HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

OF THE
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

HPHS

Duplock tork sackangt

Dis ee 5, 19/6.

DEC 5 1916

hal ltnan Cee
TRANSACTIONS

OF Sk TiR

AMERLGAN
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

PERL A DOE TL oP EoD A:

FOR PROMOTING

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOLUME Iv.

yA Os Re Bae 2 My EY Pa Se oS Se

PaINTED AND soLp By THOMAS DOBSON, at THs
STONE-HOUSE, N° 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET.

27998

dz

ints

( fi)

ADVERTISEMENT.

FE following are the rules adopted for the govern-
ment of committees in the choice of papers for

publication.

First, ‘* That the grounds of the Committee’s choice
of papers for the prefs, fhould always be the impor-
tance or fingularity of the fubjeéts, or the advantageous
manner of treating them, without pretending to an-
fwer, or to make the fociety anfwerable, for the cer-
tainty of the facts, or propriety of the reafonings,
contained in the feveral papers fo publifhed, which
mutt {till reft on the credit or judginent of their refpec-
tive authors.

SECONDLY, “ That neither the Society, nor- the
Committee of the prefs, do ever give their opinion as
a body, upon any paper they may publith, or upon
any iubject of Art or Nature that comes before
them.”

a2 In

iv ADVERFISEMEN®.

In the Month of May 1796, the Society, in order the more
effectually to-anfwer the ends of their inflitution, agreed
to appropr tate, annually, a part of their funds to be dif-
pofed of in Premiums to the Authors of the beft per-
fo Mmances, mmventions, or improvements , relative to cer-
tain fpecific fubjects of ufeful knowledge. The following

premiums were thereupon propofed :

For the beft fyftem of liberal education and literary
inftruction, adapted to the genius of the government, and
beft calculated to promote the general welfare, of the
United States ; comprehending alfo a plan for inftituting
and conduéting public {chools, in this country, on prin-
ciples ‘of the moft extenfive utility——4 premium of one
hundred dollars.

Papers on this fubjeé will be received, till the firft day

of January, 1797.

II,

For the moft fimple, eafy and expeditious method of
computing the longitude, from the common lunar obfer-
vation, A premium of feventy dollars.

The particular view of the fociety, in propofing this
fubject, is, that the folution of this moft ufeful problem
may, if poffible, be rendered fo plain and eafy, as to be
readily learned by every mariner, even of moderate capa-
city, who underftands the common rules of arithmetic ;
and thus be introduced into general practice.

Papers on this fubject will be received, till the firft day

of January, 1797.

TH.
For the beft conftruction or improvement of fhip-
pumps, A premium of feventy dollars.

Improvements

ADVERTISEMENT, v

- Improvements which may be readily applied to the
fhip-pumps in common ufe, will be moft likely to be
adopted by feamen, and introduced into general pradtice.

Papers on thié fubjet will be received, till the frft day
of January, 1797.

DY:

For the beft conftruGtion or improvement of ftoves, or
fire-places, A premium of fixty dollars, "The principal
end which the fociety have in view, in propofing this
fubjeét, is the benefit of the poorer clafs of people, efpecial-
ly of fuch as live in towns, or other places where fuel is
dear. To anfwer this end, the ftove fhould be cheap, and
of durable materials ; fhould afford the neceflary degree of
a falubrious and durable heat, with the leaft expenfe of
fuel poffible; and fhould be capable of being employed
both for the purpofe of warming the room, and cooking
provifions for the family.—The fociety have been inform-
ed, that ftoves made of brick are, in many refpects, fupe-
rior to thofe made of metal; efpecially, in the faving of .
fuel, and preferving a more equable degree of heat.

Papers on this fubje@ will be received, till the firft day
of January, 1797.

Me,

For the beft method, verified by experiment, of pre-
venting the premature decay of Peach-trees, AA premi-
um of fixty dollars.

Papers on this fubject will be received, till the firft day
of January, 1798.

VI.

For the beft experimental treatife on native American
vegetable dies; accompanied with an accurate account of
the vegetables employed AA premium of ninety dollars.

Papers

Vi ADVERTISEMENT.

Papers on this fubjeé&t will be received, till the firft
day of February, 1798.

Wit:

For the beft conftru€tion or improvement of lamps;
efpecially, for lighting the ftreets A premium of fifty
dollars.

Papers on this fubje&t will be received, till the firft day
of April, 1797.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.

1. Every candidate, along with his performance, is to
fend to the fociety a fealed letter, containing his name and
place of abode; which letter {hall never be opened by the
fociety, except in the cafe of a fuccefsful candidate.

2. No performance, invention or improvement, on any
of the fubjects propofed, for which a patent or any other
reward {hall have been obtained, before prefenting it to
the fociety, fhall be confidered as entitled to the premium.

3. In lieu of the money which fhall be awarded by
the fociety, as a premium, any fuccefsful candidate fhall
have it in his option to receive a gold or filver medal, or
piece of plate, with a fuitable infcription, of equal value.

4. The fociety referve to themfelves the power of giv-
ing, in all cafes, fuch part only of any premium propofed,
as the performance {hall be adjudged to deferve; or, of
withholding the whole, if it fhall appear to have no
merit above what may have been already publifhed on
the fubje&. The candidates may, however, be affured,
that the fociety will always judge liberally of their fe-
veral claims.

A number of papers have been received on the feveral
fubjects above ftated. But the fociety have as yet forborne
the adjudication of any premium, except that offered for

the

ADVERTISEMENT. Vil

the beft fyftem of liberal and literary inftruction, adapted
to the genius of the government, and beft calculated to
promote the general welfare of the United States.

On the fifteenth of December 1797, the fociety, agreea-
bly to fpecial appointment, proceeded to confider the
feveral Effays on Education, which had been prefented.
The analyfes of thefe Effays were read, when it was
agreed to take the queftion in this manner on each per-
Ronines. viz. “ Is this the beft fyftem of liberal Kdu-
cation and literary Inftrudtion, adapted tothe genius of
the government, and beft calculated to promote the ge-
neral welfare, of the United States?”

Whereupon it appeared to the fociety that two of
thefe Effays, I. An Effay with this motto, “ In Metii
defcendat “fudicis aures.”” Horace. I. An Efflay with
this motto, ‘* I call a complete and generous Education thai
which fits a man to perform jufily, frilfully and magnani-
moufly, all the offices, both private and public, of peace and
war.” Mr1itToNn; poflefled a fuperior degree of merit, and
were worthy of poblenions The premium was in con-
fequence adjudged to be equally divided between the
authors of thefe two Effays.

The Prefident then opened the fealed letters which ac-
companied thefe performances, when it appeared that the
Reverend SamMuEL Knox, A. M. of Bladenfburg, in
Maryland, was author of the firft, and Samuet Har-
RISON SMITH, A. M. of Philadelphia, was author of
the fecond Effay.

The fociety nhed dire&ted the publication of the two
Effays.

Mr. I. H. De MAGELLAN, oF Ltonpon,

Having made a donation, to the fociety, of two hun-
dred guineas, to be vefted in a permanent fund; that the
_ intereft

Vili ADVERTISEMENT,

intereft arifing therefrom may be difpofed of, in annual
premiums, to the authors of the beft difcoveries or moft
ufeful improvements, relating to Navigation, or to Natu-
ral Philofophy, mere Natural Hiftory only excepted ;—
the following are the rules and conditions, adopted by
the fociety, for the difpofition of the propofed premiums,
in conformity to the intention of the Donor, viz.

I. The candidate fhall fend his difcovery, invention or
improvement, addreffed to the Prefident or one of the
Vice-Prefidents of the fociety, free of poftage or other
charges; and {hall diftinguifh his performance by fome
motto, device or other fignature, at his pleafure. Toge-
ther with his difcovery, invention or improvement, he
fhall alfo fend a fealed letter, containing the fame motto,
device or fignature, and fubfcribed with the real name
and place of refidence of the author.

il. Perfons of any nation, feét, or denomination what-
ever, fhall be admitted as candidates for this premium.

1if. No difcovery, invention or improvement fhall be
entitled to this premium, which hath been already pub-
lifhed, or for which the author hath been publicly re-
warded elfewhere.

IV. The candidate fhall communicate his difcovery, in-
vention or improvement, either in the Englifh, French,
German, or Latin language.

V. All fuch communications fhall be publicly read or
exhibited to the fociety, at fome ftated meeting, not lefs
than one month previous to the day of adjudication; and -
fhall at all times be open to the infpection of fuch mem-
bers as fhall defire it. But no member fhall carry home
with him the communication, defcription or model, ex-
cept the officer to whom it fhall be entrufted: nor thall
fuch officer part with the fame out of his cuftody, with-
out a {pecial order of the fociety for that purpefe.

VI. The

ADVERTISEMENT. ix

VI. The fociety having previoufly referred the feveral
communications, from candidates for the premium then
depending, to the confideration of the twelve counfellors
and other officers of the Society, and having received
their report thereon, fhall, at one of their ftated meet-
ings, in the month of December, annually, after the ex-
piration of this current year (of the time and place, to-
gether with the particular occafion of which meeting, due
notice fhall be previoully given, by public advertifement)
proceed to the final adjudication of the faid premium:
and after due confideration had, a vote fhall firft be taken
on this queftion, viz. ‘© Whether any of the communi-
cations, then under infpeGion, be worthy of the propofed
premium?” If this queftion be determined in the negative,
the whole bufinefs fhall be deferred till another year: But
if in the affirmative, the Society fhall proceed to determine,
by ballot, given by the members at large, the difcovery,
invention or improvement moft ufeful and worthy. And
that difcovery, invention or improvement, which fhall be
found to have a majority of concurring votes in its fa-
vour, fhall be fuccefsful. And then, end xot ri// then, the
fealed letter accompanying the crowned performance, fhall
be opened, and the name of the author announced as the
perfon entitled to the faid premium.

VII. No member of the Society who is a candidate for
the premium then depending, or who hath not previoufly
declared to the Society, either by word or writing, that he
has confidered and weighed, according to the beit of his
judgment, the comparative merits of the feveral claims then
under confideration, fhall fit in judgment, or give his vote,
in awarding the faid premium.

VIII. A full account of the crowned fubject fhall be pub-
lifhed by the Society as foon as may be, after the adjudica-

b tion,

x ADVERTISEMENT.

tion, either ina feparate publication, or in the next fuc-
ceeding volume of their Tranfactions, or in both.

1X. The unfuccefsful performances fhall remain under
confideration, and their authors be confidered as candidates
for the premium, for /fve years next fucceeding the time
of their prefentment; except fuch performances as. their
authors may, in the mean time, think fit to withdraw’:
And the Society fhall annually publifh an abftract of the
titles, object or fubje& matter of the communications fo
under confideration, fuch only excepted as the Society thall
think not worthy of public notice.

X. The letters containing the names of authors whofe
performances fhall be rejected, or which fhall be found un-
fuccefsful after a trial of five years, fhall be burnt before
the Society without breaking the feals.

XJ. In cafe there fhould be a failure, in any year, of any
communication worthy of the propofed premium, there
willthen be two premiums to be awarded in the next year.
but no accumulation of premiums fhall entitle an author to
more than one premium for any one difcovery, invention
or improvement.

XL. The premium fhall confift of an oval plate of folid
ftandard gold, of the value of en Guineas. On one fide
thereof fhall be neatly engraved a fhort Latin motto fuited
to the occafion together with thefe words, The premi-
um of 1. H. De Magellan, of London, effablifhed im the
year 1786. And on the other fide of the plate thall be en-
graved thefe words, Awarded by the A. P. 3S. to
for his difcovery of ——- A. D.
Prefident. And the feal of the Society fhall be annexed to
the faid golden plate, by a ribbon pailing through a {mall
hole near the lower edge thereof.

Since

ADVERTISEMENT. xi

Since the publication of their laft volume, the Society
has had occafion to deplore the lofs of their Pretfident,
Davip RirTENHOUsE. He died June 26th, 1796.

Ata meeting, convened by fpecial order, on the firft of
July, the following motion was made, and unanimouily
adopted, viz. That this Society, deeply affeGted by the
death of their Jate worthy Prefident, do refolve, That an
EvLocium, commemorative of his diftinguifhed talents
and fervices, be publicly pronounced before the Society by
one of its members.

At the next meeting Dr. BEnyAmMin Rusu was ap-
pointed to prepare the Eulogium, andon the 17th of De-
cember following it was pronounced in the fecond Prefbyte-
rian Church before the Society.. After which the Society,
having returned to their Hall, directed the publication of
the Eulogium.

On the fixth of January 1797, at the annual election of
officers, THOMAS JEFFERSON, was called to the chair
of the Society.

In confequence of this appointment, the Secretaries on
the 7th of January addrefled to Mr. Jefierfon the follow-
ing letter.

Philadelphia, fan. 7, 1797+
SIR,

We have the pleafure of informing you that at the an-
nual election of officers of the American Philofophical
Society for promoting ufeful knowledge, held at Philadel-
phia, on the 6th Inftant, you were chofen Prefident of
that refpectable inftitution.

The Society, Sir, cannot foon forget the lofs they fuftain -
ed by the death of the late worthy and ingenious D. Rit-
tenhoufe; but after exprefling their grief on this melan-
choly occafion, they look forward with this confoling
reflection, that in the fame chair, from which two Ameri-
can philofophers have fucceflively inftru€ted them and the

b 2 world,

xii ADVERTISEMENT.

world, a third is now feated, by whofe genius and know-

ledge, our national name will preferve a diftinguifhed place
in the annals of {cience.

Permit us, Sir, on this occafion, to exprefs our fatisfac-
tion in this pleafing event, and in being the organs by
which the Society announce their choice.

We are,
With Sentiments of Efteem and
Refpedt, Sir,
Your obedient Servants,

SAMUEL Macaw, Secretaries of the
JONATHAN WILLIAMs, \, American Philofo-
WiLiiAmM Barton, phical Society of

Philadelphia.
Joun BLeak.ey,

THOMAS JeFrreRson, Efq.

To this letter, Mr. Jefferfon, on the twenty-eighth of
January, 1797, replied as follows :

Monticello, ‘fan. 28, 1797~
GENTLEMEN,

I have duly received your favor of the 7th inft. inform-
ing me that the American Philofophical Society have been
pleafed to name me their Prefident. The fuffrage of a body,
which comprehends whatever the American world has of
diftin@ion in philofophy and feience in general, is the moft
flattering incident of my lifes and that to which 1 am the
moft fenfible. My fatisfaction would be complete, were it
not for the confcioufnefs that it is far beyond my titles. I
feel no qualification for this diftinguifhed poft, but a fincere
zeal for all the objects of our inftitution, and an ae

efire

ADVERTISEMENT. xiil

defire to fee knowledge fo difleminated through the mafs of
mankind, that it-may at length reach even the extremes of
fociety, beggars and kings. I pray you, gentlemen, to
teftity for me to our body, my fenfe of their favor, and
my difpofitions to fupply by zeal what I may be deficient in
the other qualifications proper for their fervice, and to be
affured that your teftimony cannot go beyond my feelings.

Permit me to avail myfelf of this opportunity of ex-
prefling the fincere grief I feel for the lofs of our beloved
Rittenhoufe. Genius, fcience, modefty, purity of morals,
fimplicity of manners, marked him as one of nature’s
beft famples of the perfe@tion fhe can cover under the hu-
man form. Surely no fociety, till ours, within the fame
compais of time, ever had to deplore the lofs of two fuch
members as Franklin and Rittenhoufe: Franklin, our
Patriarch, the ornament of our age and country, whom
Philofophy and Philanthropy announced the firft of men,
and whofe name will be as a ftar of the firft magnitude
in the firmament of heaven, when the memory of his
companions of the way will be loft in the aby{fs of time
and fpace. With the moft affeCtionate attachment to
their memory, and with fentiments of the higheft refpe&
to the Society, and to yourfelves perfonally, I have the
honor to be, Gentiemen,

; Your moft obedient,
And moft humble Servant,

TH. JEFFERSON.

Mefirs. SAMUEL Macaw,
JONATHAN WILLIAMS, \ Secretaries of the American
WILiiam BARTON, Philofophical Society.
Joun BLEAKLEY, J

( xv)
LIST or THe OFFICERS

OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
For the Year 1799.

Patron. The Governor of the Commonwealth for the
time being—Thomas Mifflin.

PRESIDENT. ‘Thomas Jefferfon, L. L. D.

Cafper Wiftar, M. D.

VicE-PRESIDENTS.~ Benjamin Rufh, M. D.
Robert Patterfon, A. M.

Charles Wilfon Peale.
Benjamin S. Barton, M. D.
Nicholas Collin, D. D.

f Robert Blackwell, D. D.
Thomas M‘Kean, L. L. D.
James Davidfon, A. M.
Adam Kuhn, M, D.

| Andrew Ellicott.

‘Tench Coxe.

James Abercrombie.
Jonathan B. Smith, A. M.
William Smith, D. D.
William Currie, M. D.
Samuel Wheeler.
Jonathan Williams.

Thomas C, James, M. D.
ea ii d Adam Seybert, M. D.
; James Woodhoufe, M. D.
Samuel H. Smith, A.M.

CURATORS.

CouNSELLORS.

LIST

C taarics D

LIST of Memsers of the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
elected fince January 1, 1794.T

AMERICAN MEMBERS,

AMES Abercrombie. .
Dr. Bedford, Pittfburg.

Tfaac Briggs, Maryland.

Samuel Blair, D. D.

William Bache, M. D.

Tench Coxe.

Dr. Ifaac Cathrall.

Charles Caldwell, M. D.

Dr. Deveze.
James Greenway, M. D. Virginia.
Dr.— Grafle.

John Heckevelder, Bethlehem.
William Hamilton.

Dr. Hugh Hodge.

Thomas C. James, M. D.

Robert Leflie.

Valentine Melfcheimer, Hanover, Pennfylvania.
Alexander Martin, North Carolina.
John F. Miflin.

John Newnan, M. D. North Carolina.
John Nancarrow.

William Dandridge Peck, New Hamphhire.
Timothy Pickering.

Thomas Pinkney, South Carolina.
Thomas Mann Randolph, Virginia.
Richard Peters Smith. *

Adam Seybert, M. D.

Samuel Harrifon Smith.

John Stewart, Virginia.

Samuel Wheeler.

James Woodhoufe, M. D.

James Wilkinfon.

FOREIGN

+ All thofe whofe places of abode are not fpecified are of Pennfylvania.
* Decealed.) “)y

FOREIGN MEMBERS.

James Anderfon, L. L. D. Scotland.

M. Adet, Paris.

Earl of Buchan, P.S.S. A. Scotland.

John Frederick Blumenback, M. D. F. R. S. Goctiinges,
Guftaf Von Carlefon, Sweden.

M. F. H. Le Comte, Paris.

Joanne Baptifta Cunat, Dodor of Civil Law, Valencia.
Earl of Dundonald, Scotland.

Louis Etienne Duhail, M.D. France.
Cypriano Riberio Friere.

John Guillemard, -A. M. England.

Jacques Marie le Feflior de Grandpre.

A. E. Van Braam Houckgeett.

Don Jofeph de Jaudennes, Valencia.
Alexander Leribours, France.

A. J. Laroque.

M. Mozard, France.

Julien Niemcewicz, Poland.

M. Talleyrand Perigord, France.

M. la Rochefaucault Liancour, France.
Edward Stevens, M. D. F. R. S. St. Croix.
James Edmund Smith, M. D. F. R.S.

J. B. Scandella, M. D. Venice.

Don Luis de Urbina, Valencia.

M. Volney, France.

E. A. W. Zimmerman, Brunfwick.
Francifco de Zach, Saxa Gotha.

Donations received by the American Philofophical Society
fince the Publication of their Third Volume of Tranfatti-
ons, with the Names of the Donors.

DoNORsS.
1793, Dec. 6. The Author,

The Author,

1794, Feb. 21. Citizen Ge-

net,

The Author,

Mar. 7. Mr. Fobn Vaughan,

do.

PRESENTS.

Specimen Zoologie Geogra-
phice, quadrupedum domi-
cilia et migrationes fiftens,
&c. 4to. by Dr. Zimmer-
man, Brunfwick.

Traité de l’elafticité de l’eau,
et d’autres fluides, 8vo. by
Dr. Zimmerman.

A Pamphlet in French, with
a tranflation, on a reform
in the French Calendar.

A Difcourfe delivered be-
fore the Grand Lodge of
Pennfylvania, by Sam.
Magaw, D. D.

The ceremonies and religious
cuftoms of the various na-
tions of the known world,
in fix volumes Folio, by
Bernard Picart.

Swammardam’s Hiftory of
Infe&ts, Folio,

Hiftory

xviil DONATIONS.

1794. Donors.
Mr. ohn Vaughn,
March 21. ¥%. C. Rediger,

do.
do.

May 2. The Author,

The Author,

Author,

Author,

May 16. Dr. Nich, Collin,

PRESENTS.
Hiftory of the world, by Sir
Walter Raleigh, Folio.

Hift. Eccles.Gentis Angl. Li-
bri 5 a venerabili Beda,
Folio.

Acta Eruditor. Lipfiens. 1ft.
ad. and 4th. volumes, 4to.

Solom. Van Til, Theol. Dord.
Ato.

Geographical and_ hiftorical
defcription of the United
States of America, in Ger-
man, by Profeflor Ebeling
of Hamburg, vol. 1. 8vo.

American Biography, vol. 1.
8vo. by J. Belknap of Bof-
ton, D. D. :

A Treatife on the Synochus
Iceroides, by Dr. Currie
of Philadelphia.

Carey’s Short Account of the
late Malignant Fever in
Philadelphia, 8vo.

Hiftoire des Celtes, Sc. Par
Simon Pelloutier, 8 vols.
Svo.

May

D OW AT TION 58: xix

1794. DONORS.
May 30. Mr. W. Rox-
burgh, at Calcutta,

Mr. George Turner,

June 20. Author,

July 18. Author,

Auguft 15. Author,
Author,

September 19. Author,

PRESENTS.
Sundry Afiatic plants, pre-
ferved at the country feat
of Will. Hamilton, Efq.
near Philadelphia.

Collection of Shells in the
Territory North Weft of
the Ohio.

Colle&tion of State Papers,
and other authentic docu-
ments, for an hiftory of
the United States of Ame-
rica, 2d. vol. 4to. by E.
Hazard.

Glazing earthen veffels with
lead, as a caufe of many
difeafes, in German, by
G. A. Ebell, Aulic coun-
fellor, of Hanover, 8vo.

A Difcourfe delivered in the
African church on_ the
opening thereof, by Sam.
Magaw, D. D

Obfervations on the late Epi-
demic difeafe in Philadel-
phia, by Jean Deveze,
M. D.

Stirpes Nove Defcriptionibus
et Iconibus illuftrate, Fo-
lio, by C, L. Heritier, Reg.
Confil.

2 Ot.

ax DONATIONS.

17944 Donors. PRESENTS.
O&, 24. Citizen Fauchet, On Weights and Meafures,
by Citizen’ Dombey.

Nov. 7. Author, A Syftematical Treatife of
arithmetic, by John Vinall,
Bofton, 8vo.

Author, A Concife hiftory of the hu-
man mut{cles, &c. 12mo.
by Thom. Wright, Licent.
of Roy. Coll. of Surgeons,
Dublin.

Dec. 5. Mr. Ebenezx. Hazard, A& of Incorporation, laws,
and circular letter of the
Maffachufetts hiftorical fo-
ciety, 8vo.

Dec. 26. Author, Experimental Refearches con-
cerning the philofophy of
permanent colours, &c. by
Edward Bancroft, M. D.
F. R.S. Svo.

Author, A Treatife on Magnetifm,
with a defcription and ex-
planation of a meridional
and azimuth compafs, &c.
by Ralph Walker of ‘a-

1795. maica, 8VO..

Jan. 16. M. St. Mery. Four wooden locks of diffe-
rent kinds ufed by the
country people of St. Do-
mingo,

A Ball

DONATIONS. Xxi

1795. DONORS.
Jan. 16. M. St. Mery,

do.

do.

do.
do.

do.
do.
do.

do.
do.

do.
do.

do.

do.

PRESENTS,
A ball of hair found in the
{tomach of a mule.

A ftone found in the ftomach
of a cow.

An oriental Bezoar.

A piece of ebony wood from
Hifpaniola.

Some petrifactions of wood
from Martinique.

A little tooth of a whale.
A cocoa-nut.

A piece of copper ore from
the Pyrenees.

A piece of iron ore from do.

Three {pecimens of cochineal
from Hifpaniola.

\
Fruit of courberit tree.

An idol of the natives of Hif-
paniola.

An infec, called dragon from
Martinique.

A vegetable fly from St. Do-~

mingo,

A medal

XXIl DONATIONS.

Eos. 7 1)'O NO RS.
Jan. 16. M. S¢. Mery,

Earl of Buchan,

do.

do.

Feb. 6. Mr. Cherachie, °

M. St. Mery,

Mr. ‘Yobhn Beckley,

April, 17. The Society,

PRESENTS.

A medal ftruck on the occafi-
on of Lewis XVI coming
into the Affembly of the
Electors of Paris, July 17.
1789.

Tranfactions of the fociety of

Scots Antiquaries, 1{t vol.
4to.

Duplicate of the minute
book of the fame fociety,
1ft vol. do.

A caft reprefenting the Earl
of Buchan.

Buft in marble of David Rit-
tenhoufe, executed by Mr.
Cherachie.

Silver Medal of Lewis XV.
ftruck on the occafion of
the peace of 1763.

Two elegant fpecimens of
printing in gilt letters,
one a part of Magna Char-
ta on fattin, the other the
Dream of Scipio on deep
green fattin.

Firft part of vol. Il. of the
Memoirs of the American
Academy of arts and fcien-
ces, 4to,

Reports

DONATIONS.

1795. DONORS.
April 17. Mr. Rich. P. .
Snuth,

May, 15. Earl of Buchan,

Author,

Academy of Turin,

June, 19. Author,

Dr. Fames Meafe,
do.

Dr, Charles Caldwell,

xxiii

PRESENTS.
Reports _ prefented to the
National Convention of
France, with a Decree on
the fubject of weights and
meatures.

A Box of Yew, on the lid of
which is a correct picture
of Copernicus, and on the
infide a drawing in pencil

of Napier, by Brown.

Natural Principles of Reéti-
tude for the conduct of man
in all ftates and fituations of
life. By Dan. Grofs, D. D.
8vo. New York, 1795.

Vol. V. of the Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Sciences
of Turin. gto.

Inaugural Differtation on the
difeafe occafioned by the
bite of a mad dog, by
James Meafe, M. D.

Dr. Mofeley’s Treatife on
Tropical Difeafes, &c.

Fifth Edition of Dr. Mofe-
ley’s Treatife on Coffee.

A Tranflation of the Phyfio-
logical Inftitutes of Fred.
Blumenback, M. D.

Inaugural

XXIV DONATIONS.

1795 Donors.
July 17. Author,

Dr. Anderfon, Scotland,

Author,

Aug. 21. Charles Gorin,
London,

Author,

Author,

Sept. 18. Author,

O&. 2. M. St Mery,

PRESEM Ts.
Inaugural Differtation on the
Phytolacca Decandria(Poke
Weed.) By Ben. Shultz,
M. D.

Samples of the Areca Nuts of
the Eaft Indies.

Geographical and Hiftorical
Defcription of the United
States, in German. by
Prof. Ebeling, Hamburg,
vol. 2. 8vo.

A Compound Meteorological
Inftrument, confifting of a
Barometer, a Thermome-
ter, and a Hygrometer.

Effay on Magnetifm. By
John Lorimen, M. D. Lon-
don, 4to.

The Defcription and ufe of a
New Portable Orrery, &c.
By Mr. Jones, Mathema-
tical Inftrument maker,
London, 8vo.

Effay on the Natural Hiftory
of St. Domingo, in French.
By M. Carié, 8vo.

Laws of St. Domingo from
1780 to 1785, in French,
4to. vol. 6.

An

DONATIONS. XXV

1795, DONORS.
Nov. 6. Author,

Novy. 20. Author,

Mr. Fonathan Williams,

Author,

1796. Jan. 16. Author,

do.

M. de St. Mery,

PRESENTS.

An Effay on Combuttion with
a view to a New Art of
Dying and Painting. By
Mrs. Fulham, London,
Svo.

Specification of a Machine
for {pinning flax, hemp, or
tow, by Mr. Peter Craig.

Memoir on the Ufe of the
Thermometer in Naviga~
tion, by Mr. Jonath. Wil-
liams, tranflated into Spa-
nifh with a recommending
preface, by Don Cipr. Vi-
mercati, Director de las aca-
demias de guardias marinas.
Publifhed at Madrid by or-
der of the King.

Various Methods of finding
a true Meridian Line, by
Mr. William Jones, Lon-
don.

Manner of improving the
breed of horfes in America,
in French, by M. de St.
Mery.

The fame performance in
Englith.

Courier de la France et des
Colonies.
An

RXV1

1796. DONORS.

Feb. 5. Mr. George Turner.

do.

M. de St. Mery,

do.

Author,

Dr. N. Collin.
Feb. 19. Col. Sergeant,

May 20. Author,

do.
Author,

DONATA ON &

PRESENTS.

An Indian Legging of buck-
fkin, ornamented with In-
dian hair and Porcupine’s
quills.

An Indian Pipe of curious
workmanthip.

On the Prifons of Philadel-
phia, in French, by an
European.

The fame
Englith.

performance in

Apocalyptic Gnomon, point-
ing out eternity’s divifibili-

ty, &c. by M. de Brahm.
Model of the Speedy Elevator.

Several Indian Antiquities of
the North-weftern territo-
ry defcribed.

Defcription Topographique
et Politique de la Partie
Efpagnole de St. Domin-
gue. Tom. 1 and 2, 8vo.
by Moreau de St. Mery.

Same in Englifh.

Effay on the Food of Plants
and the Renovation of Soils,
by John Ingenhouze, 4to.

Thirteen

DONATIONS.

1796. Donors.
July 15. Prefid. Thundberg,

Author,

Mr. Henry Hill,

Aug. 19. Author,

College of Phyficians,

1796. Oct. 21. The Hon.
Guftave V. Carlfon, Pre-
fident of one of the Su-
preme Courts of Juftice
in Sweden.

d 2

XXVIi

PRESEN Ts.
Thirteen Differtations on dif-
ferent fubjeéts of Natural
Hiftory, delivered at the
Univerlity of Upfal, under
the direction of Profeffor
Thunberg.

An Inaugural Differtation,
entitled, An Attempt to
Eftablith the Samenefs of
the Phenomena of Fever,

by C. Caldwell, M. D.

Drawing and Defcription of a
Telegraph, erected between
London and Deal.

Geographical and Hiftorical
Defcription of the United
States of America, by Prof.
Ebeling, vol. 3d. 8vo.

Tranfactions of College of
Phyficians of Philadelphia,
vol. 1. part r. §vo.

Mufeum Carlfonianum, firft
3 vols. fol. containing de-
{criptions and drawings of
new and fele&t birds in the
cabinet of this Ornitholo-
gift, and publifhed at his
expenfe: the birds are de-
{cribed by Dr. Sparrman,
and drawn by the Honour-
able J. C. Linnerhielm.

Fight

XXVIIL

DONATIONS.

1796. DoNoORsS.

Nov. 18. Mr. Lerebour,

Dec. 2. M. de Sz. Mery,

1797. Feb. 10, Mr. George

Turner,

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

PRESENTS.

Eight numbers of the Journal
des Arts et Manufactures,
publié fous la direction du
Confeil des Arts et Manu-
factures. ;

Ideé Generale, ou Abregé
des Sciences et des Arts a
PUfage de la Jeunefle,
12mo,

A pair of Indian boy’s leg-
gings from the Miffouri,

A Calumet of Peace, orna-
mented with Porcupine’s
quills for Indians on the
Miffouri.

An Indian Conjuror’s Mafk,
formed of the fealp, &c.
of a Buffalo, from the Mif-
fouri.

An Arrow neatly headed with
bone, from the Saukis Indi-

ans on the upper parts of
the Miffiflippi.

Eight of the Arrows com-
monly ufed by the Miami
and neighbouring Indians.

A Stone Peftle ufed by the
Indians formerly, for
pounding corn and jerk-
ing flefh.

A

DONATIONS. xxix

17904. DONORS. PRESENTS,
1797. Feb. 10. Mr. George A Stone Hatchet formerly in
Turner. ufe among the Savages.

do. A Specimen of petrified fup-

pofed buffalo dung, from
the Rapids of the Ohio.

do. Fine foffil coal, from Cincin-
nati, on the Ohio.

do. Part of one among thirty or
forty trees, all completely
petrified, from 212 miles
up the Teneflee river.

do. An Indian bowl, taken out
of the bed of the Teneffee.

do. An Oviform ftone, from the
Wabath.
do. Marine Shells and perforated

bones, taken out of an an-
cient Indian grave on the
Great Kananwa.

do. American Porcupine Quills
dyed with different colours.

do. Quills of fame animal with
their natural colour.

do. Skin of an Indian taken from
the fide.

do. Part of the Sea-Otter {kin,

from its flank, where the
fur is fhorteft, being part of
a blanker¢

¥XX

1797. DONORS.
Feb. 10, Mr. George Turner,

do.

do.
do.

do.

do.
do.
do.

Feb. 17. Author,

DaOwN A, TL, OWN se

PRESENTS.
a blanket coat brought from
the Pacific coaft, by Dr.
M‘Kenzie, in 1794.

An American Swan’s foot

ftuffed.

A Spear ufed by the Savages
in killing Col. Chew, on
the Ohio.

Various Indian Arrows from
the North Weftern terri-

tory.
Specimen of Indian Sculpture
in wood, refembling the

Beaver; from the Kafkas-
kian nation.

A pair of Indian garters tip-
ped with tin and Porcupine
quills, from the Wabath.

Another pair from the Creek
nation.

An Indian belt,
Miffifippi.

from the

Remarks, luftrations and Ex-
amples relative to the La-

- titude and Longitude ; alfo
the Variation of the Com-
pals, &c. by Thomas

Truxton.

An

DONATIONS. XXXI

1797, DONORS.
Feb. 17. William Rawle,

March 31. Author,

April 7. Author,

Author,

Dr. Graff,

May 5. Don Fofeph de

Faudennes,

do.

19. Mr, Rod. Valtravers,

do.

PRESENTS.

An Ele&trical Machine to
produce flame by the fud-
den contact of the eleétri-
cal fluid with inflammable
air or gas.

Effay on building wooden
bridges, by C. W. Peale.

Natur Gefchichte des Kup-
fers, &c. 1ft part, by b. F.
J. Herman, Aulic Coun-
fellor, Peterfburg.

Statiftische Schilderung von
Rufsland, &c. by Herman,
Tullo Oe

Carte Botanique, with a work
entitled, Notions Elemen-
taires de Botanique avec
lexplication d'une Carte,

&c.

TranfaGtions of the Patriotic
Economical Society of
Valencia, in 3 volumes.

Conftitution of the faid So-
ciety of Valencia. Both
in Portuguefe.

A Magnetic Atlas, by John

Churchman.

A Treatife on Magnetifm, by
Tiberius Cavallo, Svo.

Pomponii

Xxxit DONATIONS.

1707. Donors.
May 19. Dr. Graff.

June 16. Chevalier Friere,
M. Pl. from Port. to U.S.
do.
do.

do.
do.
do.

do.
do.
do.
do.

do.

do.

PRESENTS.
Pomponti Melae de orbis fitu,
libri tres, &c. fol.

Enfaio Economico fobre o
comercio de Portugal, &c.

Tratado da Educacao Fyfica,
&c. in 2 vols.

Inftitutiones Juris Civilis Lu-
fitani, in 4 vols.

Hiftorie Juris Civilis Lufitani.
Documentos Arabicos.

Veftigios de Lingua Arabica
en Portugal, &c. 4to.

Memorias de Literatura Por-
tugueza, in 2 vols.

Memorias Economicas, in 3
vols,

Synopfis Chronologica, in 2
vols.

Flora Cochinchinenfis, in 2
vols. 4to.

Memorias e Obfervacois fo-
bre o modo de aperfricoan
a manufactura do Azeitte
de Olividra con Portugal.

Programma de Academia real
das Sciencias, in 2 vols.

On

DONATIONS.

1797, Donors.
June 16. Author,

July 14. Mr. Richard P.
Smith,

t

July-21. Author,

Nov. 17. Dr. F. De Zach,

do.

do,

XXXII

PRESENTS.

On the doétrine of Phlogifton
and the Decompofition of
Water, in French, by P.
A. Adet, 8vo.

Le Di@tionaire de L’Acade-
mie Francoife, in 2 vols.

fol. Paris, 1594.

New Views of the Origin of
the Tribes and Nations of
America, by BenjaminS.
Barton, M. D. 8vo.

Fixarum precipuarum Cata-
logus novus ex Obfervati-
onibus Aftronemicis in ob-
fervatorio Gothano Annis,
1787, 1738, 1789, 1790,
Auétore , Francisco de
Zach, Saxe Gotha.

Tabula Motuum folis nove
& correéte, &c. Fixarum
precipuarum Catalogus
novus, Auét. Fr. de Zach,
Ato.

Tabulz Speciales Aberrationis
& Nutationis in afcenfio-
nem rectam & declinatio-
nem una cum infigniorum
CCCCXCLV ftellarum zo-
diacarum catalogo novo.
Ad initium anni MDCCC.
Audtore, F. de Zach vol.
2, 4to,

Collection

XXXIV DONATAQN 5:

1797. Donors
Nov. 24. Mr. George
Turner,

Dec. 1. Marguis of Corn-

wallis,

1798. Jan. 19. Author,

Mr. Yefferfon,
General Kofciufko,
Feb. 2. Author,

M. M.. St. Mery,

March 16. Author,

PRESENTS...
Collection of Tin, and other
Englith ores, Spars and
Cryftals,

A Trigonometrical Survey of
part of England.

Obfervations on the Caufes
and Cure of Remitting, or
Billious Fevers, by. Dr.
Wm. Currie.

A bone of the Mammoth,
fome time ago found in
Virginia.

A large fquare plate of a Swe-
dith copper coin, imprefled
‘*4 Daler Sivermynt.”

Eflays, Literary, Moral, and
Philofophical, by Benja-
min Ruth, 8vo.

General View or Abftra&t of
the Arts and Sciences,
adapted to the capacity of
youth.

Collections for an Effay, to-
wards a Materia Medica
of the United States, by
Benjamin 8. Barton, M. D.
8vo.

Hints defigned to promote
Beneficence, Temperance,
and

DONATIONS.

1798. DONORS,
April 6. Author,

April 20. Mr. Yefferfon,
May 18. Mr. Niemcewitz,
June 1. Author,

Noy. 23. Mr. Wa. Fones,

do.

RXXV

PRESENTS.
and Medical Science, by
J.C. Lettfom, M. D. Lon-

don.

A hand threfhing machine,
invented by Thomas C.
Martin, Virginia.

A gold coin of Poland, ¢coin-
ed in the laft year of its
independence.

A Sermon, delivered May 9,
1798, by James Aber-
crombie.

Effays on the Microfcope ;
containing a practical de-
{cription of the moft im-
proved microfcopes.; a
general hiftory of infects,
&c. with a concife cata-
logue of interefting objects
when under the micro-
{cope,. &c.. by the late
George Adams: with con-
fiderable additions and im-
provements, by Tr. Kan-
macher, P. L. 5. 4to.

Alfo, a volume of illuftra-
ting plates, fol. London.

Geometrical and Graphical
Effays, containing a gene-
ral defcription of mathe-
matical inftruments, &c.

by

XXXVI

1798. Donors. |
Nov. 238) Mr. Win. Fores;

dos
Nov. 23: Author,

Authors, »
do.

Ho.

Mr. Thémas Dobfon,

DONATLONS.

PRESENTS. '
by the late G, Adams;
corrected and enlarged by
Wm. Jones, Svo.

Illuftrating plates .of | faid
Effays, improved by do.
8vo.

A Memoir on the Onandaga
Salt-{prings, by Benj. De
Will, M. D.

Icones Plantarum Japonica-
rum, quas in Infulis Ja-
ponicis annis 1775 et 1776,
collegit et defcripfit Car.
Fet. Thunberg.

Five Differtations on fubjects
of Natural Hiftory, pub-
lifhed at the Univertity of
Upfal, under the directon
of Pr. Thunberg.

An Academical notification of
the laft Medical promotion
at Upfal, by do.

The Complement of Encyclo-
pedia, making with former
donations 18 volumes, 4to.

The

GarewG AR LL Eb TER. XXXVIl

The Society having appointed a Committee to colleet informa-
tion refpecting the paft and prefent flate of this country,
the Committee during the laft year addreffed the’ following
letter to fuch perfons as were likely, in their opinion to ad-
vance the objeét of the Society.

PoLRCULAR |
PHILOSOPHICAL HALL, PHILADELPHIA.

Sir,

Buk American Philofophical. Society -have always
confidered the antiquity, changes, and:prefent {tate of their
own country as primary objects of their refearch; and
with a view to facilitate fuch difcoveries, a permanent
committee has been eftablithed, among whofe duties the
following have been recommended as requiring particular
attention.

1. To procure one or more,entire fkeletons of the Mam-
moth, fo called, and.of fuch other unknown animals as
either have been, or hereafter may be difcovered in America.

2. To obtain accurate plans, drawings and defcriptions,of
whatever is interelling, (where the originals cannot be had)
and efpecially of ancient Fortifications, Tumuli, and other
Indian works of art : afcertaming the materials ;compofing
them, their contents, the purpofes for which they were

probably defigned, &c.

__ 3+ To invite refearches into the Natural Hiftory of the
Earth, the changes it has undergone as to Mountains,
Lakes, Rivers, Prairies, &c,

4. To

MANVIL Gurr cus AR GE er oF eR,

4. ‘To inquire into the Cuftoms, Manners, Languages
and Chara&ter of the Indian nations,. ancient and modern,
and their migrations,

The importance of thefe objects will. be acknowledged
by every Lover of Science, and, we truft, fufficiently apo-
logize for thus troubling you: without the aid of gen-
tlemen who have tafte hdd opportunity for fuch refearches,
our means would be very confined. We therefore folicit
your communications, now or in future, on thefe fubjedts ;
which will be at all times thankfully received, and duly
noticed in the publications of the Society.

As to the fir’ obje@t, the committee fuggeft to Gentle-
men who may be in the way of :inquiries of that kind,
that the Great Bone Lick on thé Ohio, and’ other places
where there may be mineral falt, are the moft eligible {pots
for the purpofe; becaufe animals are known to refort to
fuch places.’

With refpedt to the fecond head, the committee are de-
firous that cuts in various ‘dire@tions may be made into
many of the Tumuli, to afcertain their contents; while
the diameter of the largeft tree growing thereon, the num-
ber of its annulars and the fpecies of the tree, may. tend to
give fome idea of their antiquity. If the works fhould be
found to be of Mafonry ; the length, breadth, and height
of the walls ought to be carefully meafured, the form and
nature of the ftones defcribed, and {pecimens of both the
cement and ftones fent to the committee.

The beft methods of obtaining information on the other
fubjects will naturally fuggeft themfelves to you; and we
rely on a difpofition favourable to our withes.

The

CrrReuLar LeTTER. XXX1X

The Committee confift of the following Gentlemen, viz.

THOMAS JEFFERSON, Prefident of the American
Philofophical Society, at Monticello in Virginia.

JAMES WILKINSON, Commander of the Army at
Head Quarters.

GEORGE TURNER, of the Weftern Territory, near
A Cincinnati.

Dr. CASPAR WISTAR, Vice Prefident
of the A. P, S.
Dr. ADAM SEYBERT, Secretary of do. | in Philada.
C. W. PEALE, and :
JON. WILLIAMS.

Your communications may be addrefled to any one of
the Committee, but the articles you may think proper to
furnifh fhould be fent to this place.

To

In behalf of the Committee,
I am refpedtfully,
Sir, your obedient fervant,

Chairman,

eee

( xi )

CiViOian Aba aN ooko's

VOU: NEUE: TVG

No

ie E XPERIMENTS and obfervations relating to the Analyfis of At-

mofpherical air, by the Rey. Dy. J. Prieftley,

Il. Farther Experiments relating to the Generation of Air from Water, by
Rev. Dr. J. Prieftley,

WGI. To determine the true Place of a Planet, inan Elliptical Orbit, direly
from the mean Anomaly, by Converging Series, by David Rittenhoufe,
L. L. D. Prefident A. P.S.

IV. On the Improvement of Time-keepers, by David Rittenhoufe, L. L. D.
Prefident of the Society,

V. On the Expanfion of Wood by Heat, ina Letter from David Ritten-
houfe, L. L. D. Prefident of the Society,

VI. A Letter from Mr. Andrew Ellicott, to Robert Patterfon ; in Two
Parts,

VII. Of the Aberration of the Stars, Nutation of the Earth's Axis, and
Semi-annual Equation, by Andrew Ellicott,

VIIL. A Letier from Mr. Andrew Ellicott, a Mr. Robert Patterfon.
A Method of Calculating the Eccentric Anomaly of the Planets,

TX. Method of raifing the common Logarithm of any Number immediately,
by David Rittenhoufe, Prefident of the Society,

X. Experiments on Evaporation, by C. Wiftar, M. D.

XI. A Memoir concerning the Fafcinating Faculty which has been afcribed
to the Rattle-Snake, and other American Serpents. By Benjamin Smith
Barton, M. D.

XIT. Some account of an American Species of Dipus, or Jerboa. By
Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D.

XIII. A Letter from Mr. John Heckewelder, to Dr. Barton, giving
Some account of the remarkable inftin® of a bird called the Nine- Killer,
XIV. An Enquiry into the caufes of the Infalubrity of flat and Marfhy
Situations ; and direélions for preventing or correcling the Effecis thereof,

éy William Currie,

XV. Defcription of a Machine for faving Perfons from the upper Stories of

a Houfe on fire, by Nicholas Collin, D. D. the Inventor; with a

Drawing from the Model,

Page.

124

127

143

f£ XVI. 4

N°

XVI. 4 Difquifition on wool-bearing Animals, by Dr. James Anderfon,
of North Britain, in a letter dated 6th December 1794,

XVII. Later Communication by the Author on this Subjec?, with a Sample
taken from the Fleece of a Shecp brought from Famaica to England,

XVIII. An ealy and accurate Method of adjufting the Glaffes of Hadley’s
Quadrant, on Land for the Back-Obfervation, by Robert Patterfon, in
a Letter to Dr. David Rittenhoufe, Prefident of the Society,

XIX. An Effay iending to improve intelligible Signals, and to difcover an
Univerfal Language. From an anonymous Corre/pondent in France,
(probably the Inventor of the Telegraph) tranflated from the French,

XX. Memoir on the Subjed of a new Plant, growing in Pennfylvania,
particularly in the Vicinity of Philadelphia, by Mr. Beauvois,

XXI. A Letter from Colonel Winthrop Sargent, to Dr. Benjamin
Smith Barton, accompanying Drawings and fome Account of certain
Articles, which were taken out of an ancient Tumulus, or Grave, in
the Weftern-Country,

XXII. 4 Drawing of fome Uienfils, or Ornaments, taken from an old
Indian Grave, at Cincinnati, County of Hamilton, and Territory of the
United-States, North-weft of the River Ohio, Auguft 30th 1794. By
Colonel Winthrop Sargent. Communicated by Benjamin Smith Bar-
ton, M. D.

XXIII. Obfervations and Conjedtures concerning certain Articles which
were taken out of an ancient Tumulus, or Grave, at Cincinnati, in the
County of Hamilton, and Territory of the United-States, North-Weft of
ihe River Ohio: in a letter from Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. ¢e
the Reverend Jofeph Prieftley, L. L. D. F. R.S. &c.

XXIV. Barometrical Meafurement of the Blue-Ridge, Warm-Spring, and
Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, taken in the Summer of the year

1791,

KXV. Mifcellaneous Obfervations relative to the Weftern Parts of Pennfyl-
vania, particularly thofe in the Neighbourhood of Lake Erie. By An-
drew Ellicott,

XXVI. Obfervations made on the Old French Landing at Prefqu’ Ifle, to
determine the Latitude of the Town of Erie. Ina Letier from Andrew
Ellicott, 7o Robert Patterfon, Secretary of the Society,

XXVII. Hints relative to the Stimulant Efeds of Camphor upon Vegeta-
bles. By Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D.

XXVIII. Supplementum Indicis Flore Lancaftrienfis. Auétore Henrico
Mublenberg. Communicated by Dr. Barton,

XXIX. On the Mode moft eafily and effe@ually pradicable of drying up the
Marfhes of the maritime Parts of North America. By Thomas
Wright, Licentiate of the College of Surgeons in Ireland, and Teacher
of Anatomy,

XXX. A Memoir on the Difcovery of certain Bones of a Quadruped of
ee Clawed Kind in the Weftern Parts of Virginia. By Thomas Jef-

erfon, E/g.

KXXI. A Letter from Mr. John Heckewelder, # Benjamin Smith
Barton, M.D. containing an Account of an Animal called the Big
Naked Bear,

XXXII.

179

18r

216

( xiii j

N°,

XXXII. Experiments and Obfervations on Land and Sea Air. By
Adam Seybert, M. D.

XXXII. Tranflation of a Memoir ona new Species of Siren. By M.
de Beauvois,

XXXV. Olfervations intended to favour a fuppofition that the Black Color
(as it is called) of the Negroes is derived from the Leprofy. By Dr.
Benjamin Ruth,

XXXVI. An Improvement in Boats, for River-Navigation, defcribed in a
Letter to Mr. Robert Patterfon, éy Nicholas King,

XXXVII. General Principles and Conftrudtion of a Sub-marine Veffel,
communicated by D. Bufbnell of Connedticut, the inventor, in a (etter of
Odober, 1787, to Thomas Jefferfon then Minifter Plenipotentiary of the
United States at Paris,

XXXVIII. The Defcription of a Mould-board of the leaf? refiftence, and of
the eafish and mof certain conffrudion, taken from a letter to Sir Fobn
Sinclair, Prefident of the board of agriculture at London,

XXXIX, Lxperiments upon Magnetifm. Communicated in a letter to Tho-
mas Jefferfon, Prefident of the Philofophical Society, by the Rev.
James Madifon, Prefident of William and Mary College,

XL. Thermometrical Olfervations made at Fort Wafhington, Commencing
June 1790, and Ending April 1791. By Daniel Britt and G. Tur-
ner. To which are added, for fome time, the Rife and Fall of the Ohio.
Communicated by G. Turner,

XLI. Calculations relating to Grif and Saw Mills, for determining the
quantity of Water nevefary to produce the defired effed when the Head and
Fall are given in order to afcertain the dimenfions of a new invented
Steam Engine, intended to give motion to Water-awheels in places where
there is no Fall, and but a very fmall Stream or Spring. By John
Nancarrow,

XLII. Memoir on Amphilia. By M. de Beauvois,

XLII. Ax Appendix to the tavo Articles in this Volume, (p. 1.) by Dr.
Prieftley, iz a letter to B. S. Barton, M. D.

LXIV. An Inguiry into the comparative cffeds of the Opium Officinarum,
extratted from the Papaver Somniferum or White Poppy of Linnaus ;
and of that procured from the Laéuca Sativa, or common cultivated
Lettuce of the fame author. By John Redman Coxe, M.D. An
Honorary Member of the Philadelphia Medical Society; and a
Senior Member of the Chemical Society of Philadelphia,

LXV. Experiments and obfervations, on the atmofphere of marfhes. By
Adam Seybert, M. D.

LXVI. An account of a Kettle for boiling Inflammable Fluids.—In a let-
ter from Thomas P. Smith, fo Robert Patterfon,

LXVII. An Effay on a new Method of treating the Effufion which colle&s
under the Scull after Fradtures of the Head. By }. Deveze, Officer of
Health, of the Sirf clafs, in the French Armies,

LXVILI. Memoir on the Sand-hills of Cape Henry in Virginia. By B.
Henry Latrobe, Engineer,

LXIX. Supplement to Mr. Latrobe’s Memoir,

Page.

262

323

5)

323

329

348
362

382

387
415
431

433

439
444

LXX. 4-

€ alw }
N°.

LXX. Account of Chryftallized Bafaltes found in Pennfyloania—By
Thomas P. Smith,

LXXI. Obfervations. for determining the Latitude and Longitude of the
Town of Natchez—By Andrew Ellicott, E/g. Commiffioner on the part
of the United States, for running the line of Demarkation beteveen them
and the Spanifh Territory. Communicated to the Society by R. Patter-
fon,

LXXII. An Anfwer to Dr. Jofeph Prieftley’s Confiderations on the Doc-
trine of Phlogiflon, and the Decompofition of Water ; founded upon de-
monftrative Experiments. By James Woodhoufe, M. D. Profeflor of
Chemiftry in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania, &c.

LXXIIL. Philological View of fome very Ancient Words in feveral Lan-
guages. By the Rev. Nicholas Collin, D. D. Rettor of the Swedith
Churches in Pennfylvania,

LXXIV. Memoir on the Extraneous Foffils, denominated Mammoth
Bones: principally defigned to /hew, that they are the remains of more
than one fpecies of non*defcript Animal. By George Turner, Member
of the A. P. S. Honorary and Correfponding Member of the Bath
and Welt of England Society, &c.

LXXV. Defeription of a Speedy Elevator. By the Inventor, Nicholas
Collin, D. D. with two drawings from a modsl, reprefenting it fold-
ed and wound up,

LXXVI. 4 Defcripiion of the Bones depofited, by the Prefident, in the
Mufeum of the Society, and reprefented in the annexed plates. By C.
Wiftar, M.D. Adjuné Profeflor of Anatomy, &c. in the Univer-
ity of Pennfylvania.

Page.

445

447

510

519

526

TRANG-

oaes¥ cla odes) ottct ola Totest ae odesd atta toatomaloma’
De atealie Heol fle alle be este a

Bde. Nidy AtGe A TO UNS

OCF EeH-z

American PHILOSOPHICAL Society, &e.

LEAP IE

Experiments and Obfervations relating to the Analyjis of
Atmofpherical air, by the Rev. Dr. J. PRIESTLEY.

Reed ai is an effential part of the antiphlogiftic
51 1796. theory, that in all the cafes of what I have
called the phlogiffication of air there is fimply an abforp-
tion of the dephlogifticated air, or, as the advocates of
that theory term it, the oxygen contained in it, leaving
the phlogifticated part, which they call azore, as it
originally exifted in the atmofphere. Alfo, according
to the principles of this fyftem, azo/e is a imple fub-
ftance, at leaft not hitherto analyfed into any other:
They therefore fuppofe that there is a determinate pro-
portion between the quantities of oxygen and azote in
every portion of atmofpherical air, and that all that has
hitherto been done has been to feparate them from one
another. This proportion they ftate to be twenty feven
parts of oxygen and 73 of azote, in 100 of atmofphe-
rical air.

A But

ta

AN ACL YS" I’'S'or

But in every cafe of the diminution of atmofpherical
air in which this is the refult, there appears to me to be
fomething emitted from the fubftance, which the anti-
phlogiftians fuppofe to a& by fimple abforption, and
therefore that it is more probable that there is fome fub-
ftance, and the fame that has been called phlogifton, or the
principle of inflammability (being common to all bodies
capable of combuftion, and transferable from any one of
them to any other) emitted, and that this phlogifton
uniting with part of the dephlogifticated air forms with
it part of the phlogifticated air which is found after the
procefs ; and in fome cafes there is more of this, and in
others lefs. Alfo, in fome cafes fixed air is the refult of
the union of the fame conftituent principles.

A mixture of iron filings and fulphur, which, with a
little water, has been commonly made ufe of to diminifh
and phlogifticate air, and probably many other fubftances
which produce the fame effect, if they be continued in
the air after the diminution has advanced to its maximum,
occafion an increafe of the quantity, by an addition of
inflammable air. This mixture I find to have the fame
effect when it is long confined in nitrous air, or in fixed
air; and therefore it is probable that the fame would be
the cafe if it were confined in any other kind of air, or
in vacuo. It therefore, feems natural to infer that the
fame principle which conftitutes inflammable air was from
the firft exhaling from the mixture, but that it did not
actually form inflammable air till there was no more
dephlogifticated air for it to unite with, and thereby
form phlogifticated air. The experiments from which
this conclufion is drawn are recited in my former pub-
lications, and { have lately repeated them with particular
attention, andthe fame refult. I have alfo lately obfer-
ved that by heating bones made black by burning without
accefg of air, in atmofpherical air, there is, after the

period

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 3

period of greateft diminution, an increafe of the quanti-
ty, and that it is then found to contain a mixture of in-
flammable air.

That fomething is really emitted from the iron filings
and fulphur, when it is in a {tate of diminifhing air is
evident from the ftrong and offenfive /me// which at that
time this mixture has. Flowers alfo, and efpecially
thofe which have the ftrongeft fmell, I have obferved
to phlogifticate air. Moreover, the iron filings and
fulphur when nearly dry, emit a vifible denfe vapour,
which appears by its fmell to be vitriolic acid air, which
I have obferved to have the power of diminifhing and
phlogifticating air; owing no doubt, in part to its im-
bibing the dephlogifticated part of it, and with it form-
ing common vitriolic acid; but at the fame time part of
its phlogifton may unite with another part of the dephlo-
gifticated air, and with it form phlogifticated air.

Iron filings and fulphur, as well as phofphorus, and
moft of the other fubftances which have been gene-
rally ufed forthe purpofe of phlogifticating atmofpherical
air, do likewife imbibe the dephlogiftieated air contained
in it, and thereby gain an addition of as much weight as
the air has loft. but this is not the cafe with dlack bones
heated in air, which by this means become white;
and as nothing in them is volatile, except that which
conftitutes their blacknefs, I thought they would be a
very convenient fubftance with which to make thefe ex-
periments.

Thefe bones gained no addition of weight in the pro-
cefs, and when they are ufed, the diminution of the air
is by no means fo great as in the other cafes, though the
air that is left is completely phlogifticated. This is pro-
bably in confequence of the fixed air (formed by the
union of the dephlogifticated air with the phlogifton
emitted from the bones) not being readily imbibed by

A2 the

4 ANALYST S‘6F

the water, or any other fubftance with which it is then
in contact; fo that a better opportunity is given to the
phlogifton emitted from the bones to unite with that
air ina different manner, and form phlogifticated air,
which is therefore after the procefs found in a greater
proportion than in the other cafes, to which alone a due
attention has hitherto been given. When thefe bones
are heated over lime water, there is a copious precipita-
tion of the lime. Here I would obferve that the phlo-
gifton neceflary to form this fixed air could only come
from the bones in becoming white, as they had been cal-
cined in as great a degree of heat as I could produce, fo
that no kind of air could have been expelled from them
while excluded from accefs of air.

Having by means of a burning lens heated 140.5
grains of well burned black bones in 23.75 ounce mea-
fures of air, it was reduced to 20 ounce meafures, com-
pletely phlogifticated, without any mixture of fixed or
inflammable air in it. According to this experiment,
the quantity of pure air in 100 ounce meafures of at-
mofpherical air was only 15.78 parts inftead of 27.

Heating 267 grains of thefe bones in 30 ounce mea-
fures of air, it was reduced to 25.5 ounce meafures com-
pletely phlogifticated, which was in the proportion of
15 parts of dephlogifticated air in 100 of atmofpherical.
In thefe experiments with bones there is fometimes a
{mall lofs of weight, owing, I doubt not, to fomething
befides phlogifton being expelled from them by the in-
tenfe heat of the lens ; and during the procefs I could per-
ceive a flight vapour rifing from them. When I ma-
naged the heat fo that it was not more than neceflary to
whiten the bones, they neither gained nor loft any
weight ; at leaft the lofs was very inconfiderable.

I had fimilar refults from experiments made with {mall
polithed /feel needles. For when they were heated fo a

only

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 5

only to become blue, and were not melted, they gained
very little, if any, weight, and diminithed the air only in
about the fame proportion with the black bones.

Having by means of a burning lens heated 200 grains
of the polifhed needles in 24 ounce meatures of air (in
confequence of which they became ofa dark colour) they
neither gained nor loft any weight, and the air was re-
duced to 19.5 ounce meafures, almoft completely phlo-
gifticated. 1 heated the fame quantity of thefe needles in
16.75 ounce meafures of air, when it was reduced to
13.5 ounce meafures, completely phlogifticated without
any mixture of fixed or inflammable air in it; fo that the
diminution was in the proportion of 19.4 parts in one
hundred. In another experiment 24.75 ounce meafures
of air were reduced to 20.25 ounce meafures nearly
phicgifticated. It is evident, therefore, from thefe ex-
periments, that more phlogifticated air is found after
this procefs, than after that with the iron filings and
fuiphar.

Uoceufe by heating the needles overa quantity of water
they might attraét moifture, which cannot be expelled
trom them without fome difficuity, I heated 200 grains
of the fame needles in the open air, till they had affumed
exactly the fame appearance with thofe that had diminith-
ed the air in the preceding experiments, and found that
they had neither gained nor loft any fenfible weight.
The fame was the refult of whitening a quantity of black
bones in the open air. But to make this experiment with
accuracy, the bones fhould be calcined with the greateft
degree of heat, and made white with the leaft. |

In one experiment with very thin pieces of malleable
iron (viz. iron turnings) 38.5 ounce meafures of air
were reduced to 31.5 meafures, wholly phlogifticated,
which is in the proportion of the lofs of 19.5 parts in
100. I could not perceive that the iron had gained or

loft

6 AN AL FP Saks: vor

loft any weight ; whereas, if it had imbibed the air that had
difappeared, or the water, of which, asI have fhewn, the
air principally confifts (as it would have done if it had
been melted in the procefs) it ought to have gained 4.2
grains.

There was not, however, the fame. certainty in the ex-
periments with the needles, and ftill lefs with the iron,
as in thofe with the bones. They generally gained a little
weight, and diminifhed the air more than the bones.
The reafon of this uncertainty might be that they were
fometimes heated too much; and fometimes fine {cales
were thrown from them, which were indeed fometimes
vifible when, in floating about within the veffel, they
crofled the fun beams, and both in the experiments with
the needles and thofe with the benes a vapour vifibly rofe
from them. When the needles were heated over lime
water, a thick cruft was formed upon it ; but there was not
fuch a precipitation of the lime as in the experiments with
the bones.

That the phlogiftication of nitrous acid is owing, in
fome cafes, to its zmbiding fomething, and not always to its
parting with any thing, which the antiphlogiftians main-
tain is evident from its becoming phlogifticated by im-
bibing nitrous air. This I have obferved that it does
with the greateft rapidity, leaving in fome cafes not more
than one 18th part of the original quantity. M. Fourcroy
fuppofes ( Philofophie Chymique, p. 76) that the converfion
of the common nitrous acid into the phlogifticated is
always occafioned by its parting with oxygen. That
this is fometimes the cafe I have demonftrated in my ex-
periments with heating it in long glafs tubes; but in the
prefent cafe it is not poffible that the acid fhould have
parted with any thing, and leaft of all with oxygen, fince
the {mall refiduum of nitrous air is pure azote. f fhall
here obferve, what I did not before, that the abforption

of

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 7

of nitrous air by nitrous acid is attended with a confi-
derable degree of heat.

That phlogifticated air, or azote, is not a fimple fub-
ftance, but confifts of phlogifton (or whatever is the
proper element of inflammable air) and of dephlogif-
ticated air, is probable from feveral experiments that
feem to have been overlooked by the antiphlogiftians,
fuch as the following. A mixture of dephlogifticated
and inflammable air being kept a long time was found
by M. Metherie to contain a confiderable portion of phlo-
gifticated air, as appeared by the difference of the refi-
duums after exploding a part of the mixture when firft
made, and another part fome time afterwards. I had
alfo found that a mixture of dephlogifticated and inflam-
mable air fuffers a confiderable diminution in a courfe of
time, though they will not wholly incorporate. But I
have lately found that thefe two kinds of air unite com-
pletely by being confined fome time together in a moift
bladder.

Having mixed equal quantities of thofe kinds of air,
I put them into a bladder, which I left floating in a trough
of water, and found, after about a fortnight, that the
quantity was confiderably diminifhed ; and examining it,
1 found it to be almoft wholly phlogifticated, though
there was fomething flightly inflammable in it. On this
I put equal meafures (but omitted to note the quantity) of
each of the kinds of air into another bladder, and after
about three weeks, found it reduced to 12.5 ounce mea-
fures, all pure phlogifticated air, without any mixture
of fixed or inflammable air that I could perceive.

I have likewife hit upon another method of forming
phlogifticated air by the union of dephlogifticated and
inflammable air, viz. by expofing the latter to a furface
of rufted iron, which is known to become fo by imbibing
pure air. ‘Twenty ounce meafures of inflammable air

were

8 ANALYSIS or

were confined in a phial containing pieces of rufted iron
from the 18th of Auguft to the 6th of OGober, when it
was reduced to g ounce meafures, and was but flightly
inflammable. The iron, from being red, was then be-
come ofa very dark colour. Another quantity of inflam-
mable air treated in the fame manner from, I believe, the
6th of O&ober, was in the 2d of December found to be
completely phlogifticated. In thefe experiments the iron
and the air were confined by water. Afterwards, put-
ting 7 ounce meafures of inflammable air to pieces of
rufted iron confined by mercury, it was, in about a
week, almoft wholly abforbed. | then filled up the veffel
again with inflammable air, and when the diminution
proceeded no farther, 1 examined it, and found 5 ounce
meafures of air completely phlogifticated.

Charcoal, as well as phlogifticated air, I have no
doubt, contains the element of dephlogifticated air, as
well as phlogifton, fince by its union with fteam it
takes the form of fixed air, as well as that of inflamma-
ble air, and one element in the compofition of fixed air
is dephlogifticated air. And when I made hot charcoal
imbibe inflammable air by introducing pieces of it into
jars of this air confined by mercury, and afterwards ex-
pelled it by plunging the charcoal in water, that which
came out of it was phlogiiticated air. Yet I think I re-
colleét that the refult of this experiment has fometimes
been inflammable air, the fame that the charcoal had im-
bibed.

I know of no cafe of the fimple abforption of air, but
which, like that by water, refpedts all kinds of air,
though with a preference of that which is dephlogiftica-
ted; but not fo as to take this kind on/y, and leave all the
phlogifticated air that was mixed with it. Otherwife it
would have been in our power to afcertain with exadtnefs
the real proportion of both the kinds of air in the atmo-

4 {phere

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 5

fphere. For want of this the neareft approximation that
we can make appears to me to be by the ule of nitrous air.

Since when two meafures of pure nitrous air are mixed
with one meafure of pure dephlogifticated air, they both,
as nearly as poflible, difappear, and form nitrous acid,
which is imbibed by the water in which the mixture is
made, it is evident that little or no phlogifticated air is
neceflarily formed in this procefs; and when it is con-
ducted properly, there wiil appear to be a much gteater
proportion of dephlogifticated air in the etiatphere than
has been fuppoted, and enough to be converted into
phlogifticated air in the procefs above mentioned. But
a contiderable time is neceflary for this purpofe; becaufe
the diminution continues much longer than has been
hitherto imagined.

The difference between the degree of diminution of at-
mofpherical air by a mixture of nitrous air, with, or
without, ag7fation, is very confiderable. In general,
Without agitation, equal meafures of each will occupy
the fpace of 1.25 meafures, but with agitation only 1.01 ;
and if the computation be made from this laft datum, it
will give the proportion of dephlogifticated air to be 27
parts in roo, and confequently that of the phlogifticated
air 73. But by keeping the mixture a longer time, the
diminution will proceed to about 0.6 of a meafure which
will give 46.6 for the proportion of dephlogifticated air,
and 53.4 for that of the phlogifticated air in the at-
mofphere.

This diminution in the mixture of nitrous and atmo-
fpherical air, which is effected in the courfe of time, is
various, depending, no doubt, on feveral circumftances
which I have not yet been able to afcertain. What I have
actually obferved is as follows,

On the 21ft of July 1 intiseeld equal quantities of nitrous
and atmofpherical air; when, with agitation, they oc-

cupied

i0 A NAA LYS 1 SOoF

cupied the {pace of 1.01. Examining the mixture at
different times, I obferved that the diminution kept ad-
vancing till fome time before 24th of Auguft, when it oc-
cupied the fpace of only 0.545. Another mixture made
in the fame manner was 0.54, and another 0.65. At
the fame time I found other mixtures made without
agitation, which at firft occupied the {pace of 1.25, were
in one cafe 0.75, another 0.72 and another 0.65.

The reafon why I apprehend the diminuton goes on fo
long is, that time is requifite for the ation of the
phlogifton in the nitrous air upon the dephlogifticated
part of the atmofpherical air, in order to the converfion
of the whole of it into nitrous acid, in confequence of
this part being intimately diffufed through the phlogif-
ticated part, by which itis, as it were, protected from its
action, which is fimilar to many other chemical procefles.
It is for the fame reafon that the diminution is much
greater with agitation than without it, as the parts dif-
pofed to unite are thereby brought into better contact.

When atmofpherical air is exploded together with in-
flammable air, the diminution never proceeds fo far as
when nitrous air is mixed with it; becaufe in this cafe
phlogifticated air, as well as nitrous acid, is formed by
their union; and, as I have fhewn, the greater is the
proportion of the inflammable air employed, the greater
will be the proportion of phlogifticated air in the re-
fiduum. This mixture, however, will go on diminifh-
ing for fome time, though not fo far as that with the
nitrous air; becaufe part of this produce being nitrous
acid, as I have fhewn in a former courfe of experiments,
it will require time to be formed, as well as when the
nitrous air is employed.

Having made a mixture of equal parts of inflammable
and atmofpherical air, and exploded them on the 3d
ef Auguft, I obferved that it then occupied the {pace of

I 035

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. It

1.35 meafures, and on the 2d of September, when I per-
ceived that the diminution would procced no farther, it
was 1.14 which, though confiderable, was far {hort of
the diminution produced by an equal bulk of nitrous
air.

Though, in the experiments recited above with the ca/-
cined bones, and the /ec/, neither of thefe fubftances ap-
peared to have loft any weight that I was able to afcer-
tain, it does not follow that nothing was emitted from
them. For /ight and deat are almoft univerfally allowed to
be /uéftances, though no perfon has been able to weigh them.
Befides the quantity of the materials that I made ufe of
might be too {mall for the purpofe. What is moft im-
portant in the experiments is that, fince the diminution
of the air was effeCted by heating thofe fubftances, and
they did not gazm any weight in the procels, the phlo-
giftication of air is not the abforption of any part of it by
the fubftance which produces that effect, as the antiphlo-
giftic theory fuppofes.

Noe. IL.

Farther Experiments relating to the Generation of Aur
Jrom Water, by Rev. Dr. J. PRIESTLEY.

Read Feb. J N a late publication, containing an account of
19, 1796 A fome experiments relating to the generation of
air from water, \ mentioned three different proceffes in
which air was produced from the fame water, without

any perceivable limit.
The firft procefs was converting the whole of a quan-
tity of water into fteam, in the common method of boil-
Biz ing ;

i2 ANALYSIS of

ing; when I found that, though the water had been
boiled ever fo long, or ever fo often, air continued to be
produced from it.

In order to obviate the objection to the water ha-
ving imbibed the air from the atmofphere, in a fe-
cond procefs [ put the water on which I operated into
long glafs tubes, over a column of mercury; and after
producing air by keeping the upper part of the tube con-
taining the water a long time in the form of vapour, I
let out the air fo procured under mercury, by which
means the water never came into any contact with the
air of the atmofphere, and yet it continued to yield air
whenever the procefs was repeated, without any per-
ceivable diminution, or limit.

In the third procefs, no heat was ufed, but the water
was put into a glafs veffel confifting of a large bulb,
conneéted with a tube the full length of a barometer, a
quantity of mercury fufficient to fill the tube being put
into it along with the water, and then inverted, and
placed in a bafon of mercury. By this means the preffure
of the atmofphere was removed from the water, and thus.
the air naturally contained in it efcaped, and lodged on
the furface of the water; and by inverting the veffel
again, it was thrown out into the open air. ‘This pro-
cefs 1 kept repeating with the fame water more than a
year, and yet, asin the former proceffes, I found frefh
air always produced from it, and feemingly in an equable
manner.

It has been faid that, in this procefs, the watery de-
prived of all air, inftantly feizes upon fome the moment
that the newly extricated air is thrown out, the furface
of the water in the tube being then, though but for a
moment, expofed tothe atmofphere. But this fuppofed
eager attraction of air by the water would have made it
to abforb the newly produced air, if not in its rarified

ftate

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 13

ftate on the furface of the water, yet when it was con-
denfed, on inverting the tube, during the time that it
was pafling the whole length of the tube, as readily as
frefh air from the atmofphere. Befides, it requires a
confiderable time before the water thus deprived of all
air will abforb that which has been produced, or extri-
cated, from it, when the veffel is inclined, and con-
fequently the preflure of the atmofphere removed.

Alfo, in order to obviate this objection, I kept the
extremity of the tube carefully covered with my finger
all the time that it was inverted till the moment that the
air muft be let out, and mercury put in, fo that it was
not expofed to the atmofphere fo much as the tenth of a
fecond ; and yet I found repeatedly, that the air was pro-
duced as readily as when it had been expofed to the at-
mofphere (as I fometimes purpofely did it) feveral
minutes.

{ would farther obferve, that, in this procefs, if the
veffel containing the water and mercury be inverted, and
a vacuum appear, as it inftantly will, in the form of a
bubble, for ever fo fhort atime, a perceivable bubble of
permanent air will be produced. I do not therefore fee
but that, by means probably of heat, air is producible
from the fame water without any limit.

In order to make any quantity of water as free from
‘air as poflible, agztacion is neceflary. But when by the
frequent repetition of this procefs the greateft effect has
been produced, and the air, or vapour, has remained
long upon the water, agitation will diminith it, part of
the newly generated air being imperfectly formed, and
more readily imbibed by the water than that which had
been a longer time in the ftate of air. This diminution
of the bulk of a bubble of air by agitation appears to
be the moft certain teft of as perfect an extrication

of air from water as can be attained. But even after
this

14 ANAL YS TS vor

this, whenever the bubble of air is let out, and the
veilel is inverted, another bubble is inftantly formed,
fometimes indeed fo fmall as not to be vifible to the
naked eye, but always by means of a magnifying glafs,
and this very {mall quantity will not be abforbed by the
water till the veffel has been laid in an inclined pofition
fome hours. lf the veflel be placed perpendicularly, the
bubble will come to be of a confiderable fize. Still how-
ever it will not imcreafe beyond a certain quantity,
though it remain in that pofition ever fo long.

I have tried every method that I could think of to de-
prive water of its power of producing air, but without
effet. Hear | found of no ufe but to aflift in expelling
the air originally contained in it, and freezing had no
more effect than heat.

When I publithed the pamphlet above mentioned [
had not procured from water any other kind of air than
fuch as was, in a greater or lefs degree, purer than that
of the atmofphere, and therefore I imagined that this
might have been the origin of all the air in the atmo-
fphere. But I have fince found that though the firft
quantity of air that is expelled from water is much purer
than that of the atmofphere, the next is lefs pure, and at
laft it is wholly phlogifticated. This I could not difcover
while I made ufe of {mall bulbs; but when I ufed large
ones, containing from fifty to an hundred ounces of
water, it was afcertained with the greateft certainty.
From this fact it may be inferred, either that the air pro-
duced from water is not that which had been imbibed
from the atmofphere, or that, though it imbibes moft
readily that which is the pureft, it retains with the great-
eft obftinacy that which is leaft pure, which is analogous
to other chemical affinities. If the air thus produced be
really generated from the water, or rather vapour, it muft
be wholly phlogifticated, and afterwards purified by the

- procefs

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 15

procefs of vegetation ; or the phlogifticated part alone of
the atmofphere may have had that origin, and the de-
phlogifticated part have come from vegetation.

I once thought that a very fmall quantity of any of the
acids enabled water to yield more air than it would do
without them, and while I ufed only {mall bulbs, I con-
tinued to think fo; but when I ufed the larger veflels
above mentioned, I could not perceive any {fenfible
difference in the refults in confequence of this cir-
cumftance.

The quantity of air extricated from diftilled water
before the produGtion becomes equable is about one for-
tieth of its bulk.

Withing to leave nothing undone that I was capable
of doing with refpe& to this courfe of experiments, I
have, fince the publication of the tract above mentioned,
endeavoured to convert the whole of a imall quantity of
water into air, but it has been without effe@. Having
provided barometer tubes with bulbs connected with
them, from one inch to three inches in diameter, I firft
put into them a {mall quantity of water, and then filling
them with mercury, left them fome time with the orifices
of the tubes upwards, in order to give the water an
opportunity to rife to the top. I then inverted them,
when afteffome time a very {mall quantity of water
would be vifible on the furface of the mercury in the tube,
and the vapour arifing from it in vacuo would, of courfe,
be diffufed through the whole of the bulb above it.
After this, inclining the veffel, and making it lean over
a fire, that {mall quantity of water was wholly converted
into vapour, fo as to caufe the mercury to defcend, and
Jeave both the whole of the bulb, and part of the tube,
filled with hot vapour, and in this ftate 1 kept it feveral
hours. After this | always found a quantity of air pro-
duced, and this I threw out, by inverting the veilel.

Then

16 IA INI AY TeX. iS tors

Then expofing it againto the heat, I never failed to ge
more air; and having done this, in fome cafes, not lefs
than twenty or thirty times, | was fatisfied that even the
{malleft quantity of water will never ceafe to yield air,
and in feveral cafes | have by this means procured more
air than the bulk of the water.

As {ome water would neceffarily infinuate itfelf between
the mercury and the glafs, I expofed almoft the whole
of the tube containing the mercury to the heat; by this
means converting that water into vapour, and making it
afcend to the top of the mercury; then throwing out
both the water and the air produced from it again and
again, I at length found nothing but air above the mer-
cury. Still, however, the whole of the water was not
converted into air. For when, by means of heat, the
mercury was made to defcend, the water which had been
confined between the mercury and the glafs made its ap-
pearance, though by the afcent of the mercury it would
again difappear.

Ihave alfo found that when there was any fenfible quan-
tity of water above the mercury, and have expofed it to heat
day after day, the quantity of air, in this cafe as well as
the preceding without heat, came toa maximum, and no
repetitions of the procefs would increafe it. This induces
me to conclude that the longeft continuance of any quan-
tity of water in the ftate of vapour would not convert it
into air. It may, however, be worth while, if there
fhould be an opportunity of doing it without much ex-
pence, to make the experiment.

The pureft diftilled water fhould be ufed in thefe ex-
periments. Inftead of this, 1 once ufed pump water ;
but found that, after the production of air was advanced
to its maximum, it began to yield a confiderable quantity,
at leaft ten times more than it had done before, at the
fame time becoming a little turbid. But when it was

4 clear,

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 5

clear, it fill yielded much more air than diftilled water.
Probably fome calcareous matter diffoived in the water
was decompofed in this procefs, and the air contained in
it had increafed the bulk of that which had been produced
by means of the water.

Having, in the manner above mentioned, found at
eafy method of expelling froma quantity of water all the
air contained in it, I wifhed to know what would be the
refult of making it imbibe different kinds, and various
mixtures, of air. I had before found that water deprived
of its air by boiling would imbibe any kind of air, and
that when this air was again expelled by heat, the quality
of it was not changed ; but! could now both expel the air
more effectually, and make it imbibe any particular kind
of air with more certainty and expedition. For this
purpofe, having firft expelled the air, by removing the
preflure of the atmofphere in the manner delcribed
above, I inclined the veffel, laying it in a pofition nearly
horizontal, with the end of the tube immerfed in a bafon
of mercury; and then having introduced the air that I
wifhed it to imbibe, I gently agitated the veflel, and the
preflure of the atmofphere being now removed, the water
would pretty foon faturate itfelf with the air. After this,
the veflel being placed upright, the air which it had im-
bibed was prefently difcharged, without any application
of heat.

In this method, beginning with atmofpherical air,
which confifts of a mixture of dephlogifticated and phlo-
gifticated air, 1 found that water imbibes the former in
preference to the latter, but not wholly unmixed with it.
Having made 45 ounces of diftilled water free from air,
I put to it 23 ounce meafures of atmofpherical air, of
which, by agitation, it imbibed three fourths of a mea-
fure, when the remaining two ounce meafures were
found to be of the ftandard of 1.15 inftead of 1.01

Cc which

18 ANALYSIS or

which was the ftandard of the air before the procefs ;
that is, when one meafure of this air was mixed with one
meafure of nitrous air, it occupied that fpace. When the
air that had been imbibed was expelled from the water,
it was of the ftandard of 0.75. Both mixed together
were exactly of the ftandard of atmofpherical air.

I had thought that, though deplogifticated and in-
flammable air will not unite while they retain their aerial
form, without a red heat, they might do fo when they
were both deprived of that form, by being combined with
water, and make phlogifticated air; I therefore made a
quantity of water deprived of all air imbibe a mixture of
equal quantities of thofe two kinds of air. But when
this mixed air was expelled from the water, it was fired
with an explofion, fo that no union had been formed
between them. I then made a quantity of water imbibe
the two kinds of air one after the other, but there was
no difference in the refult. The air that was expelled
from the water was {till fired with one explofion.

But dephlogifticated and nitrous air, which unite
without heat in their aerial form, did the fame when they
were combined with water. Having expelled all its air
from a large quantity of diftilled water, I firft made it
imbibe as much as it could of nitrous air, and after that
of dephlogifticated air, and obferved that what remained
of each, not abforbed by the water, was very little
changed. Then, expelling the air from the water thus
doubly impregnated, the firft quantity procured was
dephlogifticated, though not fo pure as before; the ftan-
dard of the proces with two equal quantities of nitrous
air being 0.6, whereas before it had been 0.2. The
ftandard of the fecond expulfion of air was 0.4, After-
wards it was 0.8, then 1.0; and thusit would, no doubt,
have proceeded, till it had been wholly phlogifticated ;
but no part of it had the property of nitrous air. This

kind

ATMOSPHERICAL AIR. 19

kind of air that had been imbibed muft have united with
as much of the dephloyifticated air contained in the water
as it could faturate, and thus have formed nitrous acid,
which remained in the water, while the fuperfluous
dephlogifticated air had been expelled in the procefs.

I then firft faturated the water with the dephlogifticated
air, and after that with the nitrous air, which it imbibed
very readily ; and expelling the air afterwards, found it
to be purely nitrous, there having been more nitrous air
employed at this time than was fufficient to faturate the
dephlogifticated air.

Having made the preceding experiments with waver,
I wifhed to extend them to other liquid fubftances,
and began with /pir7t of wine, which | had before found
to be convertible into inflammable air by a red heat, and
alfo by the electric fpark. I now find that fo great a
degree of heat is by no means neceflary for this
purpofe.

If I fill one of the bulbs above mentioned with the
{pirit, and by means of a column of mercury take off the
preflure of the atmofphere, a very great quantity of in-
flammable air is immediately difcharged from it, and by
a repetition of the procefs a {maller quantity never fails to
be produced, and as far as I fee without limits.

If in this ftate I expofe the fpirit to a degree of heat
fufficient to convert it into vapour, a very great pro-
portion of it is prefently converted into air, and in a few
minutes the quantity produced will be ten or twenty
times the bulk of the liqnid. This is the cafe repeatedly
with the fame {pirit, fo that I have no doubt but that, in
time, the whole of it would be fo converted, juft as if is
had been expofed to a red heat in paffing in the form of
vapour though a red hot earthen tube.

Having expelled a very great quantity of air from one
ef the bulbs filled with {pirit of wine, of the fpecific

gravity

20 ANALY S15, &c.

gtavity of 682.5, I expofed it to the atmofphere, after
which jt yielded as much as before, viz. about one third
or one fourth of its bulk, all ftrongly inflammable. I had
the fame refult in the fubfequent procefs. After another,
the air was exploded like a mixture of inflammable and
atmofpherical air, and the next produce burned with
a lambent flame. Being then examined, its fpecific
gravity was 692.4; {o that it had acquired fome weight
by imbibing atmofpherical air.

Having, in like manner, expelled air which I found
to be inflammable from a quantity of /pirit of turpentine,
I made it imbibe atmofpherical air, and expelling it again,
found it to be notinflammable, but phlogifticated. This
fluid had alfo gained fomething in its fpecific gravity by
the procefs.

The only objetion that, after giving much atten-
tion to the fubje&, I think can be made to the con-
clufion that I firft drew. from thefe experiments, viz.
that air is actually produced from water, is the very
{mall quantity that is produced in proportion to the bulk
of the water, after the air naturally contained in it is
wholly expelled. But if it fhall appear, after a long
courfe of time, that this {mall produétion of air from the
fame water is conftant, and equable, I do not fee how
the conclufion, extraordinary as it may be thought, can
be difputed. This air being wholly ph/ogifficated is a
fufficient proof that the air fo produced is not abforbed
from the atmofphere in the courfe of the procefs. For
then it would have been dephlogifticated, or at leaft
purer than that of the atmofphere, which water always |
feizes upon in preference to that which is impure,

PLACE ofr aPLANET &c. 25

Ne! EU.

To determine the true Place of a Planet, in an Elliptical Orbit,
directly from the mean Anomaly, by Converging Ser es, by
Davin Rirrennouse, L.L. D. Prefident A.P.S.

Readereh: ET x = the eccentricity, y the mean anomaly in
5, 1796. the arch of a circle the radius whereof is 1. And
a, an arch required.

For the upper half of the orbit, let —— =a 4 Sn; aad’ oa i iemt-A
: reek n Le ep ae ann e a
spin ametee to 120 iar 5 ahaa eat

5504 link Le ee
1296 864 © 60480 362880

Find the log. of the natural cofine of a, and the log. of the
fame cofine + x, and add the difference of thefe two logarithms,
and likewife the complement of the log. of the conj. femidiame-
ter, and the log. cotang. of a, together, the fum will be the
log. cotang. of the true anomaly.

For the lower half of the Orbit. i
Let y, be the mean anomaly from the lower apfis, aie: = 7

and :

Set

1 rien iaf eet eed Dee lene Ripa neni ats Ow ME
6 is i2 52 126 18 + go ot; 5040

yp ont 55m ~~ rin 41nn ees 2?

7296 * 864 * 60480 ' 362880

Take the difference between the log. of the nat. cofine of a,
and the log. of the fame cofine —«, and fubtra¢t this diff. — the +
comp. above mentioned from the log. cotang. of a, the remainder is
the log. cotang. of the true anomaly, counted from the lower apfis.

If the co-efficients prefixed to the powers of x, be computed for
any particular orbit, and their logarithms ufed inftead of the
numbers themfelves, the calculation will afterwards be very
fimple for any degree of mean anomaly in that orbit, as will ap-
pear by the following example.

In the very elaborate tables of Mr. Zach, publifhed in 1792
the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is affumed .0167923, conte-
quently log. of the lefier femidiameter will be — 1.9999387, its

D complement

22 PLACE or a PLANET In

complement .0000613, and the log. of m= — 2.2178779 and
the feries for the upper half of the orbit
will be, a@ = a + — 3.4397266. x3 The negative fign
— — 4.0603053. x5 prefixed to thefe
+ — 7.6959472. x7 logarithms affeéts
— — 8.9982252.29 &c. the index only.
For the lower half, a = x —— 3.4543136. x3
+ — 4.2217638. 25
—— 6.8392607. 27
+—7.4939405. x9 &c.
For the logarithm of the diftance in any part of the Orbit.

To the log. fine of a, add the comp. of the log. fine of the
true anomaly — the comp. of the log. of the conjugate femidiam.
the fum will be the true log. of the diftance.

Example of the Calculation.
The Sun’s mean anomaly being II’ 6° 30’ required the true
anomaly or equation.
Arch of 66°30’=1.16064395 =
y, log. = .0646990
Sub. 1+ x log. .0072323
logz = .0574667 x = 1.1414758
23 = .1724001
+ — 3:4397266
— 3.6121267 = + .0040938.01

25= .2073935
“hia Sieg O53.
— 4.3476388 = —.0002226.58

27 = .4022669
h7.0959472.
— 6.0982141 = + .0000012.54

29° 5172003
+ 8.998252
— 7+5154255 =—— -0000003.27
+ 1.1455708-55
—_.0002229.85
&@ = 161453478.7=65° 37'24".96
Log.

Aan ELLIPTICAL ORBIT.

Nat. cofine of a = .4127292.5 log. = —1.6156652
Eccent. + .0167923.

tv
uw

-4295215.5 log. =— 1.6329849

Diff. log. = .0173197
Comp. of conj. femidiam. log. = . 613
Cotang. of a, 65° 37' 24".96 = 9.6562166

Cotang. of true anomaly 64° 45'0”.8 = 9.6735976

Log. finea= 9.9594487
Log. fine 64° 45’ 0".8 comp = .0436122

10.0030609
Comp. of log. conj.— 613

Log. diftance = 10.0029996

Hence the equation is 1° 44’ 59".2. In Zach’s tables it is
1° 44’ 59".25.

The feries above given converge flowly when the mean ano-
maly is near 3S. or 9S. In this cafe the true anomaly may be
obtained with great accuracy by a feries derived from that which
expreffes the cofine in terms of its correfpondent arch, as follows,

Subtract the eccentricity from the mean anomaly and call
the remainder R. Let the difference between R and go° be = z,

A Meant apeeed atari er ay ey cal La

Then R +5 22 = > 23 rien aise an Bi
fix 7 exne 21x? 6 put
a a +72 Ser a2
And a will be the true anom. counted from the upper apfis.

For the Earth’s Orbit.

a=R+— 3.9240802.zz The uppermoft of the figns pre-
+ — 4.1491904. 23 fixed to the 3d sth and 7th
—— 4.8430581. x4 powers of z muft be ufed when
+ — 55402722, x5 R exceeds go° andthe lower
+ — 5.3413007.%° — fign when R is lefs than go®.
+ — 6.4890406. x7

D2 Examples

24 PLACE or aPLANET iw

Examples of Calculation.
Sun’s mean anomaly 60° 50’ required the true ahom. and

equation.
60° 50! = 1.06174196
—x= .0167923
R = 1.04494966
go° = 1.57079633
% = «52584667

LOE = Grice ee
2% = — 1.4417182
+ — 3-9240802

z5 =—=2.6042945
+ — 5-5462722
— 6.1505667 +

26 = — 2.3251546
+ 53413007

— 7-6664553 +

2? =— 2.0460137

— 3-3657984 + pate aC
——— — 8.5350543 —
23 = —1.1625773
+ —4-1491904

T5797 =

24 = — 2.8834364
+ —4.8430581 :
— 5-7264945 —

—=—_—_—_—>__=

R= 1.04494966

+ 232166

+ E41

+ al
1.04727319
Sumof— _7380

@= 1.04719939 = 60° 0! 0”. 38

Nat. cofine = .4999984 Log.= .6989686
7h 4 soee 7928
+5167907 Log. = .7133147
Diff. = .0143461
613
Cotang. 60° o' of.38 =9. 9-7614376 _
Cotang. true anomaly 59° 10’ 13.1 = 9.7758450
Equation —1 39' 46".9.
The

an ELLIPTICAL ORBIT. 25

The Sun’s mean anomaly 120° 50’ required the true anomaly

and equation.

; 120° 50’ = 2.10893951
—wx= .0167923

R = 2.09214721

90° = 1.57079633

Z= .52135088

Log. s = —1.7171301
2% = —1.4342602

+ — 3.9240802
— 3-3583404 = + .00228213

23 = — 1.1513903
ipsa
— 5.3005807 = + .d0001998

x4 = — 2.868 5204

+ — 4.8430581
— 5-7115785 = —.00005147

25 = —2.5856505

+ — 5.5462722
— 6.1319227 = —-.00000135

26 = —2.3027806
rh m= 523409007
— 7.6440813 = + .00000044

Sum of + = .00230255
Sum of — = — 5282

-F .00224973

R = 2.09244721
Brea 209073
2.09439694 == 120° a! 0”, 38
Comp.

26 PLACE or aPLANET &c,

Log.
Comp. to 180°=a=59° 59' 59".62 cof. .5000015.9=.6989714
—x= .0167923.
.4832092.9 =-6841352
diff. = .0148362
Cotang. 59° 59’ 59".62 = 9.7614412
9-7466050
» 613
Tang. 29° 9' 48" = 9.7466663
+ go
True anomaly 119° 9’ 48".
Mean anom. 120 50 00
Equation— 1° 40' 12"

If the 1ft and 6th 60° of mean anomaly in the Earth’s orbit
be computed by the firft feries, the 3d and 4th 60° by the fecond
feries, and the 2d and sth by the laft feries, no more than the
firft 3 terms containing powers of x, need be ufed, for the
equation cannot be had true to ;:, of a fecond without tables of
logarithms carried farther than to 7 places.

N°. IV.

On the Improvement of Time-keepers, by Davip RiT-
TENHOUSE, L. L. D. Prefident of the Society.

Read Nov. HE invention and conftruction of time-
7 1794 keepers may be reckoned amongft the moft
fuccefsful exertions of human genius. Pendulum clocks
efpecially, have been made to meafure time with afto-
nifhing accuracy ; and if there are ftill fome caufes of
inequality in their motions, the united efforts of me-
chanifm, philofophy and mathematics will probably in
time remove them.

The laft and leaft of thofe caufes, which perhaps may
be worthy of notice when all others of more importance

are

IMPROVEMENT of TIME-PIECES. 2

are removed, is that arifing from the unequal denfity of
the air, which by varying the actual weight of the pen-
dulum will accelerate or retard its motion ‘The effects
arifing from this caufe will indeed be found very {mail,
for if we fuppofe the greateft range of the barometer to
be three inches, which indicates a change of denfity in
the air of about one tenth of the whole ; and fuppofing
lead, of which pendulums are generally made, to be
8,S00 times heavier than air, the variations of the actual
weight of a pendulum may be one-88oooth part of its
whole weight, and confequently the change in its rate of
going one-17600oth part. And, as there are $6,400
feconds in a day, the clock may vary in its rate of going,
from this caufe, about + a fecond in 24 hours. Men-
tioning the barometer feems naturally to point out a
remedy for this caufe of irregularity by means of that in-
ftrument. But my defign is at prefent to defcribe a very
different and extremely fimple method, which though only
a matter of curiofity at prefent, may at fome future time
perhaps be found ufeful ; efpecially asthe variation above
mentioned is governed folely by the actual denfity of the
furrounding air, and the barometer can only give the
weight of an intire column, which does not ftridtly
correfpond with the denfity of its bafe; whereas the
method I propofe depends on the real denfity of the air
furrounding the pendulum, and nothing elfe.

Let Ab (Plate Ll. Fig. o,) be a pendulum vibrating on the
point A, and removed from the perpendicular line DE. Let
the inflexible rod be continued from BA to C, and let a
body C, of equal dimenfions with the pendulum B, but
hollow and light as poflible, be fixed on the rod, making
AC equal to AB. Now it is evident that B will be preffed
upwards by a force equal to the weight of its bulk in air,
and its defcent retarded. Butthe body C, will be equally
prefled upwards, and confequently the motion of the

pendulum

28 IMPROVEMENT or TIME-PIECES.

pendulum towards the perpendicular will be as much ac-
celerated. Thefe two forces therefo'« will deftroy each
other, and the pendulum will perform its vibrations in
equal times, whether the air be light or heavy, denfe or
rare.

I have for greater perfpicuity defcribed the moft fimple
cafe, but perhaps not the moft eligible, for if we can en-
large the vetlel or body C, in any proportion, the dif-
tance of its center from A may be diminithed at the fame
rate.

However plaufible the above may appear in theory,
no doubt difficulties will occur when we attempt to re-
duce it into practice. But 1 am perfuaded they will not
be found infuperable.

The only experiment I have hitherto made on this
fubje& has been merely to fhew that a pendulum can be
made in this manner which thall vibrate quicker in a
denfe medium than in one more rare, contrary to what
takes place with common pendulums.

I made a compound pendulum on the principles above
mentioned, of about one foot in its whole length. This
pendulum, on many trials, made in the air 57 vibrations
inaminute. On immerfing the whole in water it made
$9 vibrations in the fame time, {hewing evidently that
its motion was quicker in fo denfe a medium as water
than in the air. When the lower bob or pendulum only
was plunged in water it made no more than 44 vibrations
in aminute. The remaining 15, being folely the effe@
of the preflure of the water againft the upper veflel C.

On

EXPANSION or WOOD sy HEAT. 29

Noe. V.

On the Expanfion of Wood by Heat, in a Letter from
Davip RKittennouse L.L. D. Prefident of the
Society.

May 15th, 1795.

IN the prefent ftate of experimental philofophy it is
well known that bodies in general enlarge their dimen-
fions, or expand, on being heated, and contrac in cooling.
From fome experiments heretofore made, wood has been
thought to make an exception to the general rule, and
this opinion has fo far prevailed that many curious per-
fons have applied wooden pendulum rods to their time-
Pieces, to prevent the variation in their rate of going,
arifing from the expanfion and contraGting of a metal
rod. From my own obfervations, however, as well as
thofe of fome of my friends, the wooden pendulum rod
does not appear to anfwer the expectations formed on it.
Thad in my poffeffion for feveral years an excellent time-
piece made for this fociety by an ingenious workman
and worthy member of the fociety. The refult of my
conftant attention to this clock was, that though its re-
gular variations with heat and cold were probably much
lefs than thofe of metal pendulums, it neverthelefs always
went fafter in winter than in fummer, and was liable to
very fudden and confiderable variations; arifing, no
doubt, from the combined effects of heat and cold, moif-
ture and drynefs. This determined me to make fome
careful experiments with a pyrometer capable of receiving
a piece of wood of the length of a fecond pendulum.
Several years ago I made fome experiments of this kind,
perfectly correfponding with thofe I have lately made,
and which I now communicate to the fociety.

E I took

30 EXPANSION or WOOD sy HEAT.

I took a ftraight grained piece of white hiccory, green,
for I could not procure any feafoned, its length 39 inches,
and about 2 of an inch fquare. This I placed in my
pyrometer, and kept it fully extended by a weight
faftened to a ftring, going over a pulley. To the pyro-
meter I applied the tube and glafles of a good compound
microfcope, and a micrometer, the value of the fmaller
divifions whereof I found to be nearly .00053 parts of
an inch, each.

The rod of wood being placed in the pyrometer, I
poured fand all around it, heated to about 250 of Fahren-
heit, which degree of heat I found the wood would bear
without feorching. On pouring in the hot fand, the rod
expanded very much, but foon began to contra, even
before the fand was fenfibly cooled, which | fuppofe arofe
from the hot fand extra€ting the moifture of the wood.
It continued to contract as the whole grew cool, fo that
when the rod had acquired its firft temperature it was
near 30 of the above divifions fhorter than at firft. I
repeated the operation a fecond and third time, and had
then reafon to conclude that the wood was nearly as dry
as it would become by lying long in a dry air. Inow
let it cool to the temperature of the atmofphere which
was 75° and heating the fand to 200 only, I poured it
around the rod. Ina few minutes it expanded 16 divi-
fions. In half an hoy the fand had cooled to 125, and
the rod had contrafted 11 divifions. In an hour more
the fand was 80 and the rod {fhortened full 4 divifions
more, being nearly equal to its length when the fand
was firft applied. On the whole I conclude that very
, dry wood expands with heat pretty regularly, though .
certainly in a much lefs degree than any of the metals
or even glafs.

DAVID RITTENHOUSE.
T: 0 the Phrlofopbical Socrety.
Hager

EXPANSION or WOOD sy HEAT. at
May rath 1796.

_ P. S. The rod above mentioned having been kept in a
dry place for twelve months, I again tried it with the
pyrometer, having fixed near one end of it a fmall gra-
duated fcale of ivory, 360 divifions whereof were equal
to one inch. This fcale was viewed with the microl-
cope, furnifhed with a crofs hair, and I thought this
method preferable to the {crew micrometer ufed before.

The rod was placed in the pyrometer when the tem-
perature of the air was about 60°. On pouring fand
around it, heated a little higher than boiling water per-
haps, it immediately expanded 4 a divifion, but in lefs
than a minute it began to contract, and continued to do
fo for an hour, when I drew off the fand. It was now
full 10 divifions fhorter than at firft, fo that it had im-
bibed a great deal of moifture from the air which it again
parted with to the heated fand. Three hours afterwards
when the rod was cool, I again poured the fand on it,
heated as before. It now continued to expand. for about
three minutes, when its length was encreafed 34 divi-

fions, it then began to contract, and became full 3 divi-
fions fhorter than when the fand was poured on it. I
caufed the fand to run off once more, and let the rod
cool. Then heating the fand 250° by a thermometer, I
poured it onthe rod, and in a few minutes it expanded
3+ divifions, it then began to contraé flowly, and in 15
minutes it became + of a divfion fhorter than at firft{| On
the whole f concluded that the expanfion of wood, in its
length, will be irrregular, correfponding partly ‘to the
warmth, and partly to the moifture of the atmofphere.

D. RITTENHOUSE.

E2 A Letter

32 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS,

NO. WE

-

A Letter from Mr. ANDREW ExuicoTtT, to RoBert
PATTERSON; ia Two Parts.

Part firft contains a number of Afironomical Obfervations.

Part fecond contains the Theory and Method of calculating the
Aberration of the Stars, the Nutation of the Earth’s Axis, and the
Semiannual Equation.

PART FIRST.
Philadelphia, April ad, 1795.

Dear Sir,
Read April § HEREWITH prefent you with a confiderable num-
3 1795: ber of Aftronomical Obfervations, which you will

obferve were generally made on fome very important occafions.
—The following immerfions, and emerfions, of the fatellites of
Jupiter, were obferved at Wilmington on the Delaware, by
Mefirs. Rittenhoufe, Page, Andrews, and Lukens; and at the
weftern obfervatory by Meflrs. Ewing, Madifon, Hutchins, and
myfelf, for the purpofe of determining the weltern extenfion of
the ftate of Pennfylvania.

fi miner fi fons obferved at the Weftern ob-\| Immerfions obferved at Wilmington in

fervatory in 1784. 1784.

2 3 | | 4 icf 8 1 at
Day of the MeanTime.| Obfervers. ~o 6.|/ Dayof the/= wrean'Time| Obfervers. 8 2
month: ef ean Lime. ervers. BS Month. 3 ean time. ervers eg

ie tin ~ |14"17'33"|Page, E

July 1. | 1 |14 17 46|Rittenhoufe,G

14.1748 |Lukens. F

~ \13 1858 |Pag:, E

. July 3. | 2/13 19 12 |Rittenhoufe,G
13 19 02 |Lukens. B

116 3110 Page, E

Le age) (26 1127 Ritrenhoufe. G

/Jr2513'48"| Ewing, A
Joly 17. {1 12 1320|Madif n, B

12 1325 |Hutchins, C
12 1325 | Ellicott. D

iA TS. feet acromatic, Bo & cap halite ine *G a 4 feet reflector, Ea 2 feet reflefor,
Caafeet reflector, and Da 3 feet acromatic, llr 33 feet acromatic, and H a g feet refleGor.

Aug. 3

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

33

Immerfions obferved at the Weflern Immerfions obferved at Wilmington.
Obfervatory.
ie eS ee £| 3
ere # Mean Time.|Obfervers. 2 5 iced de 3 eer eae een 2 ee
& = ee S
Vi: ' alee Lae Tig ses aes
551 Vladilon, 9 14 47 |F age,
Ang. 3.13] 3 55 23 |Hurchins, C Aug. 3-| 3 9 15 37 |Lukens, Fr
1855 6{Ellicott. D 9 15 27 |Rittenhoule G
12 24 20|/Ewing, <A pra
12 24.25 |Madion, B
Aug. 9-| 1 12 24.15 | Hutchins, C
_|t2 24 31 Ellicott, D
re 56 ae ne a 13 16 10|Andrews, H
Aug.10) 3} 5 26 ae Hatchins, C||2¥s-10-| 3 |13 16 33 |Lukens, F
zs ’ Bae
1256 $| Ellicott. D 13 16 38 |Rittenhoule. G
14.18 40|Ewing, A nh a e oan. a
Aug.16.) 1/14 18 13 | urchins, C)/Aug.16.! 1 “ 33 37 ae EF
Eliicotc. aS >
a cab vaiaaia i 14 38 39 |Rittenhoufe. G
W2ta ra 2 Ewing, A vi ie 36 er e
Aug.19.) 4/12 30 57 ener By} Aug.19.) 4 tale oe Tukens: F
plc VlSEY CE Nie 12 50 21 |Rittenhoufe. G
| \¥6 32 11 |Andrews, H
Aug.23. 1 j26 32 45 |Lukens, EF
| 116 32 49 |Rittehoufe. G

Emerfions obferved at the Weflern Ob-') Emerfions obferved

at Wilmington,

Jfervatory, 1784. 1784.
2 é isi] 4
Day of the} =| yqean'Tim< 2 ® |Day of the 4 F 43
atch! : MeanTime | Dbfervers. 2 3) Months. | E Mean Time. Obfervers. = 5
ia 7° 26'o |Ewing, <A
Aug.27 726 3: |Madifon, B
72615} “llicott, DI
Sh 12 1 |] wing A : > lt
12 i se Mraditon, B i 13° o'18 Andrews, H
Aug. 2: 12 40 21 | dutchins, C|]/**”8 Pe (od ee teas aes sti re a
i240 8 felicctt. D t2 59 43 | <ittenhoufe.
8 43 23 |Andrews, H
Sept. 8.| 3 8 “42 55 |Page, by
8 42 45 |Rittenhoule.G
11 36 6|Andiews, H
Sept. 10.} 1/11 36 1 |Page, B
II 35 48 |Rittenhonfe. G

Emerfion

34 ASTRON OMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Emerfions obferved at the eweftern Ob- Emerfions obferved at Wilmington.

Jervatory.
Day of theles | 3 3 Il Day of thel | 43
Be MS c Bi eJObfervers. © a& yes = |Mean Time.|Obfervers. 3 &
Month. | 2 =n) Month, | 8 BS
12522'55"| Ewing, A

5 adit i2§ga’15"|Andrews, H
Sept.15 .| 3 Meg ak nO) Sept.15.13 |12 44 8 |Lukens, F
Sonar eee ye 12 Rittenhoufe. G

12 22 49 | Ellicott. 43 45 |

73856|Ewing, A eta was

~ ; 759 12|Andrews,, H
Sean aye Hatching, Gl|Sept-19.]1] 7 $8 54 [Lukens F
739 11] Ellicott. D 759 6|Rittenhoufe. G

Although the correfponding obfervations only, were admitted
in the decifion, the non-correfponding ones may neverthelefs
be ufeful for fixing the geographical fituations of other places,
where correfponding ones may have been made.

In drawing a conclufion from the foregoing obfervations, it
was thought neceffary to confider what dependence ought to be
placed in each fatellite ; becaufe their different velocities, will
give different degrees of certainty. The firft fatellite is fmall,
but the rapidity of its motion is much more than a compenfation
for this deficiency: Its luftre is much fooner loft, or acquired,
than that of the fecond: On the fame account, the fecond is
better than the third, and the third than the fourth.—The flow
motion of the third aad fourth fatellites, will occafion great un-
certainty, if the atmofphere fhould be more hazy at one ob-
fervatory, than the other, at the time of obfervation: this is
manifeft from the correfponding obfervations of Auguft 19th
and September 15th, both of which would have been re-
jected, had they not counteracted each other. The firft fatellite,
being fo much fuperior, on account of certainty, to either of the
others, we thought proper to put as much dependence upon it,
as upon the others collectively, and that the mean of thofe rofltes
fhould be deemed the aftronomical diftance between the eaftern
and weftern obfervatories.

The correfponding obfervations on the firft fatellite, are thofe
of Auguft 16th and September roth.

Diff. of longitude by the correfpond-
ing obfervations of Augult 16th.

Ditto by do. “Sept. 15th. 19 58 30 Emerfion rft Satellite.
Diff. of longitude by 1ft Satellite. 19 59 50= the Mean Longitude.

RES ee ff,

m

zo' 1’ 10” Immerfion 1ft Satellite.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 35

Diff. of longitude by the correfpond-
ing obfervations of Augult 3d.

Do. by Do. of Auguft toth 20) aA Do. Do.

Do. by Do. of Augult 19th LOW GT a Do. 4th Satellite.

Do. by Do. of Auguit 29th 20 1 40 Emerfion 2d Satellite.

Do. by Do. “of September 15th 20 58 10 Do. 3d Satellite,

Longitude by the 2d 3d and 4th Sa-
tellites colleétively.

Do. by the rit Satellite 19 59 50

Lg

20° 6" 45" Immerfion 3d Satellite.

20 2 25 = Mean Longitude.

+ Mean.

Hence the diftance between the obfervatories exceeded 5 de-
grees of longitude, (being the extent of Pennfylvania weft from
a point on the Delaware,) by 1” 7.5.

After the determination, we completed the fouthern boun-
dary of Pennfylvania; it being likewife the north boundary of
Maryland, and a part of Virginia, and which had been carried
on fome years before by Meflrs. Mafon, and Dixon, the dif-
tance of 242 miles.*

On the gth day of June 1785, the following obfervations
were made at the weft end of the above line to trace a meridian
north, for the weftern boundary of Pennfylvania, and the eaftern
boundary of a part of Virginia.

Diff. in time between the paflage of a Libra, and 2

Urfe Min. over our line.

Right Afcenfion of 8 Urfe Min. 75 12° 54’ 6”

h ’
oO" 12’ 40.5

Do. a Libre. - aa 9 460
Diff. - - as 6 intime=o0 12 29 .2
Error of the line in time - E OL On Trees

By the above error of 11”.3 in time, it appears that our
line was inclined to the weft 57” in fpace, which was correéted
on a bafe of 300 perches.

June 29th about 17 miles north from our firft ftation, we
corrected our line by the following obfervations.

Diff. in time between the paflage of a Libre, and £ me ob 12" 17”

Minoris over our line.

Right Afcenfion of 6 Urfe Min. 7° 12° 53! 50”

Do. of a Libre. Regi 46: 02
Diff. - - © 3 7 39=intimetoo 12 30
Error of the line in time. - - = o o 13 diff.

The

* This line is in the parallel of 39° 43/ 18” north latitude. My affociates in this part
of the bufincfs were, Dr, Rittenhoufe, Dr. Ewing, Mr. Andrews, and Mr. Hutchins.

36 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

The above difference of 13” in time, is equal to an angle of
1’ 5” in fpace, which in this cafe is the error of our line towards
the eaft, and was correéted on a bafe of 110 perches.

On the 16th of July, diftant from our firft pofition 29 miles,
we examined the direction of our line by the following ob-
fervations.

Diff. in time between the paflage of » Sagit. and 7} of 9! 20.5

Draco. over our line. - - : Fs
Right Afcenfion of « Sagit. 9° 0°14! 47”
Do. 7 Draco. - 8 27 54 59 ‘
Diff. - - 219 48=intimeto 09 I9
Error in time - - - - oo 5 diff.

From the above obfervation it appears that our direétion is
fufficiently accurate, and the fmall error if it can be called one,
is to the eatft.

September 3d we made the following obfervations to rectify
the direction of our line.
Diff. in time between the paflage of a Urfe Majoris, and of 40’ 26"

y Cephi. over our line. - - i 427
Right Afcenfion of 7 Cephi. 116 22° 40’ 53"

Do. of a Urf Maj. 5 12 35 18

Diff. - - GhLOw a5 25
Deduct 6°. - 6
- O10 5 35=in time to © 40 22
Error in time - = = oy eye benl ec retin

By this obfervation it appears that our line is directed too
much towards the eaft by an angle of 13”.

Diff. in time between the paflage of a Urfe Minoris, and} o! 5' 8”
¢ Urfe Majoris over our line - - t
Right Afcenfion of a Urfe Min. 0% 12° 34' 13°

Do. ot a Urfe Maj. 6 11 7 24
6 1t 26 49
Dedu& - - 6
Difference - © I 26 49=intimeto o 5 47
Error in time - . - - oo 39 diff.

—_—

By this obfervation, it appears that our direction is too much
eaf{t by an angle of 23’.

2 4 Error

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. yi
Error of the line by « Urf Majoris, and y Cephi. o 13”

Do. by a Urfe Min. and « Urfe Majoris. © 23
2)o 36
ean error towards the eaft - o 18

This correction of 18" was made ona bafe of 24 perches.
4P

The fame night, we alfo took the greateft deviation of the
pole ftar, (a Urfz Min.) and the error difcovered in the line by
that method did not differ more than 1! from a mean of the
other obfervations.—It is alfo worthy of remark, that we had
not corrected for fomewhat more than 54 miles: from which a
conclufion may be drawn very favourable to the method ufed in
carrying on the line, otherwife the error muft have been more
confiderable in fuch a diftance.

On the fixth day of Oétober, diftant from our firft tation
go miles, the direction of our line was examined by the follow-
ing obfervations. : 4
Diff. in time between the paflage of « Urfe Min. ae 0” 4’ 56”

¢ Urf Maj. over our line. - -
Right Afcenfion of « Urfe Min. 08 12° 357 51”

Do. of ¢ Urfe Maj. 6 11 7 39
6 1 28,12
Deduct 2 A 6
Diff. - - “o 1 2%12=in time to c 5 53
Error in time - - ere - © 0 57 diff.

The above error in time by a Urfee Min and + Urfe Maj. is
equal to an angle of 34’, which was to the weft. This error
was corrected on a bafe of 48 perches.

On the 17th of Oétober, diftant from our firft pofition about
100 miles, we examined the direétion of our line by the fol-
lowing obfervations.

Diff. in time between the paflage of » Capricorn, and a of 2! 16"

Cephi over our line - - - -

Right Afcenfion of yCapri. to 22° 3! gil

Do. of &Cephi. 10 21 27 17
Diff. - - © O 35 52=intimeto o 2 23
Error of the line in time. - - - - oo 7 diff.

This error in time, (by thofe ftars,) is equal to an angle of

46’ which is to the weft.
F Diff

38 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS,

Diff. in time between the paflage of #& Urfe Maj. and bg! e6T
Fomalhout over onr line - - - qi 5

Right Afcenfion of 8 Urf Maj. 5512° 11' 4"

Do. of Fomalhout To Le 2603

6 © 44 30

Deduct a 6

Diff. - - © © 44 30=in time to 0 2 58
Error of the line in time - “ - - Ovo! 2idifte:

This error of 2” in time, is equal to an angle of ro! the error
of the line towards the weft.
Diff. in time between the paflage of @ Urfe Min. and « n6’ al
Urf Maj. over our line E : Ca
Right Afcenfion of « Urfe Min. o§ 12° 35’ soll
Dome von tan sa) ries May sm tOr ii wnt oaa

CS Seip Rech £0)
Dedu& - 6
Diff. - - 01/128 §),G i= any time tolonnins
Error of the line in time - - - o o 41 diff.

By this laft obfervation, our direction appears to be inclined
to the weft, by an angle of 25'.
Error of the line by y Capri. and & Cephi. o' 46!
Do. by 4 Urfe Maj. and Famalhout, o to
Do. by « Urfe Min. and s Urf Maj. o 25

3)t 11
Mean error towards the welt - © 234

This correction of 23/2 was made on a bafe of 40 perches,
which clofed our operations that feafon.*

The year following, (viz. in 1786,) the lime was carried on
about 55+ miles to Lake Erie by Andrew Porter, and Alexander
Maclain: in that diftance the direction was not corrected by any
obfervations, neither could it appear very neceflary, when we
confider how trifling, and unimportant all the errors were which
had been difcovered the preceding feafon—The line was run

by
* Dr. Rittenhoufe, Jofeph Nevil, Andrew Porter, and myfelf were con-

cerned inthis line. Jofeph Nevil left us about the 21ft of Auguft, and Dr.
Rittenhoufe about the 17th of September. ;

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 29

by a moft excellent tranfit inftrument, made by Mr. Bird, and
which had been ufed by Meflrs Mafon and Dixon, fome years
before in this country.

The magnetic variation was taken in many places on this line,
and was found at our firft ftation at the end of the parallel of

latitude to be * 2 2 Deluge
5 miles on the line it was - DIN:
II - Do. x 2 2 10
14 - Do. - - R57
162 Ea DIo} = = I 30
19 r Do. = - E25
20 ~ Do. - - I 12.5
26 - Do. - - FL. 5
29 - Do. - = 1°37
37 - Do. - - I 75
44 * Do. cf a ° 57 + Eat
ren) he te Da, a“ en RNs
51 - Do. - - O 57-5
53 - Do. - - Oo 50
57, - Do. - - Ty 2h
633 - Do. - - On 57.5
70 - Do. - - O 51
75 ; Do. z - Ov 2705
79 = Do. “ - OL 67.5
go - Do. - - © 19.5
100 = Do. = = © 25

The ftate of Pennfylvania is bounded on the north by the
42° of north latitude. ‘This line extends from a point on the
Delaware, (which was fixed by Dr. Rittenhoufe and Captain
Holland in the year 1774,) and extends weft to Lake Erie:
it was completed in the years 1786, and 1787. In order to
carry on the parallel of latitude with as much expedition, and
economy as poflible, we difpenfed with the method of tracing
a line on the arc of a great circle, and correéting into the paral-
lel, as purfued by Meffrs Mafon and Dixon, in determining
the boundary between this ftate, and the ftate of Maryland,
and which we followed in completing their line in the year 1784.
We commenced our operations by running a guide line weft,
with a furveying compafs from the point mentioned on the

r

De Delaware

HO ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Delaware 20: miles, and there corrected by the following zenith
diftances taken at its weftern termination by a moft excellent
fetor, conftruéted, and executed, by Dr. Rittenhoufe.*

Face of the SeGor Eaft, 1786.
July 21% Obferved Z. diftance « Lyre 3° 23' 467.58

22 Do. do. 223,46) 3

23 Do. aCygni 2 31 52 N

24 Do. do. oneeze Sl 1 iN

Do. do. OPP 3 2 aT aN

a) Do. Capella 3 46 55 N

Do. @ Myre) 063 923) 37 NS

Augult sf Do. a Cyemiis (2732) gut) Sa

Face of the Sector Weft, 1786.

July 25th Obferved Z.diftancee Lyre 3°24'31” S

26 Do. Capelia 3 45 17 N

E Do. dow hes" caicomsis. . Ni

9 Do. aCygni 2 31 14.5 N

31 4 Do. dost tiz y air in.) 7 Ny

Do. Capella 3 45 16 N

sts if Do. a Cygni 2 31 18.5 N

Do. Capella 3 45 17.5 N

4 Do. e« Cygni 2 31 19.5 N
Mean latitude deduced from the above obfervations 41950! 52.7,
By which it appears that we were too far fouth by 728

The correction being made, the guide line was correéted
back to the Delaware, and another guide line carried on weft
19: miles from the corrected point north of our obfervatory,
at the termination of which the following zenith diftances were
obferved.

Face of the Sector Eaft, 1786.
Auguft 17th Obferved Z. diftance « Lyrz 3° 23 39.5 S

8 Do. osm ag 20a Tabs

: Do. a Cygni 2 32 10.5 N
Do. aLyre 3 23 36.5 S

19f Do. aCygni 2 32 8

20 Do. a Capella 3 46 1.5 N

_ ” At this ftation a number of obfervations were rejected, on account of their difagree-
ment, which we fortunately difcovered was owing to the atmofphere being affected by
the numerous fires we kept up to keep off the flies, muiketoes, and gnats, which are very

troublefome in that part of the country.
+ Note the letters N. S, fignify north and fouth of the Zenith.
a Mean

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 4

Face of the Setlor Weft, 1786.
Augut zoth f Obferved Z. diftance 2 Lyre 3° 24'22” S

Do. a Cygni 2 31 23 N
Do. Capella 3 45 16 N
af Do. alyre 3 24 23.5 S
Do. aCygni 2 31 24 N

Mean latitude deduced from the foregoing obfervations 41° 59' 53”
Hence our obfervatory too far fouth by 7

This correction being made, we proceeded as in the firft
cafe, and carried on our guide line 213 miles, at the termination
of which we obferved the following zenith diftances.

Face of the Seftor Eaff, 1786.

September 1ft Obferved Z. diltance « Cygni 2°32: 0" N
2 Do. do. Zion On) IN

3 Do. ° eployincel ye Sy 230A wis

of Do. do. 3 23 44.5 S

Do. oh YOU Ml 2ugzueub WN

y Do. a luyie, | 31/23) 745a5 1S

7} Do. aCygni 2 31 59 N

Face of the Secor Weft, 1786.

September 8th Obferved Z. diftance 2 Lyre 3° 24'31! S
Do. aCygni 2 31 13 N

9 Do. alLyre 3 24 33 S

Do. aCygni 2 31 15 N

10 Do. do. ais tras IN

Mean latitude deduced from the above obfervations 42° o' 3.8!
Too far north by 3.8

The above correction of 3!.8 being laid off, we proceeded
as formerly, and carried on our guide line 283 miles, and ob-
ferved the following Z. diftances at its termination.

Face of the Sector Eaft, 1786.
September 22d { Obferved Z. diftance « Lyre 3° 23' 36” S

Do. «Cygni2 3216 N
, Do. a Lyre 3 23 34.5 S
3 Do. a Cygni2 32 12
. Do. ae uyiee 2) (22) eS
& Do, a Cygni2 32 16.5 N

A2 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
Face of the Sedor Weft, 1786.

‘ Obferved Z. diftance « Lyre 3° 24' 23!.5 S

SARE Do. a Gyan 3 a ay

28 Do. do) 2iecaza Ni

Do. @ Ihyre 3 24 22.5 S

ra, { Do, a Cygni2 31 26.5 N

Do. alLyre 3 24 24.5 S

3° Do. a Cygniz 31 26.5 N
Mean latitude by the above obfervations 41° 59' 55!.2
Too far fouth by - - 4.8

The correction being made and our guide line corrected back,
we ceafed our operations for that feafon.

In June the year following we carried on our guide line 193
miles and at its termination made the following obfervations.

Face of the Sector Weft, 1787.

June 19 Obferved Z. diftance Capella 3°45’ 2”.5 N
Do. a Lyre Bie 24) 4a

“| Do. yAndrom.o 42 35 S
Do. Capellay tian?) #45 ato ann

Do. aCygni 2 30 55.5 N

Do. ee yas dns) naib) Cats

a} Do. a Cyontiey2 36) Borg Ie
Do. eCygni 2 3056 N

22 f Do. yAndrom.o 42 35.5 S
Do. Capella’ 33) 45 2.5) Ni

Do. a Lyre 3 24 50.5 S

e Do. Cygni 2 36 31.5 N
3 Do. aCygni 2 30 57.5 N
Do. Capella BAO. 5) IN|

Do. a Lyre 2 20E Ss AOS

244 Do. SCygni 2 36 30 N
25 Do. Capella 3 44 59.5 N

Face of the SeGtor Eaft, 1787.

Obferved Z. diftance a Lyre 3° 24’ 9".3
Do. aCygni 2 31 37.3

| Do. y Androm.o 41 52.5
eo. Capella

June 26th

3 45) 42
Do. Piyre eens 24 aey
Do. *Cygni 2 37 13
28 Do. aCygni 2 31 39
Do. Capella 3 45 44
Do. a: Lyrae 24 10.5
* Note the Zenith diftances are entered according to the civil account, and therefore @
Lyrz by fiderial time gaining 3’ 56’ on mean folar time, was twice on the meridian us day.
une

ALZAZaALZ HAA

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
Obferved Z. diftance #Cygni 2°37’ 16".5 N

Do. aCygni 2 31 44.2 N
Jane 25th Do. yAndrom.o 41 53.2 S
Do. Capella 3 45 44 N
Mean latitude by the foregoing obfervations 2°) OUT ZA
Too far north by - - - 12.4

43

The above correétion being made we carried on our guide line
26: miles, and at its termination obferved the following Zenith

diftances.
Face of the Sector Weft, 1787.
Obferved Z. diftance 7 Androm. 0° 42’ 4c 58 S
July 7 a} Do. Capella 3 44 54
Do. a Lyre 3 24 47 3
8 Do. Capella 3 44 52- N
9 Do. a Lyre 3 2448 #S
10 f Do. a Cygni Zar 2
Do. Capella 34454 N
Do. y Androm.o 42 41 S
uf Do. Capella 3 44 53.7 N
Do. a Lyre 3 24 47-5 S
af Do. d Cygni 2:°36 335 N
Do. a Cygni 2) 301591 5) \ NI
Do. ?Cygni 2 36 32 N
sf Do. a Cygni 2 43Tiey een YN
Do. Capella 34456 N
Face of the Sedtor Eaft, 1787.
July 13th Obferved Z. diftance «Lyre 3°24’ 2” S
Do. y Androm.o 41 53 S
14 Do. Capella. 3 45 379 N
Do. a Lyre Ane Aa S
Do. a Cygni 2y 3ivach. (ON
sf Do. Capella 3 45 40.3 N
x6 f Do. a Lyre 3 2402 S
Do. é Cygni 2) 13°71, 2005) WING
Do. a Cygni 2vigineinsz) LN
Es } Do. yAndrom.o 41 54 S
7 Do. Capella 34541 N
Do. dCygni 30°37 17.4.0N
Do. y Androm. o 41 54.2 S
af Do. Capella 2945, 20m ON
Do. é Cygni 2, 137 201 N
: { Do. a Cygni 2 31 41.7 N
9 Do. Capella 3 4540 N

Mean

Ad. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Mean latitude of our Obfervatory . A220! 15"
Too far north by - - “3 15
The above correétion being made, we carried on the guide

line 30: miles, and at its termination obferved the following
Zenith diftances.

Face of the Sector Weft, 1787.

Obferved Z. diftance « Lyrz S220ra ALS
Anger 7th Do. a Cygni 3 a wipe
5 Do. Capella 3 45 38.7 N
3 Do. a Cygnil |) 2377 30.0 ON
l Do. aCyent.. 24340 357 .\ N
9 Do. y Androm.o 41 49.5 S
10 Do. a Lyre 2285 se2 ces
Do. a Lyre BVZ2NEB Ons
uf Do. é Cygni 2 37 33.6 N
Do. a Cygni 2 31 54.6 N
Do. Capella 3 45 38.6 N
af Do. a Lyre 3 23 52.4 S
Do. a Cygni 2 31 57.2 N
( Do. y Androm.o 41 47.5 S
Do. Capella 3 45 36.5 N
13 Do. a Lyrz 222851.) 9
Do. ¢Cygni 2 37 31.3 N
l Do. aCygni 2 31 58.4 N
14 Do. Capella 3 45 41.5 N
Face of the Seéor Eaft, 1787.
Obferved Z. ditance 2 Lyre 3°23' 8l.g S
Augult rah} Do. *Cygni 2 38 20.7 N
Do. aCygni 2 32 45.6 N
Do. y Androm.o 41 07 S
sf Do. a Lyre 3) 23mr S
Do. #Cygni 2 38 22.6 N
Do. y Androm.o 41 2 S
KG Do. a Lyre 3 23 105 S
Do. éCygni 2 38 23.7 N
Do. aCygni 2 32 42.5 N
Mean latitude of the obfervatory c - 41° 59' 27'.5
Too far fouth by - - 32 «5

Correéted as formerly, and carried on the guide line 28:
miles, and obferved the following Zenith diftances.

,

Face

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 45

Face of the Sector Weft, 1787.
Auguft 25th Obferved Z. diftance SCygni 2° 36’ 38”.3 N

26 Do. 2 Medufe 1 53 r2.5 S$

{ Do. Capella 3 44 47.9 N

{ Do. a Lyre ier ay Diets)

27 Do. ¢Cygni 2 3639 N

l Do. aCygni 2 31 84 N

Do. Capella 3 44 49.2 N

sof Do. a Lyre By 2araz (iS

Do. a Cygni 2 40) 6.5 oN

Do. y Androm. 0 42 32.9 S

Do. & Meadufe 1 53 15.9 S

31 | Do. « Lyre 3 24449 S

Do. é Cygni 2 36 41.5 N

[ Do. a Cygni 2 31 10.2 N

Sept. 2d Do. &Medufe 1 53 11.3 S
Face of the Seftor Eaft, 1787.

Obferved Z. diftance « Lyre 3°. 23' 584.2 S

September no} Do. @Cygni 2 37 24.5 N

Do. aCygni 2 31 55.4 N

Do. 7 Androm.o 41 50.6 S

Do. alLyre 3 23 59.2 S

3 Do. dCygni 2 37 27.5 N

Do. aCygni 2 31 56.6 N

Do. yAndrom.o 41 47.4 S

{ Do. BMedufe 1 52 26.8 S

4¢ Do. Capella 3 45 31.5 N

| Do. a liyre 3 23 57.8 S

C Do. DCygni 2 37 28.8 N

of Do. aLyre 3 23 584 S

Do. PCygni 2 37 29 N

Do. 6 Medufe 1 52 28.5 S

rf Do. aCygni 2 31 56.4 N

8 Do. BMedufe 1 52 27.8 S

Do. Capella 3 45 31.1 N

9 Do. _ do, 345954

Mean latitude of the Obfervatory = “ 42° 0! 214.3

Too far north by - - - 21.3

The above correction being made, we carried on the guide
line 32: miles, and obferved the following Zenith diftances.

Face of the Sedtor Weft, 1787.

Obferved Z. diftancea Lyre 3° 24’ 31".5 S

September ast} Do. *Cygni 2 36 54 N
Do. aCygni 2 31 28.3 N

G Sep. 22d

46
Obferved Z. diftance & Medufe 1°
Do. Capella
September 22d Do. ys ies /
Do. aCygni 2
Do. y Androm.o
5 Do. a Lyre 3
3 Do. 2 Cygni 2
Do. aCygni 2
rf Do. Capella 3
245 Do. PCygni 2
L Do. aCygni 2
25 De. Capelia 3
Do. y Androm. o
Octaker 2} Do. B Medufe 1
Face of the Secor Eaff, 1787.
{ Obferved Z. diftancee Lyre 3°
September 25th 1 De. dCygni 2
{ Do. aCygni 2
ff Do. aLyre 3
264 Do. @Cygni 2
it Do. aCygni 2
a Do. alyre 3
es { Do. sCygni 2
28 { Do. @Cygni 2
‘i Do. aCygni 2
29 Do. y Androm. o
Do. > Androm. o
f Do. BMedufe 1
30 a Capella 3
0. eLyre 3
Do. dCygni 2
ft Do. xCygni 2
{ Do. y Andromo
Otober 1. Do. BMedufe 1
{ Do. Capella 3
Mean latitude of the Obfervatory - -
Too far north by = « r

Correéted as formerly, and carried on our guide line 322
miles, to Lake Erie, and obferved the following Zenith dif-

tances.

Face of the Seor Weft, 1787.

M&ober Sth { ee a fa

2°
aCygni 2

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

52'57°.98

42 2

on mS

36 5

Ww
nN
An
TMi an

31 206.

nanZZaZZZzgZnng

aS
a
to
© . . nd .
Wik AM wv

23'46".4.S
37 45-8
32 14.5
23 43-5
37 42.5
32 14.9
23 42.9
37 41-3
37 4143
32 11.2
41 39

44 38.7
52 12

45 47-2
23 46.2
37 42

32 13

4U 35

52 11-5
45 45.6

4220! 10!
io;

AnangZnZnannAAZAZngZaanga

wow

SS

37'12".9 N
31 40.5 N

O&. oth

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 47

{ Obferved Z. diftance y Androm. 0° 42’ 1.9 S
Oober goth Do. f Medufe 1 52 43.5 S
l Do. Capella 3 45 18.1 N
Do. BMedufe ft 52 44.5 S
Do. Capella 3 45 13.5 N
104 Do. a Lyre 3 24 17.4 8S
| Do. dCygni 2 37 11.4 N
L Do. aGyeni . 2630 41.3, N
{ Do. 7 Androm.o 42 2.4 5
cat Do. BMedufe 1 52 47 5
a Do. a Lyre 3 24 15.3 8
Do. aGygui,. 23" 37 ON
tr Do. BMedufe 1 52 42.8 S
Do. Capella 3 45 13.8 N
i Do. a@ davies 4 2a 21.5 |
{ Do. eCygni 2 37 102 N
tL Do. aCygnt 2 31 41.5 N
Do. yAndrom.o 42 1.6 &
15 ' Do. BMedufe 1 52 47.1 S
Do. Capella 3 45 17.6 N
Face of thé Sedor Eaf?, 1787.

Obferved Z.diftance x Lyre 2° 23’ 34.7 .

Oétober 1 5} Do. oCygni 2 37 54.5
Do. a Cygni 23 2uzeen N
( Do. 7 Androm.o 41 14.2 S
164 Da & Medtfe 1 52 04 S
L Do. Capella 3 45 58.5 N
Do. BMadufe 1 §1 59.9 S$
, Do, aLyre 3 23 34.9 S$
7 Do. #Cygni 2 3757 +N
Do. aCygni 2 32 27.6 N
Do. Capella 3 45 58.2 N
+h Do. aLyr# 3 23 32.2 8
Do. oCygni 2 37 55.2 N
Do. aCygni 2 32 24.7 N
Do. y Androm.o 41 13.2 S
Do. 8 Medufe 1 51 58.4 S$
? Do. #Cygni 2 fy ay N
Do. aCygni 2 32 25.9 N
sof Do, y Androm.o 41 13.3 S
Do, &Medufe 1 51 57.4 S

Mean latitude of the rue by the Sage Seles 4i® 59 58".
Too far fouth by - i 7

The above correétion being made, completed the Aftrons-
mical boundaries of the State of Pennfylvania.
G2 My

48 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

My affociates in tracing the north boundary of Pennfylvania
were Dr. Rittenhoufe, James Clinton, and Simeon De Wit,
in the year 1786. ‘The firft of thofe gentlemen left us in the
beginning of September.—The year following my affociates
were Andrew Porter, Abraham Hardenberg, and William
Morris.

I have omitted the calculations, and given only the refults,
for the following reafons, firff they would have fwelled this
paper to a great length, fecondly no difficulty can arife in making
them, to any perfon moderately acquainted with pra¢tical aftro-
nomy, except in thofe fmall equations depending upon the ef-
fects of aberration and nutation, which from the prefent im-
proved ftate of this fcience, have become abfolutely neceflary ;
and +hirdly becaufe I intend concluding this paper, with a
fhort efflay defigned to render eafy fo much of the calculations,
as depend upon the effects of aberration and nutation.

The following emerfions of the rft Satellite of Jupiter were
abferved in Baltimore, in the State of Maryland. The tele-
fcope which I ufed was acromatic, and magnified about 60
times.

January 1788, 24 8 6’ 23” hazy atmofphere

9 10 © ¥4 very clear ps mime
18 6 23 57 do.
25 8 18 54 do.

Obfervations made at Georgetown, in the diftri&@ of Co-
lumbia on the annular eclipfe of the Sun in the year 1791.

The beginning of the eclipfe could not be obferved, the fun
being below the horizon.

18539 1‘.25 annulas completed
April 2d if 18 43 15 .25 annulas broken bate Time.
19 55 37 -75 end of the eclipfe

From an uncommon undulation in the atmofphere till towards
the end of the eclipfe, I cannot pretend to be certain within
two or three feconds of the completion, and breaking of the an-
nulas; but the end may be relied on as correct. The lat. of
Georgetown is about 38° 55/ N.

In the city of Wafhington lat. 38° 52’ 40” N. I obferved the
following occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon,

Tmmerfion 2199) o5" 4ols '
Emerfion { Janary 1793 13 9 25 21-5 Apparent Time.
A number

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 49

A number of the eclipfes of the firft Satellite of Jupiter,
together with a great proportion of my notes relative to the
city of Wafhington, were privately taken from my lodgings in
Georgetown, otherwife they fhould have appeared in this
paper.

As the city of Wafhington from its fhortly becoming the
permanent feat of the government of the United States, muft be
an object of importance, I prefume it will not be unacceptable
to give fome account of the method ufed in laying out the ten
miles {quare, and executing the plan of the city.—Preparative
to beginning the ten miles fquare, a meridian was traced at
Jones’s Point on the weft fide of the Potomak: from this
meridian an angle of 45° was laid off north-wefterly, and a
ftraight line continued in that direction ten miles; from the
termination of this line making a right angle with it, a ftraight
line was carried north-eafterly ten miles: from the termination
of this fecond line, a third making a right angle with it was
carried fouth-eafterly ten miles; and from the beginning on
Jones’s Point, a fourth was carried ten miles to the termination
of the third. Thefe lines were meafured with a chain which
was examined and corrected daily, and plumbed wherever the
ground was uneven, and traced with a tranfit and equal altitude
inftrument which I conftruéted and executed in 1789, and
ufed in running the weftern boundary of the State of New
York. This inftrument was fimilar to that defcribed by M.
Le Monnier in his preface to the French Hiftoire Celefte; ex-
cept in being accommodated to a firm portable triangular frame.
The tranfit and equal altitude inftrument is of all others the
moft perfeét, and beft calculated for running ftraight lines, and
when the different verifications are carefully attended to, may
fafely be confidered as abfolutely perfect. The lines of the ten
miles fquare were opened forty feet wide, and a mile-ftone fet
up at the termination of each mile where the ground would
admit of it, and marked with the magnetic variation at that
particular fpot.

In order to execute the plan of the city, a meridional line
was drawn through the area intended to be occupied by the
capitol, and croffed at right angles by another line pafling
through the fame area: thefe lines gwere continued to the ex-
tremities of the city, and became the bafis on which the moft

condiderable

50 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

confiderable part of the plan was executed.——lI firft endea-
voured to lay off the parallels with a chain; but from its great
uncertainty, owing to its expanfion and contraétion with heat
and cold; and the bending and ftraightening of the links,
was under the neceflity after making many trials of laying it
wholly afide, and in its place made ufe of wooden meafuring
rods, formed like a carpenter’s fquare: thefe rods were truly
graduated, and accommodated with plummets and fliders, by
the due management of which, the meafurements were always
horizontal. After adopting the ufe of the rods I had but one
difficulty for fome time to contend with, which was the tallies
being fometimes returned erroneous for want’ of the neceffary
care in the meafurers. The next difficulty was of a much moré
ferious nature; it was the points of mterfeétion of fomeé of the
leading avenues which fixed the pofition of other ftreets being
moved. Upon making this difcovery I at firft fufpected that
it had been done by fome perfon, or perfons through inadver-
tence; but from fubfequent events am inclined to think it was
the effeé& of defign. I have mentioned this circumftance to
fhew the neceflity of a conftant attention in thofe intrufted with
the execution of fuch complicated plans to the pofition, and
fituation of all the leading points.

After the principal avenues were fixed, great part of the work
could be examined and correéted with mathematical exaétnefs,
aiid the fmualleft error in any of the meafurements detected, with
certainty. .

The following are the the inclinatiotis of feveral of the lead-
ing avetiues to the méridian.

Maflachufetts avenue eaft of tft fireet weft, and North }

Carolina and Georgia avenues, make an angle with ra 64° 29” 32”
meridian of - 2 3

Virginia avenue eaftward from the place where the Equef- i

trian Statue of General Wathington is to be placed, makes anp 70 18 5

angle with the meridian of
Pennfylvania and Maryland dvétttiesy éaft of the capitol,

make an angle with the meridian of : - ae:( ey 2P
Kentucky and an avenue not yet named, make an angle | sd

with the meridian of en ce
Water ftreet between 7th aid t2th flreets welt, makes an se

angle with the meridian of : pe anee
New Jerfey and Delaware avéniies, make an aitple with?

the meridian of - a z E 13, AB ee

Pennfylvani2

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 53

Pennfylvania avenue between the capitol and Viale anf

Houfe, and Maryland avenue weft of the capitol make an > 70° 30’ 23!

angle with the meridian of 2 =

All the lines of the city in which I have been concerned
were traced with the fame inftrument which I ufed on the lines
of the ten miles fquare, but as the northern part was not finifh-
ed when I left that place, I cannot pretend to fay what method
has been fince purfued.

This paper being already carried to a greater length than I
at firft intended, (but upon looking over my notes I find it is
yet fhort of what was originally defigned for the fociety,) I
muft therefore in confequence of numerous avocations, referve
the remainder for a future communication, and proceed to the
fubjeéts of aberration and nutation.

ms. VAT.

Of the Aberration of the Stars, Nutation of the Earth’s Axis,
~~ and Semiannual Equation, by ANDREW ELLicorT.

PART SECOND.
Of the Aberration of the Stars.

Read April’ § HE aberration of the ftars is their {mall apparent
3s 1795- motion occafioned by the velocity of the Earth
in its orbit bearing a fenfible proportion to the velocity of
light. To give an idea of this effect, fuppofe an infinite number
of particles of matter moving in the direction of A towards B
(Fig. 1 Plate I.) at the fame time fuppofe the tube @ to be
moving towards € and preferving its parallelifm,; then if the
velocity of the tube ¢ towards C_ bears no fenfible proportion
to the velocity of the partides moving from A towards B, a
particle which enters the centre of the tube at top will fall
upon the centre at the bottom. But if the velocity of the tube
towards C bears a fenfible proportion to the velocity of the
particles moving from A towards B, then the particles which fall

into

52 ABERRATION or tHe STARS, &c.

into the centre of the tube at top will not fall upon the centre
at the bottom, unlefs the tube fhould be inclined towards the
moving particles like the tube 4, which inclination muft be more
or lefs as the velocity of the tube in croffing the direétion of the
particles, is more or lefs fenfible when applied to their velocity.
Now fuppofe thefe particles to be rays of light, iffuimg from a
ftar, the line DC a portion of the Earth’s orbit, and the tube aa
telefcope, then from the theory it is manifeft, that if the velocity
of the Earth in its orbit, bears a fenfible proportion to the
velocity of light, the telefcope muft have a direction which will
vary from the true place of the ftar, in order to bring the light
through the vifual axis of the inftrument.

From the ratio of the velocity of the Earth in its orbit, to
the velocity of light, a ftar may poflibly appear 20" from its
true place, which has alfo been confirmed by celeftial obfer-
vation, and is the full aberration; but this quantity in decli-
nation, and right afcenfion, will only be had in ftars particular-
ly fituated, as in the poles of the ecliptic for declination, and
in the folftitial colures for right afcenfion. A ftar fituated in
either pole of the ecliptic, will apparently defcribe a circle
round its true place, whofe radius is 20”; and in the ecliptic
apparently vibrate backward and forward in its plane, in a
flraight line whofe length is 40’. In whatever figure the eclip-
tic would be projected when viewed from a ftar, that ftar will
apparently defcribe a fimilar one, which muft be either a
ftraight line a circle, or an ellipfe.—A ftraight line if the ftar
is in the ecliptic, a circle if in either pole of the ecliptic, and if
in either of the intermediate fpaces an ellipfe, whofe femitranf-
verfe will be 20', and femi-conjugate the fine of the ftar’s lati-
tude, making radius, or the fine of go° equal to 20. fo far
for the theory.

It will be advifible for thofe not conftantly in the habit of
making the calculations, to begin by projecting the cafe, which
may be done as follows. For an example take ¢ Medufx,
whofe longitude is 15 23° 13’, and latitude 22° 28’ north._—
From any fcale of equal parts take 20, and with that extent
for a radius defcribe the circle ABCD, (Fig. 2 Plate I.) through
which at right angles to each other, draw the diameters AC,
and BD: let BD be the tranfverfe diameter of the ellipfe.
‘Then for the conjugate fay

4

As

ABERRATION or THE STARS, &c. 53

Ais rad. or fine of g<° - - Log. 10.00000
Is to 20 the equal parts contained in rad. Log. 1.30103
So is the fine of the lat. 22° 28’ - Log. 9.58223

To 7.6 the equal parts cont, in the femi-conjugate Log. 0.88326

From the fame feale of equal parts take 7.6, and from the
centre of the circle at E, apply this diftance each way on the
diameter AC: fuppofe thofe points to be at F, and G, then
will FG, be the conjugate diameter of the ellipfe BFDG ap-
parently difcribed by the ftar. The ellipfe muft be divided
fimilar to the ecliptic into figns, &c. to fhew the Sun’s place.
This divifion muft begin from the longitude of the ftar, for
which the projection is made, which in the prefent cafe is 1° 23°
13' at the point F.—From the point A in the primitive circle
lay off 23° 13', (the excefs of the ftar’s longitude above 1°,)
towards B, to the point z: then from the point z, draw the
occult line x1 to the periphery of the ellipfe parallel to AC,
and the place of the firft fign will be had—next from the point
z, in the primitive lay off 30° or one fign each way, and from
thofe points, as in the firft cafe, draw parallels to AC, meeting
the periphery of the ellipfe, and the pofitiom of o°, and 2° will
be had: In this manner the whole periphery of the ellipfe may
be graduated into figns, and degrees if the projection fhould be
fufficiently large.

The next requifite is to draw the meridian of the ftar through
the centre of the projection. In order to do this, the angle
made by the interfection of the circle of the ftar’s longitude,
with the circle of its right afcenfion, muft be determined ;
which in the prefent cafe is about 18° 11°: this quantity muft
be laid off in the primitive from A to M, towards B*: then
from M through the centre of the projection draw MEP cutting
the ellipfe in the point w, and it will be the meridian required.

From a little confideration it will be eafy to conceive that the
effe&t of aberration will always be found three figns behind the
Sun’s place—hence the aberration anfwering to 2 of the Sun’s
place, muft be eftimated at 11 and the occult line E 11,

* Tt may be obferved for a general rule that when the right afcenfion of
the ftar is lefs than 3° and more than 9° the meridian mutt be lai! off from
A towards B; when more than 3° and lefs than 9° from A towards D.

H will

54 ABERRATION or tHe STARS, &c.

will be the apparent diftance of the ftar from its true place.
From 11 draw 11 perpendicular to the meridian of the ftar,
and that diftance will be the aberration in right afcenfion, which
is always at right angles to the meridian, and the diftance Eg,
on the meridian will be the effect in declination.—The firft mea-
fured on the fcale by which the projection was made, will give
18’.62, and the latter about 7'.12: But the firft muft be re-
duced to the equator, which may be done various ways, but
the moft expeditious is by multiplying it into the natural fecant
of the ftar’s declination, which will give 24'.34, the effect of
aberration in right afcenfion anfwering to 2: and 8° of the Sun’s
place; but with contrary figns of application*. If the pro-
jection fhould be large, this method will anfwer for common
purpofes, but when great accuracy is required, the quantities
mutt be determined by calculation. For this purpofe, draw the
diameter RS, at right angles to the meridian, and cutting the
ellipfe in the point m. Then in the right angled fpherical
triangle mEwt, right angled at E, it will be neceffary to find
the arcs uF, Fee) and the angles muE, umE. rhe angle
muE mutt be firft obtained by folving the right angled fpherical
triangle EFz, right angled at F.—the arc EF being 22° 28 the
latitude of the ftar, and the angle FEw 18° 11’. From thefe
data, the angle FvE will be found 73° 21—the arc Fu 7° 9—
the angle FmE 28° 31’, and the arc Fm 49° 21.—To find the
aberration in right afcenfion anfwering to 2° and 8, 3° and
9° 4° and 10° &c. in the projection, add to the log. fine of
the angle EvF=73° 21’ the log. of 20, and from that fum
deduét 10 for a conftant log. to the conftant log. add feparately,
the log. fines of the arcs w2, «3, u4, &c. from each of thefe fums,
dedu& 10, and the numbers anfwering to the log. remainders,
will be the values of 24, 3/4, 10f, &c. Each of thofe values
being multiplied by the natural fecant of the ftar’s declination,
will give the effect in right afcenfion, as in the following ex-
amples.

* The algebraic figns of ++ plus, and — minus.

+ An ellipfe may be confidered a circle in the orthographical projeftion of
the {phere, the femi-conjugate being the co-fine of the circle’s elevation above
the primitive,

Angle

55,

ABERRATION or tHe STARS, &c.

‘apnusuory sung 941 Joh pur .o1 rt for L = loft X = 9 50h *,99G ‘ivu fq payday
uonpafoud oyy ur .t pur .f 10} Nt = B'S = zoght-6 ‘9 Bory 1+ rg1=4 nor ppy
LALARC) SO 14 10g Pati a quryuog

apnusuoy s,ung oy yo .€ pu .6 inq o1',gt = Lot'1 X =,9 ov 99g ‘wu dq payduinyy
uorpefoad oy ul ,o pue .9 soy 6 0 = Sgfi = bz65¢°6-g ‘Soy 1b ob fF 1=,9” sae ppy
bregz'r = -Bory : TIE UO)

epnusuory sung 241 Jo .z puke .g nq) $§-,4z2 =Loe1 X =,9 oF "99g “jeu Aq pardaynyy

uonpafosd ay3 ul 11 pur .$ 105 711 =79'81 =+$66gz"1

0$Lg6°6 *S'SorT, 1 oboI=, $n av ppy

brzgz1 Sorry - queyuog

opnusu0'y sung aya jo .1 pur .L Inq] S1:,bz = Lof1 X =,9 ,or ‘9g yea Aq payduinyy
uonzefoad sy} ut or pue h10jf 7,01 = bgt = ELogzt

6zb36°6 ‘9 ‘Boy 10 bl =v 4 ore ppy

brzgz1 "B07 - quryuog

apnysuo'yT SURG 92 JO <) pue <9 Inq? zo*,L1 = Lok X =,9 ov ‘ag ‘yeu Aq paydnynyy

uonpafosd ayy ur .6 pur .£ Io} 2,6 =ghfr= $6211

LoLtg*6 *g ‘Bory 1b ,hb=,€ n ore ppy

2 thzgz1 “S0T - queyuod
OPNILSuo'T sung aya Jo str pue.S1nq? $€+,9 = Los1 X =o ,oh 929 “Jeu Xa pandun

uoipaford ayy ut 5g pur z vot 7st = 99h ae 3995 q PaTeH AA

$6fob-6 Gg ‘B07 1b ob1 = yz nose ppy

trzgz-1 9 “Bory - yunyuoy
B07 jueyuog thzgz1
fo10t's “BOT oz ppv

1¥1g6'6 ‘g ‘Soy 12 .f4 ary asuy

In this manner the calculations may be expeditioufly made for

ation in right afcenfion is additive, when a point

egree of the Sun’s place in the ecliptic.

The. aberr

any d

o
fo)

a5

ee) .
merid

de falls on the left fide of the

itu

behind the Sun’s lon

ian of the ftar; the right afcenfion, or po
held from you; but negative when the point falls on the contrary

fide of the meridian.

M, being

mt

The foregoing equations when tabled will ftand as follows

Sun’s

a

ght

Sun’s Long. o§ — 17/62 + 6° Sun’s Long.
24.15

ABERRATION or rHe STARS, &e.

To obtain the aberration in dec.ination, the angle Emu is to be ufed in
the fame manner the angle Em was in the cafe of right afcenfion; and the

erpe: diculars 357, 250, 15s, oSv, and 115,, let fall up-n the diameter at ri
I ?

angles to the meridian of the ftar, will be the equations required.

56

‘opnusuoy sung 24340 <4 pue st MG | oy SoG z= y1blbo
uonpaford arp: erarP ae tanes tzb6r6‘g ‘Bory 6b 0191 =,01 m s1e ppy
266160 ‘B07 - yuryuog

The

apnysuoy sting ay Jo <8 puke <z nql |, Seije= Szz oe
uonpefoid ayi Ul. pu sI1 Ioj ZEzlg 6g B07 OF gift = 11 wom ppy
z66L6'0 "Bury = yur yuog

apnuSuory swung arp 10 <6 pur s€ mq , 4 = 66.6 = 29016:
uoppa{oad ay Ul 69 PUB sO 40} 01066°6 9 Soy 6b o101 =,0 uw ore ppy

266160 “Soy : quEyuog

opnasuory sung aq osor purshInql yy = Loy 6 = LolS60
uvlpeloid ay3 ui .4 pue sI 10} GLLLO 6 ‘g-S0q 6b .>¥L =, wore ppy
z66L6:0 ‘Soy = queyuog

apnaSuorTs,ung qi Jo .t1 pur ss ql 2 — o¢. 9 = ggfog:o
wonzafoid a4) Ur 68 PUL sz 10} 96fzg°6'g Boy = _,6F oIb=,z wo ppy
z66L6:0 “20° a queyuor

apnusuoy s,ung oy Jo oO pur 9 nq { 6 — 96:,1 = 12162 0
uvrpafoad aya ut 56 pur <& 403 62118 6g ‘Boy —_, 6 gut .E more ppy
z66L6:0 “B07 - queyuog

‘BoT quryuog z66L6°0
€oiof1 B07 : oz PPV
6gglgO"g SoT =. 1S oge muy ajsuy

ABERRATION or tHe STARS, &c. 57

The aberration in declination is negative, when a point 3:
behind the Sun’s longitude, falls on the fame fide of a diameter
at right angles to the meridian of the ftar, with the ftar’s right
afcenfion or point M ; but the contrary is to be obferved when
the point falls on the oppofite fide. ‘The foregoing equations
when tabled will ftand as below.

Sun’s Long. os + 1.96 —

6 Sun’s Long.
I — 2.98 + 7
8
9

2 Fi.

3 9 35

4 Q -07, 10
5 6 .36 it
6 I .96 oO

Of Nutation.

THE nutation or libratory motion of the Earth’s axis is occa-
fioned by the inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the ecliptic,
and the retrograde revolution of her nodes; which is performed
in about 18 years and 7 months. On which account the a¢tion
of the Moon on the equatorial, or longer diameter of the Earth,
is not uniform, and mutt therefore from the principles of gra-
vity produce a motion in the Earth’s axis, which will be ap-
parently in the ftars. For the completion of this difcovery,
we are indebted to the very laborious, and ingenious Dr. Brad-
ley.* This effeé& of the Moon has been fettled by a feries of
accurate obfervations, and therefore not to be confidered as a
fpeculative argument in favour of the Newtonian Philofophy ;
but an abfolute confirmation of it.

It muft be evident from the theory, that the poles of the
equator will complete a retrograde revolution about the mean
poles, in the fame period which completes a revolution of the
Moon’s nodes: But as the action of the Moon on ihe equatorial
diameter of the Earth, will be fomewhat varied in different
fituations of her nodes, this revolution of the poles will not be
performed in a circle, but a fmall ellipfe, with the tranfverfe
diameter lying in the folftitial colure, and amounting to 19 .1,

* Vide his paper upon this fubject in Vol. 45, N° 1. of the Tranfactions
of tue Royal Society.
and

58 NUTATION or tHe EARTH?’s AXIS, &c.

and the conjugate in the equinoétial colure, and has been fettled
at 14'.2.—Let P (fig. 3 Plate I.) reprefent the mean northern
axis of the carth.— AB a portion of the folftitial colure, and
€D a portion of the equinoGial colure—From P, each way on
AB, lay off 9.55, fuppofe to F, and G, then from the fame
poiat P, lay off each way 7.1, fuppofe to E and H, through
FHGE ‘deferibe an ellipfe, and it will reprefent the path def-
cribed by the axis of the Earth. When the Moon’s afcending
node is in the beginning of Y, the northern axis of the Ear th
will be at F, “tee the fame node is in the beginning of vs, the
pole will be at H.—conftantly 3° before the Moon’s afcending
node. From thefe elements it is evident, that the obliquity of
the ecliptic muft be fubje& to a periodical change, being greater
by Bol 1, when the Moon’s afcending node is in Y, than when
in =: and the equinoétial points will alfo be fubjeet to an equa-
tion, which will be a maximum when the Moon’s afcending node
is in the beginning of = and vw? ; this equation is common to all
the ftars.

As in the cafe of aberration, it will be proper to make the
calculations from an orthographical projection.—From any fcale
of equal parts take 9.55, and with that diftance for a radius
defcribe a citcle, which divide into twelve equal parts for the
fions im right afcenfion ; which defignate by numerical letters ; (as
in Fig. 4, Plate I.) join Tl, and TX with a diameter, to repre-
fent a portion of the folftitial colure ; ; and O, and VI, fora
portion of the equinoétial colure, from the centre C, towards
O, and VI, lay off 7.1, and defignate thofe points by o, and
6, then through the points o, HI, 6 and IX, defcribe an ellipfe;
which muft be divided fimilar to the primitive anfwering to the
places of the Moon’s afcending node; and to prevent confufion
in the explanation, it will be convenient to defignate the figns by
figures.

To apply ¢ Medufe to the projection,* lay off its right afcen-
fion 15 13° 43' from o°, in the primitive, according to the order
of the figns to the point A, then from A, through the centre
C, draw the diameter AB for the meridian of the ftar; which
crofs at right angles by the diameter DE. This being done,

* This projeCtion will ferve for any {tar ; on which account it differs from
a projection for aberration.

fuppofe

NUTATION or tHe EARTH’s AXIS, &c. 59

fuppofe the place of the Moon’s afcending node to be at 1, and
the pole of the Earth being 3° before the Moon’s afcending node,
will be at 4° in the ellipfe: and the occult line 4a, at right
angles to the meridian of the ftar, will be the nutation in right
afcenfion anfwering to 1°, and 7°, of the longitude of the Moon’s
afcending node, but with contrary figns of application. ‘The
diftance C.a, or the occult line 44, in the direétion of the meri-
dian will be the nutation in declination. The diflance 4.4, mea-
fured on the fame fcale by which the projection is made, will
give 8".44, and the diftance 46 will give 3”.15: But the firft
muft be reduced to the equator, which is moft conveniently
done by multiplying it by the natural tangent of the ftar’s de-
clination.

When great accuracy is required, recourfe muft be had to
calculation, which may be done in the fame manner as purfued
in aberration. It has already been obferved that an ellipfe may
be confidered as a circle in the orthographical projection of the
fphere, and therefore the arc Co, which is the meafure of the
angle C 3 0, will be had by adding 10, to the log. of 7.1, and
from that fum deduéting the log. of 9.55 the remainder will be
the log. fine of the arc ‘Co which will be about 48° 2’. Then
inthe right angled fpherical triangles Cog, and Coe, right an-
gled at 0, it is required to find the angles C go, Ceo, and the
axis og, o€, the angle oCg being the right afcenfion of the
ftar, and the angle oCe its complement, and therefore both
given. The angle Cgo will be 62° 28’, the are og = 35°
25’, the angle Ceo= 61° 6’, and the arc oe = 37° 52’. Thefe
being the neceffary requifites, the nutation in right afcenfion
will be had as follows

To - 9-55 - Log. 0.98000
Add angle Cgo= 62° 28’ - Log. S. 9.94780
19.g2780
Dedu& A 5 “ 10
0.92780 Conftant Log.
Conftant - - Log. 0:92780
Add are g1=5° 25' - + Log,S. 8.974096

9.90276

As

NUTATION or rHe EARTH’s AXIS, &c.

60

opou S,UOOyf Jo “Suo'y ay2 JO 11 pu .S yng] 96",z=zbg xX
woupaloid aqi ui .z pus .g soy f sg=S5$=169bS-0

11619°6 ‘g ‘Sory

oglz6"0 ‘SoT

BpOu s,UOOJAT JO “SuorT oy1 Jo .O pue .9 nq] 1g°,,$=ztg x
uorpafoid ay ui. pur G4oyf «6 Soho = = b6gf3'0_

411166 'g ‘ZoT

oglz6:0 *20'T

apow suooyT Jo *Fuory oyi yo .1 pue .L nq) 11°,Lo=zte X
uolpafvad oyi ut sb pue or 10 bo1 = tb g = ofgz6:0

058666 *g *Zo7

oglz6:0 ‘SOT

Ipou sWooJ] Jo *Suo'y ay Jo <2 pue.g nq? gb:,g=zte: X
uolpefoid ay3 ut .$ pue str soy} gir =oL'L = £S999°0

£1386°6 +g “Bory

oglz6:0 *20T

2pou swoop] JoSuory aya yo .£ pur 6 my fr ,baztg X
uonpafoad ay} ul .g pur O10} wo =16'F = Lgo6g'0
Lof9L6 *g *Sory
oglz6'0 “30,

; F Aq Aydin

- SZ oSS1 = Q Soave ppy
y - quryuog
3 = fq Aduynyy
. ($t $21 =6 Saxe ppy
c = queyueD

: Aq paydunyy

- AZ 9§6 =01 Fo1e ppy
= - juryuosg

= 4q Apdnypoyy

- 42 9$9 = 11 Sore ppy
z : quryuog

: ; 4q {dun

S@ o$€ =0F ore ppy
> = JueyUoD

apou s,uoOW joapnisuo'y ay job puke oring)? Lo:= zbg X = voneuipoep s,1e7 3y3 = =/9 (OF jo", 8ux3 “3eu Aq K{diaqynyy

uonpefosd ayiur.£ pue st 107f wi = og = glz06'1
uonpery “Zo oy) *6 Butoq “Soy ay3 Jo xapur ayy pur UONpesy B oq [[IM Joquinu oy}

a eq [fl
‘paypnpep 2q JOUURS sBIPeI SY

NUTATION or tur FARTH’s AXIS, &c. 61

In applying the nutation in right afcenfion, obferve this
general rule, that when a point 3 before the iba sfude of the
Moon’s afcending node, falls on the right fide of ‘the meridian
of the ftar, the point A or right afcention being held from you,
the nutation will be pofitive for {lars having north declination,
but negative for fouth :—the contrary is to ‘be obferved when
a point 3° before the Moon’s afcending node, falls on the left
fide of the meridian. Agreeably to thefe direstihs, the fore
going equations when tabled will ftand as follows.

Longitude of Moon’s’ |. Longitude of Moon’s
Aicending node Afcending node

o— 5.81 + 6

I 7.11 7

2 6.48 8

3 4-13 9

4 0.67 fe)

5 + 2.96 — 11

6 5-31 °

The next equation is that of the equinoétial points, which is
common to all the ftars, and occafioned by the poles of the
Earth inclining to, and receding from the celeftial equator.—
Suppofe the Moon’s afcending node to be at g*, then the pole
of the Earth will be at o in the ellipfe, and the diftance Co
will be its inclination towards *.—This inclination for any
point in the ellipfe will be a perpendicular let fall upon the
tranfverfe axis, which will be to the alteration of the equinoc-
tial points, as the tangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic, is to
radius ;—hence thefe deviations from the tranfverfe axis of the
ellipfe being multiplied by the nat. co-tangent of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, will give the ae: required.

‘The quantity C 0 = for o° and 6°in the projection but
Mult. by nat. Co-tang' of 23° 28’ =x 2. eae -3 Ufor 35 and 9° of the long. of )’snode.

For any other points in the ellipfe add the log. of 9.55, to
the log. fine of the arc Co, and from that fum dedué& ro for a
conftant log. to which add the log. fine of any arc from 3, or
g, and from that fum deduét 10, the remainder will be the log.
of a perpendicular let fall from the termination of that arc to
the tranfverfe axis.

I hire pet

NUTATION or THE EARTH’s AXIS, &c.

62

9
It gig s
OI Vivi v
6 €f-o1 €
8 Viv (4
L£ gI'g I
9 + 0°,0 — 50
apou Surpusopy apou surpusspy
$,UOOJT ay) Jo apnzisuo0’T S,UOOJT IY] Jo apnysuo0'T

“MOlSq SB puRy |] pafqeyi usm pue ‘apy
ToyI0 IYI UO syjey wrod ayy ay Are.xyUOD ay} INq 6,0 YD sixe op1OA;ULI) oy} JO apy aurey ay uo sypey
Ipou SuIpuaoye SUOCTAT SY} JO apnysuoy ay} o10Joq ,£ quIod xv UIYM ALIppe atv suonenba ayayyy,
= j£% o€% Jo ,Suei-0p yeu Aq “aN

apou s,Uooy Jo “BuorT ap Jo .11 pu 4 $1 10} 91 Wo ez. xX
qnq wuonaford ayy ur or pue .g <b ,z a0; ftSSSE =Lz0$S-o
46369°6 *g ‘ory - cOf =,z .£ ae ppy
of1Sg'0 *S0'T - - queyuod «
is = 8Z 067 JO ,Sue}-09 “yeu fq “qn
apoU $,UOOJA JO *BUO'T dYI JO OF pur .g <b ,z 40} treybr =o X————
3nq uopaford oy} urs11 pue dS <1 mt 21=S1'9 = fgggl-o

£SL£6°6 +g “Bory - 009 =I sf IV ppy

of1S9"0 “SOT - - juvyuog 3
*So'T uryuodg of15g-0

of 1L9°6 *S0'T = = 2 og S07 218 ppy

000g6'0 “Soy $56 GIL,

63

NUTATION or THe EARTH’s AXIS, &c.

*apou S,Uooyy JO “Suory ati Jor puv 4 rz
juq uoupafoid oy} Fo or pur ,b s0F

apou swoop fo °3

apou suo Jo “Suory ari Jo <1 pur .$ 107
ng uonpefoad ayy ur .g pur .z 10;

aPoUu s,UOO] AY} Jo “SuorT oy3 Jo,01 pur <b 10F
nq vonpeafoad ayy ut 4 pur st 40;

PPoUu sUOoWY Jo “SuorT oy Jo ,€ pure .6 soz
gnq vonpafoad ayi wi 9 pur .O 10F

9pou SUooJY Jo “SuorTy at Jo .z pue.g nq
uonpefosd ayy ut $ pue 11 10;

t Corss1'y€ = 1£g6+:0

SUT 21 JO ,O pue .g 105
nq uonzafoad ayy Jo 6 pue .§ 10F

LogLS°6 ‘g

‘Soy AG AG = +2 om ppy
bzzz6°0 = “Bory = - - juryuog
*6=09')9 =9561g"0
z¢L69°6 *g ‘S07 AGILE: = £2 ore ppy
tzzz6'0 «= “Bory - - é queyuosy
N8—8z'1g= £1g16°0
68566°6 *g Soy (Ze 646 =7z201e ppyw
tzzz6:0 “B07 - - - jueyuoD
Lr 00688°0 |
94996'6 *g ‘B07 eS olg = 1201" ppy
tzzz76'0 ‘Bory - - queyuog
aomfrr,$= gzotlo
+oggl'6 +g ‘B07 (waeue = 02 oe ppy
tzzz6'0 = *BoryT - - quEyuog
prisbiy1= PSgSoro
of9£1°6 *g *B0'T - KAD aA SII 2 on ppy
tzzz6'°0 «= “S07 : : queyuoy
*So'T Jueyuog +zzz6'0
000g6'0 = “Bory - 556 - PPW

$2766 *g *S0'T 9 019 =922 a[8ur ay} oF,
*smol[of sv padd0id SuoNeul[sap Ul UONZINU aq) 10,5

‘jueapenb ay} Jo da189p AIDAd OJ aTquI v Jno dyvUE

OF SoYpALIJat [LUOUOAYL Ul PIUsIUOD soy} OF Worusauod Atoa punoj aq TIM Ue (“[fe way) o} uour
“woo pur) ‘sayy ay) JO UOyUIIE YSIA ay3 0} ARID ayeo ArOA2 Ul Arepaoou o4v suonenba ajay sw

12

64 NUTATION or taz EARTH’s AXIS, &c.

In applying the equations for nutation in declination obferve,
that when a point 3° before the longitude of the Moon’s afcend-
ing node falls on the fame fide of a diameter at right angles to
the meridian of the ftar with its point of right afcenfion, the
nutation will be additive for ftlars having north declination, but
negative for thofe having fouth declination ; the contrary is to
be obferved when a point 3° before the longitude of the Moon’s
afcending node falls on the other fide of the diameter. The
above equations for nutation in declination will be properly ex-
prefled in the following table.

Longitude of the Moon’s Longitude of the Moon’s
Afcending Node Afcending Node

o + 6'.60 — 6:

: oa 7

2—i1-14 + 8

3 aces 5)

4 ial “2

5 8.28 II

6 6.60 fe)

The foregoing calculations as combined with the projections,
may be rendered fomewhat more fimple, by numbering the figns
of the Sun’s place in the ellipfe for aberration 3° fhort of the
true figns; and the figns for the place of the Moon’s afcending
node in the ellipfe for nutation 3° forward, by which the cal-
culations will coincide with the figns for which they were made,
and fo much of the rules for the application of the equations
as depend upon a point 3; behind the place of the Sun for aber-
ration, and 3° before the place of the Moon’s afcending node
for nutation, will become unneceflary.

There is yet one other equation which, in very nice opera-
tions, fuch as determining the lengths of meridians, &c. may
require fome attention. It is the effect of the inequality of the
action of the Sun between the folftices amd equinoxes, on the
equatorial diameter of the earth, by which the poles are carried
annually, twice round the mean poles in a {mall circle, whofe
diameter is 1. By which the equinoétial points, the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the right afcenfion, and declination of the
flars, are affected in a fmall degree. The maximum of the al-

teration

NUTATION or tHe EARTH’s AXIS, &c. 65

teration of the equinoétial points amounts 1'.15 or the 1, of a fe-
cond in time. The obliquity of the ecliptic is greater by i’,
when the Sun is in the equinoxes, than in the folftices. The
right afcenfion of the ftars will be infenfibly affeéted, unlefs the
declinations fhould be very great: the declination of 88° 6° will
produce but 1! in time, and 81° 15’ but : of a fecond. From
the theory the apparent diftance of every {tar from the pole of
the equator will be fubje& to a variation of 1” twice a year, and
there being but three months between the greateft inclination,
and reclination, it will fenfibly affe& the obfervations made with
a good 8 feet zenith fector—For a further explanation, and
in aid to the calculations, take from any fcale of equal parts 5,
with that diftance for a radius defcribe a circle, which divide
into 12 equal parts for figns, (fee Fig. 5. Plate I.) From what
has been already obferved it follows that, when the Sun is at o,
the pole will be at 3, when the Sun is at 3, the pole will be
at 9g, and when the Sun is at 6, the pole will be again at o. For
an example : Suppofe it fhould be required to find the effect of the
femi-annual equation in declination for & Medufe, anfwering
to 3° of the Sun’s place—lay off 1° 13° 43’, the right afcenfion
of & Medufe from o°, to M; from M, through the centre C,
draw the meridian MD; at right angles to which, draw the
diameter EF. Then from the theory, whilft the Sun is ad-
vancing 3°, the pole will advance 6°, and therefore be at 9°: and
the diftance gm, in the direction of the meridian, will be the
quantity required, and when applied to the fcale, will be .34.
—this quantity may be readily calculated, being to the fine of
arc 9 F = 43° 43/ as .5 is to radius, therefore
ons - - Log. 1.69897
Add 43°43" - — Log. 8. 9.83954

B-5g851

As radius cannot be deduéted, the log. muft be expreffed
“1.53851 =.34 = 9m: in this mannner the calculations may
be made for any other points in the circle, and the quantities
will be additive to the declination of a northern ftar; when the
pole is on the fame fide of a diameter at right angles to the
meridian with the point M, of the ftar’s right afcenfion; but
negative for a fouthern ftar ;—the contrary is to be obferved

when the pole is on the other fide of the diameter.
The

66

NUTATION or tHe EARTH’s AXIS, &c.

The following table by attending to the dire@tion will anfwer
for all ftars.

Tf the difference|o* 0°| 6° 0° + 0”.0—) 6° 0°

Argument.

From twice the Sun’s Longitude take the
ftar’s right afcenfion.

o° O°! Tfthedifferencebe

belefsthan6%add}| 15 15 0.13 15 15 |more than 65 {unb-
fornorthernftars,} © |5 © 0.25 |7 O {II O /tra& for northern
but fubtraé& for} 15 15 0.35 15 15 | ftars, but add for
fouthern. 2.0/4 0 0.43 |8 © |10 © /fouthern.

15 15 0.48 15 15

BOM sumo On On), | OnmOnl) Onno

For an example of the application of the foregoing equations,
let it be required to find the right afcenfion, and declination of
& Medufe for June 22d 1795; the Sun’s longitude being 3°
and the longitude of the Moon’s afcending node 4°.

Right afcenfion of @ Medufe Ry CAS Aeae STS
the beginning of 1780. i FiED te pares
Annual variation for 15 years + 14 22.9
Do for June 22d. - - + 27.0
Mean right afcenfion - - I 13 43 56.9
Aberration - - — 9:35
Nutation — 0.67
Equation of the equitiodial points — 14.14
True right afcenfion - I 13 43 32.74
Declination of 6 Medufe the © pe anit
beginning of 1780. seve
Annual variation for 15 years ‘s 3 39-45
Do for June 22d 6.96
Mean declination - - a 9 23-41
Aberration - - — 9-35
Nutation - o> 7:75
Semi-annual equation - cam naw) PEt
True declination - = 40 9 5-97
Tam, Sir,

Your real Friend,

ANDREW ELLICOTT.

To Robert Patterfon, A. M,

A Letter

ECCENTRIC ANOMALY. 67

Ne. VIII.

A Letter from Mr. ANDREW ELticotTT, éo Mr. Ro-
BERT PATTERSON.

A Method of Calculating the Eccentric Anomaly of the Planets.
Philadelphia, April 4th, 1794.

SIR,

Read April AVING occafion fome years ago to conftruct a fet
4 1794- of aftronomical tables for the planet Fi, I made
ufe of an operation to obtain the eccentric anomaly, the firft
part of which I believe to be new; the fecond, is fimilar to the
method made ufe of by Sir Haac Newton in his Principia.—He
firft affumes an arc, and then proceeds to find its error: but by
the method which I have purfued, we proceed direétly to the
folution of the problem without any aflumption, and therefore
adhere more clofely to the principles of geometry. The firft
part of the operation will give the eccentric anomaly almoft fuf-
ficiently exact for any of the planets belonging to our fyftem ;
and the fecond which is very eafy, will produce a greater
degree of exaétnefs than is requifite for any of the bodies revol-
ving round our Sun, the comets excepted. The method is as
follows.

Let S, Fig. g. Plate I. reprefent the Sun, and the arc AN the
mean anomaly ; join, SN—through the centre C; draw CP
parallel to SN, and the angle ACP will be nearly the eccentric
anomaly ; and may be had by the following analogy.—From
the log. tang'. of half the mean anomaly, fubtraé the difference
of the logs. of the aphelion and perihelion diftances, the remain-
der will be the log. tang’. of an angle, to which add half the
mean anomaly, and the fum will be the angle ACP. For
an example, take the planet ff.

Let the mean anomaly AN= 60° the half 30° log. tang'.—9.7614304
Log. Aphelion dift. 6.3007704 ; :
Log. Perihelion doeoeutt Deduét the difference — 0.0413649, and
there remains log, tang. 9.7200754 which
anfwers

68 ECCENTRIC ANOMALY.

anfwers to 27° 41’ 41’, to which add half the mean anomaly, and the

30

fum - - 57 41 41 will be the angle ACP, which in this example will
be about 3! too mall, becaufe the right line ST, drawn at right angles to
PC continued if neceflary, and which is nearly the part to be deducted from
the mean anomaly, will be fhorter than the arc PN.—Then to find the
value of ST:—fuppofe CA, or CP, to be equal to 1 or unity, then from
the elements of Hy, SC will be equal to .04758735 and CP the radius
being equal to an are oe 57 Me —SC will be equal to 2°, 7266,—then

As radius Log. 10.0000000
Is to SC, 2° W266 Log. 0.4356115
So is the S. of TCS, 57° 41’ 41" Log. _9.9269660
Tost 22 "3045 - - Log. _0.3625775
qe. .2700
60

16liz000, ‘This are of 2° 18! 16’ being deducted from
the mean anomaly will leave 57° 41’ 44” for the eccentric ano-
maly correéted, and will be true within the + part of a fingle
fecond. If a greater degree of accuracy fhould be requifite, the
corrected angle 57° 41’ 44” which fuppofe to be ACO, mutt be
ufed to obtain the value of SR, and that value applied as above.
This correétion will only be neceflary in cafes where the orbits
are very eccentric.

But as the planets do not revolve in circular, but elliptical
‘erbits, the point O, in the arc AN, muft be reduced to r the
place of the planet in the curve of the ellipfe ; which is the point
cut by the right line OF drawn at right angles to AD.—The
angle AS r will then be the co-equate, or true anomaly; and
may be had by the following analogy.—From the log. tang*. of
half the eccentric anomaly, take the difference of the logs. of the
aphelion and perihelion diftances, and the remainder will be
the log. tang". of an angle; to this angle add half the eccentric
anomaly, and call the fum U. ‘Then to the log tang’. of U,
add half the fum of the logs. of the aphelion and perihelion dif-
tances; from that fum dedué the log. of the mean diftance,
and the remainder will be the log. tang’. of the co-equate, or
true anomaly.—For example

From half the eccentric anomaly 28° 50’ 52! log. tang. 9-7410263
Dedué the diff. of the logs. of the aphelionand perihelion diftances 0.041 3649

The remainder 9. 6996614 willbe log. ii) of 26° 36’ si

Add 3 the eccentric anomaly 28 50 52
Call the fum U - - Ress 2057,

ee Then

2 eee oe

a

~

Orban ae LeAGhyrrs. 69

Then to U* = 55° 26' 57! Log tang. 10.1620405
Add half the fam of the logs. of the aphelion and perihelion dilt._6.2500876

16.44.2128
Dedué the log. of the mean dift. 6.2805800
The remainder is the log. tang*. of 55° 25’ 7! 10.1615481

The co-equate or true anomaly 55° 15' 7! is the meafure of
the angle AC +r, and when deduéted from the mean anomaly
will leave the equation of the centre: as for example, 55° 25' 7"
taken from 60° the mean anomaly ufed in the foregoing expla-
nation the remainder 4° 34’ 53” will be the equation of the
centre anfwering to it—The equation of the centre muft be
negatively applied while the planet is moving from the aphelion,
to the perihelion, and vice verfa.

I am, Sir, with much efteem,
Your real Friend,
ANDREW ELLICOTT.

To Mr. Robert Patterfon.

IN°s Tk,

Method of raifing the common Logarithm of any Number im-
mediately, by Davip RitTENHOUSE, Prefident of the Se-
ciety.

REM Aug. 'HE logarithm of any number is the index of that
12, 1795- power of 10 which is equalto the given num-
ber. This index will always be fractional, unlefs the number
be divifible by 10 without any remainder.

If the number be greater than 10, divide it by the higheft
power of ro that will leave the quotient not lefs thani. The
index of that power is the firft figure, or index of the logarithm.
Divide 10 by the quotient fo found raifed to the higheft power
that will leave the new quotient not lefs than unity. Divide

* Note. When U exceeds go° take its fupplement and in that cafe dedu&
the refule of the calculation from two right angles, and the remainder will
be the true anomaly.

K the

70 METHOD or RAISING

the laft divifor by the laft quotient raifed to its proper power,
and proceed in this manner until a fufficient number of divi-
fions are made, which will be when the quotient approaches
nearly to unity. Make a compound fraétion, taking the fuc-
ceflive indexes of the powers you divide by for denominators
and unity for numerators. Reduce this compound fraétion to
a fimple one, and that by divifion to a decimal fra¢tion, which
together with the index firft found (if any) will be the logarithm
required.

Example of the Calculation.
Required the Logarithm of gg.
—__ Here r is the ind
Divided by ao" 9-9. ere I is the index.

fe)
Divided by 9.9" — I.OIOIOI =a.

aa= 1.020304 | Firft quotient, 9-9 ee re
20406 | Divided by a?7® = 9.889521 } Tens hac

1003
306 59
4 1010479 iad
4 Lad: += 1.002119

a a* = 1.041020 ———
Me 1641 fe) rir
x 4104 59 119

2 1041 494

2 21 \ieaete te 4—
3 96 b+ eye
a® = 1.083723 89 ;

z 86698 fi ee
2 3258 7 WE cab den
2 Ee 58 = 1.008502
8 ; x by S 1009
3 59
Ss 16 a
"a7 = 1.174456 b° = 1.009570
a 117446 pinup bee SF COR 26
x 82212 | Divided by 69 = 1.009570 au | 526

4.698 ————_
+t 209058" €7 = 1.001052

59 505

7 —=
: 26

a>? = 1.379348

Calculatios

THE COMMON LOGARITHM, &c.

a3* x= 1.379348
413804

a°* = 1.902600
1.712340

3805

1141

a**® = 3.619886

xX bya®* — 3.257897
7240

2172

a*9* = 6.887195

* by a3” 2.066158
482104
61985
2066
275

55

a*** = 9.499838
% by a* 379993
9500
190

——

2778 = 9.889521

7i
Calculation Continued.

6 = 1.001059
c* = 1.001052
7
The quotient ¢, is now fo fmall that it ts not
neceflary to proceed further in this way, for the
decimals of c, divided by the decimals of_d will
give the power required, viz. 75. :
Making a compound fraétion, as before direct-
ed, with the feyeral powers of the divifors ia the
order they ftand we have. 1

Divided by = d= 1.000007

228 5.
a:
pa
zi 7
Which reduced 75
Gives the 151 = 75X2+41

1434 = 151 X9-+75

327103 = 1434X% 228-4151
Simple fraction =

328537 = 327103 XE 1434
Denominator \ Numerator

) ( .995635194.8. The

decimal part of the

log. of gg. true to

the gth place, and

3 too much in the
1oth. :

328537 } 327103,0
2956833
3141970
2956833
1851370
1642685
2086850
1971222
1156280
985614
170669
melee
6400
3285

Experiments

72 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

NT
Experiments on Evaporation, by C. Wistar, M. D.

Read Feb. rT an Effay publifhed in the laft Volume of the
S> 1796. Tranfactions of the Society, | defcribed a
{pecies of evaporation which was excited by fufpending
ice, at the melting point, in air reduced to the tempe-
rature of o of Fahrenheit’s fcale ; and confidered it as the
effet of a general law of nature, in confequence of which
an inelaftic vapour, (which commonly is vifible,) arifes
from water, and from wet fubftances, whenever they are
warmer than the atmofphere which furrounds them.

From fats ftated in the fame paper it was inferred, that
this inelaftic vapour does not depend upon any pofitive
quantity or degree of fenfible heat in the evaporating
body, but upon a relative degree, exceeding that of the
atmofphere to which it is expofed; and that it is pro-
duced by the paflage of heat from the moift body into
the contiguous air.—If this theory be true, it follows
that a flow diftillation may be performed, with the com-
mon apparatus, by applying cold to the receiver or re-
frigeratory, without increafing the heat of the retort or
fubftance to be diftilled, as there will be a continual
paflage of heat from the body to be evaporated or diftilled,
into the air of the receiver.

Although, for the reafons there given, I had no doubt
of the truth of the doGtrine advanced in my former paper,
I was defirous of fubmitting it to the teft of this experi-
ment, becaufe it has been fuggefted that the vapour
which appeared to arife from ice, might have arifen from
the mixture of different portions of air of different tem-

peratures ;

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION, 7%

peratures ; whereas by diftilling or evaporating in a luted
retort and receiver, there can be no mixture of warm and
cold air; and by ufing a fubitance which is not contained
in the atmofphere, we fhall avoid all fufpicion that the
vapour which arifes from it, may have originated from
the air in the veflels.

With thefe views | poured an ounce and half of vitrio-
lic ether into a retort and luted it to a receiver with a long
neck, which was placed in a mixture of falt and fnow,
while the retort was furrounded by air of the temperature
of soe of Fahrenheit. The frigorific mixture, frem the
impurity of the falt, was feldom below 10°, fo that the
difference, between the xther in the retort and the air
in the receiver, did not exceed 40°.

When the apparatus had been thirty hours in this
fituation the frigorific mixture was removed, and one
third of the ether was found diftilled into the receiver.

I believe no caufe can be affigned for this diftillation but
the paffage of heat through the ether into the cold air
of the receiver; and to be certain that the application
of cold to the receiver really produced it, 1 prepared a
fimilar diftilling apparatus, in the fame manner precifely,
and placed the retort in conta& with that of the other ap-
paratus, while the receiver, inftead of being chilled by
the cold mixture, ftood in air of the fame temperature
with the retorts, viz. 50°; but no diftillation took place
during thirty hours.

To vary the experiment, I placed fome camphor in
another apparatus prepared as above, and fixed the receiver
in the frigorific mixture, while the retort ftood in air of
the temperature of 50°, at the expiration of thirty hours.
fome of the camphor was found fublimed, and the fub-
limate had thofe arborefcent appearances which ufually
attend it when produced by heat.

Memoir

7 4. Or true FASCINATING FACULTY

N°. XI.

A Memoir concerning the Fafcinating Faculty which has
been afcribed to the Rattle-Snake, and other American
Serpents. By BENJAMIN SmiTH Barton, M. D.*

FIDEM NON ABSTULIT ERROR.

Read April ATURALISTS have not always been phi-
4, 1794 lofophers. The flight and fuperficial man-
ner in which they have examined many of the fubje@ts
of their fcience; the credulity which has accompanied
them in their refearches after truth, and the precipitancy
with which they have decided upon many queftions of
importance, are proofs of this affertion.

There is a queftion in natural hiftory that has, in an
efpecial manner, folicited from me thefe obfervations.
I mean the queftion concerning the FascrNaTINnG Fa-
cuLttTy, which has been afcribed to different kinds of
American ferpents. It is my intention to examine this
queftion, in the memoir which I now prefent to the Phi-
lofophical Society.

Of this fafcinating faculty we have all heard and read.
In many of our country fituations, there is hardly a man
ora woman, who will not, when the fubjeét comes to

* Since this memoir was read before the Society, it has been confide-
rably altered, and fomewhat enlarged. hope, the alterations will render
it more worthy of the notice of thofe who, like myfelf, derive pleafure and
happinefs from the contemplation of the works and operations of nature,
on this globe.

« I fear, I thall be thought to have treated the queftion in too diffufive a
manner. I have not, indeed, laboured to be concife. But if the memoir
is more extenfive than was neceflary, I flatter myfelf, it will be admitted
that it, at leaft, contains fome new and interelting facts. I fubmit it to
its fate. }

be

ASCRIBED to tHe RATTLE-SNAKE, &. = 75

be mentioned, ferioufly relate fome wonderful ftory, as
a convincing proof of the doétrine. Children feem
taught to believe it. I think, it is fometimes one of the
earlieft prejudices imprinted on their tender minds. It is
a prejudice which often increafes with their years; and
even in that happy period of life when the mind is moft
firm, and the leaft propenfe to the belief of extraordinary
things, the ways of which we are not capable of {canning,
I have known this prejudice fo deeply and fo powerfully
rooted, as to mock the light and furenefs of facts, and
all the ftrength of reafoning.

It is not my intention, in this memoir, to give an
analyfis, or complete view, of every thing that has been
written on the fubjeét. Nor is it my intention to ex-
amine the many ftories, related by authors, in fupport
of the fafcinating faculty of ferpents. For the firft tafk,
I have not leifure ; and, as to the fecond, I fhould think
my time ill employed in pointing out the grofs abfurdities
which feem to conftitute a neceflary part of many of
thofe ftories. I think it proper, however, to obferve,
that I have anxioufly fought for, and have patiently pe-
rufed, the volumes of tales publifhed in favour of the
doétrine which I mean to controvert.

- Taim at giving a general, though correct, view of
the queftion, uninfluenced by the bold affertions of ig-
norance, or by the plaufible conjectures of fcience. In
the inveftigation of the queftion, J have fought for faéts :
thefe have been my guides. I have ftudioufly endea-
voured to follow where they feemed to lead. Perhaps,
they have led me aftray. ‘

The manner in which the fuppofed fafcinating power
of ferpents is exerted has often been related, by different
writers. I fhall endeavour to convey fome idea of the
bufinefs, in as few words as I can.

The

76 Or THE FASCINATING FACULTY

The fnake, whatever its fpecies may be, lying at the
bottom of the tree or buth upon which the bird or fquir-
rel fits, fixes its eyes upon the animal which it defigns
to fafcinate, or enchant. No fooner is this done than
the unhappy animal (I ufe, for the prefent, the lan-
euage of thofe who differ from me in opinion, on this
fubjeét) is unable to make its efcape. It now begins to
utter a moft piteous cry, which is well known by thofe
who hear it, and underftand the whole machinery of the
bufinefs, to be the cry of a creature enchanted. If it is
a fquirrel, it runs up the tree for a fhort diftance, comes
down again, then runs up, and, laftly, comes lower
down. ‘¢ On that occafion,” fays an honeft but rather
credulous writer*, ‘ it has been obferved, that t! ec fquir-
rel always goes down more than it goes up. The {nake
ftill continues at the root of the tree, with its eyes fixed
on the fquirrel, with which its attention is fo entirely
taken up, that a perfon accidentally approaching, may
make a confiderable noife, without the {nake’s fo much
as turning about. The fquirrel as before mentioned
comes always lower, and at laft leaps down to the {nake,
whofe mouth is already wide open for its reception.
The poor little animal then with a piteous cry runs into
the fnake’s jaws, and is fwallowed at once, if it be not
too big; but if its fize will not allow it to be fwallowed
at once, the fnake licks it feveral times with its tongue,
and {moothens it, and by that means makes it fit for
{wallowing f.”

It would be eafy to cite, from different authors, other
accounts of the manner in which the enchantment is per-

* Profeffor Peter Kalm.

+ Travels into North-America; containing its natural hiftory, and a
circumftantial account of its plantations and agriculture in general, &c.
&c. vol. i. p. 317 & 318. Alfo vol. ii. p. 207, 208, 209 & 210. Eng-
lifh Tranflation. London: 1770 & 1771.

4 formed ;

ASCRIBED to tHe RATTLE-SNAKE, &e. 47

formed; or, more properly fpeaking, of the condud,
or behaviour, of the enchanting and enchanted animals,
But between thefe accounts, there is hardly a fpecifick
difference. ‘There is confiderable unity in all the re-
lations that I have heard, or read. However, thofe who
with to examine this part of the fubject more fully, will,
at leaft, receive fome degree of entertainment from the
perufal of the many authors who have believed and af-
ferted, that ferpents poffefs a power of fafcinating other
animals.

That the belief in the exiftence of this power fhould
have been fo general among the uninformed part of a
people, ought not to be wondered at. The human
mind, unenlightened by fcience, or by confiderable re-
flection, is a foil rich in the weeds of fuperftition, and
credulity. It is ever prone to believe in the wonderful,
even when this belief, as is often the cafe, brings with it
fears, and cares, and mifery. The bondage of the mind
in fuperftitious credulity is great and heavy. Neither re-
ligion nor virtue can give it its freedom, This it obtains
from fcience. How important, then, even in this point
of view, is the enlargement of the mind by fcience !

But it is, furely, a matter of fome aftonifhment, that
this belief fhould have been admitted, in all the fulnefs
of its extravagance, by men of learning, of obfervation,
and of genius: by thofe who have the book of nature in
their hands; that book which will, in fome future and
fome happier age, eradicate many of the prejudices which
disfigure, and which mock the dignity of, human na-
ture: by claflical fcholars, grown old in the difbelief of
fimilar fables, heightened and embellifhed by the charms
of poetry ; and alfo by the infidel, who denies the au-
thenticity of fcripture-miracles, few of which, even
though they were not fhown to be truths, are more impro-
bable than the imaginary fact which I am examining.

I have

78 Or tHE FASCINATING FACULTY

Ihave fought to difcover the original, or fource, of
this belief. I do not find any traces of it among the an-
cient writers of either Greece or Rome. I think, it is
moft likely that no fuch traces can be found. Lucan,
had ferpents been thought to poflefs a fafcinating faculty
in his age, and in the country in which he lived, would,
probably, have availed himfelf of its exiftence, in his
beautiful account of the march of Cato’s army through
the Libyan-Defert* ; and had fuch a notion prevailed in
the earlier days of Lucretius, would we not find fome
mention made of it in the poem De Rerum Natura, one
of the fineft and moft varied produdtions of the human
mind? Claffical fcholars may poffibly, however, difcover
the dawn of this notion in Greek and Roman authors,
unread by me. On this fubject, I have not pufhed my
inquiries as far as I wifhed to have done. It is not un-
likely that I may examine the queftion, more curioufly,
at fome future period.

It is probable that in the mythology of Afia and of
Africa, we fhall difcover fome traces of this notion, fo
intimately connected with the fuperftitious credulity of a
people, and even fo naturally arifing out of an imperfect
view of the manners of ferpents.

If we may believe the Keverend Dr. Cotton Mather +,
Mr. Dudley {, and other perfons, who had refided in
North-America, we are to look for the beginning of this
ridiculous notion among our Indians. How far, how-
ever, this is really the cafe may, | think, be doubted.
It is certain that, at prefent, the opinion is by no means
univerfal among the Indians. Several intelligent gentle-
men, who are well acquainted with the manners, with

* Pharfalia, lib. IX.

+ The Philofophical Tranfactions, abridged, vol. v. part ii no. 339-
p. 162.

} Ibid. vol. vi. part iii. no. 376. p. 45.
the

ASCRIBED to THE RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 79

the religious opinions, and with the innumerable fuper-
ftitious prejudices of the Indians, have informed me, that
they do not think thefe people believe in the notion in
queftion. My friend Mr. John Heckewelder, of leth-
lehem, writes to me, that he does not recollect to have
heard the Indians fay that fnakes charm birds; though
he has frequently heard them fpeak of the ingenuity of
thefe reptilesin catching birds, fquirrels, &c. Mr William
Bartram fays, that he never underftood that the nations
of Indians among whom he travelled had any idea of
the fafcinating power of {nakes*. On the other hand,
however, a Mohegan-Indian told me that the Indians are
of opinion that the rattle-{nake can charm, or bewitch,
{quirrels and birds, and that it does this with its rattle,
which it fhakes, thereby inviting the animals to defcend
from the trees, after which they are eafily caught. Ac-
cording to this Indian, his countrymen do not think that
the fnake, in any manner, accomplifhes the bufinefs with
its eyes. A Choktah-Indian affured me that the rattle-
{nake does charm birds, &c. but he was honef{t enough
to confefs that he did not know in what manner it does
it. The interpreter, through whom I converfed with
this Indian, faid that the fnake charms by means of its
rattle.

The veneration, or regard, which has been paid to
the rattle-fnake by certain North-American tribes feems,
at firft fight, to favour the opinion, that thefe tribes
attributed to this hideous reptile fome hidden power f,
perhaps that of fafcinating animals. Mr. William Bar-
tram informs me, that the fouthern Indians, with whom
he is acquainted, feem to hold the rattle-fnake in a degree
of veneration t. Mr. Heckewelder fays that, to his cer-

* MS. note, communicated to me by this ingenious gentleman.
+ Vis abdita. Lucretius.
+ MS. note communicated to me.

L 2 tain

So Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

tain knowledge, this reptile was once held in particular
efteem by the Delawares. He was feveral times pre-
vented, by thefe Indians, from killing the rattle-fnake,
being told that it was their grand-father, and, therefore,
muft not be hurt. At other times, he was told, he muft
not kill this fnake, becaufe the whole race of rattle-{nakes
would grow angry, and give orders to bite every Indian
that might come in their way*. But, of late, efpecially
among thofe Indians who have had conneétion with the
whites, thefe ridiculous notions have mouldered away,
and our Indians, at prefent, kill their rattling ‘* grand-
father” with as little ceremony as the Efkemaux are faid
to kill their parents in old-age.

It is obvious, from contemplating the manners and
the hiftory of nations, that a part of their religions, and
a large part of the fabrick of their fuperftitious notions,
have arifen out of fear. Perhaps, all mankind +4- admit
the exiftence of two great beings, the one good and all-
benevolent, the other bad and ftudious of evil. In our
own continent, where, I believe, this notion was univer-
fal, certain tribes were affiduous in their adoration of the
latter being, whilft the former, whom the light of reafon
taught them to confider as the fource of life, and all their

* In my Hiflorical and Philofophical Inquiry (not yet publifhed), I have
collected many faéts which feem inconteltably to prove, that the mythology,
or fuperftitious religion, of the Americans is a fragment of that mythology
whofe range in Afia, and in Africa, has been fo extenfive. Poflibly, the
veneration, or regard, which was paid to different kinds of ferpents in
America did not originate in this continent, but had its fource in Afia,
from which portion of the globe (after a long and laborious attention to
the fubject) I cannot doubt, that almoft all the nations of America are
derived. Itis unneceffary, in this place, to cite inftances cf the religious
veneration which was, and ftillis, paid to fome {pecies of ferpents, in various
parts of the old-world. Thefe inftances muft be familiar to every perfon,
who is acquainted with the hiftorians or with the poets of antiquity, and
with the hiftory of the Gentoo-Indians.

+ I {peak of mankind in the aggregate, and not of individuals among

them,
bleffings,

ASCRIBED to tHe RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. Sr

bleffings, was merely acknowledged and named, but un-
worthipped and negletted *. The Delawares, and fome
other nations who fpeak dialects of their language, be-
lieve that a turtle, of an enormous fize, inhabits the
deep, and fupports upon his back this continent, or, as
they call it, ifland. They fay it is in the power of this
animal, by diving, to drown the world, as he has al-
ready done, informer ages. They, therefore, endeavour
to conciliate his friendfhip and good-will. With this
view, they make rattles of the turtle-fhell, into which
they put {mall ftones, beans, or Indian-corn +, and play
with this inftrument, at their dances. The turtle is
greatly efteemed by them; and, inthe fulnefs of a mixed
zeal and fear, they even deign to call him Mavnnitto, or
God; becaufe, they fay, he can live both upon the land
and in the water +.

It feems very probable to me, that the veneration for
the rattle-fnake had its birth in fear, and not in the belief
that this reptile poffeffed the power of fafcinating ani-
mals. If, as fome writers have aflerted, the Indians
were in pofleffion of abfolute fpecificks for the bite of the
rattle-fnake, 1 am of opinion that the veneration for this
animal would not have exifted; or, at leaft, that it would
not long have continued. But the Indians are often un-
able to prevent or to cure the effects of the active poifon,
of this ferpent, which not unfrequently deftroys them 4.

* John De Laet, fpeaking of the Indians of New-York, has the follow-
ing words: Czterum nullus ipfis religionis fenfus, nulla Dei veneratio:
diabolum quidem colunt fed non tam folemniter neque certis ceremoniis,
ut Africani faciunt,” &c. Novus Orbis feu Defcriptionis Indiz Occiden-
talis Libri xviii. lib. iii. cap. xi. p. 75. Lugd. Batav. 1633.

+ Maize.

{ MS. by Mr. John Heckewelder, penes me.

§ Adair fays, he does “ not remember to have feen or heard of an Indian
dying by the bite of a fnake, when out at war, or a hunting; although
they are then often bitten by the moft dangerous fnakes.” The Hiffory of
the American Indians, &c, p. 235. London: 1775. Itis certain, from the

tetimon¢

82 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

I return to the more immediate path of my fubjedt.

Amoug the Indians of South-America, I do not find
any traces of the notion that ferpents can fafcinate other
animals. Pifo, the author of the Natural and Medical
Hiftory of the two Indies, feems to have been ftudious to
bring together the extraordinary things which have been
related of the rattle-fnake. But he fays not a fyllable
concerning the fafcinating faculty of this reptile*.

But whatever may have been the native country of
the notion which I am confidering, it would have been
well had it been confined to favages. It is a tale which
feems nicely adapted to the wit and fociety of rude and
uncultivated nations. Unfortunately, the progrefs of er-
ror and of credulity is extremely rapid. Their dominion
is extenfive. The belief in the fafcinating faculty of fer-
pents has fpread through almoft all the civilized parts of
North-America. Noris it confined to America. It has
made its way into Europe, and has there taken pofleffion
of the minds of {cholars, of naturalifts, and of philofophers.

teftimony of many perfons, that the bite of the rattle-fnake has often pro-
ved mortal to the Indians, and others, notwith{tanding the boafted fpeci-
ficks of thefe people. Father Cajetan Cattaneo fays, many Indians die
with the bite of ferpents. ‘ But,’ obferves the father, ‘ it is faid they
commonly efcape with life, when they can quickly apply the remedy which
providence has prepared of certain herbs, efpecially the {pikenard, which
fome parts of Paraguay produce in plenty. But when they are bit by the
rattle-fnake it is confidently affured that the cafe admits no cure.” The
third letter of F. Cajetan Cattaneo. See A Relation of the miffions of Paraguay,
wrote originally in Italian, by Mr. Muratori. Englifh Tranflation. p. 26c.
London: 1759. Father Cattaneo is here {peaking of the South-American
rattle-fnake, the poifon of which, I have little doubt, is more deleterious
than that of the fame animal in our part of North-America. Still, how-
ever, I am confident, that this poifon, even in the moft fervid climates, is
not always mortal.

* Gulielmi Pifonis medici Amfteledamenfis de Indiz utriufque re natu-
rali et medica libri quatuordecim. Amfteledami: apud Elzevirios, 1658.
Some of Pifo’s affertions concerning the rattle-fnake are very extravagant.
Such are the following: ‘* Caudz extremitate in anum hominis immiffa,
mortem infert confeftim ; venenum autem quod ore vel dentibus infundit,
soulto lentius vitam tollit.”” p. 275.

I think,

ASCRIBED To THz RATTLE SNAKE, &. 83

I think, I have fomewhere either heard or read that
the tale was credited by the late Dr. Samuel Johnfon.
If 1 am miftaken, I hope the admirers of this great-man,
fhould any of them read my memoir, will pardon me.
It is certain, notwithftanding the va{t ftrength and the
rich fertility of Johnfon’s mind, that he was credulous
and timid. Did this union of credulity and timidity arife
out of that unhappy melancholy (“ thofe cafual eclipfes
which darken learning”), that often overclouded the
brightnefs of his mind*? We are told that the Hercules
of Englith literature believed in ghofts, and in the fecond-
fight. ‘The man who would thus fuffer his mind to be
eftranged from probability, and entangled in difficulties,
would, perhaps, find it eafy to bend to the belief, that
ferpents have the faculty of fafcinating other animals.

Although I profefs myfelf to be a warm admirer of
Linnzus, and although, at a very early period of my
life, I enlifted myfelf under the banner of his {chool, [
fhall not, neverthelefs, attempt to conceal, that this great
man gave credit to the tale of the fafcination of birds and
other animals by ferpents. In his Sy/ema Nature (that
immortal work), under the article Crotalus horridus, or
the rattle-fnake, he has the following words: “ Aves
Sciurofque ex arboribus in fauces revocat.’+ In another
work, he fpeaks as follows. ‘* Whoever is wounded by
the Hooded Serpent (Co/wber Naja) expires in a few
minutes ; norcan he efcape with life who is bitten by the

* Or, did his melancholy grow out of his credulity and fear ?

+ See volume firlt, p. 372. Vienna edition of 1767. Profeflor Gmelin,
in his edition of the Syfema Natura, when fpeaking of the rattle-fnake, has
the following words, viz. “ aves fciurique ex arboribus nom raro in fauces in-
hiantis apertas incidunt,” tom. i. pars iil. p. 1080. The fame laborious
author i{peaking of our grey-{quirrel (Sciurus cinereus) fays, “a crotalo
comeditur,” tom. i. p. 147. This is true: but he might have faid the
fame when fpeaking of the ftriped-dormoufe, or ground-fquirrel (Sciurus
firiatus), of our rabbit (Lepus americanus), and many other animals.

Rattle-

84 Or rue FASCINATING FACULTY

Rattle-fnake (Crota/us horridus) in any part near a great
vein. But the merciful God has diftinguifhed thele pefts
by peculiar figns, and has created them moft inveterate
enemies; for as he has appointed cats to deftroy mice, {fo
has he provided the Ichneumon (Viverra Ichueumon )
againft the former ferpent, and the Hog to perfecute the
latter. He has moreover given the Crofa/us a very flow
motion, and has annexed a kind of rattle to its tail, by
the motion of which it gives notice of its approach: but,
left this flownefs fhould be too great a difadvantage to the
animal itfelf, he has favoured it with a certain power of
fafcinating f{quirrels from high trees, and birds from the
air into its throat, in the fame manner as flies are precipi-
tated into the jaws of the lazy toad.”*

Linnzus was, certainly, extremely credulous, though
I do not find that any of his profeffed biographers have
taken notice of this feature of his mind. But the proofs
of my obfervation are numerous: they are to be found
in almoft every eflay that he has written. His credulity
with refpe&t to the powers of medicines is, perhaps,
peculiarly ftriking ~~. How far this credulity, in a mind
otherwile truly great (a mind which with refpe@ to the
arrangement of natural bodies has never been equalled),
is to be fought for in the general character of the country
which gave Linnzus birth,.I fhall not paufe to inquire.
Yet in an inveftigation of this kind, where the opinion
of the Swedifh Fliny is neceflarily mentioned, it might be

* See Reflections on the Study of Nature, tranflated from the Latin of
Linnzus. p. 33 & 34. Dublin edition, 1786. Dr. I. E. Smith, the in-
genious tranflator of this differtation, in a note to the above paflage, has
the following words. ‘* This opinion of the fafcinating power of the Toad
has been refuted, and the appearance which gave rife to it fully accounted
for, by Mr. Pennant, in his Britifh Zoology. Probably the ftory of the
Rattle-fnake’s having a fimilar power might be found equally falfe, if en-
quired into with the fame degree of accuracy.”’ p. 34.

+ See his Materia Medica, liber. i. de Plantis, &ce Amfteledami:
L749- c

I cur1ous

ASCRIBED tro tHz RATTLE-SNAKE, &. 85

curious to look to the fources of his credulity. The ftudy
of nature, as it refpects this globe, is, perhaps, of all
the fciences, the moft baPiventaule to fuperftition, or
credulity. But the greateft of naturalifts was one of the
moft credulous of philofophers.

It is proper, however, to obferve, in this place, that
Linnezus by no means afferts, that he himfelf had ever
been a witnefs to the fafcinating power of any of the
ferpent-tribe. He feems to have received the tale from
fome of his many pupils, whom he animated with the
love of natural hiftory. Itis probable that Kalm, whom
-Linnzus quotes upon various occafions, and whom he
could not but efteem, principally contributed to fix: his
illuftrious mafter’s credulity in this refpe€t: for, in dif-
ferent parts of his Zravels, this induftrious author has
given his decided affent to the tale; and he informs us,
that he has treated of the fame fubje&t, more fully, in a
treatife which is printed in the Memorrs ie the Royat
Swedifh Academy of Sciences, for the year 1753*

Kalm is candid enough to tell us, that he never faw
an inftance of the fafcinating power of the ferpent-kind.
‘© However,” fays he, “1 have a lift of more than
twenty perfons, among which are fome of the moft cre-
ditable people, who have all unanimoufly, though living
far diftant from each other, afferted the fame thing +.”
He then goes on to tell us a long ftory, fimilar to that
which I have related, in the beginning of this memoir,
and which, therefore, it is not neceflary to repeat, in
this place.

Our author is not content to make mere mention of
the fact: he undertakes to fpeculate upon it. And here,
although a talent for ingenious reafoning is, certainly,

* Travels into North-America, &c. yol. i. p. 318 & 319.
+ Ibid. vol. ii. p. 207 & 208.

M not

86 Or THE FASCINATING FACULTY

not the moft ftriking feature that is difplayed in the Tra-
vels of Kalm, he acquits himfelf, for fome time, very
judicioufly ; but fpoils all he has faid, by concluding,
that the bird or fquirrel ‘‘ are only enchanted, whilft the
fnake has its eyes fixed on them*.” He allows that
“ this looks odd and unaccountable, though,” fays he,
«many of the worthieft and moft reputable people have
related it, and though it is fo univerfally believed here,”
that is in New-Jerfey, &c. ‘‘ that to doubt it would be to
expofe one’s felf to general laughter.--”

Several Ametican writers have adopted the notion,
that {nakes are endued with a fafcinating faculty. Fear-
ful that their authority may extend the empire of this
error, I have been the more anxious to offer my fenti-
ments on the fubject to the fociety f.

It has given me pleafure to find, that the enchanting
faculty of the rattle-{nake is doubted by fome very re-
fpeCtable European naturalifts. <‘* It is difficult,’ fays
my excellent friend Mr. Pennant, “to fpeak of its faf-
cinating powers: authors § of credit defcribe the effects.
Birds have been feen to drop into its mouth, fquirrels

* Travels into North-America, &c. vol. ii. p. 210.

+ Ibid.

} Speaking of the rattle-fnake, my worthy friend Mr. William Bartram
fays: ‘* They are fuppofed to have the power of fafcination in an eminent
degree, fo as to inthrall theirprey. Itis generally believed that they
charm birds, rabbits, fquirrels, and other animals, and by fteadfaftly looking
at them, poffefs them with infatuation ; be the caufe what it may, the mifera-
ble creatures undoubtedly ftrive by every poflible means to efcape, but alas!
their endeavours are in vain, they at laft lofe the power of refiftance, and
flutter or move flowly, but reluctantly towards the yawning jaws of their
devourers, and creep into their mouths, or lay down and fuffer themfelves
to be taken and fwallowed.” Travels through North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Eaftand Weft Florida, &c. p. 267. Philadelphia: 1791.

§ “ Lawfon—Catefby—Ph. Tr. abridg. ix. 56, &c. vii. 410.—Brickel’s
Hift. Carolina, 144.—Beverley Virginia, 260.—Colden, i. 12.” Dr.
Brickel is an author of no credit. His Hi/lory of North-Carolina, here quot-
ed, is one of the moft daring and fcandalous inftances of plagiarifm I am

acquainted with,
defcend

ASCRIBED to ror RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. $7

defcend from their trees, and leverets run into its jaws.
Terror and amazement feem to lay hold on thefe little
animals: they make violent efforts to get away, ftill
keeping their eyes fixed on thofe of the fnake ; at length,
wearied with their movements, and frightened out of
all capacity of knowing the courfe they ought to take,
become at length the prey of the expecting devourer,
probably in their laft convullive motion.” *

My friend Mr. de la Cépéde, one of the moft eloquent
naturalifts of the age, has devoted a good deal of atten-
tion to the fubjeét, in his Hifforre Naturelle des Serpens,
a work of extenfive and fuperior merit. I regret, how-
ever, that this ingenious author was not in pofleflion of a
few facts, well known in this country, which could not
have failed to condu& a mind, like his, ftrengthened by
the enlarged contemplation of the objects of nature, to
the fulnefs and certainty of truth. As it is, however,
Mr. de la Cépéde deferves our thanks for reviving, and
giving a new turn to, the fpeculations of naturalifts on
this fubjedt.

I beg leave, in this place, to quote that part of Mr.
de la Cépéde’s work which relates to the queftion of my
memoir,

Speaking of the boiquira, or rattle-fnake, my in-
genious friend has the following words: “ His infeCtious
breath, which fometimes agitates the little animals he is
about to feize, may alfo prevent their efcape. The In-
dians relate, that a rattle-{nake is often feen, curled round
a tree, darting terrible glances at a {quirrel, which after
exprefling its fear by its cries and its tremour, falls at the
foot of the tree, where it is devoured. Mr. Vofmaér
(at the Hague), who has made feveral experiments on
the bite of a rattle-fnake, which he had alive, fays that

* Ar&ic Zoology, vol. ii. p. 338. London: 1792.
M 2 the

88 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

the birds and mice, which were thrown into the cage,
would immediately endeavour to fquat in a corner, and
that foon after, as if feized with deadly anguifh, they
would run towards their enemy, who continually fhook
his rattles: but this effect of a mephitick and fetid breath
has been fo much exaggerated, and mifreprefented, that
it becomes miraculous.

“* Tt has been faid,” continues our author, ‘‘ that the
rattle-fnake had a faculty of enchanting, as it were, the
animal he intended to devour; that by the power of his
glance, he could oblige the vidtim to approach by {mall
degrees, and finally to fall into his mouth; that even
man could not refift the magick force of his fparkling
eyes; and that under violent agitations he would expofe
himfelf to the envenomed tooth of the ferpent, infiead
of endeavouring to efcape. If the rattle-fnake had been
more generally known, and if his natural hiftory had en-
gaged more attention, other circumftances, {till more ex-
traordinary, would have been added to thefe miraculous
feats; and how many fables would not have been fub-
fiituted to the fimple effect of a peftilential breath, which,
however, has by no means been either fo frequent or fo
fatal as fome naturalifts have believed !

“ We may prefume, with Kalm, that, for the moft
part, when a bird, a fquirrel, or any other animal, has
been fcen precipitating itfelf from the top of a tree into
the jaws of a rattle-fnake, it had been already bitten*;

* JT do not find that Kalm has adopted this fyftem of explanation, in his
Travels. On the contrary, in this work, he gives fome judicious reafons
for rejecting this mode of explanation. Travels, &c. vol. ii. p. 209 & 210.
His memoir, in the Swedif Tranfadions, 1 have not feen. Sir Hans
Sloane, a long time fince, conjectured, that the whole myftery of the iaf-
cinating faculty of the rattle-fnake is this, viz. “‘ that when fuch animals as
are the proper prey of thefe fnakes, as {mall quadrupeds, birds, &c. are
furprifed by them, they bite them, and the poifon allows them time to run
afmall way; or perhaps a bird to fly up into the next tree, where the fnakes
watch them, with great earneltnefs, till they fall down, or are perfealy
dead, when having licked them over with their fpawl or fpittle, they aioe

ow

ASCRIBED ro rHz RATLE-SNAKE, &c. - 89

iojl=

that after efcaping, it manifefted, by its cries and its
d

tation, the violent action of the poifon left in its blood,
and diffufed through its circulation, by the envenomed
inoculation of the reptile’s tooth; that, its firength gra-
dually decaying, it would fly or leap from branch to
branch, till finally exhaufted it would fall before the fer-
pent, who with inflamed eyes, and eager looks, would
watch attentively every motion, and then dart on his
prey, when it retained but a fmall portion of life. Seve-
ral obfervations related by travellers, and particularly a
fact mentioned by Kalm, appear to confirm this.” *

From this long quotation, it appears that Mr. de la
Cépéde adopts two modes, or circumftances, for explain-
ing the miraculous power, which has been attributed to
thefe ferpents. The explanation is, undoubtedly, in
both cafes, ingenious, and entitled to notice. I fhall exa-
mine the queftion with that attention which it deferves.

In the firft place, my learned friend fuppofes, that the
rattle-fnake’s infectious breath +, by agitating the little
animals which it means to devour, may prevent their
efcape.

I do not altogether underftand this expreffion of an
infectious breath. I do not think that we are in poffef-
fion of any facts by which it can be proved, that the
breath of the rattle-{nake is, in general, more infeCious,
or peftiferous, than that of many other aniraals, whe-
ther of the fame or of a different family. I know, in-
deed, that in iome of the larger fpecies of ferpents, in-
habiting South-America, and other countries, there is

o
S
D)

low them down.” Philofophical TranfaGions, vol. xxxviil. no. 433. Mr. de
la Cépéde does not appear to have feen Sloane’s paper.

* Hiftoire Naturelle des Serpens, p. 409, 410 & 413. a Paris: 1789.

+ His words are, ‘“‘ fon haleine empeftée, qui trouble quelquefois les pe-
tits animaux dont il veut fe faifir, peut aufli empécher qu’ils ne lui échap-

pent.” p. 409.
evolved

go Or tHE FASCINATING FACULTY

evolved in the ftomach, during the long and tedious
proceis of digeftion in thefe animals, a vapour, ora gas,
whofe odour is intenfely fetid. I have not, however,
found that this is the cafe with the rattle-fnake, and other
North-American ferpents, that I have examined. But
my own obfervations on this head have not been very
minute. I have made inquiry of fome perfons (whofe
prejudices again{t the ferpent-tribe are not fo powerful as
my own), who are not afraid to put the heads and necks
of the black-{nake, and other ferpents that are deftitute
of venomous fangs, into their mouths, and have been
informed, that they never perceived any difagreeable
{mell to proceed from the breath of thefe animals. I
have been prefent at the opening of a box which contain-
ed a number of living ferpents ; and although the box
had been fo clofe as to admit but a very fmall quantity of
frefh air, although the obfervation was made in a {mall
warm room, I did not perceive any peculiarly difagree-
able effuvium to arife from the bodies of thefe animals.
I am, moreover, informed by a member of this fociety*,
who has, for a confiderable time, had a rattle-fnake under
his immediate care, that he has not obferved that any
difagreeable vapour proceeds from this reptile. On the
other hand, however, it is afferted by fome creditable
perfons of my acquaintance, that a moft offenfive odour,
fimilar to that of flefh, in the laft ftage of putrefaction, is
continually emanating from every part of the rattle-fnake,
and fome other fpecies of ferpents. This odour extends,
under certain circumftances, to a confiderable diftance
from the body of the animal. Mr. William Bartram
affures me, that he has obferved ‘* horfes to be fenfible
of, and greatly agitated by, it at the diitance of forty
or fifty yards from the fnake. They fhowed,” he fays,

* Mr. Charles Wilfon Peale.
‘¢ their

ASCRIBED to tHe RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 91

“ their abhorrence, by {norting, winnowing, and ftart-
ing from the road, endeavouring to throw their riders,
in order to make their efcape.”* ‘This fact related by a
man of rigid veracity, is extremely curious; and, in an
efpecial manner, deferves the attention of thofe writers,
who, like M. de la Cépéde, imagine that this fetid ema-
nation from ferpents is capable of affecting birds, at {mall
diftances, with a kind of afphyxy -. It even gives /ome
colour of probability to the ftory related by Metrodorus,
and preferved in the Natural Hiffory of Pliny t.

The fads which came under the notice of Mr. Vof-
maér, at the Hague, are curious, and deferved to be
mentioned. But they do not appear to me to be proofs
of the exiftence of an infectious or mephitick vapour pro-
ceeding from the mouth of the rattle-fnake. 1 am not
at all furprized that the birds and mice that were put
into the cage, along with this reptile, fhould exhibit the
motions which were obferved by the Dutch naturalift,
When the little animals fquatted- down in a corner of the
cage, they were, moft probably, impelled by the inftina&
of fear, which is fo powerful, and fo extenfive, in the
vatt family of animals. When they ran towards the fer-
pent, it may have been fear that actuated them.

In condu@ing a feries of experiments, it is ever a
matter of importance, that the mind of the experimen-
talift fhould be free from the dominion of prejudice and
fyftem. Perhaps, faéts are never related in all their
unadulterated purity except by thofe, who, intent upon
the difcovery of truth, keep fyftem at a diftance, regard-
lefs of itsclaims. The ftrong democracy of facts fhould
exert its wholefome fway. 1 cannot help thinking, that
if Mr. Vofmaér had difbelieved the fafcinating faculty

* MS. note communicated to me.
+ Hiftoire Naturelle des Serpens, p. 355.
t Lib. xaviii. cap, 14.
of

g2 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

of ferpents, the conclufions which he would have drawn
from his experiments, juft mentioned, would have been
fomewhat different. But of this I cannot be certain,
and, therefore, I fhall not avail myfelf of the fuppo-
fition.

Some experiments, which have been made in this
city, do not accord with thofe of Mr. Vofmaér. The
birds, which were put into the cage that contained the
rattle-fnake, flew or ran from the reptile, as though they
were fenfible of the danger to which they were expoled.
The fnake made many attempts to catch the birds, but
could feldom fucceed. When a dead bird was thrown
into the cage, the fnake devoured it immediately. He
foon caught and devoured a living mole, an animal much
more fluggifh than the bird. A few days fince, I had
an opportunity of obferving the following circumftance.
A {mall bird, our fnow-bird*, had been put into a cage
containing a large rattle-fnake. The little animal had
been thus imprifoned for feveral hours, when I firft faw
it. It exhibited no figns of fear, but hopped about from
the floor of the cage to its rooft, and frequently flew and
fat upon the fnake’s back. Its chirp was no ways tremu-
lous ; but perfeGtly natural: it ate the feeds which were
put into the cage, and by its whole actions, I think,
moit evidently demonftrated, that its fituation was not
unealy.

I do not relate this latter fact with any intention to
difprove the notion, that the rattle-{nake poffeffes the
faculty of charming. For the obfervation was made on
the feventeenth of laf month, which is fomewhat earlier
than the time when our fnakes ufually come out of their
dens. ‘The fnake, too, which was the fubject of the
experiment, appeared to be very languid, and had not

* The Emberiza hyemalis of Linnzus.
2 eaten

ASCRIBED to tHE RATTLE-SNAKE, &e. 93

eaten any thing for a confiderable time. We ought not
therefore, to fuppofe him poffleffed of the fafcinating
faculty at this period ; fince, I prefume, that this faculty,
did it exift at all, is fubfervient to the purpofe of pro-
curing the reptile its food. The fact is, perhaps, va-
luable in another point of view. It feems to fhow, it
does fhow, that the mephitick vapour proceeding from
the rattle-{nake, allowing that fuch a vapour really ex-
ifts, was, in no refpect, injurious tothe bird.

If the mephitick vapour of the rattle-fnake were pro-
du@ive of the effects attributed to it by Mr. de la Cé-
pede, and other writers; and, efpecially, if this vapour
extended its influence to animals fituated at a confiderable
diftance from the reptile, the atmofphere of the rattle-
fnake would often be a kind of Avernus, which many
animals would avoid, and which would generally oc-
cafion the ficknefs or death of thofe that were fo unfor-
tunate as to come within its fphere. But how different
isthe cafe! The abodes of the rattle-fnake are the fa-
vourite haunts of frogs, and many {pecies of birds, which
often pafs the feafons of their amours and generation in
clouds of mephitifm: uninjured, and undeftroyed. How
often has the rattle-fnake been known to continue, for
days, at the bottom of a tree, or even a fmall bufh, upon
the branches of which the thruth or the cat-bird are rear-
ing their young! This would be a fuitable fituation for
the mephitick vapour to exert its noxious influence; but,
in our woods, fuch influence has never been perceived.

Birds of the eagle and the hawk kind have been feen
to foar, fora confiderable time, above the fpot occupied
by a rattle-fnake, and at length to dart upon the reptile,
and carry it to their young. Neither the parent-bird nor
its young ones, have ever been known to receive any in-

jury from the fnake’s vapour. Poffibly, it may be faid,
this

94 Or THE FASCINATING FACTLTY

this vapour was diffipated, or greatly diluted, in pafling
through the air.

A mephitick, or fetid, vapour emanates from the
bodies of many animals, befides the rattle-fnake; from
the opofflum*, and the pole-cat-}, for inftance. The
vapour of thefe quadrupeds would be as likely to affect
birds, &c. with afphyxy, as that of the rattle-fnake.
And poflibly it does. There is, certainly, one thing in
favour of the fuppofition. The opoffum, in particular,
is noted for his cunning in catching birds.

I fhall conclude this part of my memoir by obferving,
that the odour of the rattle-fnake is faid to be agreeable to
fome perfons.

Mr. de la Cépéde’s fecond mode of explanation is
much more plaufible. I have already obferved t, that
it was the fyftem of Sir Hans Sloane, who affected
to ground it upon experiments. It is adopted by
the author of the well-written account of de la Cépé-
de’s Natural Hiftory of Serpents, in the Monthly Re-
view §.

Mr. de la Cépéde prefumes that, ‘‘ for the moft part,
when a bird, a fquirrel, &c. has been feen precipitating
itfelf from the top of atree, intothe jaws of a rattle-
{nake, it had been already bitten ;” and that its whole
condué, fuch as its crying, its agitation, its leaping
from branch to branch, &c. are all effets induced by
the violent operation of the poifon, thrown into its body,
by the reptile.

An attention to fats conftrains me to reject this at-
tempt towards a folution of the queftion, which I am

* Didelphis Opoffum. + Viverra Putorius.
£ See pages 30 & 31, mote.
§ Appendix to the fecond volume of the Monthly Review Enlarged.
D. SII.
confidering.

ASCRIBED To THE RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 95

confidering. I fhall arrange my chiefeft objeCtions under
two heads.

Firft. We are pretty well acquainted with the moft
prominent effe€ts produced by the poifon of the rattle-
{nake, in various {pecies of animals. It muft be admit-
ted, that there is a confiderable variety in thefe effects,
and a great difference in the ftrength of thefe effects.
In one animal, the poifon produces an high degree of
inflammatory action in the fyftem; in another, the moft
ftriking primary effect is a fomnolency, or drowfinefs.
In one animal, the poifon does not produce any obvious
effe& upon the fyftem for many minutes; in another
the effe&s are almoft inftantaneous*. But in almoft
every inftance in which the poifon of the rattle-fnake
has been fuccefsfully thrown into the body of an animal,
there enfue a fet of fymptoms, very different from the
actions of birds and fquirrels when under the fuppofed
fafcinating influence of the ferpent-kind. It is not ne-
ceflary to detail, in this place, thefe various fymptoms,
becaufe I have already done it in a paper which is printed
in the third volume of the Zran/aétions of our Society +,
and becaufe thefe fymptoms cannot be unknown to the
members of the Society. It will be fufficient to obferve,
that two of the moft univerfal effects of the poifon of the
rattle-fnake, I miean the extreme debility and the giddi-
nefs, which commonly almoft immediately fucceed the
bite, will preclude the poffibility of a fquirrel’s, or a
bird’s, dancing from branch to branch, flying about, and
running to and from the ferpent, for a confiderable time,
before it becomes a prey toitsenemy. efides, the farce
of fafcination is often kept up for a much longer term of

* A fmall dog that was bitten in the fide by a large rattle-fnake, reeled
about, and expired, feemingly fuffocated, in two minutes. This was in
the month of Auguft.

+ No. xi. p. 110 & 111.

N 2 time

96 Or rHe FASCINATING FACULTY

time than any fmall animals are known to live after a
fuccefsful bite by the rattle-fnake. But, perhaps, it may
be faid, that the rattle-fnake, like fome of our wafps,
knows how to inje€t.into the animal, which he means
to devour, any given quantity of his fubtile poifon.
Here, the analogy will not apply: but I have not time
to point out the various inftances in which its failure is
confpicuous.

Kalm mentions a well-known fa&, which will be ad-
mitted to have confiderable weight in deftroying the
force of this part of Mr. de la Cépéde’s fyftem. “ The
{quirrel being upon the point of running into the {nake’s
mouth, the {pectators have not been able to let it come
to that pitch, but killed the fnake, and as foon as it had
got a mortal blow, the fquirrel or bird deftined for de-
ftruGtion, flew away, and left off their moanful note, as
if they had broke loofe from a net. Some fay, that if
they only touched the fnake, fo as to draw off its atten-
tion from the fquirrel; it went off quickly, not ftopping
till it had got toa great diftance. ‘“ Why” continues our
author, ‘* do the fquirrels or birds go away fo fuddenly
and why no fooner? If they had been poifoned or bitten
by the fnake before, fo as not to be able to get from the
tree, and to be forced to approach the fnake always more
and more, they could however not get new ftrength by
the {nake being killed or diverted.” *

Secondly. It is a fact well known in this country,
that the rattle-fnake is not the only kind of ferpent that
is faid to be endued with the faculty of fafcinating birds,
{quirrels, and other animals. As far as my inquiries
have extended, it does not appear to me that, in general,
the rattle-fnake is thought to have fo large a portion of

* Travels into North-America, &c. vol. it. p. 209 & 210. It will be
eafy to difcover what part of Kalm’s reafoning, in the above quotation, I
admit.

this

ASCRIBED ro THz RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 97

this faculty as fome other fpecies of ferpents. Of this,
at leaft, | am certain, that perfons refiding in our coun-
try-fituations tell as many wonderful tales of the bewitch-
ing eyes of the black-fnake, the coluber conftritor of
Linnzus, as they do of the boiquira, or rattle-{nake.
Now let it be fuppofed, fora minute, that the poifon of
this latter ferpent, when thrown into the body of a bird,
a {quirrel, &c. is capable of producing, in thefe animals,
thofe piteous cries, thofe fingular movements, thofe tre-
mulous fears, which are mentioned by Kalm, by de la
Cépéde, and by other writers,—in what manner are we
to account for the fimilar cries, movements, and fears,
in thofe birds which are frequently feen under the fafci-
nating influence of the black-{nake ? For we Americans all
know, that the bite of the black-fnake is perfectly in-
noxious. This, indeed, is alfo the cafe with the greater
number of the fpecies of ferpents that have, hitherto,
been difcovered in the extenfive country of the United
States. And yet almoft every fpecies of ferpents is. fup-
pofed to be endued with the power of fafcinating fuch
animals as it occafionally devours.

Thefe fats, and this mode of reafoning, certainly in-
volve, in fome difficulty, Mr. de la Cépéde, and thofe
writers who efpoufe his opinion, which I have ex-
amined, under the firft head of my objeGtions. An at-
tempt is made to account for the imaginary fafcinating
faculty of the ferpent from the powerful influence of a
fubtile poifon. But, upon inquiry, it is found, that the
power of bewitching different animals is not an exclufive
gift of thofe ferpents which nature has provided with en-
venomed fangs: it is a gift which as extenfively belongs
to that more numerous tribe of our fepents, whofe bite is
innocent, and whofe creeping motion is their only poifon*.

* Tf there is any impropriety in this mode of expreflion, the impro-
priety has its fource in my feelings, with refpect to the ferpents. Perhapsy.
no

98 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

Thefe objections will, I am perfuaded, be fufficient
to convince every unprejudiced reader, that the fyftem
of explanation offered by Mr. de la Cépéde is unfounded
in facts; and, confequently, that the problem {till re-
mains to be folved, in another way. .

Among the number of ingenious men who have
amufed themfelves with f{peculations on the fubje& of
this memoir, and who, rejefting the commonly received
notion of the exiftence of a fafcinating power in the rat-
tle-fnake, have attempted to explain the phenomenon
upon other principles, it is with pleafure I recognife the
refpectable Profeflor Blumenbach, of Gottingen. This
gentleman, in a late publication, fpeaking of the rattle-
fnake, makes a few remarks on the fafcinating faculty
which has been afcribed to this reptile. Thefe remarks
I thall tranflate at length.

“ That fquirrels, {mall birds, &c.” fays he, “ volun-
tarily fall from trees into the jaws of the rattle-fnake,

no man experiences the force and the miferies of this prejudice ina greater
degree thanI do. Itis the only prejudice which, I think, I have not
ftrength to fubdue. As the natural hiftory of the ferpents is a very curious
and interefting part of the fcience of zoology; as the United-States afford
an ample opportunity for the farther improvement of the hiftory of thefe
animals, and as I have, for a long time, been anxious to devote a portion
of my leifure time to an inveftigation of their phyficlogy, in particular, I
cannot but exceedingly regret my weaknefs and timidity, in this refpect.
I had meditated a feries of experiments upon the refpiration, the digeftion,
and the generation of the ferpents of Pennfylvania. But, I want the foy-
titude which it is neceflary to poffefs in entering on the tafk. Inftead of
flowly and cautioufly diffeting and examining their ftructure and their
functions, with that attention which the fubject merits, I am more dif-
pofed, at prefent, to obey the injundtion of the Manituan poet, in the fol-
lowing beautiful lines :

—Cape faxa manu: cape robora, paftor,
Tollentemque minas et fibila colla tumentem
Dijice: jamque fuga tumidum caput abdidit alte,
Cum medii nexus, exflremeque agmina caude
Solvuntur, tardofque trahit finus ultimus orbes.
Geore. Lib. iit. 420—424,.

lying

ASCRIBED To rHzr RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 99

lying under them, is certainly founded in facts: nor is
this much to be wondered at, as fimilar phenomena-have
been obferved in other fpecies of ferpents, and even in
toads, hawks, and in cats, all of which, to appearance,
can under particular circumftances, entice other fmall
animals, by mere fteadfaft looks. Here the rattles of
this {nake (the rattle-fnake) are of peculiar fervice; for
their hifling noife caufes the fquirrels, whether impelled
by a kind of curiofity, mifunderftanding, or dreadful
fear, to followit, asit would feem, of their own accord.
At leaft,” continues Mr. Blumenbach, * I know from
well-informed eye witnefles, that it is one of the common
practices among the younger favages to hide themfelves
in the woods, and by counterfeiting the hiffing of the
rattle-{nake to allure and catch the {quirrels.’’*

I do not intend to take up much time in examining the
foregoing explanation. I fhall offer my objections to it,
in as concife a manner as I can.

Firft. The faculty of fafcinating is by no means pecu-
liar to the rattle-fnake, but is attributed as extenfively to
the black-fnake, and other ferpents, which are not fur-
nifhed with the crepitaculum, or fet of bells-+, by which
this ferpent is fuppofed to be enabled to ring for its
prey, when it wants it.

Secondly, Some perfons, hig have feen the rattle-
nake in the fuppofed a&t of charming, affure me that the
reptile did not fhake its rattles, but ‘kept them ftill. It
is true, that Mr. Vofmier’s rattle-{nake, already men-
tioned, continually fhook its rattles.

Thirdly. With regard to the practice of the young
favages, fpoken of by Mr. Blumenbach, I know nothing.
I have inquired of Indians, and of perfons who have re-

* Handbuch der Naturgefchichte, P. 253 Goettingen: 1791.
+ Serpent a fonnette is the French name for the rattle-fnake.

fided,,

100 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

fided, for-a confiderable time, among the Indians, and
they appear to be as ignorant of the circumftance as I
am myfelf. I am inclined to think that Mr. Blumenbach
has been impofed upon: or, perhaps, the following cir-
cumftance may have given rife to the ftory. The young
Indians put arrows, acrofs, in their mouths, and by the
quivering motion of their lips upon the arrows, imitate
the noife of young birds, thus bringing the old ones fo
near to them, that they can be readily fhot at. In like
manner, the Lanius Excubitor, or great fhrike, hiding
itfelf in a thicket, and imitating the cry of a young bird,
often fucceeds in feizing the old ones, which have been
folicited, by the counterfeited noife, to the affiftance of
their young.

Ever fince I have been accuftomed to contemplate the
objects of nature with a degree of minute attention, I
have confidered the whole ftory of the enchanting faculty
of the rattle-fnake, and of other ferpents, as deftitute of
a folid foundation. I have attentively liftened to many
ftories, which have been related to me as proofs of the
doétrine, by men whofe veracity I could not fufpeé.
But there is a ftubborn incredulity often attached to cer-
tain minds. In me it was ftrong. ‘The mere force of
argument never compelled me to believe. I always fuf-
pected, that there was fome deficiency in the extent of
obfervation, and the refult of not a little attention to the
fubje&t has taught me, that there is but one wonder in
the bufinefs;———the wonder that the ftory fhould
ever have been believed by a man of underftanding, and
of obfervation.

In condu&ting my inquiries into this curious fubje&,
I thought it would be proper, and even neceflary, pre-
vioully to my forming a decided opinion, to afcertain
the two following points, viz. firft: what fpecies of birds
are molt frequently obferved to be enchanted by the fer-

2 pents?

ASCRIBED ro THE RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. tor

pents? and, fecondly, at what feafon ofthe year has any
particular fpecies been moft commonly feen under this
wonderful iifluence? | was induced to believe that the
folution of thefe two queftions would ferve as a clue to
the inveftigation of what has long been confidered as one
of the moft myfterious operations in nature. I am per-
fuaded that I have not been miftaken. Poflibly, the cre-
dulous may not think as I do.

It is a curious circumftance in the hiftory of birds,
that almoft every fpecies, in the fame country at leaft,
has an almoft uniform and determinate method of build-
ing its neft, whether we confider the form of the nett,
the materials of which it is conftruéted, or the place in
which it is fixed*., Some obfervations on this fubje&
are neceflarily conneCted with the point under inveftiga-
tion, in this memoir :—indeed, they are involved in the
queftion concerning the fpecies of birds which have moft
generally been obferved to be enchanted by the rattle-
{nake, &c.

Some birds build their nefts.on the fummits of the
loftieft trees; others fufpend them, in a pendulous man-
ner, at the extremity of a branch, or even on a leaf +,
whilft others build them on the lower branches, among
bufhes, and in the hollows of decayed, and other trees.

* IT donot mean, by this obfervation, to affert, that birds are neceflarily
impelled to conftrué their nefts of the fame materials, or to place them in
the fame fituations: yet fuch is the language of fome writers on natural
hiftory, and on morals, who talk of the “ determinate inftin®” of animals,
and who think it impoffible that “* animals of the fame fpecies fhould any
where differ.” “ The groufe in America, we are told, perch upon trees;
the hare burrows in the ground; and we have, in thefe inftances, fufficient
reafon to deny that the fpecies of either is the fame with thofe of a like de-
nomination, with which we are aequainted, in Europe.’ Thefe are the
words of alate celebrated author. See Dr. A. Fergufon’s Principles of
Moral and Political Science, vol. i. p. 59 & 60. quarto edition.

+ See a very interefting account of the Motacilla futoria, or Taylor-bird,
by my learned friend Mr. Pennant, in his Indian Zoology, pages 44, 45

& 46.
O Many

102 Or THe FASCINATING FACULTY

Many fpecies, again, afe content with the ground, lay-
ing their eggs, and hatching them, in the cavity of a
ftone, an excavation from the earth, among the grafs of
fields and meadows, or in fields of wheat, rye, and other
grains. Thus, to confine myfelf to our own country,
the eagle, the vulture, the hawk, and other birds of this
extenfive family, make choice of the loftieft oaks, and
other trees of our forefts ; the baltimore-oriole*, com-
monly called, in Pennfylvania, the hanging-bird, fuf-
pends a beautiful neft to the extremity of a branch of the
Liriodendron-+, or fome other tree ; the migrating thrutht,
called robin, is content with the lower branches; the
red thrufh ||, the cat-bird§, the red-winged oriole, called
the {wamp-black-bird J, and many others build in the
low buthes; the wood-peckers**, the blue motacilla
(blue-bird ) +-4-, the torchepot ++, and others, build in the
hollows of trees, the chattering plover |||], and the whip-
poor-will§§, take advantage of a hollow place in the
ground, or in a ftone, whilft the great lark Yq, the
marfh-wren ***, &c. place their nefts in the grafs; and,
laftly, the partridge +-;-} builds in the corn-fields.

Of all thefe birds, and of a great many others, thofe
which build their nefts upon the ground, on the lower
branches of trees, and on low bufhes (efpecially on the
fides of rivers, creeks, and other waters, that are fre-
~ quented by different kinds of ferpents), have moft fre-
quently been obferved to be under the enchanting faculty
of the rattle-fnake, &c. Indeed, the bewitching fpirit
of thefe ferpents feems to be almoft entirely limited to

* Oriolus Baltimore. + Liricdendron tulipifera.
t Turdus migratorius. || Turdus rufus.

§ Mufcicapa carolinentis. q Oriolus pheeniceus.
Rich: . tt Motacilla Sialis.

tt Sitta. ||| Charadrius vociferus.
$9 Caprimulgus. qq Alauda magna.

“** Motacilla Troglodytes? ttt Tetrao virginianus.

thefe

ASCRIBED to THz RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. tog

thefe kinds of birds. Hence, we fo frequently hear tales
of the fafcination of our cat-bird, which builds its neft
in the low bufhes, on the fides of creeks, and other
waters, the moft ufual haunts of the black-{nake, and
other ferpents. Hence, too, upon opening the fto-
machs of fome of our ferpents, if we often find that they
contain birds, it is almoft entirely thofe birds which build
in the manner I have juft mentioned. .

This fact I had long remarked. It had made fome
impreflion upon my mind before I had turned my at-
tention to the fubje&t of this memoir. Lately, when I
came to take a view of the fubject, the fact appeared to
me to be of fome confequence. I fhall now avail myfelf

of it,
The rattle-fnake feldom, if ever, climbs up trees*. He
is frequently, however, found about their roots, efpeci-

* Some refpectable writers affert, that the rattle-fnake does climb trees,
and that it does it with eafe. Mr. de la Cépéde is of this opinion. After
telling us that this reptile lives upon worms, frogs, and hares, this natura-
lift proceeds: * il fait aufli fa proie d’oifeaux & d’écureuils; car il monte
avec facilité fur les arbres, & s’y élance avec vivacité de branche en branche,
ainfi que fur les pointes des rochers qu’il habite, & ce n’eft que dans la
plaine qu’il court avec difficulté, & qu’il eft plus aise d’eviter fa pourfuite.”
Hifloire Naturelle des Serpens. p. 409. At the conclufion of his account of
the boiquira, or crotalus horridus, the eloquent author has run into the
fame error, in the following beautiful, though rather poetical, apoftrophe.
«‘ Tranquilles habitans de nos contrées tempérees, que nous fommes plus
heureux, loin de ces plages ot la chaleur & Vhumidité regnent avec tant de
force! Nous ne voyons point un Serpent funefte infeéter l’eau au milieu de
laquelle il nage avec facilité; les arbres dont il parcourt les rameaux avec
vitefle ; la terre dont il peuple les cavernes ; les bois folitaires, ou il exerce
le méme empire que le tigre dans fes déferts brilans, and dont Vobfcurité
livre plus fiirement fa proie a fa morfure. Ne regrettons pas les beautés
naturelles de ces climats plus chauds que le nétre, leurs arbres plus touffus,
leurs feuillages plus agréables, leurs fleurs plus fuaves, plus belles: ces
leurs, ces feuillages, ces arbres cachent la demeure du Serpent a fonnette.””
Hifloire Naturelle des Serpens. p. 419 & 420. Ihave been at fome pains to
difcover whether the rattle-fnake does climb up trees. The refult of my
inquiries is that it does not. Although I have had opportunities of feeing
great numbers of rattle fnakes in the weltern parts of Pennfylvania, &c. par-
ticularly in the vicinity of the river Ohio, I never faw one of them except

O2 Merit on

104 Or tur FASCINATING FACULTY

ally in wet fituations. It is faid that this reptile is often
feen, curled round a tree, darting terrible glances at a
fquirrel, which after fome time is fo much influenced
by thefe glances, or by fome fubtile emanation from the
body of the ferpent, that the poor animal falls into the
jaws of its enemy. This ftory is, I believe, deftitute of
foundation, though it is related by the good Cotton
Mather*. The rattle-fnake is, indeed, fometimes feen
at the root of a tree, upon the lower branches of which,
at the height of a few feet from the ground, a bird or
{quirrel has been feen exhibiting fymptoms of fear and
diftrefs. Is this a matter of any wonder? Nature has
taught different animals what animals are their enemies ;
and although, as will be afterwards fhewn, the principal
food of the rattle-fnake is the great frog, yet as he oc-
cafionally devours birds and fquirrels, to thefe animals
he mutt neceffarily be an object of fear. When the rep-
tile, therefore, lies at the foot of a tree, the bird or the
{quirrel will feel itfelf uneafy. That it will fometimes run

on the ground. The black-fnake I have often feen upon trees. I ought
not, however, to conceal that in the fummer of the laft year, a Choktah-
Indian told me, that the rattle-fnake does climb trees and buthes, to @ /mall
height. He faid, that he had once feen one of thefe fnakes upon a reed.
[am not very willing to deny this Indian’s ftory: yet it is oppofed to every
information I have been able to procure from perfons well acquainted with
the reptile of which I am fpeaking. However, it is not impoffible that
where trees and bufhes grow very clofe together, the fnake may climb them
to a very fmall height. Mott fpecies of ferpents move in a {piral manner:
the rattle-fnake moves ftraight on; and this is the reafon why he cannot
climb trees. In the quotation which I have made from Mr. de la Cépéde,
another miftake is involved. He fpeaks of the agility with which the rattle-
fnake moves. This is not, however, merely the miftake of Mr. dela
Cépéde. We find it in Pifo. Speaking of this reptile, our author fays :
** In triviis juxta ac deviis locis cernitur, tam celeriter proreptans ut volare
videatur, idque velocius per loca faxofa, quam terreltria.” De Indie utri-
afque re naturali et medica. p.274. Now the truth is that the rattle-fnake is
one of the moft fluggith of all our ferpents. Linneus was well informed,
when he afferted that Providence had given “ the Crotalus a very flow
motion.” See Refledions, &e. quoted p. 84 of this memoir.
* Philofophical Tranfadtions of the Royal Society, No. 339.

towards

ASCRIBED to THe RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 105

cowards the ferpent, then retire, and return again, I will
not deny. But that it is irrefiftably drawn into the jaws
of the ferpent, I do deny: becaufe it is very frequently
feen to drive the ferpent from its hold; becaufe the bird
or {quirrel often returns, in a few minutes, to their ha-
bitations. Sometimes the bird or {quirrel, in attempting
to drive away the fnake, approach too near to their ene-
my, and are bitten, or immediately devoured. But,
from what will afterwards be faid, it will appear that
thefe inftances are not fo common as is generally ima-
gined.

My inquiries concerning the feafon of the year, at
which any particular fpecies of birds has been feen under
the fafcinating power of a ferpent, afforded me ftill more
fatisfa@ion. In almoft every inftance, I found that the
fuppofed fafcinating faculty of the ferpent was exerted
upon the birds at the particular feafon of their laying their
eggs, of their hatching, or of their rearing their young,
ftill tender, and defencelefs. I now began to fufped,
that the cries and fears of birds fuppofed to be fafcinated
originated i in an endeavour to protect their neft or young.
My inquiries have convinced me that this is the cafe.

I have already obferved, that the rattle-fnake does not
climb up trees. But the black-fnake and fome other {pe-
cies of the genus coluber do. When impelled by hun-
ger, and incapable of fatisfying it by the capture of ani-
mals on the ground, they begin to glide up trees or
bufhes, upon which a bird has its neft. The bird is not
ignorant of the ferpent’s object. She leaves her neft,
whether it contains eggs or young ones, and endeavours
to oppofe the reptile’s progrefs. In doing this, fhe is
actuated by the ftrength of her inftinétive attachment to
her eggs, or of affection to her young. Her cry is me-
lancholy, her motions are tremulous. She expofes hex-
felf to the moft imminent danger. Sometimes, fhe ap-

proaches.

106 Or tHe FASCINATING FACULTY

proaches fo near the reptile that he feizes her as his prey.
But this is far from being univerfally the cafe. Often,
fhe compels the ferpent to leave the tree, and then returns
to her neft*.

It is a well known fact, that among fome {pecies of
birds, the female, at a certain period, is accuftomed to
compel the young ones to leave the neft; that is, when
the young have acquired fo much ftrength that they are
no longer entitled to a// her care. But they ftill claim
fome of her care. Their flights are awkward, and foon
broken by fatigue. They fall to the ground, where they
are frequently expofed to the attacks of the ferpent,
which attempts to devour them. In this fituation of
affairs, the mother will place herfelf upon a branch of a
tree, or bufh, in the vicinity of the ferpent. She will
dart upon the ferpent, in order to prevent the deftruGion
of her young: but fear, the inftind of felf-prefervation,
will compel her to retire. She leaves the ferpent, how-
ever, but fora fhort time, and then returns again. Often-
times, fhe prevents the deftruction of her young, attack-
ing the {nake, with her wing, her beak, or her claws.
Should the reptile fucceed in capturing the young, the
mother is expofed to lefs danger. For, whilft engaged
in fwallowing them, he has neither inclination nor pow-
er to feize upon the old one. but the appetite of the
ferpent-tribe is great: the capacity of their ftomachs is
not lefs fo, The danger of the mother is at hand, when

* Horace, though he has not, like his contemporary, Virgil, given any
great proofs of his knowledge in natural hiftory, appears to have known,
full well, the anxiety of birds for the prefervation of their young :

“ Ut afflidens implumibus pullis avis
“ Serpentium allapfus timet.”
Epop. 1.
The author of thefe two fine lines, had he lived in America, the land of

fafcination, would, I am inclined to think, have difbelieved the whole
ftory. They would have beena clue to light and truth on this fubject.

the

ASCRIBED to tut RATTLE SNAKE, &e. 104

the young are devoured. The fnake feizes upon her:
and this is the cataftrophe, which crowns the tale of faf-
cination !

An attachment to our offspring is not peculiar to the
human kind alone. It is an inftin& which pervades the
univerfe of animals. It is a fpark of the divinity that
actuates the greater number of living exiftences. It is a
paflion which, in my mind, at leaft, declares, in lan-
guage moft emphatick, the exiftence, the fuperinten-
dance, the benevolence, of a firft great caufe, who re~
gards with partial and parental, if not with equal, eyes
the falling ofa fparrow and the falling of an empire.

Among the greater number of the {pecies of birds, the
attachment of the parent to the young is remarkably
ftrong. We have daily inftances of this attachment
among our domeftick birds, and I believe, it is ftronger
among thefe birds in their wild ftate: for there are fome
reafons for fufpeGiing, that this amiable inftin€ is dimi-
nifhed and weakened by culture*. The inftances which
I have already mentioned, as well as a faét, which re-
mains to be mentioned, point out, ina ftriking view, the
attachment of the mother-bird to her offspring. She
often guards her neft, with the greateft attention, fearful
of the infidious glide of the ferpent. She endeavours to
prevent the deftruction of her eggs or young, by this
enemy. When he has fucceeded in obtaining them, fhe
attacks him either alone, or calls other birds to her aff
tance. We ought not to be furprifed, that fometimes
fhe falls a victim to her affection. For it isa well known
fac, that fome fpecies of birds will fuffer themfelves to
be taken upon their nefts, rather than relinquith their
young, or their eggs.

* This queftion will be examined in my memoirs upon the ftorge, or af-
fections, of animals.

In

ro8 Or tue FASCINATING FACULTY

In the ftudy of natural hiftory, 1 am always happy to
difcover new inftances of the wifdom of providence, and
new proofs of the ftrong affections of animals. And for
the difcovery of fuch inftances of wifdom, and {uch proofs
of affection, the contemplation of nature is an ample
field. In the inftances now before us, the ftrength of
the inftin& of affection in birds is illuftrated, in a ftriking
point of view; and { cannot help obferving, that I feel
an high degree of pleafure in being able to do away, in
fome meature at leaft, a prejudice, not lefs extenfive than
it is unfounded, by bearing my {lender teftimony in fa-
vour of the exiftence and the powerful dominion of a
benevolent principle in animals.

The following fa&t was communicated to me, fome
time fince, by our prefident, Mr. Rittenhoufe. I think,
it ftrikingly illuftrates and confirms the fyfem which
I have been endeavouring to eftablifh. I relate it,
therefore, with pleafure, and the more fo, as I have
no doubt, that the authority of a cautious and enlighten-
ed philofopher will greatly contribute to the deftru€tion
of a fuperftitious notion which difgraces the page of natu-
ral hiftory.

Some years fince, this ingenious gentleman was in-
duced to fuppofe, from the peculiar melancholy cry of
a red-winged-maize-thief*, that a fnake was at no great
diftance from it, and that the bird was in diftrefs. He
threw a ftone at the place from which the cry proceeded,
which had the effe& of driving the bird away. The
poor animal, however, immediately returned to the fame
{pot. Mr. Rittenhoufe now went to the place where
the bird alighted, and, to his great aftonifhment, he
found it perched upon the back of a large black-fnake,

* Coramonly called, in Pennfylvania, the Swamp-Black-bird. Itis the
@riolus pheniceus of Linneus.

A which

ASCRIBED ro rus RATTLE-SNARE, &e. rey

which it was pecking with its beak. At this very time,
the ferpent was in the act of fwallowing a young bird,
and from the enlarged fize of the reptile’s belly it was
evident, that it had already fwallowed two or three other
young birds. After the fnake was killed, the old bird
flew away.

Mr. Rittenhoufe fays that the cry and ations of this
bird had been precifely fimilar to thofe of a bird which
is faid to be under the fafcinating influence of a ferpent ;
and I doubt not that this very inftance would, by many
credulous perfons, have been adduced asa proof of the
exiftence of fuch a faculty. But what can be more evi-
dent than the general explanation of this cafe ? The maize-
thief builds its neft in low bufhes, the bottoms of which
are the ufual haunts of the black-fnake. The reptile
found no difficulty in gliding up to the neft, from which,
moft probably in the abfence of the mother, it had taken
the young ones. Or it had feized the young ones, after
they had been forced from the neft, by the mother. In
either cafe, the mother had come to prevent them from
being devoured.

We are well acquainted with the common food of the
rattle-fnake. It is the great-frog * of our rivers, creeks,
and other waters. ‘The fnake lies infidioufly in wait for
his prey, at the water-edge. He employs no machinery
of enchantment. He trufts to his cunning and _ his
{trength.

A very ingenious-f friend of mine, who has devoted
confiderable attention to the natural hiftory of the rattle-
fnake, and who has diffeéted many of them, aflures me,
that he never faw but one inftance in which a bird was
found in the ftomach of this reptile, and_ this bird was

* Rana ocellata of Linnzus.
+ Timothy Matlack, Efquire.

P the

110 Or THE FASCINATING FACULTY

the chewink, or ground-robin*. In another inftance,
he faw a ground -fquirrel + taken out of one of thefe rep-
tiles. In every other cafe, fo long as the food retained
enough of the form to be diftinguifhed, the ftomach was
found to contain the great-frog, which I have men-
tioned.

Another argument againft the fafcinating power of the
ferpent-tribe {till remains to be confidered.

{t is natural to inquire, for what purpofe nature has
endued jerpents with the feppofed powers of fafcinating
birds, and other animals ? The anfwer to this queftion is
uniform. Itisfaid, the power is given that the ferpents
may obtain their food. Let us examine this opinion.

Admitting the exiftence of this power, I fhould have
no hefitation in believing, that its ufe is what is here men-
tioned, though, indeed, it ought not to be concealed,
that {nakes are fuppofed, by fome foolifh people, to have
the power of charming even children. And yet, I be-
lieve, there are no inflances recorded of our American
{nakes devouring children. If, then, nature, in the im-
menfity of her kindnefs, had gifted the ferpents with this
wonderful power, we fhould, atleaft, expect to find that
the common and. principal food of thefe ferpents was.
thofe animals, viz. birds and f{quirrels, upon which this
influence is generally obferved to be exerted. This,
however, is by no means the cafe.

As connected with this part of my memoir, it will not
be improper to obferve, that all our ferpents are the food
of different kinds of birds. Even. the rattle-fnake, whofe.
poifon produces fuch alarming fymptoms in man,. and
other animals, is frequentty devaured by fome of our
ftronger and more courageous birds. As far as I can,

* This is the Fringilla erythrophthalma of Linneus.
t The Sciurus flriatus of Linnzus.

ASCRIBED To tur RATTLE-SNAKE, &e. 111

learn, the birds which moft commonly attack and deftroy
this reptile, are the {wallow-tailed hawk*, and the larger
kinds of owls. The owl often feeds her young with this
fnake, whofe bones are frequently found, in her neft, at
confiderable heights from the ground. Even a hen has
been known to leave, for a minute, her affrighted chick-
ens, and attack, with her beak, a rattle-{nake, the great-
er part of whofe body fhe afterwards devoured +.

The black-fnake is a ferpent of much more aétivity
than the rattle-fnake. The latter, as I have already
faidt, feldom, if ever, climbs up trees. But the for-
mer will fometimes afcend the loftieft trees, in purfuit
of the obje&t of his appetite. The rattle-{nake, it has
been juft obferved, fubfifts principally upon the large
frog, which frequents the waters of our country. He
has, therefore, but little occafion for a@tivity. But the
black-{nake, feeding more upon birds, ftands more in
need of activity. He frequently glides up the trees of the
foreft, &c. and, commonly in the abfence of the mother,
devours either her eggs or her young ones. The difficulty
of obtaining his prey upon the tree is fometimes very con-
fiderable, as will appear from a fa& which will be related
immediately. Now, if this ferpent is gifted with the
faculty of fafcinating, why is he not content to continue
at the bottom of the tree, and bring down his object?
And if he can employ this machinery of fafcination at
his pleafure, how comes it, that he fo feldom fucceeds in
capturing old birds? For it is a faét that when birds are

* Falco furcatus.

+ It is commonly believed, that the rattle-fnake is a very hardy animal :
but this is not the cafe. A very fmall ftroke on any part of its body dif-
ables it from running at all; and the flighteft {troke upon the top of the
head is followed by inftant death. The fkull-bone is remarkably thin and
brittle ; fo much fo indeed, that it is thought that a ftroke from the wing
of a thrufh or robin would be fufficient to break it.

£ See page 103.

Pig found

Era ‘Or tue FASCINATING FACULTY

found in his ftomach, they are principally young
birds.

1 have faid, that the black-fnake fometimes finds great
difficulty in obtaining his prey upon atree. In fupport
of this affertion, 1 could adduce many facts. But my
memoir has already exceeded the limits which I originally
prefcribed to it. I fhall content myfelf, therefore, with
relating a folitary fact, which ftrikingly illuftrates my
pofition.

A black-fnake was feen climbing up a tree, evidently
with the view of procuring the young birds in the neft
of a baltimore-bird. This bird, it has been already
obferved, fufpends its neft at the extremity of the branch
of atree. The branch to which the bird, of which I
am fpeaking, had affixed its neft, being very flender,
the ferpent found it impoffible to come at the neft by
crawling along it: he, therefore, took the advantage of
another branch, which hung above the neft, and twifting
a {mall portion of his tail around it, he was enabled, by
flretching the remainder of his body, to reach the neft,
into which he infinuated his head, and thus glutted his
appetite with the young birds.

The importance of this fact, in the inveftigation of the
fubje&t of my memoir, appears to me to be great. An
American foreft is not the filent refidence of a few birds.
During the greater part of the {pring and fummer months,
our woods are alive with the numerous fpecies of refident
and vifitant birds, At thefe times, if the black-fnake
poffeffes the faculty of fafcinating, it cannot be a difficult
thing for him to procure his food. Yet, in the inftance
which I have juft related, we have feen this reptile climb-
ing up atree, and there obliged toexert all his ingenuity
to obtain his prey.

I cannot well conclude this memoir without obferving,
ehat in the inveftigation of the fubject which it involves,

I have

ASCRIBED ‘ro Tur RATTLE-SNAKE, &c. 113

T have experienced much pleafure. For to the cultivators
of fcience, the difcovery of truth muft, at all times, be a
fource of pleafure. This pleafure will even rife to fome-
thing like happinefs, when, in addition to the difcovery
of truth, we are enabled to draw afide the veil, which,
for ages, has curtained fuperftition and credulity. Under
the influence of various fpecies of fuperftition, we fall
from our dignity, and are often rendered unhappy. It
fhould be one of the principal objects of {cience to rear
and prop the dignity of the mind, and to fmooth its way
to comforts, and to happinefs. The ills and the infirmi-
ties of our earthly ftate of being are numerous enough.
{t is folly, if not vice, to increafe them. He who ferioufly
believes, that an hideous reptile is gifted, from the facred
fource of univerfal life and good, with the power of faf-
cinating birds, fquirrels, and other animals, will hardly
ftop here. He may, and probably will, believe much
more. He will not, perhaps, think himfelf entirely ex-
empted from this wonderful influence. He may fup-
pote, that the property belongs to other beings, befides
the ferpents; and he will, perhaps, imagine that it
forms a part of a more extenfive plan, the effects of
which, he will affert, are prominent, and unequivocal,
though its ways, he will confefs, are incomprehenfible
to mortal minds.

Hisrorza NATURALIS NON BENE DIGESTA ABIT IN FABU-
LAM; PR/JUDICIA VERO ET NIMIA CREDULITAS VERITA-
TEM, ETSI COMINUS SATIS COGNITAM, LONGISSIME ALI-
QUANDO PROPELLUNT.

Jacosus THEoDoRUs KLEIN.

Defeription

114 Or an AMERICAN SPECIES

N®, XL

Some account of an American Species of Di Pus, or JERBOA.
By BENJAMIN SMITH BaRTOoN, M. D.

ReOe, EW of the native quadrupeds of North-
2 1795- America have been defcribed with fufficient
accuracy. Several fpecies, which are well known to the
inhabitants of the country, have not been defcribed at
all, and good figures of moft of them are yet wanted.

To remedy, in fome meafure, thefe defecis in the
natural hiftory of an extenfive portion of the globe,
I began, a few years fince, to collect materials for an
hiftory of the quadrupeds, and other mammalia, of the
United-States of America. In this difficult undertaking,
I have now made confiderable progrefs ; and I hope to
be able to prefent to the public, in the term of four or
five years, if not the full refult, at leaft a pretty compre-
henfive view, of my labours in this interefting depart-
ment of zoological {cience. In the meanwhile, it is my
intention to prefent to the Philofophical Society, from
time to time, among other communications relative to
the natural hiftory of the United-States, a feries of papers
on fome of thofe native American quadrupeds, which
are either undefcribed, or which have been but imperfeatly
defcribed, by preceding naturalifts.

In the prefent communication, I propofe to give the
fociety fome account of a fmall quadruped, belonging
to the order G/ires, which | difcovered, in the month of
May, laft, near the river Schuylkill, a few miles from
Philadelphia.

Tam of opinion, with the late Mr. de Buffon, that
elaborate defcriptions of animals are by no means ne-
ceflary, when we are enabled to give accurate repre-

fentations

or DIPUS, or JERBOA. 115

fentations of thefe animals. The drawing which accom-
panies this paper has been made with great care, all the
proportions being preferved with the moft fcrupulous
nicety. My defcription, therefore, {hall not be long.

In its general habit, or appearance, the animal of
which 1 am fpeaking is nearly allied to the murine, or
mice, tribe. But it differs from the true mice fo eflen-
tially, in feveral particulars, that I have no hefitation in
feparating it from them, and in arranging it with the
genus Dipus of Schreber, Gmelin, and fome other fyf-
tematic writers on natural hiftory. Of this genus I be-
lieve it to be a new fpecics, which I have taken the
liberty to call Dipus Americans.

This animal is about the fize of the common houfe-
moufe. I weighed two of them. The difference in
their weight was very fmall. That of which | have
given a figure, and from which the following defcription
is principally taken, weighed nine penny-weight, and
twenty-two grains, foon after the death of the animal,
and before the bowels were taken out. Like all the other
{pecies of Dipus, this is furnifhed with two dentes pri-
mores, or cutting teeth, im each jaw. ‘Thefe teeth are
tharp at the points, and of achefnut-brown colour. The
upper-jaw projects confiderably beyond the lower. The
nofirils are open. The whifkers are long. The ears
are {mal!, fomewhat oval, and covered. ‘the fore-feet,
or rather arms, are fhort, and are furnifhed with four
tovs or fingers, the nails of which are long, and very
fharp. Lelides thefe fingers, there is a kind of minute
tuberculum, in place of a thumb. This tuberculum is
entircly deftitute of a nail. ‘The hind legs are very long,
and are furnifhed with five toes, the three middle ones
being long, ‘lender, and nearly of an equal length. The
two fide-toes are much fhorter. The inner toe is the
thorteft of the five.

The

rr6 Or an AMERICAN SPECIES

The head, the back, and the whole upper part of the
body, are ofa reddifh-brown colour, fomewhat inclining
to yellow. ‘The back is marked by a darker brown than
the other parts. ‘The whole under fide of the body,
beginning with the upper jaw, and ending at the anus,
is Of a cream colour; as are, likewife, the infides of the
fore-legs, or arms, and the infides of the hind-legs.

A yellow ftreak, or band, beginning near the lower
part of the noftrils, on each fide, runs along the whole
Jength of the head and neck, the upper and under fide
of the fore legs, from thence all along the body, termi-
nating with the thighs, at the joint.

The tail is confiderably longer than the body, gra-
dually tapers from its origin, and is finely ciliated, or
lightly covered with hairs, its wholelength. It ends in
a fine pencil of hairs. The upper fide is of a flate-brown
colour, the under fide is of a yellowifh-cream colour.
It is compofed of a great number of joints.

From the defcription which I have given of this animal,
it will.appear that it is very clofely allied to the Dipus
Hudfonius of Profeffor Zimmermann*; or the Labrador-
Rat of Mr. Pennant->. With this animal it agrees in
fize, in the relative proportions of the body and the tail,
in the number of toes, or fingers, on the fore legs, and
in the general colour, as well as in the circumftance of
the yellow band, or line. Neither of the defcriptions
given by my two learned friends, juft mentioned, are fo
minute as to enable me to purfue the comparifon farther.
It does not appear, from Mr. Pennant’s defcription,
what is the number of toes on the hind legs of his La-

* See his Geographifche Gefchichte des Menfchen, und der allgemein
verbreiteten vierfuefigen thiere, &c. {weiter band. p. 358. Leipfig: 1780.
octavo.

+ See his Hiftory of Quadrupeds, vol. 2. p. 173 & 174. The third
edition. Alfo his Arétic Zoology, vol. 1. p. 153 & 154. London;
1792. f

I brador-

or DIPUS, or JERBOA. II

brador-Rat. Itis true, this excellent zoologift fays that
Linneus has defcribed this animal under the name of
Mus Longipes. If this were certain, then the animal
which I have defcribed would appear to be ftill more
nearly related to the Labrador-Rat, for the Mus longipes
is faid to have the pedes pentadathli or feet furnifhed
with five toes.- But, I do not think it at all certain that
the Labrador-Rat of Pennant is the Mus longipes of Lin-
nxus. Indeed, Mr. Pennant himfelf, notwithftanding
his affertion juft mentioned, has defcribed the two ani-
mals as diftinét fpecies, in the laft edition of his valuable
Hiftory of Quadrupeds. Speaking of the Mus longipes,
which he calls Torrid Jerboa, he fays it inhabits, accor-
ding to Linnzus, the torrid zone, and is mentioned by
no other writer.* How, then, can it be the Labrador-
Rat, fince Mr Pennant has both feen and defcribed this
latter animal ?

Mr. Pennant fays that Dr. Pallas has defcribed the
Labrador-Kat under the name of Mus longipes. I am
forry that I have not an opportunity of examining the
learned Profeffor’s figure and defcription. Pennant,
however, allows that “the A/atic animal (Mus longipes
of Pallas) differed in colour from the American, being
above of a light grey mixed with tawny, white below :
thefe colours divided lengthways by a {tripe of dufky red.
The tail covered with longer and loofer hair at the end
than in the other parts: the foles of the feet clad with
hair. This I could not well obferve, continues Mr.
Pennant, in the fpecimen from Hud/on’s Bay, as it was
preferved in {pirits.”’ +

Mr. Zimmermann confiders the Mus longipes of Pallas
as a fpecies diftinét from his Dipus Hudfonius. He
makes the former the Dipus longipes of Schreber, which

* Hiftory of Quadrupeds, vol. 2. p. 171.
+ Ibidem, vol. 2. p. 173 & 174.
1S

£18 Or aN AMERICAN SPECIES

is the Dipus meridianus of Gmelin. I cannot, for my
part, doubt that the two animals are really diftin& {pe-
cies, although they are confiderably allied to each other.

In this place, 1 take an opportunity of obferving, that
much confufion has been introduced into zoological {ci-
ence in confequence of the fyftematic or {peculative
genius of Mr. de Buffon, and other writers, who have
too frequently thought it neceflary to refer the animals
which inhabit the northern parts of the old and the
new world to one and the fame {pecies, becaufe between
thofe animals there is a general refemblance, and becaufe
it has commonly been imagined that America muft have
received her animals from Europe and from Afia. I do
not mean to deny that America pofleffes /ome {pecies of
mammalia in common with Europe, and with Afia,
efpecially perhaps with the latter. But I am perfuaded,
from a long and attentive inveftigation of this fubjed,
that the number of mammalia that are common to the
old and the new world is much {maller than naturalifts
have fuppofed, and that America poflefles many {pecies
of thefe and other animals, as well as of vegetables,
which ever have been peculiar to herfelf. Every thing,
in my opinion, favours the idea, that with refpedt to
many of the living exiftences, there has been a feparate
creation in the old and in the new world.

I thall now mention in what particulars, or characters,
the Dipus which I have defcribed differs from any of the
known fpecies of the fame genus to which it bears the
greateft refemblance.

It is hardly neceffary to obf-rve, that of the five fpecies
of Dipus enumerated and briefly defcribed by Gmelin,
in his new edition of the Sy/fema Nature of Linneus,
there is but one with which our Pennfylvania animal can
be confounded. Thisis the “ Dipus meridianus: palmis
{ubtetradactylis, plantis pentadactylis, cauda concolore.”

“* Corpus

or DIPUS, or JERBOA. 119

“ Corpus 4 follices cum g lineis longum, fupra pa'lide
fuloum aliquando Jubgrifeum, fubtus latteum poflice tn-
craffatum ; caput magts oblongum, quam jaculo, roftro
produchore ; auaricule infignes ovales ; os pedefque alZ ;
horum vole villofifimae, anteriorum pollex vix unguicula-
tus ; pofteriorum femora carnofifima ; cauda vinx ultra 3
pollices longa, eraffa, largiter pilofa*,”

From thefe defcriptions, it appears that the Mus lon-
gipes of Pallas is larger than the Dipus Ameticanus.
This circumftance is farther confirmed by Zimmermann,
who fays that the fize of the firft of thefe animals is be-
tween that of the rat and the field-moufe-+. The colour
of the Dipus Americanus is rather of a dark than of a
pale tawny, colour. Below the colour in both animals
feems to be the fame. As far as 1 can judge from the
figures of the Dipus Jaculus, I fhould think that the
head of this animal is more oblong than that of the Dipus
Americanus. The ears of the Dipus meridianus are
faid to be large. Thofe of the Dipus Americanus are
much {maller than the ears of the Dipus Jaculus, or any
other f{pecies of the genus of which I have feen figures.
The feet of the Dipus Americanus are not white, but
are of a reddifh or flefh colour. The foles of the feet
of the Dipus meridianus are faid to be very villous; but
the foles of the feet of the Dipus Americanus are nearly
naked. In the Dipus Americanus, the tuberculum of the
fore-feet is entirely deftitute of a nail. The thighs of
the hind legs of the Dipus meridianus are faid to be very
thick, or flefhy. Thofe of the Dipus Americanus do not
appear to beremarkably fo. The tail of the Dipus meri-
dianus is faid to be fhorter than the body, The tail of
the Dipus Americanus is confiderably longer than the
body.

* Syftema Nature, tom. i. p. 159.
+ Geographifche Gefchichte, &c. {weiter band, p. 357-
LOE I have

oad

120 Or an AMERICAN SPECIES

I have faid that the Dipus Americanus is clofely allied
to the Dipus Hudfonius, But thefe two animals differ
from each other, in feveral particulars. Mr. Pennant
fays the upper lip of the firft of thefe animals is bifid.
Profeflor Zimmermann follows him in mentioning this
character. The upper lip of the Dipus Americanus is
not bifid. The ears of the Dipus Hudfonius are faid to
be large, naked, rounded. The ears of the American
Dipus are very fmall, oval, and covered. ‘The exterior
toe of the hind-leg of the Dipus Hudfonius is faid to be
the fhorteft. The inner toe of the Dipus Americanus
is the fhorteft. The tail of this laft fpecies terminates
in a pencil of hairs. It does not appear from Mr. Pen-
nant’s account of the Labrador-Rat, that the hairs at the
end of the tail of this animal are longer than thofe on
other parts of the tail. Upon the whole, I have no
hefitation in concluding, that the Dipus Hudfonius and
the Dipus Americanus are two diftinct {pecies.

It has often been faid, and the obfervation is a juft
one, that the moft curious and interefting part of zoolo-
gical {cience is that which relates to the mores, or man-
ners, the inftinéts, &c. of animals. To the philofophi-
cal naturalift the mere defcription of an animal can afford
very little pleafure, or inftruction.

Iam forry, that, at prefent, I am not able to give
much information concerning the manners of our little
animal. I hope to be able to complete its hiftory at fome
future period. Meanwhile, | fhall mention a few cir-
cumftances, which | have already afcertained.

The Dipus Americanus frequents our corn-fields, our
meadows, and forefts. It eats wheat, Indian-corn, clo-
ver, and acorns. I fufpe@ it likewife eats chefnuts,
hickery-nuts, and other fimilar nuts. It often gets into
the granaries of the Indians fettled at Oneida, in the
fate of New-York, and proves very deftructive to the

Jndian-

or DIPUS, or JERBOA, 121

Indian-corn. Notwithftanding the great difproportion in
the length of its legs, it runs ,up trees, in the hollows of
which it is often found. In fuch trees, it lays up ftores
of [ndian-corn. It moves by leaping. Its leaps are con-
fiderable. It often jumps at leaft one yard and a half at
a time.

{ have not learned, with certainty, at what time this
animal brings forth its young. But it has been feen leaping
about with the young ones {trongly attached to its teats *
Four young ones have been feen thus attached. The
Indians affert that this Dipus breeds very faft.

Cats kill, but will very feldom eat, this animal.

I cannot fay, with certainty, whether the Dipus Ameri-
canus belongs to that clafs of mammalia, which Pallas has
named Sfecies Lethargice, ot animals which are tor-
pid, or afleep, during the winter feafon. Gmeli. fays
that all the fpecies of Dipus hybernate-+. But, perhaps,
this aflertion ought not to have been made. ‘The torpid
ftate of animals appears to be merely an accidental cir-
cumftance, depending principally upon climate, and part-
ly upon the {pecific purity of the air, in which the ani-
malis placed. Be this, however, as it may, it is certain
that many of the fame {pecies of animals which become
torpid in one country do not become fo inanother. This
fact is very obfervable in the United-States. Many
fpecies of animals which hybernate in Pennfylvania, and
other more northern parts of the country, do not hyber-

* My fricnd Mr. John Heckewelder, in a letter to me, has communi-
cated the following information : ‘* There isa kind of mice, in the Weltern-
Country, of a larger fize than our common houfe-mice, and with a fhort
tail, about an inch long, which run about with their young naked and
blind, fticking to the teats. I have caught them, and placed them in a
box, where I put hay, deer’s hair, &c. for a neft, and have fed them re-
gularly, for days together, and never could obferve one of them at liberty
from the teat, until they became of a good fize.”’ From the length of the
tail of this animal, it cannot be the Dipus Americanus.

+ Myoxi omnes hybernant et dipodes.’ Syftema Nature, tom. i. p. 157.

< nate

22 Or an AMERICAN SPECIES

nate in the Carolinas, and other fouthern parts of the
continent. In the northern parts of the world, the
different {pecies of Myoxus and of Dipus may, as Gme-
hin afferts, hybernate ; but it does not neceflarily follow
that they do fo in the milder climates.

In the vicinity of Philadelphia, the Dipus Americanus
is called, by fonie perfons, the Seven-Sleepers. This
name led me to believe that our little animal pafles the
winter feafon in a torpid ftate. The fufpicion was
ftrengthened, if not confirmed, by the information which
I have received from two different quarters. In the
month of February, one of thefe animals was found,
feemingly in a torpid-ftate, under a ftone, in opening
a quarry. A farmer, who refides near the city, informs
me that he has often difcovered thefe feven-fleepers, at
the depth of eighteen inches or two feet under ground,
when he has been digging for the roots of horfe-radith
and parfley, in the winter-time. He fays, they were
always lower than the influence of the froft. When firft
difcovered, they were not motionlefs, but ftupid ; and,
as he exprefled himfelf, they feemed very ‘* awkward.”
Upon being taken out of their habitation, they always
endeavoured to regain it again.

T have faid that the torpid ftate of animals is merely
an accidental circumftance. This affertion will receive
fome confirmation from what I am now to mention.

The Dipus Americanus is pretty common at Oneida:
itis frequently difcovered in the cabbins of the Indians,
fettled at that place, but they obferve it to be abroad the
whole winter. In the woods, it is likely, it is torpid
at the fame feafon.

I have taken fome pains to afcertain whether the little
animal which I have defcribed has been found in other
parts of North-America befides Pennfylvania. Upon
fhowing my drawing of the animal to an intelligent In-

dian

or DIPUS, or JERBOA. 123

dian who is fettled at Oncida, he affured me that the
fame animal is very common at that place. This Indian,
who is a Mohegan, moreover faid, that in his language
this Dipus is called Wauh pel fous, which fignifies the
creature that jumps or frips like a deer. This Dipus, as
I am informed by a Wyandot-Indian, is common at
Sandufky. The Wyandots call it Suv ge ta ah.

I cannot learn that this animal has been feen to the
fouthward of Pennfylvania. But I do not doubt that it
inhabits the fouthern ftates. ‘The range, from north to
fouth, of moft fpecies of mammalia appears to me to be
much more extenfive than is generally imagined. It has
been obferved by naturalifts*, that the Glires have a
very extenfive range in the old-world. I think, in the
new-world it is ftill more extenfive. Indeed, I am of
opinion, that, with refpect to the quadrupeds which are
not domefticated, the range of any given f{pecies is greater
in America than in the countries of the old-world. Per-
haps, it would not be a difficult matter to aflign reafons
why this is the cafe: but that, I prefume, is not necef-
fory now.

The northern parts of Afia and an extenfive tract of
North-merica appear, more than any other parts of the
world, to abound with fmall animals of the order Glires.
Even in Afia, notwithftanding the zeal and labours of
Pallas, and other able naturalifts, it is probable that
many fpecies of thefe animals remain to be difcovered.
In America, I prefume, the field for new difcovery is
much greater. In the period of one year, we have dif-
covered three diftint fpecies of the genus Dipus, in the
vicinity of Philadelphia. A fourth fpecies has been dif-
covered in New-Hampfhire, by my friend Mr. W. D.
Peck, a very intelligent American naturalift. This {pe-
cies, however, | will not take upon me to fay is new.

* Sonini De Mancourt, &c.

4 {n

124 REMARKABLE INSTINCT

In its colour, in the fize and form of its ears, &c. it
makes a nearer approach to the Mus longipes of Pallas
than the Dipus Americanus does. » It is thus defcribed
by Mr. Peck, ina letter to me. “ Mus cauda elongata
pilofa, palmis fubpentadactylis, difco fufcefcente, lateri-
bus rufefcentibus, abdomine albo ; pedibus pofticis longi-
tudine corporis.” A farther account of this and of the
other fpecies of Dipus, which I have difcovered, I fhall,
probably, communicate to the Philofophical Society, at
fome future period.

a

are OCTET

A Letter from Mr. JouN HEcCKEWELDER, “o Dr. BAR-
TON, giving fome account of the remarkable inflinét of a
bird called the Nine-Killer.

Bethlehem, December 18th 1795.
Read April AVING an opportunity by a friend of

11796 = fi mine to Philadelphia, I muft mention to
you a curious fa&, that came to my knowledge but
yefterday.

I went to a farm, about eleven miles and a half from
this place, to view a young orchard, which had.been
planted, about five weeks ago, under my dire€tion, where
on viewing the trees, | found, to my great aftonifhment,
almoft on every one of them, one and on fome two and
three grafshoppers, ftuck down on the fharp thorny
branches, which were not pruned when the trees were
planted. I immediately called the tenant, and afked
the reafon and his opinion of this. He was much fur-
prifed at my ignorance about the matter, and informed
me, “th t thefe grafshop;ers were {tuck up by a {mall ~
bird of prey, which the Germans called Neuwn-roedter (in

Englith

ae, Vallance fe

is Voie.
ae CO APPOCAUMCHEMUAS,

<a 7
a (A
Tpit tacteie Lp SOS

* pe (er
Wh

rhe) sth

a
ld

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ti WANN iin
x 4 o

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4, %

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SN ay

or THE NINE-KILLER. t25

Englifh, Nine-killer); that this bird had a practice of
catching and {ticking up nine grafshoppers a day, and
that as he well knew they did not devour the grafshoppers,
nor any other infects, he thought they muft do it for
pleafure. I afked him for a defcription of this bird, and
was perfedtly fatisfied that it lived entirely on {mall ani-
mals, fuch as fmall birds, mice, &c, for I had paid at-
tention to this bird as early as the year 1761, when, in
the winter, one of the fame fpecies took a favourite little
bird out of my cage at the window, from which time [
have watched them more clofely, and have found them
more numerous in the weftern-country than here. Not
being fatisfied with what the tenant had told me re-
f{pecting the intention of the bird’s doing all this (viz. for
diverfion fake), and particularly obferving each and every
one of thefe grafshoppers ftuck up fo regularly, and in
their natural pofition as when on the ground, not one of
them having its back downwards, 1 began to conjecture
what might be the real intention which the bird had in
this, and my determined opinion was, that this little
bird-hawk, by inftinét, made ufe of this art, in order to
decoy the fmaller birds, which feed on infeés, and by
thefe means have a fair opportunity of catching them.
All this | communicated to my friends, on my return
home, and they were not lefs aftonifhed at what | had
related to them, than I had been on difcovering the fact.
It being agreed that one or more gentlemen of learning
and obfervation fhould more minutely examine into this
matter, the proprietor of this farm, with another gentle-
man and myfelf, went this day out for the purpofe, and
viewing the grafshoppers on a number of thefe {mall
trees -(fome of which we cut off, and took home), we
returned to the tenant, who not only himfelf but alfo
his father and fifter gave us the beft affurances, that they
had, long fince, and from time to time, obferved this

R bird

126 REMARKABLE INSTINCT

bird catching grafshoppers and fticking them up in the
manner already related, and that fometimes they had
obferved, in places where this fpecies of bird keeps,
numbers of grafshoppers ftuck up on a thorn-bufh in
like manner. The Reverend Mr. V. Vleck is perfect-
ly fatisfied that this bird-hawk is the Lanius Canaden-
fis (in Bartram*), and has obligingly communicated
the following account of this little bird-hawk to me:
it is extracted from a German publication printed at
Geettingen, in 1778, under the title of “ Natural Hil-
tory for Children, by M. George Chriftian Paff,” who
after giving a defcription of the different {pecies of this
bird, concludes thus: ‘‘ Why is this bird of prey called
the nine-killer? Becaufe it is faid to have the habit of
fticking beetles or other infects, and perhaps fometimes
nine of them in fucceffion, upon thorns, that they may
not efcape until he has leifure to devour them all at once.
And for the fame reafon, it is fometimes called the thorn-
fticker.’’ Now by the above account, we fee that it is
known in Europe that this fame fpecies of birds aCtually
does ftick up infeGts of different kinds on thorns, &c.
but it is fuppofed they eat them immediately after being
ftuck up. Here the cafe is quite otherwife. They re-
main ftuck up, for we muft fuppofe thefe to have been
ftuck up at leaft fome weeks ago, and before the hard
frofts fet in. The very birds (as we fuppofe) that ftuck
them up are now on the fame ground, watching the
fmaller birds that come out to feed, and have been feen
catching the latter but a few days ago. If it were true,
that this little hawk had ftuck them up for himfelf, how

* I do not find that Mr. Bartram has mentioned, in any part of his
Travel, a Lanius Canadenfis. Since the date of this letrer, Mr. Hecke-
welder has favoured me with a well-preferved pecimen ot the bird-hawk,
It proves to be the Lanius Excubitor of Linnezus, the great-fhrike of Mr.
Pennant. B.S. B.

long

or THE NINE-KIL:LER. 124

long would he be feeding on one or two hundred grafs-
hoppers? But if it be intended to feduce the fmaller birds
to feed on thefe infects, in order to have an opportunity
of catching them, that number, or even one half, or
lefs, may be a good bait all winter: and all of us, who
have confidered thefe circumftances, are firmly of opi-
nion, that thefe infe€ts thus ftuck up, are to ferve asa
bait, &c. through the courfe of the winter.

You will readily excufe my being fo lengthy on this
fubje&t. The matter appeared to me of too much con-
fequence to pafs over haftily. I fhall be glad to hear
your opinion on this fubjec.

I fend you a few of thefe grafshoppers, as I cut them
from the trees. ‘They being hard and dry, moft of their
legs broke off in taking them home.

Iam, with great refpect,
Dear Sir,
Your moft obedient and

Humble fervant,
JOHN HECKEWELDER.

INP ORLY.

An Enquiry into the Caufes of the Infalubrity of flat
and Marfhy Situations; and direchions for preventing
or correching the Eeffeéts thereof, by WILLIAM CURRIE.

Read O&. HAT flat and marfhy fituations are unfa-
45 1795- ak vourable to health, and that intermittent and
remittent fevers with bilious evacuations are particularly
prevalent in fuch fituations during the feafon of Autumn

in temperate climates as well as within the tropics, has
R 2 been

128 Or THE INSALUBRITY or FLAT
been remarked by Phyficians and Hiftorians in every

age.

But although they have agreed with refpe& to the
fact, they have differed materially with refpe€t to the
caufe of this circumftance.

A defire of afcertaining the true caufe of this infalu-
brity induced me to engage in the enquiry which I am
now about to fubmit to this refpeGable fociety, and I
hope the time and attention which I have beftowed upon
a fubject fo interefting to mankind, will not be deemed
labour mifemployed.

The atmofphere in falutary fituations, has been demon-
ftrated by Mr. Lavoifier and his colleagues, to be a com-
pound body confifting of two diftin@ gafes or aeriform
fluids, the one called azote or nitrogen gas, and the other
oxygen-gas or pure refpirable air; and that in one hun-
dred parts of the atmofphere, the proportions of thefe
gafes are 72 of the azote and 25 of oxygene, or as three
to one.

From Mr. Vanbreda’s experiments, on the atmofphere
of marfhes in the autumnal feafon, which he fubjeGted
to the common teft of nitrous air in the eudiometer, it
appears that thefe proportions were very different ; there
being but 14 or 15 parts of oxygene, to 84 or 85 of
azote, but that the bulk was fupplied, and the fame
weight preferved by a certain quantity of carbonic gas
or fixed air, and a {mall portion of hydrogene and am-
moniacal gafes or aeriform fluids.

All thefe gafes are the effects of vegetable and animal
putrefaGiion, and muft be derived from the foil, or the
vegetable and animal fubftances conneG@ed with the foil.

The foil of marfhes is compofed entirely of vegetable
and animal fubftances, which have undergone the pro-
cefs of putrefaction, and confifts principally of vegetable
earth, carbon or charcoal and nitre, mixed with Me 3

efs

anp MARSHY SITUATIONS. 129

lefs calcareous and argilaceous earth, and by diitillation
affords oil, hydrogen, and azote.

From this foil, and from the various vegetable and
animal fubftances mixed with it, and conftantly putre-
fying in hot weather, it has been fuppofed miafmata
iffue, which give origin to the difeafes peculiar to marfhy
fituations ; and.as there are no fubitances but thofe gafes,
already enumerated, which can be difcovered to iffue
froma marfhy foil, or from putrefying vegetable or ani-
mal fubftances, if thofe difeafes depend upon miafmata
or effluvia, thefe miafmata muft confift of one or more
of the gafes enumerated.*

In order to determine this matter, it will be neceflary
to enquire into the effects which thefe fub{tances, fingly,
or combined, ufually produce on the living human
body.

if the carbonic gas or fixed air, when applied in a cer-
tain quantity or in a concentrated ftate, deftroys life in-
{tantly by its aciion on the irritability of the mufcular
fibres of the heart, as from the obfervations of Meflrs

* « Tn the vinous fermentation, part of the principles of the veretable
fubflance, viz. the hydrogen, remains united with a portion of water and
of carbon to form the alkohol.

“ In the acetous fermentation, a union takes place between the oxygen and
the alkohol, and earthy matter is depofited. In other words the bafe of
the pure air abforbed, uniting with the alkohol of the liquor, and the ef-
fential falts diffolved in it, forms vinegar, while a depofition takes place of
earthy or oily matters no longer foluble in the liquor. Hence vinegar is
in an intermediate ftate between wine and fixed air, accordingly vinegar
may be made by impregnating alkohol and water with fixed air.

«‘ The gas of fermenting liquors which is fixed air, holding fome fpirit of
wine in folution received into water, has the fame effect.

“Jn the putrid fermentation (which is the only {pecies that takes place in
marthes,) the whole of the hydrogen is diffipated, under the form of in-
flammable gas, while the oxygen and the carbon uniting, with the caloric
or principle of heat, efcapes under the form of fixed air,” after this pre-
cefs, if there has been fufficient water and heat to comp’ete the putrefactive
precefs, nothing remains but the earth of the vegetable, mixed with a little
carbon and iron, Chatital.

Prieftley,

130 Or THe INSALUBRITY or FLAT

Vrieftley, Bergman, Fontana, Cavallo, and other Philo-
fophers of credit, appears to be the cafe, nothing is more
probable than that a lefs quantity though much weakened
by diffufion in, and mixture with, the atmofpheric air
would operate in a fimilar manner, though in a leis de-
gree, and occafion a difeafe of a paralytic or infenfible
kind, and not an intermittent or remittent, fince in thefe
lait the fenfibility and irritability are manifeftly in-
creafed.

* That the hydrogen gas or inflammable air, has little
or no fhare in the generation of the difeafes under con-
fideration, is rendered evident by the experiments of
Chaptal, De Rofier, and beddos.

The former affures us, that he infpired it feveral times,
without perceiving any effet from it, and that it re-
turned from his lungs without any alteration either in
weight, bulk or quality, whereas common atmofpheric
air fuffers a very material change by refpiration, its pure
or oxygenous portion being abracted, and the remainder
rendered incapable of fupporting flame, and unfit for
refpiration.

De Rofier not only infpired inflammable air, but ap-
plied flame to it as he difcharged it through his noftrils,
without receiving any injury from it. He alfo difcharged
the burning gas from his mouth through a tube, fo that
he appeared to breath flame.—No detonation took place
in his mouth, becaufe he had difcharged all the atmo-
{pheric air from his lungs, before he in{fpired the inflam-
mable air.

Dr. Beddos prevailed on a ftout florid young woman,
to infpire hydrogen for two minutes, without any per-

* It appears from the experiments of Mr Lavoifier, that hydrogen is
always the refult of decompofed water; and that water is a compofition
of hydrogen and oxygen kept in a fluid ftate by its union with coloric and
confilts of 85 parts in 100 of oxygen and 15 of hydrogen.

ceptible

anp MARSHY SITUATIONS. 131

ceptible effe@, except a flight giddinefs after fhe had
detcended a flight of ftairs.

No alteration is made in their properties by the mix-
ture of carbonic with hydrogenous gas. No decompo-
fition takes place, no caloric is fet at liberty or heat ren-
dered fenfible by fuch union. We may therefore from
what has now been ftated, conclude that neither carbonic
nor hydrogen gas, fingly or combined is the miafma or
effuvium by which the difeafes in queftion are produced.

In confequence of the putrefaction of farinaceous plants,
and all fuch as abound more in gluten than in the faccha-
rine, or mucilaginous principles, as well as from the
putrefaction of animal fubftances, an ammoniacal gas
is produced, owing to the union of the hydrogen, evol-
ved in the putrefactive fermentation, with the fuperabun-
dant azote of the atmofphere.* But this gas inftead of
diminifhing the powers of the human body, is well
known to have a contrary effet, except when received
into the lungs in a large quantity, and then it proves
deftrudtive from its ftimulating quality, inducing a fpafm
on the glottis or bronchie. That neither the water of
marfhes, nor the exhalations which arife from thence, are
feptic or promoters of putrefaction, has been fully demon-
{trated by the experiments of Dr. Alexander. +

* Does the union of dead animal and vegetable fubftances prevent the
noxious effeéts of each other ?

+ Having filled a tea cup with putrid water taken from a ditch in the
meadows on the fouth fide of Edinburgh, (which in fummer contain a
confiderable quantity of extremely putrid ftagnating water), and another
cup with pure water, “1 put a bit of mutton into each cup and fet
them together in the open air. The mutton in the pure water began to
putrefy in about 36 hours. Atthe end of three days, that in the marfh water
was quite fweet. On the 5th day it was taken out wafhed caretully with
pure water, and found perfectly fweet. That in the pure water was now
become intolerably fetid, and on that account was thrown away. The
qth day the mutton in the marfh water was wathed again, and found
as trefh as before. When it had lain in about fix weeks, it {till continued

perfectly fweet, and the liquor around it of the fame fmell and colouras at
firft

132 Or thr INSALUBRITY or FLAT

But that any exhalation or other fubftance, fhould act
on the moving powers or folids of the human body feve-
ral days after it has been received into the body, without
making fome material change in the condition or quality
of the circulating fluids is inadmiffible becaufe it is fcarce-
ly conceivable. ‘That fuch alteration is made in the qua-
lity of the fluids in putrid fevers is manifeft from the
contagious effects of the feveral excretions. But in cafes
of intermittents and remittents which originate in marfhy
fituations, mo fuch evidence is afforded, for there is no au-
thentic inftance of thefe being contagious er communicable
from one to another. ;

As no other exhalations or noxious matters than thofe
which have now been enumerated, can be difcovered in
the moft unfalutary atmofphere of marfhes; as. there is
no fource from whence any other moxious fubftance can
be introduced into the atmofphere of fuch fituations, and
as it is evident from the known effects of the gafes which
have been difcovered im it, that they can not have the
effe&t of producing the difeafes under confideration either
when applied fmgly or united, we certainly ought to
hefitate before we adopt the doétrine heretofore taught,
refpecting marfh miafma. |

But as it is well known that a very material alteration
is made in the proportions, which one of the component
parts of the atmofphere bears to the other, by certain
procefles of nature and art, let us enquire how far the
alteration which is made in the atmofphere of marfhes,
by the procefs of putrefaction may affect the prefent
queftion.

firft. After two months, things were exactly the fame. The mutton
was then thrown out.” Alexander’s Experimental Enquiry, p. 71.

From the experiments of the fame gentleman it appears, that pieces of
dead fleth fufpended over the exhalatiens of the putrid water of marfhes, are
five or fix days longer putrefying, than thofe fufpended over the exhalations
of pure water. (Seehis r5th & 17th experiments).

ae Mr.

and MARSHY SITUATIONS. 133

Mr. Vanbreda’s experiments, prove that there is lefs
oxygen in the atmofphere of marfhes during autumn
when the weather is dry and hot, than in more falutary
fituations, and it is well known from innumerable ex-
periments made by different philofophers, that this can
oaly be diminifhed by combuftion, fermentation putre-
faction or refpiration, or a procefs of a fimilar kind.

It is alfo a fact fully eftablifhed, that the functions
of life as well as the procefs of combuftion and fermenta-
tion can only be continued by the application of oxy-
genous gas, and that thefe are affected in proportion to
the quantity and purity of the gas applied.

It was formerly difcovered by Vefalius, and has fince
been confirmed by the obfervations of Drs. Lower, Prieft-
ley, Crawford and others, that the blood in the pulmonary
veins is of as red and florid a colour as in the arteries,
which is the reverfe in every other part of the fyftem.
This circumftance has been demontftratively proved to
be owing to the ation of the oxygen, or the bafe of pure
air upon the blood in the pulmonary veins.

From the experiments of the difcerning and ingenious
Dr. Goodwin upon living animals, it appears, that the
action of the heart cannot be continued by the reception
of blood, which has not undergone this change of colour
in the pulmonary veins from the application or intro-
duction of oxygen. This fact has been fince confirmed
by the experiments of Dr. Girtanner, as may be feen in
his Eflay on the principle and laws of irritability.

That blood impregnated with oxygen, or the bafe of
pure air is the neceflary, and appropriate ftimulus for
giving motion to the heart, and enabling it to carry on the
circulation of the blood was rendered evident from the
gradual diminution and debility of its contractions, as the
colour of the blood became darker when the pure air was
excluded, and from its contractions becoming ftronger

S as

134 Or tHe INSALUBRITY or FLAT

as the blood recovered its florid colour from the applica-
tion of pure air.

In thefe experiments, all the other functions of the
body were obferved to be proportionally affected with
the heart. As its contractions diminifhed, the power of
thefe alfo declined: Asthe power of the heart recovered,
thefe alfo recovered.

By thefe experiments, we learn that the abftraGion or
exclufion of the oxygenous part of the atmofphere, in-a
given fpace is fufficient of itfelf to deprive animals of life
by withholding the caufe of aGion. Hence we are
authorifed by the chafteft rules of indution to conclude
that health and life muft be affected more or lefs in pro-
portion to the quantity of this vivifying principle at any
time abftraGted from the atmofphere, which mere im-
mediately furrounds us.

The prefence of the other component part of the at-
mofphere, the bafe of the azotic gas though totally op-
pofite to the oxygen with which it forms a perfect com-
pound, and neutral fubftance when mixed in the pro-
portions already mentioned, appears to have no fhare in
deftroying life, though its name is derived from. a mif-
taken fuppofition that it had that effe&t; for the. heart
immerfed in this gas, will retain its irritability feveral
hours, in a warm fituation, after all figns of life have dif-
appeared in the reft of the body. Mr. Valli’s experi-
ments on animal eletricity have eftablifhed this faa.

Carbonic gas or fixed air, on the contrary, produces
its deftructive effects by a direct operation, for it deftroys
the nervous power and the irritability of the mufcular
fibres the inftant that it is received into the lungs, and
comes in contact with the heart. mit

If the carbonic gas operated, as fuggefted by Mr. Kite,
by inducing a fpafm of the glottis and thereby excluding
the atmofpheric air, the heart as in other cafes of fuf-
) pended

AnD MARSHY SITUATIONS. 135

pended refpiration would retain its irritability for fome
time; but this is not the cafe.

From the facts and obfervations which have new been
ftated, I think it may be fairly concluded, that the caufes
of the unwholefomenefs of low and moitft fituations in the
fummer and autumnal months, is not owing to any in-
vilible miafmata or noxious effluvia, which iffue from
the foil and lurk in the air, but to a very different caufe,
viz. to a deficiency of the oxygenous portion of the at-
mofphere in fuch fituations, in confequence of vegetable
and animal putrefa€tion, in conjunétion with the exhauft-
ing, and debilitating heat of the days, and the fedative
power of the cold and damp air of the nights.

For want of the refrefhing and falutary ftimulus of
pure air, all the fun&tions of the body are performed im-
perfectly and languidly. The nervous fyftem in particu-
lar, becomes preternaturally fufceptible of impreflions
from every change that occurs in the temperature of the
furrounding atmofphere. The application of or expo-
fure toa damper and colder ftate of the air than ufual,
renders the veflels on the furface of the body powe rlefs,
and atonic, the brain and heart fympathife with the ex-
treme nerves and veflels, the power of every fun@ion
of the body declines, till the heart roufed by accumulating
blood reaéts with increafing velocity, and is relieved of
the unufual burthen.

That the cauf's which I have now affigned, are the true
ones is rendered next to certain, from the frequent occur-
rence of thofe difeafes, (which have heretofore been fup-
‘pofed to depend upon the operation of {pecific miafmata),
in fituations remote from marfhy ground, particularly in
large and populous cities, where fedentary occupations and
want of exercife, render the inhabitants delicate and in-
firm. 1 have feen numerous inftances of this kind even
in the winter feafon, when no effluvia from marfhes

S2 could

£36 Or THE INSALUBRITY or FLAT

could poffibly exift, efpecially among thofe who had
been previoufly debilitated by other diforders. Nor is it
uncommon for perfons who‘have recovered from inter-
mittents in the autumn, to have frequent recurrences of
the fame difeafe in the winter, merely from fitting in a
damp room, or other expofure to cold.

In perfons much reduced by the difeafes of autumn, it
is alfo very common when attacked with the inflamma-
tory difeafes of winter, for the fyitem ‘to refume its cuf-
tomary habits of a€tion, and for the fever to refemble an
intermittent in the time and manner of its exacerbations,
and remiffions, and immediately after the removal of the
local affection to become a regular intermittent. This is fo
generally the cafe on the eaftern fhore of Maryland, that
the phyficians in that country feldom make much ufe of
the lancet in any of the difeafes which occur there, exceptin
the {pring feafon. Are we not authorifed from thefe facts
to infer, that any circumsftances which occafion a certain
ftate of debility, and irritability in the veflels and nerves
on the furface of the body, and in the fenforium vat the
fame time, are predifpofing caufes of the difeafes, we are
‘now confidering, and that when the fy{tem is in this con-
dition by whatever caufe induced, the fudden application
of cold, terror, or any other fuddenly debilitating power,
may become the ‘exciting or occafional caufe of febrile
difeafe, in an indire€&t manner by repelling the blood to
the heart, lungs and brain, and forcing them to react by
the ftimulous of diftenfion?

If the difeafes of marfhy fituations were produced by
a {pecific matter, they could never be produced by any
other caufe, but as they are frequently induced in fea-
fons and fituations, where that {uppoted {pecific matter
~or miafma cannot poflibly exift, there is nothing more
clear than that they are not produced by any fuch fpe-
-eific matter. gerd

The

and MARSHY SITUATIONS. 137

The opinion that thofe difeaies, are the product of
{pecific matter generated by vegetable putrefaGtion, ap-
pears to be rendered groundlefs from the difeafe varying
in its type and fymptoms, in proportion to the extent
and putridity of the foil, ftate of climate, feafon and
weather with refpect to heat, moifture, &c. and alfo, in
its not being contagious, the reverle of which is the cafe
with all known difeafes that are derived from {pecific
matter.

We are aflured by the accurate Monro, in his account
of the difeafes which prevailed in the military hofpitals
in Germany, in 1761 and 1762, that the intermitting
fever feldom attacked any but thofe whofe folids had been
previoufly relaxed by the preceding heat of the fummer,
except when they had been fatigued and overheated
by the dun and afterwards expofed to the evening
dews,

Dr. Lind of Windfor, fays, fudden expofure to cold
occafioned either an inflammatory fever or a fimple in-
termittent at Bengal, according to the predifpofition of
the body.

The {curvy as well as the difeafes already enumerated
alfo appears to derive its exiftence from a deficiency
of pure air in conjunction with a cold and moift atmo-
fphere, and a diet of falted flefh meats. For it generally
prevails in long voyages after a continuance of wet weather.
The hatches being kept {hut at fuch times, prevents ven-
tilation, in confequence of which the oxygen becomes
exhautted.

Captain Cook in his two laft voyages preferved his
crew from the fcurvy by frequent ventilation, conftant
cleanlinefs, fuitable cloathing, and ftrit difcipline. .

Dr. Trotter aflures us that in a flave fhip of which he
was furgeon, the feamen that were conftantly on deck,
and fed with the ordinary fea diet remained free from

the

138 Or THE INSALUBRITY or FLAT

the feurvy, while the flaves that lived principally on
vegetables, but breathed a confined impure air fell mife-
rable victims to it.

The remarkable cafe of the blue boy, defcribea by Dr.
Sandifort of Leyden, furnifhes ariother ftriking example
of the importance of oxygen in the prefervation of health
and life, as well as a confirmation of its being the caufe
of the red colour of the blood.

In this boy, whofe fkin was as blue as indigo, the aorta
communicated with both ventricles cf the heart, in con-
fequence of which the greateft part of the blood was im-
mediately propelled from the right ventricle into the
aorta, fo that very little paffed into the pulmonary artery
to be oxygenated.

An opinion equally erroneous with that which has
lately prevailed refpeGting the caufes of intermitrent
fevers, &c. has alfo been delivered down from age to age,
refpe€ting the caufes of continued fevers of the nervous
or putrid kind.

The doétrine formerly taught refpeQling thefe, was
that they derived their exiftence from the effluvia of dead
and putrid animal fubftances: but from more recent and
accurate obfervations, it appears that the contagion by
which this kind of fever is produced as well as thofe
of a peftilential nature, is always derived from the living
human body in confined and unventilated fituations, and
it is probable that the effluvia thus excreted, partake of
the quality of nitrogen gas, from their being rendered
harmlefs by a union with oxygen or the bafe of pure
air.

It appears more than probable alfo from the hiftory
of the circumftances always prefent at the time febrile
contagion is generated, that it is rendered virulent and
powerful in proportion to the abfence or defe& of
oxygen and the degree of heat to which the living body
5 has

and MARSHY SITUATIONS. 139

has been expofed in fuch fituations. It was a concur-
rence of thefe circumftances which gave origin to the
yellow fever which appeared in Grenada in the begin-
ning of the year 1793, and which was afterwards im-
ported into Philadelphia, as appears from the account
publifhed by Dr. Chifholm.*

Noxious effluvia indeed frequently arife from putrid
animal fubftances in confined fituations. Dr. Monro
mentions a remarkable inftance of this, and fome later
examples are recorded by Mr. St. John; but it does not
appear from thefe cafes that thofe noxious effluvia pro-
duced any fymptoms, refembling thofe of putrid or pefti-
lential fevers; on the contrary they acted as direct ftimu-
lants, and occafioned inflammatory affections without
being preceded by that fenfe of debility which always
precedes thofe fevers that are occafioned by febrile
contagion.

Having now fhewn, that the difeafes which prevail
moft generally during the autumnal feafon in low and
marfhy fituations, owe their origin, not to invifible ex-
halations or miafmata, but to the caufes which I have
affigned, the prophylaxis, or the means of preventing
the occurrence of thofe difeafes muft be fimple and
obvious.

Thefe are to introduce and increafe the proportion of
oxygenous gas in the fuperincumbent atmofphere, and
to prevent its future abftraction, by cutting off or dimi-
nifhing the fources of putrefaction.

It would be a happy circumftance if the application
of the means fuited to produce an amendment in a body
fo large and flu€tuating as the atmofphere, was as praéti-
cable as the means fuited to effect that purpofe are ob-
vious: but unfortunately, this requires too much labour
and expence to admit of extenfive application, efpecially

* Vide Chifholm’s Effay on the fever of Grenada in 1793 &e.
mm

640 Or tHe INSALUBRITY or FLAT

in a country where population and wealth do not bear
a due proportion to the extent of territory.

We ought however to attempt every thing in our power
to effet fo defirable and ufeful an event.

Chemiftry furnifhes various articles by means of which
we can generate and introduce a fupply of oxygen into
the atmofphere, as well as alter the quality of thofe
noxious gafes with which it is occafionally contami-
nated.

Thefe however can only be employed in a very limit-
ted and partial manner, and of courte can only produce
a limited and partial amendment.

I fhall therefore mention only a few of the fubftances
that may be occafionally employed for this purpofe.

A large portion of oxygen may be furnifhed by the de-
compofition of nitre, as is demonftrated from its main-
taining the combuttion of inflammable bodies.

If lighted charcoal, be placed in a proper expofure
to the open air it will continue to burn till the whole be
reduced to afhes.

If nitre be mixed with charcoal, and when kindled
placed in a clofe vetlel, the combuftion will continue
as well as if expofed to the open air ; whereas, without
the affiftance of the nitre, the charcoal would be imme-
diately extinguifhed in that fituation for want of a fup-
ply of oxygen.

Mr. Schele by heating nitre to red heat in a retort, re-
ceived into a moiftened bladder more than fifty ounces
in meafure of oxygen gas from one ounce of nitre. A
pound will therefore furnifh 800 ounces.

Nitre ground with two thirds of its weight of mintum
and moiftened with water fo as to form a pafte, burns
very rapidly and emits a confiderable quantity of pure air.

But the grand engine, by which, the fources that de-
prive the atmofpere of its falutary and vivifying princi-

4 ple,

anp MARSHY SITUATIONS, 14%

ple, are to be cut off; and the great magazine, from
whence a fufficient fupply 1s to be obtained, muft be
fought for in the art of agriculture.

The ftagnant waters may be carried off and the foil of
marfhes rendered dry, by means of drains, deep trenches,
and wells; and farther ftagnation and putrefaCtion pre-
vented, by confuming the dead weeds, grafs, and woods,
and by filling up the flats, finks and hollows with clay,
fand, or lime.

And the atmofphere may be fupplied with a profufion
of oxygen by cultivating on fuch foils, graffes and plants
of vigorous growth, and efpecially thofe which live and
flourifh lateft in the feafon. For vegetables while living
and growing, when expofed to the rays of light con-
ftantly decompofe the water they imbibe from the earth
and air, and while they retain the hydrogen or bafe of
inflammable air for the formation of oil, wax, honey,
or refin, they replenifh the atmofphere with oxygen.”*

When it is impraéticable to render marfhy fituations
dry, on account of their extent, they fhould be kept con-
ftantly flooded by means of dams and fluices, to prevent
the effe&ts of putrefaction, for when dead vegetable or
animal fubftances are immerfed in water fo as to be en-
tirely excluded from conta& with the air, putrefaction
can only take place in a flow and imperfe& manner.

But clearing the woods, plants, and herbs, from
marfhy or fenny traéts without draining off the ftagnant
water at the fame time, and deftroying the dead herbage
by fire, inftead of rendering fuch fituations more healthful
has been found to have a different effe€&t, becaufe a
greater extent of putrefcent furface is thereby expofed
to the rays of the fun, and of courfe a greater portion of
oxygen abftracted from the atmofphere. It is owing in

* Chaptal’s Chemiftry. Ingenhaufz’s Obfervations, &c.
Tr a great

142 Or THe INSALUBRITY or FLAT &c.

great meafure, to this circumftance, that all new coun-
tries are fo generally fatal to the firft fettlers.

The fame land after it has been cultivated a few years,
efpecially if there be fufficient declivity to prevent the
water from ftagnating, lofes its unwholefomenefs, the
putrefcent fubftances mixed with the foil or fuperficial
{tratum of the ground haivng finifhed the putrefactive pro-
cefs by thattime. In order therefore to render and pre-
ferve marfhy countries healthful, they fhould be pre-
ferved dry and clean by means of the fpade, the plow,
and the rake.

When the level fituation of a place prevents the ftagnant
water from being carried off by drains, deep wells fhould
be dug, in different places for the water to collect in, by
which means a greater portion of the foil will be rendered
dry, and lefs noxious.

To prevent ftill farther the injurious effects of refiding
near marfhes or mill ponds; rows of fuch trees as grow
rapidly, and retain their verdure late in the feafon, fhould
be planted between thofe fituations and the manfion, for
the purpofe of intercepting the moifture in its progrefs,
while they furnifh a conftant fupply of oxygen to the
atmofphere.

Lodging in the upper ftory of a houfe has been found
to preferve health during a fickly feafon, inftances of
which are recorded by Sir John Pringle. ‘This appears
to be owing to thofe fituations being out of the reach of
the moifture from the ground.

Defeription

MACHINE ror SAVING PERSONS &c. 143

No XLV.

Defeription of a Machine for faving Perfons from the upper
Storics of a Houfe on fire, by NicuoLas Coutin, D. D.
the Inventor ; witha Drawing from the Model.

Read Nov.2 ABCC is a trunk with a focket from top to
ar 3 bottom, and two pulleys a, @ in the fides
C, C. Inthis the cylindrical fhaft DE moves, fupported
on the pulleys by two ropes. ‘Thefe are by one end
tacked to the foot of the fhaft, and by the other to the
axes of the windlaffes I, I, which ftand below. The
cranks, winding the ropes round the axes, lift the foot of
the fhaft to the pulleys, and by unwinding let it down
to the bottom. €

FEG isa lever, turning on its fulcrum, which is fixed
in the top of the fhaft, by the irontire d. The long arm
is prefled by the frame at its end: the fhort one is held
in balance by the rope GH, which is faftened on the
bafe of the machine. As the lever defcends with the
fhaft, the rope flackens on the fhort arm ; then the other,
no longer balanced, defcends round the fulcrum, and by
this motion turns the fhort one upwards tight againft the
rope. Their angular contrary movements continue thus,
until the fhaft reaches the bottom of the focket ; and the
bafket at the fame time comes to the ground.

The bafe is a retangular plank floor with a com-
pact frame underneath. The trunk is fixed in it, by
feveral bracers c, and other ufual faftening, both above
and below, ftanding fomewhat from the centre towards
the rope GH, in order to counteract its raifing that
end.

The windlaffes are firmly fet in the floor, near the
trunk, direétly under the pulleys.

de: The

ifa MACHINE rox SAVING PERSONS:

The wheels are low and ftrong, placed near the cor-
ners of the bafe. They have locks, to be ufed when the
machine is loading.

The bafket is breaft-high, and wide enough for four
perfons. The three iron rods keep it more’ fteady than
cords would; and their openings admit one perfon’ at a
time. It hangs free from the end of the lever.

The principles of this conftruction arife from the' re~
quifite properties of this machine: It muft be fpeedily
brought; readily fitted; practicable in confined places’;
want no fupport from the wall; reach a confiderable height,
and alfo proje& over obftacles on or above the ground’;
take down feveral perfons at once, and without any
exertion of theirs. The two vertical pieces folded, with’
the lever oblique, can both be houfed and eafily carried:
when put in action, they expand’ gradually; and the
lever is high when at full length. The bafe may be con-
venient, becaufe its own weight, with the trunk and the
four men at the windlafles keep the centre of gravity
pretty low; and all the preflures bear perpendicular on
the longer face. Befides, people may fit down on the
fides, or hold it by handfpikes, which may be kept on
it, and when wanted, put into holes near the margins, fo
as to project outwards.* A level pofition being very ne-
eeflary, a plumb rule fhould alfo be hung on the trunk.

The cylindrical form of the fhaft and focket pro-
cures an eafy gliding motion, that leffens the occafional
fideway bearings. It is alfo lefs alterable by wear, and
change of weather; it makes the fhaft more folid, and
thus requires lefs bulk in both pieces. The two quarters
of the trunk which are flit for a communication of the
ropes with the fhaft, will yet be ftrong enough by the
folid piers that bear the pulleys. ‘The other two have

¥ Tt is wider on the model than it appears under an oblique perfpective.
fufficient

rkom HOUSES on FIRE. tgs

fofficient firmnefs againft oblique preffures, arifing from
the ation of the machine, or from the cafual inclination
of the bafe. The part from the brim to the pulleys in-
clufively is fortified by the iron-band BB, to fecure the
fhaft when drawn up. The height of that piece, its own
weight, the preflure on its head, and the obliquity of
the fame at the time, together with probable external ac-
cidents, will determine the width; it need perhaps not
exceed a fifth of the part below.

The trunk and fhaft require ftiff and hard materials.
The lever being made of tough wood, may be further
ftrengthened by iron plates. The folidity and fhape of
the fulcrum and arms mutt be carefully proportioned to
their refpective weights.

The fhaft, when down, reaches beyond the trunk fo
much as to clear the lever of the piers. This added to the
diftance of the brim from the pulleys, is the difference
between the fhaft and their height 2a. The altitude aE
is therefore 2a doubled and that furplus. If the fthaft
bore a greater proportion in effecting this altitude, it
muft be longer; confequently it would, when {ftanding,
hold the arm further from the ground, and render that
piece, with itfelf, lefs portable; and, when up, increafe
the weight on the fulcrum, and the preffure againft the
locket.

The arm EF rifes from aE on an angle about fifty
degrees with the horizon, thus making a good projection,
and a confiderable increafe of altitude. Its proportion
to the fhaft, and angle with it when down, are fuch as to
fet the bafket on the ground.

Thefe angles, the fhaft, and the fpace aa (its eleva-
tion), accord in adjufting the proportion of EG, and the
pofition of the rope. When the lever defcends, the
arm EG opens, and throws out the rope, keeping it
{tretched all the while. This makes it deferibe a circular

arch,

146 MACHINE ror SAVING PERSONS

arch. The lever having come to a horizontal pofition,
the arm by the continued rotation returns towards the
line aE, and makes the rope retrace the arch until
the fhaft is down. Ifthe reverfed angle of the arm is
then equal to aiG, the rope comes to the point G from
whence it went, if lefs it goes beyond. In the firft
cafe EG is the fide of a triangle which has aa for its bafe
and two angles equal to 2EG; in the fecond it is lefs
than this fide. As the elevation of EF is not above
50, its complement aEG (40) is greater than the angle
of EF with the fhaft, which with that fpan would hold
the arm too high from the ground. It confequently ex-
ceeds the reverfed angle which (being oppofite) is equal
with this. Therefore the fhort arm is lefs than the faid
fide, but the difference is not great.—The fituation of
the fhaft being moft critical in the higheft elevation,
the rope fhould then allow the lever very moderate rota-
tion, and thus leffen the kicking of the weight againft
the fulcrum. Its -pofition will therefore be nearly per-
pendicular, when the defcent begins, that the arch, im-
mediately falling, or rifing very little, may keep down
the end of EG. This pofition requires a moderate ele-
vation of EF; for if the angle DEG is too contraéted,
EG will project far beyond the foot of the rope, in and
about its horizontal paflage, and thus produce a detri-
mental obliquity. It alfo limits the fall of EF, by re-
gulating the reverfed angle; for the nearer the point G
returns to the fhaft, the further it goes from the rope,
and the more oblique is the outward draught.

The obliquity of draught admitted in this machine,
appears eafy on the model: trials may prove a greater
elevation of the lever practicable. The proportion of the
fhort arm is fufficient while the whole weight to be
wound up does not exceed that of twelve perfons ; for
fo much, at leaft, four hands at the windlafles are com-

petent.

rrom HOUSES on FIRE. i447

Ts

petent. Ifthe rope is drawn by hands, this arm muft
ftill, for the fake of convenient carriage, be much fhorter
than the other ; and accidents of mifmanagement might
happen, which the fixed rope prevents: it is prudent
to entruft the machine with all the powers it can exercife ;
efpecially as it muft be ufed on the difmal occafion of
nocturnal incends.

In confiderable towns the houfes differ fo much in
height, that machines of two fizes are neceflary. The
larger fhould be competent for the third or fourth ftories
in the higheft buildings, according to their dimenfions, and
the practicable fize of the three pieces ; and the fmaller for
thofe in the loweft. As both have feveral degrees of eleva-
tion, they will alfo fuit inferior ftories refpectively, and thus
take in all the different heights. The bafket muft afcend fo
near beneath the window, that the perfons may, without
fear, get in, and defcend fo low that they may get out.
For the laftthe arm cannot be long enough, when great
altitudes demand very high fhafts; then a rope ladder
may be fixed on the bafket, and let down when the ma-
chine ftops; ten feet from the ground, if neceflary. As
the dimenfions of the lever and fhaft of large machines
demand great folidity, their weight will bear a confide-
rable proportion of the whole thatis wound up. One or
two perfons the more in the bafket would proportionally
lefs increafe the whole. ‘Their bafes will alfo be wide
enough for two men at each of the four cranks, The
{maller machines muft fupport the weight of four full-
grown perfons, as the fire may prevent a fecond going
up. Their bafes are to be fitted for narrow alleys, and
crouded places.

Much property might be faved from the fire by
machines of a fimilar conftruction with this, having a
capacious bafket, and capftans inftead of windlafles. The

combination

148 MACHINE ror SAVING PERSONS &c.

combination of perpendicular and lateral movements may
alfo be applied to many other valuable purpofes.
Perpendicular lines being drept from the point G to
the bafe, the fquares of thefe, and the fquares of the
diftances of their ends from the foot of the rope, are
jointly equal to the fquare of the rope. The fquare of
EG is likewife equal to thofe of its fines. When the
fhaft is drawn up, the perpendicular height of the rope
differs from the joint heights of the fhaft and pulleys
by the coline of DEG; and when the fhaft is down,
it is equal to the height of this piece, joined to the cofine
of the reverfed angle. The fines of thefe angles are equal
to the diftances between the ends of the faid perpen-
diculars and the center of the trunks bottom. Taking
the value of the rope in the two cafes, gives this
equation: aa* 4+ a2thaft. X @aa=
2aE X cos. DE
+2/h X cos. rev. ang. ‘ EG.
+2aHx Sin. DEG—Sin. rev. a.
This will guide the choice of angles, proportion of EG,
and pofition of the rope.

A Dif-

AGO TS OUTSET ON: &e. 149

Noro:

A Difquifition on wool-bearing Animals, by Dr. James
AnpDeErson, of North Britain, in a letter dated 6th
December 1794.

AST fummer a Danifh Eaft-Indiaman put into
Leith Roads on her return home. I went on
board to fee what curiofities fhe had. I there found
a very fine fheep, which was covered with a clofe coat
of thick fhort hair, very fmooth and fleeked, like the
coat of a well dreffed horfe; but the hairs rather ftiffer,
and thicker fet on the {kin; the colour a fine nut brown.
This fheep I was told was bought at the ifland of Mada-
gafcar, and that all the fheep found at that place were
of the fame fort. Along with it, was another fheep
brought from India at the fame time, carrying a very
clofe fleece of good wool; which clearly proves the in-
fluence of breed in over-ruling that of climate. I mention
this laft circumftance to obviate an idea that will readily
occur of the influence of climate ; an idea that prepoflefles
moft men’s minds, as it did my own for many years, fo
as to clofe their eyes againft obferving facts that fall
often under their view.

This fet my mind upon a more minute inveftigation
of facts. I had, before that time, received from Ruflia fome
wool obtained from the common goat, of a foftnefs that
exceeds any thing of the wool kind I have ever feen, a
{mall fample of a fhawl made of which I fend inclofed. I
have fince then feen fome Angora goats’ wool produced in
Britain, which anfwers in every refpect to the charac-
teriftics of woo/, and not of hair. I have heard of the
Angora rabbit alfo in Britain, but have not feen it as

U yet;

150 A DISQUISITION ON

yet; but from the defcription, I have every reafon to be
fatished that alfo is woo/ of a deep pile, and foft ftaple.
_T have likewife examined the fleeces of fome European
fheep which are abundant, but which anfwer the cha-
racteriftics of air rather than wool ; and the refult of the
whole is, as far as I at prefent fee, as follows:

Firft—That the theep is not neceflarily a wool-bearing
animal, but that there are only certain érceds of it which
can be thus diitinguifhed; and that, fetting afide leffer
diftinGions, the different d7ceds of fheep may be arranged
under the following claffes :

rift. Thofe that carry fhort ftiff hair only, and nothing
that refembles wool, or that can be employed in manu-
faGtures for the fame ufes as wool; the Madagafcar
theep, and alfo the Boucharian fheep of Pallas, which I
am now fatisfied is of this fort.

ad. Thofe that carry wool properly fo called.—The
theep of this fort are diftinguifhed into a vaft variety
of breeds, including moft of thofe reared in Europe and
Afia. Some of thefe breeds have among their wool a
quantity of a particular kind of opaque white hair, called
kemps in England, and fome have none of it at all; and
fo in various proportions.

3d. Sheep that carry long hair, that may be fhorn like
wool, and may alfo be employed in coarfer fabricks in
the place of wool. Though this be in fact harr, yet it
has been in general confounded with wool, and fo deno-
minated. Many breeds of European {heep may be re-
ferred to this clafs: As alfo the 4rga/ of Afia. There
feem to be two varieties of this clafs, viz. one that car-
ries a fine kind of wool among the hair, as the Argali :
the other that never has any of that fine wool among the
hair ; as the European fheep of this clafs.

Second—There are other animals, fome breeds of
which, like the theep, carry only clofe {tiff hair, while

other

WOOL-BEARING ANIMALS. 151

other breeds of them carry wool, or at leaft fleeces which
admit of being fhorn like the wool of fheep, and applied
to the fame purpofes in arts). How many kinds of ani-
mals may be arranged under this head | know not, but
the following feem to be undeniable.

1ft. The dog.—r1. Clofe ftiff fhort haired : a variety of
breeds common. 2. Long foft haired breeds: the Eng-
lith fpaniel ; Newfoundland dog, &c. 3. Woolly breeds :
a dog that is by no means rare in this place ; but the
particular name I know not. It muft be fhorn every
year, and yields a fleece as clofe as that of any fheep,
and finer than many of them.

2d. The goat.—r1. With fhort ftiff hair common.
2. With long coarfe fhagged hair, common alfo. The
goats of this fort have in general fome very fine wool
erowing among the hair. The Thibet goat, from which
the Indian fhawl wool is obtained, belongs to this clafs :
I had fome of them in my hands very lately. 3. Goat
carrying a fleece of wool: the Angora goat, fome of
which I lately faw in Lancafhire.

3d. The ox (Bos tribe).—1. Clofe ftiff haired kinds,
common. N. B. I faw two days ago a bull of the Zebu
kind, which had a very clofe pile of exceedingfhort hair,
not above half an inch, but fo thick fet, that it ap-
peared to be liker a deer-fkin than any thing elfe. This
animal has been in Britain feveral years. A cow of the
fame fort was brought over with him from India, which
has had a bull and a cow-calf. There are alfo about a
dozen calves by the fame bull with common cows. The
creature is extremely gentle, ftrong, ftands well on his
legs, which are clean and finewy ; is in every refpect
handfome but forthe hump on his fhoulder. The great-
eft peculiarity is a deep dewlap, confifting of two loofe
{kins only, that can be eafily feparated by the hand, like

2 a bag.

152 A DISQUISITION own

a bag. ‘The keeper fays he can occafionally fill this with
water, for his own ufe, but I faw it not fo employed.
2. Long lank fofter hairs alfo common in this country,
efpecially among the highland cattle; fome of thefe have
manes like horfes, which I have feen. 3. Softer and
clofer hair more refembling wool, but fhorter: the Lou-
ifiana ox, according to the beft defcription I can get of it.
4. Still longer, and more foft and filky, the fleece ap-
plied to various purpofes in arts; the Sarluc, and Chit-
tigong cow of India. 5. Longer and deeper fleece than
almoft any fheep ; the mufk ox Sch Hud{fon’s Bay. A gen-
tleman here who lived long in that country, affures me
the fleece is as clofe as that of any fheep, that in fome
pats it is finer and fofter than any wool he has feen, and
about half a yard in length: But we are not yet fuf-
ficiently acquainted with the animal to {peak with greater
certainty.

The camel feems alfo to be referable to this head. Nor
is it altogether certain if the hog, and many other ani-
mals might not be included. under it ; but I will not pufh
the matter further at prefent.

The practical inference | would draw from thefe faéts
is this.—If different breeds of animals preferve in general
their diftinguifhing peculiarities, when the breed is not
contaminated by an intermixture with other breeds; of
which the proofs are undeniable—and if a breed of the
fame kind of animal which carries wool can be found,
which is equally good in other refpeéts with another
breed that carries no wool, (the fheep of Madagafcar
feemed to be in no refpec& fuperior to other wool-bearing
fheep: nor is the goat of Angora, for aught that I can
learn, in the leaft inferior in any refpeQ to the common
goat) ;—will it not be a matter of great economical con-
cern to propagate as many of thefe wool-bearing breeds of

animals

WOOL-BEARING ANIMALS. 153

Ye.
animals as poflible, in preference to thofe of the thort
haired kinds? and is it not an obje& of great national
concern to obtain as many varieties of thefe wool-bearing
animals as can be got, in order to make accurate trials of
their refpective qualities, to afcertain in what refpects
they would prove beneficial! or hurtful? We {ee by ex-
perience that the natives of Madagafcar have reared no
other fheep but the naked breed till this hour ; and pro-
bably they believe either that there are no wool-bearing
animals of that kind exifting, or that they would not
live in their country. We in Britain have never #i// now
believed it was poflible to have a wool-bearing goat ; and
even while I write fupported by fuch faéts, where is the
man who would not laugh at me as a vifionary, were
Ito talk of rearing wool-bearing cattle in place of the
naked breeds we have hitherto propagated ?

IN}. SV

Later Communication by the Author on this Subject, with a
Sample taken from the Fleece of a Sheep brought from
Famaica to England.

HIS fheep forms a diftin@ variety altogether
T different from any other I have ever feen. The
hair is a fubftance fui generis, and is as different from
the kemps, or ftitchet hair of Europe, as from the
long tough hair of the Ruffian and other hairy breeds,
The wool too is as different from other fheep’s wool
as the hair; it is fzer than any other, not excepting
the Shetland breed; though I would fufpect it is {carcely
fo foft. ‘This affords the moft convincing proof that ever
was given of the prevalence of Srecd above climate, and

the

154 ADISQUISITION on &e.

the abfurdity of thofe opinions we have all heard re-
peated thoufands of times, of wool being converted into
hair in the Weft Indies.

From a comparifon of this with other facts I am per-
fetly fatisfied that the varieties of this clafs of animals,
poflefling very diflin@ qualities infeparably conneéted
with breed, are much greater, and infinitely more diver-
fitied than has hitherto been fufpe@ed. The /oftne/s of
the Shetland wool is a peculiarity infeparable from it,
infomuch that in the coarfe/ kinds of ftockings made of
this wool, which I have bought as low as four pence a
pair, of a fufficient fize for the largeft man, I could un-
dertake to diftinguifh them at the firft dy rhe feel, for
their fuperior foftnefs even above the fineft Spanith wool.

Ne, XVIII.

An eafy and accurate Method of adjufting the Glaffes of
Hadley’ s Quadrant, on Land for the Back-Obfervation, by
RospeERT PaTTERSON, 7” a Letter to Dr. DAVID R1T-
TENHOUSE, Prefident of the Society.

April 18th, 1794.

Sir,
Read April HERE are few if any inftruments of
18, 1794- modern invention, of more extenfive ufe

in the meafuring of angles, than that invented by our
countryman, Mr. Godfry, but which has unjuftly got
the name of Hadley’s quadrant.

I have however often regretted, that for want of fome
eafy and accurate method of adjufting the glaffes for the
back-obfervation, praéticable on land, and applicable to
the comman oéiant, this inftrument was ftill fo much

limited

ADJUSTING HADLEY’s QUADRANT. 155

limited in its ufe. For when an angle exceeding go
degrees is to be meafured, or when an altitude of the fun,
&c, exceeding 45 degrees is to be taken, by means of a
reflecting horizontal furface, and fuch cafes frequently
occur, then we muft either have recourfe to the back-
obfervation, or to fome other inftrument.

In order to remedy, in fome meafure, this inconve-
nience, the fextant, without any glafles for the back-ob-
fervation, has been introduced; but even this inftrument
is incapable of meafuring an altitude, by means of a re-
fleGing horizontal furface, as above, when exceeding 60
degrees; and this will be the cafe with the meridian al-
titude of the fun, in moft parts of the United States,
during four months in the year.

Various methods of adjufting the glafles for the back-
obfervation, have indeed been propofed; but thefe are
either very inaccurate and troublefome, or inapplicable
to the common oétant, and require fome appendage to
the inftrument, with which but very few have yet been
made.

The following method of making this adjuftment will
not, I flatter myfelf, be found liable to any of the above
objections.—It may be made on land, in a few minutes,
at any time of the day when the fun fhines ; requires no
additional apparatus, but what any perfon may readily
make for himfelf ; and the adjuftment may be relied upon
as equally accurate with that for the fore-obfervation.

Defcription of the Neceffary Apparatus.

Take a piece of plane glafs (a piece of looking-glafs
will do very well)—take the polith off one fide of it, and
cement it, with the rough fide down, on the flat fide of
the fegment of a wooden ball. ‘The ball may be about
three or four inches in diameter, and the piece of glafs of

about the fame dimenfions. Or the glafs may be cement-
ed

156 EASY ann ACCURATE METHOD or

ed to a piece of board, and this board to a three or four
pound fhot, or {mall hand-granade, when either of thefe -
may be conveniently had.

Next take a piece of triangular board of about four
inches on the fide, and through this cut a triangular
mortice of about two inches on the fide. Near the cor
ners of this board let there be inferted three {mall nails
or pieces of wire, to ferve as feet for it to ftand on.

Method of making the Adjuftment, or finding the Quantity of the
Index-Error.

At any time when the fun fhines, fet your triangular
board on a table, the cill of a window, or any other con-
venient ftand expofed to the fun, and place the ball with
the piece of glafs, on the triangular mortice; which,
touching the ball only in three points, will confequently
keep it fteady in any pofition. Turn the ball into fuch
a pofition that the plane of the glafs may be, as nearly as
you can judge, parallel to the equator; and then incline
this plane, in the dire€tion of the meridian pafling
through the fun, till the fun be about 45° above it.

Now take your o¢tant, and by the fore-obfervation,
bring one of the limbs of the fun’s image, feen by a
double -refleftion from the fpecula of the inftrument,
exactly into contact with the image of the fame limb,
feen by a fingle reflection from the furface of the glafs
plane, and read off the angle pointed out by the index.
immediately turn round your inftrument, and bring the
fame limbs into conta& by the back obfervation. If the
angle now pointed out by the index be exa@ly the fup-
plement (to 180°) of the former angle, the horizon-glafs
for the back-obfervation will be truly adjufted, or ex-
actly at right-angles with the horizon-glafs for the fore-
obfervation: But if thefe two be not equal, then take
half their difference, which will be the correction or in-

4 dex-

ADJUSTING HADLEY’s QUADRANT. 194

dex-error for the back-obfervation ; fuppofing the fore-
horizon-glafs to have been previoufly well adjufted.
This correction will be additive to all angles meafured by
the back-obfervation, when the angle pointed out by the
index in the firft of the above obfervations is greater
than the fupplement of the other, and vice verfa.

For the fake of greater accuracy, you may repeat thefe
obfervations till you have taken two, four, or fix fets ;
obferving that if in your firft fet you begin with the
fore-obfervation, as above direfted, then in your fecond
fet you muft begin with the back-obfervation, and fo on.
A mean of the corrections thus obtained may be taken
as the ¢rve correction of adjuftment.

I {hall conclude this paper with the following mifcel-
laneous remarks, relative to the fubject.

1. If the arch of excefs beyond go° be but {mall, as in
fome o€tants is the cafe, then it may be neceflary to place
the index one or two degrees before theo, on the extra
arch, and adjuft the fore-horizon-glafs to this pofition of
the index. You will thus obtain a greater range for the
index in adjufting the back-horizon-glafs.

2. When the reflecting glafs-plane is placed in the
pofition above mentioned, viz. at right angles to the plane
of the meridian pafling through the fun, then the fun’s
path in the heavens will, for feveral minutes, be very
nearly parallel to the faid plane; and therefore no fen-
fible error is to be apprehended from the increafe or
decreafe of the fun’s altitude above this plane during
the interval between the firft and fecond obfervations in
the fame fet. But even if this fhould be the cafe, from
the glafs plane being placed confiderably out of the above
pofition, yet, by condudting the obfervations as above
dire&ted, the {mall errors arifing from this fource will na-
turally correét one another,

3. When the polith is taken off one furface of a piece
of glafs, then the image of the fun, being reflected only

Xx from

RS. EASY ann ACCURATE METHOD or

from one furface, will appear fingle and diftin@ ; whereas
the image reflected from both furfaces, will, moft fre-
quently, appear double or indiftinct; arifing from the
want of parallelifny between the furfaces.

4. The image of the fun feen by a fingle refleAion
from one furface of the glais plane, and that feen by a
double reflection from the fpecula of the inftrument,
will both appear nearly of the fame fhade or degree of
brightnefs ; and this will feldom be fo intenfe as. to re-
quire any {creen or coloured glafs to be interpofed between
the eye and the image.

5. In making obfervations with this inftrument, whe-
ther for the purpofe of adjufting the glafles, or for any
other purpofe, where great accuracy is required, it is
neceflary that the point on the index-fpeculum from
which the firft refleGtion is made, that on the horizon-
glafs from which the fecond reflection is made, and the
eye-hole through which the image is viewed, be all ina
plane, parallel to the plane of the inftrument. This will
be effected by wrapping a piece of tape, or the like, round
the index fpeculum, leaving only a bare ftrip of about a
quarter of an inch broad, parallel to the plane of the in-
ftrument, and at the baa height above it as the eye-hole,
and tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs.

6. The eye-hole is generally made too fmall. In
meafuring angles on land, as in the practice of furveying,
(for which purpofe this inftrument is much preferable to
any other in common ufe,) in taking altitudes at fea, in
meafuring the angular diftance of the fun and moon, but
efpecially of the moon and a ftar; the eye has generally
need of all the light that can be admitted from the object
teen by dire&t vifionn—The eye-hole therefore, fhould,
I think, be nearly as large as the ordinary fize of the
pupil of the eye; nor is any inaccuracy, in this cafe, ta
be apprehended from the line of vifion not being parallel
to the plane of the inftrument; the eye being capable of

placing

ADJUSTING HADLEY’s QUADRANT. 159

placing itfelf with great exa@nefs oppofite the centre of
the eye-hole.

The fame objeCtion and remedy are applicable to the
flits in the fight-vanes, of the common furveying inftru-
ments.

7. Mr. Mafkyline, and others, recommend the fun
itfelf as the beft object by which to adjuft the fore-hori-
zon-glafs.—There is however confiderable difficulty at-
tending this mode of adjuftment.—The fun is too bright
to be viewed directly, without a piece of coloured glafs
interpofed between it and the eye; and even if the eye-
piece be furnifhed with fuch an appendage (which in the
common octant is feldom the cafe) {till the two images
will be of very different fhades ; and either the one feen
by dire&t vifion will be too bright, or that feen by re-
flection will be too faint for an accurate obfervation of
their coincidence or contaét.—This difficulty may how-
ever be obviated in the following manner.

Every octant is furnifhed with at leaft two coloured
glafles, of different fhades—take the darkeft of thefe out
of its frame, and with a thread faften it on behind the
horizon-glafs, and turn down the other, between this
and the index-{peculum: The two images of the fun will
thus be generally of the fame fhade, or nearly fo, and
the adjuftment may then be made with the utmoft eafe
and fafety to the eye. Or, which is perhaps better.—
Place your eye behind the fore-horizon-glafs, and, look-
ing through this towards the centre of the index fpe-
culum, hold the inftrument in fuch a pofition as that
the line of vilion may be directed to any point in the
heavens, &c. at the angular diftance of go degrees from
the fun; and then, the index being placed at o, two
images of the fun will appear, both by a fingle refleGtion,
one from the index-fpeculum, and the other from the
back part of the fore-horizon-glafs; and by bringing
thefe images into coincidence or contact, as when you

mee look

¥60 EASY anp ACCURATE METHOD or

look diretly at the fun, the adjuftment may be made,
or the index-error found, with great eafe and exactnefs..
If the images of the fun fhould be too bright for the
eye, one of the coloured glaffes belonging to the inftru-
ment may be held before the eye. ‘The two images of
the fun, thus viewed, will appear nearly of the fame
fhade, fince the one from the index-fpeculum, which
would otherwife appear the brighteft, will lofe part of
its light by pafling through the horizon-glafs.

After all, I am of opinion that this adjuftment may
be made with equal accuracy, and much more eafe, by
any well defined objec on land, as the edge of a chim~
ney, the roof of a houfe, or the like, at a fufficient dif-
tance.

Any one may fatisfy himfelf that this is the cafe, by
repeatedly meafuring the error of adjuftment in the com-
mon way, viz. by moving the index till he produces an ap-
parent coincidence between the object feen direGtly and
by reflection. If a chimney, or the like, be the obje&
viewed, he twill fcarce ever find any of thefe errors to
differ from the mean error more than owe minute; and
the difference of fuch: errors, when the fun is ufed, will
not be lefs, but generally greater.

If the diftance between the index-fpeculum and the
line of dire& vifion (viz. a line joining the eye-hole and
horizon-glafs) fhould not exceed three inches, which it
feldom does, then the parallax of the inftrument will not.
amount to a quarter of a minute, and may therefore be.
fafely neglected; provided the object viewed be at the
diftance of two thirds of a mile. Ifa fuitable obje& at
fuch a diftance cannot be readily found, then you may
take one at any given diftance, and compute the paral-
lax to be allowed for that diftance, thus-—Multiply the
conftant number g5 (the nat. tang. of 1’ to rad. ¥;) by
the diftance, in inches, of the centre of the index-{pe-
evlum. above the line of direct vifion, and dividing the

product

ADJUSTING HADLEY’s QUADRANT. 16%

product by the diftance of the obje& in yards, the quo-
tient will be the parallax of the inftrument, or cerrec-
tion of adjuftment, for that diftance in minutes. For
example, if the height of the index-fpeculum above the
line of vifion be three inches, and the diftance of the ob-

ject 150 yards: then aan = 1'.9 will be the error of

adjuftment. If therefore you place the index fo much
behind the 0, on the limb of the inftrument and then
adjuft the horizon-glafs by an objeé& at the above dif-
tance, the adjuftment will be true for an object con-
fidered as at an infinite diftance.

From the above rule it is obvious that much exactnefs
in meafuring or eftimating the diftance of the objeét you
adjuft by is not neceflary, provided that diftance be not
very {mall ; for, in the above example, an error in the
diftance even of 10 yards would have produced an error
of no more than about +; of a minute in computing the
parallax of the inftrument.

8. In meafuring angles by this inftrument, when the
objet feen by dire& vifion is at no great diftance, the
parallax of the inftrument muft be taken into confidera-
tion. In fuch cafes it is commonly recommended, pre-
vioufly to adjuft the horizon-glafs by that obje&t; but
this, in the back-obfervation, would be attended with
very great difficulty—it wiil therefore be beft always to
keep the back-horizon-glafs at the fame adjuftment, and
make the neceffary correction, as above directed, for
the diftance of the object.

Iam, Sir, with much efteem

Yours, &c.
ROBERT PATTERSON.

An

162 ESSAY TENDING to IMPROVE

Noe. XIX.

An Effay tending to improve intelligible Signals, and te
difcover an Univerfal Language. From an anonymous
Correfpondent in France, (probably the Inventor of
the Telegraph) tranflated from the French.

PossUNT QUIA POSSE VIDENTUR, Virgil.

Read June LL the delights,and conveniences of life
20, 1788. originate in the mutual aids which men
render to each other ; but thefe aids require, or ina great
meafure depend on the mutual communication of their
ideas. Every thing therefore which may contribute to
extend and facilitate fuch communication, will doubt-
lefs be confidered as ufeful, and meet with a favourable
reception from the fociety ; and this is the object of the
prefent eflay.

A Natural Square.
Fer 21) 31|4t| 51 [61] 71

——s|[ SS —&——— | —— |

42.| 52 62| 72

— |__| ————— | ——— | ———_ | ————

43 53|63|73

44/54] 64174

| fe ee |

45|55|65175

__————— | | J ef |

46 | 56 | 66| 76

——_— | —$—— | ——__——

47) 37167177

The

INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &c. 163

The foregoing fquare forms the bafis of the following
table, at the foot of which will be found the method of
ufing it. This little eflay is only intended to illuftrate
it by fome examples.

Suppofe I would tranfmit, by fignals, the following
phrafe, to my correfpondent.

I! ne devroit pas y avoir pour les lettres d’autre pofte
que l’'aerienne.

t. [look at the table, which is divided into two parts,
and fearch for the fyllables which in both parts are placed
in alphabetical order.

2. J find i) in the sth column. I begin then by in-
dicating the fifth column, and place the figure 5 by itfelf
above the piace for the units which are to follow. I then
place under it the figures, correfponding to the fyllable 7/
inthe table 75, making S i,

3. In the fame manner I find the fyllable ve in the
3d column againft 16, 4 ”, and fo on till 1 get through
the whole phrafe. See A in the examples at the end of
this effay.

4. 1 keep a note of my letter, either to corre& any
error that might efcape attention, or to make the table
the more familiar, and to enable me to write currently
in figures without looking at it.

5. l only fend my numbers to the aerial poft as they
are placed in column B in the examples.

6. The director of the poft will only have to tranflate
thefe numbers into longs (—), and briefs ( 9 ), as in the
column C, and to deliver this tranflation to the ope-
rator.

. The operator need only know how to exprefs, and
diftinguifh the longs and briefs by his inftrument and
to wait the anfwer to one fignal, before he makes a
fecond,—so much for the outfet.

At

164 ESSAY TENDING To IMPROVE

At the next ftation the operator muft exaétly anfwer
every fignal by repeating it, in cafe there are more
ftations than one; If the next ftation be the laft, one
fienal will do, after having written the longs (—), and
briefs ( » ), as in column C.

2. The dire€tor of the correfponding poft will tranf-
late thefe fiens back again into numbers, and fend them
to their addrefs in the form of column B.

3. The correfpondent will confult his table and join
the fyllables to the numbers received, fupplying thofe
that by agreement may be fupprefled or abridged, fee
column A.

I cannot avoid obferving that in fpite of my endea-
vours the number of fignals (61) exceeds the number of
letters in the phrafe (57), by 4, but it will be feen that
I have left a number of figures without correfponding
letters, which might have aflifted me; and in this phrafe
I have not been favoured by the chance of finding many
fyllables in the fame column, which would have faved
the repetition of column numbers. Befides this, I pre-
fume the conftraint I have laid upon myfelf, by ufing
only four ftrokes of one inftrument for facilitating and
infuring the fuccefs of the enterprize, will ‘merit fome
indulgence.

Be this as it may, I imagine that in the courfe of prac-
tice the aumber of fignals may be diminifhed, either by
reducing the number of columns in the table, or by placing
feveral fyllables to the fame figure, the fenfe of which
may be determined by the choice of them. Without
having recourfe to all thefe expedients, let us try another
example to obtain the fame end.

Quelle plus etroite obligation que celle de nous fecourir
mutuellement ?

[ begin by fuppreffing all letters, and even words that
may be readily fupplied, and reduce the phrafe to this—

Que

INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &c. 165

Qué pu etor obigaifon que nou feour?. See column D in
the examples.

On counting the number of the letters and of the fig-
nals, it will be feen that the proportion is as 61 to 33 in
favour of the fignals. ‘The frequent changing of the
column number might be avoided by reverfing fome fyl-
lables, as un wofo de vin for un /ono de vin.

To give an idea of the degree of perfection which
may, by practice, be given to our table; let any one
number (fuppofe 76 of the 7th column) be fixed upon to
defignate ‘* rhe fum of”, “the number of”, * the burden
of’, &c. and by agreeing that after thefe, all fucceeding
figures of that column, (which would otherwife exprefs
fyllables) fhall only: exprefs numbers until a new column
fignal be made, it would be eafy to defignate divers
numbers from 1 to 400,000 by making the g firft num-
bers units, and the 9 following decimals.

Example. Les ennemis mont pris un navire de 400
tonneaux et de 35 hommes d’equtpage, dans lequel f avois
cent mille ecus en efpeces. See column E of the examples.

Further, if a book were made, in which, the longeft
words in our language, every member of the phrafes
moft in ufe in different profeffions, and even whole
phrafes for cafes that might be forefeen, were to be nu-
merically arranged from 1 to 400,000, by referring to
any number, as in the laft example, the whole phrafe
attached to fuch number might be communicated firft
ufing one number, (75 for inftance), to fignify ‘ /ook at
your book of numbers.”

Ex. Suppofe I have occafion for this phrafe from the
book No. 2. Fe vous enverrai ce que vous me demandez
par la meffagerte le

Note. The firft number following fhould indicate the
day of the month, the fecond, the month itfelf, the third,
the year. Then finding the phrafe in the book at No. 2.
I fill up the blanks as in column F of the examples. It

Y will

166 ESSAY TENDING ro IMPROVE

will be there feen that the firft 31 numbers of the table
may fignify the days of the month, the firft 12 the
12 months of the year, and fuppofing the firft number
to indicate the prefent year, the others may follow in
courfe, either paft or future, as may be, indicated by
another figure. It appears therefore that our table may
be made to indicate many different things without the
leaft confufion.

If it be defired to ufe any other article of the book, 75
may be added to the numbers ufed in the preceding ex-
ample, which would refer to another column, if imme-
diately afterwards you would exprefs yourfelf in detached
fyllables.

Another Example. Suppofe I have occafion to ufe
this phrafe from the book No. 4. ‘Fe partirai pous vous
aller voir. WN. B. The firft following number will in-
dicate the day of the week, the next the hour, &c. which
phrafe I fhajl find with the note annexed at No. 4. in that
book. I may then write as in example G.

It may be alfo obferved that the 7 firft numbers of the
table will indicate the 7 days of the week, the firft 24
the hours from midnight to midnight. For inftance to
indicate 2. P. M. I would ufe No. 27. which would defig-
nate the 14th hour.

This mode of writing may appear tedious, but befides
the confideration that practice facilitates every thing, your
correfpondent may have read half of your letter before
you have had time to finifh it, in cafe you write on de-
tached leaves, and tranfmit as faft as they are filled.
Your correfpondent may even read your letter at an ear-
lier moment than it is begun; for if the fignals be fent
from eaft to weft their communication may outftrip the
velocity of the diurnal rotation of the globe.

It is needlefs to add that by changing the order of the
fyllables, the communication may be kept fecret from all,
except the perfon who has notice of fuch change.

A Magic

INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &c. 167

A Magic Square.

41} 76|75| 71 15 | 16) 14

It now only remains to difcover what can make an
impreffion on our fenfes, at the greateft diftance, and at the
leaft expence. I would here remark that great advan-
tage might be made of the obfervations of Dr. Franklin,
relative to the rapid tranfmiffion of found under water.

Archimedes faid, Give mea fulcrum without the globe
and I will raife a power that fhall remove it from its orbit ;
and I fay—Place a correfpondent in Saturn, with the
power of producing and fupprefling at will, any one ap-
pearance, and I will obtain an exaét account of what
paffes in that planet.

Before I quit this fubject of fignals, it will be feen that
they contain the very effence of an univerfal language, fo
long defired by all commercial nations. It may however
be obferved that it is not fo much a new language that
is fought after, as the means of correfponding with every
one in his own; and for this purpofe numbers appear to
me, the moft proper medium. It need not then be con-
tended which language is the moft univerfal, nor need
there be any college for the ftudy of languages. One
plant named differently by fifty thoufand different na-

M2

tions

£08 ESSAY TENDING to IMPROVE

tions, may be found under the fame number in the Dic-
tionary of each nation. ‘This language would be the
cleareft and leaft equivocal of all others, and fhould man-
kind be able univerfally to underftand each other, they
would doubilets be difpofed to promote each other’s hap-
inefs,
' I believe all Europe makes ufe of the fame figures, and
at any rate they would be fooner learnt than a Janguage.
I will extend thefe ideas if they are found to be new
and ufeful, which, according to Mr. Voltaire, is the
only excufe an author can have for making a book.
N. B. This little Effay made this year 1786, is only
an extract from a more ample work begun in 1781.

Examples referred to in the foregoing Effay.

A B ral D E A B c D E
ies 5.4 1 ol Y: 6. 4. 4.| 0 o—— | 43. ri 3.
75. il 75.; vv 32. qué } 22. les 26.t 26.|—— 14. no

—_—o”v 0 Oe
Be 3-}—9 oe Ce I. Xr. | 1f/—-——— +
16.n 16. | — 35. pu | 66. enne 54.do |54.|—e 0 76.
vo ev 25. 30
I. I.|———-——-—] 5. is 4. 4.| 0 O—— 25. 5.
56.d 56.) 9 8 47- etol | 73. mi 26.t 26.| ——
gy os oo 6.
4. 4.] 0 e——] 3. 6. <6 3.) —2 o— 45. ome
46.y 46.} 9 8 21.6 33. mon. 34. po | 34.|———
0 Oo vu 4 Be
x. I.|———— I. we 4. 4.| 0 o—— 26. ow
15. ai 15.|— 23. bi | 33. pi 16. ft 16.|— ;
ene) O23. vo 2.
oe 3-;—v o— | 2 4 5 1.|———— 56.5
3i.pa |31-j;——— jaz.ga | 34. un 36.ke | 36.) ——-—
— vom 4.
he 2.j—-—-v v | 6, &. 2. 2.)——v o .73- avoi
Ali 4I.|0 8 75. fion | 11, na 61. la 6x.] 8 o—
A 44 oom fT, 4: if. 1.j———— L 76.
73. avoi }73.] 0 vY 36. ke | 43. vi 61.é 61.] » o— 74,100{000
6. 6.;} 00 0— | 6, 7. 3. 3.,—v o— Te
54. pou }54,.;—o v 43. nou | 76. 43-74 43.| 2° 61. €
eo 41.400 a ae 35- cu
22.les |22.|—— 7. I. 1.]|———— 17. an
— 14.fcou} 4. 66. enne | 66.) » o— 67. 6
22. \és | 22.+-—— Ah. tO { ou
—— 3. " 6.
52. pes

Ex. F

INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &e, 169

Example. F
7. See column 7 in the table.
75 Look at your book of numbers.
12. No. 2. of the book, * I fhall fend you,” &c,
12; The 2d.
12. February.
12. Next year.

Ex. G
7. Column 7
75. Look at your book of numbers.
14. No. 4, “* I fhall fet off,” &c.
14. Next Thurfday.
14. At 4 o'clock in the morning.

This univerfal language would fave more than one half
of the prefent writing, it would therefore have the advan-
tage of fhort hand.

As there are three forts of language. 1ft. That of
analogy. 2d. That of tranfpofition, and a third of a
mixed nature, it appears to me proper to begin by making
a dictionary of 2 or 3 languages of each kind, and as
thefe three forts differ from each other, if by adapting
one to the other they fhould become intelligible, it might
not be difficult to bring all languages into the fame plan.

I will not now enlarge on this fubje&, becaufe it would
be ufelefs, if my firft and fundamental idea fhould not be
adopted,

Te able

170 ESSAY TENDING to IMPROVE

Table of Correfpondence by the Sight, the Hearing or the Feeling, by any In-
Jirument capable of making an Impreffion on either of the Senfes.

| I 2 3 4
ria 5t. da II. fa gi.ja | II.na 51. fa rx. fta | 51. xa
2. ab 2. dé 2. fé 2.j€ 2. né 2. fé a te | 2. xe
3. ace 3. di 3. fi 3. ji 3. ni 3. fi 3. fti 3. Xi
4. ad 4. do 4. fo 4. )0 4. no 4. fo 4. fto 4. xo
5. al 5. du 5. fu 5. ju 5. nu 5. fu 5. ftu | 5. xu
6. aife 6.d 6. £ 6.5 6.n 6.f 6. ft 6.x
7. an 7. 7. a 7. VA he 7.
21. ba 61.e 21. ga 61.la | 21.0 61. fea aita |61.za
2. bé 2. ec 2. gué 2. lé 2. ob 2. {qué até | 2.26
3. bi 3. eil 3. gui 3. li 3. O1 3. {qui 3. ti 3. Zi
4. bo 4. el 4. go 4. lo 4. oin 4. {co 4.to 4. ZO
g. bu 5.emme] §. gu 5-lu 5. on 5. {cu 5. tu 5. zu
6.b 6.enne | 6. gue 6.1 6. ou 6. fq. 6.t 6.2
7 7.8 7 a ae a 7. oui aps of ms
Sinica 7I.ette |3I.gna | 71. ma | 31. pa 71. {pa gt.u_ | 71. ayant
2. qué 2. eu 2. gné 2.mé | 2. pé 2. {pé 2.ub | 2. ayons
3. qui 3- euil 3. gni 3-mi | 3. pi 3. {pi 3. Di 3- avoi
4. co 4. eur 4. gno 4.mo]} 4. po 4. {po 4.un | 4
5.cu Pex 5. gnu 5.mu | 5. pu 5. {pu §.une}] 5
6. ckq 6. exem | 6. gn 6.m 6.p 6. fp 6.up | 6
7 77. 7 77° 7: 77 7-us |77
AX. cha 41.i Al. ra 4I. va
2. ché 2. ian 2. re 2. vé
3. chi 3. i€ 3. Ti 3. Vi
4. cho 4. ien 4. ro 4. VO
§. chu 5. ieu 5. Tu 5. vu
6. ch 6, in 6.r 6.v
47. 47. ion 47- 47.
5 6 7
Ir. ban 51. fan II. jan 51. pan 11. fean 51. van
2. bés 2, fés 2. jes 2. pés 2 {qués. 2. VES
3. bon 3- fon 3. jon 3. pon 3- {con 3. von
4. bou 4. fou 4, jou 4. pon 4. {cou 4.vou
5. 5 5. Se 1S. ; igs
6. 6. 6. 6. 6. 6.
ap Fn 8 Gs 7 he
21. can 61. gan 21. lan 61. ran 21. {pan 9 | 61.
2. qués 2. gués 2. lés 2. rés 9 | 2. fpés 2.
3. con 3. gon 3. lon gj. Ton 3- {pon 3:
4. cou 4. gou 4. lou 4.roD 4. {pou 4
5. queu te Ge 5. igs oA
6. ction 6. 6. 6. 6. 6.
7. ceuil as ie as 7. 7:
31. chan 71. gnan 3. man 4X. fan 31. ftan 71.
2. chés 2. gnés 2. més 2. fés 2. ftés 2
3- chon 3: gnon 3. mon 3. fon 3. fton 9 3
4. chou 4. gnou 4. mou 4. fou 9 4. {tou 4
5. 5.ill 5. Mr 5. fion 5. 5.
6. 6. ique 6.M.de | 6. fin 6. 6.
7: 77 7: 7) 7 77°
41. dan 4I nan 41. tan
2. dés 2.nés 2, tés
3. don 3. non 3. ton
4. dou 4. nou 4. tou
5. etant 5.ome 5
6. été 6. ote 9 | 6
|47. etoi 47. 47

INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &c. 175

Notes.

1. Orthography is here out of the queftion, it is fuf-
ficient to be underftood. |The reader will therefore pleafe
to fupply the letter y inftead of 7, (the 4 is underftood)
the e mute alfo as in fe, me, ne, which are marked f, m, 7,
all double letters and thofe that do not found, alfo the /
and the r, at the end of fyllables as eigale armée and alfo
when one of thefe two letters follow a confonant as
vraifemblablement ; the fenfe of the phrafe will fufficiently
indicate the letters fupprefled, which however, might be
marked by fignal if neceflary.

2. To correfpond by hearing, fome fonorous inftru-
ment. fhould be ufed, the figures may be exprefled by
founds or ftrokes in flow or in quick fucceffion continued
or interrupted.

1, by one long —

2, by two longs — —

3, by three longs — — —

4, by twobriefs o 9

5, by one long and two briefs — vo o
6, by two briefsand one long » o —
7, by three briefs. 9 »o 9

The figures fhould be taken two and two to form the
numbers which indicate the fyllables, except the laft 77,
which indicates the word co/wmn in the table, and the
number of the column will be indicated by the very next
figure exprefled. Example: I hear three precipitate
founds, I then write 7 thefe are followed by three others,
I then recognize 77 or column, then inftead of writing
another 7 I place a point over the firft 5 to fignify column,
and I liften forthe next fignal, if I hear three more precipi-
tate founds, I add 7 to the pointed 3, which I underftand
to be column 7, thus 77. Then | muft look into that co-
lumn for the fyllables of all fucceeding fignals. This

genera]

172 ESSAY TENDING to IMPROVE

general way of fignalifing the columns, will do for the
fight, but there is another more expeditious way for the
hearing, which will not deprive the columns of the
No. 77:
Example. Four ftrokes or founds may be combined in
feven different ways.
Firft column — — — —
Second ditto. —— 9 »
Third do.— v9 o —
Fourth do. » » ——
Fifth do.—9 9 9
Sixth do. 9 9 OU ==
Seventh do. » » ¥ ¥ ,
3- Lo correfpond by fight, a flag of two colours will
anfwer in - day time, which may be fixed to a turning
circle, the figures may be expref-
fed by feven different pofitions and
the eighth may ferve to fignalife
4? repetition of the laft figure. At
* night a light may be made to ap-
pear and difappear at unequal in-
tervals to defignate the longs — or
briefs. o
. It is evident that, with the fame table, a like com-
ee ere of intelligence might be conveyed by the
touch, merely by taking hold of the hands; the table
being ‘previoutly adapted to this purpofe, confequently a
deaf, a blind or a dumb perfon might converfe with any
one who can read, provided he learns the table by heart.
5. The two particular columns which are included in
the 7th column are to indicate numbers, Any number
of this column may ferve to indicate that all that follow
are to be confidered as quantities inftead of fyllables, until
by a new fignal you are referred. to fome other column;
for inftance let 76 be the number.

4 Example.

~ INTELLIGIBLE SIGNALS, &c. 173
Example. 76

76 300,000
52 4000
26 40
304040

Ne, XX.

Memoir on the Subjeét of a new Plant, growing in Penn-
Sylvania, particularly in the Vicinity of Philadelphia,
by Mr. BEavvols.

Read Augutt MONG the many obfervations I have
21, 1795- hitherto made on the natural produétions
of this country, there is one which appears worthy of
being prefented to you. This I do after having often
repeated my obfervations on the plant both in the fields
and in my own chamber, where I have preferved it thefe
two months.

The firft time I faw this plant, was near Wilmington
in a ditch continually wet, fince which I have found it
between Reading and Pottfgrove, and latterly near this
city, where it is very common, growing as it were under
our eyes; we trample it under our feet ; the cattle feed
greedily on it, and yet it is unknown among botanifts,
none of whom having publifhed any defcription of it.
Whether it pofleffes any medicinal virtues or not I cannot
fay. Ihave many times tafted it, and always found it
infipid.

Although the filence of botanifts on fo common a
plant, authorifes me to prefent it to you as a difcovery of
my own, yet I fhall not attach fo high a value to the

a, pretended

174 MEMOIR on a NEW PLANT

pretended merit of being the firft difcoverer of any pro-
duétion to which chance might as well have directed the
fteps of the moft ignorant as thofe of the moft learned
naturalifts, as to withhold from you any thing I know
relative to the fubjeét. Dr. Barton, with whom I fpoke
on my return from Wilmington, informed me that Mr.
Muhlenberg had mentioned it in his catalogue of plants,
under the name of Ixia followed by? that it has fince
been fent to England to Mr. Smith, by the name of Bar-
tonia clandeftina, that this Englifh botanift thinks it a
new genus. Probably it has been but imperfectly ex-
amined by thofe who fent it to Mr. Smith, fince they
themfelves furname it clandeftina. Nor has Mr. Smith
himfelf publifhed any defcription thereof. We may then
regard it as a new plant not deferibed in any work.

In my opinion, this plant fhould be placed in the fame
clafs with the Pontederia, to which it feems very nearly
related in the natural order. I will not hefitate then to
place it with the Narciffi, clafs ILI. order VII. according
to Juffieu’s method. But this naturalift has himfelf feen
the genus Ponederia, as well as many others, which he
has defignated as not having a perfe&t affinity with the
narcif, genera narciffis non omnino affinia, ought to be
feparated from them; and that he only places them thus
until their proper order fhall be determined, donec horum
verus ordo conffiterit. 1 fhall only then, at prefent, fhow
the place of the new plant I have the honour to prefent
you. It cannot bé clafled with the narciffi, for it is want-
ing in one of their principal chara¢ters, viz. that of ha-
ving fix ftamina. The difference in the number of
ftamina has not however, Gentlemen, determined me to
make a new genus of it inftead of uniting it with the
pontederia ; for if it only differed from it in this refpea,
it might as well belong to the pontederia, as the valeriana
rubra, calcttrapa, and cornucopia, to the valeriana, the two.

firft

GROWING in PENNSYLVANIA. re

firft having but one ftamen and the third but two, three
being the proper number in the valeriana. But the plant
in queftion is materially different in other refpects. 1 ft,
in the conftantly unequal proportion of its ftamina. 2d,
in its corolla, and 3d, in the form ofits feed.

However the moft remarkable charaéter of all, is to
be found in the proportion of its ftamina, always to the
number of three, the two fmaller of which are drawn
together by a round yellow anthera inferted at the orifice
of the tube; and are always fheltered as it were by a dif-
ferent divifion of the larger ones, coloured more internally
than the others at its bafe, which may be regarded as a
fort of neftarium ; the third ftamen is longer, having the
fame point of infertion, but oppofite to the two others. Its
anthera is oblong of a dirty white. All the three ftamina
are fertile. This very particular character has determined
me to make a new genus of the plant, at the fame time
it has furnifhed me with a name that appears perfectly
applicable, Heterandra. 1 would willingly have conti-
nued the name of Bartonia, by which I am told it was
fent to England, in honour of Dr. Barton, whofe know-
ledge and zeal in the ftudy of nature are already known
to you; but, befides that I have always thought the
names of men no ways applicable to plants, it appears
to me more proper to give it fuch a name as may defig-
nate the particular character which effentially diftin-
guifhes this plant from all others. Formerly, and even
now, we are ftill in the habit of giving proper names that
are void of fignification to plants. If this cuftom had
gone no farther than ufing the names of thofe men who
have been ufeful to {cience it might have been tolerated;
but now that pretenders to fcience claim the fame honour,
it is unworthy the attention of men renowned for their
genius and works. In faét, was it neceflary that the
names of Hippocrates, Tournefort, Linneus, Juffieu,

2 and

176 MEMOIR on a NEW PLANT

and many others, fhould be given to plants in order to be
tranfmitted to pofterity ? Or was it proper that fuch men
thould be claffed with thofe who hardly know botany by
name, and yet have their names given to plants? The
word Heterandra fignifies two different kinds of ftamina.

{ finifh this memoir by a comparative defcription of
this plant and the pontederia, which will enable you to
decide on the juftice of my obfervations, and may affift
naturalifts in fixing its proper place in the natural order.

Defcription of the Pontederia, ac-' Defcription of the Heterandra.

cording to Linnaus.

Spatha communis, oblonga
latere dehifcens.

Corolla (calix Juflieu) mono-
petala, bipartita, tubulofa, la-
bium fuperius rectum, tripar-
titum, exterius equale. Labium
inferius reflexum, tripartitum la-
ciniis zequalibus.

Stamina, filamenta fex corollz
inferta, quorum tria fubulata,
longiora ori tubi corolla, tria
reliqua bafi ejufdem tubi inferta.
Anthere erect, oblongz.

Piftillum germen oblongum
inferum aut fuperum. Stylus
femplex, declinatus, ftigma craf-
fiufculum.

Capfula carnofa, conica, api-
ce lato inflexo, trilocularis, tri-
angularis, trifulca.

Semina fubrotunda, plurima.

-

Spatha, ut in Pontederia,
| ex utriculo foliorum egrediens.

Corolla (calix Juffieu) mo-
nopetala, fexfida, fubbipartita,
tubulofa, infera, labium fupe-

-vius tripartitum, lacinia inter-

media major, interior bafi co-
lorata, nectarii emula; labium
inferius tripartitum, lacinia in-

termedia auguttior, reflexa.

Stamina, filamenta tria co-
rolla inferta, quorum duo mi-
nora approximata ad bafin laci-
nize nectarii zemuli, antherze
fulve rotund, altera longitu-
dine ftyli diftans, anthera ob-
longa pallida.

Piftillum, germen ejufmodi.
fed femper fuperum.

Capfula, oblonga; trigona, tri-
locularis 4 latere dehifcens.

~ Semina oblonga utriufque ob-
tufa, plurima.

The

GROWING tn. PENNSYLVANIA, 177

The annexed figure reprefents the other particularities
and fpecific characters of the plant, which I fhall call

Heterandra reniformis.
(Signed) BEAUVOIS.

eae:

A Letter from Colonel Winturop Sarcent, /o Dr.
BENJAMIN Smiru Barton, accompanying Drawings
and fome Account of certain Articles, which were taken out
of an ancient Tumulus, or Grave, in the Weftern-C. OunLry.

Cincinnati, N. W. Territory, Sep. 8th, 1 794.
Read May I HAVE the pleafure, my dear Sir, to tranfmit

Biage you a drawing of fome matters more extra-
ordinary than have heretofore come under my obferva-
tion, in all the refearches into the antiquities of this coun-
try. ‘The multiplicity of my avocations leaves not leifure
for more than rough delineations; and you muft be con-
tented to receive them in this ftyle. I poffefs all the ori-
ginals, and intend by fome fafe conveyance prefenting
them to the Philofophical Society, fhould they believe
them of importance enough for a depofit of my difpo-
fition to promote the purpofes of their inftitution. The
drawing, perhaps, is too imperfect to ftand the teft of cri-
ticifm, and it might not be prudent to hazard it to their
view. Your judgment, however, fhould govern.*

It may be proper to add, that the body with which this
collection wasinterred, was found lying in nearly a hori-
zontal pofition, about five feet from the furface of the

* Since the date of this letter, the Philofophical Society have received
the articles. From comparing them with the drawings, it appears that the
latter are, in general, fufficiently corre@. B.S. B.
earth,

178 SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY.

earth, with the head towards the fetting fun, and at the
S. W. fide of, or about fifteen feet from, an extenfive ar-
tificial mound of earth, raifed probably for the purpofe
of a burial ground, upon the margin of the fecond bank
of the Chio-river (fuddenly rifing fifty feet above the
firft) and now elevated, in the extreme, eight feet
from the general level of the fame, with a gradual flope
in the various direGiions, and a bafe of about 120 feet
by fixty. One of the main ftreets of the town pafles
through the Weftern part of this grave, and in the fre-
quent repairs of the acclivity, human bones have often
been found. You have, I think, been heretofore told
by me, and perhaps received a fketch, of very extenfive
ancient fortifications at Cincinnati, not regular as thofe
at Mufkingum, but very worthy of notice.* I fhould
not omit to mention to you, that upon this mound are
the ftumps of oak-trees, feven feet diameter ; and within
feven feet, one of {mall fize — years of age.
Many, in its vicinity, that might have been of more dura-
tion, are removed by the opening of this road, or ftreet.
In addition to the matters of which you have the draw-
ing, were feveral utenfils, or ornaments, loft or miflaid.
If hereafter they come to my view, you fhall receive in-
formation.

In the meantime, and always, believe me defirous of
contributing to your amufement, and of promoting {cience
all in my power.

Adieu,
W. SARGENT.

* For plans and defcriptions of the ruins at Mufkingum, fee the Columbian
Magazine, for May 1787; and my Odfervations on fome Parts of Natural Hif-
tory, &c. printed in London, inthe year 1787. B.S. B.

A Drawing

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 179

N°. XXII.

A Drawing of fome Utenfils, or Ornaments, taken from an
old Indian Grave, at Cincinnati, County of Hamilton, and

Territory of the United-States, North-weft of the River
Ohio, Auguft 30th 1794. By Colonel WinTHROP

SARJENT. Communicated by BENJAMIN SMITH BaR-

Tron, M.D
Explanations.
Figures.
1. A ftone or compofition, hard and ponderous; fu-

“I

perficies {mooth and regular, almoft as if finifhed
in a turner’s lathe—mixed colours of black and
white, or grey.

Do. do. of verditer colour throughout.

A cryftalline fubftance, regularly wrought as the
preceding figure, and of confiderable degree of
tran{parency.

As figure 1.—Mixed black and yellow colours.

Probably acompofition, ponderous and of dark co-
lour, like black glazed potter’s ware—feems to
have been hardened by the fun or fire, and une-
qually compreffed in the operation. Two views
are prefented, better to fhew this effec.

A reprefentation of the bill of fome bird, not now
known in this country.

A regular circular figure of rufty black colour, to-
lerably well polithed, and not unlike ebony in ap-
pearance, but much lefs ponderous; probably
either of coal or a compofition:—No. 2. fhews
afegment of the fame—its exterior and interior
dimenfions—the groove or place for a band: at

the

1890

Figures.

To.

II.

N:

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY.

Explanations.

the dotted lines are perforations, about a line
diameter, which it would feem were intended to
fecure it upon a large axis.

Alfo a circular figure, yellowifh colour—appears to
have been hardened by the fun or fire, and glaz-
ed—probably for fimilar ufes with the laft def-
cribed—a double number of fmall perforations,
and its thicknefs three lines lefs.

A piece of thin fheet-copper—Two perforations as
defcribed in the drawing—a roughnefs on the edge
produced by mouldering in the grave.

A piece of fheet or plate copper, which feems to
have been wrought into an ornament for the hair :
this, however, only conjecture: No. 1. fhews the
back and folding parts with four perforations.—
No. 2. is intended to give an idea of the other
fide, which is fwelled longitudinally into three
pipes, or divifions. The remains of fome fmaller
pipes enclofed and now almoft mouldered away,
feem to deftroy the idea of its being originally
meant as a mere hair-ornament.

The two fides of a bone, with the hieroglyphicks
on each,

B. Some ifinglafs, or talk, in regular figures—the _

greateft about thirty inches circumference, and a few
pounds of very rich lead-ore, were found in the grave.

I Obfervations

mi
ill
SOHN ATT

yi) v0

Ph
ui }
‘\\ \

‘ i
: |

|

ih | i
\ hi i

Hi
Mh j

«

Fig. 10. N27.

SSS

=

——— =
= = Se

—— =

a

7o

Lig.10.NV:

Vallance fc =

SSeS
SSS SS

:
vf

’
4

ee ae
a» ‘

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. i8r

Ne. XXII.

Obfervations and Conjelures concerning certain Articles
which were taken out of an ancient Tumulus, or Grave,
at Cincinnati, in the County of Hamilton, and Territory
of the United-States, North-Weft of the River Obi:
in a letter from BENJAMIN SMiTH Barton, M.D.
tothe Reverend JosePH PriesTLey,LL.D.F.R.S.
&c.

Philadelphia, May 16th, 1796.
REVEREND AND Dear Sir,

Read May A® you exprefled a defire to fee my obferva-
eotat tions and conjectures concerning the arti-
cles which were lately prefented to the Philofophical
Society, through my hands, by Colonel Winthrop Sar-
gent, I take the liberty of troubling you with them, and
fhall think myfelf fortunate if they contribute any thing
to your information, or amufement. I need not tell you,
that you will fometimes find me leaving the fure road
of hiftorical inquiry, for the narrow, and too often un-
certain, path of the antiquary. In moft of the invefti-
gations and refearches of the antiquary, fome uncertainty
is neceflarily involved. The light which ferves to con-
du& him is frequently extremely faint: the imagination
and conjecture are, therefore, naturally called in to his
aid. If this be ever allowable, it is efpecially fo in an in-
quiry, fuch as the prefent, where the fubjeéts of invefti-
gation have been taken from the darknefs of the Grave.
For the account of the difcovery of the articles, con~
cerning which. I am about to offer my opinion, I refer
you to Colonel Sargent’s letter to me, which has been
tread before the Philofophical Society, and which you
Aa wil!

182 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

will receive, along with my obfervations. I proceed,
therefore, to the immediate bufinefs of my communi-
cation.

I propofe, in the firft place, to inquire by what people
thefe articles were made; and, fecondly, for what pur-
pofes they were intended.

FIRST.

From the obvious antiquity of the tumulus in which
they were found; from their general fabric, or appear-
ance, and from the materials out of which fome of them
are formed, it muft, at firft fight, feem very impro-
bable, that thefe articles are the work of any people in
the flate of fociety and improvement of the Indian or
favage nations of North-America, that are now known
tous. ‘Thefe nations, although they are not, as has been
afferted, ‘ the verieft ruins of mankind,’ * and although
in the range of human improvement, and of human
glory, they adtually rank higher than many of the ancient
and modern nations of the old-world, it mutt ftill be con-
feffed, are in a very humble ftage of fociety: humble, at
leaft, when contrafted with the point of improvement
in manners, in arts, and in fciences, to which many
nations have attained. But are there no proofs that the
rude nations of America have fallen from a more refpec-
table form of fociety than that in which we now contem-
plate them? It appears to me that there are. Thefe
proofs are even numerous. Some of them are monu-
ments whofe magnitude or materials {hall fecure to them

* « Mr. Hooker fays, they are the verieft ruins of mankind upon the
face of the earth.”? See Governor Hutchinfon’s Hiftory of Maflachufetts,
Vol, I..p. 414. Salem: 1795.

an

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 183

an exiftence, when the nations by whofe anceftors they
were conftructed fhall have pafled away.

In the following inquiry, I fhall offer fome of my rea-
fons for believing that there formerly exifted in many
parts of North-America, a race of people, who, whilft
they were more numerous, had made much greater ad-
vances in the arts, and in improvement, than the prefent
races of Indians, or than their anceftors fince our actual
acquaintance with them. "This mode of inveftigation can-
not be faid to be foreign to my fubje@, fince it is my
opinion that the artificial tumular articles are the work of
fome of the ancient and more improved people to whom
Lallude. Befides, by purfuing the inquiry in this manner,
I fhall render my letter more worthy of your notice, and
of the notice of our Philofophical Society, to whom I with
you to prefent it.

The Aztecas, or Mexicans, in the progrefs of their
migration from the northern country of Aztlan, to the
vale in which they afterwards founded the capital of their
empire, difcovered many and extenfive ruins. Thefe
ruins were fuppofed, by the Mexicans, to be veftiges of
the Toltecas, a numerous and powerful people, who had
made greater advances in the arts of life, and in one of
the fublimeft of fciences,* than any of the other nations
of the new-world. The Toltecas are faid to have begun
their emigration towards the clofe of the fixth or the be-
ginning of the feventh century of the Chriftian zra.+
The Mexicans began their departure about the middle of
the twelth century.t If thefe accounts, therefore, can
be depended upon, it would appear that the works dif-
covered by the Mexicans had been conftruted fometime

* Aftrcnomy. + About the year 596, according to Clavigero.

f According to Clavigero, in the year 1160. Dr. Robertfon fays, it

was “ towards the commencement of the thirteenth century.” The Hif-
tory of America, Vol. III. p.156. London: 1796.

Aaz2 between

184 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

between the beginning of the feventh and the middie of
the twelfth century, ;

Whatever credit may be due to this traditional account
concerning the Toltecas; whether they were the an-
ceftors of the Peruvians, as 1 have fometimes been in-
duced to believe ;* whether they were an aboriginal or
foreign colony whofe progeny excites no more, or whe-
ther the whole is a tale that has no foundation in truth,
I fhall not paufe to inquire. Whatever may be the fate
of thefe fpeculations concerning the Toltecas, I think no
perfon that has minutely attended to the numerous vef-
tiges which are daily difcovered in various parts of North-
America, will hefitate to believe, that there has been a
period when a great part of this continent was inhabited
by nations who were more numerous than the prefent
races of Indians, and who had attained to a confiderable
degree of improvement in the arts.

The veftiges to which I allude are of various kinds.
They are principally, however, mounds of earth of dif-
ferent forms and fizes; fome of them, undoubtedly, de-
pofitories of human bones; whilft others appear to have
been conftruéted as the bafes of temples, that were erec-
ted during the extenfive reign of an hideous fuperftition
in America. Others, again, and thefe are the principal,

* The empire of the Toltecas is faid to have terminated about the year
2052. The Spaniards firft arrived in Peru in the year 1526, at which time
Huana Capac was the reigning monarch of the country, According to
the Peruvian flory, Huana was the twelfth monarch, in fucceffion, from
Manco Capac, whois faid to have founded the Empire about four hundred
years before. This period will carry us back to within lefs than one hundred
years of the end of the Toltecan empire. My account of the Toltecas is
taken from the Abbé Saverio Clavigero’s Hiflory of Mexico, one of the moft.
valuable works that has ever been publifhed on the fubjeét of America.
The Hiflory of Mexico, collected from Spanifh and Mexican Hiftorians, &c. tran{-
lated irom the original Italian by Charles Cullen, Efg. Vol. I. p. 83, 84,
* 85, 88, and 89. London: 1787. It is rather remarkable that Acofta
makes no mention of the Toltecas.

appear

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 185

appear to have been intended as fortifications, or the walls
of large towns.

Thefe remains are feattered over an immenfe extent of
territory in North-America. They are, however, lefs
numerous in what I call the eaftern-diftrict of this con-
tinent : I mean that diftri€@ which, is included between
the great ranges of our mountains and the Eaftern or
Atlantic Ocean. It is not difficult to explain the caufe
of this difference. In the weftern-diftria, or the tra@
of country between the Alleghaney-mountains and the
Miffifipi, and from this river to the Pacific-Ocean, the
moft polifhed nations of America, north of Mexico,
refided.* All the eaftern nations appear to have mi.
grated from the weft, from the north-weft, or from the
fouth-weft.j This feems to me to be a fat, prominent
and well eftablifhed in the hiftory of the aboriginal Ame-
ricans. It is particularly eftablifhed by the circumftan-
ces of the greater population and the fuperior polith
of the weftern nations, when they were firft difcovered ;
by the_uniform traditional accounts of all the eaftern
nations; and by the actual march of many Indian tribes,
who now occupy, or who within the laft two hundred
years, did occupy, fome of the countries eaft of the Alle-
ghaney-mountains.

Tt has been a much agitated queftion, in this country,
by what people the veftiges which I am confidering were
conftruéted? Nor has the queftion remained unnoticed

* The earthen fortifications are very numerous in that extenfive tra& of
country which is bounded by the Mifliffipi on the eaft, by the Miffouri on
the north, by a range of mountains on the weft, and by the White-River on
the fouth,

t I do not except from this obfervation the Efquimaux, who in the opi-
nion of Dr. Robertfon, were emigrants from the north of Europe. Hiflory
of America, Vol. II. p. 40, 41, and 42. Profeflor Blumenbach has well deno-
minated this notion of the eloquent niftorian « paradoxa opinio.” De Generis
Humani varietate nativa, p. 318, nota. Gottinge, 1795. Paradoxae opiniones
are very numerous in Dr. Robertfon’s celebrated Hiftory of America.

m

186 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

in Europe. Some have fuppofed, that they were erected
by the army of Fernando De Soto, before the middle of
the fixteenth century.* But this epinion was hardly
worthy of a ferious confideration. By fome they have
been attributed to the Welfh, and by fome to the Mexi-
cans; whilft by others, again, they have been confi-
dered as proofs of the exiftence of extenfive crvilized
nations in America, at fome very remote period of
time.t

It is now about ten years fince I firft turned my atten-
tion to the fubje&t of the American monuments, and
fince I began to collect materials for a work which is in-
tended to involve the phyfical and moral hiftory of the
aboriginal Americans.§ In this work, the favourite ob-

* See The American Magazine, for December 1787, p. 15, 16, 17, 18,
and 1g. Alfo the fame for January, 1788, p. 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, and
93. for February, 1788, p. 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, I51, 152, 153, 154,
155, and 156.

+ The conjecture which I formerly offered to the public concerning the
original of thefe American monuments, I think it neceffary to explain with
more perfpicuity, becaufe it has eyidently been mifreprefented. My hy-
pothefis was briefly this, that the fortifications, and other artificial eminen-
ces in America, were conftructed by the Toltecas, or fome other American
nation, and that the Danes were the anceltors of that nation. I had alfo
imagined that the Danes had contributed to the peopling of America. See
Obfervations on fome Parts of Natural Hiftory : to which is prefixed an Account of
feveral remarkable veftiges of an ancient date? which have been difcovered in different
parts of North-America. Part firft, p. 65. But I did not imagine, or affert,
that this continent “* was peopled from the north of Europe, probably by the
Danes.” See the Critical Review, for Ogtober, 1787, p. 260, and 261.
On the contrary, in another place, I had mentioned it as a fuppofition
more than probable, that America “ has been peopled from a thoufand
fources ;”? fee Ob/ervations, Sc. p. 4, and had even hinted that the Iro-
quois came off from the north-eaft parts of Afia. Ibid. p. 66.

+ This feems to be the opinion of Dr. Dunbar of Aberdeen. See his
Effays on the Hiftory of Mankind in rude and cultivated ages, p. 193. Lon-
don: 1781. i

§ My friends, if not the public at large, have often inquired concerning
this work. I have never hefitated to aflign the true reafons for its delay.
Tied down, by the neceflities of life, to the praétice of an anxious and an
arduous profeflion; depending upon this profeflion for my daily bread and
fubfiftence, it is obvious that I am not in poffeflion of that leifure ape cf

that

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 187

je& of my earlier and mry prefent days, I hope I thall be
able to demonftrate the phyfical antiquity of America ;
the remotenefs of its population ;* the countries from
which it was peopled ; and the fewnefs of its radical lan-
guages. I truft, I fhall alfo be able to vindicate, from

the afperfions of certain popular and eloquent writers,
the intellectual character of the Americans. And al-
though I fhall not be able to fhew that Lghly civilized

that freedom of mind, which ate neceflary even for the exact arrangement
of thofe materials which my early enthufiafm, and my early labour put me
in poileffion of. But F have not relinquifhed the idea of publifhing this
work. On the contrary, I am ftill affiduous in colle@ting new materi-
als, and hope to publifh the whole in two or three years. Having greatly
extended my original plan, I cannot flatter myfelf with the profpect of fub-
mitting my labours to the public much fooner than the period juft men-
tioned.

* The recent date of the population of America has been warmly con-
tended for by feveral writers. I could wifh, that my excellent friend, the
Reverend Dr. J. Belknap, had not leaned to this notion. See his Diféria-
tiort on the Colour af the Native Americans, and the Recent Population of this
Continent. Botton: 1792. One of the moft curious arguments that I
have heard urged in favour of the late peopling of America, was that of
the able profeilor Dugald Stewart, of Edinburgh. In his leétures, he fpake
of the great uniformity in the figure and complexion of the native Ameri-
cans. He imagined that climate, or fituation, is the principal phyfical agent
that varies the human form and complexion. But the Americans, from
their uniform appearance, cannot, he faid, long have inhabited the’ coun-
tries of America ; fo that the climates have not had time to produce their great
effects. Without denying the immenfe influence of climate, &c, and believing,
as I do, that the greater part of the Americans are Afatics, I cannot help
obferving that thofe writers who fuppofe that there is but very little differ-
ence between the Americans, in different parts of this vaft continent, are
greatly miftaken. See what the Abbé Molina has faid on this fubject.
*¢ Rido fra me fteflo, quando leggo in certi fcrittori moderni riputati dili:
genti offervatori, che tutti gli Americani hanno un medefimo afpetto, e che
quando fe ne abbia veduto uno, fi poffa dire di avergli veduti tutti. Co-
defti autori fi laftiarono troppo fedurre da certe vaghe apparenze di fomi-
glianza procedenti per lo pili dal colorito, le quali fvanifeono tofto che fi
confrontano gl’ individui di una nazione con quelli dell’ altra. Un Chilefe non
fi differenzia meno nell’ afpetto da un Peruviano, che*un’ Italiano da un
Tedefeo. Io ho veduto pur dei Paraguaj, de’ Cujani, e dei Magellanici, i
quali tutti hanno dei lineamenti peculiari, che li diftinguono notabilmente
gli uni dagli altri.” Sulla Storia Naturale del Chili. p. 336.

+ Buffon, De Pauw, Raynal, and Robertfon,

4 nations

188 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

nations had ever poflefled the countries of America, pix
vioufly to the difcovery of Columbus, yet it will be eafy
to demonftrate, that thefe countries were formerly pof-
feffed by nations much farther advanced in civilization,
than the greater number of the nations north of the em-
pire of Mexico: by nations who muft have been ex-
tremely numerous.

I do not fuppofe that thefe more polifhed nations of
America have entirely pafled away. Some of them, it
is probable, are extinguifhed. But of others, 1 fuppofe
that it is chiefly the ftrength and the glory that are no
more. Their defcendants are ftill fcattered over exten-
five portions of this continent, fubfifting chiefly by
fifhing and by the chafe; and contenting themfelves
with a flender and imperfect agriculture, fuch as is fuited
to the manners and the numbers of rude and uncultivated
tribes.

In an inquiry into the hiftory of the Americans, the
mind, unbiaffed by fyftem, calm and deliberate in its re-
fearch, cannot fail to difcover unequivocal proofs of the
ancient ftrength and refpetability of the anceftors of
many of the favage Indian tribes who now inhabit the
countriesof America. ‘The limits of this letter will not
permit me to exhibit a full view of the arguments which
may be adduced in favour of this opinion. All that I
fhall attempt to do, is to mention fome of the principal
heads of proofs; and that in as concife a manner as I
well can.

That many of the North-American tribes are the de-
{cendants of nations much more populous, and much
more polifhed, than themfelves, I infer from the follow-
ing circumftances : viz.

Firft. From their traditions. According to thefe tra- .
ditions, many Indian nations were much more numercus
and improved in ancient times, than when the Europeans

2 firft

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 189

firft became acquainted with them. On this fubjeé,
there is much uniformity in thefe traditions. The In-
dians fpeak of the great power of their chiefs in thofe
days of higher improvement, and affure us that wars*
and petftilential difeafes were the great caufes of their

* Mr. James Adair, fpeaking of the Indians, fays, ‘* Through the
whole continent, and in the remoteft woods, are traces of their ancient
warlike difpofition.”” The Hiflory of the American Indians, p 377. Lon-
don: 1775. The numerous fortifications, that have been already. difcover-
ed, feem {trong to favour the idea, that the ancient nations of America
were very warlike. From contemplating thefe fortifications, one is almoft
induced to fay, what Florus has faid of the Sarmatz, “ that they knew not
what peace was.” ‘¢ Tanta barbaries elt,”’ fays the Roman hiftorian, “ ut
pacem non intelligant.” L. Annaei Flori Epitome Rerum Romanarum.’
Lib. iv. cap. xii.

+ I am inclined to think that fevers, probably contagious fevers, had
contributed very greatly to the depopulation of the American nations,
before the arrival of the Europeans among them. I could adduce many
faéts, from the early writers, which would give fupport to this fuppofition :
but, at prefent, this is not neceflary. The fubjeét will be attended to in
my memoir concerning the difeafes and remedies of our Indians. In the
meanwhile, I fhall mention only one of the many writers, whom I have
examined on this fubject.

Daniel Gookin, in his Hifforical ColleGions of the Indians in New-England,
{peaking of the Pawkunnawkutts, who were once a populous nation in New-
England, fays, “¢ This nation, a very great number of them, were {wept
away by an epidemical and unwonted ficknefs, An. 1612 and 1613, about
feven or eight years before the Englifh firft arrived in thofe parts to fettle
the colony of New Plymouth. Thereby divine providence made way for
the quiet and peaceable fettlement of the Englith in thofe nations. What
this difeafe was, that fo generally and mortally {wept away, not only thefe
but other Indians, their neighbours, I cannot well learn. Doubtlefs it was
fome peftilential difeafe. Ihave difcourfed with fome old Indians, that
were then youths ; who fay, that the bedies all over were exceeding yellow,
defcribing it by a yellow garment they fhowed me, both before they died,
and afterward.” The fame writer, {peaking of the Maffachufetts, fays,
«In An. 1612 and 1613, thefe people were alfo forely fmitten by the hand
of God with the fame difeafe, before mentioned in the laft fe&tion : which
deflroyed the moft of them, and made room for the Englifh people of
Maflachufetts colony, which people this country, and the next called
Pawtuckett. There are not of this people left at this day above three hun-
dred men, befides women and children.” See the valuable ColleGions of thz
Maffachufetts Hifforical Society, for the year 1792. Vol. I. p. 148. Gookin’s
** Epiftle Dedicatory” is dated December 7th, 1674.

Bb {plitting

190 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

fplitting into fuch numerous tribes, and of their {cattered
dfperfion over this vaft continent.

Secondly. Exclufively of a diminution in their num-
bers, many of the North-American tribes are much lefs
polifhed and improved now than they were two hundred
years fince, when the Europeans firft became acquainted
with them. Declining in induftry, they have neglected,
if not forgotten, fome of the arts by which they were
diftinguifhed. They are no longer ftudious to preferve
the humble ftory of their country ; the fublimeft features
of their religion, the acknowledgment of a great fuper-
intending fpirit, or God, and of a place of future repofe
or happinefs, are clouded in ignorance, and hardly
known.* In fhort, we behold them rapidly paling to
a melancholy decay, without our being able, in many
inftances, to determine to what caufes their declenfion is
owing. Does not this 4xown declenfion from a more

* In Adair’s Hifory of the American Indians, there is a greater colleGtion
of facts relative to the corruption or alteration of the religious notions and
ceremonies of the Indians (particularly the Cheerake, Mufkohge, Choktah,
Chikkafah, and Katahba) than is to be found in any other work that I have
ever met with. Adair had great opportunities of being acquainted with
the Indians, and his work certainly contains many highly interefting faéts.
I believe him to have been a man of veracity; but, in the fulnefs of his
enthufiafm for a fyftem, he appears, in fome inftances, to have fhaped and
pared his facts to fuit his purpofe: he is, therefore, a guide who may mif-
lead. Still his work ought to be read by every perfon wh» is curious of
Indian matters. The following fa¢ts are well calculated to fhow the al-
tered ftate of fome of the American tribes. The Buf, or green-corn-dance,
of the fouthern Indians, was originally a very folemn religious inftitution.
But many Indians, who ftill attend at the bufk, are entirely ignorant that
it is an inftitution ofa religious kind. Some of the Indian tribes, which are
well remembered to have offered up facrifices, offer them up no more.
The Onondagoes have an annual facrifice. The animal which they make
choice of for this purpofe is a large tortoife, ‘and in defect of this a bear.
An intelligent Indian, who gave me this information, confefled that he
could not tell me, whether the facrifice was made to the good or to the evil
fpirit. A little Reyerarion would be, of great ufe to fuch people as
thefe.

+ “ The greateft part of the nations of Louifiana had formerly their
temples as well as the Natchez, and in all thefe temples a perpetual fire is

kept

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. Igt

vefpectable ftate of improvement, favour the opinion that,
previoufly to our acquaintance with them, the Ameri-
cans were both more numerous and cultivated than they
have been at any fubfequent period? For it is certain that
we have not been the fole inftruments concerned in their
decline, and fall.

Thirdly. The mythology of many of the American
tribes appears to be the remnant of the mythology of
certain Afiatic nations, who are much farther advanced
in civilization than any of the prefent Indian tribes of
North-America.

Fourthly. The Mexicans are known to haye made
confiderable progrefs in the feience of aftronomy. Among
the rude nations of North-America, aftronomical prin-
ciples were not found. But among thefe nations, we
have difcovered certain fmall fragments, which appear to
be parts of the Mexican fyftem, or of the fyftem of fome
people to whom aftronomy, asa {cience, muft have been
known, however remote the period.

Fifthly. The ftru€ture of the languages of many
American tribes is favourable to the idea, that thefe
people were, formerly, much more improved than they
are at prefent. Moreover, many of thefe languages are
much more fertile than has been commonly fuppofed.

kept up. It fhould even feem, that the Maubilians enjoyed a fort of pri-
macy in religion, over all the other nations in this part of Florida; for
when any of their fires happened to be extinguifhed through chanee, or ne-
gligence, it was neceflary to kindle them: again at theirs. But the temple
of the Natchez is the only one fubfifting at prefent (viz. in 1721), and is
held. in great veneration by all the favages inhabiting this vaft continent, the
decreafe of whofe numbers is as confiderable, and has been {till more fud-
den, than that of the people of Canada, without its being poffible to affign
the true reafon of this event. Whole nations have éntirely difappeared
within the {pace of forty years at moft; and thofe who ftill remain, are no
more than the fhadow of what they wer, when M. De Sale difcovered this
country.” Journal of a Voyage to North-America. By P. De Charlevoix,
Vol. Il. p, 273 and 274. Englifh Tranflation. London: 1761.

Bba The

192 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

The falfehoods or the errors of De Pauw, on this fub-
ject, are numerous.*

Connected with this fubjec, it may not be improper
to obferve, that the American. nations appear to be re-
markably retentive of their languages; I think more fo
than moft other nations in their ftate of improvement.t
Perhaps, this fact rather favours and ftrengthens the
opinion which I am endeavouring to eftablifh. In pro-
portion to the original poverty of a language, will not
that language be unftable? In proportion to its original.
fertility or extent, or in other words to the ancient im-
provement of ‘Hote who fpeak it, will it not be lefs liable
to change, more likely to preferve its genius and fea-
tures ?

Sixthly. It has been obferved that among the Mexi-
cans, a people much more polifhed than any of our pre-
fent Indian tribes, the refpect paid by inferiors to their fupe-
riors ‘‘ was prefcribed with fuch ceremoniousaccuracy, that,
it incorporated with the language, and influenced its genius
and idiom. The Mexican tongue abounded in expref-
fions of reverence and courtefy. The ftile and appel-
lations, ufed in the intercourfe between equals, would
have been fo unbecoming in the mouth of one in a lower
{phere, when he accofted a perfon in higher rank, as to be
deemed an infult.’+ The Mexicans were not alone in

* See Recherches Philofophiques fur les Americains, &c. Tome If.
A Berlin: 1777.

+ Mr. William Stith talks of “ the Unftablenefs and vaft Mutability of
the Indian Tongues,” &c. The Hiffory of the firf? Difcovery and S:ttlement of
Virginia. p. 13. Williamfburg: 1747. If Mr. Stith had been at the trouble
of comparing the Indian languages of his day with thofe of the middle of the
preceding century, he would not have made fo precipitate an affertion.

+ See Dr. Robertfon’s Hiftory of America, Vol. III. p. 165. “ It is,
fays Robertfon, to P. Torribio de Benavente, that I am indebted for this
curious obfervation, Palafox, bifhop of Ciudad de la Puebla los Angeles,
confirms and illuftrates it more fully. The Mexican (fays he) is the only
language in which a termination indicating refpect, //avas reverentiales y de
cortefia, may be affixed to every word, By adding the final fyllable xin or

azin

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 193

this refpeét. The Natchez, who lived north of Mexico,
had two languages; a language of the nobles, and a lan-
guage of the common people.* Other North-American
tribes, fuch as the Chippawas and Chriftianaw, make
ufe of two languages. One of thefe, which is only
fpoken in the councils of the nation, is very different
trom the other, which is fpoken out of the councils. I
confider thefe facts as ftrong arguments in favour of my
opinion.-+

azin to any word, it becomes a proper expreffion of veneration in the mouth
of an inferior. If, in {peaking to an equal, the word Father is to be ufed,
it is Tat/, but aninferior fays Tatzin. One prieft {peaking to another, calls
him Teopixgque; a perfon of inferior rank calls him Teopixcatzin. The name
of the emperor who reigned when Cortes invaded Mexico, was Montezuma,
but his vaffals, from reverence, pronounced it Montezumazin. Torribio,
MS. Palaf. Virtudes del Indio, p. 65. The Mexicans had not only reve-
rential nouns, but reverential verbs. The manner in which thefe are form-
ed from the verbs in common ufe, is explained by D. Jos. Aug. Aldama
y Guevara in his Mexican Grammar, N° 188.”? The Hiftory of America,
Vol. IIL. note xxii. p. 3€8.

* « They (the Natchez) have two languages, that of the nobles and
that of the people, and both are very copious. I will give two or three
examples to fhew the difference of thefe two languages. When I cajl one
of the common people, I fay to him aguenan, that is, hark ye: if, on the
other hand, I want to fpeak to a Sun, or one of their nobles, I fay to him,
magani, which fignifies, hark ye. If one of the common people call at my
houfe, I fay to him, tachte—cabanade, are you there, or I am glad to fee
you, which is equivalent to our good-morrow. I exprefs the fame thing to
a Sun by the word apfapegouaich?. Again, according to their cuftom, I fay
to one of the common people, petchi, it you down ; but to a Sun, when I de-
fire him to fit down, I fay, caham. ‘The two languages are nearly the fame
in all other refpeéts; for the difference of expreflion feems only to take
place in matters relating to the perfons of the Suns and nobles, in difting&tion
from thofe of the people.” The Hiftory of Louifiana, or of the Weffern Parts
of Virginia and Carolina, Sc. By M. Le Page Du Pratz, p. 328. Enyglifh
Tranflation. London: 1774. From feveral circumftances, it appears
very probable, that the Natchez were originally a part of the Mexican em-
pire, and that they moved north-eaft, to the welt and eaft fides of the Mif
fiflipi, after the arrival of Cortez in Mexico.—This once powerful, and (with
reipeét, at leaft, to many of the furrounding nations) this cultivated, people
isnow no more. ‘Their peculiar dialect (as far as we know) is loft. But,
then, their hideous religion has alfo perifhed.

+ Speaking of the peculiarity inthe Mexican language, which I have juft

taken notice of, Dr, Robertfon obferves, “ It is only in focieties, which
time

194 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

Seventhly. 1 have already hinted, that the radical
languages in North-America are but few. I know, in-
deed, that a very oppofite opinion has been entertained:
by an enlightened American philofopher.f But the
dialeéis of the American languages are very numerous.
Thus there are, at leaft, forty diale&ts of the Janguage
of the Lennape, whom we call Delawares. Many of
thefe dialeéts have receded fo little from the parent ftock,
that we cannot hefitate to conclude, that the period is
not very remote when the tribes who fpeak them were
one and the fame people. Moreover, within the period
of two hundred and fifty years, we have feen one nation
of Indians, from various caufes, feparating into feveral,
and the fame language fplitting into dialeéts. This was
the cafe with fome of the fouthern nations, which are
known to have migrated, from the weft, acrofs the Mif-
fiflipi. Thefe circumftances, by pointing out the great
confolidation of the Americans, in former ages, ftrongly
fupport my opinion, that they were once much more cul-
tivated than we have ever known them: for extenfive af-
fociations of men cannot be formed, or, at leaft, cannot

long fubfift, in the favage ftate.

time and the inftitution of regular government have moulded into form,
that we find fuch an orderly arrangement of men into different ranks, and
fuch nice attention paid to their various rights.” The Hiflory of America,
Vol. III. p. 165. Perhaps, this remark is not very republican, but it is,
neverthelefs, ingenious and juft. Among the Natchez, the feparation of
ranks was well eftablifhed; and it was once eftablifhed among many other
Indian iribes, where, at prefent, it is hardly known. I have already faid
(p. 189) that the Indians {peak of the power of their chiefs in former times.
‘Lhis power of the chief even extended (in fome inftances) to the taking
away the life of his fubject, without the form of judgment, or trial. The
chiefdom, at prefent, is feldom, ifever, hereditary. But that it was once
hereditary among many of our tribes, is a faét well eftablifhed by the tef-
timony of feveral of the early writers concerning America.

+ Mr. Jefferfon. See his Notes on the State of Virginia, p. 164 and 165.
London: 1787.

Fighthly,

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 195

Eighthly. ‘There are feveral’ reafons for believing,
that the anceftors of fome of the prefent races of Indians
were acquainted with a kind of hieroglyphick-writing,
very fuperior to the rude picture-writing now in ufe
among them.* We difcover the veftiges of fuch hiero-
glyphicks among the Mickmacks of Nova-Scotia, and
among fome other tribes. Moreover, we difcover many
proofs of the ancient exiftence of hieroglyphicks in vari-
ous parts of North-America.}+ In the weftern parts of
Virginia, 1 have examined a large ftratum of rock,
which is engraven with hundreds of hieroglyphicks.t
They are, doubtlefs, very ancient; and mutt, I think,
have been the work of a people acquainted with the ufe
of iron inftruments, or with hardened metallick inftru-
ments of fome kinds. In examining the China I/uftrata
of the celebrated Athanafius Kircher, and the Hi/forico-

* See a paper, by Sir William Johnfon, in the Philofophical Tranfafions
of the Royal Society of London, Vol. LXIII. p. 143. alfo Bernard Ro-
mans’s Concife Natural Hiflory of Eaft and Weft Florida, Sc. p. 102 and 103.
New-York, 1776. On the fubjeét of this pi@ure-writing, the reader may
confult La Hontan, Lafitau, and others, who have written on the fubject of
America.

+ See, not to mention other writers, on this fubject, Profeffor Kalm’s
Travels into North America, Vol. III. p.123, 124, 125, 126, and 127.
Englifh Tranflation. London: 1770 and 1771.

{ Thefe infcriptions are engraven on a large ftratum of rocks, on the
fouth-eaft fide of the River-Ohio, about two miles below the mouth of
Indian or King’s-Creek, which empties itfelf into the Ohio about fifty miles
below Fort-Pitt. The greater part of the rocks lies nearly horizontally, and
fo near to the edge of the river, that at times the water entirely covers them.
At the diflance of a few yards, however, from the bank of the river, there
are feveral large maffs of the fame fpecies of rock, on which alfo I obferv-
ed infcriptions: thefe, it is probable, have been formerly attached to the
horizontal ftratum, and have either been removed by the hand of man,
or by fome violent inundation of the river. It is, at leaft, certain, that the
infcriptions upon both are of the fame kind, and there can be little doubt that
they have both been engraven at the fame time.

Thehorizontal ftratum of rocks extends, for a confiderable diftance,
along the border of the Ohio: but, I cannot, with certainty, afirm how
large a portion of it is engraven with the infcriptions, or marks.

2, Geographical

196 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

Geographical Defcription of Strahlenberg, I have difco-
vered that fimilar hieroglyphicks are found, both en-
graven and painted; upon rocks, in the northern parts
of Afia. It was, partly at leaft, from a comparative
view of thete hieroglyphicks, that I was early led to be-
lieve that America has derived its inhabitants from Afia ;
an opinion which, I am perfuaded, will acquire addi-
tional probability and ftrength, in proportion as we fhall
compare the phyfical appearances, the religions and my-
thology, and, above all, the languages of the Americans
and northern A fiatics with each other.

That fuch hieroglyphicks were in ufe among the an-
ceftors of our Indians, is rendered probable by another
circumftance. Notwithftanding the authority of Kircher,
and of Brianus Walton,* and the affertions of De Pauw,-+
it is certain, that the Mexicans, the Acolhuas, the Tlaf-
calans, and other more improved nations of the Mexican
empire, among other {pecies of writing, were acquaint-
ed with that of hieroglyphicks.t This fact is attefted by
the learned Acofta, by Torquemada, by Gomara, by
Solis, by Boturini, and by feveral other writers,§ who

* In his Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, &c. Londini: 1657.

+ Recherches Philofophiques fur Jes Americains, Tome II.

{ See Clavigero’s Hiftory of Mexico, Vol. II.

§ [have not had an opportunity of examining the works of Torquemada,
Gomara, and Boturini; but what Acofta and Solis affert is decifive.
*¢ One of our company of Jefuites, a man very witty and wel experienced,
did affemble in the province of Mexico, the Antients of Tefcuco, of Talla,
and of Mexico, conferring at large with them, who fhewed unto him their
books, hiftories and kalenders, things very woorthy the fight, bicaufe they
had their figures and hierogliphicks, wherby they reprefented things in this
manner : Such as had forme or figure, were reprefented by their proper ima-
ges, and{fuch as had not any, were reprefented by characters that fignified
them, and by this meanes they figured and writ what they would.” The
Naturall and Morall Hiftorie of the Eaf? and Weft Indies, Sc. lib. 6. chap. 7.
p. 446. Englith ‘Tranflation. London: 1604. Don Antonio De Solis,
{peaking of the Mexican paintings, fays the fame thing. To make their
pictures “the more intelligible, they placed fome Charatters here and there,
with which they feemed to explain, and give the Signification of the Haas

is

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 197

were well acquainted with the Mexicans, or with their
hiftory, and whofe authority, with candid inquirers, will,
certainly, weigh much more than the inve&tive Recher-
ches of De Pauw, the eloquent puerilities of Buffon, or the
weak fyftematic tiflue of Robertfon.

It would be eafy, Sir, to adduce other proofs in favour
of my pofition, that fome of the prefent races of North-
American Indians are the defcendants of nations much
more populous and polifhed than themfelves. But the
farther inveftigation of this curious fubject is not necef-
fary at prefent: 1 referve the full difcuffion of it for my
Hiftorical and Philofophical Inquiry.

I have already faid, that I fuppofe the articles which
are the fubject of my letter, were the work of the ancef-
tors of fome of the prefent races of Indians; of the fame
people who conftructed the extenfive earthen fortifica-
tions, large conical and other fhaped mounds, and other
ancient works, which are now found to be fo numerous
in many parts of our continent. At what period, or
periods, thefe fortifications, &c. were conftruéted ; at
what periods they fell into ruins, and at what time the
articles, which I am confidering, were buried in the tu-
mulus, in which they were found, are queftions which
I do not pretend to folve. Indeed, thele are queftions

This was their Manner of Writing ; for they had not attained the Ufe of Let-
ters, nor were they acquainted with thofe Signs or Elements, invented by
other Nations, to reprefent Syllables, and make Words vifible ; but they ex-
plained themfelves by their Pencils, marking down material Things with
their own proper Images, and the reft with Numbers and fignificant Signs,
difpofed after fuch a Manner, that the Number, Sign, and Figure formed the
Idea, and fully explained the Meaning; an excellent Invention (which fhewed
their Capacity), like the Hyerogliphicks of the Egyptians, who boafted of
their Wit in that, which was common among the Jndians, and which the
Mexicans vfed with fuch Dexterity, that they had whole Books of this Kind
of Characters, and legible Pi@tures, in which they preferved the Reme m-
brance of their Antiquities, and left to Pofterity the Annals of their Kings.’
The Hiftory of the Conquelt of Mexico by the Spaniards, Book II. p. 73
and 74. Englifh Tranflation. London: 1724.

Cc which,

198 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

which, it is probable, we fhall never be able to folve,
‘Time is continually dropping, before our eyes, veils which
the hand can never remove. In the moft interefting in-
guiries, whether hiftorical, philofophical, or moral, how
often are we obliged to paufe, to meet the clouds before
us! Nor fhould we paufe without reverence; fince we
have numerous, and thofe the moft impreflive, reafons
for fuppofing, that thefe clouds will be difperfed in a
future, and an happier, ftate.

SECONDLY.

I am now, Dear Sir, in the fecond place, to offer my
opinions concerning the ufes, or intentions, of the feveral
articles, which are the fubje@& of my letter. And here,
{ may obferve, that although on this fubje& there may be
fome uncertainty, yet I think that the articles may, with
propriety, be confidered under the two heads of orna-
mental, and fuperftitious ; with the exception, perhaps, of
the mica, or ifinglafs, and the lead-ore, of which J fhall
_afterwards give my opinion.

I fhall firft fpeak of the articles which I take to be or-
namental, and in the next place of thofe which | fup-
pofe to have been defigned for fome fuperftitious pur-

ofes.

: The ornamental articles are thofe which Mr. Sargent
has numbered fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 5, 7 7, 8, 9, and 10 10
(See the plates, with explanations). Of thefe articles it
is not neceflary that I fhould give any defcription, as
this has already been done by Colonel Sargent, in the
accompanying plate. I fhall only obferve, that the five
{tones (fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 5,) are each furnifhed with
a groove, reprefented in the plate, by which groove, it is

probable,

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 196

probable, they were appended to fome part of the body
of the deceafed.

Perhaps, thefe ftones were worn, or confidered, as
jewels by the perfon with whom they were buried.
Acofta fays, that the places in which the dead among the
Mexicans were buried, were their gardens, and the courts
of their own houfes. Some of the dead bodies were car-
ried to the places of facrifices, in the mountains. Others
were burnt, and the afhes were buried in the temples.
Along with the bodies, they buried all their apparel, pre-
cious ftones,and jewels. The afhes of thofe which were
burnt were put into pots, together with the jewels, ftones,
and ear-rings of the dead, however precious they might be.*

Although I have confidered thefe ftones as merely in-
tended for ornamental purpofes, yet, it is not impoffible,
that they may have been ufed for fuperftitious purpofes,
like fome of the articles, which I am afterwards to take
notice of. Acofta fays, the Mexicans had an idol which
was much efteemed among them. This idol, which was
their god of repentance, and of jubilees, and pardons for
their fins, was called 'Tezcallipuca. It was made of a
black, fhining ftone, and had ear-rings of gold and filver,
and through the lower lip a cry/fa/, half a foot in length.
This cryftal was hollow, and they fometimes put into it
a green feather, and fometimes an azure one, which
made the cryftal, at one time, refemble an emerald, and,
at another time, aturquois. At the neck, there hung a
jewel, fo large that it covered all the ftomach: upon the
arms, there were bracelets of gold, and at the navel a
rich green ftone.+

Clavigero fays that among the Mexicans, “ emeralds
were fo common, that no lord or noble wanted them,
and none of them died without having one fixed to his

* Lib. 5. chap. 8.
+ Lib. 5. chap. 9.

p- 348. Englifh Tranflation.
iGo. fo
Ce

2
ah
2,

lip,

200 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

lip, that it might ferve him, as they imagined, inftead of a
heart.” *

he copper articles (fig. 9, and 10 10,) deferve par-
ticular attention. I have faid, I fuppofe that they were
ornamental.

It has long been known, that fome of the American
nations manufactured copper into certain articles, or
utenfils. Acofta exprefsly informs us that the indians
(he means the Mexicans and the Peruvians} ufed copper
for their arms. It would appear, from this learned wri-
ter, that after the arrival of the Spaniards in America,
the praCtice of employing copper fell into a kind of difufe.
The Indian’ bufied themfelves in fearching for the more
precious metals.{ It does not appear that the Americans
ever employed copper as a medium of commerce.

The Mexicans and the Peruvians were acquainted with
the art of hardening copper, fo as to render it a fubftitute
for iron.

I am not ignorant that one of the ableft antiquaries of
the prefent century has ventured to fuppofe, that the art
of hardening copper was not known to the Americans
with whom the Spaniards became acquainted in the fif-
teenth and fixteenth centuries. The Count de Caylus,
the gentleman to whom [ allude, imagined that the cop-
per hatchet, which he examined, was the work of a
people more ancient than the Incas; and that they inha-
bited the countries of Peru a long time before this race of
monarchs. Theangry Mr. De Pauw, whois continually dif-
fering from almoft every other writer, and who is eter-
nally committing miftakes, and hazarding falfe and feeble
{fpeculations, treats this opinion of Caylus with con-
tempt.§ If, however, the Berlin philofopher had _ re-

* The Hiftory of Mexico. Vol. I. p. 422.
+ Lib. iv. chap. 3. p. 209 and 210. t Ibid:
§ Recherches Philofophiques fur les Americains, Tome II.

fleted

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 201

flected as much as he appears to have read, the opinion
of the French antiquary would have demanded more of
his attention. He would have feen reafons to conclude,
that long before the foundation of the Peruvian monar-
chy, under the guidance of Manco Capac and his confort
Mama Ocollo, the countries of Peru had been inhabited
by a race of people, who were probably more polifhed
than the Peruvians themfelves. Among thefe people, it
is not improbable that the ufe of hardened copper was
known: but to deny that it was alfo known to the Mexi-
cans, and to the Peruviins, would be to difpute the vera-
city of fome of the moft refpedtable and learned men who
have written on the fubje&t of the Americans. Such are
Columbus himfelf, Acofta, Solis, Don Ulloa, Mr. Con-
* damine, and others.*

Hitherto, very few facts have been difcovered to prove
the exifience of copper implements among any of the
nations of the higher latitudes of North-America ; and
none have been difcovered that uneguivocally prove the
exiftence of the art of hardening copper among thefe na-
tions. But as my inquiries have led me to believe, that
the ancient inhabitants of North-America were as polithed
as the nations of South-America, fo [ cannot well entertain
a doubt, that copper inftruments were in ufe among the
northern Americans, and that thefe latter, as well as the
former, underftood the art cf hardening this metal. This
opinion is rendered more probable, when it is remem-
bered that one of the moft polifhed nations of America,
I mean the Mexicans, migrated from certain countries
fituated north of the Vermillion-Sea; and that in the
progrefs of their migration thefe tribes moved far to-

* The art of hardening copper was known to the Greeks, and to the
Romans, It is fuid to have been preferved until the taking of Conftanti-
nople, See drt des Siéges, par M. Joly de Maizeroy, p. 4. 1778.
wards

202 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

wards the eaft.* The Mexicans, a number of circumftances
have induced me to believe, were the anceftors of the na-
tions known by the name of Choktah, Chikkafah, &c.

When Fernando de Soto was at Quaxule in Florida,
he was told that ‘* Northwards he would find the Pro-
vince of Chifcaz, where they melted Copper, and another
metal of the fame colour, but much more lively and per-
fet; that it was a metal that feemied to be more precious
than Copper, but yet was not made ufe of, becaufe it was
fofter. ‘This relation, continues my author, agreed with
what Soo was told in Cutifachiqui, where we faw fome
little Axes of Copper, which they faid was mingled with
Gold.”+

The Peruvian hiftorian, Garcillaffo de la Vega, alfo
takes particular notice of certain metals, which the Spa-
niards found at Cofaciqui. From the account of this hifto-
rian (who, Iam very forry to jay, is not in every inftance
to be confided in), it would feem that the Floridians
were acquainted with both copper and tin, with which
metals, when united, they may have formed their axes.
La Vega, as well as the Portuguefe author, exprefsly
mentions copper; and it is not unlikely (admitting the
truth of the ftory) that the white metal was tin. _ It is faid
to have been very light. \

* See Clavigero’s Hiftory ot Mexico. Vol. I. p. 115 and 116.

+ A Relation of the Invafion and Conqueft of Florida by the Spaniards,
under the command of Fernando de Soto. Written in Portuguefe by a
gentleman of the town of Elvas. Englifh Tranflation: p. 75. London:
7586.

$ Ihave not an opportunity of confulting the original work in Spanifh.
My information is derived from Richelet’s French Tranflation, which was
publifhed at Leyden, in the year 1731. See Hiftoire de la conquete de la
Fioride : ou Relation de ce qui s° eff paffé dans la découverte dece Pais par Ferdi-
nand de Soto. I fhall quote as much of this work as relates immediately
to my fubject. ‘ Durant les courfes d’ Aniafco, les autres E/pagnols qui efpe-
roient tous de faire fortune en Cofacigui, s’ informerent avec foin des richefles
qui s’ y rencontroient, & le General commanda d’ appeller les deux jeunes

Indiens

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 203

The Baron Lahontan, though, in fome refpeéts, a cre-
dulous writer, may alfo be adduced as an authority in
favour of the ufe of copper articles among fome of the
North-American tribes. This enterprifing traveller was
informed, that the Mozeemlek-nation of Indians, refi-
ding far weft of the Mifliffipi, “* made Stuffs, Copper Axes,
and feveral other Manufactures.” The baron even faw
in the pofleffion of a Mozeemlek-flave “ a reddith fort of a
Copper Medal hanging upon his Neck.” He fays he ** had
it melted by Mr. de Pont:’s Gun-fmith, who underftood
fomething of Metals; but it became thereupon heavier,
and deeper coloured, and withal fomewhat tractable. I
defired the Slaves to give me a circumftantial Account of
thefe Medals; and accordingly they gave me to under-
ftand, that they are made by the Zakug/auk, who are
excellent Artizans, and put a great Value upon {uch
Medals.’’*

Among the articles which were found in the tumulus,
there was a quantity of ifinglafs, or mica membranacea.
It is not eafy to afcertain with what view this fubftance,
fo common in many parts of North-America, was
thought worthy of a place in the tumulus, with the body
of the deceafed. I cannot learn that this mica is held in
fuperftitious efteem by any of the prefent Indians of

Indiens que Von avoit amenez d? Apalaché. Illes envoia vers la Dame de
Cofacigus, la fupplier de faire apporter des perles avec de ces métaux blancs
& jaunes, dont trafiquoient les Marchands qu’ ils avoient fervis; P’affeurant
que fi elle obligeoit les E/pagnols en cela, elle acheveroit de les combler de
fes graces. Cette Dame dépécha auffi-tét de fes fujets querir de ce métal ;
& ils raporterent du cuivre d’ une couleur tres-dorée, avec de certains aix
blancs, comme del’ argent, longs & larges d’ une aune, épais de trois 2 quatre
doigts, & toutefois tres-legers. Mais quand on les manioit ils fe redui-
foient en poudre, ala facon d’ une motte de terre fort {eiche. Ils (the
Spaniards) fe réjotiirent aufli de voir que plufieurs croioient qu’ il y ett
de’ or dans le cuivre; mais comme ils n’ avoient ni eau forte, ni pierre de
touche, ils n’ en purent faire ’ effai.”’ Hiftoire, &c. Tome I. Liv. IV.

chap. xiv. p. 270 and 271.
* New Voyages to North-America. Vol. I, pP- 125 and 126, London: 1735.
2 our

204: OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

our continent, nor do I learn that it is ever ufed by them.
But there are fome reafons for believing that formerly it
was an article of ufe, or of fuperftitious regard, among
the anceftors of the prefent Indians. My much-lamented
friend, Major Jonathan Heart, who was killed in the
defeat of General St. Clair’s army, on the 4th of November
1791, informs us, that ‘‘ a quantity of ifing-glafs’” was
found on the breaft of a {fkeleton in one of the tumull,
among the great ancient works, near the junction of the
rivers Ohio and Mufkingum.* ‘The Abbé Clavigero fays,
that “ little looking-glaffes of the ftone Itztli,” together
with earthen pots, jars, &c, were found among the great
ancient works, called Caie-grandi, in California. This
itztli was nothing more than the mica membranacea; and
the works, juft mentioned, are faid to have been built by
the Mexicans, in their peregrination towards the fouth.+-

Among the Mexicans, no ftone was more common
than the itztli, “ of which, according to Clavigero, there
is great abundance in many places of Mexico.t” The
Mexicans applied the itztli to various ufeful, and to fome
fuperftitious, purpofes. Of this foffil they made ‘ beautiful
looking-glaffes fet with gold, and thofe extremely tharp
razors which they fixed in their fwords, and which their
barbers made ufe of. They made thofe razors with fuch
expedition, that in the {pace of one hour an artificer could
finifh more than a hundred.Ӥ They alfo made lancets
for bleeding of the itztli,|| knives, and fpears. “ After the
introduction of the gofpel they made facred ftones of it
which were much valued.”

* See the Columbian Magazine, or Monthly Mifceilany, for May, 1757.

Pp. 427.
+ The Hiftory of Mexico. Vol. I. p. 114 and 115.
+ Ibidem, Vol. I. p. 17. § Ibid. p. 421,
it Ibid. p. 428. q Ibid. p. 17.

Perhaps,

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 205

Perhaps, the figures of children and birds, which were
found in the tombs of Florida, by Soto, were made of
the mica, oritztli. It is true, they are faid to have been
made of “ pearl.”

Colonel Sargent fays that ‘* a few pounds of very rich
lead-ore were found in the grave,”’ along with the other
articles. Itis probable, that this ore was buried with
the perfon, merely as a part of his property.

Tue articles which I fuppofe to have been defigned
for fuperftitious purpofes, are the reprefentation of a
bird’s head and beak, and the bone engraven with hiero-
glyphicks, or marks.

I thall firft {peak of the bird’s head. It is highly pro-
bable, that this is only part of an idol, or image, which
belonged to the perfon whofe bones were found, along
with the articles, in the tumulus. but this is only a
conjecture.

1 am not able to afcertain what bird this idol was de-
figned to reprefent. Perhaps, it is not the a€tual repre-
fentation of any exiftent bird, but a mere creation of
fancy. Iam inclined, however, to think that it is the
likenefs of fome real fpecies, though { am fenfible that
the imagination often paints new forms, and in particular
that fuch forms are painted by the minds of individuals,
or of nations, when clouded by fuperftition. From
what will afterwards be faid, it will not feem altogether
unlikely, that the bird’s head is part of an image, the body
ef which may have been the reprefentation of a man,
or of fome other animal, and not of a bird.

There are feveral reafons for fuppofing, that this bird’s
head was an idol, and of courfe defigned for fome fuper-
fitious purpofes. I cannot difcover with what intention
it was formed, and buried with the deceafed in the tumu-

Dd lus,

206 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

lus, without admitting that it had fome reference to the
religious notions of the deceafed. I know that feveral
fpecies of birds are objects of fuperftitious veneration, or
regard, among many of the prefent races of North-Ame-
rican Indians ; and | learn from Acofta and other writers,
that fome of the Mexican idols had bird’s heads.

I have faid that many of the Indians have a fuperfti-
tious regard or veneration for certain {pecies of birds. It
may not be improper to take notice of fome of thefe birds.

Among the Lennape, or Delawares, the owl is held
in particular veneration, or regard. ‘I have frequently
(fays Mr. John Heckewelder*) been with them in the
woods at night. When the owls have fet up a noife,
they, or one of the company, would immediately rife up,
and ftrew fome tobacco in the fire. Upon inquiry, I
was told, that thefe were a guard over them by night, for
they gave them warning, whenever an enemy ap-
proached, or was about to furround them, efpecially when
at war.’-T

* M. S. penes me.

+ The following paflage is fo curious, as conne&ed with my fubjeat, that

I fhall give it, at length, in the words of Strahlenberg. ‘¢ There are (fays
this induftrious author, whofe work Mr. Pinkertonis pleafed to call “* a pro-
lix and weak work”) a Sort of Owls in Siberia, not far from Cra/noyahr,
which are as white as Snow, and as large as Hen-Turkeys; the Ruffians call
them Liin, and Uliin ; the Tartars, Ackia and Ackyk ; and the Kalmucks name
them Zagan Schub, and alfo Zagan Gorochun. The latter hold them facred, and
fuffer no-body to fhoot them. I never afked them the Reafon of it; but,
I find, in Hibner’s Political Hiftory of Tartary, in an Extraé of the Life and
A€tions of Cingis-Chan, Founder of the Monarchy of the Mungal and Kalmuck
Tartars, the following Account: it happened that he, and his fmall Army,
were furprized, and putto Flight, by his Enemies; and feeking to conceal
himfelf in a fmall Coppice, where he might very eafily have been difcovered
by the Enemy, an Ow/, which is a very fhy Bird, fettled upon one of the
Buthes, which made his Purfuers defift from looking for him there, not think-
ing any Man could be hid where this Bird would ftay : this gave Cingis-Chan
an Opportunity of making his Efcape by the Favour of the Night. And fee-
ing the Prefervation of his Life was entirely owing to the Oav/, this Bird
was, from that Time, looked upon fo facred, that every cne of them wore
a Plume of Ow/’s Feathers onhis Head. Now fince in thefe Parts, ane
white

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 2oy

The young priefts, among the Creek-Indians, generally
carry a ftuffed owl about them. It is the badge of their
profeffion.

Mr. Beverley fpeaks of a fmall bird, which was held
in great regard by fome of the Indians of Virginia.
“ They fay, this is the Soul of one of their Princes; and
on that feore, they would not hurt it forthe World. But
there was once a profane Indian in the upper Parts of
James River, who, after Abundance of Fears and Scruples,
was at laft brib’d to kill one of them with his Gun; but
the Indians fay, he paid dear for his Prefumption, for in
afew Days after he was taken away, and never more
heard of.”’*

white Oaw/s which are revered by the People, that hiftorical Paflage feems to
carry along with it the Faceof Truth. For this is certain, that the Kalmucks,
when they celebrate any great Feltival, always wear coloured Ow/’s Feathers
in their Caps, and the Wogulitzi have, among other Idols, a wooden Ow/, to
which they falten the Legs of a natural One.”? An Hittorico-Geographical
Defcription of the north and eaftern parts of Europe and Afia, &c. P- 434
and 435. London: 1738.

* From another circumftance mentioned by Beverley, it is evident that
the above bird muft have been greatly efteemed by the Indians. « They
(the Indians), fays this faithful writer, ereét Altars where-ever they have any
remarkable occafion ; and becaufe their principal Devotion confifts in Sacri-
fice, they have a profound Refpeét for thefe Altars. They have one parti-
cular Altar, to which, for fome myftical Reafon, many of their Nations pay
an extraordinary Veneration ;” of this fort was a cryftal cube, which the In-
dians called Pawcorance, “from whence proceeds the great Reverence they
have for a fmall Bird that ufes the Woods, and in their Note continually
found that name. This Bird flies alone, and is only heard in the Twilight.”
The Hiflory of Virginia, in Four Parts. p.184and 185. London: D722 01
take the bird here fpoken of to be the Caprimuleus virginianus of Gmelin, the
Long-winged-Goatfucker of Pennant. This bird, which is very common in
different parts of North-America, is beft known by the name of Whip-poor-
Will, from the fuppofed refemblance of one ofits notes to thefe words. It is the
We coo lis of the Delaware-Indians. Long before I knew that this bird was
peculiarly regarded by any of our Indians, I ufed fomething like the fol-
lowing words, in fome manufcript communications, which I made to my
friend Mr. Pennant. There is fomething fo melancholy, and fo truly
folemn, in the evening call of the Caprimulgus, that I fhould not be fur-
prifed to find that this bird is an object of religious veneration, or regard,
with fome of our Indians, who are among the number of the moft fuper-
ftitious nations of mankind.” :

Dd2z Mr, Clayton,

208 OBSERVATIONS. CONCERNING

The late Captain Carver mentions a bird, called the
Wakom-bird, which is held in particular efteem by fome
of the north-weft Indians of our continent. They fay,

Mr. Clayton, in.a letter to Mr. Catelby, fays, “ The Indians fay thefe
Birds were never known till a great maflacre was made cf their country
folks by the Engli/b, and that they are the fouls or departed f{pirits of the maf-
fiered Indians. Abundance of people here (in Virginia) look upon them as
Birds of ill omen, and are very melancholy if one of them happens to light
upon their houfe, or near their door, and fet up his cry (as they will fome-
times upon the very threfhold) ; for they verily believe one of the family will
die very. foon after.” The Natural! Hifloryof Carolina, Sc. Vol. 11. p. 116s
London: 1771. In this place, I take an opportunity of correéting an error into
which ¥ think my friend Mr. Pennant has fallen, on the fubject of our Ca-
primulgus, After giving a good defcription of the Short-winged:Goat-
fucker, as he calls it (the Caprimulgus carolinenfis of Gmelin), this: excel-
lent writer fays, ‘* I received this fpecies trom Doétor Garven of Chark/-
town, South Carolina, where it is called, from one of its notes, Chuck, Chuck.
Will’s widow ; and in the northern provinces, Whip-poor-Will, trom the re-
femblance which another of its notes bears to thofe words.” réic Zuolozy.
Vol. Il. p. 133. London: 1792. But I believe, it is certain that the
Chuck-Will’s widow and the Whip-poor-Will are two diftin@ fpecies of
Caprimulgus. Their notes, or cries, are very different, as are alio their
places of refidence during the feafon of incubation, which is the only time
they fing. The Chuck-Will’s widow dwells only near the fea-coaft, and I
believe not fo far north as the Bay of Chefapeak. Mr. William Bartram
informs me, that he never heard this bird farther north than Cape-Fear-
River, in North-Carolina.. It is feldom met with more than fifty miles
from the fea-coaft in Carolina and Florida, where they are almoft conftant-
ly heard. from evening to break of day. But the Night Hawk, or Whip-
poor-Will, dwells only in the high, hily, or mountainous countries of
Welt-Florida, Georgia, the two Carolinas, and Virginia; though north
of Virginia, it extends even to the fea-coaft as far as Canada, and ac-
cording to Mr. Pennant even ftil! farther north. In thefe countries, the
note of this bird is Whip-poor-Will, during the evening, and moon-light
nights until day-break. “ I have (fays Mr. W. Bartram, M. S. penes me)
heard this bird for a night or two, in the fpring, in Carolina, on the fea-
coaft, when they were on their journey northward ; and they are there in
abundance, in the autumn, flying and darting about in the air, on their re-
turn foutherly to pafs the winter ; and then they are called Nignt-Hawks,
and are fuppofed by moft people to be a diltin& fpecies from the Whip-
poor-Will, and the Chuck Will’s widow.’? Mr. Pennant is not alone in the
miftake which I have mentined. A very ingenious friend of mine obfery-
edto me, thatit was curious that climate fhould fo eflentially alter the note
of a bird, for, he faid, about the latitude of Cape-Fear, the Whip-poor-
Will uttered quite a different cry from what it does in the northern tates,
I have explained the error. The Reverend Mr. Morfe (American U. iverfal

Geography,

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. — 209

it is the bird of the Great-Spirit. ‘The Naudoweffie-In-
dians, owr author informs us, “ feemed to treat them as
if they were of a fuperior rank to any other of the fea-
thered race.”* There can be little doubt that the Wakon-
bird is the very fame bird which Briffon has figured and
defcribed under the name of Le Tyran a guene fourchue,
or Tyrannus cauda bifurca.f- It is the Mufcicapa Tyran-
nus of Linnzus,{ and the Fork-tail-Fly-catcher of Pen-
nant.§

Mr. Roger Williams, in his curious work, entitled
A Key into the Language of America, {peaking of the
crow, fays, “ Thefe birds, although they do the corn
fome hurt, yet {earce will one native amongft an hundred
kill them; becaufe they have a tradition, that the crow
brought them at firft an Indian grain of corn in one ear,
and an {ndian or French bean in another, from the great
God Cawtantowwit’s field in the fouth-weft, from whence
they hold came all their corn and beans. ||”

«Though with all the Indian nations, fays Adair, the
raven is deemed an impure bird, yet they have a kind of
facred regard to it, whether from the traditional know-=
ledge of Noah’s employing it while he was in the ark, or
from that bird having fed Elijah in the wildernefs (as
fome fuppofe) cannot be determined; however with our
fuppofed red Hebrews the name points out an indefatiga-

Geography, Fc. Part 1. p. 192. Bolton: 1793) fays, Bartram confiders
the wh»p-poor-will and the night-hawk as the fame bird (Caprimulgus
Americanus) but they are well known to be different birds.” Mr. Morfe,
however, and not Mr. Bartram, is miitaken.
* Three years Travels through the interior parts of North-America, &c.
‘Pp. 244 and 245. Philadelphia: 1792.
t Ornithologia, &c. Vol. II. p. 395, 396, 397 and 3098. Parifiiss
1760.
$ Syfema Nature. § Arétic Zoology. Vol. II. p. 76.
|| See Collections of the Maffachufetts Hiftorical Society, for the year
1794. Vol. IIL, p. 219.

ble,

210 “OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

ble, keen, fuccefsful warior.”* The fame author tells
us, that when the Indian phyficians, or priefts, vifit
their patients ‘ they invoke the raven, and mimichis
croaking voice.”-+ Mr. Pennant, on the authority of
Mr. Hutchins, informs us that the “ northern Jzdzans,
on the contrary, deteft this and all the Crow kind.”

_ The very faithful Portuguefe author, whom I have al-
ready quoted, informs us, that when Fernando de 5oto
was at Cutifachiqui in Florida, in the year 1540, the
female cazique of the place having obferved the unlimited
appetite of the Spaniards for pearls, “ fhe bid the Gover-
nour (Soto) fend and fearch in fome Tombs that were in
her Town, telling him that he would find abundance
there ; and that if he caufed thofe alfo of the other Vil-
lages to be fearched, they would furnifh Pearls enough to
load all the horfes of the Army. The Tombs of the Town,
continues our author, were indeed fearched, where we
got fourteen bufhels of Pearls; and the fieures of Chil-
dren and Birds made alfo of Pearl.’’§

I have faid that fome of the Mexican idols were fur-
nifhed with bird’s heads. I fhall now mention fome of
thefe idols.

_ In Cholula, the miferable inhabitants worfhipped an
idol, which was the god of trade or merchandize, the
people of this commonwealth being much given to traffick.
This idol was called Quetzaalcoalt. It was placed very
high in a temple. It had about it gold, filver, jewels,
very rich feathers, and habits of various colours. It had
the form of a man, but the vifage ofa little bird, with a
red bill, and above a comb full of warts, having ranks of
teeth, and the tongue hanging out. Acofta, who is my

* The ee of the American Indians, p. 194.

. f Ibid. p. 173. t{ Ar@ic Zoology. Vol. I. p. 287.

§ AX Reshc of the Invafion and Conqueft of Florida, &c. p. 64 and
65.

authority

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 211

authority on this head, has given a more particular de-
{cription of this god of merchandize.*

it may not be improper to mention, in this place, that
earthen mounds, or pyramids, fimilar to many of thofe
~ which are found in various parts of our weftern-country,
are’ {till to be feen in the neighbourhood of Cholula, and
are fuppofed by Torquemada, and by Clavigero, + to have
been erected by the Toltecas.

The principal idol of Mexico was called Vitziliputzli.
It was an image cut out of wood, in the form of a man,
fet upon an azure-coloured ftool. Upon its head, it had
arich plume of feathers, like the beak of a {mall bird.t

‘© In a high mountain of Achiauhtla, in Mizteca,
Benedict Fernandez, a celebrated Dominican miffionary,
found a little idol called by the Miztecas the heart of tae
people. It wasa very precious emerald, four inches long
and two inches broad, upon which was engraved the
ficure of a bird, and ie it that of a little fnake. The
Spaniards offered fi fteen hundred fequins for it; but the
zealous miffionary before all the people, and with Sreat
folemnity reduced it to powder.Ӥ

The fculptured bone is one of the moft curious of all
the articles that were found in the tumulus. I have al-
ready faid, that 1 fuppofe it was intended for fome fuper-
ftitious purpofe. I am unwilling to hazard any farther
conjectures concerning it, except this one, viz. that I
conceive the marks to be fignificant hieroglyphicks. It
is not an human bone.

The ancient inhabitants of Iceland ufed to write upon
the bones of fith, and other animals.

Colonel Sargent, in his letter to me, has mentioned
the mouldered condition of the bones which were found

* Lib. 5. chap. g. p. 354.

+ The Hiftory f Mexico. Vol. I. p. 267 and 268.

{ See Acofta’s Naturall and Morall Thitorie. Lib. 5. chap. 9. p. 352.

§ See Clavigero’s Hiftory of Mexico. Vol. I. p. 259. F
Im

212 OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

in the tumulus. I have had, however, an opportunity
of examining a piece of the thigh-bone, and alfo a piece
_ of the tibia, or principal bone of the leg. They befpeak
a body of the common fize. I mention this laft circum-
ftance, becaufe it has often been aflerted, that gigantic
human bones have been found in America. Some of the
authors of thefe aflertions are defervedly efteemed for
their writings.* There is, certainly, no phyfical impof-
fibility in the exiftence of a race of giants. On the con-
trary, the general fcheme of nature, with refpe& to the
creation of the fpecies of animals and vegetables, would
lead us to expect a tpecies of giants belonging to the hu-
man kind. At any rate, the exiftence of giants is not a
more improbable circumftance than the exiftence of cer-
tain {mall races, fuch as the Laplanders, who are well
known to us. As far, however, as my inquiries have
extended, all the human bones that have been found in
our ancient tumuli, &c. are bones of the common fize.

——————

It is a mortifying circumftance, that in proportion as
we extend our acquaintance with the features or manners
of rude nations, we are collecting materials for an hif-
tory of human fuperftitions, and of mental miferies. _ If,
in the progrefs of our refearches, we difcover that in-

* Such are Hernandez, Acofta, and Clavigero. The laft of thefe writers
mentions large bones being found in “ tombs’’in Mexico, and confiders this
circumftance as a proof that they were human bones. The Hiffory of Mexico.
Vol. I. p. 84. But this cannot be confidered as a decided proof, Did not
the Egyptians carefully embalm and bury the bodies of the Ibis? The ani-
mal to which the large bones mentioned by Clavigero belonged, may have
been (like the Ibis with the Egyptians) an object of veneration among
the ancient Americans; or they may have been entombed from the fuppo-
fition that they were human bones. It is known, that the bones of the
Hippopotamus were “ fhewn in feveral cities of Greece for the bones of
giants.” See that curious book, The Life of Sethos. Vol. I. p. 73. London;
1732

2 fund,

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 213

ftinG, reafon, the light of nature, has taught to thefe
nations the exiftence of fome great, fuperintending being,
the fource of life and good: if we difcover among
them the unequivocal acknowledgment of a future ftate
of exiftence, in which the warrior and the hunter, and
the virtuous of either fex, are thought to repofe from all
their cares, and to tafte, in fulnefs, unmixed phyfical
pleafures (the favage mind afks no more), {till we difco-
ver them under the preflure of that fuperititious fabric,
which is founded upon the innumerable follies and weak-
neffes of men. In the midft of the gloom, with which the
contemplation of fuch an abject flate of the {pecies is too
well calculated to over-cloud the mind of fenfibility, we
derive much confolation from the refleGtion, that a// nations
are capable of improvement; and that in the general or-
der of nature, there feems to be nothing to prevent the
eftablifhment of a more juft religion over the furface
of the earth : a religion more juft, becaufe it teaches us the
relations of God to the univerfe ; the relations of man to
God ; andthe relations of men to each other.

In the range of human improvement, there is a fingu-
lar point, marked by the hideous fuperftition of the peo-
ple. The ftate of fociety to which I allude is that in
which the Mexicans were difcovered, and in which, at a
later period, we have known the Natchez, and the peo-
ple of Bogota. ‘The Mexicans, there can no longer be
any doubt, were acquainted with many of thofe arts
which we have ever been accuftomed to confider as the
arts of a civilized people. Their aftronomy, their police,
their form of government, in feveral refpects fo fimilar to
that of the United-States, would feem to entitle them to
a place among nations confiderably civilized. In all thefe
refpedts, they were fuperior to moft of the nations around
them : they were greatly fuperior to any of the Indian tribes
now known to us. ‘This higher degree of cultivation,

e€ however,

214. OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING

however, did not fecure the Mexicans from the errors and
the miferies cf fuperftition. On the contrary, they were
among the number of the moft fuperftitious nations of
mankind, and their innumerable human facrifices con-
ftitute one of the blackeft features in the character of our
fpecies. Ihave been led, in the courfe ofthe prefent and
of preceding inquiries, to fuppofe, that the ancient Ame-
rican remains are the work of a people nearly in the fame
ftate of fociety as the Mexicans; of a people who, like
the Mexicans, were extremely fuperititious. If this con-
jeQture be well founded, we ought not to regret that the
prefent races of Indians have declined from the fuperior
polith of their fore-fathers. We have reafon to rejoice,
that they have thus declined; fince, if they have loft
fome of the arts by which they were diftinguithed, they
have alfo loft fome of the worft parts of their religion,
In the fulnefs of their gratitude to the Great-Spirit, they
at prefent content themfelves with offering up the fruits,
the grains, and the flowers of their country: or if, for re-
ligious purpofes, they deem it neceflary to deprive exift-
ences of life, they do not make facrifices of human
beings, but offer up fome of the wild or domefticated
animals around them. ‘The annual offering of fome of
our fouthern tribes is the earlieft ripened maize of their
country: but the anceftors of thefe very tribes are
known to have made, at the fame period, offerings of
their children.

Avarice, or the defires for gain, fometimes ftimulates
men to exertions, which prove beneficial to literature, or
to the fciences. It will be well if this deteftable paffion
ean, at any time, be turned to the better interefts of men.
In this country, as yet, the energies of feience are not
great. The hiftory of the aboriginal Americans, in par-
ticular, has been neglected; confiderable tribes have
mouldered away, and of their phyfical and moral features,

of

SOME REMAINS or ANTIQUITY. 215

of their traditions, and Janguages, we hardly know any
thing that is entitled to the name of certainty. But, with
refpect to all thefe fubjects, much may {till be done, and
fomething may be done where we have leaft expected it.
Let us open the tombs of the ancient Americans. In
thefe dark abodes, the laft afylums of man on this globe,
we may difcover materials that will enable us to throw
fome light upon the ancient hiftory of the Americans. If
we are not fufficiently animated by the love of {cience,
let us remember, that in the tombs of the Mexi-
cans and Peruvians, the Spaniards have difcovered trea-
fures of gold, of filver, and of precious ftones; and that
even in the tombs in Florida, valuable pearls are faid te
have been found. 1 think, there can be little doubt that
the opening of the North-American tumuli will reward
the labourers with valuable fpoils.

I have taken up a good deal of your time; more than
I contemplated when I undertook to give yon my fenti-
ments on the fubject of the tumular articles. Ihave been
extremely defirous to afford you fome amufement, and,
if poflible, fome information.

Iam, with the greateft refped,
Reverend and Dear Sir,
Your Humble and Obedient Servant,
And AffeGionate Friend,

BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON.
To the Rev. Dr. Fofeph Priefiley.

Ee2 Barometrical

216 BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENT or

Nee XLV:

Baremetrical Meafurement of the Blue-Ridge, Warim-
Spring, and Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, taken
in the Summer of the year 1791. '

Mount Pleafant on Schuylkill, Nov. 13, 1795.

DEAR Sir,
Read Nov. HE enclofed Journal would have been long
20, 1795- fince prefented to the Philofophical Society

if { had been fatisfied as to the accuracy of barometrical
calculations, when applied to the meafuring of heights in
this climate ; but finding much variation in repeated ex-
periments made at a known height,* in winter, {pring and.
fummer, I grew difcouraged, and my labours would have
pafled into oblivion if the advice of our worthy Prefident
and yourfelf had not induced me to prefent my Journal as
it is, difregarding the errors. incident to local circumftan-
ces and {mall elevations, which may not affe&t the prin-
ciple of barometrical meafurement on a more extended
{cale.

I have ufed the table you favoured me with, making
proportionate calculations for every deviation from 30
inches of the mercury ; this I have compared with the
‘calculated height of the Andes, in Don Ullca’s Voyages,
and the afcent of Mr. Charles in the balloon at Varis,
defcribed by M. Faujas de St. Fond ; the refult of thefe
comparifons has fo well confirmed the accuracy of the
table, that I have no doubt of my calculations being pro-
portionate to thofe of Europe and South-America.

* The higheft acceffible part of Chrift’s Church Steeple, infide, is 166 feet
from the ground. By barometrical meafurement it varied from 105, to
243 feet.

4 I beg

THE BLUE-RIDGE, WARM-SPRING, &c. 217

I beg leave however to mention fome circumftances
which, as far as I am informed, feem peculiar to this
country.

1. The atmofpherical changes in Europe, generally
caufe the mercury in the barometer to rife and fall three
inches, in the courfe of a year.

2. In Williamfburg (Virginia) the greateft change in
the courfe of a year has been obferved to be 1.86.

2. At Monticello, about 20 miles eaft of the Blue
Ridge, and about 500 feet high, the greateft variation in
nine months was* 1.21: though the relative chinges
were fimultaneous with thofe at Williamfburg.

4. During 11 days refidence at Staunton (1055 feet
high) and 29 at the Red Springs (15 12 feet high) the baro-
meter at the former place did not vary more than 0.40,
and at the latter only 0.20, while the thermometer varied
more than 30 degrees, and the weather was at the ex-
tremes of clear and dry, and cloudy with heavy rains.

It feems therefore that the barometer is lefs fufceptible
of change in Virginia than in England, and ftill lefs as
you afcend among the mountains; and it may not be
thought improbable that a regular meteorological journal
kept at the fame time in feveral places during a year,
would fhow a fort of gradation in thefe changes.

. The lower part of the atmofphere, in addition to its own
gravity, fupports all above it; its moifture is liable to ex-
pand prodigioufly from the rays of the fun reflected in
every direction, and other cafes of heat ; and to be very fud-
denly condenfed by cold: The winds, impeded by many
obftacles, fuch as trees, rocks, and eminences of land, are
generally irregular and violent, like water rufhing over a
rude and rapid defcent; while, in a fuperior region the
air glides {moothly along like a currentin the ocean. It

* Mr. Jefferfon’s Notes, p. 83 and 85.
feems

218 BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENT or

feems from thefe caufes that inaccuracies are moft likely
to occur in the firft ftage of afcent: Hence I am inclined
to think that the Blue Ridge is not eftimated high enough.
Thefe objections do not occur in fo great a degree in the
high country.

Mr. Jefferfon fuppofes the Peaks of Otter to be about
4000 feet high. This place is about 60 miles S. W. of
that where I croffed, 1 had therefore no opportunity of
feeing it.

Pleafe to obferve that my undertaking thefe experi-
ments was incidental to my having occafion to make the
journey: had it been a preconcerted plan, more accurate
and more minute obfervations might liave been expected.
If it fhould be found interefting enough to deferve the
notice of the Society, I fhall be abundantly gratified.

Iam, with great Refpect and Efteem,
Your moft Obedient Servant.
JONATHAN WILLIAMS.

To Mr. R. Patterfon.
P.S. If on examination there fhould be reafon to

believe thefe heights tolerably accurate, the height of Rich-
mond from the fea fhould be added to each elevation.

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BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENT or

220

Notes.

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"1621 panuruor jousnog, pvrsojo4soajoyyy

Section of the BLUE RIDGE
Level ut the highest fart of the re» ltidge near leockfish Gap

Scale iz of an Inch to 100 feet

i: Level at Staunton. 1035 f¢ above I?
Level at Rock fish Cap Ibof! above R

le : | ili A NSA

HAKINA

Level at Woods y5f" above

The Lock opposite
Seetion of JACKSON S or the WARM SPRING MOUNTAIM the Warm Springs
a :
Lae,
—This height was not ascertaind going
returning the Barometer was broken

Summit of 24 WSAM! in the load, 2247 f' ahove R

Sranmel

HM TAH I

Section of the ALLE GAHENIHY MOUN TAIN

Summit of the highest part of the Allegahenney Six miles SW of the hed Springs 2760/ above
= Here the Waters run Westward

WU" inthe toad 2037{baea

Level of theeMllegaheney «

« VB ihe angle of ascent ts not pretended .
ta be accurate that of the Road in
all these Mountains is by constd-

rable windings made nich smaller

i Ht UHHH Hi
ee Huta

Height of NIRGINIA MOUNTAINS by Barometrical meafurement by Jon! Wiliams Fun’

¥

Pace) ti); fa)

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sa hs: witty! it We 7 ‘air ste

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F ie Pah Rete Ta Ly" ew, . s

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? y : 4 ' * - é

tHe BLUE-RIDGE, WARM-SPRING, &e. 221

Notes.

a. From the foot of the Blue-Ridge to the Gap is cal-
led two miles. Fromthe Gap to the foot on the weftern
fide it is called one mile.

b. During eleven days refidence at Staunton and in 33
obfervations, the mercury in the barometer did not rife
above 29.10, nor fall below 28.70. The thermometer
varied from 55 to 82, and the weather was fometimes
very clear and dry, and fometimes very cloudy with hard
rain.

c. Thefe are called Warm-Spring Mountains, the
Warm Springs being near the foot at the weftern fide.

d. This is not the top of the Ridge; I could not go
up at this time, and when I returned | had not my baro-
meter: By ocular obfervation it appeared to me nearly,
if not quite, as high above the road on the firft mountain
as the top of the blue Ridge above the Gap.

e. During 29 days refidence at the Red Springs, the
mercury in the barometer varied only 0.19 ; the thermo-
meter varied 31 degrees and the weather was at the two
extremes of wet and dry.

POSTSCRIPT.

WHILE the foregoing was under the confideration of
the committee of felection and publication, I fent a
tranfcript to Mr. Jefferfon, requefting him to furnith me
with fuch faéts on this fubje@& as had been eftablifhed by
experiment. In return he favoured me with the follow-
ing an{wer.

Ff “6 DEAR

222 BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENT or-

Monticello, July 3d. 1796.
“< Dear SIR,

* { EXAMINED with great fatisfaction your barome-
trical eftimate of the heights of our mountains, and with
the more as they corroborated conjectures on this fubje,
which I had made before. My eftimates had made
them a little higher than yours, (I fpeak of the Blue
Ridge). Meafuring with a yery nice inftrument, the
angle fubtended vertically by the higheft mountain of the
Blue Ridge oppofite tomy own houfe, a diftance of about
18 miles fouth-weftward, I made the height about 2000
feet, as well as {can remember, for I can no longer find
the notes I then made. You make the fouth fide of
the mountain near Rock-filh Gap 1727 feet above
Wood’s. You make the other fide of the mountain 768
feet. Mr. Thomas, Lewis deceafed, an accurate man,
with a good Quadrant made the north fide of the higheft
mountain oppofite to my houfe fomething more (I think)
than 1000 feet. but the mountain eftimated by him and

myflelf is probably higher than that next Rock-fith Gap.
I do not remember from what principles | eftimated the
peaks of Otter at 4000 feet, but fome late obfervations.
of Judge Tucker’s coincided very nearly with my efti-
mate. Your meafures confirm another opinion of mine,
that the Blue Ridge on its fouth fide is the higheft in our
country, compared with its bafe, I think your obferva-
tions, on. thefe. mountains, well worthy. of being publithed,
and. | hope you, will. not {cruple to, let them. be. » COMMU
gated to, the. world. )

Lam, &c.
(Signed) FH: JEFFERSON.”

When

THE BLUE-RIDGE, WARM-SPRING, &c. 223

When it is confidered that in meafuring a height by
taking the vertical angle, the refraction of the rays of
light in the atmefphere mutt affect the appearance of the
objects, it will occur that this mode muft be fubject to
fame inaccuracy ; and as this refraétion generally tends
to increafe the apparent height, a reafonable allowance
on the experiments mentioned by Mr. Jefferfon would
probably bring them down to the barometrical meafure-
ment. ‘This obfervation is beautifully illuftrated by Mr.
Jefferfon’s account of a phenomenon refembling, in fome
meafure, an appearance which feamen call dooming ;* and
which (fo far as relates to apparent fize at leaft) may be
accounted for by refraction. On the other hand baro-
metrical meafurement, is probably inaccurate in the
lower ftages of the atmofphere ; but this tends to /e/fen
the apparent height: The truth may therefore lie
between.

I am, as before,
Phitidélphiay 2 Dear Sir, fincerely yours, ==
Aug. 18, 1796. JONATHAN WILLIAMS.
To Mr. R. Patterfon.

* Jefferfon’s Notes, page 88.

Ffa Mifcellaneous

224 OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE to Tue

N°, XXV.

Mifcellaneous Obfervations relative to the Weftern Parts
of Pennfylvania, particularly thofe in the Neighbourhood
of Lake Erie. By ANDREW ELticoTT.

Dear Sir,

seams I TAKE the liberty of tranfmitting to you the
41 1795- following mifcellaneous obfervations, collected
from my notes, relative to Lake Erie, and the Weftern
Country, the perufal of which I flatter myfelf will not be
unfatisfactory or uninterefting.

The fituation of this lake is already well known, and
therefore a particular topographical defcription will here
be unneceflary ; but a variety of phenomena which attend
it, Merit a more minute confideration, and cannot fail to
engage the attention of the philofopher; phenomena
which in all probability are common to all large lakes of
frefh water.

In the fummer feafon fogs are feldom obferved on the
margin of the lake. The three fummer months that I
refided at Prefqu’ Ifle, no fogs were feen during the whole
time. The horizon was generally clear, and the ftars
fhone with remarkable luftre. The moft common winds
here generally refemble the fea and land breezes, in the
Weft Indies. From the end of fpring till the beginning
of autumn, they blow, except at the time of ftorms, from
the lake upon the land during great part of the day, and
from the land upon the lake during the night: The
change generally takes place between the hours of feven
and ten inthe morning, and about the fetting of the fun
in the evening. ‘Thefe breezes, alternately blowing in
oppofite directions, render thofe fituations contiguous to

the

WESTERN PARTS or PENNSYLVANIA. 22;

the lake extremely pleafant during the heat of the fummer
months, and have moft probably a very falutary influence
upon the atmofphere.

A ftrong eafterly wind will occafion a confiderable
depreffion, and a {trong wefterly wind a confiderable
{well of the waters in Prefqu’ Ile Bay. In the former
cafe, a portion of the water is driven towards the upper
end, and in the latter, towards the lower end of the lake.
To thefe caufes we are to attribute thofe ebbings, and
flowings, which have fo frequently .been miftaken for
regular tides: for a little refleion will convince one,
that the moon can have no fenfible effet upon the waters
of the lakes. When the wind ceafes the waters return to
reftore the equilibrium, and an undulation will be vifible
for feveral days after thofe {torms, and appears to be but
flightly affected by the alternate breezes already men-
tioned.

In the weftern country, and efpecially in the neigh-
bourhood of the lakes, dews are very heavy. On the
Ohio and Allegany rivers, and their numerous branches,
fogs are very common, and of remarkable denfity ; they
do not however appear to contain any portion of thofe
noxious miafmata, which are fo frequently combined with
the fogs on the eaftern fide of the mountains; nay the
inhabitants of Pittfburgh confider them as poffeffed of falu-
brious qualities. From a variety of obfervations | am
convinced that the atmofphere in the weftern country,
and particularly in the vicinity of the lakes, contains a
greater quantity of moifture than in the middle Atlantic
ftates. The wooden works which contained my inftru-
ments were always uncommonly f{welled, and frequently
very much injured in that country, though conftantly
defended from the rain, and occafionally expofed to the
fun. The ivory and wood of my fectors with brafs joints,
always expanded above the metal; this expanfon was

not

2.26 OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE to ‘THE

not fudden, but effeted by flow degrees. Whether this
excefs of moifture arifes from the extenfive forefts which
conf{tantly preferve the earth in a ftate of humidity or
from more permanent caufes, future obfervations muft
determine.

- Iron is here more fufceptible of ruft, and brafs fooner
tarnifhed than in the Atlantic ftates ; but this fufceptibility
of ruft I obferved to be greater in the forefts than in thofe
parts of the country that had been cleared for cultivation,
and from thefe circumftances the probable caufe is afcer-
tained.

The fouthern fhores of Lake Erie are generally high;
in many places they are perpendicular, and various ftrata of
ftone are confiderably elevated above the furface of the
water. The ftreams which difcharge themfelves into the
lake over thefe ftrata form a great variety of cafcades of
a’ romantic appearance, which increafe the beauty of the
country, and muft at fome future period enhance the
value of the lands. '

At the lower end of the lake, and for fome diftance up
it, thefe ftrata confit of lime-ftone intermixed with flint
and marine petrifactions, but the other ftrata are generally
flate and excellent freeftone. About Prefqu’ Ifle there
is but little lime-ftene to be feen, it lies in detached
pieces, and is likewife interfperfed with flint and marine
petrifations.

Tn a large extent. of country on the weftern fide of the
Allegany Mountain, the ftrata of ftone are horizontally
difpofed, except in fome places where that pofition. has
been changed by the undermining of creeks and rivers.
In thefe places where the ftrata have been deprived of
their fupport, they have fallen from their original pofi-
tions, and therefore deviate from the general rule. This
law of nature is eftablifhed. on: the fouth fide of Lake
Erie, but how far weft of the mountains the fame ob-

tains,

WESTERN PARTS or PENNSYLVANIA. = 227

tains, has never yet been afcertained. The horizontal
pofition of the ftrata on that lake has a pleafing effec ;
the fofter lamina are worn away by the beating of the
waves, the harder remain projected, and at a diftance
refemble wain{coting or mouldings.

From the horizontal difpofition of thefe ftrata the fol-
lowing conclufions may be deduced ; firft, that the coun-
try has never been difturbed by thofe terrible convulfions
which a great part of this globe muft have experienced
at fome remote period of antiquity ; and fecondly, that
thofe naturalifts are deceived, who fuppofe that the ftrata
were originally parallel to the axis of the earth.

Before I conclude my obfervations on this fubje&, I
fhall take the liberty of adding an account of the falls of
Niagara which are in fome meafure connected with the
horizontal difpofition of the ftrata in the Weftern and
North Weftern Country.

This ftupendous catara&t of water infinitely excels all
other natural curiofities of the country, and exhibits a
fpeCtacle fcarce equalled in grandeur by any object in the
phyfical world. Lake Erie is fituated upon one of thofe
horizontal ftrata in a region elevated about three hundred
feet above the country which contains Lake Ontario. The
defcent which feparates the two countries, is in fome places
almoft perpendicular, and the immenfe declivity formed
by thefe ftrata occaftons both the cataract of Niagara and
the great falls of Chenefeco. This remarkable precipice
generally runs in a fouth-weftern dire€tion from: a place
near the Bay of Toronto on the northern fide of Ontario,
round the weftern angle of the lake; from thence it
continues its courfé generally im an eaftern dire@tion,
crofling the ftrait of Niagara and the Chenefeco river, till
it 1s loft in the country towards the Seneca Lake.

The waters of this cataract formerly fell from: the
northern. fide of the flope, near the landing place; but

ths

228 OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE To tHE

the action of fuch a tremendous column of water falling
from fuch an eminence, through a long fucceffion of
ages, has worn away the folid {tone for the diftance of
feven miles, and formed an immenfe chafm which can-
not be approached without horror. In afcending the road
from the landing to Fort Slaufer the eye is continually
engaged in the contemplation of the awful, and romantic
feenes which prefent themfelves, till the tranfcendent
magnificence of the falls is difplayed to view, the ima-
gination is then forcibly arrefted, and the {petator is loft
in filent admiration! down this awful chafm, the waters
are precipitated with amazing velocity after they make the
great pitch, and fuch a vaft torrent of falling water com-
municates a tremulous motion to the earth, which is fen-
frbly felt for fome poles round, and produces a found
which is frequently heard at the diftance of twenty miles.
Many wild beafts that attempt to crofs the rapids above
this great cataract, are deftroyed; and if geefe or ducks
inadvertently alight in thefe rapids, they are incapable
of rifing upon the wing again, and are hurried on to
inevitable deftru@ion.

The great height of the banks renders the defcent into
the chafm extremely difficult; but a perfon after having
defcended may eafily proceed to the bafe of the falls, and
a number of perfons may walk in perfect fafety a confi-
derable diftance between the precipice and the defcending
torrent, where converfation is not much interrupted by
the noife, which is not fo great here as at fome dil-
tance. A vapour or fpray of confiderable denfity, re-
fembling a cloud, continually afcends, in which a rain-
bow is always feen when the fun fhines, and the pofition
of the fpeCtator is favourable. Jn the winter this {pray
attaches itfelf to the trees where it is congealed in fuch
quantities as to diveft them of their fmaller branches,
and produces a moft beautiful chryftalline appearance ;

I a cir~

WESTERN PARTS or PENNSYLVANIA. 22

a circumftance which attends the falls of Chenefeco, as
well as thofe of Niagara.

A fingular appearance is obferved at thefe falls, which
has never perhaps been noticed by any writer. Imme-
diately below the great pitch a commixture of foam arid
water is puffed up in fpherical figures, about the fize of
acommon haycock. They burit at the top, and difcharge a
column of {pray to a prodigious height ; they then fub-
fide, and are fucceeded by others which exhibit the fame
appearances.. Thefe {pherical forms are moft confpicuous
about midway between the weft fide of the ftreight, and
the ifland which divides the falls, and where the largeft
column of water defcends. This appearance is produced
by the afcenfion of the air, which is carried down by the
eolumn of falling water in great quantities to the bed of
the river.

The river at the falls is about feven hundred and forty
three yards wide, and the perpendicular pitch is one
hundred and fifty feet in height. In the laft half mile
immediately above the falls the defcent of the water is
fifty eight feet; but the difficulty which would attend
the bufinefs, prevented me from attempting to level the
rapids in the chafm below; though from conjecture, I
_ concluded that the waters muft defcend at leaft fixty five
feet, and from thefe refults it appears that the water falls
about two hundred and feventy three feet, in the dif-
iance of about feven miles and an half.

Fam, Sir, with refpect
Your friend,
ANDREW ELLICOTT.

¥o Robert Patterfon.

G¢ Omitted

é clofée of No. V1. On Aberration:

TIE foregoing projection for aberration in right af
cenfion and declination, and the rules for the application
of the equations in right afcenfion, are only to be con-
iidered as ftriQly general for ftars whofe latitudes and
declinations are both north. Fora ftar whofe declination
is north and latitude fouth, or declination fouth, and
latitude north; in place of beginning with the longitude
of the ftar, begin with its oppofite, that is with a point
fix figns diftant. In the firft cafe the figns muft be laid
-off and numbered in a contrary dire€tion to thofe in the
projection which was ufed for 4 Medufe whofe latitude,
and declination, were both north: and the aberration in
right afcenfion will be pofitive when a point three figns
behind the fun’s place, falls on the right-hand fide of the
meridian of the ftar, the point of right afcenfion being
held from you. In the fecond cafe the figns muft be laid
off and numbered in the fame progreffive manner as in
the projection for * Medufz, and the fame rules are to be
obferved in the application of the equations: But in both
thofe cafes, the longitude of the ftar, and its point in
right afcenfion, will be fituated on contrary fides of a
diameter at right angles to the meridian of the ftar,
When the declination, and latitude of the ftar, are both
fouth, the projeétion may be made as if they were both
north, but the figns muft then be laid off, and numbered in
a contrary direction, and the contrary rule is to be obferved
in the application of the aberration in right afcenfion.

Obfervations

LATITUDE or tHe TOWN or ERIE. 2

Lo)
i

Neo. XXVI.

Odfervations made on the Old French Landing at Prefqu
Tle, to determine the Latitude of the Town of Erie. Tha
Letter from ANDREW ELLicoTT, /o RoBERT PaT-
TERSON Secretary of the Society.

Philadelphia, Sept. rgth, 1796.
Dear Sir,

Read Sept. Bh HE following obfervations were made on the
36,2796. old French landing at Prefqu’ Ifle to deter-
mine the latitude of the Town of Erie on Lake Erie,
The inftrument I ufed was a fmall zenith fector of 2e
inches radius.

Plane of the Seéor Laff, 1795.

Zenith diftance a Lyre °29 49"8
eee it f Do. ry Cyani : Bs 2 N
Do. Capella 3 39 53 N
4 } Do. a Lyre 3 29 46 S
Do. é Cygni 2 32 34 N
Do. Capella 3 39 50 N
5 } Do. a Lyre 3°29 44 S
Do. $ Cygni 2 32 22 N
fi Do. Capella 3 39 47 N

6 | Plane of the Sector Weft.
1 Do. a Lyre 3°33'53 S
L Do. # Cygni 2 28 8 N
Do. Capella 3 35 35 N
® } Do. a Lyre 3 34 0, S
Do. ¢ Cygni Ze DBo tore N
Do. Capella — 3 35 44 N
10 Do. a Lyre 3 34 1.58
Do. é Cygni 2) 28): OLN

From thefe obfervations the latitude of the landing appears
to be 42° 8’ 17' N. and the beginning of the Town being about
Gg2 309 feet

232 LATITUDE og rus TOWN or ERIE,

309 feet fouth from the landing, the latitude of the beginning
of the Town muft be 42° 8’ 14 N.—The magnetic variation
at the Town of Erie when the foregoing obfervations were made,
was 0° 43° Eaft.
Tam, Sir, with refpecd
Yours, &c.

ANDREW ELLICOTT.

To Mr. Robert Patterfon.

he. XXVIL

Hints relative to the Stimulant Efeéts of Camphor upon
Kegetables. By BENJAMIN SMITH Barton, M.D.

Read Sept. HE ftimulant effeéts of camphor upon the.
16, 1796. human and fomie other animal bodies, are
well known: but I have not met with any experiments
concerning the influence of this fingular fubftance upon
living vegetables. Lerhaps, the following loofe hints on
this fubje€t may not be entirely unworthy of the notice
of the Philofophical Society. 1 fhall not fail to purfue
the inquiry, at a future period.

On the 25th of laft-May, I put a piece of the woody
ftem of the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron Tulipifera) with one
flower and two leaves, into eight ounces of water, with
which I had triturated, for fome time, one fcruple of
good camphor. The branch, ‘which I fpeak of, was
taken out of a pot of water, which contained feveral
other flowers of the fame plant, all, to appearance, in
the fame ftate. Ina fhort time, I was ftruck with an
unufually lively appearance of the flower in the cam-
phor, whilft the others, although they had the benefit of
a larger quantity of water, were fenfibly drooping. The
PRATER exhibited by. my, invigorated plant were the

following :

STIMULANT EFFECTS or CAMPHOR, &c. 234

following: viz. the two leaves became ae ele~
vated upon. their footf Lalks ; the flower expanded more
than I had ever feen it in any: inftance; the ftamina, or
chives, receded from the piftillum; the three leaves of
the calix, or flower-cup, were remarkably reflected back,
and became extremely rigid, and elaftic. ‘The internal
furface of the petals of the flower perfpired confiderably,
though I could not difcover a fimilar perfpiration from
any of the flowers of the fame plant, in the fame room,
and temperature. [I did not perceive any perfpiration
from the leaves of my camphorated plant.

At the very time of making this experiment, I was
engaged in delivering, to my clafs, lectures on the J7r7-
tability of vegetables. 1, therefore, took an opportunity
of fhewing to the gentlemen, the plant which | have juft
mentioned. Although it was not, at this time, {o lively
as it had been before, they all agreed, that it exhibited
remarkable appearances of life, health, and vigour. To
me thefe appearances were very ftriking. 1! could not
help comparing them to the effects of a certain quantity
of ardent fpirits, or of opium, upon the human con-
ftitution.

’ My camphorated plant continued in a very invigorated
ftate for two whole days: after which it began to droop.
The leaves drooped and decayed fooner than the flower.
The other flowers and leaves of the tulip-tree, which
were left in fimple water, did not live more than half
the time of that in water with camphor.

Neither myfelf nor feveral other perfons were able to
difcover the leaft odour of camphor in any part of the
branch, except what was immerfed-in the fluid: This
circumftance feems to render it probable, that the cam-
phor was not abforbed by the plant, but that it exerted
its remarkable effects entirely through the folids to which

it was immediately applied,
I have

234 STIMULANT EFFECTS or CAMPHOR

I have made feveral other experiments relative to the
effects of camphor upoa plants. But I do not think it
neceffary to be particular as to the individual appearances
produced by this fubftance. In every inftance, it was
evident, that the camphor acted as a powerful and whole-
{ome ftimulant upon the plants. Thus a fialk of yellow
Tris, with one expanded flower, was taken out of a vial of
water, in which it had been placed, for upwards of a
day. The flower had begun to droop. A very few
minutes after I had placed it in a vial, of the fame fize,
containing a few grains of camphor, the flower began to
revive, and continued in a vigorous ftate for many
hours.

As camphor is but very fparingly foluble in water, it
is obvious to conclude, that the ftimulant effeéts which
I have obferved were produced by a very fmall part of
the quantity which, in my experiments, was triturated
with the water.

It isevident, from what I have feen, and related, that
camphor exerts a confiderable ftimulant effect upon
plants; greater, I think, than any other fubftance I am
acquainted with. This difcovery might induce us to
make trials with camphor, as a manure, if it were not
certain that the expence of the manure will prevent us
from making the experiment upon a large feale. But may
we not apply the camphor, in the manner I have men-
tioned, to ufeful purpofes? A few grains ef camphor,
ating as a cordial, will revive a drooping plant, will
increafe its beauty, and prolong its exiftence. In the
eye of the florift, thefe are objects of no mean import-
ance: why, then, fhould we not chearfully lend him
our afliftance, fince in an innocent and amiable purfuit,
he robs no one of his happinefs, and increafes his
own! ,

I have

upon VEGETABLES. _ hess

1 have made fome experiments with the view to form
a comparative eftimate of the wholefome ftimulating ef-
fects of camphor and of nitre upon plants put in water.
The refult of my experiments favours the idea, that
camphor is a more wholefome ftimulant than nitre.
Unlefs the dofe of this laft fubftance is managed with very
great care, it is apt to produce weaknefs, languor, and
death. Even in that hardy evergreen, our Broad-Leaved
laurel (Kalmia latifolia), I found that a few grains of nitre
produced, in a fhort time, not only a lofs of the green
colour, but an appearance, which I would compare to
that of fphacelus, or mortification, in animals.

N°*, XXVIII.

Supplementum Indicis Flore Lancaffrienfis. Auflore
Henrico MunLensserc. Communicated by Dr.

BARTON.
16,1796 § CLASSIS. 1. Cyperus.
Callitriche. fpathaceus.
autumnalis, flavefcens.
ee efculentus.
Cassis 2, Scirpus.
Veronica. {quarrofus.
{cutellata. Eriophorum.
virginicum.
Cassis 3 polyftachion.
Schoenus. Panicum.
Marifcus, geniculatum, N. S.

& roftratuin.

236 SUPPLEMENTUM INDICIS

roftratum. N. S.
agroftoides. N. 8,
pilofum. N. S:

Phleum.
nodofum.

Agroftis.
{cabra. N. S.
laxa. N.S.

fobolifera. N. S.
clandeftina. N. S.

Poa.
ftolonifera.

rubra. N. S.

Cassis 4.

Potamogeton.

nervofum. N. S.

' Cuassis 5.

Lyfimachia.
ftrita.
quadrifolia.

Hydrophyllum.
canadenfe.

Polemonium.
dubium.

Hydrocotyle.

bipinnata. N. 5.

Cuiassis 6.

Allium.
urfinum.
Lilium.
fuperbum.
Convallaria.
2

ftellata.
Juncus.

vernalis.

filiformis.

CLAssiIs
Arenaria.
lateriflora.
Stellaria.
uliginofa.

To.

Cassis 12.

Prunus.
nana.
Potentilla.
norvegica.
Spiraea.
alba.

CLassis
Actaea,
{picata.
Anemone.

pennfilvanica.

Ranunculus.

bulbofus.

Cassis
Melampyrum.
pratenfe.

CLassIs

Polygala.
cruciata.

*

iy

Cassis 19.

FLORA LANCASTRIENSIS.

CLASSIS 19.

Carduus.
altifimus.
Bidens.
frondofa.
Gnaphalium.
uliginofum.
Helianthus.
frondofus.
Polymnia.
Canadenfis.
Silphium.
trifoliatum.

CLASSIS 20.
Ophrys.
lilifolia.
{piralis.
Limodorum.
tuberofum.

CrassiIs 21.

Chara.
vulgaris.
flexilis.
Lemna.
trifulca.
Quercus.
illicifolia. Wangenheim.
ftellata.
caftanea. N. S.

CLASSIS 22.
Salix.

alba,

ve

Hh

237
acuminata,

cufpidata. N. S.
Acnida.

cannabina.

CLASsIS 23.
Andropogon.
Virginicum.
purpurafcens.
602.
Parietaria.
officinalis ?

Clayton

CLASSIS 24.
Afplenium.
ruta muraria.
Poly podium.
novaboracenfe.
Porella.
pinnata.
Phafcum.
cufpidatum.
iy i
fubulatum.
35°
crifpum.
patens.
Two,
Fontinalis.
antipyretica. Dill. 33, i-
Buxbaumia.

Dillen. 65, 1.
Dill. 32,
Hedwig, 1,

Hedwig, 1, 9.
Hedwig, Crypt.

foliofa. Dill. 32, 13.
Mnium.
hygrometricum. Dill. 52,
75:

mega-

38 SUPPLEMENTUM INDICIS

megapolitanum. Hedwig,
1, 31.

heteromallum. Hedw. 1,
26.

triquetrum, Hedw. 1, 21,
22.

fontanum. Dill. 44, 2.

cefpiticium. Dill. 50, 66.

Bryum.

nutans. Hedwig, 1, t. 4.

mnioides. Hedwig, 1,t. 3.

capillaceum. Hedwig, 11.
t. 26.

ciliatum. Dill. 35, 5.

pulillum. Hedwig, 1, 28.

murale. Dill. 45, 14.

apocarpum. Dill. 32, 4.

viridulum. Hedwig, 11,
ieee

unguiculatum. Hedwig,

1,23.
imberbe. Hedwig, 1, 24.
heteroptilum. Dill. 45,
I I.

denfum.

cufpidatum. Dill. 39, 34.

gracile. Hedwig, 4, t. 6.

pilofum. N.S. Dill. 85,
18.

obtufifolium. N. S.

fragile. N.S.

falebrofum. N. S.

Iungermannia.

{phagni.
polyanthos. Dill. 70, g.
{calaris.
nemorofa. Dill. 71, 18.
complanata. Dill. 72, 26.
tamarifcifolia. Dill. 72,

Lye

tomentella. Dill. 73, 35.
ciliaris. Dill. 69, 3.
pufilla, Dill. 74, 46.
pinguis. Dill. 74, 42.
furcata. Dill. 74, 45.

Marchantia.

polymorpha.
hemifphaerica.

argenteum. Dill. 50, 62. Anthoceros.

Hypnum. laevis. Dill. 68, 2.
taxifolium. Dill. 34, 2. punctatus. Dill. 68, r.
denticulatum. Dill. 34,5. Lichen.

bryoides. Dill. 34, 1. botryoides.
polyanthos. Hedwig. 4, —_ farinofus.
ti. {criptus.
lutefcens. Hedwig. 4,t. fufcus.
16. pertufus.
plumofum. Hedwig, 4, mufcorum.
t. 15. albo ater.

limitatus.

FLORZ LANCASTRIENSIS. 239

jimitatus. cornutus.
argenteus. furcatus.
fubfufcus. Dillenii, 82, 1.
ater. barbatus.
varius. radiciformis.
umbrinus. N. § pubefcens.
immertus. chalybeiformis.
Parellus. hirtus, tuberculis fufcis !
angulofus. Conferva.
candelaris. rivularis.
caefius. fontinalis.
tiliaceus. gelatinofa.
centrifugus. Byffus.
fpeciofus. flos aquz.
ciliatus. nigra.
ftellaris. fulva.
ftellariformis. candida.
olivaceus. Tremella.
pulverulentus. Pifum.
anguftatus. arborea. Hofman, t. 8,
crifpus. Hee
Tremella. undulata. Hofm. t. 7,
nigrefcens. ae
fafcicularis. et alia.
furfuraceus. Agaricus.
crocatus. maculatus. Scheffer, t.
glaucus. Oo.
diffectus. plumbeus. Scheffer, t.
rufus. 85, 86.
polydaaylos. badius. Scheffer, t. 245.
filvaticus. fulvus. Scheffer, t. gs.
decipiens. procerus. Scheeffer, t. 23.
velleus. bulbofus. Scheffer,t.241.
puftulatus, fcutellis atris! | excoriatus. Scheffer, t.
Jacquini pullus. 18, 19.
Hha emeticus,

240

emeticus. Scheff. t. 15.
16.
mutabilis. Scheff. t. g.
faftigiatus. Scheff. t. 2.
craflipes. Scheff. t. 87.
laGtifluus. Scheff. t. 5.
piperatus. Scheff. t. $3.
melleus. Scheff. t. 45.

umbilicatus.Scheff. 1.207.

SUPPLEMENTUM INDICIS

Digitalis. Batfch, f 1.

depluens. Batch, f. 122.
applicatus. Batfch. f 125.
gelatinofus. Scheff. t. 21 3.
tomentellus an plumatus ?

Merulius.

Cantharellus. Sheff. t. 82.
pezizoides. Scheff. t. 165,
166.

fufcefcens. Scheff. t. 60. Boletus.

coccineus. Scheff. 302.
Hyacinthus. Batfch. t. 28.
janthinus. Scheff. t. 13.
fibrillofus. Scheff. t. 236.
campanella. Scheff.t. 230.
minutus. Hoffm. t. 6. f.

pclae Scheff. t. 211.

furnus. Scheeff. t. 63, 70,
2.29:

fuliginarius. Batfch. f. 4o.

androfaceus. Scheff. t.

239.

ftellatus. Hoffm. t. 6.
Foye

papillatus. Hoffman, t. 3.
fev

conicus. Scheff. t. 52. f.
1—6.

fulcatus. Scheff. t. 52. f.
TON

aqueus Scheff, t. 17.

Balanus. Scheff. t. 66.

porcellaneus. Scheff. t.

47, 48.

zonatus,
t. 125:

numularius?

vifcidus. Scheff. t. 103,
104.

bovinus. Scheff. t. 123,
126.

mutabilis. Scheff. t. 108.
I 33.

{trobiliformis ?

lapidum. Scheff. t. 105.

agaricoides.

fuberofus.

igniarius. Scheff. t. 137,
138.

cinnabarinus.

fulphureus. Scheeff.t.131,
I 32.

fuaveolens. Scheff. t. 124.

hepaticus. Scheff. t. 117,
Gi got

annulatus. Scheff. t. 106.
136.

flabelliformis.
ee

Scheffer fung.

Scheeff. t.

Hydnum.

FLORZ LANCASTRIENSIS. 241

Hydnum.

t. 179, 181.

repandum. Scheff. t. 141. Lycoperdon.

zonatum. Scheeff. t. 272.
candidum,

Thelephora.
Spectes aliquot.

Clavaria.
ophiogloffoides.
cornea. Batfch. f 161.
faftigiata. Scheeffer. t. 172.
mufcoides. Scheffer, t.

173.
Helvella.
clavata, Sheffer, t, 149.
mitra ?
Octofpora.
fulphurea. Batfch. f. 147.
citrina. Hedwig. crypt.
Pip t. G.. bs
albidula. Idd. t. 9, B.
lutefcens. Idid. t. 9g, C.
infundibuliformis. Scheff.
052.

circumfciflum. Scheff. t.
186, 1&9.

fpadiceum. Scheff. t.185.

lacerum. Scheff. t. 193,

194.
muricatum. Scheeff.t. 184.
radicans. Scheff. t. 182.
nitidulum. Scheff. t. 192.
admorfum. Scheff.t. 187.

Hemonitis.

nivea. Hoffman,t. 4,f. 1.

fphzrocephala. Hofm. t.
a, ee

lichenoides. Hofm. t. 4.

botrytis. Hofm.t.1,f 1.

graniformis. Hofm. t. 1,
Ree

vefparia. Batfch. f. 172.

favoginea. Batfch. f. 173.

et multe alia.

cochleata. Scheff. t. 150. Spheria.

coccinea. Scheff. t. 148.

hifpida. Scheff. t. 151.

ciliata. Scheff. t. 284.

leucoloma. Hedw. 11, t.
4, A.

auricula.

et to ala.

Peziza.

levis. Scheff. t. 180.

ftriata. Scheeff. t. 178.

crucibuliformis. Scheff.

clavata. Hofman, t. 4,f. 2.

tunicata. Tode, f. 130.

deufta. Tode, f. 529.

pulvinata. Hofman, t. 2,
‘ee

difciformis. Hofm. t. 4,
fe Bi:

fragiformis. Hofm. t. 5,
ab

confluens. Tode, f. 87.

acuta. Hofm,t. 5, f. 2.

fper-

242 SUPPLEMENTUM INDICIS &c.
fpermoides. Hofm.t. 3, vulgaris. Hofman, t. 6,

ie 3 f. 72
tuberculofa. Mucor.
puntata f. granulofa. flavus.
mamillaris. Mucedo.
et alia. Eryfiphe.

‘Tubercularia.

SSS

Extrad of a Letter® from the Reverend Dr. Henry
MuuLENBERG, Zo Dr. BARTON, relative to the pre-
ceding Supplement.

“ WITH great fatisfaGtion, I acknowledge the affift-
ance I had from fome of my friends, in making this fup-
plement, in particular from Dr. James Edward Smith,
the learned, candid, and ingenious pofleffor of the Her-
barium ofthe two Linnzi; from Dr. Hoffman, in Got-
tingen, and from Dr. Hedwig in Leipzig, both well
known by their excellent works on Lichens and Moffes.

‘*¢ T add the names of fome books, mentioned in this
fupplement. Dillenii Hiftoria Mufcorum. Oxonii, 1741.
Hoffman Vegetabilia Cryptogamica. Erlanger, 1787,
fafc. 1. 2. Schefferi Fungorum Icones. Ratifbone, 1780.
Batfch Elenchus Fungorum. Halex, 1783. cum conti-
nuatione, fig. 1—232. Hedwig Stirpes Cryptogamice.
Lipfiz, Vol. 1. ii, ui. iv. Tode Fungi Selecti Meklen-
burgenfes.”’

* Dated Lancafter, Auguft 29th 1796,

On

MODE or DRYING MARSHES. 24

ioe)

Ne. XXIX.

On the Mode moft eafily and effectually pratticable of drying
up the Marfbes of the maritime Parts of North Ame-
rica. By Tuomas Wricut, Licentiate of the Col-
lege of Surgeons in Ireland, and Teacher of Anatomy.

Read’ Neve AVING for fome years during the Ame-
AX, 1794- rican war (here fo called) traverfed that
continent in the exercife of my profeffion, I ufually noted
fuch local circumftances as it occurred to me might be
improved upon, or in fome manner applied to ufeful
purpofes. ‘The health of the foldiery being my particular
objet, I neceflarily contemplated the caufes of ficknefs,
fome of which were fo univerfal, that few, either natives
or others efcaped their baleful influence; but chiefly the
effluvia of fwampy lands in producing ague almoft as an
epidemic.

It is ufelefs to know caufes, it is idle to defcant on
them, unlefs with the intention by their removal to
obviate their effects: there are but two modes of drying
up the great marfhes of America; the moft effectual
would be by draining them, but that is not an eafy tafk,
as the dead level of the coaft country between the Apa-
lachian Mountains and the Atlantic feems to defy
the moft determined induftry ; this I relinquifh as im-
practicable except by many years labour. I thall there-
fore propofe what I hope will prove a more prompt re-
medy, and poffibly not lefs effeCtual.

Following the moft obvious appearances of things, it
is evinced in the moft legible characters of nature, the
fhoaling coaft, fandy beach, {wampy plains, large rivers,
fandy hills raifed over heaps of the exuviz of marine
animals, that the eaftern coaft of North America has been

of

244 MODE or DRYING MARSHES.

of very late Neptunian origin; and this crude ftate of the
land not yet fully relinquifhed by its antient oceanic pof-
feffor is the probable caufe of ague being endemic. ‘The
important queftion arifing on this ftatement is, how
may the fuperfluous waters be removed ?—1 anfwer by
evaporation. On this fubje@t let facts fpeak; they only
can throw light on fuch a fubje&, and lay a folid foun-
dation for theory ; if this agent be found effectual in pro-
portion to the intenfity of the climate, and if it has pro-
duced the defired effe@ in a much cooler climate than
that of America, a fortzorz, it will prove more efficacious
and more quickly fo in that country.

The temperature of Ireland though equable feldom af-
fords three months fummer weather, 1. ¢. above 60°
Fahrenheit’s; yet after the moft rainy winters (and
frequently here fall 30 inches of rain in the year) the
temporary pools called Tur/oughs which collect in all our
confined valleys, evaporate wholly, even before fummer
comes on, though the atmofphere is generally loaded
with moifture, nay almoft faturated with it from the
ocean and other feas around us: and though here are
wanting the two great requifites for evaporation viz.
Air chemically dry, and beat comparatively f{peaking,
the caufe of this happy effet is very partial, it is the
continental wind which always vifits us periodically and
with the fun after winter ; it is abfolutely dry though not
hot ; it in one months blowing, and ever without ftorms,
rids the whole ifland of its fuperfluous water, and even
leaves the fields parched, the roads almoft impaflable for
the duft, and the lips of the inhabitants chapped and
cleft by the quick evaporation. This isthe feafon which
reftores tone to our bodies relaxed and debilitated by a
warm wet winter; for we have no epidemic inflamma-
tory difeafes until the continental wind comes from the
Fatt.

2 Here

MODE or DRYING MARSHES. 245

Here then if a few weeks well exficcate the whole
ifland; what prevents more months in America from
producing the fame effe@, where there is a dry and a
hot wind, certainly the latter?

In Ireland the ague is never epidemic, nor endemic,
as far as | know, except the feafon fhould fometimes be
fuch as to induce it, and of this 1 remember but one in-
ftance. Yet the ague and the dyfentery have been both
epidemic in Ireland, as the ancient Britifh fettlers fe-
verely experienced ; and when they were fo, Jreland re-
fembled America, it was a wood.

I fhall relate one truly remarkable inftance of the ef-
fects of clearing the country of wood in promoting eva-
poration. Before the time of Cromwell, not yet two
centuries, there was a furnace for fmelting iron ore and
a foundery at the town of Montrath in the Queens
County ; the iron was fent down a then navigable river,
the Nore, to the next feaport for exportation: at this
day that river has not water fufficient to float a canoe,
and is a mere rivulet for many miles below that town;
nor is there at this inftant any perfon of the neighbour-
hood who remembers it otherwife. What has this ari-
fen from? As much rain falls.as ever, the climate is
ftill as cool ; yet the winds in March remove all the au-
tumnal and hyemal collections of water, and thus rivers
formerly navigable are dwindled into brooks. Affuredly
the fame eafterly winds prevailed before the feventeenth
century, but the country was then covered with wood ;
it is now clear and the harth breeze fweeps the bare bo-
fom of the earth, and bears away the combining moif-.
ture. Admitting this then to be the fact, it may be re-
plied to by obferving, that it is evidently inadmiffible in
America, a new country where the crude earth has not
yet yielded fo many crops of vegetables as to rot and
form peat or combuftible turf for fuel, therefore timbe

Ti is

246 MODE or DRYING MARSHES.

is an indifpenfable neceflary of life. —This I grant; yet
I think that the felling of the woods may he fo regulated
as to render economy and utility perfectly compatable,
viz. in the following manner.

Let it be fuppofed that the N. W. and S. E. are the
aflecle or prevailing winds of North America ; let the
furveyor general mark out a tra@t of fay 190 or 200 miles
in a right line to be cleared of trees; then every blaft
from thefe two oppofite points will ventilate 200 miles
of country, bearing along the fumes of all the marfhes,
while the great vz/fo or avenue fkirted with wood at both
fides would furnith the moft falubrious and confequently
valuable fituatjon for fettlers.

Ne. XXX.

AA Memoir on the Difcovery of certain Bones of a Quadru-
ped of the Clawed Kind in the Weflern Parts of Virginia.
By TUOMAS JEFFERSON, E/7.

Read March BN a letter of July 3d, I informed our late moft
195 1797- worthy prefident that fome bones of a very
large animal of the clawed kind had been recently dif-
covered within this ftate, and promifed a communica-
tion on the fubject as foon as we could recover what
were ftill recoverable of them. It is well known that
the fubftratum of the country beyond the Blue Ridge is
a limeftone, abounding with large caverns, the earthy
floors of which are highly impregnated with nitre ; and
that the inhabitants are in the habit of extraCting the
nitre from them. In digging the floor of one of thefe
eaves, belonging to Frederic Cromer in the county of
Greenbriar, the labourers at the depth of two or three
feet, came to fome bones, the fize and form of which

befpoke

On CERTAIN BONES, &c. 247

befpoke an animal unknown to them. ‘The nitrous im-
pregnation of the earth together with a fmall degree of
petrification had probably been the means of their pre-
fervation. The importance of the difcovery was not
known to thefe who made it, yet it excited converfation
in the neighbourhood, and led perfons of vague curiofity
to feck and take away the bones. It was fortunate for
{cience that one of its zealous and well informed friends,
Colonel John Stewart of that neighbourhood, heard of
the difcovery, and, fenfible from their defcription, that
they were of an animal not known, took meafures with-
out delay for faving thofe which {till remained. He was
kind enough to inform me of the incident, and to for-
ward me the bones from time to time as they were re-
covered. To thefe I was enabled accidentally to add fome
others by the kindnefs of a Mr. Hopkins of New-York,
whio had vifited the cave. Thefe bones are,

if. A {mall fragment of the femur or thigh bone;
being in fact only its lower extremity, feparated from the
main bone at its epiphylis, fo as to give us only the two
condyles, but thefe are nearly entire.

2d. A radius, perfec.

3d. An ulna, or fore-arm, perfect, except that it is
broken in two.

4th. Three claws, and half a dozen other bones of the
foot ; but whether of a fore or hinder foot, is not evident.

About a foot in length of the refidue of the femur was
found, it was {plit through the middle, and in that ftate
was ufed as a fupport for one of the falt petre vats, this
piece was afterwards loft, but its meafures had been firft
taken as will be ftated hereafter.

Thefe bones only enable us to clafs the animal with
the unquiculated quadrupeds ; and of thefe the lion being
neareft to him in fize, we will compare him with that

animal, of whofe anatomy Monfieur Daubenton has fur-
Mies nifhed

248 On tue DISCOVERY of

nifhed very accurate meafures in his tables at the end
of buffon’s Natural Hiftory of the lion. Thefe meafures
were taken as he* informs us from ‘a large lion of
Africa,” in which quarter the largeft -- are faid to be pro-
duced. 1 thall felect from his meafures only thofe where
we have the correfponding bones, converting them into
our own inch and its fractions, that the comparifon may
be more obvious: and to avoid the embarraflment of de-
fignating our animal always by circumlocution and def-
cription, | will venture to refer to him by the name of
the Great-Claw or Megalonyx, to which he feems fuf+
ficiently entitled by the diftinguifhed fize of that member.
Megalonyx-} Lion.

Inches Inches.

Length of the ulna, or fore-arm 20.8 113.9
Height of the olecranum - 3.5 1.85

Breadth of the ulna, from the point o

the coronoide apophyfis to the extre- 9.55

—

mity of the olecranum -
Breadth of the ulna at its middle 3.8
Thicknefs at the fame place ~ } 0.04
Circumference at the fame place 6.7
Length of the radius - - 17-75 | 12.37
Breadth of the radius at its head 2.65] 1.38)
Circumference at its middle - 74 | 3002
Breadth at its lower extremity - 4.05} 1.18
Diameter of the lower extremity of the |

femur at the bafe ef the two con- P| 4.2 | 2.65:

dyles - - -
Tranfverfe diameter of the larger con-

dyle at its bafe 3
Circumference of both condyles at day { 6c

bafe bs ” 11.65.

* Buffon, XVIII. 38. Paris edition in 31 vols. 12mo.
+2. De emcrnt 157.

Diameter

~

CERTAIN BONES, &e. 249

Megalonyx.) Lion. !
Inches. Inches, {

Diameter of the middle of the femur AsBo VEE S |
Hollow of the femur at the fame place EN
Thicknefs of the bone furrounding the | :

hollow - - ce
Length of the longeft claw - iF 1.41

Fe
Length of the fecond phalanx ofthe fame] 3.2 | 1.41

The dimenfions of the largeft of the foot bones are as
follow,

Inches.

Its greateft diameter, or breadth at the joint 2-45
Its {malleft diameter, or thicknefs at the fame place 2.28
Its circumference at the fame place - 74
Its circumference at the middle — ~ pate

Of Iong-| Middle | Shorte t
J eft toe. Hizedtve) tue,

ad. Phalanx. Its length 4.2 | 2.08
Greateft diameter at its head or

upper joint vt ABA 2-05
Smalleft diameter at the fame | E

place - - bits sal etd
Circumference at the fame place | 5.25 | 5.8

3d. Phalanx. Its length - Ra GACT OR

Greate(ft diameter at its head or

upper joint - st ate re me
Smalleft diameter at the fame

place ] 5 95) 9 | +55

Circumference at the fame placé | 6.45 | 4.8

Were we to eftimate the fize of our animal by a com.
parifon with that of the lion on the principle of ex pede
Herculem, by taking the longeft claw of each as the mo-

* It is atually 63 inches long, but about 3 inch appear to have been
broken off,

+ Actually 5.65 but about 3 inch is broken offs

dule

250 On Tue DISCOVERY or

dule of their meafi ure, it would give us a being out of
the limits of nature. It is fortunate therefore that we
have fome of the larger bones of the limbs which may
furnifh a more certain eftimate of his ftature. Let us
fuppole then that his dimenfions of height, length and
thicknefs, and of the principal members compofing thefe,
were of the fame proportions with thofe of the lion. In
the table of M. Daubenton an ulna of 13.78 inches be-
longed to a lion 424 inches high over the fhoulders : then
an ulna of 20.1 inches befpeaks a megalonyx of ¢ feet
1.75 inches height, and as animals who have the fame
proportions of height, length, and thicknefs have their
bulk or weights proportioned to the cubes* of any one
of their dimenfions, the cube of 42.5 inches is to 262 lb.
the height and weight of M. Daubenton’s lion as the
cube of 61.75 inches to 803 Ib. the height and weight of
the magalonyx; which would prove him a little more
than three times the fize of the lion. I fuppofe that we
fhould be fafe in confidering, on the authority of M.
Daubenton, his lion as a large one. But let it pafs as
one only of the ordinary fize, and that the megalonyx
whofe bones happen to have been found was alfo of the
ordinary fize. It does appear that there was diffected
for the academy of fciences at Paris, a lion of 4 feet
gz inches height. This individual would weigh 644 lb.
and would be in his fpecies, what a man of eight feet
height would be in ours. Such men have exifted. A
megalonyx equally monftrous would be 7 feet high, and
would weigh 2000 Ib. but the ordinary race, and not the
monfters of it, are the object of our prefent enquiry.

I have ufed the height alone of this animal to deduce
his bulk, on the fuppofition that he might have been
formed in the proportions of the lion. But thefe were

* Buffon xxii. 121, + Buffon xviii. 15.
not

CERTAIN BONES, &c. 251

not his proportions, he was much thicker than the tion
in proportion to his height, in his limbs certainly, and
probably therefore in his body. ‘The diameter of his ra-
dius, at its upper end, is near twice as great as that of
the lion, and, at its lower end, more than thrice as great,
which gives a mean proportion of 24 for 1. The femur
of the lion was lefs than 14 inch diameter. That of the
megalonyx is 4+ inches, which is more than three for
ene. And as bodies of the fame length and fubitance
have their weights proportioned to the fquares of their
diameters, this excefs of caliber compounded with the
height, would greatly aggravate the bulk of this animal.
But when our fubje& has already carried us beyond the
limits of nature hitherto known, it is fafeft to ftop at the
moft moderate conclufions, and not to follow appear-
ances through ail the conje€tures they would furnifh,
but leave thefe to be corroborated or corrected by future
difcoveries. Let us only fay then, what we may fafely
fay, that he was more than three times as large as the
lion: that he ftood as pre-eminently at the head of the
column of clawed animals as the mammoth ftood at that
of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus: and that
lhe may have been as formidable an antagonift to the
mammoth as the lion to the elephant.

A difficult queftion now prefents itfelf. What is be-
come of the great-claw? Some light may be thrown on
this by afking another queftion. Do the wild animals of
the firft magnitude in any inftance fix their dwellings in
a thickly inhabited country? fuch, I mean, as the ele-
phant,. the rhinoceros, the lion, the tyger? as far as my
reading and recollection ferve me, I think they do not :

but I hazard the opinion doubtingly, becaufe it is not
the refult of full enquiry. Africa is chiefly inhabited
along the margin of its feas and rivers. The interior
defart is the domain of the elephant, the rhinoceros, the

lion,

52 On tHE DISCOVERY or

lion, the tyger. Such individuals as have their haunts
neareft the inhabited frontier, enter it occafionally, and
commit depredations when preffed by hunger: but the
ma{s of their nation (if I may ufe the term) never ap-
proach the habitation of man, nor are within reach of it.
When our anceitors arrived here, the Indian population,
below the falls of the rivers, was about the twentieth
part of what it now is. In this ftate of things, an ani-
mal refembling the lion feems to have been known even
in the lower country. Moft of the accounts given by
the earlier adventurers to this part of America make a
lion one of the animals of our forefts. Sir John Haw-
kins * mentions this in 1564. Thomas Harriot, a man
of learning, and of diftinguifhed candor, who refided
in Virginia in 1587-+ does the fame, fo alfo does Bul-
lock in his account of Virginia,t written about 1627,
he fays he drew his information from Pierce, Willough-
by, Claiborne, and others who had been here, and from
his own father who had lived here twelve years. It does.
not appear whether the fac is ftated on their own view,
or on information from the Indians, probably the latter. :
The progrefs of the new population would foon drive
off the Jarger animals, and the largeft firft. In the pre-’
fent interior of our continent there is furely fpace and
range enough for elephants and lions, if in that climate
they could fubfift ; and for mammoths and megalonyxes
who may fubfit there. Our entire ignorance of the im-
menfe country to the Weft and North-Weft, and of its
contents, does not authorife us to fay what it does not
contain. .
Moreover it is a fat well known, and always fuf-
ceptible of verification, that on a rock on the bank of the

* Fakluyt, 541. edition of 1589.
+ Ibid. 757, and Smith’s Hiltory of Virginia, 10.
t Bullock, page 5.

I Kanhawa,

CERTAIN BONES, &c. 253

Kanhawa, near its confluence with the Ohio, there are
carvings of many animals of that country, and among
thefe one which has always been confidered as a perfect
figure ofalion. And thefe are fo rudely done as to leave
no room to fufpe& a foreign hand. This could not
have been of the fmaller and manelefs lion of Mexico
and Peru, known alfo in Africa both in* ancient and +
modern times, though denied by {M. de Buffon: be-
caufe like the greater African lion, he is a tropical ani-
mal; and his want ofa mane would not fatisfy the figure.
This figure then muft have been taken from fome other
prototype, and that prototype muft have refembled the
lion fufficiently to fatisfy the figure, and was probably
the animal the defcription of which by the Indians made
Hawkins, Harriot, and others conclude there were lions
here. May we not prefume that prototype to have been
the great-claw?

Many traditions are in pofleffion of our upper inha-
bitants, which themfelves have heretofore confidered as
fables, but which have regained credit fince the difcovery
of thefe bones. There has always been a ftory current
that the firft company of adventurers who went to feek
an eftablifhment in the county of Greenbriar, the night
of their arrival were alarmed at their camp by the ter-
rible roarings of fome animal unknown to them: that he
went round and round their camp, that at times they
faw his eyes like two balls of fire, that their horfes were
fo agonifed with fear that they couched down on the
earth, and their dogs crept in among them, not daring
to bark. Their fires, it was thought, protected them,
and the next morning they abandoned the country. This
was little more than 30 years ago.—In the year 176s,
George Wilfon and John Davies, having gone to hunt

* Ariftot. Animal, 9. 4. Pliny, 8. 16. + Kolbe. $ Buffon, xviii. 18.
Kk on

254 On tHE DISCOVERY or

on Cheat river, a branch of the Monongahela, heard one
night, at a diftance from their camp, a tremendous roar-
ing, which became louder and louder as it approached,
till they thought it refembled thunder, and even made
the earth tremble under them. The animal prowled
round their camp a confiderable time, during which their
dogs, though on all other occafions fierce, crept to their
feet, could not be excited from their camp, nor even en-
couraged to bark. About day light they heard the fame
found repeated from the knob of a mountain about a
mile off, and within a minute it was anfwered by a fimi-
lar voice from a neighbouring knob. Colonel John
Stewart had this account from Wilfon in the year 1769,
who was afterwards Lieutenant Colonel of a Pennfyl-
vania regiment in the revolution-war; and fome years
after from Davies, who is now living in Kentucky.

Thefe circumftances multiply the points of refem-
blance between this animal and the lion, M. de la Harpe
of the French Academy, in his abridgment of the Gene-
ral Hiftory of Voyages, fpeaking of the Moors, fays *
** it is remarkable that when, during their huntings, they
meet with lions, their horfes, though famous for {wift-
nefs, are fiezed with fuch terror that they become motion-
lefs, and their dogs equally frightened, creep to the feet
of their mafter, or of his horfe.” Mr. Sparrman in his
voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, chap. 11. fays, “ we
could plainly difcover by our animals when the lions,
whether they roared or not, were obferving us at a {mall
diftance. For in that cafe the hounds did not venture to
bark, but crept quite clofe to the Hottentots; and our
oxen-and horfes fighed deeply, frequently hanging back,
and pulling flowly with all their might at the ftrong
{traps with which they were tied to the waggon. ‘They

* Gentleman’s, and London Magazines, for 1783.

alfo

CERTAIN BONES, &c. a

alfo laid themfelves down- on the ground, and ftood up
alternately, as if they did not know what to do with
themicives, and even as if they were in the agonies of
death.” He adds that *‘ when the lion roars, he puts
his mouth to the ground, fo that the found is equally
diffufed to every quarter.” M. de Buffon (xviii. 31.)
defcribes the roaring of the lion as, by its echoes refem-
bling thunder: and Sparrman c. 12. mentions that the
eyes of the lion can be feen a confiderable diftance in the
dark, and that the Hottentots watch for his eyes for their
government. The phofphoric appearance of the eye in
the dark feems common to all animals of the cat kind.

The terror excited by thefe animals is not confined to
brutes alone. A perfon of the name of Draper had gon
in the year 1770, to hunt on the Kanhawa. He had
turned his horfe loofe with a bell on, and had not yet
got out of hearing when his attention was recalled by the
rapid ringing of the bell. Sufpecting that Indiaus might
be attempting to take off his horfe, he immediately re-
turned to him, but before he arrived he was half eaten
up. His dog fcenting the trace of a wild beaft, he fol-
lowed him on it, and foon came in fight of an animal of
fuch enormous five, that though one of our moft daring
hunters and beft markfmen, Py withdrew inftantly, a
as filently as poflible, checking and bringing off his dog.
He could recolle& no more of the animal than his terri
bulk, and that his general outlines were thofe of the cat
kind. He was familiar with our animal mifcalled the
panther, with our wolves and wild beafts generally, and
would not have miftaken nor fhrunk from them.

In fine, the bones exift: therefore the animal has ex-
ifted. The movements of nature are in a never ending
circle. The animal fpecies which has once been put into
a train of motion, is ftill probably moving in that train.
‘For if one link in nature’s chain might be loft, another

Kk2 and

256 On THE DISCOVERY or

and another might be loft, till this whole fyftem of things
fhould evanifh by piece-meal; a conclufion not warran-
ted by the local difappearance of one or two fpecies of
animals, and oppofed by the thoufands and thoufands of
inftances of the renovating power conftantly exercifed by
nature for the reproduction of all her fubjeéts, animal,
vegetable, and mineral. If this animal then has once
exifted, it is probable on this general view of the move-
ments of nature that he {till exifts, and rendered full
more probable by the relations of honeft men applicable
to him and to him alone. It would indeed be but con-
formable to the ordinary economy of nature to conjec-
ture that fhe had oppofed fufficient barriers to the too
great multiplication of fo powerful a deftroyer. If lions
and tygers multiplied as rabbits do, or eagles as pigeons,
all other animal nature would have been long ago def-
troyed, and themfelves would have ultimately extin-
guifhed after eating out their pafture. It is probable
then that the great-claw has at all times been the rareft
of animals. Hence fo little is known, and fo little re-
mains of him. His exiftence however being at length
difcovered, enquiry will be excited, and further infor-
mation of him will probably be obtained.

The Cofmogony of M. de Buffon fuppofes that the
earth and all the other planets primary and fecondary,
have been mafles of melted matter ftruck off from the
fun by the incidence of a comet on it: that thefe have
been cooling by degrees, firft at the poles, and after-
wards more and more towards their Equators: confe-
quently that on our earth there has been a time when
the temperature of the poles fuited the conftitution of the
elephant, the rhinoceros, and hippopotamus: and in
proportion as the remoter zones became fucceflively too
cold, thefe animals have retired more and more towards”
the Equatorial regions, till now that they are reduced to

the

CERTAIN BONES, &c. 257

the torrid zone as the ultimate ftage of their exiftence.
To fupport this theory, he *affumes the tufks of the
mammoth to have been thofe of an elephant, fome of his
teeth to have belonged to the hippopotamus, and his
largeft grinders to an animal much greater than either,
and to have been depofited on the Miffouri, the Ohio,
the Holfton, when thofe latitudes were not yet too cold
for the conftitutions of thefe animals. Should the bones
of our animal, which may hereafter be found, differ only
in fize from thofe of the lion, they may on this hypo-
thefis be claimed for the lion, now alfo reduced to the
torrid zone, and its vicinities, and may be confidered as
an additional proof of this fyftem; and that there has
been a time when our latitudes fuited the lion as well as
the other animals of that temperament. ‘This is not the
place to difcufs theories of the earth, nor to queftion the
gratuitous allotment to different animals of teeth not dif-
fering in any circumftance. But let us for a moment
grant this with his former poftulata, and afk how they
will confit with another theory of his “ qu'il y a dans
la combinaifon des elemens et des autres caufes phyfiques,
quelque chofe de contraire a l’aggrandifement de la na-
ture vivante dans ce nouveau moxde; quil ya des obfta-
cles au developpement et peutetre a la formation des
grands germes-+.” He fays that the mammoth was an
elephant, yet { two or three times as large as the ele-
phants of Afia and Africa: that fome of his teeth were
thofe of a hippopotamus, yet of a hippopotamus § four
times as large as thofe of Africa: that the mammoth
himfelf, for he ftill confiders him as a diftin@ animal, ||
“« was of a fize fuperior to that of the largeft elephants.
That he was the primary and greateft of all terreftrial

* Buffon, Epoq. 2. 233, 234. + Buffon, xviii. 145. { 2. Epog. 223.
§ 1. Epog. 246, 2. Epoq. 232. || 2. Epoq. 234, 235.

animals,”

208 Ow vue DISCOVERY~o:

animals.” If the bones of the megalonyx’be afcribed to
the lion, they muft certainly have been ‘of a mee of mote
than chee times the volume of the African. 1. delivered
to M. de Buffon the fkeleton of our palmated Zin called
orignal or moofe, 7 feet high over the fhoulders, he is -
often confiderably higher. { cannot find that the Euro-
pean elk is more than two thirds of that height: confe-
quently not one third of the bulk of the American. He*
acknowledges the paimated deer (daim) of America to be
larger and ftronger than that of the Old World. He+
confiders the round horned deer of thefe States. and of
Louifiana as the roe, and admits they are of three times
his fize. Are we then from all this to draw a conclu-
fion, the reverfe of that of M. de Buffon. That nature,
has formed the larger animals of America, like its lakes,
its rivers, and mountains, ‘on a greater and prouder {cale
than in the other hemifphere ? Not at all, we are to con-
clude that fhe has formed fome things large and fome
things fmall, on both fides of the earth for reafons which
fhe Fits not enabled us to penetrate ; and that we ought
not to fhut our eyes upon one half of her fas, and build
fyftems on the other half.

To return to our great-claw ; I depofit his bones with
the Philofophical Society, as well in evidence of their
exiftence and of their dimenfions, as for their fafe-keep-
ing ; and I fhall think it my duty to do the fame by fuch
others as | may be fortunate enough to obtain the reco-
very of hereafter.

TH: JEFFERSON.
Monticello, Feb. roth, 1797.

* Buffon, xxix. 245. + Ibid. xii. 91. 92. xxix. 245. Vide Suppl. 201.

‘Het.

CERTAIN BONES, &c. 259

P, S. March roth, 1797. After the preceding commu-
nication was ready to be delivered in to the Society, in a
* periodical publication from London | met with an ac-
count and drawing of the fkeleton of an animal dug up
near the river La Plata in Paraguay, and now mounted in
the cabinet of Natural History of Madrid. The figure
is not fo done as to be relied on,: and the account is only
an abftrac&t from that of Cuvier and Roume. ‘This fke-
leton is alfo of the clawed-kind, and having only four
teeth on each fide above and below, all grinders, is in
this account clafled in the family of unquiculated qua-
drupeds deftitute of cutting teeth, and receives the
new denomination of megatherium, having nothing
of our animal but the leg and foot bones, we have few
points for a comparifon between them. They refemble
in their ftature, that being 12 feet g inches long, and
6 feet 44 inches high, and ours by computation 5 feet 1.75
inches high: they are alike in the coloflal thicknefs of the
thigh and leg bones alfo. They refemble too in having
claws: but thofe of the figure appear very {fmall, and the
verbal defcription does not fatisfy us whether the claw-
bone, or only its horny cover be large. They agree too
in the circumftance of the two bones of the fore-arm
being diftin@ and moveable on each other; which how-
ever is believed to be fo ufual as to form no mark of dif-
tinction. They differ in the following circumftances, if
our relations are to be trufted. The megatherium is not
of the cat form, as are the lion, tyger, and panther, but
is faid to have ftriking relations in all parts of its body
with the bradypus, dafypus, pangolin, &c. According
to analogy then, it probably was not carnivorous, had
not the phofphoric eye, nor leonine roar. But to folve
fatisfactorily the queftion of identity, the difcovery of

* Monthly Magazine, Sep. 1796.
4 fore-

260 SOME ACCOUNT or

fore-teeth, or of a jaw bone fhewing it had, or had not,
fuch teeth, muft be waited for, and hoped with patience.
It may be better, in the mean time, to keep up the dif-
ference of name.

N° XXX.

A Letter fron My. JouN HECKEWELDER /o Benya-~
MIN SMITH Barton, M.D. containing an Account
of an Animal called the Big Naked Bear.

Dear Sir,

Read March § HAVE now to communicate to you, what
ae eee came to my knowledge refpeting an animal,
which the Mohican Indians called Ahamagachktiat Me-
eehqua, and the Delawares (if I recolle& right) Amang-
achktiat. The Big Naked Bear. Their reports run thus:
That among all animals that had been formerly in this
country, this was the moft ferocious. That it was much
larger, than the largeft of the common bears, and re-
markably long-bodied : all over, (except a fpot of hair
on its back ef a white colour,) naked. That it attacked
and devoured man and beaft, and that a man, or a
common bear, only ferved for one meal to one of thefe
animals. ‘That with its teeth it could crack the ftrongeft
bones. That it could not fee very well, but in difcover-
ing its prey by fcent, it exceeded all other animals. That
it purfued its prey with unremitting ravenoufnefs, and
that there was no other way of efcaping, but by taking
to ariver, and either fwimming down the fame, or fa-
ving one’s felf by means of a canoe. That its heart being
remarkably fmall, it could feldom be killed with the ar-
row. That the fureft way of deftroying him was to break
his back-bone. ‘That when a party went out to deftroy

nn

“4 this

THE BIG NAKED BEAR. 261

this animal, they firft took leave of their friends and re-
lations at home, confidering themfelves as going on an
expedition, perhaps never to return again. That when
out, they fought for his track, carefully attending to the
courfe the wind blew, and endeavouring to keep as near
as poffible to a river. That every man of the party
knew at what part of the body he was to take his. aim.
That fome were to ftrike at the back-bone, fome at the
head, and others at the heart. That the laft of thefe
animals known of, was on the eaft fide of the Mohicanni
Sipu. (Hudfon’s River) where, after devouring feveral
Indians that were tilling their ground, a refolute party,
well provided with bows and arrows, &c. fell upon the
following plan, in which they alfo fucceeded, viz. know-
ing of a jarge high rock, perpendicular on all fides, and
level on the top, in the neighbourhood of where the
naked bear kept, they made ladders, (Indian ladders) and
placing thefe at the rock, they reconnoitred the ground
around, and foon finding a frefh track of the animal, |
they haftily returned, getting on the top of the rock, and
drawing the ladders up after them. They then fet up
acry, fimilar to that of a child, whereupon this animal
made its way thither, and attempted to climb the rock,
the Indians pouring down their arrows in different direc-
tions, all the while upon him. The animal now grew
very much enraged, biting with its teeth againft the rock,
and attempting to tear it with its claws, until at length
they had conquered it.

The hiftory of this animal ufed to be a fubje& of con-
verfation among the Indians, efpecially when in the woods
a hunting. I have alfo heard them fay to their children
when crying: ‘Hufh! the naked bear will hear you, be
upon you, and devour you.’ From the nature of their
converfation on this fubjeét, I was led to believe the {tory
had foundation. Old Indians whom I queftioned on

LI this

262 EXPERIMENTS ann OBSERVATIONS

this matter, aflured me it was fact, relying on the au-
thenticity of their forefathers’ relations. Further reports
refpecting this animal have 77 part flipped my memory,
wherefore I omit making any mention of the fame.

The panther is not confidered by the Indians as /uch a
ravenous animal, as by the white people he is reported
to be. I know but of one inftance, where an Indian was
nigh: being attacked by one of them, but this was owing
to the Indian’s approaching his den. The Indian how-
ever found means of killing him, and taking the young,
which he brought down to Philadelphia, which was
about the year 1770. This animal, the Indians fay, lives
chiefly on deer, which it either by flynefs catches itfelf,
puriues after they have been crippled by the hunters, or
takes from the wolves after they have caught them.

If hereafter, 1 fhall have an opportunity of getting
further information) refpecting the naked bear; I will
freely. communicate the fame to you.

Believe me to be, Dear Sir,
Your truly affectionate friend, &c.
JOHN HECKEWELDER.

No. XXXII.

Experiments and Obfervations on Land and Sea dir. By
ADAM SEyBERT, M. D.

Read March. Ay, N: endeavour. to add any faéts or obferva-
10, 1797: tions to a branch of knowledge, which has
been treated of by many of the moft enlightened philofo-
phers of the prefent century, may be deemed a hazardous
attempt. But although we have many accounts of eu-

diometrical experiments by, Prieftley, Fontana, en
oulz

on LAND anv SEA AIR. 263

houfz and others ; the fubje@ is not exhaufted, and an ex-
tenfive field continues open for him who wifhes to en-
gage in this intricate branch of Pneumatic Philofophy.

The purity of the air is not interefting to us merely
as an object of curiofity, but demands our attention as
phyficians and philofophers. In proportion to the num-
ber of afcertained fats, the certainty of inference is in-
creafed. The fhort life of any one individual, together
with his local fituation, will prevent him from completing
this department of fcience. It is merely from repeated
experiments made under different circumftances, that we
can expect to arrive at truth, The more we multiply
facts the more decided may we be in our conclufions.
Such are the refle€tions, which induced me to engage
in a feries of experiments, which {hall be related in the
following pages.

Our atmofphere having been fo fuccefsfully analyzed
by the celebrated Lavoifier, and being found to confift of
fluids poflefling very different and oppofite qualities ;
chemifts foon began to enquire whether its ingredients
might not be in various proportions in different fitua-
tions ; and, particularly, whether it differed in point of
purity in different fituations on land and on the ocean.

Moft of the experiments of which we have an ac-
count were made on land: The Memoir of Dr. Ingen-
houfz publithed in the 7oth volume of the Philofophical
TranfaGions is the only eflay I have feen containing
experiments made at fea: but his traverfe was fo fhort,
that he had not an opportunity of examining the air in
different Jatitudes. He, however is of opinion that fea
air is, ceteris paribus, purer than land air; but he ap-
pears to have found fome feeming contradi€tions of his
general inference. He fays, page 364, that air taken from
the middle of the channel was of an inferior quality to
that at the mouth of the Thames; and that air near the

Pik2 fea

ap™

264 EXPERIMENTS anp OBSERVATIONS

fea fhore at Oftend was nearly as good as that at the
mouth of that river. Although we may, to a great de-
gree, adopt his fentiments, neverthelefs | think it pro-
bable that this increafed purity does not entirely depend
upon the ocean ; for | have found the air over the Bays
of Chefapeak and Delaware of the fame degree of purity
with the atmofphere of the ocean. And hence I am in-
clined to think, that the air over a large body of water
is always purer, ceteris paribus, than that of the adjoin-
ing land, owing perhaps to a, decompofition, which the
water may fuffer from the action of the Sun’s rays; and
this may likewife be affifted by its alfo abforbing many
foreign matters which on Jand are more or lefs intimately
mixed with the air in a mechanical way. This opinion
is confirmed by Dr. White’s experiments, who fays: “ the
air over the river Ouze was conftantly purer than that of
the garden by 2 or 3 degrees.” Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, vol. 68.—And in the fame paper he obferves, that
the fame happened with the air of the fofs when the
marfhes were overflowed.

When I firft engaged in thefe experiments it was my
intention to perform them only on fea air; but I foon
found it neceflary to repeat them on land air for the fake
of comparifon. The fubje&t increafed on my hands.
The atmofphere of marfhes prefented itfelf as worthy
of ferious inveltigation. 1 therefore performed fome ex-
periments upon it; but proper length of time is necef-
fary to their repetition ; and for this reafon I muft omit
them for the prefent, and merely relate thofe I perform-
ed on the air of this city, its environs, and on the ocean.

I thall firft proceed to the enquiry whether the at-

.mofphere differs in purity in different fituations on land?

The opinion that the air is purer in the country and
on the tops of mountains than it is in towns, is adopted
by many; therefore in afferting the contrary we muft

prepare

on LAND anp SEA AIR. 265

prepare to meet with oppofition, particularly from thofe
who have formed opinions from reafoning alone, unfup-
ported by experiments. In doubtful matters it is chiefly
by the clafhing of opinion, that truth is finally difcover-
ed. This fhall be both my confolation and apology, if
the refult of my experiments {hall be found to have in-
duced me to differ from others. Neverthelefs it will af-
ford me confiderable fatisfattion to agree with thofe
whofe decifions reft upon the fame firm balis. I fhall
therefore briefly mention the authors who agree with me
in opinion.

Dr. Prieftley concludes from his own experiments,
that the difference of the air in different places, fuch as
is indicated by a mixture of nitrous air, is in general very
inconfiderable. He mentions that the air of Harthill
near Manchefter and that of Wiltfhire were about the
fame.

The compilers of the Encyclopedia fay; ‘ that the
general mafs remains upon all occafions pretty much the
fame.” And Scheele is much of the fame opinion.

But the accurate Fontana {peaks with more eonfidence,
and is more explicit. His affertions are founded upon
the refult of many experiments, and he is inclined to
believe, that the flight variations mentioned by fome
philofophers, are rather to be attributed ‘< to the fallaci-
ous effects of uncertain methods” than to any real dif-
ference in the air itfelf. He found the air of Iflington
and London to fuffer an equal diminution from the mix~
ture with nitrous air. The air taken at different heights
in London and Paris did not differ in purity. Air at the
height of 313 and 202 feet in London, differed fcarcely
at all; and no difference was perceptible between the air
of thefe heights and that of the ftreet adjoining,

The more I refle& on this fubje&t, the more I am in-
clined to adopt the following fentiment of this laft men-

; tioned

266 EXPERIMENTS ann OBSERVATIONS

tioned gentleman ; viz. ‘* The difference in the purity
of the air at different times, is much greater than the
difference between the air of the different places.” In-
deed moft of the experiments related by Dr. Ingenhoufz
alfo tend to confirm it. In general the difference in the
air of different places at the fame time was by no means
confiderable.

I fhall now with more confidence relate the experi-
ments I myfelf performed: but previous to this recital
I fhall give a brief account of the method | purfued.

It is neceflary to remark, that every experiment I fhall
relate is the refult of at leaft two different trials.

Moft authors who have engaged in this fubject ufed
eudiometers of a different conftruction; I adopted the
moit fimple as the beft. Thofe who defire a particular
defcription of thefe inftruments may be fatisfied by re-
ferring to the Encyclopedia and different parts of Dr.
Prieftley’s Treatife on Air. Mine is as follows ;*

I had a glafs tube about 14 inches in length, and in
- diameter nearly half an inch, provided with a graduated
fcale, made fo as to flide upon the tube up or down as
occafion required, ‘This fcale was divided into one hun-
dred equal parts.

My meafure was a {mall fmelling bottle, containing
3). and gr. xvj. of clear pump water. The fpace occu-
pied in the tube by a bulk of air which this meafured,

* The atmofphere is proved by inconteftable experiments to confift in
general of,
Oxygen gas 0.27
Azotic gas c.72 and
Carbonic acid 0.01.

Tt is a fa& well known to chemifts, that nitious air will combine with
oxygen gas and form a compound, viz. the nitric acid. As thefe two gafes
combine they aflume a ftate approaching nearer to that of a folid and cenfe-
quently occupy lefs fpace than they did before their union. Upon this
diminution of bulk depends our eftimation of the purity of the air. The
greater the contraction, the purer we fuppofe the air under tuial.

could

on LAND’ any: SEA AIR, 267
could contain was equal to the hundred divifions of the
graduated f{cale.

My water trough on botrd of the fhip was the com-
mion water bucket; on fhore it was a common houfe
bucket or tub.

The nitrous gas was prepared from diluted nitric acid
and brafs filings.

At fea l ufed fea water in the trough; on land com-
mon pump water: for from different trials made by
Dr. Ingenhoufz it is evident this circumftance could not
produce a variation in the refult of the experiments.

My method of operating is as follows: After having
introduced two meafures of the air, whofe purity I de-
fired to afcertain, into the glafs tube, I introduce one
meafure of nitrous gas ; then, fuffering the tube to remain
undifturbed for about a minute, I noted down how far
the water afcended without agitation ; this is what I have
called, upon mixture: I then agitated the tube three fuc-
ceffive times, after the manner of M. de Sauffure, and
noted how high the water rofe. In many inftances I
added a fecond meafure of nitrous gas, and thereby com-
pletely faturated the air under examination.

1 was particularly cautious of avoiding miftakes from
hurry or inattention, and took fome pains to guard
againft all the circumftances Dr. Ingenhou{fz mentions
as liable to produce a variation in the refult of experi-
ments of this kind.

My firft experiment on land air was performed Au-
guft 2d, 1796. ‘Two meafures of air in the yard of my
lodging, when mixed with one meature of nitrous air, left
upon mixture 2.48 of a meafure; and after fhaking the

tube 1.79. I then added another meafure of nitrous air
and 2.65 remained.

Ithen fubmitted air to the teft of the eudiometer which
I had previoufly colleéted in different ftreets of this city,

z) Viz

268 EXPERIMENTS sanp OBSERVATIONS

viz. in Water between Market and Arch Streets; in
» Spruce near Fourth Street ; in Chefnut near Fifth ; and, in
Market between Second and Third Streets. Each of
thefe airs gave nearly the fame refult, and generally agreed
with that of the air of the yard of my lodging: None
of the experiments fhew a difference of 0.02 of a meature.

Similar experiments I have fince repeated and the re-
fult was the fame.

Auguft 3d. I collected air on the top of the hill where-
upon Dr. Smith’s Obfervatory ftands at the Falls of
Schuylkill, five miles from Philadelphia. In another
phial i received air from above the middle of the road
dire@ly at the foot of the hill. And immediately on my ~
return home | fubmitted them and the air of the yard to
experiment and found them to agree exactly as follows ;
Upon mixture 2.48
After fhaking the tube 1.78 and upon adding a fecond
meafure of nitrous air 2.63 remained.

Auguft 5th. I collected air from above two different
marfhy fituations immediately below the rope-walks to
the fouth of this city. It is of confequence to remark
that thefe marfhes are overflowed by the tide. Another
phial I filled immediately before entering the city in Front
Street. Thefe airs fuffered an equal diminution from a
mixture of nitrous gas, viz. 2.47 upon mixture; after
fhaking the tube 1.79; and after adding a fecond mea=
fure of nitrous gas 2.64 remained.

The air near my lodging yielded upon mixture 2.49;
after fhaking the tube 1.78; and upon the addition of a
fecond meafure of nitrous gas 2.62.

I performed fome experiments on air collected in other
fituations about the city ; but, finding the refult fo much the
fame as thofe above related, I did not make any note of
them, and remain perfe€tly fatisfied that Fontana’s af-
fertion is well founded.

4 To

.

On LAND anp SEA AIR. 269

To thefe experiments I will fubjoin thofe I made on the
ocean during a paflage from Bourdeaux to Philadelphia.
It appeared to me preferable to connect them in the form
of a table, as thereby I fhould avoid a needlefs repetition ;
and place before the reader a fhort though accurate view
of all the experiments at the fame time.

The experiments I performed on the River Elk and
Bay of Chefapeak perfely agree with each other; and
the refult was the fame with thofe performed on the 7th
of July &c. as mentioned in the table. The wind blew
from the North and the {ky was partially cloudy. They
were performed in Auguft laft.

My experiments at fea fufficiently prove that the at-
mofphere is confiderably purer there than it is on land.
Though there are fome trifling differences in the refults
of feveral experiments, [ have no reafon to believe that
they were owing to the different fituation in point of la-
titude or longitude in which they were performed. I
can form no fyftem refpeQting fuch variations. Winds,
temperature, rain, &c. do not feem to have produced
them. As they did not obferve any regularity in their
occurrence, they may perhaps be attributed to certain un-
perceived errors which are unavoidably attendant on fuch
trials,

That the air at fea fhould appear nearly of the fame
purity in different latitudes does by no means aftonifh
me; for if land air has certain matters mixed with it
they are perhaps abforbed ; and if my fuppofition be true,
that the influence of the Sun’s rays on the water tends to
encreafe its purity, the opinion | enter‘ain is not furprif-
ing. For when once purified, there are perhaps none, or
few caufes to render the air noxious after it is wafted from
our towns and cities over a large body of water.

It occurred to me that probably the purity of the air
at fea varied at different periods of the day: to fatisfy

M m myfelf

270 EXPERIMENTS any OBSERVATIONS

myfelf on this point L made feveral trials on the roth
and 17 sth of June laft. On the roth I performed them at
) Berek A. M. at rg, and at’6 o'clock P.M. On the

sth atg A. M. and at 12 o'clock. ‘The tefult of all the
experiment s of the fame day was exactly fimilar, at leaft
not perceptibly different.

Whether or not fea air might be rendered more pure
by agitation with water, appeared to me to be a queiflion
worthy of being afcertained. Particularly as fome cele-
brated men reafon that it has this effet, and muit hence
be looked upon as one of the greateit refources which
we have for purifying the atmofphere. sir John Prin-
Be and Dr. Ingenhoulz are of this opinion. But fome

f Dr. Priefiley’s Saas late feem to contradidt it ;.and
fo does the following aflertion of the celebrated Scheele,
who fays; ‘‘ L’air ne s’unit pas avec Peau commune.”
Traité de Pair and du feu, p. 51.

My experiments on this head are.as follow: On the
26th and 28th of June, the 2d and 5th of July, equal
bulks of fea water and air were agitated for half an hour
in my cudiometer tube; but I never difcovered any ab-
forption to have taken. place ; neither was the air rendered
" purer, as was evident from a mixture with nitrous air.

It new appeared probable to me that fea water was
already faturated with all the gafeous particles it could
abforb ; and that frefh water nen agitated with fea air
might diminifh its bulk or alter its purity. In confe-
quence of this fuppofition, equal bulks of fea air and
frefh water’were agitated as above; but it was not in the
leaft altered. Not entirely fatished of the fallacy of my”
conjecture, I boiled"fea water a fufficient time to purge
it of the air it might contain.’ | then agitated fea air with
“this boiled water as above mentioned and found no dif

ference in refult from the other experiments. ‘Theie re-
fults tend to confirm me in my belief that if fea water
I », purifies

On LAND anv SEA AIR. 271

purifies the air, it is rather by adding a fomewhat than

by abforbing any confiderable quantity of. effluvia float-
" ing therein. Though by this I do not mean to fay that
certain matters foreign to our atmofphere do not float

therein on land. If they exift, per a they may be fub-
jet to abforption by water.

TABLE

EXPERIMENTS anp OBSERVATIONS

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Ox a NEW SPECIES or SIREN. 2

NI
MS

Neo. XXXHAL.

Tranflation of a Memoir on a new Species of Siren. By
M. de BEauvols. ;

Read Feb. A et ae, animals properly fo called,
1)» 1796. fo dreadful and hideous to the vulgar, but
fo different to the eyes of the naturalift to whom all
the productions of nature are equally interefting, offer
us an infinite {cope for difcovery. Naturalifts therefore
not {topped by the thoughtlefs repugnance of-the vulgar
to animals infinitely lels dangerous than they fappole,
and confiderably more ufeful than ignorance (which is
continually afking to what purpofe are all thefe things)
can imagine ; nafiwalifts Ifay have left us data refpedine
thefe beings, which with time, muft lead us to a more
correct knowledge of, and a more intimate acquaintance
with them. ‘The animal to be treated of in this memoir
is a proof of what I advance.

In examining Mr. Peale’s collection, I had occafion
to remark amongft the amphibie one which | have not
feen defcribed by any author. It appeared to me entire-
ly new, and the more interefting as tending to determine
our ideas of the Inguana, which has by fome been claffed
amongft the amphibix, by others with fifh; but which
we find to be an intermediate clafs connecting thele
two.

After having examined, defcribed, and drawn this
new animal, Mr. Peale and I have thought proper to
{peak of it to this Society before the publication of his
catalogue which will foon take place.

Linnzus, the celebrated Linnzeus, whom jealoufy is
fometimes pleafed to criticife generally without caufe;
Linnzus whofe errors, always exaggerated by his detrac-

Oo tors,

ane On « NEW SPECIES or SIREN.

tors, are (let my admiration for the merits of this great
man excule the expreffion) for the greater part marked
with a ray of genius; Linneus 1 fay had formed a
feparate order of the Inguana (A) difcovered in South
Carolina by Dr. Garden, fince whofe death other natu-
ralifts amongft whom was Mr. Compfer, (B) have made
fome new obfervations refpecting it. It was regarded
by him, Bonnaterre, (B) and Gmelin the laft editor of
the works of Linnzus asa fifth. The latter naturalift
confequently fupprefied the order of Meantes; and the
Siren lacertina is now found placed amongft the Mu-
vena under the name of Murena Siren. Although this
animal has much analogy to a fifth, being furnifhed with
gills, Gmelin has obferved that in the formation of
them, the Inguana and Murena are diftinguifhable by
the numbers. of rays. He therefore fuppofes it fhould
be placed amongft the branchioflege whatever relation
it might otherwife have with the Murzena.

Such is the laft opinion refpeCting the Inguana (C)}
of which we will give a defcription in order that we
may compare it with that of the new animal which
is principally the object of this memoir.

Defcription of ihe Inguana, called Mud Inguana by the Americans,
Siren lacertina by Linnaus, and Murena Siren by Gmelin.

Head flat at top, rounded at the nofe, eyes fmall, nof-
trils fmall and placed near the end of the {nout which is.
fometimes marked with a brown {pot, colour chefnut, fig.
bie Aik Syl of ;

Mouth furnifhed with a row of fmall teeth, fig. 2.
J\uricular hole nearly in the form of a femicircle, fur-
nifhed on the exterior with three fhort, thick fringed
Aobes adhering to three ferrated rays on the interior with
epercula, fig. 1. E,

Only

On a NEW SPECIES or SIREN. 279

Only two fhort fore feet, each furnifhed with four toes
terminated each by a fmall fharp nail, fig. 1. F.

Body nearly round, /brunk, and ftreaked on the fides,
covered with {mall fcales thinly {pread and faintly feen,
G41, G.

Tail flat, furnifhed both above and below with a fimple
meinbrane, without either points or prickles, fig. 1. H.

SS

Defcription of a New Animal, found in a Swamp in Ferfey near
the Delaware, not very diftant from the Middle Ferry oppofite
the City of Philadelphia.

HEAD flat, rounded at its extremity, eyes and nof-
trils as in the former, except that the latter are rather
nearer together, fig. 3. ABCD.

Mouth large, extending further back than the eyes,
furnifhed with a row of {mall teeth as in the former,
fie. 3448.

Auricular hole large, bordered on the upper part by
three fharp fringed lobes, adhering at one end to three
ferrated rays placed in the interior and of which they are
a continuation, fig. 3. F.

_~ Underthe head two opercula united, forming but one

piece, fig. 4. Four feet, thofe before furnifhed with four
toes, thofe behind with five. I prefume they were fur-
nifhed with nails, the animal being preferved in fpirits
of wine has been fomewhat changed in its parts,
ae ga

“Body fomewhat flattened, ftreaked on the fides, flat-
teit above and below ; which gives it a fquare appearance,
fig.3..G.

Tail flat, furnifhed on the top with a fimple membrane,
which commences nearly at the neck, and extends itfelf
under the tail as far as the anus, fig. 3. H.

O02 Mr.

280 On a NEW SPECIES or SIREN,

Mr. Peale has preferved the latter animal alive in water
for nearly thirty fix hours, at the end of which time it

died. He obferved, that as long as it lived it continued

fwimming, making ‘ule of its feet and principally of its
tail; that “the lobes which terminate the gills were con-

tinually floating and in motion; either, by a power of

motion belonging to them, or perhaps rather the effeQ of
the motion which the animal caufed with its feet and
tail, and which was communicated to all parts of the
body. He does not recolleé&t whether the opercu/a opened
and clofed as in fith, but judging from the conformation
of thofe parts I am led to believe they do not.

As long as the Inguana only, was known, incertitude
refpecting i its nature might have placed it rather with fith,
to which it is true it bears an affinity by an effential cha-
racter, gills, than with the amphibize to which it feems
to belong by all the other parts of its body. But now a
new individual of the fame kind, furnifhed with four feet
like lizards, feems to indicate that it cannot belong to fith.

On this difcovery three very important queftions arife.
1 do not flatter myfelf I fhall be able to refolve them, but

will endeavour to difcufs them and give my opinion.

Are thefe animals fith? Do they belong. to the am-

_ phibie? Or do they form in the order of nature a new,
‘intermediate clafs. .%

If we form our opinion of the animals we have been
defcribing merely from their gills , # a not a doubt.
but that we muift confide er the em a
D’azir and D’Aubenton, “aferibe th
to fifh, That they are furnithed w ith eile Disk give ad-
mittance to the air, that they have not lung 38) ‘vifcera
which are wanting in all oviparous animals, except birds

and the amphibix. But if we judge from the entire . a

conformation of all their parts, can we call thofe ani-

mals fifh whofe bodies, head, tails, and feet are fimilar ?

to

»

Pas

— , A
ak

On a NEW SPECIES or SIREN. 281

to thofe of lizards? Can we fay with Gmelin that the
feet of the Inguana are but digitated peCtoral fins? andin
defcribing the new animal upon the fame principles, fhall
we call its hind feet digitated abdominal fins? On the
other fide fhall we rank animals whofe gills are exaGly
fimilar to thofe of fifh with lizards? No. I think that
both thefe opinions would be equally improper ; and it ap-
pears to me more natural to believe that thefe animals thus
organized, appertaining in acertain degree to each, fhould
form an intermediate and well marked clafs between li-
zards and fifh. And until more obfervations be made,
and other difcoveries of new individuals fhall enable us to
form this clafs, I think it would be beft to revive the order
of Meantes eftablifhed by Linnzus, and improperly fup-
prefled by other naturalifts.

{t remains to confider whether thefe animals are of the
fame, or whether they form between themfelves a diftin&
genus. It is certain that in comparing them, fenfible dif-
ference may be obferved ; but thefe differences appear on-
ly fpecific, and fhould yield to the common charaéter of
having three exterior fringed lobes attached to three fer-
rated interior rays, and feet. I will call the firft then,
with Linnzus, Siren Lacertina, and the other Siren oper-
culata.

( 288 )

No. XXXIV.

An Attempt to inveftigate the Caufes why the Winters in
North America are colder than the Winters in Europe,
in the fame Latitudes ; and why the Eaftern fides of both
the Northern Continents are colder than the Weftern,
By Dr. Witit1Am BARNWELL Should have been
inferted here, and fome part of it was printed; but in
the time of the Yellow Fever the copy was miflaid and
it was unavoidably poftponed. ;

[ 289 J

N°. XXXV.

Obfervations intended to favour a fuppofition that the Black
Color (as it is called) of the Negroes 1s derived from the
Leprosy. By Dr. BenyaMin Rusu.

Read at a Special cp Oe SMITH in his elegant and inge-

snp uly 2494792, nious Effay upon the Variety of Co-
lor and Figure in the Human Species has derived it from
four caufes, viz. climate, diet, ftate of fociety, and
difeafes. I admit the Doétor’s facts, and reafonings as
far as he has extended them, in the fulleft manner. 1 fhall
only add to them a few obfervations which are intended
to prove that the color and figure of that part of our fel-
low creatures who are known by the epithet of negroes,
are derived from a modification of. that difeafe, which is
known by the name of Leprofy.

Many facts recorded by hiftorians, as well as phyficians
fhow the influence of unwholfome diet in having produc-
ed the leprofy in the middle and northern parts of Europe
in the 13th and r4th centuries. The fame caufe, com-
bined with greater heat, more favage manners, and bili-
ous fevers, probably produced this difeafe in the fkin
among the natives of Africa. But I will not reft the
proofs of the color and figure of the negroes being a le-
profy fimply upon its caufes. Other circumftances make
it much more probable. I fhall briefly enumerate them.

1. The leprofy is accompanied in fome inftances with
a black color of the fkin. Of this I have met with a
fatistatory proof in Dr. Theiry’s account of the difeafes
of Afturiain Spain. I fhall infert.a tranflation of his own
words upon this fubje@t. ‘‘ There are (fays this excellent
phyfician) above twenty hofpitals for lepers in this pro-
vince, and | have obferved fix fpecies of the diforder.

Ong One

290 On tHe BLACK COLOR

One of them, viz. the fecond, is called the dlack albaras
of the Arabians. The fkin becomes black, thick and
greafey.—There are neither puftules, nor turbercles, nor
fcales, nor any thing out of the way on the fkin. The
bedy is not in the leaft emaciated. The breathing is a
little difficult, and the countenance has fome fiercenefs in’
it. They exhale perpetually a peculiar and difagreeable
fmell, which ] can compare to nothing but the {mell of
a mortified limb.”* This fmell mentioned by Dr. Theiry
continues with a {mall modification in the native African
to this day.

2. The leprofy is defcribed in the Old Teftament, and
by many ancient writers as imparting a preternatural white-
nefs to the fkin. Perfons thus marked, have lately re-
ceived the name of a/banos. Solitary inftances of this
difeafe are often met with it upon the Alps, but travellers
tell us that it is one of the endemics of Java, Guinea and
Panama where it is perpetuated through many generations.
Mr. Hawkins in his travels into the interior parts of Africa
has defcribed the perfons afflicted with this difeafe in the
following words. “ They go entirely naked; their fkin
is white, but has not that animated appearance fo percep-
tible in Europeans. It has a dull deathlike whitith caft
that conveys an idea more of ficknefs, than of health.
Their hair is red, or afhes-coloured, yellowifh wool,
and their eyes are uniformly white, in that part by which
others are diftinguifhed into the black, grey and blue
eyes. They are fet deep in the head, and very common-
ly fquint, for as their fkin is deprived of the black muc-
ous web, the diftinguifhing charatteriftic of thefe Afri-
cans, fo their eyes are deftitute of that black matter re-
fembling a pigment, fo univerfally found in people of all

* Obfervations de Phyfique et de Medecine faites en differens lieux de
VEfpagne. Vol. ii. p, 130.
coun=

Or tHe NEGROES. 291

countries, and fo ufeful in preventing the eye from being in-
jured in cafes of expofure to ftrong light.”* This artlefs
traveller does not {top here. The idea of this peculiarity
in the color and features of thefe people being a difeafe, and
~ even its fpecific nature did not efcape him, hence he adds
_‘«* Thefe people rendered unfortunate by the prejudices of
their countrymen, are born of black parents; they have
all the features of other inhabitants, but differ from them
only in the above circumftances. The difference of color
cannot arife from the intercourfe of whites and blacks,
for the whites are very rarely among them, and the re-
fult of this union is well known to be the yellow color,
or mulatto. Many of the natives affert that they are
produced by the women being debauched in the woods
by the large baboon, ourang-outang, and by that {pecies
in particular called the guaga mooroos. No fatisfactory
difcovery has been made to account for fuch fingular, but
not unfrequent phenomena in the fpecies. It may per-
haps be afcribed to difeafe, and that of the /eprous kind,
with more reafon than to any other caufe that has been
yet afligned.”>+ Mr. Bernardin concurs with Mr. Haw-
kins in afcribing this morbid whitenefs in the {kins of the
Africans wholly to the leprofy.{ However oppofed it
may be to their morbid blacknefs, it is in ftri€&t conformi-
ty to the operations of nature in other difeafes. The
fame ftate of malignant fever is often marked by oppofite
colors in the ftools, by an oppofite temperature of the
fkin, and by oppofite ftates of the alimentary canal.

The original conneétion of the black color of the ne-
groes with the leprofy is further fuggefted by the following
fact taken from Bougainville’s voyage round the world.§

eta LTO... 1.07,
Tete tly. 118.
f Studies of Nature, vol. ii. p. 2.

§ Page 294.
Qq2 He

292 On roe BLACK COLOR

He tells us that on an ifland in the Pacific Ocean which he
vifited, the inhabitants were compofed of negroes and mu-
lattoes. They had thick lips, woolly hair, and were fome-
times of a yellowith color. They were fhort, ugly, ill
proportioned, and moft of them infected with the leprofy,
a circumftance from which he called the ifland they inha-
bit, the Ifle of Lepers.

3. The leprofy fometimes appears with white and black
{pots blended together in every part of the body. A pic-
ture of anegro man in Virginia in whom this mixture of
white and black had taken place, has been happily preferv-
ed by Mr. Peale in his mufeum.

4. ‘The leprofy induces a morbid infenfibility in the
nerves. In countries where the difeafe prevails, it is com-
mon to fay that a perfon devoid of fenfibility, has no more
feeling than a leper. This infenfibility belongs in a pecu-
liar manner to the negroes. Dr. Mofeley fays, ‘‘ they are
void of fenfibility to a furprizing degree. They fleep found
in every difeafe, nor does any mental difturbance ever keep
them awake. They bear furgical operations much better
than white people, and what would be a caufe of infup-
portable pain to a white man, anegro would almoft difre-
gard. I have amputated the legs of many negroes, who
have held the upper part of the limb themfelves.”* This
morbid infenfibility in the negroes difcovers itfelf further in
the apathy with which they expofe themfelves to great
heat, and the indifference with which they handle coals of
fire.

5. Lepers are remarkable for having ftrong venereal defires.
This is univerfal among the negroes, hence their uncom-
mon fruitfulnefs when they are not depreffed by flavery ;
but even flavery in its worft {tate does not always fubdue
the venereal appetite, for after whole days, fpent in hard

* Treatife upon Tropical Difeafes, p. 475.
labor

Or THE NEGROES. 293

jabor in a hot funin the Weft Indies, the black men often
walk five or fix miles to comply with a venereal affigna-
tion. ~

6. The big lip, and flat nofe fo univerfal among the ne-
groes, are fymptoms of the leprofy. I have more than
once feen them in the Pennfylvania hofpital.

7. The woolly heads of the negroes cannot be accounted
for from climate, diet, ftate of fociety, or bilious difeafes,
for all thofe circumftances, when combined have not pro-
duced it in the natives of Afia and America who inhabit
fimilar latitudes. Wool is peculiar to the negro. Here
the proofs of fimilarity in the fymptoms of leprofy, and in
the peculiarities of the negro body appear to fail, but there
isa tact inthe hiftory of the leprofy which will probably
throw fome light upon this part of our fubje@t. The Tri-
choma, or Plica Polonica of the Poles is a fymptom of le-
profy. This is evident not only from the caufes which
originally produced it, but from its fymptoms as defcribed
in a late publication by F. L. De La Fontaine.* From this
fact it would feem that the leprofy had found its way to the
covering of the head, and from the variety of its effe€’s up-
onthe fkin, I fee no difficulty in admitting that it may as
readily have produced wool upon the head of a negro, as
matted hair upon the head of the Poles.

But how fhall we account for the long duration of this co-
jor of the {kin through fo many generations and even ages ?
—1 anfwer—t. That the leprofy is the moft durable in its
defcent to pofterity, and the moft indeftrudtable in its na-
ture of any difeafe we are acquainted with. In Iceland Dr.
Van Troil tells us, it often difappears in the fecond and
third, and appears in the fourth generation.+ 2dly. No
more happens here than what happens to many nations

* Surgical and medical treatifes upon various fubjects refpeting Poland
+ Letters on Iceland, p. 122. 5 eum

whoa

204 On tHe BLACK COLOR

who are diftinguifhed by a peculiarity of figure, in any part
of the body. Many of the inhabitants of the highlands of
Scotland, have the fame red hair, and the fame high cheek
bones which are afcribed to their anceftors by Tacitus after
the invafion of Britain. Even the tumors in the throat in the
Cretins who inhabit the Alps, are tranfmitted from father
to fon, through a long fucceffion of generations. Madnefs,
and confumption in like manner are hereditary in many fa-
milies, both of which occupy parts of the body, much more
liable to change in fucceflive generations, than the fkin.

Should it be objected to this theory that the leprofy is
an infectious diforder, but that no infectious quality exifts
in the {kin of the negro, I would reply to fuch objection by
remarking in the firft place, that the leprofy has in a great
degree ceafed to be infectious, more efpecially from con-
tact, and fecondly that there are inftances in which fome-
thing like an infeétious quality has appeared in the fkin of
a negro. A white woman in North Carolina not only ac-
quired a dark color, but feveral of the features of a negro,
by marrying and living with a black hufband. A fimilar
inftance of a change in the color and features of a woman in
Buck’s county in Pennfylvania has been obferved and from
a fimilar caufe. In both thefe cafes, the women bore chil-
dren by their black hufbands,

It is no objeCtion to the theory I have attempted to efta-
blifh, that the negroes are as healthy, and long lived as the
white people. Local difeafes of the fkin feldom affe& the
general health of the body, or the duration of human life.
Dr. Theiry remarks that the itch, and even the leprofy,
did not impair longevity in thofe people who lived near
the fea-fhore in the healthy climate of Galicia.* —

The facts and principles which I have delivered, lead to
the following refleGtions.

* Vol. II. p. 171.
1. That

Or tHe NEGROES. 295

1. That all the claims of fuperiority of the whites over
the blacks, on account of their color, are founded alike in
ignorance andinhumanity. If the color of the negroes be
the effe& of a difeafe, inftead of inviting us to tyrannife
over them, it fhould entitle them to a double portion of our
humanity, for difeafe all over the world has always been
the fignal for immediate and univerfal compaffion.

2. The faéts and principles which have been delivered,
fhould teach white people the neceflity of keeping up that
prejudice againft fuch conneétions with them, as would
tend to infect pofterity with any portion of their diforder.
This may be done upon the ground | have mentioned with-
out offering violence to humanity, or calling in queftion
the famenefs of defcent, or natural equality of mankind.

3. Is the color of the negroes a difeafe? Then let {cience
and humanity combine their efforts, and endeavour to
difcover a remedy for it. Nature has lately unfurled a
banner upon this fubject. She has begun fpontaneous
cures of this difeafe in feveral black people in this country.
In a certain Henry Mofs who lately travelled through
this city, and was exhibited as a fhow for money, the
cure was nearly complete. The change from black to a
natural white flefh color began about five years ago at the
ends of his fingers, and has extended gradually over the
greateft part of his body. The wool which formerly
perforated the cuticle has been changed into hair. No
change in the diet, drinks, drefs, employments, or fitua-
tion of this man had taken place previoufly to this change
in his fkin. But this faét does not militate againft arti-
ficial attempts to diflodge the color in negroes, any more
than the fpontaneous cures of many other difeafes mili-
tate againft the ufe of medicine in the praCtice of phyfic.
To direct our experiments upon this fubject I fhall throw
out the following facts.

1. In

296 On tor BLACK COLOR

1. In Henry Mofs the color was firft difcharged from
the fkin in thofe places, on which there was moft preflure
from cloathing, and moft attrition from labor, as on the
trunk of his body, and on his fingers. The defiru€tion
of the black color was probably occafioned by the abforp-
tion of the coloring matter of the rete mucofum, or per-
haps of the rete mucofum itfelf, for preffure and friction
it is well known aid the abforbing action of the lymphatics
in every part of the body. It is from the latter caufe,
that the palms of the hands of negro women who fpend
their lives at a wathing tub, are generally as fair as the
palms of the hands in labouring white people.

2. Depletion, whether by bleeding, purging, or abfti-
nence has been often obferved to leffen the black color in
negroes. The effects of the above remedies in curing the
common leprofy, fatisfy me that they might be ufed with
advantage in that ftate of leprofy which I conceive to ex-
ift in the fkin of the negroes.

3. A fimilar change in the color of the negroes, though
of a more temporary nature, has often been obferved in
them from the influence of fear.

4. Dr. Beddoes tells us that he has difcharged the color
in the black wool of a negro by infufing it in the oxyge-
nated muriatic acid, and leffened it by the fame means in
the hand of anegro man. ‘The land-cloud of Africa call-
ed by the Portuguefe Ferrino Mr. Hawkins tells us has a
peculiar aflion upon the negroes in changing the black
color of thew fkins to a dufky grey.* Its ation is ac-
companied, he fays, with an itching and prickling fenfation
upon every part of the body which increafes with the
length of expofure to it fo as to be almoft intolerable. It
is probably air of the carbonic kind, for it uniformly ex-
tinguithes fire.

5. AN

OR, eeu seks

Or Tur NEGROES. 297

5. A citizen of Philadelphia upon whofe veracity I
have perfect reliance,* affured me that he had once feen
the {kin of one fide of the cheek inclining to the chin,
and of part of the hand in a negro boy, changed to a
white color by the juice of unripe peaches (of which he
ate a large quantity every year) falling, and refting fre-
quently upon thofe parts of his body.

To encourage attempts to cure this difeafe of the fkin
in negroes, let us recollect that. by fucceeding in them,
we fhall produce a large portion of happinefs in the world.
We {hall in the firft place deftroy one of the arguments
in favor of enflaving the negroes, for their color has been
fuppofed by the ignorant to mark them as objects of di-
vine judgments, and by the learned to qualify them for
labor in hot, and unwholfome climates.

Secondly, We thall add greatly to their happinefs, for
however well they appear to be fatisfied with their color,
there are many proofs of their preferring that of the
white people.

Thirdly, We fhall render the belief of the whole hu-
man race being defcended from one pair, eafy, and uni-
verfal, and thereby not only add weight to the Chriftian
revelation, but remove a material obftacle to the exercife
of that univerfal benevolence which is inculcated by it.

June 17, 1797

* Mr. Thomas Harrifon.

298 An IMPROVEMENT in BOATS,

No. XXXVI.

An Improvement in Boats, for River-Navigation, defcribed
in a Letter to Mr. Roperr PatTTexson, by NI-
cHoLAs Kine.

City of Wafhington, Sept. 28, 1797.
SIR,
Read Nov. Ae furveyor of the city of Wafhington I was

UH, 1797- called upon, this fpring, to afcertain the
difference of level, and the diftances along the courfe of
the intended canal at the Great Falls of the Potomac ; that
the lock-feats might be fixed, and the neceflary excava-
tions made. While engaged in this bufinefs, my thoughts
were unavoidably led to the confideration of the moft
elegible mode of navigating the American rivers above
tide-water; and in fituations fimilar to this, where the
falls are large and impaflable, what mode might be adopt-
ed to facilitate the navigation, with the leaft expence to
the perfons interefted therein.

The nature of the country, the rugged courfes of moft
of the rivers, and the fudden {wells they are liable to,
from the heavy rains, render the lock-navigation, with
towing-paths along the banks of the rivers, as in Europe,
in moft cafes impracticable, or very expenfive. Nature
feems here to have precluded the inhabitants from other
affiftance in navigating rivers, than manual labour, expen-
five and tedious. The difficulties attending the naviga-
tion of our rivers, againft the current are fuch as to render
them much lefs ferviceable than rivers in general are ; and
you are under the neceflity of having the boats of great
length and narrow ; and of fending with them double the
number of hands required to navigate them when loaded,
in order to enable them to /é¢ the boat up againft the cur-

rent

*For RIVER NAVIGATION. 299

rent on their return. Thefe boats are more difficult to
fteer and manage, in intricate and rapid parts of the rivers,
on account of their length ; are fubject to receive damage
from ftriking on rocks and fand-banks, and from the
uneven furface and motion of the water where the defcent
is rapid, or the weather boifterous; and frequently get
twifted and ruined when the water fubfides and leaves
them on the fhore.

Suppofing that the lock-navigation, or overcoming the
defcent of the river by means of locks, could be generally
reduced to practice, yet the length of thefe locks, in pro-
portion to the tonnage of the boats, would render the
expence of their conftruction more than the revenue arif-
ing from the tolls would warrant: but few indeed are the
rivers in which the navigation by locks is practicable, on
account of the rapidity of the waters and violence of the
frefhes. Hence it follows, that notwithftanding this has
hitherto been the moft prevalent mode of overcoming
fuch obftructions in rivers, it ought not to be attempted
here, if better modes can be pointed out.

The improvements which have been made in canal-
navigation within thefe few years in England and other
parts of Europe, have, in my opinion, furnifhed us with
the means of overcoming, at a little expence, the prefent
impediments to our inland navigation ; and, by facilitating
the intercourfe, of joining the people of the United States
in bonds more indiffoluble than thofe formed by legiflative
acts. Among the foremoft of thefe improvements is that
of inclined planes, over which the boat and cargo are car-
ried from one level to the other. Thefe are conftrudted at
much lefs expence than locks generally are; may be ren-
dered more durable, and are the means of overcoming the
greateft difference of level; as it is attended with very
little more labour or wafte of time to afcend one hundred
feet, than to afcend twenty. The machines for tran{port-

Rt’ 2. ing

g00 An IMPROVEMENT m BOATS.

ing boats up thefe acclivities may be conftrudted in fuch
a manner, that the boats may {till continue to float there-
in; and all the danger of their being injured in removing
from the water upon carriages avoided. ‘Thefe things
confidered, it would certainly be highly advantageous to
adopt the inclined plane at fuch places in the rivers of
America as have the navigation thereof impeded by falls;
but the difficulty is, in fo conftru€ting them that boats of
fufficient length to be fet up by men againft the general
current, may be drawn over the plane without injuring
the boat or fhifting the cargo. ‘This cannot be done on
account of the weight of the boats and their cargoes, and
the length of the carriages on which they would have to
be tranfported, as the angle of the carriage muft be equal
to that of the plane or flope on which they had to afcend
or defcend.

The boat hereafter defcribed is defigned to anfwer every
purpofe of the Dwurham-boat, or that at prefent in ufe,
with the advantage of being eafily tranfported along an
inclined furface, fo as to overcome any impediment of
fall in a navigable river without fhifting the cargo, or in-
juring the boat. If it be found to poflefs this advantage,
it will, notwithftanding its novelty, be adopted by an
enterprizing people; and who, from the nature of their
country, are highly interefted in promoting the means of
internal communication.

Experience has proved to the perfons navigating the
rivers in America, that boats from eighty to ninety feet
in length; from fix to eight feet in width, and eighteen
inches or two feet deep, are the moft proper: for, al-
though boats of half that length would be eafier navigated
with the ftream, they could not return on account of theiz
wanting a fufficient walk for the men who pufh them up
againf? it, neceflary to prevent their lofing way by the
action of the ftream. The boat I would recommend in

their.

For RIVER NAVIGATION. 301

their ftead is agreeable to the annexed drawings and de-
{cription :

Fig. 1. Reprefents four boats connected together, fo as
to form a boat of eighty feet in length.

Fig. 2. Shews the fame boats as floating on the water ;
and the flopes of their ends, to admit their rifing or fall-
ing at the joints in rough water, or on ftriking the fand
banks, pafling a ri/?, &c.

Fig. 3. Shews the manner of connecting the boats by
hinges.

by thus dividing the prefent Durham-boat, into four
diftinct ones that may be ufed feparate or connected, at
pleafure, each part, with its loading, may be pafled up
an inclined plane with facility ; as neither its weight nor
length will be fuch as to render the carriage for it unwieldy
or unfafe. When ufed for bringing produce down the
river, it may be divided at the middle, and the two parts,
each forming a boat, navigated by three men, two to row
and one to fteer. By this divifion they will come down
with greater fafety, be more eafily managed in fuch parts
of the river as are difficult of navigation, from rocks,
fands or rapids ; as it is allowed, by all thofe who perform
fuch navigations, that a fhort boat is conducted with infinite-
ly more eafe and fafety than a long one. And as thefe
boats, fingly, are of a length eafily managed, they may be
kept in conftant ufe, in fifhing, ferrying, and the carrying
of articles fhort diftances by oars only, at fuch times as they
are not all wanted in a lengthy tranfportation of commodi-
ties. They will be ftronger with the fame timbers as they
are diminifhed in length ; and ean at any time be eafily
drawn on land for the purpofes of cleaning and repairing.
When we add to thefe, the advantages attendant on this
divifion of the boat, when all the parts are ufed in conjunc-
tion and as one, I believe none will deny it a preference
to thofe of the old conftruction : the benefits arifing from

the

302 An IMPROVEMENT in BOATS, &c.

the length are retained—by being divided and connected
by hinges, each part may rife or fall confiderably without
affeGting the reft, and can yield to the preflure of any ex-
traneous body without endangering the fafety of any part.

If you think the communication of the ideas contained
in this letter will in the leaft contribute to the advantage
of thofe concerned in the internal navigations of America,
it will be an additional motive with me to profecute the
fubje@ ; and in a little time I may be able to give you
drawings of a fimple machine for fetting boats up againft
the ftream, without the violent exertions now required,
and which at the fame time will prevent them from mak-
ing ftern way.

NICHOLAS KING.

Mr. Ropert PATTERSON,
Philadelphia,

General

Caos)
No... Se VIL

General Principles and Conftruction of a Sub-marine Veffel,
communicated by D. Bufhnell of Conneéticut, the inventor,
ina letter of October, 1787, to THOMAS JEFFERSON ¢hen
Miniffer Plenipotentiary of the United States at Paris.

Read June HE external fhape of the fub-marine veffel

By E798 bore fome refemblance to two upper tortoife
fhells of equal fize, joined together; the place of entrance
into the veflel being reprefented by the opening made by the
{well of the fhells, at the head of the animal. The infide
was capable of containing the operator, and air, fufficient
to fupport him thirty minutes without receiving frefh air.
At the bottom oppofite to the entrance was fixed a quanti-
ty of lead for ballaft. At one edge which was dire@tly be-
fore the opefator, who fat upright, was an oar for rowing
forward or backward. At the other edge, was a rudder for
fteering. An aperture, at the bottom, with its valve, was
defigned to admit water, for the purpofe of defcending; and
two brafs forcing-pumps ferved to eje@ the water within,
when neceflary for afcending. Atthetop, there was like-
wile an oar, for afcending or defcending, or continuing at
any particular depth—A water-gauge or barometer, -deter-
mined the depth of defcent, a compafs direéted the courfe,
and a ventilator within, fupplied the veflel with freth air,
when on the furface.

The entrance into the veflel was elliptical, and fo fmall
as barely to admita perfon. This entrance was furrounded
with a broad elliptical iron band, the lower edge of which
was let intothe wood of which the body of the veffel was
made, in fuch a manner, as to give its utmoft fupport to
the body of the veffel againft the preflure of the water.
Above the upper edge of this iron band, there was a brafs
crown, orcover, relembling a hat with its crown and brim,

which

(304)

which fhut water tight upon the iron band: the crown was
hung to the iron band with hinges fo as to turn over fide-
wife, when opened. To make it perfe@ily fecure when
fhut, it might be {crewed down upon the band by the ope-
rator, cr by a perfon without.

‘There were in the brafs crown, three round doors, one
directly in front, and one on each fide, large enough to put
the hand through—when open they admitted freth air; their
ihutters were ground perfe@lly tight into their places with
emery, hung with hinges and fecured in their places when
fhut. There were likewife feveral {mall glafs windows in
the crown, for looking through, and for admitting light in
the day time, with covers to fecure them. There were
two air pipes in the crown. A ventilator within drew
freth air through one of the air pipes, and difcharged it in-
to the lower part of the veflel ; the frefh air introduced by
the ventilator, expelled the impure light air through the
other air pipe. Both air pipes were fo conftructed, that
they fhut themfelves whenever the water rofe near their
tops, fo that no water could enter through them, and open-
ed themfelves immediately after they rofe‘above the water.

The veflel was chiefly ballafted with lead fixed to its
bottom ; when this was not fufficient, a quantity was plac-.
ed within, more or lefs, according to the weight of the ope-
rator; its ballaft made it fo ftiff, that there was no dan-
ger of overfetting. The veffel with all its appendages, and
the operator, was of fufficient weight to fettle it very low
in the water. About two hundred pounds of the lead, at
the bottom, for ballaft, would be let down forty or fifty
feet below the veflel; this enabled the operator to rife in-
{tantly to the furface of the water, in cafe of accident.

When the operator would defcend, he placed his foot
upon the top of a brafs valve, depreffing it, by which he
opened a large aperture in the bottom of the veflel, through
which the water entered at his pleafure ; when he had ad-=

mitted

SUB-MARINE VESSEL. 305

mitted a fufficient quantity, he defcended very gradually; if
he admitted too much, he ejected as much as was neceflary
to obtain an equilibrium, by the two brafs forcing pumps,
which were placed at each hand. Whenever the veflel
leaked, or he would afcend to the (aitace: he alfo made ufe
of thefe forcing pumps. When the fkilful operator had ob-
tained an equilibrium, he could row upward, or down-
ward, or continue at any particular depth, with an oar,
placed near the top of the velfel, formed upon the principle
of the fcrew, the axis of the oar entering the veffel; by
turning the oar one. way, he raifed the veflel, by turning it
the other way he depreffed it.

A glafs tube eighteen inches long, and one inch in dia-
meter, ftanding fipright, its upper end clofed, and its lower
end, which was open, {crewed into a brafs pipe, through
which the external water had a paflage into the glafs tube,
ferved asa water-gauge or barometer. There wasa piece of
cork with phofphorus on it, put into the water-gauge. When
the veflel defcended the water rofe in the water-gauge, con-
denfing the air within, and bearing the cork, with its
phofphorus, on its furface. By the light of the phofpho-
rus, the afcent of the water in the gauge was rendered vifible,
and the depth of the veffel under water afcertained by a
graduated line.

An oar, formed upon the principle of the {crew, was
fixed in the forepart of the veflel; its axis entered the veffel,
and being turned one way, ee the veflel forw os
but being turned the other.way rowed it backward ; it was
made to be turned by the hand or foot.

A rudder, hung to, the hinder part of the veffel, com-
manded it with the greateft eafe. The rudder was made
very elaflic, and might be ufed for rowing forward. Its
tiller was A the veflel, at the operator’s right hand,
fixed, at a right angle, on an iron. rod, which patied
thr ough the fide of the veflel; the rod had a.crank on its

or outlide

306 SUB-MARINE VESSEL.

outfide end, which commanded the rudder, by means of
a rod extending from the end of the crank toa kind of tiller,
fixed upon the left hand of the rudder. Raifing and de-
preffing the firft mentioned tiller turned the rudder as the
cafe required.

A compafs marked with phofphorus dire€ted the courfe,
both above and under the water; and a line and lead
founded the depth when neceflary.

The internal fhape of the veffel, in every poffible feCtion
of it, verged towards an ellipfis, as near as the defign
would allow, but every horizontal feGtion, although ellip-
tical, yet as near to a circle, as could be admitted. The body
of the veffel was made exceedingly ftrong; and to ftrengthen
it as much as poffible, a firm piece of wood was framed,
parallel to the conjugate diameter, to prevent the fides
from yielding to the great preflure of the incumbent water,
in a deepimmerfion. ‘This piece of wood was alfo a feat
for the operator.

Every opening was well fecured. The pumps had two
fets of valves. The aperture at the bottom, for admitting
water, was covered with a plate, perforated full of holes
to receive the water, and prevent any thing from choaking
the paflage, or ftopping the valve from fhutting. The
brafs valve might likewife be forced into its place with a
f{crew, if neceflary. The air pipes had a kind of hollow
fphere, fixed round the top of each, to fecure the air-pipe
valves from injury: thefe hollow fpheres were perforated
full of holes for the paflage of the air through the pipes:
within the air-pipes were fhutters to fecure them, fhould
any accident happen to the pipes, or the valves on their tops.

Wherever the external apparatus pafled through the bo-
dy of the veffel, the joints were round, and formed by
brafs pipes, which were driven into the wood of the veflel,
the holes through the pipes were very exactly made, and
the iron rods, which pafled through them, were turned in

a

SUB-MARINE VESSEL. 307

a lathe to fit them; the joints were alfo kept full of oil, to
prevent ruft and leaking. Particular attention was given to
bring every part, neceflary for performing the operations,
both within and without the veffel, before the operator,
and as conveniently as could be devifed ; fo that every thing
might be found in the dark, except the water-gauge and
the compafs, which were vifible by the light of the phof-
phorus, and nothing required the operator to turn to the
right hand, or to the left, to perform any thing neceflary.

No. 2.

Defcription of a magazine and its appendages, defigned to be
conveyed by the fub-marine veffel to the bottom of a ship.

In the forepart of the brim of the crown of the fub-ma-
rine veflel, was afocket, and an iron tube, paffing through
the focket ; the tube ftood upright, and could flide up and
down in the focket, fix inches: at the top of the tube, was
a wood-ferew (A) fixed by means of a rod, which pafled
through the tube, and fcrewed the wood-fcrew faft upon
the top of the tube: by pufhing the wood-fcrew up againft
the bottom of a fhip, and turning it at the fame time, it
would enter the planks; driving would alfo anfwer the
fame purpofe ; when the wood-{crew was firmly fixed, it
could be caft off by unfcrewing the rod, which faftened it
upon the top of the tube.

Behind the fub-marine veffel, was a place, above the
rudder, for carrying a large powder magazine, this was
made of two pieces of oak timber, large enough when hel-
‘lowed out to contain one hundred and fifty pounds of pow-
der, with the apparatus ufed in firing it, and was fecured
in its place by a fcrew, turned by the operator. A ftrong
piece of rope extended from the magazine to the wood-
fcrew (A) above mentioned, and was faftened to both.

{ 2 When

308 SUB-MARINE VESSEL.

When the wood-fcrew was fixed, and to be caft off from
its tube, the magazine was to Me caft off likewife by un-
{crewing it, leaving it hanging to the wood-ferew ; it was
lighter than the water, that it might rife up againft the ob-
ject, to which the wood-fcrew and itfelf were faftened.

Within the magazine was an apparatus, conftructed to
run any propofed length of time, under twelve hours; when
it had run out its time, it unpinioned a ftrong lock ‘Yefeine
bling a gun lock, which gave fire to the powder. This
apparatus was fo pinioned, that it could not poffibly move,
till, by cafting off the magazine from the vellel, it was fet
in motion.

The fkilful operator could fwim fo low on the furface of
the water, as to approach very near a fhip, in the night,
without fear of being difcovered, and might, if he chofe,
approach the ftem or ftern above water, with very little dan-
ger. He could fink very quickly, keep at any depth he
pleafed, and row a great diftance in any dire@tion ‘he de-
fired, without coming to the furface, and when he rofe to
the furface, he could foon obtain a frefh fupply of air,
when, if neceflary, he might defcend again, and purfue
his courfe. .

No. 3.

Experiments made to prove the nature and ufe of a fub-marine
veffel.

The firft experiment I made, was with about -two
ounces of gun powder, which I exploded 4 feet under wa-
ter, to prove to fome of the firft perfonages in Connecticut,
that powder would take fire under water.

The fecond experiment was made with two pounds of
powder, inclofed in a wooden bottle, and fixed under a
hogfhead, with atwo inch oak plank between the Hee

an

SUB-MARINE VESSEL. 309

and the powder ; the hogfhead was loaded with ftones as
deep as it could fwim ; a wooden pipe defcending through
the lower head of the hogfhead, and through the plank,
into the powder contained in the bottle, was primed with
powder. A match put tothe priming, exploded the pow-
der, which produced a very great effect, rending the plank
into pieces; demolifhing the hogfhead; and cafting the
ftones and the ruins of the hogfhead, with a body of water,
many feet into the air, to the aftonifhment of the fpecta-
tors. This experiment was likewife made for the fatisfac-
tion of the gentlemen above mentioned.

I afterwards made many experiments of a fimilar nature,
fome of them with large quantities of powder ; they
all produced very violent explofions, much more than fuf-
ficient for any purpofe I had in view.

In the firft eflays with the fub-marine veflel, I took care
to prove its {trength to fuftain the great preflure of the in-
cumbent water, when funk deep, before | trufted any per-
fon to defcend much below the furface: and I never fuffer-
ed any perfon to go under water, without having a ftrong
piece of rigging made faft to it, until I found him well ac-
quainted with the operations neceflary for his fafety. Af-
ter that, I made him defcend and continue at particular
depths, without rifing or finking, row by the compafs,
approach a veflel, go under her, and fix the wood—/crew
mentioned in No. 2, and marked A, into her bottom, &c.
until I thought him fufficiently expert to put my defign in-
to execution.

I found, agreeably to my expectations, that it required
many trials to make a perfon of common ingenuity, a
fkilful operator : the firft 1 employed, was very ingenious,
and made himfelf mafter of the bufinefs, but was taken fick
in the campaign of 1776, at New-York, before he had an
opportunity to make ufe of his fkill, and never recovered
his health fufficiently, afterwards.

Experiments

gre SUB-MARINE VESSEE.

Experiments made with a fub-marine veffél.

After various attempts to find an operator to my with, I
fent one who appeared more expert than the reft, from
New-York, to a 50 gun fhip lying not far from Governor’s
Ifland. He went under the fhip, and attempted to fix the
_ wooden fcrew into her bottom, but ftruck, as he fuppofes,
a bar of iron, which pafles from the rudder hinge, and is
fpiked under the fhip’s quarter. Had he moved a few
inches, which he might have done, without rowing, I
have no doubt but he would have found wood where he
might have fixed the ferew; or if the fhip were fheathed
with copper, he might eafily have pierced it: but not be-
ing well fkilled in the management of the veffel, in at-
tempting to move to another place, he loft the fhip; af-
ter feeking her in vain, for fome time, he rowed fome dif-
tance, and rofe to the furface of the water, but found day
light had advanced fo far, that he durft not renew the at-
tempt. He fays that he could eafily have faftened the ma-
gazine under the {tem of the fhip, above water, as he rowed
up to the ftern, and touched it before he defcended. Had
he faftened it there, the explofion of one hundred and fifty
pounds of powder, (the quantity contained in the maga-
zine), muft have been fatal to the fhip. In his return from
the fhip to New-York, he paffed near Governor’s Ifland,
and thought he was difcovered by the enemy, on the ifland ;
being in hafte to avoid the danger he feared, he caft off the
magazine, as he imagined it retarded him in the fwell,
which was very confiderable. After the magazine had been
caft off one hour, the time the internal apparatus was fet to
run, it blew up with great violence.

Afterwards, there were two attempts made in Hudfon’s
river, above the city, but they effeted nothing. One of
them was by the aforementioned perfon. In going to-

wards

SUB-MARINE VESSEL. 31h”

wards the fhip, he loft fight of her, and went a great di-
{tance beyond her: when he at length found her,
the tide ran fo ftrong, that as he defcended under water,
for the fhip’s bottom—it {wept him away. Soon after this,
the enemy went up the river, and purfued the boat which
had the fub-marine veffel on board—and funk it with
their fhot. Though I afterwards recovered the veflel, I found
it impoffible, at that time, to profecute the defign any farther.
I had been in a bad ftate of health, from the beginning
of my undertaking, and was now very unwell; the fitua-
tion of public affairs was fuch, that I defpaired of ob-
taining the public attention, and the affiftance neceflary.
1 was unable to fupport myfelf, and the perfons 1 muft
have employed, had I proceeded. Befides, I found it ab-
folutely neceflary, that the operators fhould acquire more
fkill in the management of the veffel, before 1 could ex-
pect fuccefs ; which would have taken up fome time, and
made no {mall additional expenfe. I therefore gave over
the purfuit for that time, and waited for a more favorable
opportunity, which never arrived.

eEGeeaeaeaeEeEir——

Other Experiments made with a defign to fire Shipping.

In the year 1777, I made an attempt from a whale-
boat, againft the Cerberus frigate, then lying at anchor
between Connecticut river and New London, by drawing
a machine againft her fide, by means of a line. The
machine was loaded with powder, to be exploded by a
gun-lock, which was to be unpinioned by an apparatus,
to be turned by being brought along fide of the frigate.
This machine fell in with a {chooner at anchor, aftern
of the frigate, and concealed from my fight. By fome
meas or other, it was fired, and demolifhed the fchooner

and.

312 SUB-MARINE VESSEL.

and three men—and blew the only one left alive, over-
board, who was taken up very much hurt.

After this, 1 fixed feveral kegs, under water, charged
with powder, to explode upon touching any thing, as
they floated along with the tide: I fet them afloat in the
Delaware, above the Englith fhipping at Philadelphia, in
December, 1777. I was unacquainted with the river,
and obliged to depend upon a gentleman very imperfectly
acquainted with that part of it, as i afterwards found.
We went as near the fhipping as he durft venture; I be-
lieve the darknefs of the night greatly deceived him, as it
did me. We fet them adrift, to fall with the ebb, upon
the fhipping. Had we been within fixty rods, I believe
they muft have fallen in with them immediately, as I de-
figned; but as | afterwards found, they were fet adrift
much too far diftant, and did not arrive, until after be-
ing detained fome time by froft, they advanced in the
day time, ina difperfed fimation, and under great difad-
vantages. One of them blew up a boat, with feveral per-
fons in it, who imprudently handled it too freely, and
thus gave the Britifh that alarm, which brought on the
battle of the Kegs.

The above Veffel, Magazine, &c. were projected in
_the year.1771, but not completed, until the year 1775. —

D. BusHNELL.

The

DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD. 3313

No. XXXVII.
The defcription of a Mould-board of the leaft refifience, and of

the eafielt and moft certain conftruction, taken from a letter
to Sir Fobn Sinclair, Prefident of the board of agriculture

at London.

Philadelphia, March 23, 1798.
Dear Sir,

Read oa | have to acknowledge the receipt of your two fa-
4 1798 BA vours of June 21, and July 15, and of feveral
feparate parcels containing the agricultural reports. Thefe
now form a great mafs of information on a fubjeé, of all
in the world, the moft interefting to man: for none but the
hufbandman makes any thing for him to eat; and he who
can double his food, as your exertions bid fair to do, de-
ferves to rank, among his benefa¢tors, next after his Crea-
tor. Among fo many reports of tranfcendent merit, one is
unwilling to diftinguith particulars. Yet the application of
the new chemiftry, to the fubje&t of manures, the difcuffion
of the queftion on the fize of farms, the treatife on the po-
tatoe, from their univerfality have an advantage in other
countries over thofe which are topographical.. The work
which fhall be formed, as the refult of the whole, we {hall
expect with impatience. :
Permit me, through you, to make here my acknowledg-
ments to the board of agriculture for the honour they have
been pleafed to confer on me by, affociating me to their in-
ftitution. In love for the art, I am truly their aifociate:
but events have controuled my predilection for its practice,
and denied to me that uninterrupted attention, which alone
can enable us to advance in it with a fure ftep. Perhaps I
may find opportunities of being ufeful to you as a centinel
at an outpoft, by conveying intelligence of whatever may
occur here new and interefting to agriculture. This duty I
thall perform with pleafure, as well in refpectful return for the
t notice

314 DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD.

notice of the board, as froma zeal for improving the condi-
tion of human life, by an interchange of its comforts, and
of the information which may increafe them.

* * * * * * * * *%

* . x * * * * * * *

In a former letter to you I mentioned the conftruCion
of the mould-board of a plough which had occurred to me,
as advantageous in its form, as certain and invariable in
the method of obtaining it with precifion. I remember
that Mr. Strickland of York, a member of your board,
was fo well fatisfied with the principles on which it was
formed that he took fome drawings of it ; and fome others
have confidered it with the fame approbation. An experi-
ence of five years has enabled me to fay, it anfwers in
practice to what it promifes in theory. The mould-board
fhould be a continuation of the wing of the ploughfhare,
beginning at its hinder edge, and in the fame plane. Its
firft office is to receive the fod horizontally from the wing,
to raife it to a proper height for being turned over, and
to make, in its progrefs, tae leaf? refiftence pofible; and
confequently to require a minimum in the moving power.
Were this its only office, the wedge would offer itfelf as
the moft * eligible form in practice. But the fod is to be
turned over alfo. To do this, the one edge of it is not
to be raifed at all; for to raife this would be a watte of
labour. ‘The other edge is to be raifed till it paffes the

perpendicular,

* Tam aware that were the turf only #o be raifed to a given height in a
given length of mould-board, and not to be turned over, the form of leaft
‘refiftence would not be rigoroufly a wedge with both faces ftraight, but with
the upper one curved according to the laws of the folid of leaft refiltence
defcribed by the mathematicians. But the difference between the effect of
the curved and of the plain wedge, in the cafe of a mould-board, is fo
minute, and the difficulty in the execution which the former would fuperin-
duce on common workmen is fo great, that the plain wedge is the moft eli~
gible to be affumed in practice for the firft element of our conftruction.

DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD. 315

perpendicylar, that it may fall over with its own weight.
And that this may be done fo as to give alfo the leaft re-
fiftence, it muft be made to rife gradually from the mo-
ment the fod is received. The mould-board then, in this
fecond office, operates as a tranfverfe, or rifing wedge, the
point of which fliding back horizontally on the ground,
the other end continues rifing till it pafles the perpendi-
cular. Or, to vary the point of view, place on the
ground a wedge of the breadth of the ploughfhare, of its
length from the wing backwards, and as high at the heel
as itis wide. Draw a diagonal on its upper face from the
left angle at the point to the right upper angle of the heel.
Bevil the face from the diagonal to the right-bottom-edge
which lies on the ground. That half is then evidently in
the beft form for performing the two offices of railing and
turning the fod gradually, and with the leaft effort: and
if you will fuppofe the fame bevil continued acrofs the
left fide of the diagonal, that is, if you will fuppofe a
ftraight line whofe length is at leaft equal to the breadth of
the wedge, applied on the face of the firft bevil and
moved backwards on it parallel with itfelf and with the
ends of the wedge, the lower end of the line moving
along the right-bottom-edge, a curved plane will be gene-
rated, whofe charaéteriftic will be a combination of the
principle of the wedge in crofs directions, and will give
what we feek, the mou/d-board of leaft refiftence. It offers
too this great advantage, that it may be made by the
coarfeft workman, by a procefs fo exact that its form fhall
never be varied a fingle hair’s breadth. One fault of all
other mould-boards is that, being copied by the eye, no
two will be alike. In truth it is eafier to form the mould-
board I fpeak of with precifion, when the method has
been once feen, than to defcribe that method either by
words or figures. J will attempt however to defcribe
it. Whatever may not be intelligible from the defcrip-
tion may be fupplied from the model | fend you.

se ir! Let

316 DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD.

_ Let the breadth and depth of the furrow the farmer
ufually opens, as alfo the length of his plough-bar, from
where it joins the wing to the hinder end, be given; as
thefe fix the dimenfions of the block of which the mould-
board is to be made. Suppofe the furrow g inches wide,
6 inches deep, and the plough-bar 2 feet long. Then
the block, Fig. 1. muft be g inches |wide at bottom (4. c.)
13% inches wide at top, (a. d.) becaufe if it were merely
of the fame width with the bottom as a. e. the fod, only
raifed to the perpendicular, would fall back into the fur-
row by its own elafticity. I find from experience, that,
in my foil, the top of the mould-board fhould overjet the
perpendicular 44 inches in a height of 12 inches, to
infure that the weight of the fod fhall preponderate over
its elafticity. This is an angle of nearly 22°. The block
mutt be 12 inches high, becaufe, unlefs the mould-board
be in height double the depth of the furrow, in plough-
ing friable earth, it will be thrown in waves over the mould-
board: and it muft be 3 feet long, one foot of which is
added to form a tail-piece, by which it may be made faft
to the plough-handle. The firft operation is to give the
firft form to this tail-piece, by fawing the block, Fig. 2.
acrofs from a. 4 on its left fide, (which is 12 inches
from its hinder end) along the line 4. ¢. to c. within 12
inches of the right fide, and to the correfponding point in
the bottom, 14 inches alfo from the fide. Then faw in
again at the hinder end from d. e. (14 inches from the
right fide) along the line dc, The block abc. de. fe
g. drops out and leaves the tail-piece c. d. eb. 7. k. 14
inches thick. The fore part of the block a. 4. c. 4. Lm. n.
is what is to form the real mould-board. With a car-
penter’s fquare make a {cribe all round the block at every
inch. There will of courfe be 23 of them. Then from
the point 4. Fig. 2. and 3. draw the diagonals &. m. on the
top, and 4. 0. Fig. 3. on the right fide. Enter a faw oS

DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD. ary

the point m. being the left-fore-upper corner, and faw

in, guiding the hinder part of the faw along the diagonal

m. k. (Fig. 2. 3.) and the fore part down the left edge of

the block at the fore-end m. /. (Fig. 2.) till it reaches & and

7. ina ftraight line. It will then have reached the true cen-

tral diagonal of the block & /. Fig. 5. then enter the faw at

the point o. being the right-fore-bottom corner, and faw in,

guiding the hinder part of the faw along the diagonal o. &.

(Fig 3.) and the fore part along the bottom edge of the

fore end o, /. till it again reaches &. /. Fig. 5. the fame

central diagonal to which you had cut in the other direc-

tion. Confequently the pyramid & m. n. 0. 1 Fig. 4.

drops out and leaves the block in the form Fig. 5. You

will now obferve that if in the laft operation, inftead of

ftopping the faw at the central diagonal &. /. we had cut

through the block in the fame plane, we fhould have taken
off a wedge 1m. n. 0. k. b. Fig. 3. and left the block in

the form of a wedge alfo /. 0. &. 6. a. p.k which, when
{peaking of the principle of the mould-board, I obferved
would-be the moft perfect form if it had only to raife the
fod. but as it is to be turned over alfo, the left half of
the upper wedge is preferved, to furnifh on the left fide,

the continuation of the bevil which was propofed to be
made on the right half of the bottom wedge. Weare now

‘to proceed to the bevil, for which purpofe the feribes
round the block were formed before the pyramidal piece

was taken out; and attention mutt be ufed not to mifmatch

or miftake them, now that they are disjoined by the with-

drawing of that piece. Enter the faw on the two points

of the 1ft fcribe where it has been disjoined, which is

exactly where it interfeéted the two fuperficial diagonals,

and faw acrofs the hollow of the block, guiding the faw,

both before and behind, along the fame feribe, till the

fore part of the faw reaches the bottom edge of the right

fide, and the middle of the faw reaches the central diagonal ;

the

318 DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD.

the hinder part will of courfe continue the fame ftraight
line, which will iffue fomewhere on the top of the block.
Then enter the faw in like manner on the two projecting
points of the 2d feribe, and faw in, along the fcribe, be-
fore and behind, till it reaches the fame bottom edge of
the right fide, and the central diagonal. ‘Then the 3d,
Ath, 5th, &c. feribes fucceflively. After cutting in fe-
veral of the earlier fcribes, the hinder part of the faw
will iffue at the left fide of the block, and all the {cribes
being cut, the faw will have left ftraight lines from the
bottom edge of the right fide of the block, acrofs the cen-
tral diagonal. With an adze dub off all the fawed parts
to the bottoms of the faw-marks, juft leaving the traces
vifible, and the face of the mould-board is finifhed.
Thefe traces will fhew how the crofs wedge rifes gradually
on the face of the dire€t wedge, which is preferved in
trace of the central diagonal. A perfon may reprefent
to himfelf, fenfibly and eafily the manner in which the fod
is raifed on this mould-board, by defcribing on the ground
a parallelogram 2 feet long and g inches broad, as a. 6. c. d.
Fig. 6. then reft one end of a ftick 274 inches long on
the ground at 4. and raife the other 12 inches high at e.
which is 44 inches from d, and reprefents the overhang-
ing of that fide cf the mould-board. Then prefent
another ftick 12 inches long from a. to 4. and move
it backwards parallel with itfelf from a. 4. to d. c. keeping
one end of it always on the line a. d. and letting the other
rife as it recedes along the diagonal ftick 4. e. which re-
prefents our central diagonal. The motion of the crofs
ftick will be that of our rifing wedge, and will fhew how
every tranfverfe line of the fod is conducted from its firft
horizontal pofition, till it is raifed fo far beyond the per-
pendicular as to fall reverfed by its own weight. But to
return to our work. We have ftill to form the under fide

of the mould-board. ‘Turn the block bottom up. [Inter
the

DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD. 319

the faw on the rift fcribe, at what was the bottom edge of
the left fide, and cut in, guiding the inftrument at both
ends by the {cribe, till it has approached within an inch,
or any other diftance according to the thicknefs you choofe,
of the face. Then cut in like manner all the other {eribes,
and with the adze dub out the fawed parts, and the mould-
board is done. It is to be made faft to the plough by reft-
ing the toe in the hinder edge of the wing, which muft
be made double like a comb-cafe, to receive and protect
the fore end of the mould-board. ‘Then pafs a fcrew
through the mould-board and helve of the ploughfhare
where they touch each other, and two others through the
tail-piece of the mould-board and right handle of the
plough, and cut off fo much of the tail-piece as projects
behind the handle, diagonally, and the whole is done.

I have defcribed this operation in its fimpleft mode, that
it might be the more eafily underfiood. But, in pradtice,
I have found fome other modifications of it advantageous.
Thus, inftead of firft forming my block as a. bc. d.
Fig. 7. where a. 0. is 12 inches, and the angle at 4. a right
one, I cut a wedge-like piece 4. c. ¢. off of the bottom
through the whole length of the block, 4. e. being equal
to the thicknefs of the bar of the thare ({uppofe 14 inches)
becaufe the face of the wing declining from the top of
the bar to the ground, were the block laid on the fhare,
without an equivalent bevil at its bottom, the fide a. d.
would decline from the perpendicular, and a. d. from its
horizontal pofition. Again, inftead of leaving the top of
the block 134 inches wide from m. to ». Fig. 8. I cut a
wedge from the right fide ». & #2 c. p. a. 14 inches thick
at top and tapering to nothing at bottom; becaufe I
find that the tail-piece, being by this means made ob-
lique, as c. 7 inftead of & 7 is brought more advan-
tageoufly to the fide of the handle. The firft fuper-
ficial diagonal is confequently brought from m. to c. and

not

320 DESCRIPTION. or a MOULD-BOARD.

not from m. to 4. as in the firft directions, Thefe vari-

ations will be eafy to any one after underflanding the-
general principle. While thefe mould-boards have been

under trial, and eflays have been making of greater or lefs

projections for the upper right edge of the block, and of
different heights in proportion to the depth of the furrow,

I have continued to make them of wood. ut now fatis-

fied by a fufficient experience, that for a furrow of g by 6

inches, the dimenfions | have ftated are the beft, I pro-

pofe to have the mould-board made of caft iron.

Tam fenfible that this defcription may be thought too
lengthy and elaborate for a fubjeGt which has hardly been
deemed worthy the application of {cience. But if the plough
bein truth the moft ufeful of the inftruments known to
man, its perfection cannot be an idle fpeculation. And in
any cafe whatever, the combination of a theory which may
fatisfy the learned, witha praéiice intelligible to the moft
unlettered labourer, will be acceptable to the two moft ufe-
ful claffes of fociety. Be this as it may, from the widow
her mite only was expected. | have contributed according
to my poverty; others will from their abundance.—None
fo much as yourfelf, who have been the animating principle
of the inftitution from its firft germ. When I contemplate
the extenfive good which the proceedings under your di-
rection are calculated to produce, I cannot but deplore every
poffibility of their interruption. I am fixed in awe at the
mighty confi to which two great nations are advancing,
and recoil with horror at the ferocioufnefs of man. Will
nations never devife a more rational umpire of differences
than force ? Are there no means of coercing injuftice more
gratifying to our nature than a wafte of the blood of thou-
fands, and of the labour of millions of our fellow-crea-
tures? We fee numerous focieties of men (the aborigi-
nals of this country) living together without the acknow-
ledgment of either laws or magiftracy. Yet they live in

peace

Lage We si

SS

.

} N

» | \ \
VAN A
} \)

DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD, = 42:

peace among themfelves, and acts of violence and injury
are as rare in their focieties as in nations which keep the
fword of the law in perpetual activity. Public reproach,
a refufal of common offices, interdiétion of the commerce
and comforts of fociety are found as effectual as the
coarfer inftrument of force. Nations, like thefe indivi-
duals, ftand towards each other only in the relations of
natural right. Might they not, like them, be peaceably
punifhed for violence and wrong? Wonderful has been
the progrefs of human improvement in other lines. Let
us hope then that that law of nature which makes a virtu-
ous condud produce benefit, and vice lofs, to the agent in
the long run, which has fanétioned the common principle
that honefty is the beft policy, will in time influence the
proceedings of nations as well as of individuals; and that
we fhall at length be fenfible that war is an inftrument
entirely inefficient towards redrefling wrong ; that it mul-
tiplies inftead of indemnifying lofles. Had the money
which has been fpent in the prefent war been employed in
making roads and conduéting canals of navigation and ir-
rigation through the country, not a hovel in the remoteft
corner of the Highlands of Scotland, or mountains of
Auvergne, would have been without a boat at its door, a
rill of water in every field, and a road to its market town.
Had the money we have loft by the lawlefs depredations
of all the belligerent powers been employed in the fame
way, what communications would have been opened of
roads and waters! Yet were we to go to war for redrefs,
inftead of redrefs, we fhould plunge deeper into lofs, and
difable ourfelves for half a century more from attaining
the fame end. A war would coft us moré than would
cut through the ifthmus of Darien; and that of Suez
might have been opened with what a fingle year has feen
thrown away on the rock of Gibraltar. Thefe truths are
palpable, and muft in the progrefs of time have their in-

Uu fluence

322 DESCRIPTION or a MOULD-BOARD.

fluence on the minds and conduc of nations, An evi-
dence that we are advancing towards a better ftate of things »
may be gathered from the public patronage of your la-
bours, which tend eminently to ameliorate the condition
of man. That they may meet the fuccefs they merit, I
fincerely pray, and that yourfelf may receive the patriot’s
beft reward, the applauding voice of prefent and future
times. Accept, I befeech you, mine, with affurances of
the fentiments of great and fincere refpect and efteem with
which I have the honour to be, Dear Sir,

Your affectionate friend, -

and humble fervant,

TH. JEFFERSON.

Experiments

EXPERIMENTS veon MAGNETISM.

No. XX XIX.

Experiments upon Magnetifm. Communicated in a Letter
to THOMAS JEFFERSON, Prefident of the Philofophical
Society, by the Rev. JAMES Mapison, Prefident of
William and Mary College.

April, 1798.

DEAR SIR,
Read May | N the review of my philofophical courfe for
45, ¥79% this year, I have been led to make fome expe-

riments upon magneti{m, which appeared to fall within
the views of the American Philofophical Society. It is
for this reafon that 1 have taken the liberty of communi-
eating them to you.

Few fubjeéts in natural philofophy are, in reality, more
interefting to mankind than magnetifm ; and yet, the in-
vifibility of the agent, and the confequent difficulty of
purfuing a caufe, which feems to be fubjected to none of
our fenfes, has greatly reftricted the progrefs of know-
ledge in this branch of phyfics. Some phenomena,
which have long attracted the attention of the philofopher,
and excited the admiration of the vulgar, have received
different folutions, grounded upon as many different hy-
pothefes. No method appears to have been adopted to
fhew the fallacy of the one, or the verity of the other.
They ftill remained as hypothefes. The following expe-
riments, fimple as they are, give a folution, which car-
ries with it occular demonftration ; and, as the juft expli-
cation of every fact is a real advance in philofophy, I truft
they will not be thought unworthy of attention.

The phenomena to which I allude are thofe, which
magnets, placed upon paper, exhibit with filings of iron,
when they are fprinkled about them. Many ingenious

Uu2 men

324 EXPERIMENTS vrpon MAGNETISM.

men have fuppofed, that the arrangement of the filings
clearly indicated the pafiage of a magnetic fluid or effluvia,
in curved lines, from one pole to another of a different
denomination ; and hence, have fought for the folution
of other phenomena upon a much more extended {feale.
Others, and particularly Cavallo, in his ufeful treatife on
magnetifm, from the action of the magnet upon the filings,
rendering each particle itfelf a magnet. The proper folu-
tion {prings from the following experiments :

EXPERIMENT 1.

Place an artificial magnet, of the ufual oblong form,,
and of fufficient ftrength, upon a difh; let the ends be
two or more inches: diftance from the edge or rim ; cover
the magnet with water about one-tenth of an inch. Then
fprinkle, or fift the filings of iron through gauze, fo that
they may fall gently near the equator of the magnet.
You will immediately fee the filings to divide; one part
moving with an accelerated velocity to the north pole ; the
other part, to the fouth pole; each approaching as near to
its refpective pole, as the interpofing fluid will-permit ;
each turning-and prefenting a diffimilar pole to that which.
firft put the particle in motion. As other particles fucceed
in their turn, the fame effects take place; each endeavours.
to approach as near to its pole, as its centre, as poflible;
but the particles already arrived, preventing an approach
within the limits thus previoufly occupied, the whole are.
neceflarily arranged in the form of concentric circles. Pars
ticles of water in forming drops, or of mercury in form-
ing globules, obey nearly the fame law.

Thus doth this experiment unequivocally demonftrate,
from the motions of the floating particles, that attraction.
is the fole caufe of this phenomenon, and that this force
is equally exerted by each pole. It fhews, at the fame,

times,

EXPERIMENTS vron MAGNETISM. 325

time, that each of the filings, even the fmalleft, becomes
itfelf a magnet, fo foon as it arrives within a fhort diftance
of its attracting pole. This is particularly evinced by
thofe particles which are firft put in motion, and which
occupy the neareft ftations. For, immediately upon their
arrival at a certain diftance, they turn round, and prefent
to the magnet their oppofite extremity.

EXPERIMENT 2.

Place two diffimilar ends of magnets about an inch apart,
in a large difh; let them be juft covered with water; fift
the filings between the ends. The particles of iron are
immediately attracted by the neareft pole; they move
quickly in oppofite directions, occupy the neareft ftation
they can, become themfelves magnetic, and prefent to
each other diffimilar poles. The particles. attracted by the
poles of the magnets thus mutually attract each other.
Between the poles of the large magnets, the filings are
arranged in ftraight lines; becaufe there, they tend direé-
ly to the attracting points ; the more removed, the more
curvilineal their pofition ; becaufe each particle making
the fame effort to occupy the neareft ftation to the centre
of attraction, they are all neceflarily forced into a pofition
eorrefponding with that effort.

EXPERIMENT 3.

Place fimilar ends of two magnets, as the diffimilar were
fituated in the laft experiment, and fift the filings between
them. Here alfo, you. fee them to be ated upon by at-
traction as before; they move to the neareft pole, become
magnetic, and prefent to each other fimilar poles ; that is,
fuppofing the north poles of two magnets to be oppofed,
all thofe filings which are attracted by the north pole of
one of, the magnets, prefent a north pole to the north

pole

326 EXPERIMENTS vron MAGNETISM.

pole of all thofe attratted by the other magnet; they
repel each other, of confequence ; a vacuity is obferved
between the refpective parcels of filings; whilft the ap-
pearance of reverted curves is exhibited, on account of
the repulfion which their fimilar poles exert upon each
other.

Thus, befides the proof which thefe experiments afford,
that the attractive force of the magnets, at either pole, is
the real caufe of the phenomena which the filings exhibit ;
they prove alfo, in the moft fatisfactory manner, that the
aétion of the magnet upon the filings, when they ap-
proach within a certain diftance, renders them magnetic,
and hence produces the effects mentioned in the two laft
experiments. But, in every inftance, attraction firft ope-
rates. Similar poles, whilft they are repulfive of each
other, are ftill attraGtive of all other fubftances upon which
the magnet a€ts. The fame body, at the fame time, ap-
pears to exert two oppofite powers.

The caufe of magnetic attra@tion and repulfion, as
well as of all other attractions or repulfions, lies {till hid
in the recefles of nature ; but the manner, in which thefe
forces produce certain phenomena, is no lenger concealed
from us. .

Thefe experiments may be agreeably varied by placing
three or four magnets upon each other, then covering
them only partially, and fprinkling the filings on each
fide of them.

In every magnet, there is at leaft one line, called the
equator, where the attra€tive power vanifhes: from this line,
towards either pole, it gradually increafes, and hence thofe
filings which are near to the fides of the magnet, will
incline towards them, forming angles, which appear to
be fuch as the refolution of two forces, one Iateral, the
other polar, would neceffarily produce.

Perhaps

EXPERIMENTS upon MAGNETISM. 327

Perhaps this method of making experiments, by fub-
{tances floating in water, and thus fubjected in all their
motions to our examination, may lead to more important
difcoveries. The rates in which the magnetic attraCtive
force decreafes, at different diftances, may, | think, be
collected from noting the velocity with which the floating
bodies move, at different diftances from the poles, or the
{paces, which they pafs over in equal times. Nothing
obftructs an accurate folution of this problem, but the
difficulty of obtaining meafurements of fufficiently {mall
intervals of time. If the experiment were made upon a
large f{cale, the difficulty might be removed. ‘The remark-
able acceleration which is obfervable, when the filings
come near to their attracting point, feems to fatisfy the
eye, that the attraction increafes in a greater ratio, than
according to any law yet afligned.

One magnet acts upon another, at a confiderable dif-
tafice, either by repulfion or attraction. Will not thefe
experiments lead to a rational conjeCture, that in every
inftance, the action is communicated by intervening mag-
netic fubftances. It ats through atmofpheric air. But
this air may, from its conftituent principles, and it is
faid, does contain iron. The fmall particles floating in
the atmofphere, may be aQed upon, like thofe floating
upon water. The tenuity of the particles will only render
the adtion more fenfible. Each may become a magnet,
and thus by the aétion of all the intervening affected par-
ticles, the action of one magnet may be communicated to
the poles of another diftant magnet.

I have made an experiment, in order to afcertain, whe-
ther a magnet could exert its power in a Torricellian vacu-
um. A {mall quantity of filings was poured into a glafs
tube of fufficient length; it was then filled with mercury,
and inverted in the fame fluid; the filings floated on the
furface of the mercury in the upper end. The refult was,

that

328 EXPERIMENTS vron MAGNETISM.

that the ation of the magnet upon the filings, at equal
diftances, was fenfibly lefs, than when the tube was full
of atmofpheric air. The want of a tube of fufficient dia-
meter prevented me from making the experiment in fo
fatisfatory a manner as I wifhed. It appears, however,
worthy of being repeated by thofe who may poffefs the
neceflary means. If the magnetic power fhould be ob-
ferved in fuch a vacuum, then the above conje€ture will
merit and receive the fate which has generally attended all
reafoning in phyfics not founded on accurate experiment.

I am, very refpectfully,
Yours, &c.

J. MADISON,
William &§ Mary College.

Thermometrical

Thermometrical Obfervations,

MADE AT FORT WASHINGTON,
Commencing une 1790, and ending April 1791.
By DanreL Britt anp G. Turner.

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, FOR SOME TIME,

The Rife and Fall of the Obio.

Communicated by G. Turner.

Read July 14th 1797, at a Special Meeting.

30 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

iy heme Pe

Thermometrical Obfervations made at Fort Wafhington, on the Ohio. N. Lat..
39°. 3’. 5". By Daniev Britt.

Go
Gs

JUNE, 1790.
REMARKS. a

Clear.
Clear A. M. Cloudy P. M.

Clear. Sultry P. M.

Clear. Strong wind. Greateft heat.

Clear A. M. Cloudy P. M. Rain at night.
Cloudy.

Flying clouds.

Ditto.

Clear A.M. Cloudy P. M. Rain at night.
Cloudy. The mercury loweft now and on the 30th.
Rain with intermiffions.

OO DI ANAW DWH | Days.

11
32 Cloudy A. M. Rain P. M.
13 Clear A. M. Flying clouds P. M.
14 Clear.
15 Clear. Rain at night.
16 Flying clouds. Showery.
17 Clouds, with fhowers.
i8 Flying clouds.
19 Clear.
20 Clear.
21 Clear. Rain.
22 Clear.
23 Cloudy. Rain.
24 Heavy Rain A. M. Rain P. M.
25 Clear.
26 Clear.
27 Clear.
28 Clear.
29 Overcatt.
30 Cloudy. Clear. Mercury lowef? now and the toth.
|
Ex- Pree Enum. SUMMARY.
tremes Tem. of winds
84° | °’!|S. W. | Ten times—Prevailing winds, 5. W.
68 759+ S. Four do.
|S.) EL} Four‘do.
E. Four do.
Ww. Two do, | Wholly clear 13 days.
Eafterly | Two do.| Partly do, 6 do, JULY...
Southerly, Once.
No) EB.) Once.

Omitted | Twice.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 431
JULY, 1790.

3, BP. M

ag a

are an re REMARKS.
boa =

an

ae | NE We lim Chee:

75 |N. W.] Clear.

W. Clear.
80 W. Clear.

79 |S. E.| Overeaft.
Si Rain. Clear. Cloudy-

42 Ww. Rain. Overcaft. Clear.
69 W. Overcaft. The mercury loweft.
71 106 Clear. Overcatt.

to} 72 |S. E.| Overcaft.

ir] 76 Ss. Cloudy.

12} 85) W. Clear.

131/785 JSiey EB. ||) /Clear:

14] 76 Ww. Rain. Cloudy.

is| 78 S. Cloudy. A gentle fhowers

16)|/ (800 | S.eykeo || h) Clear.

17| 84 Ss. Clear.

18] 86 |S. E.| Clear.

19| 88 |S. W.| Clear. Greate/? heat this years

20| 84 S. Clear. Rain. Cloudy.

21] 82 |S. W.| Clear.’

22| 84 |S. W. Clear.

23] 84 |S. W.| Clear.

24| 86 |S. W.} Clear.

25} 78 N. Clear.

26} 80 | N. E.| Clear.

27| 80 |S. E.} Cloudy. Clear.

28) 78 | Si Es)” Clear:

29.) 79. |S. = E. > Clear.

30] 81 Ss. Clear.

Sit, Or) I Sy ber Clears

Er- Enum. SUMMARY.

a "S. E. | er times—Prevailing wistd.
7 W. 6—do.
S. W.| «5—do.

N. ae ie Wholly clear—zo days.

Partly do. — 5 do.

N. 1—do.
IN? B. 1—do:
EK. i—do.

Wer? AUGUST.

332, THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.
AUGUST, 1790.

3. P.M
e REMARKS.
A S
I N. Clear.
2 Ne Clear,
3 NOE: Clear.
4 S. W. | Clear. Greate/? heat this month.
5 S. W. | Clear. Flying clouds.
6 5. Cloudy. Rain at night.
7 Ss. Cloudy. Rain.
8 S. E.f{ Rain. Cloudy. Rain.
9 W. Clear.
10 Clear.
Il Seas Clear.
i2 Ss. Clear.
13 SE Clear.
14 Shee Ls Clear.
15 S. E.| Clear. Flying clouds.
16 SBioe 2 Clear.
17 S;. W. Cloudy. Showers.
18 W. Rain. Cloudy. Mercury loweft.
19 W. Clear.
20 S. E.| Cloudy.
21 S. Cloudy. Clear, &c.
22 N: E. | Clear.
23 E. Clear.
24 E. Clear.
25 E. Clear.
26 Lig Clear.
27 S. W.| Rain. Cloudy.
28 S. Overcatt.
29 Ss. W. Rain. Cloudy.
30 Ss. Overcatt.
31 Se. obey Clear.

Ex- |Mean| Enum. |
tremes.| Tem. | of winds,

SUMMARY.

86) 80.9| &* , E 8 times—Prevailig wind.

74 ie S. 6—do.
S. W.| 5—do.
W. 4—do, | Wholly Br 20 days,
E. 4—do. | Partly do. — 1 do.
N. E.| 3—do.
N. 1—do. | SEPTEMBER.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 333
SEPTEMBER, 1790.

)

Fie
ot pics a
ees z REMARKS.
A|Ps) &

SVE 0 TE ES Na BI a Ss LE ERE ES
1| 86 |S. E.| Clear. Rain at night. Greate heat.
2} 78 Ww. Clear.

Elie W. Clear.

4| 76 W. Clear.

Beas W. Clear.

6| 74 W. Clear.

9 hi 81 -ofoS. Wie Clear.

SU Oswalt ue Wen p hi Cleax

9| 8: W. Clear.
10} 84 Ss. W. Clear.
TW ese Ves Clear.
U2 P82 wil Sa Wi Clear.
13 82 Ss. W. Clear.
14} 66 | N. E.| Rain.
15| 66 N. Clear.
16| 67 N. Clear.
17| 68 N. Clear.
18| 64 N. Clear.
19| 65 N. Clear.
20 65 Ne Clear.
Br OOH Nemes Cloudy.
22| 65 | N. E. |} Rain. Cloudy. Rain.
23| 65 N. Clear.
24 66 W. Clear,
25 66 W. Clear.
26 eo os
27 Res
28 3 -3°g | Overcaft—An almoft inceffant cold drizzling rain,
29 Oo 9 Do. do.

Overcaft—Small rain. Mercury loweft.

Ex- |Mean| Enum.
tremes.| Tem. | of winds.

SUMMARY.

8 times—Prevailing wind.
6—do.

ners | Wholly clear—22 days.

ul) E. 1 Bao. Partly do. — 0 do.
NIE. & E.) 1—-—do. OCTOBER.

334 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Thermomelrical Obfervations made at Fort Wafbington, on the Ohio, N. Lat.
39° 3'.5". By Juvce Turner. Therm. fituated in the North /hade.

OCTOBER, 1790.

Beaarke ou
‘ad a
ms REMARKS.
60-4 =
ae S

65 Calm. Serene.
65 | Calm. Serene. [der, P. M.
70 | S. W. | Cloudy. Alternate funfhine. Rain and fome thun- *

OOD CGI AnNAW DN 4H | Days.
~
fo)

S. W.| Cloudy and windy. Kain laft night. Greaieft heat to

694|S.S.W.} Clear. (day and arte
624 |N.N.E.|° Overcaft A. M. Clouds and funfhine P. M.
60 |S.&SW.)| Clear. Slight froft laft night, the firtt.
58 |E.N.E.] Overcaft. Showery A. M. Steadyrain P. M. & night.
50 |E.N.E.| Overcaft& rainy. Somerain at night. Mercury lowe.
542 | N. E. | Overcaft. Clear forenmoonand P. M.

rr} 58 |} E.N.E.] Clear.

T2050 E. Overcaft. Steady raim evening and night.

13| 60 | S.S.E.] Rainy. Showery all night.

14| 54%| N. E. | Showery.

15| 54 |N.N.W.&W.S.W. Showery. Fair and windy evening,

16} 595 Ww. Clear.

17| 59% W. Clear.

18] 574 W. Clear.

19| 52 | N. W. | Overcaft. Some funfhine P. M.

20| 51 |N.N.W.| Overcalt.

21| 53 }S.S.W.} Clear. Smart froft laf night.

22} 53 |S.S.W.| Clear. do. do.

ZS oi S.. 4 Clear

za} 56 S. | Clear. Overcaft at noon. Clear evening.

25) 53 Ww. Rainy—Windy P. M.

26 | 50 W. | Overcaft A.M. Clear P.M. Mercury lowe?

27| 54 |S. W.| Clear.

28] 60 Ww. Clear and windy. Evening cloudy.

29| 634]8S.S.E.| Gentle rain.

30] 67 S. Overcaft A. M. Clear P. M.

SUMMARY.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 335

SUMMARY.

Mean] Enumera.
Tem.

Ex-
tremes.

C) of
be Ys: 14.

6 times—Prevailing wind.
1—do
3—do.
3—do
3—do.
2—do.

1—do. | Wholly clear—1z days.

1—do. | Partly do. — 8 do.

1—do
2—do
1—do
1—do.
3—do
2—do

NOVEMBER,

436 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.
NOVEMBER, 1790.

At 3 P.M
a |i & 2
z eS = REMARKS.
at ae =
1| 62 Calm. Cloudy.
2| 643 Calm, Generally ferene.
3| 59 i. S. E. Clear ae M. Overcaft P,M. Shower towards
might.
| sa MWe Ss. W. Windy. Overcaft. Rainy. .
5| 433| W- N. W. Cloudy. Some froft and rain laft night.
61 53 Ww. Cloudy. White froft laft night.
>| 59 S. S. W. Clear.
8| 63 WwW. Clear.
9| 57 S. Clear.
10| 533| W. N. W. Cloudy. |
11] 5oz| W. N. W. Cloudy. Some rain at night.
12} 56 Sass Overcaft.) .ol=-—t j
13| 59 W. Overcaft. Slight rain.
14) 59.1. We N. W. Overcatt. | .ol-@ (
15| 64 S. S. W. Cloudy and gloomy with rain, Thunder A. M.
od lead 8 Ww. Overcaft. Rain A. M. «> about 2. P.M. the

mercury ftood at 64°. At 3. itfell 10°. as
noted, and arofe at 4. to 60°.
17] 49 N. N. W. Clear.

18] 49 Omitted. Clear, generally. Some ice formed, and {now
(the jirf? this feafon) fell this morning.

19| 57% W. Clear and pleafant. A fmall hoar froft A. M.
with ice 2 lines thick.

26 | 593 WwW. Clear and pleafant.

21| 68 W. Clear and remarkably pleafant. Mercury higheff.

22} 58 W. Cloudy A.M. Rain P. M.

23| 47 Nav ae Cloudy, Moift atmofphere. _

24| 46% N. Cloudy. A little fnow at night.

25) 45 N. Cloudy. Snow towards evening.

26| 364| N.N. W. Snow and fleet all day. Mercury lowe/t.
27 | 522 Ww. Clear.

28| 41 Ww. N. W. Clear A. M. Overcaft P. M.

29| 42 | W. S. W. Clear.

no| 48t|E.S.E.&E. | Overcaft till 10, A. M. Clear afterwards.

Se eS

SUMMARY.

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 337

SUMMARY.
———————————————— Sa
Ex- [Mean Enumeration
tremes./Tem. of winds.
68° |53 19. W. g—times [Prevailing wind.]
364 W. N. W 5—do,
W. S.. W, 2—do.
N. N. W. 2—do.
N. 2—do,
aS Sao Wholly clear—ro days.
Ss. S. W. Ade Partly do — 4 do.
S.5:, E. 1—do. |
ES) Se. 1—do.
Bi Sinks tot Fula do.
omit. &calm. | 3—do.
SEE

DECEMBER.

338 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS..

DECEMBER, 1790.

~
s

REMARKS. 2

e c
a 5
r} 48% N. Clear A. M. Overcaft P. M.
2}| 48 N. Heavy rains A. M. and laft night. Rain and
fleet P. M.
444| W.N. W. Some fnowA. M. Fair, with a few clouds, P.M.
44 | N.N. W. Cloudy A. M. Fair butalittle cloudy P. M.
W.LN.| Clear and pleafant.
W.£8.| Clear and pleafant. Sharp froft laft night,
Mercury bigheft.
E Clear and pleafant. Mercury highef.
N. Clear and pleafant. Smart froft.
46 | N. N. W. Clear A. M: Overcaft P. M.
Ss. Rainy morning—Next overcaft and a moift at-
mofphere. Drizzling rain all P. M.
qt OMe WV e Snow and fleet all day. At night heavy rains.
The air very moift, yet not cold, tho” mercu-
ry down at 374°.
N. W. Overcaft generally. Air moift. Some {now laft
night.
N. W Pigs caeer and difagreeable.
N. W Clear and pleafant A. M. Cloudy, and next
overcaft P. M.
N. W. Clear and pleafant. Sharp froft and ice in the
creeks laft night.
N. W. Overcaft. Very fharp froft.
W.£N.| Snow this morning and -laft night. Floating
cakes of ice (for the firft time) in the Ohio.
Severe froft laft night.
29 Sis Clear and pleafant.
4o | S. W. by S. Clear and remarkably pleafant. A frefh breeze
all day. :
o W. Cloudy. i
38° W. S. W. Clear generally. Some fnow laft night.
364 |W.S. W.5 W. Clear. ee ‘
42 |S. W. by W.| Clear. Increafed floating ice in the Ohio; but _
ina diffolving ftate.
46 Calm. The ice ftill floating.

25

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 339

25| 25¢| N. N. W. Windy morning. Some fnowat noon and laft
night. Ice {till floating. The Licking R.
frozen up at the mouth.

26; 23 |N.N.W.toN.| Clear and pleafant. Great bodies of floating
ice in Ohio.

27| 2341 W. S. W. Clear A.M, Overcaft P.M. Mauch ice in the
Ohio.

28] 36 |S.S.E.4E. | ClearA.M. Cloudy and windy P. M. and all
night. Some fnow and hail in the afternoon.

29| 34 | S. E.toN. Clear A. M. A few flakes of fnow P, M. Ohio
ice much diminifhed.

30) Gay N. NeW. Clear.

31} 20 | W.N. W. Clear, ferene and remarkably pleafant. The
coldef? day this year.

SUMMARY.

Enumeration
of winds.

tremes.) Tem.

8—times [Prevailing wind. ]
3—do.
3—do.
2—do.
2—do.
1—do.
1—do.
Wey Bia 1—do.

Ww. 1—do. | Wholly clear—13 days.
W.S. W. | 1—do. | Partly do. — 7 do.
i W.S.W.2W. 1—do.
S. E. toN. | 1—do,
S. W.by W.; 1—do.
S. Wby & | 1—do.
S.S. E.5 E, 1—do.
8.8. W.4S.] 1—do.
Calm. | 1—do. |

if
|
|
|
|
i
|
|

¥ye2 JANUARY.

340 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.
JANUARY, 1701. hav

a NT ET EY
ser a Perpendi-
2 3 rife and

.| 582 a fall of the

ela z Ohio per REMARKS.

Qleé 5 24 hours ie ie
- ee |

1| 26 | w. s. w. | 2 ‘sag Clear and pleafant,

2) 41 |S.8.W.4S. Do. do.

3) 44= PoAS. Ss) -E. Overcaft. Some drops of rain,
laft night.

4} 47 |W. N. W. Gentle rain. Some, laft night.
Morning foggy.

5 | 444 Calm Foggy with fome rain.

6] 56: W. Overcaft, Rain laft night. Ice in
Ohio difappeared, except on the
fhores. Mercury highe/t.

7 | 40% W. 4 | Cloudyand windy. Prettyhigh wind
laft night. Atg. A.M. (the wind
then weft came round by noon to
the northward) the mercury ftood
at 56°.

$| 32 Dp Clear and pleafant A.M. Overcaft
P.M. Smart froft laft night.

9} 36 N.N. W. Rainy and windy during the evening.
Much rain, fleet, & hail Jaft night.

10] 35 N. W. 48 Cloudy & fun-fhine A. M. Overcaft
P.M. Great accumulation of ice
in the river, occafioned by rifing
water {weeping off the cakes lodg-
ed on the fhores.

a1] 29 | N. N. W. 1! 36 Clear and yery pleafant. The ice
has difappeared.

12] 39 Ss. 72 Clear and very pleafant. A few dif-
folving cakes of ice float down the
river.

13] 51 | W. S. W. | 42 Clear and very pleafant. Now vaft
cakes of ice in Ohio.

m4| 47 Calm. 4 Clear A.M. Overcaft P. M. Great
bodies of floating ice.

ap] 41 |W.N.W.3W. 18 | Cloudy and damp. Heavy rains ear-

ly this morning. The ice is dif-
appearing. é
1

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

16| 39%| W. N. W. | 3
17 | 322) W. N. W. 36
18} 24 W.
19| 33 Ww. 48
20| 45 S. toW.
25) 49 S. 18
22| 36 S. 6
23| 514|S.S.W.4S 18
ZA Git S.toS. W 12
25| 50 WwW
26] 52 W. 24
27| 394| W. S. W 18
28| 324) W. N. W 6
463 Ww.
29 3
30| 324] N. WF ey 4
my 38 Ss. Ri- fing.
202 | 211!
Ex- |Mean | Enumeraticn
tremes.|Tem.| of winds.
62 Ww.
; othe 4017. WwW. S. W. | 3—do.
W.N. W. 4—do.
S.S. W.2S. 2—do.
N. N. W. 2—do.
N. W. 2—do
IN. N. W.4W,| 1—do.
S. to W. 1—do.
S.°S. E. 1—do.
E. 1—do,
S.toS. W 1—do.
Calm. 2—do.

34!

Cloudy. Ohio full of fmall cakes of
Ices

Cloudy, with a flight fnow.
ice in Ohio gone.

now morning, and again at noon,
Cloudy P. M. Brik winds laft
night and all day. The Ohio
much difcoloured. Mercury lowe/t.

Tolerably clear. Windy,

Clear and very pleafant.

Clear, ferene and uncommonly plea-
fant. oc The thermometer rofe
in the evening to 52°. Warm
night.

Clear and ferene as yefterday,

Do do. do.

Overcaft A.M. Sun-fhine at noon,
Overcaft P. M.

Black flying clouds, with fome rain
A.M. Sun-thine P. M. High
winds and heavy rains at night.

Clear and ferene A. M. Pleafant
but cloudy P.M. Some froft laft
night,

Cloudy and raw A. M. Pileafant
P. M:

The

Trifing fhow early A. M. Clear
ferene and pleafant P. M.

Coudy A.M. Clear P. M.

Clear. High winds laft night and
all day.

Clear,

SUMMARY.

7 times [Prevailing Weebl

| -

? | Wholly clear—12 days.

Partly do. — 6 do.

| FEBRUARY.

‘THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.
FEBRUARY, 1791.

342
At 3-
d i
sae
A 8 E
An
1| 363
2| 48
Sale oil
4a} 522
5 Mil oe 2)
6) 59%
7| 58
8| 45
9| 32%
10| 28
11 | 384
12] 45
13) 54
14] 54
15 | 494
16:)' 22

Winds.

Ss.
Calm.

Ww. Ss. W.

Ww.

variable.

W.N. W.

120

REMARKS.

Overcaft. Slight fnow A. M. Fait

but moift P. M. Slight iow
evening and night.

Clear.

Clear till1r A. M. Overcaft, with
trifling rain and fnow till 2 P. M.
Overcaft again and then rain
evening and all night.

Overcaft. Cloudy and rainy A. M.
Ditto with rain P. M. Rain even-
ing and night.

Overcaft. Moift atmofphere.

Nearly calm. Foggy morning.
Overcaft P. M. Rainat 2 P.M.
Mercury highe/t.

Nearly calm. Thick fog om Ohio,
Rainy all day and night.

Small rains and part of night.

Some flight fnews. Icicles this
mormiung.

Some fhow A.M. Cloudy with
fun-fhine P. M. Ohio much dif-
coloured, and great quantities of
drift wood now defcending. Hard
froft laft night.

Clear. Smart froft laft night and
early this mornmg.

Clear and pleafant.

Serene and pleafant.

Serene and pleafant. River begins
to fall.

Cloudy. Seme drops of rain. A
ftrong. wind commenced P. M.
and blew hard all the evening.

Cloudy A.M. Clear P.M. Windy.
Some {now. — ;

a7

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

17] 205| N.E. to W.

25| 56;|E.toN.N.E.
26) 48 W.

28/ 37 | N. N. W. | 72

Uncertain.

Enumeration.
of winds.

Ex- |Mean
tremes.| Tem.

Ww. N W.
w. Ss. W.
W.N. W.4W.
N. N. W.
E.
E.toN.N. E.
ES Naw Be
S:oe Bs
S. Sx E.
Ss. S.. W.
S.

N. E.
N.
Variable.

: Calm.

343

Serene and pleafant. Hard froit
laft night. Mercury lowe/.

Steady {now 6f {mall flakes all day,
which began early this morning.
It fell nearly 11 inches thick, the
deepeft fnow known here.

Fair—but overcaft and cloudy.

Serene and pleafant.

Serene and pleafant. Dry and Frofty
with very light airs.

Sun-fhine A. M. Overcaft and moift
P.M. Very light airs anda thaw
all day. Ateven. fnow and fleet.

Clear. ‘Thaw continues. Floating
ice in Ohio.

Nearly calm, Clear A. M. Overcaft
P. M.

Clouds and fun-fhine alternately.

Clear with light airs. High winds
early A. M.

Sun-ihine A.M. Cloudy P. M. with
thunder. Lightning at night.
Showery all day.

Sun-fhine and clouds. Gutfts of
wind with fhowers laft night and
to-day.

SUMMARY.

6 times [Prevailing wind. ]

2—do.
1—do.
1—do.
1—do.

5—do.

1—do.
1—do.
1—do,
1—do.
1—do.
2—do.
1—do.
1—do.
1—do.
2—do,

| Wholly clear—1o days.
Parily do. — 8 do.

Ye

MARCH.

344 - THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.
MARCH, 1791.
At ae M.
a5
ve

mee

emg REMARKS.

a go 5

Wr as
°

I} 39 Clear. Brifk wind laft night.

2] 58 Clear and pleafant. Brifk wind
A.M. and again at evening.

3) 58% Clear and pleafant.

4| 65% Serene A. M. Cloudy P. M.

5] 68% Clear and windy A. M.. Cloudy
P. M. at 8 P. M. rain. Showery
all night, with fome thunder and
pretty high wind. Very warm all
night.

6| 67 Clear and pleafant.

71 56 Cloudy and fome fleet A. M. Clear
and pleafant P. M. Brifk wind.

8} 46 Clear and ferene.

9| 462 Very rainy from 8 A. M.

1o| 52 Very rainy A. M.

r1| 582 Clear, with fome clouds A. M.

12| 56 Clear and cloudy alternately.

13| 60 Cloudy with fome fun-fhine.

14] 56 Rainy from half paft 11 A. M.
Foggy morning.

15) 73% Cloudy and clear alternately. High |
winds and rain laft night. Brifke
wind all day.

16| 80 Stands. | Cloudy in altsoeal A.M. Clear with
fome clouds P. M. Thunder at 2
at noon, and again at evening with
lightning. Mercury highef.

17| 68 19% 18 Cloudy. Heavy rains latt night and
this morning. Rainy P. M.

73} 46 W. 36 Cloudy. Heavy rains and high
winds laft night and this morning.

19] 38 Ww. 12 | Cloudy in general. Brifk winds and

a little fhow A. M. Two lines
thick of ice made laft night. Mer-
cury lowef? [a difference of 42° in
4 days. ]

20

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. 345

482
69

Ss. W.

|

24 | Serene and pleafant.

| 24.| Clear, pleafant, but windy. Peach

trees in bloom, and the woods
covered with various flowers. The
‘Buck-eye tree now in full foliage.
3 | Serene and pleafant.
Clear and pleafant, but windy.
3 Clouds and fun-fhine. High winds.
24 Clear and pleafant.
60 | Clear A, M. Cloudy P. M.
24.| Cloudy. Some rain P. M.
Cloudy and rainy A.M. Damp
atmofphere.
Serene and pleafant.
24. | Serene and_pleafant.
Serene and pleafant.

SUMMARY.

Ex-
tremes

80°
38

t i

Mean| Enum.
Tem. | of winds

i 6 Ww.
"| N. W.
Saeki:

S.
Welterly.
Southerly
Eafterly.

BE

Northerly
Calm, &c.

6 times [Prevailing wind.]

z—do,

4—do.

4—do.

slab Wholly clear—13 days.
3—do. | Partly do. — 8 d
>—do.| Partly do. — 0.
1—do.

1—do.

4—do.

LZ APRIL.

346 THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS.

APRIL, 1791.

64 Varahle:
58 ELN:E.

64 Ne
66 Calm.
80 Calm.
Si 8; Ei

i1}| 70 Calm.
t2| 69 | Ss. W.

13| 74 |W. S. W.

14| 60 |WNW2W

76 | Variable. \

REMARKS.

Cloudy with fome rain.

Clear. Mercury loweft.

Serene and pleafant. Smart froft, fome ice and
wind laft night.

Serene and pleafant. Smart froft laft night.

Ditto. ditto. as froft laft night.

Rainy A. M. Overcaft P. M. Between 8 & g P.M.
fhock of an earthquake, 2 minutes.

Clear.

Serene and pleafant.

Ditto. ditto. Greateft heat.
Ditto. ditto.

Cloudy in part A.M. Rain P.M.

€lear and calm A.M. Cloudy P. M. a fhort but
violent guft of wind, attended with rain, thun-
der and lightning.

Cloudy and {un-fhine alternately. High winds all
day, with thunder and lightning towards noon..
Showery but pretty rainy atnight. Laft night
heavy rains.

Showery all day, and fome {mart rains laft night..

oe Here end my obfervations at Fort Wafhington.
The fucceeding month and part of June were
remarkably wet and warm; the mercury-
frequently rifing fome depres above 80°. -
Some of the fhowers were like tumbling tor-.
rents of water, and were now and then ac-
companied with thunder and ae.

TURNER,

SUMMARY.,

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIGNS. 347

SUMMARY.

emery
Ex- |Mean| Enum,
tremes.|Tem. | of winds.

80° af "| Welterly.| Moft prevailing wind fo far.
46 §|2° 9 Wholly clear—8 days.
Partly do. —z do.

Note. That of the foregoing 317 days, 153 were
wholly clear, and 55 partly fo, and that
Welterly and South-welterly are the pre-
vailing winds.

RECAPITULATION OF FINE WEATHER.

y
or Das Months, {wholly | partly

June.
31 July. 20
31 Augutt. 20
30 |September.| 22
30 O@ober. 12
30 November.) 10
31 December.] 13

ey wb OMDANF WO HNADN

31 January. 12
28 February.| 10
31 March. 13
bo 14 April. 8
[aegee | Boral eis. | |

LZ. Oe 2 Calculation

CALCULATIONS ror

N°. XLI.

Calculations relating to Grift and Saw Mills, for determin-

ing the quantity of Water necefjary to produce the defired.
efed when the Head and Fall are given in order to afcer-
tain the dimenfions of anew invented Steam Engine, in-
tended to give motion to Water-wheels in places where
ivere is no Fall, and but a very fall Stream or Spring.
By Joun NaANcARROW.

*}LEMENTS ufed in the following calculations,
fo far as they relate to works moved by water-

wheels :
1. let 4 = mean height of the head of water in the penftock.

2.
3.
4.

5:

il.

12.

a = the area of the aperture or gateway.

q = 6.128 = the number of ale gallons in a cubic foot.

s = 16 feet,= the fpace a heavy body falls from reft in one
fecond.

2s the uniform velocity acquired by falling 16 feet from
reft.

2/hs, or 84/h= the uniform velocity acquired by fall-
ing from reft any depth = 4.

8aq,/h, the number of ale gallons iffuing through any.

aperture a in one fecond, and 8agt,/h=the quantity
in ¢ feconds.

8a,/h= the number of cubic feet flowing through @ in
one fecond, and 8at,/h= the number of cubic feet
in ¢ feconds.

w=62.5 pounds avoirdupoife,= the weight of a cubic foot
of water, and 10.2]bs.=the weight of an ale gallon.

haw= the weight of any column of water.

WAL

4

== the time of falling from an height = 4.

ne is the common prattical rule for finding the mean.

height of the head of water when the aperture is
vertical and rectangular where D reprefents the depth

GRIST anp SAW-MILLS. 349

of water’ in’ the penftock, and d the height of the gateway,
and is only an approximation, though very near the truth;
the genuine method derived from the parabola is as follows :

Let ABCD Fig. t. reprefent a large ciftern or penftock, and
MKLN an orifice made in one of its fides.

When the upper edge of the gateway, as KL is below the
furface of the water in*the penftock, the fum of all the velo-
cities or fheets of water which flow through it, being expreffed
by the elements of the fegment of a parabola FHIG, there will
be found amongft them a mean ordinate OT, which being mul-
tiplied by the height HP, will give a produé& equal to the area
of this fegment. ‘Now, in order to determine the mean height
EO, let EP=a, EH=+, HP=c, and the mean height EO=w.
The fum of all the velocities, or the area of the parabola EPG

will be aM % and the fum of all the velocities acquired by

falling from Eto H = Be: confequently gM oT ae J/ b

will give the fum of all the velocities which fue pipe the
orifice MKLN, which is equal to the parabolic fegment HPIG,

or to the product of ae mean feet VEO (x) by the height
HP (c), hence we have ~ an a— or b=c,/x, which equation
“4 "+b —2ab/ab

being reduced will give x = =
CC

EXAMPLE,

If the height EP (a) be = 8 feet, EH (6) = 6 feet, then
will HP or c = 2 feet ; 3 and by fubftituting thefe numbers for
their refpective values in the above equation, x will be found =
6.99 feet.

By the common prattical eife? (fee article 12,) D —

,= b=x, where D=8 andd=2; eee h = 7 feet,
whence it appears that @ —— =p—¢ is fufficiently exa& for
Ue

all common purpofes.
In

350 CALCULATIONS ror

In the foregoing elements (fee art. 4 and 5.) I have fuppofed
the fpace which a heavy body defcribes by falling from reft in
one fecond of time to be 16 inftead of 16, feet, and the
uniform velocity acquired by fuch fall = 32 feet ; whereas every
author which I have read, (even on the fubjec of hydraulics)
makes it 32% feet, without allowing for the friction the water
is fubjeéted to in its paflage through the aperture or gateway,
or for the refiftence it meets with by its fudden impulfe againft
the air, immediately on its leaving the penftock. It evidentl
follows that the uniform velocity muft be diminifhed on both thefe
accounts: hence we may fafely conclude, that a uniform velocity
of 32 feet in one fecond, will be found to coincide with an
experimental proof, nearer than that of 325 feet in the fame
time.

Before the dimenfions of the fteam engine can be afcertained,
it is effentially neceflary to know what quantity of water it muft
deliver into the penftock in a given time, in order that the
power or force by which the water-wheel is moved, may be
at leaft adequate to the purpofe intended. Several grift and
faw-mills have been examined with this view, and fuch meafure-
ments carefully taken as were thought néceflary for determining
the powers by which they are moved. Amongft thefe we have
feleGted John Beydler’s grift and faw-mills, and a faw-mill be-
longing to Chriftopher Keyger, both in the county of Berks and
ftate of Pennfylvania.

Calculation of the power applied to Beydler’s grist-mill, either for
one or two pair of stones, each being 4% feet in diameter, and
that of the water-wheel 16 feet ; the top of which is nearly on
a level with the bottom of the penstock, and grinds from 50 te
50 bifhels of wheat in 12 hours, with a fingle pair of stones.

Tue head or depth of water from its furface to the bottom
of the penftock for working one pair of {tones = 22 inches.

The gateway or aperture @ is 30 inches wide by 12 inch
deep = 45 inches = 0.3125 parts of a fquare foot.

Mean height of the head, or D — dy (are eo): 21st
)

inches = 1.77 feet.

‘i
By art. 7th we have 8ag,/) = the number of ale gallons
ifaing through any aperture a in one fecond, = 8X0.3125X

6.128

GRIST anv SAW-MILLS. 351
6.128% 1.33 (4/4) = 20.38 gallons of water flowing through
the gateway in one fecond of time. The number of cubic feet
which iffue through this aperture in the fame time = 8a,/h
(art. 8.) =8X0.3125X1.33 = 3.325. which being multiplied
by 62.5 pounds, the weight of a cubic foot of water, gives
207.8 lbs. for the whole preflure on the upper part of the
wheel during the fpace of one fecond; but the inftantaneous
preflure, or force of impact, where the water firft ftrikes the
wheel, is haw (art. 10.) = 1.77X 0.3125 X62.5 = 34.57 pounds ;
alfo 8,/4= the uniform velocity acquired at a the aperture in
a fecond, = 10.64 feet.

When this mill drives two pair of ftones, the gate is raifed an
half inch higher ; 4 being in this cafe = 1.75 and ./+ = 1.323
feet, by which means a becomes = 30X2 or 60 fquare inches, =
0.417 parts of a fquare foot. The other meafurements remain-
ing the fame as above, we fhall have

8aq,/h = 27 gallons per fecond,
8 a,/h = 4.414 cubic feet per do.
haw = 46.5 pounds for the force of impaé&,

and 8,/h = 10.584 feet for the uniform velocity per fecond,

In Emerfon’s Mechanics, and Fletcher’s Univerfal Meafurer
and Mechanic, the uniform velocity acquired by falling from an
height = 4, is denoted by </2hs inftead of 26/45, whichis the
true meafure of its celerity. This circumftance is not mention-
ed with the leaft view to find fault with thefe authors, but to
remove any doubts which may arife in the minds of fuch as are
difpofed to perufe thefe calculations.

BEYDLER’s SAW-MILL.

This mill has a fmall underfhot wheel, commonly called a flut-
ter wheel, which is no more than 3 feet in diameter. The depth
of the water from its furface to the bottom of the penftock is
3 fect, the gateway is 3 feet wide by 6 inches deep, = 1.5

fquare foot, the mean height of the head or poe 2 Bea tet
2.

= h,and,/h = 1.658. The fall from the bottom of the penftock
to the place where the water impinges on the float or ladle-board
is 19 feet, and 2.75-+-11 = 13.75, being equal to the whole

height

Ree CALCULATIONS ror

height of the column of water which propels this wheel. Now
by art. 7. we have 8agVvh= the quantity of water which
flows through the gateway in one fecond, =8X6.128X1.5xX
1.658 = 121.92 gallons. Again, haw = 2.75X1.§X62.5 =
257.8 pounds, which is equal to the weight of the column
prefing againft the aperture; alfo 87+ = 13.264 feet, the
uniferm velocity of the water every fecond as it iflues through
the gateway.

In order to find the force of impaé& on the wheel, we muft,
in the firft place determine (what may be called) the initial weight
of the water, or that with which it may be fuppofed to begin
to prefs at its furface in the penftock, viz. by dividing the mo-
mentum by the uniferm velocity; but haw = 257.8 is the mo-
mentum at the aperture or gateway, and 13.264= the uniform

velocity : therefore ae = 19.406 lbs. = W, the initial
13.264

haw aw
wba
expreis the force of impaé fought, + being now = 13.75 and
o/h = 3.7083 hence 8WwWh=8 X 19.406 X 3.708 = 575.66 pounds
for the conftant impelling force on the ladle-board; but 575.66

/h; confequently 8SW v4 will

weight required ==

=haw, and a= sa = “Anan = 0.67 parts of a fquare

foot. ‘To prove the truth of the above method for finding the
force of impact, we need only try whether 8agW7h (where 4 =
13.75 and a = 0.67) will produce the fame number of gallons as
that before found, viz. 121.9 in one fecond. In the prefent
cafe 8agvh =8X0.67 X 6.128 X 3.708 = 121.8 being nearly the
fame as found above, and is a fufficient proof that the force of
impaét where the water impinges on the wheel is rightly deter-
mined.

KEYGER’s SAW-MILL.

This faw-mill is over-fhot, the wheel 12 feet diameter, the
penftock is 6 feet in depth by 2 feet wide, and when I faw it at
work, there were only 4 feet and 1-qth inch of water in the
ciftern, although the faw moved at the rate of 120 ftrokes in a
minute, whilft it pafled through a piece of oak at leaft 12 a

: cep,

GRIST ayn SAW-MILLS. 353

re

deep, and the gateway no more than half an inchhigh. Hence
h=4, and ,/h=2 feet. The aperture @ = 24X0.5 = 12 =
0.0833 parts of a fquare foot ; wherefore 8agVh = 8X0.0833
6.128 X 2 = 8.2 gallons which falls on the wheel in the {pace
of one fecond, 8aVh= 8X0.0833X2 = 1.32 cubic feet in the
fame time, and 8//= 16 feet, the uniform velocity per fecond,
as the water leaves the aperture; alfo haw = 4X0.0833X62.5
= 20.8 pounds for the force of impact where the water firft en-
ters on the wheel. When this mill is fupplied with a 6 feet head,
and the gate drawn up one inch, the faw makes 180 ftrokes in a
minute through an oak log 18 inches deep. We have now +=
6, Wh=2.45 feet, and a= 24 inches=o0.167 parts of a {quare
foot. Here 8agVh = 8X0.167X6.128X 2.45 = 20 gallons per
fecond, 8aVvh= 8X0.167X 2.45 = 3.273 cubic feet in the fame
time, and 8/4= the uniform velocity acquired by a fall of 6
feet ; alfo haw = 6X0.167x62.5 = 62.6 for the weight of the
column or force of impact on the wheel.

I have been the more particular in making thefe calculations
in order to afcertain the dimenfions of the {team-engine for vari-
ous purpofes ; on which account we muft again have recourfe
to the parabola, and alfo to the inverted fyphon.

To find the retarded velocity and time of afcent of water into an
exhausted receiver, through a vertical pipe or tube, by the af-
Sistance of the parabola. Fig. 2.

Let CBFG bean inverted fyphon, the diameter being every
where equal, accompanied with a cock T, and the firft branch
AE always kept full of water: it is certain that if all the reft
of the fyphon be empty, and the cock be fuddenly opened, the
water will immediately rufh into the tube of communication VX
with a uniform velocity equal to that which a heavy body would
acquire by falling from A to B, and will be continually diminifh-
ed in proportion as the fecond branch is filled.

To fhew in what order this retardation of the water dimi-
nifhes its velocity at any point Q of the tube GS, where it is
fuppofed to be afcending towards gr, we mutt deferibe on the .
lines AB, CD as an axis with the fame parameter, two equal
parabolas CPH and BKI, fituated in oppofite directions. Com-
plete the parallelogram AM, and draw as many lines LR as

3 AL you

354 CALCULATIONS ror

you pleafe parallel to the horizontal line IG. Now if we take
the ordinate AI, or its equal DH to exprefs the whole uniform
velocity acquired by falling from C to D, it is evident that the
ordinate OP will denote the velocity at the point O, acquired by
a fall equal to CO, and the ordinate NK will exprefs the veloci-
ty arifing from a fall equal to NB or QS. But we fhall prove
that the velocity of the afcending water in the fecond branch,
when it arrives at Q, ought not to be expreffed by the ordinate
which correfponds to it; but by the line LK, the difference be-
tween the entire uniform velocity LN or MB (by falling from A
to B) and that of NK.

To demonttrate that the height QS or NB of the water in the
tube SR, is equal to a fall which can produce the relative velo-
city arifng from CD, or the difference between the velocities
acquired by falling from A to B, and that of the afcending
water at Q; let AB and QS be confidered as two non-claftic
bodies, whofe momenta are as the altitudes AB and QS. If
AB =a and QS=r, we fhall have a= /axva, andr = “/rx
«/r; but the difference of the momenta divided by the fum of
the bodies is equal to the velocity, which let be v; therefore

os — Vat rxVa—Vr _

VaxVa—v/ rx r divided by /a+v/r Wn
4/a—/r=v= LK, the velocity of the water at Q, and /a—
v= +r, which is the relative velocity produced by a fall equal
to QS. As this velocity is exprefled by the ordinate NK, the
difference between it and MB or LN will exprefs the retarded
velocity of the water in the tube of communication DX, which
is the fame as that of the furface QR at the point Q.

As it will be the fame with all the retarded velocities during
the time employed in filling the tube GF, it follows that their
fum will be expreffed by that of all the ordinates, or the area
of the parabolic complement MIKB.

Before the obfervations of Belidor on the inverted fyphon, in
his theory relating to the common fucking pump, it was cuf-
tomary to eftimate this fum by the area of the parabola DCPH
or ABKI; for the velocity at Q was exprefled by the {quare root
of CO, inftead of the difference between the fquare roots of
CD and QS.

The parabolic complement MIKB, being but half of the pa-
rabola ABKI, it is evident that the fum of all the retarded

velocities

GRIST anny SA'W-MILLS. 355

velocities in filling the fecond branch will be no more than half
the fum of the velocities on which we have been accuftomed to
count ; from whence it follows that the branch FG will require
twice the time to be filled as was formerly imagined. It follows
alfo, that becaufe the complement MIKB, is but one-third of
the parallelogram AIMB; therefore the branch BF will be three
times as long in filling as it would be with the uniform velocity
exprefled by MB. And laftly it follows, that the fum of the
velocities of water afcending from Q to q, inftead of being ex-
preffed by the area of the mixed quadrilateral PO op, ought to
be exprefled by the area of the quadrilateral KL /&, which may
be found in the following manner.

Let AB= a, nB=5, NB=r and nN=c. Now the uniform
velocities being as the ordinates, we fhall have Al=4/a, nk=

Vb, NK=Wr, and let h-r=c; but aN yok 2? /r=the feg-
ment »NKz&, and c¥a= the parallelogram LNn/; confequently
Guha hb ee the {pace LK&/, or the fum of all the

retarded velocities during the afcent from Q to q.

To give an example in numbers, we will fuppofe a= 30, b=24,
r=20 and c=4, then 8/7a=43.82, 8V¥b=39.19, and 8Vra
35.78; hence 4x43.88— 2%74x 39,19 — 2% Ox 30.98= 175,

28-—627.04-—477.07 = 25.31 5 but by the laws of accelerated
motion, the {paces defcribed are as the fquares of the times of
defcription ; wherefore 32: 1": : 25.31 : 0.79 and Wo.79 =
sage! = the time required for the water to afcend from Q to 9
= 4 feet.

DESCRIPTION or roe STEAM-ENGINE. Fig. 3.

A. The receiver, which may be made either of wood or iron.

BBBBB. Wooden or caft-iron pipes for conveying the water
to the receiver and from thence to the penttock.

C. The penftock or ciftern.

D. The water-wheel.

3A 2 BPP as i nV

356 CALCULATIONS ror

E. Theboiler, which may be either iron or copper.

F. The hot-well for fupplying the boiler with water.

GG. Two cifterns under the level of the water, in which the
{mall bores BB, and the condenfer are contained.

HHH. The furface of the water with which the fteam-engine
and water-wheel are fupplied.

aa. The fteam-pipe, through which the fteam is conveyed from
the boiler to the receiver.

4. The feeding-pipe for fupplying the boiler with hot water.

ccccc. The condenfing apparatus.

dd. The pipe which conveys the hot water from the condenfer
to the hot-well.

ece. Valves for admitting and excluding the water.

Sf. The injection pipe, and g the injection cock.

b. The condenfer.

It does not appear neceflary to fay any thing here on the
manner in which this machine performs its operations without
manual affiftance, as the method of opening the cocks by which
the fteam is admitted into the receiver and condenfed, has been
already well defcribed by feveral writers. But it will be neceflary
to remark that the receiver, penftock, and all the pipes, muft
be previoufly filled before any water can be delivered on the
wheel, and when the fteam in the boiler has acquired a fuffi-
cient ftrength, the valve at c is opened and the fteam immediate-
ly rufhes from the boiler at E into the receiver A, the water
defcends through the tubes A and B, and afcends through the
valve e and the other pipe or tube B into the penftock C. This
part of the operation being performed and the valve c fhut, that
at a is fuddenly opened, through which the fteam rufhes down
the condenfing pipe ¢, and in its paflage meets with a jet of cold
water from the injection cock g by which it is condenfed. A
vacuum being made by this means in the receiver, the water is
driven up to fill it a fecond time through the valves ee by the
preflure of the external air, when the fteam-valve at ¢ is again
opened and the operation repeated for any length of time the
machine is required to work.

There are many advantages which a fteam-engine on this
conftruétion poffefies beyond any thing of the kind hitherto in-
vented; a few of which I fhall beg leave to enumerate.

1. It

GRIST anp SAW-MILLS. 357

1. It is fubje& to little or no frigtion.

2. It may be ereéted at a {mall expence when compared with
any other fort of fteam-engine.

3. It has every advantage which may be attributed to Bolton
and Watt’s engines, by condenfing out of the receiver, either
in the penftock or at the level of the water.

4. Another very great advantage is, that the water in the
upper part of the pipe adjoining the receiver, acquires a heat
by its being in frequent contac with the fteam, very nearly equal
to that of boiling water; hence the receiver is always kept uni-
formly hot as in the cafe of Bolton and Watt’s engines.

5. A very {mall ftream of water is fufficient to fupply this
engine, (even where there is no fall) for all the water raifed by
it is returned into the refervoir HHH.

From the foregoing reafons it manifeftly appears that no kind
of {team-engine is fo well adapted to give rotatory motion to
machinery of every kind as this. Its form is fimple, and the
materials of which it is compofed are cheap; the power is more
than equal to any other machine of the kind, becaufe there is
no deduétion to be made for friction, exeept on account of
turning the cocks which is but trifling.
~ Its great utility is therefore evident in fupplying water for ever
kind of work performed by a water-wheel, fuch as grift-mills,
faw-mills, blaft-furnaces, forges, &c.

Dimensions of the Steam-Engine for working an overfhot wheel,
accompanied with fuch calculations as are neceffary for afcer-
taining the fizes of its different parts, when applied to various

purpofes.

The quantity of water which this machine is intended to
raife into the receiver im a given time, cannot be afcertained
until fome ftandard be fixed on for the height of the furface of
the water in the receiver above that in the refervoir HHH, which
when known, we fhall be enabled to calculate the diameters of
the receiver and pipes with certainty.

Writers on the fubje& of hydraulies generally allow that a
column of water 34 feet high is equal to the preflure of the at-
mofphere when the mercury in the barometer {lands at 29.5 inches.
Now if we admit that the water will afcend into an exhaufted

receiver

358 CALCULATIONS ror

receiver to the height of 30 feet only inftead of 34 feet, we fhall
by this means allow about 4 feet for the imperfection of the va-
cuum, or nearly one-eighth part of the whole power of the ma-
chine, if the fteam in the receiver could be perfeély condenfed.
Let therefore the higheft elevation of the water in the receiver
be 24 feet above the furface of the water in the refervoir, and
if the bottom of the receiver and the upper part of the ciftern
or penftock be each 20 feet above the fame level, the diameter
of the water-wheel may be eafily afcertained when the depth of
the penftock or head of water is given.

Now as the velocity of the water is continually retarded dur-
ing the time employed to fill the receiver, we muft again have re-
courfe to the inverted fyphon (Fig. 2.) in order to determine
the time in which it may be filled and emptied, which when af-
certained, we fhall be enabled to calculate the number of ftrokes
the machine may make in a minute, and confequently the quan-
tity of water it will deliver on any overfhot water-wheel in a given
time.

The example on page 355 was purpofely intended to fhew the
time neceffary for filling the receiver according to the above dimen-
fions, where a=30, b=24, r=20 and c=4 feet; whence it ap-
pears that it may be filled in o!.89 to an height of 4 feet above
its bottom, or 24 feet above the level of HHH.

The common fteam-engine invented by Newcomen and Caw-
ley, when it works to the beft advantage, requires the fteam to
be made about one-tenth ftronger than the furrounding air ; but
that this receiver may be emptied with fufficient difpatch, it will
be neceflary to increafe the elafticity of the fteam at leaft one-
fourth part beyond what is produced from the ufual heat of
boiling water. Admitting therefore that a column of water 34
feet in height be in equilibrio with the preffure of the atmof-

phere, we have b4—8. 5 feet, which added to 24, the higheft

elevation of the water above the furface of that in the refervoir,
gives 32.5 for the fpace AB. Fig. 2. There being now but a
column of 24 feet inftead of 30 as before, prefling againit a
counteracting column of 20 feet, the defcent of the water in
the receiver will be confiderably flower than its afcent, during
the time occupied in filling it to an height of 4 feet above its

bottom 3;

» GRIST anv SAW-MILLS. 359

bottom ; but we have fuppofed the increafed elafticity of the
fteam to be equal to a column of water 8.5 feet high, which
being added to 4 feet, the difference between the two columns,
makes 7B in this cafe = 12.5 feet, An=8.5 feet, nN= 4 feet,
and NB= 4.5 feet. By thefe meafurements the parallelogram
NalL will be found = 113.1368, the parabola BxkB = 132.1648,
and the parabola BNKB=50.9118; hence BrkB—BNKB=
NwkK = 81.2533; but 113.1368—81.253 = 31.8838 = K&/L,

and oh pialicic: ule o'.g9 or 1'= the time required to empty the
2

receiver, when filled with 4 feet of water; and as it appears
that it may be filled in 0'.89 or 0”.9 of a fecond, it is therefore
evident that this machine may make 30 ftrokes in a minute, fup-
pofing the pipes and receiver were all of the fame diameter ; but
it is not neceflary that it fhould exceed 10 ftrokes per minute,
and confequently the pipes which convey the water to and from
the receiver, need not be more than one-third part of its area,
and on no occafion to exceed one half.

It has been fuppofed, in what we have faid concerning the
fteam-engine, that the upper part of the penftock is on the fame
level with the bottom of the receiver, or 20 feet above the
level of the water in the refervoir, and admitting the penftock to
be 4 feet in depth, (inftead of 22 inches, fee page 350) there will
be a fpace equal to 16 feet left for the diameter of the wheel ;
but that its motion may not be interrupted by wading through
the water in the refervoir, we have here fuppofed the diameter
to be no more than 15 feet. Now, if each revolution of the
wheel be performed in the time this machine makes one {ftroke,
the circumference muft move with a velocity equal to 7.854 feet
in each fecond of time, admitting the fteam-engine works at the
rate of ro ftrokes in a minute.

Previous to determining the capacity of the receiver, it will
not be improper to bring into one point of view, what has al-
ready been faid on the fubje& of Beydler’s grift-mill and Key-
ger’s faw-mill.

Beydler’s grift-mill with one pair of ftones, where =1.77
and @=0.3125.

8aqVh=20.38 in one fecond, and 8agt Vb =122.28 gallons,

t being

360 CALCULATIONS ror

? being 6 feconds. 8aVh=3.325 cubic fect and 8 V4=10.64.
feet, the uniform velocity in one fecond ; alfo haw = 34.57 lbs.
the force of impaét on the wheel.

For two pair of ftones, 4 being = 1.75 and a = 0.417.
8aq V b= 27 gallons in 1” and 8agt V h= 162 gallons in 6 feconds.
8a Vh=4.4 cubic feet, 8V4=10.584 and haw = 46.5 pounds.

Keyger’s faw-mill witha 4 feet head =) and a = 0.0833.
8aq v¥h=8.2 and 8agtv¥ h=49.2 gallons in 6 feconds.
8a Vv h =1.32 cubic feet, 8 ¥4/=16 feet the uniform velocity in 1”;
alfo haw = 20.8 Ibs. the force of impact.

The fame mill with a 6 feet head = 4 and a = 0.167.
8aq ./h = 20, 8aqt ./h = 120, 84./h = 3.273, 8 ,/h = 19.6
and haw = 62.6 pounds.

If it be intended that the receiver fhall contain 122.28 gallons
for one pair of ftones, and 162 gallons for two pair, we {hall
find that the former number is equal to a cylinder 4 feet high by
30 inches diameter, and that latter number is equal to one of
the fame height by 3 feet diameter; but to find the area of the
gateway in the penftock, adapted to the fteam-engine, which is
4 feet deep inftead of 22 inches, we muft find an area x for the
aperture, which fhall difcharge as much water in a given time,
(which we will fuppofe to be 6 feconds) as flows through the
gateway of Beydler’s mill in the fame time; making therefore
H = the head of water at the fteam-engine, and / = that of
the grift-mill ; alfo 2a = the gateway as before, we have x./H

= a/h, and x = — = 0.2078. for one pair of ftones, and

0.2758 for two pair. Now Hyn being to aw nearly in the
ratio of 3 to 2 for the difference of the forces of impaé&, we
may fafely conclude that receivers of the above.dimenfions will
be amply fufficient for fupplying the water-wheel with a power
as much fuperior to Beydler’s mill, as the difference between the
forces of impact will amount to.

With refpect to Keyger’s faw-mill we fhall only remark, that
as the quantity of water pafling over the wheel with a 6 feet
head, is fo nearly equal to that which Beydler’s mill requires for
one pair of ftones, that a receiver of equal dimenfions will be
found fufficiently large, the penftock of the fleam-engine being
alfo 6 feet deep. P

t

rl

Eee fin ;

p BHAT.
ad IG a. <.

+ 4
nee :
MA ne lew yah

Fae ius}

( oe ed ORerge a '
| Pas its atte v4
birds ue’.
De wipe

vbes

GRIST ann SAW-MILLS. 361

It will not be neceflary that in any cafe the boiler fhould con-
tain more than 6 times as much as the receiver; hence we have
for Beydler’s mill with one pair of ftones, and Keyger’s faw-mill
with 6 feet head, a receiver = 4 feet by 2.5 diameter = to
122.28 gallons, which multiplied by 6 = about 734 gallons for
the contents of the boiler. The receiver for the fame grift-
mill = 4 feet by 3 feet = 162 gallons, and the boiler = 972
gallons.

In order to prevent the water, whilft the receiver is filling,
from ftriking againft its top, it will be neceflary that one foot at
leaft be added-to its height ; fo that inftead of being 4 feet high
as we have hitherto fuppofed, it thould be at leaft 5 feet.

3 B MEMOIR

362 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

No. XLII.
MEMOIR ON AMPHIBIA.*

SER P-EN TS.

Read, Feb. F the various animals which merit the atten-

1797 tion and refearches of naturalifts, ferpents
are not the leaft important, and the flight information and
inaccurate ideas which we have of their manner of being,
and of their habits, leave a rich and immenfe field for us
to inveftigate.

Long convinced that many curious obfervations might
be derived from a careful ftudy of thefe animals, I have
profited by the opportunities derived from a refidence on
this continent to employ myfelf on the fubje&. They
have been one of the objects of my refearches during a
journey of about 2400 or 2500 miles made laft fummer
in the fouthern parts of the United States, and among the
Indians. I have even fearched for thefe reptiles in their
retreats during the winter ; that feafon which nature feems
to have affigned to them for effecting a confiderable change,
might we not fay a renewal, of feveral of their conftituent
parts.

The rattle{nakes (crotalus of Linnzus) appearing to me
the moft interefting, and offering the greateft number of
curious phenomena (notwithftanding the dangers, too
much exaggerated however, to which thofe who give
themfelves up to fuch inveftigations are expofed) will

form the principal objects of this memoir.
Before

* This memoir is part of a differtation on amphibia in general, which
I hope to publith after new obfervations which I propofe to make.

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 363

Before I enter into the detail of my obfervations, it is
neceflary to prefent and difcufs fuccin@ly, what has been
faid and written on thefe animals, and to examine what
we know concerning them.

The manner in which thefe amphibia attack the animals
deftined for their food is one of .thofe problems in natural
hiftory which are yet to be refolved. The means they
employ, as well as the real caufes of many furprifing effeGs, -
not yet well or unanimoufly flated, are unknown to us.
According to fome, the crotali and feveral other ferpents
have the faculty of enchanting and attracting birds, {quir-
rels, rabbits, frogs, &c. (aves {ciurofque ex arboribus in
fauces revocant. Linn, Syft. Nat.) According to others
they infpire them with terror, to fuch a degree, that if we
can put faith in the effe@ts related, we fhould be tempted
to believe that they are from that moment deprived of
their fenfes, and, as it were, attacked with infanity. Ac-
cording to others, in fine, thefe animals are violently af-
fected and fuffocated by a vapour, and fetid emanation,
which the reptile diffufes upon every thing around it.

It is faid that when the ferpent withes to feize a bird, a
fquirrel, &c. he remains motionlefs, his eyes conftantly
fixed upon his prey, and that then the unhappy victim,
acted upon by a fupernatural power, lofes all its faculties,
and cannot even have recourfe to flight: it agitates itfelf,
throwing out lamentable cries, goes, returns, advances,
retreats, approaches, retires, comes and goes again, till
at laft exhaufted by fatigue, it voluntarily delivers itfelf up
to its enemy, who delays not to devour it. Such are the
effects attributed to enchantment, terror, or the fuffocating
vapour which thofe ferpents, it is faid, have the power of
cafting round them, and which affeéts every animal which
is found within its atmofphere. Let us examine thefe
three pretended caufes, and compare them with their fup-
pofed effets.

3 B-2 Admitting

364 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

Admitting thefe effe&ts, attefted by fo many perfons,
and by fo many refpectable authorities, effects of which I
pretend not to deny the reality, but which 1 am likewife
far from irrevocably adopting, it appears to me repugnant
to reafon to attribute them to enchantment, giving to that
expreflion the full latitude which it prefents to the imagi-
nation. Weare no longer in that barbarous age in which
men gave credit to enchantments, witchcraft, and mi-
racles.

Reafon which ought to be the fole guide of all men,
reafon, the beft gift of the author of all things, and the
peculiar attribute of man, has at length aflumed the upper
place and driven out that general fanaticifm which former-
ly triumphed over unreflecting credulity. I do not pre-
tend however to fay, that we are yet enabled to explain
every thing; there are facts, (and the fubje& of which I
am treating is an example) whofe caufes we have not yet
been able to difcover. But the men of the prefent day
are fufficiently enlightened to remain in fufpenfe, and in
fuch cafes to reje&t every idea of the fupernatural, fortile-
geous, or miraculous.

If then the effects in queftion really exift, we may be
allowed to believe that ferpents, deftined by nature (our
common mother, always confiftent with herfelf; always
equally beneficent and juft,) to fubfift on animals which
have the advantage of fuperior flight and {fpeed, ought to
be endowed with proper arms and a power by whofe aid
they may furprize and fecure their prey. But what are thefe
arms? What this power? Is it one of thofe fecret opera-
tions which nature feems to envelope in impenetrable
myftery? No. It is fimply a fa@ till now unknown,
merely becaufe, 1ft, Thefe animals, whofe pretended ugli-
nefs and danger have been fo much exaggerated, inftil
into us a fpecies of repugnance which few have the cou-
rage to overcome. 2d, Becaufe few well-informed sai

ralifts

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 365

ralifts have had it in their power to obferve them attentive-
ly, and for a length of time ; and becaufe the greater num-
ber of naturalifts have been contented with reporting the
faéts collected in their travels.* 3d, Becaufe the oppor-
tunities to make fuch obfervations are few, and require a
long and particular attention, which few men are capable
or willing to afford. 4th, Laftly, becaufe thefe reptiles,
in order to exercife with fecurity this imputed power, mult
feek retired fpots, in which birds, fquirrels, @c. are not
fubje& to alarm, and mutt be themfelves at liberty to em-
ploy the means given them by nature to provide for their
fubfiftence.

Let us add to thefe reflections a few facts which give
them additional force. It is within the knowledge of the peo-
ple of Philadelphia and of the United States at large, that
Mr. Peale, whofe eftablifhment as well as zeal for the pro-
grefs of natural hiftory, is deftined to produce -in this
country a tafte for fo interefting and ufeful a {cience,> has

kept

* The celebrated Catefby to whom we are indebted for fo many obferva-
tions and difcoveries, more or le{Ss interefting, confeffes, {peaking of the
boiquira (crotalus horridus. Linn,) that he never was an eye-witnefs of
the pretended effects of the enchantment exercifed by this reptile over birds,
{quirrels, &c. but that he is convinced of the facts. Might not the fame be
true of an obfervation related by him, and which upwards of twenty per-
fons have confirmed to me in my travels, that if the ferpent is killed while
thus fixing an enchanted bird or fquirrel, the charm ceafes, and the animal
delivered from the enchantment takes its flight. This obfervation, the
ftrongeft in favour of fuch an opinion, and attefted by naturalifts of reputa-
tion, appears to me to have much weight, but to require confirmation.
Kalm has likewife pretended, that when the boiquira is taken and finds itfelf
fhut up, it refufes all kinds of nourifhment. The obfervations to be related
in this memoir will prove what degree of confidence is to be placed in fuch
reports.

+ Let me be allowed to avail myfelf of this opportunity of paying Mr,
Peale the tribute which every lover of this beautiful and ufeful icience owes
to his zeal, his courage, and his conftancy. Without other affiftance than
his love for the produétions of nature, and his own induftry, he has fucceed-
ed in forming a mufeum, already very interefting, and which will become
more and more fo daily. The Philofophical Socizty by accommodating him

with

366 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

kept alive a boiquira for five years anda half. He has
made on this animal, many obfervations, which, if not con-
vincing, eftablith at leaft a doubt as to all the fables which
have been imagined refpecting this reptile.

* Curious to inquire how this animal feizes his prey,
he has confined feveral birds in the fame cage with him,
and the hungry reptile has made many attempts to take
hold of the bird. This experiment has been repeated
many times, and every time with the fame effeat. I have
feen, mytelf, one of thefe birds in the cage, but whether
the reptile was not hungry, or was fenfible of its want of
power, it remained perfectly tranquil, while the bird was
perfectly at eafe. It gave no indication which could make
it believed that it was either enchanted or affrighted ; and
the air did not-appear different, if we might judge by its
behaviour, from that which it found in an ordinary clofe
cage. ‘The bird remained two days in the fame {fituation,
without the leaft attention paid to it by the reptile, who
in the mean time eat a dead one which was prefented to
him.

Another living bird was put into the cage with the fer-
pent: far from being alarmed, it amufed itfelf with peck-
ing in the bottom and picking up a few grains which it
found there: often changing place in its accuftomed man-
ner, and even refting itfelf on the back of the boiquira,
which made no extraordinary movements.x—This experi-
ment was made feveral times.

Mr.

with their building, have given a proof of the proteétion they afford to
whatever may contribute to “the progrefs of the fciences. May this example,
well calculated to fix the attention of every good government, be copied by
enlightened adminiftrators, who following the governments of Europe, and
principally that of France, may be fenfible of the value of fuch an eftablith-
ment, and the neceflity of encouraging it for the good of the people.

* The following experiments were all made in the fummer, that is during
the feafon in which thefe reptiles take their nourifhment.

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 367

Mr. Peale, his children, and myfelf, have often exa-
mined the reptile. We never perceived it to fend out the
flighteft fuffocating odour. It is in vain to object that the
living birds thus given it were not of the kind fitted for
its nourifhment; for it has eaten the fame birds, when
prefented to it dead, and it is not ufelefs to remark that it
never refufed one of them.

The fame obfervation is not true of frogs, ape in
the opinion of fome perfons, pafs as the food of the!boi-
quira; Mr. Peale often prefented to it living and dead
ones. It never touched them. It never in this refpect
imitated the black ferpent (coluber conftri¢étus. Linn.)
This reptile, which Mr. Peale has likewile preferved alive,
has eaten the flies, infe€ts, and frogs (the rana arborea,
Linn. among others) which were prefented to it.

Thefe experiments prove: ift, That the boiquira, at
leaft when it is in a ftate of captivity, has not the power
of enchanting, affrighting, or fuffocating birds. 2d, That
it does not nourifh itfelf with /rugy.

The miftake, with refpect to the nature of the food of
this reptile, into which Linnzus and other naturalifts after
him have fallen, has been owing without doubt to there
being two {pecies of rattlefmakes ; which he has confound-
ed together.

There are within the territory of the United States two
known {pecies of crotalus. he crotalus miliaris and the
crotalus horridus of Linnzus. There is however another,
well diftinguifhed by the inhabitants of the fouth. The
miliaris is called the ground rattlefnake, and is fo named
becauie it keeps itfelf frequently under ground. When
it comes to the furface it is moft pleafed in the grafs, and
is the more dangerous as it is difficult to be perceived.
The fecond is known under the name of the pine-barren
rattlefnake ;" and fo named, becaufe in the fummer, that is,
in the feafon that it quits its retreat and feeks its food, this

reptile

368 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

reptile is found in thofe dry and arid lands which produce
pines only. The third, a non-defcript, and known by
the name of the water rattlefnake, is larger than the for-
mer, is commonly confined to low grounds, and as it lives
near the waters, might be prefumed to make its food of
frogs. Neverthelefs | have aflifted at the opening of many,
(which had been killed for the fake of diminifhing their
number, and extracting the greafe, of which an oi! is pre-
pared pretended to be of fuperior efficacy in rheumatic and
other pains, but which in fact has no advantage over other
undtuous fubftances) but I never found in their ftomachs
any thing befides birds, fquirrels or rabbits. This new
fpecies, which is fpoken of neither by Catefby nor Lin-
nus, nor by any author with whom I am acquainted,
appears to have been confounded with the crotalus hor-
ridus. It differs from it notwithftanding, effentially, both
by its habits and external form. The boiquira is marked
acrofs the back by dark brown tranfverfal lines, a little dia-
gonal, terminated, on each fide, by a fpot almoft round,
of the fame colour. The back of the other ferpent is co-
vered with parallelograms or lozenges of a browner colour
than the reft of the body, and terminated by a yellow
border. Thefe differences may be readily obferved in the
annexed figures, Nos. 1 and 2.

After the difcovery of this new fpecies of ferpent, I
incline to think that the term orridus, which is equally
applicable to both, ought no longer to fubfift. I propofe
then to call No. 1. crotalus boiquira, a name by which it
is generally known: and No. 2. crotalus adamanteus, after
the form of the marks upon its back.

Some authors have further advanced that the boiquira
was very active in the water and among rocks, but very
flow and inaétive in the dry land. This is an error, which
no doubt owes its origin to the fearfulnefs of thofe who
have fallen into it. Both thefe fpecies are more tardy than

other

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 369

other ferpents (colubres). M. Bonnaterre in the intro-
du@ion to his ophiology, exprefles himfelf in a manner
calculated to perpetuate this error, with refpect to a reptile
much lefs dangerous than is fuppofed. ‘* Man himfelf,”
fays he, ‘ in fpite of the dominion he poffeffes over all the
animals,” &c.

It is perfectly well known that the boiquira never at-
tacks man unlefs he has been touched or affrighted. We
may pafs very near him without difturbing him, or his
fhewing the leaft difpofition to bite. It has been faid
likewife, on as flight foundation, that he climbs into trees,
and fome naturalifts have afferted with no greater degree
of truth, that nature has provided this reptile with little
bells or rattles, which make a noife as it moves along, to
advife man of its approach. The rattles of thefe {nakes
make no noife while they creep along. When they are
frightened or touched, inftead of flying, they coil upon
themfelves, remain motionlefs and ready to dart forward.
Then only they move with an inconceivable velocity, the
rattles which advife us of their vicinity, and which they
cannot agitate unlefs they are in a ftate of anger and con-
traction incompatible with the act of creeping.

With regard to the impreflion of terror and alarm which
fome confider as the fource of the influence of ferpents
over certain animals, in addition to what I have remark-
ed, it will be fufficient to compare the ordinary effects of
fear with thofe which are faid to be exhibited by birds,
{quirrels, &c. when fixed by a boiquira, to convince our-
{elves of the impoflibility of fuch a caule.

birds and fquirrels have other enemies befides ferpents.
Man, dogs, cats, and many other animals fhew them no
higher favour. On the approach of thefe they fly, and
no effet is difcoverable fimilar to that which it is pretended
they exhibit on the view of a ferpent.

Well !
3 C

370 ‘MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

Well! perhaps the partifans of the third opinion will
exclaim: this power, thefe arms which are not yet dilco-
vered, are neither terror nor enchantment, but a fetid
emanation which the reptile cafts around it, and which
affects the animals which experience.it to that degree that
they become incapable of flight. The obfervations of Mr.
Peale, already related, contradict this opinion. I fhall
oppofe to itanother and more recent fact.

Mr. Peale and myfelf had eight living rattlefnakes
confined in a box of about eighteen inches fquare. We
did not open it before the end of three or four weeks,
when, after having taken them out in the prefence of Dr.
Deveze, a member of this fociety, one of the fons of Mr.
Peale, and of two other perfons, we examined the box
with attention and did not perceive the flighteft extraor-
dinary {mell.

I have feen in my excurfions many ferpents irritated,
and ready to dart upon me.* I never perceived that they
emitted the flighteft odour.

It refults from what I have juft faid, that all which has
been reported and written refpecting ferpents to the prefent
time, is at leaft very dubious ; that the ftudy of thefe ani-
mals is, as it were, yet to be commenced: and that it offers
to the naturalifts who undertake it, the moft interefting and

curious

* The crotalus boiquira, and adamanteus, the mokafen, which I call
agkifhodon mokafen, the coluber conftrictor, getalus, ceftivus, and faurita
of Linneus; the Coach-whip fnake of Catefby—the corn f{nake of the fame
author—another very long one marked like the boiquira but unfurnifhed with
rattles, and climbing trees—the ferpent with a copper-coloured belly of
Catefby : and feyeral other non-defcripts, to enumerate which would take up.
too much time. All thefe reptiles, upon touching them {lightly with a ftick,
recoil upon themfelves, raife their heads, and make a hifling while they open
their wide mouths. One day I took in my hand a black fnake, after having
irritated and made it wild, it bit me on the lower joint of the fore-finger,
two or three drops of blood iffued from the wound, which very much
alarmed my guide and feveral perfons who were witnefles, in a few fe-
conds the wound had dried up, and I felt no greater pain than if 1 had been.
only pricked by a pin,

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 371
curious obfervations and difcoveries. I fhall now proceed
to detail my own obfervations, and thofe which I have
made conjointly with Mr. Veale.

First OpsERVATION.—Among the information which
I endeavoured to obtain in my travels with refpect to fer-
pents in general, there was one point which greatly excit-
ed my curiofity. Several perfons,~and one among the
reft,* to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for civilities and
marks of friendfhip, which will forever reft engraven on
my heart, had informed me that the female rattlefnake
concealed its young ones in its body. That when they
were alarmed by any noife, or by the approach of man,
they took refuge in the body of their mother, into which
they entered by her mouth. ‘This fact had been already
afcertained with refpect to the viper of Europe, but in
confequence of the unfavourable and repulfive difpofitions
infpired by this kind of reptile, and in order to render it
till more hideous, an abfurd interpretation was given to
this fact. It was pretended that this ferpent eats its little
ones after having giventhem birth. Curious to verify this
fact, related of the boiquira, I was conftantly occupied
with this idea, and began to defpair of ever making the
obfervation, when at a moment in which I thought the
leaft of it, accident furnithed me the means. Having

BAG. 2 fallen

* This eftimable perfon is General Pickens. In a lamentable fituation,
and when my life was in danger among the Indians, I owed my fafe-
ty to the ftrong recommendation which he gave to the Indian guide and
interpreter, which he had procured for me, and to the letters which he had
given me for different chiefs. His modefty will be perhaps, affected by the
liberty I take of naming him without his knowledge, but he will ex-
cufe this tranfport of my gratitude. This honeft American, as much be-
loved by his tellow-citizens as by the Indians, whom he has frequently
engaged and defeated in battle, knows how to confer obligations without af+
feétation ; to do good is inhim a natural movement, fo much the more to

be praifed, as among the greater part of men, it is the effect of interett;
pride, or vanity.

372 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

fallen fick among the Indians, I found myfelf cbliged to
remain a few days with one of them in the neighbourhood
of Pine Log. During my convalefcence I took a walk
every morning in the neighbourhood, and one day when
I was following a pretty broad path, I perceived, at a
diftance, a ferpent lying acrofs the road inthe fun. I had
a ftick in my hand, and drew near to kill it, but what
was my furprize, when, in the moment that I was about
to give the blow, the reptile perceived me, coiled upon
itfelf, and opened its large mouth, into which five ferpents,
which I had not till then obferved, becaufe they were
lying along its body, rufhed into the gulph which I had
conceived opened for myfelf. I retired to one fide and
hid myfelf behind a tree, the reptile had crawled a few
paces, but hearing no further noife, and not perceiving me,
ftretched itfelf out afrefh. In a quarter of an hour the
young ones came out again. Satisfied with this obferva-
tion [ advanced anew towards the animal, with intention
to kill it and examine the interior of its ftomach: but it
did not permit me to approach fo near as it did the firft
time, the young ones entered with ftill greater precipita-
_ tion into their retreat, and the boiquira fled into the grafs.
My fatisfaction and aftonifhment were fo great that I did
not think of following it.

SecoND OBSERVATION.—On my return to Philadel-
phia, I recalled to Mr. Peale’s recollection the proje&
which we had formed the preceding winter, of going into
Jerfey to fearch for the boiquira in his retreats. He con-
fented, and with the'more readinefs, as he had juft loft the
one which he had kept alive five years and ahalf. He
in confequence wrote to Bridgetown to Dr. Elmer. On
receiving an anfwer we ftarted in the month of February ;
the feafon was already advanced, but not fo as to render our
expedition fruitlefs. Citizen Adet, minifter of the French

republie,

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 373

republic, a member of this fociety, and zealous in the
purfuit of f{cience, -was to have been of our party, but was
unfortunately prevented by illnefs. Arrived at bridgetown
we went forward to Morris River, in company with Dr.
Elmer and Mr. White, who loaded us with kindnefs, and
facilitated our refearches by every means in their power.
We were to have found at Morris River Captain Hawkins,
who is perfectly acquainted with the retreats of thefe rep-
tiles, and deftroys them every year by hundreds. -

The Captain not being yet arrived, we were conducted
by an inhabitant to a place where he affured us he would
fhew us boiquiras. {In the way he made us obferve on
the fide of a rifing ground on the banks of Morris River,
excavations which had been made three weeks before, and
in which had been found 7¢ of thefe reptiles entwined
with each other. ‘The hole was from three to four feet
deep, and of about the fame diameter. ‘The way to the
bottom of this hole is not ftraight.

I fhall remark here, once for all, that boiquiras choofe
for their winter quarters two different fituations. One on
the fouth fide of hills, and the other in low grounds, filled
with roots, and covered with a thick cotton-like mofs
({fphagnum paluftre. Linn.). I have remarked, rft, That
the expofure was not always the fame. 2d, That the
way in was tortuous. 3d, The entrance was {mall enough
to prevent the wind from penetrating with too much force.
Captain Hawkins told me that he had never met with any
of thefe reptiles in holes of which the entrance was larger
than their bodies. 4th, In both thefe fituations there is
always found a running ftream of {pring water which
never freezes at this depth, fo that the boiquiras in their
retreat are always near or over the water, but never in it.

Thofe naturalifts who have advanced that thefe reptiles
feed on frogs, and fuch like animals, will doubtlefs not
fail to lay hold of this circumftance and interpret it in fa- -

your

47a MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

vour of their cpinion. But facts are very convincing to
the contrary. ‘The boiquiras feek the fides of hills, and
the low bottoms in which fprings are found, in order to
fhelter themfelves from the cold and froft which makes
them perifh. They are in thefe retreats only during the
winter, that isto fay, during the time that they are torpid
and do not eat. In fummer they always keep upon the
heights, in the drieft and moft arid places. I made this
remark during my travels, and the fact has been confirmed
to me by Captain Hawkins and the inhabitants of New
Jerfey, in which ftate thefe animals are in abundance, and
where accidents from them are. frequent, the foil being
generally dry, fandy and arid.

I return to my narrative. Being arrived at the place
whither our guide wifhedto conduét us, we began, all of
us, to dig where he pointed out. Our refearches were
fruitlefs, We hunted in three other places without fuc-
cels.

The next day Captain Hawkins, having arrived, con-
duéted us four miles, into a low ground, at the foot of a
fmall hill. It was covered with birch, dogwood, and other
fhrubs, and with a prodigious number of large trees fallen
down and rotted, whofe ftumps were yet left. It is under
thefe roots that the boiquiras retire. A layer of rich
black earth, formed of the remains of vegetables, and two
or three inches deep, was covered by a thick bed, about
s or 6 inches high, of the fphagnum paluftre, below
this bed of earth were found, at {mall intervals, {prings
which ran through a loofe miry foil into which a ftick
might be thruft eafily five or fix feet. It is in the neigh-
bourhood of thefe fprings, and above this miry foil, the
reptiles are found which were the object of our inveftiga-
tion, Our firft attempt was unfuccefsful. Captain Haw-
kins opened however another cavity in which we found
two boiquiras of moderate fize. In two other Ble ar

oun

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 375

found nothing. Captain Hawkins now. condudted us
about half a mile further to a low ground nearly fimilar,
lefs covered with wood, but confiderably loaded with
fphagnum paluftre, without which we fhould have funk
infallibly into the mud, fo foft was the foil. The firft
fearch produced nothing; but the fecond made us ample
amends for the pains we had given ourfelves till that time.
In the {pace of two hours, and in a {pot of ground about
12 feet long and 8 or 9 wide, we took eight boiquiras of
various fizes, which had each from two to nine rattles.

I had perfuaded myfelf, after the different reports which
I had heard, that I fhould find in the fame cavities, and
mingled with the boiquiras, many other fpecies of ferpents
and even frogs. Having met with none, [ inquired of
Captain Hawkins if he had ever made the fame obferva-
tion. He anfwered it was not rare to find black fnakes
(coluber conftrictor) mingled with the boiquiras; but he
had never met with others, except once that he found in
the fame hole a young garter-fnake (coluber faurita): as
to frogs or toads he had fometimes met with them, but in
fmall numbers, and very rarely.

We afked him whether he was acquainted with the re-
treat of other ferpents, he anfwered in the negative, but
{uppofed they paffed their winters in holes at the foot of
trees, on the heights. It would not be lefs important to
difcover and inveftigate the retreat of other reptiles: the
true way to do it would be, it appears to me, to obferve
what holes are in the vicinity of the exuvie, which thefe
animals caft off in the fpring and autumn, and to feek
them in fuch places during the winter.

TuirD OBseRVATION.—The cold was very mode-
rate when we made this fearch, for about 10 o’clock the
thermometer ftood at 30° or 31° of Fahrenheit’s fcale:
at noon we plunged it into the mud above which lay the
boiquiras, where we left it ten minutes: it had rifen to

43°

376 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

43° when we took it out. At the time when we found
feven ferpents together in the fame place, the fun had
great power, the thermometer in the fhade being above .
40°. ‘The ferpents began to be fenfible in this mild tem-
perature: as we put them into the box which we had
brought for this purpofe they moved their rattles; but we
did not perceive them to make any efforts to dart forward
or bite.

After our return to Philadelphia, our boiquiras remained
above three weeks in the fame box, which, as I have al-
ready related, did not emit the flighteft odour when we
took them out of it.

FourTH OssERVATION.—At the end of this time
we fhifted them. I chofe out one with rattles, which had
been wounded by the blow of a ftake in digging it out,
and therefore could not live long, with the intention to
make a few obfervations on the teeth of thefe reptiles.
The feafon began to be very mild, the reptiles began to
agitate their rattles ; but unwilling to lofe fo favourable an
opportunity, I feized the boiquira with great caution by
my left hand, and holding it very near its head, fo that by
forcing its jaws forward | made its mouth open. I at-
tempted with {ciflars in my right hand to difle& out the
flefhy membrane or fheath which contains one of the
fangs. I accidentally burft the bladder which held the
venom, and two or three drops flowed upon my fingers.
This liquor was of a clear and tranfparent yellow colour.
After the operation, I took a fmall pair of flat pincers and
drew the fang. At the moment I extracted it, five or fix
drops of poifon came out with force, and flew to the dif-
tance of about two paces. I proceeded in the fame man-
ner to get the other fang, but made no venom fly out;
and, lefs happy than in my firft attempt, 1 brought away
with it a portion of the jaw.

My

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA. 377

My intention was, 1ft, To examine the teeth and fangs
of thefe reptiles: 2d, To obferve whether they would be
reproduced, and in what fpace of time: but the animal
dying of its wounds, or rather of the cold which came on
two days afterwards, we {hall not have it in our power to
make this laft obfervation.

FirTH OBsERVATION.—I put into a {mall bottle, with
water, the teeth of the boiquira, and carried them to Dr.
Grafli, of our fociety, who, prevented by fome patients
under his care, had not been able to affift at our experi-
ment, and we examined them together. I opened with
attention the flefthy membrane which I had removed with
the tooth, and we found eight teeth attached by a little
fibre to a common membrane, as reprefented in Fig. 5.
Thefe teeth are deftined to replace the old ones, which, ac-
cording to all appearance, fall at leaft once every year.*

SixTH OpservATION.—Having remarked the prodi-
gious quantity of young teeth in this flelhy membrane, I
was curious to learn what is their arrangement while the
animal isalive. Mr. Peale had been fo kind as to_ prepare
for me a young boiquira, one of thofe which we had
taken, and which had died that day. I chofe it for the
f{ubje&t of my experiment, it was almoft dry, I loofen-
ed lightly, with a penknife, the flefhy and dried fheath
which covered one of the fangs, and perceived three teeth
of different fizes, placed one above the other in the man-
ner defcribed in Fig. 3. Not perceiving any more, I con-
cluded that the {mall ones had been either removed with
the flefhy part, or were fo concealed as to render it im-
poflible to difcover them.

gu 1) SEVENTH

* ‘This obfervation is not new. I have fince found, in confequence of
my refearches, that this multiplicity of teeth had been already remarked in
the European viper (coluber natri Linn.); and that John Bartram menti-
ons the fame fact in a Memoir on the Boiquira, printed in the Philofophical
Tranfactions. Volume XLI. No. 456.

378 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.

SevENTH OsservATION.—The above obfervations led
me to another fact which I was not looking for, which
feems to me to explain the prodigious quantity of venom-
ous matter of which I {poke in my firft remarks. Beneath
each fang, and towards the middle of the lower jaw, lL
find a bladder which has a communication with the root
of the tooth. ‘This bladder appears to be a refervoir of
the poifon, whence it is tranfmitted to the lower part of
the tooth, in proportion as the animal pours it forth in the
act of biting any object. Vid. Fig. 4.

EIGHTH OBsERVATION.—I do not offer this laft ob-
fervation as a new one. I am fenfible that all the natural-
ifts who have defcribed the fangs of rattlefnakes and
vipers, (for they have both the fame conformation) have
been perfeQly acquainted with this fpecies of tooth; but
the defcription they give of it is fo inaccurate, that I think
myfelf obliged to reGtify them. All the defcriptions lead
one to believe, that thefe teeth are hollow at the bafe, in
their upper part, and at the extremity. They are in fac
pierced at their bafe, and this opening communicates with,
or rather is included in the bladder which contains the
poifon ; but the hole which correfponds to this is always
one or two lines, according to the fize of the tooth below
the point. It is as it were cut obliquely. The interior
part of the tooth forms a fpecies of channel which is
prolonged on the outfide from the fecond opening till near
the extremity, as may be feen in Fig. 6. which reprefents
a tooth through which a briftle has been paffed.

I thall allow myfelf no refletions on thefe obfervations ;
but I think I have fufficiently demonftrated that we have
almoft every thing yet to learn relating to thefe extraordi-
nary reptiles. Time, with repeated and multiplied obfer-
vations, can alone afford us the information requifite to
form a folid judgment on this fubje& ; and I am perfuaded
we fhall arrive at the proof, that the pretended effects of

enchantment,

\

MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA, oe

ee)

enchantment, terror, or a fuffocating emanation, the pro-
duce of that unrefleting horror which thefe reptiles in-
fufe into the greater part of mankind, are very natural
phenomena, and of eafy explication, as foon as obfervers
and naturalifts have learnt to fhake off their prejudices,
and will be bold enough, without rafhnefs, to feck thefe
animals in their retreats, at all feafons of the year, in order
to obferve them with coolnefs, and without prepoffeffion.

We, Mr. Peale and myfelf, propofe to make experi-
ments upon the poifon of the boiquira, and we fhall fub-
mit them to the fociety when the fads and experiments
have been fufficiently repeated and authenticated to eftab-
lith {ome certain truths. I fhall conclude this memoir by
a few reflections on the fyftematical diftribution of fer-
pents.

Linnzus was of opinion that the teeth of ferpents did
not afford characters fufficiently marked to be the founda-
tion of a fyftematical arrangement. He made ufe for this
purpofe of the plates or fcales which cover their belly and
the under part of theirtail. M. de la Cepede, a fucceffor
worthy of Buffon, on account of his eloquence and his
clearnefs, and ftill more worthy of eulogium on account
of the refpect which he pays to the moft celebrated of na-
turalifts, the immortal Linnzus, has followed the fame

lan.

i M. de la Cepede diftributes ferpents into eight genera ;
namely, Coulewvres (coluber) whofe characteriftics are large
{cales under the body, and two rows of {mall {cales under
the tail. Boa (boa) which have large fcales under the
body and tail likewife. The rattlefnakes Borqguira (crota-
lus) which have large feales under the body, and the tail in
like manner, but are terminated by rattles, articulated the
one into the other and giving out a noife.

The -Anguis (anguis) which are wholly covered with
imbricated {cales.

2012 The

380 MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA.
The Amphifbenes (amphifbene), whofe body and tail are

covered with circular f{caly rings.

The Caciles (cecilia), the {cales of whofe ae are in
folds.

The Langaba (langaha), which have large fceales under
the belly, annular fcales near the anus, and very {mall
{cales under the tail.

Laftly, the Acrochordes (acrochordes), whofe belly and
tail are furnifhed with little tubercles. ,

After this diftribution, it appears that the viper, atropos,
ammodytes, and feveral which have fangs, and are poifon-
ous, are confounded with the Coluburs, properly fo called,
which are not fupplied with this {pecies of teeth, and
which are all harmlefs. It feems therefore natural to make
a divifion of this genus already too numerous.

The genus boa offers another confufion which might be
avoided. ‘The greater part of ferpents of this fpecies are
without teeth. There is moreover in America a non-de-
fcript ferpent (the mokafon) which according to the feales
under its belly and tail, ought to be arranged among the
boas. This fpecies however have not only teeth, but the
extremities of their J jaws are furnifhed with fangs like the
boiquira.

For thefe sites I think * the genus coluber ought to
be divided into

Vipers (Vipera), whofe characters would be large plates
or {cales under the belly. Two rows of imbricated fcales
under the tail. The extremity of the upper jaw on each
fide furnifhed with a hollow fang or canine tooth.
Venomous.

(Coluber)

* There is another confideration in favour of this change. It is that alt
fanged ferpents, at leaft all which I have had occafion to fee, appear to me
certainly viviparous: perhaps the colubres, properly fo cited, are all ovipa,
rous. This is another fact relating to thefe reptiles yery important to afcer-.
vain.

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MEMOIR on AMPHIBIA, 381

(Coluber). Large fcales under the belly. Two rows of
imbricated fcales under the tail. All the teeth alike.
No fang or canine tooth. Harmlefs.

(Boa). Large {cales under the belly and tail. The tail
without rattles. No teeth.

Cenchris. Large fcales under the belly and tail. The
tail without rattles. Small equal teeth.

Agkiftrodon. Large fcales under the belly and tail.
No rattles. The extremity of the upper jaw furnifhed
with two hollow fangs or canine teeth. Venomous.

In this laft divifion fhould be arranged the mokafon.

I fay nothing with refpect to other genera, in which I
have no alteration to propofe.

An

382 On PHLOGISTON,

No. XLIII.

An Appendix to the two Articles in this Volume, (p. 1.) by
Dr. PRIESTLEY, 7” a Letter to B, S. BARTON, M. D.
DEAR Sir, :

Read, Nov. QYINCE fo much time has elapfed fince the
23> 1798 KY printing of the articles which had the honour
of being inferted in the T7an/actrons of your Philofophical
Society, I beg leave to add a few more obfervations before
they are publifhed. ‘The experiments which I have made
fince that time have confirmed all the fads reported in
them, but not all the conc/ufions which I then drew from
them.—1. Becaufe the diminution of a mixture of atmof-
pherical and nitrous air proceeded, in a courfe of time,
much farther than it does prefently after they are put to-
gether, I concluded that atmofpherical air contains a much
greater proportion of pure air than had been fuppofed, on
the idea that the latter part of the diminution was owing
to the fame caufe with the former. But I have fince
found that any kind of air, confined by water, the fur-
face of which is expofed to the common air, will in time
be wholly abforbed by it, though in thofe circumftances it
might be fuppofed that the water in which it ftood would
be fully faturated with air, and therefore would not be
difpofed to take any more, efpecially phlogifticated air,
which it never takes in preference to the dephlogifticated.
To what this unexpected circumftance is owing, I have
not yet fatisfied myfelf, though I have made fome progrels
in the inveftigation.—Notwithftanding this, I have no
doubt but that part of the phlogifticated air that is found
after fome of the procefles for afcertaining the purity of air,
is formed at the time, by the phlogifton emitted from the
fubftance that is ufed for this purpofe uniting with the pur-
er

On PHLOGISTON. 383

er part of the air. Several of my late experiments con-
firm this. Indeed, the different degrees of the diminution
of atmofpherical air in different proceffes, and in the dif-
ferent methods of conducting the fame proceis, is a full
proof of this.

2. I find svory d/ack a more convenient fubftance for
the experiments recited in my paper than the dlack bones I
then made ufe of; firft giving it as much heat as I can in
a {mith’s forge, without any accefs of air. It becomes white
not only when heated in atmofpherical air, but in phlogif-
ticated, or inflammable air, the quantity of which is there-
by increafed, by an addition of inflammable air. And that
this addition of inflammable air comes from the doves, and
from the principle that conftitutes their d/ackne/s, and not
from any decompofition of the wafer over which the pro-
cefs is made, is evident from that water containing no aci-
dity, and its yielding air lefs pure than before; whereas,
had the water been decompofed, fince it is faid that 85
parts in 100 are oxygen, it muft have been found inthe
form either of an acid, or of pure air. ‘That it is not con-
tained in the bones, is clear from their receiving no addi-
tional weight.

3. The fame thing appears to me to be proved by the
heating of z7mc. When this is done in atmofpherical air,
flowers of zine are produced, and the air is diminithed.
After this the air is increafed by the addition of inflamma-
ble air; and inftead of flowers of zinc, a black powder is
{ublimed. If the water be decompofed in this procefs,
where is the oxygen that muft be difengaged at the fame
time with the hydrogen? It is not in the water, or the
black powder; for this appears to be nothing more than
zinc fublimed. It becomes white when it is heated in
common air, and diminifhes it.

4. Both iron and zinc, efpecially the latter, give out
much inflammable air in pure water; and yet that water

acquires

384 On PHLOGISTON.

acquires no acidity, and gives out air more imptire after
than before the procefs, nor is there any oxygen in what
remains of the metals. Where, then, is the oxygen into
which it is faid that the water is refolved, at the fame time
that it gives out hydrogen, or inflammable air ?

s. | have had abundant confirmation of the experiments
that I made with need/es. Y made ufe of /fee/ on the fup-
pofition that; abounding with phlogifton, it would part
with more than it would gain in proportion to other fub-
ftances; and that the phlogifton it contained uniting with
the pure air would make more phlogifticated air. I lately
heated 100 grains of the needles in 7.3 oz. meafures of at-
moifpherical air, over mercury, till it was reduced to 6.5 oz.
meatures, without any fenfible quantity of fixed or inflam-
mable air in it, being wholly phlogifticated ; a diminution
fo much lefs than ufual, that much phlogifticated air muft
have been formed in the procefs, As the needles had not
gained or loft any fenfible weight, fomething muft have
been thrown off from them, though it could not be col-
Jeted ; and this could only kave been from fomething go-
ing out of them, and not by any thing entering into them.

6. It is faid that when red precipitate, which is a calx
of mercury, is heated in inflammable air, the pure air ex-
pelled from it uniting with the inflammable air, forms zwa-
ter. But in my late experiments I have had the cleareft
proof that it does not form either water or any other fub-
ftance, but remains mixed with the remainder of the in-
flammable air, while it imbibes fome of the inflammable
air, and is revived by it. ‘This appears from examining
the air that remains, and which is found to contain a por-
tion of pure air, and efpecially from the exp/ofion of the
two kinds of air, which has more than once happened
to me, and is nota little dangerous. I find by computa-
tion, that fo much inflammable air is abforbed in the re-
vival of red precipitate, that an ounce of mercury will ab-

forb

On PHLOGISTON. 385

forb not lefs than 362 ounce meafures of it, or the phlo-
gifton contained in it. An ounce of lead, I have fhewn,
takes 108 ounce meafures of this air, an ounce of bifmuth
185, and an ounce of tin 377 ounce meafures of inflam-
mable air; fo that mercury contains more phlogifton than
two of thofe metals; and notwithftanding this it may be
revived in a glafs retort, without any inflammable air at
all. Here is a great difficulty, no doubt; but it may be
folved by fuppofing that this fubftance is capable of attrat-
ing phlogifton through the hot glafs. And if /7gdt, and heat,
both acknowledged /b/fances, can penetrate glafs, why
may not pdlogi/ton? This muft either be fuppofed, or
that an ounce of mercury may either contain all the phlo-
gifton in 362 ounce meafures of inflammable air, or none
at all, and yet be the fame thing, having all the fame che-
mical properties. Let philofophers confider this cafe with
impartiality, and form the beft theory that they can to ac-
count for the fats. Though fo much ftrefs has been laid
on the experiment with this calx of mercury, as a founda-
tion for the new theory, it is by no means conclufive in its
favour.

Had the publication of your Tranfaétions been more
frequent, I fhould with much pleafure have fubmitted to
the fociety a full account of thefe and other experiments,
which appear to me to prove, that metals are compound
fubftances, and that water has not yet been decompofed by
any procefs that we are acquainted with. Still, however,
I would not be very pofitive, as the contrary is maintained
by almoft all the chemifts of the age, and therefore their
hypothefis requires to be confidered with the greateft at-
tention. This I fhall continue to give to it; and certainly
it is high time to decide this queftion ; fince a great part of
the fyftem of chemiftry depends upon it, and a falfe theory
may retard the progrefs of this important branch of {cience.

j 3h Wifhing

386 On PHLOGISTON.

Withing the continuance of your fuccefs in the feveral
valuable inquiries in which you are engaged, and which
has already gained you much deferved reputation, I am,

Dear Sir,
Yours fincerely,
jy) S REESE
Northumberland, Aug. 8, 1798.

enn EE ———

In all my computations of the quantity of pure air con-
_tained in a portion of atmofpherical air, I have of late years
followed the example of others in agzta/ing the mixture of
nitrous air with it. But I have lately obferved that this
agitation only promotes the abforption of part of the ni-
trous air by the water, and not the union of the two kinds
of air, as has generally been fuppofed. Confequently,
my original method of mixing them wz/hout agitation is
preferable to it, and this gives the proportion of pure air
in atmofpherical air more agreeable to the truth, viz. about
2.7 parts in 1003 whereas, if the computation be made af-
ter the agitation of equal quantities of the two kinds of
air, the proportion will be about 33 in roo. After agita- ~
tion, one meafure of atmofpherical air and one of nitrous
will generally occupy the fpace of 1.01 or 1.02 meafures ;
when without agitation, it will be about 1.25; and this
alfo the refult of firing together an equal quantity of in-
flammable and atmofpherical air,

J. PRIESTLEY.
An

On OPIUM, ah

No. LXIV.

An Inguiry into the comparative effects of the Opium Ofici-
narum, extratied from the Papaver Somniferum or White
Poppy of Linneus ; and of that procured from the Lathu-
ca Sativa, cr common cultivated Lettuce of the fame author.
By Joun ReDMAN Coxe, m. dD. An Honorary Mem-

2) ’ y
ber of the Philadelphia Medical Society ; and a Senior
ade he
Member of the Chemical Society of Philadelphia.

GENTLEMEN,
Read, Nov. | N the boundlefs fields of inquiry which the
245 1797- book of nature opens to our view in the ex-

tenfive regions of America, much remains to be invefti-
gated. Our forefts, our fields and rivers, our mountains,
and the bowels of the earth, alike invite attention from
the philofophic mind. Too long has a fupine inactivity
prevented our benefitting by the bounty of nature. She
is not coy; yet fhe requires purfuit from thofe who with
to fecure her: thofe alone who feck her, will the meet
with a {mile, and condu& them to the temple of honour
and fortune. Proteus-like fhe aflumes every form, and
thus fuits herfelf to the moft fantaftic imaginations.

The rugged afpe&t of the entrance to the various ave-
nues of knowledge has deterred many from its purfuit, who
if they had made the leaft advance, would have perceived
a {peedy termination to the labyrinth before them, anda
luxuriant profpec& unfolding to their view, and growing
more delightful in proportion as they proceeded.

Among the various objeéts which nature holds up to our
view, none are more deferving of inveftigation than the
vegetable kingdom.—Here we difcover, plants fitted to
nourifh and to preferve life ; whilft others ferve, by their
grateful fruits and odours to gratify the fenfes of tafte

ae and

388 O) NOUR U aN.

and {mell; or by their brilliant colours, the eye of man. By
the noble difcovery of the art of dying, many of thefe co-
lours have become tributary to tafte, by their tranfmilfion
to, and fixation in, other bodies ; nature is thus improved
upon, by rendering permanent and fixed thefe her fugaci-
ous and tranfient ornaments. In medicine, many of the
moit valuablearticles of the Materia Medica are derived from
this fource; witnefs the ipecacuanha, jalap, rheubarb,
gamboge, bark, and opium, with many others which
might be mentioned, of lefs note.

Wikercane we look, we find nature tributary to the la~
bours of man. Her eee increafed ; fhe feems anxi-
ous to remunerate our fatigue, and to dann as far as is
in her power the curfe inflicted upon the human race, in
the perfons of our firft parents, of “ eating their bread with
the {weat of their brow.”

Though the bounty of nature is ‘thus varioufly extended
throughout the regions of the earth, it is not the lefs our
duty and intereft, to endeavour to difcover fuch articles in
our own country, as are fimilar or analagous to thofe which _
we obtain by importation from diftant places; or at leaft to
draw from other countries thofe riches which will prove
equally productive, when naturaliz’d to our foil and cli-
mate. Inthe immenfe extent of the United States, ma
be found almoft every climate from the torrid to the frigid
zone. Let us not then defpair of ultimately poflefling
among ourfelves, all thofe invaluable fources of health and
nutrition which are drawn from the vegetable creation in.
every part of the globe.

The potatoe is not a native of our climate, nor of the
European countries in which it is cultivated ; yet it is one
of the moft ufeful of the vegetable tribe, and grows among
us as luxuriantly as in its native foil of South America.
‘The rheubarb, though not natural to the clime of Great Bri-
tain, by cultivation, has there become tributary te the

wants.

Of 40 RE M. 389

wants of man. Let us not then longer than is neceflary be
dependant upon foreign countries for the production of fuch
fubftances as our own will afford us: let us feek in our
extenlive regions thofe treafures of the vegetable world,
which now droop unnoticed, ‘* and wafte their {weetnefs
in the defert air ;” and which by cultivation may become
fuch articles of commerce as amply to repay any labour
expended upon them. We have too long lavifhed our
treafures upon foreign productions; let us now in turn
render foreign countries tributary to us.

Having faid thus much, I fhall now proceed to treat of
one of the moft valuable articles of the Materia Medica,
in a curfory way, as an introduction to the fubje& of the
following paper; and which I truft from its importance
will be found worthy of the attention and particular no-
tice of your refpeftable body.

The fubftance I propofe to confider, is Opium; em-
phatically ftyled by fome authors, “ Magnum Dei Do-
num,” and in the clafs of ftimulants regarded as the
principal.

The plant which has 4irberto yielded for the thop this
invaluable drug is the papaver fomurferum or white poppy ;
in the clafs polyandria and order monoginia of Linnzus.
It is an annual plant ; from the heads or capfules of which,
the opium is obtained in Verfia, Arabia, and other warm
rezions of Afia. Both the fmell and tafte refide in a milky
juice, which is moft copious in the cortical part of the
capfules; though the leaves and ftalks poffe(s it in a lefs
degree. ‘This milky juice in a concrete ftate, forms the
officinal opium. Kempfer and others have long ago de-
feribed the manner in which it is colle&ed: but the moft
circumftantial detail of the culture of the poppy, and the
method employed to procure the opium from it, is that

given

390 On OPIUM.
given by Mr. Kerr, as practifed in the province of Ba-

har*,

The pureft kind of opium is chiefly retained for the
ufe of the inhabitants of thofe countries in which it is
prepared ; who being debarred by their religion, from
wine or ardent f{pirits ; accuftom themfelves to a ftill more
pernicious luxury, by raifing their enfeebled ideas with
the ftimulus of opium.

The quantity taken by fome in the fpace of twenty-
four hours is truly furprifing, It is true, that the ufe of
it in the commencement is very moderate; but like dram-
drinking becomes more neceflary each day, to the ex-
iftence of thofe who are accuftomed to its influence.

According to Mr. Baumé opzum confifts of an extrac-
tue matter foluble in water; a refi; a volatile concrete
oil; and a peculiar falt ; exifting in the following propor-
tions.

4 tb of common opium yield ib. 5: 7
Of Jnfoluble matter, - I °
Extraéiive matter, - - Tie p °
Refin, - - - Pt: Lite.
Oil, - - - - Cen yi heey ee Ne
Salixe matter, - - a ELT LO (Aa
Equal to 64 3. or - =i dds 4.50, 2

In the hiflory above referred to, of the cultivation of
the poppy, previoufly to obtaining from it this invaluable
drug, may be remarked the extreme labour and attention
requifite to its production. If then this time and labour
can be faved, it mult certainly prove beneficial to man-
kind, by diminifhing the price of this ufeful remedy, Nor

is

* See Woodville’s Medical Botany. Vol. IIL p. 505.

On OPIUM. 391

is there any danger that this diminifhed price fhould tend
to increafe the number of thofe unfortunate wretches,
who blindly feek to bury their faults or their misfortunes
with them in the grave, by the impious and cowardly
act of fuicide. The avenues of death are too numerous,
and the price of this balm to human mifery (when pro-
perly applied) is much too inconfiderable, to deter from
his purpofe a perfon, intent on terminating his exiftence.

The /aétuca fativa, or common cultivated garden let-
tuce, is ranked by that great naturalift Linnzus in his
clals fyngenefia, order polygamia equalis, and is thus de-
{cribed.

«© Ladctuca. Receptacle naked. Calyx imbricated, cy-
lindric, with membranous margins. Pappus fimple, ftip-
ed. Seeds polifhed.”

The genus Lactuca comprifes according to Linnzus
Jfeven {pecies ; of which this isthe fecond, and is defcribed
thus, “ /aéfuca fativa, with leaves rounded on the {tem
hearted, ftem corymbed.”*

Since the time of this great man feveral other fpecies
have been enumerated ; it is not however my intention to
fpeak of any other than the one above mentioned.

The /ettuce had long been known to poflels narcotic
properties, None however had extracted from it a fub-
{tance pofleffing all the properties of opium in the fulleft
degree: it was chiefly from tradition that its effects were
known, and by obferving that people were rendered fleepy
by eating old lettuce. It is the more remarkable, be-

caufe, as we fhall fee prefently, fome have arrived at the
very threfhold of the difcovery, but have {topped from
the purfuit.

As far back as the year 1792, and Jong before I had
perufed any author, upon the fubject of lettuce, it oc-

curred

* Syftem of Vegetables of Linneus, tranflated by a Botanical Society
of Litchfield, London 1783.

292 On OPIUM.

curred to me to try fome few experiments, to determine
the quality and nature of that milky juice which exudes
from this plant in copious ftreams when wounded; and
this I was induced to do, from the well known efie& of the
plant in caufing fleepinefs when old; as well as from its
peculiar fimell and tafte.

Thefe experiments, at that time few in number, con-
vinced me of the truth of the analogy which | had drawn
between the common officinal opium, and the milky juice of
this plant ; for with a fmall quantity of extra obtained
by infpiffating this juice, 1 found fimilar effe€@is induced
upon myfelf when taken internally in the fame dofes with
opium of the poppy. The moft pleafing fleep was brought
on by one grain of the extract, or by fifteen drops of the
tinture made with proof fpirit. By fimilar experiments
fince tried upon myfelf in England, I found the fame ef-
fects; and a repetition of them within a few months pait,
proves them ftridily the fame. I have occafionally remov-
edin myfelf a flight cholic, with twelve or fifteen drops of
the tincture: and a feries of comparative experiments upon
frogs, &c. which | fhall here detail, aflure me by their uni-
formity of the zdentity of the opzwm extracted from the pop-
py and of that procured from the lettuce.

Before I proceed to relate the experiments I have made
upon this fubjec&t, I muft be permitted to fhew, by quo-
tations from feveral authors, how nearly they had reached
the difcovery of this fa&. Jones, acelebrated author, who
publifhed in 1701 his “ Myferies of Opium revealed,” in
{peaking “* of the election (or choice) of opium,” fays ;
*« 3. It was mixed with juice of /adluca fylueftris, or wild
endive leaved lettuce.”

‘© This made it of a duller co/ovr, and not to fmell fo
perfectly and rankly of the poppy.” He foon after, adds,
“© but /actuca fylveftris being of the nature of ofium, made

the lofs of its virtue lefs difcernible.” See p. 13.
Dr.

ON OPIUM: 393

Dr. CuaRiLeEs Aston, in the ¢th vol. of the Edin-
burgh Medical Effays and Obfervations, p. 105. in his dif-
fertation on ofium after mentioning feveral articles with
which it is reported to be adulterated, adds, “ I know not
the g/aucium of the ancients, nor did I ever fee any opium
that I had reafon to fufpedt as adulterated with gum or fuer ;
but the w/d lettuce, that is, the /acluca fyluefiris, odore-vi-
rojo, CG. B. Pin. 123. abounds more than any poppy | know,
with a milk of the fame tafte and f{mell; perhaps therefore
this, ifit can be more eafily colle&ed, may {till in fome
places be mixed with opzwm, and the medicine be nothing
the worfe for it, the milk of even the common lettuce being
anodyne and fomniferous, as well as that of the poppies.’

See alfohis 57th. le€ture in the 2d vol. of his Materia
Medica, (p. 153. et'feq. .:

Teen his Brzti/h Herbal, p. 436, under the head of
Jactuca, has the following: ‘ Divifion I. 1. Great wild
lettuce. Latluca fylueftris major opit odore.”

‘© The root is long, thick and whitifh ; and when cut,
it yields abundantly a yellow juice, of a very unpleafant
fmell, refembling that of opium ; ; and of a bitter, naufeous
tafte.” << G, Bauhine calls it, Jadluca Syloefiris odore virofo.
Others, /acluca fylveftris major odore opti.”

‘«¢ This is one of thofe Englifh plants which deferves to
be more known in medicine. It has been called poifonous,
and men have from that been frighted from its ufe ; but it is
avery gentle and a fafe opiate, ‘The belt way of giving it
isin afyrup made from a decoétion of the frefh leaves and
ftalk. This way it greatly exceeds the common diacodium,
and may be given to tender conftitutions with more fafety,
This I write from experience.’

Date has defcribed the £/tuce alfo in his Phar macologia,
p- 80. In this the different charaCteriftic names of various
authors are brought together. 7%. Bauhine calls it “ Jactuca

Siloeftris lato folio, fucco virofo.” 1, B. it, 1002. Drios-
ae CORIDES

394 Ory GP ee

coRIDES has faid, according to Da/e, that it mitigates
pain,

Date has alfo made a fecond fpecies or variety of the /ac-
tuca fylveftris, under the diftinguifhing mark of, “ Z. /j/v.
cofta {pinofa, or jagged leav'd wild lettuce.” \ fhall here quote
his own words.

* Ladtuca fylveftris fative fimilis eft (ut {eribit Diofcor-
ides) fed longior caulis, et folia gracioliora, et afperiora ;
maro guftu eft. Qu de viribus lactuce fylveftris veteres
prodiderunt, quod {cilicet femen ejus non minus quam fa-
tive libidinum imaginationes in fomno amolitur, et vene-
rem arcet; cul huic plantz conveniant, dubitat D. Raiws.
Narcoticam eam effe et foporiferam, adeoque (ut re&té ob-
fervat) viribus papaveri fimilem, ut Diofcorides et Plinius tra-
dunt, opi vebemens et virofus odor abunde convincit,” et feq.

Thefe quotations will fuffice to prove, that however ana-
lagous their authors might fufpect the offcinal opium and
the juice of the lettuce to be; they had not put it to the
teft of experiment. I now proceed to {tate thofe which [
have made.

LETTUCE OPIUM. COMMON OPIUM.
EXPERIMENT 1. EXPERIMENT 2.
July if. 1797. The fame day I added a fimilar

To one ounce of rain water, I add- | quantity of rain water to 5 grs. of the
ed 5 grs. of the opium ot the lettuce in | opium of the poppy, in the vial mark-
the vial marked, A. ed,

I frequently agitated both vials, and on the 21ft of the
month, I found by filtration, only one grain and a half,
left on the filtre of the vial A. whilft 2 grains were left on
that of B. ;

This difference of half a grain I at firft afcribed to the
common opium being much more dry than that of the let-
tuce which was frefhly made; and hence, in an equal
weight not containing fo great a proportion of fixed matter.

Om JOP FU. MY a0%

The colour of the folution A. was however much deeper than
that of B. and fucceeding experiments convinced me that
the quantity of extractive matter in the /ettuce opium, is
confiderably greater than inthe common. By the aid of
my ingenious and worthy friend Dr. Cooper, of this city,
I obtained a larger quantity of the /es/uce opium, with

which I was enabled to make the following.

LETTUCE OPIUM.
EXPERIMENT 3.

Auguft rath. I put 20 grains of
this opium thoroughly dried, into tqwo
ounces of filtered rain water, in the
vial A. and after repeated agitations,
I filtered it on the 18th. When dried,
there were left on the filtre, 10 grains,
fo that one half; was pretty accurately
held in folution. The filtered folution
was of a dark brown colour, poffeff-
ing much of the tafte and {mell of opi-
um.

COMMON OPIUM.

EXxpeRiMENT 4.

Auguft roth. I put 20 grains of
common opium into a fimilar quantity
of rain water in the vial B. Onthe
24th, I filtered it after frequent agi-
tations. There remained on the fil-
tre, when dried, grains 11, which
confequently leaves but g twentieths,
diffolved by the water. The filtered
folution was not nearly of fo deepa
colour, asthat of A.

To both of thefe folutions I added about a drachm of
alkohol, to prevent putrefaCtion.

LETTUCE OPIUM.
ExpeRIMENT 5.

Auguf 19th. I put the 10 grains
remaining on the filtre of A. (experi-
ment 3.) into an half ounce of alko-
hol. I filtered it cn the 29th, and
found 7 grains left on the filtre, which
when wafhed and dried, was devoid
of tafte or fmell. The quantity of
refizous Ynatter then was 3 grains, or
rather more than one 7th of the whole
mafs.

BEE 2

COMMON OPIUM.

Experiment 6.

Auguft 26th. Iput the 11 grains
remaining on the filtre of B. (experi-
ment 4.) into the fame quantity of al.
kohol. J filtered it on the 2yth, and
found 8 grains left on the filtre; de-
void of tafte and fmell, when wafhed
and dried. Here then the propor-
tions agree,

The colour of ¢his folution in alko-
hol was much deeper than that of ex-
periment 5.

Neither

396 On OPIUM.

Neither of the above folutions poffeffed to any confide-
rable degree the peculiar {mell or tafte of opivm; probably
from the large proportion of alkohol. The 7e/iz was preci-
pitated from the folutions in alkohol, by the addition of
water. That of the lettuce appeared to me w#iter than the
other; but not fo copious: the opium tafte, &c. was more

evident in the water.
ing fome days,

LETTUCE OPIUM.

ExpERIMENT 17.

Auguft 19th. I put 20 grains of
the /ettuce opium into the vial A. and
added to it one ounce of a mixture of
equal parts of alkohol and rain water.
On the 29th, after repeated agitation
I filtered it and found that 124 grains
had been taken up, as 74. remained
on the filtre after wafhing and drying.
The folution eminently poffeffed the
fmell and tafte of laudanum; and was
of an higher colour than that of the
following experiment.

Its refin was more evident by fland-

COMMON OPIUM.

Exrerimentr 8.

The fame day, I put a fimilar-
quantity of cormon opium into the vial
B. and added the fame quantity of the
mixture of the alkohol and water. By
filtration on the 29th, /even grains
were left upon the filtre ; or 13 grains
were fufpended in the folution.

This difference I regard as proceed-
ing from a {mall allowance not being
made in the weight of the opium of the
kituce, which had not dried tho-
roughly; and hence not containing as
much //id matter in the whole mafs.

The mais left on the filtre A. was of a more gummy feel
than that of B. and not of fo high a colour; the {mell or
tafte of opium was not very evident in either of them.

With the folutions of experiments 3 and 4, I proceeded.

now to make the following.

LETTUCE OPIUM.

—

EXPERIMENT 9Q.

To a folution of fugar of lead, I
added 30 drops of the aqueous {olu-
tion of the opium laduce; a copious
brown coloured precipitate inftantly
formed. The opium {fmell was evi-
dent.

COMMON OPIUM.

EXPERIMENT 10..

A fimilar effect took place with the:
acetite of lead, andthe aqueous folu-
tion of common opium. The precipi-
tate was not as dark as the formers.
the opium {mell was evident.

EXPERIMENT:

Own
LETTUCE OPIUM.

EXPERIMENT. 11.

To a folution of fulphate of iron
(green vitriol) I added 20 drops of
the aqueous folution. A brownifh
coloured precipitate was formed ; but
not very copious. ‘The fupernatant
liquor upon the fubfidence of the pre-
cipitate was of a dirty green; as was
alfo the precipitate itfelf upon ftand-
ing, The opium fmell was retained.

EXPERIMENT 13.

To a folution of hepar arfenicum
(made with orpiment and quicklime)
I added 20 drops of the above aque-
ous folution ; a brown and pretty co-
pious precipitate was here formed.
The fupernatant liquor appeared
clear. The hepatic. fme}l feemed to
be augmented by the union of the
two folutions.

EXPERIMENT 15.

To one drachm of /ime-waier, 1 ad-
ded 20 drops ; a brownifh precipitate
was formed. The opium fmell re-
mained.

EXPERIMENT 17.

I added 20 drops, to 15 drops of
nitrate of filver, diluted with rain wa-
ter; a light coloured cloud gradually
formed itfelf after ftanding fome time.

EXPERIMENT 1Q..

Tadded 20 drops to a folution of
carbonate of ammonia ; a brownith co-
loured precipitate took place. The
peculiar imell of both folutions, was
evident.

OME DU M.

397
COMMON OPIUM.

ExprRIMENT. 12.

The precipitate here was of a dark-
er colour, but in the fame propor-
tion apparently. The {olution was
itfelf of a drown colour, and retained
the opium {mell.

EXPERIMENT 14»

The precipitate here, was of a light
green colour, and very {mall in quan-
tity, until after ftanding a confidera-
ble time, when the cloud began to
fubfide of a brownith or dirty green
colour. The hepatic fmell feemed?
increafed.

EXPERIMENT 16.
In this experiment, a brownifh pre-
cipitate was likewife formed, though

lefs abundant ; the opium fmell re-
mained.

Experiment 18

The fame effe&, but in a lefs de-
gree, took place in this experiment.

EXPERIMENT 20.

In this experiment the fame effects
took place.

LETTUCE

Own
LETTUCE OPIUM.

ExperiMENT 21.

398

I added 20 drops to a diluted folu-
tion of xitrat of copper. The green
colour of the latter, predominated;

OPIUM.

COMMON OPIUM.

EXPERIMENT 22.

In this experiment the brown
colour of the folution of opium pre-
dominated, and a beautiful clear fo-

lution remained which did not become

but a very lightifh brown coloured
cloudy after ftanding 10 minutes.

precipitate gradually fubfided.

EXPERIMENT 23. EXPERIMENT 24,

A fimilar effec took place in this

A copious lightifh brown coloured
experiment.

precipitate was produced by adding
20 drops, toa diluted folution of ni-
trat of mercury.

EXPERIMENT 25. Experiment 26.

Alkohol, diluted with water, pro- This experiment proved the fame.

duced no effeét when added to the
above {folution.

As in the above related experiments, the general effects
of the /wo /pecies of opium were pretty nearly fimilar, with
chemical tefis; 1 thought a fet of comparative experiments
made upon frogs, would be proper to illuftrate ftill farther _
this identity. I therefore fubmitted feveral to the action of
the opium in the manner following.

EXPERIMENT 2%.

July 1ft. Ina vial (C.)I put 8 grains of the opium Jace
‘uc@, and added by meafure half an ounce of good brandy.
On the 14th of Auguft, I filtered it, and found 2 grains
left upon the filtre. ‘This I put into the fame vial C. and
added half an ounce of filtered rain water. The mafs was
of a gummy nature, poflefling nothing of the peculiar /a/fe of
opium, and but little of the /ize//. On the 16th, after fil-
tering it, I ftill found 2 grains remaining. ‘The water had

acquired

Orne VOLO wD Me 399

acquired an evident bitter tafte, and a flight fmell ; which
was doubtlefs owing to my neglect of wa/bing the mafs pre-
vioufly to the addition of the water.

EXPERIMENT 28.

Auguft 20th. At 120’clock, [injected a portion of this
aqueous folution (experiment 27.) between the fkin and
mufcles of the rzgh¢ lower extremity, of a fine lively bul-
frog. At the fame time [ alfo injected between the muf-
cles and the {kin of the ft lower extremity, a mixture of
one part of alkohol, and /wo of water. He did not appear
fenfible of pain at the introduion of either, but leaped
about in the receiver, in which I confined him, with great
vigor. At 10 minutes after 12, he appeared equally vi-
gorous; as he did at the expiration of is. I now inject-
ed fome more of the fame folution under the fkin of the right
extremity, but found no alteration evinced at the end of 10
minutes. [ therefore introduced a third portion, at the
diftance of 25 minutes from the firft; but without any al-
teration, excepting a flight convulfion, in drawing the leg
tothe body, and which probably was occafioned by the
irritation of the inftrument ufed in injecting the folution,
Finding no effec: produced by the folution upon the mul-
cles of the extremities, i injected a portion into the fromach
at 30 minutes after 12. At 35 minutes after 12, the r7ght
leg was moved with confiderable difficulty ; and generally
remained in an ex/ended pofition, unlefs ftruck or other-
wife irritated ; when it was drawn forwards pretty forci-
bly. The frog could ufe it very well in the action of jump-
ing; and he did not feem affected by what was taken into
the ftomach, except that refpiration appeared to be increaf-
ed at the end of ro minutes.

A portion injected into the recfum, produced no effec ;
and his legs had regained their perfeQ ule,

At

400 On? OWA, Ma

é

At 10 minutes before one o'clock, I introduced between
the {kin and mufcles of the /eft leg (which had had the al-
kohol and water injected into it at the commencement of
the experiment) a portion of the agueous folution of the opi-
um laéluce, of the vial A. (experiment 3.) At this time the
frog was very lively. Much of the folution was difcharged
by the motion of the leg in placing him under a receiver :
in 5 minutes he moved about brifkly; in ro his /e/? leg be-
gan to drag. At this period of the experiment, femething
occurred to carry me away, andI put the frog into the
water.

EXPERIMENT 29.

Auguft 21ft. The frog, the fubject of the preceding ex-
periment, had perfectly regained hislivelinefs and animation.
At 30 minutes after one o'clock, I injected a few drops of the
aqueous {olution A. (experiment 3.) into his ftomach. In 3
minutes, confiderable contractions of his abdomen appear-
ed, and continued at intervals ; with an opening of the fau-
ces, as if to obviate the difficulty of refpiration. By agi-
tating him, he was made to move with confiderable brifk-
nefs. At 15 minutes before 2, he appeared very lively. I
injected a fecond portion into his {tomach, and a third, at 20
minutes after 2,sas he {till continued very lively. Neither of
thefe appeared toaffe& him. At 25 minutes after 3, I in-
jected a portion, through a {mall incifion, into the abdo-
men ; a confiderable part of it was rejected; but his lower
limbs were paralized toa certain degree in 5 minutes. He
could not jump, but drew his legs after him with much
dificulty. In 12 minutes he could jump flightly. At
45 minutes after 3, I injected more, and retained it by keep-
ing him upon his back. At 4 o’clock he jumped pretty
well. At 30 minutes paft 4, he continued lively. 1 now put
him into the water, but found him dead the following day.

His

On OPIUM. aat

His death arofe, in all probability from snfammation,
induced in the abdomen, by the incifion made into it for the
introduction of the folution ; at leaft it muft have had fome
influence.

EXPERIMENT 30.

Neither the agueous Jolution A. (experiment 3.) nor al-
kohol and water, appeared to affect this frog when dropped
upon the naked eye.

EXPERIMENT 31.

Several drops of the aqueous folution A. (experiment 3.)
were dropped into my vzghreye. It gave me fome degree
of pain, which was not of long duration. I felt no other
inconvenience from it; but a flight inflammation for fome
hours was evident in it.

EXPERIMENT 32

After feparating by inflation the {kin and mufcles of the
wight inferior extremity of a fine active frog; I injected,
at 20 minutes before 4, feveral drops of the aqueous /olution
of opium laftuce, A. (experiment 3.) In 5 minutes little
effect was induced. In 10 he experienced fome difficulty
in moving it, and it was accompanied with a dragging mo-
tion. In 15 minutes {till greater difficulty. Upon extend-
ing the leg it was retained in that pofition; whilft the eft
was quickly drawn up to the body ; yet when the righsleg
was irritated, it was exerted with confiderable facility.

In 20 minutes the fenfe of feeling feemed to be in fome
degree impeded ; for it didnotappear to evince by any con-
tractions, that it felt pain from a pointed inftrument in this
jeg, though in the /ef, it was very evident.

a Gs At

402 On OPIUM.

At 5 minutes paft 4, I introduced fome of the fame folu-
tion beneath the fkin of the /ef¢ leg. At 10 minutes paft 4.
there was confiderable difficulty in moving this leg; and
his motion feemed now to be performed by pufhing himfelf
on with his fore-legs. If he wifhed tojump, he was com-
pelled to pufh his body back upon his hind legs, inftead of
drawing them up to his body. The jump was only the
length of his hind legs, which then remained extended as
before. A filver probe introduced into the opening made
to inject the folution, produced convulfions in both legs,.
by the aid of zinc. At15 minutes after 4, both his legs
appeared perfe@ly paralytic. At 20 minutes. after 4, I in-
jected fome of the fame folution under the fkin of the abdo-
men, which feemed in fome degree, after a fhort time to
paralize his fore-legs.

The folution applied to the naked eye of the frog did not
feem to affect it inthe leaft, as it did not caufe it to cover it
with the lids.

At 30 minutes after 4, I injected fome drops into the
ftomach, which feemed at firft to convulfe it confiderably ;
It appeared to ftrive to vomit, opening its mouth tothe
utmoft extent, and making repeated convulfive motions of
the cefophagus. It could not now move its lower limbs,.,
though they were occafionally convulfed; and violent con-
wulfions were induced by zinc and filver.

At 20 minutes before 5, it feemed to have expired, but
by introducing a few more drops into the ftomach, a flight
convulfion was induced in about a minute.. At 5 minutes.
before 5, it was completely dead.

Ten minutes before 5, | opened the thorax and abdomen.
The heart beat So pretty vigorous pulfations.in a minute.
After removing the pericardium, I put a drop of the folu-
tion upon the heart, which did not appear to diminith its;
frequency. I now removed it from the thorax, and put it
into fome drops of the folution, which feemed foon to check.

ity,

or}. OP LUM. 403

it, for at 5 o'clock it beat only 50 weak pulfations in a mi-
nute, and at 10 minutes paft 5, only 18, and chiefly of the
auricle. A pointed inftrument fearcely increafed its vi-
our.
The ftomach was corrugated, and contained the {olution
mixed with a flimy matter.

EXPERIMENT 33.

At 15 minutes before 2, P. M. I injected a few drops of
the aqueous folution A. into the abdomen of a lively frog,
the greateft part of which efcaped. Though the frog was
Sify contracted before the introduction of the folution ; yet
the abdominal mufcles relaxed and elongated themfelves the
inftant it was introduced.

At the expiration of 5 minutes no effect was produced.
At 10 minutes being equally lively, I introduced another
portion and retained it there for fome time.

In 10 minutes he /ay upon his abdomen, not as ufual
refting upon his legs. Irritation with a pointed inftrument,
did not now caufe his extremities to contract ; they appear-
ed perfectly paralized. When placed upon his back, he
lay without motion. His eyes were fenfible to irritation.

In 20 minutes he began flowly to move his lower, and
foon after his upper extremities, and gradually elevated
himfelf upon them as ufual. ContraCtions were produced
by zinc anda filver probe paffed into the abdomen.

In 5 minutes from this time he appeared to be nearly dead,
and was completely fo in two or three minutes longer. At
3 o'clock his limbs were nearly ftiff.

On cpening the thorax the heart was beating 60 vigor-
ous pulfations ina minute. I removed it from the body,
and in 15 minutes it pulfated only 32, and chiefly of the
auricle. In 30 minutes after 3, it beat only 10 times. At
45 minutes, it was excited to a few weak pulfations by a
pointed inftrument.

3.62 The

404 On OPIUM.

The length of time in which contraétions may be indw=
ced by metallic fubftances, in the frog, is much diminifhed
by the application of opium. In 20 minutes after the death
of this frog | could not produce any ; now they may be in-
duced at the expiration of 48, 72 and evena greater num-
ber of hours, in a frog killed by cutting off, or crufhing
the head ; as the experiments of Dr. Fowler on animal elec-
tricity evince.

EXPERIMENT 34.

Auguit 22d. At 10 minutes after 3 o’clock, I expofed
to view the bran of a frog, and put a few drops of the aque-
ous folution A. upon it. By a want of attention to the
motions of the frog, the greateft portion of it was fpeedily
loft. In 5 minutes he was very lively. In ro minutes
the fame. At 30 minutes after 3, I introduced a fecond
portion with greater care, which almoft inftantly feeted to
affe&t him; for inftead of fupporting himfelf as ufual upon
his legs, he lay upon his abdomen. In 5 minutes his /efr
leg feemed paralized, and he tumbled about with a fort of
convulfive motion. In 10 minutes he was more affected.
A pointed inftrument fcarcely caufing him to move; and
his motions were chiefly confined to his upper extremities.

In 20 minutes heappeared tobe quite dead. On opening
the thorax I found the heart pulfating vigoroufly 56 times
inaminute. In 15 minutes from this time it beat 48. In
this frog, the contractions produced by zinc and filver were:
by no means {fo vigorous, as in thofe killed without the ap-.
plication of opium.

EXPERIMENT 35%
By way ofa comparative experiment, on the 26th of Au-.

euft, I injected fome drops of the aqueous folution of com-
mop:

Qn OPTUM. 405

mon opium, b. (experiment 4.) beneath the fkin of the righe
inferior extremity of a lively frog, at 15 minutes before 1
o'clock. At 1, he was quite lively. By means of a probe,
I now detached the ligamentary union of the fkin at the
knee, and pafled a fecond portion of the folution down to
the ankle joint. In 20 minutes he was as lively as ever.
1 now injected a third portion and retained it fome time. A
prolapfus ani occurred during the introduction of the folu-
tion by the fole exertion of the animal, as no force was em-
ployed. In 5 minutes his leg began to drag, and in 10
minutes he could not move it. The /eft was ufed with vi-
olence when irritated.

_ At 20 minutes before 2, I injeéted a portion into the fto-
mach, which almoft inftantly convulfed him, in a manner
refembling the contractions produced by zinc and filver. His
irritability was fohighly increafed from the effects of the opi-
um, that the flighteft touch produced convulfions in all his
extremities. After fome minutes more had elapfed, afudden
noife or even blowing upon him, would produce them, and
they became more frequent by degrees. At 2 o'clock they
were lefs confiderable, and at 10 minutes paft 2, he appeared
dead, as irritation produced no contractions.

On opening the thorax, the heart beat 48 vigorous pul-
fations in a minute. The ftomach was filled with a flimy
mafs, poffefling the {mell of opium, and it appeared to have
contrated upon itfelf about the middle. The veffels on its
furface were diftended with blood. Contraétions induced
by zine and filver, were very inconfiderable; being confin-
ed chiefly to the toes of the right leg, even when the filver
was placed in contact with the large fciatic nerves; and in
the /eft leg, fimilar contra@tions extended no farther than
the foot. At 3 o’clock zerther would contra. The auri-
cle was {till pulfating 27 times in a minute.

Having fhewn by the preceding experiments that there
exifts a great fimilarity between the effects of the aqueous

folutions

406 On OPITUM

folutions of common, and of the /ertuce opium ; I next pro~.
ceeded to'fome few experiments with the /pirituous tinc-
tures, A. and b. defcribed in experiments 7 and 8.

ExpERIMENT 36.

September 2d. At oneo’clock, P. M. I inje&ted between
the fkin and mufcles of the rzght inferior extremity of a
lively frog, a few drops of the {pirituous tincture of opium
laéluce, A. (experiment 7,) and at the fame time, I intro-
duced beneath the fkin of the /eft leg fome of the fpirituous
tin@ture of common opium, B. (experiment 8.) At the mo-
ment of introduction both tinctures gave pain, and by the
efforts which the frog made to efcape, a confiderable portion
of the tinctures was loft. In 5 minutes he hopped with
great difficulty; or rather, his motions feemed to be perform-
ed by quickly and repeatedly pughing himfelf on by his low-
er extremities. Confiderable inflammation was {peedily
induced in both thighs, and blood was even effufed.

In ro minutes his motions were more difficult ; and his
jumps more circumfcribed. both legs feemed equal-
ly affected.

A drop of the tinture put upon his eye appeared to give
pain, as he immediately clofed it.

In 20 minutes I injected a few more drops below the fkin
of the inferior extremities. In afew minttes, both legs ap-
peared immoveable. In 5 minutes from this time, the in-
flammation was feen extending itfelf with confiderable
fpeed, down the legs ; as many {mall veffels before invifi-
ble to the naked eye, were now diftended with red blood.
His legs lay motionlefs in any pofition they were placed;
and no irritation, except that produced by zinc and filver,
caufed them to move. ‘Thefe metals caufed ftromg con-
vulfions in both.

z 4 For

Orn OPIUM 407

For nearly 20 minutes he feemed to be dead. After
which a very flight touch convulfed him; and by this time
the inflammation had extended to his toes.

Some bufinefs carried me away at this period. I did not
return till nearly 3 o’clock, when | found the frog laying
as I left him; but the irritability of his fyftem was fo high-
ly increafed, that a very flight touch caufed {trong convul-
five motions. I now placed him in a tumbler of water, and
at 20 minutes after 3, the merely making a noife, as in
the motion of a chairalong the floor, and even only touch-
ing the glafs in which I had placed him, caufed fuch ftrong
convulfions, as nearly to project him from it. By degrees
this effect ceafed; and by 4 o’clock he was quite dead.

On opening the thorax the heart was beating 4.5 mode-
rate pulfations in a minute. The right leg exhibited ftrong-
er marks of inflammation than the /ef7; as the veflels were
more turgid, and one or two confiderable effufions had
taken place into the fubftance of the mufcles,

EXPERIMENT 37.

Fifteen minutes before two o'clock, J introduced a few
drops of the {pirituous tin@ture, A. (experiment 7.) into the
ftomach of a fine lively bulfrog. A violent and inftanta-
neous projection of the tongue fhewed a difpofition to vo-
mit itup. He jumped about under the receiver with great
vigor. In 10 minutes he began to breathe more quickly,
and his jumps appeared more languid. When placed upon
the ground, he could not jump above twice or thrice his
length. About 3 o’clock he appeared to have recovered
confiderably from the effects of the tinéture.

At 10 minutes pa{t 3, 1 injected a few drops below the
fkin of the r7gh¢ lower leg, which caufed confiderable pain.
A portion of it was loft, anda flight effufion of blood took
place, which probably wathed away another portion of the

tincture

408 On OPIUM.

tin@ture. At 20 minutes paft 3, he moved with confide-
rable agility, and feemed very brifk. In 30 minutes he ap-
peared quite well. I now injected a fecond portion un-
der the {kin of the leg. At 395 minutes after 3, he moved
it very brifkly. At 4o minutes after, the r7ght leg began
to drag, although he could draw it to his body; and he lay
with his head upon the table, inftead of fupporting himfelf
upon his legs as ufual. I now put him into fome -water,
which revived him confiderably ; fo that at 4 0’clockhe moy-
ed his legs with eafe, and by 20 minutes after, he ufed
them vigoroufly; though ftill he was unable toleap to any
diftance.

At 20 minutes before 5, I introduced fome more of the
tinGure into the ftomach. In 10 minutes, he appeared ve-
ry languid. Five minutes before 5, his legs remained mo-
tionlefs in any pofition in which they were placed, and
were infenfible to irritation. At length he gradually began
to mend, and at 6 o'clock could move his limbs with great
eafe. I now put him into the water, and the next day
found him quite lively.

ExpeRImEenrT 38.

September sth. At one o’clock, P. M. I laid bare the
brain of the frog, the fubje@t of the preceding experiment.
He had perfe@ly recovered from the effects of that experi-
ment, and was extremely lively. I injected fome drops of
the fpirituous tingture A. down the {fpinal canal, which
feemed inftantly to affect him, as his fore legs were confi-
derably paralized. He appeared fomewhat recovered in 10
minutes, but breathed quick. The greateft part of the tinc-
ture was difcharged and wafhed away by fome blood which
oozed from the wound. At 15 minutes after one, with
more care, I introduced a fecond portion, which paffed to
all appearance, lower than the firft, In a moment the whole

mufcular

Ow (OPIUM. 409

mutcular fabric, became motionlefs and relaxed. The eyes
clofed; refpiration ceafed; and a flight pulfation of the
heart, evinced by the motion of the thorax, alone render-
ed it probable that any vitality remained. No contractions
of the extremities followed the application of a pointed in-
{trument; but zinc and filver caufed ftrong convulfive moti-
onsofthe limbs. Ifthe brain was touched with a filver probe,
and brought into contact with the zinc on which the frog
was placed, ftrong contractions of the body and limbs fuc-
ceeded. When the probe was introduced to fome diftance
down the fpinal canal, the frog moved. At 25 minutes
paft one, he opened his eyes; and drew up foon after, his
extended /ower extremities to his body. At times the muf-
cles of his upper limbs appeared ftrongly contrafted, and
they generally remained in the fame pofition unlefs irri-
tated.

At half paft one, he fuddenly became moft violently
convulfed; writhing his body and limbs, in every poffible
direction; and he even threw himfelf with confiderable
force from the table on which he was placed, although as
leaft fix inches from its edge. During the period of thefe
violent convulfions he uttered a croaking noife. ‘The con-
vulfions were induced by the flighteft noife, extending even
tothe toes; and they were more evident in proportion to the

JSuddennefs of the caufe producing them. In 5 minutes this
effet diminifhed confiderably, and his limbs when extend-
ed were flowly drawn up again to the body.

At 20 minutes before 2, I left him feebly fupporting
himfelf upon his legs; and did not return till about 5 mi-
nutes before 3, when I found him under the receiver, and
lying upon his back, as if from a renewal of the preceding
convulfions. His eyes were open, and he moved flightly
when touched. A probe pafled down the {pine caufed his
extremities to move. In ro minutes from this time, very
little effect was produced by pafling the probe down the

grit fpinal

410 On 10 PT'UM.

fpina canal; and in a minute or two, he appeared com=
pletely dead.

Convulfions produced by zinc and filver were {till ftrong.
The heart on expofing it to view was pulfating moderately
42 times in a minute.

EXPERIMENT 39.

At 30 minutes paft 4, I injected a few drops of the above
tincture A. into the ftomach of a young frog; which cauf-
ed it to gag, and a confiderable portion was rejeéted. In
5 minutes he remained under the receiver pretty quiet ;
though before this he had been ftriving violently to efcape.
When touched he did not jump, but lay in the pofition in
which he was placed. Ten minutes before 5 o'clock, his
refpiration was quick, being 66 times ina minute. His
hind legs were moved with difficulty, and he lay with his
head upon the table.

At 5 minutes paft 5 he began to move about, and feemed
to have recovered confiderably. Bufinefs now calling me
away, I put him into the water. At 10 o’clock he was
very active and vigorous, and continued fo till I threw him
out fome days after.

The following very interefting experiments, were made.
at my requeft at the Pennfylvania Hofpital by my very in-
genious and worthy friend Dr. Samuel Cooper, to whofe
Kindnefs 1 am much indebted.

“« Jeremiah Smith, 34 years old; pulfe beating 96 flrokes
in a minute, took 30 drops of the lettuce laudanum, (A..
expennment 7:) 7” :

Inmin. | 2] 5 | 10/15 | 20] 25 [30 | 35 | 40-| 45 | 55 | 60 | 70 | 80 |
Pulfe beat | 96 38 [94 [95 [98 | 98 | 100 | ror | 100 | ror | rox | 103 | 102 | ro2 |

His face was now evidently flufhed, and his fkin was warm-
er. He faid that he felt very agreeable. His pulfe feemed:
increafed in force as well as frequency.”

4 Upon.

On OPIUM. aii

‘*« Upon taking 30 drops of the fame preparation, I felt
as if I had fwallowed a glafs or two of wine, ora {mall quan-
tity of opium.

< It was given in the following difeafes, viz. heart-burn,
chronic rheumatifm; the pain of which occurred in the
night; Diarrhoea; andina pectoral complaint attended with
a periodical cough. It feemed todeftroy the difagreeable
fenfation of heart-burn, and hindered the occurrence of the
pain of rheumatifm. It checked the frequent ftools accom-
panying diarrhoea, and occafioned the evacuation of much
flatus. It allayed the cough attending the pectoral com-
plaint. In all thefe cafes it feemed to be precifely analo-
gous in its operation to the tin€ture of opium; and like opi-
um it increafes the frequency and energy of the pulfe.”’

If any perfon reads the foregoing experiments with at-
tention, he cannot hefitate in allowing the moft perfect iden-
tity to the two fpecies of opium. ‘The experiments of
Whytt, of Alfon, and of others, ftrengthen in the higheft
degree the evidence of the fact.

The milky juice from which the opium is prepared, ex-
ifts in the ftalk and in the leaves of the plant. It is not
indifcriminately depofited throughout, but is placed in ap-
propriate veflels running longitudinally in the woody or fi-
brous part of the ftalk. The internal’or medullary part of
the plant is foft; and perfectly bland to the tafte, abound-
ing in a tranfparent mucilaginous juice; which has not the
{malleft analogy to the above-mentioned one.

The beft time for collecting the juice, is when the plants
are beginning to feed. If we take it before this, it has not
fufficiently acquired its medical properties; and if at a later
period, the quantity is by no means fo confiderable.

It is beit procured in the manner defcribed for colle&-
ing it from the poppy, viz. by incifions ; with this difference,
that in the poppy they are /ongitudina/, but in this muft be
circular. A very moderate depth fuffices. It exudes free- °

eee ey ly

AT2 On OPIUM.

ly in milky drops, which may be either immediately col-
lected; or fuffered to dry on the ftalk, and then feraped off
and depofited in proper veflels. If we obtain it by pref-
fure from the plant, and then infpiffate; the other juices
feem to alter it confiderably: the colouring matter of the
vegetable is taken up, and the {mell of the opium no long-
er exifts ; at leaft this was the cafe with 30 grains of an ex-
tract procured thus, from 10 drachms of the plant, by Dr.
Cooper. It poflefled none of the peculiar fmell or tafte of
opium, and when I put it into a mixture of equal parts of
alkohol and water, it readily yielded the green colouring
principle, but nothing further. Probably more attention
to the fubje& will lead to a method of feparating the opium
from the other principles united to it. Expofure to the fun
and air, may poflibly produce this effect: the fmell of
the juice when firft extracted by preffure is ftrong of opi-
um. The extract above alluded to was infpiffated in a fand
bath, the heat of which may have been too confiderable:
for it.

Having faid thus much upon the juice of the common.
lettuce, I muft obferve that all the fpecies contain it in a
larger or {maller proportion. The /adtuca /ylveffris, or vi.
rofa of Linneeus, contains it moftabundantly. That from
which I obtained my opium, was, I obferved before, the
laétuca fatrva; it abounds in juice, and will ferve the dou-
ble purpofe of cultivating for the table as weil as for the:
fhop.

Deaiaek avoid contrafling the fuperior advantages of the
opium extracted from the /et/uce, above that procured from:
the poppy:

Some judgment may be formed of the labour and expence:
attendant upon the cultivation of one acre of the poppy, by
the account given by Mr. Kerr. He fays “ an-acre yields
in the Eaft Indies, 60 Ibs. of opium, which, at 9 fhillings.
fterling, (2 dollars) per pound, is £.27 an acre.” Now,

3 at

O'n! OPTLUM 413

at a moderate computaticn, it may be prefumed that one half
of this {um is employed in the neceflary expences of plough-
ing, manuring, fowing, watering, and colledting, &c. &c.
Say then that £.13. 10, are clear gain, (which muft be al-
lowed to be a large proportion.) Now the poppy cannot
be employed as an article of diet ; whereas the /ertuce, which
grows here in the moft luxuriant manner, will amply re-
pay the labour and expence (which at moft is trifling) at-
tending its cultivation, by the fale of the fupernumerary
plants taken up at an early period for diet, long before the
developement of the opium principle. Here then the very
labour employed has the double advantage of thinning the
plants, thereby rendering the remainder more perfeQ; whilft
it collects for the market fuch as have arrived to fufficient
-maturity for the table.

The fale of thefe fupernumerary plants would, I con-
ceive, at leaf? repay the labour, &c. attending their cultiva-
tion: and if the reft yielded per acre o7/y 60 lbs. of opium, dou-
ble the profit would arife from its cultivation, above that of
the poppy. The great abundance of the juice however, and
the luxuriance of the plant, render it highly probable, that
double that quantity, 7f ot more, might be procured from
the acre of ground.

The price of this valuable article of the Materia Medica,
leads me to hope that farmers and others will attend to the
cultivation of the lettuce, in order to obviate one fource of
the annual expenditure of money from the United States ;
and as Dr. Crumpe obferves in his valuable treatife upon opi-
um, ‘If any overplus remained after our own demands, a
ready market would be found for it in the Katt Indies,
where its confumption is very confiderable, and price gene-
rally high.”

The medical virtues of opium would appear from the ex~
periments of authors, to refide more particularly in the ex-
sracive principle. If this be certainly the cafe, the Sagi

of

414 On OPIUM.

of the /e¢fuce, would prove far more valuable to the Materia
Medica, than the common opium: for by the comparative ex-
periments 3d and 4th, Zen grains of exiraclive matter
were taken up from one /¢vuple of the /ettuce opium ; whilft
only nine grains of the common opium were taken up
from the fame quantity. This in a pound weight, will give
avery decided advantage of /x drachms, ove {cruple, four
grains, to the /etzuce opium, above the common; for in
one lb. of the lettuce opium, one ha/f, or 8 oz. are extract-
ive matter, whilft of the common opium only 7 oz. 1 fe.
I dr. 16 grs. are extract.

Common Opium.
Ts. TS.
If ao: gi rele 7680. the No. in rib.

9
2lo | 6g12I0 |
6jo | 34516

8 | 57-36

oz. Wen Tete tO.

As I conceive the foregoing facts may prove ferviceable
to my fellow citizens, I have taken the liberty of drawing
them up in the form of a paper, addreffed to-your refpe@-
able Body, as the fureft mode of obtaining their promul-
gation.

I have the honor to be,
With the greateft refpect,
Your obedient humble fervant,

Joun REDMAN COXE.

Bear sei ta
No. LXV.

Experiments and obfervations, on the atmofphere of marfhes:
By ApAM SeyserT, M. D.

Read, Dec. HEN inquiries which have attracted the at-
ari, 1798. tention of a Franklin, a Prieftly, an In-
genhouz and many other eminent perfons, without being
decided, are undertaken by one whofe abilities are fo far
inferior as mine, little fuccefs can be expected. This re-
mark announces the difficulty of the fubje&t I am about to
inveftigate; neverthelefs | am ftimulated by the induftry of
my predeceflors, and if | cannot promife much new matter,
I hope to be at leaft able to verify fome obfervations and
perhaps difprove others; for in proportion as we remove
errors we approach nearer to truth.

When we are fully perfuaded, that to live and to breathe
are fynonimous terms; and that the abfolute neceflity of air
to the maintenance of animal life has been fully eftablifhed
by repeated and well concerted experiments, we need not
be furprifed to find many perfons engaged in an examina-
tion of the chemical qualities of our atmofphere : the names
of Scheele, Prieftly, Lavoifier, Fontana, &c. will for ever
make this branch of {cience refpectable.

From the earlieft ages it has been fuppofed that the at-
mofphere has great influence on the human body in produc-
ing difeafe, as well as in reftoring health; hence the ac-
counts of Hippocrates, Sydenham and Huxham. Phyfi-
cians ought always to notice the ftate of the atmofphere:
during the prevalence of epidemic difeafes.

Before facts were collected and experiments well per-
formed, the atmofphere was fulpected to differ materially
in almoft every fituation ; but latter experiments have prov
ed that our notions have been erroneous to a great degree.

‘ In,

416 EXPERIMENTS on

In a former memoir which J had the honour to read be-
fore this fociety, I paid particular attention to the atmof-
phere over the ocean, rivers and neighbouring land, and
hope that my experiments have been of fome fervice to-
wards the eftablifhment of truth ; 1n the prefent eflay I in-
tend giving an account of fome experiments which | per-
formed at different times on the air over marthes.

A few general remarks refpe€ting the common ftate of
our atmofphere, perhaps become neceflary for the fake of
future comparifons.

We no longer believe, for experiments have taught us
the contrary, that our atmofphere is an homogeneous ele-
ment: the prefent ingenious doétrines of heat have thrown
much light upon the fubjeét ; and with much reafon fome
philofophers are induced to believe “ that the aeriform itate
is a modification of bodies, dependent on the degree of
temperature, and on the preflure which thefe bodies under-
go!”* This opinion has been extended fo far as to induce
fome to fay, “ Perhaps alfo metals are contained in the at-
mofphere.” + Thefe fentiment’ do not appear to be merely
conjectural, for Chaptal has precipitated mercury from ox-
ygen gas (which was obtained from red precipitate) by
means of ice; andthe family of Achard, fuffered ptyalifm
from breathing in an atmofphere where mercury had been
expofed for fome time in a faucer.

The above opinions, if true (and I think them highly pro-
bable) prepare usto meet many difficulties in theanalyfis ofthe
atmofphere. But all I expect to do is to open the paflage,
and I thall leave others to render it more certain ; for nume-
rous experiments, and thofe often repeated, are the only
means whereby we can afcertain truth; and I fear the la-
bours of one man are infufficient to perform this tafk.

Iam

* Lavoifier’s Elements of Chemiftry, p. 59.
+ Gritauner’s Antiphlogiftiche Chemie, p. 58.

MARSH AIR. 4iy

‘

I am not without hopes that others will engage in the
inquiry, it is of importance to every citizen, more efpeci-
ally fince we find that our principal cities are almoft year-
ly afflicted with a terrible epidemic, which has been by
fome attributed to the ftate of the air. Future difcoveries
it is hoped will multiply the number of tefts for airs, and
thus render the fubjeét more eafy.

Refpectable chemifts have determined the component
parts of our common atmofphere to be

Oxygen gas 27.
Azotic gas 72.
Carbonic acid gas o1.

Any deviation from this ftatement muft be attributed to
local circumftances.

I fhall firft endeavour to determine, whether or not the
air of marfhes differs from that of other fituations :

2. What are the caufes of the differences which are found
to exift: and

3. Make a few obfervations and remarks.

1, March 31ft, 1798. ‘Air was obtained by agitating
ftagnant water over marfhy grounds; the following ex-
periments were then performed.

a. It burned when a candle was applied to it; the flame
was blue: it did not explode when mixed with atmof-
pheric air.

b. Agitated with lime water, a copious white precipi-
tate was formed.

c. Its bulk was confiderably diminifhed by agitating it
with lime water.

d. Equal bulks of it and nitrous gas were introduced in-
to my eudiometer tube, anda diminution of +4. of their
bulk was perceptible.

Thefe experiments were frequently repeated and the re-
fults were fimilar to the above-mentioned : they warrant the
following inferences:

ce a. That

418 EXPERIMENTS on

a. That carbonic acid gas enters largely into the compo-
fition of the air examined.

b. That hydrogen gas is an ingredient in it.

c. That no oxygen gas was prefent: for the fmall ab-
forption which took place, I attribute to the a€tion of the
water with which the airs were agitated.

The above experiments were performed on the air, which
was obtained immediately as it was difengaged from the
marthy foil; it became neceffary to examine the air fituat-
ed at fome diftance above the marfh.

At different times during the fummer of 1798, I colleét-
ed air from above marfhy grounds: the following experi-
ments were performed on it.

a. When agitated with lime water, it afforded a precipi-
tate, which was not fo abundant as in the former expe-
riments.

b. Mixed with nitrous air, its bulk was diminifhed to
almoft as great a degree as the air in the yard of.my lodg-
ings.

c. Either pure or mixed with atmofpheric air, it did not
burn or explode when acandle was applied to it.

Hence it appears that the air obtained at the os of
feveral feet above marfhes, aig ,

1. Contains little or no hydrogen gas.

2. That the proportion of carbonic acid gas is pretty con-
fiderable ; and

5 What is of great confequence to be obferved, a lavage
quantity of oxygen gas enters into its compofition.

The laft mentioned facts induce us to believe that the air
above marfhes is not confiderably different in its properties
from the common atmofphere in other fituations, where
animals refpire with eafe and enjoy perfect health, except
the proportion of carbonic acid gas being greater ; ‘andl this
Tam induced to believe diminifhes in quantity as we afcend:
for facts related by travellers who have vifited the Grotto

del

MARSH AIR. 419

del Cane and other fimilar places, prove that the gravity of
this elaflic fluid permits it to rife but to an inconfiderable
height.

After having proved that certain qualities do exift in the
air over marfhes, which are different from thofe poffefled by
the atmofphere in other fituations, we muft next attend
to our !

Second objeét, viz. to afcertain what are the circum-
{tances about marfhes which produce fuch effects?

Before we proceed any further, it is of the greateft im-
portance to be fatisfied refpeQing the changes which may
be produced on common atmofpheric air, when fubjeéted
to the aGion of the foil of marfhes.

At different times in the months of September and the
commencement of October 1796, I expofed atmofpheric
air to the action of mud, which I obtained from mar{hes
below the city. The fame was done at different times in
the months of April and July, 1798. The experiments
were expofed to the temperature of the atmofphere. The
refults from the different experiments were fimilar. The
air was expofed to the action of the mud which was con-
tained in a tumbler, by means of an inverted glafs jar, in
a bafon containing a {mall quantity of water. The follow-
ing changes were noticed.

1. The air contained in the jar became much diminifh-
ed in bulk, as was proved by the water rifing into the jar.

2. The air, thus ated upon, when agitated with lime
water, afforded a:copious white precipitate and became di-
minifhed in bulk.

3. In fome of the jars, were fufpended papers, ftained
blue with litmus and yellow with turmeric, the blue re-
ceived a reddith tinge and the yellow remained unaltered ;
the red was again changed to a blue by expofure to the va-
pour iffuing from a bottle containing ammoniac.

4. The air thus altered by the mud, when mixed with
nitrous gas in the eudiometer tube, was in every inftance

vt ies found

420 EXPERIMENTS _ on

found to have loft in point of purity ; fometimes no dimi-
nution of bulk whatever took place. ist

The following circumftances feemed to influence the laft
mentioned experiments. 1{t. Temperature. 2d. The length
of time during which they were continued. And 3d. The
proportion which the mud and air bore to each other, the
furface of the mud being more or lefs extenfive, feemed alfo
to have its effets.

The air thus affected by the action of the mud would in
no inftance burn or explode, when a candle was applied to
it; hence it contained but a {mall quantity of hydrogen gas.

This laft mentioned fa&t induced me to engage in an ef-
fay to determine the origin of the hydrogen gas which
abounds in the ar obtained by agitating flagnant waters.

It is neceflary to be obferved, that in the above experi-
ments with mud, but a {mall proportion of water was ad-
ded to it in the tumbler, the quantity was juft fufficient to
promote putrefaction. Iam of opinion that the hydrogen
gas is afforded by a decompofition of the ftagnant water,
effected by the putrefa@tion of the dead animal and vegeta-
ble fubftances, which enter largely into the compofition of
the foil of marfhes. I was induced to form this opinion,
becaufe, firft, pure water is a compound of but two elements,
confequently the affinity cannot be broken but by the ac-
tion of a third fubftance. And fecondly, we have no. ex-
periments which prove that pure water has undergone fpon-
taneous decompofition. My ideas are confirmed by a. fa&
well known to allfeamen, viz. when acandle is applied to
the bung hole of a cafk containing 7/ver water, which had
been for fome time clofely ftopped, an elaftic fluid efcapes,
which will inflame and appears in all re{pedts fimilar to hy-
drogen gas obtained by other means.

After forming the above conjectures, I determined to
perform a few experiments which might tend to confirm
or difprove my opinion. With this view mud and water,

with

MARSH ATR. 421

with a very {mall portion of atmofpheric air, were at dif-
ferent times confined in bottles clofely ftopped and invert-
ed over water: in fome inftances the experiment was con-
tinued during 20 and 30 days. They were fubjected to
the temperature of the atmofphere. During the progrefs
of the experiments, I perceived that an elattic fluid was
difengaged from the materials contained in the bottles, and
that the water was evidently diminifhed in bulk; the elaftic
fluid generated during thefe experiments, 1{t, inftantly
formed a copious white precipitate when agitated with lime
water; 2dly, it burned, when the flame of a candle was
applied to it, and poflefled the other properties, which are
common to air obtained by agitating ftagnant waters over
martfhes.

Thefe facts are decifive to me on the fubje&, and con-
firm the above conjectures refpeéting the origin of the hy-
drogen gas difengaged trom marfhy grounds, It is necef-
fary to remark, that fome danger attends thefe laft experi-
ments ; for a large bottle which was clofed by a ground ftop-
per, was broken on the 25th day of the experiment, by
an expanfion of the contained elaftic fluid: the picces,
which were large, were thrown to the diftance of 20 feet,
and a report was heard louder than that from the firing of a
mufket. In general, the bottles had corks faftened by
means of ftrings bound round them: as foon as I cut the
ftrings, the corks were forced from the necks of the bot-
tles with confiderable violence.

The above experiments teach us that mud vitiates the at-
mofphere in a very powerful manner. They alfo enable
us to account for the prefence of the elaftic fluid forming
the atmofphere of marthes. It appears, that, the carbone
of the mud unites with the oxygen of the decompofed wa-
ter, and forms the carbonic acid gas, whilft the hydrogen
gas is fet at liberty. Thefe are truths not to be invalidated
by gratuitous affertions, fince their bafis is experiment.

It

422 EXPERIMENTS on-

Tt may be afked, if mud feizes oxygen gas with the avi-
dity ftated, how comes it that eudiometrical experiments
prove the air over marthes to be nearly, if not quite, of the
fame degree of purity as that of other fituations ?

At firft an anfwer to this important queftion may feem
dificult ; but fome examination of the circumftances at-
tending the fituation of marfhes, enables us to account for
it in a very fatisfactory manner. It is to be remarked that
in my trials with mud, the air was confined under glafs vef-
fels over water, confequently no circumftances from with-
out could have any influence on the experiments. The
air over marfhy fituations is very different, it poflefles all
the advantages of ventilation, &c. incommon with the at-
mofphere. efides thefe circumftances, a large quantity
of oxygen gas is afforded by the living vegetables which
furround them in abundance. We may alfo obferve,
that frequently large ponds of water are found in their
neighboarhood, and that often rivers are at no great diftance
from them: may not therefore a quantity of oxygen gas be
difengaged from thefe waters by the ation of the fun? Ex-
periments are related by reputable authors, wherein wa-
ter has been decompofed by the action of the fun’s rays :
of this more hereafter.

That the atmofphere of marfhes, therefore, lifes in
certain circumftances from that of other fituations, and that
the foil has confiderable effect, in altering the air of the at-
rnofphere, I think, cannot be doubted. Let us therefore
endeavour to difcover the particular local caufes which give
rife to thefe variations.

[ have before hinted that the putrefaction of the animal
and vegetable matters upon the foil of marfhes, was the
great caufe of the changes obferved to exift: for every {pe-
cies of foil will not operate in the manner alluded to.

That the caufe is in the putrefaction of thefe matters,
and that this ftate is abfolutely neceflary to thofe changes, 1

infer

MARSH ATR. 423

infer from the following circumftance; marfhes have no
noxious influence, during the winter feafon. They caufe
difeafe when the circumftances are prefent which promote
putrefaction; as, a proper degree of heat, a due quantity of
moifture and the contact of atmofpheric air or fubftances
capable of affording oxygen; as waver. ‘Thatacertain de-
gree of moifture is neceflary, appears evident from White’s
experiments, related in the Philofophical 'Tranfa@tions: he
fays, ‘‘ acertaindegree of moifture feems neceflary to produce
the bad effects of marfhes; for mud when perfectly dry did
not alter the air.” He might have added, that too much fluid-
ity will likewife prevent their bad confequences, which is
proved by the neighbourhood being healthy when they are
overflowed. An overflow of water may operate by pre-
venting the powerful effects of the fun. Experience
teaches us, that their bad effects are difcontinued, when they
become dry. Covering them with clay and other fubftan-
ces not liable to putrefadlion, deftroys their bad effedts, fo
does cultivation, froit, &c.

Living trees being planted in their neighbourhood ren-
ders the fituation more healthy, by abforbing the gas ex-
haled during putrefaction and affording oxygen gas.

White’s experiments prove, “ ift. During fixteen hours,
air confined in a phial over water did not fuffer a change.
adly. Pure clay moiftened did not alter the purity of the
air. 3dly. Sand moiftened did not change the purity of the
air.” But 4th. Mud (which confifts of earths intimately
mixed with dead animal and vegetable Jubftances ) rendered the
air very impure, as I proved by the experiments which I per-
Sormed.

The following reflections occurred to me fome time fince,
and are copied from my note book.

To arrive at any certain knowledge refpeGting the man-
ner by which marfhes can be fuppoied to affect the atmof-

phere, we mutt inveftigate their compofition.
They

424 EXPERIMENTS on

They feem to confit of ;

iit. More or lefs water.- 2dly. Different proportions of
dead animal and vegetable matters. And 3dly. The earthy
fubftances compofing the original foil.

Animals and vegetables, when they have fuffered death,
are fubject to the laws which govern inanimate matters in
general, and they are liable to the various changes produced
by chemical] mixture and the laws of chemical affinity : they
are acted upon by the powerful agents of nature, and thus
fuffer decompofition and form new combinations.

All chemifts acknowledge the analyfis of animal and ve-
getable fubftances to be imperfe&t. Lavoifier has paid par-
ticular attention to the fubje&t. He performed numerous
and accurate experiments to determine their compofition,
and notices in a particular manner the refults they afford
during their putrefaction. According to him, they con-
fift chiefly of hydrogen and oxygen, combined with car-
bone: thefe fubftances, he fays, are found in all vegetables,
and none exift without them. Animal fubftances contain
more hydrogen and azote than vegetables do, they alfo have
carbone as a conftituent part of their compofition ; fome of
both claffes contain fulphur and phofphorus.

The above are the principles which I fuppofe are liable
to be acted upon, and thus produce the effects we are about
to confider.

Before we can underftand the changes to which the above
fubftances are liable, we muft take into confideration, that
our atmofphere is compoied of the azotic and oxygen gafes,
and a {mall portion of carbonic acid gas: many view this
laft as adventitious and by no means neceflary.

Heat, moifture, the contac of atmofpheric air and reft
we know are circumftances attendant on marfhy fituations
during the unhealthy feafons.

A priori, we might be induced to believe that the fol-
lowing phenomena would take place, under the above
circumftances,

1. That

MARSH AIR. 425

1. That hydrogen gas would be difengaged. 2. That
the oxygen combining with the carbone would form the
carbonic acid gas. 3. That azote would unite with a por-
tion of hydrogen and thus produce ammoniac; whilft an-
other portion of it would, during its combination with ox-
ygen, form the nitric acid. And 4th. That when fulphur
or phofphorus were prefent, they with hydrogen would
form the fulphurated and phofphorated hydrogen gafes.

We fhall now endeavour to difcover whether or not thefe
elaftic fluids enter into the compofition of the atmot-
phere of martfhes.

1. Hydrogen gas. Dodtor Franklin has long fince de-
monftrated the production of this. elaftic fluid in marfhy fi-
tuations. Ingenhoufz and others have confirmed the truth
of his experiments and obfervations.

My experiments convince me that it is produced in a
confiderable quantity, and that it may be eafily procured
by agitating ftagnant waters over marfhes. It is alfo evi-
dent that this gas is in a ftate of mixture with the carbonic
acid gas.

Although we are certain that a large quantity of hydro-
gen gas is difengaged from marfhy grounds, we muft ne-
verthelefs conclude that it bears but an inconfiderable pro-
portion to the atmofphere at large ; for we find that the air
immediately above marfhes will not explode upon the ap-
proach of a candle: indeed from its levity we might fup-
pofe that it occupies the inferior ftrata of the atmofphere
but fora fhort time.

2. Carbonic acid gas. That this elaftic fluid enters large-
ly into the compofition of the atmofphere of marfhes, is
eafily proved: by agitating it with lime water.

3. Ammoniacal gas. The production of this gas dur-
ing putrefaction, is proved beyond doubt; therefore that
it fhould exift in the atmofphere of marfhes feems at leaft
probable, indeed many have inferred confiderable effects

21K from

426 EXPERIMENTS on

from its prefence, but as they did not dete¢t it by any teft
with which we are acquainted, their opinion is entirely
hypothetical.

The following are the refults of the means I employed
to difcover whether ammoniacal gas is prefent in the at-
mofphere of marfhes. 1. No white clouds appeared, when
muriatic acid gas was mixed with air obtained by agitating
{tagnant waters. 2. Slips of paper ftained yellow by turme-
ric, were fufpended in a bottle containing mud and atmof-
pheric air, it remained unchanged ; whereas thofe ftained
with litmus received a reddifh tinge. 3. I never could per-
ceive the odour peculiar to this alkali, when I vifited marfhes.

The above experiments caufed me to doubt the prefence
of this elaftic fluid in the atmofphere of marfhes. I was
confirmed in this opinion by the following circumftances :
1ft. Ammoniac combines readily with water : it is impoffi-
ble to procure ammoniacal gas over water ; therefore we are
to fuppofe that if this fluid is produced it is immediately
abforbed by the water of the marfh. 2dly. Carbonic acid
gas is abundant in the atmofphere of marfhes. By experi-
ment, | afcertained that this acid and ammoniacal gas were
very prone to unite and form the carbonate of ammoniac.
The experiment was performed in a glafs tube over mercu-
ry: as foonas the two elaftic fluids came in conta&, an ab-
forption took place and the bulk of them was confiderably
diminifhed : at the fame time the fides of the tube were in-
crufted with a white matter, which poffeffed all the pro-
perties of the carbonate of ammoniac. If fuch are the phe-
nomena of thefe experiments, why will not fimilar effects
take place in marfhy fituations ?

4. Nitric acid. The experiments and obfervations of
Thouve*el and others, have long fince demonftrated the
produétion of this acid during putrefaction. If it is form-
ed in marfhy fituations, its prefence cannot be proved in
their atmofphere, and I am inclined to believe that it is im-
mediately abforbed by the neighbouring waters.

5. Sulphurated

MARSH AIR. 427

s. Sulphurated and phofphorated hydrogen gafes. If
thefe elaftic fluids confift of hydrogen gas, holding fulphur
and phofphorus in folution, it feems probable that they
fhould be generated during the putrefaGion of fuch matters
as contain them as conftituent elements. Although Chap-
tal in his Memoirs de Chimie, p. 141, obferves: “ Que Ja
boue noire, degagée de tout végétal, ne donnoit plus d’air
inflammable mais répandoit une odeur de foie de foufre.”
Still he relates no experiment whereby he detedted its pre-
fence in the atmofphere of marfhes. Jts ready abforption
by water; marfh air when agitated with a folution of the
acetite of lead producing no change init; filver not tarnifh-
ing fooner in thefe than in other moift fituations; and the
air poflefing no peculiar fmell, are all facts which tend to
convince me that it does not exift ; moreover, Kirwan fays,
that hepatic gas united with nitrous air will depofit fulphur.
I agitated marfh air and nitrous air together in a glafs tube
and no fuch phenomenon was noticed.

6. Azotic gas. If you burn candles in the air of marfh-
es, until all the oxygen be abiorbed, and then agitate the
remaining air with lime water fo as to abforb the carbonic
acid, an elaftic fluid ftill remains which poflefles the pro-
perties of azotic gas.

7th and laftly. Oxygen gas. A variety of facts prove
that oxygen gas is a principal ingredient in the atmofphere
of marfhes; 1{t, candles burn therein with the fame luftre
as in other fituations. 2. Animals breathe with equal eafe
as in other places. 3. Eudiometrical experiments prove
that it forms as great a proportion here as in other atmof-
pheres which are reckoned more healthy.

Auguft 4th and sth, 1796—July 8th and roth, 1798—
I colleted air from over marfhy grounds to the fouth and
north of Philadelphia; when tried with the Eudiometer,
they always proved as pure as the air in the yard of my
lodgings. Chaptal in his Memoirs de Chimie, p. 141.

Ci ate, afferts

428 EXPERIMENTS on

afferts that the air over the ponds, which border on the
Mediterranean fea (the neighbourhood of which is equally
marfhy if not more fo than the neck formed by the junc-
tion of Schuylkill and the Delaware, as I convinced mylelf
during my refidence at Montpellier in the years 1795 and
I 796) was equally pure with that of Montpellier, tried
the fame day. When J affert that the atmofphere of marfh-
es is equally pure with that of other fituations, I mean that
it contains as large a proportion of oxygen gas as fuch
other atmofpheres do. I do not by any means intend to be
underftood that it is free from foreign mixtures.

I have acknowledged that putrefaCtion is going on
in marfhy places and likewife admit that this procefs de-
ftroys the purity of the atmofphere by abforbing its oxy-
gen; therefore it may feem difficult to admit the ab/olute
purity of the air being equal here to that of other places.
People being able to breathe with eafe over marfhy grounds,
is fufficient proof that the oxygen gas there is adequate to
fupport life. I fhall now attempt to account for the purity
of the air of marfhes as follows. Sennebier has proved by
numerous experiments, that living vegetables placed in an
atmofphere of carbonic acid gas or in water faturated with
this air, expofed to the action of the fun, thrive and grow
very rapidly: during the experiments the carbonic acid is
deftroyed and oxygen gas is difengaged. In addition to
thefe experiments, Ingenhouiz has taught us that the aqua-
tic plants, particularly fuch as grow in the neighbourhood
of marfhes, poflefs the power above ftated toa furprifing
degree; fee Experiences {ur les Vegétaux, Tom. 2. p. gor.
Thefe facts when properly confidered and connected with
the remarks I made when fpeaking of the effects of mud on
the atmofphere, I think are fufficient to account for the
phenomenon, which at farft feemed at leaft doubtful.

The above view of this difficult fubje& will perhaps in
fome meafure alter our opinions refpeGing the utility of

marfhes.

MARSH AIR. 429

marfhes. Heretofore mankind feem to have viewed their
exiftence as noxious to them aad unneceflary to their happi-
nefs. ] confefs my former opinion refpecting them coincided
perfectly with that of the majority, but at prefent my ideas
are very different: I confider them as very neceflary to
keep the atmofphere in a proper degree of purity, for it is
not only the impure atmofphere which kills animals, but
the too pure alfo; and an ingenious philofopher has well
obferved, that animals live too faft in atmofpheres over-
charged with oxygen gas. They appear to me to have
been inflituted by the Author of Nature in order to ope-
rate againft the powers which vegetables and other caufes
poffefs of purifying the atmofphere, fo that the oxygen
may exift in a proper proportion, fit to fupport animal life
and combuftion. Iam of opinion that ere long marfhes
will be looked upon by mankind as gifts from Heaven to
prolong the life and happinefs of the greateft portion of the
animal kingdom. Perhaps it was originally intended that
they fhould remain uninhabited and that their only ufe
fhould be that of correting the too pure atmofpheres. Al-
though their immediate inhabitants fuffer difeafe from them,
ftill but a {mall portion of the human race choofe marfhy
fituations for their refidence.

After I had read the above before the fociety, a friend
in converfation with me, objected to the operation of
marfhes on the atmofphere being intended to prevent a fu-
perabundance of oxygen gas; he obferved that this effea
would be fully accomplithed by the ordinary combuftion
and the refpiration of animals. Upon refleétion, his ob--
jeCtions gave rife to new confirmations of what I afferted :
I remarked to him, that very extenfive tracts of country
were fufficiently warm without fires; that in thefe places
nature gave uncommon powers to vegetable ation, but at
the fame time ordained, that, in thefe very fituations
marfhes fhould be moft abundant. If we view moft.fouth-

ern

430 EXPERIMENTS on, &.

ern countries, I believe the above facts will be found to
exift very generally. A further beautiful demonftration of
iny propofition may be adduced from a well known fact,
that when vegetable life becomes paralized in the winter
{eafon the operation of marfhes is then unneceflary and is

likewife fufpended by the fame caufes, viz. froft, &c.

An account

C430)

No. LXVI.

An account of a Kettle for borling Inflammable Fluids.—In
a letter from THOMAS P. SMITH, /o ROBERT PATTER-
SON.

Philadelphia, Fune 14, 1798.
SIR,

Read, June Wes we confider the many unhappy acci-

14, 1798. dents that occur from veflels containing
inflammable fluids boiling over and fetting fire to the
buildings in which manufaCtories of them are carried on,
it muft ftrike us as a matter of importance to form a veflel
which fhould be fo conftructed as to prevent any of thofe
accidents, and yet of fo fimple a form as to render it fit for
general ufe. Impreffed with thefe ideas, I take the liberty
of offering for your approbation the following plan.

Let ABCD (fee figure) reprefent a large kettle, DE, a
fpout running out to the diftance of three or four feet, com-
mencing at D, four or five inches from the brim of the ket-
tle, and the termination of it E, juft as high as the brim
C. Let the bottom of this {pout be covered with wet fponges
orrags. Now fuppofe the kettle to be filled up to D with
any fluid, then as foon as it commenced boiling it would
rife in the kettle, and in rifing but a {mall perpendicular
height, would pafs a confiderable diftance up the {pout
D E: here the liquor would foon cool and of confequence
fall back into the kettle, and the whole fubfide to its origin-
al height. This would occur as often as the fluid rofe above
D, as the evaporation from the wet fponges or rags, would
keep D E conftantly cool.

It would perhaps be beft to pafs the fpout through the
fide of the building into the open air, as thereby the evapo-
ration would be increafed, and confequently the fpout kept
at a lower temperature ; in this cafe it might be covered.

In

Gee)

In cafe of the fluid to be boiled poffeffing a very ftrong
elective attraction to caloric or the matter of heat, the {pout
might be extended to the width of the diameter of the ket-
tle or a projecting fhelf might be formed all round it, lined
below with wet fponges or rags.

J remain, Dear Sir,
Yours, &c.
/

Tuomas. P. Smit.
Mr. Rogr. PATTERSON.

P. S. In conformity to the with of the fociety I procur-
ed a vetlel of the form here propofed. 1! firft tried the ex-
periment with water, it boiled very rapidly, but every time
the water rofe into the fpout it immediately fubfided, al-
though the {pout had for fome time been direétly expofed
to the heat of one of Lewis’s furnaces: I afterwards at-
tempted it with oil, but before the oil boiled the foldering
of the vellel, which was made of tin, melted,

An Effay

—S_——SSSS5S=

= Bi)
== \

inet b

ees rea steer &

C 433 2

No. LXVII.

An Effay ona new Method of treating the Effufion which
collects under the Scull after Fraétures of the Head. By
J. Deveze, Officer of Health, of the jirft clafs, in ibe

French Armies.

Read, May F the different cafes which require the opera-

tke tion of the trepan, I fhall only confider the
effufion between the dura mater and the fcull, occafioned
by blows and fractures.

Mr. Petit, a celebrated furgeon of Paris, has contribut-
ed greatly to the improvement of this art, by pointing out
the particular fymptoms which diftinguifh effufions under
the {cull from concuffion of the brain. ‘Thefe different
accidents equally refult from falls or blows received on the
head; and previous to this diftinétion it was eafy to con-
found them, a miftake highly prejudicial to the patient who
is affected with concuflion only, as it requires a different
treatment from effufion and is not relieved by the trepan.

When there is a colle€tion of blood from a blow or
fraGture of the fcull, all authors advife the trepan, in order
to difcharge the colle€ted fluid; but the difficulty of afcer-
taining the part where it has accumulated, often makes
frequent repetitions of the operation neceflary before it is
difcovered. Mr. Marefchal, firft furgeon to Louis XIV.
gives us an example of this, he trepanned a young lady
twelve times before he found the effufion occafioned by a
fraQture of the parietal and temporal bones on the fame fide.
This cafe, and many others of a fimilar kind too numerous
to relate, evidently fhew how important it is to render an
operation more eafy, which is often repeated without real
neceflity, is painful to the operator, and fometimes fatal
to the patient.

3 L I do

434 On EFFUSION

I do not flatter myfelf with having obtained this obje& ;
but I think it a duty to communicate to the fociety fome
ideas which have occurred to me, and by which | have
been fo happy as to fucceed in a cafe I had an opportunity
of attending, in the French hofpital eftablifhed in Phila-
delphia.

In cafes of accumulated blood between the fcull and
dura mater, the adhefion which unites them, is deftroyed
in the place occupied by the fluid, the colleted matter is
circum{cribed in a larger or {maller fpace, it expands the du-
ra mater, and forming a tumor that opprefles the brain, pro-
duces the effects which require the operation of the trepan.

In this cafe a fingle opening made in the fcull on one
of the points of effufion, is fufficient to give vent to the
fluid, becaufe the blood prefled on all fides by the ation
of the brain, quits the place it had collected in, and flows
towards the part that offers a paflage. It happens in this
cafe, as it does in that where the accumulation exifts be-
tween the dura and pia mater, that the blood, equally
prefled by the brain, runs between thofe two membranes,
flows towards the opening by the trepan, and prefles the
dura mater outward, which indicates to the operator. that
this membrane requires incifion, in order to give paflage
to the collected fluid.

It is only in the firft cafe that the adhefion of the dura
mater to the cranium, by retaining the fluid, requires a
Icpetition of the opening, fhould the operator not meet
at firft with the precife fpot where the fluid is collected.

To avoid thefe inconveniences, I propofe in fuch a cafe
to deftroy the adhefion which unites the dura mater to the
fcull, and eftablifh a communication between the colleGied
blood and the cpening already made by the trepan; by
this means a repetition of trepanning would be avoided,
and the operation becoming more eafy might fave the
life of the patient in any cafe not neceflarily mortal, which

1S

UNDER ruz SCULL. 435

is particularly intereflting, when the effufion is fituated
at the bottom of the {cull.

If inftead of trepanning twelve times, Mr. Marefchal
had feparated the dura mater from the cranium, following
ihe direQion of the fracture, he would have certainly
reached the effufion, and the blood would have been eva-
cuated by the firft opening, although it muft have rifen
againft its own weight; this will be eafily underftood by
phyfiologifts who advert to the force of preflure the brain
exercifes on every part of the feull, and compare it with
the refiftance the colle&ted blood may oppofe by its fpecific
weight.

The danger arifing from a feparation of the dura mater,
may perhaps be confidered as forbidding the method I re-
commend, but experience fhews this feparation is not dan-
gerous, fince, as I have already faid, blood cannot collect
between thefe two parts, without feparation, and yet they re-
turn to their natural-ftate, when the fluid is evacuated by
the trepan, even where the feparated parts have long re-
mained divided from each. other by the interpofition of the
fluid.

Of the cafes which fupport my opinion, it will be fuii-
cient to mention the following.

A young perfon after the {carlet fever, had a violent
pain which fixed itfelf at the upper part of the head;
every thing art could indicate was tried to effe&t a cure,
bleeding, bathing, cathartics, internal remedies, topicals
of every kind, and blifters on the affected part, all had
failed : when I was confulted, I advifed the moxa, which
was applied to the difeafed part, and though a plentiful
fuppuration followed, the pain feemed to increafe, and
for fix months continued to augment; when I was again
requefted to give my advice. I prefcribed the trepan,
which operation was immediately performed, in the centre
of the painful part: the opening made in the {cull by this

gg means

436 On EFFUSION

means gave vent to a quantity of pus of a greenifh white
colour ; the pain ceafed entirely, the patient was foon cur-
ed; and fince has enjoyed a perfect ftate of health.

The preceding obfervation clearly fhews the dura mater
had been long feparated from the fcull by the matter, and
proves that the feparation of this membrane is not dan-
gerous.

It will be faid perhaps that this feparation did not pro-
duce any bad effect becaufe it took place gradually: my
an{wer is, an effufion occafioned by violent blows is fud-
denly formed, it forces the dura mater from the cranium
with violence, and feparates it fometimes to a great extent.
It may be again objected that nature though acting haftily,
manages in a manner art cannot imitate in feparating the
dura mater from the fcull. 1 will oppofe this objeGion
by experience, and not argument.

The 29th of March 1795, there was brought to the
French hofpital eftablifhed in this city, a man about thirty-
eight years of age, of a middle fize and very robuft con-
ftitution: he was comatofe, his face inflated and difco-
loured with ecchymofis, his body covered with bruifes,
and many wounds made with pointed inftruments: thofe
who brought him, told me he had been ftruck with an
iron bar which fractured his fcull; and had been trepan-
ned on the fpot.

After uncovering the head, it was wafhed and fhaved :
and I found the trepan had been applied on the upper part
of the right parietal bone, about an inch from the coronal
future.

1 took away, with the lenticular knife, pieces of the
internal plate which wounded the dura mater, and enlarged
the wounds in the direction of the fracture on which the
trepan had been applied ; it proceeded from the fagittal fu-
ture, and defcended almoft in a right line into the temporal
region, at the upper part of which I bounded my incifion,

although

UNDER ore ess €U LL. 437

although the fracture extended lower: I obferved another
fracture in the upper and lower part of the fame parietal,
which had feparated a piece of the bone about three inches
long, and two wide; this piece was neither indented nor
difplaced, was behind and a little above the part trepanned:
blood iffued trom the fuperior and pofterior fractures.

The next morning the patient was in the fame ftate, in-
fenfibly voided his urine and could not fwallow. The
dreffing was removed, much blood came from the opening
by the trepan, and from the fractures.

When | vifited him in the evening he was comatofe ;
but little blood came from the wound, nor did the preflure
I made on the dura mater produce more. I introduced a
blunt flexible probe under the fcull in the direion of the
fracture, from’ whence the blood proceeded in the laft drefi-
ing, and endeavoured to do the fame by the fracture which
defcended to the temporal region: at the diftance of about
a quarter of an inch, was {topped by a fudden refiftance,
and it was at that moment reflection fuggefted the method
I immediately put in practice.

I prefumed the comatofe drowfinefs which continued,
was occafioned by collected blood, and that it exifted under
one of the points of the fracture in the temporal region, be-
caufe thofe effufions which had been formed under the
other fractures, were evacuated in the preceding drefling.

Had | followed the ufual method, it is poffible | might
have made many openings before I had fucceeded, or have
failed finding it; confequently after the refletion which
fuggefted, that the adhefion between the fcull and the dura
mater might be feparated without inconvenience, I deter-
mined to feparate the membrane by following the dire@ion
of the fracture ; and proceeded to this operation with a fil-
ver fpatula very flexible, the extremities of which were
rounded: I took the precaution to prefs it towards the bone,
and to bend my inftrument by degrees as I entered, to make

it

438 On EFFUSION

it take the form of the part upon which I ated, and often
drew it back, to meafure on the outfide the way it had made.
At length after having entered half an inch below the tem-
poral fealy future, the refiftance fuddenly ceafed, and my
inftrument entered a hollow part, at the fame moment the
blood flowed in great abundance; when it ceafed I drew
out the fpatula, which was followed by a fmall quantity.

he patient then began to move ftrongly, tried to rife and
talked without knowing what he faid.

‘The next morning I found him tied in his bed, this
method was neceflary, becaufe he endeavoured to rife, as
as he faid to go and fight. More blood came away at the
drefiing. In the afternoon I found him better, he drank
plentifully, and anfwered my queftions : the next morning,
being the fourth after the accident, he had perfectly reco-
vered his fenfes, and from that time continued tomend. As
his head had been much wounded, many abfceffes were
formed on the exterior, the laft was on the piece of the pa-
rietal bone already fpoken of, and as it had no connedtion
and was vacilating, I eafily tock it away, the dura mater
recovered and followed the motion of the brain : the wound
had fuppurated and the cicatrix was much advanced, when

the patient went out the 28th of December.

' During the cure the patient felt no pain in that part of
the head where | had feparated the dura mater; the cure of
this trepan was neither longer or more difficult than ufual,
if we except the complication from the gatherings, which
are foreign to the fubject.

_I cited Mr. Marefchal’s obfervation, becaufe the cafe is
fimilar to that which makes the fubject of this eflay. Mr.
Marefchal’s patient had a fracture which croffed the pari-
etal and temporal bones: mine had fractures in the fame
bones, and fame places; there was alfo another, and fome
very ferious bruifes, which made the difeafe complicated.
Mr. Marefchal, trepanned his patient twelve times: I cur-
ed mine with one operation, and by a method which to
the beft of my knowledge, had never before been tried.

DEVEZE.

Cis 4393.)

No. LXVIII.

Memoir on the Sand-hills of Cape Henry in Virginia.
By B. Henry Latrose, Engineer.

December 19th, 1798.

Read, Dec. Jy4ROM the falls of the great rivers of Virginia

21, 1798. over the out-runnings of the granite ftrata, the
general level of the land gradually approaches the level of

the ocean. At the falls it is elevated from 150 to 200 feet
above the tide: on the fea fhore at Cape Henry, the ori-
ginal coaft rifes not more than 15 feet above high water
mark.

That the whole of this extenfive country, from the falls
to the coaft, is fa€titious, and of Neptunian origin, appears
far from being hypothetical ; and the foffil teeth and bones,
which accompany this memoir,* and which with many
hundred more, were dug out of a well at Richmond, from
the depth of 71 feet, prove that the depofition of the fu-
peritrata is not of a date fufficiently removed to have de-
ftroyed the foft and almoft cartilaginous part of the joints,

or

* The teeth appear to be thofe ofafhark. They are highly enamelled and
extremely fharp: their roots are perfe@ily found and entire, and the minute
and almoft tranfparent jags of many of them areas perfect as the reft. They
are foundin every well, dug in or near Richmond, to a fufficient depth; and,
as I am informed, in every deep well for many miles below the city. The
ftratum in which they lie confilts ofhighly fulphurated blue clay, abounding
in pyrites, and which has the appearance of having been mud. They were
firft difcovered in the beds of rivvlets, which had worn their channels to the
depth of this ftratum; and obtained the name of Indian Dart-foints, in the
fame manner, as the immenfe oyfterbeds, which have been quitted by the
ocean, are vulgarly called /ndian oyfter-banks.

The bones were dug from the fame ftratum. Among them are two out of
fix bones, which formed a paw of fome animal unknown tome. Many very
found vertebrez of fifh, anda remarkably perfect thigh bone of a large bird
have been in my poffeflion.

440 On toe SAND HILLS

or to have injured the enamel of the teeth. The Neptuni-
an theory of geogeny, has now very generally taken place
the old volcanic fyftem, and, as far as conjecture and hy-
pothefis can forward {cience, it is certainly more generally
applicable. But along the coaft of Virginia,* a procefs is
going forward, the refult of which will be exaétly fimilar,
and in which water has io immediate fhare.

The fhore, and the bed of the Atlantic near the hore,
confift of a fine fand. The daily ation of the flood tide
carries a certain quantity of this fand above high water
mark, which being dried by the fun and air, is carried fur-
ther in land by the winds. The moft violent winds on
this coaft, blow from the points between the N. Weft and
the Eaft; and befides, a gentle eafterly breeze prevails the
whole fummer, during fome part of almoft every day.
This eafterly wind, which is in faét a trade wind, is felt
as high as Williamfburg. It is faid to be felt, at this
day, higher in land than formerly, and to be annually ex-
tending its influence ; and it will no doubt, when the woods
fhall be more cleared away, blow health and coolnefs over
a portion of lower Virginia, which is now confidered as
extremely unhealthy.

Thefe eafterly winds blowing during the drieft and hot-
teft feafon of the year, carry forward the greateft quantity
of fand, and have amaffed hills, which now extend about
a mile from the beach. The natural level of the land, ele-
vated little more than ro feet above high water mark, has
avery gentle declivity to the eaft. It is now a fwampt of

about

* I fpeak only of the coaft of Virginia at Cape Henry: for although I
have the beft reafon to believe that the fame natural procefs has produced all
the fand banks, iflands, and fand hills from the Delaware to Florida: I have
only examined that part of the coaft, which is the fubje& of the prefent me-
moir.

+ By afwamp Iexclufively mean a piece of ground, the furface of which
is wet and foft, but which hasa found bottom. In this it differs from the Dif
mal {wamp, much of which is a dog or morafs. Into the latter, a pole of any
manageable length may be forced with great eafe.

in VIRGINIA. AA

about five miles fquare (23-fquare miles.) The foil below
the furface, is a white loamy fand, and if the water falling
upon, orrifing in it, had a free difcharge to the ocean, it
would probably be perfectly dry: this, however, the fand
hills prevent, and ‘the water is difcharged into the fea to
the fouthward, and into the mouth of the Chefapeak to
the northward, by {mall creeks, which find vent from the
wefterly extremities of the fwamp. Lynhaven creek is
the moft confiderable of thefe drains. The fwamp, or as the
neighbouring inhabitants call it, the Defart, is overgrown
with aquatic trees.and fhrubs; the gum, (L. /tyraciflua )
the cyprefs (cup. dificha) the maple (acer rubrum )the
tree improperly called the fycamore (plutanus occidentalis )
the magnolia glauca, the wax myrtle (myrica cerifera ) and
the reed (ar. tecfa) are the principal. Of thefe many thou-
fands are already buried in the fand, which over-tops their
fummits, and threatens the whole foreft with ruin. Their
deftruction is flow, but inevitable. Upon the extreme edge
of the fand hills towards the fwamp, the wind oppofed by
the tops of the trees, forms an eddy: the fand carried along
with it is precipitated, and runs down the bank into the
{wamp. Its flope is very accurately in an angle of 45°
By gradual accumulation, the hill climbs up their trunks,
they wither flowly, and before they are entirely buried, they
die. Mott of them lofe all their branches, and nothing
but the trunk remains to be covered with fand, but fome

of the cyprefs retain life to the laft.*
The Defart abounds in deer, bears, racoons, and opof-
fums. Its fkirts are more thickly peopled than the fterility
3M of

* That the fwamp with its trees extended to the fea coaft, perhaps within
a century, is very evident from this circumftance: between the fummit of
the fand hills (fee the drawing) and the fea fhore, and more efpecially on the
Chefapeak fide, the undecayed, though moftly dead bodies of trees ftill ap-
pear in preat numbers. Being on the windward fide of the fand hills, they
have not been more thanhalf buried. At the light houle there are none of the

trees, (fee the fection) but to the weftward and fouthward are many.

442 On THE SAND HILLS

of the foil weuld give reafon to fuppofe; but the inex-
hauftible abundance of fith and oyfters in the creeks, and
the game, render it eafy to fupport a family.

The light houfe,* which was built about fixteen years
ago, is an octangular truncated pyramid of eight fides, rif-
ing go feet to the light, and funk 18 feet below the bafe-
ment courfe. Within afew yards of the light houfe, is the
keeper’s dwelling, a wooden building of two ftories. Both
are furrounded by a platform of plank, and, without any
fuch defign in the architect, this platform has preferved
both thefe buildings from being buried in the fand.

When the light houfe was built, it was placed upon the
higheft fand hill at the Cape. Its diftance from the beach
may be 6 or 7 hundred yards, and the elevation of its
bafe above high water, notlefs than go feet. At that time
there was from the foot of the building, the moft expand-
ed view of the ocean, the Defart, the Chefapeak and its
eaftern fhore. At prefent,a mound of fand furrounds them,
which overtops the keeper’s dwelling, and has buried his
kitchen to the eaves. The platform, which was laid upon
the former level of the fand, is an accurate ftandard from
whence to afcertain its accumulation. The winds meeting
in their courfe the elevated tower of the light, form a per-
petual whirl around it, which licks up the fand from the
{mooth furface of the timber, and heaps it around in the
form of a bafon. Where the platform ceafes, the fand
accumulates. The fandy rim, while it protects the keeper
from the ftorms, renders his habitation one of the drearieft
abodes imaginable. This rim is fometimes higher, at

others

* It isa good folid building of Rappahannoc freeftone, but has the unpar-
donable fault of a wooden ftair cafe, which being neceflarily foaked with oil,
expofes the light to the perpetual rifk of deftrution by fire. Such an accident
might be attended with an incalculable lofs of lives and property, the mouth
of the Chefapeak being perhaps the inlet to more fhips than any other in
the United dtates.

In WIRIGINTA. 443

others lower, according to the direction and flrength of
the wind. Since the eftablifhment of the light, the hills
have rifen about 20 feet in height (meafuring from the plat-
form) and have proceeded into the Defart about 350 yards,
from a {pet pointed out to me by the keeper. I ftepped
the diftance-as well as I could, while at every ftep I funk
up to my ancles into the fand.. The height of the hill at
the fwamp, is between 70 and So feet perpendicularly. It
is higher nearer the fea, the inner edge being rounded off, and
I think at its higheft point, it cannot be lefs than 100 fect
above high water mark, If the hills advance at an equal
ratio for 20 or 30 years more, they will fwallow up the
whole {wamp, and render the coaft a defert indeed, for
not a blade of grafs finds nutriment upon the fand.

Should this event take place, and fome future philofo-
pher attend the digging of a well in the high Jandy country,
on the coaft of Virginia, his curiofity would be excited by
foflile wood, 100 feet below the furface. He would there
difcover a bed of vegetable and animal exuvie, and going
home, he might ere€t upon very plaufible ground, a very
good-looking hypothefis of a deluge, {weeping the whole
upper country of its fand, and depofiting it along the line
of its confli& with the waves of the ocean.

B. HENRY LATROBE,

To Samuvert Harrison Smitu, Efq.
one of the Secretaries of the American
Philofophical Society.

P, S. The annexed drawing isa fection of the Cape, in
adirection N. E. and S. W. The feale is of courfe une-
qual, but the effect is true.

aut’ 2 Supplement

C4 44k 1)
No. LXIX.

Supplement to Mr. Latrose’s Memorr.

Read, Jan. HE following notices were put into my hands, a
18, 1799. few years ago, by an ingenious friend* of mine.
They will, I think, form a very proper fupplement to Mr.
Latrobe’s paper, lately communicated to the Society.

BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON.
January 18th, 1799.

‘* TJ. The country below the Falls of James-River, in
Virginia, is evidently an acquifition through the recefs of
the fea. The mean diftance from thence to the fea is now
one hundred miles, For demonftrative evidence, fee the
gully in front of the eaftern door of the Capite/, about
twenty feet below the level of zts foundation, having the
appearance of blue clay, but on examination will be found
to be fea fand, containing feolop, oyfter, clam, Englifh
cockle, and various other fhell-fith in their natural pofition,
without any evidence of their removal by hand, univerfal
convulfion, or feparation of the upper and under fhell. See
alfo (the fame level perhaps) in the road between Mr. Sel-
den’s and Mr. Banks’s plantations defcending the hill to the
New Bridge, fix miles from the capitol, for the fame evi-
dence.

«© Tf, The wells of Dr. M‘Clurg, W. Hay, Efq. and
Samuel Swan, all on fpurs of the fame hill, where the Ca-
pitol ftands, contain at a depth from 50 to 75 feet (being
many feet below the above-recited horizon) proofs of uni-
verfal convulfion, fuch as the bones of marine and terreftrial
animals, birds, fithes, &c. with fome works of art, mixed
promifcuoufly in a blue fea-fand (of hepatic quality per-
haps). See the following Section.”

Account
* Colonel William Tathams

eR Sh

hima

“Seales

“ ~
Sy eee ot)
vais “oper see: =

\

te AS

WW apie aio ayy uo so saonpowd Ayn a pus sty wo

ed, >
2 Ue 1 a

Punos

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dlc ¥
220 IO SA S | \ 3
‘ woyppunay Jopdn) ayy fo paaT

SF

qoudey

Aiuyy ado yo viirhiry JO SDA) 2) JO U0MIG

qunsag ayy fo pos ft pal Hse

MNUAL
asnoy YOAT ayn Oinpping Je 21) 2p Ww sL — ?

Pag pup

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Well 75

W. Havs

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way, Ybry LPMT |
T OU VD

he

No. LXX.

Account of CHRYSTALLIZED Basautes found in Penn-
JSylvania—By Tuomas P. SMITH.

Read, Jan.” | YHE firft place at which I found thefe bafaltes
78, 1799. A was on the Conewaga hills, eaft of the Sufque-
hanna and about half a mile to the north of Elizabeth-town.
They are here to be found in confiderable quantities, both
chryftallized and amorphous—The chryftals are generally
tetrahedral and of a very fine grain. There are great mafles
of it lying about amorphous, but it generally has a very
{trong apparent tendency to chryftallize.—As I travelled in
the ftage I had not an opportunity of examining this place
as minutely as I could have withed. _ It is I think well wor-
thy the attention of a minerallurgift whofe time will permit
and talents enable him to explore it accurately.

On my return from Northumberland by a different rout,
I again found them at Campbell’s town; they are here evi-
dently a lateral branch of the Conewaga hills, and are {cat-
tered on the furface in the greateft profufion.

Soon after this 1 met with them on recrofling the Cone-
waga hills at Grubb’s mines: as I now travelled in a private
carriage, {had a much better opportunity of examining this
part than near Elizabeth-town. At the foot of thefe hills
Dr. Barton found a great quantity of regularly chryf
tallized granire, the predominate figure tetrahedral, higher
up the chryftallized bafaltes appeared; and what in my opi-
nion is a {trong corroborating proof of their Neptunian
origin, they were interfperfed with large mafles of brechia
compofed of /ilicious pebbles evidently rounded by friction
imbedded in the red free-ftone of our mountains.

From

446 CHRYSTALLIZED BASALTES,

From thefe faéts I am induced to believe, that if this
chain of hills was accurately explored, it would be found to
abound in its whole extent in chryftallized da/altes, and in
this opinion I am ftill further confirmed from having ob-
ferved the ftrong tendency the whin, as it is commonly
called, has to affume a regular figure on a {pur of thefe hills
I croffed in going from Lancafter to Columbia.

Observations

C.. aay)

No. LXXI.

Obfervations for determining the Latitude and Longitude of
the Town of Natchez—By ANDREW Et icort, E/7.
Commiffioner on the part of the United States, for running
the line of Demarkation between them and the Spanifb Ter-
vitory. Communicated to the Society by R. PATTERSON.

Read, November 16, 1798.

1797. Plane of the Sector Eaft.
42 Obferved Zenith diftance of Pollux 3 2 58
ine . . . do. . . 3 I
March qth 5 do. 3 : 58 S
SERLT al: . do. 3 2 56
5" Obferved Zenith diftance of Cafto o 45 56
IDioky, wicca J . do. A é - © 45 S5tN
gm A . do. ° 5 . ro) 45 56
5c" Obferved Zenith diftance of B. Tauri ay
Do. ie ° . do. e 4 15 7 57 S
gth . ak do. 3 8 fe)

Plane of the Sector Weft.

gt* Obferved Zenith diftance of Pollux 2 AS RIG
Do. Ee : c do. . . “es asibossS)
iG Ph J elo Bi igs 56
tott Obferved Zenith diftance of Cafto aN ua rs
Do ye : do. - : O 44 57
Tio As Bh ploy, © 44 50 N,
April jar : . do, : Oo 44 56
(14'® Obferved Zenith diftance of B. Tauri Se Ont 584)
v7 ‘ 5 A Se ‘ é 3) 2 8S |
18* . : Oo . . 8
March 5 oth ae i 8 aah; Ss
228 do. ° Oe GG,
(23° - do Ea td 36)

448 LATITUDE ann LONGITUDE
THE RESULTS.
Mean obferved Zenith diftance of Pollux with the plane 9 / ¥%

of the Sector E. . or) MILES SIF
Mcan obferved Zenith diftance of Pollux with the it

of the Seétor W. : 6 Sal iSe be hoes
Mean or corres&t Z. D. - 5 : oy Sil Si 2ee27
Refraction 4 - 4 4 3 + 3
rue Zeit es E . . °

ois} 3 31.27

Mean declination of Pollux to the beginning of 1796 28 30 19.8 N.
Annual preceffion till the 15* March, 1797 : - = gl
Aberration c A + 28
Nutation . : - . : : + 3-4
Semi-annual equation c : : - + 03
True declination . c . . : 253 0ts Ths2
True Z. D. add : . . 2 ses he agents ire
Latitude . : “ . : : B26 39. 46.5)
Mean obferved Zenith diftance of Caftor with the
plane of the Seftor E. . + 0. 45 | 55:9
‘Mean obferved Zenith diftance of Caftor with the
plane of the Sector W. : : © 44 54.5
Mean or correét obferved Zenith diftance ’ mig Ke: iy iat
Refraétion 5 : 4 . . - + 0.75
True Zenith diftance - . : AF) Mes Ais AOS
Mean declination of Caftor to the beginning of 1796 32 I9 10.4
Annual preceifion till the Bf) March, 1797 : : — 8.5
Aberration . : . - sf 2.1
Nutation : : : é ; + 6.9
Semi-annual equation . 5 : : + 04
True declination of Caftor Meh a 1797 : 32 I9 11.4 N,
True Zenith diftance . —45 25.9
Latitude : . t . > 31 33 45.5

Or tus NATCHEZ. 449

Mean obferved Zenith diftance of B, Tauri with the toe Dea
plane of the Sector E. La GI,
Mean obferved Zenith diftance of B. Tauri with the
plane of the Sector W. Be Gee
Mean or correct Zenith diftance Ba REO Ve 2765)
Refraction + 3.1

True Zenith diftance

Mean declination of B. Tauri to the beginning of 1796 28 25 15.2

Annual preceffion till the 15% March 1797 + 5.1
Aberration + 1.7
Nutation — 1.0
Semi-annual equation + 0.5

28), 2hir 21.5
True Zenith diftance add 3 tS 130.0
Latitude QT ssa h2st

Latitude by Pollux
Do. by Catftor
Do. by B. Tauri .

. Mean

° / a

31 33 46.5
3h 33 45-5
31 33 52.1

205) SaaS Latitude of the Town of
—_—_——_—_ Natchez.

3.N OBSERVATIONS

450 LATITUDE anp LONGITUDE

OBSERVATIONS ror tHe LONGITUDE.

Obferved the times, and diftances of the Moon and Sun’s
neareft limbs.

Times. Diftances. | Longitude W. from Philad,

1797 z 4 “ o 4 “ ° ‘ a“
March 32 ae): Eis) 59 46 58 Tos oz3)iao
34 3 54 50 60 3 51 16 26 45
ae 4 28 44 Go a3 8 A bye) re;
4h 2 IO 27 72h ONG 16 24 45
Ai D 40550 272 EB N OD 16 10 45

64 21 37 42 98 12 14 15 52 30%
Wye eZ leeng 53H TOO MAT) |) 15) 6) HE) 2)
zr Zia Zen eO 65 4979 TO" 2 CO
2a 21210 236°1/30 65 45 56 - 16) ¥5 oo
rye 21 46 24 54 48 32 16 10 00
23% 20002650). 4 43 52 28 TO 250-1,

OBSERVATIONS on a LUNAR ECLIPSE.
1797 LS SV) “us

Dec. 34 Beginning 8 38 24 16 10 30
Total Darknefs OMnsi7n 135 16 18 oo
End of total darknefs 11 18 59 UG1b219))) 45)
End ofthe Eclipfe 12 18 12 16 II oo

Mean 16 13 55

OBSERVATIONS

* If this obfervation, which appears to have been inaccurate, be ftricken
eut, the mean of the remaining ten will agree with the mean of a like num-
ber of obfervations made on the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, within a /izgle
Second. ‘This faé& is a ftrong proof in favour of the accuracy of this method
of determining the longitude of places.

R. P.

be ye wy iy

WT ith
arihig Fh
re by ini Api,
th} Bp) t) Sores hh
+h ae 5 i? 7
sa liMUb inte
v5 ohh) is7s ,

4

oe tu

ai Farce shed
opie Spats ts o's
fee papa

Note, to face page 451.

All the obfervations for the longitude of Natchez after the 23d of March,
are entered as obferved by the clock, and will therefore require a correction
to reduce them to mean folar time, which may readily be done from the
following ftatement of the errors of the clock, with its rate of going, at
different periods during the courfe of the obfervations.

1797+
June

Sept.

Dec.

1798.
Jan.

y2th

Clock too faft mean time : 55 a 29 daily lof:

The clock was taken out of the tent, and removed into a
houfe where it was not attended to till

when I cleaned it, and fet it agoing.

7 “

Clock too faft earn time . A <p - = 9.x daily gain,
do Ps ha toll a Cy Ga ay oe
do. : T2)4/ 15 2:Ontunl iehy Ae

4 epdOa hs Br giMs Vey ATT = 7;

Clock ran down, wound it up and fet it agoing, lowered the

bob of the pendulum. ae

Clock too faft mean time. 16 22 id : :

é 16 28 77 30 daily gain.
46 AOE 0.2 a
do 1s ng 2 ei
do LORS S.5 aren et aa
do. 16 40.5 i d
5 peels oe 16 44 7 Ma.
- do. 16\ieb Eee a
365 do

; pr sdOsih irs Bap Pei
Stopped the clock about 19 minutes and lowered the bob of
the pendulum a fmall matter, but fearcely difcernible with
a magnifying-glafs.

é a“
. 6 , PE een Uf A
Clock too aa time. : : : aa daily gain.
at : 1 22. - . 2:0 daily lofs.
: do. hs s}5e ue do.

Or tus NATCHEZ. 45
OBSERVATIONS maps on tun SATELLITES ov JUPITER.

Long. W. from Philad.

1797 h / “ o ‘ “
June 12" Immerfion of 1% Satellite 15 28 25 16 17 30
Sept. 28 do. do. 14 30 10 MOV 22 (15

sO do. do. 8 59 19 16 19 45
O&. 25° Emerfion of do. 5 SUB IS wiz 16 10 15
Nov. 24 do. do. 811738 16 16 oo
Dee: 77th doris Of 2 Gen dos Gh Maen es 16°17 45

G/M dos sot) 1°55 ido: 8 24 30 16 16 oo
24th do. do. TOnt2Y ais 16 19 30
1798 (8% do. | of} 29 do. 2ey tz LO); 12.) 15

7
Jan. Lg™ dos! of 11) dos Si"22)i 10 LOt D5 ya's

Mean, / 16)) 16! 42

From the above it appears that the Longitude deduced from the eclipfes
of Jupiter’s fatellites exceeds that deduced from the lunar obfervations in-
cluding the eclipfe of the Moon on the 3d of December laft, by 2’ 47/’-—But
I am of the opinion that the moft dependence is to be placed upon the eclipfes
of Jupiter’s fatellites, which together with the Lunar eclipfe may be further
corrected if any correfponding obfervations {hould happen to have been made
in any place where the Longitude has been accurately fettled. The follow-
ing ftatement in which the Longitude deduced from the eclipfes of the fatel-
lites is given double the weight of that deduced from the Lunar obfervations
will certainly give the Longitude of the town of Natchez with great accuracy.

16° 13% 557

TOW EO iy ai2
16 16 42

Mean 16 15 46 Longitude Weft from Philadelphia.

3N2 An Anfwer

SET 4ga > )
No. LXXII.

<n Anfwer to DR. JosepH PRIESTLEY’s Confiderations on
the Doétrine of Phlogifton, and the Decompofition of Wa-
ter 5 founded upon demonftrative Experiments, By JAMES
WoopuHouse, M.D. Profeflor of Chemiftry in the
Univerfity of Pennfylvania, &c.

SECTION I.
Of the Gonftitution of Metals.

R. Prieftley in two late publications, enti-

tuled, Confiderations on the Doétrine of Phlo-
gifton and Decompofition of Water, has attacked that the-
ory of chemiftry, which is at prefent adopted by a large
majority of chemifts, in different parts of the world.

The doctor adheres to the doctrine of phlogifton, and be-
lieves that metals are compound bodies, formed of this fub-
ftance and a peculiar bafe or calx.

On the contrary, the antiphlogiftic chemifts reject phlo-
gifton.

Firft. Becaufe it appears to be a mere creature of the
imagination, whofe exiftence has never been proved.

Secondly. Becaufe all the phenomena of chemiftry,
can be fatisfactorily explained, without the aid of this hy-
pothefis.

They believe metals to be fimple fubftances, becaufe
they have never been proved to be compound bodies.

They confider a metallic calx, to be an union of a metal
and the bafe of vital air, called by them oxygen, as it is the
principle of univerfal acidity. The proofs that metals, in
being-converted into calces, abforb oxygen are,

Firft. That all the calces of mercury give out oxygen-
ous gas when expofed to a red heat, without any addition.

Secondly. If a metal is calcined in oxygenous gas, the
whole of it will be abforbed.

Thirdly,

On PHLOGISTON. 453

Thirdly. Ifthe procefs of calcination is performed in
a variety of gafes, containing fome oxygenous air, the ox-
ygen only will be imbibed by the metal, and the others will
be left unaltered.

Fourthly. If any fubftance is added toa metallic oxyd,
and the calx is revived, a compound body will be produced,
formed of the agent ufed and the oxygen contained in the calx.

Thus, if the filings of pure bar iron are mixed with red
precipitate, and expofed to a red heat, the iron will be
converted into a calx and the mercury will be revived. If
pure charcoal is mixed with the precipitate, carbonic acid
will be produced ; and if the mercurial calx is revived in
hydrogenous gas, water will be formed.

The firft objetion of Dr. Prieftley, to this theory of the
calcination of metals, is as follows.

He fays, if turbith mineral is expofed to a red heat, a calx
remains which cannot be revived in any degree of heat,
without the aid of fome fubftance, fuppofed to contain phlo-
gifton. Before we proceed any further in this inveftigati-
on, it is abfolutely neceflary to determine the real compofi-
tion of turbith mineral.

According to the French philofophers, this fubftance is

a pure oxyd of mercury.

Fourcroy and Baumé declare, that it sh not contain
one particle of the fulphuric acid. Dr. Prieftley is doubtful
whether it isa falt ora calx; andin the Edinburgh Difpen-
fatory and London Pharmacopceia Chirurgica, it is called
hydrargyrus vitriolatus flavus.

The following experiments were made, to afcertain the
compofition of this fubftance.

Firft. One ounce of pure turbith mineral was expofed
to.a red heat, in a long glafs tube, which communicated
with an hydropneumatic apparatus, when thirty-three ounce
meafures of oxygenous gas were obtained. Upon break-
ing the glafs, a quantity of fluid mercury was found in a

tube.

454 Ox PHLOGISTON.

tube. Two drachms of the fulphate of mercury, of a white
colour and ftrong acrid tafte, had fublimed on the fides of
the glafs. A part of the fulphate of mercury, was colour-
ed by an immenfe number of minute particles of revived
mercury, which gave it the appearance of mercurius cine-
reus.

Secondly. One ounce of turbith mineral, was boiled
fifteen times, fix hours each time, in half a pint of diftill-
ed water, which was renewed every time; and it could not
be freed from the fulphuric acid, for the water always pre-
cipitated a folution of muriated barytes.

Thirdly. One ounce of turbith mineral was boiled three
hours, in a folution of cauftic potafh, when it loft its yel-
low colour, and was converted into a calx of the colour of
brickduft. Upon being dried it was found to have loft one
hundred and fixty grains in weight.

The liquor in which it was boiled, by fpontaneous eva-
poration in the open air, gave chryftals of vitriolated tar-
tar.

Thefe experiments were repeated with turbith mineral,
made by precipitating a folution of the fulphate of mercury
by potafh, with the fame refult.

They clearly prove, contrary to what has been advanc-
ed by Lavoifier, Monnet, Bucquet, Fourcroy, Chaptal and
other French chemifts, that turbith mineral, is not a pure
oxyd of mercury, but contains fulphuric acid, and may be
eonfidered as a fulphate of mercury.

The reafon that thofe gentlemen were deceived in regard
to the compofition of this fubftance muft have been, either
that they did not break the veffels in which their experi-
ments were made, to difcover any refiduum, or from the
circumftance, of obtaining oxygenous gas from the turbith,
equally as good as from any acknowledged calx of mercury.

The reafon that turbith mineral yields oxygenous gas,
when it is expofed toa red heat is, that the fulphuric acid

quits

quits one part of it and joins to another, which fublimes in
the form of a white falt. That part which the fulphuric
acid leaves, is converted into a calx, is revived without ad-
dition, and yields oxygenous gas.

This fulphate of mercury is the fuppofed calx, to which
Dr. Prieftley refers. It is fometimes obtained of a red co-
lour, owing to fome impure matter contained in the turbith
mineral, which by depriving a part of the fulphuric acid of
its pure air, converts it into fulphur, which uniting with
part of the revived mercury, forms cinnabar, which gives
the whole of the fublimed falt a red colour.

That it isa fulphate of mercury, we have an additional
proof, from an experiment of Dr. Prieftley, for he pro-
cured ethiops mineral, by heating this fuppofed calx in
inflammable air, by means of a burning lens, which he
could not have obtained from a pure calx of mercury, treat-
ed in the fame manner.

The fize of the veflel in which turbith mineral is heated,
will vary the refult of the experiment. No refiduum can
be obtained, by expofing it ina crucible to a red heat, for
the whole of it flies away, and leaves only a mark on the
bottom-of the veffel. The fame circumftance will take
place, ifa fhort glafs tube is ufed.

Having thus determined, that the fubftance which re-
mains after expofing turbith mineral to a red heat, isa
neutral falt coloured red by cinnabar, and not a metallic
calx, we fee that the firft objetion of Dr. Prieftley, to the
theory of the calcination of metals, adopted by the anti-
phlogiftic chemitts, lofes all its force, for certainly it does
not follow, that becaufe the fulphate of mercury requires to
be deprived of its fulphuric acid, before running mercury
can be procured from it, that therefore alt mercurial calces
require the addition of phlogifton, to be converted into
mercury.

The.

456 On PHLOGISTON.

~The fecond objection of Dr, Prieftley, to the new theory
of chemiftry is, that when a metal is reduced to a calx,
it throws out fomething which forms phlogifticated air.
He fays, that when the focus of a burning lens, is thrown
upon iron confined in atmofpheric air, the dephlogifticat-
ed air is not merely feparated from the phlogifticated air,
but that the phlogifton from the iron, unites with the de-
phlogifticated air and forms azotic gas.

In order to fee if this affertion was juft, the focus of the
burning lens belonging to our fociety, which is eleven inches
in diameter, was thrown upon ninety grains of the filings
of bar iron, filed for the purpofe, confined in thirty-two
ounce meafures of oxygenous gas, which had been well
wathed in lime water, and which was fo pure, that nearly -
the whole of it was devoured by the teft of nitrous air.
Twenty-eight ounce meafures of the pure air were abforbed
by the iron, which was reduced toa calx.

The quantity of carbonic acid produced, which was
formed by a {mall quantity of coal, which all iron of com-
merce contains, uniting toa part of the pure air, amount-
-ed to one ounce meatfure.

When the fixed air was abforbed by wafhing it in lime
water, the remaining air was in no manner injured.

The focus of the lens was likewife thrown, upon fixty
grains of the filings of copper, confined in fixteen ounce
meafures of oxygenous gas. ‘Twelve ounce meafures of
the pure air were abforbed by the metal, which was con-
verted into a calx. No carbonic acid or azotic gas was’
formed, and the remaining air was perfeCtly pure. Thefe
experiments prove, contrary to what has been faid by Dr.
Prieftley, that when a metal, containing no foreign fub-
ftance, is calcined in oxygenous gas, the pure air only is
imbibed, no fubftance is emitted from the metal, and no

azotic gas is formed.
SECTION

On PHLOGISTON. ga
| Section II.

Of the Solution of Iron tn the diluted Sulphuric and Muriatic
Acids.

The next thing which engages the attention of Dr.
Prieftley, is the folution of iron, in the diluted fulphuric
and muriatic acids.

The queftion to be decided is, whether the hydrogenous.
gas which is produced, comes from the iron, or from the
water which the acids contain.

The antiphlogiftic chemifts contend, that it comes from
the water, for the following reafons.

Firft. If concentrated fulphuric acid is boiled upon iron
filings, fulphureous gas is produced, but no inflammable
air, and the fulphuric acid fuffers a decompofition and a
lofs in weight. -

Secondly. If the fulphuric acid is digefted upon iron in
the cold, it remains in a quiefcent ftate, but the inftant
water is added, a violent action enfues, accompanied by a
difcharge of hydrogenous gas.

Thirdly. They believe that the hydrogenous gas comes
from the water, becaufe no inflammable air, can be pro-
duced from iron without water, and the hydrogenous gas
obtained is in ftri¢t proportion to the water, which the
acids contain.

Fourthly. They believe, water is decompofed in diffolv-
ing iron in the diluted fulphuric acid, that its oxygen cal-
cines the metal, while its hydrogen efcapes, and that the
acid acts upon the calcined metal without being decompof-
ed, for it will faturate as much alkali, after the procefs of
folution, as it did before.

Fifthly. They prove that water is compofed of oxygen
and hydrogen.

Dr. Prieftley’s objeétion to this explanation is, that as
one hundred parts of water, according to the advocates of

30 the

458 On PHLOGISTON.

the new fyftem of chemiftry, are compofed of eighty-
feven parts of oxygen and thirteen of hydrogen, which is
nearly feven times as much of the former as of the latter,
there muft be a great depofition of oxygen fomewhere,
when iron is diffolved in the diluted fulphuric acid, which
he cannot difcover.

He denies that it unites to the metal, and declares there
is no addition of oxygen in the procefs, and confequently
that there is no decompofition of water in the cafe.

That there is a quantity of oxygen, which unites to the
metals, when diffolved in acids, I think can be eafily
proved.

In order to do this I will thew, that when pure metallic
calces, which are acknowledged by Dr. Prieftley to contain
oxygen, are heated in hydrogenous gas, that the oxygen
of the calces unites to the hydrogen and forms water, and
that the difappearance of the inflammable air, is always in
ftri&t proportion to the pureair, which the calces contain.

I will then prove that the calces of copper and iron, ob-
tained from the fulphates of thefe metals by ammoniac,
have this property of making large quantities of inflam-
mable air difappear. ‘The oxyds which are acknowledged
to contain oxygen are mercury, lead and manganefe.

The focus of the lens was thrown upon two drachms of
red precipitate, confined in thirty-two ounce meafures of
hydrogenous gas, obtained from the fulphuric acid diluted
with water and the filings of bar iron, and which had been
‘well wafhed in lime water. Twenty-two ounce meafures
of the inflammable air difappeared, the mercury was reviv-
ed and no carbonic-acid gas was produced. Theair which
remained behind was not altered.

According to Dr. Prieftley, fixed air fhould have been
formed in this procefs, for he fays, when any fubftance
known to contain oxygen, is heated in inflammable air,
fixed air is found, but this is not the cafe. :

Ov PHLOGISTON. © aso

I agree with the Door, that carbonic acid gas will be
obtained by reviving minium, or mercurius precipitatus
per fe in inflammable air, for thefe calces generally contain
it, but if the minium be converted into mafficot, no fixed
air will be generated. -

Here we have a ftrong proof of the pofition we are
endeavouring to eftablith.

Two drachms of red lead, make twenty ounce meafures
of inflammable air difappear, when heated in it by the
burning lens, but when converted into mafficot, only eight
ounce meafures.

Now, if Dr. Prieftley’s theory was true, that the metal
imbibed the air, maflicot ought to abforb more inflammable
air than minium, as it contains more lead than an equal
weight of minium.

In making red lead into mafficot, nothing but pure air
with a {mall quantity of fixed air efcapes, and the lofs of
the pure air is the true reafon, that one calx of the fame
metal, will make more inflammable air difappear than
another.

But we have ftill ftronger proofs, to prove that our ideas
on this fubje& are juft.

The focus of the lens was thrown upon one drachm of
the oxyd of manganefe, confined in thirty ounce meafures
of hydrogenous gas, when twenty-two ounce meafures of
the gas difappeared, and the metal was not revived. How
then could the inflammable air have entered into its com-
pofition ?

A quantity of the oxyd of manganefe, was expofed to
a red heat for three hours, and a part of its pure air was
driven off, when upon throwing the focus of the lens upon
one drachm of it confined in inflammable air, none of the
air difappeared, whereas if this quantity of the oxyd, had
not been expofed to a red heat, twenty-two ounce mea-

fures of the air would have vanithed.
302 Some

460 On PHLOGISTON.

Some manganefe was alfo precipitated from its folution,
in the muriatic acid by ammoniac, and when frefh made
it would never make any inflammable air difappear, when
heated in it by the burning lens, but after being expofed a
few days to the action of atmofpheric air, one drachm of it
made four ounce meafures of inflammable air difappear.
In all thefe cafes we evidently fee the operation of oxygen.
Not knowing the exact quantity of pure air, which iron
and copper abforbed, one drachm of the filings of bar iron
were melted by the burning lens in oxygenous gas when
twenty-fix ounce meafures were imbibed by the iron, and
the fame quantity of the filings of copper treated in the
fame manner gave an abforption of thirteeen ounce meafures.

One drachm of the precipitate of iron, from a folution of
the fulphate of iron by ammoniac, was then heated in for-
ty-fix ounce meafures of hydrogenous gas, when thirty-fix
ounce meafures of the air difappeared.

The fame quantity of the common ruft of fteel, and the
carbonate of iron, obtained from green vitriol by a foluti-
on of mild pot afh, and what Dr. Prieftley calls a nitrated.
calx of iron, formed by adding nitric acid to a calx ofiron and
expofing it to a red heat, when treated in the fame manner,
made exaétly as much air vanifh.

One drachm of the precipitate of copper, from a foluti-
on of blue vitriol by ammoniac, expofed to the action of
the Jens in hydrogenous gas, made eighteen ounce mea-
{ures of the air difappear.

Here then are two metals, one of which the iron, ab-
forbs twice as much oxygen, when melted in it, asthe cop-
per, and its calx following the fame proportion when heat-
ed in hydrogenous gas, makes exactly twice as much of
the air difappear.

After one drachm of the calx of iron, had made thirty-
fix ounce meafures of inflammable air difappear, it was
expofed to the action of the lens in oxygenous gas, set

our

On PHLOGISTON. 461

four ounce meafures of the air were abforbed, and after
this being again heated in hydrogenous gas, fix ounce
meatures of the air vanifhed.

In all thefe experiments nothing but water was produc-
ed. The carbonic acid gas was not obtained, unlefs it
previoufly exifted in the calces.

It is not however denied, that fixed air may be generat-
ed by heating a pure metallic calx, in a particular kind of
inflammable air. Thus it may be made by reviving red
precipitate in hydrogenous gas, obtained from expofing the
flowers of zinc and coal to a red heat, or from paffing alco-
hol over red hot iron, but none will be procured from that
made by the diluted fulphuric acid and malleable iron, or
from that obtained by pafling the fteam of water over mal-
leable iron.

Upon reviving three drachms of red precipitate, in thirty-
fix ounce meafures of hydrogenous gas, from the flowers
of zinc and coal, and which had been well washed in lime
water, there was an abforption of only two ounce meafures.

After the operation, there was a great produdtion of car-
bonic acid gas. Water was not formed in this procefs,
for the coal held in folution in the hydrogenous gas, had a
ftronger attra€tion to the pure, than to the inflammable
air, and confequently fixed air was generated.

Had the fame quantity of precipitate been revived in in-
flammable air, from malleable iron, upwards of thirty
ounce meafures of the air would have vanithed.

Dr. Prieftley, fuppofing that the inflammable air, or the
phlogifton it contains, enters into the compofition of the
metals, has made a calculation of the quantity of this air
abforbed by an ounce of feveral of them. He calculates
from the metal actually revived. According to him, one
ounce of mercury abforbs three hundred and fixty-two ounce
meafures of hydrogenous gas. The quantity mentioned here,
is far too great. One drachm of red precipitate, which con-

tains

462 On PHLOGISTON.

tains more than fifty grains of mercury, makes twelve
ounce meatures of inflammable air difappear.

It is a difficult matter to be exa in this experiment,
for fome of the precipitate always difperfes in reviving the
mercury, and a part of the metal fublimes and adheres to
the fides of the veffel which is ufed.

AsI believe, that when a metallic calx is heated in hy-
drogenous gas, the oxygen of the calx, unites to the hy-
drogen and forms water, I always calculate from the quan-
tity of hydrogenous gas that difappears, from heating a giv-
en quantity of a calx in this air.

According to my experiments, one ounce of red _preci-
pitate, mercurius precipitatus per fe, and the calx obtained
by boiling a folution of cauftic pot-afh on turbith mineral,
makes 112 ounce meafures of inflammable air difappear,
when heated in it by the burning lens.

Red Lead 88
Mafficot 32
Litharge 32
Manganefe 192
Copper 144
Tron 288

Upon diffolving half a drachm of the precipitate of iron,
which had made {ixteen ounce meafures of hydrogenous
gas difappear, in diluted fulphuric acid, as much inflam-
mable air was obtained, as two grains of the filings of mal-
leable iron would have produced. According to this
experiment, were I to calculate in the fame manneras Dr.
Prieftley, I would fay, that one ounce of bar iron abforbs
3840 ounce meafures of inflammable air, but this quantity
of the metal by folution in the fulphuric acid and water will
yield no more than 365 ounce meafures of hydrogenous

as.
5 If an ounce of mercury abforbs 362 ounce meafures of
inflammable air, it ought to give out this air when diffolv-
ed

On PHLOGISTON. 463

ed in an acid, or fome fubftance into which it enters as a
conftituent part. But mercury revived from red precipitate
by inflammable air, boiled in fulphuric acid gives fulphure-
ous gas, and when added to nitric acid, nitrous air, neither
of which contain inflammable air.

It thould alfo exhibit fome properties, when fubjected
to the action of chemical agents, different from that which
is revived from a mercurial calx merely by an increafe of
its temperature, which is not the cafe; and if mercury ab-
forbs inflammable air, that which is revived without addi-
tion, when heated in inflammable air, fhould abforb fome
of it which it will not do.

It certainly is not probable, that an ounce of mercury
containing more than twelve quarts of hydrogenous gas,
fhould have the fame external appearance, and exhibit the
fame chemical properties, as that which does not contain
One particle of this air.

Dr. Prieftley not only believes, that when red precipitate
is heated in hydrogenous gas, the inflammable air enters
into the metal, but that, the pure air of the metallic calx is
diffufed through the hydrogenous gas which remains be-
hind.

Asa proof of this he mentions an explofion, which
happened from reviving red precipitate, in inflammable air.
I have performed this experiment, with different propor-
tions of red precipitate, twenty times, and never met with
any accident.

The inflammable air that Dr. Prieftley ufed, muft have
been mixed with atmofpheric air, or an explofion would
not have happened. ‘That the pure air ofthe metallic calx
is not diffufed through the inflammable air which re-
mains behind, appears evident from the following circum-
ftance.

If one drachm of red precipitate, is revived in fixteen

ounce meafures of hydrogenous gas, twelve ounce mea-
{ures

| a On PHLOGISTON.

fures of the inflammable air will difappear, and the remain-
ing four ounce meafures, will not be diminifhed by the teft
of nitrous air.

When the proportion of precipitate is large, and the in-
flammable air {mall, after the inflammable air difappears,
the precipitate will give out its oxygen, and the air which
remains, will be diminifhed by the tefl of nitrous air.

This circumftance has happened in fome of the experi-
ments of Dr. Prieftley.

Another objection brought forward by Dr. Prieftley is,
that if hydrogen be nothing more than a component part of
water, it never would be produced, but in circumftances
in which either water itfelf, or fomething into which wa-
ter is known to enter is prefent. He tells us, that upon
heating finery cinder together with charcoal, inflammable
air is produced, though according to the new theory no
water is concerned.

The antiphlogiftic chemifts never faid, that hydrogenous
gas could not be produced without water ; for it is a confti-
tuent part of other bodies, as alcohol and ammoniac.

To afcertain the quantity of hydrogenous gas, afforded
by charcoal and finery cinder expofed to a high degree of
heat, an ounce of the fcales of iron and the fame quantity of
charcoal, both reduced to a very fine powder, were fe-
parately expofed in covered crucibles, in an air furnace, well
fupplied with fuel, for five hours. They were then taken
out of the fire, and mixed while ved hot in a red hot iron
mortar, were triturated with a ved hot peftle, formed of an
iron ramrod, were poured upon a red hor piece of fheet iron,
and inftantly put into a ved dot gun barrel which was fixed
in one of Lewis’s black lead furnaces, and which commu-
nicated with the worm ofa refrigeratory, a part of a hy-
dropneumatic apparatus. Immediately after luting one
end of the gun barrel tothe worm, one hundred and forty-

two

Own PHLOGISTON. 465

two ounce meafures, of inflammable air came over in tor-
rents, mixed with one-tenth part of carbonic acid gas.

This experiment has puzzled all the advocates of the au-
tiphlogiftic fyftem, to whom it has been mentioned. Many
confider it as a powerful blow at the new dodrime, and
every perfon explains it in a different manner.

Dr. Prieftley’s theory of it is very unfatisfaGory, for he
fays the. water from the finery cinder, uniting with the
charcoal makes the inflammable air, at the fame time that
part of the phlogifton from the charcoal, contributes to re-
vive the iron.

This explanation will not do, for the iron is not reyived,
and it will not account for the produGion of the carbonic
acid.

By confidering the fcales of iron, as a combination of
iron, oxygen and water, there will be no difficulty in the
bulinefs. -The finery cinder fupplies the coal with water,
which is decompofed ;, its oxygen unites with the coal and
forms carbonic acid, while its hydrogen efcapes, diffolves
part of the coal, and forms the carbonated hydrogen gas.

The celebrated Mrs. Fulhame, a lady whom I am proud
to quote on this occafion, is the only perfon I know, who
feems properly impreffed with the idea of the agency of
water, in many chemical operations. This diftinguifhed
lady, who is equally an example to her fex, and an orna-
ment to f{cience, has properly confidered a metallic oxyd
as a combination of a metal, oxygen and water.

There are other fubftances befides finery cinder, which
mixed with coal and expofed to a red heat, yield hydro-
genous gas and carbonic acid, in large quantities. Thefe
airs may be obtained from the common ruft of iron, or
from any precipitate of iron, and coal which has ceafed to
yield air. They may alfo be procured, from the flowers
of zinc and red hot coal.

AP One

466 On PHLOGISTON.)

One drachm of the flowers of zinc and twelve grains of
red hot coal, which had ceafed to yield air, being expofed to
ared heat gave fifty-eight ounce meafures of hydrogenous
gas, every portion of which was mixed with fome carbo-
nic acid.

One drachm of the precipitate of zinc, froma folution
of white vitriol by ammoniac, expofed to a red heat half
an hour, when mixed while red hot, with red hot coal,
which had ceafed to yield air, gave fourteen ounce mea-
fures of inflammable air, mixed with carbonic acid.

The flowers and precipitate of zinc in thefe cafes, fup-
plied the coal with water which was decompofed. ‘The
metal was not revived.

SECTION III.
Of Finery Cinder or the Scales of Iron.

The antiphlogiftic chemifts confider the feales, which the
blackfmiths ftrike off from red hot iron, to be iron partially
oxygenated.

On the contrary Dr. Prieftley fuppofes, that when iron
is heated in oxygenous gas, it parts with its phlogifton,
and is converted into a fubftance refembling finery cinder,
but he will not allow that the air which difappears in this
procefs, is imbibed by the iron, but only the water which
was its bafe, while the oxygenous gas, he fays, always
goes to form the fixed air which is found in the experi-
ment. .

He declares that the quantity of carbonic acid, is quite
fufficient to take all the oxygenous gas that difappears in the
procefs.

That the Doétor’s ideas are not juft on this fubje&t, we
have the moft conclufive evidence. ,

I

On PHLOGISTON. 467

If half a drachm of the filings of bar iron, are melted in
twenty ounce meatures of pure air, thirteen ounce meafures
of the air will be abforbed by the iron, which will be con-
verted into finery cinder. Half an ounce meafure of carbo-
nic acid gas will be produced.

Lavoifier tells us, if the iron is pure, no fixed air will be
obtained; and certainly Dr. Prieftley will not fay, that thir
teen ounce meaiures of oxygenous gas enter into the com~
pofition of half an ounce meafure of fixed air, which muft
be the cafe if his theory is true. _

Here then are twelve and a half ounce meafures of pure
air, which cannot be accounted for according to the fyftem
of Dr. Prieftley, and when we fee a fubftance produced,
by melting iron in oxygenous gas, refembling the {cales of
iron, in every property, and cannot account for the
air which difappears but by fuppofing it is imbibed by the
iron, can we hefitate to pronounce, that the fcales of iron
contain oxygen.

The Dodtor likewife fuppofes, that if oxygen was lodged
in a calx of iron, it would dephlogifticate the muriatic acid
which minium inftantly does, and which we grant does
not contain a third as much pure air as a calx of iron.

To determine if finery cinder would dephlogifticate the
muriatic acid, four ounces of the acid, were diftilled upon
three ounces of the powdered fcales of iron, without fuccefs.

An attempt was alfo made to dephlogifticate the acid,
by diftilling two ounces of the fulphuric acid, upon three
ounces of common falt, and as much of the feales of iron,
without effet. The quantity of oxygen contained in thefe
{cales, muft have been feveral hundred ounce meafures.

Thefe trials however do not invalidate any thing, which
has been advanced by the antiphlogiftic chemifts, for the
oxygenation of the muriatic acid, does not depend fo much
upon the quantity of pure air contained in a calx, as up-
on its readinefs to give out this air to the acid; when the

2 E.2 attraction

468 On PHLOGISTON.

attra€tion between the oxygen and metal is greater than
between the oxygen and the acid, the acid will not be oxy-
genated. ‘This is the cafe with iron.

’ A proof that the oxygenation of the muriatic acid, does
not depend merely upon the quantity of oxygen contained
in a calx is, that a drachm of manganefe, which has been
expofed feveral hours to a red heat, and parted with the
greateft part of its pure air, will oxygenate the muriatic
acid to a greater degree, than one ounce of mercurius ci-
nereus, or the calx obtained by boiling cauftic alkali upon
turbith mineral, which contain thirty times as much pure
air.

The Doétor likewife obferves, if finery cinder was iron
partially oxygenated, it would goon to attra&t more oxy-
gen from the atmofphere, and in time be converted into a
ru{t of iron.

In order to determine if finery cinder would attract
oxygen, the focus of the lens was thrown upon a quanti-
ty of it, confined in pure air, which was not abforbed.

The fteam of water was alfo pafled over it for feveral
hours, when red hot in an iron tube, but it fuffered no
alteration.

One ounce of it reduced to a fine powder, was expofed
to the action of atmofpheric air upwards of twelve months,
and f{prinkled with water feveral hundred times, and at
the end of this time, was as free from ruft, as when firft
expofed, while an ounce of iron filings moiftened with
water, were covered with ruft in three days.

I acknowledge that finery cinder cannot be converted
into ruft, but cannot fee in what manner this makes againft
the antiphlogiftic fyftem. When bar iron is converted in-
to finery cinder, it parts with the {mall quantity of coal it
contained, and abforbs oxygen and water.

The ruft of iron differs from it materially, for it con-
tains a portion of carbonic acid, and although the French

chemifts

On PHLOGISTON. 469

chemifts confider this preparation as a carbonate of iron,
I do not think it is entituled to this appellation, for one
ounce of it yields but four ounce meafures of fixed air,
whereas the fame quantity of the precipitate from green
vitriol by the common pot-afh of the fhops, yields thirty-
two ounce meafures, and deferves this chara€ter with more
propriety.

A {trong proof that finery cinder contains oxygen is,
that when it is heated in hydrogenous gas, it makes a large
quantity of it difappear, and I have fhewn, that when
metallic calces are heated in this air, that the difappearance
of the inflammable air, is always in ftri€t proportion to
the pure air which they contain.

SECTION IV.
Of Carbonic Acid or Fixed Air.

According to the advovates of the antiphlogiftic fyftem,
the carbonic acid or fixed air, is a combination of char-
coal and oxygen. They are of this opinion for two rea-
fons.

Firft.. If charcoal be plunged in a veflel of oxygen
gas, the whole of it will be confumed, and carbonic acid
gas will be produced.

Secondly. It is well known, that all the calces of mer-
cury may be reduced without any addition, and will afford
oxygenous gas, but if charcoal be mixed with them, the
earbonic acid gas will be formed, and the charcoal will be
confumed.

Dr. Prieftley in oppofition to this opinicn declares, that
large quantities of fixed air have been procured in his ex-
periments, where neither charcoal nor any thing containing
it was concerned.

He

470 On, PHLOGISTON.

He fays, when the pureft malleable iron is heated in
dephlogifticated air, a confiderable quantity of fixed air is
formed. He tells us, in the. firft edition of his works,
that. there is but a {mall Parfion of fixed air, formed in
this procefs.

Four experiments were made to determine this queftion.

Melting by the burning lens, half a drachm of the fil-
ings of bar iron, filed for the purpofe, in twenty-four
ounce meafures of oxygenous gas, which had been. well
wathed in lime water, eleven ounce meafures of the air
were imbibed by the metal, and half an ounce meafure of
carbonic acid gas was produced.

One drachm of the fame kind of filings, melted in
thirty-fix ounce meafures of oxygenous gas, gave one
ounce meafure ; one drachm anda half, an ounce and the
eighth of an ounce meafure ; and two drachms, one ounce
and the fixth part of an ounce seatite of carbonic acid
gas.

One ounce of this iron in fmall pieces, diffolved in the
fulphuric acid and water, left a refiduum of one half grain
of charcoal.

There was evidently then not a fufficient quantity of
coal, contained in this iron, to account for the carbonic
acid produced, by melting the iron in oxygenous gas, ac-
cording to this analylis, which is certainly, very imperfect.

‘The inflammable air, produced by diffolving bar iron,
in diluted fulphuric acid, holds a portion of charcoal in
folution, which is not eafily detected, owing to the very {mall
quantity of. coal, being equally diffufed through a large
quantity of hydrogenous gas, for the portion of coal can-
not be more than three grains, in three hundred and fixty-
five ounce meatures of inflammable air.

That the carbonic acid produced in this procefs, does
actually proceed from the charcoal contained in the metal,
we have the moft conclufive proofs, for the quantity of it

obtained

On PHLOGISTON. 471

obtained, is always in proportion to the coal contained in
iron.

Bar iron contains a {mall quantity of coal, compared to
caft iron, and by heating caft iron in oxygenous gas, much
more carbonic acid may be produced, than from bar iron.

Dr. Prieftley fays, that the plumbago contained in iron,
could not be difengaged from it in this procefs, and if it
could, it would not yield the hundredth part of the fixed
air that is produced.

The charcoal contained in plurabage. can certainly be
difengaged from it with the greateft eafe, for every par-
ticle of it, is expofed to a high degree of heat in oxygen-
ous gas.

Two other arguments ufed by the Doétor, to prove
that fixed air may be procured without charcoal, are :

That a great quantity of this kind of air, may be pro-
duced from heating a mixture of iron filings and red pre-
cipitate, or iron filings and turbith mineral.

Five attempts were made to obtain carbonic acid gas,
by expofing from half an ounce to an ounce of red preci-
pitate, mixed with an ounce and two ounces, of the filings
of bariron, filed for the purpofe, toa red heat, in a clean
iron tube, without fuccefs. The mercury of the precipi-
tate was revived, no air was obtained, and the iron was
reduced to a-calx.

Mixing five drachms of the fame kind of filings, and
as much turbith mineral, and expofing the whole to a red
heat, the fame refult happened.

Having then recourfe to caft iron, half an ounce of red
precipitate was mixed with an ounce of the borings of
cannon, and thirty-two ounce meafures of air were obtain-
ed, eleven of which were fixed, and twenty-one inflam-
mable. .

One-ounce of this iron, without any red drecipiate, eX-
poled to.a red heat, gave forty ounce meafures of air,

eight of which were feed and thirty-two inflammable.
One

472 On PHLOGISTON.

» One ounce of thefe borings, diffolved in fulphuric acid
and water, left a refiduum of thirty-four grains, eighteen
of which were coal and fixteen filicious earth,

The carbonic acid gas obtained: in thefe experiments,
evidently proceeded from the coal, contained in the calt
iron.

The Doctor alfo obtained carbonic acid,, by heating the
charcoal of copper in dephlogifticated air. This charcoal
of copper is made by paffing the fteam of alkohol over
red hot copper, and as it confifts principally of carbon,
which is one of the component parts of alkohol, no ar-
gument can be adduced from it, in fupport of his hypo-
thefis.

He alfo fuppofes that the fixed air, procured in animal
reipiration, is formed without charcoal, but as we feed up-
on vegetable fub{tances, which contain coal, the carbonic
acid, thrown out from the lungs, muft be formed of this
coal, uniting to the pure air taken into this vifcus in in-
{piration.

SECTION V.-°:
Of the Nitric Acid.

It is unneceflary to refer Dr. Prieftley, to the experi-
ments of various chemifts, to prove that the nitric acid is
compofed of oxygen and azote, as he muft be well ac-
quainted with every thing that has been done upon this
fubjeat.

As the Doctor obtains this acid at pleafure, by decom-
poling by the eleétric fpark, a mixture of oxygenous and
hydrogenous gafes, in the proportion of a little more than
one meafure of the former to two of the latter, he fup-
pofes the acid is formed of thefe airs. But let us attend
itri@tly, to what takes place in experiments of this’kind.

Thirty-

On PHLOGISTON. 473

Thirty-two ounce meéafures of oxygenous gas, obtained
from red lead and the fulphuric acid, and fixty-four ounce
meafures of hydrogenous gas, procured from the borings
of carinon and diluted fulphuric acid, both of which had
been well wafhed in lime water, were introduced into a
copper tube, and! decompofed by the ele&tric fpark. About
one ounce of water, remained in’ the tube, which after
the explofion, was filled with an immenfe number of fine
particles of matter, and which being colleCted upon a fil~
ter and analyfed, turned out to be copper.

_ The water was of a pale blue colour, and did not turh
litmus paper red. Evaporated to drynefs, it yielded one
grain and a half of the nitrate of copper.

This experiment was repeated with the fame kind of
airs, and gave the fame refult.

Trying the hydrogenous gas from mutiatic acid and zinc,
and oxygenous gas, from red lead and fulphuric acid in the
fame proportions, no difference took place.

Increafing the quantity of oxygenous gas to forty ounce
mieafures, and reducing the hydrogenous gas to fifty-fix
ounce meafures, and excluding the water, nitrous acid
was produced. ;

Repeating this experiment over diftilled water, with
the fame quantity of oxygenous gas, obtained from red
precipitate, and hydrogenous gas from malleable iron and
diluted fulphuric acid, the fame quantity of nitrous acid
was produced, and no muriati¢ acid was formed, as ap-
peared by the acid not precipitating a folution of filver in
nitric acid.

Introducing into the tube, thirty-two ounce meafures
of azotic gas, forty of oxygenous gas, obtained from the
fulphuric acid and manganefe, and twenty-four of hydro-
genous gas, from malleable iron by the diluted fulphuric
acid, the quantity of nitric acid did not appear to be in-
creafed.

ee Repeating

A474 On PHLOGISTON.

Repeating the experiment with fixteen ounce meafures
of azotic gas, fifty-fix of oxygenous gas from red precipi-
tate, and twenty-four of hydrogenous gas, from malleable.
iron and the diluted fulphuric acid, the greateft quantity
of nitric acid was produced.

The acid obtained in any of thefe experiments, was not
equal to three grains of concentrated nitric acid, confe-
quently the theory of Dr. Prieftley muft be wrong, for it
is not probable, that fifty-fix ounce meafures of oxygen-
ous gas, enter into the compofition of three grains of ni-
tric acid. ;

The Doétor is certainly right when he fays, if phlogi-
{ticated air be purpofely introduced into the mixture of
dephlogifticated and inflammable air, it will not be affected
by the procefs. It is necefflary however, to have regard to
the quality and proportion of the oxygenous and hydro-
genous gafes; when thefe airs are pure, and contain no
azotic gas, which is fcarcely ever the cafe, water only will
be formed. . When azotic air is mixed with them, which
it almoft always is, that part of the oxygen, which does
not unite to the hydrogen gas and ferm water, joins with
the azotic gas and forms the nitric acid.

When carbonated hydrogen gas is ufed, carbonic aeid,
water and nitric acid will be generated.

That inflammable air does not enter into the compofition
of nitric acid is evident, for none of it, nor any thing into
which it enters, as a conftituent part, can be procured from
the nitric acid, nor any combination of this acid with al-
kalies, earths or metals.

On the other hand, nitric acid may be feparated into its
elementary parts, oxygenous and azotic gas; and if the
acid was compofed of pure and inflammable air, it could
be made by heating red precipitate in inflammable air.

Mr. Keir who analyfed the liquor obtained by Dr.
Prieftley, from the explofion of pure and inflammable air,

fuppofed

On PHLOGISTON. 475

fuppofed that the muriatic acid was always generated along
with the nitrous.

As no muriatic acid was obtained in my experiment,
when made over diftilled water, it is probable that Dr.
Prieftley filled his tube with pump water, containing fea
falt, or that the water of his hydropneumatic tub contain-
ed fome marine acid.

I cannot conclude this differtation, without acknowledg-
ing my obligations to Dr. Prieftley, for his polite attention
in fhewing mea variety of experiments, when at his houfe
in Northumberland, and for the inftru€tion derived from
peak, his very valuable differtations, on different kinds
of air.

Although I do not agree with the Doétor, in the theo-
ry which he has adopted, yet I conceive his entrance, on
that branch of philofophy, denominated pneumatic che-
miftry, will ever be confidered, as marking an zra in the
f{eience.

3Q2 Philological

No. LXXIII.

Philological View of fome very Ancient Words in feveral Lan
guages. By the Rev. Nicwoias Cottin, D. D, Rec-
tor of the Swedifh Churches in Pennfylvania.

Read, June WISH to explore the obfcure fcenes of remote

1, 1798. {\ ages, arifes from good and energetic prin-
ciples in our nature. Strangers upon earth, and pafling with
all mankind on that rapid ftream, which has carried away
all former generations, and fhall fweep off all the fucceed-
ing till the end of time, we muft make many penfive in-
quiries on the opening and clofe of this myfterious drama ;
on the characters and fortunes of the multitudes that have
acted their parts, and of thofe who fhall finith the remain-
der; on their deftinies under future modes of life in other
regions of the vaft univerfe! ‘The Creator has confined our
view of his defigns within narrow limits; but this defire
of the mind to pry far beyond the ken of mortal eyes, and
this fympathy embracing the whole human race, are clear
indications from him, that our intellectual powers fhall ob-
tain a wide and blifsful fphere of exertion, and that we
ought to be fatisfied with the fruits of their faithful effays
in this world. Numerous and exact obfervations on the
complicated fyftem of human nature are effectual means
of its improvements, and afford virtuous enjoyments in this
dawn of our exiftence. ;

The languages of nations are fabrics raifed from rudi-
ments to various forms and magnitudes, fat lefs by acci-
dents, than by application of thought and fpeech to the
various and growing circumftances of human {focieties.
The co-operation of thefe faculties is a fpecies of common
fenfe: we often hear children afk, what 7s ¢his, how is it
called ? Many illiterate but intelligent perfons in all coun-
tries are remarkable for fuch queftions: in rude nations

many

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 477

many examples occur of giving fignificant names to new
objects, and in difficult cafes, after, mature deliberation.*
To trace the early rudiments of languages is therefore im-
portant in feveral refpeéts:—Words made for new objects,
prove the previous want of them.—If their etymology can
be afcertained, it fhows the relation of thefe objects with
other previous things.—The fimilarity and diverfity of pri-
mitive terms points out the early diftinctions of tribes; and
guards againft the hiftorical errors, fo common, of tracing
whole nations from the fame ftock, by whatever fimilarity
of languages, without difcriminating what refults from the
mingling of different flocks. —Among the great part of man-
kind, that has neither writings, nor other monuments, a
contemplation of their languages, will yet difcover many
things otherwife infcrutable-—Nations that have authentic
ancient records, and other monuments, will yet derive
knowledge of greater antiquity from a critical ftudy of their
language, becaufe their anceftors fpoke on many things be-
fore they could write hiftory, compofe fables, or form any
fignificant and lafting {pecimens of arts. Though languages
change from various caufes, and fometimes from whim,
yet mankind in general do not make fudden and great al-
terations: old words will for a long period retain their ef-
fential features; and when difmiffed from general ufe, re-
main for ages in local diftrias, or among the fimple clafles
of fociety: when finally loft, they often leave kindred

words

* G. H. Lofkiel relates in his hiftory of the Evangelical Moravian Miffion
among the Indians in North America, that fometimes a large aflembly con-
fults on the moft proper name for fome new interefttng obje@: thus, f. e. they
named brow by a word that means a medium between black and white; they
called fhoe buckles metallic bands. 1ft part, 2d art.

The people of Kamtfchatca called bread the Ruffian root, becaufe it was un-
known to them before the arrival ofthat people, and they make ufe of a root,
called Savanna, in lieu of it. hey alfo called the Ruffian clergyman Bog-
hess ae he often repeated Bog, the Ruffian name forGod. See Steller’s

ravels,

478 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

words behind, that convey at leaft a part of their fignifica-
tion.

The mixture of mankind has from very early times been
fo extenfive and diverfified by migrations, conquefts, and
friendly incorporations, that languages have very general
affinities in various degrees. The kindred words of many
ancient families are difperfed over diftant countries, and not
feldom difguifed by the tones and infle€tions of an idiom
very different from their own. Therefore we cannot in-
vettigate the antiquities of any nation within the limits of
its own language ; nor can the antiquities of mankind be
ftudied without a confiderable knowledge of many lan-
guages. A true philologift is not mifled by general com-
plexions of languages, as oriental, and occidental, mater-
nal and filial, ancient and modern, favage and civilized, &c.
to draw falfe lines of feparation; nor doeshe extend their
cognations beyond evident marks, fatisfied with what is
known, and leaving the reft to future difcoveries.

Languages of all kinds are mines of human antiquities,
with different but not yet afcertained values :—Thofe of
illiterate modern nations merit great attention, not only
for their own qualities and mutual affinities, but alfo for
the cognation they may have with ancient and modern ci-
vilized nations: Some fcalping heroes of America may be
kinfmen of Alexander, Cefar, and the proudeft conquer-
ors of Europe; as they probably are of Tamerlan and Ogus
Chan ; feveral languages of North America are more alli-
ed with the Afiatic and European than is generally known:
—The claffical languages are edifices, whofe ground-
works were laid in a wildernefs, on materials brought from
diverfe quarries of barbarous tongues; the roots of many
claffic words may therefore grow in Tartary and Athio-
pia; many etymons and coeval words may be found in
the ancient European languages, and even in their modern
defcendants. The claffics therefore do not merit the Te

ive

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 479

five praife for antiquity, fo generally beftowed on them
(efpecially on the Hebrew) but they are very valuable for
their ample writings, by which their affinities with each
other, and with many other languages can be known:
the Greek, as both copious and ancient, is of particular
importance.*—The written reliques of the Celtic, Mo-
efo-Gothic, Teutonic, Scytho-Scandian, Anglo-Saxon are
fufficiently efteemed; yet as they are all within 1600
years, and the greater part much later; and as the whole
is not copious; we muft not believe that they embrace all
the eflential words of the Britifh, Irifh, Gallic, Belgian,
Cimbric, and Scandinavian languages; but that many
others are contained in the printed books and living lan-
guages of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, Germany
and fome Swifs Cantons, Holland and the Netherlands,
parts of Ireland and of Scotland, Wales, Bretagne in
France, Cantabria in Spain.|—The Ruffian, Polifh and

Bohemian,

* I confider them here not as vehicles of hiftorical and fcientific erudition.
Homer lived about goo years before our era; Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato,
Ariftoteles, Xenophon within the 5th and 6th centuries before it.

+ The Scandinavian, Cimbric, and Iflandic hiftorical fragments, called
Sagor, and the heroic fongs, Staldequeden, are generally deemed later than
the 8th century, though fome might have been compofed much earlier. In
Sweden the epitaphs on the Runefenar are generally eftimated pofterior to the
fourth century : 1173 of thefe inferibed {tones are reprefented in a work ftyled
Bautil, publithed by the order of the Swedifh government in 1750. The Ulphi-
lan Gofpels are commonly referred to the fourth century; but fome learned
philologiits deem them later by 400 years. The oldeft Anglo-Saxon {fpeci-
mens are the Jaws of Ethelbert, king of Kent, made between 561 and 616:
the next are thofe of Ina, king of the Weft Saxons, from 712 to 727. The
remains of the Swedifh, Danifh, and Norwegian laws are more recent; but old-
er than thofe of the other northern nations. There is great reafon to believe
that a part of Sweden had written laws about the year 600, from the adop-
tion of feveral thereof in the main body of the prefent general code formed
feven hundred years afterwards which is mentioned in the preface to it. The
ample {pecimens of Scandinavian and Llandic writings came in the 13th cen-
tury : the celebrated northern hiftorian Sturlefon, born in Iceland, wrote then.
‘The oldeft Inifh manulcripis cannot be traced beyond the roth century: the

Britith

480 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

Bohemian, which are the principal branches of the Sclavo-
nian, are near relatives: they have a greater affinity with
the Celtic, and ftill more with the Teutonic claffes, than
has been fuppofed: they are ancient, and of great local
extent.*+—The Hungarian differs enough from the Scla-
vonic, not to be claffed with them: it agrees lefs with the
Finnic and Lapponic than is believed, and more with the
‘Teutonic, particularly Swedifh, than has yet been obfer-
ved: it has various and old Afiatic relations, with other
mixtures; and is in the whole very interefting.~—The
languages of the Finnic clafs are very ancient, and fpread
over a vaft though not populous country: their relations
with the Sclavonic, Teutonic, Celtic, Oriental, Tartaric,
&c. are various; and what proper ftock they may have,
is not afcertained.{—Thofe European languages which

are

Britifh perhaps attain the 6th: a few feraps of the Bards may neverthelefs be
much older. Want of dates is a great lofs in all thefe northern monuments.

* The authors of the Linguarum totius orbis vocabularia comparativa, which
began by order of the late Ruffian emprefs, affert that the Ruthan language is
fpoken throughout this vaft empire, with few exceptions. 1. W. Pohl author
of a good Bohemian grammar in German, publifhed 1783, and dedicated to
the late emperor Jofeph, fays in the preface of it “ The Bohemian language,
which is improved to greateft perfection and purity m Bohemia, prevails not
only there, and in the countries incorporated with it, Silefia and Moravia, but
extends alfo through Hungary, Poland, Sclavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Ser-
‘via, Bofnia, Bulgaria, Moldavia, Ukraine, Mofcow, and little Tartary, Na-
tolia, unto Armenia and Perfia.”? Strabo mentions Roxolani, which was no
doubt a part of the future Ruffian nation. The Bohemians were refpecta-
ble enemies of the Roman empire already in the time of Auguftus: See Vell.
Paterculus, lib. ii. c. 8—The Ruflian Bible tranflated from the Greek is reput-
ed by fome near 8oo years old. Of the Polith a few fpecimens are found in
the hiftory of Kadlubec, written in the tenth century, and fabulous.

+ The Hungarians come from. more than three fources, as is generally
fuppofed.

{ The greater portion of their materials are probably contained in that
of Swedifh Finland ; a country nearly equal to England and Wales, with a
million of people. This language is alfo beft known by the tranflation of
the bible, the Swedifh laws and other books: both this and the Lapponic
have been illuftrated by learned Swedes, among whom are bifhop S. Juflenius
and Mr. Orling, refpeétive authors of a Finnic and Lapponic Dictionary.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 481

are commonly confidered as entirely derived from others,
will be found on clofer infpeCtion to poflefs words that
are not found in thefe, and alfo roots of correfponding
words in them.—Thus the whole of the Englifh cannot
be accounted for from the Anglo-Saxon, Danifh, Norman,
French and britifh: the French, Italian, Spanifh and
Portuguefe have relations beyond the wide circle of Latin,
Teutonic, and Gothic, Greek, Hebrew, Celtic, and Ara-
bian.—Provincial words and modes of fpeech are important,
whether they be reliques of an original people, or kindred
of a different language-—The jargon of the populace af-
fords many interefting hints.—The colle€tive ftores of
ancient and modern European languages have an extenfive
proportion common with many, particularly in Afia:
among thefe the Perfian affinities are beft known: thofe of
the Chinefe (particularly with the Scandinavians) have
been hitherto beft fhown by the late Prof. Rudbeck, a Swede
—this language, which has records beyond our era, is
very important.—A belief that the whole European ftock
is Afiatic does, however, exceed our prefent knowledge.

I. Art. On the Early State of Mankind.

Some objects have fuch conftant relation to human life,
that a frequent mention of them was indifpenfible in the
3K earlieft

Explication of the lingual marks—E. Englifh—S. Swed-
ifh—D. Danifh—G. German—H. Holland—If. [landic
—AS. Anglo-Saxon—Go. Gothic (meaning ancient Scan-
dinavian) MG. Moefo-Gothic—R. Ruflian—P. Polifh—
Bb. Bohemian—F. French—It. Italian—Sp. Spanifh—Po.
Portuguefle—W. Welch—C. Cornifh—aA. Armoric—Ca.
Cantabrian—Ir. Irifh—F. Finnic—La. Lapponic—Hu.
Hungarian—T. Turkifh—Pe. Perfian—CM. Calmuck-
Mungalian—Ma. Manfuri-Tartars—Ch. Chinefe—Ja. Ja-
ponefe—Mal. Malaian—H.-Ch. common to the Hebrew
and Chaldaic—Gr. Greek—L. Latin—-+-obfolete.

482 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

earlieft fociety, and that they accordingly had coxval
names. In tracing thefe names through the labyrinths
of languages we approach the facred groves that envelop
the nurferies of mankind; let us proceed unfwayed by
any prejudices, guided by the principles of true philology,
animated with eager curiofity, yet checked by reverential
awe! If we cannot lift the veil that hides the cradles of
our fpecies, we may difcover fome of their infant thoughts
and lifping accents !

Several eminent authors have laboured to prove that the
fynonyma in different languages for each of thofe refpective
objects (as fire, water, hand, foot, &c.) are fo numerous
and fimilar, as to evidence one common origin. Some
have done this in the view of corroborating the Mofaic hif-
tory of creation: others with a defign to eftablith a philo-
lofophical fyftem of amazing extent and variety on fimple
principles of uniformity. Among the latter M. Court de
Gibelin is the moft celebrated, who in his Monde primitif
analyfé and comparé avec le monde moderne endeavours to
trace a natural hiftory of human language, by fhowing
that it was originally a natural exertion of the reafon and
organs given to man by the Creator, and became in the
procefs of time a variety of diale&s which yet preferve
moft of their parental features.* Other philofophers have
been led by refleéting on the extreme rudenefs of fome
ancient and modern tribes to affert, that mankind original-

ly

* This ample work is very valuable by the great colleétiion of words from
many languages, and by the lights thrown on feveral important parts of
human hiftory, His candour is alfo praife-worthy in the very attempt of
proving affinities between quite diffimilar words, At the fame time a criti-
cal perufal will be a falutary antidote againft this and fimilar fyftems. It
is alfo ufeful to remark, that his favourite idea tout eff un dans luniver/e is one
of thofe equivocal, which in minds as his arofe from or led to the belief of
one Supreme God, but in others, weak or corrupt, have foltered the fimple
yet many-headed moniter of materialifm, fo prevailing in our times, and fo
near akm to atheifm.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 483

ly wanted articulate fpeech, and that languages are totally
artificial works like all other improvements. Among
thefe ftands confpicuous Lord Monboddo, in his work on
the rife and progres of language.*

A wafte of ingenious labour is a matter of ferious re-
egret, as it retards the progrefs of truth, caufes great trou-:
ble both to thofe who plant errors, and to thofe who tear
them up, and confirms the illiterate in their contempt of
{cience by the faults and diffentions of its votaries ; it 1s
therefore neceflary to clear all important inquiries from
whatever opinions that bias the judgment, whether philo-
fophical or religious: In refpe&tful fympathy for thefe,
which many individuals have interwoven with fome very
falutary truths and noble feelings of the heart, I beg leave
to remark that the confufion of tongues, which is an article
of their creed, gives full permiffion to feek new origins ; and
that mankind would now have been much better, and con-
fequently more happy, if theologians in general had enforc-
ed plainer texts: fuch as Our Father: God is not to be mock-
ed; for whatfoever a man foweth that fhall he alfo reap: God
created man to be immortal. Admiring true philofophy, of
which theology is in reality the principal branch, I obferve
that a patient collection of many and widely {cattered facts
mutt precede general theories; that we fhould not prefume
to appreciate the defigns of God by our favourite opinions,
but humbly feek, and for what we can find to adore.

To place the firft theory on the moft favourable ground,
let us admit every degree of plaufible etymology, and
alfo allow feveral words for fome of thofe objects, as two

Bk for

* His genius and claflical erudition claim efteem irom thofe who cannot
approve either of his wide premifes nor his too confined view of languages.
His f{pecimens of favage life are very interefting, though not warranting the
inference that men have pafled feveral ages with a few fimple cries; but
thofe who with acrimony have exploded this ought to weigh the incredible
things among fo called highly civilized nations: the giddy round. of ridi-
culous and pernicious fafhions: wars for gain, religion, liberty, &c. &c.

484. PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

for the paired bodily organs on account of right and left,

five for the fingers, various for fire and water becaufe of
different qualities, a number for the fun and moon as ob-
jets of admiration, &c. and we fhall ftill have a long lift
of totally different and unaccountable words. We can-
not derive the change from an alteration, in the organs
of f{peech beyond fads: nor will that apply to lan-
guages of congenial pronunciation. ‘To charge it on the
levity of mankind and other caufes further than their ufual
operation, is to make arguments from mere poffibility.

The numerous affinities of copious languages will conceal
this original diverfity to thofe who do not compare them
with critical accuracy, becaufe they arofe in a great mea-
fure from a mixture of different materials: thus the Greek
has a dozen words for /eesmg, and as many for other things
by which it is kindred to many ; but how could all thofe
have been formed in one fociety ? The Irifh abounds in
fynonymas above any European language, and they are
generally members of large families that have fpread
through Europe and many parts of the world: it is parti-
cularly valuable for the prefervation of many radical fub-
ftantives.

A feleGion of fpecimens, and reference to fources of
more information is all that my limits permit.* A fhort
feries of cardinal numbers not exceeding ten being a ane

)

* The latin numbers are omitted as readily occurring, and fo like the Greek,
except, 1, 4, 5. The Teutonic branches refemble the A. S. with few ex-
ceptions: the M. G. 4 is fidvor and fidur, 6 faibs, 7 fibun, 10 taihun—Celtic
variations are: C. padzar 4, huih 6: Ix. dis 2, koraid and _ Auingir a pait—
The R. and P. vary thus: R. odin 1, fem 7: P. pice, 5, dziewiec 9.—The
Perf. Turk. and Mal. are taken from the travels of Herbert. Prof. Thunb.
Mal. differs from him only thus: ampat 4, tuo 7: the relt is immaterial.
The Del. and Mahak. are in the Swedifh Indian catechifm: the Chip. and
Naud. are given by Carver: the Chinefe is from Duha'de, as the molt au-
thentic. The Cantabrian is in Lhuyds Archeol; but taken from Dona.
Pulcanivs. The Choroeich is by Stralenberg.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

485

of early language, is an important witnefs in this caufe ;
It is alfo the leaft capable of ori-
ginal diverfity, becaufe it would have been abfurd to call
any by more than one name.
place great weight on fome numeral coincidences in all

efpecially the five firft.

the parts of the globe.

Gibelin does accordingly

H.-Ch. G. As. Ww. Ir.
I nN tic an yn aon
Te
2 pw dvo tva doy do
3 we pti threo tri teora
T
4 Yaw abcceepes feover peduar kethra
5 =wrn orty re fif pymp kuig
ay
6 ww iz fix xuex feifhear
apav intra feofon faith fheaxd
Tp Su
8 Arn inna eahta tyth oyt
9 nwh évydee nigen nau nyi
i0 wy dna theo dég deix.
TT
B. H. Fz Pe. Tt
1 geden, eZy>, yxi, yeck, beer,
2 dwa, ketto, kaxi, dew, ekee,
3 tri, harom, kolme, fe, ewch,
4 ctyry, negy, neljz, char, dewrt,
5 pet, Ot, wiide, panch, beath,
6 fleft, hat, kunde, fhefh, altee,
7 fedum, hét, feitzeme, haft, yedté,
8 ofm, nyoltz, * kehdexe, hafht, fekez, —
9 dewet, kilentz, yhdexee, no, dockoz,
10 defet, tiz, kymmene, dah, y one.

Mal

486

PHILOLOGICAL ‘INQUIRIES.

Mal. elawyares., Chippewas. Mahakuafs.

t fatu, ciatte, pathik, onfkat,
dua, niffa, ninch; tiggene,
tiga, _) naha, niffou, ache,
enpat, NEVO, neau, vajéne, —

5 lyma, pareenach, naran, ' wifck,
nam, ciuttas, ningoutwaflou, jajack,
toufion, niffas, ninchowaflou, tzadack,
delappan, haas, +5 niffowaffou, tickerom,
fambalan, paéfchun, fhongaffou, waderom,
fapola, theren, mittauffou, watha.

Naudowefiies. Cantabrian.

1 wonchaw, 6 fhaweo, 1 bat feys, | 6
noompaw, fhawcopee, bi fhafpi,
yawmonee, fhahindohin, iru fhorci,.
toboh, nebochunganong, lau vedracy,
fawbuttee, 10 wegochunganong, 5 boft amar, 10

a

Ch.

1 y,
eul,
fan,
flee,
ou,
lou,
tfc,
pa,
kieou,
che,
Koroek
of Kam-
ichatka,
1 innen,
2 niach,
3 nioch,
4. nyzacha,
5 milchin,
6 innen-

We perceive in thefe no agreements but what
may be explained from the mingling of tribes.
The Hebrew has only the /che/s related to the
6 in the Gr. L. Sclavonian, Celtic, and Teu-
tonic, with all which it has fo many other affi-
nities: its aechad does very little refemble the
1 in the Finnifh, with which it has alfo confi-
derable affinity, even in conftruction. This
and the Hungarian are more related than ap-
pears from their numerals. ‘The wide range
of the dzo would have been more remarkable
if always attended by the ove and three.

Water has numerous, and many quite dif-
ferent words. Modern Europeans are thefe :—
E. and H. water—S. vatn—D. van—G. wa/-

milchin, for—F. veti—k. P. B. woda—lt. Sp. Po. rela-

tives

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 487

zniach- tives of agua—W. dur, duvr—C. dour—A. dour
5 mule tr, wifge—Hu. vis—Fr. eau—Is. aa—Lap.
milchin, Avetze—Ca. vra. Modern Aliatic are:—/u, fur,
9 a febui, &c. among the Turks and feveral ‘Tar-
= ean tar nations, to which the Chinefe chve may
ki. be related—Ma. muke—C. M. ufu—la. mis—
Pe. aab—Mal. ayer :—in diverfe large northern diftricts
feveral diftin@ families with refpeCtive dialects; d/hia :
uth: wu. yth—loo—kinfi : chin : rzyn—gadar—mimil—ubl:
cu: kubl—woe. Modern African are :—vozbe an extenfive
Arabian with feveral variations—among the negroes, uh
—itchi—infuo—with the Hottentots kamma, and others.
Modern American :—in the north, b7—4:b— mbi— nbey
—anip pe—nibi—nocpe—noop—umpe : empye-—oneegha—och-
neca—hohnekah caneega—chabaiian—orenpeoc—fandoo-
fea : tlandooftecek-—awoo : awwa : auweau : auwen—-okah
: ookka : okaw—-ommah—ammah . ama—meneh—wewa—
ejau :—in the fouth, @/e—atl—atte—ael—ro—ko—bha—
ig—unuy—doolah—touna : tona.

Obfolete European words are :—As. ea—Ir. an —ean—
C. guaf—goyf—lr. dovar—eafk—eafkong—gil—byal—fual
—beathra—bir—bior—oixe—lo—/iia. Some of thefe are
not referable to any of the modern; others are not to Eu-
ropean, but Afiatic and American,

The

* See Voyages en Guinee, kc. par Paul Erdman [fert, tranflated from the
German, printed at Paris 1793. The author gives a {mall colleétion of
words in three languages, which, though within a circle ot 20 Danifh
(about 130 Englith) miles, differ not lefs than the French and German.
They call fire /a—egia—dio : eye, hinmé—vannua—onoku: head, itbu—otri
—ola: arm, nindsh—ofa: filh, lob—agunnialla: teeth, hgennedy—wiffe—adu :
belly, mu/fu—vatnu—domme.

See Thunbergs travels 2d vol. In a {mall fample are this word, num-
bers till. 10, &c. They have a pretty fufficient language that varies in dia-

lects, and has curious claps or fmacks, dental, palatine, and guttural. See
alfo Kolbe, and Sparrman.

488 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

The Greek s4.,, may be a relative of dir; 6r more pro-
bably a compound, . The Hebrew °"2— are cognate with
ma-—and fimilar Chald. and Arabic, from which feveral

modern {pring.

Names of fire are equally diftinct :—modern European,
EB. fire—G. feur—H. viur—s. eld: 1. ild—R. ogn, ogon
—P. ogién—B. oben—Fr. feu—lt. fuoco—Sp. fuego—P 0.
fego—W. C. A. ¢dn—lr. teine—Ca. fua—Hu. tiiz—Fi.
tuli—La. dol/e :-—modern Afiatic Turk. and Perf. ate/ch—
Ma. tva—Ch. choa:lo—C. M. gal/—la. fi, finoko—Mal.
api—teveral Tartar tribes, od—ot—oot—oth—ot!—vari-
ous nations and tribes—datt—ari—/chapko—may—muiga
—silbyt—koth—tll—-faan—igg w—2zab :—-American :
in the north—renda—tinda—tendew—tintewey—(cute :
{eutau—/yuittah—kotaweh-—cheera-—cheela—fiauw +: fiauuh
—bucktouw—paatha—toatca—toutkah—loak—loowak—lu-
wock—cheeftah—ogecfta—ot/chifta—uth/yfta—ocheeleh—ut-
char—rau—oua— yb: in the fouth ; owatiou—ouapoto—
tata—quetal—citthal.

European obfoletes are ; W. yvel—As. eled—S. and Is.
fyr. Ir. ydb—aodb—daig —-doigh—boit—buite—breo—ur-—
drag—breo. Some of thefe are diftin& from all the pre-
ceding.

The Hebrew ¥* ; Gi. m3 and L. zens, are kindred
with fome of the mentioned.

I fhall prefently fhow that fome of the obfoletes for wa-
ter and fire which are not referable to any of the modern,
have yet extenfive kindred families, when they with
others come under fome interefting views; in mean time
I remark how narrow the claffic and modern European
limits are for the fearch of primitive words ; and that ma-
ny of thefe might have been loft. The mentioned claffic
words were the only current ones in the refpective lan-
guages: the relatives of warer (real or apparent) engrofs local
three-fourths of modern Europe, and a part of Afia; yet

how

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 489

how numerous are the words in all thefe languages relative
to water and fire! and how many have no radicals yet
known in any part of the world! without infifting that
fuch implying neceffary origines from fire and water, the
number of thofe which were of primitive ufe, as rai, a
Spring, &c. is fo great as to confirm the great improbabi-
lity of all languages having a common fource. Whoever
has leifure and ability to compare the numerous words for
other things, as for the principal members of the bedy,
&c. will be the more convinced of this truth.

We can difcover among a great part of mankind very
feanty and rude commencements of language, marks of a
very fimple ftate, yet ftamped by the rational faculty: a
elimpfe of this animates thefe laborious inquiries, which
would otherwife be fatiguing dreams.

The firft number feems not to have had an original ab-
ftract fenfe, but to have denoted /omething, and been ap-
plied to all the objects which had yet no {pecific name.
It is accordingly ftill ufed in many languages as an article :
—in all the Teutonic, as: E. a man—G. ein man—S. en
man—in the French, Spanith, Italian, and Portuguefe, as
Fr. un homme—Po. huma porta a gate—in the Finnic, as
yxi waimo, a woman. It has alfo a plural in feveral lang-
uages, of a fimilar meaning, as E. oves—S. evar, thofe,
fuch—Fr. /es uns, fome.

Several names of the fecond number imply addition and
much, as appears from their near affinity with the terms
for thofe : Go. ta, too—G. zuviel and H. se vee/, too much.

Several names of the third relate to words expreflive of
ereatnefs and ftrength :—ev a military chief—z; and
ter were ufed to exprefs the extraordinary, both fimply
and in compounds. Some of the others are alfo ana-
logous with terms for augmenting: as the Hebrew 4 with
ene increafe ; and its 5 and 10 with Arabic words for
thicknefs and confociation.

38 The

49° PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

The cognation of the firft numeral names with thole of
the fingers is in feveral cafes difcoverable ; and came from
the primitive mode of counting; which is alfo preferved
in feveral phrafes that remain both in ancient writings, and
in modern languages :—z 74 is to reckon on the fingers,
to count, to confider—per digitos computare is the Latin
——Herodotus has in his Thalia er: decriady, eu Barrecten—Per-
fect knowledge of a thing is exprefled in having it at
the fingers end—Fr. fcavoir fur le bout du doit: P. na
palcach wiedziek ; and ftupid perfons muft fometimes hear,
if you cannot count by the fingers, get help from the tocs.*

Moft nations have the ten cardinal numbers different,
and then advance by adding the firft and the reft in fuc-
ceffion till 20, as L. undecim, 11; but fome have begun
the compounding from five, or fix, &c. as appears from
fome of the given fpecimens. This proves that mankind
endeavoured to form fignificant words in the early ftate of
language, and its progrefs bears evident marks of the fame
method. Anaylfing languages on a large and extenfive
icale we perceive that the ifolated words bear no propor-
tion to the kindred, and alfo that the greater part of
thefe are derived; we can trace many families from to-
tally different roots, fee the manner of their early growth,
and how they gradually entwined with numerous impor-
tant objects of human life. I fhall therefore prefent fome
ancient and interefting words in their family connections :
—Light has thefe relatives: fire, fun, moon, ftars; day,
the dawn, and evening-glow; the fky, lightning, and
lucid meteors; eyes, and the human face, feeing ; vifible,
clear, bright; principal light colours; beauty of com-
pleGiion, efpecially fair and ruddy ; mental qualities: in-
tellectual, as, contemplating, thinking, believing, guefling,

and

* See Lhuyds remarks on the Cantabrian numbers.

Some modern tribes have made little progrefs in arithmetic in comparifon
with other arts, as fifhing, hunting, &c. Few among the Kamtchadeles
¢an count to 100; the greater part reckon firft on the fingers, then on the
toes ; and exclaim whither now!

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 49E

and moral, particularly candour; celebrity ; felicity in various
forms, ferenity, joy, gaiety, comfort; gold, filver, and pre-
cious ftones; trees, flowers, and plants of analogous quali-
ties, &c:—lIr. /o/as light, /orlear, clear, /oil//fighim to fhine ;
fuil, eye, filleadh, afpe& ; folafam to comfort, pleafe ; /ual,
celebrated —W. /ylby-ar, to fee clearly ; C. /e//, look, fight
——A. fellas, afpe&t—L. and S. fol, D. foel; R. /olnze, P.
flonce, B. flunce, the fun—G. /elig, H. zalg, S. falig,
bleffed: in modern fenfe, efpecially the fouls in heaven :
the German fignifies alfo a defuné of illuftrious memory
—A. S. feolfer, +S. and D. /alf; G. filber, S. filver, H.
zilver, filver—Gr. x, light, fplendor, %a¢@ to fhine ;
zoén, the moon—R. zé/en, P. zielén, the green colour—
F. filme, eye:—Gr. «7%, light, fplendor+eye, break of
day ; > to fhine; «y«i# to wonder, envy, «ri, wonder-
ful, elegant, «ysie the fun:—A. 8. aegh, M. G. augo, G.
auge, H. oog, S. dga, eye; Is. eige to contemplate :—Ir.
grian, grioth, the fun; grianffad the folftice, grionach
funny ; griofaidb, embers, +gris fire—S. gry, to dawn,
gryning, dawning—G. grin, H. groen, 8. grén, green——
W. A. gurés, Ca. goria, heat; P gore, R. goriu, B. horim,
to burn—G. g@hren, to ferment :—lr. reine, fire, rinlighe,
fiery ; feinteach lightning——A. S. tinan, S. tenda, M. 5.
tandian, A. &. tendan, \s. tendra+E. tind, to kindle—A. S.
twinkle, ¥. etinceler, S. tindra, to twinkle—E. tinfel, gay
trapping—F. teint, atinge; Gr. rir, L. singo, to tinge
—S. tunder, tinder—Ch. tie, Ia. ten heaven—Ch. tan
red:—Ir. dearg, red, crimfon; deargam, to make red,
blufh, kindle+dearc an eye; dearcam to fee-—W. dr¥x, a
face, mirror, edryx to fee—Gr. KXpxre, depuoux, to fee; séprm2
apect ; xg viflon—Ir. drag fire, anger; draigerghean, a
chafing dith ; dragéod, fire tail, (name of the leffer bear
{tar ; draig, a dragon ; +dreach, a figure, image :—P. ézalr,
R. déluji, white: P. palam, B. palim, toburn; R. palenie
burning—AS, déel, baelfyr, a funeral pile; S. da/ the pile

352 on.

492 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

on which the bodies of great malefactors are burnt after
execution—A. pac/ona frying pan; Fr. poéle, Po. palio,
a ftove--L. palam, in open light—fallco, pallidus, &c.
relative of pa/e, fignifying faint white—Gr. area and
farx, Originally, afterwards poetically, fun and moon—
The Eftlandians, Carelians, and Affani (an Afiatic tribe)
call heat pallaw, palava, pala—-The Chickkafas, and Chok-
tahs in North America call the fummer téme palle: the
former call warm, hot palle :—I.+breo, fire, flame; dre-
ogbam to bake—-S. érenna, G. brennen, to burn—AS,
4eorhte, light; écorr a prince—MG. barrht+8. biart,
bright—AS. éredan, S. brada, to broil—W. drydio to heat—
Gr. ise to burn—W. Jdore, A. beure, the dawn—S. bry
to moleft, irritate—fder, beer, eye:—Ir. daigh, doigh
fire, hope, truft, opinion, conje¢ture+daighead to burn
—S. dag, G. tag, H. daag, day; S. dagas, to dawn—W.
teg, S, dagelig, handfome :—Ma. ‘ua, fire ; tuara fight—
P. fwarz, B. twar, face; P. twarz,S. rvers, to ones face—
W. ¢unni to fhine—AS. tunge/ a planet, tungla, ftars ;
tungol-creft aftronomy, magical aftrology—S. /wngle, the
moon: yet a current word in feveral provinces—Ch. soung
the eaft—F. tunne, to know; stunnus thet: a miracle :—
C. mraz, to fee; miras look, afpe&t: Ia. miru to look, gaze
—L. miror, to admire, gaze—-F. miroir a mirror—W. mirain,
{plendid; E. mirth, pleafure, gaiety—AS. merlic illuftrious ;
merrnefja, enfigns—S. merka,§. mercken, F. remarguer,
to remark, obferve :—Ch. /um, a luminous obje@, refpect-
able—Ma. /chun, MG. /funno; AS. and Ifl. /unna, the
fun; 8. -/unnan the fouth; C. M. /uan, F. /uvi, fummer
—5. fyn fight, fynas to appear—Ir. /ona, profperous,
blefled :—Ir. meanann, very clear—L. mane, break of day;
manifeftus, clear; monilea jewel—AS. mane, mona, S. mane,
D. maane, H.maan, G. mond, Pe. maue, moon—S. mena,

G.

‘|: The words thus marked are taken from the Vocabularia Comparativa
above mentioned.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES, A923

a

Gi memen, -Hoom neenen, to t ink, mean—AS. menas;
jewels—Fr. Ch. men, countenance—meon the fun among
fome of the North Ameficans AS. ftearra, M.G. fairn,
H. frerre,»G. flern, S. flierna, D, flierne; Ve. farb, fler,
a ftar—W. y/tyried to obferve; 1s. fara, S./iira, to tare
—G., /lirn the forehead—Cr. risa flars—AS. forth {plen-
did, illuftrious ; forthef-tungla, the fun (brightelt planet)
- ics the otne northern God, whofe name is pre-
ferved in many things : S. éors-munad, "January AS. thors-
daeg, Ds torsdag, er donners-H. dondcr-dag, thuriday ; =
tor-ak, thunder, (the rattling coach of thor)—L. sorris a fire
brand, forreo, to burn, parch: 8. torr dry, torka to dry —Fi.
peraa. La. baiwe, day-—Gr. 9oéé@ to purify and brighten ;
ees, {plendid: poetically the fun; alfo an aftrological
prophet :-—Ir.--4ai/h an eye; kea/am to finge——S. +gafum,
curious; gaz, to guefs; E. gaze to look eagerly—Gr.
xavse, heat—Fi. kaefi, the month of June :—kufiworfa face,
katzomaan to- behold—H, Ch. v? fummer; 77 chafah,

to fee, with relatives for fight, window, lightning, and
mn oracle, or divine vifion—in North America kindred

I

words have a wide range :—kee/eque, hkeefque, eye; kiff-
gua, keefbkoo, day ; ieee kifhek, heaven; kifchis, kif-
chefju, kefhufe, kefhow, kefus, kefis, for fun and moon; the
laft for both among the Pot/awatamch—In a part of North-
ern Afia fummer is called keza, kiflet, kifchtin, and a ftar
hich, kifcheka:—-n light, -ws fire, flame, jewel: wr7m and
tummim, the precious ftones on the breaft-plate of the
Hebrew highprieft ; the laft word has puzzled the philolo-
gers much, becaufe they tranflated it perfection from a wrong
derivation, it being referable to the mentioned /ome, and
the Cornith tomder heat: the extenfive family of the ur
both in the eaft and weft is known, as w7ro, aurum, &c.
I only remark that the Finnic auringo, the fun, is fimilar,
as the French jour, day :—W. golae, C. golou, A. goulou,
light; W. golug, eye—-LS. gloo to eye; glid fiery coals ;

AS

494 _ PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.
glovan to glow—AS. G, gold, S. guld, gull, gold—S. gul,

G. gelb, vellow—lr. geal, white; gealac the moon—s.
glad, glad; glidias to rejoice :-—H. /zzm eje, relative of
{eeming— :|: S7 eye—Is. fiz, S. fe, G. feben, to fee, &c.
in all the Teutonic: S. anfigte, G. angeficht, the face :—
H. wap, fun, day—wnapue to burn, feald, in the language
of Greenland :—R. glas, eye, g/aju to polith, brighten—W.
A. Tr. glas green, Ir. gla/bhan ( green white) pale ; glafanach
the dawn—AS. g/aes, S. glas, G. glafs, H. glaz, glafs:—
la. f, the fun—H. fenaz fplendor ; fenydfa, pine tree,*—S,
+Lfon, fire—AS. findan, 8, finna, to fine—It. F. S. fiz, G.
fein, F. fine fine, F. fneffe, cunning :—F. walkeus, light,
walkia, white, fire—E+welkin, the fky:—B. mefjc, P,
micfiac, R. méfiafich, the moon—Ir. maifeach, bright, fair,
brave; maifeachd, pleafantnefs, elegance ; maifighim to
adorn—AS. feoht, lyht, M. 8. fiubats, Is. G. H. lich, S.
ius, D. lys, \r.+leos, light : 8.--/boa, to thine: AS. lige, Las,
G. dohe, 8. laga, flame : Ch. /o fire—L. /ux, light, with many
proper and Greek relatives—W. /heyver, /euyrx, light ;
lbygad, eye—W. /bhyad, lhoer, C. lir, A. laor, the moon
—R. fizie, G. anlitz, 8. anlete, face ;—all thefe may have
one ftock, at moft they are reducible from two:—L. fax,
W. fagal, G. fackel, 8. facla, a torch : 1..:facies, the face ;
lr. feacam to behold, feachain a view, feachadoir a wizard :

Ps, Jager, beautiful:—Gr. «3/4, to fee: W. trem, drem,
fight: G. rraum, H. droom, 8. drim, a dream—AS. dream
melody, joy : E. trim, neat, pretty ; (provincial) ¢77mpot, the
fame—S. Gri, defire.

Sound is another fource of very ample derivation, both
by its general property, and many variations: of names
for wind, ftorm, breeze, &c. cataraéts, roar of billows,
purling of brooks, &c. thunder in diverfe modes; for

: quadrupeds,

* The Latin, pimus has probably this origin: its German name tazne,
Swedith fur, far, E. fir, relate to fire, light; before the ufe of candles,
torches were made from it, and are yet in frequent ule among the northern
country people.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 495

quadrupeds, birds, {nakes, infe&ts expreflive of their pe-
culiar notes: for hearing and ear, tongue, voice, {peaking,
calling, naming; particular modulations of the voice, as
hallooing, whifpering, whiftling, finging, cries of joy and
forrow, anger, fear, courage: terms for audible, notori-
ous, good and bad fame, &c. In cultivated fociety,
former general words are applied to mufic, eloquence,
poetry, reading, teaching; the feelings of the heart are
told in congenial words, that well diftinguith the tender
fixh from the groan; the fublime and affeting voices of
inanimate nature, and the melodies of birds, are marked in
proper terms :—E. pea/, a loud found, as of thunder, de//s :
Ir. de//a to clath loudly—G. éellen to bark—}|: pel, pael,
pal, among thirteen Afiatic tribes ear ; Ca. and La. kin-
dred, (Chilefe call ears pr/um)—F. appeller, to call; epeller
to fpell: to {peak : AS. /pel/ian to relate, teach ; /pe/, fable,
hiftory, doctrine ; /pellunge, colloquy ; /pel-bok, book of
homilies ; /pe/éoda, {peaker, ambafiador—S. /pe/, G. /picl,
He /pee/, any kind of mutic, alfo play, game, all with
feveral correlates—E. /pe//, charm, originally incantation :
—H. Ch. 4» £4/, voice, any noife, as thunder—Fi. 4ve/r,
CM. ;|: .Aelle, kill, ket, tongue—T. kulak ear : Fi. Ruulla to
hear, kuulkat, hear ye—Gr. vert, S. kallz, to call, name
—-S. gala to crow, is an ancient word of a very large fa-
mily : L. gallus, acock; AS. gallucahen; gale a nightin-
gale, called in G. nachtegall, and in S. H. nearly fo;
C. M. galo goofe; gorgol a wild cock: Is. gale to fing,
hollow; G. gall, aloud cry; S. ga//, clear and loud—
AS. galan, toinchant; galdere, inchanter, galdor-creft,
forcery by incantation ; ts. ga//dur means the fame art, to
which many other northern words relate as Ir. gallraghad,
divination :—AS. 4/owaz to baw], lowung lowing, any voci-
feration ; /yd tumult; bly hearing ; b4y/e fame, biy/an
to celebrate : AS. blud, S. hud, G. laut loud; 8. /yfna to
liften—W. kl}ft ear, W. Adjued, C. Rlowaz, A. klevet, Iv.
kiuynim, kluifim, to hear—W. klodvaur, Ir. cluiteach, L.

inclylus,

496 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

inclytus, famous—Gr. », to hear, attend, obey 3 savrs.,
audible, celebrated :—«4, voice, difcourfe, meflage ; 44,
to caufe a found, {peak : wis, loud, celebrated—Lat. audio
to found, hear, attend, obey :—Is. guedia to fpeak ; 8. guacda
to fing :—Gr. i» found, »é« to refound: «ox, ear, hearing,
report, oration ; ax«, to hear, underftand, be named—P. B.
R. ucho ear—in moft European languages echo refonance :
—Gr. 4x0; to found: S. draka to crath; bracka to bleat ;
Jpraka to {nap as fome firewood—AS, /praekan, G. /prechen,
H. /precken to {peak : 8S. /praka to chat; G. /prache, H.
Jpraak, 8. /prak language :—Ir. duireadh, to bell, roar, bray
—MS. waard, H. woord, AS. word, G. wort, S. ord a
word:—E. ¢ol/ to found a bell—S.-u//a to fing : AS.
tellan, to tell: S. fortelia to relate, talja to number—T.
and 15 Tartar tribes ;|:///, rel/, di/ tongue : S. tal, /peech,
oration, tala to {peak :—H. harangozas, a found : harang
a bell : Go. hark a noife, baren, to hollow : 8. harugla a
{pecies of very loud owl—AS. hearpe, G. harfe, Fr. harpe,
H. harp, S, Po. Sp. arpa, a harp—Fr. barangue, ora-
tion : Caraib. arianga to fpeak—L. orare to fpeak, L.
auris, G. obr, H, oor, Fr. oreille, S. dra, Is. evra, AS.
eare, ear—organ, orchedter, &c. are relatives; and proba-
bly Orpheus the celebrated Thracian who charmed Tartarus
itfelf by the plaintive {trains for his Eurydice.
Thefe. fa&s with many more throw a light on the rudi-
ments of early languages and manners :—as the terms for
fpeaking were congenial with the general pronunciation,
they indicate a mixture of different tribes: as ¢pir-0, éxm,
rage, in the Greek; ¢a/ and f{prak in the Swedifh: the dif-
ferent qualities of the founds exprefs congenial mental dif-
pofitions, as lively and dull, ftrong and weak, polite and
coarfe ; the rudenefs of a tribe muft have been the groffer,
as it called its own fpeech, and the noifes of groveling or
fierce beafts by one name. — In the progrefs of language
the primeval terms for fpeech are accordingly either fo
polifhed as to be almoft changed, or appropriated to natu-

ral

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 497

ral founds and to the voices of animals :—Thus W. /o/io
a relative of .2.e means prating, S. prat; which are never-
thelefs of the refpectable ¢:2r70, and ¢24», knowledge, pru-
dence.

Some forms in nature are very prominent, and alfo com-
mon to numerous objects ; many of which have from this
caufe obtained fimilar names, however different in other
refpects. Among thefe the convex in various modes make
an ample clafs: the heavenly vault; {welling hills and
mountains ; bending valleys; bays of the fea, coves of
lakes and rivers, meanders of brooks; the heads of many
trees, {hrubs and plants, more or lefs globular, oval, coni-
eal, and the arches of their branches; fruits in general,
among which elegant rounds are fo prevalent, from the
lofty cocoa-nut to the ftately pine apple, and its humble
rival the beautiful and delicious ftrawberry ; feveral parts
of animal bodies, as the head, breaft, belly, rounds of
the arms, thighs, and legs, balls of the hands, feet, and
eyes, knuckles, elbows, and knees. The following few
examples are terms that imply convex, ‘and take in parts
of the human body :—W. pé/, C. pellen, A. bul, AS. pil,
H. bol, G. ball, 8. ball, F. balle, boule, Po. bola, L. P. pila,
a ball—AS.. Go. do//a a round cup, bowl—H. do/, S. G.
dulle, a round loaf of bread—G. polffer, AS. S. bolffer, a
bolfter—G. deule, S. balde a boil—éul/a a packet ; hence
letters, mandates, &c. as the Pope's bu/I—AS. bo/t a houfe ;
bolde a village : H. G.S. d0//-verck, bulwark (all from cir-
cular fortification, and alfo hilly fituation—H. 40/LE. poll,
the head : this remains in fo//-tax, pol/ard-trees, &c.— W.
bol, Ir. bolg, 8. bale, G.balg, belly—AS. bz/ig, bellows :
many Teutonic relatives for veflels of convex fhape :—Ir.
or, {welling, borr a bunch, knob—AS. G. H.5S. berg,
mountain, hill—AS. berien, G. H. beer, S. ber, berries
—AS. beorg, G. 8. borg, a fortified place : from which is
M.G éaurgs and E. borough, a town—Ca. burrua, the

a qik head :

498 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

head : peruque, wig, a general European word :—L. col/rs,
Sv kulle, a hill—S. P. kula, G. kugel, H. koge/, a ball—
ir.col/, the head:—S. kupa, a hilloc—AS. kope, G. kup-
pe, H.kop, S. hkopp, Ir. kupa, Fr. coupe, Po. copa, Gr.
«Ba, a round cup—cwpola, convex roof : relatives in arts,
&e.—Gr. «#1; G. hopf, H. kop, the head:—Gr, xe, a
hill, the neck, &c.—R. golova, P. glova, B. hlava, the
head :—Ir. da/k, round, bafccharnte, globular——T. :|: da/h,
the head :—S. G. drink, W. bryn, a hill—W. dron, breaft ;
S. éringa, breaft of animals, but in partial ufe for human :
Ir, droin, belly ; dru, womb:—As. bref, G. bru, S.
broft, HH. borft, breaftt—to burf? implies f{welling—arn:-
borft, a{pecies of bow, very formidable, often mentioned in
ancient northern hiftory :—AS. eegepl, G. augapfel, H.
cogeppel, the eye ball: aval, apel, &c. being an old word
for many kinds of round fruits, and relative of L. avellana
hazel nut :—AS. dugen, G. beugen, 8. dija, to bend—AS.
bog, arch, bough of a tree—W. dia, Ir. doya, S. bage,
H. boog, G. bogen, a bow for fhooting—H. éog?, a gulf
—S. bog, G. bug, the bow of a veflel, fhoulder of ani-
mals—H. burk; G. bauch, 8. 6uk, belly —AS. earm-eln-boga,
G. ellbogen, H. elleboog, S. armboge, elbow—The Teuto-
nic abounds in relatives, fimple and compound :—R. gnu
to bend; AS. Anzgan to nod—AS. kneou, Is. hnie, H. G.
knie, 8. knw, Gr. yin, Le genu, knee:—Gr. xaurra, to bend
—W. C. Ir, cam crooked—Ir, camog a bay : W. cum a val-
ley—W. cam, A. camet, Ir. keim, a ftep; keimnyin, to
‘walk—AS. cuman, MG. quiman, S. komma, G. kommen,
to come—It, gamba, F. jambe, leg : It. camino, Po. caminho,
F. chemin, way, road; It. caminare, to walk—AS. hamm,
fold of the knee: G. hamme, F. jambon, aham, gam-
mon :—W. guyro, tobend: L. gyrus, acircle—Sp. jarrete
the ham, F. jarret, fold of the knee—Hu. jarni, to walk,
jaras, going—C, garr, leg; garas to walk—E. garier is

related.
The

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 499

The extent of derivation in the human body appears
further in thefe examples :—names of 4/cod and red are evi-

dent correlates in the H. Ch. 27, »48—Hu. vér, véres—
|

Ir. cru, cruan: flan, flann:*—Compound words for fome
parts; F. cou de pied, (neck of the foot) the wrift: gras,
and, pommeau de la jambe, calf of the leg—The Greeks
called it yspexmuix, (belly of the leg, before they adopted
esepa : The Poles and Ruffians call it z4ra, which alfo: fig-
nifies the eggs in fifh, and a foft fubftance in general.
The Greeks, Romans, and Britifh called the toes fingers
of the feet, as the French, Ruffians, Poles ftill do.

It is alfo a remarkable fact in the hiftory of languages,
that general names were applied to parts or {pecies, when
a better diftin@tion became neceflary, from a with both to
preferve old words, and to leflen the number of new.
As different portions of the people did not always adopt
the improvement at once, and afterwards might apply the
firft name to different parts and objects; and as in the
mingling of tribes and languages names were fometimes
by miftake applied to fimilar things, or adjoining parts ;
(fe. that of thigh to leg) the procefs of diftin€tion can-
not be traced without prolix inquiries in many cafes; I
fhall therefore fele& a few clear fpecimens:—H. Ch. pw
denotes generally the leg, but fometimes the whole limb
above the foot to the body, though the thigh with hip and
loin had a feparate name 77): 1 hand reprefents not feldom

the whole arm, as in the odd expreflion, arms of bis hands
(Gen. slix. 24.)—Gr. x, hand, is by ancient authors
ufed for the whole arm : «a, leg, frequently includes the
foot—L. pes, foot, denotes the whole forequarter of an
ox in Virgil’s Georg. V. 55 :—W. y/euidb, C. fkudh, A.
jfeoas, thoulder : Ca. efcvas, hand—Ca. defoa, arm : Ir.+
bos, hand: W. bys, A. bes, b75, C. bez, finger—W. hoes,

Cire lyg'?) loin,

* The Delawares in N. America call blood moocum, red machkue, machhteu
morning and evening red, machcumen, to dye red.

500 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

lin, hanch: Ir. cos, leg, foot—Ir. dairge, thigh, leg;
lorga, foot, lorg, a footftep—C. fer, leg : Ir. feren thigh
—W. bratx, A. bréx, C. breb, arm: Ir.+érak, arm,
hand :—The Poles and Ruffians have no peculiar name for
the hand, for the refpective reka, ruka, fignify alfo the
arm; nor do theygvell diftinguifh this fromthe fhoulder,
P. ramie, R. plet/cho, meaning both :—The Germans name
both the thigh and leg /chenckel, though the latter is alfo®
called dein: G. fhinka, H. fhink, S. /kinka, a gammon :
AS. fcone, S. fkank, leg; (the modern is only vulgar for
the human, but more common for that of animals, as E.
fhank—».+/kunk, a fold, /Runka to limp.

It is very probable that fome tribes had at firft only’ one
name for the whole limb that comprehends the loin, thigh,
knee, leg, and foot, which they confidered as a dow, and
named it accordingly. The whole arm was viewed and
called in a fimilar manner by fome, as appears from names
of the parts, implying curvature—thus means elbow,
arm, and part below it: W. A. e/in, C. gelen, I. ulin, el-
bow : T. @/, with 'Tartar-varieties, hand : all akin to e/
in the mentioned e/éows. Perhaps a common name ferved
for both the upper and lower branches among fome
which is of a large curve-family fignified the bend of both
arm and knee—AS. earm/cancan meant the lower parts of
the arms—Some words of the fame root fignify both walk-.
ing, &c. and adtions of the arms, as, Ir. gabbam to go
pats, take, receive, beat : gabha/, travelling,t+gadhail, /poil,
booty—gabhal a fork: gabhal fhir the groin (fork of the
thighs) related to numerous Teutonic and Celtic words,
as S. gaffel, G. gabel a fork for eating, ftirring the fire,
&c.)—W. gavael, kymmeryd to apprehend :—P. deze, to
run, MS. 4y/z to run to and fro; S.+40//a to ftir bufily :
E. bu/y and bujine/s imply exertion, and fpeed.

I leave this article with a trembling glimpfe on the~
manners of primeval men! reflecting on the rudenefs of

favages

AyRvAN,

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES, 501

favages that ftill occupy one-third of the globe, on the fol-
lies, vices, and crimes in modern civilization, the foibles
of the beft among us, I anxioufly inquire, does a confi-
derable portion of the human {fpecies prefer falfehood to
truth, malice to goodnefs, and milery to happinefs! or is
there a divine ray in the human mind, that gradually dif-
fipates the twilight and fogs of morning, and a heavenly
feed in the heart, that in its growth fupprefles by degrees
the weeds and thorns of vice! and changes the wild waftes
both of the earth and of human fociety into a delightful
garden! my foul confides in the progreflive improvement,
and final perfection, of all that fprung from the /owrce
of good, and it abhors the doctrines of original depravity
and revolving changes of good and evil! 7f rhe infancy of
of our fpecies was ignorant and freaky, \et us hope that the
foolifh and wicked boys of our times will be fucceeded by men.

Some of the names common to the limbs of men and
beafts fhow the near approach of favage to mere animal
life: ancient and modern languages have fuch, for exam-
ple, thofe of our arms and their anteriors——H. Ch. yy

arm is often ufed in this manner (as Num. vi. 19, 20.
Deut. xviii. 3—é;2x: occurs likewife in ancient Greek for
the fhoulder of quadrupeds—our Teutonic arm is akin
to the Latin armus, that fignified the fame. The fangs
and clutches both of bipeds and four-footed are in Greek,
Hebrew, and other languages called hands, and not only
figuratively ; becaufe many etymons, and many obfolete
names of hand ftill ufed for thofe animal organs, make a
primeval identity very probable, as:—S. tafe, G. ¢tatze,
a paw—S. faga, totake; Gr. 72%, to apprehend : L. /agax,
rapacious—H. saag, F. ¢ache, a tafk—H. /aak, a branch:
S. ¢agg, a pricket—F. griffe, G. greiff, claw of large
prey-birds—S. grifa, D. gribe, G. greifen, AS. gripan,
to apprehend, gripe—Ir. griov, hand, claw, foot—s. grip,
a large falcon: Gr. x1, L. gryphus, G. greiff, ne ee

in :—

502 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

fin :—E. fang clutch, isa relative of jinger, which belongs
to all the Teutonic, and of many others, as AS. fangan,
S. fanga, to catch, captivate—lIr. fang, a raven; 5. fing,
a fpecies of owl:—A. fa/v, the palm, appears related to
paw; and W. /béu to claw, which is with variation in the
whole Teutonic. Plundering and fighting being the chief
bufinefs of the hand in a favage ftate, it well deferved the
fame name with the clutches of lions and vultures; and
this charaéter is recorded in many derivative words and
phrafes:—C. M. gara, hand: C. gurey, 5. gidra, to aa,
do—s. gierning, action, fignifies in the law aflault : E.+
gare to wound—D. kaard, a fword:—Pe. da, hand—s.
antafta, G. betafien, to attack ; E. put to the teff is related :
—C. dorn, hand, is the root of the tournaments fo famous
in ancient chivalry:—Ma. ga/a, hand—gallant a general
term for courage :—Ir.frag, hand—S. fregd, bravery,
active talents:—-AS. e//len, power, fortitude; ellen-rof,
mighty, illuftrious ; e//en-/eka, a boxer.

Neverthelefs I cannot. find any word that implies praife
of abfolute murder; and the ferocious Scythian languages
have fome that reprobate it when committed by treachery
or in cold blood. Among thefe is the AS. zithing, with
its relatives : its meaning is well preferved in the 12th chap-
ter of the Swedifh criminal code, which defines and
punithes wzdings verk, a general term for feveral bafe kinds
of aflault and murder, to wit, fecret; infidious; on per-
fons incapable of defence, as minors ; thofe who are afleep,
{wimming or bathing, &c.* Some words of barbarous
origin come to fignify true heroifm in a civilized fociety :
thus the Swedith sempe, figures as a hero in modern mi-
litary poems, though he is a brother of the Britith kam-
piur, a boxer, and of all the European champions: the

Swedifh

* Nid-fiang, and riding the f2ang, which in fome parts of Scotland is an
infamous chaftifement of men who beat their wives, are mentioned by Fohx
Callander, E{q. in his comment on two ancient Scottifh poems : the gaberlun-
sie man, KC.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 503

Swedith Jeram, to appoint, order, is ufed only in folemn
public acts, as vel beramad Riksdag, well ordered diet ;
yet it {prings from vam, fang of a bear or lion, and is a
relative of rama to catch, clutch, and of the Polith ramue,
arm.

Art. VW, On* the Early Condition of the Earth, Animals,

and Vegetables.
re

Many ancient words contain important records on thefe
objeéts: I fhall fketch a few, and firft fuch as will clear up the
problem, whether the water has formerly covered a greater
part of the earth? for this purpofe we muft examine the
names of land which are derived from water, and alfo the
names of water, which imply a former greater depth or
extent. Mountains, hills, woods, plains, and habitations,
as villages, manors, &c. were frequently named from ad-
jacent parts of the fea, lakes, and rivers; has the water
retired from many of thefe, and how far? extenfive low
lands may ftill retain the names of morafles? Wide tracts
which are but a few feet under water may fignify priftine
depth? creeks, ponds, and brooks may tell that they have
been bays, lakes, rivers. Thefe inquiries demand acom-
parifon of modern, obfolete, and local words of water, and
of its various collections in the languages of feveral coun-
tries: confiderable light is alfo attainable from the appel-
lations of aquatic animals, and vegetables; and from the
proper names of lakes, rivers, iflands, &c. many of which
denote water.

That part of Europe which continues a miry watte,
would if cultivated fupport millions, while millions have
been deftroyed for conquefts in icy wildernefles, in the
burning climes of the Eaft and Weft Indies, and for a lit-
tle more elbow room on the Rhine, whofe pure {tream

has

504 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

has been for centuries tainted with human blood! but per-
haps many of thefe morafles have been deep and wide
haunts of fea monfters! within a few years how many
bogs that fwallowed the unwary traveller, and poifoned the
adjacent villages, have been changed into flowery meads !
the human heart will alfo be cleanfed! if finks of corrup-
tion are neceflary, they will be few and narrow! the fol-
lowing large mire-families are near relatives of great wa-
ters :—Is. mer, AS. mere, moor, S. moras, myra, G. moraft,
H. ma@ras, F. marais, a moor—W. A. mér, Ir. mur, AS.
mere, R. B. more, P. morze, G. meer, Fi. merr, L. mare,
the fea. The root of all is very ancient, perhaps prior to
the Gr. ze« to flow, and the lake meris of Egypt. Pliny
mentions mor/marufa as a part of the northern fea, ob-
{curely known, but no doubt fo named from freezing (Fi.
marras, winter; P. marzn.e, to congeal:——S. moffar, mofles
—Gr, padre, the Meotic lake, that communicates with
the Black fea—Hu. motfar, a morafs: R. mojos, motfchu,
P. moczg to dip, moiften :—Fens, extenfive in fome parts
of ancient England, and remaining in part: the word,
though Gothic, is not underftood in a great part of Swe-
den; but many places there have kindred names—Fwnen,
one of the Danifh iflands—Sznus Venedicus in ancient geo-
eraphy—L. fons, a {pring :—Fi. /wo, a moor, or mofs : S.
Jump, G. fumpf, a pool—AS. feo, the fea: H. zee, G. fee, S.
Sid, fea, lake: la. fwiffi, afeaman. ‘The fame words mean
both lakes and moors in feveral languages, which indicates
that their difference was not ftriking; as Gr. xu; W.
Ibynn+grelyn ; 8. trefk ; Fi. zerfor. in Lapland and Fin-
land are bodies of fhallow water above an hundred miles
in length, with numerous iflands, fome places of depth,
and ftored with fith. The fens and meers of , England
were formerly fimilar : Camden defcribes the Wrrrel’s mere
lake in Huntingdonfhire as fix miles in length, and three
in breadth, clear, deep, and full of fifh.* As the ad
Co)

* Britannia Antiqua. p. 500.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 505

of thefe waters grow by the gradual accumulation of mud,

they may finally fhrink into a narrow compafs, ftill retain-
ing the original name, though it comes to fignify what they
really are; but this muft not prevent our exploring the
etymon: thus the large hollows in the woods of Sweden
called /agor, often dry, are probably relicks of lakes, and
relatives of the W. /bzx, Ir. loch, names of the fine lakes
in Ireland and North Britain; the rather as feveral marks
indicate their ancient ufe in Scandinavia: proper names of
fome lakes, particularly the old Laugur of Melarn, a
lake that at {tockholm opens into the Baltic, 80 miles long:
the Finnith /aé7 for a bay, &c.

R. /ugia, G. lache, ponds, are of the fame family. As all
the names for morafles are related to rivers, lakes, &c.
and not feldom the fame word fignifies the one in one
country, and the other in another, they merit confideration.
Names that in modern fenfe mean only a brook, do not
prove that it was always fo, for many examples fhow the
ancient want of diftinét names: as Gr. roreués; W. avon,
fignify rivers of very different kinds.

Many names of meadows denote wet :——Gr. auér-—A.
Jenneck—tlr. Jeana, (from leann, W. lhyn, liquor.)--R.
luga: P. laga——G. wiefe : auen:*—When the fea retires,
extenfive lands retain the names of fhores, as the Dowws,
the marches in Germany and Scotland, &c. but in time thefe
will not be intelligible without knowing obfolete names
for the fea. The fame applies to places in the vicinity of
that, lakes, rivers:—hills in low lands frequently fignify
iflands, as bo/me, an ancient general Teutonic, and ftill
the common name for fmall iflands in the Swedith lakes. +

aa ¢' he

* In fome parts of Sweden large traéts of grafly fhores are called mur,
which is but myra, or moor altered by time; yet this word is a matter of
wonder in thofe parts, where mofe, &c. are ufed for the other, and the more,
becaufe mur alfo is the common name for a wall.

+ Extenfive and accurate knowledge of the very numerous names for
water, and its relatives would happily illuftrate both this fubject, and the

*

506 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

The analogy fo vifible in the order of Divine Providence
makes it very probable that a rude earth and barbarous
men had congenial animals; and that fome of thefe became
extin¢t in the courfe of moral and phyfical improvement.
Works of ancient naturalifts, and popular traditions con-
firm this; a true philofopher will not deem the whole fa-
bulous, becaufe a part is extravagant. That the Aydra in
the Lerna-marth had feven heads is lefs probable ;_ but that
monfters with more than one have exifted is very credible
to thofe who know the double headed ferpents of Ame-
rica.* The terrible venom of fome ferpents appears in

their names—Gr. zs»; H. Ch. 122 and 17” are literally
ray

burners—H. Ch. »5¥ was named from its poifonous breath
—fuch are at this time found about lake Erie.t All
Afia and Europe have traditions about the dragon, as a

huge,

hiftory of man. The copious derivates from different roots is a further
proof that languages were formed on feparate grounds. The fame ancient
names for lakes, rivers, &c. in Afia, Europe, America, indicate the early
migrations of mankind. Among many ftriking fpecimens are thefe :—C.
M. nur, the fea—many lakes with names of wor, in Tartary, &c. from China
to the Cafpian fea, as kirkir-nor, lop-arall-palcati-nor—many lakes and rivers
in Sweden, nora, and zor-fi0—Nore in Scotland—Po. zora, an engine for
drawing water :—Tona, water (American)—P. tonie, to fink: R. fonia, a
draught of fifh : G. tuncken, to dip : S. tong, reed : Ir. W. tonn, a wave: Ir.
tonach, wathing 3 tonueg, a water-bird : ton, tunna, &c. a water-veffel, in moft
European languages: Gr. Séwoe, La. tunnus, a tunfith—H ftenger, the fea:
Don the river Tanats :—C. M. goll, a ftream—F. golfe ; It. Po. golfo; H. golf,
a gulph, bay—W. golchi, A. gelxi, to walh—Holland, and Holm-gard, ancient
name for a part of Ruffia on the Baltic—E. Aolm-oak, water oak :—R. /Pehdiz,
to flow down: Stockholm, means the iffue of waters ; the J/%z/ar falls there
through two ftreams into a bay of the Baltic: —The name of Britain on which
fo many conjectures have been made, means fimply an ifland; Gr. 2p to
flow : AS. Go. brym, the fea, brimfiod, a deluge : Go. brine, falt, foaming :
S. brenning, the furf : Po. brindar, to drink; F. abbreuver, to give drink : brig,
a fea veflel, &c.—Gr. x$av, +G. ton, Mal. tana, land.

* Yhat they form a fpecies is probable from their relugar form, and the
number obferved, at leaft fix: I have feen two, one in Mr. Peale’s Mufeum,,
the other in Yale-College cf Conneéticut.

+ They blow with great force a fubtile and naufeous wind, which if drawn
in with the breath, brings on a decline that proves mortal in a few months..
Carver's Travels, Pp. 105.

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 50%

huge, winged, fiery ferpent. Its names are: Gr. Jj», G,
drach, FH. draak, %. drake, Fr. dragon, ®. dracon, W. draig,
&e. Ja. firio; Ch. lum; which all mean fire. Its figure
was alfo adopted on armorials and military ftandards—both
render its exiftence probable.* .Amphibious animals of
inland waters muft difappear with thefe: thus tribes of
water{nakes and lizards may be gone; and the dreadful
crocodile will alfo depart Large land quadrupeds de-
creafe faft as men increafe, becaufe they cannot hide from
them nor find fuflicient food. In new countries, as great
parts of America, extinctions may be recent ; and confe-
quently many undecayed reliques may be found.

Old names for woods difcover their former extent, and
the progrefs of human fettlements.~+ Names that fignify
{pecies of trees, fhrubs, and plants, fhow the former places
of fuch. Vegetables of remarkable properties were gene-
rally named accordingly at an early period: in fome cafes
the knowledge of fuch is loft; but may be recovered by
exploring the names. RefleGing from this principle on
the many plants in feveral languages that imply qualities
both for preferving and reftoring health, I often with with
a figh, that fanatical and inhuman medical theorifts would
confult fimple country people, nay favages! for my part
I infinitely prefer the Judsan fever-bujh to the arfenic ague
drop, and all the chemiftry of corrofive minerals.

It was a general and very ancient cuftom to diftinguith
the feafons by their influence on animals and vegetables ;

3 U2, comparifon

* See Duhalde on the Chinefe modes The Roman enfigns were called
draconarii from bearing the ferventes dracones Keifler has in his travels
I. vol. p. 32, copied a recorded flight of a monftrous dragon over Lucerne
in Swizerland in May 1499: draco igneus immani fpecie, patulis auribus, craffi-
dudine vituli, longitutine oto cubitorum.

+ Europe was a wildernefs not long ago: Czfar defcribes the vaft Ardu-
enna in the north of Gaul, and the Hercinian foreft that covered great part
of Germany Camden records that the Andrefwald in England had been
130 miles long, and 30 wide Within 600 years the north and fouth-
diftriéts of Sweden were called nordan-and funnan-/kog ; a proof that land and
wood were almoft the fame—G. wald, a wood: Hu. fold, Vand : Pole (whence
Poland) denotes many things, as hunting grounds.

508 PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES.

comparifon of refpective words will therefore illuftrate
climates and natural hiftory: thus the Poles call April
Kwieéien, and the Swedes May Blomffer-manad, month of
flowers—P. Li/fopad, B. Lyffopad, fall of the leaves, is the
name of November—AS. Trimilckr, month of May, from
milking the cows three times in the day, an etymon re-
jected by thofe who know not the rapidity of northern ve-
getation; Haleg-monadb, September, from fifhing (Hu.
Hal, fith.—Several North American nations call March
the Worm month, becaufe the worms then come out from
their winter retreats, May month of Flowers, November
Beaver-month, becaufe the beavers begin to go into winter
quarters, January the Co/d, February the Szow-month.*

Languages are widely fcattered and jumbled fragments
ef a mirror, which when {kilfully joined and polifhed
will prefent inftructive pictures of men and things in prif-
tine times. True philology is therefore fo far from being
a mere amufement, as to deferve the application of indi-
vidual talents, and the cherifhing care of nations.

* Carver, p. 160. I have for twenty-eight years obferved that January
is generally too cold for fnowing in the middle ftates.

NO > P 2B Ss

Left the wide feale of this concife treatife may to fome readers appear
thowy, I fhall candidly ftate the lefs obvious means of information. The
Swedith language, known in its whole compafs of modern, obfolete, pro-
vincial, has relations of amazing extent, near with all the Teutonic, confi-
derable with the Celtic, Roman, Sclavonian, Hungarian, Perfian, Turkith,
and many other Afiatic, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, &c. It has of all Eu-
ropean been the beft illuftrated : particularly by the late Profeffor Jhre in his
Lexicon Svio-Gothicum. Its affinity with the Englifh, modern and ancient is
difplayed by the late Bifhop Serenius in his Engli/b-Swedifh and Swedi/h-Engli/h
Diéionaries, both with correfponding Latin words. A Swede has therefore
fuperior advantage for general philological acquifitions. He will become
intimate with the ancient Teutonics by adding to his native ftores the writ-
ings of Iflandic, Danifh, German, Dutch, Englifh, Antiquaries: among
the laft the excellent work of Hickes, the concife Anglo-Saxon-Latin Voca-

bulary

PHILOLOGICAL INQUIRIES. 509

bulary of Beafon, &c. Ona fhort acquaintance with the Celtic he perceives
the grofs error of thofe Englith hiftorians who afferted that the modern Eng-
lifh is a pure inheritance from their Saxon anceftors becaufe thete totally de-
itroyed the Britons (how general and longlived it was is well proved by the
Rey. Wittacre in his hiitory. of Manchefter) : by attentive ftudy he difcovers
Teutonic affinities beyond the knowledge of the beft Celtic antiquaries,
among whom excels Lhuyd, author of Archeolgia Britannica; and marks
alfo the reliques of feveral different idioms, which guard him againtt the
opinion that the anceitry of moft European nations had one Celtic tongue,
which Pelloutier in his Hifloire des Celtes, Vaillancey, author of an Iberno-Celtic,
or Lrifh, grammar, &c. and others, have endeavoured to prove (writers
neverthelefs eftimable). A Swede is at firlt puzzled in the Sclavonian
woods; but he foon finds that the Poles and Ruflians with whom his ancef-
tors continually fought, are his coufins, though thefe for want of 4 fay Gol-
land, Gamburg, &e.

My aids in the Sclavonian have been: the above mentioned Bohemian
Grammar by Poh/, and the New Teftament in that language : the Rufian-
German-French Diétionary of WNordflet, publifhed at Peterfburg 1780
another very good, original Latin-German tranflated into Ruflian; a New
Grammar; a few books: the Polifh-French-German Diionary of Trotz,
printed at Leipfig 1764; another in German; the Polifh Bible, Telemach.
The Hungarian-German Grammar of Farkadsfalva, printed at Vienna
1779 has been of peculiar, though not exclufive, fervice in that langnage,
In the Celtic I have had confiderable refources, as the Welch Bible, Anii-
quities of Cornwall, by Borlas, diverfe Britith, Irith and Erfe pieces, Box-
horn’s Origines Gallice, &c. My knowledge of the Afiatic and American
is far inferior; but the fpecimens are carefully felected: the Chinefe are
partly in Dubalde’s Work, and partly in Bayer’s Mufeum Sinicum, printed
1730: the Japanefe and Malefe are in Thunberg’s Travels: the C. M. Perfian,
Turkifh, Manthuri, and others not fpecified, are taken from the Vocabularia
Comparativa, and judicious Travellers, as Strahlenbere, Bell, xc. I owe the
American to feveral authors, among whom Dr. Barton merits honourable
mention, who has begun a comparifon of American with A fiatic languages,
in his New teas of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America. I chofe
the H. Ch as embracing much of the Syric, Arabic, &c. the fpecimens are
found in Simonis Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum, improved by
Eichhorn, and printed 1793.

The Ruffian has befides the Greek fome other letters totally different
from all European; want of types for thefe obliged me to fubftitute fuch
Roman, as nearly convey the found. A fimilar defe& is the reafon why
fome of the Polifh / have not the oblique crofs-line which alters their
found ; and why fome of the Swedifh diphthongs have only a half circle
in licu of a whole.

The limits of this eflay do not permit detailing the rules of pronunciation,
and the changing modes of kindred words in feveral languages ; a touch on
them would not be neceflary for the learned, and of little “i to others.

MEMOIR

Fate) MEMOIR on

No. LXXIV,

MIEMOIR on the Extrancous Foffils, denominated Mammoth
Bones: principaily defigned to fhew, that they are the re-
mains of more than one fpecies of non-defcript Animal.
By GzorGE TuRNER, Member of the A. P. S.
Honorary and Correfponding Member of the Bath and
Welt of England Society, &c.

Read, July, HE interefting remains which form the fub-
art 1797. ject of this Memoir, have excited various
conjectures concerning their nature and origin. By fome
they were thought to be mineral fubftances ; and by others,
animal. The latter opinion foon prevailed, and is now
univerfally received.

But another queftion remained to be anfwered:—To
what animal, or clafs, were the bones to be affigned ?
Here was a difficulty not fo eafy to overcome. It engaged
the attention and drew forth the labours of feveral emi-
nent men. Some aicribed them to the elephant ;* others
to the hippopotamus ; and others, again, to fome unknown
creature, larger than either, and of the carnivorous kind.+
To this animal incognitum common confent has given the
name of Mammoth.f

Depofits of his remains are very frequently found in
Siberia and other parts of the old world. In North Ame-

rica

* As Sir Hans Sloane, Gmelin, Daubenton, Buffon, &c. Buffon, however,
admits that they befpeak an animal whofe cubic volume muft have ex-
ceeded, by five or fix times, that of the elephant.

+ Dr. Wm. Hunter. Vide Tranf. Roy. Soc. vol. LVIII. p. 42: alfo
** Notes on Virginia.”

{ Strahlenberg, in his Hiftorico-Geographical Defcription, obferves, that
the Ruffian name is Mammoth; which is a corruption from Memoth, a word
derived from the Arabic, Mehemot, fignifying the fame as the Behemot of Job.
This word is applied to any animal of extraordinary bignefs: for inftance,
Fyhl is the Arabic appellation for an elephant of ordinary fize; but when
of uncommon magnitude, the adjective Mehemodi is always added.

x
EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS. 51

rica they are abundant. The countries bordering upon the
Ohio and its tributary ftreams, have already furnifhed nu-
merous difcoveries of the kind; and, it is faid, the banks
of the Miffouri, alfo, abound with them.

Nature having blefled our tran{montane regions with a
bountiful fupply of falines, or iprings of falt water; the
earth there being foft or fpongy and impregnated with
mineral falts, is rendered peculiarly fit for the reception and
preiervation of certain bodies which, in other places, would
undergo a {peedy decay. Hence the profufion of Mam-
moth bones beyond the mountains; while on the Atlantic
fide of them, where falines are fearce, fuch remains have
but rarely been found :—1 {peak here comparatively.

Hitherto but few of the remains in queftion have ap~
peared to the fouthward of the 36" degree of north lati-
tude: and hence an opinion, that the Mammoth was not
an inhabitant of the warmer climates. The ingenious
author of ‘ Notes on Virginia” feems to be influenced by
this belief when, alluding to fome difcoveries made farther
fouth, he obferves, — They are either fo loofely menti-
oned, as to leave a doubt of the fa€@t; fo inaccurately de-
feribed, as not to authorize the claffing of them with the
great northern bones; or fo rare, as to found a fufpicion
that they have been carried thither, as curiofities, from
more northern regions.”

Since the publication of the “ Notes,” however, at leat
one additional fact has occurred, that favours the afligning
of a wider range to this incognitum: for, in cutting the
Santee and Cowper river canal in South-Carolina, there
was lately turned up a collection of bones, anfwering by
defcription to thofe of the Mammoth. Their number,
variety, and arrangement were fuch, as forcibly to pre-
clude the idea of their having been “ carried thither as

curiofities.”’*
The

* Since writing this paper, fimilar remains have been difcovered at
Wilmington and near Newbern, both in North-Carolina and without the li-
mits above fuggefted for the refidence of the Mammoth.

-

512 MEMOIR on

The Jate Dr. W. Hunter was the firft to relieve the learn-
ed from an error they had long indulged. Having care-
fully compared a few fpecimens of the American bones
with others of the Siberian non-defcript, and thefe again
with fimilar parts of the elephant, hippopotamus, &c. he
became convinced, that the two firft were veftiges of one
and the fame fpecies of animal; but differing eflentially in
tize and form from the bones of any other at prefent known
to us: that, confequently, they were not parts of the ele-
phant, nor of the hippopotamus; but of fome huge car-
nivorous animal.*

Had the opportunities of this accurate obferver been
greater than it appears they were; or, in other words,
had his materials been lefs {canty, he would have difcern-
ed the remains of a fecond incognitum, whofe ftature was
not, perhaps, inferior to that of the other. Thefe fecond
remains evince a member of the Jerbivorous order; and,
from their extraordinary fize, | have no hefitation in be-
lieving, that they belonged: to fome link in the chain of
animal creation, which, like that of the Mammoth, has
long been loft.

Both fkeletons of thete i incognita being ufually embedded
in company, they have hitherto been confounded together
by writers, under the fingle appellation of Mammoth
bones.

The parts which more decidedly mark the remains of a
fecond animal, confit, firft, of a grinder exclufively worn
by thofe of the herbivorous or graminivorous kind; and,
fecondly, of two tufks (defcn/fes_) differently fafhioned.

Although I do not prefume to affert, that, contrary to
the received opinion, neither of thefe tufks belonged to
the Mammoth: yet if the nature of his purfuits be con-
fidered, taking it for granted, as I fhall endeavour to fhew,
that he was partly (if not wholly) carnivorous ;—that there

is

* Tranf. Roy. Soc. vol. LVIII. p. 42.

+ It is with relu€tance, that [ feel myfelf conftrained to offer here an opi-

nion fo contrary to that which has been held by two fuch able writers as
Mr. Jefferfon and Mr. Pennant.

EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS. 513

is no place for their infertion in the lower jaw, (the upper
I have not feen) and that fuch tufks would appear to be
incompatible with the natural purfuits of fuch a creature—
can we hefitate to afcribe them to fome other animal?

I fhall confine my ideas to ¢wo diftina fkeletons only ;
fince no difcovery has yet occurred of a third tooth, or
other bone, to juftify the dividing of the tufks between a
fecond and a third defcription of zcoguita. I am neither
prepared to admit nor deny, that defen/es, fo differently
fafhioned as thefe will appear, were worn by one and the
fame animal: and yet, ‘the probability is, that neither of
them belonged to the Mammoth. The difference between
the defenfes is indeed remarkable. One of them, the
longer of the two, bears a near refemblance, in fize, form
and fubftance, to the tufk of an elephant: the other de-
fcribes a greater curve, and is fo flattened or compreffed on
two oppofite fides, in its whole length, as to produce a
greater breadth than thicknefs, in the proportion of about
two parts and a half to one. The curvature inclines on
the edges; that is, the tufk is bent edgewife. Both ae-
enfes are good ivory.

With refpe& to the teeth, all that I have feen of either
kind are dentes molares. ‘They unqueftionably befpeak the
remains of two diftin& fpecies of non-defcript animals ;
the one carnivorous, or mixed; the other herbivorous,
or graminivorous.

The mafticating furface of the Mammoth tooth is fet
with four or five high double-coned proceffes, ftrongly
coated with enamel : whereas that of the other ncoynitum
is flat, nearly fmooth, and ribbed tranfverfely, fomewhat
like the elephant’s grinder, but lefs prominently marked.
The writer has counted from fifteen to twenty of thefe
tranfverfe lines on a fingle tooth of this fecond incogartum ;
while on that of the elephant, they feldom exceed half
the number.

3 The

~

514 MEMOIR on

The lower jaw of the Mammoth is furnifhed with four
teeth, two on each fide; and being unaffociated either
with incifores or canini, it may reafonably be inferred, that
this animal was of a nature not wholly carnivorous, but
mixed.

Another part of what we term Mammoth remains, con-
fifts of fragments of ribs of a fingular con{truction ; being
all bent on the edge. Such a form is eminently calculated
for ftrengthening a frame which, perhaps, was ordained to
fubfift by the deftruction of other animals, both aGtive and
powerful. Shiats

I fhall take the liberty to give, in this place, the fubftance
of a few obfervations made by certain writers concerning
the Mammoth fkeleton, It may aflift us in forming fome
idea of the uncommon ftature of the animal.

In the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, vol. II. part 1ft, there is a defcription of a tufk
found feveral years ago in the river Chemung, or Tioga,
a branch of the Sufquehannah. It was fix feet nine inches
long, twenty-one inches around at the larger end and fifteen
at the {maller; and was incurvated nearly into the arc of
a large circle. This, however, was but a fragment; for
it appeared as if the length of two or three feet had perifh-
ed at each end.

Strahlenberg* relates, that an entire fkeleton of the Mam-
moth was difcovered in Siberia, near lake Tzana Ofero; that
it meafured thirty-fix Ruffian ells in length ;+ and fo great
was the diftance between the oppofite ribs, that a man ftand-
ing upright on the concavity of a rib, as the {keleton refted
on its fide, could not quite reach the oppofite one, though
with the aid of a pretty long battle axe which he conf

iis

* Hiftorico-Geographical Defcription of the North and Eaftern Parts
ef Europe and Afia, p. 104. -

+ The Ruffian ell is equal to 2845 inches Englifh.

EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS. 525

his hand. This account is given as coming from the
mouth of the man himfelf, and who was one of thirty
others, all eye witnefles to the fact. Strahlenberg then
obferves, that a DoGtor Mefferfchmidt had feen the bones
of a whole fkeleton of a monftrous fize, lying in a
heap in a ditch between -Tomfkoi and Kafnetfko, on the
banks of the river Tomber. He next tells us what he
himfelf had feen. He faw, at the city of Tumeen, a
fkull of the Mammoth, two ells and a half in length:
but this the Ruffians informed him was one of the fmalleft
fize. He had alfo feen Mammoth tufks, each upwards
of four Ruffian ells in length, and nine inches in diameter
at the thick end.

It is to be regretted, that the world has not yet been
favoured with a particular and fcientific defcription of
the whole fkeleton of an sncognitum fo interefting as the
Mammoth. Both Muller and Ibrandes Ides, indeed,
have gone fo far, as to defcribe his ftruature, fize, colour,
&c. But what credit can be given to fuch idle ftories,
when Ides himfelf confeffes, that he knew of no perfon
who had ever feen a living Mammoth? The perfon who
fhall firft procure the complete fkeleton of this #cognitum,
will render,—not to his country alone, but to the world,
——a moft invaluable prefent.*

In my mind it is highly probable, that both fpecies of
incognita in queftion, have long fince perifhed. ‘This opini-
on derives countenance from feveral difcoveries of other
foffil bones, in Germany, in South-America, and in
Virginia. We are now acquainted with the fkeletons of
five feveral large animals, all of whom are, at prefent,

ak. 2 unknown :

* TI have often expreffed a belief, that whenever the entire fkeleton fhould
be found, it would appear to have been armed with claws. I am now more
confirmed in the opinion; for after this Memoir was written, the Society re-
ceived a collection of the bones here treated of, and among them the os
calcis, or heel bone, of a clawed animal.

516 MEMOIR on

unknown: and as two of thofe fkeletons* were but re-
cently brought to light, may we not expect to be gratified,
in thefe times of refearch, with other difcoveries of a fimi-
lar kind? Can we believe, then, that fo many and fuch
{tupendous creatures could exift for centuries and be con-
cealed from the prying eye of inquifitive man?

The benevolent perfuation, that no link in the chain of
creation will ever be fuffered to perifh, has induced certain
authors of diftinguifhed merit, to provide a refidence for
our Mammoth in the remote regions of the north. Some
of the North American Indians alfo believe in the now ex-
iftence of this animal, and place him far beyond the lakes.
_ But their belief refts on mere tradition: for none of them
will venture to declare they have feen the animal them-
felves, or that their information concerning him, is drawn
from any perfon who had. Their tradition is to this effect.
“Tn ancient times,” fay they, “a herd of Mammoths
‘“* came to the Great-Bone Lick, and began a univerfal de-
“ ftruction of the bears, deer, elks, buffaloes and other
“animals. It fo provoked the Great Man above to fee the
* havoc thus {pread among creatures defigned for the ufe
“ of his favourite Red Men, that he killed all the Mam-
“¢ moths except the big bull, who fled wounded beyond
“ the lakes, where he is living to this day.”

There is little or no dependence to be placed on Indian
traditions. They are fo clouded with fable, as to obfcure
_any truths they may happen to contain. The above
tradition, indeed, is not exactly of this defcription, though
it partakes largely of the fabulous: There is a truth in it,
which my perfonal acquaintance with the Great-Bone Lick

a has

* The Megolicks of Paraguay: alfo certain large bones found in a ni-
trous cavern in Virginia, and prefented to our fociety by its worthy Prefident.

+ Pennant. Jefferfor

EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS. 517

has enabled me to detect. As it will furnith a corrobora-
tive prefumption, if not a proof, that the Mammoth was
carnivorous, or partly fo, at leaft, 1 fhall proceed to fome
obfervations on certain appearances at that faline, and
which muft have been familiar to the favages themlelves.
—I mean colleftions of bones of the various animals
mentioned in the tradition.

The Great-Bone Lick is a fhallow ftream. of falt water
flowing into the Ohio. Upon either margin of the ftream
there lies a /ffratum, extending’ a’ confiderable diftance,
compofed entirely of the bones of the buffalo and other
{maller animals noticed in the tradition above, From the
effe& of the mineral falt, thefe remains were in a ftate
of high prefervation—But, judge of my furprize, when
attentively examining them, 1 difcovered, that almoft
every bone of any length had received a fracture, occafi-
oned, moft likely, by the teeth of the Mammoth, while
in the act of feeding on his prey.

It is well known that the buffalo, deer, elk and fome
other animals, are in the conftant habit of making fuch
places their refort; in order to drink the falt water and
lick the impregnated earth. Now, may we not from
thefe facts infer, that Nature had allotted to the Mam-
moth the beafts of the foreft for his food? How can
we otherwife account for the numerous fractures that
every where mark thefe /fra‘a of bones? May it not be
inferred, too, that as the largeft and {wifteft quadrupeds
were appointed for his food, he neceflarily was endowed
with great ftrength and activity ?—that, as the immenfe
volume of the creature would unfit him for courfing
after his prey through thickets and woods, Nature had
furnifhed him with the power of taking it by a mighty

leap ?—

518 . MEMOIR on, &e.

leap ?——That this power of fpringing to a gréat diftance was
requifite to the more effetual concealment of his bulky
volume while lying in wait for prey? The Author of ex-
iftence is wife and juft in all his works. He never confers
an appetite without the power to gratify it.

With the agility and ferocity of the tiger; with a body
of unequalled magnitude and ftrength, it is poflible the
Mammoth may have been at once the terror of the foreft
and of man !—And may not the human race have made
the extirpation of this terrific difturber a common caufe ?

| - G, TURNER.
Philadelphia, July 20th, 1797.

Defeription

(vem 2

No. LXXV.

Defeription of aSpeedy Elevator. By the Inventor, Nicno-
Las Coxitin, D. D. with two drawings from a model,
reprefenting it folded and wound up.

Read before the Society, and the Model prefented, on the 2d December 1791;
honoured with the Magellanian gold Medal in December 1795.

H E main body of the bafe is a rectangular folid

floor, (Fig. F. W. in the plate.) To its corners are
jointed four horizontal legs, of equal thicknefs with it, but
half the length, having their nether fides even with its
bottom. When the machine is ufed, thefe are difplayed
fo that their ends form a rectangle ; the diagonals of which
may be on thofe of the main body, or vary from them in
a pofition moft promotive of ftability.

The pillars A.A ftand vertical on the long diameter of the
bafe, equally diftant from its ends. Their feet enter into
it, and are by the ftrongeft faltening incorporated with its
body. Thefe pillars are pairs. Their form is a rectangu-
lar parallelipiped. ‘Their inner fides have grooves from top
to bottom: which terminate by offsets, in cylindric feg-
ments, Near the tops are central embrazures, whofe fides
are petiGed with iron plates that reach within the folid
parts above and below... The pulleys are of metal, with
{teel axes and brafs nayes for eafy turning, and deep chan-
nels for fecuring the cords.

The pillars are joined by three pairs of ribs. Thefe are
retangular ; wide, but comparatively thin ; placed hori-
zontally, between the tops and embrazures, about the
middles, and near the feet. Their ends are clofely fitted
within the pillars, and well faftened.

The’piers Bb B are more flender than A A; with fhorter
heads; but the length of their bodies is equal to the

whole

s20 SPEEDY ELEVATOR.

whole of thefe.* ‘They have fimilar grooves, embrazures,
pulleys, and joining ribs. ‘Their faces are parallel re€tan-
gles. The backs of their bodies have tongues along the
middles that fit the grooves of AA. Thefe are vertical
rectangular ridges, and parts of the very pieces, formed
by cutting down both fides to a proper level. Thefe lower
furfaces, being even and {mooth, will thus move clofe
along the correfponding plain parts of AA while the
tongues glide in contact with the fides of the grooves.

The cords aa are well paired in length and texture.
They ply over the pulleys of A A in the faid hollows be-
hind the grooves; having their ends fixed under the feet
of 5B, and on the boxes of the windlafs. This is well
fecured in the bafe, clofe to and right beneath the pillars.

The cords 44 are faftened by one end on the heads of
AA. They pafs over the pulleys of Bb, and reach as
far below them as aa reach below the pulleys of A A, which
is the diftance of thefe pulleys from the bafe. Their other
ends are tacked a little above the bottoms of the piers CC,

Thefe piers are with their apparatus framed like BB;
have lefs bulk and fhorter heads. Their pulleys clear the
tops of 5 B when the machine is down.

The cords cc have the fame length with 44, below the
pulleys of CC; plying over thefe ; faftened on the heads
of b b and fomewhat above the bottom of the pier D.

This isa fingle piece. It has two backs to fit the grooves
of CC, formed like the backs of the other pieces.

A frame is accurately fixed and poifed on the top of D.
In this the load L is placed, fo that its centre of gravity
is exa€tly or very nearly over the centre of the frame.

When the power begins to wind the cords aa, thefe
raife the piers BB. As they rife, their pulleys recede
from the tops of AA, and by ftretching the cords 44 lift
the piers CC. Thefe recede at the fame time from the ho

Oo

* I call the part about the embrazure aeck, that above sead, and that be-
low body.

SPEEDY ELEVATOR. gat

of Eb, and lift the pier D. Thus while BB are wound
up from the bafe to the height of the pulleys of A A, D
rifes treble that height; and however great may be the
number of moving pieces, it multiplies the celerity and
acquired elevation of the uppermoft by that of the firft.

As the duration and celerity of all the movements is
the fame, the lengths of all the cords below the refpective
pulleys mui be equal.

As the whole acquired elevation is by thofe parts of the
piers which are drawn out of their folds, thefe ought to
have a very great proportion. Wherefore b B reach the
bafe when down; and the heads of A A are but long
enough to keep them fafe in their grooves, when drawn
up. Again, as the ends of the cords 44 will be above the
bafe according to the length of the heads of A A, the
heads of B B are fhortened, and the bodies of C C are pro-
longed below thofe ends, in order to fave room, and yet
afford thefe piers a fecure depth in the grooves of BB,
when drawn up. On the fame principle the heads of C C
are fhortened, anda part of D left under the ends of cc.
As thefe additions of faid pairs cannot increafe the eleva-
tion, the cords ought to be fixed above them in order to
fhorten the bearings, and fo far make the bodies firmer.
In a longer feries of piers this fhortening of the heads
can only be continued to the limit of depth neceffary to
{upport the ftrains.

' The picr D preffes the cords ec by its own we'cht, and
the load L. This preffure caufes an equal pulling and
confequential refiftance in the tops of the piers BB. The
pulleys of the piers C C muft bear this double preflure
=2L+42D. Thefe therefore prefs the cords 64 with
faid weight and their own = 2 L+'2 D + CC. This dou-
bled => 4L+4+4D+42CCisthe preflure on the pulleys
ot B B: But their heads are pulled up by L + D: The

difference of thefe forces added to their own weight is the
ce prefiure

22 SPEEDY ELEVATOR.

oT

preffure of thefe piers on the cords aa, = 3L4+3D+2CC
+B B. The power on the windlafs muft be equal to this.

In any feries the power mutt lift a weight equal to the
firft piers, double the fecond, aad fo forth, till the laft pier
and its load multiplied by the number of moving pieces.

The pulleys, cords, and ribs have fome weight, and
are to be counted as parts of their refpective piers. A
competent allowance is likewife required for the friction of
the pulleys, which impedes the afcent, though the defcent
is advantageoufly retarded by it.

The preffure on the pulleys of the pillars A A is double
the power. The ftrain in their tops is half of the weight
on the pulleys of Bb 8. The difference of thefe forces,
—4L+4D+3CC+ 2 BB, added to their own weight
is the preffure on the bafe.

The ftrain in the tops of any piers in a feries is equal
to what the power would be, if the pair next above was
the lat: The weight on the pulleys of the fame pair is
double’ the ftrain in the tops of the pair next below. The
' ftrain on their feet is’ equal to the ftrain in the ‘tops of
the piers two ranks below. ©

It is very neceflary to compute the ftrains and preflures
in order to fecure all the parts, and to fave needlefs bulk,
which would be a great difadvantage in the piers by the
additional expenfe of power. The ‘preflure - of ‘vertical
pieces by their own weight muft be counted, though not
as equal to'the fame quantity of external burden laid up-
on them: its operation is vifible in high maflive beams,
which bend without any load; but in fhort though flender
pieces it is mot fufficient to break the internal cohefion of
the parts. . The effe&t of external weight is according to
its quantity, and to the-height and flimnefs of the piers ; but
not in uniform proportions. Divers kinds of wood have
alfo different degrees of weight, and of vertical firmnefs :
fome are both {tiff and light to an admirable degree: piers

made

-

SPEEDY ELEVATOR. rag

made of thefe can under flender forms bear weights many
times greater then their own. Thefe qualities are in their
blended effets of different value in this machinery: the
pillars are the moft prefled, but they caufe no weight to
the power, and therefore their bulk is the lefs detriment.
BB being the heavieft laden piers are the moft folid, but
they have only a fimple moment: CC bearing lefs are
lighter, but their moment is double: D has a treble moment,
but the lighteft burden, and thus the leaft weight of its
own. Thefe continually growing increments of folidity are
neceflary confequences of the conftant double bearings ;
but ought to be {mall in comparifon to the prefiures thus
produced, which become very great, when the load to
be lifted, and the elevation are confiderable. Lightnefs
is then moft beneficial in the upper ranks, and firmnefs
in the lower, as thefe muft? lift but thofe be lifted many
times: accordingly different forts of wood may be chofen
by their degrees of lightnefs and firmnefs ; they being
otherwife proper, efpecially for clofe and {mooth folding.

On account of the grooves and tongues the pieces can-
not have thofe regular forms that give the greateft folidity;
nor can the pulleys be placed exactly over the line of cen-
tral ftrength. In practife thefe defects muft not exceed
neceflary limits. Moreover, when the preffures and ftrains
on the feveral parts of the pieces are eftimated, hollows
may be contrived in places that can bear it—Thefe niceties
cannot be marked in a model.

When the load, the elevation, and quality of the-wood
are given, the lighteft feries of piers is found by comput-
ing the refults from different numbers.* A greater number
muft effect a greater proportion of the whole elevation than
a {maller, becaufe the pillars, by becoming fhorter, con-
tribute lefs ; this addition is a new expenfe of power. The

4-¥ 2, weight

* In this the pairs are confidered as one.

524 SPEEDY: sagen gph .

weight of the joad is effential, asiit mutt be multiplied by
the whole number of piers; imparts the fame moment to
its own pier of competent bulk; and in conjunction with
it thickens with continual | increafe al 1 ithe others. On the
other hand the firmnefs of piers increafes greatly with the
decyeafe of their height within certain limits. Some {pecies
of wood have alfo correfponding degrees of {trength. The
co-operation of thefe advantages may therefore render a )
confiderable number of fhort piers light, and proportion-

ally fo in their refpective multiple moments. The more = «>,
numerous the piers are, the fooner is the machine wound
up, an . down, which is an advantage, fo far as men
can 3 e greater exertions for a fhort time.

i

I" The form of the windlafs determines, in combination
of, with the preceding, the fpeed of operation, and the degree
of power. It admits various modes: for example, one
might be placed on either fide of the pillars, with long
handles on the winches; by which eight men can work
together. “lhis model is intended to thow confiderable
effeéts from an eafy apparatus: accordingly two men lift
another, and three tiers of piers: they are aided by a fuf-
ficient proje€tion of the winches beyond the femidiameter
of the boxes: this has fuch proportion to th height of
the pulleys in the pillars, and the equal length o the cords
aa below them, that the whole winding is do ae by a few

turns. 23 ¢ dimenfions of the piers are not fj cified, as

iments are not fufficient ; but I eftimat > them fo,

“he. power in-

n, when the machine is wound up:

Souther 2S cntfy

aS

ANNAN

ea

iio tear
Se Naan

a

SPEEDY ELEVATOR. 525

Oblique preflures cannot arife from the principles of
conftruction ; but happen from inevitable imperfection of
materials and workmanfhip in a finall degree, which is not
an object of exad calculation, but fhould have full allowance
for its effe€ts on the machine. The obliquity will be the
greater as the folding is fhallow, and the fitting is loole.
The effet refults jointly from the angle of declination,
the length of the pier, and its moment of weight. ‘The
oblique bearings on the ends of the tongues, when the
machine is wound up will be dangerous, if thefe have not
a competent folidity.

All the piers with their moments of weight bear on the
pillars; and the preflure on their pulleys is the difference
between double the power and the ftrain of their heads,
which balance is very great. This preffure remains there
when the machine is wound up, in every ftage of the ele-
vation, however great. The common centre of gravity
of the pulleys thus preffed, the pillars themfelves, and the
bafe, is below the pulleys. Thus the machine has a great
ftability, and the bafe is accordingly not extenfive.

This machine combines thefe advantages: ready approach
to heights otherwife not acceflible without great trouble :
fpeedy afcent and defcent: convenient folding for keeping
under cover, and for eafy conveyance. It can be applied
to feveral ufeful purpofes :—Quick hoifting and lowering
of things on many occafions; particularly faving of goods
from upper ftories in cafes of incend: High elevation and
{peedy exchange of fignals: thefe being light may be raifed
three hundred feet, and above interjacent hills: blevation
of a perfon for taking views, and quick defcent when re-
quired ; as on reconnoitring an enemy within fhot: a ma-
chine calculated for lifting him at leaft one hundred feet by
eight men can be light enough for carrying on a waggon
by two horfes,

('526 )
No. LXXVI.

A Defcription of the Bones depofited, by the Prefident, in the
Mufeum of the Society,* and reprefented in the annexed
plates. By C. Wistar, M. D. Adjunct Profeffor of
Anatomy, &c. in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.

T HE large bones are the ulna and radius of
the left leg. And the plate, No. 1. contains
two views of each.

The figure A exhibits the ulna with a view of its fur- -
face for articulation with the os humeri (No. 1,) con-
nected with another fmooth furface (No. 2) for fupport-
ing the upper end of the radius.

The ulna is remarkably thin for fo broad a bone, being
2°8 inches in breadth,-+ and but 1°14 inches thick about the
middle.

At the lower end is an oval furface for articulation with
the carpus, about 1°8 inches in length, which is not re-
prefented in the figure. On the edge next to the radius is
a protuberance (A. No. 3.—B. No. 5) which appears cal-
culated to be received into that bone, but its furface, as
well as the furface of a correfponding depreflion of the ra-
dius, has been fo much abraded that they do not now
feem calculated for articulation.

On the other edge of the bone, at the extremity, is a
projection (B. No. 4.) analogous to the ftyloid procefs of
the human ulna, but not proportionably long, with a
{mooth furface externally, about eight-tenths of an inch in
length, which feems to indicate that one of the carpal
bones muft have lapped over, or extended beyond it.

The upper end of the radius is nearly oval, it is concave
on the top for articulation with a condyle of the os hu-

meri
* See page 246.
+ The difference which may be obferved between this ftatement and that
of the Prefident is owing to the different methods of meafuring—he ufed a
flip of paper whereas the dimentfions above were taken with dividers,

On CERTAIN BONES, &c. 537

meri (C. No. 1.) on one fide of it is the fmooth furface
for articulation with the ulna (C. No. 2.—D. No. 4
which is fo fmall that it does not appear calculated to ad-
mit much rotation, or pronation and fupination of the paw ;
for the oval circumference of the upper end of the bone is
7°6 inches and this furface extends upon it but 1°7 Inches.
It is in the fame line of direction with the edge of the bone,
and not with the flat fide of it—When it is applied to the
correfponding furface of the ulna the two edges of the
bones are oppofed, and as there is no rotation of the radius
upon the ulna, they muft be nearly parallel to each other,
without much decuflation, making the fore arm immentfely
broad. ;

From.this arrangment of the bones and their want of ro-
tation and decuflation, the palm of the paw would pre-
fent inwards, and not downwards or backwards, unlefs
the pofition of the os humeri, or the form of its lower
extremity, were particalarly calculated to: prevent it. At
the lower extremity of the radius, on the external furface,
(C. No. 3), are feveral remarkable foflz or grooves, like
thofe on the human radius, for the tendons of the extenfor
mufcles—The edge of the bone which prefents, or is op-
pofed, to the ulna, becomes gradually broader as it extends
to the lower extremity (D..No. 5) and there is a depreflion
in it correfponding to; the protuberance of the ulna, but
the furface is fo abraded that no inference can be deduced
from it refpecting the conne@ion of the bones at this
place.

At the lower end of the radius is a deep oblong cavity
for receiving the carpal bones, (D. No. 6), its longeft
diameter is 3°2 inches, its tranverfe is 2°37 inches, and its
depth eight-tenths of aninch. When the ulna is in its natu-
ral fituation, the cavity for receiving the carpus, formed
by both bones taken together, is very near five inches in ex-
tent—the carpus was probably equally broad, and the hand
or paw much broader. This breadth is not difproportioned

to

528 Eat DESCRI PLION! oF

to that of the fore arm, for when the radius and ulna are
placed in their natural pofition, the breadth of the bones of
the fore arm muft be fix inches, about the piste, and
© 48 inches, at the lower ex AtEm

‘Lhe bones ete ed in plate No. 2, belonged to one of ihe
paws. 4

The upper row confifts of four feparate pieces arranged
in their natural order, one of which is fuppofed to belong
to the metacarpus, and the other three to a claw or finger.

Under the firft bone of the row, is another of the fare
form, marked alfo No. 1, the lower bone is much fmaller
than the uppermoft, although they appear to have joined
each other in the fame paw—At their upper extremities
they refemble metacarpal or metatarlal bones, as each of
them has an articulating furface for conne@ion with the
carpus or tarfus, and bother on each fide for the other
metacarpal bones—they alfo refemble metacarpal bones, by
approaching to the triangular form at this extremity, for
the upper furface being broader than the lower, the fides
approach nearer below than above, and of courfe, when
they are arranged in conta&t with each other, they form
an arch, correfponding probably with the concavity of the
carpus—Their lower extremities, inftead of a round head
or condyle, have a peculiar rit! which the upper end of
the fmaller figure No. 1 reprefents imperfe&tly, for a high
ridge of a femicircular form, and a vertical direction when
the bone is in its natural pofition, projects from the articu-
lating furface, and is received into a cavity of the next
bone (No. 2. b)—Articulated with this end of the large bone
No. 1, is No. 2, which refembles neither the metatarfal bones
nor thofe of the phalanges, Np is fo fhort that its: length
is lefs than its breadth. rae

The figures below, marked 2 aoe b, ‘exhibit the arti-
culating furtaces of this bone.

. a The

/

Seale Ilnches to / foot,

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CERTAIN BONES, &c. 529 -

‘The furface No. 2. b. correfponds with the lower end of
the metacarpal bone, having a deep groove to receive its
projecting ridge, and on each fide of the groove a {mooth
{urface correfponding tothe furfaces on each fide of the
ridge.

From thefe furfaces it appears that this bone muft have
moved confiderably on the metacarpal bone, and that its
motion was from above downwards in a circular direction.

The other furface of the bone No. 2. a. forms two emi-
nences with a large depreflion between them, which is well
exhibited by the plate, and correfponds with the upper
furface of the next bone No. 3.

The form of No. 3 is accurately reprefented in the plate;
—the furface articulated with No. 2 has an eminence in the
middle, with a depreffion on each fide of it; correfpond-
ing to the eminences and depreffion of that bone,—the
other extremity is flat on the fides, and remarkably round,
forming two- thirds of ‘a circle—The articulating circular
furface is divided by a very deep groove which is extreme-
ly narrow at the bottom to receive a fharp ridge pit the
next bone.

1 believe the pofition of this bone in the plate is invert-
ed and that the upper fide of the figure ought to be down.

The three figures, marked No. 4, will convey an accu-
rate idea of the original ftate of the bone of the laft phalanx,
the two largeft bones are not entire, the bony cafe round
the root of the unguis, as well as the point, being broken
off, in each of them—in the lowermoft figure both of thefe
pe are entire, and from this an idea may be formed of the.
large claw bones before they were mutilated —The furface
for articulating with the end of the other phalanx is beft
reprefented in the fecond figure No. 4, the ridge which pene-
trates into the groove of that bone being very fharp and deep,
no motion but that of fimple flexion and extenfion is prac-
ticable. The circular form of the furfaces evinces a great

3 2, degree

530 A DESCRIPTION: oF

degree of flexion, and; the claw could: readily move fo as
toform a right angle with the other phalanx.
The bone reprefented by No. 5 has a ftrong refemblance
to the metatarfal bone which fupports the little toe, in the
human fubje@—its bafe has an articulating furface for the
tarfus—the internal fide is fmooth for articulation with the
adjoining»bone, but externally it proje@s outwards fo as to
refemble greatly the bone above mentioned. The extre-
mity conneéted with the toes has an oblong form, and its
greateft length is vertical, fo as to be analogous to the ridge
on the metacarpal bone No. 1... As this bone is evidently
metatarfal, and very different in form and length from the,
others, I'am induced to believe that the others ate meta-
carpal. Bs f
From the fhortnefs of the metacarpal bone, and, the
form and arrangement of the other bones of the paw, and
alfo from the form of the folitary metatarfal bone, it feems
probable that the animal did not,walk on the toes, z¢ 7s al=
fo evident that the laft phalanx was not retracted. The
particular form of No.2, and ats conneétion with the me-
tatarfal bone, and with No. 3, muft have produced a pe-
culiar fpecies of flexion in the toes, which, combined with
the greater flexion of the laft phalanx upon the fecond,
muft have enabled the animal to turn the claws under the
foal of his feet; from this view of the fubje&t there feems
to have been fome analogy between the foot of this ani-
mal and thofe of the bradypus—having no fpecimens of
that animal I derive this conclufion from the defcription of
its feet given by M. Daubenton. ”
Notwithftanding a general refemblance, they differ in
fome important points—In the floth the figure of the
metacarpal bone was fuch that M. Daubenton could not
determine from it, whether the bone belonged to the me-
tacarpus or the phalanges—but there could be no doubt as
to thefe’ bones, for they are unequivocally metacarpal or
metatarfal

CERTAIN BONES, &c. 531

metatarfal—The floth has but two phalanges in addition
to the fuppofed metacarpal bone, whereas the animal in
queftion had bone No. 2 and, two phalanges belides.
The relative fize or proportions of the phalanges, mutt
have differed greatly in the two animals, M:. Daubenton
defcribes the firft phalanx as very long, and the lalt, or
claw bone, as very fhort, in the floth, but the reverfe is
the cafe with thefe bones—There is however an unguis
defcribed by M. Daubenton which is particularly intereft-
ing, it was prefented by M. De la Condamine as belong-
ing to a large f{pecies of f{loth, and although not entire, its
length meafured round the convexity, was half a foot,
and its breadth, at the bafe, an inch and a half.

We are naturally led to inquire whether thefe bones are
fimilar to thofe of the great {keleton found lately at Para-
guay, but for want of a good plate, or a full defcription
we are unable at prefent to decide upon that fubjet—lf
however any crédit be due to the reprefentation given in
the Monthly Magazine for Sept. 1796 publifhed in Lon-
don, (the only plate I have feen) thefe bones could not
have belonged to a fkeleton of that animal—for according
to that reprefentation, the lower end of the ulna is much
larger, and articulated with a larger portion of the foot,
in the megatherium than in the megalonix—The upper
end of the radius alfo is much larger than the lower in that
figure, whereas the reverfe is the cafe with the megalonix,
and the difference in the claw bones is {till greater, as will
appear to every one who compares the two.

END OF THE FOURTH VOLUME,

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ERRATA IN THIS VOLUME.

vy. l. 2 (from the bottom) for dies r. dyes.

. xvi. 1. 2 for Vaughn r. Vaughan.

xxii. 1, 16 and 18 for Cherachie read Cerrachi.

xxix. 1, 21 for Kananwa r. Kenhawa.

. xxx. 1, 4 for Dr. M‘ Kenzie r. Mr. M‘ Kenzie.

. xxxii. 1. 4 for Friere r. Freire.

1. 5 (from the bottom) for fattin r. fatin paper.

xxvi. l. 2 for An Indian legging ¢ of buckikin’ ornamented’ r. Two
Indian leggings ornamented, and add, after “ quills,” from a new-dil-
covered nation high up the Miffouri.

. lL. 1 (from the bottom) for Ingenhouze r. Ingenhoufz,

. xxxiv. 1. 17 for Sivermynt r. Silemynt.

57- After finifhing what is there printed on Aberaiion, turn to p. 230

for the remainder.

. 97 1. 2 (from the bottom) for fepents r. ferpents.

142 1. 8 for haiving r. having.

266 1. 26 for meafured, r. meafure.

270 1. 18 for ‘ and du few’ r. et du feu.

290 1. 4 for greafey r. greafy.

. Wy 47 dele it,

230 1. 2 for No. VI. r. No. VII.

254 1. 24 for fiezed r. feized.

313 1. 3—p. 314 1. 21—p. 315 1. 27—and p. 350 1. g for refiftence
r. refiftance.

325 1. 7 for round r. around.

- 362 after the title, Memoir on Ampuisra, add thefe words, By M. De

Beauvois.

440 1. 3 for ¢ place the old volcanic’ r. place of, &c.

484 1. 1 of Note (from the bottom) for Stralenberg r. Strahlenberg.

500 1. 1 for hanch, r. haunch. 59

- 506 1. 6 (in note from the bottom) for relugar r. regular.

- 509 |. 13 (from the bottom) for New r. New—l. 14 (do.) for Syrac

r. Syriac.

516 1. 1 (in note) for Megolicks r, Megatherium.

481, note l. 7—p. 485—p. 486, laft line—p. 491 1. 14—p. 492 1. 22—

p- 494. 1. 12, before valkeus, for F. r. Fi.

485—p. 494 1. 6 and 10—p. 496 1. 16 for H. r. Hu.

492 1. 9 for I. r. Ir:

- 489 1. 3 for that r. on.

- 495 1. 16 after fpell infert Is. (alla.

- 506 for Yale-College, &c. r. Univerfity of Cambridge in Maffachufetts.

bo tb ho hd

ke
o

lon

myo AOS yt ily

P. 56 under Conftant Log. 1. 2 for 20 read 2.0.
4 — Or =——- Ov.
6 — 1or—-- 102.
P. 60 col. 1 the words Multiply by thould be on the fame parallel with the
charaéter X in lines 7, 11, 15, 19, 23.
P. 66 left hand fide lines 5 for northern read fouthern,
7 — fouthern —- northern. The fame on right
hand fide of the argument.
——~- in the middle column of figures in argument J. 2. under +4 infert
— and under — infert +. ¥
P. 69. line 5 for 15 read 25.

— C —-5S,

CORRIGENDA of Errors unnoticed before.

VOL, “1.

Remove plate I. to page 37 of Appendix.

Page go, line 27, for ftatue, read ftatute.

P. 124 1. 1 and 2 (from the bottom) for morter, r, mortar.

In the paging at top, for 217 r. 116.

P. 99 1. 2 (from the bottom) for perpendicalar Xe perpendicular.

In the marginal note, p. 144. and in that of p. 146 for triming r. trimming.
P. 1461. 9 and 12 for trimed r. trimmed.

Ibid. 1. 29 for jelley r. jelly.

P. 159 1. 18 for thining r. thinning.

In note, p. 172 for vine r. wine. ¥

P. 198 1. 17 for Antil r. Antill. i
P. 250 1. 3 (from the bottom) for veneral r. venereal.
P. 259 1. 29 (in the 3d column) for kid-bean r. kidmey-beaa-
P. 264 1, 27 (col. 3d) for Tumerick r. Turmeric.
P. 272 1. 19 for tropies r. tropics.
P. 276 1. 16 for Auguftine r, Auguftan.
VOL. II.
P. 223 1. 13 for Italian r. Halleian.
VOL. TH:
P. xiii. 11. Before <drticle infert 3. j {
P. xxxvi. 1. 13 for Bodoin r. Bowdoin. iat 99 be
P. xxxviii. 1. 18 and p. 222 1. 23 for dies'r. dyes.
P. 35 1. 4 (from the bottom) for 1783 r. 1683.
P. 38 1. 10, dele the s in ¢ years.’
P. 71 1. ro for trout r. crout.
1s 145 1, 26 for imping r, impinging.
Tb. 1. 33 for overtates r. overtakes.

A CODA ENER 8 |
192 1. 15 for g=8. 9244/h r. 2a=%8. A
193 1. 14 for volicity r. velocity.
. 218 1. 13 and p. 219 1. 26 for praires r. prairies.
226 |. 20 for plow r. plough.
- 250 1. 16 for extenling r. extending.
- 324 1. 15 for whither r. whether.

Witty

GENERAL

Seem

NOTE; that as a fecond edition of Vol. I. has been publifhed and pagea
differently from the firft, it is necefflary to remark that the follow-
} ing ] [ refers to the firft edition alone.

GE Nop ER Av koa ay bee

TO THE FIRST FOUR VOLUMES.

ABERRATION of the Stars, how to calculate it, Vol. IV. p. 51.

Accents, obfervations on, Vol. III. page 3or. ¥

Acer faccharinum defcribed, Vol. IIf. p 64—its fap a pleafant drink, 68,
69—method of making {ugar from it, 67, 6g—and compared with
that of the Weft Indies, 71—virtues and various ufes of the maple
fugar and fap, 73. See Sugar.

Acid (vegetable) combined with marine falt, antifeptic virtues of, Vol.

II. p. 284.

(carbonic) See carbonic acid.

(nitric)See Nitric acid. ;

Acids (fulphuric and muriatic) of the folution of iron in, Vol. IV. p. 457

4a incorporating the A. Philo, Soc. Vol. II. p. xi.

Advertifements of the A. P. S. Vols. I. and IV. p. iii.

Affinities of letters, Vol. III. p, 292.

Ages of perfons in America and Europe compared together, Vol. III. p.

» 54, 56.

ae cattle of certain perfons, Vol IIT. p. 44.

Agricultural effays, Vol. I. p. 118 to 224, 241, 255.

Agriculture the fource of American profperity, Vol. I[TI. p. vii.

certain purfuits in, recommended, Vol. III. p. viii.

4ir lighter than fmoke, Vol II. p. 2—how beft conduéted into chim-
nies, 8—advifable way of admitting it into rooms, g—vulgar pre-
judices againft, 21—yhether moift or dry, its free circulation recom-
mended, 21—night air not unwholefome, ibid.—unhealthy only
when. charged with putrid vapours, 22—curious current of in chim-
nies explained, and its ufes fuggelted, 30—proved to be more humid
in France and England than America, 53 to 55—purified by the wil-
low tree, 209—reliftence of, 296—its capability of extreme denfity,
Vol. III. p. 64—on the evaporation of, 126—how affected by heat,
Vol. I, p. 273—application of a machine for preferving its due tem-
perature in hofpitals, &c. 289—the feclufion of air requifite in pre-
ferving wine and cider, 184—Prieftley’s experiments and obfervations

relating

al

2 TIN: SeaDg OE Ore

rela'ing to the analyfis of atmofpherical air, Vol. IV. p. 1 to 11—ex-

periments on the generation of air from water, Ibid. to p. 20.

not lefs pure in towns than country, Vol. IV. p. 264.

(fea and land) experiments on, Vol. IV. p. 262, 266, 269.

(varified) explained, Vol. II. p. 2.

—— (cleéric) its capacity leflened by condenfation, but increafed by heat,
Vol. IL. p. 79.

Air (phlogifticated). See Phlogifticated.

(dephlogifticated), See Dephlogiflicated.

— (foul) how to expel it from wells, Vol. III. p. 324.

—— (fea) thermometrical ftate of, Vol. III. p. go, 200.

—— (fixe!) See Carbonic acid.

(atmo/pherical) experiments and obfervations relating to the analyfis

of, Vol. IV. p. 1.

(nitrous), See Nitrous.

(inflammable), See Inflammable.

Airs, Experiments and obfervations on various, Vol. IV. p,.1 to 11, 128,
417, 452. See the Gafes.

Aldebaran (occultation of) as obferved in the city of Wafhington in ‘1793,
Vol. 1V. p. 48. j

Allegany mountain (weft of) the ftrata of ftone lie horizontally, Vol. IV.

p: 227.

barometrical meafurement of it, Vol. IV. p. 216.

and Ohio rivers, &c. their fogs remarkably denfe but not unwholefome,

Vol. IV. p. 225.

Alphabet, how to form a univerfal one, Vol. III. p. 263—the imperfeétion
of exifting alphabets, 263, 266—a particular one conftructed and re-
commended, 277.

Alder tree, agreeable food for filk worms, Vol. I. p. 226.

America (North) qualities of its winds, Vol. I. Preface p. xvili—compared in
places with China, Kamtfchatka, &c. ibid.—obfervations on its vegeta-
ble kingdom, pref. ibid. p. 250—its grapes 192—its minerals, &c. prefz
xxii. p. 251—the three bread colonies become very dry, 203—its general
climate proper for the grape and making of wine, 117, 120—direétions
for the culture of the grape, 157—medicinal produétions of 235, 239,
250, 257, 258, 260, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266. [See Medicinal Pro-
ducions | change of climate in the middle colonies, 272—Indian popu-

lation below the falls, Vol. IV. p. 252.

antiquities of, Vol. III. p. 214—Vol. IV. p. 179, 181, 185, 196,

198, 203. :

——, memoir on the difcovery of, Vol. Il. p. 263.

bodily diforders common in, Vol. JII. p..iii—on the duration of hu-

man life in, and the population of, 25—-two births to one death there, 38

—inftances of longevity, 44—obfervations on the Weftern country of,

214—and on certain plants, and animals, 241. ;

American Philofoph. Society, its rules, Vols. I and IV. p. iii—laws.and regu
lations, Vols. I and II. p. v. Vol. IV. p. iii—names of officers and
members, Vol. I. p. xiii—Vol. II. p. xxiti—Vol. ILI. p. xxviti—Vol.
IV. p. xiii—objects of the inftitution, pref. xiv.—act of incorporation,

Vol.

SiN’ DE “xX. i)

Vol. II. p. xi—depofits and annual: fub{criptions of its members in-
creafed by law, xvii—extraés concerning Magellan’s donation, xix
and Vol. 1V. p. vii—donations received, Vol 1]. p. 398—Vol. III.
p- 35!—Vol. 1V. p. xvii—meafures for improving inland navigation,
Vol. II. p..293, 295—reports made thereon, 294-5-6—premiums of-
fered from out of the fociety’s funds, Vol. 1V. p. iv.—circular letter
of the permanent committee for inquiring into the antiquities, &c. of
North America, p. xxxvii.

American Grapes, obfervations on, Vol. I. p. 192—and on filk worms, p.
224.

American Indians long lived, Vol. III. p. 50—their ancient works, ib. p.
214—Vol. IV. p. 179, 181—their traditions, Vol. III. p. 216, 220
Vol. IV. p. 207, 209, 516—their dyes, Vol. III. p. 222—languages,
cuitoms, manners and genius, ib. p. 220—{fome account of former
tribes, Vol. IV. p. 182.

Americans, their popular diet occafions certain difeafes, Vol. [II. p. vi.

Amm-nical gas, a portion of it in the atmofphere, Vol. IV. p. 128.

Amphibic, memoir on, Vol IV. p. 362.

Amflerdam, proportion of deaths there, Vol. III. p. 41, 59.

Analyfis of the chalybeate waters of Briftol (Fenn.) Vol. I. p. 303—their
virtues, 306, 310, 313.

— of atmojpherical air, experiments and obfervations relating thereto,
Vol. IV..p. 1-

Anatomy, its utility, Vol. If. p. 366.

Anatomical preparations, the art of making them by injeétion and corrofion,
Vol. lL. p. 366—how prepared with wax, 381.

Anchor (floating) defcribed and propofed to be ufed on a lee fhore, Vol. II.

Pp: S11:

Anderfon (Dr. Fames ) his difquifition on wool-bearing animals, Vol 1V. p.
149—his communication re{pecting a fheep brought from Jamaica, ib.
Pe "t5 3"

Anecdote of a Roman cultivator of the grape, Vol. I. p. 121.

Anjmal remains difcovered. See Bones,—Mammoth,—Megatherium.

Animals larger in the new than the old world, Vol. IV. p. 258.

on the early condition of, Vol IV p. 503.

Animate bodies countera& atmofpheric heat, Vol. II. p. 143.

Ansma'y (eccentiic) of the planets, mode of calculating it, Vol. IV. p. 67.

Antil, Efq (Edwd ) his eflay on the cultivation of the grape, and the
making and preferving of wine in N. America, Vol. I. p. 117—his
method of curing grapes for railins, 193—of curing figs, 193—his
obfervations on the raifing and drefling of hemp, ib

Antiquities of America (Indian) Vol. Ill. p. 214—Vol. IV. p. 179, 181,
184, 198.

Apparatus defcribed for exhibiting the operations of fmoke and rarefied air,
Vol. IL. p. 22.

Apparent diameter of an object, how to find it, Vol. I. p. 98—curious ex-
periments attending it, ib.

4A Appendix

4 RENE Dieu Xe

Appendix to aftronomical and mathematical papers, Vol. I. commencing
after p. 116, to p. 72 of this appendix.

Apis Mellifica, or honey-bee, whether a native of America? Vol. III. p.
241.

4rchiteés erroneous in their conftruétion of fire places, Vol. IT. ps 1c:

4rdurus ftar, his great celerity of motion weftward, Vol. II, p. 224.

4Arfenic, an infallible teft for deteéing its prefence, Vol. II. p. 214—the
bafis of Martin’s cancer-powder, ib.—its efficacy in ulcerous cafes, 21 5.

Afia (eaftern fide of) like the fame latitudes in North America, Vol. I.
pref. iil.

Afironomical and mathematical papers, Vol. I. from p. 1. to 116, with an
appendix following.

calculations and correétions of, Vol. I. p. 39, 102.
inftruments uled in obferving the tranfit of Venus at different
places in 1769, Vol. I. p. 10,°13, 97, 106, I10, 114.

obfervations, Vol. II. p. 260—Vol. III. p. 150, 261—Vol.
LVS pig2 a3 254072

Atmofphere, Venus furrounded by a denfe one, Vol. I. p. 49—prodigious
height of the Cometarian, and its fuppofed ufes, appendix p. 35. "

confidered as to heat, Vol. I. p. 278—more moift in England and

France than America, Vol. II. p. 53 to 55—denfity of it, 96—very

moift and denfe at the lakes, Vol. IV. p. 225—and char'ged with heas

vy but innoxious dews in interior America, ib.—queries as to its elec-

trical ftate, Vol. I. p. 1co—of Philadelphia, excetlive heat of in 1750,

with a curious faét from Dr. Franklin,. 143—component parts of, Vol.

IV. p. 266, 327, 417—changes in peculiar to America, 217.

(a falubrious) how compounded, Vol. IV. p. 128, 417.
at fea, the ftate of it, Vol. II. p. 90, 200—experiments on it,

Vol. IV. p. 262, 269, 272—more pure than land air; 269.

of marfhes, experiments and obfervations, Vol. IV. p. 417.

Atmofpheric heat counteraéted by animate bodies, Vol. Il. p. 143.

Atmofpherical air, Prieftley’s experiments and obfervations on the analyfis of,
Vol. IV. p. 1 to 11—Wwhence compounded, 17—417, 424. See Jir.

Attendant {tars, numbers of difcovered by Mayer, Vol. II. p. 222—ufeful
for determining the motion of fixed ftars, ib,

Attrition, why it caufes heat, Vol. I. appendix, p. 32.

Aurora boreales, queries concerning, Vol. II. p. 10o0o—an uncommon one,
136—always fucceeded by a fall of the barometer, and generally by -
rain, 142—account of one, Vol. III. p. 62.

obfervations on, Vol. II. p. 196.

Axis of the earth, how to calculate its nutation, Vol. IV. p. 51.

Azote, or phlogifticated air, proportion between it and oxygen, as flated by
fome, Vol. IV. p. 1—not a fimple fubftance—experiments and obfer-
vations on, ib. p. 7, 11 and 382.

——, or nitrogen gas, what proportion of it in the atmofphere, Vol. IV.
p- 128, 417.

Azolic gas, a component part of the atmofphere, Vol. IV. p. 266, gs :

ailey

—_

et

ZN DE X 83
B

Bailey ( Foel) and others, their account of Venus’s tranfit over the fun in
1769, Vol. I. p. 89.

Bark (red) hiftory of, Vol. II. p. 289.

Barker’s mill improved, Vol. III. p. 144.

as improved by James Rumfey, inveftigated as to its powers,

. 185.

pa meafurement of the Blue Ridge, Warm Spring, and Allegheny
mountains in Virginia, Vol. 1V. p. 216.

Barton (Wm.) on the duration of human life, and the progreflive population
of the United States, Vol. IIL, p. 25—his pofticript to the foregoing,
134.

—— ( Dr. Benj. Smith) onthe bite of the rattle fnake, and the cure, Vol.
III. p. too—his inquiry, whether the true honey-bee is a native of
America? 241—his botanical defcription of the podophyllum diphyllum
of Linnzus, 334—his memoir concerning the fafcinating faculty which
has been afcribed to the rattle fnake and other American ferpents, Vol.
IV. p. 74—his account of an American fpecies of dipus, or jerboa,
ib p. 114—his obfervations and conjeétures concerning certain articles
which were taken out of an ancient tumulus or grave, at Cincinnati,
in the county of Hamilton, and Territory of the U. S. north-weft of
the river Ohio, p. 181—his hints relative to the ftimulant effects of
camphor on vegetables, p. 232-

Bartram (Mofes) his obfervations on the native filk-worm of N. America,
Vol. I. p. 244. :

(Jfaac ) his memoir on the diftillation of perfimons, Vol. I. p. 2 31,

. Bafaltes (cryftallized) found in Pennfylvania, Vol. 1V. p. 445.

Battle of the Kegs. See Submarine veffel.

Bays of Spirito Sanéto (E. F.) of Mobile, St. Jofeph, Penfacola, Sta. Rofa,
Spirito Sancto and St. Andrew (W. F.) defcribed, Vol. I. p. 253.

Bee (the honey) oblervations on, Vol. III, p. 241—various fpecies of, 245,

originally from England, 256.

hive, but one in Weft-Florida, Vol. III. p. 249.

Bean, a remarkable one ufed in the improvement of lands, Vol. III. p 226.

Bear, a detcription from Indian tradition of a fuppofed huge terrific one,
called the big naked bear, Vol. IV. p. 260.

Beauvois (De) his obfervations on plants called cryptogamic, Vol. III. p.
202.—His memoir on the fubject of a new plant growing in Pennfylva-
nia, Vol. IV. p. 173.—His memoir on a new fpecies of firen, 277.—
His memoir on amphibia, 362.

Beccaria and Priefiley, their ideas concerning eleétricity, Vol. II. p. 76.

Beer (excellent) of perfimons, Vol. I. p. 234.

Belknap, (Feremy) his defcription of the white mountains in N. Hamphhire,

Vol. IL. p. .42—his obfervations on the aurora borealis, as accompani-
ed with a faint ruftling noife, 196—his method to preferve parinips,

199.
~Belly-ach, how cured, Vol. II. p. 287.
Benni-feed oil, account of, Vol. I. p. 239—equal to Florence oil, ib.
AN 2 : Berlin,

6 y & -S HR:

Berlin, duration of human life at, Vol. III. p. 59.

Biddle (Owen) and others, their account of the tranfit of Venus in 1769,
Vol. I. p. 89.

Billings (Cact.) thermometrical journal of the temperature of the air and
water at fea, Vol. III. p. 200.

Billious and intermitting fevers of Pennfylvania, inquiry into the caufe of, with
hints for preventing them, Vol. II. p. 206.

Births and deaths in certain places, proportion of, Vol. IIL. p. 30, 43, 54,

56, 59—proportion of, as to marriages, ib.

in France and England compared, 35.

Bifcuit, (fignifying twice baked) the original name for rufk, Vol. II. p.
322.

Black-lead, a large bed of, Vol. I. pref. xii—the beft point for metallic con-
duétors, Vol. IIl. p 322.

Blatse-cape, W. Florida, latitude of, Vol. I. p. 253.

Block, defcription of a newly-invented fpring-block, for affiting veffels in fail-
ing, Vok ILE. p. 331.

Blue bey, fome obfervations on a, Vol. IV. 138.

Blue-riige in Virginia, barometrical meafurement of it, Vol. IV. p. 216—
formation of the country beyond, 246—nitrous caverns there, ib.

Boats, various modes of propelling, Vol. iI. p. 307. ;

Chinefe, how rowed, ib.

—— a new conftruction propofed for, 309—another defigned for American

inland navigation, Vol. LV. p. 298, 301.

Boiguira (crotalus horridus] See Ratile /nake.

Bones of a non-defcript great clawed animal difcovered in a nitrous cave in
Virginia, Vol. 1V. p 246—of another at La Plata in Paraguay, -p. 259
—others found in Virginia, 439—ob/ervations on thofe of the Mam-
moth, 510—See Mammoth bones—Anatomical defcription of, p. 526.

—— (Shark’s) abundance of found foffil in Virginia, Vol. IV. p 439.

f Bootes and the pole ftar, right afcenfion and declination of, Vol. III. p.
116.

Botanical defcription of cryptogamic plants, Vol. III. p. 202.

of the caflia chamecrifta, Vol. III. p. 228.

a of a poifonous plant, Vol. III. p. 234.

—_—— —— — of the podophyllum diphyllum of Linneus, Vol. III. p.

334.

Botham on the making of E. India fugar, Vol. ITT. p. 79.

Bradley ( Fohn) his account of the tranfit of Venus and eclipfe of the fun, as
obferved in 1769 at Lizard point (G. B.), Vol. I. p. 114.

Braf; and iron fooner tarnifh and ruft in woody than cleared land, Vol. IV.
p. 226.

Breaf, fagar ufeful in diforders of the, Vol. III. p. 75.

Breflaw, calculations of life there, Vol. IIL. p. 57.

Bryant (William) his account of an eleétrical cel, the torpedo of Surinam,
Vol. II. p. 166.

Brifal ( Pennf.) chalybeate waters of, Vol. I. p. 303—difeafes cured or re-
lieved thereby, 310,

Britain

iN D EB. & 4

Britain, why fo named, Vol. IV. p. 506.

Britt (Daniel) his and Mr. Turner’s thermometrical obfervations made at
Fort Wathington, Vol. IV. p. 330.

Buck-wheat blofloms coveted by bees, Vol. III. p. 258.

Buffon, his calculations on the duration of human life, Vol. III. p. 56—his
fuppofed origin of planets, Vol. IV. p. 256—his opinion refpecting
the mammoth and its remains, 257.

Buss, how to deftroy them, and fleas and flies, Vol. I. p. 222.

Bull, of the zebu kind, defcribed, Vol IV. p. 151

Burgundy wine, what grapes preferable for making it in N. America, Vol. I.
p- 126.

Burnt-lones, fmoke of deftrustive to infects, Vol. I. p. 222.

Bufhnell (D.) his general principles and conftruétion of a fubmarine veffel,
invented by himfelf and communicated*to Mr. Jefferfon, while minifter
at Paris, Vol. IV. p. 30

Butter, method of preferving, Vol: II. p. 31.

(

Cables and rigging of fhips, propofed improvement in, Vol. IT. p. 297.
Cadmus ; or a treatife on the elements of written language, &c. with an
eflay on the mode of teaching the dumb to fpeak, Vol. III. p. 262.
Calculation of the tranfit of Venus over the fun in 1769, in N, lat. 40°-and

at Philadelphia, Vol. I. p. 5.

Camptel?’s-town (Pennf.) bafaltes difcovered there, Vol. IV. p. 445.

Camphor, txiturated with water, its ftimulant effect on vegetables, Vol. 1V.
Pp: 232, 234—a more wholefome ftimulant to plants than nitre, 235.

Canal propofed between Chefapeak bay and the Delaware, Vol. I. p. 293.

navigation, the enclined plane recommended, Vol. LV. p. 299—de-
fcription of a new boat to be ufed in, 301.

Cancer, Dr. Martin’s cure for, Vol. II. p. 212.

Cape-Henlopen, obfervations near it on the tranfit of Venus 1769, Vol. I. p.

89—lat. and lon of the obfervatory and light-houfe there, 92, g6—

courfes and diftance between them, 93.

God, its water cold, Vol. III. p. 84—extent and foundings of, 98.
Blaize, W. Florida, lat. of, Vol. 1. p. 2
Henry (V.) memoir on the fand-hills of, Vol. IV. p. 439—prevail-

ing winds th.re, 440—its light-houle defcribed 442.

Carbonic acid gas, [fixed air] what proportion of it in the atmofphere, Vol.
IV. p. 128, 266, 417—obiervations and experiments on its produdtion,
469.

Carter ( Landon) his obfervations concerning the fly weevil fo deftruttive to
wheat, Vol, I. p. 205.

Cafcade, a curious one, Vol. II. p. 50.

Caffia Chamecriffa, beneficial to worn-out, or poor lands, Vol. III. p, 226—
botanical defcription of it, 228.

Caftor-cil plants recommended for culture, Vol. I. p. 239.

Catalogue

8 NW pl EY Ww

Catalogue of foreign plants deferving attention in N. America, Vol. I. p.
325.

Cataract of Niagara defcribed, Vol. III. p. 17—Vol. IV. p. 227 its true
height, Vol. III. p. 23—and Vol. IV. p. 227—a fingular appearance
there explained, 229.

Cattle and horfes fatten on fugar, Vol. ITI. p. 75.

Cepede (De fa) his diftribution of ferpents into genera, Vol. TV. p.379.

Chalybeate waters, analyfis of the Briftol, Vol. I. p. 303—in what difeafes
recommended, 306, 310, 313-

Charcoal, a good condusor of eleétricity, &c. Vol. III. p. 324.

, fpirits of, its deadly effeéts propofed asa remedy againft infects,
Vol. 1. p. 222. }

Chemical admixtures, their effets in producing heat and cold, and the caufe,
appendix, Vol. I. p. 32.

Chefapeak-bay. See Lewes.

Chimney (Staffordfhire) defcribed, Vol. II. p. 25.

Chimnies, on the conftruction of, Vol. II. p. 1. caufes of their fmoking, 5,
10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 232—how to remedy it, 6, 11, 12, 145
15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 232—a new mode of admitting air into them, 8
—how to form their opening, 10, 11, 29—proportions of the funnels,
10, II, 12—were not formerly ufed in England, 19—how’ conftruét-
ed at Venice, 18—mifcellaneous obfervations on, 35—fliding plates to,
recommended, 13—and defcribed, 25, 29—a curious current of air in
them explained, Vol. II. p. 31— its ufes, 30, 31, 32.

China refembles N. America, preface, Vol. I. p. iii.

Chinefe economy as to fuel, Vol, II. p. 32—mode of warming the ground
floors, 33.

Cholic, a cure for, Vol. I. p. 235, 312.

Cicuta Venenfa defcribed, Vol. IIT. p. 235—its deleterious quality, 237.

Cinchona Caribea Sante Lucia defcribed, Vol. II. p. 291—its virtues furpafs
Peruv. bark, ib.—another fpecies defcribed, 292.

Cincinnati, curious difcoveries made in an Indian tumulus at, Vol. IV. p.
179—obfervations and conje€tures concerning them, ib. p. 181—ther-
mometrical obfervations made there, 330.

Clays in America, fome account of valuable ones, pref. Vol. I. p. xit~a fine
paint obtained from one, xii. — :

Clearing and cultivating a country, their oppofite effe&s on the inhabitants,
Vol. II, p. 207—the one to keep pace with the other, 209.

Climate of Ireland, its temperature, Vol. 1V. p. 244—yearly quantity of rain
there, ib.

Climates of N. America, obfervations on, Vol I. p. 251, 272—Vol. III. p.
vi. 43, 47, 51; 272—Vol. IV. p. 225—how they might be improved,
246,

Clothing worn by Americans defe&tive in fafhion and affedts their health,

~ - Vol. TIT. p. vi.

Clouds (eleGric) how formed and operating, Vol. II. p. 88—their general
courfe in America, 99

Coal (pit) when firft ufed in England, Vol. IT. p. 19.

——~neglected

— neglected by the French, 19, 20—ufed by the Chinefe, 33—its fmoke
thought to be falubrious, zo—in kindling difcharges much moitfture,

54°

Cocoons of America larger than the Italian, and the filk ftronger, but lefs
fine, preface Vol. I. p. vi.

Cold, produced by admixture of certain bodies, Vol. I. appendix p. 32.

Collin (Dodor Nicholas) his eflay, by way of introduction, on natural philo-
fophy, Vol. III. page iii—his defcription of a machine invented by
himfelf for faving perfons from the upper ftories of a houfe on fire,
Vol. IV. p. 143—his philological view of fome very ancient words in
feveral languages, 476—his defcription of a fpeedy elevator 519.

Comet of June and July 1770, account of it by Mr. Rittenhoufe, Vol. I. ap-
pendix p. 37—its uncommon velocity, ib. 46—{mallnefs of fize and
fhort time vifible, 37 to 46—its elements and motion, 38—method of
computing its vifible place and diftance from the fun, ib. et 39—curi-
ous conjecture concerning comets, ib.—M. Meflier difcovers this comet
in’ France, 41—his obfervations on it, ib.—difcovered in England by
Mr. Six, 44, with his obfervations on it, ib.—Lord Stirling’s account
of it, 45—obfervations on one lately difcovered, Vol II. p. 195—ac-
count of another, Vol. III. p. 261.

Comets, an effay on the ule of, with conjectures on the origin of heat, Vol.
I. appendix p. 27—have no light of their own, p. 28—their luminous
trains accounted for, 29g—their prefumable temperature, ib.—Newton’s
opinion of comets, ib.—conceived the refidence of intelligent beings, 30
—immenfe height of their atmofphere, and its fuppofed ufe, 35.

Committee of hufbandry’s obfervations on the fly weevil, Vol. I. p. 218.

Committees appointed by the A. P. S. for obferving the tranfit of Venus over the
fun, Vol. I. p. 8, 44, 82, 89—of Mercury, 82.

for reporting on the pratticability of a canal between Delaware
and Chefapeak, Vol. I. p. 293—their reports, 294, 295, 296.

Compafs (mariner’s) an eafy method of finding its variation, Vol. II. p. 251—
a propofed make-fhift for the, 318—improvements on it, 396.

Condenfation of electric air leffens its capacity, Vol. II. p. 79.

Condudtors of lightning, an addition propofed to, Vol. III. p. 125—improve-
ment on, 322.

Conewaga hills (Pennf.) bafaltes and granite found thereon, Vol. IV. p. 445.

ConneGicut, longevity of its people, Vol. III. p. 39—deaths at Milford in,
ib. ;

Contents of Vol. I. p. xxiii—of Vol. II. p. xxix—of Vol. III. p. xxxvi —of
Vol. 1V. p. xl.

Copper (hardened) in ufe among the Mexicans, the Greeks and Romans,
Vol. IV. p. 200, 202—alfo the N. American Indians, 203.

Country compared with towns, as to number of deaths, Vol. III. p. az.

Cooke ( Fohn) his defcription of a new ftandard for weights and meafures,
Vol. III. p. 328.

Coombe (Thomas) his meteorological obfervations made by him at Phila.
1770-1, Vol. I. appendix p. 70.

Correélions

10 SLIP (Pb Dade a phe. SS

Correions of aftronomical calculations, Vol. I. p. 39, 102—of a miftake
in the theory of mills, Vol. 11]. p. 144, and its importance exempliti-
ed, 147.

Cortex ruber, medical hiftory of, Vol II. p. 289—more efficacious than the
common bark, z2go—but inferior to the cinchona, 291.

Cofmogony of Buffon, Vol. 1V. p. 256.

Cu tion-feed oil, the quantity obtainable, Vol. I. p. 235—good for the cho-
lic, ib.

Courfes and diftances from Norriton to Philadelphia obfervatory, and thence
to Mafin and Dixon’s obferv.—with their difference of lat. and long.
Vol. I. aphendix p. 6. NS

b. tween Cape Henlopen and the lighthoufe Vol. I. p. 93.

Coxe (Dr. John Redman) his enquiry into the comparative effects of the
opium. officinarum extracted from the papaver fomniferum, or white
poppy, of Linnzus; and of that procured from the laétuca {fativa,
or common cultivated lettuce of the fame author, Vol. IV. p. 388.

Cretalus horridus, or rattle-nake, on means to prevent the confequences of

the bite of, Vol. III. p. 100—its poifon counteracted, 102, 104, 109—

reputed remedies againft the bite of it, 114. Its fafcinating power at-

tempted to be difproved, Vol. IV. p. 74.—See Ratile /nake.

miliaris [ground rattle-fnake] fome account of, Vol. LV. p. 367.

Cryptogamick plants, obfervations on, Vol. II]. p. 202.
- Curiofities found at Cincinnati, Vol. IV. p. 179, 181.
Currant-wine, receipt for making, Vol. l. p. 248.
Currie (Dr. Wm.) his inquiry into the caufes of the infalubrity of flat and
marthy fituations; and direétions for preventing or correcting the ef-
fects thereof, Vol. IV. p. 127.

D

D? Aboville, his account of a partridge with two hearts, Vol. IL. p. 330:
Dumpne/s in air or linnen not unwholeiome, Vol. Il. p. 21.
Dan river (N. C.) remains of a volcano there, Vol. III. p. 231.
Data refpecting population, Vol. IlI. p. 28.
Davidfon (Dr. Geo.) on the virtues of cinchona, Vol. II. p. 290.
Dart-points, vulgarly fo called See Shark’s teeth.
Deaths and births in certain places compared, Vol. III. p. 30.
Declination and right afcenfion of @ Bootes and the pole ftar, Vol. III. p. 116.
Difiogiflicated air, how produced, Vol. II. p. 209—in what cafe abiorbed,.
Vol. IV. p. 1. See Mir.
Degeneracy of certain vegetable produétions when tranfplanted into different
fituations, Vol. I. p. 223
De Grauchain (Gen.) on a folar and lunar eclipfe in 1760, Vol. II. p. 239.
Degree of laiitude, Mafon and Dixon’s meafurement of a, Vol. I. p. 96.
; Deflogifticated

YEN DE Vix. If

Deflogifticated air, or oxygen, how produced, Vol. II. p. 209—Vol. IV. p. 2.
when abforbed, Vol. IV. p. 1—obfervations and experiments concern-
sing, Vol. IV. p. 1 to 11—proportion of it in the atmofphere, p. 417,

Delineations and projections of the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I. p. 5, 27,
36, 59, 66.

of Mercury, Vol. I. p. 8.

Denjfity of the atmofphere, Vol. II. p. g6—defcription of at L. Erie, &c.
Vol. IV. p. 225.

Deveze (Dr. F.) his effay on a new method of treating the effufion which
colleéts under the {cull after fractures of the head, Vol. IV. p. 433.

Dews in the Weftern country very heavy, but innoxious, Vol. IV. p. 225.

Diameter of the fun, Vol. 1. p. 52, 79, 84, 101—appendix iv.—of Venus,
ibx—of Mercury, appendix, 52.

——--— (apparent) of an object, how to afcertain it, Vol. I. p. 98—interett-
ing experiments attending it, ib.

Diabetes with fever, how cured, Vol. II. p. 286.

Diet commonly ufed in the United States the caufe of certain difeafes, Vol.
III. p. vi.

Dipus, or Jerboa, account of an American fpecies of, Vol. IV. p. 114.

Difeafes prevalent in N. America, Vol. III. p. iii.

general caules of, Vol. III. p. vi.

of marfhy places, obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 136.

Difiillation of perfimons, memoir on the, Vol. I. p. 231.

Donations to the A. P. Soc. lift of, Vol. lI. p. 398—Vol. III. p. 351—
Vol. IV. p. xvit.

Dogs, certain ones yield fine fleeces, Vol. IV. p. 151.

Dre/s (American) unappropriate to the climate, Vol. III. p. vi.

Dublin, proportion of deaths there, Vol. III. p. 59.

Dumb, mode of teaching fuch to fpeak, Vol. ILI. p. 310.

Dyes of the N. American Indians, account of fome of the principal, Vol.
III. p. 222—1farther obfervations on, Vol. I. p. 255, 256, 261, 263.

Dymond and Wales obferve the tranfit of Venus in 1769 at Hudfon’s bay,
Vol. I. appendix p. iv.

Dyfentery, a cure for, Vol. II. p. 285, 291.

E

Earth her diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. 62, 103—the Parifian hypothefis
of the excentricity of her orb and diftance from the fun, 103—Dr.
Franklin’s conjectures on the formation of, Vol. III. p. 1—his que-
ries and conjectures relating to the theory of, ib. p. 10—how to calcu-

late the nutation of her axis, Vol. IV. p. 32.

, refleGions on the early condition of the, Vol. IV. p. 503.

Earthquakes, Vol. I. p. 282, 285.

Earihs (American) defcribed, Vol. I. pref. p. xi.

Earthy fabftance, a curious one found at Niagara falls, Vol. III. p. 17.

Eafterly winds in hot weather, their caufe fuggelted, Vol. Il. p. gt.

Eclipfe, obfervations on a folar and lunar, Vol. II. p. 239.

4B Eclipfes

12 EIEN" RD CE Rss

Eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, Vol. I. p. 21, 55.

of the fun, Vol. I. p. 114—Vol. II. p. 250—of the moon, Vol,

~Ȣ LET. spa fl5.05

Earth’s axis, how to calculate its nutation, Vol. IV. p. 51.

Eccentric anomaly of the planets, how to calculate it, Vol.. IV. p. 67.

Edinburgh, proportion of deaths in, Vol. III. p. 40, 59.

Eel (eledrical) or torpedo of Surinam defcribed, Vol. II. p. 166.

— (torporific) or numb-fifh defcribed, Vol. II. p. 170.

Effluvia, obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 138.

EleGricity, Prieftly and Beccaria’s ideas of, Vol. If. p*'76—caufe of rain,
100.

Ele&ric capacity, of air leffened by condenfation, and enlarged by heat, Vol.
Te pse70: :

clouds, how generated, formed and operating, Vol. II. p. 88.

Eleéiric fluid, how accumulated and difcharged, Vol. II. p. 75.

in connection with water, compared by Dr. Franklin to water

applied to a fponge, ib.—its effects on certain houfes, Vol. III. p. 119
—whether conduéted by heat or its rarefying effet? p.. 121—its effect
on a houfe with conduétors, p. 122—modes of conducting it, p. 1255
3z1—condutted by black-lead and charcoal, 323.

Eledrical battery of Dr. Prieftley defcribed, Vol. II: p. 93.

-— Eel, or torpedo of Surinam defcribed, Vol. Il. p. 166.

EleGricity, the caufe of rain, Vol. II. p. 100.

Elevator (a {peedy) for taking views, &c. a new imvented machine, defcrib-
ed, Vol. VI. p. 519 [gained the Magellanic prize medal. ]

Ellicot (Andrew) on looming, Vol. III. p. 62.

—- ———-,; his letter on the right afcenfions and declinations of 6 Bootes
and the pole-ftar, p. 116—his letter on aftronomical obfervations, and
the theory and method of calculating the aberration of the ftars, the
mutation of the earth’s axis, and the femi-annual equation, Vol. IV. p.
32—his method of calculating the eccentric anomaly of the planets, p.
67—his mifcellaneous obfervations relative to the weftern parts of
Pennfylvania, particularly thofe in the neighbourhood of L. Erié, p.
224—his obfervations made on the old French fort at Prefqu’ifle to de-
termine the latitude of the town of Erié, p. 231—his obfervations for
determining the lat. and lon. of the town of Natchez, p. 447.

Elliptical orbit, how to determine the true place of a planet in an, Vol.
lV. p. 21.

Emeralds, ee common among the Mexicans, Vol. IV. p. 199.

Emphafis, obfervations on, Vol. III. p. 304.

England, formerly without chimnies, Vol. II. p. 19.

, the ufe of pit-coal introduced into, ib.—her atmofphere moifter than
that of N. America, p. 55—and cabinet works there unfuitable to
American air, ib.—proportion of births in, Vol. III. p. 35, 57, 59—
climate of, p. 52.

Englifh language, a table of all its diftin& founds, Vol. III. p. 292.

Equation (feni-annual) how to calculate it, Vol. IV. p. 51.

Eriz

Ee Ne Dr Hy. Xe 13

Erié (Lake) mifcellaneous obfervations concerning it and parts adjacent,
Vol. IV. p. 224—various phenomena attending it, ib.—the winds why
like W. India breezes, ib.—the flux and reflux of water in the lake ac-
counted for, and the idea of a tide refuted, 225—-heavy dews and fogs
there, ib.—the Southern fhores defcribed, 226—romantic cafcades
there; and flate and excellent free-ftone; all the ftrata of ftone hori-

zontally difpofed, ib.—an erroneous opinion refuted concerning this

difpofition, 227—fingular appearance of the lake rocks; the falls of

Niagara defcribed, ib.

town of, its lat. determined, Vol. IV. p. 231—magnetic variation

there in 1795, p. 232.

Errata (for tables of) Vol. I. fee the page before “ The contents,” and alfo
Pp- 39, 81, 116, and the head of this index—of Vol. III. ib. and p. xl.—
of Wm. Barton’s paper [p. 25,] on the duration of human life, Vol.
III. p. 134.

Ejpaliers, raethod of managing vines for. See Vines.

Ejay on thofe enquiries in natural philofophy which at prefent are moft be-
neficial to the U, States, Vol. III. p. iit.

—— tending to improve intelligible fignals and to difcover a univerfal lan-
guage, Vol. IV. p. 162.

Europe, proportion of inhabitants there under 16 years, Vol. III. p. 43—
all the obfervations made there on the trantit of Venus collected into
one view, appendix Vol. I. p. 12.

Evaporation, experiments on, Vol. IL. p. 118—do. Vol. IV. p. 72, 246.

the beft method of drying up marthes Vol. 1V. 243—remarkable

inftance of it in England, 245.

({pontaneous ) of fugar-maple fap, produces fugar, Vol. III. p. 69.

in cold air, experiments on, Vol. III. p. 125.

Ewing (Revd. Fohn) his projection of the tranfit of Venus, Vol. I. p. s—
his account of the obfervations on it, p. 42, 66, and of the tranfit of
Mercury, 82—his improvement of Godfrey’s quadrant, appendix p. 126.

Experiments on evaporation in cold air, Vol. ILL. p. 125.

and obfervations relating to the analyfis of atmofpherical air,
Vol. IV. p. 1, 417.

Eye, worm in a horfe’s, Vol. II. p. 183.

fnake in a horfe’s, Vol, II. p. 385.

———

1

Falls of Niagara account of, Vol. IIT. p. 17—Vol. IV. p. 227—their height,
Vol. III. p. 23 and Vol. IV. p. 229—a fingular appearance there now
firft explained, ib.
of rivers in the Atlantic ftates, the ground below them of Neptunian
origin, Vol. IV. p. 439, 444.
Fajfcinating faculty of ferpents, attempted to be difproved, Vol. IV. p. 74—

obfervations on the, p. 363, 370. See Rattle-/nake.
Fenwick’s Vile. See Lewes.
Fermentation, why it excites heat, appendix Vol.I. p. 34.
of wine, obfervations on it, Vol. I. p. 174, &c.

4) Biz Fevesr

14 mon pt go x

Fevers in Pennfylvania, bilious and intermitting, with hints for preventing
them, Vol. IT. p. 206—how cured, 290.

Figs, method of curing, Vol. I. p. 198.

Files, defcription of a machine for cutting, Vol. I. p. 300—its fuperiority,
302.

Finery cinder [{cales of iron] obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 466.

Fire, a machine to fave perions from, Vol. IV. p. 143—others, p. 143, 519-

Fire-places, how to be conitructed, Vol. II. p. 10. See Stoves.

( Siafordthire) defcribed, Vol. II. p. 25—mifchief of large ones,
35—a molt ingenious one for warming feveral rooms defcribed, 36.

Fifb, their charaéters as given by Vicq, D’Azir and D’Aubenton, Vol. IV.

. 280.

Fifbes falling with rain, accounted for, Vol. II. p. 117.

experiments on the animal heat of, Vol. III. p. 98.

Fixed air. See Carbonic acid gas.

Flagg ( Henry Collins) his obfervations on the numb fifh or torporific eel, Vol.
II. p. 170.

Floating anchor recommended againft a lee fhore, Vol. IT. p. 311.

Florida (Weft) \etter concerning, Vol. 1. p. 250—natural produéts, ib.—ac-

count of its climate, 251, Vol. III. p. 48—gulf of Mexico, 252.

Indians acquainted with tin, Vol. IV. p. 202.

— (£af?) {ome account of its climate, Vol. III. p. 48.

Fluids, nature and properties of, Vol. II. p. 104.

Fly-wevil dettru&tive to wheat, obfervations on it, Vol. I. p. 205—further
obfervations, 218.

Fogs remarkably denfe but innoxious on the rivers Ohio and Allegany, Vol.
IV: p. 225.

Foreign rinse deeprine attention in N. America, catalogue of, Vol. I. p.
255.

wap dete) (remains of Indian) Vol. III. p. 215, Vol. IV. p. 178.

fofil thells and bones, numerous in the weltern country, Vol. III. p. 218—
and elfewhere in America, Vol. IV. p. 439, 444. See Bones, Oifler;
Shark.

Fradures of the feull, a new method of treating them, Vol. IV. p. 439.

France, air of, moifter than that of America, Vol. II. p. 55—population,
&c. of, Vol. III. p. 32—proportion of births and deaths in, 36, 41,

9. :

Franklin (Dr. Benj.) \etter from him on chimnies, Vol. II. p. 1—his love
of frefh air ; fleeps with open window; holds night air, moift air, and
damp linnen as not unwholefome, 21—propofes an apparatus for leCtur-
ing on {moke and rarefied air, 22—makes {moke defcend, and defcribes
aftove of his invention, 24—difcovers a curious property of chimnies
in fummer ; its utility and caufe explained, 30—his letter to Mr. Nairne
on hygrometers ; with interefting facts concerning the ftate of the atmof-
phere in England, France and N. America, 51—his defcription of a
new ftove that confumes its fmoke, 57—his interefting letter to AI-
phonfus Le Roy, concerning maritime obfervations, &c. 294—his ob-
fervations on the warmth of fea-water in the gulph ftream, &c. 325,

3265,

Bae BE bo Digg hip Sia 15

326, 327—his journal of a voyage from France to America, 328—of-
fers a new cont{truétion for boats, 309—on the formation of the earth,
Vol. III. p. 1—his new theory of light and heat, 5—his communication
of the Chinefe manner of making certain paper, 8—on magnetifm and
the theory of the earth, ro—defcribes a curious phenomenon, 14.

Free flone (excellent) on L, Erie, Vol. IV. p. 226.

Frogs, falling with rain, accounted for, Vol. Il. p. 117—experiments with
opium upon, Vol. IV. p. 398.

Frofi and {now lefs in America than formerly, Vol. I. p. 275—1its frequency
in Pennfylvania, Vol. III. p. 52—its action applied to making maple
fugar, 69. ‘

Frudification of plants, organs of, Vol. III. p.209. See Plants.

Fruits and pulfe, their nature changed by tranfplantation, Vol. I. p. 224.

Fuel, advantages of, when plentiful and cheap, Vol. II. p. 26—means of
faving it, 29, 33) 34. 35 36) 67.

Furnaces, a machine to regulate the heat of, Vol. I. p. 286.

G
Gas (azotic) 7
(carbonic acid) | Experiments and obferva-
(nitrous ) p _ tions on, Vol. IV. p. 1,
—— (hydrogen) | 17, 417, to 428.

(ammoniacal) «J

Gaffendus firft difcovers Mercury on the fun’s difc, Vol. I. appendix p. 53.

Georgia, its climate, Vol. III. p. 49—proportion of deaths at Savannah, 59.

Germany, proportion of deaths in, Vol. III. p. 41. 59.

Gilpin ( Fohn) on the annual paffage of herrings, Vol. II. p. 236.

Glafes, ({moked) beft to defend the fight, Vol. I. p. 106.

Goats yielding fleeces of fine wool, Vol. IV. p. 151.

Godfrey's quadrant, an improvement of, Vol. I. appendix p. 21.

Golden caffia defcribed, Vol. III. p. 228.

Granite (cryftallized) found on the Conewago hills (Pennf.) Vol. IV. p. 445.

Grapes (wild) abundant in N. America, pref ix—their culture recommend-
ed, ib.—different kinds deferibed, 192—anecdote of a Roman cultiva-
tor of, Vol. I. p. 121—how to obtain the beft wine from, 125—the
kinds fuitable to N. America, 126—American forts defcribed, 191—
how to gather and make wine of them, 171—white do. 172—red do.
175—how to make raifins, 193—curious inftances of the effects of |
tran{planting them, 222. See Vines.

Grasfboppers, artfully made ufe of by the nine-killer, as a bait to entrap {mall
birds as prey, Vol. IV. p. 124.

Graves (Indian) accounts of, Vol. 1V. p. 179, 181, 203, 205.

Great-Britain, obfervations there on the tranfit of Venus, Vol. I. p. 105, 114.

Great-bone-lick in Kentucky, remarkable appearances at, Vol. IV. p. 517.

Great claw, or megalonyx. See Bones.

Greenwich obfervatory (G. B) obfervations there on the tranfit of Venus in

1769, Vol. I. p. 105.

Greenway

i6 ew. tp. BL) x.

Greenway (Dr.) his account of the beneficial effedts of caflia chamecrifta on
worn-out or poor lands, Vol. III. p. 226—his communication on a
fuppofed volcano in N. Carolina, 223—his account of a poifonous
plant in Virginia, 234. ~

Grift-mills, obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 350.

Grauchain (De) ona folar and lunar eclipfe obferved in 1780, Vol. II. p.

Grotto ee Swatara in Pennf. defcribed, Vol. II. p. 177.

Ground-raitle-fnake, {ome account of the, Vol. IV. p. 367.

Grub-worm, how to preferve the vine from it, Vol. I. p. 164.

Gulf fiream, obfervations on it, Vol. II. p. 314—its warmth, 325 —Doéctor
Franklin’s obfervations on it confirmed, Vol. III. p. $3. Further re-
marks on that ftream, 86, 96, 194.

Gum copal, fuppofed to exude from a fpecies of American fumach, Vol. I.

ref. IX.

am (viz.) perfimon, Vol. I. p. 234.—mattick, 257—ftorax, ib.—fcam-
mony, ib,—dragon, 259, 264—copal, pref. ix, 262—fenegal, 263—
arabic, ib.—labdanum, 264—galbanum, ib.—oppoponax, ib.x—myrrh,
265—benjamin, ib.—ammoniacum, ib.—aflafeetida, 266.

H

fadley’s quadrant, an eafy and accurate way to adjuft the glaffes of it, on
land, for the back obfervation, Vol. IV. p. 154.

Halley (Dr.) errors in his tables, Vol. I, p. 102—obferves a remarkable pe-
riod in the planet Mercury’s motion, appendix 53—firlt conceived the
method of a{certaining the fun’s parallax, 54.

Hare and Skinner’s natural hiftory of the filk-worm from the egg to. the co-
coon; with the mode of obtaining the filk, &e. Vol. Il. p. 347.

Harpfichords, an improved method of quilling, Vol. II. p. 1&5, 190.

Heart (Jonathan) on American Indians and fome ancient works, Vol. III.

uae

Have! ots found in a partridge, Vol. II. p. 330.

Heat, concerning the origin of, Vol. I. appendix p. 32—different modes of

exciting it, ib.—the effeé& of vibratory motion, ib.—its proportion re-

gulated by the face of country, p. 273—the caufe of moft winds, ib.—
whence beft reflected, 275—defcription of a new machine for preferving

an equal degree of, 286—its expanfion of wood, Vol. IV. p. 29—

enlarges the capacity of eleétric air, Vol. II. p. 79—the ftrongeft at-

traction between it and water, 144—deftroys magnetifm, 18c.

and light, a curious theory of, Vol. III. p. 5—both deemed fubftances;

Vol. IV. p. r1. |

Hebrew language, obfervations on it, Vol. III. p. 264, 276.

Ffeckewelder (Rev. Fobn) his account of the remarkable inftiné of a bird call-
ed the nine-killer (Janius excubitor) Vol. TV. p. 124—his account of a
fuppofed animal called by the Indians the big-naked-bear, Vol. IV, p.
260.

Hemp

Ri ee &. 17

Hemp (Indian) how ufeful, Vol. I. pref. p. x—obfervations on the raifing and
drefling it, p. r98—wind and air injurious to hemp, 204—beft method
of preparing it, 203.

Henlopen (Cape) obfervations near it on the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I.
p- 89, lat. and lon. of the Cape, 92, 96—courfes and diftance between
the lighthoufe and obfervatory there, 93.

Flenry (Win. ) of Lancatter’s deferi ae of afelf-moving regifter for preferving
an equal degree of heat, Vol. I. p. 286.

— (Cape) memoir on the fand-hills of, Vol. IV. p. 439—lighthoufe de-
fcribed, 442.

Herrings, their annual paflage, Vol. II, p,, 236.

the fame in England and America, ib.

Heterandra reneformis, a new plant, defcribed, Vol. IV. .p. 173.

Hieroglyphics, fuppofed ones on the Ohio, &c. Vol. IV. p. 195-

_HHigsins (Fh) his manner?of draining ponds in level grounds, Vol. III. p.

£Tog’s PE and tar, a prefervative to grape vines, Vol. I. p. 164,
Hollingsworth (Henry) his method of deltroying wild “apes Vol,.1.jp. 241.
Honey paid in tribute to the Mexican fovereigns, Vol, III. p. 245.

bee, an enquiry if originally a native of America, Val, IIL. ps 241—

various kinds of, 245.

Hopkinfon (Francis) his defeription of a new machine for meafuring a fhip’s
way, Vol. III. p. 159—his account of a worm in a horfe’s eye, 183—
his improved method of quillimg harpfichords, 185, 190—his defcrip-
tion of a machine for meafuring a fhip’s way, 239—his new invented
{pring-block defcribed, 331 [gained the Magellannic prize|—his and Mr.
Rittenhoufe’s account of the effects of lightning on a houfe with con-
ductors, 122.) .

Horfe’s eye, a worm in it, Vol. I. p. 183—a living fake in it, 385.

Horfes and cattle fattened on fugar, &c. Vol. III. p. 75.

Hofpitals, a machine propofed for regulating the due temperature of their
air, Vol. I. p. 289—on the conftruction of, Vol. III. p. 348.

Hot-houfe, a new way to heat it, Vol. II. p. 74.

Houfes Rruck with lightning, account of, Vol. III. p. 119, 122—mode for

their greater fecurity fuggetted, 125.

Hudjon’s hay; obfervations on the tranfit of Venus there in 1769, Vol I, ap-

endis Ps Ts

‘amta t life in America, on the probable duration of, Vol. III. p. 25. 134.

Humidity of the air in England and France, Vol. IL. p. 55.

Harricane, defcription of a remarkable one in N. England, 1773, Vol. II.
p- 136—conjectures as to its caufe and origin, 139.

s, theory of, Vol. II. p. 343—of the fame nature with tornadoes
and wind{pouts, 345.

common at lake Erie, Vol. III. p. 63.

Hutchins (Thomas) his defeription of a remarkable rock and cafcade near
Youghiogeny river, Pennfylvania, Vol. II. p. 50.

Hydrargyrus vitriolatus flavus. See Turbith mineral.

fydrogen gas, or inflammable air, proportion of, inthe atmofphere, Vol. IV.

p. 128,

18 LT ae ee

p- 128, 417—its properties, ib.—origin of it in marfh air, 420—quan-
tity of it afforded by charcoal and finery cinder, 464—from what other
fubftances it may be obtained, 465.

Hydrophotia cured in a young woman, Vol. II. p. 231.

Hygrometer, a new coni{truétion for it, Vol. II. p. 56.

Hypothe/is (Parifian) of the eccentricity of the earth’s orb and its diftance
from the jun, Vol. I. p. 103.

I

Teclanders’ manner of warming their houfes, Vol. II. p. 34.

Inclined planes, a capital improvement in canal navigation, and far fuperior
to locks, Vol. IV. p. 299.

Index flore Lanccftrienfis, Vol. III. p. 157.

Indian antiquities of America defcribed, Vol. III p. 214—Vol. 1V. p. 179,
181, 184, 108.

——- traditions, Vol. IIT. p. 216, 220, Vol. IV. p. 188, 260—dyes, Vol.
III. p. 222—languages, cuftoms, manners and genius, 220, Vol. 1V.
P- 190, 205—ancient monuments, Vol. IIT. p. 214, Vol. IV. p. 179,

181.
a - corn, originally the only grain of America, Vol. I. pref. p. iit.
-——-- dart-points. See Shark’s teeth. ‘

- hemp deferving attention, Vol. I. pref. p. x.

Indians (American) long lived, Vol. III. p. 50, 51—traditions, 216, 220
—languages, cuftoms, manners and genius, ib.—fome account of for-
mer tribes, Vol. IV. p. 183—/uperftitious veneration for certain birds,
&c. p. 206.

population of, below the falls of rivers on the fettlement of Ame-

rica, Vol. IV. p. 252.

fculpture, on a rock at Kenhawa, Vol. IV. p. 253, ;

Inflammable air, or phiogifton, obfervations on, Vol. 1V. p. 2, &c.—may be
produced from {pirits of wine, ib. p. 19—its properties, ib. p. 130—
proportion of it in the atmofphere, 7, 128, 417—-whence formed, 420.

—- fluids, defcription of a propofed veffel for boiling them, Vol. IV.
Baars

Inflammation, why an exciter of heat, Vol. I. appendix p. 34.

Inguana [firen] an intermediate clafs connecting the amphibiz with fifh, |
Vol. IV. p. 277—a new fpecies of it detected in Peale’s mufeum, ib.
—a {cientific defcription of it, 279.

Inland navigation, propofed improvements in, Vol. I. p. 293.

Infcription (curious) near Naples, Vol. I. p. 285. ©

Infe&s, how to proteét pulfe and grain againft, Vol. I. p. 222.

Infiruments wted in Pennfylvania for obferving the tranfit of Venus at differ-
ent places in 1769, Vol. I. p. 10, 13.

Introdudion, being an effay on thofe enquiries in natural philofophy, which
at prefent are moft beneficial to the U. States, Vol. III. p. iii.

Ireland, its temperature of climate equable ; yet feldom affords three months
fummer weather, Vol. IV. p. 244—dquantity of rain fometimes there,
ib.—its eaft winds produce epidemic inflammatory diforders, ib.

Tron

LEN EDO BIxe 19

Iron very fufceptible of ruft, and brafs foon tarnifhes in the weftern coun-
try—and why, Vol. IV. p. 226—a portion contained in air, 327—of
its folution in the diluted fulphuric and muriatic acids, 457—obfervati-
ons on finery cinder, or fcales of, 466.

Ztaly, &c. why formerly colder than now, Vol. I. p. 276.

J

Faw-fall of infants, fpecies of tetanus, Vol. II. p. 230—how to prevent
it, ib.

Fefferfon (Thomas ) his letter in anfwer to the A. P. Society’s, on being cho-
fen their prefident, Vol. IV. p. xii.—his letter on the height of certain
mountains in Virginia, ib. p. 222—his memoir on the difcovery of cer-
tain bones of a quadruped of the clawed kind in the weliern parts of
Virginia, ib. p. 246; with a ‘P.S. on the fkeleton of the Paraguay
megatherium, 259—his defcription of a mould-board of the leaft refift-
ance, and of the eafieft and moft certain conftruétion; taken from a
letter to Sir John St. Clair, prefident of the Board of Agriculture at
London, 313.

Fefferfonia binata, a new plant, Vol. III. p. 342.

Jerboa, account of an American, Vol. IV. p. 114.

Fohnfon (Dr.) his rule for pronunciation erroneous, Vol. III. p. 270.

Jones (Dr.) and D. Rittenhoufe’s account of houfes {truck with lightning,
Vol. III. p. 119.

Journal of a voyage from France to America by Dr. Franklin, Vol. II. p.

28.

: s (thermometrical) at fea, Vol. III. p. 90, 194.

Fupiter, eclipfes of his fatellites obferved at Norviton, Vol. I. p. 21—at
Philadelphia, 55.

his diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. 62.

(fatellites of ) their tmmerfions and emerfions as obferved at Wilming-

ton on the Delaware, and at the weftern obfervatory, for determining

the weftern bounds of Pennfylvania in 1784, Vol. IV. p. 32—at Bal-

timore in 1788, ib. p. 48.

K

Kamifchatka, frmilar to Labrador, but different from fame latitudes in
Europe, Vol. I. pref. p. iv.

Kenhawa river, a curioufly {culptured rock there, Vol. IV. p. 252.

Kentucky, remarkable appearances at the Great-bone lick there, Vol. IV. p.

57s
Ketchup (India) how to make, Vol. I. p. 259.
King (Nicholas) his improvements in boats, &c. for river navigation, Vol.
IV. .p. 298.
Laduca
4C

20 YON IUD GE Wx

Laéduca Vativa [garden lettuce] yields good opium, Vol. IV. p. 391. See
Opium.

Lake Erté. See Erié.

Lakes, fubje& to tempefts, Vol. III. p. 63. :

Land, when and why colder or warmer than water, Vol. I. p. 274.

Jfpouls, account of two, Vol. II. p. 112—of another formed firft on

the water, 115—curious effects of it, 116.

air, experiments on, Vol. IV. p. 262, 266—lefs pure than fea-air, 269.

Lands (poor) good effects of caflia chamechrifta thereon, Vol, III. p. 226.

Language (written) an eflay on, Vol. IIT. p. 262.

— (a univerfal) propofed, Vol. IV. p. 167.

Languages, two different ones ufed by ‘the Natchez Indians, Vol. IV. P-
193—Dr. Collin’s philological view of fome very ancient words in
feveral, Vol. IV. p. 476—mines of human artianides, 478—compa~
rative fpecimens of various languages, 485.

Lanius excubitor, or great fhrike, fome account of; Vol. IV. p. 124.

Latitude of Norriton obfervatory, Vol. I. p, 22.

- of Philadelphia, 54.

- of Lewes, 92.

-of Providence (N. E.) 103.

- of Newcaftle court-houfe, 93.

- of lighthoufe on Cape Henlopen, 93.

- of Cape Blaize (W. Flor.) 253.

- of Mobile bay, ib.

- of Santa-Rofa, ib.

-of town of Erié, Vol. IV. p. 231.

- of the town of* Natchez, Vol. IV. p.

La Plata, account of a huge fkeleton found there, Vol. IV. Pp. 259.

Latrobe (B. Henry) his memoir on the fand-hills of Cape Henry (Vir. ) Vol.
IV. p. 439—fupplement thereto, 444.

Lava erupted from mount Vefuvius, Vol. I. p. 283, 285.

Laws and regulations of the Amer. Philof. Soc. Vol. I. p. v.—Vol. II.
Dave

Law to encreafe the annual fubfcriptions and depofits of members of the
A. P. S. Vol. II. p. xvii.

Lee-Shore, a propofed contrivance to avoid it, Vol. Il. p. 311.

Lenfes (two convex) invert objects, and why, Vol. II. p. 37—other curious
appearances produced by them explained, 37 to 42.

Leprofy aftigned as the caufe of the dark complexion of Negroes; Vol. IV.
p- 289.

various kinds de'cribed, Vol. IV. p. 289.

Le Royon the conftruction of hofpitals, Vol, ILL p. 348.

Letters, new ones propofed, Vol. HI. p. 277—their affinities, 292.

Lettuce (lactuca fativa] yields good opium. See Opium.

Lewes obfervatory, tranfit of Venus as obferved there in 1769, Vol. I. p.
89—courfes' and diftances from it to the provincial weft line between

Fenwick’s.

Pr Nye DE io xe 2I

Fenwick’s ifle and Chefapeak bay, 91—alfo to lighthoufe on Cape Hen-
lopen, 93-—its lat. and lon. 92, 96.

Life (human) on the probable duration of, Vol. III. p. 25, 134.

Light and heat, Franklin’s new and curious theory of, Vol. III. p. 5—both
are fubltances, Vol. IV. p. 11.

Light of comets proceeds from the fun, Vol. I. appendix p. 28.

-aftonifhing velocity of, ib. appendix 36.

Light-houfe on Cape Henlopen, its Iat. and lon. Vol. I. p. 92, 96.

at Cape Henry (Vir.) defcribed, Vol. IV. p. 442—its ftair-cafe
faulty, ib.

Lightning and thunder ftorms, theory of, Vol. II. p. 74.

——--— account of houfes ftruck by, Vol. III. p. 119, 122—9, whe-
ther conducted by heat, or its rarefying effect? 121—how to guard
fhips againft, Vol. IT. p. 302.

——--— rods, or conductors, an improvement propofed in the conftruction
of, Vol. III. p. 125—another improvement, 421.

Limeftone, intermixed with flint and marine petrifaétions on L. Erié, Vol.
IV. p. 226.

Lion, dimenfions of a large one, as taken by M. de Buffon, Vol. IV. p-
248—a larger one ftill, prefumed to be a native of America, 252—its
figure fuppofed to be cut on a rock upon the Kenhawa, 253—prefump-
tive proofs of his exiflence, ib.—curious particulars concerning the
lion, 254

Liriadendaoe tulip iene [tulip-tree] how affected by camphor infufed in water,

SELVia pS 232 5

Lift of ahs officers and members of A. P. S. Vol. I. p. xii.—Vol. II. p.
xxiv.—Vol. III. p. xxviii—vVol. IV. p. xiv.

Lizard point (G. B.) account of the tranfit of Venus and eclipfe of the fun,
as obferved there in 1769, Vol. is p- 114—longitude of, 116.

Locked jaw, preventive for, Vol. II. p. 228.

Logarithm of any number (common) Rittenhoufe’s mode of raifing it imme-
diately, Vol, IV. p. 69.

London, proportion of deaths in, Vol. HI. p. 40—table of the duration of
human life there, 57.

Longevity, comparative degrees of, Vol. III. p. 38—particular inftances of

_ inthe United States, 44—inftances elfewhere, 5c.

Longitude of Philadelphia and Norriton obfervatories, Vol. I. p. 5, 595
93> 96.

———— of Lewes, Vol. I. p. 92, 96.

of Providence (N. Eng. ) afd Cambridge (do.) Vol. I. p. 103.

of the Lizard point (Ge: Bs)pVoleily p.) L1G. 4

and latitude, meafurement of the difference of, between Philadel-

phia and Norriton obfervatories, Vol. I. appendix p. 5.

of the town of Natchez, Vol. IV. p. 451.

Looming, obfervations on the phenomenon of, Vol. III. p. 62.

Lorine (Dr.) his obfervations on W. Florida, Vol. I. p. 250.

Lukens ( Fobn) his account of the contaés in the tranfit of Venus over the
fun, Vol. I. p. 28.

Lumar eclipfe, obfervations on one, New 2d 1789, Vol. III. p. 150.

4C€ 2 Machine

~—_--

to
to
Lal

IN a) ye Eo ee oken

Machine for regulating the heat of furnaces and temperature of the air, Vol.
I. p. 286—for pumping veffels at fea, without manual labour 289—for
cutting files, 300.

for meafuring a fhip’s way, invented and defcribed, Vol. III. p.

239.

ae faving perfons from the upper ftories of ahoufe on fire, Vol. IV.

Api

Madaajea Vee defcribed, Vol. IV. p. 149.

Maiz, [zea] the only grain found by the firlt fettlers in N. America, Vol, I.
pref. ps iii.

M‘Cauflin ( Rob.) his account of an earthy fubftance at Niagara; with re-
marks on the cataract there, Vol. III. p. 17.

Madeira, proportion of deaths in, Vol. III. p. 41, 59—encreafing popula-
tion of, 43. !

Madifon (Rev. F.) his letter to D. Rittenhoufe containing obfervations on
the climate at Williamfburgh, Virginia, Vol. II. p. 141—his experiments
and obfervations on the fweet-fprings of Virginia, 197—his obfervations
on a lunar eclipfe and the tranfit of mercury over the fun, Nov. 1789,
Vol. III. p. 150—his experiments.on magnetifm, Vol. IV. p. 323.

Magellan (I. H. de) his donation to the American Philofophical Society, Vol.
II, p. xix.

Mao prize, how andin what cafes to be awarded, Vol, II. ps xix—Vol.
ILI. p. 336—on whom beftowed, p. 262, 321, 331. Vol. IV. p. 519.

Magnetic variation at the town of Eriein 1795, Vol. IV. p. 232.

— needle (univerfal) Vol. I. p. 54.

Magneticat obfervations much wanted in America, Vol. I. p. 254.
—_— made at Cambridge (Maffachufetts) Vol. III. p. 115.

Magnetifm, experiments on,, Vol. IL, p. 178—Vol. IV. p. 324—deltroyed

~ by heat, 180—produced by friétion of two pieces of fteel againft each

other, ib,—how communicated to a foft fteel ramrod, ib.—curious.
thoughts on, Vol. III. p. 3.

and the theory: of the earth, queries and conjedtures concerning,
Vol. III. p. 10.

Magnolia and {pice-wood excellent in.fome difeafes, Vol. I. pref. p. viii.

Magotty-bay-bean (caffia chamechrifta) an excellent manure, Vol. III. p, 226
—botanical defcription of it, 228.

Mammoth-bones, Buffon’s opinion of them, Vol. IV. p. 257—mempir con-
cerning them, 510—whence their name, ib.—abundant beyond the
mountains, and why, 511—a popular opinion concerning the animal re-
jected, ib.—the remains of more than one fpecies of a huge non-defcript,
512—obfervations asto the probable volume of the mammoth, 511—
arguments again{t his now-exiftence, 516—Indian tradition refpecting
him, ib.—remarkable appearances at the great-bone-lick in Kentucky,
§17—conjectures as to his nature and purfuits, ib,

Mankind,

er Ns Dien Ea; Xe 23

Mankind, reflexions on the early ftate of, Vol. IV. p. 481.

Manure requilite to vineyards, Vol. I. p, 121—what kinds proper, 124, 128
—how dilpenfed with by the poor, 124—how applied to vineyards, 160
—a rich one, 161.

Maple tree (Sugar) fuppofed to be the arrack tree, Vol. I. pref. p. v—its
fap yields a fine {pirit, 1b.—obfervations on, Vol. III. p. 64—its pro-
duce in fugar, 66, 69, 71, 73, 76—its fap a pleafant drink, 68—how
ufeful otherwife, 73—how to make the fugar, 67—{uperior to that of the
W. Indies, 71—virtues and ufes, 74.

Marble, (curious) Vol. Il. p. 50 .

Marine falt and vegetable acid combined, their virtues in putrid diforders,
Vol. IL. p. 284.

Mariner’s compafi improved, Vol. II. p. 396.

Maritime obiervations, Vol. Il. p. 294—Vol. III. p. go.

Marriages as to births, proportion of, Vol. III. p. 30.

Mars, his diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. 62.

Marfeilles, a poifon kept there, Vol. III. p. 238.

Marfby-fituations, their infalubrity inquired into, Vol. IV. p. 127—their
quality and properties, ib. p. 128, 428.

Marfh-air, experiments and obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 415 “to 430.

Marfbes, mode of drying them up, Vol. IV. p. 244.

, falubrious in their general effects, Vol. IV. p. 429.

Martin (Dr. Hugh) on certain Indian dyes, Vol. III. p. 222.

hoe and Pennf. propofals for improving their inland navigation, Vol.
I. p. 293.

Mafke' Be '(Nevil) his letter to Mr. Penn, Vol. I. p. 40—his obfervations on
the tranfit of Venus at Greenwich (G. B) in 1769, p. 105—his account
of the northern obfervations, Cieon, pi.

Mafon and Dixon’s meafurement of a degree of latitude, Vol. I. p. 96.

Maffachufetts, proportion of perfons to each family and houfe in, Vol. III. p.
31—marriages and births there, ib.—male inhabitants, 35—number of
births and deaths at Salem, 38, 56—do. at Kingham, 56—longevity
of the inhabitants, ib.

Mathematical and aftronomical papers, Vol. I. p. 1 to 116—appendix thereto
following, p. 116.

Mayer's celeftial difcoveries, Vol. II. Pp» 222,

Meantes, an order of Linnzus improperly fuppreffed, Vol. IV. p. 281.

Meafures and weights, a new ftandard for, Vol. IIT. p. 328.

Meafurement by Mafon and Dixon of a degree of latitude, correfponds with
another fince made, Vol. I. p. 96.

(terrefrial) of the difference of longitude and latitude between
Norriton and Philadelphia obfervatories, Vol. I. appendix p. 5.

Meat, how to preferve, Vol. II. p.. 30, 31.

Medical hiftory of the cortex ruber, Vol. II. p. 289.

papers, Vol. I. p. 368 to 404.

enquiries, Vol. 111. p. iit.

Medicinal produdions, Vol. I. p. 235, 239, 250, 257, 255, 260, 262, 263,
264, 265, 266. Vol. IIL. p. 102, 104, 114, 345.

Mezalonyx,

4
Ore TN LON De PEK

Megalonyx, or great claw. See Bones.
Megatherium of Paraguay, Jefferfon’s obfervations on its fkeleton, Vol. IV.
bie 89)

Berbers of the ©. P. S. a lift of,—Vol. I. p. xii—Vol. IL p. xxiv,—Vol.
Ifl. p. xxviii—Vol. 1V. p. xiv.

Memeir on the difcovery of America, Vol. II. p. 263.

——— concerning the fafcinating faculty which has been afcribed to the
rattle-fnake and other American ferpents, Vol. IV. p.

——~—on the fubje& of a new plant, growing near Philadelphia, Vol. IV.

p. 173,

—on a new fpecies of firen, Vol. IV. p. 277.

——~— on the difcovery of the remains of a new non-defcript quadruped, Vol.

IV. p. 246—with obfervations on the megatherium of Paraguay, 259.

— on the extraneous follils denominated mammoth bones ; principally

defigned to fhew, that they are the remains of more than one {pecies

of non-defcript animal, Vol. IV. p. 510.

~——— on the diftillation of perfimons, Vol. I. p, 231.

— on amphibia, Vol. LV. p. 362.

— on the fand hills of Cape ienty (V.) Vol. IV. p. 439—fupplement

thereto, 444.

Mercury precipitated from oxygen gas, Vol. IV. p. 416.

Mercury, his diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. pa aseiet of his tranfit
over the fun in 1769, p. 82, appendix 50—Vol. II. p. 249—in 1782, p.
260.

——--——

affords with Venus’s the, beft opportunity for deter-
mining the longitude, Vol. I. p. 82—his horary movement, 86
—projection of his tranfit, 88—his diameter afcertained, appendix,
52—a remarkable period in this planet’s motion, appendix 53—when
firft obferved on the fun’s difc, ib.

Meridian mark, a new method of placing it, Vol. II. p. 181.

--—, line, a new way to find the true one, Vol. II. p. 251.

Meffier’s account of the comet of 1770, as it appeared in France, Vol. I.
appendix Pp. 41.

Metallic conduGors of lightning, a propofed addition to, Vol. III. p. 125—an
improvement on, 321.

Metals, conftitution of, Vol. IV. p. 4.52.

Meteor, or falling ftar, deferibed, Vol. Ul. P- 1745 175.

Meteorological obfervabions made at Philadelphia in 17 fed Vol I. appendix p.40
—at Bradford, (N. England) in 1772, Vol. Il. p. 122—at Williamf
burgh (Virginia) i in 1777 and part of 1778, p. 141—at various places
between Richmond and the Alleghany mountains in Bottetourt, in 1791,
Vol. IV. 219—at fea and on thore, 272—at fort Wafhington (Cincin-
nati) 329.

enguiries, Vol, III. p. xxv.

Mexican Indians, or Aztecas, fome account of, Vol. IV. p. 183, 199, 204,
210, 213.

Mexico, inftances of great longevity in, Vol. III. p, 50. ~

Mica

Bp oN, | Dy By, Xs 25

Mica membranacea, taken out of tumuli, Vol. IV. p. 203, 204—its ufes
among the Mexicans, ib.
Middle mais of N. America, their climate changed, Vol. I. p. 272.
Milk, method of preferving, Vol. II. p. 31.
Miller ( Peter) of Euphrata, on the time for fowing peafe, Vol. I. p. 243—
his defcription of a grotto at Swatara in Pennfylvania, Vol. Il. p. 177.
Milis, an effential miftake correéted in the theory of, Vol. ITI. p. 144.
——-- further obfervations on, Vol. ITI. p. 185, 319—oblervations and cal-
culations concerning, Vol. IV. p. 350, &c.
Minerals, &c. in America, obfervations on, Vol. I. pref. p. xi. xiii. abundant
in Weft Florida, 251.
Mineral waters of Briftol (Pennfylvania) analized, Vol. I. p. 303—in what
difeafes recommended, 306, 310, 313.
Miners, how to provide them with frefh air, Vol. II. p. 32.
Mifcellaneous papers, Vol. I. p. 281.
Mififippi, apparent height of its water formerly, Vol. III. p. 219.
Mobile bay, \atitude of, Vol. J. p. 253.
——- couniry, great quantities of very large oifter fhells there, Vol.
p- 218. d
Moeift air, not unwholefome, Vol. II. p. 21.
Moiffure, certain laws of, Vol. IL p. 51.
—-difcharged from pit-coal, Vol. II. p. 54.
Moifinefs of atmofphere in England and France greater than in N, America,
Vol. Il. p. §3 to 55.
Mokkafin f{nake is a non-defcript, Vol. IV. p. 380.
Molaffes of maple-fugar, agreeable, Vol. ILI. p. 73—yields a fpirit, ib.
Moen, viewed through a telefcope, to different perfons prefents a different
face, Vol. II. p. 38—inverted appearances on her face, when feen
through the Caffegrain telefeope, accounted for, 41, 42.
- eclipfed and obferved, Vol. III. p. 150.
Morel ( Fohn) his account of benni-feed oil, Vol. I. p. 239.
Morgan (Dr. John) his eflay on the exprefling of oil from fun-flower feed,
Vol. I. p. 235—his communication of the medical hiftory of the red
bark, Vol. IL. .p. abyaahis art of making anatomical preparations by
corrofion, 366—his defcription of a living fake in a horfe’s eye, and
of other unufual produations of animals, 383—his account of a mot-
ley coloured, or pyed negro girl and mulatto boy, 392.
Mofs ( Henry) a negro, turned oiikey Vol, IV. p. 295.
Mofes and Mufhrooms, their fexual organs determined, Vol. III. p. 204.
Meuld-board, one of the leaft refiftance and eafieft and moft certain con-
ftruction defcribed, Vol. 1V. p. 313.
Mounds (Indian artificial) fome account of curious difcoveries made therein,
Vol. 1V. p..179, 181, 203, 205
Mountains (white) ot N. Harnpihices deferibed—the highef lands in N. En-
gland—Indian fuperftition towards them—their figure and extent ;
number of their fummits uncertain—their materials and productions—
meteors ; why named the White Mountains, Vol, II. p. 42 to 49.
7——-—— in Virginia, barometrical meafurement of thofe called the, Blue
Ridge

rene Cae fll Olas Rin.

Ridge, Warm Spring and Alleghany, Vol. 1V. p. 216—other obferva-
tions thereon by Mr. Jefferfon, 222.

Mud-Inguana. See Inguana.

Mublenburgh (Henry) his Index flore Lancaftrienfis, Vol. III. p. 157—hts
Supplementum indicis flore Lancaft. Vol. IV. p. 235.

Mulatto boy, with a pyed fkin, Vol. II. p. 392.

Mulberry tree (native) the leaves of it unpleafant to the native filk-worm,
Vol. I. p. 253.

Muriatic and fulphuric acids, of the folution of iron in, Vol. IV. p. 457.

Mujfic, a new notation of, Vol. III. p. 139.

| Mufkingum river, defcription of ancient remains of art there, Vol. III. p.

214.
N

Naked-bear, account of, Vol. IV. p. 260.

Names of the officers and members of the Amer. Philof. Soc. Vol. I. p.
xiii—Vol. Il. p. xxiii—Vol. III. p. xxviiii—Vol. 1V. p. xiv.

Natchez, obfervations for determining the lat. and lon. of the town of, Vol.
IV. p. 447

Nancarrow ( eae J) his calculations relating to grift and faw-mills, for deter-
mining the quantity of water neceflary to produce the defired effect,
when the head and fall are given in order to afcertain the dimenfions of
a new-invented fteam engine, intended to give motion to water-wheels
in places where there is no fall, and but a very {mall ftream or fpring,
Vol. IV. p- 348.

Natural hiffory, method for preferving fubjects of, Vol. I. p. 244.

- enquiries in, Vol. III. p. xv.

meadows, {ome account of, Vol. III. p. 219.

Naval flores, combination between Ruflia and Sweden to raife their price,
Vol. I. pref. p. xiv.

Navigation, improvements in, Vol. I. p. 289, 293.

inland, propofed improvements in, Vol. I. p. 293—Vol. 1V. p.

29
ial rah with a mottled fkin, Vol. II. p. 392.

Negroes, their dark hue afcribed to the leprofy, Vol. IV. p. 289—curious
effets produced by their marrying with white women, 294—their fkin
turned white, 295—propofal to excite among them a fimilar change of
colour by artificial means, 297.

Newcafile court-houfe (Delaware) its diftance from Philadelphia, Vol. I. p.
93> 96.
New-England, population of, Vol. III. p. 43+
Newfoundland banks, fuperior degree of cold in the water there, Vol, III. p.
935 194.
Neau-Ferfey, its population, Vol. III. p. 35.
Niagara, account of an earthy fubftance there, called the {pray of the falls
—with remarks on the catara@, Vol. III. p. 17—Ellicott’s defcription
of the fame, Vol. IV. p. 227.
Nicola

Took Bi Malek 27

Nicola (Lewis) his method of preferving fubjects in fpirits, Vol. I. p. 244.

Nine-killer, a bird, defcribed, Vol. IV. p. 124.

Nitre found and made, Vol. I. pref. p. xiii—mixed with water produces
heat, and with inow, intenfe cold, appendix 33—other properties of;
Vol. IV. p. 140.

Nitric acid, its compofition, obfervations and experiments on the production
of, Vol. IV. p. 472.

Nitrogen gas, what proportion in the atmofphere, Vol. IV. p. 128—obfer-
vations on it, p. 6, Xc. 418.

Non-deferi¢t animals, remiains of; Vol. IV. p. 248, 259, 511.

Normandie (Dr. John De) his analyfis of the chalybeate waters of Briftol
(Pennf.) Vol. I. p. 303.

Norriton obfervatory (Penn{.) tranfit of Venus in 1769 obferved at, Vol. I.
p. 8, 13—its lat. fixed, 22, and lon. 59, appendix p. 2—account of
the terreftrial meafurement of difference of longitude between this ob-
fervatory and that of Fhiladelphia, appendix p. 5.

North-America, difeafes common to, Vol. Ili. p. ili. See America.

North-Carolina, defcribed, Vol. ILI. p. 47—-remains of a volcano in, p. 231.

North-wef? «winds, why lets frequent, Vol. I. p. 275.

North-wweffern Territory, recapitulation of fine weather there during a cer tain
period, Vol. IV. p. 347. -See MufRingum, Cincinnati, Niagara.

Notation (a new) of mulic, Vol. III. p. 139-

ab Riis in fubterranean places, how eafily diflipated, Vol. III. p.

Nunib- ff or torporific eel, defcribed, Vol. II. p 170.
Nutation of the earth’s axis, how to calculate it, Vol. LV. p. 51.

me)

0. (B.) his defeription of a new machine for cutting files, Vol. I. p. 300.

Oats deftroy the wild garlic, enemy to wheat, Vol. I. p. 242.

—-- (American) their qualities, Vol. I. p. 192.

Objects of the Amer. Philof. Soc. Vol. I. pref. p. xv.

Occultation of Aldebaran by the moon obferved at Wafhington in 1793. Vol.
IV. p. 48.

Ocean, its temperature at certain depths, Vol. III. p. go to 96.

Officers of the A. P. S. Vol. I. p. xii—Vol. IL. p. xxiti—Vol. ILI. p. xxviii.
Vol. IV. p- xiv.

Ohio river, great bones found there, Vol. III. p. 219g—Vol. IV. p. 511—
ancient hicroglyphics there, p. 195—-very denfe but not unwholelome
fogs on the river, p. 225—thermometrical obfervations made there, p.
330—the daily rife and fall of its water, 340.

—-- falls of, remarkable for petrifa@ions, Vol. III. p.. 218.

Oi! how affected on a furface of water, Vol. II. p. 310.

— mixed with water, a remarkable phenomenon produced ita Vol. III.
p- 14—explanations ot it attempted, ib.

— of cotion-feed, its virtues, and how obtained, Vol. I. p. 235. See O/.
Bombac.

4D Oil of

28 TE SORES OMMIRS ORD BED oe

Oil of funflower feeds, account of, Vol. I. p. 234—eflay on it, 235.

— (Cajtor) recommended to Americans, Vol. I. p. 239.

— of Ae ei account. of, Vol. I. appendix p. 239—equal to Florence
oil, ib.

Oils, from whatever vegetables, if obtained by expreflion, agree in their
general qualities, Vol. I. p. 238. ;

Ol. bombac. [oil of cotton feed] how obtained, Vol. I. p. 235—medicinal in
the cholic, ib. \

Oliver (Andrew) his theory of lightning and thunder as oppofed to Dr.
Franklin's, Vol. Il. p. 74—his theory of water-fpouts, Vol. II. p.
Ol.

Opium, obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 3883—how and where obtained, 389—
its component parts, 390, 394—compared with that extraéed from
garden lettuce, and various experiments made on both, 392 to 410—
mode of extracting the latter, 411.

Optics, a deception in, explained, Vol. II. p. 37.

Optical problem, by Francis Hopkinfon, Vol. II. p. 201—and folved by
Mr. Rittenhoufe, 202.

Orb of the ear:h, its eccentricity and diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. 103.

Ores and minerals, variety of, in America, Vol. I. pref. p. xiii.

Organs of generation in plants afferted, Vol. III. p. 203.

Orthography and orthoepy, how to fix them, Vol. III. p. 262—imperfeétion
of the former, 268—farther obfervations on orthography, 271—advan-
tages of a new one, 272.

Orrery, defcription of a new one invented by Mr. Rittenhoufe, Vol. I. p. r.

Otio (Dr. ) his account of an oil drawn from funflower feeds, Vol. I. p. 234.

—- (Monf.) on the difcovery of America, Vol. II. p. 263.

Overfcting of {hips, a preventive againft, Vol. II. p. 302.

Owls venerated by certain nations, Vol? IV. p. 206.

Oxyds containing oxygen, Vol. IV. p. 458.

Oxygen, or dephlogifticated air, abforbed in the phlogiftication of air, Vol.
IV. p. 1—obfervations on it, ib. to _p. 11—in what oxyds contained,
Vol IV. p. 458—combined with azote produces the nitric acid, 472+

——--- gas, or pure refpirable air, what proportion of it in the atmofphere,
Vol. IV. p. 128, 417—how to promote a fupply of it, ib. p. 141—
mercury precipitated from it, 416—a principal ingredient in marth air,

427.

Oyfler-Jbell beds (foil) in the Atlantic ftates, Vol. IV. p, 439.

-/bells of prodigious fize and vaft quantities in the Mobile country, Vol.
III. p. 218—ufed in compounding Indian earthen ware, ib.

P

Page (John) his defcription of ‘a meteor feen in Virginia, Vol. II. p. 173—
_ letter to him from Dr. Rittenhoufe, with remarks on that meteor, 175.

Paints (valuable) Vol. I. pref. p. xii.

- Vol. I. p. 256.

Pais de Vaud, proportion of deaths there, Vol. III. p. 41,

Papaver

Frappe Ex, 29

Papaver fonniferum [white poppy]. See Opium.

Paraguay, account of the fkeleton of a huge non-defcript quadruped difco-
vered there, Vol IV. p. 259.

Parallax of Venus, obfervations on it, Vol. I. p. 63, 102, 116, uppendix 57.

-— of the fun, important to be known, Vol. I. p. 42—how to deter-

mine it, ib.+-further obfervations on the, 65, 73, 75, 77, 102, 1035

105,° appendix’ 3, 12, 54, 67—explained, 103—how to afcertain it with

the ereateft poflible precifion, appendix 40.

and planets explained, Vol. I. p. 103.

Paris, births and deaths there compared, Vol. III. p. 56.

Parifian hypothefis of the eccentricity of the earth’s orb from the fun, and
diftance, “Vol. I. p. 103.

Parfnips, how to preferve them for any length of time, Vol. Il. p. 199.

Partridge, with two hearts, Vol. IL. p. 330.

Paffige of herrings, Vol. II. p. 236.

Patter fon ( Rob.) his method of finding the true meridian line, and variation
of the compafs, Vol. II. p. 251—his explanation of a fingular pheno-
menon, Vol. III. p. 13—on a new notation of muiic, 139—his im-
provement on lightning rods, 321 [yaiaed the Magellanic prize ]—his
ealy and accurate method of adjufting the glaffes of Hadley’s quadrant,
on land, for the back-obfervation, Vol: IV. p. 154.

Peacock-flower defcribed, Vol. III. p. 229.

Pea (common corn) excellent improver of foils, Vol. III. p. 227.

Peaf> fecured againft infects, Vol. I. p, 222—the time for fowing them and
preventing the worm, 243.

Peale (C. W.) his merit in eftablifhing a Mufeum, Vol. IV. p. 365.

Pearfon ( Fames) his account of the external contact of Venus with the fun,
Vol. I. p..'50.7

~ Pekin, in what fimilar to Philadelphia, Vol. I. pref. p. iv.

Penn (Tho.) fends a telefcope and micrometer to the Amer. Philof. Society’s
committee for obferving the tranfit of Venus, Vol. I. p. 1o.

Pennfylvania legiflature affitt the fociety’s committee, Vol. I. p. 10.

» propofals for improving its inland navigation, Vol. I. p. 293

—caule and encreafe of bilious and intermitting fevers there, with hints
for preventing them, Vol. II. p. 206, 290—its population in 1683,
Vol. IIL. p. 35—and climate, 51— its extent from ealt to welt, Vol.
IV. p. 35—hbow bounded on the north, ib. p. 39—mifcellaneous ob-
fervations on its weltern parts, 224—cryftallized bafaltes found in, 445.

Pendilum, an improved one invented and defcribed by Mr. Rittenhoufe,
Vol. IV. p. 27—wooden pendulums impertfeét, ib. p. 29. curious expe-
riments on the fubject, ib. p. 30, 31.

Perkins (Dr. Fobn) his conjectures concerning wind and water-fpouts, tor-
nadoes and hurricanes, Vol. II. p. 335.

Perfimon trees, profitable—their wood hard and charged with falts, Vol. 1.
p- 233—yield a valuable gum, 234.

- fruit, memoir on the diftillation of, Vol. I. p. 231—produces a

fine {pirit, ib. pref. p. vili.—preparation of it for the ftill, 232—an ex-

cellent beer made from it, 234.

4Da2 PetrifaGions

30 kom Node ee

Petrifadions,, frequent in the weftern country, Vol. III. p. 218.

(marine). intermixed with flint and limeftone at L. Erie, Vol.
IV. p. 226.

Pit-coal introduced into ufe in England, Vol. II. p. 19—negleéed in France,
19, 20—uled in China, 33—its {moke deemed falubrious, 20.

Phenomena, Vol. I. p. 283, 285—a fingular one explained, Vol. III. p. 13—
looming, 62—in magnetifm the folution of, Vol. IV. p. 324.

attending the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I. p. 27, 28, 29,
46, 49, 50, 94, IOI, ia 48) T11, 115, appendix 12 to 20, 68.

— of Mercury, Vol. J.

Philadelphia compared with Pen, Sa. I, pref. p. iv.—lat. of, Vol. I. p. 54
—lon. of, 6, 59, 93, 96—difference between its meridian and that of
Greenwich, 59—courfes and diftance from its obfervatory to that
of Newcattle court-houfe, g2—difference of its lon. and lat. with thofe
of Norriton, appendix 5—meteorological obfervations made there in
1770, p. 1. appendix 7°.—births and deaths in, Vol. III. p. 37, 39,
44, 54, 56, 59—its fize in 1683, p. 35:

ge view of fome very ancient words in feveral languages, Vol. IV.

476.

Philbfophical fociety held at Philadelphia, their laws and regulations, Vol. I.
p- v.—Vol. II. p. v.—Vol. IV. p. iti.—tift of the officers and members
Vol. I p. xiii Vol. II. p. xxiii.—Vol. III. p. xxviii.—Vol. IV. p. xiv.
—charter of incorporation, Vol. II. p. xii—law to encreafe the de-
pofits and fubfcriptions of the members, Vol. II, p, xix—extraéts from
minutes concerning the Magellanic prize, ib.—Vol. IV. p. vii.—See
American P. Sec.

Phlogifion, obfervations and experiments concerning, Vol. IV. p. 1 to 11—
not a fimple fubftance, ib. p. 7—how formed, ib.—farther obferyations
on it, p. 11 and 382—confiderations thereon in oppofition to Dr. Prieft-
ley, p..452. See Azotic gas.

rejected, why, Vol. IV. p. 452.

Phyfico-mathematical fubjects recommended to the attention of Americans,
Vol. TIL. p. xiii.

Plague, fugar an‘antidote for, Vol. 111. Pe i75e

Planet, how to determine the true place « of one, inan elliptical orbit, directly
from the mean anomaly, by converging feries, Vol. IV. p. 21.

Janets, their refpeGive diftances from the fun calculated, Vol. I. p. 62—
Stuart’s method of deducing their parallaxes and diflances, 46... Their
parallaxes explained, 103—method of calculating their eccentric ano-
maly, Vol. IV. p. 67.

Plants and feeds, direétions for fending. them ‘abroad, Vol. I. p. 266, 269,
270.

—s aah? catalogue of fach as merit, attention in America, Vol. I.

D> 255.

- not originally natives of America, Vol. IDL. p. 24%

——-. (crypt (gamick) obfervations on, Vol. III. p. 202—their organs of
* generation aflerted, 203—how regenerated, ib,—various opinions a

the

I N D E X. 31

the generation of, 205—their parts accurately defcribed, 211—the cre-
ative power of plants, 346.

Plant, a new one difcovered near Philadelphia, Vol. IV. p. 173.

Plico-Polonica of the Poles, a fymptom of leprofy, Vol. IV. p. 293.

Plough. See Mould-loard.

Podophyllum diphyllum of Linnzus, botanically defcribed, Vol. III. p. 334.

Poifon of the rattle-fnake, how counteracted, Vol. III. p. 102, 104, 109,
IIA. ;

Poifonaus plant, an account of one in Virginia, Vol. III. p. 234.

WPolejlar and @ Bootes, the right afcenfion and declination of, Vol. III. p.
116.

Poles of the earth fuppofed change of pofition, Vol. ITI. p. 12.

Polypi, Opinion concerning their generation and reproduction, Vol. III. p.
204.

Ponds, method of draining them in level grounds, Vol. III. p. 325.

Popular diet of the Americans, the caufe of various difeafes, Vol. III. p. vi.

Population (Indian) See Jnaian population.

of N. America, obieryations_on its vaft increafe and importance,
Vol. III. p. 25—compared with that of other countries, 27, 134—
doubled in 25 years, 42—in t5 and 20 years, 43.-

Poppy (white) produce of it per acre, Vol. 1V. p. 412. See Opium.

Prairies, {ome account of, Vol. III. p. 219.

Preachers (illiberal) the bane of real virtue, Vol. III. p. vii.

Premiums, for what fubjects offered, Vol. LV. p. v.—to whom adjudged, p. vii.

Prefents to the A. P. Soc. Vol. IL. p. 398—Vol. III. p. 351—Vol. IV. p.
XXVil.

Preferving of meats, butter and milk, Vol. II. p. 30, 31.

of wine, Vol I. p. 183, 188, 190.

/ ————-, of parinips, Vol. II. p. 199.

Prefqw ifle, remarkable phenomenon there, Vol. I11. p. 62—effect of the
winds, Vol. IV. p. 225—fubject to heavy dews and fogs, ib.—its at-
mofphere moifter than in the middle Atlantic ftates, ib.—little limeftone
there, 226—lat. of the town there determined, p. 231.

Priefiley’s (Dr.) electrical battery deferibed, Vol. Il p. 93—his and Bec-

caria’s ideas of eleétricity, 76—his experiments and obiervations relat-

ing to the analyfis of atmofpherical air, Vol. IV. p. 1—his farther
experiments relating to the generation of air from water, ib p. 11 to

20—his appendix to, and correétion of the two preceding articles, 382.

-— his doétrine of phlogifton rejected, 452.

Prior (Tho.) his account of the contatts in the tranfit of Venus, Vol. I. p.

Prive’ Medal of Magellan, how and in what cafes to be awarded, Vol. II.
p- xix. “See Magelanic prize. wh} 4

Problem (optical) by Mr. Hopkinfon, Vol. II. p. 201—folved by Mr. Rit-
tenhoule, 202. ‘

Procefi for making maple fugar, Vol. Il. p. 67.

~~ — ——— Eait India fugar, ib. /p. 79.

Projedion of the tranfit of Mercury in 1769, Vol. I. p. 88.

Pronunciation, Dr: Johnion’s rule for it erroneous, Vol. III. p. 270—rules
for the pronunciation of a new propofed alphabet, 280.

Providence

32 Le Ne DE xs

Providence (R. 1.) aftronomical obfervations at, Vol. I. p. 97—its longi-
tude and latitude, 103.

Punéiuation, obfervations on, Vol. III. p. 307—-a new mode propofed, 308.

Putrid fore throat, &c. how cured, Vol. Il. p. 288.

PutrifaGion, excites heat, Vol. I. appendix p. 34.

pa

Quadrant (Godfrey's) an improvement of, Vol. I. appendix p. 21.

-- (Hadley’s) an eafy and accurate way to adjuft its glaffes, on land, ~
for the back obfervation, Vol. 1V. p. 154.

Queries concerning vapours, the electrical ftate of the atmo!phere and aurora _
borealis, Vol. IJ. p. 100.

R

Rain, the effe& of eletricity, Vol. II. p. 100.

with fifhes, frogs or tadpoles, accounted for, Vo]. II. p. 117.

quantity of, at Bradford (N. Eng.) in 1773, Vol. Il. p. 135—in Ire-

land, Vol. 1V. p. 244.

Raifins, method of making, Vol. I. p. 193.

Rarefied air explained, Vol. II. p. 2.

Rattle-fnake [crotalus horridus] on the cure of its bite, Vol. III. p. roo—
its poifon how counteracted, 102, 104, 109—reputed cures for it, 114.

memoir on the fafcinating faculty afcribed to this and other Ame- |

rican ferpents, Vol. IV. p. 74—other obfervations thereon, 363, 370.

curious particulars concerning the, Vol. IV. p. 366—different
fpecies of, 368—a new fpecies defcribed, ib.—winter retreats of, 374.

Red-bark [cortex ruber] medical hiftory of, Vol. II. p. 289—more efficaci=
ous than common bark, 290. ,

Regeneration of plants, Vol. III. p. 203.

Regulations of the A. P. S. Vol. II. p. v.

Relaxation, the predifpofing caufe of tetanus, Vol. II. p. 227.

Rigging and cables of {hips, propofed improvement in, Vol. II. p. 297.

Right afcenfion and declination of 4 bootes and the pole-ftar, Vol. III. p. 116.

Riutenhoufe (David) his new-invented orrery defcribed, Vol. I. p- 1—his
account of the tranfit of Venus, 8, 13, 26—he fixes the latitude of No-
riton, 22—his delineation of the tranfit, 36—his account of a comet in
1770, appendix p. 37—his eafy method of deducing the true time of the
fun’s pafling the meridian per clock, appendix, 47 —his explanation of an
optical deception, Vol. II. p. 37—his obfervations and conjectures on
a falling flar or meteor, 175—his account of fome experiments on mag-
netifm, in aletterto John Page, Efq. 178—his invention for placing a
meridian mark, 181—his adoption of a fpider’s thread, inftead of filk,
a great improvement, 183—his obfervations on a lately dilcovered co-
met, 195—his folution of an optical problem ftated by F. Hopkinfon,
Efq. 202=—o0n the tranfit of Venus over the fun’s difc, Nov. 12, 1782,

p- 260—

‘

PeN! De Ee x: 33

p. 260—his and Dr. Jones’s account of houfes in Phila. ftruck by
lightning, Vol. I1I. p. 11g—his and Mr. Hopkinfon’s oblervations on
the effects of lightning on a houfe with two conductors, 122—his altro-
nomical obfervations, 150—on the method of finding the fum of the
powers of the fines, &c. 155—his account of acomet, 261—his mode
to determine the true place of a planet, in an elliptical orbit directly
from the mean anomaly, by converging feries, Vol. 1V. p. 21—his
improvement of time-keepers, ib. p. 26—his account of the expanfion
of wood by heat, ib. p. 29g—his method of raifing the common loga-
rithm of any number immediately, ib. p. 69.

River-navigation, improvement in its boats, Vol. IV. p. 298—inclined planes
preferable to locks, 2g9—defcription of a boat recommended to be wed,
Zol.

Robinfon (Ebenezer) his eafy and expeditious method of diflipating noxious
vapours in wells, &c. Vol. III. p. 324.

Rock, a curious one, Vol. II. p. 50.

Rocks artificially and curioufly marked, Vol. II. p. 219—Vol. IV. p.

253.

—-, &c. (the ftrata of) beyond the mountains placed horizontally, Vol. IV.
p- 227.

Roman (ancient) fubftitute for efpaliers, Vol. I. p. 170—how they preferved
wine, 188.

Romans ( Bernard) on the mariner’s compafs, Vol. IL. p. 396.

Rome, proportion of deaths in, Vol. III. p. 41, 59.

Rooms, an improved mode of warming them, Vol. II. p. 29, 33.

Rules of the A. P. S. two fundamental ones, Vol. I. p. iii.

Rumfey’s improvement on Barker's mill, obfervations on, Vol. TIL. p. 144.

Rural economy, enquiries into, and how applicable to the U. States, Vol. III.
p- Vii. ‘

Rujfh (Dr. Benj.) on the caufe of the encreafe of bilious and intermitting
fevers in Pennfylvania ; with hints for preventing them, Vol. II. p.
206—on the late Dr. Martin’s cancer-powder; with obfervations on
cancers, 212—on the caufe and cure of the tetanus, 225—on the fugar-
maple, and manner of obtaining the fugar, Vol. III. p. 64—his obfer-
vations intended to favour a fuppofition, that the black colour (as itis
called) of the Negroes is derived from the leprofy, Vol. IV. p. 289.

Rufk, the true original fea bifeuit, Vol. IT. p. 322.

Ruffia and Sweden combine to raife the price of naval ftores, Vol. I. pref.
p- xiv.

Rufians unfuccefsful in obferving the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I. ap-
pendix. p. 3. :

Rufton (Dr. Thomas) on the caufe, cure and prevention of fmoky chimnies,
Vol. II. p. 231.

- $
Saint Andrew, W. Florida (bay of) defcribed, Vol. I. p. 253.

Saint Auguftine, a moft healthy climate, Vol. III. p. 49.
Salem

34 RouN& Dit Bie Xe

Salem (Maffachu.) births and deaths at, Vol. III. p. 38, 56, 59.

Sa’t (marie) combined with vegetable acid, virtues of, Vol. II. p. 284.

Saltpetre mines, Vol. I. pref. p. xii.

Sand-hi ls of Cape Henry (Vir ) memoir on the, Vol. IV. p. 439.

Santa Rofa, W. Vlorida, lat of, Vol. I p. 253.

Sap of the fugar maple, how excellent and ujeful, Vol. III. p. 69, 73.

Sargent (Winthrop) his letter to Dr. Barto, accompanying pea! and
fome account of certain articles which were taken out of an ancient
tumulus, or grave, in the weltern country, Vol. IV. p. 177.

Sateil'.s of Jupiter, their eclipfes obferved, Vol. I. p. 21, 55—their immer-
fions and emerfions as ob{erved at Wilmington (Del.) and the welt.
ern obferva. in 1784, Vol. 1V. p. 32—at. Baltimore in 1788, ib.
p- 48.

Saturn’s diftance from the fun, Vol. I. p. 62.

Savannah, in Georgia, proportion of deaths at, Vol. III. p. 59.

Saw-mills, particular defcription of certain, Vol. IV. p. 350.

Scu/l, 2 new method of treating the effufion that colleéts under it after frac-
ture, Vol. IV. p.

Sculptured rock on the Kenhawa, Vol. LV. pi 253. ;

Sea-veffels ; machine for pumping, without manual labour, Vol. I. p. 289.

Sea-water, warmelt out of ioundings, Vol. III. p. 83—its. temperature
compared, 194—ftate of, 90, 200.

—--air, experiments on, Vol. IV. p. 262, 269, 272—more rarefied than
land air, 269.

Seeds and plants, how to preferve them for tranfportation, Vol. I. p. 266,
269, 270.

Sent. ee {elf-moving regifter, for preferving an equal degree of heat, de-
feription of one, Vol. I. p. 286.) 1»

Serpents, M. de la Cepede’s diftribution of them into genera, Vol. IV. p-

’ 379—their characters, 380—the mokkafin, anon-defcript fnake, ib.

, cures for their bite, Vol. IIT. p. 100, 102, 104, 109, 114—their
fafcinating faculty controverted, Vol. IV. p. 74—obfervations on, p. 362.

Sexual organs of plants, Vol. III. p. 204—of moffes and muthrooms difco-
vered by De Beauvois, ib.

Seybert (Dr. Adam) his experiments on land and fea-air, Vol. IV. p. 262
rahi experiments and obfervations on the atmofphere of marthes,

415.

Shark’s teeth (foffil) abundant in Virginia Vol. IV. p. 433.

Shep, various kinds defcribed, Vol. IV. p. 149 to 154.

Sh:t'and-woo] peculiarly foft, Vol. IV. p. 433.

Sheds. See Fifil.

- (prodigious oifter) in vaft quantities in the Mobile country, ‘Vol. III. p.

218.

—- (ffl and petrifid), numerous in the weftern country, Vol. III. p.
218—and elfewhere, Vol 1V. p. 439.

Ship pumps, new method propo ed for working them, Vol. I. p. cane
to be enlarged, 2g0—powers of, 291.

s—-) an invention to affilt her failing, Vol. ILI. p. 3 3le

ets
—aen Sf

Bap i e hD., o Ey Xp Ae

Ship, a method to prevent their foundering, 301—propofed improvement
in their rigging and cables, 297—objections to the modern conftruéti-
on of, 302—how to provide againft the accidents of overfetting,
fire, lightning, running foul of others and ice at night, ib.

°s way, a new machine for meaturing it, Vol. IL. p. 159—Vol. III. p.
239—obfervations on, Vol. II. p. 294.

Shippen ( Fofeph) his account of the contacts in the tranfit of Venus over

the fun, Vol. I. p. 45.
Signals, an improvement on, Vol. IV. p. 162.
Silk cocoons of America (native) larger and the filk ftronger than Italian, Vol.

I. pref. p. vi.

—- worm, its procefs from the egg to the cocoon, Vol. II. p. 347—natural-

hiftory of, 350—how to manage it, 351—cocoons of various kinds,
353—the filature, 361.

—- worms (native) Vol. I. pref. p. vi.—obfervations on them p. 224
—more beautiful on every change, 228—averfe to change of food,
229—ealier to raife than the Italian worm, 230—great weight of their
cocoons, ib. F

—- grafs, or Indian hemp of America—Q, if not the Chinefe herba ? Vol. T.
pref. p. vi.

Sines, how to find the fum of their powers, Vol. III. p. 155.

Siren, or inguana [firen lacertina] a new fpecies of, Vol. IV. p. 277. Sce

Inguana.

operculata, a new fpecies of inguana difcovered, Vol. IV. p. 277—de-

{cribed, 279.

an intermediate clafs connecting the amphibiz with fifh, Vol. IV. p. 277.

Skeleton of an unknown quadruped lately difcovered in Virginia, Vol. IV. p.
236. See Bones. E :

Slate; and excellent freeftone on L. Erié, Vol. IV. p. 226.

Smith (Reverend Dr. Wm.) his communication of calculations and projections
of the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I. p. 4—his account of that tran-
fit, 8—and of the contaéts, 29—of Mafon and Dixon’s meafurement of
a degree of latitude, 96—of the terreftrial meafurement of the differ-
ence of lon. and lat. between Philadelphia and Norriton obfervatories,
appendix p. 5—of the tranfit of Mercury in 1769, appendix p. 50—his
deduétion of the fun’s parallax from a comparifon of the American
obfervations of the tranfit of Venus in 1769, with European obfervati-
ons of the fame, p. 54.

(Thomas P.) his account of a kettle for boiling inflammable fluids,
Vol. IV. p. 431—his account of cryftallized bafaltes found in Pennfyl-
vania, p- 445.

Smoke of burnt bones, deftruétive to bugs, &c. Vol. I. p. 222.

——, why it afcends, though heavier than air, Vol. II. p. z—how to burn
it, 33, 57—burning it a great faving of fuel, 67—ufeful for heating the
walls of a hot houfe, 74.

Smoky chimnies, caufes of, Vol. II. p. 5, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 232
—how to remedy them, 6, I1, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 23, 232.

Snake in a horfe’s eye, Vol. II. p. 385.

(rattle) on the cure of its bite, Vol. IIT. p. 100—-how to counteratt its

poifon, 102, 104, 109—reputed cures for it, 114—on its fuppofed fafci-

nating faculty, Vol. IV. p. 74. See Serpents.
4£E

Snow

36 TON SB Bo es

Snow and froft, decreafed of late in N. America, Vol. I. p. 275.

Sore throat, how cured, Vol. II. p. 288.

Sounds in the Englifh language, a table of, Vol. III. p. 292—from what
borrowed, 296.

South-Carolina climate, Vol. III. p. 48.

Southern colonics, directions concerning the culture of the grape in, Vol. I. p.
TST

Soy, or India ketchup, method of preparing it, Vol. I. p. 259.

Spafins, how cured, Vol. Il. p. 225.

Speedy elevator, a new invented machine for gaining inacceflible heights,
&c. defcription of a, Vol. IV. p. 519.

Spice-evood, excellent in fome difeafes, Vol. I. pref. p. ix.

Spider, its thread placed ina tranfit telefcope by D. Rittenhoufe, with vaft
effe&t, Vol. IL, p. 183. ;

Spirtto Sandto, E. Florida (bay of) capable of receiving firft rate fhips of war,
Vol. I. p. 253.

Spirits, an eafy method of preferving fubjects in, Vol. I. p. 244.

—-- of perfimons, Vol. I. p. viii.—appendix, p. 231,—Vol. ILI. p. x.—
of currants, 249.

- of wine convertible into inflammable air, Vol. IV. p. 19.

- (ardent) obtained from the fugar-maple, Vol. I. fref. v. and from
perfimons, pref. viil.—appendix p. 231-

Spring-bloch. See Block.

Standard for weights and meafures, Vol. III. p. 328.

Stirling (Lord) his account of the comet of 1770, Vol. I. appendix 45. _

Stafford/bire chimney, or fire-place, defcribed, Vol. II. p. 25.

Star Ardurus, his great celerity of motion weftward, Vol. II. p. 224.

Stars (attendant) difcovered, Vol. Il. ps 222—ufeful for determining the

motion of fixed ftars, tb.

how to calculate their aberration, Vol. IV. p. 51.

Steam-engine, a new invented one defcribed for giving motion to water-wheels
in certain fituations, Vol. IV. p. 355—its fuperior advantages, 357.

Steel, rubbed againft fteel, produces magnetifm, Vol. Il. p. 180.

Stove (Chinefe) defcribed, Vol. II. p. 33—propofed addition to it for burn-
ing the fmoke, ib.

Stoves, great favers of fuel, Vol. II. p. 20, 35.

- (German) defcribed, Vol. Il. p. 34.

- for burning of pitcoal and confuming its fmoke, Vol. IT. p. 57.

Strata of earths beyond the Atlantic mountains lie horizontally, Vol. IV. pe.
227. :

Sub-marine veffel, a new invented one, Vol. IV. p. 303—curious experi-
ments thereon, 3¢8, 310, 311—various attempts made on Britifh fhip-
ping, 310—the Britifh fire on and fink it, 311—origin of the battle of
the kegs, 312.

Subterranean places, how to diflipate noxious vapours from, Vol. III. p. 324.

Sie (Monf.) his.manner of preparing anatomical fubjects in wax, Vol. II.
Pp. 381.

Sugar, very nourifhing, Vol. III. p. 74—its virtues and ufes, ib.—an anti-
dote for the plague, Vol. III. p. 75—manner of making it in the Eaft
Indies, 79.

=

Sugar-

tN DE xX. on,

Sugar-maple tree fap, yields a fine fpirit, Vol. I. pref ps v.—and excellent
vinegar, p. 73. See Acer faccharinum, and Maple.

Sulphuric and muriatic acids, of the folution of iron in, Vol. IV. p. 457.

Sumach tree fuppofed to yield the gum copal—propofed as a dye—the leaves
mixed by Indians with their tobacco, Vol. I. pref. p. ix.

Sun, caufe of his rays producing heat, Vol. I. appendix p. 34—his paral-
lax important to be known, ib. p. 42—how to determine it, ib. and
appendix 40—the parallax deduced from a comparifon of American ob-
fervations on the tranfit of Venus with thofe of Europe, p. 54—me-
thod for afcertainmg it firft conceived by Dr. Halley, ib.—an eafy
mode of deducing the true time of the fun pafling the meridian per
clock, appendix p. 47—his diftance from the planets, p. 62—parallaxes,
65, 73> 75> 77> 78—do. explained, 103—mean diftance from the earth,
ib.—horary motion, 86—diameter, 52, 79, 84, to1—eclipfed, 113.

—-, obfervations on the tranfit of Mercury over the, Vol. III. p. 150.

—-, eclipfes of, Vol. II. p. 239, 250.

Sun-flower oil, account of, Vol. I. p. 234—eflay on exprefling it, 235.

Supplementum indicis flore Lancaftrienfis, Vol. IV. p. 235.

Surinam (torpedo of) defcribed, Vol. II. p. 166, 170.

Swamp, definition of the word, Vol. 1V. p. 440.

Swatara, defcription of a grotto there, Vol. II. p. 177.

Sweden, fome account of its climate,* Vol. III. p. 52—proportion of
deaths in, 59.

Swedes unfuccefsful in viewing the tranfit of Venus in 1769, Vol. I. appen-
dix Pp. 3.

Sweet /prings of Virginia, obfervations on, Vol. II. p. 197.

Swimming anchor to keep a veffel from off a lee fhore, propofed and defcrib-
ed, Vols IT. pss arn.

Syllables, obfervations on, Vol. III. p. 299.

“y
Tadpoles falling in a fhower of rain, the caufe of, explained, Vol. II. p. 117.
Tar and hog’s-lard. ufeful to preferve grape vines, Vol. I. p. 164.
Tatham (Col. Wm.) his obfervations on the country below the falls of James
river (Vir.) Vol. IV. p. 444.
Teeth and bones (foflil) account of fome found in Virginia, Vol. IV. p. 439.
Telegraph, an eflay on one, Vol. IV. p. 162.
Temperature (prefumable) in comets, Vol. 1. appendix p. 29+
of Ireland, Vol. IV. p. 244.
Tenneffee river, petrifactions there, Vol. ILI. p. 21g—curioufly marked rocks
on a branch of, ib.
Teft (infallible) for dete&ting the prefence of arfenic, Vol. II. p. 214.
Tetanus, on the caufe and cure of, Vol. II. p. 225—predifpoled by relaxa-
tion, 227—not confined to the human fpecies, 230.
Theory of thunder and lightning, Vol. II. p. 74. j
-- of water-fpouts, Vol. II. p. ror.
-- of the earth, queries and conjectures concerning a, by Dr. Franklin,
Vol. EL ipiy 5:
-- of water-mills, &c. obfervations on, by W. Waring, Vol. III. p. 144
—continued, 319.
-- of calculating the aberration of the ftars, the nutation of the earth’s
axis, and the femi-annual equation, Vol. IV. p. 32.
4 2 Thermometer,

38 rN 8 & ¥

Thermometer, exceeded not 95° in Virginia, Vol. II. p. 143—at 100° in
Philadelphia, ib.

——, its ufe in difcovering banks, foundings, &c. at fea, Vol. III.
p- 82, 198. ,

Thermometrical journals of the water and air at fea, Vol. III. p. go, 200.

obfervations at Fort Wafhington, Cincinnati, in 1790-1,

Thomas ( Rich.) and others, their account of Venus’s. tranfit over the fun in
1769, Vol. I. p. 89.

Tin known to the Florida Indians, Vol. IV. p. 202.

Thomfon (Charles) his obfervations on the internal contaét in tranfit of
Venus, Vol. I. p. 50, appendix 38.

Thornton (Dr. Wm.) his treatife on the elements of written language, &c.
with an eflay for teaching the dumb to fpeak [gained the Magellanic
prize] Vol. III. p. 262.

Thunder and lightning, a theory of, Vol. II. p. 74.

Time-keepers, Rittenhoufe’s improvement of, Vol. IV. p. 26.

Tolteca Indians, fome account of them, Vol. IV. p. 184.

Tornado defcribed, Vol. II. p. 342, 346. ~

Torpedo, or eleétrical eel of Surinam defcribed, Vol. II. p. 166.

Torporific eel, or numb fifh defcribed, Vol. 1I. p. 170—its power compared
with eleGricity,; 172.

Torrice/lian vacuum, magnetic experiments in the, Vol. IV. p. 327.

Towns, greateft proportion of deaths in, Vol. III. p. 41. 7

Trade-wind, defined, Vol. 1. p. 273.

Traditions (Indian) Vol. III. p. 216, 220—Vol. IV. p. 207, 209, 260,
516—not to be depended on, ib.

TrajeGory of the comet’s path in 1770, with the elements-of its motion, Vol.
I. appendix, p. 37.

Tranfit of Venus over the fun in 1769, as obferved at different places, Vol.
I. p. 4, 5, 8, 13, 26, 28, 29, 32, 45, 48, 49, 50, 82, 89, 97, 105
114—appendix p. 1—Vol. II. p. 246—delineations of the tranfit, Vol.
I. p. 36, 66—account of obfervations on the former, 4, 2—obferva-
tions on it, made at Hudfon’s bay, appendix p. 4—all the obfervations
made: thereon, colleéted together, appendix 12.

in 1761—obiervatious on it, Vol. I. p. 67.

in 1769—do. Vol. I. p. 82—projection of this tranfit,

88—another account of the fame tranfit, appendix 50—how ufefuk
towards fixing the longitude of places, appendix 53. See Venus.

—— of Mercury, in 1769, Vol. 1. appendix p. 50—Vol. IL. p. 249—

in 1782, Vol. If. p. 260—Vol, IIL. p. 150.
Trees contribute to health, Vol. II. p. 2cg—the willow a great purifier of
air, ib. .
——— recommended in certain fituations, Vol. IV. p. 142.
Trepanning, obfervations on, Vol. IV. p. 433.
- Trichoma [Plico-Polonica] a fymptom of leprofy, Vol, IV. p. 293.
True honey-bee, of America, Vol. LII. p. 241.
Tulip-tree (liriodendron tulipifera] ftimulant effects of camphor upon it, Vol.
IV. p. 232.

Tumuli, in the N. W. T. &c. curious difcoveries. made therein, Vol. IY.
+ 179) 203, 205. ;
P- 1799 203% 5. Lurbish

——_$_——— ——

Turbith mineral, not a pure oxyd, but a fulphate of mercury, Vol. IV. p.

_ 453-

Turner (Judge) his thermometrical obfervations made at Fort Wafhington,
commencing June 1790, and ending April 1791—to which are added,
for fome time, the rife and fall of the Ohio, Vol. IV. p. 329, 334—
his memoir on the extraneous foflils denominated mammoth bones :
principally defigned to fhew, that they are the remains of more than
one fpecies of non-defcript animal, Vol. IV. p. 510.

U

United States of N. A. an effay on thofe enquiries in natural hiftory which
at prefent are moft beneficial to them (viz.)
Medical enquiries, Vol. III. p. iii.

Rural economy vil.
Phyfico-mathematical xiii.
Natural hiftory xv.
Meteorology XXV.

population of, Vol. III. p. 25, 42, 134—in what period dou-
bled, 43—proportion of inhabitants under 16 years, ib.—particular in-
ftances of longevity in, 44—account of climates in, vi, 43, 47, 5I—
Neptunian origin of their fea coaft, Vol. IV. p. 439, 445.

Univerfal magnetic needle, Vol. I. p. 254. :

alphabet recommended, Vol. III. p. 263.

Unquiculated quadruped, the bones of an unknown one difcovered in Virginia,
Vol. IV. p. 247.

Utenfils, ufed in making of wine, Vol. I. p. 195.

Vv

—

Vapour, query concerning, Vol. II. p. roo—produced in cold air, experi-
ments on, Vol. III. p. 125.

(noxious) in wells, &c. an eafy and quick method of diffipating,
Vol. III. p. 324.

Variation of the compats, how to find it, Vol. II. p. 251.

Vegetable acid, combined with marine falt, its virtues, Vol. I. p. 284.

- kingdom in N. America, obfervations on it, Vol. I. pref. p. viii.

250.

Z produdtions of the U. States, Vol. IIT. p. x.

all reproduced by their own particular organs, Vol. I.

p- 201.

Vegetables, {timulant effects of camphor on, Vol. IV. p. 232, 234.

-, on the early condition of, Vol. IV. p. 503.

Velocity of light, Vol. I. appendix p. 36.

(extraordinary) of the comet of 1770, Vol. I. appendix p. 37, 46.

Venereal difeafe, Indian cure for it, Vol. I. p. 250.

Venus, calculations and projections of her tranfit in 1769, Vol. I. p. 4, 5,
26, 89—accounts of the tranfit, 8, 13, 26, 28, 29, 32, 45, 48, 49,
50, 82, 89, 97, 105, 114, 246, appendix p. 2, 12, to 20—delineati-
ons of it, p. 36, 66—{urrounded by a denfe atmofphere, 49—obferva-

tions

fo “ NE mM mH x,

tions on her-tranfit in 1761, p. 67—her diameter, 52, 795 84, 101,
appendix 4—mean diftance from the fun, ib.—obfervations on her paral-
lax; 63) 162, 116, appendix 57. See Tranfites |:

Vegi, how to afitt her failing, Vol. ILI. p. 331. ;

- (a fab-marine) principles and conftruétion of, Vol. IV. p. 303—curi-
ous experiments with, 308%, 310, 311.

Vefuvius; account of its eruption in 1767, Vol. I. p. 281—moft remark-
able eruptions of, 285.

Vienna, proportion of deaths, &c. at, Vol. III. p. 57.

Vinegar of the fugar-maple excellent, Vol. I. p. 73.

Vines, eflay on the culture of, and of making wine in N. America, Vol. I.
p- r4r7—climate well adapted, 120—produttivenefs,- 121—how to
plant and manage them, 123—and form a nurfery, 125, 134—the
vines moft fuitable, 126—4eledtion of cuttings when to procure and pre-
ferve them over winter, 128—planting them and preparing the ground,
130—fummer culture of them the firft year, 137—autumn culture the
firft year, ib.—do. the fecond year, 140—do. the third year, 142—cul-
ture in their bearing {tate, 143—new mode of trimming them, 144---gene-
ral directions, 146—concerning the trimming, ib.—number of branches
to be retained, 147+-when to uncover the vines in fpring, and how to
form proper heads, ib.—tranfplanting, 149—efpaliers the firlt year, 151
—fecond do. ib—third do. 153—fourth do. 156—diredtions to the
Southern Colonies, 157—Portugueze mode of culture, 159—of dung-
ing, 160—a rich manure, 161—guarding the fruit again{t boys, birds
and wafps, 163—how to prevent the effects of grub-worms, &c. 164—
to be planted alone, and at what diftance, 165—bands for binding
them to the ftakes, 170. See Vineyards.

—— (American) defcribed, Vol. I. p. 192.

Vineyards, their importance in America, Vol. I. p. 119—produttivenefs and
cultivation, 121—proper fituation, foil, and treatment, 123—manur-
ing, 124—nurferies, 125—particular vines to be chofen, 126—method
of laying out vineyards, 131, 135—-how to preferve the foil on hill
fides, 149+fite to be chofen, 150—how to gather in the vintage, 170
—art of making the wine, 171. See Vines.

Virginia, its population, Vol. III. pt 42—chmiate, 52—barometrical mea-
furement of the Blue-ridge, Warm-fpring and Alleghany mountains
there, Vol. IV. p. 216—other obfervations thereon, 222—unknown
bones found there, 246, 439—defcription of the Sand-hills of Cape-
Henry, and the natural formation of the country below the falls of its
rivers, 439—of Neptunian origin, ib. 444.

Vocabularies, exifting alphabets ill calculated for, Vol. III. p. 265.

Volcano, a fuppofed one in N, Carolina, Vol. III. p. 231. -

WwW

War, interefting reflexions on, by Mr. Jefferfon, Vol. IV. p. 320.

Waring (Wm.) on the theory of water-mills, &c. Vol. IIL. p. 144—his in-
veltigation of the powers and~a defcription of Barker’s mill, as im-
proved by James Rumfey, 185—his continuation of the fubje& of
water-mills, with an explanation of a paflage in his former communica-
tion, 319.

Warm

x=

Roa DD), Bay ke : 41

Warm Spring (Virginia) barometrical meafurement of, Vol. IV. p. 216.

Was-ift-das def{cribed, Vol. II. p. 9, to:

Wafhington (city of) account of the manner of laying it out, and running
the 10 miles fquare, Vol. IV. p. 49.

Water, experiments on the generation of air, from Vol. IV. p. 11.

-, the difference between pure and impure, in the prefervation of dead

flefh, Vol. IV. p. 131.

——-, why warmer or colder than land, Vol. I. p. 274—compared to a
fponge, Vol. II. p. 75—experiments on the evaporation of, 118—

great attraction to heat, 144.

- how to find its retarded velocity, and time of afcent into an exhauft-

ed receiver, through a tube by the afliftance of the parabola, Vol.

LVe pi 353.

-——- flate of at fea, Vol. III. p. 90, 2e0.

Water-mills, onthe theory of, Vol. III. p. 144, 185, 319. See Mills.

-rattle-fnake. See Rattle-fnake.

——--/pouts, theory of, Vol. 11. p. 101—occafioned by whirlwinds, 116
—a beautiful account of one, 10z—curious effect of one, 116—conjec-
tures concerning them, 335—feveral defcribed, to prove that their
water defcends, 336.

Wax, not produced by the bee only, Vol. III. p. 244.

Way of a rip, a new invention for meafuring it, Vol. III. p. 239.

Weights and meafures, new ftandard for, Vol. III. p. 328.

Wells ( Richard) his account of a new invented machine for pumpimg leaky
yeflels at fea, without manual labour, Vol. I. p. 289.

Wells, how to diffipate their vapours, Vol. III. p. 324.

Weft (Benjamin) his account of the tranfit of Venus as obferved at Provi-
dence (R. I.) 1769, Vol. I. p..97-

Weftern country of N. America, antiquities, &c. of, Vol. III. p. 214—prodi-
gious oifter fhells found there, 218—alfo abundance of other foflil {hells,
concretions, petrifactions, bones, &c. ib.—prairies, 219—former height
of the Mifliflippi, ib.—lofty rocks curioufly marked, ib.

Wheat, deftroyed by a fly weevil, with means for preventing it, Vol. I. p.
205—on the fame fubject, 218.

Whip-poor-cwill, fome account of, Vol. IV. p. 208.

White mountains of N. Hampthire, defcribed by Rev. Jexomy Belknap, Vol.
II, -p. 42 to 49.

Whirlwinds, the caufe of water fpouts, Vol. II. p. 111—defcribed under the
name of wind {pout, 342. :

Williams (Rev. Dr. Samuel) his experiments on evaporation and his meteoro-
logical obfervations, Vol. II, p. 118—his account of the tranfit of Ve-
nus, June 3, 1769, p.246—of Mercury, Nov. 9, 1769, p- 249—his
obfervation of a folar eclipfe, Nov. 6, 1771, p. 250—his magnetic ob-
fervations at Cambridge, Maffachufetts, in 1785, Vol. III. p. 115.

Williams (Fona.) his communication on Captain Billings’s thermometrical
journal of the air and water at fea, Vol. III. p. 194—on the ufe of the
thermometer, in difcovering banks, foundings, &c. p. 82—his ther-
mometrical journal of the temperature of the atmofphere and fea, go—
his barometrical meafurement of the Blue-Ridge, Warm-Spring and
Alleghany mountains in Virginia, Vol. IV. p. 216.

Williamln

42 Tet Sona "saa

Williamjon (Dr. Hugh) his account of the contaéts in the tranfit of Venus, in
1769, Vol. I. p. 48—his determination of the fun’s parallax, 78—his
effay on comets, and the origin of heat, appendix 27—his attempt to
aceount for the change of climate in the middle colonies, 272. ~

Wilfon (Rev. Matt.) on the feverity of the winter of 1779-80, Vol. III. p. 326

Willow tree, a great purifier of air, Vol. IL. p. 209.

Wind (Eaflerly) in hot weather accounted for, Vol. II. p. gt.

the caufe of epidemic inflammatory difeafes in Ireland, Vol.

IV. p. 244.

pout defcribed, Vol. II. p. 342.

Winds, properties of the N. American, Vol. I. pref. p. iv.—their caufe, p.
273—why the north-wett lefs frequent than formerly, 275—prevailing
ones at Cape Henry (V.) Vol. IV. p. 440.

Winds on I. Erie commonly refemble the fea and land breezes of the W.
Indies, Vol. IV. p. 224—in what directions blown, ib.

Wine recommended to be made in America, Vol. I. pref. p. ix. 119—eflay
on the making and preferving it, 118—concerning white wine, 172—,
red do. 175—-how to improve weak wines, 178—boiling the muft, ib.
—vellels proper to be ufed, 179, 180—alfo utenfils, 195—effect of lees
on wine, 180—curious and ufeful experiment, 185—principles of wine,

186—old Roman and other methods of preferving wine, 183, 188,

190, obfervations on American wine, 192.

(currant) recipe for making it, Vol. I. p. 248.

juice, yields a fine fpirit, Vol. I. p. 249.

Wiftar (Dr. Cafpar,) on evaporation in cold air, Vol. III. p. 125—his ex-
periments on evaporation, Vol. IV. p. 72, ©

Wood, its expanfion by heat, Vol. IV. p. 249.

Woodhoufz (Dr. Fames) his anfwer to Dr. Jofeph Prieftley’s confiderations
on the doétrine of phlogifton, and the decompofition of water ; found-
ed upon demonftrative experiments, Vol. IV. p: 452. _

Wool-bearing animals, a difquifition on, Vol. IV. p. 149.

Worm in a horfe’s eye, Vol. II. p. 183.

- (Guinea) feveral yards long, Vol. II. p. 389. t

- (a jointed,) 20 inches long and near 3 in circumference, in the liver of

a woman of Pennfylvania, Vol, II. p. 390.

- living in a dog, ib.

———-s in the human kidnies, &c. Vol. II. p. 391—fugar obnoxious to, Vol.

Il: p: 75.

-- in the brain, ib.

Wright (Wm.) account of the antifeptic virtues of vegetable acid and ma-
rine falt combined, in putrid diforders, Vol. II. p. 284.

——--- (Thomas) on the mode moft eafily and effectually practicable of
drying up the marfhes of the maritime parts of N. America, Vol. IV.

Pp. 243.

d Y
Youghiogeny river, a remarkable rock and cafcade near it, Vol. II. p. 50.

Z

Zanthoxilum, a tree of the fouthern colonies, a powerful ftimulant of the
glands of the mouth, Vol. I. pref. p. viil.

Vd