion. No
traces of it are to be feen on the walle of the clofet, but a
number of pewter plates and difhes which were ftanding
on the fhelves were a little melted where they touched
each other only. Part of the lightning appears to have
paffed along the fhelf over the fire place, on which
ftood a coffee-pot and other kitchen furniture, which it,
only difplaced without injuring them. At F. a large hand
bellows was fufpended by a firing on a nail, the back
board of which was fplit through, apparently with great
violence.

Both the kitchens were filled with fmoke, foot, and
afhes by the explofion, but no perfon hurt. [he woman
who, faw the ball of fire at the upper end of the pot hook,
is confident that it proceeded upwards. ‘This opinion was
probably founded on the explofion of the bricks and earth
upwards at A. We know not any appearance which
could determine whether its progrefs was. upwards or
downwards,

A young woman who was fitting on the right fide of

the clofet door, within a foot of the fhivered part, re=
ceived

EFFECTS or LIGHTNING, 121

ceived no other injury than a flight difcoloration in one
of her feet, with a fenfe of numbnefs in both, which dif-
appeared the following day.

From this ftack of chimneys, in the direction of the

ftorm, that is Southweft, there is no lightning rod, nor
any more elevated building, for a confiderable diftance,
which might have intercepted the ftroke; but immediately
to the North and North Eaft, the adjoining buildings are
much higher, and there is one pointed rod, at no great
diftance.
_ It is remarkable that the lightning paffed through the
two chimneys only which had fire in them, though two
others were contiguous. And we were told that the chim-
ney which it quitted at the roof had very little fire in it.
The late Mr. Henry, in a paper read before the Philofo-
phical Society, has endeavoured to fhew that heat 1s the
condudting medium of the electrical fluid. It may perhaps
be doubted whether it is the matter of heat, or the effects
of it in rarefying bodies that difpofes them to conduct
electricity. It is however certain that barely rarefying the
the air, without any additional heat will make it conduct
the ele€trical matter readily, and probably it was the co-
lumn of rarefied air which conducted the lightning down
thefe chimneys. Whilft volcanos are throwing forth pro-
digious columns of fire {moke and afhes, corrufcations of
lightning are frequently feen amongft them: the exten-
five rarefaction of air, produced by thefe immenfe fires,
affording the means of reftoring the equilibrium of the
electrical fluid to very great diftances. We may from
hence conclude that it is fafer to be neara chimney that
has no fire in it, during a thunder-guft, than one that
has fire.

The houfes above defcribed were ftruck in the begin-
ning of the thunder-guft, and before it had rained any.
Sometime afterwards, in the greateft fall of rain, the light-
VOL. II. 7 Q. ning

122 EFFECTS or LIGHTNING.

ning ftruck Mr. Blanchard’s houfe, in third ftreet. This
is a three ftory houfe, having two ftacks of chimneys,
Faft and Weft of each other one on each fide of the high-
eft part of the roof. Several bricks were thrown off one
corner of the weftermoft ftack. The lightning is fuppof-
ed to have come down a wooden rod, furnifhed with an
iron {fpindle and vane, the whole about fourteen feet in
length which ftood by the fide of this chimney top, though
no marks ofit are vifible on the rod. From near the foot
of this rod it proceeded down a rafter on the Eaft fide of
the roof, fplitting it through its whole length, and break-
ing up the fhingles over it. From the foot of this rafter
it proceeded quietly down a copper {pout without injuring
the building or leaving any other traces on it.

Ne AY.

4n Account of ihe effects of a ftroke of Lightning on a

_ Louse furnifhed with two Conduéters,—in a Letter from
Mefrs. Davip RitTENHOUSE and Francis Hop-
KINSON; to Mr. R. PATTERSON.

Read O&. N Tuefday evening, the 17th of Auguft,
aS 1789, the dwelling houfe of Mr. Thomas
Leiper, at his Mills, near Chefter, was ftruck by lightning.
As this is a remarkable cafe, the houfe being furnifhed with
two good condudters, Mr. Leiper requefted us to view the
fituation of the building and the effects of the lightning,
which we did three days after the accident.

The houfe ftands at the foot of a pretty fteep afcent, on
the Weft fide of Crum creek, and within a few yards of
the mill dam. It is a regular ftone building 36 feet by
32, two ftories high at the Weft end, above ground, ‘im

three

EFFECTS or LIGHTNING. Tai

three ftories at the Eaft end. At each end there are two
ftacks of chimnies, which rife from the roof about half
way between the eaves and the ridge. The pointed con-
ductors, one at each end, are faftened to the two moft
Southerly chimnies, and are brought direQly down the
outfide of the wall to the ground, which they enter pro-
bably but a few feet, on account of the rock. The rods
are well made the pieces being fcrewed together and not
connected by hooks.

The cloud which difcharged the lightning came from
the Weft, and the fluid appears to have proceeded down
the Weftern conductor, at leaft in part, for the point is
melted down to a confiderable thicknefs. The next per-
ceptible effect of it is on the South fide of the fame chim-
ney, where it has torn up the fhingles of the roof nearly
18 inches in breadth, from the chimney dire€tly down to
a water gutter, covered with copper, which runs along
the roof from Weft to Eaft a foot above the eaves, and at
the Eaft end is connected with a copper fpout which comes
directly down along the wall, within four feet of the earth,
where it difcharges the rain water into a cedar tub, bound
with iron hoops.

The lightning appears to have paffed quietly along the
copper, the whole length of the gutter andfpout. About
a hands breadth below the end of the fpout it tore off and
fhivered in pieces an inch board, which pafled down be-
tween the {pout and the wall and had been lower down
than the {pout, partly pafling into the tub, it made its way
through to the outfide, and thence into the earth, throw-
ing off many {mall fplinters from different fides of the
tub.

Another part of the lightning appears to have proceed-
ed along the Weftern rod until it came dire€tly oppofite to
the copper gutter, from which itis diftant 6 or 7 feet: it
then ran along the cornifh, part of which it threw off in

Q 2 its

124 EFFECTS or LIGHTNING,

its courfe, to the end of the gutter, where it united with
that part firft mentioned. That fome part was difcharged
into the earth by this conductor is evident, for the furface
of the earth was thrown up at the foot of it.

Immediately Weftward from the houfe the garden rifes
pretty fteep, fo that at the diftance of lefs than 20 rods the
furface of the ground is higher than the chimney tops, and
immediately adjoining is a grove of oaks and other trees,
of the ufual height. iis, +8

It may feem extraordinary that the electric fluid was not
difcharged through fome of thofe trees, which are fo much
higher than the houfe, and over the topsof which the cloud
mutt have paffed before it reached the houfe. But perhaps,
on account of the vicinity of the water, the houfe, with its
conductors, including the copper fpout, afforded a more
ready conveyance. The hill, Weft of the houfe is one
continued rock, covered with a few feet, or rather inches
of earth. Therock is probably but a bad conduétor, and
the earth on its furface pretty dry, for it had not yet rain-
ed at that time. Had the earth been fufficiently moift at
the foot of the conduétor, it is likely we fhould not have
feen any effects of the lightning. ;

This cafe feems to give fome force to an objection made
long ago to the ufe of pointed rods. That is, that they
may fometimes invite a difcharge of the eletric matter,
which would otherwife have pafled elfewhere, and which
they are neverthelefs infufficient to convey, without injury
to the building. But it is by no means certain that the
houfe would have efcaped had it not been furnifhed with
rods; for we very often fee the lightning ftrike low trees
aad buildings in the neighbourhood of others much high-
er; and, befides, had not the copper gutter and {pout fur-
nifhed fuch an excellent conductor, the fuid might have
paffed quietly through one or both of the rods. But by
whatever means the difcharge was promoted in that par-
ticular manner, the damage done to the building was trif-
. ling,

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 125

ling, and no part of the infide fuffered in the leaft, not-
withftanding that the ftroke, by the prodigious noife which
accompanied it, {eemed to be very powerful.

It is remarkable that a perfon was fitting at the time in
a door on the ground floor, not more than 4 feet from the
lower end of the copper fpout, who received no injury,
though he very fenfibly felt the thock.

From our obfervations on the above cafe, as well as fome
others that have occurred, we would ftrongly recommend
to thofe who put up pointed rods, that the lower end be
funk fufficiently deep to reach moift earth in the dryeft fea-
fons. And we fubmit it to thofe converfant with electrical
philofophy, whether, when there are more rods than one
to a building, it might not conduce much to its fafety to
form a good communication between the rods, and like-
wile between them and a copper water fpout; carrying
an iron or copper rod from the lower end of the {pout a
fufficient depth into the ground.

Thinking it poffible that the above may afford fome
hints for improving the means, now pretty generally in
ufe, for guarding againft the fatal effets of thunder ftorms,
we have thought proper to lay it before the Society, and
fhall be happy if it receives their approbation.

N°. XVI.

Experiments and Obfervations on Evaporation in cold Air,
by GC. Wistar, M.D.

Read Sept. URING an experiment with a frigorific

ae mixture, I frequently had occafion to intro-
duce my hand when it was wet, into a cold veffel, and
obferved that while it was in this fituation, a fmoke or vi-
fible vapour arofe from the moifture on it, which ceafed
when it was withdrawn into warmer air, and returned
upon my replacing itin the veflel. In

126 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

In order to obferve this procefs with more accuracy, I
fixed an empty tin jar in a tub, and filled the tub with a
mixture of falt and {now, fo that the veffel was completely
furrounded with the mixture, and the air in it was foon
reduced to the temperature of falt and fnow, or to o° of
Fahrenheit’s fcale.

In this fituation, I fufpended in it, a rag which had
been dipped in water of the temperature of 40°—as foon
as it defcended within the veffel, it began to emit {moke
or fenfible vapour, and continued doing fo, a confiderable
time.—While fmoking it was drawn out, and the fmoke
ceafed.—After this, it was replaced in the veflel, and a-
gain began to {moke.

This was repeated frequently, and always with a fimi-
Jar refult, fo that I had no doubt of the fa&t.—In the firft
cafe in which I obferved this fmoke to arife, the moift body
muft have enjoyed a heat of 9&° or near it, as it was my
hand; by this experiment it appeared that a moift body -
of 40° would fmoke alfo in the fame circumftances, and
Inow wifhed to know whether this would be the cafe with
a body ftill colder.—For this purpofe a fmall piece of Ice
was fufpended in the veflel, as the rag had been before—
it, {moked when firft fufpended there, this {moking ceafed
when it was drawn out, and returned when it was placed
in the veflel again; precifely as it had happened when the
rag was ufed.—Another lump of ice was dropped into the
veflel and allowed to remain there, it {moked for twelve
or fifteen minutes and then ceafed.—Snow {moked in the
fame manner, but not fo long.

To be certain that this vapour really arofe from the j Ice,
a {mall mirror was fufpended horizontally in the cold vef-
fel—tIt continued fo along time without contrating any
moifture or dullnefs on its furface—The ice was then in-
troduced under it, and, although there was a confiderable
diftance between them, the mirror foon became encrufted

with

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 127

with hoar froft. To prevent deception, I varied this ex-
periment by placing a tumbler inverted in the cold veffel—
It remained there a long time, and its furface, both with-
in, and without, continued free from any moifture or
frofti—I then introduced under it a piece of ice, and ina
few minutes, the whole internal furface was covered with
froft.

This proved clearly that the vapour arofe from the ice
alone; and during this experiment, another fact of the
fame nature occurred.—When the mirrors or tumblers
were removed from the cold veflel into the air of the room,
which was 34°, they foon attracted moifture from it, which
appeared on their furfaces in the form of ice or froft; they
were replaced in the veflel when thus encrufted, and the
ice foon difappeared, their furfaces becoming as bright as
before. !

The whole of this procefs was pleafiag,—while the
mirror remained in the cold veffel, its furface continued
bright, very foon after it was placed in the air of the room,
it became dull, as if breathed upon, this dullnefs increafed
to an evident moifture confifting of {mall drops of water,
a fibre of ice then formed fuddenly in the moifture, a fe-
cond appeared to fhoot from this, a third from the fecond,
and fo on, untilthe whole was congealed. Whenthisconge-
lation was completed, the mirror was returned to the cold
veflel, and the ice difappeared in about the fame fpace of
time in which it had formed.

This colle&tion of moifture on the furfaces of bodies
cooled to o®, and then expofed to air of 34°, is analo-
gous to the formation of drops of water on the furfaces of
cool bodies expofed to the warm air of fummer, it proves,
that even in cold weather, a large quantity of moifture
exiits in our atmofphere.

When the ice was in the cold veffel, I obferved that it
{moked but about twelve or fifteen minutes, and fufpedcted

that

+728 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

that perhaps the evaporation continued no longer, to de-
termine this point, I placed two tumblers in the cold vef-
fel, and when they were cooled, placed alump of ice in
the fame fituation and inverted one of them over it—this
tumbler became encrufted with froft as before; it remain-
edtwenty minutes and then being removed, the other was
inverted over the ice in its place, but although the fecond
tumbler remained a long time in this fituation, its furface
continued perfectly free from any moifture or ice whatever.
This refult appeared to me a full proof that the actual, as
well as the apparent evaporation, ceafed in a few minutes
after its commencement; but from the whole of the ex-
periments I was induced to believe that, while the evapo-
ration went on, it was much more rapid in the cold veffel,
than in the open air which was fo much warmer—to deter-
mine this accurately, two lumps of ice of the fame weight
and form, fhould have been expofed a given time, one to
the air of the veflel, and the other to the air of the room,
and then weighed accurately; but having no nice {cales,
I was reduced to another expedient much lefs exa@.—As
mioifture is very confpicuous on mirrors or polifhed furfac-
es, I thought of comparing one of them which had been
moiftened and placed in the cold veffel, with another which
had been equally moiftened, but placed in warmer air,—
for this purpofe I took two razors highly polifhed, and,
after expofing them to my breath fo that each was equally
dull, I placed one of them in the cold veffel, and at the
fame time, held the other in air of 34°—1n feveral inflances
the razor in the cold air loft its moifture fooneft, and in
fome other inftances, both of them loft their moifture fo
guickly, that it was difficult to compare them.

I refrain however from drawing a conclufion from thefe
refults, becaufe when the fame razors were expofed to my
breath, and then placed, both of them in air of 34°, one
loft its moifture in lefs time than the other—although this

circumftance

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 129

eircumftance leflened my confidence in the refult of the
laft experiments, itmay be-explained upon the fame prin-
ciples which explain the others: in the mean time it is
certain, that when both, razors after being cooled to 0°,
were moiitened with my breath, and in that fituation ex-
pofed, one to the open air of 34°, andthe other to the air
of the ccld veffel, that which was in the veffel lof its
moifture, while that in the open room appeared to receive
additional moifture from the air around it.

it has Jong been known that evaporation continues when
the air is below 32°; befides the familiar fa@ of drying lih-
en in freezing weather, Mr. Boyle found that the weight
of a piece of ice was diminifhed, by expofing it to the
open air during acold night—Captain James who win-
tered at Charlton Iflandin Hudfon’s Bay, has related that
the fnow, in that bitter cold country, often difappears
without melting. Mr. Wilfon, profeflor of aftronomy at
Glafgow, obferved that a thin cruft of ice on the cafe of
his telefcope difappeared while he was making an obfer-
vation, during an intenfely cold morning: he has related
this fa&t in the Philofophical Tranfations, and infers from
it that evaporation continues in very cold weather.

It therefore is not furprizing that evaporation fhould
go on in the cold veffel, but from all the circumftances,
and efpecially from that laft related, refpe@iing the
razors, I cannot refrain from inferring, that there was
more evaporation in the cold veflel, than in the air of the
room, and believe that this fa& may be explained without
deviating from the true principles of evaporation.

Water unites with the atmonfphere, or evaporates by
three procefies, which are (to appearance at leaft,) differ-
ent from each other.

1. [fit be expofed to air of its own temperature, or warm-
er than itfelf, it diminithes infenfibly.

VOL, Il. aR ae

130 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

2. If its heat be increafed a certain degree above that of
the air to which it is expofed, a vifible vapour or fmoke
will arife fromit, which will appear more or lefs in quan-
tity in proportion to the heat.

3. If it be heated to 212°, while expofed to the pref-
fure of the Atmofphere, or to g8° in vacuo, {mall tran{-
parent globules are formed fuddenly, and with a crackling
noife, in that part of it which firft receives the heat; thefe
globules, which are compofed of elaftic vapour, afcend
through the water as quickly as air would do, if in the
fame circumftances : as foon as they efcape from water in-
to air, which is colder, they are converted from tran{pa-
rent elaftic vapour, into vilible inelaftic vapour or fmoke,
which paffes through the air as other vilible vapour does:
the formation and paflage of thefe bubbles through the wa-
ter, produces that motion in it which we call boiling. *
Any perfon may be convinced of this, by applying a can-
die to the bottom of a flafk or thin glafs veffel which has
a {mall quantity of water in it.

The evaporation produced by immerfing moift bodies or
ice, in cold air, refembles the fecond kind which I have
defcribed (or that which produces {moke,) in feveral re-
fpects. In order to make water {moke, you need only
render it warmer than the air to which itis expofed; thus,
to give a very familiar example, a dith of tea, when frit
poured out, {mokes at the fire fide, when it has loft fome

Ok

* T have ftated that water will boilin vacuo, with a heat of 98° upon the authority of Mr.
Watt; but anelaftic vapour will arife from water in vacuo when the heat is much lower—
Some Gentlemen have related in the Philofophical Tranfactions, that when they were making
experiments with the Barometer in an exhautted receiver, an elaftic vapour arofe from the
moilt leathers, and comprefled the mercury in the Barometer. They alfo refer to the experi-
ments of Lord Cavendifh, and from thefe they fay it appears, that water of 72° yielded an
elaftic vapour when the receiver was fo much exhaufted, that the Barometer funk to ¢ of an
inch, or when 1-40 of the common preflure of the Atmofphere remained ; and that when the
Barometer {unk to £ of an inch, or that r20 only of the common preffure remained, the fame
kind of vapour arofe from water of the temperature of 47°. ‘This fluid therefore when its tem
perature is 41°. or upwards may be confidered as in a conftant nifus to affume the form of
elaftic vapour, which nifus is counteracted by the weight of the atmofphere. See Naixn’s ac-
counts ef experiments with the air pump, in Phil. Tranfactions, part 2d, 1777. —

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 131

of its heat this {moking ceafes, but if removed toa cold
er place, (as the outfide of the window on a frofty day;)
it will fmoke again. Many other familiar fas tend to
fhow, that vifible evaporation or {moking, does not de-
pend upon any pofitive degree of heat, but merely upon
an excefs of it in the moift body, when compared with the
air to which it is expofed.

The {moking of water has been afcribed by Mr. de Luc,
to the paflaze of heat or fire, from the moi body iato the
air around it: he fuppofes thts fire to carry fome water
diffolved in it into the air, thus forming {moke.

Without entering into the circumftances of this union
of water and heat, I think it may be aflumed as a general
fact, that whenever water and air are in conta&t, and the
heat of the water exceeds that of the air in any confidera-
ble degree, the paflage of heat from the water to the air
is attended with {moking, or the afcent of inelaftic vifible
vapour.

If this motion of heat and fmoking are infeperably con-
nected, the reafon why ice {moked when firft introduced in-~
to the cold vefiel, is very clear, as its temperature was 32°
above that of the air in the veffel.

Ido not pretend that this paflage of heat from moift
iubfances into air is the only caufe of evaporation, we
have already obferved that water will evaporate into air
which is warmer than itfelf as in the {pecies of evaporati-
on firft defcribed, andin the third fpecies, the elaftic va-
pour forms at the bottom of boiling water without any
contact with air, But the vifible {pontaneous evaporation
appears different from thefe, and I think that the hypothe-
fis which fuppofes it to depend upon the paflage of heat,
is rendered -probable by the following fats which occurred
during the above experiments.

1. The ice {moked for a few minutes only after it was

drapped into the cold air.
KR 2. rhe

132 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

2. The fecond tumbler which was inverted over the ice
continued perfe€tly free from any moiflure or froft, al-
though the firft was lined with it.

3. [f one of the razors when placed in the cold veflel,
was encrufted with a fmal! quantity of ice or moifture, this
moifture would foon difappear, but if it was in large quan-
tity, a part only would difappear, and the remainder con-
tinue unchanged, although the razor was kept a long time
in the cold veffel.

Now it is probable that in the firft and fecond of thefe
inftances, the evaporation commenced as foon as the heat
began to flow from the ice to the air, and ceafed as foon
as the ice was reduced to the temperature of the air, or as
foon as the motion of the heat ceafed.

The fame | believe happened to the ice on the razor, but
the razor being a fmall body could have contained but little
heat, of courfe therefore the evaporation from it muft have
ceafed before much ice could have been removed.

I cannot think of any principle upon which we can ac-
count for the evaporation going on rapidly at one time,
and ceafing at another, except this motion of heat, and
there are fome other faéts of confiderable importance which
may be explained by it equally well. Within the Polar
regions, when the cold is very intenfe, a fmoke arifes from
the fea which is warmer than the air of the land; Crantz
the Moravian miffionary to Greenland, after defcribing the
effets of the violent cold, adds, that ** at.thistime the fea
reeks like an oven,” and that this {moke is diftinguifhed
by the inhabitants by the name of frof /moke. As the
circumflances attending this fmoking are fo fimiliar to
thofe which attend the {moking ice, in the veffel, there is
reafon to believe that they depend upon the:fame caufe.

This explanation may alfo be rendered more probable,
if it can be made to appear. that a procefs the reverfe of
evaporation, depends upon a principle the reverfe of that

we

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 133

we have mentioned as one of the caufes of evaporation.
The procefs alluded to is that by which moifture is collect-
ed on the furfaces of cold bodies expofed to warm air—Dr.
Franklin has explained this upon the principle that the wa-
ter in the atmofphere is combined with heat, and that it is
collected on the cold furface in confequence of the paflage
of this heat into the cold body. This explanation is the
reverfe of that which I have adopted, and as it explains to
the fatisfaction of every one, a procefs the reverfe of eva-
poration, it ftrengthens that explanation.

When confidering.this theory of our great philofopher,
and the pleafing application of it tomany important procefles
of nature, itoccurred to me totry the converfe of the propo-
fition; for if the colletion of moifture on the furface of a
body depends upon the abftraGion of heat from the air by
it, it follows, that when a body is not in a condition to
receive heat from the atmofphere, no moiflure can collec
upon it.

As mirrors fhow the prefence of moifture with fo much
accuracy | heated one of them, and found that although,
when below 98°, they are covered with mift, if expofed
but a moment to the breath, yet when heated but little a-
bove 98°, Icauld not imprefs any moifture upon it, al-
though it was applied clofe to my mouth and breathed up-~
on very frequently. Dry. Franklin’s propofition requires
nothing toconfirm it, but if it were doubtful, this lat
experiment would furnifh a ftrong argument in its
favour.

( 134)

Poffcript toMr. Barron’s * Letter, to Dr. Rir-
TENHOUSE, of the 17th of March, 1791.

Read Dee. INCE the date of my letter, on the fubje&
alana of population and the probabilities of the
duration of human life, in this country, an actual enu-
meration has been made, of the inhabitants of the United
States ; and the returns of the cenfus have been tranfmit-
ted to the fecretary of ftate, from all the diftricts in the
union, excepting the ftate of 7 South-Carolina,

I beg leave, therefore, to fubjoin four tables, deduced
from thofe returns; inafmuch as they may ferve to eftablith
fome of the pofitions, which were advanced in the letter
referred to, and to verify the obfervations refulting from
the facts therein ftated.

The table, N°. 1, gives the ratio of free white males,
under fixteen years of age, to the intire number of free
white males, in each ftate, refpectively : And N*. 2 gives
proportions, of the like kind, for four feveral feGiions of
the ftate of Pennfylvania.

‘Ene

* The reader is requefted to correct, in that letter (fee page 25), the following errors,
which were overlooked until after the paper was printed----viz. page 27, line 6th from the bot-
tom}; for on read ou.---Same page, line 4th, from the bottom, for A/ft. royal read fciences—vead
bift. royal acad.fciences.—Same page, line 3d from the bottom; for predabilities—read probabili~
tése—Page 30, laft line; erafe the words in that flate-—Page 31, line 3d, from the bottom ;
for Verfailes-—read Verfuilles.—Page 35, lines 24th and 25th from the top; read the propor-
tion of free white males, under 16 years of age, to the whole numberof free white males, of alt
ages, in Maffachufetts, &c. Same page, line 4th, from the bottom ; for 1783—read 1683,
Page 37, line 20th, from the top; for 1536—read 1535.---Page 35, line 14th, from the bot-
tom; for country, Virg. read county Virginia.---Page 47, line 19th, from the top; for 925 whom
---read 925 of whom.---Page 59, lines 7th and gth, from the bettom; thelettcrs (j) and (é),
referring to notes, fhould be tranfpofed, in order to defignate the notes to which they pro-
perly refer :--And the note marked (/), (page 61, laft line, and ending with the word ‘in.
habitants,”’) fhould be placed at the conclufion of the whole; the table, at the top of page
62, being 2 continuation of the note marked (4).

+ Since this paper was read in the fociety, the cenfus for South-Carolina has been compleat-
ed, and the refult publifhed by authority. Such alterations have therefore been made, in the
fubfequent part of the obfervations, as to accommodate them to that circumitance,

Me MSR. a poe 145

The table, N°. 3, exhibits the ratio of free white males
to free white females, in the feveral ftates, refpectively,
including the South-Weftern territory: And N°. 4, fhews
fimilar proportions, for the before mentioned four feGions
of this ftate. |

By the cenfus, it is found, that the intire number of free
white male inhabitants, in all the ftates, collectively, is,
to the number of that defcription under fixteen years of
age, in the fame, as 100 of the former to 49. 52, of the
latter: and it may be prefumed, that nearly the fame ratio
obtains among the females. It is alfo found, that the
number of free white male, to that of the free white fe—
male inhabitants, in all the flates, collectively (and includ-
ing therewith, the South-Weftern territory), is, as too
of the former to 96. 35, of the latter.

Although there are in the United States, (taking the
South-Weitern territory, likewife, into the calculation)
nearly ¢9,000 more free white males than free white fe-
males; yet it- appears, that the ftates. of Maffachufetts,
Rhode-Iiland and Conneticut, contain nearly 9,000 more
of the latter than of the former. In general, there is the
higheft proportion of females in thofe ftates, from which
there have been the greateft emigrations; becaufe more
men than women migrate:—Hence we find the higheft
proportions of males in Kentuckey, Vermont and the
South-Weltern territory, ¢o which the moft numerous mi-
grations have recently been made.

We obferve, alfo, the higheft proportions of perfons un-
der fixtcen years of age, inthe ftates of Kentuckey, North-
Carolina, Georgia, South-Carolina, and Virginia; where
the population is thin, in comparifon with the extent of
territory, and where—owing to the facility of acquiring:
Jands, from which ample and certain fubftftence is readily
obtained—- people marry earlier in life and produce the
more children.

The

136 BQ ibiat Me Bee we T.

The fame obfervations will apply to the ftate of Penn-
fylvania. This ftate contains twenty-one counties: —The
capital contains the higheft proportion of females to males;
the nine oldeft counties—comprehending the moft popu-
Jous part of the flate, and excluding the capital—have a
lower proportion of females; the eight counties next fet-
tled, in point of time, give one full ae and the four
counties, laft fettled, give the loweft proportion of all.

This order is direQly inverted, with refpe& to the ra-
tio of perfons, under fixteen years of age, to the intire
number of all ages, in thofe feveral feGtions of this flate;
the four tranfmontane counties containing the higheit pro-
portion of males under fixteen, and the city of Philadel-
phia having the loweft.

The courfe of the migration of our inhabitants, is from
the long-fettled and moft populous parts of the country,
towards the extenfive tracts of yet unimproved lands in the
new ftates, and onthe frontiers of moft of the older ones.
This is, evidently, the principal courfe of the various pro-
portions in the number of males to females—and of per-
tons under fixteen years of age, to the intire number of
a}l ages,—which are found in different parts of the union:
And the operation of this caufe is, alfo, plainly difcerni-
ble in Pennfylvania; the progrefs and actual flate of its
population, correfponding with the principle.

Other caufes undoubtedly concur, in producing thofe
inequalities of ratio in different fituations, which have
been noticed; but thefe, it is not neceflary to inveftigate,

It may not be improper to obferve, tn. this p! ace ‘that,
in calculating the ratio of annual deaths to the living, for
the city of Philadelphia, the eftimate of . dying annu-
ally was made, on the prefumption of this city containing
41,580 white inhabitants. The cenfus makes the number
only 40,442;—at which rate, the annual deaths would

amount to one out of every 43-%%. of the living. But,
as

F.8 & F 8. 2CR Tt PP TF. 137

as a very confiderable number of thofe who refide in the
vicinity of Philadelphia—probably for feveral miles a=
‘round—bury their dead in the city; and as the cenfus is
generally fuppofed to fall fhort of the real numbers of our
inhabitants; the conjectural eflimate, before mentioned,
cannot be much too high, if any.

Many other obfervations, relative to the fubjec of this
enquiry, will be fuggefted by an examination of the an-
nexed tables, and of the cenfus itfelf: but, if fuchas have
been offered fhould ferve to elucidate that fubjeG, it will
be a gratification to me, to-have contributed my mite on
the oceafion.

W. BARTON.

$ (TABLE

4840 sof GiS ¥ @.6 Rad Pv

(TABLE, N° 1) (PABLE, N% 3.)

0 100 free ¥ Free white | . Tay J
i , , \To 109 free (Free white
Stares, | upitemalerd Jmaleswundstth states. wicentet Ffaal, of
f ‘age, ef all, ages. all ages.

Kentuckey,
N.. Carolina,
Georgia,

S. Carolina,
Virginia,
Delaware,
Vermort,
Rhode-Ifland,
New-Hamphhire,
Pennfylvania,
Maflachufetts,
New-York,
Maryland,
New-Jerfey,
Connecticut,

New-York, )

Delaware, ¥oo 93-55

South-Weftern 100 92.85
territory,

4S. Carolina, Too; 91.24

|Vermont, $ Lolo) 90.49

South-Weftern territory,——-not afcertained ||Kentuckey, 120 89.78

by the cenfus.
——————
(TABLE, N®, 2.)

(TABLE, N® 4.)
gee nice vans eo ee
The ftate of Penn-'To cma ¥en white

To roo free Free white

The ftateof Penn- white males males,under

fylvania, divided fylvania divided white males} 2females, of

Sikes Youur Settiiea. of all ages. oo. of} into four fe@tions. lof all ages, all ages.
The four ener The city and fub- :
moft counties, | To 100 53-44 urbs of Philadel.| To roo 106.29
Light counties fet- The nine oldeft
tled prior to the counties, exclufive
preceding four, & of the capital. — 100 96.03
affer the remain- Theeight counties
ing counties of fettled next after
the ftate. ; 100 $1.57 the preceding
The nine oldeft nine. YOO. 91.63
counties, excluf- The four wefter-
ive of the capital. 100 47.82 moft and laft fet-
The city and fub- tled counties. 500 $9.09
\ wrbs of Philadel. 600 42,05

New

C8397)

—-

N°... XVIL

New Notation of Mufic, in a letter to Francis Hopr-
KINSON, Esq. by Mr. R. PATTERSON. :

4
Read Mar. HE happy influence of mufic on the human
etiowg character ts univerfally acknowledged: what-

ever, therefore, may have a tendency to facilitate the pro-
grefs of this fcience will not, Iam perfuaded, be thought
unworthy of your notice.

I have long regretted that the art of printing, which
more than any other modern invention, has contributed
to the progrefs of ufeful knowledge among men, has, in
the fcience of mufic, been hitherto exercifed in fo limited
a degree. It is true there is a method of printing mufic,
by types made for the purpofe; few printers, however,
efpecially in America, are furnifhed with founts of this
kind, and in general, when one would publifh a piece of
mufic, he is obliged to have recourfe to the troublefome
and expenfive mode of a copperplate impreflion ; and hence
it is that publications of this kind are fo very rare among
us: and yet, I apprehend, that no good reafon can be giv-
en why mufical founds might not be reprefented by the
common alphabetical characters, as well as the articulate
founds of a language. |

In mufical founds, two things, you know Sir, are
chiefly to be confidered; namely, tone and time. The
latter, according to the common notation, is denoted by
peculiar charaéters appropriated to the different lengths
or intervals of the mufical founds, and the tones them-
felves by lines and fpaces on which the aforefaid charac-
ters are placed. Muficians have been long agreed to de-
nominate thefe lines and fpaces by the feven firft letters
of the alphabet: now if the tones of mufical notes, ee

S 2 0

¥40 New NOTATION or MUSIC.

of being reprefented by lines and fpaces, were denoted by
the letters which denominate thefe, and their times by the
common ftops or marks of paufe in reading, fubjoined to
the letters, this notation of mufic, would certainly be as
natural as the commonone, and would moreover-have-this
great advantage, that mufie might then be printed with the
common alphabetical types; by which: means all the in-
convenience and expence attending the publication of mu-
fic, according to the ufual notation, would be avoided;
a magazine or common, news-paper,. would then become.
a convenient vehicle for publifhing the moft celebrated.
airs or pieces of mufic (which any one might afterwards,
if he fhould think it neceffary, prick off for himfelf in the
common form) and thus contribute to diffufe a more ge-
neral knowledge of this ornamental and humanizing {ci-
ence..
To explain this matter more fully.. Let the feven
notes, a,.b, c, d,e, f, g, on one of which the cliff is plac-
ed, be printed in fmall Roman letters; the feven notes
next above thefe, in {mall Italics; the next feven, when
any of them fhall occur, in Italic capitals; and the feyen
notes below. the cliff-oGtave, in Romancapitals.. Thefe
four oftaves, viz, , A, B, C, D, E, F, G3. a,.b, c, d,e, f, 2;
a, b,c, 4,e,f,¢;.4, B,C, D, E, F, G; will be more than
{ufficient to. exprefs all the compafs of tone on any parti-
cular cliff. The governing flats or fharps which are
ufually. placed at the beginning of a tune, when tran{pof-
ed from. its.natural key; as_alfo the cliff, time, mood or
other circumftance, may be expreffed in words at length
after the title of the tune. Accidental flats, fharps and
naturals, to deviate as little as poflible from the common
notation, I would exprefs as follows: the flat by a {mall
pb, placed before the note affected, and. fet a little higher
than the other letters in the line, This. may be done ei-
ther by ufing a letter of a {maller body and {pacing it up,
or

New NOTATION or MUSIC. = 14.

or by what printers call a./uperior letter, fuch as are com-

monly ufed for notes of reference. The pofition and fize~
of this b, will fuffiiciently diftinguith it from the note of
that name. The afterifm, or if it fhould be thought better,

a {mall x, placed before the. note, will very well ex--
prefs an accidental tharp;.and the letter n, anatural; and
though thefe characters for fharps and naturals can never

be miftaken for notes, yet for the fake of uniformi--
ty, and to preyent all .poflible embarraffment in reading,

I would:place them alfo .a little. higher than the other.
letters in the line. Two or more.notes founded together, as.
is frequent on clavicords, harps and other ftringed inftru-

ments, may be exprefled. by. fetting fuch notes one over
the other..

As for.the times of notes,. which is the fecond thing to
be confidered in mufical founds, they may 1 think be very.
naturally exprefled by the following marks, which are
ufed fora fimilar purpofe in common reading..

Semi-demi-quavers, .which are fung or played as rapid-
ly as the fyllables of a word are pronounced, may be ex--
preffed by the hyphen (which in reading only. {eparates.
fyllables) placed after fuch notes. -(-)
| Semi-quavers, by the comma __ (,).

Quavers, by the femicolon. _(;) .
Crotchets, by thecolon . (:)
Miniums, by the period 2 iy
And femi-breves, by the mdafh (—).:

A pricked note may be exprefled, as in common nota- -
tion, by an inverted period fet after the mark fignifying
the time of the note.

When two or more notes of equal time come together
in the fame bar, the mark of time need only be expreffed
after the laft of fuch notes, and underftood to the reft;
and the different fyllables in a bar may, when it is thought -
neceflary, be diftinguifhed by interpofing a {pace between :
fuch fyllables. Refte :,

142 New NOTATION of MUSIC.

Refts will be very well expreffled by the foregoing re=
f{pedtive marks of time-fet alone, or not immediately pre-=
ceded by a note.

A fingle bar may be intelligibly expreffed by the m dath
fet fide-wife accrofs the line. |

A double bar by what printers call a parallel. }

A repeat bya parallel, or thedetter S, placed between
‘two colons. :}: ::S:

All the common marks of graces in mufic may be very
well expreffed, or imitated, by the common printing
types: thus a fri//, by-tr, fet above the note; a deat, by the
afterifk +, and a turn, by the letter S turned fide-wife nm,
and fet above their refpective notes; a flur, by inclofing
the flured notes in a parenthefis (_) ffaccato-notes by a peri-
od or hyphen fide-wife, fet over, or under fuch- notes ; a pau/e,
by a parenthefis and period together, fet fide-wife, over the
mote ~> diminutives, or notes of 'tranfition, as they are not
-counted in the time of the bar, will be very naturally ex-
preffed by enclofing fuch notes in a parathefis. [ ]

When three notes are reduced to the time of two, or
fix to the time of four, the figure 3 or 6 may be refpece
tively fet above fuch notes, as in the Common notation.

All terms of execution orexpreffion as, adagio, andante,
piano forte, &c. and figures marking the chords in tho-
rough bafs, may be alfo expreffed as in the common no-
tation.

New NOTATION or MUSIC, 143.
Explanatory Examples.

Scale of. Notes on the G Cliff.

ee

4 Wye ea a a ae, Re Aa a> Ue | needy
ere eT ae Oe Nee ey he ena eh
Sees Ota Neo UE ie “ame Gy. miata
een foe a mee See Or te Ma ed

ABCDEFGabcde épabed of ¢ ABCDEFG:

Scale of: Notes:.on. the. F. Chiff.

tS Se

A DS, bee Pt ee ee) Ge oe ee |
cree Ee See eer Ate. a, eh MP ee

AB mn Gian tice a sda de fg ABCD EFC.
Refts, and: Marks of Time. .

Sa == ==

9 WBE: Meera x =
Auld Robin Gray. 1ft Mood of common. Time, G Cliff, .
F and.C fharp..

d: | f950;°8;[2;]a:a; | 3;-g,d;°b,ba; 3d; | (f3°g)a3°2,[2;]a:g3°-
f, | dog; ‘f,(fied;) | fj-gsa:°,([6;]a:")a;. | 0b;-c,45-f,[a;]g:¢;°
e, | (f,45')d;35(2,63°) (63'4s) | (fg) (es }ide3°6 | “fresfd:
(fa) | a-*dye(Pasjajese, | “fref(f gf) g*gs | aa°g des 4 a:
3a; | f,d; rat b,a:'a, | bagfig: se; | (f0;")4,f;" “(ges )ez°d, | fies:
d,d: ;f; | ston babe dAfd afdatdaf edef, d I i

( 144 )

N°. XVII.
Obfervations on the Theory of Water Mills, &c. by
W. Warinc.
Read June EIN G lately requefted to make fome calcu-

BS, 419% lations relative to mills; particularly Doct.

Barker’s conftruGtion, as improved by James Rumfey, 1
found more difficulty in the attempt than [ at firft expect-
ed. It appeared neceffary to inveftigate new theorems for
the purpofe, as there are circumftances peculiar to ‘this
conftru@ion, which are not noticed, I believe, by any
author; and the theory of mills, as hitherto publifhed,
is very imperfe@t, which I take tobe the reafon it has
been of fo little ufe to pratical mechanics.

The firft itep, then, toward calculating the ‘power of
any water-mill (or wind-mill) or proportioning their
parts and velocities to the greateft advantage, feems‘to be,

The correction of an effential miftake adopted by writers
on the Theory of Mills.

This is attempted with all the deference due to eminent
authors, whofe ingenious labours have juftly raifed their
‘reputation and advanced the fciences; but when any
wrong principles are fucceflively publifhed by a feries of
fuch pens, they are the more implicitly received, and
‘more particularly claim a public rectification; which muft
be pleafing, even to thefe candid writers themfelves.

George Atwood, M. A. ¥. R. S. inchis mafterly trea-
‘tife onthe reCtilinear motion and rotation of bodies, pub-
lithed fo lately as 1784, continues this overfight, with its
pernicious confequences, through his propofitions and co-
rollaries (page 275 to .284,) although he knew the theo-
ry was rag for: he obferves (page 382) Mr. Smea-

ton

~~

Or WATER MILLS, &c. 145

«ton in his paper on mechanic power (publithed in the
*Philofophical Tranfacions for the year 1776) allows,
“that the theory ufually given will not correfpond with
“« matter of faét, when compared with the motion of ma-
“chines; and feems to attribute this difagreement, rather
** to deficiency in the theory, than to the obflacles which
“‘ have prevented the application of it to the complicated
““ motion of engines, &c. In order to fatisfy himfelf con-
** cerning the reafon of this difagreement he conftruted a
“© fet of experiments, which, from the known abilities
‘and Ingenuity of the author, certainly deferve great con+
** fideration and attention from every one who is inter-
‘**efted in thefe inquiries.” And notwithftanding the fame
“¢ learned author fays, “* The evidence upon which the
* theory refts is fearcely lefs than mathematical.” I am
forry to find, in the prefent ftate of the f{ciences, one of
his abilities concluding (page 380) “It is not probable
that the theory of motion, however inconteftible its prin-
ciples may be, can afford much affiftance to the practical
mechanic,” although indeed his theory, compared with
the above cited experiments, might fuggeft fuch an infer-
ence. But to come tothe point, I would juft premife
thefe

Definitions.

Tf a ftream of water imping againit a wheel in motion,
there are three different velocities to be confidered, apper=
taining thereto, viz.

Firft, the abfolute velocity of the water:

Second, the abfolute velocity of the wheel:

Third, the relative velocity of the water to that of
the whecl, z ¢. the difference of the abfolute velocities ;
or the velocity with which the water overtates or ftrikes
the wheel,

VOL, UTI. T Now

146 OBSERVATIONS on tur THEORY,

Now the miftake confifls in fuppofing the momentum;.
or force of the water againft the wheel, to be in the dupli=.
cate ratio of the relative velocity.:- Whereas. .

Prop. De

The force of an invariable ftream, impinging againft a:
Mill-Wheel in motion is.in the /imple direct proportion of —
the relative velocity.

For, if the relative velocity of a fluid againft a-fingle -
plane be varied, either by the motion of, the. plane, or of
the fluid from a given aperture, or both, then, the num-
ber of particles acting on the Plane in a given time, and.
likewife the momentum of each particle, being refpective-.
ly as the relative velocity, the force on both thefe accounts, ,
muft be in the duplicate ratio of the relative velocity, a-
greeably to the common theory, with refpeé to this fingle »
plane ; but, the number of thefe planes, or parts of the
wheel acted on, in a given time,. will be as the velocity of.
the wheel, or. znver/ely-as the relative velocity ; therefore, |
the moving force of the wheel muft be in the fimple dis -
rect ratio of the,relative volocity. Qs E. D.

Or, the propofition is manifeft from this confideration;
that, while the ftream is invariable, whatever be the velo-
city of the wheel, the fame number of particles or quan- .
tity of the fluid, muft ftrike it fome where or other ina.
given time; confequently, the variation of force is only .
on. account of the-varied-impingent velocity of the fame
body, occafioned by a change of motion.in the-wheel; that _
is, the momentum isas the relative velocity.

Now, this true principal fubftituted for the erroneous :
one in ufe, will bring the theory-to agree remarkably -
with the notable experiments of the-ingenious Smeaton,
before. mentioned,:. publifhed inthe Philofophical Tranf=
actions of the Royal fociety of London for the year-1751,
Vol. 51, for which the honorary annual medal was ad--

| | judged

Or WATER MILLS, &e. 147

judged by the fociety, and prefented'to the author by their
prefident. An inftance ‘or two of the Importance of this
correction may be adduced as follow.
Prop. II.

The velocity of a wheel, moved by the impaét of a
fiream, muft be half the velocity of the fluid, to produce
the greaieit poflible effed. e

Fo: le V=the velocity, M—the momentum of the fluid

v= the velocity, P =the power of the wheel.

Then, V—v = their relative velocity, by definition 3d.
and, as Vi: V—v:: M:¥ x Voy=P (Prop. 1.) which
x v= Pv i272 x vvev2_ a maximum; hence v v-v2= a
maximum, and ‘its fluxion, (v being the variable quantity)
=-Vv —2vy =0; therefore v= 4, that is, the velocity
of the wheel — half that of the fluid, at the place of im-
pact, when the effe&t is a maximum. 0. Ea De

_The ufual theory gives v= V; where the error is not
lefs than one third of the true velocity of the wheel!

This propofition is applicable to underfhot wheels, and

correfponds with the accurate experiments before cited, as
appears from the Author’s conclufion, (Philofophical
TranfaQions for 1776 pase 457) viz. “ The velocity of
‘“‘ the wheel, which, according to M. Parents determina-~
‘* tion, adopted by Defaguliers and Maclaurin, ought to
** be no more than one third of that of the water, varies
**at the maximum jn the experiments of Table I. be-
‘** tween one third and one half; but in all the cafes there
“* related, in whichthe moft work is performed in propor-
“ tion to the water expended and which approach the near-
eft to the circumftances of great works when properly
“ executed, the maximum lies much nearer one half than
“ one third, one half feeming to be the true maximum, if
** nothing were loft by the refiftance of the air, the fcatte-
*¢ ring of the water carricd up by the wheel, &c.”? Thus

eg he

-

148 OBSERVATIONS ow tHe THEORY,

he fully fhews the common theory to have been very
defective; but, I believe, none have fince pointed. out
wherein the deficiency lay, nor how to correct it; and
now we fee the agreement of the true theory with the re-.
fult of his experiments.

] might proceed with this correCtion through feveral
propofitions, ce. and fhew their coincidence with thofe
experiments; but muftgeave that, at prefent, for fuch as.
have more leifure; my view being only to fhew where this
perplexing difficulty crept in, in order that thofe who may
have occafion to ule the theory in future, or inftruct.
young men in the principles of mechanics, may make-
any ufe of thefe hints they pleafe: I will, however, juft.
add one problem, as} bave it by me; though it may not,
be the moft fuitable I could have chofen..

Prop. HI. Fig. ty Plate 4;

Given, the momentum (M) and volocity (V) of the;
fluid at I, the place of impa@; the radius (R=IS) of the:
wheel ABC; the radius (r=DS) of the {mall whecl DEF
on the fame axle or thaft; the weight (W): or refiftance to’
be overcome at D, and the Friction (f) or force neceflary
to move the wheel without the. weight; reguired the velo=.
city (x) of the wheel, &c.

Here we have V: V—x::M:-MxS*=the ading
force at I in. the direGtion KI, as before. (prop. 2.) now,
Riri: W: =the power atl neceflary to counterpoife
the weight W; hence, W.4E— the whole refiftance oppofed_
to the action of the fluid at I; which dedu@ed from the
moving force, leaves Mx4>—="—F,= the accelerating
force of the machine; which, when the motion becomes.
uniform, will be evanefcent or=O; therefore, Mx*="¥+
F, which gives x=Vx1 ‘W_F =the true velocity required ;_
or, if we reject the fridtion, then x=Vx' — x is the the~

orem

OF” WAT H RO: MIL L S; Se. 14.9%

orem for the velocity of the wheel. ‘This, by the coms.
mon theory would be x= VX PGi which is too little
by V¥ 3 —VS: No wonder why we have hitherto de-
rived fo little advantage from the theory.

Corol. 1. If the weight (W) or refiftance be required,
fuch as juft'to admit of ‘that velocity which wouid produce :

the greateft effet; then, by fubfituting £V fori its equi-

valent x (by prop. IL.) we have }V=Vx1-+%— "5 hence-
WE DERG? Fy aE! Feo} mt but theorifts make -

this _ where the error a —

Corel. 2. W _ rejeGting fric=-
MR

tion, T= 7, when the ee “eAheek | 18 produced, inftead :
of aera as has been fuppofed: this is an important.

theorem in the conftru€tion of Mills. -

WM. WARING...

Philadelphia, 7th, 9th mo. 17902-

Aftronomical

(150)

AL pee. 8 oe

Aftronomical.Obfervations, Communicated by Davip Rit=
TeNHOUSE.

Obfervations of a lunar Eclip/e, Nov. 2d, 1789, and of the
tranfit of Mercury over the Sun’s difk. Nov. 5thihe Jame
year, made at the Univerfity of Wilham aud Mary, By
the Revd Dr. JAMES Mapitson.

Read Feb. AQ S the obfervatory in which the tranit‘infru-
4 TOK: ment had:been formerly placed, was not, at
this time, rebuilt, L was not euabled to attend to the going
of the time-keeper, by means of iuch obferwations as I
wwifhed to have made. 1 therefore had recourfe to corre-
fpondent double altitudes, taken with a fextant. In tak-
ing them, treacle was ufed, which not only gavea well
defined image of the fun, but was of fufheient confiftency
to prevent undulation, efpecially.as the obfervations were
made in a room, where the wind -could have but little
effet. From the great care employed, I think the time
and rate of the clack were known with very confiderable
accuracy.

Nov. 2d, A-mean of the correfponding altitudes taken
this day, made the clock 17’, 17” flower than apparent
time; to which 9”! being added for change of declinati-
on in the ‘half interval, hence the clock was flow of the

fun, - ~ - 17. 20" 2018
Obfervations of the lunar Eclipfe.

* SEP. Ther
Penumbra--thought to touch the» at 6 8 46
Eclipfe begins, - - - 6 21.+0
Tycho begins to immerge - 6 38 45

wholly immerged = 43 ) lg

Shadow

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 9 rer

a ype Time.

Shadow reaches mare netaris - 7 34. Oo
Tycho begins to emerge, . = - aan AA
wholly emerged, - - S| 2 26-
End of the Eclipfe. - = Be 30h 6.

Thefe obfervations were made with an-achromatic tele-
feope, magnifying about 6c0.—The immerfion and emer-
rien of tycho were particularly noted, as thofe times may be
more. accurately afcertained, than either the beginning or
end of a lunar eclipfe—The weather ‘was remarkably: fa-=
vourable for aftronomical obfervations.:

November 3d. Cloudy no Obfervations could be made. .

November Correfponding altitudes.
A.M. P.M. o " Mm

8. 23 52. 3 0°16 Clock flow by each 6
obfervations, i2.3
25: G40 SO Bou R TT eT) Lea Tot 17 he
a7 ts G9 5S RM! Ten MPSS
Do tet us eee ia a 4 ny 17 54 30
ORs ei rea” ~ -- 17 55
ges at EE ili Se el PB Ba
8. 2%
36 24: 47 54° pride Nerina a oe
38° 10. AG et Aes 17 54 30.
A mean of the above obfervations, = | 17 55 11
Add equal for + Interval, =. =~ = Q 30
Hence the clock at sapere noon was flow ba
of the © - 1G TAAL
Nevemiter sth, - Correfponding: Altitudes.
AM } " uw

8: "94° 20. Ng 38 54.. Clock two flow, 18 11 30
S9sEA AR 5. ont Stine 35° 3°
8

ase ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

DA ORR 2 AK L2 - - 48.11 30
142. 32 PM de # - - 15, 1k 30
A4 30 43 58 ~ we ta oA Sa TMS
A-mean, = - - oo PST 3+ 96
Equal of {interval = 4+ = ab 9
Hence the clock was flow of the, © | 18 22 36
It appears that the clock, by spree th the oblervati-
-ons,. loft, between the 2d. and 4th, 38° 4242” or 19’ per

day, and between the ath, and sth. 1 7" 5" or 18’.—+
Hence we may,conclude that its rate of going was regu-
Jar, and that it loft 18”2 in 24 hours. The fllneitig ob-
fervations were corrected accordingly: and reduced to ap-
‘parent time,

Obfervations of the Franfit of Mercury.

The 1ft internal conta&t, was not feen. When Ifirft dif
covered &, he was foniewhat advanced upon the fun’s
limb,. and had an oval appearance, the longer axis :di-
‘rected towards the body_ of the fun.—But at 8°. 3’. 107”
The planet fuddenly affumed a round figure, and the firit
internal conta&t was accordingly noted.

The 2d, internal contag, 12. 53 4x

The 2d5 external contact could not*be determined with
any tolerable accuracy on account of the remarkable un-
dulatory motion which appeared upon the fun’s limb, foon
after the 2d internal contaét. Mercury difappeared to me,
at, 12" 55! 2% T made ufe of an achromatic, magnity~
ing about 1 ¢0,

Mr. Andrews, propetter SEhiaerielens with a xefle@-ae
made by fhort, aad with a magnifying power of ¢ parrmade
the following obfervations.

‘The 2dinternal contact ae BGS. RE Ege 48"

ad externa? contact ne Be Ser FO

‘The

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. x54

The fame undulatory appearance was not feen in the re=-
fleftor, and therefore the 2d external contaét obferved by
it, may be more relied upon—The times of our obfervati-
ons were taken from the fame clock, but noted in different
rooms—The day was remarkably favourable, being clear,
and fufficiently calm.

By D. Rittenhoufe; at Philadelphia,

Lat. 39°. 57°-.10”. Long. weft of Greenwich 5°. 0’. 35”.
November, 2d, 1789. Moon eclipfed

ates f /
peginnag : oe ‘ P. M. mean time.
Digits eclipfed, 4=

Tranfitof Mercury November 5th, 1789.
Amn = h / li
Firft external conta = 7" 51' 50 g A.M.)
fnternale) 725 9a20..05; Meant

Secondinternalconta&l 12 43 24 PM P vir Nae

End of the tranfit: .1e-45. gn Qo *oriJ

‘The undulation of the fun’s limb was fo great that no. .
micrometer meatfures could be taken with accuracy, but the:
leaft diftance of the centers feemed to be 7’. 15”.

October 22, 1790. Moon eclipfed
Beginning at ; Se Ais}
Beginning of total darknefs6. 49. 9 i ;
End of total darknefs 5. 3 16 f bot guia tial:

End of the eclipfe 9. 37. 25 |

November 6th, 1790, ‘Sun eclipfed.
Beginning at LO ii ete Cea
Bodice Aaa P. M. mean time.

If this eclipfed be computed from Mayer’s tables it will
be found advanced 33”, at the time fet down above for the
beginning, and by Mafon’s new tables 29". And it is cer-
tain that an eclipfe muft make fome progrefs before it will
be perceived by the moft attentive obferver. ‘The end was
no doubt obferved with more accuracy, and at that time.

Mayer’s ;

164 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Mayer’stables give the limbs feperated 8”,and Mafon’s the
eclipfe ftill remaining 6”. Therefore Maton’s tables re-
prefent both the beginning and end of this eclipfe more
accurately than Mayer’s, but the difference is very little.
Mr. Mafon has placed the moon’s nodes 51”, more forward,
but this eclipfe will be better reprefented by retaining the.
place of the node as given by Mayer.

Tranfit of Mercury, obferved at Wafhington College

November 5th, 1789. By the Rev. Dr. Wilham Smith.

N. B. The clock was cleaned and fet a going P. M. No-
tember 4th, its rate of going, as to mean time, uncer-
tain; but at fun rife November sth, as nearly as‘could be
guefled, it was about 2’. 30” fafter than apparent time.

External contact, :8%.93's/50'19 A.M.

Internal oe a ee ie 8) g Magnifying power 95.

Micrometer meafures of neareft limbs.
h ‘ Inch. xz6ths. 20ths. scoths. f u

Q: 19-0. 0:0. 7 1. od saline

54. = 0. Q- O. — = 7s awh
FOP ris ee His 50
stor Oe det tO. oO. ae
LIU 0 Oe eee Gert Oras Oar giy.
12. 0— 0. | 5. 0-.. 20 = 4. ae
Second internal contac 12". 55’. 10
Total egrefs yay Shae Hn ing power 330.
h ! faa Toths. 20ths f 4
©’s diameteriati 12.150 3) 6 . I)= = 32 14,5

Annular Eclipfe of the Sun, April 3d, 1791. Obferved
at Philadelphia, by D. Rittenhou/e.
Beginning (fun juft above the horizon) >

about - - Sa Sao Lr
Ring formed nearly, at 6. 50. 30 pA.M.
The ring broken 6. 54. 47 | Mean time,
End of the eclipfe, uth Fen oe Tea

At the middle of the eclipfe the ring was nearly twice
as broad at the fouth fideas at the north fide,
N°,

Dr. Rittenboufe, to Mr. Patterfon, relative to a method:
of jinding the fum of the feveral pawers of the Sines, Gc.

DEAR SIR,

Read May 9 Had difcovered a very elegant theorem: for de-
*8, 279% A termining the times of vibration of a pendulum:
in given arches of a circle; but it included a problem the:
folution of which I do not remember to have met with,
though I cannot fuppoit that it has efcaped the notice of
mathematicians. It is, to find the fums of the feveral
powers of the fines, cither to a radius of unity or any
other. :

I was induced to attempt the means of doing this folely
by its ufefulnefs, but in profecuting the enquiry I found
much of that pleafing regularity, the difcovery of which
the veometrician often thinks a fufficient reward for his
labours.

The fums of the odd powers of the fines bear a very fim-
ple relation to each other, and fo do the fums of the even
powers. But all the fums of the odd powers are incom-=
menfurable to all thofe of the even powers.

If we take the radius equal to unity the fum of all the:
fines, or their firft powers, will be=1, and the fum of all:

their fquares= + multiplied by the archof go*. The fum
of all their cubes is=*, and the fum of their fourth pow-
ers=: multiplied by the arch of go’. The fum of the:
fifth powers is= ,*,, and the fumof the 6th powers= J, x
by the arch of go’.

I have not been able ftria&tly to demonftrate any more
than the two firft cafes. The others were inveftigated by
the method of infinite feries fo far as to leave no doubt of

U2 the

156 POWERS or tue SINES,

the ultimate ratio which the fum of the given power of the
fines bears to a known power of the radius.

Having proceeded fo far as the 6th power the law of
continuation became evident ; fo that, fhould any problem
in mathematical philofophy require it, we may proceed
as far as we pleafe in fumming the powers of the fines. The
law is this,

Make a fraction whofe denominator is the index of the
given power, and its numerator the fame index, diminifh-
ed by unity, and multiplied by the fquare of the radius ;
by this fra€tion multiply the fum of the next but one
lower power, and we have the fum of the given power.
Thus rft, the fum of the 1ft power of the fines }

is=rr, or the fquare of the radius G ees
2d, fum of the 2d, power or fquares is { — fration.
=irrx by the arch of go’.
3d, fum of the 3d, power or cubes is)
2rrof, the) if, or = 41"
4th. fum of 4th. powers is =irr of the 2d
or=irt X by the arch of go’. s
sth, fum of sth. powers is=rr of the 3d, |
ros ghaest ob a
6th, fum of 6th. powers is= {rr of the 4th |
or=_.r° x by arch of go®. J
7th, fum of 7th. powers is=*rr of the 5th, }
or—= sour b By the Law of
Sth, fum of 8th. powers is=Zrr of the 6th, | Continuation
or=2ir° x by the arch of go”.
&e. &, ‘

Should your leifure permit you to give any attention fo
this fubjeét I fhall be glad to fee you furnifh a demonfira=
tion for the 3d, or any fubfequent cafe abovementioned.

lam, Sir,
Your moft obedient humble fervant,

DAVID RITTENHOUSE.
Index.

{ee

By Infinite
Series.

{ 157)

Index Florae Lancaftrienfis, auctore Henrico Muu.en-
BERG, D. D.

Dedicated to the Philofophical Society at Philadelphia,
by the author.

GENTLEMEN,

Read Feb. if Did myfelf the honour to lay before the Philo-
ruth, 179% (onhical Society a Specimen Florae Lancaftrienfis,
fome time in the year 1786, collected from actual obferva-
tions from 1780.

Since that time, I have had an opportunity of adding fome
fupplements, and I now make bold to fend you an index
of fuch plants as I could find, after the ftriteft fearch,
growing either wild or cultivated in, or near, Lancafter.
The whole number is very near 1100. All fuch plants as
Inever found growing wild, but are imported from other
countries, or even from other American States, I have
marked with aT.

If I found no name in Linne’s fyftem, I took it from
other works lately printed, or from Dodtor Schreber’s let-
ters, with whom I have opened a correfpondence. He is
profefior Botanices et Hiftoriae naturalis at Erlangen,
editor of the Genera Plantarum Linnaei, and, without
doubt, one of the firft botanifts in Europe. If I could find
no name by thefe means, I was forced to make one myfelf
adding N.S. until better informed by abler botanifts.

I repeat my former with, that fome of my learned coun-
trymen would join in botanical refearches, and fend in
thir Floras, for perufal or publication, to your Society, fo
that by gathering the Floras of the different States, we may
have a general Flora of the United-States, drawn from

good

58 LANCASTRIENSIS.

good and certain obfervations. May I be fo happy as to:
find your approbation in this fecond fpecimen! I have the:
honour to remain, with great refpeda,

~

Gentlemen,
Your moft Obedient
Humble Servant,.

HENRY MUHLENBERG,.
Lancafter, Nov.?
17th, 1790. §

Catalogus lbrorum quibus wfus eft auctor hujus indicis.

1.Linnaei fyftem, a vegetabilium, curante Murray, 1784,.

2. Linnaei {pecies plantarum et genera plantarum, cu-.
rante Reichard

3. Linnaci genera plantarum, curante Schreber Vol. r..
1789.
Ay Marfhalli Arbuftrum. 1785.

5. Walteri Flora Caroliniana. 1787.

6. Aitoni Hortus Kewenfis. 1789.

7. Wangenheim, von amarikamipt folzartam. fol. cum,
figur. 1787.

8. Miller Gardner’s di€tionary, et cet.

Pleniorem plantarum defcriptionem, cum calendario et:
ufu medico ¢t occonomico, brevit@npore v. D. daturus.. ©

Claffi:

©

A on

NI

"INDEX FLORAFE

CLAssIs 1,
Monandria,
Digynia.

y. Callitriche, Stargrafs.

verna.

2. +Blitum, Blite.

capitatum,
Cinna.
arundinacea.

CLAssiIs. 2.

Diandria, Monogynia.
thiguftrum, Privet.
vulgare.

Chionanthus, Fringetree.
virginica.

{Syringa, Lilac.
vulgaris.
perfica.
Circaea,

wort.

Jutetiana.

Veronica, Speedwell.

virginica.

officinalis.

ferpyllifolia.

Beccabunga.

Anagallis.

arvenfis.

marilandica.

Entchanters=

9. Diathera, Baftard Hedge

hyfop

americana,

ro. Gratiola, Hedge-hyfop=

virginica.

Il.

13.

IA.

To.

16

17.

18.

IQ.

159

Utricularia, Water-mil~
foil.

eibba ?

. Verbena, Vervain.

nodiflora.
haftata.
urticifolia.
carolina?
Lycopus, Gypfiewort.
europaeus,
virginicus.
Cunila, Pennyroyal.
mariana, Dittany,
pulegioides, Pennyroyal
Monarda.
fiftulofa.
didyma, Ofwego-Tea.
puncata.
Salvia, Sage.
lyrata.
T officinalis.
+ Horminum.
+ Sclarea.
Collinfonia, Horfe-weed,
canadenfis.
Digynia.

Anthoxanthum, Spring

gra{s.
odoratuin.

CLASSIS 3.

Triandria, Monogynia.
Valeriana, Valerian.
Locufta.

20. tCrocus, Saffron.

fativus,

160

7

LANCASTRIENSIS.

21. Ixia?

22.

23.
24.

28.

aquatica. N. S.
Iris, Flag.
verficolor.

+ pumila.

Xyris.

indica.

Schoenus, Rufhgrafs.
fufcus.

glomeratus.

albus:

lithofpermus. N. S.
Cyperus Galingale.
mollis. N. S.
firigofus.
alternifolius.
pumilus?

nutans. N. S.
Scirpus, Club-grafs.
paluftris.

Capitatus.
acicularis.

lacuftris.

fetaceus.

capillaris.
autumnalis.
triqueter.
mucronatus.
echinatus?
fylvaticus.

Eriophorum, Cotton=-

grafs.
cyperinum.
Digynia.
Phalaris, Canary-
arundinacea,

29-
30.

31.
32.
33

34-

oryzoides.

Pafpalum.
diftichum.

Panicum, Panicgrals..
glaucum.

viride.

italicum.

crus galli.
fanguinale.
filiforme.
dichotomum..
capiilare.
latifolium. B
clandeftinum. g
virgatum.
heterophyllum. N. S..
Phleum, Timothy.
pratenfe.

Alcpecurus, Foxtail.

+ pratentfis.

Muhlenbergia, (Schre=

beri.
diffufa. N. S.-
erecta. N.S.
Milum, Millet.

paradoxum.

. Agroftis, Bentgrafs..

cylindrica. N. S._
diffufa. N. S..
capillaris.
alba.
virginica.
mexicana.
Aira, Hairgrafs..
ceipitola.

x flexuo&,

BINED EyX> OFT O) RAE 16%

flexuofa. obtufa, N. S.
navicularis, Schrebert, 44. Bromus, Brome-erafs,
N. S, fecalinus.
truncata. N.S, purgans.
pallens. N.S. ciliatus.
37. Melica, Melic-grafs. + tectorum.
fpeciofa. N.S. 45. Stipa, Feather-grafs.
38. Poa, Medow-grafs. avenacea.
alpina. 46. Avena, Oats.
anguftifolia. + elatior.
pratenfis. } fativa.
annua, + nuda.
flava. fpicata.
pilofa. fetacea, Schreberi. N. S.
capillaris. 47. Arundo, Reed.
comprefia. epigelos.
repens. N. S. 48. Lolium, Darnel.
nutans. N. 8, perenne.
diftans. 49. Elymus, Lime-grafs:
39. Briza, Quaking-grafs. canadenfis.
media. ftriatus, Schreberi. N.S.
Eragroftis. pilofus. N. S.
40. Uniola, Spike-grafs. virginicus.
paniculata. Hyftrix.
41. Daétylis, Cock’s foot- 50. Secale, Rye.
grafs. + cereale.
glomerata. 51. Hordeum, Barley.
42. Cynofurus, Dog’stail- {| vulgare.
grafs. + diftichum.
indicus. 52. Triticum, Wheat.
43. Feftuca, Fefcue. + aeftivum.
elatior. } hybernum.
tenella, Schreberi. } turgidum.
N. S. + polonicum.
fluitans, | Spelta.

VOL, IIL. Xx Trigynia.

162

53%

S54.
53!
56.

Si7s

58.
59:

60.

61.

LANCASTRIENSIS..

Trigynia.
Holofteum, Chick-
weed.
fucculentum.
Mollugo, Carpet-weed.
verticillata.
Queria.
canadenfis.
Lechea.
minor. |

CLASSIS. 4:

Tetrandria,
Monogynia.

Cephalanthus, Globe-=.

flower-Shrub.
occidentalis.
Dipfacus, Teafel..
}fullonum.
Scabiofa. -
+ fuccifa.
7 atropurpurea...
Houftenia. |
caerulea.
purpurea.
Galium, Goofegrafs.
trifidum..
tinctorium..
Mollugo. |
boroale.
rotundifolium. .
bermudianum.
Aparine.
pilofum, Aitoni.

62.

63.

64.

60.

67.
68..

69.

70.

ree

Rubia, Madder:
+ tinctorum.
Mitchella.
repens:
Plantago, Plantain.
major.
media.
virginica.
lanceolata.
Sanguiforba,
wort..
canadenfis.
Cornus, Cornel.
florida, Dog-wood.’,
alba.
fericea..
amomum.
alternifolia..
ftricta, Aitoni.
paniculata, Aitoni?®
Ludwigia. |
alternifolia.
Ifnardia.
paluttris.
Digynia.
Hamamelis, Witch-ha-..
VA
virginica.
Cufcuta, Dodder.
} europaea..
americana.
Tetragynia.
Potamogeton, Pond-.
weed.
natans. .

Blood=..

perfoliatum ,

TINDEX FLORAE

“perfoliatum. 83.
-crifpum?
-compreilum,
QO
CLAssIs 5. oo

Pentandria, Monogynia.

72

73°

74
73°

Myofotis, Scorpion-
grafts.
{corpioides.
virginiana.
Lithofpermum, Grom-
well.
officinale.
arvente.
virginicum.
Anchula,. Alkanet.
virginica ?
Cynogloflum, Hounds-
tongue.
officinale.
virginicum.
Pulmonaria, Lungwort.
virginica.
Symphytum, Comfrey.
+-oflicinale.
Borago, Borage.
+officinalis.
Lycoplis.
virginica,
Echium, Viper-grafs:
vulgare.
Primula, Primrofe,
| veris.
Dodecatheon,
Meadia.
x 2

85.

86.

87.

88.

8g.

go.

QI.

163
Menyanthes, Buck-
bean.
trifoliata.
Hydrophyllum, Wa-
terleaf.
virginicum.
Lyfimachia, Loofeftrife.
ciliata.
punctata.
Anagallis, Red Pim-
pernel.
arventis.
Spigelia.
+ marilandica, Carolina
Pink-root.
Azalea, Rofebay.
nudiflora.
vifcofa,
Phlox.
paniculata:
maculata.
pilofa.
divaricata.
fubulata.
Convolvulus,
weed.
fepium.
panduratus.
purpureus.
‘+ Batatas.
{pithamacus.
repens.
fibiricus ?
Polemonium, Jacobs
Ladder.

Bind=

reptans,

164

reptans.

Campanula, Bell-flow-
er.

rotundifolia.

americana,

perfoliata.

aculeata. N. S.

92.

93: Samolus, Brook-weed.
valerandi..

04. Lonicera, Honeyfuckle.
media ?

Triofteum, Fever-root..
perfoliatum..
Mirabilis.
+ dichotoma..
Verbafcum, Mullein.
Thapfus.
Blattaria.
Datura, Thorn-apple.
Stramonium.
Hyofcyamus, Hen-
bane..
+ niger.
Nicotiana, Tobacco..
Tabacum.
Phyfalis, Winter-cher-
ry.
pubefcens..
vifcofa.
102. Solanum, Nightfhade..
+ tuberofum.
+ Lycoperficum.
nigrum.
t03. Capficum, Spanifh-
Pepper.
+ annuum,

95:
96.
97°

98.
99:

10O.

rol.

LANCAS TRIENSTS.

104. Rhamnus, Buckthorn..
alnifolius ?) Aitoni.
105. Ceanothus, New-Jer-

fey Tea, Redroot..
americanus.
roG. Celaftrus, Staff-tree.
fcandens.
107. Evonymus, Spindle-.
tree.
atropurpureus, Aitoni..
ro8. Ribes, Currant.
f+ rubrum.
+ nigrum.
floridum, Aitoni,.
gloffularia.
10g. Hedera, Ivy..
+ Helix..
quinquefolia.
Vitis, Vine..
vinifera.
Labrufca..
vulpina.
Claytonia..
virginica.
112. Celofia, Cocks-comb..
+ caftrenfis.
113. Thefium, Flax-weed:
umbellatum.
114. Vinca, Periwinkle..
+ minor.
Digynia.
rrs. Cynanchum, Baftard:
Dogs-bane.
fuberofum.
116. Apocynum, Dogs-
bane.
androfaemifoliums.

110.

IIt.

INDEX FLORAE:;

androfaemifolium.
cannabinum.

rr7. Afclepias, Swallow-

wort.
fyriaca.
purpurafcens.
incarnata.
variegata.
quadrifolia, Jacquini.
{+ Vincetoxicum..
{ nigra.
verticillata.
tuberofa.
118. Chenopodium, Goofe-
foot..
album.
viride.
Botrys.
anthelminticums.
11g. Beta, Beet..
+ vulgaris.
+ Cicla.
7 altiffima, Beckmann,
Scarcity-Root..
120. Gomphrena..
+ globofa.

121. Ulmus, Elm.
americana, Linnae}.
rubra. N.S. america=

na, Marfhalli.

122. Heuchera.
americana..

123. Gentiana, Gentian.
Saponaria.
Centaurium.

166:
phoenicea. N. S.
glandulofa. N.S, varie=-

tas ciliate ?

124. Hydrocotyle, Penny--

wort.
americana.

125. Sanicula, Sanicle:
canadentis.
marilandica,

196. Bupleurum, Thorow--

wax.
+ rotundifolium.

127, Daucus, Carot.
Carota.

128. Gonium, Hemloc.
maculatum.

129, Heracleum.
Sphondylium, Cows

parfnep.

130. Ligufticum, Lovage,

+ Levifticum,

131. Angelica,
atropurpurea,
lucida.

132.Sium, Water-parfnep,
rigidius.
fuave, Walteri?

133. Sifon. Honewort.
canadenfe.

134. Cicuta, Cowbane
maculata.

13.5. Coriandrum, Coriander.
fativum.

136. Scandix, Shepherds-

needle.
+ cerefolium.

166
+ cerefolium.
procumbens?

137. Chaerophyllum.

135. Imperatoria, Mafter-

wort.
+ Oftruthium.

139. Thapfia.
trifoliata,

140. Paftinaca, Parfnep.
fativa.

141. Smyrnium, Alexanders
aureum.
integerrimum.
luteum. N. S, aureum,

‘Walteri.
142. Anethum.
t graveolens, Dill.
+ Foeniculum, Fennel.
143. Carum, Caraway.
{ Carvi.

144. Apium.

t Petrofelinum, Parfley.
t graveolens, Cellery.
Trigynia.

145. Rhus, Sumach.
typhinum.
glabrum.

Vernix.
copallinum.
radicans.
Toxicodendron.

146 Viburnum,Mealy-tree,
prunifolium.
dentatum.
Lantana.
acerifolium,

at.

M$ Tie

LANCASTRIENSIS.

+ Opulus.
trilobum, Marfhalli.
Lentago. '
147 Sambucus, Elder,
canadenfis.
nigra.
Staphylea, Bladder-nut,
trifoliata.
Sarothra
gentianoides, Ground-
pine.
Aralia.
{ fpinofa,
‘Tree.
racemofa, Pettymorrel.
nudicaulis, Saflaparil.
Linum, Flax.
+ ufitatifimum.
virginianum.
Drofera, Sundew.
rotundifolia.

148

149.

150.
Angelica-

152.

Polygynia.
153. Zanthorrhiza.
{ fimplicifima. ) Mar-
aplifolia. fhalli.
¢ Aitoni.
Crassis 6.
Flexandria, Monogynia.
154. Tradefcantia.
virginica.
155. Pontederia.
cordata.
156. Narciflus.
7 poeticus.
+ Jonquilla.

INDEX FEORA EF

+ Jonquilla.
ng 7. Allium, Garlic.

+} Porrum.

} fativum.
vineale. .
canadenfe. .

+ Cepa.
montanum. N. S,?°

18. Lilium, Lily.

+ candidum,

+ bulbiferum.

+ pomponium.
canadentfe.
philadelphicum.

rgQ. Fritillaria, Fritillary.

+ imperialis.

160. Uvularia, Bell-wort.
perfoliata.
feffilifolia.

161. Erythronium, Dogf-.

tooth.
luteum. 2”
album.
162. Tulipa.
+ fylveftris.
+ gefneriana.
103. Hypoxis.
erecta.
164. Ornithogalum,
umbellatum.
165. Leontice.
Thalictroides..
166. Afparagus. |
+} officinalis.

167. Convallaria, Solomons-~-

Seal.

168.

167;

+ majalis.
Polygonatum,
multiflora.
racemofa.

Hyacinthus, Hyacinth.

+ orientalis.

+ Mufcart.

1609.
170.
1k
172,
Le:
174.

195
176.

177:

Aletris, Star-root, .
farinofa. -
Yucca.

+ filamentofa. .

Hemerocallis.
flava.
Acorus, Myrtle-grafss.
Calamus.
Orontium.
aquaticum.
Juncus, Rufh..
effufus.
nodofus.
articulatus. .
bulbofus,.
bufonius..
campelitris. .
{picatus.
Prinos, Winterberry.:.
verticillatus.
Berberis, Barberry. .
+ vulgaris.
Trigynia.
Rumex,. Dock...
+ Patientia.
fanguineus. .
Britannica...
crifpus. .
perficarioides:-

£68

perficarioides.
obtufifolius.
alpinus.
Acetofella.
. Melanthium.
virginicum.
Medeola.
virginica.
. Trillium.
cernuum.
Polygynia.
> Alifma, Thrum-wort.
Plantago.

CLassis 7.

Heptandria,

T etragynia.
Saururus, Lizards-tail.
cernuus.

182.

Crassis 8:
Odtandria, Monogynia.
183. Tropaeolum.
+ minus.
+ majus.
184. Rhexia, Soap-wood.
mariana.
185. Oenothera, Night-wil-
lowherb.
biennis.
fruticofa.
186. Gaura.
biennis.
187. Epilobium, Willow=
herb..
tetragonum,
paluftre.

Qo.

LANCASTRIEN SITS.

188. Vaccinium, Whortle.
ftamineum.
corymbofum.
frondofum.
refinofum, Aitoni,
album.

. Dirca, Leather-bark.
paluftris.

Trigynia.
Polygonum, Knotweed,
virginianum.
Lapathifolium.
Hydropiper.
perficaria,
barbatum ?

{ orientale.
penfilvanicum.
aviculare.
erectum.

linifolium,

NiuS:
fagittatum.
arifolium,

Fagopyrum.

convolvulvus.

‘dumetorum.

fcandens.

Tetragynia.

Shrebert.

Anonymos.
verticillata.

CLASSIS Q.
Enneandria, Monogyuia.
191. Laurus, Bay.
aeftivalis, Spice-wood.
Saflafras..
Trigynia,

INDEX FLORAE: 169

Trigynia,
92. Rheum, Rhubarb.
‘+ Rhaponticum.,
} Rhabarbarum.
+ hybridum.
CLASSIS fo.

Decandria, Monogynia.
493. Sophora, Wild-Indigo.

tinctoria.

194. Cercis, Red-bud.
canadenfis.

195. Caflia.
marilandica.
nictitans.,

196. Ruta, Rue.

: { graveolens.

197. Monotropa, Birds-neft, |

Hypopithys,
uniflora.

198. Kalmia, Laurel.
latifolia.
anguftifolia,

199. Andromeda,

wort.

paniculata, Aitoni.
200. Gaultheria, Mountain=

Tea.
procumbens.
201. Epigaea.
repens.

202. Pyrola, Winter-green.

rotundifolia.
minor.
umbellata,
maculata.

VOL. IH.

Moor-

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

2959.

210.

213.

214.

Digynia.
Hydrangea.
arborefcens.
Saxifraga, Saxifrage.
penfilvanica.
nivalis.

Mitella.

diphylla.

Saponaria, Soapwort.
officinalis.

+ Vaccaria.
Cucubalus, Campion.
ftellatus.

Silene, Catchfly.
virginica.

antirrhina.

Arenaria, Sandwort.

ferpyllifolia.

fetacea. N. S.

penfilvanica. N.S?
Pentagynia.

Sedum. |

ttelephium, Ever-
green.

. Penthorum.

fedoides.

. Oxalis, Cuckow-bread.

violacea.

corniculata.

ftricta. |
Agroftemma, Cockle.
Githago.

Ceraftium, Moufe-ear.
vulgatum.

femidecandrum.
hybridum. N, 5S?

170

215.

210.

217.

218.

219.

220.

221.

LAN GAS TIR HE NST Si.

hybridum, N.S?
Decagynia.
Phytolacca, Poke.

decandra.

CLAssIS It.
Dodecandriay.
Monogynia..
Afarum.
canadentfe,
virginicum.
Portulaca, Purflane.
oleracea,
Lythrum, Grafspoly.
petiolatum. 45
Digynia,
Agrimonia, Agrimony.
parviflora, Aitoni.
minor. N. S..
Trigynia.
Fuphorbia, Spurge.
maculata.
Chamaefyce. .
Peplus.
{ Lathyris.
t heliofcopia. .

corollata.
Dodecagynia.
Sempervivum, Houfe=.
leek.
{ tectorum. |
CLASSIS I2:%

Icofandria, Monogynia.
222. Philadelphus, Mock-

Orange.

223.

+ coronarius;

.Amygdalus.

Tt Perfica, Peach.,

224. Prunus, Plumb._

2256

226.

227.

228.

virginiana,

pumila.

+ Cerafus..

americana, Marfhallic.
{~ domettica..

Digynia.
Crataegus, Hawthorn.
coccinea.

Crus galli.
cordata, Aitoni.
pyrifolia, Aitoni..
flava,. Aitoni ?-
Pentagynia.
Mefpilus, Medlar. |
arbutifolia..
canadenfis.

-Pyrus, Pear..

+ communis,

+ Malus...

coronaria, Crab-apple.:.

t Cydonia.

Spiraea, Meadow{weets.

opulifolia, Ninebark. |

trifoliata, Indian-phy-=.

Tigh

Polygynia.

229. Rofa, Rofe.

rubiginofa, Sweet-Bri-.
ar.
carolina.. !
pendulina, Aitomi?
+ centifolia.

INDEX

+ centifolia.
+ gallica.
+ alba.
Rubus, Bramble.
occidentalis.
hifpidus.
fruticofus.
odoratus.
+ idaeus.
Fragaria, Straw-berry.
velca,
Potentilla, Cinquefoil.
pentfilvanica.
canadenfis.
reptans.
Geum, Bennet.
virginianum.
canadenfe ?
2.34. Calycanthus.

+ floridus, Sweet-fent-

ed Shrub.

230.

241.

232%

233.

CLASSIS 13:
Polyandria, Monogynia.
235. Actaea, Bane-berry.

racemofa,

236. Sanguinaria,Blood-root.

canadenfis.
237. Podophyllum, May-
apple.
peltatum.
238. Chelidonium, Celan-
dine.
majus.

239. Papaver, Poppy.

FEOR AE

r7t
+ Rhoeas.

+ fomniferum.

240. Argemone.
mexicana.

241. Nymphaea, Water-can,
advena, Aitoni.
odorata, Aitoni.

242. Tilia, Lime-tree.
americana.

243. Ciflus, Ciftus.
tomentofus.

Digynia,
244. Paeonia.
+ officinalis.
Trigynia.
245.Delphinium, Lark-{pur.
+ Confolida,
Pentagynia.

246. Aquilegia, Columbine.
+ vulgaris.
canadenfis.

247. Nigella.

+ fativa.
248. Liriodendron.
tulipifera, Poplar.
249. Magnolia.
glauca, SwampsSafla-
fras,

acuminata, Cucumber-
tree.

tripetala, Umbrella-tree

250. Annona.
triloba, Papaw.

251. Anemone.

Hepatica.
virginiana.

Ya. quinquefolia,

¥72
quinquefolia.
talictroides.
nemorofa.
Clematis, Travellers
SW:
virginiana.
penfilvanica. N. S.
. Thali@trum, Rue-weed.
dioicum.
purpurafcens.
polygamum. N. 5S.
. Ranunculus, Crow-.
foot.
Flammula.
reptans.
abortivus..
fceleratus.
penfilvanicus. |
repens.
lanuginofus..
aquatilis.
a55. Trollius fe
americanus. N. S.
256. Helleborus, Hellebore.
+ viridis,
257. Caltha, Meadow-bout.
paluftris.
258. Hydrattis.
canadenfis,
CLAssIs I4.
Didynamiay
Gymnofpermia.
259. Teucrium, Germander.
canadentfe.
260. Satureja, Savory.
hortenfis.

252,

LANGAS FREENSTS.

261. Hyflopus, Hyffop..
} officinalis.
nepetoides.

262. Nepeta, Nep.
Cataria.

263. Mentha, Mint._
crifpa.

+ piperita..
arventis.
264. Glecoma, Gill.
T hederacea.
265. Lamium, Archangel:
+ album.
amplexicaule,
266. Betonica, Betony.
+ officinalis.

267. Stachys, Wound-wort..
fylvatica.
paluftris.

268. Marrubium,

hound,
vulgare. .

269. Leonurus, Lions-tail..
Cardiaca,

270, Moluccella. |

? {pinofa.
271. Clinopodium, Bafil=.
weed,
vulgare, .
incanum.
272,Origanum, Marjorams
vulgare.
-t Majorana.
273. Thymus, Thyme.
+ Serpyllum,

Hore=.

+ vulgaris.

‘INDEX FLORA E 17%

} vulgaris.
virginicus.
7A. Dracocephalum, Dra-
gons-head.
virginianum.
+ Moldavica.
275. Ocymum.

+ bafilicum, Sweet-Bafil.

2.706. Trichoftema.
dichotoma.

277, 9cutellaria, Skull-cap.
lateriflora.
integrifolia.

hyffopifolia.

elliptica, Claytoni.. 92.

pubefcens. N. S.

278. Prunella, Self-heal. .

. vulgaris.

a7 gu hhry mang.
Leptoftachya. |
Angiofpermia.

28o. Bartfia.
coccinea.
lutea.

281. Pedicularis,. Loufe--

wort.

afplenifolia, N. S.
canadenfis.

282. Gerardia.
purpurea, Waltert.
erecta, Walteri.
flava.
pedicularia,.

283. Chelone. .
glabra, .

Penthemon.
284, Antirrhinum, Snapdra--
gon.
? Linaria, Ranfted.
285.Scrophularia, Fig-wort.
marilandica.
286 Digitalis, Fox-glove.
+ purpurea.
287. Bignonia,. Trumpet--
flower.
+ Catal pa.
radicans. .
288. Lindernia, Sweet-weed:
pyxidaria,.
289. Obolaria.
virginica.
290. Orobanche, Broom--
rape.
americana. .
virginiana. .
291. Mimulus, Dogs-fnout.
ringens.
alatus, Aitoni.:.
292. Ruellia.
ftrepens.’.

*

CLASSIS. I5¢.

Tetradynamiay
Siliculofa.

293. Myagrum, Camline.-.
fativum.

294. Draba, Whitlow-grafs..
verna.
bifolia. N. S..

295. Lepidium,. Dittanders.
ffativum,

VirginicumMe.

174

290.

2Q7+

298.

299.

301.

302.

303.

LANCASTRIEN SIS.

virginicum.

Thlafpi, Shepherd{-
purfe.

Burfa_ Paftoris.

Cochlearia.

+ Armoracia,Horfe-ra-
difh.

Siliquofa.
Dentaria, Coralwort.
enneaphylla.
Cardamine, Ladief-

mock.
virginica.

. Sifymbrium, Water-

crefs.
nafturtium.
am phibium.
Eryfimum,Worm-feed.
officinale.
+ Barbarea.
Arabis, Turkey-pod.

lyrata.

hifpida ?

canadenfis.

bulbofa, Schreberi. N.S.
Clayton 9g, n. 45.

integrifolia, Clayton 99.
n. 745!

Turritis ?

glabra.

304. Braflica, Cabbage.

ig

+ Napus.

+ Rapa.

+ oleracea.
Sinapis, Muftard.

300.

307.

308.

oLue

310.

Lee

B12.

uh

314.

nigra.

Raphanus, Radifh.
+ fativus.

Cleome.

dodecandra.

CLASSIS .1 6,
Monadelphia,

Decandria.
Geranium, Cranes-bill.
maculatum.
carolinianum.

Polyandria.
Sida, Indian mallow.
{pinofa ?
rhombifolia.
abutilon. -
Althaea, Wymote,
+ officinalis.
Alcea.
+ rofea, Holly hock.
Malva, Mallow.
rotundifolia.
T crifpa.
+ parviflora,
Hibifcus,
paluftris.
} fyriacus.

CLASSIS 17.
Diadelphia,
Hexandria.
Fumaria, Fumitory.
cucullaria.
+ officinalis.
Odfandria.

PNDEX FLOR AE

Odtandria.
315. Polygala, Milkwort.
Senega.
fanguinea.
- verticillata.
Decandria.
Lupinus,. Lupine.
perennis.
Phafeolus, Kidney-
bean.
+ vulgaris.
+ alatus.
f manus.
perennis.
Glycine.
monoica..
Apios..
Clitoria.
mariana. .
Pifum, Peas.
+ fativum.
Vicia, Vetch..
+ pififormis.
fylvatica.
+ Faba. .
Cicer.
+ arietinum.
Robinia, Locuft. .
Pfeudacacia.
+ hifpida.
324. Glycyrrhiza, Liquorice.
+ glabra.
425. Hedyfarum, Saintfoin,
marilandicum, -
frutefcense

310.

317.

Nec Be:

318.
319.
320+

321.

322,

3F3*

175;

viridiflorum;
hirtum.
violaceum.
paniculatum,.
nudiflorum..
repens.
triflorum?:
vifcidum ?.
et alia.

326. Galega, Goats-rue..
virginiana.

327. Trifolium, Trefoil.

¢ Melilotus officinalis,.

reflexum..
repens.
pratente..
arvenfe..
biflorum..

328. Medicago, Medic..

7 lupulina,.

fe SEL ae
Ciassis 18.
Polyadelphia,
Polyandria.
329. Hypericum, Johns--
wort.
Kalmianum.
canadenfe.
perforatum.
quinquenervium, Wal.
teri?

maculatum, Walteri?

CLASSI®:

176
CLASSIS *I9Q.
Syngene/fia,
Polyyamia aequalis.

330. Tragopogon, Goats-
‘beard.
+ porrifolius.
331. Sonchus, Sow-thiftle.
oleraceus.
-floridanus.
332. LaCtuca, Lettuce.
canadenfis,
+ fativa.
333+ Prenanthes, Wild-Let-
tuce, Ivy-leaf..
altiffima.
alba. |
334. Leontodon, Dandelion.
‘Taraxacum.
335. Hieracium, Hawk-
weed. |
venofum.
Gronovit.
paniculatum.
Kalmii.
3306. Hyoferis, Swine-fucco-
ry:
‘virginica.
337. Cichorium, Endive.
+ Intybus.
+ Endrvia.
338. ArGium, Burdock.
Lappa.
339. Serratula, Saw-wort.
pracalta.

(ASF

LAN CAST RA EAN TS.

|

{picata.
340. Carduus, Thiflle.

lanceolatus.

peCtinatus?

virginicus.

fpinofifimus, Walteri?

luteus. N. S.

341. Carthamus, Sas-flower.

+ tinétorius.

342. Bidens, Double-tooth, -

-tripartita,
cerua.
bipinnata.
Cacalia.
fuaveolens.
atriplicifolia.
Fupatorium, Hemp-
weed.
fcandens.
album:
fefilifolium:
hyflopifolium?
trifoliatum.
purpureum.
maculatum.
perfoliatum,
aromaticum,
Polygama fuperflua.
345. Tanacetum, Tanfy.
¢ vulgare.
346. Artemifia, Southern=
wood.
t Abrotanum.

+ Abfinthium,

344.

PRDEXAFE OR AE

ft Abfinthium, Worm-
wood,
+ vulgaris, Mug-wort.
347. Gnaphalium, Cud-
weed.
obtufifolium.
margaritaceum.
plantagineum.
purpureum.
. Conyza, Plowmans-
wort.
afteroides.
Erigeron, Fleabane.
canadenfe.
philadelphicum.
camphoratum ?
Senecio, Groundfell.
hieracifolius ?
aureus, et ali.
After, Starwort.
hyflopifolius.
rigidus.
novae angliz.
undulatus.
grandiflorus.
cordifolius.
puniceus,
novi belgii,
mifer.
macrophyllos,
divaricatus.
et ahae forfan hybri-
dae fp.
352. Solidago, Goldenrod.

co

34

349:

35°:

351.

VOL. IN. Z

177
canadenfis.
altiflima.
lateriflora.
bicolor.
lanceolata.
caefia ?
flexicaulis. 3
latifolia. :
rigida ?
odora, Aitoni.
afpera, Aitoni?
et aliae forfin hybridae.
Inula, Elecampane.
+ Helenium.
Helenium.
autumnale.
355. Zinnia.
T multiflora.
356. Chryfanthemum, Gold-
ins.
T Leucanthemum.
357. Matricaria, Fever-few.
+ Parthenium.
+ Chamomilla.
358. Anthemis, Chamo-
mile.
Cotula.
T nobilis.
359. Achillea, Yarrow:
Maillefolium.
360. Puphthalmum, Oxeye.
Helianthoides.
Polygamia fruftanea.
361. Helianthus, Sun-flow-
er.

353°
A ha

+ annuus,

278

36

ie)

303.

364.

305.
366.

367.

368.

LANCASTRIEN SUS.

+ annuus.
multiflorus.
decapetalus.
tuberofus,
giganteus.

» Rudbeckia.

digitata, Aiton.

hirta.

fulgida, Aitont ?:

Coreoplis.

bidens.

alternifolia.

Centaurea, Centaury.

+ Cyanus.

+ benedidia.

Polymnia,

Uvedalia.

Filago, Cats-foot.

germanica.
Monogamia.

Lobelia, Cardinal-flow-.
er.

Kalmu

pallida, Schreberi. N.S.

Cardinalis.

fiphilitica.

inflata.

Viola, Violet.

palmata.

pedata.

primulifolia.

paluftris?

fagittata, N. &.. Alto
ni.

+ odorata,

canadentfis.

afarifolia,
N.S.

t tricolor.

firicta. Nel Bax

. Impatiens, Touch-me=-
not.

noli tangere.

Schrebe ris.

CLASSIS 20.
Gynandria. .
Diandria.

. Orchis, Fool-ftone-

ciliaris.

ophioglofloides, Wal--
teri.

pallida. Clayton, 136..
n 200?

Ophrys, Tway-blade..

corallorhiza.

cernua.

maculata. N. S..

virginiana, Schreberi..

hyemalis. N.S.

372. Arethufa.

bulbofa.

Cypripedium, Ladie=.
flippers

Calceolus.

album, Aitoni..

acaule, Aitoni.

371:

ay oF

Triandria.
374. Sifyrinchium.
Bermudiana.
Hexandria:

INDEKIFEORAE

Hexandria.

375. Ariftolochia, Birth-

wort.
ferpentaria.
Polyandria.

. Arum, Cuckow-point:

Dracontium,
triphyllum.

. Dracontium.
foetidum.

CLASSIS 21.
Monoecia.

Diandria,

. Lemna, Duck-meat.

minor.

arhiza.
Triandria.

. Typha, Cats-tail.

latifolia.

. Sparganium, Burr-
weed.

erectum.

. Zea, Indian-corn.

+ Mays.

. Tripfacum, Scfame-
grafs.

dactyloides.

. Coix, Jobf-tears.

+ Lacrymays

. Carex, Seg.

patula, Hudfoni?

pulicaris.

leporina.

vulpina,

179

muricata,
loliacea.
paniculata:

varia, Schreberi. N. S.

tomentofa,

panicea.

fylvatica, Hudfoni.

Pfeudocyperus.
paleacea, Schreberi?
TNey oe

acuta.
ariftata, Schreberi. N.S.
curvicollis, Schreberi.
N. S.
veficaria.
cefpitofa.
et aliae:

. Prapia;

Mercurialis ?
Tetandria,

. Betula, Birch.

nigra,
lenta.
Alnus.

. Buxus, Box.

+ fempervirens.

. Urtica, Nettle.

pumila.
| dioica.

“cylindrica.

divaricata.
canadentis.

» Morus, Mulberry.

T alba.

rubra,
Pentandria,

asic)

390.
391.

392.

393:

$94:

396.

LANCASTRIEN STS.

Pentandria.
Xanthium, Clott-weed.
ftrumarium.
Ambrofia,
trifida.
elatior.
artemififolia.
Amaranthus.
albus.
hybridus.
fanguineus.
hypochondriacus.

Sagittaria, Arrow-head, 399.

fagittifolia.
obtufifolia..
lancifolia.
Quercus, Oak.
Prinus.
aquatica, Aitoni..
nigra.

rubra.

difcolor, Aitoni.
alba.

. Tuglans, Walnuts.

alba.

nigra..

cinerea, Wangenheimi;

ovalis, Wangenheimi,
ovata, Marfhalli.

glabra, Wangenheimi?
odorata, Marfhalli.

amara, minima, Mar-
fhalli.

obcordatas.

Fagus.

Bot

398.

4.00.

4Ol.

402.

403.
4.04»

405°

Caftanea, Chefnuts.

pumila, Chinquapin..

ferruginea, Aitoni.
Beech.

Carpinus, Horn-beam,.

Betulus.

Oftrya.

Corylus, Hazle.

+ avellana.

americana, Marfhalli..

cornuta, Marfhalli, ro--
{trata, Aitoni.

Platanus, Plane-tree..

occidentalis..

Liquidambar, Sweet-
gum.

peregrinum.
Monadelphia..

Pinus,, Pine.

inops, Aitoni..

'Taeda.

americana, Wangene.
heim, fig. 36.

+ laricina, Wangene-
heim, fig: 37:

Thuja.

+ occidentalis, Arbor.
vitae:

Acalypha.

virginica.

Ricinus.

+ communis.
Syngenefias.

Momordica.

echinaia. N. S..

406%.

PMO eo FEORAE 8p
406. Cucurbita, Pumpkin. Hoxandria,
+ lagenaria. 434, Smilax.
+ Pepo. rotundifolia.
+ verrucofa. laurifolia,
+ Melopepo. Pfeudochina.
+ Citrullus. 415. Diofcorea.
407. Cucumis, Cucumber. villofa.
} fativus. Oétandria.
CLASSIS 22: 41 6. Populus, Poplar:
ibis tremula.
Dioecia, balfamifera.
Diandria. Dodecandria.
408. Salix, Willow. Menifpermum, Moone.
+ vitellina. : iced:
+ babylonica.. Vee
ay ii.
platen Mata Monadelphia.

humilis, Marfhalli.
fericea, Marfhalli.
alpina, Walteri, triftis,
Aitoni.
+ viminalis,
Tetrandrta:
409. Myrica, Gale.
cerifera.
Pentandria.
410. Zanthoxylum.

fraxinifolium, Marfhal-

li, Prickly-ath.
411. Spinacia, Spinach,
+ oleracea.
412. Cannabis, Hemp.
+ fativa.
413. Humulus, Hop.
Lupulus..

417. Juniperus, Juniper.
+ Sabina
+ communis.
virginiana? Red-Cedar.-

CLASSIS. 23:

Polygamia,
Monoecia.
418. Veratrum, White-Hel-.
lebore..
album. -
luteum..
419. Andropogon, Beard-
grafs.
nutans. .
bicorne,
digitatum. N. S..-
4203.

a$2 LAN CGAS TR TEN'S 16.

420. Holcus, Soft-grafs. ‘CLASSIS 24:
{+ Sorghum,Guinea-corn.

+ Sacharatus, Broom. Ciyptogamia,
lanatus. Filices.
renal SOc sat 430. aaa Horfe-tait.

arventfe.
A421. yee Hedge naE Auta.
echinatus. hyemale.
4.22. Atriplex, Orach. 431. Onoclea,

+ hortenfis. fenfibilis.
423-Acer, Maple. 432. Ophiogloffum.
iA Haeaaenle vulgatum,

chisel 433- Ofmunda, Flowering-
negundo. _ Fern.
424. Celtis. Nettle-tree. ila. sax tak
occidentalis. pea:
‘regalis.
Dioecia. claytoniana.
425.Gleditfia, Honey-locutt. cinnamomea.
if triancanthos. 434. Pteris, Brakes.
426. Fraxinus, Ath. aquilina.
americana, Marfhalli. caudata.
alba. talictroides, Schreberi.
nigra. 434. Afplenium, Spleen-
penfilvanica. wort.
427. Diofpyros, Perfimmon. rhizophyllum.
virginiana. falicifolium.
428. Nyfla, Tupelo-tree. Trichomanoides.
multiflora, Walteri, in- ebeneum, Aitoni.
tegrifolia Aiton. 4.36. Polypodium,Polypody.
429. Panax. Virginianum.
guinguefolium, Gin- Lonchitis.
feng. -cicutarium.
trifolium. phegopteris.

criftatum,

SIN DEX FLORAE: 18%.

criflatum.. pulvinatum,
marginale. pallidum, Schreberi.
bulbiferum. Dillenii, hifs mute.
fragile. 389. t. 49. f. 56.
437. Adianthum, Maiden- et alia.
hair. 443. Hypnum.
pedatum. adianthoides..
438. Lycopodium, Club- rutabulum,
mofs, filicinum.
ferratum. delicatulum,
rupeftre. criftacaftrenfis.
alopecuroides. abietinum.,
complanatum. cuprefliforme.
apodum. dendroides..
obfcurum. Hypnum..

439. Sphagnum, Bog-mofs, . purum.
paluftre. riparium. -

440. Polytrichum, golden- fericeum.

maiden-hair. velutinum..
commune. ferpens.
americanum, Dillen.: {ciuroides..

AQA? te eee U2. julaceum.

441. Mnium.. Dillenii Hift. mufc.
paluftre. 222 THLE, EGO.
cufpidatum. et alia.
proliferum. Algae.
undulatum, et alia. 444. Jungermannia:

442.Bryum, Wall-mofs. viticulofa.
ftriatum. dilatata.
pomiforme. platyphylla.
pyriforme. et aliae.
rurale. 445. Marchantia.
{copaium. . | tenella.
undulatum, conica,
glaucum. 440, Lichen, Liver-wort.

calcarius.

184

calcarius.
-ericetorum,
fagineus.
faxatilis,
parietinus.
granofus, Schreberi.
phyfodes.
ciliaris,
pulmonarius.
calicaris.
caperatus.
crinitus, Schreberi.
aphthofus.
caninus.
fylvaticus.
miniatus.
puftulatus,
cocciferus.
pyxidatus.
gracilis.
foliaceus, Hudfoni.
rangiferinus.
uncialis.
pafchalis.
plicatus.
hirtus.
floridus.
et alia multi novi.

447. Tremella.
juniperina.
mefenteriformis.
et aliae.

Fungi.

448. Agaricus.

cam pettris.

449.

450.
451.

452+

453.

LANCASTRIENSITS.

violaceus.
vifcidus.
fimetarius.
acicularis.

quefcinus.

ochraceus.
et permulti aliz.
Boletus.
fuberofus:
fanguineus.
verficolor.
luteus.

et alii.
Hydnum.
parafiticum.
imbricatum.
Phallus, Morille.

efculentus,

impudicus.
Peziza, Cup-Muth-
room.
lentifera.
auricula.
et alae.
Clavaria, Club. ie
room. =~
militaris. a of
digitata.
Hypoxylon.

coralloides.

454. Lycoperdon, Truffle.

Tuber.

bovifta,

NP.)

ne

nan

not

ra - * Y f
: at » 5 See r 4 M
| * F wy nu ge ry he -
‘ ; th ea a a
wy VR ees ae ae at
‘ . f ie Be:
> i |

x ee A
wes TNs. C2
sti OER LT Ue AN |
+ i 7 1 eke aie, ; iS i;
eae (6 pepe saben ithe: Lipa a, .
¥ ae y 7 VES he /
® e . ;

Pb aba, i
ina

tie en Wee ties, ie a ee ee aad a ia et y
4 , 7 r } ! |
ni Mess ae
| ayy pe:
|
nia oe
a a |
?
: a
we sie ’

Poe Creer
EP 5 7

La ets, .
* a Lie .
i n 4 id :

en
img

Plate 4

e Fig. 3
C gel
Sa Pd

—

J ui
‘ny: C

Hii

lit

a,

CT B57}

N°. XXII.

Inveftigation of the Power of Dr. BARKER’s, Mill, as
amproved by JAMES RUMSEY, with a defexiption. of
the Mill, by Wm. WARING.

Teicipton of the Mill. Plate 4. Fig. 2.

Read Sept. T. Is the rotatory; being a tube or trunk
ae into which the water is conveyed by a pipe
from the head H, through the neck N and collar C, to
the apertures m, n, on contrary fides; where, by its re-
action in pafling off, it occafions a forcible rotation round
the axis or {pindle X P, which paffes through the lower
millftone S and turns the upper one M, or effeéts other
purpofes.
Of the proper capacity of the pipe by which the water is

conveyed from the head Hto the rotatory at N.
Let e= the area of the water’s paflace at N

h= the perpendicular height of H above N
> us the’ perpendicular depth of any part of the pipe
below H |
= the area at the depth ubelow H

Then, the areas in the feveral parts of the pipe (being in«
verfely as the velocities) muft be in the inverfe fubdupli-
cate ratio of the depths below the head; wherefore S=74.
which gives x=ev"; fo that the pipe mnt widen towards
the head H in the proportion of 1 to ¥2; and if the area
at any given height be lefs than ey} the water will be ob-
firuGed in its paflage.

This theorem (x=ey*) alfo applies to the pipe of a
fire-engine, &c. h being — height of the nozzle from the
VOL. HI. Fs ee Bea, bottom

186 Dr. BARKER's MILL

bottom of the air veflel toward which the water is uni=
formly accelerated, u=the height of any other part.

If p=the preffure of the fluid by its gravity, at the depth,
h, in a pipe, the area of which is every where=ey-, it
will be, as eh: ue ¥2:: p: pv¥#,=the preflure or momen»
tum at the depth u below H.

Of the initial power of the machine or force with which;
it begins to move.*

fa=area of either aperture
| h= height of the water above the cen- > in feet:
4 tres of the apertures
a. avoirdupois=the Wt. of a

cubic foot of water,
Required, [=the initial force, or that with which the ma--
chine begins to move;

If we conceive the water preffing in the tube from O
toward I, previous to the opening of the apertures, it 1s
evident it will not produce any motion, becaufe the action
againft each fide is the fame: wherefore the preflure a-
gainft the part m, which is to be removed for an opening,
is equal that oppofed to the fame area e in the oppolite
direction; now, when the part m is opened, the re-a¢tion.
thereof ceafes, and the equal impulfe remaining on the:
contrary fide e, will be the force required. Viz. ah w for
each brachium; confequently, I= 2hwa =the power with
which the rotatory commences its motion. But, as the
velocity of rotation increafes, the relative velocity of the
water to that of the tube, and confequently the power, is
diminished, notwithftanding what is gained by -

Given,

The

® Benjamin Martin, in his Philofophia Britannica Vol. I. page 217, has attempted to
compute the power of fuch a machine, by the weight and velocity of water emitted per fe-
cond, &c. without finding the force neceffary to expel it; but it is not the force accumulat-
ed during afecond, or any given times, we require, but the power acting continually or at.
any infant confidered abfractedly trom the idea of time.

IMPROVED sy J. RUMSEY. 18%

The centrifugal force.
Let x=diftance of any point in the radius from
the centre of motion in feet

r=radius or length of the arm, .

a and w as before,

t=time of a revolution in feconds.
Then a will alfo be the area of a fection of the water paf-
fing through the tube, at right angles to its dire@ion (or
of fo much of it as we muft compute the centrifugal force
for) which multiplied by the fluxion of x, and by w will
be wax=the Wt. of the evanefcent quantity or moving
plane a x, which is the fluxion of the current water in the
tube; and, by the dotrine of central forces, as t?:

1.228awx x
1,.226x::aw x:——-—-—= the centrifugal force thereof at
t?
x Ft. from the centre of motion, or the fluxion of th
whole centrifugal force of the quantity pafling through
either brachium at any time; the fluent of which, when
76.7 5ar”
x=r, being doubled, is —--—---—— =the central force of the
.
water in both arms; which is equal to the augmentation
of power thereby occafioned at the apertures, becaufe fluids
prefs equally in all direCtions. But this force is greatly
counteracted by
The Inertia of the Fluid.

The Inertia of the rotatory tube, with the contained
fluid, would not continue to refift the moving power, af-
ter the velocity became uniform, werethe fame fluid re-
tained therein to which the motion had been at firft im-
parted; but as this paffes off, and there is a continual
fucceflion of new matter acquiring a motion in the direGion
of the rotatory, there muft be a conftant rea&tion again{t
the infide of the tube, by the inertia of the fluid, equal

to the communicating force. Now this reaction is very
Aa 2 different

#83 Dr. BARKER’s MILL’

different from that of a fluid confined in the tube whenit
begins to move, becaufe a particle at the extremity of the
tube is not toreceive its whole circular motion there, but
has gradually acquired it by a uniform acceleration during
its paflage along the tube: fo that inftead of the ufual way
of computing inertia by the centre of gyration, I muft in-
veftigate a new theorem for the purpofe (at leaft new to
me) which may be thus;

Suppofe a particle P (plate a fig. 3,) * moving iniform=
ly in the line and direGtion CA, while this line has a uni-
form horizontal motion toward the pofition CB; thea P
defcribes the common fpiral of Archimedes to Q, &&c. and
the velocities in P and Q, in the direCtion of the circum-=
ferences pafling through thofe points, are as thofe circum-
ferences, or as their radii CP, CQ, &c. in which ratio
are alfo the times of its moving from C to P, Q, &c. And
fince the velocities are as the times of moving from C,
(as is the cafe of a body falling from reft) the particie P
muft be uniformly accelerated, in the direction Pn by a
conftant equable force, like that of gravity; therefore its:
reaction againft the moving line CA, by its inertia, muft
be the fame in every point from C to A; hence the mid-
dle point of the radius is to be confidered as the centre of
reliftance in this cafe.

Let x = CP, the diftance in feet of a particle P from

the centre at any inftant.
v = the velocity of P per fecond, in the direCtion:
of the radius CA.
c = 3. 1416; a, r, t and w, as before.
Then the moving plane or particle P will be ax, and its
2Cx
weight ax lbs. as before, alfo its velocity= ——and the:
t
time
® The velocity muft be uniform if the tube be prifmical; but the effect in this cafe will be
the fame if it taper, and the water be accelerated; for the fame quantity in the fame time

Tals through (and is a¢ted upon) by every part. Otherwile we fhould ufe the logarithmic
pira

IMPROVED sy J. RUMSEY. 189

time of its acquiring that velocity, z.¢. of pafiing from
Cto P,= X: now the accelerating force neceilary to com-
Vv 2cx
municate a velocity of—--feet per fecond, toa body weigh-
° t CWavx
ing awx lb, in § feconds will be —1b.=the fluxion of
16t
the inertia, and the fluent, when x becomes =r, will be
12.272avr
——-—— b.=the refiftance oppofed to either brachium, to
t

be eftimated as if accumulated at 1 r from the centre of
motion ; confequently equal to the effect at both apertures
when reduced to their diftance, Q.EF.

This may be obtained independently of fluxions; by
confidering, that the whole cuantity of water (r wa) in

r
the time (—) of its pafling through the rotatory, acquiresa
2crv
velocity (—-)equal to, and in the direction of, the aper-
t
tures, as it is carried with the tube out of its natural courte;
12.272avr

> as

to produce which the neceflary force will be
t
before.
Acquired velocity of the water.

The velocity of the water through the apertures at the
beginning of rotation is 8yh (by the eftablifhed principles
of hydroftatics) and,as 2 wah; 8yn\*7=64h:: 2awh

76.7 5a 39,296r-
4+— —: 6ah4+—--——=the fquare of the augment-

eS t* O14r*
ed velocity; the fquare root of which is 8y¥(h+——)=
the acquired velocity of the water, t*
| Proportion

190 Dre. BARKER’s MILL
Uh of the central force to the Inertia.

<614r’* 12.272aVvr,
By fubftituting 8 v(h4+———--)for Vy) in —— it be~
98.1 76ar* hey ie* t
comes———-—-——x / (—-+ .6 14) =the inertia 5 and, as the
Be 7

56,7 5ar*_98.176ar*,. .. ht*

central force— —:———— x V/( host ES
is aS de
ht” 1.63Sht*

1,29 + +.614 =v 14+{(———--); that is, the

aa Ts

power gained by centrifugal force is to the obftrudtion oc-=
cafioned by the inertia, in theproportion of 1 to v (1+
1.63Sht*

——--—-); by which itappears that the latter is the great-

os |

ter, except whent or h=o, or r infinite; cafes nev-
er occuring in practice; and that the longer the brachia, the
lefs the fall of water, and the greaterthe velocity of ro-
tation are, the nearer thefe forces approach the ratio of
equality ; but as we always find fomething in praCical ma-
chanics to prevent our “ running into infinitecimals,”” fo
here we are particularly limited; for in the

Adjufiment of the parts and motion.

The centrifugal force fhould not exceed the gravity of
the rotating WAG or this water would be drawn into the
tube fafter than the natural fupply at its entrance, by the
velocity proper to that dept : confequently muft lofe the
prefure of the column above it: nor fhould the velocity
of the apertures, be greater than half that of the water
through them; for the apertures being ftill adapted to the
vel< ocity, the effluent quantity or number of acting parti-
cles is as the time; confequently ae momentum is in the

{imple

YMPROVED’ sy J. RUMSEY. Lok

fimple ratio of the relative velocity as before demonftrat=

ed {at page 146) for the underfhot wheel: hence, the

greateit effet will be produced when the central force =

gravity, and the velocity of the apertures—! that of the

water; that is, 22s" _2war; and, 2 _4Vvh-+r. from
which equations we have the following.

40 == ot .
Viz. Bossa sea nearly, where we find,.
== yore oh nits, Set? ,-about’ the
conftant ratio of 5, 3 and 1.

Yet we may obferve here, that whiler and t are pre-

7637 5ar* 12.272ave

fervedinaconftant ratio, the valueof — and

i ji

z. €. the central force and inertia muft remain the fame;

fo that the brachia may be made to.any length at pleafure

(not lefs than-+ h) if the time of revolution be proportion-

al, viz. if t= 7.6141, 2. e. if the velocity of the apetures

be not varied; for a double radius, rotating in a double

time, or with + the angular velocity, has the fame abfo-

lute velocity at the extremity; and, with the fame power,

there applied, will produce the fame effet. Wherefore,

to find,,

The moving force and velocity of the Machine, when the
effect 1s a Maximum.

If we put. 614r for t* and 3r for h, as before, in the ex-
1.638ht*

preffion y (1+ --—)itbecomes y 143 = 2; inwhich cafe
ee
the refiftance of inertia is juft double * the central force, or

the:

* It iscemonftrable, that the centrifugal force will be to the inertia, as the velocity of
the apertures, isto that of the fluent water; hence allo, in the prefent cafe, they bear the
proportion above itated, exactly,

192 Dre. BARKER’s MILL

the gravity of the water in the tube, = 125ar, which ta-
ken from the impelling force, leaves 62,5(ah-+r)—125ar=
62,5a x h—r (taking r=+h)= 41 3 ah Ib. avoirdupois=
the real moving force, at the diftance of the centres of the
apertures from the centre of motion. And, by a like fub-
ftitution, the velocity 4V¥h+r becomes 4 /ith=4,62Vhb
feet per fecond, QE F.

Area of the apertures.

If A =the area'of a fection of the race, perpendicular
to the direGtion of its motion; V= its velocity per fe-
cond, both in feet; aand has before; then it will be, AV =

6144
8avh a -cubic feet = the quantity of water emitted
i AV
per fecond; hence, a= —-- the area proper for one
8.924Vh
of the apertures.
Scholium. °

Were the apertures quiefeent, their area fhould be en-
larged inthe proportion cf ¥ hto v1 +h, or of 1 toy 14
to difcharge the fame quantity; but then the efluent velo-
city would be diminifhed in the fame ratio; wherefore,
awah — 41° ah, with the fame velocity, 4,62Vh as above,
will be alfo very nearly the true moving force ofa wellcon-
firucted underfhot wheel (J. Smeaton, &c.) Wherefore
may be. confidered, in effect, nearly, if not exadlly tanta-
mount, when they have the fame quantity and fall of wa-
ter; the beft overfhot being nearly double to either.

From the preceding calculus arededuced the following

Eajy

IMPROVED sr J.RUMSEY. 193
LEafy practical rules.

1. Make the arm of the rotatory tube, from the centre
of motion to the centre of the aperture, of any conveni-
ent length, not lefs than + of the perpendicular heizht of
the water’s furface above thefe centres.

2. Multiply the length of the arm, in feet, by .614,
and take the fquare root of the produ& for the proper
time of a revolution in feconds, and adapt the other parts
of the machinery to this velocity 3 or,

3 If at the time of a revolution be given, then, multi-
ply the fquare of this time by 1.63 for the proportional
length of the arm.

4. Multiply together the breadth, depth and velocity
per fecond of the race, and divide the laft product by 8.924
times the fquare root of the height, for the area of either
‘aperture.

5. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height
‘of the head of water, and the product by 412 (or by go
‘on common occafions) for the moving force, eftimated at
the centres of the apertures in pounds avoirdupois.

6. The power and volicity at the apertures may be eafi-
ly reduced to any part of the machinery by the common
rules of mechanics.

VOL. II. Bb N*, XXIII,

N°. XXII.

AThermometrical Fournal of the temperature of the atmof~
phere and Sea, on a voyage to and from Oporto, witd
explanatory obfervations thereon.

Philadelphia, Sept. 18, 1792...
BT. Re

Read Sept. N the roth of June laft Capt. William Bil-
pa ic Meth lings of this city, commander of. the fhip.
Apollo, prefented the journals of his voyages.to and from
Oporto, for the infpeétion of the American Philofophical
Society. As they were not accompanied.by any explana-
tory memoir, I have extracted from them what alone dif-
fers from fea reckoning in general, and inclofe a thermo-
metrical journal of the temperature of the atmo!phere and
fea, which evidently appears. to be the obje& of the com~
munication. As it was proper to fhow that thefe obfer-
yations were not imaginary, and had arifen in the courfe
of his voyages, Capt. Billings prefented his whole jour-
nals, confifting of 73 pages in folio, with all the detail.
of a log book, which in original are depofited among
the fociety’s papers. * |
As the experiments of this intelligent navigator, appear
to be repetitions of thofe I made near two years before, which.
are related in my memoir No. X. page 82 of this volume,,
I beg leave to make the following obfervations on them.
By thefe journals it appears that in June, 1791, the
water on the coaft was at the temperature of 61°. by Fah-
renheit, and in the Gulph ftream at_77°, By my journals
it will be foundthatin November, 1789, the water on the
coat

* The temperature of the water was tried feveral times every day, but in this extract it

was thought proper only to notice the important changes, a fuccellion of fimilar refults being
thought unneceflary,

THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL. 193
coaft was at 47°. and in the gulph ftream at, 70°, viz

By Capt. Billings, | By my experiments | ‘if. between

1791, June, coaft, 61 | 1789 Nov. coaft, 47 Hieaes.
do. Stream, 77 do. ftream, 70 7

ee
——

do. fiream warmer, 16 | do. ftream warmer23 |

— eee

Hence it may be concluded that although this difference
of heat is more remarkable in winter than in fummer,
yet itis fafficient at all times to guide navigators, fo as to
take the benefit of its current in going from, and to avoid
its oppofition in coming to Ametica.—In the latter cafe,
it has this additional convenience in correcting a reckon-
ing; for if a navigator can, by this means, know the
moment he is within the ftream, he knows at the fame
moment his relative fituation as to the coaft; and if by
repeated experiment this mode of correétion fhould be
found folid, it amounts, in effect, to a certainty of the lon=
gitude, at the precife time when it is important to be ac-
curate. ,

Captain Billings’ courfe being nearly along the flream,
he found only fuch alteration in the heat of the water as
may be accounted for by the cooling of the ftream itfelf,
in its courfe to the northward, "till he came to lat. 39. 00.
N. long. 56. 00. W. (a breaft of the Banks of Newfound=
land) when the mercury fell 10°. Dodtor Franklin, in
November, 1776, on board of the Reprifal, in lat. 41.
N. long. 46. W. found about the fame difference; but
the Reprifal had kept a courfe farther fouth and came in-
to this cool water in a N. N. E. dire€tion ; while Captain
Billings being farther North, came in an eafterly directi-
on, and of courfe might be as much within the influence

iD Db +e , of

196 THERMOMETRICAL. JOURNAL.

of that chain of banks which extends from the longitude
45 W. along the American coaft, as the Reprifal was when
fo much farther to the eaftward. In November 1789, I.
found the fame difference in lat. 40. N. long. 49. W. after,
failing in a dire&tion.about N. E. and a line being drawn.
from the place where Captain Billings’s change happened,
to that where Doétor Franklin’s thermometer fell! (in a di-
rection about E. N E.) would nearly interfe&. the place
where I obferved the fame alteration; this.is about the
{weep of the banks, known by frequent founding, as will.
be found by confulting the beft charts——By the coincidence
of thefe three journals, at fo great-a: diftance of time, and
without any knowledge of, confequently without any
connection with each other, this important fact feems to.
be eftablithed. A navigator may difcover his approach
towards objects of danger, when he is at fuch a diftance
as to be able eafily to avoid. them, by attentively examining
the temperature of the fea.

After having paffed the banks, Captain Billings found
but little difference during 18 days fail, till he came near
the European coaft. The fame uniformity appears in my
journal on a voyage to England, Page 85 of this volume.

Captain Billings found the water to grow cooler three
days before he made the land, and the mercury fell gradu-
ally from 65 to 60° when the land appeared: this was in
June. In November I found on approaching the Englith
coaft a gradual fall from 53 to 48° and then we ftruck
foundings. Here the difference between the fea and coaft
water was in both cafes. the fame, though the heat of both.
varied with the feafon.

Returning from Oporto, Captain Billings marked his.
approach to, and departure from the weltern Iflands by
the changes of his thermometer, but inthis cafe the dif-
ference was fmall; becaufe, owing to the climate and fize
ta

THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL 197

af thefe Iflands, the land cannet be fo cold as a northern con--
tinent naturally mut be. Indeed, the ufefulnefs of the ther--
mometer feems to beapplicable tothe more dangerous fitua-
tions, and not to Iflands in warm climates; J fhould fuppofe,.
for obvious reafons, that the changes. would-not be great
about the Iflands fituated between the tropics.. The {hore
of thefe Mlands is generally bold, and the land. being
very high, may be feen. at a great diftance.. The
climate is not fubje& to fogs, {now ftorms, Hlands of Ice,
long nights, &c. fothat, except hurricanes, (which are
more fatal to fhips in port than at fea) there feems-to be but:
little danger in fuch navigation...

After leaving the weftern Iflands, Captain Billings fleer--
ed to the weftward, being in nearly the fame lattitude on
the 30th (37° 47° N.) that he was on the 17th of Auguft.
(37° 53° N.) but during the intermediate time he was dri-
ven, as winds prevailed, in.a zig zag courfe,.as far North
as 39° o4 N. and as far fouth as 36° 26.N. It appears
alfo during this time that his thermometer varied from 1°
to.5° ;. but: it 1s-to be remarked .that there-is a. me--
dium in his thermometrical variations. anfwering to the:
medium of his lattitude. When he was in 39° o4. the
thermometer marked 75° and when in 36° 26. it alfo
marked 75° but when in 38° 12. it marked 70°.. Now
confidering that he had the warm influence of the gulph
fiream to the Northward, and that the ocean water to the
fouthward muft naturally be warmer thanthat more North,
out of the ftream, there feems to be a perfedt agreement
between .theory and fa&t with regard to the ulefulnefs
of the thermometer in difcovering the courfe of this cur-
rent. The fame thing occurred in the courfe of my
paflage in the London Packet with Door Franklin, (fee:
Vol. 2. page 329 of the Tranfactions of this fociety) in:

June.

ot

493 THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL.

June 1785. The mean there was 73 while to the north-
ward and fouthward the thermometer marked 77.

Returning towards the coaft of America, Captain Bil-
lings difcovered his paflage acrofs the gulph ftream by a
fudden fall i in the mercury of 5° from noon to night, and
about 5° farther Weft, by a further fall in the foace of 8
hours run, he difcovered the coaft, where he got foundings,
before he faw the land.

The ufefulnefs of the thermometer as a nautical inftru-
ment is not confined to the difcovery of an approach to-
wards objects of danger known to exif?; but it, may if at-
tended to, difcover others not at prefent fuppofed to exit,
againft which a navigator cannot be on his guard. Seve-

ral charts, particularly one made by Governor Pownall, in
September 1787, point out rocks and breakers in the mid-
dle of the ocean; fome are faid to be uncertain, others
have been feen but once, and preferve the names of their
fuppofed difcoverers. ‘Thefe facts are generally doubted,
and by fome mariners have been ridiculed; but it fhould:
be confidered that in every inftance where the difcovery of
thefe hidden dangers have been fatal, no one could efcape
to tell the melancholy tale, and furely the number of mif+
fing fhips juftifies a conjecture that fuch misfortunes have
happened, and ought to influence every navigator to make
accurate obfervations on the temperature of the fea during
the whole of his voyage.

A gentleman of undoubted veracity related to me fome
time fince, the following fa&, which I mention on ac-'
count of its aptitude to this fubject.

On a voyage from the Weft-Indies to England, the
fmall veffel hie was in, touched at Bermuda. On leaving:
that ifland, having fine weather and a fmooth fea, they
failed along a ridge of rocks, feeing the bottom very plain-

ly

<

THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL. rg69

Ty all the time, till the ifland was out of fight; in this
place they fpoke a large fhip, the Captain of which, had
no idea of his fituation.; he had not noticed the bottom,
and was failing in full confidence of being far from dan--
ger. On being defired to look over the fide of his fhip,.
the whole crew was in the utmoft confternation, and hove
the fhip too, with all her jails fett. He was foon inform-
ed of his true lonvitude, and took.a new departure. Had
this Captain kept a thermometrical-journal he would not,
probably, have been fo deceived, and-had. he at this time
been in a gale of wind, his error might have been fatal.
Every body in this city remembers the dreadful cataf-
trophe of the fhip Faithful Steward, which was loft, on
this coaft, with near 500 people on: board, about feven
years fince. The Captain was fo fure of having fufficient
fea room, that he did not think of founding, the weather
was not boifterous and had he known his fituation he
mi2ht have ftood off during the night.. But fearlefs of a
danger he did not know, he ftood on with full fails, and
was inan inftant loft: Ithink there were not above twen-
ty fouls faved. A thermometer regularly ufed would
have given warning in-time, and probably have faved
thefe lives.

The impreffion fuch events have made on my mind,
has induced me to be thus particular, and I the more rea-
dily do juftice, to the judicious example given to other
Captains, by Captain Billings, becaufe I think the obfer-
‘vations of a mariner, are more likely to be attended to
by mariners, than any inftruction given by a landfman.
‘think befides, that the merit of Captain Billings, ought
to be rewarded, by a publication of his laudable. condua,

that

zoo THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL.

that he may enjoy the reputation to which he is juflly en»
titled, |

Tam with great réfpeat, ‘Sit
Your moft obedient and
Mott humble Servant,

JONATHAN WILLIAMS,

One of the Secretaries of the
¢ American Philofophical Society.

A Thermometrical Journal of the temperature of the atmo/~
phere and fea ona paffage from Philadelphia to Oporto
athe Ship Apollo, by Captain William Billings.

ee

1791 | Placesinat Noon | ‘Temp. of
Dates. | Time. : Motes.
| Late. N.jLon. W. | Air.| Water.
June 6. | Sunsrife. | 38 56 | 75 07: 61 Off Cape Henlopen.—N. B. The
2P. M.} 38 38 | 74 28. 66 thermometerison Fahrenheit’sfcale
‘| Sun fett. 65 66 and the longitude Weit from Lon-
8 |10 A. M. 70 don.—The days are reckoned to
Noon, | 37 18 | 72 34 4 75 4% begin at Noon and to end at the
10 | Noon. | 38 03 | 68 494 73 a4 fucceeding noon accerding to the
Ir | Noon. 38. 5t | 6S. 57.4 66 tok ulage of navigators.
32 | Noon. | 39 02 | 63 22 } 71 71 June &th. at 10 A. M. being the
34 | Noon. | 39 11 | 56 48 62 firft alteration in the heat of the

THs} Noon. 1g 37.) FS. UAgi ay at 65 water after leaving the coaft it is
From this date to the 2d July the variationsin 7 fuppofed we entered the gulph
Sn heat of the fea water do not exceed two anf ftream, The courfe is not acrois,
grees, they need not therefore be noticed. but rather alongthis current, fome=
what diagonally however.
65 | June roth atnoon itis fuppofed we
arein the middle ofthegulph ftream.
3 | Noon. |:40 05 | 13 23 | 68 64 Junea4th noon this fudden fall
of 9? s ra be owing to
, ‘| the influence of the banks of New-
. mo z
4ifategn ase B TO ae ee 5 foundland which bear about N.

July 2d] Noon. | 40 16] 15 ga] 68

512P.M: 68 63 July 4th the water appears to
have changed colour.
+P.M. ! 60 Land in fight, but frequently obe
} {cured by fog.
8 A.M. 57 Land diftant about 6 leagues.
Noon. 55 Land diftant about 2 leagues be-

ing the high land of Braganea nova

A Thermometrical

THERMOMETRICAL JOURNAL. 201

A Thermometrical Fournal of the temperature of the at=

mofphere and fea, on a paffage from Onorto to Philade|-
phia, inthe Ship Apollo, by Captain William Billings.

Places in at Noon. {Temp. ‘of

1791 Time. Nores.
Dates. Lat. N.| Long. W. | Air.| Wat.
Aug. 4, |10 A.M. 57 lport barr: bearing ESE dift. 7leagues.
Noon. 9 04 60
5 | Noon. ¥B~OON | 1004 | LOTR yet "
6] 8A.M. 69 | 65 ,
Noon. 17:06 | -69:| 67 But about half of degree difference
4+ \t0 P. Mi 20 24 68 | 68 fof latitude during 5 days, and little
8 | Noon. 2% OF 69 | 68 for nochange in the temperature of the
9 | No on. 22 49 | 68 | 68 ¥ fea.
zo | No on. Ne 68 | 68
‘21 | No on. 24 C2 69 | 7 1) N.B.1and£ degree fouthing water
3° warmer.
to P. M. 70 |At 4PM made the ifland St. Michael
Midnight 69 [Ifland dift. 4 leagues, tack’d and ftood
‘32 | Noon. WA. sis 4% | 70 off, at 5 A M. tack’d and flood to
14 | Noon. 27 07 G3) Gz the fouthward.
ES. [22 Eee. 72 | go {Made the ifland Tercera. at 4 P. M.
Sunfet. 72 | 69
Sunrife. 68 | Near Tercera, St. Georges and Pico in
16 | 2P.M. 27 5% 73] 70 | fight:
Sunfet, 69
10oP. M. 68 |Clofe in with St. Georges.
Midnight 1 69 ‘
Noon. 27 20 | 73 | 71 {Land out of fight:
17 |10o P.M. JO) 172,
Noon. 27 39 73
18 | Noon. 28 44 73
I9 | Noon. 31 39 3
20 | Noon. 34 31 74} 75
ai |}I0 P.M. 744 74
Io A. M. 70
Noon. 69
‘2% | Noon. 36 48 4° 69
23 | Noon. 28 49 74 | 73
24 |tIoP. M. 38 49 74) 73
Noon, 4I 32 aI
25 | Noon. 44.17 75
26 | Noon. 46 44 75
27 | Noon, 50 Io 70
28 | Noon. 51 28 75
29 | Noon. 52 3% V4 1 44
30.| Noon. 53 20 741.95
sare. Vi 721 70
‘s goon 53 20 69
sept. I, oon. fo) I
2 |Midnight els ae se

VOL. TE

A Thermometricat

\e cA
a ae St ge -
, *
v

202 MEMOIR on THe PLANTS catrep

AThermometrical Journal of the temperature of the atmof=-
phere and fea, ona paffage from Oporto to Philadelphia,,
in the [hip Apollo, by Capt. William Billings, continued.

Places in at Noon. |Temp. off, ‘
1791 Sne., |e en ee eee ere NorTeEs.
Dates. Lat. N. | Long, pie Aaah
Sept. 2 | Noon. 40 57 55 20 20. 1972 .
3 | Midnight 71 a
~~ | Noon. | 40.56.) 57 52. | 79] 73.1: ais
~*~ 4-| Noon. | 39 10] 5918 | 741 74 .
5 | Noon: 89.17 61 Ir 74.1 765]. « f
6 | Midnight} - 77 \This rife indicates, the gulph fiream. -
Noon. 40 06 63 20 44.1 78 tuo Ped.
4 | Noon, 40 36 66 03 Pins
8 | Noon. 40 OF 67 23 Tr i:
10 P. M. 41 | 73 |This fall indicates the weftern fide of .
Midnight 72 | the gulph ftream. ,
4A.M.}, 7x
~ | Noon. 39 29 Tay 73
ro | Noon. 39 I9 | 72 08 Tae es)
x1 | Noon. 39 Of. fe 72 33 74475
x2 | Noon. 38.57 } 73 21 74) 74
13 | Noon. 38.53 | a7 35 94.) 75
x4 } Noon. 39 21 73°32 75 |. 73
15 | 6OP.M. 744 69
8A. M. 68 ‘Sounded in 25 fathoms.:
N°. XXIV..
Firftt Memoir of Obfervations on the Plants denominated
Cryptogamick.
Nufquam natura major quam.in minimis.
. PLIN.
Read Feb: LTHOUGH the procefs of nature in-the-
> ‘iy, Qe . . .
= a formation and reproduction of all organifed .

bodies is evidently uniform, yet there are philofophers.
and naturalifts who fcruple to admit this general principle
in all inftances, and think it fill liable to fome exceptions,
madi Fe: : oe een oe

Figs 2

g. The calyx (perichetium) of only one piece, at the bottom of the
tube.
. The fame of many pieces, or folioles.
. The flower of the Fontinalis, furrounded by the calycine folioles.
. The cawl (calyptra) of the Bryum extinétorium of Linnzus.
. Another fpecies of cawl which is more common.
. The hairy caw! of the Polytrichum.
. The complete flower of the Hypnum.
. The fame in the Maium Polytrichoides (Linn. ), the caw] of which
is hairy.
9. A very {mall tubular corolla, the opercule of which is obtufe.
Sphagnum.
zo. A corolla, of which the opercule isconic- Hypnum, Bryum, ce.
31. A corolla, of which the opercule is pointed. Bryuwm, Muium.
az. A corolla, the opercule of which is in the form of a chapiter,
flattened at the bafe. Polytrichum.
23. Acorolla the opercule of which is in the form of a chapiter,
rounded at the bafe. Bryum.
14. The corolla, ftalk, leaves and root of the Pha/cum.
as- The corolla of the Polytrichum commune, opened after its explotiop,
& A thread fhut up in the tube.

os! Ae BO hb

Volt. 3 Pa. 209

13

Lf

S Mardice

B. The tubé-openedy

C. The calyx.

D. The flower opened.

E. The capfule torn off, after maturity,
F. The apophyfis.

26. The corolla of the Hypnum velutinum (Linn.) opened after the
efcape of the pollen.

A. The pollen, or fecundating powder.

B. The capfule, furrounded with the fecundating powder,

C. The calyx.

17. The corolla of the Hypnum at the moment of fecundation,
A. The interior cills.
B. The exterior cills.

18. An horizontal portion of the urne, feen with the microfcope
A. The epidermis.

B. The fecundating powder,

C. The caplule and feeds,

bait

; . r ‘is
ao fe "

qe te al Pre Y e
A963 Sy vemeok au'T -¢
Fart ea) fwna ofl os

“ke (es ) fed 5 band
+ * ote oan dnd ‘or. i
eo rides sea, a f ‘4 ; A

y : aby bes kee 38
: take i: * : rch 3 j se ae bch dient 2
Be Hae rR m7 ie sit anh be a Sibu iksenbenr
a4 b+ Se bite bth ithe f b sty sefF

ah in ive 5 ab Bb ess he lege 7 Hatt ss aK sit rwertrnce # at Kode te oats oT }
We 1 Hig fy) yaa AR Meee |
m™ ca 9 { | Hla Abou ba iy

io ¢ ae , a4 ta vee + im wit te i" erat vg | Late pene ee. * eival issu: danse, phaser 0s ead
Pert : MMs ty sored ATO ge eae rol, Tbsyaiitg Wd wlupraqa at dujetwe Yor arifhran A 4

‘ “a yey sD OG ee dow Tottien! wh tit oh Astiive to atustage 10) plore A at
aM + ‘ : stenrbietgiv®: tipo sls ae: haeeeebas

RI vip habh ancite ean 2H! PEGE TARE Loe OM estes) ptm seenil ony i od sitdter tena alt wilotes A. tet
; ie eee teat f 3 Tt 0 yee okie’ ciel os Lentnaiclage og
Labwoy eiaaniiade 8 etal 3 te tage Dite. sowiel Jubiadt trea OE BE
an bak yo ME S$) tte iad avcuiea tp amen ero suri

hal |
. , ‘ J fei i ry ae

» . PLES he cS) ci aaa tat oes

Sa 6 4

-

1s
:

RT TAS eta eer CR 48h

More than’ninetéen twentieths of the animals and vege-
‘tables which are known‘to us are regencrated’*by means of
certain ‘effential parts, inherent ur'their organick conflitu~
tion. ' Thefe parts or organs of generation are fo apparent,
and fo eafy of: deriotftration, that ‘no plaufible fyftem can
be founded on the contrary hy pothelis. This 1s not the
tafe with thofe individuals the organization of which 1
more fimple, and of which the fexual parts efpecially are
fo extremely minute, and fo concealed’ from the eye, that
they have’hitherto efcaped the obfervation of p philofophers.
Hence have fprung thofe more or lefs ingenious, but al-
ways erroneous, fyftems, which, at the fame time that
they do credit to the genius of their authors, are clearly
repugnant to reafon. Wence, thofe numerous differtati-
ons filled with captious reafonings, and in fome refpecs .
not without depth of refearch, but in dire@ oppofition to
the eternal laws of nature. Hence, again, the endea-
vours of fome fyftematical men, to deftroy that principle
fo generally recognized, and which fo many facts concur
to demonftrate, omne vivum ex ovo.

rpiyteick cadet the very great probability of the rege-
neration of all animals by the conjunction of two indivi-
dualsof different fexes, as in quadrupeds, in birds, and in
infeéts; or by the afperfion’ of the feminal liquor of the
male on the fpawn ejected by the female as in the fithes;
notwithftanding it is proved to demonftration, that the
feed of vegetables are fecundated by the pollen of the an-
there; notwithfianding the conviction of thefe and many
other fads, ‘equally well known and afcertained, ftill fome
philofophers refufe to extend this principle to the whole
of the animal and vegetable creation. The fimplicity and
minutenefs of the organs of worms, and efpecially of the
polypi, and the fingular faculty which fome obfervers have
attributed to the latter of regenerating themfelves by the

: Cre 2 fection

a

zo4 MEMOIR on tHe PLANTS catrep:

fection of their parts, have induced fome naturalifts to be~-
lieve, that thefe little animals were not fubje& to the gene=
rallaw by which all the others are governed. Thence,
they concluded that the principle of regeneration by means
of the texual organs was not exclufively neceflary for the:
multiplication and reproduction of every individual.

This fyftem, however oppofed to what comes under our-
daily obfervation, has, neverthelefs, found, and ftill con-.
tinues to find, many warm {fupporters, and has been mucly
ftrengthened. by the analogy which has been difcovered
between the mofles and the mufhrooms, the fexual organs.
of which were not determined till I made my obfervations:
on the fubje@t, fo that thefe plants were thought to be to
the vegetable, what worms { and polypi are to the animal,,
world.

I fhall not, in this place, undertake to refute this opi--
nion with regard to the polypi, which do not come with-.
in the limits of thefe obfervations, but until more accurate
experiments fhall have brought us to the certain difcovery
of the manner by which thefe little animals are reproduced, .
I fhall remain fatisfied with the obfervation of Bernard de
Juffieu.on the polypus, and fhall reject every fyftem which
tends to favour an opinion, that nature, who in all other.
things, and in thofe which are moft within the reach of.
our obfervation, ever acts: by conftant and by uniform.
laws, could have become fo different from herfelf and have -
adopted partial rules in favour of a very {mall number of.
individuals. Here I thall confine myfelf to fome of thofe:
plants denominated Cryptogamck, which I have. obferved.
with great care and attention, and which (as I shall endea-

vour.

$ 1 might have difpenfed with mentioning the Polypi in particular, as they are compre-
hended under the general appellation of worms; but 1 thought it beft to make {pecial menti- .
on of them, ae of allanimals they are thofe of which the moft fabulous accounts have been .
given, and which have afforded the greatelt {cope tothe wild ideas of fanciful imaginations...

Ge We TAS. God MD GHKAY apg.

vour to demonftrate).are provided with the fame organs of
reproduction which we obferve in other vegetables.*

It has never yet been controverted, at leaft as to the mof-
fes, that thefe individuals are eflentially a part of the vege=
table kingdom. ‘They all have very diftin& and obvious.
organs, which are eafily diftinguifhable from the roots,.
the leaves, and the branches, and which, by analogy,
muft be confidered as blofloms, containing fuch parts as
are neceflary to the reprodution of every individual.

The oppofers of the fyftem of fexual regeneration, have
confidered thefe organized parts as an ufelefs /upervegation ;:
“for,” fays a zealot of this fea, ‘*there are moffes whichare-
deftitute of thofe parts which the fexualifts call fruGificati-
on}. On the contrary, the friends of the fexual fyftem
are all agreed in confidering thefe parts as the real organs
of reproduction, although they differ as to the nature and
ufe of thofe parts: Some are of opinion, that the urn§
(Fig. 3. 7. 14.) is the male part, and that the ftars which
appear at the extremities of the branches, as in the Poly-
tricum and feveral fpecies of the genius Muzum, are the
female-organe@.. Others, with more reafon, fuppofe that
the urn contains both fexes.. According to thefe natura--

lifts...

* J have not only fubmitted thefe obfervations to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in the
years 1782, 1783, 1784, and 1785, but I have fhewn them the objects themfelves in ¢etail,
efpecially to Meffrs. Adanfon, de Juffieu, and de la Marck. Ihave repeated before the
Academy feveral of my experiments; Ihave demonftrated to them the exiftence of the Cap-=
fule within the Urn of the Moffes, the irritability of the Cilia and their {pontaneous convul- -
five motions immediately after the falling of the Opercule, which is the moment of fecunda--
tion. I have fhewn them the irritability of feveral Muthrooms when they emit their feeds,
and efpecially in the Peziza, the Nefloc, &c. the Capfule which is formed at the extremity
of the poiuit of a non defcript fpecies of Hydnum; and-laftly, I have fhewn the duplicity of the
blades of the Agaricus of Linnzus, which, in the manner of pods or filique, contain a pro-
digious quantity of fmall uval bodies, which | take tobe the feeds. If thefe authorities are
not fufficient to convince certain fkepticks, I exhort them to make the fame obfervations them-
felves, and | have no doubt but that they will very foon be convinced of their truth.

+ The ftructure of the mufhrooms being different from that of the moffes, thefe general ob- -
fervations cannot be applied tothem. When I treat of thofe plants, in another memoir, {
fhall be particular in the defcription of their organical parts.

+ M. Necker, botanift to the Elector Palatine, in his Phyfiology of Organized bodies,-

§ ‘This isthe name which has been given to the fructification of the mofles, -
§ Linozus and his followers have adopted the opinion of Dillenius,

206 MEMOIR on tHe PLANTS cattrp

lifts, the cilia are the male organs, and the pollen contain-
ed in the urn is the feed§. Others, again, adopt an opini-
on entirely different, and pretend that the urn is a capfule
which contains the feed, and that the glandular parts fitu-
ated. under the foliola, or little leaves, of the ftellated
branches (as in the Polytricum and Mnium) are the anthe-
re, or organs which contain the prolifick liquor. The
queftions which now divide the naturalifts on this fubject
are the following : ie

1ft, Whether the parts of which we are {peaking are
in. fa& the fexual organs of the moffes.

2dly, Todetermine the ufe and the nature of each fe-

parately in regard to the fun@iions which are attributed to
them,
Thefe two queftions being folved, there can remain no
doubt as to’ the mode of regeneration of thefe plants, and
every contrary. fyftem muft fall to the ground. Of this
I have become fully convinced by means of fome very fim-
ple and very eafy obfervations, which may be made by
others, with the greateft facility.

I fhall not here attempt to refute the feveral opinions
which | have thus flightly mentioned. Men of informati-
on, and thofe devoid of prejudice, will eafily determine
how far thefe opinions are worthy of confidence, particu-
larly after they fhall have read the following detail of my
obfervations on the fubject.

Or

§ Hill and Meefe. ‘Their fytem, the moft ingenious of all, isextremely plaufible, but. it
cannot be admitted, 1ft. hecaufe the Pollen, which they confider as feeds, has all the charac-
terifticks of a fecundating pollen, fuch as its convulfive and impetuous emiflion, its inflamma-
bility, and its great difficulty of incorporating with water. 2d. Becaufe the Cilia not being
uniform or conftant in all the mofles, and being fometimes found of two different {pecies in
the fame individual, cannot be dire& organs of generation, but only (as I fhall prefently de-
monftrate) acceflory and fecondary organs, intended to protect and facilitate the a& of fecun-
dation.

The other fyftems are ftill lefs admiffible, becaufe they cannot be applied to all the fpecies
of mofits, and are liable to exceptions which are fufficient to demonftrate their fallacy.

Ce LPP era MTOR” zoe
Or true MOSSES.

The frudification of thefe vegetables, commonly known
by the name of Anthera, or Urn, is uniform and conftant
in all the family.. It has the fhape of a little club, more
or lefs elongated (See Fig. 3..7. 14).

_ lt is compofed. ,
{ of a fingle piece in the ah of a tube;.
The Pericheti- | in. the je pains the Mnium, and Polytri-
UM». 2 cum (Fig. 1.8A, Fig, 15. C.): _ of
| feveral pieces, or foliola, more or lefs
; Imbricated, as in the Hypnum and the
L Fontinahs (Fig. 3. 7. 16.C.).
fits fefhle in the Pha/cum and the Font:-
vig, Malbec (Eiger Osi. tat..)2 flanding upon a fila-
An Anthera,¢ ment. of “different lengths in the Bryum,
or Urn. | the Aypnum, the Polytricum, the Splach-
Lnum and the Mnium (Fig. 7. 13.)..

The urn before its maturity is compofed.

{ more or lefs fubulated in almoft every

| one (Fig. 9. 13-); andin the form ofa

Of an Operculum, < chapiter of acolumn in the Polytricum,.

or Opercull:. | and fome fpecies of the Bryum (Fig.

LL. Baul

(It is {mooth and more or lefs tranf—

parent in-the greater part (Fig. 4. 5.

Of a Calypira, or | 7.): hairy and coloured in the Poly-

Caw], 4 ¢ricum,. and,in the Mnium Polytri-

chades (Fig. 6. 8.). There is none

in the Sphagnum, and it is very ca-
Lducous in the Phafcum.

When thefe parts are ripe, the opercule and calyptra
fall off ; then the urn appears mutilated at its extremity,
and the orifice, or opening, is either naked or covered with
cilia. . Such:

208 MEMOIR on tHe PLANTS cAttep

Such is the detail of that part of the moffes which we
call the fruGtification, and which Dillenius and Linnzus be-
lieved to be the male organs. I fhall here annex a table,
in order to enable the reader, by a comparative view of the
whole fubject, to form a more precife judgment of my ob-
fervations™*.

Being led by a natural inclination to the ftudy of this
family of vegetables, which, [am afraid, has not been fuf-.
ficiently attended to, I have devoted my whole attention to
it. I have obferved them in their different {tates and peri-
ods of vegetation, as well in the places of their fpontane-
ous growth, as at my own home, that I might the better
difecover the moment when the pollen was burfting from
theurn. The following is the refult of my obfervations.

I found that what the naturalifts have confidered as a
thread, or filament, fupporting the urn, is, in fa, a real
tube, continued to the urn, which is a part, and the
end, of it. I denominated the whole a corolla. This tube
being carefully opened with a very fharp penknife, difco-
vers a white tranfparent filament, extending itfelf to the
urn (Fig. rs. A.). The urn being opened, in like man-
ner, when fully ripe, is found to contain the fragments
of the dilacerated capfule (Fig. 15. E.). Thefe fragments

«are of the fame colour and nature as the filament con-
tained in the tube. .

After having difcovered thefe veftiges of an unknown
organization, I was defirous of obferving the fame in the
urn before the emiflion of the pollen. I made choice of the
Polytricum commune of Linneus, as being larger and
more proper for my obfervations. I took off the opercule,
without injuring the other parts, and, for this purpofe,

I always

* I have made no particular mention of Hedwig’s fyftem, which fecms to have been adopted

by feveral naturalifts. It is not, however, more adimiflible than the reft: it is liable to an

infinity of exceptions, which are a fufficient reafon for rejecting it. Ata future period, [

fhall demonftrate the fallacy of this new opinion, which miftakes for male organs the glandy.
ar bodies, which are fituated at the extremities of the ftellated branches.

BON TIE CeA-MTICTRED apy

I always preferred a bloflom almoft ripe. Ithen opened
the urn on the fide; I carefully took out the pollen, and
by this method, I difcovered an oval body, of an herba-
ceous colour, fituated in the centre. This kind of capfu-
la, as Icallit, is ftrongly fixed to the bottom of the urn,
and although I did not obferve it fticking to the internal
filament, -I am much inclined to think it is the terminati-
on of it. At another time, I cut off horizontally, a -part
of a ripe bloflom, and expofing it to a magnifying glafs,
I difcovered 1. the epidermis of the corolla (Fig. 18. A.),
ad. the pollen furrounding the capfule (Fig. 18. B.), 3d.
{mall globules fitting between the fibres of a kind of net,
which appeared to me to be the feeds (Fig. 18. C.). Thefe
obfervations, I have fucceflively repeated on-all the moffes
to be found in the neighbourhood of Paris, and Lifle in
Flanders, and I obferved, with fatisfaGion, that every one,
without an exception, was organized in the fame manner.

‘Having arrived at this important difcovery, I determin=
ed to proceed farther. I examined and tried the yellow
duft which furrounds the capfule, and I became convinced,
from its inflammability, and-from the difficulty with which
it mixed with water, that-it was of the fame nature with
the pollen of other vegetables. It now remained to prove
that the {mall oval body furrounded by the poHen:is a true
capfule, including the feeds. The obfervation which I
had formerly-made with the microfcope proved it, indeed,.
but not in‘a-manner fufficiently fatisfattory, as there did
not appear to be any dire& communication between the
‘pollen and the feeds, which are contained in the capfula.
I:had recourfe, again, to obfervation, and I fortunately
caught nature, as it were, in the fact, and difcovered the
ufe and operation of each of the parts of which the urn
of the mofles is compofed. AsI was, one day, examin-
ing, with attention, the Aypnum velutinum, of Linnzus,
YOL. WI, Dd I endeavoured

210 MEMOIR on THE PLANTS cALriepD

I endeavoured gently to take off the opercule with my fin-
gers, which was very eafily done, as the bloffom was ful-
ly ripe. The opercule having fallen off, the cilia which
detained it being thus free, and loofened from their former
{tate of tenfion, I was a witnefs to their curious manner of
operating : they were in an almoft continual convulfive
agitation, and contraction, approaching to, and alternate-
ly receding from, the internal cilia, which feemed to me
to open a little towards their extremity, at the fame time
that the others contracted themfelves by a contrary moti-
on. I diftinétly obferved the pollen thrown out through
the fpace that opened between the internal cilia, near
their bafis, as faft as the external cilia fell back. Hence,,
it occurred to me that the pofition and motion of thefe va-
rious organs are intended to reftrain the impetuofity of
the pollen: and if we confider how the pollen and _ feeds.
are difpofed, it will be eafy to conceive that the former
cannot come out without meeting the latter. Thus, na-
ture, ever confiftent in her produtions, has formed thefe —
cilia to moderate the convulfive emiflion of the pollen, and
to bring it into contact with the feeds before it efcapes.

There is nothing more admirable than the operations of
nature in thefe little plants. I have made the fame expe-
riment on an infinite variety of moffes, and it has always
fucceeded when the bloffom had attained its full maturity.
I have repeated it in the prefence of feveral perfons, as well
as in private for my own amufement, and every time, I had
additional reafon to admire the wife difpofitions of the
Great Lord of the Univerfe, who, by conftant and by uni-
form rules, preferves and multiplies all the individuals of
his Creation.

O JEHOVA,

CRT PTW 4G A MiIPGKS ont

0 JEHOVA,

Quam ampla funt Tua Opera!

Quam faprenter Ea fecifii!

Quam ‘plena eft Terra poffeffione Tua !

David Pfal. CHT. 24.
From the preceding ,obfervations, it follows

ift. That thefe plants are endued by nature with the
fame organs of fruCification as all others, to wit, a fower
(Fig. 3.7. 14.).

adly. That this flower has two effential parts, which feem
to be the organs of generation, viz. a fecundating pollen,
and a capfule containing the feeds (Fig. 15. 16. 18.):

3dly. That befides the pollen and the feeds, there are
other acceflary parts, relative and proportioned to the con-
ftruction of that flower, and deftined (Fig. 7. 14. 17.) :

ft. To prote& the fexual parts when young, the cawl
(fg. 4. 8.), the opercule (fig. 9. 14.), the cilia (fig. 17.) :

adly. ‘To prevent the too rapid emiffion of the pollen,
that thus the bufinefs of generation may be the better. ac-
complifhed, the internal cilia (fig. 17. A.).

3dly. To diminith the effect of the impetuofity of the
fame pollen, by checking its motion, and by detaining it
for a moment at the orifice, when the fecundation is per=
formed. ‘This is done by the external cilia, by means of
their irritability and ofcillatory motion (fig. 17. B.).

Athly. It appears that the urn isa bi-fexual flower, con=
taining a capiule more or lefs pedunculated, according to
the length of the tube.

sthly. That the fmalleft moffes, as well as all other vege-
tables, are reproduced by their own particular organs; that
they obferve the general law of all organized bodies, and
that they furnith an. additional proof of the great axiom,
MINE VIVUIN EX 0V0. |

Dde2 I have

ai2 MEMOIR on tHe. PLANTS ‘cAriep

I have fomething.more to add concerning that part
which I have denominated. the Star, and which fome na-
turalift have fuppofed to be the female, whilft others have -
imagined it to be the male, part.

The fmall glandular parts included under the foliola of.
the branches, certainly. poffefs the faculty of. reproduati-
on; and I have very frequently obtained a few individu-
als from them. Still, I cannot admit that they are the
only feed of the mofles, and much lefs that they are an- .
there containing the prolifick liquoz..

We are, indeed, acquainted with fome plants which, be-~
fides. their hermaphrodite flowers, have on the fame or -
another ftalk, femi-fexual flowers,. either male or. female:
why, therefore, may not the fame thing take place in the .
mofles?—-why may not the Polytrichum, the Mnium, _
and the Splachnum be polygamous plants, like the Parieta-
ria, Acer, and feveral of the.Mimo/e,_or like the Dzo/pyros,
the Ginfeng, &c? .

We alfo know fome plants,.as the Lzlzum bulbiferum,
the leaves of which are furnifhed with {mall bulbous
glands, which being put into the ground fhoot up into
individuals. of their {pecies, without altering in the leaft,
the frudiification of the flowers of the fame plant. Why,
then, may not the moffes have the fame. faculty of repro-
ducing themfelves? » ;

Whether we confider the ftar of the moffes: as a true
flower, or.as containing bulbs, like thofe of the Lilium
bulbiferum, which is more probable and natural, it can-
not affect the fact which I have eftablifhed refpecting the
reunion of both fexes..in the urn, Why fhould-we look
‘upon that part as being either the male or female organ,
fince the greater number of mofles have no ftarred branch?
how then, could thofe fyitematiits conceive or explain the
re-production in the Po/cum (Fig. 14.), which confifts

Only

CURVY OPTS GAM iT CURT LER,
only of fome roots, and of a few {mall leaves,in the center of |
which is the urn, which is not ¢ubulated? all the moffeés,
on the contrary, bear an urn, or flower, in which any
one may obferve a pollen, or fecundating powder, anda .
capfula, containing {mall round bodies, which much refem-
ble feeds: thence follows their analogy to other svegeta~ -
bles, with refpect to their fructification. .

The emiffion of the pollen, andthe irritability of the ci- -
lia, may be exa@tly compared to thofe convulfive motions |
which are common to all organized bodies,-when they
arrive at the moment of their re~produdction, Is:it poflible, »
then, after what I have demonftrated, to follow other opi-
nions, which cannot apply alike to every individual? From
thence, I am authorifed to conclude, that the opinion -
which refults from my obfervations is preferable to all
the former fyftems, not excepting that of Mr. Hedwig, .
which is two inconfiftent to be admitted...

>

De BEAUVOIS, .

Member of the Society of Sciences and Arts *
of St. Domingo, and Correfpondent Mem-=.-
ber of the Academy of Sciences of Paris...

N°. XXVIL.

a

N°. XXV.

4 letter from Major ‘onathan Heart, to Benjansin Smith
Barton, M. D. Correfponding member of the Society of
the Antiquaries of Scotland, Member of the American
Philofophical Society, and Profeffor of Natural Hiftory and
Botany in theUniverfity of Pennfylvania, containing
cbfervaiions on the Ancient Works of Art, the Native In=
habitants, ©'c. of the Weftern-Country.

Fort-Harmar, 5th January, 1791.

SIR,

pened GREEABLE to promife, I now enter on
3) 1792. the different fubjeQ's of enquiry contained
in your favour of the 24th of January laft, but find myfelf
unable to give that fatisfaCtory information which the na-
ture of your work may probably require: however, fuch
obfervations, as opportunity has enabled me to make, I

am. happy in laying before you.
With refpect to ANCIENT WORKS. Thofe at the mouth of
the Mufkingum are the only veftiges of any confiderable
works I have very particularly attended to, a plan of which,
with fome remarks, is publifhed in the Columbian Maga-
zine. Thofe remarks, not having been made under an
expectation of their being publifhed, were not fo accurate
as | could now with they had been; but improvements
having fince been made over the whole extent of the works,
no very confiderable inveftigation has fince been made.
We did, at that time, open the big mount and fome of the
graves, dig into the caves, on the walls, elevated fquares,
and at different places within the compajfs of the works, but
nothing

Account or ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS, Src. 21 §

nothing was found more than I mentioned in thofe remarks.

The works at Grave-Creck I have carefully viewed, but
never traced the lines with fuch accuracy as to enable me
to give youa plan. They are very extenfive, commen-
cing about four miles below Grave-Creek, and continu-
ing, at intermediate diftances, for ten or twelve miles,
along the banks of the Ohio, The principal works are
adjoining the big-grave, which is about halfa mile from
the Ohio, and about the fame diftance north of the mouth
of Grave-Creek. The works are very fimilar to thofe at
the mouth of Mufkingum. The continuation of works
each way confifts of {quare and circular redoubts, ditches,
walls, and mounts, fcattered, at unequal diflances, in eve-
ry direction, over extenfive flats. The big-grave, fo cal-
led, has been opened, and human bones found in it; but
not of an extraordinary fize; neither have I ever heard of
bones of an extraordinary fize being found in any of thofe
graves, many of which have been ‘opened, and general
ly found to contain human bones, !

Thefe are the only confiderable remains which I have
myfelf examined. The common mounts, or Indian graves,
or monuments (for they are not always found to contain
bones), are {cattered over the whole country, particularly
along the Ohio, and its main branches: indeed, I have
fearcely ever feenan handfome fituation on an high flat,
adjoining any large ftream, where there were not fome
of the above mentioned veftiges of antiquity.

Travellers, whofe authority I depend on, inform me
that on a branch of the Scioto, called Paint-Creek, are
works much more confiderable than thofe at Grave-Creek,
or Mufkingum, ¥ mount much larger, a greater variety of
walls, ditches and enclofures, and covering a much oreat~
er extent of country; that they continue for nearly fixty

miles along the Scioto to its junction with the Ohio, oppo-
fite

-$16 REMARKS on THE ANCIENT’ works, &c.

fite which, on the Virginia-fide, are extenfive works,
which have been accurately traced by Colonel George
Morgan, and I have been told there are remains of chim-
neys, &c.

The next works of note are on the Great-Miami, about
twenty miles from its junction with the Ohio. A Mr.
Wells, a gentlemen of nice obfervation and philofophical
enquiry, who had viewed them, and hadalfo examined the
works at Mufkingum, informed me, they were very fimi-
lar, though he thought thefe more extenfive, the walls
higher, and the ditches deeper, than thofe of Mufkingum.
He alfo obferved, there were fimilar works on the Little-
Miami, about twenty miles from its junction with the
Ohio, which would be about the fame diftance from the
remains laft.mentioned.

Thefe are the only traces-of ancient works of which I
have received fuch authentic information as will juftify me
in reporting them as undoubted facts. Many other re-
markable veftiges of antiquity have been defcribed to me,
particularly, on the eaft fide of a {mall branch of the Big-
Black, a river which empties itfelf into the Mifhiflippi,
nearly in latitude 33. north, an elevation of earth.about
half a mile fquare, fifteen or twenty feet high, from the
north-eaft corner of which a wall of equal height, witha
deep ditch, extends for near half a mile to the high lands.
This information I had from the Chacktaw-Indians, who
inhabit that country, and it isconfirmed by many white
people, who refided with the Chacktaws, and had often been
on the fpot.

The tradition of the Chacktaws with refpect to this ele~
vation is as follows, viz. that in the midf€is a great cave,
which is the houfe of the Great-Spirit ; that in that cave

_ he.made the Chacktaws; that the country being then un-

der

or THe WESTERN COUNTRY. 219

“der water, the great fpirit raifed this wall above water,
to fet the Chacktaws on to dry, after they were made.
The fame perfons and others affured me that on the low
grounds of the Mifliflippi, which are fubje& to overflow,
ata place cailed Bio-Piere, is a very large mount encom-
paffed by a number of {maller ones, in a perfect circle, at
equal diftances from each other, and at about two hun-~
dred yards from the centre, or Grand-Mount. Thefe cir-
cumftances I have the more reafon to believe, as every
information aflures me that country is covered with vefti-
ges of ancient fettlements: as far fouth as the head wa-
ters of the Yazoo and Mobile, my own obfervations con-
firm it. |
- Who thofe inhabitants were, who have left fuch traces;
from whence.they came, and where they are now; are
queries to which we never, perhaps, can findany other
than conjeCtural anfwers. I can only give my opinion
negatively, that they were not conftructed by Ferdinando
de Soto. He was not on the continent a fufficient time
to conftrué eventhe works at Mufkingum, and from eve-
ry circumftance it appears that he was no farther north
than Chattafallai, a Chickafaw-village, on the Tombig-
bee-branch of the Mobile. 2dly. Thefe works were not
conftructed by any European, Afian or African nation fince
the difcovery of America by Chriftopher Columbus: the
ftateof the works, the trees growing on them, &c. point
toamuch earlier date. 3dly. They were not conftru&ed by
the prefent Indians or their predeceffors; or fome traditi-
ons would have remained as to their ufes, and they would
have retained fome knowledge in conftructing fimilar
works. 4gthly. They were not conftru€ted by people who
procured the neceflaries of life by hunting: a number
fufficient to carry on fuch works never could have fubfift-
ed inthat way. sthly. I thay venture to add, the people
VOL, Ul. Es who

218 REMARKS on THE ANCIENT Works, &c.

who conftructed them. were not altogether in a ilate of

uncivilization: they muft have been under the fubordina=

tion of law, a ftridt and well governed police, or they

could not have been kept together in fuch numerous bo-

dies, and made to contribute to the carrying on fuch ftu-

pendous works. But my bufinefs is to give you fads, and_
not to form conjectures.

There are other matters with refpe& to this country:
worthy attention, viz. the quantities of- SHELLS, Con-
CRETIONS, PETREFACTIONS, BONES, &c. the marks: of
high water, andthe NaruraLt Meapows, or as they are
called Praires. On the head waters of the Mobile is the.
true oyfter-fhell of a monftrous fize, and in fuch quanti-
ties that I cannot conceive that they were tranfported from
the fea, which is three hundred miles off. The Chickafaw.
fay thefe fhells were there when they came into the coun-
try. They ufe thefe fhells in making their earthen-ware..
The foffile-thells are found in great plenty in all parts of |
the country, and petrefactions are very frequent, particu-
larly at the falls of the Ohio,. Near the. bottom of the
falls there is a {mall rocky ifland which is overflowed at
high water. ‘This ifland is remarkable for being the. feat -
of petrefaGions. I faw no petrefactions on it myfelf but
wood, fifh-bones, and the roots of fhrubs which grow on
the ifland: of thefe there was a great plenty. Gentlemen
who have refided near, and whofe veracity is not to be
doubted, aflured me that they had feen many different ar-
ticles petrified, as part of a hornet’s neft, fifhes, and in .
one inftance an intire bird. But what is more particular-
ly to be remarked is that this petrefying quality is. confi-
ned to the ifland, and does not fo often afford famples of
it on the oppofite fhores: yet, there is no {pring of running
water, and fcarcely a green thing on the ifland. Neither
does this quality exift, in any remarkable degree, either

above

or THE WESTERN COUNTRY. arg

above or below the falls. There is a like inflance up the
Tenaflee of a particular fpot, extraordinary for petrefadcti-
ons, whilftnothing of the kind takes. place either above’
or below.

The Bic-sones, found ata place called the Big-Bone-
Lick, are now to be feen in the different mufeums of the
ftates. It is unneceflary for me, therefore, to make any
remarks on them. At P. Lewis, on the Miffiffippi, I faw
a number of gentlemen who had travelled up the Miffouri :
they faid, there are many of thefe bones to the weftward,
and the Indians told them the animal! was ftill to be found
farther weft. {

The NATURAL MEADOWS cannot be accounted for:
fome of them’ have, doubtlefs, emerged from the waters of
the Miffifippi, which I prefume was an arm of the fea,
fome diftance above the mouth of the Chio, Other of
thefe meadows appear to have been lakes, the waters of
which, in procefs of time, finding fome out-let, have be-
come dry lands. But fome of thefe Prazres are high lands,
furrounded by an extenfive timbered country, in many
places much lower than the clear lands. Major Wyllys
informed me that he had the moft unequivocal proof, from
the appearances of rocks and other veftiges a little above the
mouth of the Miffouri, that the waters of the Miffifippi
had, in paft ages, flowed feventy feet higher than the pre-
fent high-water marks. On the French Broad-River, a
branch of the Tenaflee, ‘are perpendicular rocks, on which,
more than one hundred feet above the prefent high-water,
are artificial charafters of beafts, birds, &c. A Mr. Wil-
liams, a gentlemen of reputation, affured me, that he had
been at the place, and that’ there could be very little doubt
of the characters being artificial, and that it was abfolutely
impofhible that any .perfon' could get to the {pot on any

Eez other

220 REMARKS on THE ANCIENT works, &¢.

other fuppofition, than that the waters.of the river had,
at fome time, flowed fo much higher.

With refpect to the POPULOUSNESS of the natives, I
cannot give you any fatisfactory account; and from whence
they came it is fill, more difficult to determine. The.
Chickafaw fay they came from where the Sun fets in the
water, and that they were feven years on the way, march-.
ing only. one moon in a year, remaining the other part of
the time at the fame camp, preparing for the next year’s
march. The fimilarity between. their language-and that of ©
the Chacktaw evidently proves that they are from the fame
origin. The lan2uages of the different tribes of the Six=.
Nations are alfo very fimilar to each other, as are the lan-.
guages of many of the Weftern nations.and the Creek-
nations, or Mufcows, with very little alteration Mu/fco-
wites, But the languages of the Six-Nations, the Weltern.
nations and the Chickafaw are fo different even in found.
and in conftrution, that they never could have been des.
rived from, or any way dependent on, each other.

With refpe@ to their customs and MANNERs, I am
equally unable to give you any fatisfactory information.
I cannot. help thinking ita great misfortune, thatno meas.
fures have ever been taken which held out fufficient induce-
ments for men of abilities to travel amongft the tribes
which are fo. far removed from the nations of Europe, that
we might be. aflured. their cuftoms were not borrowed
from, or.any way intermixed with, ours. It is.equally,
a misfortune that we are fuffering fo many of their Jan-.
guages to become extinét, without preferving their radical
characterifticks : for-there is a certain charaCteriftick pe-
culiar to different languages, not dependent on each other,
which, though difguifed with a variety of founds, or
different dialeéts, on accurate examination, will give
fome grounds to conjeture from what language they are

Gerived 3

oy Tue WESTERN COUNTRY, 228.

derived ; and I cannot help thinking that a full inveftiga-
tion of the different languages of the nations will be the
moft probable means for forming reafonabie conjectures:
from whence this:continent was peopled. A knowledge
of their cuftoms. and’ manners might alfo give us fome
light. Thofe, however, who argue that the Indians are.
defcended from the ten tribes of Ifrael, from a:fimilarity
ef fome cuftoms, do not contider that the children of [f-
rael were but little removed from a ftate of. nature; that:
mature is uniform, and that all‘things being equal ever
operate the fame. It is true that many cuftoms of the In=
dians are the fame as thofe of the children of Hrael: but
they were fuch as nature herfelf pointed out.

As to the Gentus. of the Indians, I: believe:they. are
as capable as.any other nation in learning. any art, either
mechanical or liberal. Indeed, I never could find that they
pofleffed any original ideas different from our own, or had
any bias of mind, propenfity to particular vices, or pre-.
dominancy of any paflion, which could not be traced to
their origin in the human mind, and be found to arife.
from the different ftages, between the abfolute ftate of
nature and the higheft degree of civilization. In fat, we- -
find them poffefled of every paflion, propenfity, and feel-.
ing, of man.

With regard to the ARTs of the ancient inhabitants, there »
is very little ground for-us to form conjectures. I with
meafures had been early taken to collect and preferve the
different: articles which have been- found in different: pla~
ces, and that_all other artificial, as well as natural, curiofi-
ties, together with accurate defcriptions of all the veftiges
of antiquity, could have been collected and preferved. Per-
haps, from the whole, fome future inquiries might have led .
us to an inveltigation of the hiftory of this country.

I might

222 AN ACCOUNT orf some

I might have added a great number of informations, from
travellers, concerning various tribes. of Indians; ; their
cultoms, their languages, &c. fuch as that there are Indians
who {peak the Welth language; that there are others who
live in works fimilar to the ancient remains, already de-
fcribed ; that thereare Indians wholive a fhepheard-life, and
others who entirely cultivate the foil. But I have not fuch
full affurance of the truth of thefe things as to authorife
me in reporting them.

i have, thus, according to the beft of my abilities, given
every information in my power, on the various inquiries in
your favor. I have little expectation of there being any
thing new in them, or which will give lighton the fubjeéts:
but juch as they are, pleafe to accept them as-my earneft
endeavours to ferve you.

With every fentiment of refped,
lam, Si,
Your moft Obedient and
Humble Servant,
JONATHAN HEART.

N°. XXVI.

in Account of fome of the principal Dies employed by the
North-American Indians. Extracted from a paper, by
the late Mr. Hugh Martin.

Read O€. HE Indians die their red with a flender root,
lata which is called in the language of the Shaw=

anoes Hau ta the caugh. Upon my fhowing a fpeci-
men

OMe TONUNE OW FMB jnge

men of this root to the diers in Philadelphia, they informs
ed me that it was madder, and that by tranfplantinz and
cultivating it, for a few years, it would become exatly
fimilar to the imported madder of the fhops. In its natural
ftate, it grows in low iwampy grounds, and fpreads along
the ground, near the furface. The roots are of various
lenoths, fome of them being not more than an inch or two,
whilft others are tivo feet, long: their thicknefs feldom
exceeds that of a ftraw.

Thefe roots, when frefh, for the moft part, put on an
orange appearance, though fome of them are yellow; bat
after they are dried, which they muft be, before they can
be ufed with fuccefs, the outfide appears of a dark brown:.
when broken, however, the infide appears red. From .
every root arifes one limber ftalk, which is commonly from
fix to eighteen inches high: at the diftance of about half
an inch there are four {mall leaves, and on the top is the
feed-veffel, which comes to maturity in September, and is
of aconic form. In fome fwampy‘fituations, I have found,
this vegetable growing fo plentifully, that feveral hand- -
fulls of it might have been gathered within the compafs .
of a yardortwo.. | }

The Indians pound the roots of the Haw ta the caugh »
ina mortar, with the addition of the acid juice obtained
from the crab-apple. They, then, throw the whole into a
kettle of water along with the fubftance to be died, and
place the veflel over a gentle fire, until the colour is pro- -
perly fixed. :

It is by this procefs that the Indians die the white hair
of deer-tails and the porcupine-quills, with which they or-
nament themielves, of a red colour. I have alfo feen a
fpecimen of wool which one of them had died of a beau-
titul red in the fame manner. I made experiments with
this red and the vegetabie-acid, and fucceeded. Ialfoem-

ployed

224 AN AGCOUN T or ‘some

ployed the vitriolic-acid in alum, &c. which made it of
a darker colour.

The orange colour employed by the Indians, is obtain-
ed from the root of the Poccon, the outfide being pared
of, and alfo from the plant called Touch-me-not. The vepe-
table-acid, before mentioned, is likewife ufed as a fixer to
the colour of thefe two plants. I found that by mixing
the red colourof the Hau ta the caugh with the yellow col-
our of the plant of which I am next to fpeak, I made an
orange.

The Indiansdie their bright yellow with the root of a plant
which grows fpontancoufly in the weftern woods, and
which might, very properly, be called radix flava Ameri-
cana. This root is generally from one to three inches long,
and about one half of an inch in diameter, and fends out
a great number of {mall filaments in every direction except
upwards: thefe filaments areas yellow as the body of the
root itfelf. From the root there grows up a ftalk about a
foot from the ground, and at the top is one broad leaf. A
red berry, in fhape and fize refembling a rafpberry, but of
a deeper red, grows on the top of the leaf: this berry is ripe
in July. : ; :

I made fome experiments with this root and the vege-
table-acid, on filk, linnen, and woolen, and fucceeded. -I
tried it again with the vitriolic-acid and, likewife fucceeded.
I alfo tried it with the vegetable-alkali, and without any of
thefe fubftances, and was fuccefsful in obtaining a good
yellow in its fimple ftate. I prefented a fpecimen of this
root to the diers, who found it to be a valuable article in
making a yellow, and with the addition of Indigo in mak-
ing a green.

Their green is made by boiling various blue fubftances
in the liquor of Swooth-Fiickery bark, which dies a yellow.
In this manner, I have feen blue cloth, and yarn chang-

ed

Pa Niel (Ae Ne) Dod BS, 226

ed-to agreen; butthe goodnefs of the green depended
on that of the blue. There are other fubftances which
die a yellow colour, and with which the Indigo will form
a green; butas they are found to be inferior to the radix
jlava, or Yellow-Root, in making a yellow, and with the
Indigo a green, nothing need be faid of them.

In making their green the Indians difcover great ceco-
nomy. They carefully unravel fmall pieces of green cloth,
and pieces of old green garments. ‘Thefe they throw in-
toa kettle with a fufficient quantity of water, and the cloth
to be died. The whole is then fet over a gentle fire, un-
til the colour is made. They informed me that by this
procefs they die their Porcupine-quills green.

The dlues are fo well known to be made by the Indigo
of our own continent that nothing need be faid concern-
ing them here. Under this head, however, I beg leave
to obferve, that the Woad is the natural produce of our
weftern foil, and that without it no deep or lafting blue
can be made.

The Indians die their d/ack with the Sumach of this
country. They, likewife, make a beautiful black with the
bark of the White-Walnut, and the vegetable-acid; for they
have no knowledge of the mineral acids. With this bark
T have feen them die'their woolen cloths, and the intefti=
ties of various fpecies of animals, as bears, &c.

VOL. HI. Ff N*® XXVIL

{ 226 )

N°. XXVII.
An account of the beneficial effects of the CasstA Cuame=

ECRISTA, in recruiting worn-out lands, and in enrich-.
ing fuch as are naturally poor: together with a botan-.
ical defcription of the plant. By Dr. James GREEN-.
way, of Dinwiddie-County, im Virginia.

Read May $f N Maryland, and on the Eaftern-Shore of Vir~
ad, 178° ff ginia, they have long been in the practice of
fowing a feed, which they call a bean, for the fake of re-
cruiting their worn-out lands, and enriching fuch as are
naturally poor. The beft information, that I have, is that,
they fow a pint of the bean with every bufhel of oats.
The oats ripen, and are cut, in July, at a time when the
young beans are fmall, and efcape the injury of the fcythe.
The beans flower in Auguft and September. In October,
the leaves fall off, the feeds. ripen, and the pod opens with
fuch elafticity as to featter the beans to fome diftance ar-
round. The year following, the field is cultivated with
corn; the beans, which fprout early, are all deftroyed
with the plow and hoe; but the more numerous part not
making their appearance, above ground, until the.corn is .
jaid by, {pring up, unhurt by the inftruments of agricul-
ture, and furnith feed for the enfuing year, when the field
is again fowed in oats. The ground is, alternately, cul-.
tivated with corn and oats, annually, and, in the courfe
of eight or ten years, fo greatly improved that, without
any other manure than the mouldered leaves and ftalks
of the beans falling on it, the produce will be three *
barrels to the acre, on fuch as, prior to.this management,
would

* A barrel is a meafure of five bufhels, much ufed in Virginia.

REMARKS on rue CASSIA, &c. 227

would not have produced more than one. This is faid'to
happen from the quick mouldering of the leaves and ftalks
of the bean plant, and its aptitude to mingle and unite
with the earth, without undergoing a fermentation. Thus,
the foil is yearly and gradually enriched by this fimple and
eafy procefs of nature, without the labour and expence
of accumulating animal and vegetable matters, to under-
go the tedious operation of fermentation and putrefacti-
on; by which the diffolution of thofe fubftances is brought
about, and filled for manure, in the ufual way. Not-
withftanding this extraordinary character of the Eaftern-
Shore-bean, Iam clearly of opinion, that our common
corn-field-pea is far preferable to every thing, that I have
feen tried for this purpofe. Every farmer, who leaves
his pea-vines on the ground, and does not, in the accuf-
tomed manner, pull them up for fodder, muft often have
obferved that they quickly moulder and fall to pieces; fur-
nifhing a covering tothe ground, which readily unites
and blends with it, in the manner mentioned of the bean.
If a piece of exhaufted land, fufficiently level to prevent
its wafhing away with the rain, be annually cultivated in
peafe, leaving the ftalks and leaves to moulder and crum-
ble to pieces upon it, the ground will improve beyond ex-
pectation; the crop of peafe increafing, every year, and
the foil becoming richer and richer, without any other
manure. I was told, by an eminent planter, that poor
ground might, by this management alone, be made rich

enough to produce good tobacco.
~ Thefe hints, on the culture of the Eaftern-Shore-bean,
and the improvement of the land thereby, are related from
the beft information, I could get. If any gentlemen, ex-
perimentally acquainted with it, would favour the public
with amore ample account, it will, no doubt, be well re-
ceived, and be of utility: my principal defign, in this
a alle paper,

228 REMARKS on THE

paper is to affift the farmer, as well as the naturalift, by*
pointing out the plant, and defcribing it fo, that it may:
be diftinguifhed, with certainty, from all others. The-
Eaftern-Shore-bean, * fo called from its being firft.cultivat-.

ed there, is found in all parts of Virginia and Carolina ;-
upon all forts of lands, high and Jow, except where they

are too wet. It has been miftaken, by fome, for the com-.
mon.tare, or partridge-pea ; to which it bears fome refem-.
blance, but is not the fame; it belongs to a different clafs -
of plants, In defcribing this -plant-I fhall, firft, confider-
the lovers of. fcience, and give a botanical defcription, in-
fuch terms as are moft familiar to them, adding after-

wards, for the farmer, a defcription and explanation, in-
Englifh, as plain and eafy as I poffibly can. Being fhew--
ed a row of thefe plants, in-September (produced from -
feed procured by a neighbouring gentleman from the place

of cultivation) fown .iaa drill, and then flowering and»
filling their pods, I immediately difcovered it to bea plant

that I had long been acquainted with, having collected, .
and fent it, with many others, before the war, to a profef-

for of one of the European univerfities. Upon looking .
into my botanical catalogue, I find it defcribed, and arrang-

ed in the Decandria, or tenth clafs of Linnzus; in the-
Monogynia, or firft order of that clais; in the genus,

Caffia; and it is that particular {pecies to which he has giv-

en the fpecific name Chamecrifta, Door Hill,. in his

Eden, page 54, calls it Golden-Caflia, and has exhibited a

good engraving of it, in his 5th plate, fig. 5. It ismen-

tioned by Gronovius (in the colleion made by the late

Mr. Clayton of Virginia), in his Flora Virginica, fol. 64.

Caffia foliolis multyugatis, &c. It has been noticed by

feveral other authors. In my catalogue it ftands thus :

Caffia

® Called alfo the Magotty-Bay-bean.

CASSIA CHAMECRISTA. 229

Caffia Chamecrifta Linnet. Decandria Monogynia.

Radix annua fibrofa. Caulis’ fufquipedalis, erectus, :
teres, levis, ramofus, coloratus. Folia alterna, pinna=-
ta, multijuga, abrupta; foliolis oppofitis, ovalibus, gla-
berrimis, zqualibus, cum forma et fenfibilitate Mimofz ; ;
foliis fimillimis. Flores-fparfi, pedunculati, fpeciofo au-
reo colore,antheris purpureis. Stipulz bine laterales, erectz,
Janceolatz, acute. Glandulafuper medium petioli, in plan=
tis majoribus, pedicellatae Pedunculus {patio fupra petio= -
lum egreditur.. Ab»menfe Auguftr ad -finem : eftatis »
floret; folis omnibus habitat, fed humilis maxime gau-'
det. The Golden-Caffia, or Peacock-Flower, is an annual
plant, the root and ftalk dying every year.” The root is
{mall, confifting of fibres, or threads» The ftem is up~ |
right; in fmall-plants, not more than eight inches high;
but in richer ground,: where level and: moiit, the ftem ri-
fes to a foot and a half, or-two feet; a little crooked,
round, {mooth and coloured; branching out at the up-
per part, and bearing many flowers ftanding, on bending
foot ftalks, f{cattered all over the main ftem and branches. -
The petals, or flower-leaves, are five;-of a fine golden
colour, with ten male ftamina,; or-threads, in the middle, -
crowned with antherz, or buttons; of a red or purple co-
lour. Thefe flaments, fomewhat refembling the creft or:
plumage on the head of a peacock; have led fome botanilts »
to name it. crifta -pavonis, or *peacock-flower; but the:
plant, we here treat of, being-afmaller fpecies, they have’
added Cham zcrifta. pavonis, or Dwarf-Peacock-flower.

In the middle of the ten male filaments, above mention-
ed, willbe readily obferved another fingle thread or ftyle,-
whichisthe female part of the flower, producing the-
feed-vetfel, or bean; each pod containing a fingle- row of
black fhining feeds, fixed to the upper future or ‘back-:
feam of the bean: thefe feeds are nearly flat, four-corner-

eds.

2:30 REMARKS on tHe CASSIA, &e,

ed, and, not in the leaft refembling a bean, or pea. ‘The
partridge-pea may be eafily diftinguifhed from. this, by
colour and fhape, the latter is brown, and kidney-fhaped.
The leaves are pinnated or winged, (viz. like the Locuft,
Senna, Partridge-pea, &c.) grow alternately from the
ftem, on a flender foot-ftalk, which has a {mall gland or
wart, placed upon the middle of every one; and thefe
glands, upon the larger plants, are elevated on a pedicle,
or fhort ftalk, confpicuous to the naked eye. At the bafe
of every foot-ftalk, upon the ftem, are found two very
{mall upright fpear-pointed leaves called ftipula, which,
by the help of a glafs, appear to be hairy. The fmall
leaves are placed oppofitely on the midrib, to the num-
ber of twenty pair, or more; oval-fhaped, fmooth, ending
in an even number, in fhape and fenfibility, refembling ,
the leaves of the mimofa, or fenfitive plant. ‘They fhut
up at night and expand in the morning, until through
age, they lofe this fenfibility. Frequent fhaking or ftrik-
ing with the hand will caufe them to fhut up; and in like
manner, when gathered, they cannot be carried far before
they collapfe; fo that if the botanift wants to preferve the
leaves expanded, in orto ficco, he muft enclofe the
plant when gathered on the {pot, with as gentle a motion
as poflible.

The month of October being the feafon for gathering
the feed, the leaves then falling off, the farmer will rea-
dily find the plant, upon all forts of ground, amongft the
weeds, and even in Broomftraw-old fields; and will eafi-
ly diflinguifh it, by the brown colour of the pods, and
the rednefs of the ftalks. Let it be pulled up by the roots,
dried ona cloth in the fun, and then thrafhed out witha
ftick, and preferved ina bag, hung up in a dry place,
until the feafon for fowing it with oats.

N°. XXVIII-

(Tiles tf)

N°. XXVIII. .

An account of a Hill, on the borders of N. Carolina, Sup-
pyfed to have been aVolcano.. Ina Letter from a Conti-
nental Officer, refiding in that neighbourhood, to Dr. J...
Greenway, uear Peterfburg, in Virginia. .

DEAR, DQACT OR,

Read Feb. GREEABLE to promife I have vifited the-
295 aa Volcano on Dan-River, or the Burffed-Hill,
as the people there call it; and here fend you a defcripti-
on of it as-accurate as I could take on the {pot.

The bafe of the hill is about three quarters of a mile in
circumference in form of a cone or fugar loaf one hundred
and thirty feet high. It appears to be formed of lava, mix-
ed with ‘round white ftones, that-break with a {mall ftroke.
There are large rocks or mafles of the melted matter,
weighing a thoufand weight or more, lying on the fummit
of the hill, mixed with pebbles, fuppofed to be the place»
where the. lava burfted out ; from which it took its courfe,
downward,‘ and through the fecond low grounds of Dan- -
River, for near half a mile.

This ftream appears to have been fix or eight inches ;
deep, but is now crumbled to pieces, upon which there is
a mould of rich earth formed five or fix inches thick,
The lava, iffuing from the hill, has fpread over .all the
adjacent level ground which is not lefs than one hundred
arid fifty yards wide.

This level pla; or fecond low grounds, was covered
with large timber-trees, but has been cieared fince, and
cultivated. The hill itfelf is covered with trees, fome of .
which appear to be old. There .

232 AN ACC O:U NT: oF

There are anumber of round ftones, thrown to the dif-
tance of half a mile from the hill, that feem to-have felt
the force of fire to a confiderable degree: thefe, I fuppofe,
were thrown out of the hill, by the violence of the erupti-
on.

It is the opinion of fome, that the hill has burfted twice;
and that, the fecond time, it did not run with melted mat-
ter, as at the firft eruption; but only threw out the large
lumps of lava, which appear on the top of the ground.

I remain, Sir,
With great refpect,
Yoursy OCs les

Additional remarks on the Jame fubject, by the author of
the foregoing account: addrefed to DR. GREENWAY.

Read Feb. HE crater is nearly filled up, and covered
eet: with large trees: one fide ftill fhews the hol-
low appearance of a crater.

The lava covers the top in many places, but in others
the congealed lava has been thrown out in large pieces
around the hill, which feems to be done by an eruption
fubfequent to the melting and boiling. Pieces, weighing
one thoufand pounds or more, he around the hill; fome
near, others more diftant.

The ftream of lava terminates within twenty yards of
a creek and is nearly uniform in thicknefs, without any
large flones, toward the end, but only gravel congealed
in it.

The mouldered lava is of the colour of rufty iron, and
is covered with a rich mould of fix inches, of a different
appearance, and the fame as covers the adjacent ground.

It

Tree BU Riss E}D-HIL i aka

Id

It appears that this covering of mould has been laid upon
the lava by inundations of the river. The mouldered part
of the ftream of lava is, in-many places, ploughed up, and
feems to moulder and crumble away much fafter when
thus expofed to the air. ; :

The lava has iron in its compofition, and when pul-
verized is.attraCted by the magnet; and wherever a peb-
ble-ftone is flruck out from it, there remains a cavity,
greatly refembling acaft iron veflel: fo that this congeal-
ed matter muft have fuftained a great degree of fire te
keep itin a flate- of liquefaction, boiling and running
‘over the top of the volcano, in a ftream of liquid fire, for
halfa mile, on the level ground, before it congealed.
After fubjeQing it to the magnet, as mentioned above, we
{ubmitted it tothe crucible, where it melted and ran as we
are told the lava of A‘tna does.

Farther remarks: extratted from a letter from Dr.
Greenway to Dr. Barron.

Read May, HE gentleman who examined this extin«
Bs lakes guifhed volcano, and furnifhed me with his
defcription of it, has fince brought mea piece of the lava,
of which, he fays, there are coagulated maffes, on the
* fummit of the hill, that will weigh a thoufand or fifteen
hundred pounds. It is compofed of earth, common peb-
ble-ftones, fome metallic fubftance, particularly iron at~
tracted by the magnet; and the whole melts intoa confu-
fed liquid mafs in a crucible placed in the heat of a com-
mon fmith’s furnace. | |

VOL. IL. G g N°’, XXIX.

(234 )

. KXIX

An account of a poifonous plant, growmg ipsienasiny 0
the fouthern part of Virginia. Extracted from a paper,
by Dr. Fames Greenway, of Dinwiddie-County, in Vire~
ginia.

Read Feb. O point out amarticle of the creation, fraught

TO sid ee with noxious qualities, dangerous to man-
kind, and hurtful to animals, is equally as ferviceable to
the public, as to inform them of the medicinal virtues of
the moft falutary vegetable, or celebrated antidote.

As the virtues of plants have been generally difco-
vered, by accident; fo likewife have deleterious qualities
been detected, in others, where no fufpicion had ever been
entertained of fuch: The plant, here mentioned, is an
inftance of this: the deleterious quality, from outward
appearance, {mell, or tafte, of this vegetable, can hardly be
fufpefted unlefs by a botanift; and even se mult judge,
on the bare conjeCtural foundation of fimilar virtues, in
plants of the fame genus; which is nar paaeiregs found
to fail,, in- numerous inftances..

I have heard this poifonous herb, called by the names
of Wild-Carrot, Wild-Parfnep, Fever-Root, and Mock-Fel-
Root. The Englifh names of. plants are, in this country,
frequently mifapplied, and do not -diftinguifh them, with
any certainty,

It does not refemble a carrot or parfnep, in the ftalks,
leaves, or flowers; though the root has fome refemblance
to a parfnep, in colour and {mell; and the feeds have alfo
a great likenefs. It refembles the Angelica, andthe mif- |

chief

REMARKS on THE CICUTA VENENOSA. 235

chief that has been done by it, has proceeded from miftak-
ing one for the other. |

I will here-infert the defcription, as-it fands in my cata-
logue, firft, in botanical terms, for fuch as.are lovers of
that {cience, and then in language, as, plainly Englith as
the fubje& will admit, for the fake of thofe to whom thole
terms are lefs familiar.

Cicuta Venenofa. Claffis, Pentandria. Ordo, Digynia.

Radix perennis, fufiformis, perpendicularis; colore ct
_ odore paftinace radicis predita. Caulis erectus, herbace-
us, guatuor pedes altus, teres, fiftulofus, geniculatus, fub-
nudus, ftriato-canaliculatus, ‘purpureus, fuperné tomento-
fus.—Folia petiolata, petiolis femi-amplexicaulibus, mem-
branaceis, fulcatis, triternata, bipinnata, cum impari termi+
natrice, feepe bilobo ; ; foliolis feffilibus, . oblongo-lanceola-
tis, ferratis— Folia ima longiflimé petiolata, triternata,
foliolis ovalibus ferratis, fevbanlitts denticulatis.

Flores albi, in umbellis compofitis fubrotundis, fine in-
volucro univerfali cum partiali polyphyllo. Locis campef
tribus et collibus apricis g gaudet : : menfibus Julii- Augulti-
que floret.

Hemlock, Poifonous sai att °C.

The root is perennial; of the colour and fmell of a
parfnep, but much fmaller. The ftalk rifes four feet high,
upright, round, lightly channelled, as if fluted; of a
purple colour, hairy or downey on the upper part; hols
low and jointed. There are only two, three, or four pair
of leaves, placed oppofitely, at the joints, on membrana=
ceous hollowed ftalks, which embrace the main ftem. The
leaves are winged, terminated with an odd one, which is
frequently divided into two lobes.

Gg 2 | The

236 REMARKS on tre EFFECTS of tur
’ The folioles are oblong, and f{pear-thaped, fawed on:
their edges. The flowers are white, compofing a large
compound umbel, without any involucrum; containing
many {maller or partial umbels, each with an involucrum
of many fmall narrow leaves. The filaments. and ftyles
may be feen projecting beyond the flower leaves, being:
longer than the petals are. It grows on hilly barren lands,
on dry grounds and open fields; though fometimes I have
found it in moift places. It blooms in July and Auguft.
I have, lately, obferved feveral of thefe plants, with

their lower leaves growing on very long ftems, or petioles,
the petiole encreafing in length is divided into three; and
each of thefe fubdivided again: into three more. Each.
{mall ftem, of this laft divifion, bears three leaves; which.
at their firft putting out feem to be joined in one: but as.
they increafe, with age, the lobes divide, and expand.
themfelves into three diftin& leaves, which are oval fhap=
ed, fawed onthe edges; with denticles, or fmal] points, at:
every ferrature. Thofe which do not fully expand, remain
in- two lobes, or three lobes, whence proceeds the great
variety of the leaves, in this plant. The expanfion of
the petiole varies very much, alfo in its divifions ; from.
whence it happens, that the leaves are often fimply pin-
nate, ternate, doubly ternate; triply ternate; which may
vary the defcription, but the habit of the plant is fo ftrik-
ing, and fimilar, in every one, that no miftake can pofli-
bly happen in diftinguifhing it. ) | 19
. This plant.is endued with a poifonous quality. Its ope-.
ration, on.the human body, has been pointed out by an
accident, that. happened, very lately, in’ my neighbours
hood; the relation of which is as follows.

. Sometime in the month of May laft, three negro-boys.
were fearching, in the woods, for Wild Angelica, or, as.
they commonly call it, Eel-Root. They founda plant, it

CMCUTANVENEN OSA, 237

dug up the root, but upon tafling it, the two elder of the
boys perceived it was not the root, they wanted. They,
therefore, threw it down and left it. The youngeft boy
took it up, faid it was Eel-Root, and he would eat fome of
it, They went on fearching and digging for fome time:
at length their young companion was miffing; they turn-
ed back the way they came, and found him lying on the
ground, fpeechlefs and fenfelefs. They took him up, to
carry him home:. a neighbour met them, on the way, to
whom the boys related the ftory, as above. This gentle-
man upon whofe veracity I relate this faGt, being aman of
reputation and character, and in whofe integrity I place
the greateft confidence, told me the ftory, a few days af~
ter it happened. He fays, he ordered the boy to be laid
down, under atree; poured down fome milk and oil, and
fent him home to his owner, who lives-withina mile. He
was utterly deprived of fenfe; there was no convulfion,
or fpafm; nor any degree of tenfion, or ftiffnefs: his
limbs were perfe&tly limber and loofe; he appeared to be
in adeep ileep, deprived of all motion, except that of ref
piration. ‘The boys fhewed this gentleman the plant, that
the difeafed one had eaten of. Some of the leaves were
fhewn to me, which I inmediately difcovered to be the
{pecies of Hemlock, here mentioned. The boy was car-
ried home; and, after a day or two, came to his fenfes
again; but they think he has never perfeGly recovered :
afmall degree of dullnefs and ftupidity ftill remains on
his brain. :

The Cicuta, or Hemlock of the ancients, ufed for put-
ting malefactors to death, particularly at Athens, is un-
known to us at this day. The celebrated Dr. Mead, in
his Effay on Poifons, thinks it was not a fimple, but:a
compound of anodyne juices, with others of a corrofive
nature,

Throphraftus.

238 REMARKS on tHE CICUTA VENENOSA.

Throphraftus fays that Thrafyas, a great phyfician,
had invented a compofition, which would caufe death,
without any pain; andthat this was prepared with the
juice of Hemlock, and Poppy together; and did the bu-
{inefs, in afmall dofe. Plato relates the noble death of his
matter Socrates, fo as to evince it was brought on by a
compound of this nature; viz. the fymptoms were eyes
fixt, heavinefs and infenfibility of the legs, great coldneis,
which, by degrees, feized the vital parts.

The famous poifon, kept by the public of Marfeilles
had Hemlock, or Cicuta, as an ingredient in it; a dofe of
which, was allowed by the magiftrates, to any one, who
could fhow a reafon why he fhould defire death.

The Cicuta, or Hemlock, here mentioned, and of which,
this boy had eaten buta very {mall quantity of the root,
feems to be of fufficient ftrength, without any addition.
We aretold that, vegetable poifons, fuch as Hemlock and
Monkthood, occafion convulfions, and bring on a pain=
ful death; and that, this deadly quality confifts in juices
of a corrofive nature, affeGting the ftomack and firit paf-
faces with a violent pain and inflammation: that this
active, acrimonious, ftimulating, or corrofive property
was correéted in the celebrated poifons above mentioned,
by the admixture of anodynes and narcoticks, that
fhould weaken the vellicating, and painful part of their
operation, and blunt the fenfibility of the nervous fyftem;
fo as to render their effects infenfible until they brought
on an eafy death.

The plant, here defcribed, feems to be poffeifed of all
the powers above mentioned. A very fmall quantity of
the root was eaten: It operated upon the nervous fyftem,
foas to deprive the boy of all fenfe and motion, except
vefpiration; and had he taken a larger dofe, death would

have

DESCRIPTION or a MACHINE, &c. 239

have been the confequence, This isa plain indication of
its narcotick quality, and ftupefactive powers.

Ue... Cae

Defcription of a Machine for meafuring a /fhip’s way: in
a letter from Francis. Hopkinson, Esq. to Mr.
Joun VAUGHAN..

Read Dec. Y N the 2d. volume of our Philofophical Tranf-
*7) "79° ff actions, I publithed a defcription of an inftru-
ment for meafuring a thip’s way through the fea. I have
not heard of any. objection: to the principles on which
fuch a machine may be conftruGed,. but it may, probably,
have been thought too complex for general ufe.

As this obje&t, fhould it be accomplithed, would be of
great importance, I have made. another attempt to the
fame purpofe; in which, if there fhould be no other ob-
jeQtion, the want of fimplicity cannot reafonably be com-
plained of,

Clofe along the fhip’s bow is a copper pipe, about two
inchesin diameter, extending downwardas low as the keel,
and upward above the water line when the veffel is load-
ed. ‘This pipe muft be fo bent. at the bottom as that. it’s
orifice may be dire€tly oppofed to the line of. the fhip’s
progrefs, and project but.a little way beyond the keel or
cut-water. The upper part of this pipe muft alfo be fo
bent as that it may enter into the fore-caftle, through a
hole made for the purpofe, above the water line. The
pipe fhould be fecured in its place by ftaples or clamps.

On the top of this copper pipe fhould be a cover to be
{crewed on, and through the cover a hole mult be made

for

210 DESCRIPTION or a MACHINE, &e,

for the admiffion of aglafs tube, of the fize of a common
barometer tube, and cemented there. The fea water wall
rife in the copper pipe to the general level of the fea, but
will not appear in the glafs tube becaufe the copper pipe
enters the thip above the water line, as before obferved,.
But if a quantity of oil be poured down the glafs tube, the
furface of the oil will rife and become vilible in the tube,
‘on account of the fpecific difference between -oil and fea
water.

This glafs tube muft alfo be furnifhed with a fcale for
meafuring the different heights of the oil, the cypher,
or (0) of the feale being on aline with the furface of the oil
when the fhip is at reft, or makes no way. But when
fhe is ina progreflive motion, the water contained in the
copper tube, together with the column of oil in the glafs
tube, will be forced upward, in proportion to the velocity
with which the veflel proceeds; which will be afcertain«
ed by the different altitudes of the furface of oil, vilible
on the graduated {cale. |

The glafs tube fhould be made to run fome depth into
the copper pipe, and alfo be of a fufficient height above,
to allow room for the vibrations of the column’ of oil,
when the fhip is agitated by the waves.

When the fhip has got every thing on board and whilft
fhe is under no way, the furface of the oil muft be regu-
lated by bringing it even with the (0) or cypher of the
feale; and this examination, fhould be frequently made
on account of the confumption of provifions and other
wafte, that may alter the fhip’s draught of water.

In taking down the reckoning from the f{cale, the moft
favourable moment fhould be watched for a fair obferva-
tion, viz, when the fhip is proceeding with an average
velocity, not when fhe is in the act of plunging into, or

rifing

INQUIRY concrrwmne THe HONEY-BEE. 24t

rifing above the level of the waves, as this would fenfibly
affe& the truth of the feale. Buta little experience would
foon make the ufe of the inftrument familiar.

Ne. XXXI.

‘An Inquiry into the Queftion, whether the Aris MELLI-
FICA, or TRUE HoneEy-BEE, is a native of America,

Read Feb. CY O many animals and vegetables have been

agit et introduced into the countries of America,
fince the great difcovery of Columbus, that naturalifts
are frequently at a lofs to determine, which fpecies are
natives, and which are foreignérs. This is particu-
larly the cafe with refpe& to plants. Many of thofe fpe-
cies which are now diftributed, in profufion, through ex-
tenfive tracts of countty; which aré not merely confined
to thé gardens, the meadows, the fields, and wafte pla-
ces, but have even infinuated themfelves into the thickeft
forefts and the moft lofty mountains, growing luxuriant-
ly in their new fituations, are, undoubtedly, European
and other colonies, which have been introduced either by
accident or by the hands of man. At fome future day,
I fhall communicate the refult of my inquiries on this fub-
je& to the Philofophical Society. Meanwhile, I ‘hall
mention a few inftances, which more readily occur to me.
The Plantago major, or Greater-Plantain, the Verbafcum
Thapfus, or Great White-Mullein, the Chenopodium
album, or Common Wild-Orache, the Antirrhinum ZLinaria,;
or Yellow Toad-Flax, the Hypericum perforatum, or
Common St. John’s wort, the Leontodon Taraxacum, ot
VOL. ff. Hh Common

242 INQUIRY GONCERNING

Common-Dandelion, and the Chryfanthemum Leucanthe=
mum, or Greater-Daify*, are, certainly foreigners, which
have extended the empire of their growth fince the dif-.
covery of the new-world, though they are generally con~.
fidered, both by the vulgar and by the more enlightened,,
as truly indigenous to our country.

Within the term of three hundred years, many ani-
mals originally not natives of this country have likewife
made their way into it. Thus, it may be doubted whether
the Rat, the Moufe, the Tinea, or Moth, fo pernicious to
our clothes, the F/ea, the Bed-Bug, and many others,
were known in the countries of America before the arrival
of the Europeans inthis continent. It has lately been af-
ferted that the TRuE Honey-Ber, the Apis mellifica of
Linnzus, is nota native of America, and, I think, the
opinion is well founded, though it has.recently been con-.
troverted by the reverend Dr. Belknap, in a differtation
which he has publifhed onthe fubje& +. This diflertation
I have read with attention; but fo far from weakening it
has ftrengthened the opinion that this {pecies of Bee was
not found.in the new-world before Golumbus conducted.
us to the knowledge of it.

The ingenious Mr. Jefferfon feems to have given rife.
to this inquiry. In his valuable work, entitled Notes on
the State of Virginia, this refpetable author has the fol-
lowing words. ‘ The honey-bee is not a native of our
continent. Marcgrave indeed mentions a fpecies of
honey-bee in Brafil. But this has no fling, and is there-

fore

* My learned and ingenious friend Mr. Pennant has mentioned the Leontodon Taraxacum
and the Chryfanthemum Ledcanthémum among’ thofe plants which are common to Kamtfkatca
and the caft fide of America. See his Ardic Zoology, Introduction, page cxxxiv. As thefe
two plants are natives of Kamtfkatca, it is highly probable that they may be indigenous on
the wef fide of America. Be this, however, as.it may, I am confident that they are not
natives of the Atlantic parts of the northern continent. -

+ Itisannexed to an ingenious and well-written paper, entitled 4 dicourfe intended to com
memorate the diftovery of America by Chriflopher Columbus, Bolton ; 1792. 8vd-

rhe © POOR YB! Ry aah

fore different from the one wé have, which refembles per-
fe&tly that of Europe. ‘The Indians concur with us in the
tradition thatit was brought from Europe; but when, and
by whom, we know not. The bees have generally ex
tended themfelves into the country, a little in advance of
the white fettlers. ~ The Indians therefore call them the
white man’s fly, and confider their approach as indicating
the approach of the fettlements of the whites*.”

Dr. Belknap admits that thefe fats, adduced by Mr.
Jefferfon, are true; “* but: they will not’’, fays he, ** war=
rant his conclufion that the honey-bee, meaning the one
refembling that of Europe, is nota native of our conti-
nentt.” Ifhall examine the grounds of the doétor’s ob=
yections. ,

On his return to Europe, after having difcovered the
American iflands, Guanahani, Cuba, Hifpaniola, &c.
Columbus finding his fhip endangered by a violent
ftorm, and fearing that the knowledge of thofe
countries to which he was conducting the nations of Eu-
rope, was likely to perifh, is faid to have written an ac-
count of his difeovery on parchment, which he enclofed
in a cake of wax, and then committed the whale to the
fea, “in hopes,” to ufe the words of Robertfon, “ that
fome fortunate accident might preferve a depofit of fo much
importance to the world{.” ‘This wax Columbus procur-=
ed in Hifpaniola$.

A naturalift cannot: but be furprized to find Dr. Belknap
eonfidering this ftory of the cake of wax as a proof
* that bees were known in the iflands of the Weft-Indies,”
when they were difcovered by Columbus, if by the word

rahe ethees"”
* See page 121 of the Englifh, and page 79 of the American, edition.
+ See the Differtation, page 117.
+ The Hiftory of America. Vol. I. p.126. Bafil: 1790. 8vo.
§ See the Life of Columbus, written by hisfon, chap. xxx. Columbus alfo mentions this

Rory of his intrepidity and the cake of wax, ina letter which he wrote to Ferdinand ané@
Wabella. See Robertfon’s Hiflory of America. Vol, 1. note xvi,

244 INQUIRY CONCERNING

“‘ bees’? the doctor means, what I prefume he does, the
true honey-bees. The genus apzs, or bee, it fhould be.
remembered, is very extenfive. ‘The learned entomolo-
gift Fabricius, in, his Species Infectorum, which was pub--
lifhed in 1781, has given us the names and difcriminative,
characters of eighty-iwo {pecies. Of this number fixteen~
are faid to be natives of the two continents. and iflands of
America. There can be little doubt that there are many,
more. Many of thefe bees, befide the apzs mellifica, form
honey. We {hall prefently fee, from Clavigero, that in.
the country of Mexico, there are, at leaft, fix {pecies. Nor
is the bee the only infe& which forms honey. Some {pe-
cies of the genus ve/pa, or walp, do the fame, depofiting
their fores in trees, in the earth, &c. Without, therefore,
fomething more particular concerning the wax which was
procured by. Columbus.ia Hifpaniola, we ought not to con-
clude that it was the production of the honey-bee, and.
with the. lights which we have already received, we are
nearly authorifed to affirm that it was not.

It is much more probable,.that this wax was the fabric.
of fome other fpecies of the. bee. It is not impoflible,,
however, that.it was the produce of .a, vegetable, fince we

re acquainted with fome plants which furnifh large quan-
tities of wax: fuch is the Myrica cerzfera, which grows
very commonly in various parts of the new-world, as well
as in the fouthern countries of Africa.

Dr. Belknap’s fecond argument feems to deferve more
attention. “ The indefatigable Purchas,” fays he, ‘* gives
us an account, of the revenues of the empire of Mexi-
co, before the arrival of the Spaniards, as.defcribed in its
annals; which were pictures drawn on cotton cloth. A-
mong other articles he exhibits the figures of covered pots,
with two handles, which are faid to be pots of ‘bees ho~

nie*,?*

Pie or. ONE YB EE: 245:

nie*.” Of thefe pots, two hundred-are depicted in one
tribute-roll, and one hundred in feveral others}.”

The learned: Abbé Clavigero confirms this account, in:
his excellent Hiffory of Mexico, lately publifhed. He in-
forms us that the Mexican kings received as a: tributary
payment, a part of every ufcful produGion, both of nature.
and art, and, among other articles of revenue, he menti=
ons fix hundred cups of honey, which were annually paid
by the inhabitants of. the fouthern parts of the empire of
Mexicof.

Inthe firt: book of his work, which is devoted to the:
natural hiftory of the country, Clavigero mentions fix:
different fpecies of honey-making bees, four of which are
faid to:be deftitute of ftings: one of the two others, he:
fays, ‘‘ agrees with the common bee of Europe, not only’
in fize,.fhape and colour; but alfo in its-difpolition and-
manners; and in the qualities of its honey and wax§’’.

In anfwer to thefe objections of Dr. Belknap, it is ob--
vious to remark, that as there are, at leaft, fix diftinG fpe-
cies of honey-making bees in Mexico, five of which are
faid, by Clavigero, to be different from the apis mellifica,-
or true. honey=bee of Europe, we are certainly not war--
ranted to conclude,- that the honey which was paid in tri-.
bute to the monarchs of Mexico, was the fabric of this:
moft important {pecies of the family.

I.will not deny that the true honey-bee is now found
in Mexico; not only becaufe fo refpeCtable an author as:
Clavigero has aflerted that itis, or at leaft a bee agreeing -
with it, but becaufe we can hardly fuppote that the Spani-
ards, in the long period of more than two centuries and
an half, would have, neglected to introduce an animal of.

fo
* Purchas. Vol. iv.
+ See the Differtation, p. 128)?

+ See book vii. p.. 354.
§ Book I, p. 68.

246 INQUIRY CONCERNING

fo much importance.’ But it muft be recolle%ed that Cla
vigero only informs us, that this true honey-bee is now
found in Mexico. He has not attempted to prove that it
was found there fawo or three hundred years aga. \n order
to afcertain this point, with more certainty, it is neceflary
to recur to the more early writers concerning America,
particularly Mexico. Iam forry that I have it not in my
power to confult the work* of Hernandez, who was fent
to Mexico, at the expence of Philip the fecond, king of
Spain, and who devoted much time to the natural hiftory
of the animals, végetables, and minerals of that rich coun-
try. This phyfician, however, does not appear to have
been a very accurate naturalift; fo that even though he may
have given an account of the bees of Mexico, it is more
than probable, that the information which we might de-
rive from him would not enable us to throw much light
on the fubje&. The only early author, in my poffeffion,
who feems to give us any information on the queftion is
Jofeph Acofta. This learned Jefuit, who has been fiyled,
by Father Feyho, the Pliny of America, refided for fome
time in Mexico, in Peru, and in other parts of America, to-
wards the clofe of the fixteenth century. In his /4foria
Natural y Moral de las Indias, which was publifhed at Ma~
drid, in 1590, a few years after his return from Mexico,
he tells us that in the Indies, under which general name
he comprehends the countries of America, “there are few
fwarmes of Bees, for that their honnie-combes are found
in trees, or under the ground, and not in hives as in
Caftille. The honny combes,”’ he continues, ‘ which
I have feene in the Province of Charcas, which they
call Chiguanas, are of a grey colour, having little juyce,
and are more like unto fweete ftrawe, than to honey
combs. They fay the Bees are little, like unto flies; and

that

* Plantarum, Animalium & Mincralium Mexicanorum Hiftoria. Rome : 1651. fel.

higah EY ‘GaN se YB oe se 247

that they {warme under the earth. The honey is fharp
and black, yet in fomeé places there is better, and the combes
better fafhioned, asin the province of Yucuman in Chille,
and in Carthagene™.””

The buccaneer Lionel Wafer mentions bees among the
productions of the Ifthmus of Darien; but the informati-
on which he has given us will not decide the queftion,.
which Iam examining. He fuppofes, that fome of the
bees of this country are deftitute of ftings, becaufe he faw
the Indians put their naked arms into the nefts, without
being tung}. Wafer was in Darien in the year 1679.

The next argument employed by Dr. Belknap is ex-
tremely feeble. He finds, in Purchas, that when Ferdi-
nand de Soto came with his army to Chiaha, which was
in July 1540, he found among the provifions of the na-
tive Indians of that place, “a fpot full of honie of beest.”’
As there were no Europeans fettled om the continent of
America at this time except in Mexico and in Peru, the
doGor feems to think this folitary- pot of honey favours
his opinion, for immediately after he fays ‘* it is evident”’
that honey-bees (meaning the true honey-bees) were found.
as far to the northward as Florida, before the arrival of
the Europeans in the iflands and on the continent of Ame-
rica.

Let us.examine this argument. If the exiftence of the
true honey-hee in Floridaas early asthe year 1540, was
fupported by nothing more than the pot of hoaey found
at the village of Chiaha, I think, the ground of argument is
very feeble indeed: for it no more follows that this honey
was the fabric of the apzs mellifica than that the tributary
honey of the Mexicans was the prodution of that animal.

But
* ‘The Naturall and Morall Hiftorie of the Eaft and Weft Indies, &c. p, 303 and 304. En
* glifh tranflation. London 1604, 4.

+ Defcription of the Ifthmus of America, London 1704. 8vo,
$ Purchas. Vol. v. p. 1539.

248 INQUIRY CONCERNING

But the following quotation renders it probable, that at
the period which I have juft mentioned, the true honey=
bee was not foundinFlorida. In acurious little work, enti=
tled A Relation of the invafion and conqueft of Florida by the
Spaniards, under the command of Fernando de Soto, which
was written by a Portuguefe gentleman, who accompa=
nied the Spanifh general in his ‘mad adventures” in
Florida, we are informed that the Indians of Chiaha “ had
a great deal of Butter, or rather Sewet, in pots that run
like Oy]; they faid it was Bear’s greafe: we found Walnut-
Oy] there alfo, as clearas the Sewet, and of a very good tafte,
with a pot of Honey, though before nor after we found
neither Bees nor Honey inall Florida.” *

This fimple relation of a fact is very ported. Soto and
his fuecceffor Louis Mofcofod, Alvarado had rambled over
an extenfive tract of country from the end of May, or the
beginning of June, 1539 to July 1543. ‘The granaries
and the ftore-houfes of the unfortunate natives were con-
ftantly ranfacked by an army of needy Spaniards. The
troops paffed through extenfive forefts, and yet they ne-
ver faw but one pot of honey, and no bees at all. Ifthe
honey-bee had been a native of the countries which were
the {cene of Soto’s villanies, the valuable produ of this
little infect would have been more frequently met with,
and the bees, in territories pregnant with a profufion of
fweet-{melling and neCtareous plants, would, doubtlefs,
have been feen very often, and in great numbers.

Thus far the opinion of Mr. Jefferfon feems to be
ftrongly fupported by ‘hiftorical evidence; and, I think,
we are warranted to affert that the true honey-bee was
not originally an indigenous animal of the fouthern parts
ofthe American continent. But this opinion may be
fupported by other arguments. | My

+ The Modern Univerfal Hiftory. Vo]. KL. page 393. Edition of 1763.
* See page 72.

Me CORPO NE Y-BIEVE, 249

My friend the ingeniotis and accurate Mr. William Bart-
rain informs me, that when he was in Weft-Florida, in the
year 1775, he was fhown, as a curiofity, a bee-hive,
which, he was told, was the only one in the whole of
that extenfive country. It had been introduced there from
England, when the Englifh took poffeflion of Penfacola,
in the year 1763. Mr. Bartram, however, allows, that
the honey-bee is now found wild in the country of Eaft-
Florida, where, he fays, it has been known for a confider-
able time, perhaps an hundred years. But he is perfua-
ded, from his inquiries, that itis not a native of the
country. Mr. Le Page Du Pratz fays * the bees of
Louifiana lodge in the earth, to fecure their honey from
the ravages of the bears. Some few indeed,”’ he continues,
‘“‘ build their combs in the trunks of trees, as in Europe;
but by far the greateft number in the earth in the lofty
forefts, where the bears feldom go §.”” The bees here f{po-
ken of as lodging their honey in the earth,'I am perfuaded,
are not the true honey-bee, and Mr. Du Pratz’s idea that
they make choice of the earth to fecure it from the bears
requires to be better fupported. The honey would be as
fecure from bears in the cavities of trees as it would in the
earth. Ihave had an opportunity of feeing many of thefe
honey-infedts, which lodge their fabric in the earth. They
are not the apzs mellifica, nor do they belong to this fa-
mily. They are more nearly allied to the vefpa, or wafp-
tribe. The bears prove very deftrudtive to their habitations,
devouring their honey, and killing great numbers of the
infects.

“«« As to the circumftance of the bees” extending them-
felves a little in advance of the white fettlers,” it cannot,
fays Dr. Belknap, “ be confidered as a conclufive argument
in favourof their having been firft brought from Europe.
VOL. Ul. ey It

§ The Hiftory of Louifiana, &c. page 284. Englifh Tranflation. London: 1774. 8.

200 INQUIRY CONCERNING

Itis well known,” he continues, “* that where land is cul-
tivated, bees find a greater plenty of food than in the for-.
eft. The bloffoms of fruit trees, of grafles and grain, par~
ticularly clover and buck wheat, afford them a. rich and.
plentiful repaft; and they are feen in-vaft numbers in our
fields and.orchards at the feafons of thofe blofloms. They
therefore delight in the neighbourhood of.‘ the white fett-
lers,” and are able to increafe in numbers, as. well as. to
augment their quantity of ftores, by availing themfelves
of the labour of man. May it not be from. this, circum-
ftance that the Indians have giventhem the name of “ the
white man’s fly;” and that they “ confider their approach
(or frequent appearance) as indicating the approach of the
{ettlement of the whites ?*

[ agree with Dr. Belknap, that the circumftance of the
bees ‘“‘extenting themfelves a. little in advance of the
white fettlers,” is not ‘¢ a conclufive argument” in favour
of the opinion, that: thefe little infects. are not natives of
America. Still, however, in my opinion, the argument
has confiderable weight.

It has juft been obferved that the Indians call the bee,
the white man’s fly. Vhave always conftdered: this cir-
cumftance as a {trong argument in fupport of Mr. Jeffer-
fon’s affertion, that this infect is not a native of America.
For notwithftanding the fewnefs of arts and the rude ftate
of the fociety of thefe people, they are by no means incu-
rious obfervers of the animals and vegetables of their coun=
try, and they mark the progrefs of thofe which the whites
have introduced with the moft accurate attention. Thus,
they call the Greater-PJantainby a namewhich fignifies the
Englifhman’s foot, and fay, that wherever an European has
walked, this plant grows in his foot-fteps, meaning, by
this figurative mode of exprefling themfelves, that before

the
* See the Differtation page 122.and 123,

Mae HM BIN f Y¥-B Be eR

the arrival of the Europeans in America, the P/antain was
not known in the country. In like manner, when the In-
dians call the honey~bee the white-man’s fly, it is evident
that the mean to'convey an idea, that this infect is not a
native of America, but that it has been introduced by the
Europeans. Whenever the fouthern Indians fee the
honey-bee in the woods, they immediately conclude that
the whites will foon follow.

Although Dr. Belknap believes that the honey-bee is
a native of Mexico, and of the iflands, and that it had ex-
tended itfelf as far to the northward as Florida and Geor-
gia, yet he admits that this infe&t was not found in the
more northern regions of America, previoufly to their dif-
covery bythe Europeans. ‘* The firft European fettlement
in Virginia’’, he obferves, ‘‘ was made about feventy years
after the expedition of Soto, in Florida, and the firft fet-
tlement in New-England, was ten years pofterior to that
in Virginia. The large intermediate country was uncul-
tivated for along timeafterward. The fouthern bees there
fore could have no inducement to extend themfelves very
far to the northward, for many years after the fettlements
were begun; and within that time bees were imported
from Europe*.”

That the honey-bee is not a native of the northern parts
of America is, I think, inconteftibly proved by a variety
of circumftances. Thefe 1 fhall confider under the two
heads of negative and pofitive evidences.

Lawion does not mention this infect among the native
animals of CarolinaT.

The founder of Pennfylvania, in a long and intereft=
ing letter which he wrote to his friends, in 7 ie year 1683,
takes no notice of bees, It is evident to any one who

{1-2 has

* See the Differtation, page 122.
+ See his Voyage to Carolina, &c. London 1704. ate;

252 INQUIRY CONCERNING

has read this letter, that the great object which its author
had in view, was to exhibit a flattering picture of the
Province, with the defign of inticing emigrants to make
fettlements in it. An infect whofe produdts are fo valua-
ble as thofe of the bee would not, L think, have been
omitted in the lift of animals indigenous to the country of
Pennfylvania, if Mr. Penn had had any certain intima-
tions of its exiftence there. Neither do I find the bee
mentioned by any of the early Swedifh writers who pub-
Jithed accounts of Pennfylvania. bot:

I do not find that any of the writers on Virginia men-
tion the honey-bee among the indigenous animals of the
country. The little that Mr. Beverley has faid on the fub=
ject, inhis. Hiffory of V irginia, rather authorifes the fup-.
pofition that this author did not confider the honey-bee
as a native. ‘* Bees, fays he, thrive there abundantly,
and will very eafily yield to the careful Hufewife a full
Hive of Honey, and befides lay up a Winter-ftore, fuffici-
ent to preferve their Stocks’’}.

Dr. Belknap fays, that in. the languages of the Indians
of New-England, there are no words for either honey or
wax, Accordingly, when Mr. John Elliot, who was cal-
led the Indian Evangeliff, undertook the arduous tafk of .
tranflating the Bible into. the Natic-language, wherever:
thefe two words occurred, as they frequently do in the
{criptures, he ufed the Englith words, though fometimes,
indeed, with an Indian termination.

I confider this circumftance asa ftrong argument in
favour of our common opinion, that the honey-bee is not
x native of New-England. At the fame time, however,
i cannot help obferving that as Mr. Elliot confined him-
felf in the tranflation, which | have mentioned, to the

language

See page 282. Second cdition. London : 1722. 8v0.

fae eT OY NE Y2B Es Ee 253

language fpoken by the Natic-Indians*, who ufed a dia-
}e& of the Mohegan, it does not follow, that none of the
New-England nations had words in their languages for
honey and wax. Since our intercourfe with the Indians,
their languages have become much more copious. As
new objects, both. of nature and of art, occurred, new
words were formed. Thus, in the vocabulary of the De-
laware-Indians, we find the words gok, la pe chi can, poak
Ja can, wi Jach gank, cheyinu tey, allwhichhave mott pro-
bably been introduced into their language fince their inter-
courfe with the Europeans; for thefe words which I have
mentioned, and it would be eafy to mention many more,
fignify. money, a plough, a gun, rum, faddle-bag.: now
we well know that before our acquaintance with thefe.
people, they.had. neither money, ploughs, guns, rum,
or faddle-bags, among them. The Indians donot con-
tinue long acquainted with new: objects, without. giving
names tothem. As, therefore, the Natics had no wordsfor
honey and wax, it is highly probable, that-about the year
1648, when Mr. Elliot was employed in tranflating the
Bible, the honey-bee had not been introduced into that
part of New-England which thefe Indians inhabited.

The Delaware-Indians call bees a moe wahk. Wafps
are likewife, known by this name among thefe Indians,
Several: {pecies of wafps are natives of our country: it
feems very probable, therefore; that when the honey -bees
were firft introduced among them, the Delawaresto fave the
trouble of. inventing a new word for thefe little animals,
thought the name by. which they were accuftomed to call
the wafp fufficiently applicable to the bees; between which

| and

* This is the fpelling adopted by Dr. Douglafs, &c. 1 fufpeét, however, that it ought to:
have been Nabhantics. | find mention made of the Nahantics, and I know that they fpeak a
dialect of the Mohegan. Of the Natics 1 know hardly any thing, but what Dr. Douglafs has

told us, viz. that they exified, and that about the year 1747, the nation was almoht entirely
extinct, See his Summary, &c. Vol. I. p. 172, note. London: 1760, 8vo.

254 INQUIRY CONCERNING

and fome {pecies of wafps the refemblance is fo great. In+
ftances of this trouble-faving difpofition of the Indians
are numerous. The Cheerake, for inftance, call a prifon-
er, or captive, or flave, eeankke, and they apply the fame
name to apin, andan awl, It is difficult to fay, what fe-
ret connection there is between a captive and a pin, or an
awl. Thefe fame Indians call the penis wato ’bre, and
a corn-houfe is known by the fame name among them. In
this inftance, the ufe of only one word for two fuch op-
pofite objets is more eafily accounted for. Savages al-
ways think and {peak metaphorically. They could not
but reflect that whilft a corn-houfe is a depofit of the food
of men, the penis is the organ by which the eternity of
the human {pecies is maintained.

I do not find the words honey or wax in the copious
language of the Delaware-Indians*. If this tribe have
not words for thefe fuhftances, my opinion, that the honey-
bee is nota native of America, receives confiderable addi+
tional fupport.

The Muhhekaneew, commonly known by the name
of the Mohegans, fpeak a language very clofely allied to
that of the Delawares, as I fhall fully demonftrate in my
Comparative view of the languages of the American nations
with each other, and with the languages of the nations of
the north-caft parts of Afia. In the language of the Mo-
hegans, the honey-bee is called aum waw, honey aum
waw weh focat, and bees-wax aum waw weh pe mey.
Perhaps, it will be imagined, that the exiftence of thefe
words in the Mohegan language is a proof that the bee is
a native of their country. My opinion, however, is quite
different, and, I think, it refts upon an unerring founda-
tion.

In the firft place, the refemblance between the Dela-
ware and Mohegan words for the honey-bee is obvious.

I

* They call the Honey-Locuft-Tree (Gleditfia triacanthos of Linneus) pite la we min {cbi.

tut HONE Y-BE FE. asé

thave already obferved that the firft of thefe nations call
bees and wafps by the fame name. It is probable that
this is alfo the cafe among the Mohegans. If fo, it
would feem likely, that from the refemblance between the
bee and: fome fpecies of our native wafps, it was not
thought neceflary to impofe a new name upon the honey-
bee after it became a.denizen of our woods. But this, it
will be faid, is treading on the ground of hypothefis, I
fhall, therefore, relinquifh it.

The Mohegans, Ihave juft faid, call honey awm waw
web focat. ‘Vhis is, undoubtedly, an Indian word. But
let us analyfe its precife, fpecific fignification. The real
meaning of the word /ocat is fugar, or fweet. Long be-
fore the nations of America-had any intercourfe with the
Europeans, they made fugar from the Acer /accharinum, or
Sugar-maple, and from fome fpecies of the genus Fuglans,or
Walnut. An appropriate word for this agreeable fubftance,
of courfe, exifted in their languages... When the honey
of the bee was firft examined by them, they could’ not
fail to remark that its moft ftriking property was its fweet
tafte. An aflemblage of words: was now formed for the
newly-introduced fubftance.. This affemblage, in the
Mohegan tongue, reads thus, /weet or fugar of bees for
the word. we fignifies of. In like manner, the real mean=
ing of pe mey is greafe, fat, ortallow. Allthefe are fubftances
with which favages are but-too familiar... When the Mo-
hegans became acquainted with the wax of the bee, obfer~
ving its refemblance to the different: fubftances juft men-
tioned, they feem-.to have thought it unneceflary to create
a new word exclufively charaCteriftic of it. The frit
meaning of the word aum waw weh pe mey is greafe, fat,
or tallow, of bee.

I am confirmed in my opinions on this part of my
queftion by finding that the. Natics, or Nahantics, had no

words

256 INQUIRY CONCERNING

words in theirdanguage for honey or wax*. For, as I have
already obferved, thefe Indians and the Mohegans fpake
dialeG&is of the fame language. It as not probable, theres’
fore, that one of the tribes would have thefe words and
the other not, when we confider that ever fince our acquain-
tance with them they have lived at no great diftance from
each other. And we have known them for more than one
hundred and fifty vears.

Thefe are the principal negative evidences which I am.
able to adduce in fupport of my opinion, that the honey-
bee is pot an indigenous animal in the northern coun-
tries of the new-world. Icall them megative evidences,
becaufe to moft perfons, I prefume, they will not appear
to be more. In my opinion, however, fome of them run
clofely into the evidences of the poffitzve kind. -

The pofitive evidences and circumftances. which fup-
port my opinion, arenumerous. 1 fhall confine myfelf to
the chiefeft of them. :

Mr. John Joffelyn, who was in New-England, for the
firfttime, in the year 1638, and afterwards in 1663, and
who wrote an account of his voyages, together with fome
very imperfect fketches of natural hiftory in 1673, {peaks
of the honey-bee in the following words: ‘* The honey-
wees are carried over by the Englifh, and thrive there ex-
ceedingly}.” :

Dr. Belknap fays, ‘ there is a tradition in New-En-
gland, that the perfon who firft brought a hive of bees
into the country was rewarded with a grant of land; but
the perfon’s name, or the place where the land lay, or by
whom the grant was made, I have not been able to learn{.”

Perhaps,
* See page 252 and 253.

$¢ See his Voyage to New-England, p. 120.
} See the Differtation, p. 123.

whe H OWN E Y-B EE 257
“Perhaps, i it will be faid that thefe two circumftances by no
‘means prove that the honey-bee was not a native of the
‘countries of Néw-England. They only prove, it may be
‘urged, that this little infe&t was not known to be a native
of thofe countries. |

They-do not abjolutely tide much more. But, on the
‘one hand, I think it is highly improbable that the people
of New-England would have been at.the trouble of im-
‘porting bees from Europe, if they were natives of the
country; and, on the other hand, itis certainly not likely
that a perfon would have received a.grant of land, as Dr.
Belknap has mentioned was the cafe, according to traditi-
‘on, if the bees were already in the country. Had they
been there, their exiftence could not but have been well
known, unlefs we fuppofe that among them, as certain
European writers have faid of the «aboriginal Americans,
the principle of focial union was extremely weak; fo that
thefe little infects, whofe government has, for ages, exci=
ted theadmiration of philofophers, may have been {cattered,
like the favages, in {mall families through vaft tracts of
‘uncultivated country, and not aflociated in large, civilized
communities. It has been fo much the rage to.{peculate
falfely onthe tubje@ ef America, that l-fhould not be fur-
prifed to find fuch a writer as De Pauw, sires a weak~
nefs of their political union as the reafon why honey-bees
were not difcovered in the new-world. .Raynal would,
probably, reafon thus likewife, had not this fine writer
believed that there is fomething in the climate of Ameri-
-ca, that is unfavourable to the generation of good things,
Ye philofophers of Europe! come vifit our countries.

The Reverend Mr. Heckewelder informs me, that although
‘hehas feen the true honey-bees wild in various parts of
-the United-States, at fome diftance from the fettlements

of the whites, he has always been affured by the Indians,
K k that

258 INQUIRY CONCERNING

that thefe infe&ts were not known in thefe countries before
the whites began to fettle them, This..alone is a. very
heavy load of evidence in fupport of my opinion. on.
the fubje@&. The Indians,.as.Dhave.alseady: remarked.are
by no means incurious obfervers. «Is it probable, therefore,
that they fhould be miftaken on the fubje, efpecially when
it is remarked that they are, in.. general, extremely fond .
and voracious of honey?.. The bears are not more fo. .
The honey-bee was not found in Kentuckey, when we..
firft became acquainted with that fine country.. But about
the year 1780, a hive was brought, by a Colonel Herrod,
to the Rapids. of the Ohio, fince which-time thefe little
infeis have encreafed prodigioufly. Not.long fince, a hunt-.
er found thirty w2/d {warms in the.courfe.of one day*.
Honey-bees were not known in that part of the fate of
New-York which is called the, Jeneffie-Country, when it -
~was firft vifited, nor even for. a confiderable time. after.
Of late, afew hives: have been introduced, and thefe will, .
doubtlefs, foon extend themfelves through the country ; for -
‘there are always fome difcontented.bees, which may be called.
deferters from the hive. or-colony; whichroam in earch of
flowers in the woods, and feem to preferas.an habitation, .
the cavity of a tree to the artificial hive, in common ule.
Thefe deferters are, I think, peculiarly difpofed.to fpread
themfelves along the courfes.of the creeks and rivers. of
our country, becaufe the fides of thefe waters are frequent-

ly

* It is worthy of obfervation, however, that as yet the hees-of Kentuckey do not make
smuch honey. ‘Yo thofe which have relinquifhed the habitations of the fttlers, ‘and have en-
creafed in the woods, taking poffeflion of the -cavitics of the foreft-trees, the. fpontaneous
flowers of the woods afford but a fcanty portion of thefe fubftances from which the honey is
formed. Nor do the cultivated bees manufacture a much larger. quantity -of this moft agree-
able and ufeful article. The country of Kentuckey is but a recent fettlement; and although,
in the fhort term of twenty-three or twenty-four years, the encreafe of its inhabitantshas been
attonifhing}y rapid, great tracts of it {till continue nearly in the wild and unvaried itate in which
jt came from the hands of him-who made it. ‘The cultivation of the Buckcheat is, but little
attended to in Kentuckey. This, I have no doubt, is one of the principal reafons why the
bees of this country do not manufi@ure much honey; for there is, perhaps, no plant to which
the honey-bees in North-America are more attached than to the Buckwheat.

THe TI O ON E Y-B E E, 259

‘ly decorated with fine, rich, low grounds, commonly called
‘bottoms, abounding in a variety of plants, which are a-
greeable to the bees, fuch as the Polygonum /candens, or
Weld-buckwheat,and many others. Sogreat is the attach-
ment of the honey-bees to thefe fituations, that fometimes
they form a file, for a confiderable diftance, along a creek,
or river, quaffing the nectar of the plants, but not ven-
turing to extend themfelves far from thefe agreeable fitu-
ations.

The following quotation, from the Abbé Raynal’s PAz-
lofophical and Political Hiftory of the fettlements and trade
of the Europeans in both the Indies, fhall conclude what
I have to fay in fupport of my opinion, that the honey-
bee is not an indigenous animal of the American conti-
nents. ‘¢ North America,” fays this elegant writer, ‘* was
formerly devoured by infe&ts. Asthe air was not then
purified, the ground cleared, the woods cut down, nor
the waters drained off, thefe little animals deftroyed, with-
out oppofition, all the productions of nature. None of
them were ufefulto mankind*. There is only one at pre~
fent, which is the bee; but this is fuppofed to have been
carried from the old tothe new world. The favages call
it the Englith fly; and it is only found near the coafts.
Thefe circumftances announce it to be of foreign origi-
nal. The bees fly in numerous fwarms through the forefts
of the new world, ‘Their numbers are continually increaf-
ing, and their honey, which is converted to feveral ufes,
fupplies many perfons with food. Their wax becomes
‘daily a confiderable branch of trade+.”

Kke It

* What wretched philofophy! But, it isnot my bufinefs, inthis place, to expofe the pue-
vile weaknefs of thefe affertions of Raynal. Tamnot ignorant, indeed, that they nicely fit
the fyftem of certain writers who, in the fulnefs of a mifguided zeal, or in that debafement of
mind which almoft neceffarily arifes ovt of the ftrong partialities for fyftem, in the producti-
ons of the new-world, have been able to difcover no energies of matter, and only an embryo-

‘late of mind. 1 leave thefe philofophers to the enjoyments of their dreams,
+ See Vol. VIT. page 392 and 393. Englifh Tranflation, by Juftamond. London: 1788.

a

260 INQUIRY CONCERNING

It appears, then, thatthe apzs mellifica, or true honey-bee
is not a native: of:America, but that we are indebted to Eu-.
rope for this ufeful infe&. It is difficult to tell at what.
time this fpecies. of bee was introduced into the different .
countries of America. I think it probable, however, that,,;
in general, the emigrant-fettlers would turn their. attenti- .
on to the honey-bee {oon after they found themfelves pret-..
ty well eftablifhed in their new and happy territories. ..

I have already obferved, that William Penn has made .-
no mention of bees in his account. of the natural produati-
ons of Pennfylvania*. It is. probable, therefore, that in.
the year. 1683, when he wrote the letter, which I have.
mentioned, thefe infe&ts had-not been introduced into the. .
Province. But their introduction does not appear to have; -
been long fubfequent to this period; for-one-Gabriel Tho-. .
mas, a Quaker-preacher, who refided in.-Pennfylvania, -
for about fifteen. years, viz. from 1681. to 1696, fpeaks.-
of them in the following words: ‘* Bees thrive and mul-.
tiply.exceedingly in thofe parts, the Sweeds often get great,
ftore of them in the: woods,.-where they are free from any. .
Body. Honey (and-.choice:too) is fold in-the Capital. City.
for Five Pence per Pound}. Wax, is alfo plentiful, cheap,.
and a,canfiderable-Commerce}”’»: Fhe fame. author, in. |
his Hifforical defcription of the province and country of:
Weft-New-=Jer/ey, {ays this province 1s “ well. provided”. °
with bees:§. : |

_ Perhaps, it will be thought that. I-have-devoted more:
time to this inquiry than the fubje& merited. I will allow,.
that the queftion is not of much confequence to, mankind,, -
at large; but to a fociety of philofophers, every elucida- .
tion of a difputed point in natural hiftory cannot but be,

in.

.* See page-25r. ;

+ He means fterling. ,

$ An hiftorical and geographical account of the province and country of Penfilvania, &c,.

page 23. London: 1698. &vo.
§ See page 25. London: 1698. 8vo,

rate A OAN, FE. Y-B-E £E, 26r.

in fome degree, interefling. Ifany farther apology fhould
be thought neceflary for my troubling you, gentlemen,
with my fentiments on this queftion, I beg leave to re-
mind you, that in almoft every cultivated age and coun-
try, philofophers have thought that they were not alto-
gether ufelefsly employed in colleGting materials. for the
natural hiftory of an animal fo interefting to mankind as

the BEE.
Benjamin Smith Barton.
N°. XXXII.
An Account of a Comet...
DEAR SIR, ‘
Read Feb, N the rith of January laft, in the evening,
’ zgth, 1793.

| I -difcovered a comet in the Conftellation
Cepheus. That night and the following it appeared, to
the naked eye, fuperior in brightnefs to a fiar of the 2d.
magnitude. On the 13th, it was evidently diminifhed,
and it continued to: grow; more faint until about a week
ago, when. it. difappeared.». It pafled very rapidly
through Caffiopea, Andromeda, the Triangle and Aries.
January the 17th, it was near. the firft ftar of Aries, and
on the 31ft very near Flamfteed’s 84th ftar of the Whale,
and a little further fouth I faw it, for the laft time, on
the evening of the 8th of February. .

Dear Sir,
Yours, &c. |
DAVID RITTENHOUSE.

To Robert Patterfon, Secretary to
the Philofophical Society, N°, XXXII.

{ 262 }

N°. XXXII
PRIZE DISSERTATION,

which was honored with the Magellanic Gold Medal, by the Philofophical Society
January, 1793.

CADMUS, or a TREATISE on the ELEMENTS of
WRITTEN LANGUAGE, dlluftrating, by a philofo-
phical Divifion of SPEECH, the Power of each Charac-
ter, thereby mutually fixing the Orthography and Orthoe-
Ve a

CUR NESCIRE, PUDENS PRAVE, QUAM DISCERE MALO?
Hor: Ars Poet: v, $8,

With an ESSAY on the mode of teaching the DEAF, or
SURD and confequently DUMB, to SPEAK.

ERHAPS there is no fubje& of which the
generality of men are fo ignorant, as the fub-
je& of the following paper: indeed there is f{carcely one
that ignorance affeéts fo much to defpife; but, though
unexpanded minds may not deem it worthy of a thought,
fome of the greateft philofophers have confidered it of
fuch importance as to claim their particular attention.
The learned Bifhop Wilkins, in his treatife on a _philofo-
phical language, informs us, that befides the famous Em-
perors Caius Julius Cefar, and OGavius Auguftus, who
both wrote upon this fubje&, Varro, Apian, Quintilian
and Prifcian beftowed much pains upon the alphabet: fince
them Erafmus, both the Scaligers, Lipfius, Salmafius, Vof-
fius, Jacobus Matthias, Adolphus Metkerchus, Bernardus
Malinchot, &c.—alfo Sir Thomas Smith, Bullokar, Alex-
ander Gill, and Do&tor Wallist; the laft of whom Wil-
kins thinks, had confidered with the greateft accuracy and
fubtlety the philofophy of articulatefounds. He alfo ac-
knowledges

+ Iam forry that my remotenefs from any library prevents my perufing moft of thefe au-
hors, asl write this in Tortola, my native place. 1792.

i LAPD MM US. 263

Knowledges his obligations to the private papers of Doctor
‘William Holder, and Mr. Lodowick. We find’in the Bif-
‘hop’s work a great difplay of ingenuity and. good reafon; '
and on this fubje& many excellent obfervations. Since
‘him feveral eminent authors have engaged in the ftudy,
and have favored the world with ufeful remarks.. Among
many who have publifhed I will particularly mention Dr.
Kenrick, .Thomas Sheridan, Door: Beattie, and Dofor
Franklin, fome of whofe judicious and forcible reafons.may
be feen in the differtations of Noah Webfter. .

An attentive confideration.of this theme has many and
important. objects.

We fee hundreds of nations whofe languages are not:
yet written. We fee millions of children born to labour |
for years to acquire imperfectly, what children of good -
capacity would acquire perfectly in a few weeks.»

We.-fee mountains of volumes printed, and-no man can
produce, in the Englifh language, a fingle fentence, of ten |
words;-properly written, if in the received mode of fpel-
ling.

To reduce the languages of different ‘nations to writing
it would be neceffary to invent an Univer/al alphabet, the
mode of conftruing and applying of which! fhall only —
here give an idea of, as the bounds of this paper will not
permit.me to.exemplify more than the English.

An Univerfal alphabet ought to contain a dingle diftiné
mark or character, as the reprefentative of each -fimple
found which it is poffible for the human voice and. breath
to utter.

No mark fhould reprefent two or three diftina founds* ;
nor fhould any fimple found. be reprefented. by two or
three different characterst. -

Language

* As aincall, calm; came,

tT Asc, &, g, eo.

264 CAD MUS.

Language appears common to nature. Almoft every

beaft and bird and infe&t conveys its feelings by founds
pittered in different ways. The language of man is how-
ever the moft extenfive: his ideas are conveyed by words,
formed cither by fingle or connected founds; thefe founds
are produced by modifications of the voice and breath.
Every modification is called a letter, which, reprefented by
a mark, and the marks known by the eye to be the repre-
fentatives of the founds, an idea is as intelligibly convey-
ed by the marks as by the founds.
* {How much have the learned to lament the imperfe&
ftate in which human genius has yet left the alphabet!
Tt has been the cuftom to confider ‘the *redu@tion of lan-
guage to the eye as an art bordering fo much on divine,
as almoft to furpafs human iavention. If we examine the
ignorance, in this refpect, of even the moft learned men,
‘we may with fome propriety afcribe to the fubje& much
difficulty, but, when the firft fources of error are conquer-
ed, every thing appears plain and fimple.

I am confident the Hebrew language was not formed
‘before that alphabet; [the alphabet was probably the Ethi-
opic,| for the radicals of the Hebrew are compofed each
of three characters, and by permutation might form ten
thoufand words.’ Thefe verbs have all eighteen flexions,
_and might form one hundred and eighty thoufand words,
which would be more comprehenfive than human genius.

It is impoffible that a language fo mechanically and fo
artificially formed could be the effe& of chance,’ it’ muft
have been formed upon the alphabet, and more efpecialty
as it is formed’ by three charaéters in all cafes and not by
three diftinét letters or founds ; for the =] beth, 3) vimel,
‘“] and daleth, without the point, have the powers of Ba*,

“* Tisthe Vocal of the H.

oA www s | 265

eaand pi; capable of forming by permutation twenty nine
words, but twenty four without repeating the fame cha-
racter three times ina word, each containing fix letters,
and but three characters: if thefe charaters were prima-
rily confidered as only each the reprefentative of one let-
ter, this reafon is not valid, but the next becomes ftrong-
er, andthe difficulties increafe; for, to form a language
of exactly three letters in every radical word, pre-{uppofes
a perfe& acquaintance with a diftina fet-of founds, betlide
a general confent of the perfons engaged in the compofiti-
on of the language, and memories fufficient to retain one
compofed by permuting twenty two letters by three. It
requires more genius to effet it without, than with cha-
racters: by an alphabet it might be the compofition of one
man, but is however the produGtion of a great effort of
genius, and approaches towards a philofophical language.

All the world have to lament that not only the circum-
navigators of different nations, but even of the fame na-
tion, who make vocabularies of the languages they hear,
are fo little acquainted with the philofophy of fpeech, as
never to write them alike: indeed the fame perfon cannot
read in his fecond voyage, but with difficulty, what he
wrote in the preceding one, witha pronunciation intelli-
gible to a native: yet moft people are capable of repeating
with tolerable corre€tnefs what they hear others pronounce
immediately before, even in a different language, pro-
vided the fame founds, contained in the word be found
in the language of the imitator, otherwife new founds
mutt be attempted, and every perfon is not fufficiently ac~
curate in his obfervations, to perceive the effort made by the
fpeaker when he utters fuch founds, as we may obferve
daily in the attempts of foreigners to {peak the #4 of the
Englifh p 0, &c.

VOL, II. Ll Shew

266 G; Al De M’ W& S&:

Shew a fentence in the Roman alphabet to an individus=.
al of each nation that makes ufe of thefe characters, and
two perfons cannot be found to read it alike: nor can a.
perfon who underitands the powers of the letters in oné
Janguage, be capable of reading a fentence in each language.
properly.

Moft of the nations of Europe have received more or»
lefs the Roman alphabet, yet there is not.one language to
which it is perfeQly adapted; however, although in the.
different languages of Europe the fame found is often re=.
prefented in each by two or three characters, we find in
moft of them fome words which contain the fame character
to reprefent the fame found; therefore the formation of an |
extenfive, fixed alphabet, for the ufe of Europe, will not
be fo difficult, as if we could furnifh no inftances-from the
different languages, in which they allconcurred to give the
fame found to the fame chara@ter. But this will only
ferve while we attempt te preferve the Roman charaters, .
and produce as little innovation as poffible.in printing:
were we to go asfar as common fenfe would direét, and
lay afide the Roman alphabet, which is exceedingly com-.
plex, adopting one that might be reduced to fuch fimpli-.
city, as to require only one fourth of the time to write the »
fame matter, we mutt firft fix all the founds, by making -
for each language acorrefpondent table.in diftin& columns,
then adapt the fimplicity of the charaGer, as much as pof- .
fible, to the frequency of the found in the different lan-.
guages. The moft certain mode of fixing the founds, is.
by adopting in each table the fimpleft monofyllables in.
which they are found, fuch as are commonly pronounced
alike, and are the moft frequently ufed. The fame letter
or character fhould ftand at the head of each correfponding
perpendicular column, in the feveral tables, and the fame
alfo atthe beginning of each horizontal line, thus repre--

fenting

CADMUS, 267

‘fenting always the fame found, as far as thefe feveral cha-
‘yaéters can be applied. If the fame found cannot always
be found in one language that a letter in another repre-
‘fents, this letter muft not be ufed in the firft, on any ac-
‘count, asit would produce confufion; for it makes part
only of an univerfal alphabet. Such charafters might
however foon come into ufe, by adopting, with-all future
difcoveries, the names given by the inventors, either in
arts or fciences, and in whatever language. Any fubfe-
quent improvements in the arts would be more eafily
comprehended in writings, were the names and terms
every where the fame. If one nation only take this ad-
vantage one only will enjoy this benefit: but were
more nations to doit, languages would in time aflimilate
as knowledge became more diffufed by intercourfe; the
origin of the difcoveries would be more eaftly traced, and
all the world feem more nearly allied. Nothing indeed
can be -more ridiculous, than to alter a proper name,
merely to make its termination more correfpondent to the
general laws ofa language: jyet in how many inftances
have the French, Englifh, Germans and other nations
done this! At the fame time they urge the neceflity of
preferving an orthography which has very few traces left
of the radicals, and has little more affinity with the fpo-
ken language than two different languages have with
each other: thus, to read and write, and to {peak the fame
things, are arts as different and difficult as to learn two
diftin& languages; for they are in general written by
miferable hieroglyphics; and, it is as difficult for a per-
fon to remember that a particular written word fignifies
‘a certain vocal one, as to remember that the fame word
fignifies a particular objet. We cannot then but lament
the many mifpent years of our youth, and the continual
exercife of cruelty which is inflited to make them imbibe

Lia the

268 GCA DM @ S.
the ignorance of their anceftors, and for ever fhackle their
minds with falfe and abiurd prejudices.

Voltaire, that gilder in literature, who never wrote
any thing folid upon any fubje&, but what may be attri--
buted to the much injured and obfcure Pere Adam, or the
celebrated Durey de Morfan, gave fome piéces:in favor
ofa reformation in fpelling, but did‘not exceed a few ter-
minations of words, which-he urged to the French Acade-
my; they however argued for the propriety of retaining
the old mode, left they fhould not know the derivations
of words; which are, indeed, as folely the- province of
antiquarians, as the derivations of cuftoms and things; but
were they really requifite to-Scholars, they have only to,
turn to diCtionaries, and fag through a few references.

Many urge the utility of the old‘orthography to prevent
obfeurity in writing, but. «though half adozen words of
different acceptation had the fame orthography, where
would be the difficulty of obtaining the meaning? for in
fpeaking we find none, and many words in Englifh have
the fame found; for inftance beer to drink; and dver to car=.
ry the dead upon; alfo bear the verb to carry, bear the
beat, and dare naked, are never miftaken in converfation,
the compofition of the fentences conveying perfe@ly the:
diftinGtion. If any obfcurity be: perceived; an alteration:
Should be made in the words themfelves, and the ortho-
graphy regulated: thereby: inftances may be pointed out’
where it would be highly proper to adhere, not only to:
particular diftinGions in the prefent orthography, but to
conform to them in fpeaking—>« Jf you /peak like moderns,
why would ye write like ante-chriftians ? pronounced, ante
not antz, otherwife there would be no difference between,
before Chrift, and againf? Chritt.

Several of the Englifh argue’ for the -prefervation of
derivatives, but it is the laft argument that ought to have
been ufed, in delicacy to their own feelings, for none of

their.

GCA DM Ui S. 26g
thei? mof learned grammarians or lexicographers, except,’
perhaps, Tames Robertfon* knew the derivation of even
the commoneft monofyllables, ’till John Horne Tooke
cleared away all’ the obfcurities, under’ which ignorance
was veiled, and detected the learned abfurdities of Harris,
Johnfon, Lord Monboddo, and many others.—James
Robertfon, in his Hebrew grammar, (the firft edition of
which was publifhed fifty years ago) gives hints which
indeed could not efcape a perfon of much lefs learning
and penetration than John Horne Tooke, but I would by:
no means. infer thence, that any hints have been borrowed,
becaufe hisname, I am confident, would have been menti-=
oned.

Some of the moft’ learned men are men of the leaft
knowledge—take away their fchool learning, and they re-
main children. As all their confequence in life: confifts
in theiracquaintance with dead languages, they, no doubt,
would condemn any attempt’to leffen'the dignity of fuch
acquirements. ‘You muft not alter the orthography of
languages, becaufe we cannot afterward derive the words;
then all the learning we have taken fo much pains to ac«
quire will be ufelefs.—We muft thus preferve bad:fpelling
to render dead languages ufeful in its derivation, and we
muft learn dead languages to derive bad {pelling.—j When
does the lady (who {peaks the moft elegant language) afk
the pedant whence the words are derived! He has fpent
two minutes in two languages to know the meaning of the
word, and fhe has {pent two minutes in one language; and
«whereis the difference ? A child muft fpend many years in
learning dead languages, that he may know more perfe@-
ly his own.—Few acquire more than one language with
its elegancies. I have known good latin fcholars, in En-
gland, incapable of. writing Englifh tolerably.—j How

much

* Profeffor of the Oriental languages in the Univerfity of Edinburgh,

270 Ci A} DIM Ws.

‘much more rational would it be, to ftudy the Englith twice
as long, than to ftudy another language to obtain the
Englith! There is fcarcely one man in fifty, even among
the learned, that writes every word with whatis, mof er-
roncoufly, called a corre&t orthography, without a lexicon,
among the unlearned none, and few among well educated
ladies. Thefe difficulties depend greatly upon falfe fpel-
ling, becaufe they all pronounce much more alike than
they write ; and that falfe {pelling, in its origin, depended
as much upon a want of knowing the alphabet, as upon
the change of language for the fake of euphony. People
are more afhamed of expofing bad orthography than bad
writing : the only difference, however, between what the
world calls bad fpelling and good, is, that the firft contains
the blunders of the writer only, the latter contains the
blunders of every body elfe.

Dr. Johnfon, in the grammar which is prefixed to his
diGtionary (under letter Z,) fays “* For pronunciation the
“bef rule is, to confider thofe as the moft elegant fpeakers
* ewho deviate leaft fromthe written words.” lf the Door,
with all his learning, had heard any page of his own
works read correctly, (according to the orthography) he
would with difficulty, if at all, have been able to conftrue
it, and would have been even more at a lofs than foreign-
ers are when the Englifh {peak Latin. Iam forry that the
vague opinion of an eftablifhed character can impofe upon
the generality of men, and I lament how much fooner
the errors of the great are embraced than the truths of the
little. The Doctor immediately after this allows “ our
“ orthography tobe formed by chance, and is yet fufficiently
« irregular.” I cannot conceive by whatrule the irregulari-
ty can be determined, but by its non-conformity to the
{peech, which would thus deny his previous affertion.
& Some reformers” he adds, “ have endeavoured to accom-
amodate

G A. ee MW S, 27K

‘-modate orthography better to the pronunciation, without
“ confidering that this 1s to meafure by a /hadow, to take
“+ that for amodel or fandard which ts changing while they
‘sapply it.” If language change, the orthography ought
alfo to change; but if orthography were once properly ac-
commodated to language, even this would not be liable to
change, confequently that : and it would then be confider-
ed, by all.but Johnfonians, as great an impropriety to mi/-
cull a written word, as now to pronounce it properly.
“* Others,” he fays %* le/s abfurdly indeed, but with equal
** wnlikelibood of fucce/s, have endeavoured to proportion the
** number of letters to that of founds, that every found may
‘* have its own character, and every character a fingle found. -
‘© Such would be the orthography of anew language to be
“¢ formed by a fynod of Grammarians upon principles of /cience.
“But who can hope to prevail on nations to change their
“practice, and make all thear old.books ufele/s ? or what ad-
“vantage would a new orthography procure, equivalent to
‘““ the confufion and perplexity of fuch an alteration?” In an-
fwering the above I will firft afk the fimple queftion «what
is the w/e of writing? Itis to exhibit to the eye the fame
words that are fpoken to the ear: and it is impoffible to
do this without giving a diftin@ mark for every diftiné&
found: to deviate from this rule is to run into error. A
fynod of grammarians would not require a new language
to accommodate true {pelling to, it may be fo eafily accom-
modated to * all languages ; and if falfe orthography does
not

* In a tour through Scotland, I vifited the Hebrides, and met with many old men who
neither {poke a word of Englifh, nor could they read a word in any language; thefe men
repgated many of the poems afcribed to Offian, and other ancient bards. One of thefe Poems
1 wrote with fuch orthography and characters, as I thought might anfwer to the founds which
were repeated by an old man. . I afterwards read it flowly to a fenfible old woman, who un-
deritood it, and the Englifh, well enough to give me a tranflation; this wasas regulara poem
as any I have feen tranflated, poffefling alfo much genius, but fhe often lamented the poverty
of the Englifh language, which fhe faid was incapable of exprefling the fublimity of many of
the paflages. 1: might be fo, but I conceived there was another, anda more forcible reafon,
viz, her being more extenfively acquainted with the gaelic than the Envlifh. 1 will here a

grels

272 Ce. Ay Deli. 3:

not change a language, it is very improbable that corre&
orthography would alter, but rather ferve to fix it; and
to fuppofe the contrary is abfurd. As to “ making all their
old books ufele/s,” 1 anfwer, that the Doctor, though he
reafons thus, could read Chaucer and other ancient poets
with fufficient facility. All good authors whofe works
are too voluminous or expenfive, or too abftracted for
new editions, would ftill afford ample matter for the learn-
ed and ingenious, and they would be read, with as much
eafe as the ancient Englith or French. If they were books
of more general ufe, and worthy of new editions, they would
no doubt be republifhed; if not, the rifing generation
would be much benefited by their fuppreflion. Some of
“ the advantages which a new orthography would pro-
cure,’ fhall be enumerated. sft. Travellers and voya-
gers [Page 265.] wouldbe enabled to give fuch perfect yo-
cabularies of the languages they hear, that they would
greatly facilitate all future intercourfe. a2dly. Foreigners
would, with the affiftance of books alone, be able to learn
the language in their clofets, when they could not have
the benefit of mafters; and would be able to converfe
through the medium of books, which at prefent are of no
fervice whatever, in learning to fpeak a language; and if
this were to be adopted by the AMERICANS, AND NOT
BY THE EncuisH, the beft Englifh authors would be re-
printed in America, and every ftranger to the language
even in Europe, who thinks it of more confequence to
fpeak the Englifh corre&tly, than to write it with the

prefent
grefsfo far astodeclare, that I faw.and heard more unpublifhed poems, of this kind, than have
been printed by James Macpherfon, and John Clarke (Tranflator of the Caledonian Bards)
and have heard alfo fome of the poems which thefe Gentlemen tranflated. ‘Though I wrote
tolerably faft, I learnt by fome of my acquaintance, that the venerable old man could re-
peat fuch a variety as to keep me writing half a year. I will not attribute the intelligible
manner in which I repeated the poem, entirely to the orthography and characters made ule
of ; formy memory, asI read it foon after, aided me much, and I had not then made the

fubject of this treatife my ftudy : but at prefent there is no language, that I can pronounce,
which I cannot write intelligibly, and this may be learnt by any one ina very fhort time,

°C ASD MM #U %. 273

prefent errors, would purchafe American editions, and
would be ashamed to {pell incorre&ly, when he could ac-
quire the mode of fpelling well; for he would not be par-
tial to difficulty, and would examine the old and new
modes with more philofophy, than our blind prejudice will
allow us to make the teft of reafon. |

3d. Diale&ts [page 279] would be utterly deftroyed,
both among foreigners and peafants.

4th. Every one would write with a perfe@tly correct
orthography |p. 279.]—

sth. Children, as well as all the poorer claffes of people,
would learn to read in fo fhort a time, and with fo little
trouble, having only to acquire the thirty letters,
that this alone ought to filence all the objections that can
be brought, and, particularly with the foregoing reafons,
muft be deemed more than “ equivalent to the confufion
“‘ and perplexity of Juch an alteration.” But, independent
of what is faid above, I admit neither confufion nor per-
plexity to be the confequences of fuch a change: thofe
who were never before taught to read, could have no idea
of any other method, and thefe who now read would find
no more difficulty in the two modes, than is found in read-
ing by any fecret charaéter. Even fhort-hand writers, if in
practice, find no difficulty in reading words which do not
contain a fingle common vowel: fimple marks are ufed,
and they attend not to the prefent abfurd orthography of
any word ihow much more eafy then to read words which
contain the fymbols of every found, and efpecially when
moft of the common chara¢ters are ufed! befides, thofe
whofe thirft after knowledge is quenched, may hereafter
amufe themfelves with the books now publifhed. I thould
have been aftontfhed at the DoGor’s obfervations, if I had
not been acquainted with his prejudices,

VOL, Il. M m The

274 CG. A Bato AW AS:

He gives fome fpecimens of the reformed or-
thography, of Sir Thomas Smith, fecretary of ftate to
Queen Elizabeth ;—of Dodtor Gill, the celebrated matter.
of Saint Paul’s {chool in London;—of Charles Butler; —
and fhows that Milton was inclined to change the f{pelling :
finally, he mentions Bifhop Wilkins, as the laft general
reformer. The fpecimens however which he exhibits as .
a ‘* guide to reformers, or terror to mnovaters” 1 am a=
fraid will anfwer neither intention, being too inperfec to ;
ferve the former, and too incorre&t to deter the latter; but
{ome of the imperfections he attributes. to the want of
proper types; yet by thefe inftances, we find, at fo early a .
time, many advantages over the barbarous fpelling of the .
prefentage. To examine the common-place obfervations, .
of even the generality of profodial writers, would be too
tedious a tafk for the author, to give any account of them,
too tedious to the reader, who {hall therefore be fubjected
to as few remarks as poffible, upon what others have writ-.
ten on the doctrine of articulate founds;. but as Thomas
Sheridan is one of the lateft authors on the fubje@, and his |
pronouncing dictionary, in which he has much merit, is
more generally known than any other, a few obfervations .
on different parts of his work will be indifpenfable. —

The diftinGtion. which he* and other grammarians
make, between a vowel anda confonani, 1s, that the firft -
can be uttered or pronounced by itfelf; the latter cannot.
How harmlefs foever this may appear, it has been more
fatal to fcholars than Sylla or Charybdis were to Mariners.

If a confonant cannot be pronounced by itfelf, it muft
be part of a compound ; therefore Mr. Sheridan fhould
have made nineteen additional compounds to the } 7 andx
in his fcheme of the alphabet-—-yet, he fays{ ‘* there are
“ twenty eight fimple founds in our tongue; fix of which

however,

* See his dictionary.
Page 1/t of his profodial grammar,

Ae Me Ue. S: 27s

Ne
“ however, are mutes: b he fays, is no letter—-J think he
aight have claffed it with his mutes; at the idea of fpeak-
ing and hearing of which, reafon revolts.—If 4 be rejeted
asaletter, merely ‘becaufe it is a mark of afpiration, th
k,p, ¢and © ought as well to be omitted, becaufe they are
only marks of afpiration: ©, f, ©, s are alfo afpirates, but
more forcibly made than the former. If a letter”
neceflary to mark the fimpleft afpirate, there is
rence between heating a cake and eating it; but
a dot be neceflary to mark it, and if in every other inftance
that dot have the fame fignification, it would be as much
a letter as any other chara@ter; for every mark which is
pronounced, diftinguifhing thereby one word from another,
is really a letter, becaufe, it fubje€ts to the eye what the ear
requires of the voice.—I do not however confider accents,
‘of which the French and fome other nations are fo liberal,
as letters, but as notes by which the high found of par-
ticular letters may be direGted.

He makes nine vowels—but there does not appear to
‘be any difference between the found of his fecond a, as in
hate, and his firft e as in bet, exceptin length; for, fub-
ftitute the laft for the firft, and the word et will make by
prolongation Aeet, written at prefent bate-—His third ¢
as in beer, appears to be precifely the firft z as in fit, for by
lengthening the z in ft we make fit, written feet; (beer,
biar; beet, biz,) nor can we make it otherwife.

He follows the Scotch mode of naming the confonants,
by placing before each a common vowel, inftead of adopt-
ing the more irrational plan of the Englifh, who fome=
times put the vowel before, and fometimes after the cha-
racter to give it a mame: but here is the rock of error,
upon which all grammarians have ftruck, who have at-
tempted to give a rational account of the formation of lan-

Mm 2 guage,

276 Cl Al? Das Mr! OP Sz

/

guage, ‘The Hebrews and Greeks led Europe into this
miftake, which prejudice fince has taken great care to pre=
ferve. The Phenicians, and after them the Hebrews, not.
diftinguifhing fufficiently the fimple formation of the ele~-
ments, adopted words which began with the founds, with-.
out confidering, in fome inftances, any relation that the.
found has with the objet. ‘Thus x begins the name of.
the oxgwwhich is a/pha in the Phenician (and & aleph in the:
Hebrew) hence the Greek name a/pha,, when Cadmus in-.
troduced letters into Greece.—The B being the firft letter.
of the voice of the fheep, was reprefented among the:
Egyptians, by a Hieroglyphick in the form of a theep..
The *nAMEs ofthe letters, inftead of the POWERS, have
been. hitherto invariably ftudied; we conceive them there-.
fore, not to be fimple founds, and hence the ridiculous di-.
vilion of the alphabet into. vowels; confonants ; mutesy.
pure and impure; femivowels.and their numerous fubdi-.
vilions.

The characters ought all to be divided into two claffes;.
VOWELS and ASPIRATES,

A.vowel is a letter that is founded by the voice,} whence:
its name. An afpirate is a letterthat cannot be founded but.
by the breath. Of the former there are twenty one in the
Englith Language; ofthelatter nine, making thirty letters. .

The:
* I have been afked how we fhall be able to fpell words to each other, without zaming the
letters—It would be thought ridiculous to afk the names of the words that compofe a fentence,
but the queftions are exactly parallel, or of one form; by this mode the mere pronouncing of ihe
word flowly is fufficient, and there is no other fpelling ; thus a child, that reads the letters, reads.
words compoied of them, as he reads fentences compofed of words. If I were to teach a
child, not by affinity of found or reafon, but by mere repetition, to call the letter s /even, the -
e ten, andthe x fix, tofpell the word /ex, it would be deemed very irrational, but it is much ,
lefs fo, than the mode by which moft of the words in the Englifh language are taught ;—for -
inftance, double-u—ayt /b——ai—fce—ayt/b, are to be hammered, by name, into a child’s head -

to produce the word which / Oh, cruelty, ignorance, and lofs of timc ! (See © table of
founds line 12. .

+ Speaking is rendering ideas audible by the voice; whi ering is rendering them audible by the .
breath; and a perfon cannot therefore, with propriety, be faid-to fpeak in.a whifper. Voice
is derived from vox a found, but we have fixed the idea to a certain clafi of founds, otherwife
jt would be as proper to call any fouud whatever, voice, agto call by that name the particular
founds uttered by the humau organs of {peech ———

CAS) Es Mir Ur S& 29:
The Characters.

Common nafal ftopt. fibilant fhort
cco wa ors? ?7xz+a:«pjayaars arr eres"
IOCAEIOU YZRLJVPWMNDNGBDSFOS KFT OH

te SR ae Se, Be ee ae
Vowels Afpirates a
onaciouyzrljvw ¢ mnn gbd ffss kpt oh

TRE ae VORP SE a SR ls PS | eee

The following characters are particularly recommended.
SOALIOUYZRLIVDWM Nn NGADLTresKPTOH

It were much to be wifhed that one fet of characters be.
ufed inftead of capitals and. fimall. letters,. for they only
increafe the difficulty of finding a fuflicient number of ea-
fy forms, for an univerfal, or even a- copious alphabet.
The fame letters made larger at the besinning of an em-
phatic word, or the whole made a larger fize, or in Italics,
would be fufficiently charaéteriftic. The printing letters,.
as in the third line ‘of charaters, above, neither afcending
nor defcending out of the line, would render books, prints
ed in this type, the moft beautiful that ever yet appeared,
andthe lines would be more diftinct:

The written characters may be accommodated to the
others by degrees; at erclene i thall poche little innovation.
in them.

“>

2 Pronounced

278 cA DM US.

2 Pronounced like, e as in herd, —
w a ~ - a - - - law
a ~ ~- - a - - rat
é te d - e ~ - — red
t i ah RS i = = fit
7) Rs me - oO - ~ - fog
ub as 7 - re) = - fool
FE EE SS Tea CRA Stes A ae
z - - ~ Z = ~ zeal
- - - ey - “ red
bscudian gear poder an let
a dee MRE ik eta ae judge
uv ~ - - Vv - = vatt
of” - - - th - - that
oU. i wi 4 w 2 a= -qwolf
mM ~ = - mn = - met
I - - - n ~ - nap
Tf ~ ~ - ng ~ ~ king
LA RE NG RT aE g : Ratige
3 - - ~ b ~ = bat
a ~ _ ~ d - = dim.
Fa a ie a. nat A
~ ~ - ~ £ - ~ fit
S ~ “ - th - = thin
d ~ - - { > - Set
the - ~ - k - - - kifs
}- ° P ‘ = pen
é = - - t - Z fen
9 a ~” - wh = when
bh h - - hat

Cx DP Ww U & 279

Rules for pronouncing * thefe letters, + thewing the
formation of each diftinct found, in the Englith language,
to which it is thought neceflary to appropriate a character;
having a true knowledge of which, it will be impoffible to
write incorrecily whatever is heard in any language, con-
taining only thefe letters; and.as umpoffible to read incorrect=-
‘ly any language written in thefe characters; for, by this
method, the orthography and orthoepy determine each
other; and, if the orthography of language were to be
corrected, the pronunciation of the {cholar, would, by
reading alone, be perfetly attained by the peafant and.
the foreigner; deftroying thus, 2 the mof? effectual man-
ner, all vulgar and local diale&s, and fitting even for
oratory, every man of good capacity and utterance.

The reader is now to reje& all prejudices refpecing
Names. of letters, and is to ftudy only their Powers, -
which in all cafes may be prolonged, except in the ftopt vo-
cals and their afpirates ; and a good mode of obtaining pre--
cilely the true power of each, is, to tran{pofe the letter to
the end of any word which that letter begins, then, by
repeating the word rapidly, the letter will take its proper
place, and the ear will determine if it poffefles the true:
found... | .

Pronounciation *

* Though it is faid Pronunciation is fuch gue-nee fevibitur, nec pingitur, nec baurire cam fas
ef, nifi viva voce. ; . ; ;

+ It will be obferved in the line which I fo particularly recommend, that fome of the let-
ters have been a little altered to render them mere fimple, and that fome of the Charaéters
are merely common letters reverfed. The middle line of the A of the Eand Fhave been
omitted which will render them more eafy for the type-founder, and lefs liable to blot in
printing. The V and fare the A and J inverted, the ‘] is the E reverfed. The long S (f) fhould
-be totally omitted, it has fomuch the appearance of f, The p isthe fame as the Saxon, but
rather more diftinét: the O of the Greeks isalfoa little altered in the printing letters. The
©, ofthe Goths, may be fomewhat altered in writing for the fake of expedition. UWMN
are made like the fmall letters, u being the inverfe only of n, andwofm, filling the line
with great beauty, and avoiding difagrceable angles,

280 ¢ 2°D OM Ws.

Prouounciation of the Letters

I

Ts made by opening the mouth a very little, juft fuffici-
ent to fhew the edges of the upper teeth, producinga vocal.
found low down in the throat, and fuffering the tongue
and lips to remain at reft, the epiglottis only being raifed
by the breath, which by a contraction of the glottis, by
the furrounding mufcies, occafions a tremulous motion and
found called voice, that can be felt by applying the fingers
to the throat ; but this tremulous motion can only be felt
when vocals are founded, fo that thofe who are born deaf,
inay be made fenfibie of the difference, by feeling only,
and can thus difcover, when they are learning the ele-
ments of fpeech, whether or not they pronounce properly.
The Englith His the afpirate of this vocal: it is a vowel
much ufed in that language, taking the place of o very
often when fhort, but it was not reprefented by a charadct-
er.—Its power may be found in the firft perpendicular co-
lumn of the fucceeding table in /un, san; ruff,RaF; &c.

0

To pronounce the fecond common vowel, the mouth
muft be more open than for a, but the lower lip muft not
-difcover the lower teeth: the found is made inthe threat,
more eafily continued, and is fuller than in pronouncing
a, and the tonzue is drawn back, the tip of it refting on
the bottom of the mouth. It is alfo a very common vow-
el in the Englith language, though there was no character

afligned

€ ADM U S, 28x

afigned to it. The power of m may be found in the {e-
cond perpendicular column of the table of founds, in yawn,
YOON j+-saw, SUD;—raw, roo; &c—

a

The third common vowel: the mouth muft be ftill more
‘open than for a the lower lip defcends a little below the
tips of the under teeth; and the tongue muft lie flat. Its
power may be found in the third perpendicular column
.in the words, yARN;—ZAG j--SAT;—RAT &c.

46

~The fourth common vowel—The mouth a little more
fhut than for a, but the lower Jip expofing ftill more the
lower teeth, and the tip of the tongue gently prefling the
under teeth. Its power may be found in the fourth per-
pendicular column of the table, in, yell, yEL ;—zephyr,
ZEFIRj;—SET j---RED, &c.

i

‘Fifth common vowel—the mouth rather more contraét-
ed than for e, but the under lip fo low as to fhew the in-
fertion of the lower teeth; the corners of the mouth a
little extended; the tongue prefling gently upon the edges
of the lower teeth. Its power may be found in the fifth
perpendicular column, in, ye, YI ;—zeal, ZI1L;—-S1T ;—
RIP ,&c,

re)

Sixth common vowel—the mouth is nearly in a natural
ftate, the lips brought rather clofer together—the tongue
drawn back a little, and the found refembles the 2, but
VOL. Il, Noa the

ian

282» Gf DM. Bs.

the o is made more in the mouth than in the throat. The
Greeks ufe two characters for this found, though really
one is only longer than the other, and the original inten-
tion was good, becaufe the long found was denoted by the
fame charaéter being marked twice (00 «), and it ought
not to have been admitted as a new letter, as it indicates
thereby, not a continuance, but a difference, of found. The
ancient Greeks, as mentioned by Plato, made no diftinai-
on in the long and fhort O (called now. the great and /itt/le
9) nor in the long and fhort Z as may be feen in the word
*sTPATEFON written at prefent stTPpaTHraNn. The
power of o may be found in the fixth perpendicular column
in the words, yoke, YOOK;---zone, ZOON};---SOT ;---
ROT, &c..
Wer

Seventh common vowel: the organs are continued in
the fame pofition as in pronouncing 9, except that. the lips
are fo much contracted as to leave only a very. narrow
aperture, and are much protruded.—z is pronounced in
the fame manner as the Greek 4. Its power may be found
in the feventh perpendicular column of the table of founds,
in the words, yew, yuu;---zewgma,. ZUUGMA ;—loxp, .
suuP;—rost, RuUT; &c. 7

y-

The eighth vocal found, is pronounced in the fame
manner as. the fifth common vocal z, except that y requires
a more forcible effort of voice, and the back part of the
tongue rifes a little, to intercept. the found, which thus
becomes tremulous. It is the vocal of the German ch,
and of the gh of the Gaelic, Scotch, &c.—Its. power is
found in the firft horizontal line of. the table of founds,
in the words,. yawn, Youn;—yarn, YARn;—yell, YEL;
&c. Ninth

* Parkhurlt’s Lexicon of the New-Tefament (H.7

CA D-M-U. 5S, 282
z

‘Ninth vocal—The lips are fufficiently open to thew part
of the upper and -under-teeth, which are nearly fhut, and
the edges perpendicular: the tip of the tongue is placed
gently again{t the roof of the mouth, near the infertion
of the upper teeth; the corners of the mouth a little drawn
up, and a tremulous vocal found produced; the power of
which is exhibited in the fecond horizontal line, in the
words, ZAG;---zephyr, ZEFadR;---zeal, z11L; &c.—It is
the vocal of the afpirate 8,

r

‘Tenth vocal—the mouth a little open—the tongue raif-
ed fo near to the roof of the-mouth, that the voice cannot
pafs between them without occafioning a rapid vibration
or tremor of the tongue. The found imitates the fnar-
ling of a dog. The afpirate of 7 is not in the Englith
language, but in pronouncing gives the fame tremulous
motion to the tongue, and imitates the flight of the par-
tridge and fome other birds: this afpirate is however in
the Ruffian language, though it has no letter or character.
The power of r may be found in the fourth horizontal
line of the table of founds, in the words, ruff, RaF ;—raw,
ROODj—RATj—RED, &c.

ik

Eleventh vocal—the mouth a little open; the tip of the
‘tongue touching the roof-of the mouth, and the found
iffuing by its fides. Itis very fimple, requiring little ef-
fort, and is fimilar to 7, except that the found of the lat-
ter paffes by the nofe. The power of / may be found in
the fifth horizontal line of the table of founds, in the words,
Jamp, Lamp;—/aw, Loo;—/afs, Las;—LeT, &c.

Nn2 Twelfth

284 Oe? AY DRI Gi ei?

J

Twelfth vocal—the middle of the tongue a little raif-

ed; the teeth brought nearly together; the ends of the un-
der lip raifed, the aperture of the mouth becoming thereby
more circular. This is the true French 7, and is the vocal
of the afpirate /+ (page 287,) expreffled by one character,
which is the 7 inverted. ‘The power of 7 may be found
in the fixth horizontal line of the table of founds, in the
words, majefty, MADJdsTI;--trea/ure, TREJIR ;--zelz ure,
stigar; &c,

Vu

Thirteenth vocal—The edges of the upper teeth, which
are difcernable, are placed upon the lower lip; the tip of
the tongue nearly touches the under teeth, and a vocal
found is made, the power of which may be found in the.
eighth horizontal line of the table of founds in the words,
very, VIRI;—Vvaunt VOINT ;--VAST 5--vain, VEEN, &c.
This is the vocal of the afpirate # Some of the ancient
latin monuments fhew that the J has often been put for
the v by confounding the founds, and thereby contound-
ing the fenfe of the word; as in acerbus for acervus, and
wveneficium for deneficium.—The Englifh in the time of
Chaucer, wrote f/aff, /aaf, for /ave or except; and in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth the f was written for the v, as
may be feen in Spencer /afe pro fave. The Spaniards,
even now in the moft polite companies, often confound
them.

D

Fourteenth vocal—the mouth is a little opened, fo that
the tip of the tongue touches the edges of the upper teeth,
and icarcely refts upon the under teeth. Though fome
old Englifh authors give this as the yocal of ©, it is not

~ thus

CO AUB Meuse Sy 285
thus ufed among the Saxons; for porn is pronounced thorn
with two afpirates; thus alfo they pronounce pAu (dew)—
pun (to do)—pEIL (a part), &c. I however adopt it as
the vocal of 0, and exhibit its power in the tenth horizon-
tal line of the table of founds, in the words, the, pa;--that,

BAT ;---them pEM; &c. People who lifp make ufe of ~
this found in all cafes inftead of z.

Ww

Fifteenth vocal—The organs the fame as in pronouncing
the wz except that the lips are a little more protruded and
contracted; the air is alfo forced into the mouth with
more ftrength, and not being permitted to efcape with
fuch facility, a hollower found is produced, and if pro-
_nounced very full, the cheeks are a little expanded, and
the voice becomes fomewhat tremulous. This is the true
vocal of the Gothic afpirate o (p. 291.) reprefented in
modern Englifh by wh, but more properly in ancient En-
glith by Sw. Wis fo feldom ufed in the Englith language,
that I had doubts whether I fhould admit it, or fubftitute
the z, as it is only neceflary in cafes where the /ound of
the w follows. Itis not however what Mr. Sheridan fup-
pofed—viz. the French *ou as in ouz; for thefe make the
fimple w as in blue, blu; Its power will be found in
the twelfth horizontal lineof the table of founds, in the
words, wolf, WuLF 3;--wool, wuL ;--would, wuuLp.

m

Sixteenth vocal---The lips are fhut---the found confe-
quently pafles through the nofe, and this is therefore cal-
led a nafal vowel---by fome mugitus, trom its refembling
the lowing of cattle.---Its power is found in the four-

teenth

* Profod; Gram; xiv ae

-286 GA GD 5M. tT Us.

teenth horizontal line of the table of founds, in the words,
_gouff, maF 3--maw, mon ;---mafs,. mas; &c.

me: |

Seventeenth vocal: the mouth isa little open; the tip
of the tongue raifed to the roof of the mouth, and the
found paffes through the nofe; this is therefore another
nafal vowel.---Its power may be found in the fifteenth
horizontal line of the table of founds, in the words aut,
maT ;--waught, nou T ;--maP ;--neck, nEK; &c.

D

Eighteenth vocal: the mouth remains open as in the
laft (7) the tip of the tongue is drawn back, the middle
being raifed to the back of the mouth, and preventing the
found from iffuing but by the nofe. This is therefore the
third nafal vowel. ‘This found is very .common in the
Englith language, though there was no appropriated cha~
racter, but it was generally exprefled by ng as in longing,
or by mas.in longer. Its true power may be found in the
fixteenth -horizontal line of the table of founds, in the
swords, tomgues, TInz;-~hang, Han ;--length, Lape, &e.

§

The nineteenth vocal---the mouth remains as in the
two laft, but the tip ofthe tongue is a little raifed by the
dilatation of the tongue behind, which ftops the found
entirely,* till the lungs have made fuch a vocal effort as to
force the air between the tongue.and the back part of the
roof of the mouth, at which time the g ceafes, and, by

: opening

* When the voice, by pafling the Glottis, has filled the Cavity with air between that and
the part preffed by the middle of the tongue, the found ceafes or ftops, and cannot be cons
tinued as in other vowels; therefore I have called this a ftopt vocal. Of fimilar formation are

b and d, therefore of the fame denomination. 'Thefe three vowels can alfo be pronounced in-
telligibly, although the mouth and nofe fhould both be ftopt.

rian OW as 284

opening the paflage and ftrongly afpirating, the & is heard,
The modern Greeks even put the laft for the firft---the
ancient Greeks wrote arprmros the modern akprm-
To.----The power of the # may be found in the
-feventeenth horizontal line of the table of founds, in the -
words, gun, Gan;---gall, GO OL ;---GaP ;---GET, &e. .

he

Twentieth vocal---the lips muft be fhut, anda vocal.
found made, which muft not pafs through the nofe, but
have a determination to the lips: it is there ftopt, but
when the lips open the vocal ceafes, and an effort of breath
terminates in the p, its afpirate.t The power of 6, may
be found in the nineteenth horizontal line of the table of
founds, in the words, but, BaT ;---dall, BoOOoL ;---BAT ;---= -
BET" cess

a’

Twenty-firft vocal---the tip of the tongue is raifed to
the roof of the mouth, which is a little open---the found
is alfo ftopt, and the moment it ceafes as a vocal, by open-
ing the paflage to the breath and afpiring ftrongly, the ¢
is produced, which is its afpirate. ‘The power of d ma
be found in the twenty-firft horizontal line of the table of
founds, in the words, dull, DaL ;---daub, DouB ;---DAaRK3
---debt, DET 3---&c.

es

Twenty-fecond letter, and firft afpirate---This is formed
exactly in the fame manner as the letter 7, only it is an
afpirate, and 7 is its vocal. The found is very common in

the
} The 4 is often put for the g, and vice verfa, by the Spanifh, the Germans, the Welfh and

other Moderns, .as well as formerly by the Armenians and other Orientals; and by the Ro-
mans for v,

288 CAD M US.

the Englith language, but there wasno particular letter to
exprefs it, being reprefented in a ftrangely inconfiftent
manner by /hasin /hell, foL s---by /, as. in a/furance, aru-
rans ;by s, asin Afa, ALLA; by *f2, as in nafzon, NEELAN;
by ch, as in pinch, pint ;---by ci, as in fufpiczon sus=
pican ;---by ce, as in Ocean, ofan ;---and its vocal 7 is alfo
abfurdly. reprefented by s, asin treasure; z as in feizure ;
gas in lodge; (table of founds) /, as in conclu/on, per-
{ua/ion; and where they is written, it is always pronounc-
ed wrong, being ever preceded in pronunciation by d, ; Er-
_roneous applications of this found are made by the Englifh
in many inftances, in feveral languages, not only in living
ones, but evenin the latin.——The letter ¢ is very com-
mon in the Ruffian, and is thus made &: The French
fubflitute ch; the Germans /ch; and the Italians /c be-
fore e and i.---It is, as well as the three following, called
a fibilant afpirate; becaufe the breath, pafling forcibly,
makes a hifling. This letter is the gs (fhin) of
the Phenicians and Hebrews ; and isthe afpirate of jad-
di.---It is alfo the sjim of the Arabians. ‘The power of rc
may be found in the feventh horizontal line of the table of
founds, inthe words, /but, cat ;---/bawl, conn ;---/hall,
£aL 3---f/bell, cEL; &e. . :

£

Twenty-third letter, and fecond afpirate. Let the or-
-gans be difpofed exa@tly in the fame manner as in forming
the vocal v, and by afpiration only, the f will be produced.
The latins called this the digamma ceolicum on account of its
figure (f) which now forms the (/’); and, being inverted
in the time of Claudius to fignify the v, which is its vo-
cal, (as in DIdAI, AMPLIAdIT) it appears that the
Romans, though well acquainted with the affinity, made

a

* Moh of the words that now terminate in tion formerly. ended in cion, as may be feen in a)l
the writings of Chaucer.

cae ww s 289

a proper diftinétion between their powers. The true
found of f commences the words, fun, ean;—/fall, roo;
—FraT;—/ame Feem; &c. in the ninth horizontal line
of the table of powers.

oO

Twenty-fourth letter, and third afpirate—The tip of
the tongue is placed againft the points of the upper teeth,
exadtly in the fame manner as 1n pronouncing its vocal 9;
but this is only an afpirate, yet ftrong, and of the fibilant _
or hifling kind, imitating exa@ly the hifling of a goofe.
The Englifh affert this to be the found of the Greck ¢heta,
but no nation agrees with them, and but few individuals,
among whom however is Erafmus. They may becondemn-
ed by fome for not adopting the general error, for it is
certainly an error to give two founds to one character; and
though many grammarians conceive it, in the Greek, to be
a ftrongly afpirate J’ only, diftinguifhed thereby from the
more gently afpirated tau, they will find it on examination
to be #4, for o£0s written Seo and pronounced rapidly will
produce ¢heos.—People who lifp make ufe of this found in
all inftances where the s ought to be pronounced (fee p).
The power of o may be found in the eleventh horizontal
line of the table of founds in the words third, oarp;—
thaw, ong; thank, oank;—shane, o£eEn; &c.

S

Twenty-fifth letter, and fourth afpirate—The tip of the
tongue muft be raifed to the roof of the mouth, near the
infertion of the teeth, as in pronouncing its vocal z, but it
muft be prefled harder, and a forcible afpiration producing
a hiffing found will form the s; the power of which may
be found in the third horizontal line of the table of founds,
in the words, /un, $an;--/aw, soo;--sar; &c.

VOL. TL Oo Twenty-

290 Cc A DiM BG.
k

‘Twenty-fixth letter, and fifth afpirate---The middle of
‘the tongue muft be prefled againft the back part of the
roof of the mouth, as in forming its ftopt vocal ¢. It re-
quires only a flight, but fudden effort of, breath, as the
paflage opens from the ftoppage neceflary to form the g;
and whenever ¢ is pronounced, without being joined by
another letter, the & is unavoidably formed as foon as the ¢
ceafes, and the tongue leaves its pofition.--~s is to be al-
ways fubftituted for the g now in ufe, alfo the x when it
has the found of &, (for it has often the found of ¢z,) and
for the hard c which I reject entirely, for ¢ is taken from
the Greek ;, and this is from the Hebrew (Samech) »,
reverfed, when the mode of writing from the right to the
left hand was changed to the contrary. ‘The c is therefore
as often ufed for s as for k, as in peace, PIIS; canker, KAD-
KR, befides having the found of ¢ as in, {pecial, sPEr AL.
It was alfo ufed by the Latins for, g, as in, necle€ta, for neg=
lecta; and for g when fhort, as, cotidie for guotidie, as
may be feen ia Terence: and it was thought proper not to
admit it here, left cuflom might continue to fupport error.
The power of K may be found in the eighteenth horizontal
line of the table of founds, in the words, come, Kam ;—call,
KOOL ;—calm, KAAM;—came, KEEm; &c.

BP

Twenty-feventh letter, and fixth afpirate. The lips muft
be clofed as in pronouncing its ftopt vocal 4, and by fimply
breathing with a {mall effort, on opening thelips this af-
pirate will be produced. It has the fame affinity with 4
that & has with g, and is alfo formed in the fame manner
after the termination of 4. Its power may be found in
the twenticth horizontal line of the table of founds, in the

words, puff, par ;--pall, pooL ;--PAn;--Pic, &c.
Twenty-

cA wv M US 29%
t

Twenty-eighth letter, and feventh afpirate. The tip of
the tongue is placed at the roof of the mouth, near the in-
fertion of the teeth, as in pronouncing its vocal d.
A flight effort of breath only is requifite to form this af-
pirate, which has the fame affinity with its vocal, that the
two preceding have with theirs, and after the termination of
d, will always be formed inlike manner. Thefe three are
called fhort afpirates, on account of the impoffibility of
continuing them, The ¢ has not only been frequently
fubftituted for d by the Germans and fome other nations,
but by the Romans themfelves, asin, fet, for fed; and apuz
for apud, whicharecommonin Terence. The power of ¢ may
be found in the twenty-fecond horizontal line of the table
of founds, in, un, ran;—éalk, TouK;—TAN3--TEN; &c.

© ;

Twenty-ninth letter, and eighth afpirate. .This is the af-
pirate of the w, the lips requiring only to be placed in-
the fame pofition, and a moderately ftrong breath given,
as if going to whiftle. This afpirate is common in the
Englifh, though it had no chara@ter. It is the bw of the,
Goths, and words written in the old Saxon were with hw,
which the Englifh have erroneoufly and affe@tedly chang-
ed into wh.—Its power may be found in the thirteenth
horizontal line of the table of founds, in the words, what,,
ont ;—while, oAIL;~ when, oEn;—which, o1rr;—

h

Thirtieth letter, and ninth afpirate---The mouth mutt
be a little opened, without any particular effort, and by
breathing alittle more forcibly and fuddenly than common,
the 4, the afptrate of a will be produced.--This is the moft
fimple afpirate. Its power may be found in the twenty
third horizontal line of the table of founds, in the words
Mut, HIT ;—Aall, HooL;---HaT, ee.

O02 Affinities

292 Ci AP DEM Wire
Affinities of Letters.

(a on by Vowels Afpirates
a Ohi / | I ¥ Cf) 4 ofthe Germans.*
ne ¥ is L R The Ruffians
sage oe - fi} > * have this afpi-
: < D 2. S$ Ps. Nafal ftopt rate but no ap-
S Ie n D z propriated let-
; W x7 oO; ° ter
hb m B P ;
G = os
a ‘i 2 | D rel k
pr rencey apy

To render this alphabet ufeful, it will be proper for the
teachers of Children to learn the true Pronunciation of the
letters, by the preceding rules, which refer to the table of
founds, in which the common vowels are placed at the
top of the feven perpendicular columns, and the remain-
ing vowels and afpirates oppofite the horizontal lines.
The charaGters are generally at the beginning of the
words, fucceeded by the common vowels, except j and
~, which the common vowels precede. ‘The commonett
monofyllables, and words of the moft fimple pronunciati-
on that contain the founds, whether written or not, have
been fought for in compofing the table, to illuftrate the
characters, and the true mode of fpelling 1s placed under
fuch as are not written with acorrect orthography, or that
do not at prefent contain the written letters. When the
true pronunciation of thefe feveral powers is learnt, it will
be eafy to teach them tochildren, of a moderate capacity,
in a few days, and ina few weeks a child would be able
to read perfectly, provided the language were correctly
{pelled.

The following table is intended to give a true idea of
the power of each letter, by exhibiting a determinate found

to each character, in feveral of the moft familiar examples.
Table

* The Scotch and Irifh have alfo this found.

CF

Pa)

~

Ee Oe

3° =

(vo face page 292.)

Facet as :
Of all the dj fing funds Hitainad in the Bre ifb es
aks ye aerrit) Bers a e or u
yawn ita yell ye Co Ee DG ee - jew
| youn | yarn | yell | yi | yook Se ea yuu | 1
5 zephyr | zeal «| zone) xeugma
is | ares | zag he zefar Bat ziil~ |~ zoon cae. 2
Te Tia ; ; : Tap
san | soo | sat | set | sit | sot suup | 3
ru raw iP ae o4y i ae root
raf rou | rat | red | rip | rot | ruut | 4
lump | | Taw | laf | : | 5% | : loop
lamp Joo las |) let lip log | luup | §
maiefly ireavare seizure dodge jury
madjzrstl : 4 _trejar | siijar | lodj | djuri | 6
pout —«4|~Ssfhaw?C«|SSCfall foelt fib | fore Poot
Rat fonl | ral | rel rip fort | fuut 7
very vaunt Ta ‘wain . widlins svote §
vari | voont | vast | veen Feaeul voot | uvula | &
fun. Sut 14 fame y .t : fool
fan foal | fast | feem fit | fog | fuul | 9
the that them | this pope ee te
Bd © | - ~ | Bat pam Dis BOOZ to
third thank thane. thin, thoral thew
eard 15 | eank | oeen ein |_ein_| 000 9ooral po I
—wolf, wulf;—wool, wul; oa
what while when wesw
| ont oail | oen oitr | mc
en maar Saito Sa ccaslig Belcan ==
maf | moo mas met mis moor | muun |I4
pamaieaaal erm 71 aad ae eels +. ape
nat | noot nap nek | nip no nuun |I5
tongues hang Tength ink fonger
tanz hap leno ink | longar 16
” gun a5 gall ar ss a bmn. pep >is pene ae groom
gan goal gap get gift go | gruum |!7
‘come call laghleaip wane] cklveameral | ee con cool
kam | kool | kaam | keem kis kost kuul [18
but 0) MA eee ere oe eal
bat boul bat bet bit bot bluu |!9
Pu pail an i) pee meee) T pal. Fl
p|_paf | puol pan peg pil pot puul |#°
dull i> ataagety lt Cpe eeaies Gi FS, eign 7 ke ee | Pe
d dal drob dark det dim dot duum |2r
tun arr es teer abe 7 tone took
tan | took tan ten tin toon tuuk | 22
but Bale ah) Suet ate book
hat hool hat heet | hit hot huuk |23
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

e

7F

.
,
j
7
Ff
i
7
;
| 4
af
+7
Tree:
Vy Fock
Hare
a
an
4 u
-
pr,
rp
a
‘
4
Q Wit vu. oe a : ns ie ! we
Re: an ti ey im ee 4 , ; i ‘i Va aa
j Re a ‘ Wi A ip “ Wes aay ; ae
| RPE SSP gag nso pi ae
Oe f ay ni
. :

len abaea
aa ih i
; - ‘ wy .% ;

at

~

a
= a

Ste: Ce en ee

Gc A DM U Ss 203

As all future improvement in orthography, depends
upon a perfe& knowledge of the found of every letter, it
is neceflary to obtain them with great precifion, and to fix
them in the memory ; for on remembering, and being capa-
ble of repeating with propriety, thefe thirty founds, depends
the whole art of reading ; which confifts in reading /e¢ters,
not words, for we only fpeak letters, and* never more
than one at a time; but when they are rapidly conneéted,
the general found of a word varies as much from another,
though it poffeffes feveral of the fame letters, as one word
varies in appearance from another in fhort hand. If then
we fix a certain character to each found, there will be no
more difficulty in writing with a corre& orthography than
in {peaking with one, as we {peak letters, which form
words, that make fentences; and I muft repeat that thus
ought we, in reading fentences, to read words, by reading
letters ; and thus will the tongue and pen exprefs every
idea with perfe&t uniformity.

Some letters are formed by the glottis being more or
lefs dilated — while the mouth ferves as the chamber of
found, or body of the wind inftrument ; and is expanded
or contracted, by its own action or that of the tongue, pro-
ducing fharper or graver tones, by a wider or narrower
external aperture through either the teeth or lips; others
are produced by permitting thefound to efcape only by the
nofe, the paflage through the mouth being ftopt by the
middle of the tongue, the tip of it or the lips; and fome
are made by {fo forcible a vocal found, as to produce tremor
either inthe throat or mouth. Afpirates are formed in the
fame manner as their vocals, with refpe& to pofition of the
organs, but are produced only by the breath, whence the
derivation of their name: fome afpirates depend upon fo
violent an effort of the breath that a hiffing noife is pro-

duced. From

* See Digraphs and diphthongs-+-feq :
+ See the theory of language, by my worthy and very ingenious friend Doétor Beattie.

294 CAD ™M Oe

From what has been already obferved, it may perhaps:
appear difficult, in whi/pering, to diftinguith between vowel
letters a/pirated and real a/pirates ; efpecially, as the only
diftinction I pointed out, was in their being vocal or afpi-
rated; but no difficulty arifes here; for, in fpeaking, there.
is a lefs effort made by the breath to produce a real vocal.
found than an afpirate; and in whifpering there is no dif-
ference between vowel letters and their afpirates, but that
the firfttare more flowly and faintly afpirated, while the
true afpirates remain undiminifhed in force. The follow-
ing line fhews the truth of thefe obfervations.

1. {% I vow, by G-d, that Jenkin is.a wizzard.”

2. Ai vou, bai G-d, pat Djenkin iz a uizzard.

Ai fou, pai K-t, eat fepkin ifs a uiflart.

The 1ft line is written in the common manner, the 2¢
is written properly, and the 3d with afpirates. Ifthe 2d
and 3d be whi/pered; no difference whatever will be found
between them, except that the letters 4) p, &, 4, 3, G s,--=.
in the third line, are pronounced much more forcibly than
their correfpondent vocals in the fecond line, when a/pira-
ted or whi/pered; and it is eafy to diftinguifh which line
is repeated in a whifper. The Welfh pronounce this line:
with afpirates inftead of vowels, and produce a_ ftrange ef-
fet in fpeech. ‘The lower clafs of the faxons are fo in=
attentive to the difference of the p and J, the and d, the-
fand v, &c. that in Englifh they rarely {peak without:
mifplacing them ;- but fome go fo far in error as to almoft.
regularly put one forthe other, and inftead of

Boy bring both Pails to the pond,
(Properly) Boi brin boo Peelz tu pa pond,
(would fay,) Poi prin poth Beels tu da Pont.

The Irith, in fpeaking the Englith language, afpirate ve--
ry frequently, where thereare no true afpirates; and perhaps:

} Diverfions of Purley. ai

a A eh Me OU & 295

in confequence of the Irifh language abounding, like ma
ny others, im afpirates. One probable caufe Ae of Hs
miftakes they commit in {peaking Englith, m may be deriv~
ed from the fubftantive being placed in the Irith dcfore the
adjective, not effer, as in the more artificial language of

the Englith.

Much has been written by many fages and learned men
concerning the origin of language, which has generally
been attributed to divinity, and the variety of tongues has
been contidered as the effect of the confufion at Babel. I
will not pretend to defcant on the fubje&, nor to deny fuch
authority, but will humbly premife a few obfervations
which will be fufficient to authorize a conjecture refpecting
the formation, and alfo the alterations, without the aid
which is to be derived from the great lawgiver of the Jews.
We know that men in different countries {peak different
languages.—< but who does not know at the fame time
that the Englifh languave a few centuries azo, would not
be underftood now? and that if a {mall colony of Englith
had been feparated from the nation in general, they would
have been taken for a different people? the manufa@urers
of England, who never go two miles from the place, for
generations, cannot be underftood by a Cockney. Langua-
ges differ fo much in a few years, by the particular cir-
cumftances of the people, that there is no occafion for mi-
racles to explain the varieties; and one half of our Jan-
guage is calculated to give ideas of arts and fciences, which
have been invented during the memory of man. We have
many inftances of the invention of terms for new objects
in the great South Sea---the Otaheiteans called a gua, tik-
tik-bou! imitating thereby the cocking and report of the
objet; and we find among Savage nations, many things
fimilar. The languages acquired by imitation are certainly
the moft natural and expreflive, and I am confident that
the

296 GA By. M eo:

the language of man, was originally formed by imitating —
the objects of nature; and the names of many animals
were given by imitating the voice of the individual: we
find this even at prefent in all languages, but particularly
in the lefs refined. Man, in a favage ftate, imitates
birds and beafts to decoy them, and by imitation alone he
forms a very extenfive fcate of founds. The founds of
the common vowels, with /, m, n,n, we hear-daily among
cattle and domeftic beafts; the y,z, 7, v, B, are like the
buzzing of beetles; 4 f, s, 5, like the hifling of ferpents,
particularly the s, which might with propriety have figni-
fied the Generic name, till it became part of another ap-
pellative, and confequently a letter. Inthe moft ancient al-
phabets the Phoenicians, Etrufcans, Latins and Goths,
adopted the form of the ferpent for the character of s, which
would have been a very expreffive Hieroglyphic. The *
of the Greeks, as pronounced by the Englifh, is exa&ly
like the forcible hiffing of a goofe, and is found in very
few languages: the Englifh contains fo many of thefe
buzzing and hiffing founds, that fome Foreigners have cal-
led it the language of {nakes.

r imitates the fnarling of dogs, and we find nations
where there are no dogs that have not the letter r in their
lancuages. ‘The afpirate of 7* imitates the flight of the
partridge and fome other birds, as well as the voice of fome
locufts: Gutturals imitate the croaking of frogs or
toads: the ftopt vocals and their afpirates are generally
joined to fome of thecommon vowels by animals: bce,
the fheep—dou, the dog—kuu, the dove, rook, the
raven---kuaak, the duck---p7u, the buzzard---t7u-zt,
the lapwing; kuk-ku, the cuckoo, &c. Thereare alfo
a great variety of founds among animals, which man
has had no occafion toadopt, in forming a language of his
own wants, as their articulation is too difficult for com-

mon

* See Page 283.

Ge Ay I Me Ua S. 297

mon ufe, and there are already more than fufficient for
every ufeful purpofe.

Indeed we find few languages which do not contain
feveral chara€ters that are ufelefs, and to which the fame
founds are appropriated. The Englifh contains the fol-
lowing; ¢ which has fometimes the power of s, fometimes
of k; 9, which has always the power of £; and x, the
powers of ks, of gz, or z*,

Language does not require half the number of letters
made ufe of by any nation; becaufe, were ten or twelve let-
ters well arranged, they would be capable of exprefling
every idea we have acquired, or fhould be able to invent.
Wachter in his Nature et Scripture Concordia, endeavours
to fhow that ten letters are fufficient for a very comprehen-
five language. Tacquet the mathematician calculates the
various combinations of the alphabet of twenty four letters
to be no fewer than 620,448,401,733,239:439,360,000.
Clavius however only makes them 5,852,616,738,4975-
664,000: they are both wrong; but the human mind can-
‘not form an idea of fuch apparent infinity of combinations,
nor could the inventive faculties of man exhauft them in
language. Hence it does not follow that the moft extenfive
alphabet would be required by the moft copious language.

We find among fome favage nations fuch a paucity of
expreflion, that they cannot be faid to havea more exten-
five language than fome beafts «and upon which would
philofophers reafon, on the formation of language? <on the
beautiful, artificial Hebrew, or the confined expreffions of
the moft ftupid of the human race? among whom a few
fyllables compofe the whole vocabulary, and exprefs all that
VOL. Ul. Pog their
* Mr. Sheridan hath not only rejected thec, g, & x, but likewife the ;, which he ought to
have retained inflead of the ezh taken from Wilkins, which ts really not in the Englifh Jan-
guage ; but the j, as pronounced by the French, is a very common vowel, ard] am the more
aftonifhed at his not adopting it, as he knew fo well the power of j:—But his error is uniform,

never having ufed the 7 even in the words occa/ion, okecjan (occazhun Sher :)——adhe/ion, adbiijon
{adhezhun) decifion, explofion, cenfufionmProfod: gram: xlviii—

298 Cy Ay Det: Up st

their appetites crave, Shew thefe people new objects, and
they will, as every traveller evinces, form new words to.
exprefs them: and, if the formation of any language can,
be thus proved, it is vain to look for another origin. Iam.
alfo of opinion that alphabetical writing took its rife. in
monofyllables, to which hieroglyphicks could not be ap-
plied, and that thefe marks becoming the fymbols of the:
founds and not of the things, were regularly put for the fame
founds in the compofition of other abftraat terms and me-
taphyfical ideas, till the feale of marks increafed, and led
gradually toa mark for each found. Some authors, whofe
admiration of the invention bewilders them too much to
permit an examination of the principles, declare that the
difcovery is perfe&t, but they can only {peak relatively ;.
for the alphabets of fome modern languages are fo much
more extenfive than many ancient ones, that thefe are very
imperfect if we fpeak of a general alphabet for human
fpeech, and not for particular languages. If a Chinefe
were to ftudy the Englifh, he would be eafily perfuaded
that the alphabetical mode of writing was an invention of
the Englith, and that it was not yet perfected, from the in-
numerable faults, deficiencies, fuperfluities, irregularities,
&c. of the written language. It is fo fhamefully incorre@,.
that, when read as it is written,fan Enghfhman cannot un-.
derftand it*, and a foreigner reading it becomes the objeé:
of his laughter, although, as a good {cholar, he reads it
perfectly, according to the orthography. I have often
heard the queftion ‘*:do you fpeak French ?” with the
anfwer **no fir, but I read and write it.” The fame is
faid of the Englith and fome other languages; every ftrang-
er to them lamenting, that the learned bodies of men, efta~.
blifhed in fo many places for the benefit of mankind, fhould

fo

* Efpecially if the common vowels fhould be read with their various powers-mifplaced, for
there areno marks to determine them,

C AD M US. 299

fo jong have neglected to facilitate the intercourfe of na-
tions, by rendering the mode of acquiring every language
eafy, which might be obtained as well by books as by
travelling into the different countries where they are fpok=
en, if thofe books were correct.

SYLLABLES,

No word or fyllable in the Englith language is formed
by afpirates alone, but many fyllables are formed by what
fome of the moft ingenious call confonants, and their ar=
guments upon them fall, becaufe built upon falfe data.

Th: Sheridan fays “ The terminating b/e is always
** accounted a fyllable though in ftri& propriety it is not
** fo; for, to conftitute a fyllable it is requifite that a vow-
*¢ el fhould be founded in it, which is not the cafe here;
‘*¢ for though there is one prefented to the eye at the end,
*¢ yet itis only é final mute, and the 4/ are taken into the
*¢ articulation of the former fyllable; but in pointing out
“* the feat of the accent I fhall confider it in the ufual way
‘“¢ as forming a fyllable.””*

_ If Mr. Sheridan had confidered the true power of either
Sor /, he would have found them both vowels, and that
together they form a perfect fyllable, as well as /, z/, vl,
ml, nl, gl, dl, fl, fl, kl, pl, tl, m,n, zn, un, dn, /n, tn, nd,
nt, fnt: Ifa Line of Poetry be fcanned which contains any
of the above /y//ables, the reader will be convinced of their
being fuch, by the impoffibility of reading them otherwife.

¢ A wild, where weeds and flow’rs promifc’ous fhoot,
** Or garden tempting with forbidden fruit.

** Together let us beat this ample field,

‘¢ Try what the open, what the covert yield;

RE The latent tracts, the giddy heights explore:

Pope’s Effay on Man line 7th.
Pp 2 Properly

Pp
* Page xliv, Profod: Gram: (prefixed to his dictionary.)

300 CoA. Dic MAUS.
Properly written thus.

A uaild, oeer uiidz and flourz promifkas fuut,.
Or gardn temtin uio forbiddn fruut.

Togepar let us biit pis amp/ fiild,

Trai ont Bi opm ont pa kovart yiild;

pa leetant trakts pa giddi haits.ek{ploor, &c..

Jt is to be obferved that the word the changes its termi--

nation a oraintoz before words that begin with d, 1, a, ¢, 05
#, on account of the hiatus that muft otherwife be made, to-
prevent it from fliding into the next found, but this change:
is not made in any other inftances. It is omitted totally

in Poetry when the next word begins with z..

If only one letter divides two common vowels, the three:
letters form two fyllables: if more than one divide them
they alfo form two fyllables only, unlefs two other vowels:

intervene, as in ablene/s, e-bl-nes.

Whenever two nafals, ftopt vocals, or afpirates of the:
fame power follow any of the common or other vowels,
and another of thefe vowels fucceeds, a divifion of the:

word takes place between the double letters.
The great diftinction between one fyllable and another,

dy

is, that if the organs of {peech be in their progrefs to the:
pronunciation ofa letter, the voice may fucceflively in the:
fame flexion embrace one or two vowels, nafal, ftopt vo-.
cals, or afpirates, provided thefe letters are fuch as glide.
fmoothly, and one commences where another ends; and the.

falling as well as rifing of that flexion may alfo embrace

one or two more of thefe letters, and form only one fyl-

lable: but if the effort be interrupted by another vowel,
which gives a different flexion to the voice, a divifion will
take place, and another fyllable be formed. Quoties vox

mutatur, toties mutatur fyllaba.
In dividing words, the nafals, the ftopt founds and afpi-
rates,

Cc A@aMmins 301

rates, have fuch particular affinities, not only with each
other, but with fome of the other letters, that it is not
difficult to compofe fyllables which contain fix different
letters, joined by a fingle common vowel only; but, as foon
as the voice has glided through a certain unity of founds,
every additional change becomes another fyllable.. When a
word, of two or three fyltables, is compofed of any of the
ftopt founds and their afpirates,. they are pronounced in
the firft fyllable as the organs /eave the pofitions ufed in
producing thefe founds; .and in the fecond fyllable they.
form the foundsas they advance to, and juft before they
arrive at, their true pofitions; the third fyllable takes ano-
ther flexion, and islike the firft, &c. as in. gib--bak--kad--.
dupt. By this, feveral hiatus: are avoided, though the.
fyllables divide themfelves naturally, and without effort.
There appear to be lawsto govern the divifion of words,.
if we examine fome; for there are few nations which have
adopted a particular fet of letters, that would not make the.
fame divifions if certain words were prefented; again,.
there are words that would not. warrant any fuch conclu-
fion; therefore we muft confider their divifion. into fylla-.
bles, arbitrary inmany inftances; and a multiplicity of rules:
would.rather perplex and confound, than enlighten. .

ACCENTS; .

Ought only to be placed where a ftrefs of the voice is
abfolutely requifite, to denote.a difference in the letter or
fyllable, and which would otherwife be unintelligible, or
would give a.difgufting tone; but if words be* properly

written

Tt is faid, in an extract from the journals of the Royal Society, refpecting a letter froma Jefuie
at Pekin in China (Philofophical Tranfactions, Vol. 59, page 494) that ‘‘the Chinefe
«“tongue counts but about 330 words.—From hence the Europeans conclude, that it is barren,
‘¢-monotone, andhard to underftand. But they ought to know that the four accents called—~
‘ping, uni (even), chung, élevé (raifed), iv diminué (Jeffened), jou, rentrant, (returning ),
Stigyltiply almoft every word into feur, by an inflexion of voice which it is as difficult to make

‘

an ~

302 CADMUS.

written I think they will not be deemed neceflary upon
many occafions ; for, where the nouns and verbs are now
perfectly fimilar.in their orthography, we fhall generally
find fuch imperfe€tion in fpelling, as, when corrected, to
reduce the neceflity of accents to a very few inftances; and
where they appear to be requifite, the exceptions will be
fo eafily acquired, or make fuch little difference in language,
that they are fcarcely worth attention: however, where
no difference is obferved in the orthography of verbs and
nouns of two tyllables, the ftrefs is generally on the firft
fyllable of the noun, and on the laft of the verb; but at-
tention to good fpeakers will make more forcible impref-
fions than any rules laid down, and were a foreigner to
make no difference in uttering thefe particular words
which grammarians think require accent, and the difference
of which orthography does not point out, the defect would
{fcarcely ever be noticed. Th: Sheridan gives many rules
on accent, but they chiefly tend to point out the firft, fecond
or third power of his vowels, which in good {fpelling would
be rendered ufelefs. He gives us many inftances of nouns
and verbs which receive accents by habit only, no differ-
ence being marked either by fpelling or otherwife. I will
give a few, which may fhow that the fpelling only of the
words will be a fufficient diftinG@ion, without any accents
being marked; and the general rule of laying it upon the
laft fyllable of the verb, or rather, upon the common vowel
of the laft fyllable of the verb, and the common vowel of
the firft fyllable of the noun, may ferve,

Nouns
‘© an European comprehend, as it is for a Chinefe to comprehend the fix pronunciations of
*‘ the French E, ‘Thefe accents do yet more, they give a certain harmony, and pointed ca-
“ dence, to the moft ordinary phrafes: with regard to clearnefs, let fact decide. ‘The Chi-«
“ nefe {peak as faft as we do, fay more things in fewer words, and underftand one another.”—~
From what is quoted we find that the accents multiply a/mo/? every word in four, but if every
word were multiplied, there would be only 1320 which is but a fmall number to compound into
fo copious a language ; and I am certain that a perfon of good genius, who underftands the fym-
bols of fpeech perfectly, would as eafily reduce the Chinefe language to regular characters, as

any other; but the hieroglyphics of the language would be as unintelligible as it is at prefent
to the generality of that nation.

GA WM UU & 303

Nouns Verbs corrected
eae ee eee
aoranAc’cent toaccent’ akfnt akfent
Cem’ ent cement’. femant. fiment
Con’ cert concert’ konfart kanfart
Con’ teft.. conteft” konteft. kanteft,.

I had written a great number of rules on polyfyllabic
words, as fhortand fimple as I thought it poflible to com-
pofe them, .but on reading. what I had written, thought
them too tedious, difficult, and liable to exception, therefore
have omitted them wholly, by which I think I have not only
done.a juftice to mylelf, but alfo a kindnefs to the reader.

Many words that grammiarians have thought proper to »
accent, and for which they have given long-laboured, diffi- -
cult, and.complex rules, with as many exceptions, require
no accent whatever; for, if they are pronounced with all
the monotony and even-nefs of which the organs are ca-
pable, the very compofition of the words, if corre€tly writ- -
ten, gives greater force to one part than to another, and it -
is impoflible, without affeCtation, to pronounce them im- -
properly, even according to the ideas of grammarians.
Where the common vowels are long they ought to be |
written twice, as among the ancients, who wrote amaabam, -
feedes, &c.--The J inftead of being written twice, was
made twice as long, as in vivus, pIso, &c.--In Englith
the * common or firft clafs of vowels are often doubled at
prefent, when long, but not univerfally; and in correé&
writing, the accent will alfo be laid, where the other vow-
els, or the fecond clafs, and the afpirates, are double.’ .

A di&tionary alone will contain the means of correét-
ing all uncertainties with refpect to the accent, as well as
orthography of words; and attention to good fpeakers is
the only mode of correcting our ideas concerning the em-.
phatic words of fentences.

EMPHASIS
*-Of the New Characters page 277:

~

304. Cc A DIM W'S

EMPHASIS

Denotes the firefs of voice upon the important or illuf-
trative words of a fentence, or upon a fentence in a dif-
courfe, but is no further conne&ed with my fubje&, than
by the diftinGions which we ought to adopt in writing,
and the following are what I would chiefly recommend.
Let emphatic words and the name of either perfon or’
place, begin witha large letter, words of greater import be
in italics, and the whole word occafionally bea fize larger
than the common text; i of great importance let this
commence witha flill larger letter. Emphatic fentences
may be diftinguifhed by italics ora larger type—In writ-
ing, words and fentences.may have one, two or three lines
drawn under them, or writ in a larger hand, or both, ac-
cording to the force of the intended expreflion—The cuf-
tom of writing all nouns with capitals ought to be difufed,
as few of the Jef grammarians underftand that nouns,
verbs, and abbreviatives, compofe the whole of language.*

Much has been written by fome ingenious men on

‘DIGRAPHS AND DIPHTHONGS,

Butif they had {pent half as much time in correcting writ-
ten language, as they have beftowed in forming general
rules, with fuch a number of exceptions, to bring the er-
rors of written language into order, it would have much
facilitated our learning; for really a /anguage is almoft as
eafily learnt, as the rules by which it is at prefent taught.
The appropriation of a feparate character to every found,
will utterly deftroy theidea of digraphs in correct writing;
and as for diphthongs they never exified inany language :--
they are faid, by Th: Sheridan, to be **a coalition of two
<¢ vowels to form one found—and triphthongs three”—
but the fame organs that are employed to form one found

cannot
“Secthe ENEA MITEPOENTA of John Horne Tooke,

Ge Ay De; Me Up. S: 508

‘carinot be engaged to form another at the fame inftant.—
It would be as difficult to allow this, as to admit that two
atoms can occupy the fame fpace. No complex founds
can be produced even on inftruments, any more than com-
plex ideas by the mind —When feveral inftruments play
a note, the ear either hears one found or more; if only
one it is a fimple found, if more than one, they cannot be
called a found, fimple or complex, but diftin@ founds. It
is impoflible for the mind to form a complex idea: there
may be a rapid fucceffion of ideas, but that feveral ideas
can be reduced into one is an abfurdity. The Mexicans,
according to Glavigero, compounded fometimes one word
of the initials or firft fyllables of a great number of other
words, which term became very long, and comprehended
a whole fentence; but this abbreviated fentence gives no
‘complex idea, it only givesa more rapid fucceflion of ideas
than a fentence compofed of long words. If a new found
interpofe two others in {peech, a new character ought to be
made; ifitdonot, we ought to confider whether or not it
is a found rapidly fucceeding another, and the two or three
miftaken for one only: of this clafs many are to be found,
particularly in very ancient languages, and fome in the beft
written modern.

The celebrated Euler, attempts very ingenioufly to
prove, that a mixed found may be formed of two different
founds, by ftriking two ftrings together, and next to each
other, of different tone, which will prevent either of them
from its natural vibration; that a note will be produced
partaking of each, and that if one of the ftrings be ftopt,
the vibrations of the other, will remain as a mixed found,
for fome moments, after which it will gradually re-
cover its natural vibrations, and give its natural found.
But the truth is, that the agitation of the air occafioned by
the firft, within the verge of the fecond, continues a few
VOL. III. Q gq moments

306 cADM US.

moments to mix with the agitations of the air made by
this fecond, and the mixed found dies as the firft ceafes: the
mixed vibrations occafioned by the continuance of both
firings, will be as. much a compound found as if one of
the ftrings were to be ftopt; but this found, though differ-
ent from the twoothers, becomesa diftin& and fimple found,
as much as purple, produced by a mixture of blue and
red, becomes.a diftinét colour. If however I wave all this
and admit that a diphthong can be produced by ¢wo per-
fons founding two different vowels, at the fame time, as
the derivation of the word literally imports, it does not
thence follow that I fhall grant a diphthong can poffbly
be made by the fame perfon..

In Compofing

Either poetry or profe, attention is paid to the facility of
uttering whatever is written, but without knowing that
the founds depend upon certain letters which glide fmooth-
ly after each other; for there are fome that cannot be read
after particular founds. without difficulty.. The poet is
directed by the ear, for the words are generally compofed -
of fuch clafhing materials, that if they were read as they
appear the melody would be entirely defeated; and if
rhyme be examined, we fhall find, provided the words
be properly fpelled, exa€tly as much refemblance in the
appearance as in the found.

Poetry requires a certain number of fyllables or variety
in the voice confonant with the time required in mufic,
and not only feeks, when the fubjeGt demands, the moft
euphonical and flowing words, but thofe whofe divifions
and emphafes correfpond with each other, and with the
general tenor of the fubje&t, whether quick or flow, foft
and captivating—flowry and enchanting—fonorous and

elevating

AD MP 6 407

elevating—or rough and terrific. Such words ought al=
fo to be chofen as when repeated neceifarily produce in
the features the paflions diCtated by the theme, and the
hearer fhould be Jed along by its variety. As all words
are not, in certain fituations, calculated for particular f{pe-
cies of poetry, authors have taken many liberties, and
have changed, not only the meafure of the word but fome-
times its accent. Poetry has thus tended, in the opinion
of fome, to correct the emphafis, and is thought in all
languages, particularly the dead ones, to preferve a know-
ledge of the true found of words.
It is, by no means, my intention to dwell upon thefe
fubje&ts, fome of which would require diftiné treatifes,
and the world hath already been favoured with feveral, by
many ingenious men, (Thomas Sheridan, Noah Web-
fter, &c.) but I was obliged to purfue particular ideas
into thofe devious paths. I muft now fay a few words on
the Mieroglyphicks of writing, among which I cannot but
rank what are{improperly) called the fops [and ought ra-
ther to be termed /ymbols of variation in fpeech*] as well
“as the | Arabic numerals, chemical charaéters, and aftro-
nomical figns, &c.

Stops.

Many Chinefe words have different meanings accord-
ing to their different { tones; and fome of our ftops
2 which

* As letters denote the component parts of words, the AGoruAsIs or AGOPHONIKS denote
the pitch or key and tone of the letter, worc, or fentence; the flexions, force, and various
meanings which are to be derived from cadence; and are to the letters in reading what the
flats, fharps, refts, &c. are to the notesin mufic.

+ Edward Gibbon obferves (in his Hiftory of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, Vol.
v. page 321.) that ‘* under the reign of the Caliph Waled, the Greek language and characters
¢*-were excluded from the accounts of the publicrevenue. Ifthis change was productive of the
‘* invention or familiar ufe of our prefent numerals, the Arabic characters or cyphers, as they
** are commonly ftyled, a regulation of office has promoted the moft important difcoveries of
*¢ arithmetic, algebra, and the mathematical fciences.”’ 4

“© According to a new, though probable notion, maintained by M. de Villoifon (Anecdota
Greca, tom: ii: pag. 152, 157.) our cyphers are not of Indian or Arabic invention. They
were ufed by the Greck and Latin arithmeticians long before the age of Boethius. After the
extinction of {cience in the weft, they were adopted in the Arabic verfions from the original
M. S. S, and refored to the Latinsabout the XI. century.”

+ See note page 3oT.

768 cAD™M U S.

which feem calculated to command time, give a different
tone to the voice; the notes of interrogation and exclam-
mation are of fuch importance asto give a- different mean-
ing to the fentence; the Spaniards invert-them before, as
well as place them after the fentence in their corre& edi-
tions, and thatrule ought to be adopted in all writings,
otherwife it is impoffible to read them properly the firft
time? who would think of marking a fentence in parenthefe
with only one mark of a parenthefis? or a fentence of ex-
pofition by only one crotchet, or mark of a parathefis? and
it is as neceflary to adopt the Spanifh mode in- writing
the Erotefiss—? and Ecphonefis!—j A’ mark of Irony
fhould be invented, for its ufe muft be acknowledged, by
thofe who are acquainted with language; and it fhould,
like all the reft, be placed before and after the fentence---
(+) this mark may ferve. A character to fignify the de-
preffion of the voice in fentences fpoken afide, as in plays,
dialogues, &c. ought alfo'to be made to include the fen-
tence; and not write the word (afide) at the end as js
now done. At prefent a perfon reads: a long fentence
aloud, and ftoppinz fhort at the end with furprife—he
whifpers ‘this is afide’. This mark {--} will anfwer, and
may be called a Kaluptophafis. Quotation may be re-
prefented at prefent by two inverted commas “ ond
the fpeech of any character in an author by one < ,
which mark may be denominated a Profepopeia.

Erotefis—L£roote/is—Note of interrogation. pial
Ecphonefis, Ex/oonefis---note of admiration or
exclamation, Te otk ad _ a j—!
Parenthefis—Parenoefis, ra all (—)
Crotchet---Avrot/t or Parathefis--Paravejis, [—]
Quotation--Kuoteefan, = - «ap

Profepopeia

G: ArsWG, Mi; Uy ,S: 309

Profepopeia--adiion of making a fpeech for

another, sis be Mg 6‘?
Accent--Ak/nt, — a K 1
Hyphen--fazfon, - ais =
Synthefis--Sinsefis - . =

+ Comma--Komma, pe = ae es
Semicolon--Semzkalon, 3 ssi irs ;
Colon--Aolon, aie Sin ag
Period--Puriod--full ftop or pun@um, => .
Apoftrophe-- Apoffrofe or mark of elifion, . = a ee oh
Caret - - wanting, ee aid ie A
Afteritks,:. --. = * * *
Hiatus, . -:. i Sid ’
Zugoma-=-BRACE or tie, . Sin = j—?

lrony--Aironi, -- -- a ee re ee

Kaluptophafis--Kaluptofa/is--to be fpoken. afide, {- -}

Emphafis,: Emfafis... Expreffed in writing by one or»
two lines, under the word or fentence---in printing, by
italics or large letters.:. :

References may be made by figures, different alphabets,
or arbitrary marks of any fort, that’ do not interfere with :
thofe that may be adopted in general, as agophonicks.-

By. fome it has been.thought neceflary to appropriate —
fymbols to the paflions.and geftures... But-the difference
of characters .and actions in men,,would render fuch an
attempt. lefs.ufeful: than might at firft be fuppofed; the
geftures that are natural in one.cafe, would be buffoonery
in another, and it would be as difficult to reconcile opini=
ons in this refpect, as to join a Harlequin to a Burgomaf--
ter.

*%

On

( 310)

a a ne ee ne

nr i

On teaching the Surd, or DEAr and confequently DumB,
to Speak. :

HE difficulties under which thofe ‘have laboured, whe
| have attempted to teach the furd, and confequently
dumb to {peak, have prevented many from engaging in a
labour that can fearcely be exceeded in utility ; for fome of
thofe to whom nature has denied particular faculties have
in other refpeéts been the boaft of the human {fpecies; and
whoever fupplies the defe&s of formation, and gives to man
the means of furmounting natural impediments, muft be
confidered as a benefactor, There have been many fuc-
cefsful attempts, in divers nations, to procure to the deaf
and dumb the modes of acquiring and communicating
ideas. —The methods however are flow and imperfe&t.—
The written and fpoken languagesare fo different, that they
become to fuch pupils two diftin& ftudies. It is neceflary
that they acquire a knowledge of objects, by feeing their
ufe, that they alfo become acquainted with the feveral
words which when written become the reprefentatives of
thefe objeéts, and befides the difficulties which prefent
themfelves in pronunciation, they are to remember that
the different words which are written, and fometimes
with nearly the fame letters, are of different fignification ;
and in fpeaking require different pronunciations of the
fame charaéter—this is an obftacle that cannot be poflibly
avoided by the prefent mode of writing, and the langua-
ges become as difficult as Hieroglyphics.

Some of the difficulties of acquiring a language when
deaf, may be conceived by thofe that are experienced in
learning foreign tongues, where they are not commonly
fpoken, although aided by tranflations and dictionaries;
, but

ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TOSPEAK. 311

but the man that hears nothing, has not the advantage of
a child who learns by the conftant chat of his parents and
attendants, and who can obtain no pleafures but through
the medium of {peech—he hears and is conftantly learn-
ing—to teach him is the amufement of every one; but the:
deaf receives his ftated leffons, difficultly and feldom.—-
There is no book which by the figures or drawings of
things have appropriate terms, nor is-there a language.
which has appropriate characters. —The more I revolve
in my mind this fubje@, the more I am aftonifhed that
even the moft improved nations have neglected fo import-
ant a matter as that of correcting their language; | know
of none, not even the * Italian, that isnot replete with ab-
furdity ; and I fhall endeavourto fhew the facility with
which the deaf. might be taught to fpeak, if proper atten-
tion were once paid to this important point.

I have attempted to fhew that in the Englith language
there are thirty charaCters, and muft fuppofe a + di€tio-.
nary according to this fcheme of the alphabet, upon:
which I mean to build:

the Method of teaching the Surd and confequent ly
Dumb to /peak,

It is neceffary to examine firft, whether the dumbnefs
be occafioned by merely the want of hearing, or by mal-

conformation of the organs of fpeech. If the latter there
1§

* “© Ciafcheduno fa, che, come, non w’ é cofa, che pil difpiaccia a Dio, che Vingratitudine,
edinoflervanza de’ fuoi precetti; cosi non v’é niente che cagioni maggiormente la defola-
zione dell’ univerfo, che la cecita, ¢ la fuperbia degli uomini, la pazzia de’ Gentili, Vignoran~
za, e l’oftinazione de’ Giudei, e Scifmatici.”

Corrected.

Thafkeduno fa, ke kome, non v’é coza, ke piu difpiatha a Dio, ke Pingratitudine ed tnossarvantsa
de fuot precthtti; \cofi non veé niente ke hadjioni madjormennte la defolatfione dell’ univerfo, ke la
thetlita, e la fuperbia del*i emini, la pat/ia de? Djentili, Piniorantlz, eV Htinatfione de Djudeei, ¢ iz~
wratitli.

+ Mr. Sheridan’s or Dr. Kenrick’'s may give fome aid, till a di@ionary be publithed upon this
plan.

» Requires a new character (the afpirate of /)

312 ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND'DUMB TO SPrak.

1s no occafion to proceed, but if the former be the caufe,
the method of attempting to remove fuch an impediment
may be purfued in the following manner. |

aft, They muft be led, if young, to attempt to pre-
‘nounce, by imitating the motions of children in fpeaking,
and, as every thing at firft would appear to them unmean-
ing, a child who can fpeak muft be told to. pronounce the
letters, which you defire the deaf child to learn. If you
fucceed with difficulty,-to prevent difcouraging the deaf,
the child who {peaks muft. be made to ‘pronounce -flowly,
diftinly, and with many repetitions, that the deaf may
fuppofe the other:to bein the fame predicament; but if you
have two deaf perfons to teach at once, the firft leflons only
need be given in this manner, for the progrefs of both will
be at firft perhaps much alike. |

2dly. The pupil muft ‘be not only fenfible when he
makes the proper sound himfelf, but muff alfo be able to
diftinguifh thefe founds in others. In teaching to pro-
nounce, you muft open the mouth, and fhew the fituation
of your tongue as nearly as you can, then difpofe your lips
in fuch a manner_as to give the found, making apparently
a more forcible exertion than common. The pupil-will
try to imitate it. He will make no doubt a found of fome
fort, either vocal or afpirate—If that found be contained
in the language you mean to teach him, point immediately
to the letter which you find.is the fymbol, and repeat it
fo often, that he can neither forget it, nor have any idea of
the fymbol without that found, nor of the found without
the fymbol---If the found be vocal let him feel at his own
throat, and at yours, that he may be made fenfible by
the external touch-that.the founds are the fame, and he will
with more facility be enabled to give the afpirates by pro-
nouncing them without a tremulous motion 1n the throat,
which is the fole external mode of learning him the dif-

| ference.

ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO SPEAK. 313

ference. When you teach the afpirate of any letter by a
fimple breathing, the organs being fomewhat fimilarly dif-
pofed, he perhaps may {tumble upon another vocal or af-
pirate: if fo, fhew him the letter he obtains by the error,
as if you had no intention, in that inftance, to teach the
letter in affinity with the laft; and let him repeat the found,
whether vocal or afpirate, till he is perfe@tly acquainted
with it, and the appropriated chara@er. You mutt then
turn to another, taking care, that while he acquires, he
does not forget, and let him often repeat them. When
you have proceeded through the greateft part of the letters
in this manner, and find that either the vowels or af-
pirates which correfpond to each other are wanted, you
muft take fuch as it would be proper to begin with, and
I think that none would ferve better than v—f; j—f; z
—s; p—s;in which, if the pupil be fenfible, he will foon
difcover a connection, and will be induced to fearch for
the fame affinities in the other letters, whether the lan-
guage he learns contains them or not—It will be neceflary,
according to the age and difpofition of the pupil, to ufe
different methods of difpofing his organs; not only by
letting him feel, how your tongue is raifed to the roof
of your mouth, pufhed forward, depreffed, withdrawn,
&c. but alfo to difpofe his, by your fingers, and have a
looking glafs always prefent, to fhew him wherein he errs
in not juftly imitating you; and alfo to let him fee when
he is right in his efforts. This will teach him what is
neceflary

3dly, To know what others fay, when they converfe
with, or afk him any queftion. This is the moft difficult
in teaching the furd, becaufe moft of the letters are formed
in the mouth and throat, out of fight; and here vifion alone
obtains the meaning. The mirror, however, will facili-
tate much the mode of learning what-others fay, by the
VOL. II. Rr deaf

314 ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO SPEAK.

deaf man’s converfing with himfelf before it, but in pre-
fence of his teacher, to prevent his making miftakes, in
the formation of the true founds: and there are more
guides in acquiring what words are fpoken by others, than
people in general imagine ; for fo many of the letters which.
make a vilible effect upon the organs, in their formation,
enter into the compofition of words,’ which may indeed
contain many that do not make much effect, that if all.
the former were written down, it would give to the eye,.
a kind of fhort-hand; and is almoft as eafily caught by
the watchful eye of the attentive deaf, as fhort-hand with-
out vowels is read by the experienced flenographer. Both:
arts require long practice, but both are very attainable.

When he has learned the true * founds of the thirty let=.
ters, in the Englith language, he will be capable of read-.
ing as well as of fpeaking, and he ought to have a cata-
logue of objects, defigned or reprefented, that he may af-.
fix proper ideas to proper terms.—Thus a child may be
taught to read, to fpeak, to underftand others, to write, and.
obtain a knowledge of things at the fame time.

The greateft difficulty that the deaf have to furmount,
in making a quick progrefs, in general converfation, has
been the want of a proper dictionary, or, rather, of a pro-
perly written language; for if they pronounce the letters
well, and attempt to join them, fo as to read words as they
arenow written, it would be unintelligible—The diati-
onaries of Dr. Kenrick and Mr. Sheridan, would very
much affift at prefent, for the deaf fhould have an oppor-
tunity of acquiring the founds of words, whenever they
were difpofed to learn, without being obliged to have re-
courfe to others: but there are many defects, as well as
mifiakes, in Mr. Sheridan’s, and though I have not feen
Dr. Kenrick’s, I know the manner, and it muft alfo be de-

fective,

* Sce the preceding differtation Page 280 et feq:—alfo the table of founds,

ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TOSPEAK. 313

fective, becaufe in neither work, have letters been invented

for the founds not before reprefented.---If the dumb had

the advantage of learning a language properly {pelled,-
every time they read in a book, the founds would be im-

prefled upon the mind, and reading would offer an eternal

fource of improvement, both in correct fpeaking, and in

matter; and thus might a perfon, who had once learned

his letters, be capable of reading every thing correaly,

and a child would not have to learn a language in merely

learning to read; thirty founds only would be required,

and he would have no idea of the poffibility of fubftitut-

ing a wrong letter in writing, for one which he could
properly pronounce; thus, {pelling would not be a ftudy
in writing. I ipeak now, not only in favour of the deaf
and confequently dumb, but of all others, who have not
yet learned to read, Some of thefe ideas I have often re-
peated, but repetition is admiffible, when we confider with
how much difficulty truth is made to grow in a foil where
prejudice has permitted error to take deep root.

Many of the dumb learn to communicate by their fin-
gers, forming an alphabet, by pointing at each finger, by
fhutting them feparately, by laying various numbers of
fingers upon the other hand, firft on one fide, then on the
other, and by different figns, pafling through the whole
{cale of founds---and compofing words by vifible motions,
which are agreed upon bya friend. They alfo write, and
learn the meaning of things, by referring to the reprefen-
tatives of words inftead of the words themfelves, and the
meaning of things would be as eafily taught by this mode
as by the ear, provided there were as much repetition in
one cafe as in the other. |

It is neceflary, that the dumb have each a book, in
which fhould be written under proper heads, the names
of familiar obje@s, and under them thofe things which
have a connection, beginning with genera, and defcend-
ing to {pecies. Rr2 It

316 ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO lege

ft would be proper to have large tables of clafles, inthe following manner, which ¢ “
would occupy the fide of a room.

ANIMALS
“Mankind Beafts Birds 7 Wiles: Rept: Infects, “mph?
coo oH a a edie, pS a EY SAT FY OI ONY
Man, woman Carnivorous Graminivorous c™W Birds of Sea, frefh water
child, ———— o-oo water fowl Prey, I ee
Giton Tyger, &e. Herfe Horned Cattle

ie nl On) ek ——-*-—T 43

He-fhe He-fhe, Horfe, Mare~=—“~=—™\Sheep, &c.
Foal Bull, Cv,
Calf Ram, Ewe
Teatob

ESR CSREES semen bees sasesas seemed Nt 2 pS SS _ a i

eT ee ee eee
Diamond Sapphire Ruby, Topaz Emerald &c. Flint Calcareous, &c.
estes 5 a ES
EARTHS
Vegetable _ Okres or Calces Clays Marles”

Cer! -—— ee Sieeieieienlinein c her pom a &e,

ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO SPEAK. 317

As the pupil will be tauglit toread, to fpeak, to write
and underftand things at once, the teacher fhould force
him to leave no name unpronounced, unwritten, or un-
read; and the pupil fhould be, at the fame time, taught to
obferve the motions made by the organs. of fpeech in his:
preceptor, and likewife to examine his own ina glafs, and
to draw the obje&, which may be done in a book either
arranged according to the ufe of the thing, or put promif-
cuoufly with its name written under; and if the word be:
incorrectly {pelled, to write it properly befides, or look in
one of the corrected. dictionaries. All thefe methods will
imprefs his mind fo ftrongly, that he will feldom have oc-
eafion to refer to his book; and by this method he will
alfo attain toa great proficiency in drawing...

The actions and paflions fhould be acted to the pupil,
and no movement made without fhewing its. meaning,
and noting it down by writing, that words may increafe
in exact proportion to the increafe of knowledge, and the
progrefs which a ftudent will make by. this method will in.
a fhort time be aftonifhing:

If a teacher were to undertake the inftru€tion of feveral
at once, which would indeed be moft advifeable, it would:
be exceedingly proper to procure as many prints or draw-:
ings of common objeéts as could be had, and even of the
fame objects in different poftures and pofitions, with the
name and action written beneath, and thefe arranged un-
der different heads according to their relation to each other.
The walls of the room might be covered with them,
fereens, port-folios and. books alfo contain others, to
which they might conftantly have accefs. Colours
ought alfo to be painted in fquares, with their names at-.
tached,. after them the fhades and the various colours ob-
tained by mixing fimple bodies. They ought alfo to go
through various courfes of natural hiftory, natural and ex-

perimental

318 ON TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO SPEAK.

perimental philofophy, including chemilftry, by which they
will fee the extenfive variety that even artificial mixtures
and combinations of bodies will produce. The names,
the procefies, and refults fhould be written, that nothing be
loft. Space and time fhould be meafured, and ail the
parts of difcourfe made familiar by examples, as a fenfi-
-ble man would fee occafion.

The utility of attempting to teach the dumb to fpeak,
has indeed been difputed by many, not only on account of
the difficulties which are judged infurmountable, the im-
perfect manner in which the pupils articulate, and the
difagreeablenoife they make in endeavouring to pronounce,
but alfo on account of the difficulty with which they un-
derftand what others fay, and more efpecially when they
can be comprehended fo well by writing, and made ufe-
ful members of fociety by drawing.—The imperfe&
manner in which they fpeak depends not upon the pupil,
ifof common capacity, but upon the teacher; and I am
confident, from fhort trials I have made, that the art is to
be perfectly obtained by the foregoing method. The
difficulty of underftanding what others fay Ihave already
confidered (page 313 art. 3d) and though writing is a very
neceflary qualification, yet pen and paper are not always
at hand. Drawing I approve of, as ufeful to every one, and
perhaps more particularly fo to a perfon whofe want of
natural faculties deprives him of many fources of amufe-
ment. But {peech is fo ufeful upon every occafion, that
to attain itis to facilitate the very means of exiftence: for
if a deaf man was even always provided witha book and
pencil he would often meet with perfons who could not
read, and one fentence if only imperfectly fpoken would
convey more meaning than all the geftures and figns
which would be made.

A deaf

OBSERVATIONS on THe Turory, &c. 319

A deaf perfon not perfectly fkilled in reading words
from the lips, or who ihould afk any thing in the dark
would be able to procure common information by putting
various queftions, and by telling the perfon that, as he is
deaf, he requefts anfwers by figns, which. he will direct
him tochange according to circumftances.—If he had loft
his way, if he enquired for any one, if he wanted to pur-
chafe any thing, and in all the common occurrences of life,
his {peech would be fo ufeful, that it would certainly more
than repay the trouble of obtaining it; efpecially <as it.
would be.amode of facilitating every other acquirement.

WILLIAM 'THORNTON.
a
N*. XXXIV.

Obfervations on the Theory of Water-Muills, - (continued :
from page 193.) by. W. Warina..

Read, April (4 INCE the Philofophical Society were pleafed
hit ag to favour my crude obfervations on the theory -
of mills with a publication in their tranfactions, I am ap-
prehenfive fome part thereof may probably be mifapplied.
It being therein demonftrated, that, ** the force of an.
invariable ftream impinging again{t a mill-wheel in mo-
tion is in the fimple dire& ratio of the relative velocity,”
fome may fuppofe, that the effet produced, fhould be in
the fame proportion, and either fall into an error, or, find
ing by experiment, the effect to be as the fquare of the
velocity, conclude ithe new theory, to be not well founded;
therefore, I with there had been a little added to prevent
fuch a mifapplication, before the fociety had been troubled
with the reading of my paper on that fubje€t; perhaps,

fomething like the foliowing.
The

320 OBSERVATIONS on THE THEORY

The maximum effect of an underfhot wheel, produced
by a given quantity of water in a given time, is in the
duplicate ratio of the velocity of the water. For the effect
mutt be as the impetus acting on the wheel, multiplied in-
to the velocity of the wheel. But this zmpetus 1s demon-
{trated to be, fimply, as the relative velocity, [Prop. 1.
page 146] and the velocity of the wheel producing a max-
imum, being half that of the water, [by Prop. II. page
14.7.] is likewife as the velocity of the water: therefore,
the power ating on the wheel multiplied into the wheel’s
velocity, or the effe@ produced, muft be in the duplicate
ratio of the velocity of the water. Q. E. D.

Corol. Hence the effe& produced by a given quantity
of water in a given time, will be as the height of the
head, becaufe this height is as the {quare of the velocity.
This alfo agrees with experiment.

If the force acting on the wheel, were in the duplicate
ratio of the water’s velocity, as ufually afferted, then the
effect would be as the cube thereof, when the quantity of
water and time are given; which is contrary to the refult
of experiment.

When I attempted to compute the power, &c. of Door
Barker’s or James Rumfey’s mill, as at page 185, the
following fimple demonftration of its equivalence to that
of the underfhot wheel, with the fame quantity and fall of
water, had not then occurred, viz.

Adiion and re-adtion are equal, &c.

But the underfhot wheel is propelled by the action, and
the rotatory tube by the re-acfion of the fame agent or mo-
mentum.

Therefore their mechanical effects muft be equal.

The ating and counteracting forces which originate
infide the tube, not being from any external impulfe, can
be no exception; becaufe, in any body, or fyftem of bodies,

the

or WATER MILLS, &e. 421

the mutual ations and reactions of the parts on each other
do not alter the motion of their common centre of gravity.
[Newt. Princip. B. 1. Law 3. and Corol. 4.]

Hence the increafe of power from the centrifugal force,
multiplied into the augmentation of velocity thereby oc-
eafioned, juft equals the force neceflary to move the water
into its fpiral dire@tion ; which correfponds with what was
before deduced from a different calculus.

Note under the head Area of the Apertures, page 192,
the refulting equation, which, by inadvertently ufing a

AV AV

for 2a, &c. is — fhould be ; and, of
8.g24vh 18.47Vh

courfe, the number 8.924, in rule 4th page 193, fhould be

18.47; but this overfight does not affe&t any other part of

the calculation.
Philadelphia 4th 4mo. 1793.
Wm WARING,

N°. KAXV.

An Improvement on metalic Conductors or Lightening-rods,
ina Letter to Dr. DAvip RITTENHOUSE, Prefident of
the Society, from RoBERT Patterson of Philadel-
phia.

&r This Paper was honoured with the Magellanic Pre~
mium, by an Award, of the Society in December 1792.

Sk,
Read Nov. J," R OM the inftances which now and then
Be 79° occur of houfes being ftruck with lightening,

that are turnifhed with metalic conductors, and the fre-
VOL. UL Ss quent

322 IMPROVEMENT on

quent inftances of thefe conductors having their tops melt-
ed off by a ftroke of lightening, it appears that this admi-
rable contrivance for guarding houfes againft the danger-
ous effects of lightning is, in fome degree, ftill imperfect.
Some improvement feems yet to be wanting at both ex-
tremities of the rod—at the upper extremity, to fecure it
againft the accident of being melted, which renders it af-
terwards unfit to anfwer its original intention, viz. draw-
ing off the eleétric fluid, or lightening, from the pafling
cloud, in a filent, imperceptible manner; for it is only
pointed condutors that poflefs this property—and at the
lower extremity, to afford a more ready paflage for the
fluid into the furrounding earth.

The firft of thefe intentions, would, I am perfuaded, be
effectually anfwered, by inferting in the top of the rod a
piece of black-lead, of about two inches long, taken out of
2 good pencil, and terminating in a fine point, pro=
jecting but a very little above the end of its metalic
focket; fo that, if the black-lead point fhould happen to
be broken off by any accident, of which however | think
there can be but little danger, ftill the point of the rod would
be left fharp enough to anfwer the purpofe of a metalic
condudtor.

This fubftance is well known to be infufible, by the
greateft heat, and hence its ufe in making crucibles; nor is
it evaporable, as remarked by Cronftedt, im his mineralo-
gy fet. 231, except ina flow calcining heat, to which it
could never be expofed on the top of a lightning-rod.

At the fame time its power as a conductor of electricity
is perhaps equal, or but little inferior, to that of any of
the metals. A line drawn on a piece of paper, by
a black-lead pencil will, as I.have often experienced, con=
duct an eleQtric explofion feemingly as well as a fimiliar

line

LIGHTNIN G-RODS. 323

Kine of gilding would do, and that without ever loofing
its conduting power, which is not the cafe with gilding.

The fecond intention is, to facilitate the efcape of the
electric fluid, from the lower part of the rod into the fur-
rounding earth. It is, in many cafes, impracticable, from
the interruption of rocks or -other obftacles, to fink the
rod fo deep as to reach moift earth, or any other fubftance
which is a tolerably good conductor of ele@ricity. Nor
even if this were practicable, would it, I prefume, be
alone fufficient to anfwer the defired intention. Iron,
buried in the earth, and efpecially in moift earth, will
prefently contract a coat of, ruft, which will continually
increafe till the whole is converted into ruft: but ruft of
iron, and indeed the calx of all metals, is a non-conducfor,
or at moft but a very imperfe& conduétor of the electric
fluid. Hence itis eafy to fee, thatin afew years after a
lightening rod has been erected, that part of it which is
under ground will contribute little or nothing towards the
fafety of the building. Befides, the furface of this part of
the rod is too fmall to afford an eafy and copious difcharge
of the electric fluid into the furrounding earth, when this
is but an imperfe& conductor.

Asa remedy for thefe defects, I would propofe, that
the part of the rod under ground be made of tin, or
copper, which are far lefs liable to corrofion or ruft, by
lying under ground thaniron. Or, which perhaps would
an{wer the purpofe better, let this part of the rod, of what-
ever metal it be made, be coated over with a thick cruft of
black-lead, previoufly formed into the confifience of pafte,
by being pulverized and mixed with melted fulphur (as in
the manufa@tury of the ordinary kind of black-lead pen-
cils) and then applied to the rod while hot. By this means,
the lower part of the rod would, I apprehend, retain its
conducting powers for ages, without any diminution.

Ss 2 Tn

324 ABRIDGEMEN TS of

In order to increafe the furface of the lower part of the
condu@or, let a hole or. pit, of fuffcient extent, be dug
as deep as convenient; and into this pit, let there be
put a quantity of charcoal, round the lower extre-
mity of the rod. Charcoal poflefies two properties
which, ina peculiar manner, fit it for anfwering the pur-
pofe here in view, (1) It is. a very good conductor of
electricity, and (2) it will undergo little or no change of
property by lying ever fo long intheearth. Thus might
the furface of that part of the conductor, in conta& with
the earth, be increafed with little trouble or.expence to any:
extent at pleafure; a circumftance which every one ac-
quainted with electrical experiments, mult acknowledge
to be of great importance to the end here propofed.

Whither the above hints may merit a place among the:
communications from candidates for the annual premium,
is humbly {ubmitted |

By yours, &c.

PHILO FRANKLIN.-

N®. XXXVI.

An eafy and expeditious method of diffipating the noxious.
Vapour commonly found in Wells and other fubterraneous
places, by EBENEZER ROBINSON, Of Philadelphia.

Read (Nov: FT ER various unfuccefsful trials, (a detail
ad. 2986. of which has been already communicated,)
I was led to confider, how I could convey a lar.e quantity
of freth air, from the top to the bottom of the well; fup-
pofing that the foul would neceflarily give way to the pure
air.—With this view I procured a pair of {miths we

xed

SUNDRY COMMUNICATIONS. 325

fixed ina wooden frame, fo as to work in the fame manner
-as at the forge. This apparatus being placed at the edge
of the well; one end of a leathern tube (the hofe ofa fire
engine,) wasclofely adapted to the nofe of the bellows, and |
the other end was thrown into the well, reaching within
one foot of the bottom. At this time the well was fo in-
fected, that acandle would not burn at:a fhort diftance from .
the top; but after blowing with my bellows, only half
an hour, the-candle burned bright atthe bottom; then,
without further difficulty, I proceeded in the work, and. .
finifhed my well.

Wells’ are often made in a very flight manner, owing
to the difficulty of working in them, and there have been
feveral fatal inftances of the danger attending the-work-
men; but by the above method, there is neither difficulty:
nor danger in compleating the work, with the utmoft fo~
lidity.. . raukat cal cam

It is obvious, that in. cleanfing vaults, and working in
any other fubterraneous place, fubject to damps, as they are
called, the fame method muft be.attended with the fame
beneficial effect. ..

N°. “XXXVII.-.

4 method of draining Ponds in level Grounds, - by Jesse
Hiceins, of Delaware. .

Read July ~'T acertain diftance belo v the furface of ‘the
Sahih A earth, thére is a ftratum of loofe fand, which’
freely admits the paflage of water. This ftratum is at
various depths, indifferent elevations; but it will be ge-

nerally’

3206 ABRITDGEM@EWN *T 8 of

nerally found, that lands moft fubje& to flagnant ponds,
have but a fhallow ftratum of clay, over the fand.

All that is neceflary, therefore, is to dig a pit in the
bottom of the pond, till you arrive at this ftratum of
fand, when the water will be immediately abforbed, and
the pond emptied. Should there be too much water to
permit a hole to be dug within the pond, it may be made
at the edge of it, the communication afterwards made
by a trench. It would be prudent not to make the
fides of the pit fo fteep, as to prevent cattle from getting
out, fhould they happen to go in.

The writer does not pretend to be the original author of
this invention ; the idea was fuggefted to him, by feeing
it practifed by a farmer, who enjoyed the benefit, though
he did not appear to know the caufe

N°. XXXVI ©

Obfervations on the feverity of the winter 1779, 1780, by the
Rev, Matuew WILson of Lewis, dated 22d June 1780.

Read Jane ‘HE extreme cold made great devaftations
178i. ff son the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Such
. obfervations as were in my power to make, are,

1. The moles generally perifhed, many were found dead
above ground.

2. The bees are almoft all deftroyed, but few hives have
efcaped. |

3. The frogs fuffered greatly, it is fuppofed that at leaft
two thirds of the fpecies were cut off.

4. Our hell fifth of all kinds, that run in fhoal, waters,
were deftroyed; after the thaw. the air was infected by
their putrifaction.

5. Bugs

SUNDRY COMMUNICATIONS. 327

§. Bugs, mufketoes, &c. &c. have generally died.

6. The grafshoppers I fufpect are gone, not having yet
feen any.

7, Some {nakes yet live, but they are not fo numerous
as formerly.

A multiplicity of bufinefs prevented me from extending
thefe obfervations; but if I had had leafure, I fhould
doubtlefs have difcovered many more animals and infects
that fuffered from the fame caufe.

8. I muft add’ fomething remarkable refpeGting fith,
though I know not whether to refer it tothe cold or fome
other caufe.. ‘

From 14th to 24th of May after continued eafterly
winds, fith were driven on the coaft in fuch abundance that
in Rehoboth only two or three hundred bufhels were
daily colleéted and eaten by the people. Seme feemed
at firft to be alives but. far the greater part were dead,
and many had one eye picked out by the birds while
floating on the water. The found, or air bladder, of them
all was remarkably diftended, fo that they could not fink
in the water; this feemed to be the caufe of their death.
Thefe fifh were generally feacrocus, a few cats and fome
fea trout.

The vegetable feems:to have fuffered more thanthe ani-
mal kingdom.

_ Rofemary; of which there were many large and
flourifhing hedges, is totally exting.

The Pink is deftroyed, except afew fmall roots, cos
vered with leaves, in-narrow places.

Grape Vines.both native and foreign are killed, except
where they were fheltered from the winds.

Moft of the ever greens, the {mall Laure/, the Holly, the
Funiper, Bear bufbes and fome fmall pines have fuffered

inthe general calamity; and what is {till more remarka-
. ble

328 DESCRIPTION or A new STANDARD

ble many young d/ack oaks and fome white oaks from
twelve feet high and under are dead, in bleak places. |

Saye, Rue, Lavender, Prickley pears, Southern wood
and Silk gra/s (a fpecies of the Aloes) are dead to the roots.
Comfrey roots and Parfley are much damaged, and the
Catauba tree is killed inall its {maller branches. Two
thirds of the Wheat.and Rye in our country are loft, and
Hoar hound, which.generally grows all winter, is deftroyed.

In the falt marfhes I found the large triangular gra/fs
and the dent gra/s generally dead from the roots. The
marfh at prefent (June). looks red and feems rotten.

TN*.. XX XIX,

A Defeription of a new Standard for Weights and Mea-=
fures, (in a Letter from Mr. Joun Cooke, of Tipperary
in Ireland, to THOMAS JEFFERSON, Esq.

Dated Mar. ELE want of uniformity in weights and mea=
ee okt {ures is a fubject of general complaint at
prefent; it is an infinite fource of fraud, and the great
obftacle to. domeftic and foreign commerce.

The firft ftep neceflary to remove this evil, is to appoint
an univerfal, perpetual, and immutable ftandard, for length,
fuperficies, weight, and capacity ; whereby the inftruments
of meafurement may be adjufted, and alio whereby they
may be defcribed to diftant countries,.and:to future ages.

Natural fubftances are incapable of furnifhing one of
this defcription. Every thing in the material world is in
a ftate of gradual alteration, it differs from itfelf under dif-
ferent circumftances, and differs from every individual of
the fame {pecies.

General

ror WEIGHTS anno MEASURES. 329

General and permanent immutability is to be found
only in our abftract ideas; and none of thefe can define
dimenfions but our ideas of geometrical diagrams ; there-
fore, if we could difcover fuch relations or qualities in a
geometrical figure, as aré peculiar to it, and as would dif-
tinguifh it from all other fimilar figures, we fhould have
a correct ftandard; but as every attempt to accomplith this
has failed, we are obliged to refort to thefe general quali-
ties of matter which are the moft durable and leaft variable.

_ Of this clafs are cohefion, motion, gravity, &c. upon
the laft of which the following theorem depends, and from
which alfo Mr. Huygens has deduced the pendulum ftand-
ard.

But the pendalum is fubje& to many imperfeions;
the principle of which are.

1{t That the variation of the weight of the atmofphere
aifects it.

—adly.It is of different lengths at different diftances from
the Equator.

3dly. It requires a force in addition to its gravity to
preferve it in motion a fufficient time, and as this may be
greater or lefs, indifferent experiments, it may accelerate
or retard the vibrations, and confequently render the
length uncertain.

4thly, Unlefs the pendulum move in a cycloidal arch,
its ofcillations will not be perfetly ifochronous, and this
has not been effected hitherto.

sthly. Since the pendulum is a meafure of length only,
the meafures of capacity and weight, if they be deduced
from it will be erroneous in a triplicate proportion of the
errors of the pendulum.

The two firft of thefe faults are common to the fcheme
here propofed alfo, and if the following theorem fhould be

VOL, IIL Te thought

330 DESCRIPTIONor a new STANDARD

thought to deferve attention, it is becaufe the ftandard de-
ducible from it, is not fubject to the three laft mentioned

defects.

THEOREM.

If there bea cubic veflel with an aperture in the bottom,
which aperture is in a given ratio to the bafe of the veifel ;
and if the ratio between the weight of the water which
this veffel contains when full, and the weight of the water
difcharged from it, through this aperture, in a given time
be given, the cube itfelf is given.

DEMONSTRATION.

No other fimilar veffel will difcharge a proportionate
quantity througha proportionate aperture in the fame time;
tor if fo, the weights of water difcharged by two fuch cubes
in the fame time, would be in the fame ratio to their dif-
charging cubes refpectively, and confequently the weights
of the difcharged waters muft be to each other, as the weights
of the cubes, that is in a triplicate ratio of their altitudes;
but by the laws of Hydraulicks the weights of the water
difcharged in the fame time from different altitudes and
through different apertures will be to each other in a ratio
compounded of the fimple ratio of the apertures, (which
is equal to the ratio of the bafis, which is equal to the du-
plicate ratio of the altitudes) and the fubduplicate ratio of .
the altitudes; that is, the weights of the water difcharged
muft be to each other in the triplicate ratio of the altitudes,
which is abfurd.

‘In making an experiment according to this theorem, it
is to be obferved that the edges of the orifice fhould be as
thin as poffible, and that the veflel fhould not be fuffered

to

Description oF A SPRING BLOCK. 337

to difcharge fo much of its contents that the furface would
approach the bottom.

It is evident, that by this method, a ftandard may be
formed for any length, fuperficies, or capacity, and alfo
for any weight, if the ipecific gravity of the water made
ule of be given,

ca

| sinshdeniaieiamntienbiciil
N°. XL.

Defcription of a SPRING-Biocx, defigned to affift a veffel
in Sailing. By Francia Hopkinson, Esq. of Phi-
ladelphia.

flonoured wiih the Magellanic Gold Medal, by an award
of the Society, in December, 1790.

T is an acknowledged fa&, that when the fhrouds

. of a veflel are braced very tight, fo as to prevent
the mafts from having any play or fpring, fhe will not
fail as faft as when her mafts are permitted to bend a lit-
tle to the impulfes of the wind. ©The reafonis, that the
wind is feldom uniform in its force for any length of time;
and itis impoffible that a fudden encreafe of impulfe fhould
inflantancoufly communicate a proportionable velocity to fo
heavy a body, placed in a refifting medium of fo great
denfity. \

In fuch cafe the veffel is forcibly prefled into or again
the water, and is obliged to heel from the blaft, until’a
progreflive motion, adequate to the force impreffed can
be communicated to the whole mafs. But thefe fudden
prefflures againft the water and this heeling of the veffel,
are great obftacles to fait failing : in as much as they oc-

Ert.i2 cafion

332 Description or a SPRING-BLOCK.

cafion an unprofitable expenditure. of the force which»
fhould pufh her forward.

When a veflel firft hoifts her fails, although fhe may be:
ina fituation to receive the full impulfe of the wind, yet
fhe will not zmmediately proceed with the velocity which
fhe will afterwards acquire from the fame force: having
not yet got under way, as the feamen exprefs it. Upon
the fame principle, when. a. veflel is. failing at the rate of
five knots, if a fudden blaft of wind fhould come, which.
would enable her to make feven knots, fhe may be confi-.
dered as being perfeQly ftationary with refpe&t to the two
additional knots, and will require fome time to get under
way as to them. Now the effect produced by relaxing
the fhrouds is, that the maft, receiving the firft impreffion
of the wind upon the fails, ats as a fpring, and yielding
to the impulfe, gradually communicates motion to the
whole veflel, giving her time to get under way, and oc-.
cafioning an eafy tranfition from one degree of velocity
to another: fo that her way is not checked by her being
{fuddenly urged againft the refifting medium on the accef-
fion of every new force imprefled..

But the misfortune is, that this advantageous ufe of the
matt can. be exercifed only toa {mall extent; for, if it is
allowed too much play, it willbe in danger of breaking.
The object of the prefent propofal is to enjoy the fame
benefit to a greater extent and with more fecurity..

The mafts, yards and rigging of a fhip receive the firft
impulfes of the wind. All thefe are in fome degree elaftic:
Every twifted rope is a {piral {pring, and every {par capa-
ble of being alittle bent. But let us fuppofe that the
ropes were all compoted of ftraight ftrands, that the mafts
and yards were inflexible, and the fails made of thin light
wood; in fuchcafe, I fuppofe, that the veffel in failing:
by the wind would make but little head-way, whatever:

the-'

= ae w
= foe 2 ~
a; x. 3 =
. . ws
: ‘
Bend
S ar el
bod P<, a
7 ~ ae a al
5 ’ -
—— i> oe ;
~ ~ < ant

}e

_
eremetns aero
is
i
t
v9
-
oh
r

pe phe ym
i
t

-
Gh,
.e
sd
tal
~
‘
-
‘a
‘
+

sieve
fi
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ef a
J 3, el ee

To fue 333 Volt, 34

DescRIPTION oF A SPRING-BLOCK., 333

the fhape of -her bottom might be: but would expend
the force of the wind in heeling and flipping to leeward.
if this is true, her failing muft be confiderably affifted by
any means that fhall encreafe the active fpring of her rig-
ging. For this purpofe I have contrived what I call a
SPRING-BLOCK, to be applied to all fuch parts of the rig-
ging as will admit of it with fafety and convenience, and
where, its operation will be moft advantageous; but par-
ticularly to the fheet-ropes, and, if practicable, to the dead.
eyes in lieu of what are called the chains.
Defcription.

A, fig. 1, Is a block made in the ufual manner, having
a ring or eye Bat oneend. C,is a fpiral {pring linked
atone end to the hook D E and at the other to the ring.
F, which is to be annexed by a ftaple to the timber-head,
or by fome other means, to the place where it is to be
applied, The fpring C, muft be of well tempered ftecl,
and proportioned. in ftrength to the fervice it is to per-
form. Within the cavity or pipe formed by the fpiral.
{pring, there muft be a.chazn ofa fuitable ftrength called.
a check-chain (reprefented feperate at G) conneéted
by links to the rings D and F. When the fpiing
is not. in aCtion this chain is flack; but when the.
fpiral {pring is extended by the force of the wind as far as
it can be without danger of injury; the cheek-chain muft
then begin to bear, to prevent its further extenfion; and,
if ftrong enough, will be an effectual fecurity againft.
failure.

Fig. 2. reprefents part of the gun-wale of a floop with
the fpring-blocks in aGtion, one of them hooked to a ftaple
in the timber-head, and the other to the corner of the jib.

My expedtation is that a veffel thus furnifhed will be
lefs liable to heel, that fhe will receive the impulfes of the.
wind to better advantage, and fail with a more lively and:
~ equable motion, than if rigged in the common way.

Vires acquiret cedendo, N°, XLT,

(. $394.)

N°. XLI.

A Botanical defcription of the PopoPHYLLUM DrpHyL-
LUM of Linneus, in a Letter to CHARLES PETER
Tuunserc,M. D. Knight of the Order of Wafa, Pro-

Seffor of Medicine and Botany in the Univerfity of Up/al,

ere, CC.
DEAR SIR,

Read May N the time of Tournefort, and for many years
18, 1792. after his death, the Anapodophyllion of this
great botanift was confidered as a genus of which there
was known but one fpecies, viz. the Anapodophyllon Cana-
denfe Morini. When the name of this plant was after-
wards altered, by Linnzus, to that of Podophylium, he
denominated the fpecies, which had been previoutly defcrib-
ed by Tournefort, by Catefby, by Mentzelius, and by fome
other botanifts, pe/tatum, from the target-fhape of the
leaves.

In the firft edition of the Speczes Plantarum, thisis the
only fpecies of Podophyllum which we find mentioned, or
defcribed. In the fecond edition, which was publifhed in
1762, we find another {pecies, under the name of diphyl-
lum, The two plants now ftand oppofed to each other, in
the following concife characters: viz.

1. PoDOPHYLLUM peltatum foliis peltatis palmatis, and
2. PopopHyLLuM diphyllum foliis binatis, femicordatis.

Thefe charaéters have been preferved in all the fubfequent
editions of the Species Plantarum and SyftemaVegetabilium
that I have feen.

With

A Boranican Description, &c, 335

With the firft of thefe fpecies Linnzus could not but have
been pretty well acquainted, as it had been ficured and de-
feribed by Tournefort, by Catefby*, by Mentzelius, and
other botanifts, before him, and as he tells us he had an op-
portunity of examining the living plant. Of the other /up-
pofed {pecies of Podophyllum, his knowledge was much lets
complete. In the Species Plantarum, he mentions itas a na-
tive of Virginia, on the authority of his friend Mr. Peter
Collinfon, and gives the following defcription of it. * Fo-
‘ lia radicaha, petiolata, binata ut in Hymenea, glabra, in=
“ tegerrima, femicordata, abfyue pedicellis. Scapus ra-
“ dicalis, uniflorus, fructu antecedéntis” (i.e. Podophyl-
lum peltatum). Flos mibi non vifus.”

In the thirteenth edition of the Syfema Nature, printed
at Vienna, in 1770, Linnzus ftill retains the two fpecies
of Podophyllum, which I have mentioned: but, at this pe-
riod, he feems to be uncertain whether his: diphyllim is
aCtually a fpecies of the genus to which he originally re=.
ferred it, as appears from the following words, fubjoined
to the fpecifick character of the plant: viz. “ an Sangui-
“narie fpecies? cum Folium umcum binatum & Scapus
“ aphyllus radicalis &> Capfula oblonga.” He then tells
us that he has not feen the flowers, and that the plant
was fent to him (I preiume, either by Collinfon or by Gro-
novius) as a f{pecies of Podophyllum.

In the quarto-edition of the I’/ra Virginica of my in-
duftrious countryman Dr. John Clayton}, which was pub-

lifhed

* Catefby’s figure is not very accurate.

+ The fate of thofe few perfons who have cultivated botanical knowledge in North-America,
has been rather fingular. ‘The labours of Mr. John Banitter were not inconfiderable, but they:
are fwallowed up in the extenfive writings of Mr. Ray, and not one botanift im a thoufand
knows any thing of them. The fervices of Clayton were greater. In colleGting, and in in-
veftioating the hiftory of plants, his enthufiafm and his induftry were immenfe. He tranfmic-
ed his fpecimens and annotations to Gronovius, who could not have found it a difficult tafk to
arrange the plantsinto a fyftematic form. ‘The Flora Virginica is a refpeftable work, with
which no botaniit fhould be unacquainted. In reading this work, it isa duty which we owe
to merit to confider the volume as the Jabour of Clayton andnot of Gronovius, who kind-
ly robbed the Ameriean botanift of the honourof his difcoveries, whilft he reapt the pecuni~
ary profits of his toils,

336 <A Boranicar DrscRIPTION OF THE

lithed by Gronovius, at Leyden, in 1762, 1 find that both
the fpecies of Podophyllum mentioned by Linnzus, are
enumerated among the indigenous vegetables of Virginia.
Jn this excellent work, after giving the Swedifh natura-
lift’s fhort fpecifick charaéter of the Pedophyllum diphyl-
lum, Dr. Clayton adds the following defcription of his
own: ‘ Podophyllivel Nelumbonis f{pecies foliis renifor-
“© mibus, in petiolis longiffimis erectis e radice immediate
“ ecreffis, binatim difpofitis, fubtus glaucis: fructu magno
coriaceo lutefcente uniloculari, per maturitatem ad api-
“ cem operculi inftar horizontaliter dehifcente : feminibus
“ oblongis lucidis fpadiceis. Flores nondum videre licuit.
Maji initio folo fubhumido & fertiliffimo fub arborum
excelfarum tegumine, .convallibus & clivis montium
collegi*.””

This is all the information that I have been able to col-
lect, from the writings of botanifts, concerning the Po-
dophyllum diphyllum of Linnzus. In the Hortus Kewen-
fis of Mr, Aiton, a work which contains excellent de-
fcriptions of a confiderable number of new, or hitherto
imperfectly defcribed, fpecies of North-American plants,
no mention is made of it. I-prefume, it muft have been
unknown to Mr. Iuffieu, when he publifhed his Genera
Plantarum fecundum Ordines Naturales difpofita, inthe
year 178q, otherwife this able botanift would not have
omitted the mention of it, in drawing the characters of
the two genera Podophyllum and Sanguinaria, to both
which our plant is nearly related. Neither do I find any
mention made of this plant by Dr. Schoepf+, and fome
other late writers, who after rzding poft-hafle through the
countries of the United-States, have publithed volumes
of Travels, &c.

Oo

r4

Ca

oo

¢

o

¢

on

‘

o

I have
* See page 8r.

+ ‘This Gentleman is the author ofa trifling work entitled Materia Medica Americana potiffi=
mum regni vegetabilis. Erlang: 17873; alfo of a work, in two volumes oCtavo, entitled Reif
durch einige der mittlern und fudlichen vereinigten Nordamericanifcben Staaten, &c. printed, at the
fame place, in the following year, and of fome other publications,

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. 337

I have often fought for this fuppofed fpecies of Podo-
phyllum, in the woods of Pennfylvania. Miflead by Lin-
nzus, who, at one time, defcribes it asa fpecies of this
valuable genus, and at another time feems uncertain whe-
ther itis not a f{pecies of Sanguznaria, or Puccoon, I hoped
to difcover it in the neighbourhood of its relations, which
are among the number of the moft common vegetables of
Pennfylvania, both on the eaflern and on the weftern fide
of the Alleghaney-Mountains. I fought, however, with-
out fuccefs. Some of my botanical friends have been more
fortunate. Mr. William Bartram has feen it, but not in
flower, in the country of the Cheerake-Indians, where it
grows abundantly. Another gentleman has obferved it,
growing on the fide of a mountain, ina rich foil, near the
river Monaungahela, in the county of Fayette, and
ftate of Pennfylvania. The fame gentleman obferved
prodigious quantities of it on the Holften, below
the north-fork of this river, in the ftate of North-Caroli-
na. Inneither of thefe fituations, however, did he fee it
in flower.

About two years fince, Mr. Andrew Michaux, an in-
duftrious French botanift, who has been travelling, for
fome time, through different parts of our States, difcover-
ed this vegetable on the Blue-Ridge, near the head of the
Roanoke-River, in Virginia. It grew in a rich, loamy,
~ humid foil; and generally under the fhades of the large
foreft-trees of the mountains, fituations correfponding to
thofe in which it had been difcovered by the accurate and
indefatigable Clayton, many years before him. Mr. Mi-
chaux fays, the plant did not feem to have an extenfive
fpread, but that it was very common in two particular
places. He did not fee it in flower.

From a root of this vegetable, which was fent to Mr.
William Bartram, by Mr. Michaux, there was produced
VOL. Ur Uu a fine

338 A BoraNIcAL DESCRIPTION OF THE

a fine fpecimen, which flowered in the beginning of the-
{pring of the year 1791, in the neighbourhood of Phila=
delphia. Mr. Bartram and myfelf carefully examined the.
plant, in the various ftages of its growth, and, together,,
made the drawings which accompany this letter.

Before I proceed to the more immediate defcription of:
this plant, [think proper to.obferve, that although it has.
already been difcovered im feveral different parts of North-.
America, itis by no,means fo.common.a plant as. the Po-
dophyllum peltatum and Sanguinarra canadenfis. 1 have
never feen an extenfive tract of our country in which thefe
plants were notto be found, They extend from the top
of Canada to the termination of the higher grounds of’
the two Floridas.—Hitherto, I have not learned that the.
Podophyllum diphyllum, of Linnzus.has been difcovered to
the eaft of the great ranges of our mountains. No
mention is made of it in the lift of ‘the plants growing in
the vicinity of- the town of Lancafter, in this ftate, by my
friend the Reverend Dr. Muhlenberg, than whom no man
has ftudied the vegetables of a diftri@ with more elaborate
attention, and happy fuccefs*. Dr. James Greenway,
a very refpectable botanift, who refides in Virginia, has.
never feen our vegetable in that ftate.

I am far, however, from aflerting that this plant is nota
native of the Atlantic parts of North-America. The rich
and happy countries of this great continent have, as yet,
been very imperfectly explored. America has, indeed,
produced fome few men of talents, who knew nature, and
who loved her. Clayton, and the two Bartrams+ have
done much. But an ocean of undifcovered pearls remains
to be inveftigated. The eledtricity of your immortal Lin-

né-
* See this gentleman’s Index Flore Lancaftrienfis.

John Bartram and his fon William Bartram. The father has paid the debt of nature :

the fon {till lives, as a {trong proof that great natural genius will triumph over the diflicult-

ies arifing out of the want of education, and that the ftudy and contemplation of nature are
tayourable to the growth of extenfive benevolence and virtue, oy

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. = 335

né has hardly been felt in this Utima Thule of {cience.
Had a number of the pupils of that great man fpread
themfelves along, and fettled in, the countries of North-
America, the riches of this world of natural treafures
would have been better known. But alas! the one only
pupil of your predeceffor that has made choice of Amcri-
ca as the place of his refidence, has added nothing to the
ftock of natural knowledge. Video meliora.

But, I return to my plant.—iTs cLhass AND ORDER.

Thad an opportunity of examining four flowers of this
vegetable: they arofe from one common root. Each of
thefe flowers was furnifhed with eight ftamina, and with
one piftillum. From this examination, I ventured to in-
form feveral of my friends, as well foreign as domeftic,
that the Podophyllum diphyllum of Linnzus belonged to
the clafs and order Odtandria Monogynia of the fexual
fyftem, and that it fhould ftand between Mzmu/ops and Tro-
peolum. More obfervations, however, are probably want-
ing toenable me to afcertain, withcertainty, this part of
the hiftory of the plant. Perhaps, the number of the
ftamina, in particular, is not definite*. But on this head,
‘another fummer will enable me to give you more certain
information.

Irs NATURAL CLASS AND ORDER.

I think, it is a matter of much more confequence to
afcertain the place of our genus in fome natural /yftem of
vegetables. I would not wifh you to think, from this ob=
fervation, that I undervalue the fexual method of Linne-
us. This is fo far from being the cafe, that] am an im-
plicit believer in the do&rine which afferts the exiftence
of fexes in vegetables, and the neceflity of an intercourfe

Wrt's between -

_ * Since this letter was written, a number of flowers has been produced in the garden of Mr.
John Bartram, neaf Philadelphia. In every inftance, they were furnifhed with eight ftami-
na, and one pittillum. I prefume, therefore, the place of this plant in the fyftem of Linnzyes
8 now well afcertained;

340 A BotranicaL DescRIPTION OF THE

between them for the purpofe of perpetuating the {pecies.
I, moreover, greatly admire the fyftem of your country-
man. In moftrefpects, it is preferable to the method of
Tournefort, or of any other botanift. But, full, [ cannot.
help withing that the day may arrive, and, if the phyfici-
ans of Europe continue to cultivaie botany as fome of them
have done, it will arrive, when the fexual arrangement
fhall give way to a more natural method, one in which
the order, ‘or aflemblage, of nature’ will be purfued more
rigoroufly than it has been by Linnzus. I would hardly
venture to fpeak with fo much freedom to any other
pupil of Linneus. You, Sir, have fhown, by the plan
which you have purfued in your excellent Fora Japonica,
that you do not implicitly follow the rules of your mafter.
Your fuppreflion of the four clafles Gynandria, Monoecia,
Disecia, and Polygamia, has always appeared to me to
be a moft judicious ftep. ; |

The plant under confideration would be very well plac-
ed, between Sanguinaria and Podophyllum, in Linnzus’s
twenty-feventh natural order, called Rhoeadee. In the
Genera Plantarum fecundum Ordines Naturales difpofita of
Mr. Juffieu, a work of extenfive merit, it will have a ve-
ry natural fituation in the thirteenth clafs, denominated
Plante Dicotyledones Polypetale. Stamina Hypogyna; and
in the fecond order, viz. Papaveracee. Its aflociates, in
this order, will be Sanguinaria, Argemoue, Papaver, Glau=
cium, Chelidonium, &c. ,

Tue GENERIC CHARACTER? =

Catyx. A perianthium, confifting of three, four, or
five (moft generally of five), equal, concave, and lanceolate
leaves, or pieces, rather fhorter than the corolla, of a

pale

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. 342

pale rofe-colour, and falling off fome time before the
expantion of the flower.

Coroxra. The corolla confifts.of eight, lanceolate, or
narrow, ovate, pointed, fomewhat concave, and {preading
petals. In. figure, they refemble the fegments of the
flower-cup, but are larger.

StaMINa. The filaments, or threads, arecight in num-
ber, fimple, flender, much fhorter than the corolla*, and
inferted into the receptacle. ‘The. Authere are flat, large,
erect, oblong, and incurved.

PistittuM. The germen, or feed-bud, is fuperous,
large, oblong, or ovate. The ftyle is cylindrical, thick,
and fomewhat fhorter than the filaments. The ftigma is
flefhy, radiated, or crifped.

PerrIcarPiuM. A large capfule, turban-fhaped, pimp-
led, tapering towards the lower part, thin, unilocular, and
divided, on the pofterior part, by a longitudinalridge. It
fplits, or opens, by a tranfverfe future, or lip, which
is more than one half the circumference of the upper part.

Semina. The feeds are from twelve to twenty in
number, lying loofe. They are nearly ovate, and {mooth:

The foregoing defcription is not, perhaps, in every re~
fect, as accurate as I could with. Future obfervations,
however, will enable me to render it more worthy of your
notice.

Irs NAME.

From the account which I have given of this plant, I
have little doubt that you will agree with me in confider-
ingitasa genus, diftin@ from the Sanguiaria and
the Podophylum, to both which, however, it muft be
confefled, it bears confiderable relation. AsI have not

found:
* They are about one fifth of the length of the corolla.
+ Since the letter was written, a greater number of flowers of this plant have been examin-
ed. [1 confequence of thisexamination, I do not find any neceflity for altering, in the Icaft, -
the defcription which | have given,

342 A BoranicaL DESCRIPTION OF THE

found it defcribed by any authors, except Linnzus and
Clayton, neither of whom had feen the flowers, and as it
is, ‘certainly, anew family, I take the liberty of making 1t
known.to the botanifts by the name of

JEFFERSONIA,

in honour of Thomas Jefferfon, Efg. Secretary of State to
the United-States.

Ibeg leave to obferve to you, in this place, that in
impofing upon this genus the name of Mr. Jefferfon, I
have had no reference to his political character, or to his
reputation for general {cience, and for literature. My bu-
finefs was with his knowledge of natural hiftory. In the
various departments of this fcience, but efpecially in bo-
tany and in zoology, the information of this gentleman
is equalled by that of few perfons in the United-States. —

Of the genus which I have been defcribing, we, as yet,
know but one fpecies, which I call

JEFFERSONIA BINATA.

The root of this plant is fibrous, very branching, of a
pale-brown, or dirty-yellowith, colour, and confifting of
a cortex, or bark, and a woody part. This ligneous por-
tion is of a more lively yellow thanthe bark. The fibres,
including both bark and wood, are not, in general, thicker
than a common pin.

The /ralks are feveral: they do not branch out at all,
but proceed immediately from the crown of the root, fup-
porting the leaves, and the flowers, Both thefe leaf and
flower ftalks are naked, commonly about a line in thick-
nefs, {mooth, and of a dark green, fomewhat purplith,
colour. After the falling off of the flower, the ftalks, as
well as the leaves, &c. encreafe, very confiderably, in

fize.
The

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. 343

The /eaves are binate, or two-lobed, each lobe being
fomewhat of afemi-cordated form, very entire, fide;
and of a fea-green colour on the under fide. The princi--
pal nerves are five in number; in each lobe.

The flower-cup has been already defcribed.

The corolla, or flawer, is of a fine white colour, and
ftands ere&t, or horizontal, on the fummit of the flower=
ftalk. There is never more than one flower on the fame
ftalk.

The filaments have been fufficiently defcribed.. The:
anthere, or fummits, are yellow.

The pzfil has been defcribed, as has, likewife,

The feed-veffel.

The feeds are nearly. of a chefnut-brown. coloury.

OBSERVATIONS.,.

The commen height of the plant, whilft-in flower, is:
about fix or eight inches: after the fall of the flower, it.
often grows afoot, or fixteeninches high. The flower con-
tinues, for feveral days, in perfection and beauty, during
which time the germen is vifibly enlarging. The petals
now fuddenly fall off, leaving. the germen ereét upon the
fummit of the ftalk. This vifcus encreafes in fize very
rapidly, changing its figure daily. When it is about three
fourths of its*mature fize, it is nearly of an obovate, or
turbinated, form, fomewhat compreffed on one fide.
’ During this ftage of its growth, we plainly difcern the
tranfverfe future, or lips of the incifion, mentioned in
the generic charaGter. When it is completely ripened, the
feed-veflel opens, pretty fuddenly, at this tranfverfe future,
upon which the fuperior part rifes up, and now it appears
like a cap, or helmet, difcovering the naked feeds, ying

oofe,.

344 <A BoranicAL DEscRIPTION OF THE

loofe. The feeds are to be difperfed. The ftalk fupporting
their capfule becomes cernuous, or bends downwards, the
bending being made a little below the protuberant part of
the ftalk,which I have reprefented in the different figures
of the feed-veffel, &c. 7

The feed-veflel is, for fome time, of a green-colour :
as it advances in fize, and age, it changes its colour, be-
coming, at length, of a yellowifh-hue.

In the garden of Mr. Bartram, before mentioned, the
Fefferfonia binata flowers early in thefpring. The feeds
ripen before mid-f{ummer. Soon after this period, the
plant withers and decays, but the root continues to live,
at a {mall depth under the furface of the ground, encreaf-
ing, by offfets, on all fides.

As I have not had an opportunity of feeing the young
plant arifing from the feed, I can fay nothing refpeQing
its placentation. .

sons eat ee Rs rear

I confider the fcience of botany as being fo intimately
conneéted with medicine, and with other ufeful arts, and
Iam fo unfriendly to the mere nomenclatural part of the
fcience, that I once refolved never to exhibit my defcription
of a new plant, unlefs I could, at the fame time, give fome
certain account of its properties in medicine, its ufe in diet,
or in dying, &c. I have, however, been obliged to alter
my determination; for of the Feffer/onia binata | know
nothing that will ferve to illuftrate its hiftory in either of
thefe refpects. It is, however, worthy of obfervation,
that the root of this plant bears a very ftriking fimilarity,
both in tafte and in fmell, to the root of our May-Apple,
the Podophyllum peltatum of Linnzus. This tafte is ra-
ther naufeous and bitter, and the fmell powerful, and not
agreeable.

The Podophyllum peltatum is a plant much efteemed by
the Cheerake, and other tribes of North-American Indi-

ans,

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. 345

ans. Its root is ufed asa purgative, emetic, and anthel-
mintic. Ihave made a number of experiments with this
vegetable, an account of which, together with an engray-
ing of the plant, I propofe to publith, ata future period.
Meanwhile, I beg leave to obferve, that it generally
proves purgative, though I have known it, in feveral ca-
{es, to operate as an emetic*. The common dofe for an
adultis from eighteen to twenty grains of the dried root, in
powder. The advantages of this medicine over the Jalap
I have often experienced in my practice. In the fir place,
being one of the moft common vegetables in the United-
States, it may always be had without the fear of adultera-
tion, or of injury from worms, &c. /econdly: it operates
in a {maller dofe than either the Jalap or Rhubarb: third-
ly: it does not fo frequently as the Jalap prove emetic:
JSourthbly : it is not fo liable to gripe as this laft-mentioned
vegetable, and /a/ly, it is not fo naufeous as either the
Jalap or the Rhubarb. I think, it is pofleffed of fome
degree of an anodyne, or narcotick, quality.

I fhall endeavour to procure a quantity of the root of
the Fefferfonia, and fhall inftitute a feries of experiments,
with the view to difcover its chemical nature, and its ef-
feiis upon animal bodies. Meanwhile, Iam induced to
believe, that I fhall find it poffefled of nearly the fame
properties asthe Podophyllum peltatum.

Das I think,

* J do not well know how it has happined, that the root of the Podophylluim peltatum has fo
generally been confidered merely asan emetic. It appears from Catefby, that it is called
Tpecacuanba in Carolina, and this author fpeaks of itas an emetic. Tbe Natural Hiflory of
Carolina, &c. vol. ¥. p. 24. Dr. Schoepf, who feldom has any thing good of his own, fol-
lows Catefby in attributing to this plant only an emetic property. Of its purgative quality, or
of the dofe, he fays nothing. See the Moteria Medica Americana potiffimum regni vegetabilis,
p. 86. A more refpectabie philofopher, the Count Caltiglioni, has likewife fallen into the
fame error. See Viaggio negli Stati Uniti dell’ America Seitentrionale fatto negli anni 1785, 1786,
e 1787. Tomo fecondo, p. 329. Milano. 1790. As Thad not an opportunity of fee'ng this
gentleman’s travels until after this paper was partly printed, | may be exculed for mentioning
here, what would have been more properly taken notice of at page 336, that the Count Cai-
tiglioni did not difcover the Podophyllum diphyllum, in the courfe of his travels. ‘Il Linneo, z
fays he, ‘* ne annovera un’ altra fpecie fotto il nome di Pode lum diphyllum {coperta dal. Sig.
6 Collinfon nella Virginia, ma non avendola io veduta, né ef endo fata ben determinata dallo
§ fteflo Linneo, che pone in dubbio fe poffa efiere una fpecie di Sanguinaria, non ne faro altra
% menzione.” See Viaggio negli Stati Uniti, &c. tom, % P- 329.

346 <A Boranicat DEscRIPTION OF THE:

[ think, it was the genius of Linnzus which firft fug=.
gefted the idea that, with refpect to vegetables, the bufinefs.
of creation is not fationary : or,in other words, that new
plants are conftantly creating from theadmixture, or union,
of two diftind fpecies, either of the fame, or of a different.
genus.

This idea of your illuftrious countryman has. received’
very powerful confirmation from the difcoveries which.
have been made, of late years, in various parts of the globe..
In America, I have obferved a confiderable number of
thefe new, or hybrid, vegetables. Our woods, our fields,
and our meadows, are full of them, It is among the
plante fyngenefie, more efpecially, that I have ebferved
thefe hybrid plants, the offspring of promifcuous cohabi-
tation. The genera “oldago and Afer are, with us, two.
families of baftards. Several of the fpecies of thefe genera,
defcribed by Mr. Aiton, in his excellent Hortus Kewen/is,,
evidently belong to this clafs.

I have fometimes. imagined, that the plant which is the.
more immediate fubject of this letter is alfoan hybrid. It.
is, certainly, a beautiful example of a conne@ing medium
between Podophyllum and Sanguinaria. Its calix is fome-
times three-leaved, which is the uniform number of the.
leaves of the calix of the Podophyllum. ‘Thefe leaves, in
both plants, are coloured, and concave. The root of both
has the famefmell, and tafte. To the Sanguinaria, our
plant is related in the following characters. The calix, in ,
both, is fhorter than the corolla, and falls off before the
expanfion of the flower: the petals are eight in number:
the filaments are fhorter than the corolla: the ftigma is per-
fiftent. But the relation of the Fefer/onia to the two ge-.
nera, juft mentioned, is, perhaps, ftill greater than it ap=.
pears to be, from the mere circumftances which I have.
taken notice of, The facies plantarum, as Linnzus has.

very

Leovd 1 10,

Vol. Il pa.345

PODOPHYLLUM DIPHYLLUM LINN. 347

very well expreffed the idea, the phyfiognomy of plants, as
I call it, isa matter which it is not neceflary a man fhould
be a very minute botanift toobferve. Almoft any perfon
who fhould fee the Fefferfonia, the Sanguinaria, and the
Podophyllum, growing together, either ‘before, during, or
after, the time of flowering, would immediately difcover
their family-relationthip :

facres non omnibus una

Nec diverfa tamen, qualis decet effe fororum.

[ fhall conclude this long letter with exprefling a hope,
that it will not prove altogether unentertaining to you;
for I cannot but fuppofe, that every attempt (mine, I know,
isan humble one) to encreafe the mafs of that amiable
{cience which we both cultivate, will be acceptable to the
fucceflor of LINN us.

oe

I have the honour to fubferibe
myfelf, Dear Sir, Your obliged
friend, &c.
BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON.
Philadelphia, April 29th, 1792.

EXPLANATION of the PLATE.

N°’. 1. The plant, of its natural fize, during the time of
flowering.

N°’. 2. 3. 4and 5. Different views of the feed-veflel. N°. 2
and 3 reprefent the horizontal lip, or future, which af-
terwards opens, difcovering the feeds, lying loofe, as in
N°. 5. N°. 4. exhibits the ridge on the pofterior part
of the feed-veflel.

Xx 2 N°. 6:

348 OBSERVATIONS on THE

N?’. 6. A leaf, of the common fize, after the flower has.
fallen, and the feed-veffel is ripe. Some of the princi-
pal nerves of the leaf are reprefented.

N*. 7. The germen, or feed-bud, with the ftyle, and ftig-
et of the fize they appear a few days after the falling
off of the flower.

N’. 8. One of the leaves of the flower cup.

N°. g. A feed, of its natural fize, when ripe.

N°. ro. A filament and anthera, of the natural fize.

N°. 11 and12. Theantherz, at thetime of their fhed-
ding the pollen, or fecundating duft, burfting laterally.

Ly hAiree.€ #4 E

Obfervations on the conftruction of Hofpitals, by Mr. Le
Roy. Member of the Royal Academy of Scieices—
(Extraéted from an Effay on the fubject, which, with
Jeveral elegant plans, was tranf{mitted by the author to
the Society, but could not be inferted entire, as it con-~
tained many remarks of a local nature, refpecting Paris
—only.

HE conftruction of Hofpitals is in general ob-

jeCtionable, either becaufe many of the wards
do not admit of perfect ventilation, or becaufe the air paf-
_ fes from one patient over another, by which means con-
tagious difeafes are often fpread.

To avoid thefe inconveniences, a large Hofpital fhould
confift of diftinct and feperate buildings, each forming one
ward, erected upon arches or columns, at a confiderable

height

CONSRUCTION or HOSPITALS. 349
height from the ground, and ranged at a diftance from
each other, like the tents of an encampment.

The cieling or roof of each ward fhould be formed into
a number of {pherical arches according to its fize, the
crown of each arch being in the middle of the breadth of
the ward, and opening into a funnel like a common chim-
ney, which fhould be fupplied with a vane, (refembling
that we call a cow) fo that it may always open to leew-=-
ard. |

In each floor, midway as to breadth, fhould be a row
of holes at fuitable diftances from each other, to admit air
from below, fo. conftruéted that the quantity of it may
be regulated at pleafure.

In confequence of this ftructure there muft bea conftant
change of air, for that which is in the lower part of the
ward, being warmed by the patients and nurfes, and the
neceflary fires, will afcend, and in confequence of the {phe-
rical conftruction of the roof, will be direted to the open-
ings in it, and flow through them, while the holes in
the floor will afford a conftant fupply of freth air, which
will move rapidly as it enters the room fo low,

A number of arches with openings is preferable toa
fingle arch in the center, becaufe the air in pafling from
the extremities of the room to the center flows, from one
patient over another—and a plane or flat cieling, even
with apertures, is improper, becaufe the upper air at a dif-
tance from the apertures cannot move to them.

The rooms may be warmed by placing grates or ftoves
over thefe holes in the floor, and no bad effeét can be pro-~
duced by the fire as the air and vapours will afcend from
it and go off by the holes in the cieling—If it be neceflary
to quicken the circulation of air, either on account of the
fluggifhnefs of the atmofphere, or of the contagious na-
ture of any difeafes in the ward, fmall fires may be fixed

1%

350 OBSERVATIONS on Tur, &e.

in grates or ftoves near the openings in the cieling, to in=
creafe the motion of the air.

To prevent the fpreading of contagion, as well as to
keep the fick from beholding the fufferings of each other,
a {creen of fuitable height fhould be placed between each
bed. :

For contagious diforders and furgical cafes, there fhould
be a number of wards, at a diftance from the Hofpital,
and to leeward of it with refpe& to the prevailing winds.

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“ed into the Ruflian language.

The military ordinances of the king
of Spain—in the Spanifh language.
4 Vols.-

Vida de Dom Joao de Caftro, fourth:
Viceroy of the Indies—in the
Portuguefe language.

Select extracts from Youngs Night-

Thoughts—in the Portugues lan=._

guage.

The. proceedings on the reftoration~

of the French parliaments in

17743 being a collection of ori--

ginal ftate papers. in-French.

A colle&tion of pamphlets on the
late commotions in the Nether-
lands—in Low Dutch.

A dictionary of the French and Por-
tugues languages.

Oeuvres de M. Thomas, de ’Acade-.
mie Francoife, 2- Vols.

Diifertation fur le Moyen de confer-
vir le papier de la piguere des in-
fe&s.

Model of a filk-reel;

Cafes and obfervations by the Me-
dical Society of New-Haven, in
Connecticut.

A priuted book the leaves of, which
ere made cf the roots and bark of
diferent tress and plants, being

> mW «@.

357

Donors.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.

M. Arthaud.

Man; infive languages Mr. P. S. Du Ponceau.

Mr. Edward Pole of Phi-

ladelphia.

The MedicalSociety, &e.

St. John Creyacoeur the

inventor.

¢he

67.

1790
Feb.

> © @ BPW

PRESENTS.
the firft effay.of this kind of manu-
facture.
A fpecimen of petrolium, found in
confiderable quantity on a branch

of the Allegeney, called Oil Creek.

Firft Vol. of the Tranfactions of the
Royal Irith Academy.
Specimens of coal, white vitriol,

flate, brick burnt flate, allum, ni-

tre, freeftone, and Indian pottery,
lately found in a bank near Wafh-
ington, in Pennfylvania.

An Effay on the powers and mecha-
nifms of nature; by R. Young.

Specimens of the papyrus of. Syra-

cufe.

Method of recovering perfons appar-
ently dead—in French; by.Baro~
nde Hupfch, of Cologne.

An almanac of the ifland of St. Do-
mingo, exhibiting a compleat view
of the prefent ftate of the French
Colony in that Ifland.

A fpecimen of Weft-India Cinchona.

A fpecimen of Cinnamon, the growth
of Jamaica.

The fhell and feeds of a fpecies of
the bread-fruit, lately obtained
from the Iile of France, and known
in the Weft-Indies by the name
of painde finge,or Fack-bread fruit.

Memoirs of the royal Academy of
Sciences at Turin. for 1786 and
1787.

Nouvelles experiences et obfervati-
ons fur divers objeéts de phyfi-
que, by Dr. John Ingen-houfz.

L 1@) N S$.

Dononrss

Mr. Wilham Trumbull.

Royal Irith Academy.

David Reddick, Efq.

Mr. Samuel Mather of
London.
Dr. Franklin.

The author.

“M. Samuel Vaughan jun.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Ditto.

Royal Academy of
Sciences Turin.

“The Author.

Medical,

June.

Fuly.

Sept.

OGfober.

Novem.

wy SF Rr he &
PRESENTS.

Medical, philofophical, and experi-
mental eflays; by Thomas Per-
cival M. D. Vol. 2.

Letters on Cochineal, continued, by
James Anderfon M. D. of Ma-
drafs.

Directions for taking care of the co-
chineal infect while at fea; by
ditto.

Letter to Sir Jofeph Banks, on the
fubject of the cochincal infeé,
difcovered at Madrafs ; by ditto.

A volume of 200 elegant copper-

Donors. —
The Author.
The Author.
The Author.

The author.

Mr. William Spotfwood

plate engravings entitled Emblema- of Philadelphia.

tica Rollenhagii, done at Ulrecht
in the year 1613.

The Conititution of the Pennfylvania
Society for promoting the aboliti=
on of flayery, &c..

An addrefs to an aflembly of the
friends. of American manufac-
tures, delivered Aug. oth, 1787;
by Tench Coxe, Efq.

Ninety one volumes of the hiftory
of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris.

A variation chart and magnetic atlas,
by John Churchman.

Model of a ramming block, for driv-
ing piles, on an improved con-
ftruction, by Mr. Ludwig Conrod
Kuhn.

Model of a convenient fick-bed ; by
ditto.

A copper-plate print of two remar-
kable Lufus Nature.

Anattempt to explain a difficulty in

William Barton, Efg.

Ditto.

Left in legacy by Dr.
Franklin, late Prefident
of the Society.

The author.

The inventor.

The inventor.

Thomas Pole Surgeon of
London.

The author.
the

Nov.

1791.
Feb.
April.

MM ay.

Fune.

Auguft.

Sept.

SO FR Ah GE aD
PRESENTS.

the theory of vifion, depending on

the different refrangibility of light;

by Nevil Mafkelyne, aftronomer

royal.

Some account of the difcovery made
by the late Mr. John Dolland,
which led to the groand improve-
ment of refracting telefcopes; by
Peter Dolland.

Accountof a new inftrument for mea-
furing {mall angles, called the pri-
matic micrometer, by the Revd. Dr.
Matkelyne.

The Anatomical Inftructor; by Mr.
Thomas Pole Surgeon, of London.

A Synopfis of a courfe of lectures
on the theory and practice of me-
dicine, by B. Waterhoufe, M. D.

A defcriptive catalogue of ingraved
gems, about 1500 in number.

Ninth volume of the Tranfa¢ctions
of the Batavian Society of expe-
rimental Philofophy, at Rotterdam.

Memoirs de l’Academie royale des
Sciences de Turin, Vol. 4th.

A curious piece of Indian-{culpture,
fuppofed to reprefent an Indian
woman in labour, found near
Cumberland river, Virginia.

Principles fur les meafures en lon-
geur et en capacité ; par M. Bon-
ne, of Paris.

Syfteme des Lecons phyfiques par L’
Abbe Nollet. 2 Vols. 80.

Mufichenbrook’s Philofophy, 2 Vols. 40.

TranfaQtions of the Society for pro-
moting Arts and Manufactures, at
London; for 1785.

Oo N 5.

Donors,

Nevil Mafkelyne, aftron.
royal.

The author.

The author.

The author.

Francis Hopkinfon, Efg.

Batavian Society Exper.
Philos. at Rotterdam.

M. De La Lande.

Mr. Thomas Jefferfon.

‘The author.

Mr. John Vaughan.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Memoirs

‘179%
“Sept.

P we 4 pA aIT 25

PRESENTS.

Memoirs relative to the Hiftory and
Sciences of the Chinefe; by the
French miffionaries at Poken; 12
Vols. AO.

A profile in plafter of Paris of Dr.
Prieftly—particularly valuable for
the {trong refemblance to the ori-
ginal.

Oaeber. An Eulogy on the Hon. James Bow-

Nov.

Dee.

VOL.

doin L. L. D. late Prefident of the
American Academy of Arts and
Sciences at Bofton, delivered be«
fore the Society, by John Lowell,

ene of the Counfellors of the Acad.

2 aN gh. 30x
Donors.
Mr. John Vaughan.
Ditto.

The American Academy
of Arts and Sciences,

Annimals of agriculture, &c. colle€ted Rodolph Valltravers, F

and publifhed by Arthur Young,
Efq. from No. 72 to 77 inclufive.

Fundamenta Chymiz; by George
Erneft Stahl, M. D.

Marofticenfis Philofophi et medici in
gimnafio Patavino medicamento~
rum fimplicium, &c.

Nouveau voyage dans les Etas-unis
1f{t and 3d Vols.

Model of a machine, for faving per-
fons from the upper ftories of a
houfe on fire. 1

Three hundred and eight pounds,
for the purpofe of difcharging a
debt, due by the Society, to the
eftate of the Jate Francis Hopkin-
fon, Efq.

Hiftoire et Memoires de la Societé roy-

ale.
An Enquiry concerning Chettenham
Water; by A. Fothergill, M D.
Anaddrefs to the King and Parliment
Il. Zz

Rs 5.

Mr. Samuel Mitchell of
Long-Ifland
Ditto.

M. Peter Briffot de War=
ville.
Rev. Nicholas Collin,
D. D. the inventor

David Rittenhoufe, L.
L. D. Prefident of the
Society.

Evan Edwards, Efq.

Judge Turner.

Ditto,
of

EF. ch.

March.

April.

May.

June.

o Gh S&S & SY 4

PRESENTS.
of G. B. on preferving the lives of
the inhabitants, &c. by W. Hawes
M. D.

A piece of ftone, containing feveral

petrified hells, &e. found beyond.

the Blue mountains.

A great variety of fpecimens or fam-
ples of French dies, faid to refift
fea-water and all ‘kinds of acids.

A complete treatife on the mineral
waters of Virginia; by John Rou-
ell, M. D.

The American Edition-of the Ency-
cLopzp1, to be delivered in vo-.
lumes.to the Society, as publifhed.

A curious library-chair belonging ‘to
the late Dr. Franklin.

Newton's Principia.

Roman’s account of Eaft and Weft
Florida.

Two {pecimens of lime-ftone bear-
ing impreffions of the Echinus, or
fea-nettle, found in Wafhington
county, Georgia.

Hiftory of New-Hampfhire, by the
Revd. Jeremy Belknap Vol. 2d.

The three-Georgics, and fome books
of the /Eneid of Virgil, tranfla-
ted into Greek.

S.

Donors:

O N

Mr. John Arndt of Eaf-

ton...

Peter Stephen Du Pon-
ceau, Efq.

The author.

Mr. Thomas Dobfon,
of Philadelphia, the
publisher.

Mr. Richard Bache.

Mr. Robert ‘Aitken of
Philadelphia.
Ditto.

Mr. Peter Boyle.

The Author.

The Princefsof Dafhkaw,

An extraordinary cafe of extra uterine Mr. Thomas Pole, Sur-

geftation; by William Turnbull of
London.
Hiftory of New-Hampfhire; by 'the
Revd. Jeremy Belknap, Vol. 3d.
Hiftorical collections; confifting of
State papers, &c. by “Ebenezer
Hazard, A. M.

‘geon-of London.
The Author.
‘The Author.
Travels

17926
July.

Aug.

Sept.

O08.

Nov.

#793

Fan.

Feb.

BD Oo @ & PF FT

PRESENTS.

Travels through North and South
Carolina, Georgia, &c. containing
an account of the foil and natural
production of thofe regions. By
Mr. William Bartram.

Catalogus fecundus Librorum om-
nis ordinis, Latino aliifq. do€tiori-
bus linguis confcriptum, in Bib-
liopolio B. Wild and J. Althier,
1792 4 Utricht.

Supplementum Catalogi fecundi Li+
brorum, omnis ordinis, &c.

Catalogue de livres Francois, &c.

A medical differtation on Inoculati-
on, by M. Valentius.

Hiftory of the Province of New-
York, by William Smith, A. M.

Effai hiftorique fur la Colonie de
Surinam.

A ftone of black flate, in form of a
regular dodecahedron, the fide of
each pentagon about one inch and
an half, found on the fhore of the
Ohio.

A thefis (in French) on the difeafes
of the inhabitants of St. Domin-
go, and of other hot climates in
general: by Chev. de St. George
Chirurgien major des Hofpitaux
de la marine royale a Portau Prince.

Time an apparition of eternity; by
John William Gerarde de Brahm,
of Philadelphia.

A difcourfe intended to commemo-
rate the difeavery of America, by
Chriftopher Columbus, by the
Revd. Jeremy Belknap.

An elegant and correct map of Penn-

222

o WW & 363

Donors,
William Barton, Efq.

B. Wild and J. Althier,
Utricht.

Ditto.

Ditto.
The Author.

William Barton, Efq.
M. Peter Le Geaux.

Dr. Charles Brown,

The Author.

The Author.

The Autbor.

The Author.
fylvania

354 dD &€¢ RK Tt

1793- PRESENTS.
fylvania;-by Mr. Reading Howell
of Philadelphia.

March. Le vrai Calendier perpetuel et gene-

ral, fuivant le ftile Julien et la cor-
rection Gregorienne; by M. Ro--
dolph Valltravers, of Rotterdam:
Viaggio negli Statr Unit: del? Ame-.
rica Settentrionale; da. Luigi.
Caitiglioni—of Milan 2 Vols. 8°°
Regnerus de Graaf de Virorum or-
_ganis generations, &e:

June.

se FF =

Donors=.

The Author.

The Author.- J

Dr. Jehn Morris of
Philadelphia:

Donaticns towards the ereftion of a building, for the accommodation of the
Society, not mentisned in the foregoing lif.

+ Dr: John Carfon,. 5 00
OHN Anfcy, Eig. London, 20 © © John Cox, Eig. Trenten; 5 oo
Mr. Richard Adams, 5 © O Mrz. James Davidion, a0 e40
Wm. Attlee, Eig. s- © oc. Sharp Delsney, Eig. s 5 0 O
Boardley, Efq- -$ a o- Perer3. Duponceau, Efq. 5 oe
John Bleakley, Fiq. 3315 o Mr. Teoma Satay Semen ys 0°0
Mr. Thomas 5 o.o Mr. John Dunlep, 5 00
Jemes Biddle, Efq- >. 0.0 Dickinion, Efq. 5 1G. oe
John Bayard, Eig. 5s o o Rev. Dr. John Ewing, Ie © o
George Bryan, 5 0 o Mr. David Evans, 5 0c 0
Rev. Dr. Robert E ac o o Mr. Paul Efling, 5 oo
Edward Burd, Efq. 8 o o Mr. Samuel Emicn, 5 co
s Biddle, Efq- 5. o o Andrew Ellicott, Efg. S270
Dr. Benjamin Binney, 5 o co George Fox, Eig. ¥s*3580
7m. Bradford, Eig. 5 0 o Mr. Wn. Fike, 10 0 ©
Mr. James Bringhuri, § © o-Mr.Joha Fick, 12 10° 0
. John Baird, 2.10 o Miers Fifher, Efq.. 5 =Gn0
Mr. Thomas Bartow, $ co o Mr. Thomas Fifher, 5 c60
James Bryfon, Eig 5 oo > 5 co
m. Bingham, Efg. 20 o o Wm. Temple Franklin, Efq. 5° ete
Robert Barclay, Efq. London. 25 o o Dr. John Foulke. 5° 0
Clement Biddle, 4.0. o- Dr, Samnud P_ Grifftts, 5 00
Mr. John Bringhurft, 3.00 Gray, Efq. 500
Benjamin Chew, Jun. Efq. 5 o o Dr. George G 5 c0
i < Esq. 15 © © Thomas Hutchins, Efq. 10 maps of
John Caldwell, Efg. 5. 0-0 _ Pennf; i
Clymer, Efq: 5s c o Wm. 25 © Oo
Tench Coxe, Efq. 5c 0 ea Eig. 5° 0
‘Mr. Jofeph Crookfhanks, 5 © o Henry Hill, Efg. 3315 0
Mr. John Craigs 5 © © Jacob Hil ner, 5 © 0°
Mr. John Clifford, s © © Mr. Levi Hollingiworth, 5°00
Mr. Thomas Clifford 5 © o Rev.Dr. Henry Helmuth, 5 co.
Jofeph Copperthwaite, 5. 0°. Q Jonathan Hoge, Eig. 5°00
Dr..Gerard C e 5 o-oo FrandsH pion, i: eS
Mashew Clerkfon, Eig 5 0 o Mr. Jofeph Hilbum, 5 00

5

aoe

Mr. Reuben Haines,
Ebenezer Hazard, Efy.
Mr. Jofhua Howell,

Dr. James Hutchinfon,
Mr. Pattifon Hartfhorn,
Jared ingerfoll, Efq. -
Dr. Migrate:

Wm. Jackfon, Efq.
Francis Johnfon, Efa..
Mr. Wm. Johnfon,

Mr. Jofeph James,

Dr. Adam Kuhn,

John Lukins, Efq.

Mr. ‘Thomas Lea.

Mr. John Lardner.

M. Peter Le Geaux.
Rev. Dr. Samuel Magaw.
John F Miflin, Ef.
Samuel Miles, Efq.
Robert Milligan, Efq.
Thomas M'‘Kean, Efq. >
‘Thomas Mifflin, Efq. .
Robert Morris, Efq.
Mr. Chriftopher Marfhall. ”
Mr. Chriftopher Marfhall, Jun.
Mr. Charles Marfhall.
Jofeph B. M‘Kean,. Efq:.
Mr. Charles Moore. .

Dr. John Morris,

Samuel Meredith, Eiq. —-
Mr. Jonathan Mifflin.
John Nicholfon, Efq.
Mr. Jofeph Ogilby.

Mr. Robert Patterfon.
John Penn, Jun. Efq.
Mr. Samuel Pleafants.
Charles Pettit, Efq.

Mr. James Pemberton.
Mr. Edward Pennington.
Samuel Powel, Efq:

Dr. Thomas Parke.

Mr. Jofeph Pafcall.

Mr: Charles W. Peale.
Mr. James Pearfon.

un

~

em! p al

RAAWAAEAARAAnWAHAYVAAH OWANANN OAR OUwAnah OUah

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A

Leal

eoo000000C00C0COa "AO OVPD0DDACACONODDOOCDCOOADADAAGCACACAOGOaAaA0O00

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Mr. William Payne.
David Rittenhoufe, Efq.
John Rofs, Efq.

Dr. John Redman.
William Rawle, Efq.

S.

David Reddick, Efq.

Dr. Benjamin Ruth.
Mr. William Roberts,
Jacob Rufh, Efq.

-Dr. 'Thomas Ruiton.

Jonathan B..Smith, Efq.
Edward Shippen, Efq.
Jonathan D. Sergeant, Efq.
John Swanwick, Efq.

Dr. William Shippen. -
Mr. Jobn Sellers.

Mr gene Stille.

Mefirs. Symington and Brown. -
Mr. Thomas Siddon.

Mr. William Sykes.
Lawrence Seckel, Efq.
Mr. Robert Smith.

Mr. Eden Shotwell.

Charles Thompfon, Efq,

Edward Tilghman, Efq. .

Dr. William Thornton, .

Mr. John Thompfon.

Mr. John Vaughan.

Samuel Vaughan, Efq.

Mr, Benjamin Vaughan, London.
Mr. William Vaughan, London.
Mr. Charles Vaughan.

Mr. Samuel Vaughan, Jun.

Mr. Benjamin Wynkoop.

James Wilfon, Efq. «

Alexander Wilcocks, Efq.

Mr. John Wood. :
Mr. Robert Waln.-’

Dr. Cafpar Wiftar.

Rev. Dr. William White.

Mr. Benjamin Workman.

Mr. Jonathan Williams.

Mr. Samuel Wilcox.

At a meeting of the Society held on the 21ft of December 1791.
On motion refolved—that the Society entertain a very high fenfe of the fervices rendered them-

by SamueLt Vavucuan, Ffg. (in planning and fuperintending the building of their Hall)

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and that the thanks of this body be prefented to that Gentleman for-his difinterefted and fuc-
cefsful attention to their interefts. And his Excellency the Prefident (Dr. Franklin) did accords.
ingly prefent the Society's thanks to Mr, Vaughan.

Extract from the minutes

R. PATTERSON, SecretTaRye

ADVERTISEMENT;

{ 366 )

ADV ERPS SEM En FT:

M. JOHN Hyacinth De Magellan, in London, having fometime ago
offered, as a donation, to the American Philofophical Society, held at
Philadelphia for promoting ufeful knowledge, the fum of two hundred
guineas, to be by them vefted in a fecure and permanent fund, to the
end that the intereft arifing therefrom fhould be annually difpofed of in
premiums, to be adjudged by the fociety, to the author of the beft dif-
covery, or moft ufeful invention,: relating to navigation, aftronomy, or
natural philofophy (mere natural hiftory only excepted) and the fociety
having accepted of the above donation, hereby publifh the conditions,
prefcibed by the donor,-and agreed to by the fociety, upon which the faid
annual premiums will be awarded.

1. The candidate fhallifend his difcovery, invention or improvement,
addreffed to the Prefident, or one of the Vice Prefidents of the fociety,
free of poftage or other charges ; and fhall diftinguith his performance
by fome motto, device or other fignature, at his pleafure. Together
with his difcovery, invention or improvement, he fhall alfo fend a fealed
letter, containing the fame motto, device or fignature, and fubfcribed
with the real name, and place of refidence of the author.

2. Perfons of any nation, fe& or denomination whatever, fhall be
a as candidates for this premium.

. No difcovery, invention or improvement fhall be entitled to this
premiuth which hath been already publifhed, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elfe where.

4. The candidate fhall communicate his difcovery, invention or im-

rovement, either in the Englifh, French, German or Latin language.

5. All fuch communications fhall be publicly read, or exhibited to
the fociety, at-fome ftated-meeting, not lefs than one-month previous to
-the day of adjudication, and fhall at all times be open to the infpection
of fuch members as fhall defire it. But no member fhall carry home
with him the communication, defcription or model, except the officer
to whom it fhall be intrufted; nor fhall fuch officer part with the fame
out of his cuftody, without a fpecial order.of the fociety for that pur-
pofe.

6. The

(o307"")

6. The fociety having previoufly referred the feveral communications;
from candidates for the premium then depending, to the confideration of
the twelve counfellors and other officers of the fociety, and having re-
ceived their report thereon, fhall, at one of their ftated meetings, in
the month of December, annually, after the expiration of this current
year (of the time and place, together with the particular occafion of
which meeting, duenotice fhall be. previoufly given, by public advertife--
ment) proceed tothe final adjudication of the faid premium: and after
due confideration had, a vote fhall firft be taken on this queftion, viz.
Whether any of the communications then under infpection be worthy of
the propofed premium? If this queftion be-determined in the negative,
the whole bufinefs fhall be deferred till another year: but.if in the affir-
mative, the fociety fhall proceed to determine by. ballot, given by the
members at large, the difcovery, invention or improvement, moft ufe-
ful and worthy; and that difcovery, invention or improvement, which
fhall be found to have a majority of concurring votes in its favour fhall
be fuccefsful ; and then,.and not till then, the fealed letter, accompany= -
ing the crowned performance; fhall be opened, and the name of the
author announced as the perfon entitled to the faid premium.

7. No member of the fociety who is a candidate for the premium
then depending or who hath not previoufly declared to the fociety, either
by word or writing, that he has cofifidered and weighed, according to-
the beft of his judgment, the comparative merits of the feveral claims
then under confideration, fhall fit injudgment or give his vote in award-
ing the faid premium.

8. A full account of the crowned fubjeét fhall be publithed by the
fociety as foon as may be, after the adjudication, either in a feparate
publication, or in the next fucceeding volume of their tranfactions, or
in both.

g. The unfuccefsful performances fhall remain under :confideration, .
and their authors be. confidered as candidates for the premium, for five
years, next fucceeding the time-of their prefentment, except fuch per-
formances as their authors may, in the meantime, think ft to with-.
draw. And the fociety fhall, annually, publifh an abftract of the titles,
object or fubject matter of the communications fo under confideration ;
fuch only excepted as the fociety fhall think not worthy of public notice.

LO. he letters containing the names of authors whofe performances

fhall

(°g63

“fhall be rejected, or which fhall be found unfuccefsful, after a.tryal of
-five years, fhall be burnt before the fociety, without breaking the feals.
1. In cafe there fhould be a failure, in any year, of any communi-
cation worthy of the propofed premium,. there will then be two premi-
ums to be awarded in the next year. But no accumulation of premiums
Shall entitle an author to more than one premium for < any one difcovery,
invention or improvement.

12. The premium fhall confift of an oval plate of folid ftandard gold,
of the value of ten guineas, on one fide thereof fhail be neatly en-
graved a fhort Latin motto, fuited to the occafion, ‘together with the
words The premium of John Hyacinth De Magellan, of London,
eftablithed in the year 1786. And on the other fide of the plate thall
be engraved thefe words. Awarded by the A. P. S. for the
difcovery of ———A. D.

And the feal of the fociety fhall be annexed to the medal by a rib-
bon pafling through a fmall hole at the upper end of the plate.

The fallowing communications from candidates for the Magellanic annual

premium, remain wreder confides-ation, '

1. An eflayon warming rooms. Afotto, Cuigue-eveniat femper prout
meruit. Read May 20, 1791.

The author propofes, as an addition tothe Franklinian fire-place, or
open ftove, that the frefh air neceflary to feed the fire, be admitted
from without, through tin pipes, placed under the floor, and rifing. up
through the hearth at one fide of the ftove, where they communicate
with iron pipes pafling thro’ the fire-as a grate. Thefe iron pipes again
communicate with tin ones, extending up behind the wainfcot, nearly
to the ceiling, where the air, now heated by pafling through -the fire, is
fuffered toefcape intothe room. By this contrivance, the inconveni-
ence arifing from the rufhing in of cold air from without, through every
crevice and aperture where it can find a paflage, -will, itis alledged, be
effeQually prevented, and the room keep warm with much lefs expence
of fuel than in the common -way. :

2. An attempt te prove that the generally received opinicn, that fteel
{prings acquire an increafe of ftrength or power by cold weather, and
lofe power by warm weather, is erroneous—Signature Scrupulous—
Read November 4, 1791.

The

Cy" 300) )

The writer endeavours to eftablith this poftion, both from theory
and experiment.— Heat expands and cold contracts a fpring, or any
other piece of metal proportionally, inallits dimenfions; and therefore,
while cold makes a fpring fhorter, and on that account would increafe its
powe7, it alfo makes it both narrower and thinner, and on this account
would: diminifh its power, inthe fame proportion; accordingly, by ex-

_periment, he found that a fpring of twelve inches long, made faft at one
end, and having a weight fufpended from the other, did not fuffer the
weight vifibly to defcend, upon being heated even to fucha degree as to
evaporate a drop of water applied toit. If the above pofition be truc, the
thermometer-curb, applied to Harrifon’s and other time-pieces, inftead of
being an advantage, muft be directly the contrary.

3. A defcription, accompanying a model of a machine, which the
author calls.an E/evator—Motto, Nititur in ardua V, irtus—Read Decem-
ber 2, 1791.

The machine is a compound of perpendicular fhafts, fo conne€ted by
grooves, ropes and pullies, that each moves its inmate, and thus all
rife together.

“This machine,” the author obferves, “ may be applied to many im-
portant ufes—A perfon of common weight may afcend an hundred feet
upon a frame of light conftru€tion to gain a rocky precipice, to enjoy a
fine profpect, to reconnoitre the encampment ofan enemy, and todifcover
land at fea.x—Difpatch in loading and unloading, or any quick alternate
motion, is well performed by the multiple motion of this elevator.”

4. A defcription with a model of a mechanical apparatus for regula-
ting and governing the fails of a veflel at fea—Signature I. S. S.
Read November 2, 1792.

The author propofes, that each fail be placed within a large frame
turning round on pivots at the top and bottom. At the extremity of the
upper pivot or gudgeon is fixed a cog or fpur wheel, which is turned
by another wheel having half the number of teeth, and this fupports a
large vane, about one fifth of the fize of the fail, which is turned round
with the wind. By this means the angular motion of the fail will be
but half that of the vane. Hence if the wind when dire@lly a-ftern, be
‘t right angles with the plane of the fail, a fide wind would ftrike the
pane of the fail at an angle of forty-five degrees, and a wind four points
beiore the beam, would {trike the fail at an angle of two points andan half;
andthus, it is prefumed, that the mere action of the wind upon the

Aaa vanes

tu

( 368 )

vane, would always turn the fails into their proper pofition, without any
manual operation whatever. He alfo propofes a method of furling the
fails by means of rollers, to be worked with cranks.

5. An improvement in the art of guaging. Signature W.—Read No-
vember 16, 1792.

The author points out various fources of error in the prefent pradtice
of guaging, particularly taking the dimenfions outfide of thecafk. He
gives a drawing and defcription of an isftrument fer taking the neceflary
dimenfions, viz. The length, head-diameter, bung-diameter, and a
middle diameter between the head and bung, all infide of the cafk; and
by means of a table which he has fubjoined, fhews how to compute the
contents of any cafk from thefe dimenfions, with the greateft eafe and
accuracy-

Befides the above communications, an eflay on the caufes of the tides
has been received, but not being within the limited time, was not brought
under confideration at the laft adjudication.

Several other pieces have been before the Society, but as their time
of prebation (five years) will expire before the next adjudication, in De-
cember 1793, they are of courfe decifively unfuccefsful, and need not

be noticed.
Publifhed by order of the Society,
JAMES HU'LCHINSON,

SAMUEL MAGAW, Secretaries.
J. WILLIAMS, Jun.

END or THE THIRD VOLUME.