HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
LIBRARY
OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA,
FOR PROMOTING
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
VOLUME VI.
PUBLISHED BY
ce. AND A. CONRAD AND CO. PHILADELPHIA. CONRAD, LUCAS AND CO. BALTIMORE. SOMERVELL AND CONRAD, PETERSBURG, AND BONSAL, CONRAD AND CQ. NORFOLK.
(JANE AITKEN, PRINTER-]
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TRANSACTIONS
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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY:
HELD AT PHL LA Da, Pon 1A, FOR PROMOTING MSE FUL KNOW LE D GE.
VOLUME VI.—PART I.
PHILADELPHIA: FROM THE PRESS OF THE LATE R. AITKEN
BY JANE AITKEN, No. 20, NORTH POIRD STREET.
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District of Pennsylvania. To wir:
(L. Ss.) Be tt Remembered, That on the twenty- third day of March—in the twenty-eighth year of the Indepen- dence of the United States of America—Jane ArrKen of the said District hath deposited in this office, the Title of a Book, the right whereof she claims as Proprietor, in the words following to wit:
<« Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at “« Philadelphia, for promoting useful knowledge.”
VOLUME VI.—PART LI.
In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, en- tituled, ‘* An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books to the Authors and Pro. prietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned’? And also to the act entituled ‘* An Act supplementary to an act entituled, ‘“* An Act for the encouragement of Learning by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and Books to the Authors and Proprie- tors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned” and ex- tending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints.”
D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.
— LL ESE SS I EE IE DS IIE OE So ERTS SRG SAT AEE TA ©
ADVERTISEMENT.
The following are the Rules adopted for the govern- ment of Committees in the choice of papers for publication.
First. “ That the grounds of the Committee’s. “¢ choice of papers for the press, should always be “the importance or singularity of the subjects, “ or the advantageous manner of treating them, ** without pretending to answer, or to make the “¢ the society answerable, for the certainty of the. “ facts, or propriéty of the reasonings, contained ‘© in the several papers so published, which must *« still rest on the credit or judgment of their re-
“ spective authors.
SECONDLY. “That neither the Society, nor the ‘¢ Committee of the press, do ever give their “ opinion as a body, upon any paper they may ¢ publish, or upon any subject of Art or Nature
* that comes before them.”
LIST or rue OFFICERS
OF THE
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCI ETY,
For the Year 1804,
Patron. Taomas M'KE4n, Governor of the Srare of Pewnsyivania. PresipeNtT, Thomas Jefferfon.
Robert Patterfon. Vice-PResIDENTS. Cafpar Wittar. Benjamin Smith Barton.
John Redman Coxe. Adam Seybert. Thomas C. James: Thomas T. Hewfons
SECRETARIES.
James Woodhoufe. Benjamin H. Latrobe. Samuel Duffield. Jonathan Williams, Andrew Ellicott. Samuel Magaw. Nicholas ollin. Pench Coxe. William White.. Jonathan B. Smith. Adam Kuhn.
| Peter S. Duponceau:
CouNCELLORS»
CURATORS. Robert Hire, Jun.
C. W. Peale. John Church.
TREASURER-. John Vaughan
fw.)
LIST oF THE MEMBERS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, EleGted fince April 1801.
AMERICAN MEMBERS.
Thomas Cooper, Northumberland. William Barnwell, M. D. Philadelphia. William Stephen Jacobs, M. D. do.
James Meafe, M. D. do. Philip S. Phyfick, M. D. do. John Church, M. D. do:
John Garnett, Brunfwick New Jerfey. Robert Hare, Jun. Philadelphia. Benjamin Dearborn, Bofton.
Francis Nichols, Philadelphia.
David Ramfay, M. D. Charlefton, S. C. Merewether Lewis, Virginia.
Robert Gilmor, Jun. Baltimore.
David Humphreys, Rhode Iland. Jofhua Gilpin, Philadelphia,
ForEiGN MEMBERs.
Jarvis Roebuck, M. D. St. Croix.
William Roxburgh, M. D. Calcutta.
El Marques de Casa Yrujo, Minis. Plenip. & Envoy Extra. from the Court of Spain, to the U.S.
-Peter Blecher Olfen, late Danifh Minis. Res. and Cons. Gen. to the U. S.
Letombe, late Cons. Gen. from the French Republic.
Philip Rofe Roume, member of the French National Inftitute.
El Cavallero Don. Valentin de Foronda, Cons. Gen. from the Court of Spain, to the U.S.
Benjamin Count of Rumford, of Great Britain.
Jean Baptifte Jofeph Delambre, one of the Secretaries of the National In- stitute of France.
Daniel Melanderhjelm, member of the Royal Swedifh Academy of Sciences.
Eric Profperin, profeflor of Aftronomy in the Univerfity of Upfal.
=
Conditions of the Magellanic Premium.
M. JOHN Hyacinth De Magellan, in London, having fometime ago offered as a donation, to the American Philofophical Society held at Phi- ladelphia for promoting ufeful knowledge, the {um of two hundred guineas, to be by them vefted in a fecure and permanent fund,. to the end that the int reft arifing therefrom fhould be annually ditpofed of in premiums, to be adjudged by the fociety, to the author of the belt difcovery, or moft ufefi lb invention, relating to navigation, aftronomy, or natural philofophy (mere natural hiftory only excepted) and the fuciety having accepted of the above donation, hereby publifh the conditions, prefcribed by the donor, and agreed to by the fociety, upon which the faid annual premiums will be awarded.
I. The candidate fhall fend his difcovery, invention, or improvement, addrefled to the Prefident, or one of the Vice-Prefidents of the fociety, free of poftage or other charges; and fhall diftinguifh his performance by fome motto device or other fignature, at his pleature. Together with his difcovery, invention, or improvement, he fhall alfo fend a fealed letter, con- taining the fame motto device or fignature, and fubfcribed with the real name, and place of refidence of the author.
2. Perfons of any nation, fect, or denomination whatever, fhall be ad- mitted as candidates for this premium.
3. No difcovery, invention, or improvement fhall be entitled to this premium, which hath been already publifhed,, or. for which the author hath been publicly rewarded elfe where.
4. The candidate fhall communicate his difeovery, invention, or improve- ment, either in the Englifh, French, German, or Latin language:
5. All fuch communications fhall be publickly read, or exhibited to the fociety, at fome ftated meeting, not lefs than one month previous. to the day of adjudication;. and fhall at all times be open to. the infpettion of fuch members as fhall defire it. But no member {hall carry home with him the communication, defcription, or model, except the officer to whom it fhall be intrufted; nor fhall fuch officer part with the fame out of his cuftody, without a fpecial order of the fociety for that pur- pofe.
6. The fociety having previoufly referred the feveral communications, from candidates for the premium then depending, to the confideration of the twelve councellors and other officers of the fuciety, and having re-
Vili MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.
ceived their report thereon, fhall, at one of their ftated meetings in the month of December, annually, after the expiration of this current year, (of the time and place, together with the particular occafion of which meeting, due notice fhall be previoufly given, by public advertife- ment) proceed to the final adjudication of the faid premium: and after ; due confideration had, a vote fhall firft be taken on this queftion, viz. Whether any of the communications then under infpeétion be worthy of the propofed preminm? If this queftion be determined in the negative, the whole bufinefs fhall be deferred till another year: but if in the affir- mative, the fociety fhall proceed to determine by ballot, given by the members at large, the difcovery, invention, or improvement, moft ufe- ful and worthy; and that difcovery, invention, or improvement, which fhall be found to have a majority of concurring votes in its favour fhall be fuccefsful; and then, and not till then, the fealed letter accompany- ing the crowned performance fhall be opened, and the name of the author announced as the perfon entitled to the faid premium.
7. No member of the fociety who is a candidate for the premium then depending, or who hath not previoully declared to the fociety, either by word or writing, that he has confidered and weighed, according to the beft of his judgment, the comparative merits of the feveral claims then under confideration, fhall fit in judgment, or give his vote in awarding the faid premium.
8. A full account of the crowned fubjeé& fhall be publithed by the fociety, as foon as may be after the adjudication, either in a feparate publication, or inthe next fucceeding volume of their tranfa€tions, or in both.
9. The unfuccefsful performances fhall remain under confideration, — their authors be confidered as candidates for the premium, for five years next fucceeding the time of their prefentment; except fuch performances as their authors may, in the mean time, think fit to withdraw. And the fociety fhall, annually, ‘publifh an abftract of the titles, object or fubje& matter of the communications fo under confideration; fuch only Facepiece as the fociety fhall think not worthy of public notice.
10. The letters containing the names of authors whofe performances fhall be rejected, or which fhall be found unfuccefsful after a tryal of five years, fhall be burnt before the fociety, without breaking the feals.
11. In cafe there fhould be a failure, in any year, of any commuti- cation worthy of the propofed premium, there will then be two premiums to be awarded in the next year. But no accumulation of premiums fhall entitle an author to more than one premium for any one difcovery, invention, or improvement.
DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY. 1X
12. The premium fhall confit of an oval plate of folid ftandard gold, of the value of ten guineas; on one fide thereof fhall be neatly engraved a fhort Latin motto, fuited to the occafion, together with the words The premium of John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London, eftablifhed in the year 1786. And on the other fide of the plate fhall be engraved thefe words. Awarded by the A, P.S. for the difcovery of —— A. D.—
And the feal of the fociety fhall be annexed to the medal, by a ribbon pafling through a fmall hole at the lower edge thereof.
DONATIONS
Received by the American Philosophical Society, since the Publica- tion of the Fifth Vol. of their Transactions.
FOR THE LIBRARY. FROM THE RESPECTIVE SOCIETIES.
NOVA Acta Acad’ Scient. Imp. Petrop. Tom. 12. 1801, 4to.
Nouveaux Memoires de L’ Academie Royale des Sciences et Bel- les Lettres, pour les Années, 1786—1798, Tom. 1—9. Ber- lin. Ato.
Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia, Tom. 1—3. 1796,
1796, 1799. Madrid, 4to.
Catalogo de los individuos actuales. Madrid, 1803.
Oracion funebre por El Exc®. el Conde de Campomanes, por Don J. Traggia. Madrid, 1802.
Dos Oraciones al Rey, 1785, 1788.
Nuevos Estatutos de la Real Academia. Madrid, 1792. Juntas publicas de la Real Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pays, de Valencia, celebradas 1799, 1800. 2 Tom. 4to. Verhandelingen van het Bataafsch Genootschap, der proefonder-
vindelyke Wysbegeerte te Rotterdam, Deel. 7, 8, 10—12, 1793—1798, Ato. Nieuwe Verhandelingen, &c. Deel. 1,2. Te Amsterdam, 1800, 1801, Ato. Memoires de L’ Institut National des Sciences et des Arts, 3me et Ame, Tomes, pour les Années, 9, 11. Paris, 4to. The Ist & 2d vol. were sent, but have miscarried. Memoire sur les Collections de Voyages des de Bry et de Thevenot. Par A. G. Camus, membre de l’Inst, L’an. 11, Paris, 4to. Printed at the expence of the Institute.
x DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY.
* Gottingensis Reg, Soc, Scien. Novi Commentarii. Tom. 5—8.
1774—1777, Ato.
——— Commentationes. Tom. 1—14, 1778—1799, Ato.
Transactions of the Society of Arts, Manufactures and Com- merce, 1—20 Vol. Lond. 1783—1802, S8vo.
Transactions of the Linnean Society, 1—6 Vol. Lond. 1791— 1802, Ato.
Archzlogia, or Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Lon- don, 1—13 Vol. 1779—1800, Ato.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1—4 Vol. and Ist & 2nd part of 5th Vol. 1788—1802, 4to.
Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- chester, Vols. 4th & 5th, 2 parts each, 1793—1802, 8vo.
Transactions of the Historical Society of Massachusetts, 1—8 Vols. Boston, 1792—1795 & 1798—1802, 8vo. Alsoa catalogue of their Library.
Prospectus, Charter, Ordinances, &c. of the Royal Institution of G. Britain; with lists of Proprietors, &c. Lond. 1800, 4to.
Communication from the Pennsylvania Society for the encourage- ment of manufactures and the usefularts. Philad. 1804, 8vo.
tee
The Transactions, of the Royal Irish Academy, 2—8 Vols. 4to. and of the Haarlem Society, 1—42 Vols. 8yo, are on their way, but are not yet received.
———_ ————}
Batavian Republic; By the Council of the Interior. The Flora Batava. Drawings by J. C. Sepp & Son, De- scription by J. Kops. Numbers 1—12. Amsterdam. Commen- ced 1800.
FROM INDIVIDUALS.
Adams (Jchn—L. L. D.). The 2d & 3d, vols. of his Defence of the American Constitutions; to complete the work. London. 1787, 1788, 8vo.
Aitken (Jane). The present laws of the College of New Jersey. Phi- lad. 1802. 8vo.
Ramsay’s (David—M. D.) History of the American Revo- lution, 2 vols. Philad. 1789, 8vo.
-——Linn’s (Rev. J. B.) Discourse on the death of the Rey. Dr.
John Ewing. Philad. 1802. 8vo.
DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY. Xi
Roscoe’s (William) Life of Lorenzo de Medici, 1—3 vols. Philad. 1803, 8vo.
Bridges (Robert). Murillo Velarde’s Historia dela Prov. de Phi-
lipinas, de la Compania de Jesus, 2da parte. Maniila, 1749, fol.
Vicente de Salazar’s Historia de la Prov. de Philipinas,
‘ China, y Tunking. 3a parte. Manilla, 1742, fol.
Barnwell (William M. D). His Physical investigations and deduc- tions from medical and surgical facts. Philad. 1802, 8vo.
Bradford (S. F). Sir William Jones’s Asiatic Researches 1—6 vol.
Lond. 1801, 8vo
Poeseos Asiatice Commentarii. Au¢tore Gulielmo Jones, A M. Lond. 1774, 8vo.
Barton (Wiiliam—A. M.). His Dissertation on the freedom of na- vigation and maritime commerce. Philad. 1802, 8vo.
Observations on the Trial by Jury, with remarks on Jurispru- dence, By an American. Strasburg, 1803, 8vo.
Barton (Benjamin Smith, M. D.) His Supplement to a memoir, on the fascinating quality of the Rattle-snake. Philad. 1800, 8vo.
The Ist & 2d parts of his Ccllections for an essay towards a materia medica of the United States. Philad. 1801, 1804, 8vo.
His Elements of Botany parts lst & 2d. Philad. 1803, 8vo.
——Rittenhouse’s (David, Late President of the A. P. S.) Oration delivered before the Society. Philad. 1775, 4ito.
La Cepede’s Discours @ouverture du Cours de Zoologie de l’an 9. Paris 4to.
Belknap’s (Jeremiah, by his widow) 2d vol. of American Biogra- phy. Boston. 1798. 8vo.
Birch (W. Y.) & Small (A.}. Russel’s (W.) History of Ancient
Europe. 2 vols. Philad. 1801, 8vo.
Russel’s (W.) History of Modern Europe. 1—5 vols. Philad. phia. 1801, 8vo.
—Willich’s (A. F. M.) Domestic Encyclopedia, Edited by
James Mease, M. D. 5 Vols. Philad. 1803-4, 8vo.
Brown (S—M. D.) A plan of the Muscle shoals in Tenessee river.
Buchan (Earl of ——Dryburg Abbey, Scotland). The Plan of the City of Washington presented to him by Gen. Washington.
Byrne (Patrick). Kirwan’s (R.) Essay on Manures, Dublin,
1801, 8vo.
Culley’s (G) Observations on Live-stock. Dublin, 1789, 8vo.
Carey (M). Arrowsmisth’s Map of the discoveries in North Ame- rica. Lond, 1795.
Xil DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY.
Priestley’s (Joseph, L. L. D—F. R. S.) Biographical Charts
to the present time 4to. Description, 8vo. Philad. 1803. Campbell (Rose). Quinologia 6 tratado del arbol de la quina &c. por Don Hipolito Ruiz, primer Botanico del Expedicion del Pe- ru. Madrid, 1792, Ato.
Unanue’s (Don J, H.) Disertacion sobre el cultivo, &c. dela planta Coca del Pert, with a specimen of the leaves. Lima, 1794, Ato.
Chauncey (Charles). The Transactions of the Agricultural Socie- ty of the State of Connecticut. Ato.
Collin (Nicholas, D. D). Prosperin’s (Erico) ‘‘ Dissertatio de Cognitione Probabili, Uplandi, 1767, 4to.
Serenus’s (Jacob) Dictionary of Swedish, Latin & English. Hamburg, 1734, Ato.
Conrad (I. & Co). Volney’s Lectures on History. Philad. 180],
Svo.
Chaptal’s Elements of Chemistry. Philad. 1801, 8vo.
Coxe (J. R.—M. D.). His Practical observations on Vaccination.
Philad. 1802, 8vo.
Ackerman Suardy & Co’s Analitical Hints on their pro-
cess, to render Cloth &c. water-proof. London, 1801, 8vo
On Vaccination; several small publications from England”
with an account of the Royal Jennerian Institution establish- ed for the extermination of the small pox. London. 1803.
Dana (Francis). Catalogus Bibliothece Harvardiane Cantabrigize Nov. Anglorum. Bostoniz, 1790.
Dalton (J). His Meteorological Observations & Essays, Lond. 1793, 8vo.
Drayton (John). His View of South Carolina as respects natu- ral and civil concerns. Charleston, 1802, 8vo.
Dobson (Thomas). Smith’s (Carmichael) Essay on nitrous fumi- gation. Philadelphia 1799 8vo.
Foronda (Le Chev. Don Valentin de) Cons. Gen. from Spain to the U. S. The following works of which he is the Author or Translator.
Cartas Sobre la Economica Politica y sobre las leyes crimi- nales, 2'Tom. Madrid, 1789, 1794, 8vo.
Coleccion de Varios discursos; 2d Ed. Madrid, 1793, 8vo.
Lecciones Ligeras de Chimica. Madrid, 1791, 8vo.
Cartas sobre la Policia. Madrid, 1801, 12mo.
Reflexiones sobre la Memoria de Don Gabriel de Ciscar tocante 4 los neuvos pesos y medidas decimales.
DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY. Xtil
——Carta sobre lo que debe hacer un Principe que tenga colonias a gran distancia. Philad. 1803, 8vo.
Carta sobre contribuciones. 1800.
——Memorias sobre la fabricacion de Hospitales; leidas en la Real
Academia de Paris. Traducidas al Castellano, 8vo.
—Traduccion (con muchas notas) de las Instituciones Politicas de Bielfield, tratando delos Reynos de Portugal y Espana. Burdeos. 1781.
La Logica de Condillac puesta en Dialogo; 2d Ed. Madrid. 1800, 12mo,
Fahlburg (Samuel, M. D). An additional map of St. Bartholo- mews, shewing a dangerous Shoal in its vicinity.
Fothergill (Ant. M. D.—F. R. S.), His Essay on the preserva-
tion of shipwrecked mariners. London, 2d Ed. 1800, 8vo.
Annual reports of the Royal Humane Society for 1801, 1803.
Anniversary Sermons before the R. H. S. by Dr. Valpy Lon- don, 1802, 8vo. by the Bishop of Glocester London, 1803, Svo.
Pocket Instructions from the R. H. S. for the prevention of premature death.
An Engraving and account of the Marine Spencer.
—The Philanthropist, a play, by M. Jenkins.
Rules, Orders and premiums &c. of the Bath and West of England Society. Bath, 1802.
Garnett (J.). His plain and concise Projection for clearing the Lu-
nar distances from the effects of parallax and refraction. Bruns-
wick N. J. 1801.
Printed specimen of a Table of Logarithms, Idem 1803.
His Edition of ‘‘ Clarke’s Seaman’s desiderata.””> Brunswick NSA 0S |
Gregoire. *‘ l’Apologie de Barthelemy de las Casas.” Paris Pan. 8, 4to.
Groff (J). Aikin’s (C. R.) Concise view &c. of facts concerning the Vaccine or Cow-Pock. Philad. Ed. with a new Ap- pendix. 1801. 12mo.
Hatchett (C). His» Analysis of a mineral substance from North- America, containing a metal hitherto unknown. From the Transactions of the R. S. Lond. 4to.
Haygarth (John, M.D.). His Medical Transactions, 1—4 Vol. Bath, 1801, 8vo.
Hupsch (Le Baron de). Description de machines et remedes, pour détruire les Insectes nuisibles,” Colog. 1797, 12mo.
XIV DONATIONS FOR THE. LIBRARY.
Hupsch (Le Baron de). “ Nouvelle decouverte, d’une methode eflicace de traiter les hommes qui ne sont morts qu’en appar- ence.”? Cologne, 1789, 12mo. '
‘¢ Patriotische Vorschlage die Ausbreitung der jets herschen- den landesverderblichen Hornviehseuche.’’ Cologne. 1776, 12mo.
Proposal to exchange objects of Natural History &c. Cologne 1802.
-——‘* Tablettes Synoptiques et Systématiques de son Cabinet des
Curiosités Naturelles.’’ premiere partie. Regne Mineral. Cologne, 1797, 8vo.
——Brion’s (C. L. I. de) Relation du Cabinet et de la Biblioteque, consacrés a usage public, par M. Le Baron de Hupsch. Cologne, 1792, 8vo.
Idem—Historischer und pragmatischer Beweis der grossen und vielfachen Verdienste des Freyh Von Hupsch. Co- logne, 1799, 8vo.
Humphreys (J). Parke’s (Mungo) Travels in the interior of Afri-
ca 1795—7 with Major Rennel’s Geographical Illustrations.
Philad. Ed. 1800, 8vo.
Robertson’s (Wm. D. D.) Hist. of N. Am. Philad. 1799, 8vo.
Parkinson’s (James) Chemical pocket book with an appendix : by J. Woodhouse, M. D. Philad. Ed. 1801, 12mo.
Gleanings of Husbandry Gardening &c. from 2d London Ed, with remarks by a gentleman of Philad. 1803, 8vo.
Graves’s (Robert M. D.) Pocket Conspectus of the Lon- don and Edinburgh Pharmacopeeias. Philad. 1804, 12mo.
Jacobs (W.S—M. D.). His Student’s Chemical Pocket Companion. Philad. 1802, 12mo.
Knox (Rev. S.). An Essay on the means of improving public Education. Fredericktown, 1803, 8vo.
Laforgue (L.). “?Art du Dentiste” Paris, Pan. 10, 8vo.
Latimer (J.). Mercurio Peruano de Historia, Literatura &c. por
una Sociedad Academica de Amantes del Pays, 2 Tomos, Lima, 1791, Enero 4 Agosto, 4to.
Leslie (R). Wm. Tatham’s Political Oeconomy of Inland Naviga- tion. Philad. 1799, 4to.
Repertory of Arts 1—12 Vol. to the year 1800, Lond. 8vo.
Lettsom (John Coakley, M. D.). His Essay on the Cow Pox.
Lond. 1801, 4to.
Hints to promote Beneficence, Temperance, &c. 1—3 Vols. Lond. 1801, 8vo.
DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY. XV
Haygarth’s ‘John M. D.). Enquiry how to prevent the Small- Pox. Bath, 1801, 8vo.
Levingston (R. R.—Am. Minis. in France). Exposition Publique des produits de ?industrie Francoise. Paris Pan. 10, 12mo.
Morgan (J). Sir Alexander Mackenzie’s Voyage through the con-
tinent of North America to the Pacific ocean, 2 Vol. Phila.
1802, 8vo.
Forsyth’s (W.) Treatise on the culture and management of Fruit Trees, with plates. Philad. 1802, 8vo.
Moore (Thos). His exposition of the great error of American Agriculture. Baltimore, 1801, 8vo.
— Essay on Ice-houses, and an account of a newly discovered
Refrigerator. Baltimore, 1803, 8vo.
Mosely (Benj. M. D.). The 2d Ed. of his Medical Tracts. London, 1800, 8vo.
Ormrod (J). Wm, L. Browne’s Essay on the natural equality of man. Philad. 1803, 8vo.
Poulin (J). Les Saisons de Thompson traduites en Vers Francois. 2 Vol. Paris, 1802, 8vo.
Pugh (S). Six copies of his ‘‘ Observations sur les moyens de perfectionner les Barometres.’’- Rouen, l’an. 8, Ato.
Proud (R). His History of Pennsylvania. 2 Vols. Phila. 1797, 8vo.
Peale (C. W). His Epistle to a Friend on the means of preserving health. Philad. 1803, 8vo. .
Peale (Rembrant). His account of the Skeleton of the Mammoth.
Lond. 1802, 8vo.
Historical disquisition on the Mammoth. Lond. 1803, 8vo.
Priestley (Joseph) F. R. S.—L. L. D.). His History of Early opi- nions concerning Christ, 4 Vols. Birmingham, 1786, 8vo.
Discourses on various Subjects. Birm. 1787, 8vo.
—— Miscellaneous Observations on Education, 2 Ed. 1788, 8vo.
Letters to Burke. 1791, 8vo.
Letters to the Philosophers of France, &c. Lond. 1793, 8vo.
Answer to Paine’s Age of Reason. Lond. 1795, 8vo.
Letters to the Inhabitants of Birmingham. 1790, 8vo.
Two appeals on the Ricts of Birmingham. 1792, 8vo.
Forms of Prayer, &c. for Unitarian Societies. Birmingham, 1783, 8vo. ,
Remarks on Wakefield & Evanson, in letters toa young man. Lond. Ist part, 1792, 2d part 1793.
Lectures en History, with a Chapter on the Constitution
of the U. S. 2 Vol. Phila. 1803, 8vo.
KVL DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY.
Sermon on a Fast day, April 1793, at Hackney. Lon. 1793.
Doctrine of Phlogiston established, 8vo. Northd. 1803.
Collins on Human Liberty, re-published with a preface by J..P. 1790, 8vo.
Spalding (Lyman, M. B). Bills of Mortality for Portsmouth, New- Hampshire, for 1801-2-3, collected and arranged by him. Smith (Richard, of Huntingdon). Dobb’s (Arthur). Account of
the country adjacent to Hudson’s Bay, Lond. 1744, Ato. |
Maupertuis on the figure of the Earth, and measurement of a degree of Longitude. Translation. London, 1788, 8vo.
Ustaritz (Don G. de). On the Theory and Practice of Com- merce. Dublin, 1752, 8vo.
——Coxe’s (Tench) View of the United States. Phila. 1794, 8vo.
Account of the Establishment of Washington College Mary- land. Phila. 1784, 8vo.
Missionalia or pieces relative to the Missions to the Africans, and American Indians. London .1727, 8vo.
Smith (Wm. L. L. D.), Dickinson (John). Their Essay on the Constitutional Power of G. Britain over America. Philad. 1774, 8vo.
Smith (Chas. Lancaster). Pitisci Lexicon Antiquitatum Roman-
orum. Tomi. 2, Leovardiz, 1713, fol. ——Murray’s (S. Alexr) True Interest of Great Britain and Ire- land and the Plantations; and proposals for an union. London, 1740 fol.
——wWidow and Children’s fund, of the Church of England in Scotland. Edinb. 1748 fol.
—— /Eliani Sophistae Varie Historie, cum versione Justi Vulteji, et Jacobi Perizonii commentario, Lugduni, Batav. 2 Tom. 1701, 8vo.
——Liimborch (Philip. a) de veritate religionis Christiane. Gode, 1687, Ato.
Kersey’s (John) Elements of Algebra. London, 1673, fol.
——Fry (Joseph and Son’s), specimens of printing Types. Lond. 1785, 8vo.
Parker’s (Richard) History and Antiquities of the University of Cambridge G. B. London, 1622, 8vo.
——Starrat’s (William) Doctriné of projectiles applied to Gunne- ry. Dublin 1733, 8vo.
Grew’s (Theophilus) Tables ofthe sun and moon fitted to the meridian of Philadelphia. Manuscript, 1746, Ato.
-—Ali Ben, Ali Taleb Carmina Arabicé et Latineé edidit et notis
illustravit Gerardus Kuypers. Lugduni Batav. 1745, 8vo.
DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY. XVI
Smith (Charles). Sullivan’s (Thomas) Journal of the American War from 1775 to 1778, Manuscript, 8vo.
Smith (Jon B.) White’s (John). Surgeon Gen. to the Settle- ment. Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales, with 65 plates of natural productions. London, 1790. Ato.
Tracy (Destut). ‘* Project D’Elements d’Idiologie” (2 copies) Paris, Pan 9, 8vo.
Vaughan (Sam.Jun.) Dictionare, Orient. D’Herbelot. Mastricht,
1776, folio.
Supplement, par Visdelou and Galand, 1780.
Pere Duhalde’s description of China and Chinese Tartary Ko- rea and Thibet, 2 Vols. with the Charts bound separate. London, 1738, 1748, folio.
Aikin’s (John, M. D). Description of Manchester and its environs. London, 1795, 4to.
Vaughan (Benj). Geo R. Minot’s continuation of the History of Massachusetts Bay, from 1748 to 1763. 2 Vols. Boston, 1798, 1803, 8vo.
Vaughan (John of Delaware). Valedictory Lecture to the Philoso- cal Society of Delaware. Wilmington, 12mo.
Vaughan (John of Philad.) Kliyogg of Switzerland, or an account of the Rural Socrates. Hallowell, Maine, 1800, 8vo.
Smeaton’s (John). Experimental enquiry concerning the
powers of water and wind to turn mills. London, 1794.
Chalmer’s (Geo). Estimate of the Comparitive Strength of G. —
Britain. London, 1783, 4to. Priestley (Joseph, L. L. D.—F. R. S.) 3d Vol. Experiments &c. on Air, to complete the set Birmingham, 1780, 8vo.
Comparison of the Institutions of Moses with those of the Hin- doos. Northumberland, 1799 8vo.
—Ramsay’s (David, M. D.) History of the Revolution of South
Carolina 2 Vols. Trenton, 1785, 8vo. — Medical Register for 1802 Charleston, S. C. 12mo. Seward’s(Wm. Wenman) Topographia Hibernica. Dublin, 1795, Ato. Hutchinson’s (Thomas) History of Massachusetts. 2 Vols. Salem, 1795, 8vo
Clavering’s (Robt). Essay on the Construction of Chimnies,
3d Ed. London, 1793, 8vo.
Waterhouse (Benj. M. D.) Two pamphlets on the Variolz Vaccine or Cow-Pox. Boston, 1£C0, & 1802, 8vo. Publications by the Board of Agricultuic, Massachusetts, 8vo.
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Vaughan (John of Philad.) Eddy’s (Thomas) account of the State Prison of New-York. 2d Ed. 1800, 8vo. . —Winkelman’s Dutch and German Dict. Amst. 1796, 8vo. Dutch and German Grammar. Rotterdam. —Binns’s (John) Treatise on practical farming, and the use of Gypsum. Frederick. town, 1803, 8vo. Valentin (Louis, M. D.) M. de Commerel, sur la Culture de la Ra- cine de disette ou Bétterave Champetre. Paris, 1798. Lettre du Committé medical de Paris, sur Pinnoculation de la Vaccine, l’an 9. ——“ Resultats de l’innoculation de la Vaccine dans quatre depart- ments de France.’ Strasburg, 1802, 8vo. Wilkinson (Geo. of G. B.) His Experiments and observations on the Cortex Salicis Latifoliz. New-Castle, Tyne. 1803, 8vo.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
INAUGURAL DISSERTATIONS. For the degree of Doétor in Medicine, presented by the au- thors or the professors of that institution. Philad. 8vo. Ashton (Henry, Virg.) On the remitting and intermitting bilious Fever of some counties in Virginia, 1803. Carter (Robert Virg.) Comparative enquiry into the properties and uses of Opium, 1803. - Dorsey (John S. Philadelphia). On the Lithontriptic Virtues of the Gastric Liquor, 1802. Downie (Wm. Maryland). On the properties of the Sanguinaria Canadensis or Puccoon, 1803. Duval (Grafton, Md.) Onthe Melia Azedarach of Linneus, 1802. Geddy (John C. of Virg.) On the absorption of Medicines, 1802. Holmes (Robert, Virg.) On the properties of the Bignonia Catal- pa of Linneus, 1803. Hutchinson (James, Philad.) On the conversion of Chyle into Blood, 1805S. Jackson (H. Geo.) On the efficacy of external applications, 1802. Jacobs (Wm. S. Brabant). On Urinary and Intestinal Calculi, 1801, Logan (Geo. S. Carolina). On the Hepatic State of Fever, 1802. Mace (John, Maryland) On the Proximate cause of Disease, 1802. Macrery (Jos. Del.) | On the principle of Animation, Wilming- mington, 1802. Martin (John, Delaware). On the Vitality of the Blood, 1802. Massey (T. Virg.) On the properties of the Polygala Senega, 1803. M‘Donald (Thompson, Virg.) On the Cynanche Trachealis,1802.
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Nelson (Wm. Virg.) On the management of Peruvian Bark, 1802.
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Price (Thomas D. Virginia). On the Magnolia Glauca, or com- mon White Laurel tree, 1802.
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Walker (John M. Virginia). Comparison between the virtues of the Cornus Florida and Sericea, and the Cinchona officinalis of Linneus, 1803.
Washington (Wm. Virginia). On the Diabetes, 1802.
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‘Wilson (Daniel, Virg.) On the Morbid effects of Opium, 1803.
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XX DONATIONS FOR THE CABINET.
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A Specimen of Earthen Ware, formed from Clay procured from Lancaster County.
— A Specimen of the Argilla Porcellana, from the foot of the Ke-
tocton Mountain, Near Hagers-Town, Maryland.
Brown (John, Kentucky). A Portion of the Cranium and part of the horn of an animal supposed to be of the Bison kind—from the root of the Horn to the middle Suture, measures 7 inches; and the horn is 22 inches in circum. atthe root. It was found in a Creek falling into the Ohio River.
Brown (Samuel M. D.) An Amulet (Roman Catholic) found a considerable depth under ground near Nashville, Tennesee.
Campbel (Rose; An Arrow Belt with Poisan’d arrows, with a Tube to blow them through, 7 feet in length, from Peru.
Coxe (J. R.) Cast im Profile, bronzed, of Lavoisier.
Coates (Joseph) Two Bezcar or Serpent Stones from Hydrabad in Indostan,
Levingston (R. R.) Specimens of Pyrites from Flanders, which when burnt are used as manures; also specimens of clays and spar used in the China manufactory at Séves near Paris.
Poyntell (William). A Storm Glass with observations thereon du-
ring a Voyage from Europe, 1803.
Sanson (Joseph). A Cast Bust of Franklin, first President of the So- ciety. By Flaxman, from Houdon.
Shaw (H. G.) and Duplessis (P. B.) Calculus weighing 18lb. found in the Duodenum of a horse.
Smith (T. P.) late Associate of the Society. He left to it by Will, numerous Specimens of minerals, collected in various parts of Europe. 80 whereof from the French Council of mines, others from Hauy, Watt, &c.
Smith (Geo.) Two fine Specimens of Rock Chrystal, from La Plata.
Vaughan (J. Philad.) 32 Specimens of copper Coins or Medail- fons from the Soho Mint, England.
Williams (Jonathan). A Patent right to a new Mode of refining Sugar of which an account will be found in No. XVII of the present Volume. It is free for public use, and further experi-
“ments are invited,
—= te
Morris (R. H_) Some bnilding materials towards making an alter- ation in the Hall of the Society.
2 pee
———a
CONTENTS
OF VOLUME VI.—PART I.
No,
I. AN Account of the Language of Signs, among certain North American Indians, By Wiiliam Dunbar, Esq. of Nat- chez on the Mississippi; Member of the Society: communi- cated by Thomas Jefferson, President of the Society.
II. Meteorological Observations for one entire Year, ending the 31st of January 1800, made by William Dunbar, Esq. at the Forest, 4% miles East of the Mississippi, in Lat. 31° 28' N. and Long. 91° 30! W. of Greenwich; on an Eminence about 150 Feet above the Level of the highest Wa- ters of the annual Inundation of the Mississippi. Commu- mated by the President of the Society.
III. Description of a singular Phenomenon seen at Baton Rouge, by William Dunbar Esq. Communicated by the President of the Society.
IV. A short and easy Rule for finding the Equation for the Change of Sun's Declination, when equal Altitudes are used
to regulate a Clock or other Time-Keeper. By Andrew.
Ellicott, Esq. Communicated by the Author.
V. Account of an extraordinary Flight of Meteors (commonly called shooting Stars). Communicated by Andrew Ellicott Esq. as extracted from his Journal, in a Voyage from New- Orleans to Philadelphia.
VI. An improved Method of projecting and measuring plane Angles. By R. Paiierson. Communicated by Andrew Ellicott Esq.
VIL, Sur la Lhéorie des Vents, Par M. Dupont de Nemours. d
Page:
25
26
28
29 32
CONTENTS.
No.
VILL. Evtracts of a Letter from Wiiliam Dunbar Esq. of the Natchez, to the President of the Society; relating to fossil Bones found in Louisiana, and to Lunar Rainbows observed West of the Mississippi.
IX. Meteorological Observations, made by William Dunbar Esq. at the Forest 4 Miles West of the Mississippi, in Lat. 31°. 28/. N. and Long. 91°. 30'. W. of Greenwich, for the Year 1800—with Remarks on the State of the Wea- ther, Vegetation, &c. calculated to give some Idea of the Climate of that Country.
X. Abstract of a Communication from Mr. Martin Duralde, relative to fossil Bones &c. found in the Country of Apelou- sas, West of the Mississippi—to William Dunbar Esq. of the Natchez, and by him transmitted to the Society.
XI. Observations made on a Lunar Eclipse, at the Observato- ry in the City of Philadelphia, on the 21st of Septemer 1801; by R. Patterson and A. Ellicott.
XII. On the Hybernation of Swallows; by the late Colonet Antes. Communicated by Dr. Barton.
XIII. Astronomical Observations made at Lancaster, Penn- sylvania, chiefly with a View to ascertain the Longitude of that Borough, and as a Test of the Accuracy with which the Longitude may be found by Lunar Observation; in a Letter from A. Ellicott to’R. Patterson.
XIV. Notices of the Natural History of the northerly Parts of
Louisiana; in a Letter from Dr. John Watkins to Dr. Barton.
XV. On two Species of Sphex, inhabiting Virginia and Penn- sylvania, and. probably extending through the Unuied States. By Benjamin H. Latrobe.
XVI. Memorandum of a new Vegetable Muscipula. By Dr. Barton.
Page.
40
55
59
59
61
69
73
719
CONTENTS.
No. Page. XVII. On the Claying of Sugar—describing a new and eco- nomical Mode of conducting that Process. By Jonathan Willams Esq. 82
XVUI. dn Account of some newly discovered Islands and Shoals in the Indian Seas. By Mr. Thomas, an Officer on board the American Ship Ganges. 87
XIX. First Report of Benjamin H. Latrobe, to the Ameri- can Philosoplucal Society, in Answer to the Enquiry, ‘whe- ther any, and what Improvements have been made in the Construction of Steam-Engines, in America?” 89
XX. An Account of the Fusion of Strontites, and Volatiliza- tion of Platinum; and also of a new Arrangement of Appa- ratus. Communicated by Robert Hare, jun..a Member of the Society. 99
XXI. An Account and Description of a Cock with two Perfo- rations, contrived to obviate the Necessity of a Vent-Peg, in
tapping air-tight Casks. By Robert Hare, jun. 105 XXII. Some Account of a new Species of North American Lizard. By Dr. Barton. 108
XXIII. Continuation of Astronomical Observations, made at Lancaster, Pennsylvania; in a Letter from A. Ellicott, Esq. to R. Patterson. PEs
XXIV. Observations and Experiments relating to equivocal, or spontaneous Generation. By J Priestley, L. L. D. Ba RS. 119
XXV.. Observations on the Discovery of Nitre in common Salt, which had been frequently mired with Snow; ina Let- ter to Dr. Wistar, from J. Priestley, L. L. D. F. R.S. 129
XXVI. A Letter on the supposed Fortifications of the Western Country; from Bishop Madison of Virgina, to Dr, Barton, 132.
CONTENTS.
No, ,
XXVIL. Supplement to the Account of the Dipus America- nus, in the IV Vol. of the Transactions of the Society, No. XII, By Dr. Barton.
XXVIII. Hints on the Etymology of certain English Words, and on their Affinity to Words in the Languages of different European, Asiatic, and American (Indian) Nations; in a Letter from Dr. Barton te Dr. Thomas Beddoes.
XXIX. Astronomical Observations, made by Jose Joaquin de Ferrer, chiefly for the Purpose of determining the geo- graphical Position of various Places in the United States, and other Parts of North America. Communicated by the Au- thor.
XXX. Description of the River Mississippi and its Delta, with that of the adjacent Parts of Lowsiana; by Witham Dunbar Esq. of the Natchez. Communicated by the Au- thor, through the President of the Society,
XXXI. Abstract of Meteorological Observations for the Years 1801, 1802, and 1803, made at the Natchez; by Wil- liam Dunbar Esq.
Proceedings of the Society on the death of their late eminent Associate, Joseph Priestley, L, L. D, F. Rw S.
Page,
1438
145
158
165
188
190
CONTENTS.
OF VOLUME VI.—PART II.
No, Page, XXX. APPENDIX to Memoir No. XXX, of the 1st Part of this Volume, on the Mississippii—By William Dunbar, of
Natchez.
XXXII. Demonstration of a Geometrical Theorem ; by Joseph Clay Esq. of Philadelphia. 201
XXXIV. An Account and Description of Capt. W. Mug ford’s Temporary Rudder, and for which the Extra Magellanic Premium was awarded. 203
19}
XXXV. Fucts and Observations relative to the Beaver of North America; by Mr. John Heckewelder, in answer to queries pro- posed to him by Professor Barton. 209
XXXVI. Memoir on the occultation of Aldebaran by the moon, on the 21st of October, 1793; by Jose Joaquin de Ferrer. 213
XXXVII. The Geographical position of sundry places in North America, and the W. Indies ; calculated by J. J. de Ferrer. 223
1. From an occultation of the \st Satellite of Jupiter by the moon; observed at New-Orleans by Mr. A. Ellicott, and at the Royal Obs. of the Island of Leon by Don J. Ortis de Cane- las, and at the nat. obs. Paris by M. Mechain, on the 15th day
of Jan, 1799. : 225 2. From the passage of Mercury over the disk of the sun, May 7th, 1799. 226
3. From.an Egress of Mercury, Jrom the sun’s disk ; ob- served by Mr. A. Ellicott, at Miller’s place, Coenecuch River. 230
Determination of the diameters of the Sun and Mercury, conjunction in the ecliptic, and error of the tables in longitude. 232 ' * * = *
CONTENTS.
Ne. Page. XXXVIIL. Continuation of the Astronomical Observations, made at Lancaster, in Penn. by Mr. A. Eliicott. 238
XX XIX. J Description of a cave on Crooked Creek, with remarks and observations, on nitre and gun-powder ; by Samuel Brown, M. D. of Lexington, Kentucky. 235
XL. An Essay on the vermillion colour of the blood, and on the dif- ferent colours of the metallic oxides, with an application of these
principles to the arts; by S. F. Conover M. D. 247 XLI. Observations of the eclipse of the sun, June 16th 1806—
made at Lancaster, by A. Ellicott, Esq. 255 XLII. Observations of the same ; made at the forest near Nat-
chez ; by William Dunbar Esq. 260. XLII. Observations on the same eclipse, made at Kinderhook, in
the state of N. York; by J.J. de Ferrer and J. Garnett. 264 XMLIV. Observations on the same, made at Bowdoin College, in
the district of Maine; by a member af the society. 275 XLV. On finding the longitude from the moon’s meridian altitude ;
by William Dunbar. Or; XLVI. An account of the Freestone quarries on the Potomac and
Rappahannoc rivers ; by B. H. Latrobe. - 283
XLVII. Further observations on the eclipse of 16th June, 1806, a determination of the longitude of Natchez and New-Orleans, also, an investigation of the semi-diameters of the sun and moon;
by J. J. de Ferrer. 295 XLVIII. Observations on the same eclipse; made by Simeon de Witt Esq. of Albany, State of New-York. 300
XLIX. Description and use of a new and simple Nautical Chart, for working the different problems in Navigation; for which the Extra Magellanic Premium was awarded; by John Gar- nett Esq. of New-Brunswick, New-Jersey. 303
LL. Observations to serve for a mineralogical map of the State of Maryland ; by S. Godon. 319
LI. Memoir on the meteoric stones which fell from the atmo- sphere, in the state of Connecticut, on the 14th of December
CONTENTS.
N Page.
o 1807 ; by Benjamin Silliman, professor of Chemistry in Yale College, and Mr. James L. Kingsley. 323
LII. Observations on the comet which appeared in September 1807, in the island of Cuba ; made by J. J. de Ferrer. 345
Continuation of the Astronomical Observations, made by him at the same place. 347
Also the following Calculations by him— Solar eclipse of June 16th 1806, in the City of Havanna. 35%
Longitude of Havanna, by the observations compared with the new tables, published at Paris in 1806. 352
Passage of Venus over the disk of the sun, June 3d 1769. 352 Passage of Mer. over the disk of the sun, Nov. 12th 1782. 356 Passage of Mer. over the disk of the sun, Nov. 5th 1787. 356 Annular eclipse—April 3d, 1791. sae
LIII. Notes, with corrections, to be applied to the geographical situations inserted from page 158 to page 164, in the first part of the present Volume of Transactions ; by J. J. de Ferrer. 360
Additional Observations on the Solar Eclipse of \6th June,
1806 ; by the same. 362 Appendix to memoir XXXV1—observations of the occul- tation of y 8 on October 2\st, 1793 ; by the same. 354
LIV. Observations on the comet, 1807—8 ; by WV. Dunbar. 368
LV. Correspondence between Capt. William Jones of Philadet- phia, and William Jones Esq. Civil Engineer of Calcutta, re- lative to the principles and practice of Building in India. 375
LVL. Observations on the foregoing correspondence ; by B. H. Latrobe, Surveyor of the Public Buildings of the U. States. 384
LVII. A general method of finding the roots of numeral equations to any degree of exactness, with the application of logarithms to shorten the operation ; by J. Garnett Esq. 3
LVIIE. On the best angles for the sails of a Wind-mill; by John Garnett Esq. 394,
CONTENTS.
No, Page LIX. Extract of a letter from a member of the Society, relative to the great cold in Hallowell, Massachusets, in.1807... A01
LX. Statement of deaths and diseases in the City and Liberties of Philadelphia for 1807, 1808.—Communicated by the Board of Health. 403
LXI. An account of Experiments made on Palladium, found com- bined with pure gold; by Joseph Cloud, an officer of the Mint
of the U. States. 407. LXII. Observations on the Geology of the U. States, explanatory of a Geological Map ; by W. Maclure. AL} LXIII. Astronomical Observations made at the Havanna, 1809 ; by J. J. de Ferrer. 428 — fcP Notice of a new machine for steering vessels. L- 428 DONATIONS,
Received since printing the preceding list.
Humboldt (Le Baron de,) His ouvrage sur le nivellement barome. trique de la Cordillera des. Andes, Paris, 4to. °
Dublin Society, the following Statistical Surveys, 8vo.
—— Of the county of Armagh by Sir Charles Coote, Bart. 1804. ditto Kildare, by Thomas J. Rawson Esq. 1807. ditto Wexford, by Robert Frazer Esq. 1807.
—— Observations on sowing spring wheat, publ. by their order, 1807.
Catalogue of their Library, classed under proper heads, 1807.
——Sketch of Lectures on meadow and pasture grasses, delivered in the Botanical garden of the Dublin Society ; by Walter “Wade Esq. Prof. of Botany, 1808,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &c.
No. I.
On the Language of Signs among certain North American Indians. By William Dunbar, Esq. of the Mississippi Territory, com- municated by Thomas Jefferson, President of the Society.
NatcHeEz, June 30, 1800.
SIR, Read 16th January, 1801.
Mr. NOLAN’S man of signs has been here, but was so occupied that a long time elapsed ere I could have an opportunity of conversing with him, and afterwards falling sick was seized with such an invincible desire of returning to his own country, that I had little hopes of gaining much upon ‘his impatience.
A commencement however we have made, and although lit- tle has been done, it is sufficient to convince me, that this lan- guage by signs has been artfully and systematically framed. In my last I took notice of some analogy which I conceived to sub- sist between the Chinese written language and our Western language by signs; I had not then read Sir George Staunton’s account of the British Embassy to China. I will here beg your permission to transcribe a paragraph or two from that work, which appear to strengthen my ideas of the probability of their common origin, ‘ Almost all the countries border-
A
2a ON THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS AMONG
‘ing on the Chinese sea or Eastern Asia, understand and use “ the written Chinese, though not the oral language. About «© 200 characters mark the principal objects of nature; these « may be considered as roots of language, in which every other ‘ word or species in a systematic sense is referred to its proper «‘ genus or root. The heart is a genus represented by a curve «line, somewhat of the form of the object, and the species “‘ referable to it, include all the sentiments, passions, and af- “« fections, that agitate the human breast, each species being “ accompanied by some mark denoting the genus or heart.” Now Sir if the commencement of this extract was altered and we were to say “ Almost all the Indian nations living between the Mississippi, and the Western American ocean, understand and use the same language by signs, although their respective oral tongues are frequently unknown to each other,” the re- mainder of the paragraph would be perfectly descriptive of the organization of this language by signs, and would convey to an adept a full and complete idea of the systematic order which has been observed in its formation. Permit me to refer -you to the short and very imperfect list of signs enclosed, where you will find water to be a genus, and rain, snow, ice, hail, hoar-frost, dew, &c. are species represented by signs more or less complex, retaining always the root or genus as the basis of the compound sign. 7
“We are also informed that “ tf any uncertainty remains as «« to the meaning of a particular expression, recourse is had to ‘ the ultimate criterion of tracing with the finger in the air or ‘ otherwise, the form of the character and thus ascertaining at ““ once which was meant to be expressed :” here also is a strong analogy between the language and practice of those countries so far separated from each other, for those Western Indians are so habituated to their signs that they never make use of their oral language, without instinctively at the same time tracing in the air all the corresponding signs, which they perform with the rapidity of ordinary conversation. I cannot avoid con- cluding that the custom of the Chinese of sometimes tracing the characters in the air, isa proof that this language by signs Was at early periods of time universally used by them and by all the nations of the east coast of Asia; and perhaps if enquiry
a
&
-CERTAIN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 3
be made it may be found that the usage of this universal lan- guage is not yet totally neglected. In the above-mentioned ac- count of the embassy, we are told only, I think, of three Chinese characters, the sun represented by a circle, the moon by a cre- scent, and man by two lines forming an angle representing the lower extremities; those three signs are precisely the same which are used by the Western people : in order to represent the two first mentioned, the thumb and fore-finger of the right hand are formed either into a Circle or Crescent, and the sign of man is expressed by extending the fore-finger of the right hand and bringing it down, until it rests a moment between the lower ex- tremities.
It is probable that Chinese Sailors or others, may be found in your maritime towns, who might give some useful informa- tion, and it cannot I suppose be difficult to procure a collection of Chinese characters with English explanations, which would afford an opportunity of making farther comparisons upon a future investigation of this curious subject. 1 think Captain Cook says, some where, that in some of the Islands of the . Western pacific he found persons who possessed a great facility of communicating their ideas by signs and made much use of -gesticulations: this was probably no other than the language by signs ; and if it is found that the Chinese actually use at this day upon some occasions a language by signs, actual experiment alone will convince me that it is not the same which is used by our Western Indians. Hence would spring forth an analo- gy and connection between the Continents of the New and Old - World which would go directly to the decision of your question, without. being involved in the ambiguity arising from the im- perfect resemblance of words.
WILLIAM DUNBAR.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, President A. P. S..
e
Ay ON THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS AMONG
Signs made use of by the Indian Nations to the West of the Mis- sissippi, refered to in the foregoing letter.
White, with the under side of the fingers of the right hand, rub gently upon that part of the left hand which corresponds with the knitting of the bones of the fore-finger and thumb.
Egg. The right hand held up with the fingers and thumb extended and approaching each other as if holding an Egg within.
Stone. The right hand shut give several small blows on the left.
The same or similar to what went before, Place the two fore- fingers parallel to each other and push them forward a little.
Water. The hand formed into a bowl and brought up to the mouth passing a little upwards without touching the mouth.
Rain. Begin with the sign of water, then raise the hands even with the forehead, extending the fingers outwards and give a shaking motion as if to represent the dripping of water.
Snow. Begin with the sign of rain, then the sign of air or cold and conclude with the sign of white.
Ice. Begin with the sign of water then of cold, then the earth and lastly a stone with the sign of sameness or similarity. Hail. Begin with the sign of water, then the sign of cold, next the sign of a stone, then the same, then the sign of white and lastly conclude with the sign of an Egg; all
which combined gives the idea of hail.
Frost. Begin with the sign of water, then the sign of night or darkness, then the sign of cold, then the sign of white, and lastly the earth. ;
Cloud. Begin with the sign of water, then raise the two hands as high as the forehead and placing them with an inclination of 15° let them gently cross one another.
Fire. The two hands brought near the breast touching or ap- proaching each other and half shut, then moved outwards moderately quick, the fingers being extended and the hands a little separated at the same time, as if to imitate the appear- ance of flame.
Bring, fetch or give me. The hand half shut with the thumbs
CERTAIN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 5
pressing against the fore-finger, being first moderately ex- tended either to the right or left, is brought with a moderate jerk to the opposite side, as if something was pulled along by the hand. Consequently the sign of water preceding this sign would convey the expression “ give me water.”
Earth. The two hands open and extended, brought horizon- tally near each other opposite to either knee, then carried to the opposite side and raised in a curve movement until brought round and opposite to the face.
Air. The right hand held perpendicularly upwards and brought forwards with a tremulous or vibratory motion until it passes beyond the face.
Big, great or large. The two hands open placed wide apart on each side the body and moved forwards.
Fear, to be afraid, to cause fear. The two hands with the fin- gers turned inwards opposite to the lower ribs, then brought upwards with a tremulous movement as if to represent the common idea of the heart rising up to the throat, the three last signs placed in the order given, would conyey the idea of a violent hurricane.
Sun, The thumb and finger forming a circle elevated in front towards the face.
Moon. ‘The thumb and finger open are elevated towards the right ear; this last sign is generally preceded by sign of the night or darkness which
Night is the two hands open and extended crossing one another horizontally.
Heat. The two hands raised as high as the head and bending forwards horizontally with the points of the fingers curving a little downwards.
Cold. The same sign as for air, but when applied to a per- son the right hand is shut and held up nearly opposite the shoulder and put into a tremulous motion,
f. The fingers of the right hand laid against the breast. This last sign with that preceding placed after it would signify I am cold.
Smoak. Begin with the sign of fire then raise the hand up- ward with the fingers open as if to represent smoak.
6 ON THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS AMONG
Clear, The hands are uplifted and spread both ways from the head.
Bow The left hand being a little extended, the right hand touches it and makes the motion of drawing the cord of the bow.
Thunder. The sign of rain accompanied by the voice imita- ting the rumbling sound of thunder.
Lightning. First the sign of thunder, then open or separate the hands and lastly bring the right hand down towards the earth in the center of the opening just made.
Cow. The two fore-fingers brought up to the side of the head and extended outwards so as to represent the position of the horns.
Male and Female. Note, to distinguish between the Male and ‘Female in all cases add for the male a fillip with the fore- finger of the right hand on the cheek and for the female, bring the two hands open towards the breast, the fingers approaching and then move them outwards.
Gelt. Bring the fingers and thumb of the left hand together as if something was held by them, then approach the right hand and make the motion of cutting across what. is suppo- sed to be held in the left hand, and then draw off the right hand as if pulling away what has been. cut.
Dunghill fowl. Bring the thumb and fingers of the right hand together, and holding the hand moderately elevated, move it across imitating the motion of the head of a cock in walk- ing.
Turkey. The open hands brought up opposite to the shoulders and imitating slowly the motion of the wings of a bird, to which add the last sign.
Duck. The last sign, then the sign of water,. and lastly the sign of swimming which last is performed by the fore-finger of the right hand extended outwards and moved to and fro.
forse. . The right hand with the edge downwards, the fingers
_ joined, the thumb recumbent, extended forwards.
Deer. ‘The right hand extended upwards by the right ear, with a quick puff from the mouth.
Man with the fore-finger of the right hand extended and the hand shut describe a line beginning at the pit of the
CERTAIN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 7
stomach and passing down the middle of the body as far as the hand conveniently reaches holding the hand a moment between the lowér extremities.
Woman. The finger and thumb of the right hand partly open, and placed as if laying hold of the breast. :
Child. Bring the fingers and thumb of the right hand and place them against the lips, then draw them away and bring the right hand against the fore arm of the left as if holding an infant. Should the child be male, _ prefix the sign of a man before the last sign, and if a female, do so by the sign of the woman.
Boy. Bring the fingers and thumb of the right hand to touch the lips, then extend the hands and make the sign of man, then raise the hand with the fingers upwards and placed at the height of a boy.
Girl. Begin with the above sign and make the sign of wo- man, and then raise the hand to the height of the girl.
You. The hand open held upwards obliquely and pointing forward.
He, or another. The fore-fingers extended and hands shut, and fingers brought over one another, or nearly touching and then separated moderately quick. Bey a
Many or much. The flat of the right hand patting on the back of the left hand ; which is repeated in proportion to the greater or lesser quantity.
Know. The fore-finger of the right hand held up nearly op- posite to the nose, and brought with a half turn to the nght and carried a little outwards. Place any of the articles be- fore the last sign; which will then signify, I know, you know, he knows ;—both hands being made use of in the manner described, implies to know much.
Now, or at present. The two hands forming each an hollow and brought near other and put into a tremulous motion up- wards and downwards.
Come here. The hand stretched outwards with the palm under, and brought back with a curve motion downwards and incli- ning to the body.
Go. The back of the hand stretched out and upwards.
3 ON THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS AMONG
What say you. The palm of the hand upwards and carried cir- cularly outwards and depressed.
No, nothing, I have none. The hand held up before the face,
_ with the palm outwards, and vibrated to and fro.
From whence come you, say. First the sign of you, then the hand extended open and drawn to the breast and lastly, the sign of, what say you?
Come. The fore-finger moved from right to left with an in- terrupted motion as if imitating the alternate movement of stepping.
Mine. The hand shut and held up to the view.
House. The hand half open and the fore-finger extended and separated, then raising the hand upwards and give it a half turn, asif screwing something.
Done or Finished. The hands placed edge up and down par- allel to each other, the right hand without, which latter is drawn back as if cutting something.
Spring Season. The sign of cold, to which add the last sign of being done or finished.
Body. The hands with the fingers pointed to the lower part of the body and then drawn upwards,
Hair. Themovyement of combing.
No. II.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATION 55
FOR ONE ENTIRE YEAR.
MADE by William Dunbar, Esq. at the Forest four and a half miles east of the river Mississippi in North Lat. 31° 28' and Long. 91° 30' West of Greenwich, on an eminence about 150 feet higher than the level of the highest waters of the annual inunda- tion of the Mississippi; beginning on the 1st day of February 1799, and ending the 31st January 1800, inclusive.
Communicated by Thomas Jefferson, President of the Society.
Read 16th January, 1801.
IN the following observations, the strength of the wind is divided into four degrees, viz. No. 1. indicates alight Zephyr. No. 2. a brisk breeze. No. 3. a very strong wind. No. 4. a tempest or hurricane. When the course of the wind is noted, but the strength omitted, it is to be understood that the direction of the wind has been observed by the gentle movement of the clouds, or, perhaps, by the progress of smoke, while to the senses a perfect calm reigns below. When two currents of air have been observed, they are noted, the strength referring always to the latter current.
B
10 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
A mercurial thermometer of the best kind made in Lon+ don, with Farhenheit’s scale adapted, consisting of divisions of one line to the degree, was suspended to the inner part of a column of the northern gallery of a large dwelling house bine feet from the earth, in such a manner that the thermo- meter was not in contact with the column, being twelve feet distant from the wall of the building, and entirely defended from the sun-beams by surrounding forest trees, while a free circulation of the atmosphere prevailed below. Frequent ex- periments shewed that during the hot hours of a summer's day, the thermometer being removed-into a hal! within the building and suspended twelve feet from the wall, the mer- cury fell from two to two and a half degrees, although a free circulation was maintained by two large open windows and one door in each of the opposite walls of the building.
It may be proper to remark further that the summer. of 1799 was accounted cool, the thermometer never having ri- sen above 92° whereas during the warm season of 1800 it was often at 96° and 97°; though at the same time if the ther- mometer was placed under a deep shade of surrounding trees, it would fall to 91°. It appears that the proper. situation for the thermometer, is such as is completely shaded from the direct sun-beams, but not so as to exclude all influence by reflection from the surtace of the earth, being that which will best indicate the influence of atmospheric heat upon ve- getation, which is what has been attempted to be shewn in
the following journal. Nore. The Society have been induced to publish this journal entire, as it is certainly the first
that has been kept with so much accuracy and attention in that part of the world, and may serve - as astandard with which to compare future observations.
MADE IN THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. il
a TE OR
HOURS. HOURS. a 63. 9, | wees. | 2 | FEBRUARY, giver. gijun warms. | é | 1799. Days.|Tu. | Bar. | Prs. [Str] in. lees of the weather. |} Days.|Tu. | Bar. | Prs. |Srr.|In. | State of the weather. 58 29 5815 Mo Toned PT ile mae ee Drizzly. Fri. 66 29 53|N W 1 0.25\Moderate rain. Fri. 43 2994 ENE Drizzly. 1 61 29 69 Cloudy, calm. 15 41 2994 ENE 0.16) Rain. |41 2974|NW 2 {Clouds dispersing: BO 29 BONSIL Tin |Drizzlye Sat. 37% 29 71 |W 1 Thin white clouds. Sat. 41 29 86 W 1 0.66)Rain. 2 53 29 71 Clearing up. 16 |35 29 86 NW Cloudy. AS QOS TON WT The | Clear an ammnmte nT at “30 2988 NW 1 |Ciear. Sun. 62 29 87 |E Very clear. Sun. 59 2998 NE 1 Very clear. 3 45 29 93 Thin clouds. 17 |49 29 98 | Very clear. 39 30 15 |N 1 Thin veil of gr clds. 36 2996./SE 1 |Very clear. Mon. | 52 30 13|INE 1 Lt. thin white clouds.||Mon. | 64 29 88 |S W Clear wh clds. nr. hor. 4 A4g 30 13 IN Hazy. 18 60 29 80 |S W Clear. (352 30 12 |N Sn. sh. thr’ a wht. hze. USONTLONTONISM Wir vk Grey clouds. Tues. |57 3012 1W: NEL Do. theair grs.damp.|/Tues. | 70 29 62|S W 2 Grey clouds increase. 5 52. 30 10 |ENE Cloudy, damp. 19 | 67 29 62 Rain commences. 55 29°86 SE vi ti Overct with dk gr cl 67 29 62)S 0.89) Rain. Wed. | 62 29 68]5 1 = 1.80)Rain_ Wed. | 45 29 66 |N 1 Cold & drizzling. 6 594 29 75 |ISW Rain, thun, & light’s, 20 39 29 78 IN Drizzling. 55 29 63 /ISE 3.145 Cloudy, dk. wit. rain. 29 29 83 IN 1 0,16!Snow. Thur. | 522 29 70 IN W Clouds dispersing. Thur. | 26 2983iINW 1 Small sleet or snow. 7 422 29 85 |IENE 1 Cloudy. 21 24 29 941N W 1 Clear. 31 30 00|INW I Clearer ce 1 193 30 U9 INW 1 Very clear. Fri. 435 3010INW 1 Very clear. Fri. 32. 3009|INW 1 Clear wh clds. nr. hor. 8 34 30 22INW 1 Very clear. 22 27 30 09 IN W Very elear. 28 30 26 IN W Some wh. clds. nr, hor 27 30 00 Very clear. Sat 36 30 25 IN Very clr. wh. cl. nr. h. || Sat. 46 30 00\E Thin white clouds. 9 45 30 24 Very clear. a 3 33 30 02 Clear. 26 30 21|/w 1 Clr. ab. thin wh.c.n.h, 28£ 30 05 |N W Clear white clouds. Sun. 55 30 15 Clouds increase. Sun. | 60 30 05|SE A few white clouds. 10 42 30 14 Cloudy. 24. |47 30 03 |NW Clear. 264 30 14 |W i Some clouds. 46 30 03 |S Grey and blackish cl: Mon. | 64 30 04/w Thin white clouds. Mon, | 61, 29 80/SE 1 Clear. 11 | 97 30 04 Cloudy. 25 |61 29 80|SE _|Drizzly. 7 50, 30 00NW > Satie = = (Rain: 66 29 .64|/Sw 1 0.10/Drizzly, sunshi. atti. Tues. | 54 29 99 Rain. Tues. |75 29 56|1S W 1 Some clouds. 12 50 29 99 Cloudy. 26 71 29 59'S W Clearing up. 50 30 00 |W 1 Rancteagey te. th 542974 NW 1 Clear. Wed. |54 29 99 |E Rain. Wed. |55 29 71|NE 1 Cloudy. 13 |51 29 99\E 0.74 Rain. 27 58 29 71L\E 1.07!Rain. 51 30 025/E Rain. RSI HOO Gn rein aT Rain. Thur. [55 29 99 |N 1 Cloudy. Thur. |59 2959 NW 1 Rain. 14 48 29 98|ENE 0.15)Rain. 28 AS 29 73 NW 1 Clearing up. ee REMARKS.
February Ist, Peach and plum trees in bloom. 3d. Peas in bloom. 13th, The strawberry blossoms. 17th, The horse chesnut buds.
12 r METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
RRR A TY ne TRIE OO TE I SE PRLS EE SE ETSI, TES TGS ERI IS
HOURS. | = | HOURS. | e aa Gi. 3. 9. | WINDS. 5 MARCH. 6k. 3.9. WINDS. 5 799. a el - aes Days. |r=.| Bar. | Prs. sxx In. [state of the weather. (Days. Tu. | Bar. | Prs. isra| In. {State of the weather. 41 29 83 JINW 1 Clear. 50 29 83 \N 1 Clear. Fri. 51 29 97 IN W al Clear. 75 29 90 |N 1 Clear. 1 44 30 03 Cloudy. 44 29 90 |N Clear. 41 30 05 |N Clear. 29 29 90 |N 1 Clear, very clear. Sat. 59 30 13 |N Clear. 57 29 86 |SE Very clear. 2 41, 30 09 |N Clear. 50 29 80|SE Cloudy. 35 3012 |N Very clear. 50 29 68 Cloudy. Sun. | 60 3019 |N 1 Very clear. 66 29 57 |SE Rain. 3 51 30 14 66 29 53 |E 1 0.11)Rain. 36 30 14 |W Light elds. at the hor, 64 29 59 |E 1 Rain. Mon. | 60 30 14 |N 1 Grey clouds. 48 29 68 IN W 1 Cloudy. 4 52 3014 |NE 48 29 80 |N 1__2.91\Cloudy. 41 3019 |NE 1 Clear. 1 Cloudy. Tues. | 60 30 19 Cloudy. Clear. 5 53 30 24 Clear. Very clear. 41 30 24 |W 1 Clear. Very clear. Wed. | 70 3015 |S W 1 Clear. Very clear. 6 53 30 10 42 30 05 Very clear. 41 3010 INE Very clear. 33 SO 21 IN 1 Very clear. Thur. | 72 29 96 |S 1 Grey clouds. 67 30 13 |N 1 Very clear. 7 61 29 96 Rain. 49 30 13 Cloudy. S7eQ 8S | ae ee ee Raia. 39 (30 13 |N Clear. Fri. 67 29 75i|N 1 Rain. 70 3004|NE 1 Clear. 8 Grane 0.26|Cloudy. 55 30 04 Clear. 58 29 81 |W 1 White clouds & clear. 43 30 5 White clouds. Sat. 70 29 84|W:NE 1 Clear. 72 2991/5 White clouds. 9 562 29 84 |N Clear. 57 29 91 Clear. 49 29 90 |INE 1 Clear white cl. at hor. 45 29 91 |S 0.08) Foggy. Sun. 75 2995 |NE 1 Clear. 72 29 87 White clouds. 10 | 56 2995 |N Halo round the moon. 53 29 87 Clear. 45 29 95 |N 1 Very clear. 45 29 87 |N Clear. Mon. | 75 29 90 IN W 1 White clouds. 76 29 87 Very clear. 11 | 56 29 85 |NW Cloudy, halo. 63 29 87 54 29 83 |E Rain. NE Light fog. Tues. | 66 29 77 |S 1 Drizzly. E Grey clouds. 12 644 29 80 0,13 Overcast. WwW Cloudy. 54.299 88|NE |Dark grey clouds. Ww Grey clouds. Wed. | 70 29 89 IN Ae Clears Ww Cloudy. 13, -| 57 291 98 Clear. Ww Cloudy. 53 29 94 |NE 1 Drizzly. W Rain. Thur. | 60 29 86 |E 1 Cloudy and rain. WwW 1 0.03)Cloudy. 14 | 55 29 86 0.32|Cloudy. |Cloudy. 44 29 80 |N a1 ~ |Drizzly. Ww \Cloudy. Friday.| 56 . 29 84 |N 1 Clearing up. Cloudy. 15 | 49 29 88 |N Clear. Cloudy. 39 29 88 IN W Very clear. Satur. | 75 29 83 INE Clear.
1st. Wild cherry buds. 5th, The yellow poplar, red oak, and dogwood in flower. 15th, Trees in general shew their
buds or blossoms, excepting the walnut species, including the pacawn and hickory. 26th, Commenced planting cotton, having planted corn with the beginning of the month.
58 29 77 Clear. A Halo.
REMARKS.
. MADE IN THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. LS
HOURS. n HOURS. ra eS HEC WINDS. 5 APRIL. 5. 3. 9. WINDS. B 1799. Days. TH.| Bar. | Prs. sre In. |State of the weather.|| Days. Tu,| Bar. | Prs. [StR. In. |State of the weather. 03 29 54 |S 1 Rain. 69 29 51 Cloudy. Mon. | 75 29 54 INW 3 0.50)Rain and hail. Tues} 3) 29) oi Is 1 0.26/Rain. 1 64 29 53 |W Clearing up. 16 | 68 29 51|SS W Clouds thinner. 50 29 80 IN W 1 Very clear. 68 2963 |SSW 1 Cds. disp. almost clr. Tues. | 68 29 80 |N 1 Very clear. Wed. | 84 2968 /SSW 1 Clear. 2 57 29 80 17 64 29 74 Clear. RGPOOBOT |= ne 61 29 83 |N Very clear. Wed. | 72 29 82 |S Clear. Thurs.| 78 29 85 |N W 1 Very clear. 3 61 29 82 Grey clouds. 18 | 70 29 87 IN W Very clear. 35 29 86 INE 1 Rain, ; 56 29 87 IN W Very clear. Thurs.| 68 29 86 JENE 1. 0.13}Rain. Friday} 76 29 91 IN W al Clear. 4 50 29 88 |E Cloudy. 19 68 29 96 |NW Clear. 41 29 90 Cloudy, 51 29 94 |N W 2 Clr. with thin we. vap. Friday} 55 29 94 |W Clear, Satur. | 72 29 94 |E 1 More clouds. 5 44 29 94 |N Star light. 20 64 29 85 |S 1 Rain commences. 35 29 94-|N W Very clear. 64 29 61 |S 1 1.140)Rain. Satur. | 64 29 94 INE Clear. Sunday] 78 29 58 |S 1 Cloudy. 6 50 29 94 Clear. 21 72 29 58 |S 1 Cloudy. 37.29 94 |SW 1 Very clear 72 29 55 |S W 1 Cloudy. Sunday} 71 29 g4 |S W it Clear. Mon. | 83 29 51 |S W 2 Cloudy. aa 60 29 84 |W Clear. 22 | 79 29 51 |S W Cloudy, 66 29 84 |W 1 Clear 62 29 70 IN W 1 Very clear. Mon. | 73 29 76 |W 2 Cloudy. Tues. | 76 29 76 IN W Clear. 8 68 2) 76 Stars give dim light. 23) | 68.29/82) |NWi> "2 Very clear. See SS eee oeesess=_ee Se 35 30 UO |SE ) Clear, 38 29 82 Very clear. Tues. | 66 29 97 |W 2 Clear. Wed. | 83 29 82 |S 1 Clear, g *1's0"9097 Gites 24 |78 929 82 |s Clear. 44, 29 97_|W Clear, 63 29 82 1S W 1 Clear. Wed. | 63 29 g4 |W i White clouds. Thurs.| 81 29 82 |S 2 Thin white clouds. tp [nea beta Cloudy, 95 | 74 29 82 |s 1 Cloudy. Gk Lane A few clouds. 68 29 67 |SE 1 0,795 Rain. Thurs.| 70 29 70 |W 1 Cloudy. Friday| 78 29 54 |s 2 0.125 Rain. 11 66 29 68 0.02 Rain. 26 75 29 60 Cloudy. Sica (ch Del lora ey be Cloudy. 65 29 67 IS Ww 1 Clear Friday| 76 29 74 Cloudy. Satur. | 812.2967 |sw 1 ee meee 12 7229 74. | |Cloudy- ha NTA SIA) Very clear. 68° 29 74 ST bin saeriGloudy rh 58 29.77 |SSW 2 Very clear. Satur. | 81 29 74 |S W Cloudy. Sunday} 86 29 77 |S i! Clear. 13 76 29 83 Cloudy. 28 77 297718 1 Clear. keg 71 2988|W | + \Finerain. 74 29 84 |S 1 Thin grey clouds. _ Sunday] 78 29 88 |SE \Fine rain. Mon. | 87 29 84 |s eee : 14 | 71 29 86 \Cloudy. 29 | 78 2979 |5 Clear. 68 29 80 |SE 1 ‘Cloudy. 80 29 63 |S 1 Grey clouds. Mon. 78 2972 \SE 2 Cloudy. bese i ineeo a3 Some drops of rain. 15 73 29 64 Cloudy. 30 64 29 80 |S 2 . Rain. REMARKS.
Ist. The hail was of a spheroidal form 2 inch in its equatorial diameter, and Zinch in its axis, very transparent and fell with a N W wind. 10th. Strawberry redens. 12th. Walnut and hickory trees begin to bud, also Linn. Grass pastures begin to furnish abundance of food in the wood lands. 13th. Young artichokes formed and shooting up. 16th, Strawberry ripe. 20th, Green peas and artichokes ripe. 22d, Grubs and caterpillars devour the young cotton, -corn and Irish potatoes, &c, the .cotton shoots from many of the old stalks: 28th, Windsor beans fit to gather.
Qa
14 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
HOURS. a HOURS, rs 5. 3.9 | WINDS. e MAY. 5. 3. 9 WINDSs. x 1799. essay 2 Neos: 9. 2 Days. [rs Bar. | Prs. Sra In. [scare of the weather. ||Days. |x. | Bar. | Prs. Ste| In. |State of the weather. 64 29 90 |N W i Clear. : 67 29 70 (|W i Thin white clouds. Wed. | 70 2995|INW 2 Clear. Friday | 82 29 74 )W i Clear. 1 60 3000 |N W 1 Very clear. 17 V3 QO Clear. 54 30 00 IN W Very clear. 62 29 & IN W 1 Very clear, Thurs.| 77 3000 |NW 2 Very clear, Satur. | &0 29 88|INW 2 Very clear. 2 64 30 00 IN W 1 Very clear. 18 69 29 88 |IN W Very clear, 56. 30 00 IN W 1 Very clear, 58 29 90 |N Very clear. Friday | 74 30 00 IN W 2 Very clear. Sunday| 83 29 90 |N 1 Very clear. 3 64 3000 IN'W Very clear. 19 7 29 90 |S W Very clear. 55 30 04 |N W Very clear. 60 29 9221S W Clear. Satur. | 74 3000 IN W Very clear. Mon. | 80 29 90 |W 1 Clear, 4 60 30 00 Very clear. 20 | 73:.29 88 . Clear, 56 30 00 IN W 1 Very clear. 68 29 94 1S W 1 Grey clouds. Sunday| 74 30 00 Very clear. Tues. | 812 29 92 |S A few white clouds. 5 68 29 96 |NW Very clear, 21. | 76 29 89 Clear, 61 29 97 Very clear, 72 29 89/5 1 Grey clouds, Mon. | 825 29 99 |W 1 Very clear, Wed. | 86 29 87 |SW 2 White clouds, 6 71 29 99 |S 1 Very clear. 22 | 76% 29 83. )W if Clear. | 65 29 99 |S 1 Very thin we. clouds, 71. 29 80 |S W 2 Some white clouds. Tues. 3. 29 98 |S Thin white clouds. Thur. | 87 29.81 |S W 2 Clr, with some wh. c. 7 71 29 98 jS 1 Thin clouds. 23 76 29 80)" Clear, 65 29 98 |S Clear. 67 2978|/W 1 {Some Grey clouds, Wed. | 831 29 98 |S 1 White clouds. Friday | 864 29 75 |W 1 Clear, 8 71 29 98 Clear. 24.1 77% 29.73 Clear, 61 2999 |ISSW 1 Clear. 77 29 74 Foggy; Thurs.| 84 29 99 |ISSW 1 Clear. Satur. | 86 29 77 |N W 2 0.58)Rain, 9 71 29 99 Clear, Pie) 68 29 70 Stars shine dim, “67-99 Oa|WIN WT Clear. ——163_2975|WNW ._ |Some white clouds. Friday| 85 29 93 |WNW 1 White clds. at the hor. |} Sunday] 82 29 76 |W NW 1 Grey clouds, 10 | 74 29 87 |W * 4/Clear 26 |t72. 29 76 Star light. 64 29 90 |W Fogey. 64° 29 85 |W Clear. Satur. | 84 29 90 |W 1 Clear, Mon. | 85 29 85 |S W 1 Clear. li | 72 29 85 |S W 1 Clear. 27 | 72 29 85 |W SW. 1 Clear, 65 29 90 |SS W Slightly hazy. 66 29 88 Clear. Sunday] 86 29 88 |SS W Thin veil of whtite cls. |} Tues. | 86 29 91 |W White clouds, 12 73 29 87. Stars shine dimly, 28 | 72 29 93 0.02/Cloudy small rain. 65 29 90 |— Grey morning. 69 29 88 |SE 1 Cloudy. Mon. | 84 29 88 |E 2 Grey clouds, Wed, | 84 29 87 |E 1 Thin clouds. 13 ego eres Cloudy, 29 | 75 29 86 Thin clouds, 69 29 81 |SSE 1 Grey clouds. 69 29 86 Thin clouds. Tues. | 80 29 62 |W&SE1 Cloudy. - Thurs.} 85 29 82/SSE Thin white clouds. 14. | 75 29 67S E 1. Cloudy, 3 74 29 79 Stars shine dimly. 73 29 67 Thin clouds, iy 76 29 81 |E Clear, some clouds. Wed. | 83. 29 67 |W 1 Thin white clouds. ||Friday | 87 29 81 JE 1 Clear. 15 | 78 29 64 |W Fine veil of white clds 31. | 72 29 79 Clear. 76 2971 |S W 1 Dark clouds, rain, Thur. | 83 29 68 0.21|Cloudy & rain, 46 |472 29) 83 Clouds disperse.
REMARKS.
5th, Poppies in flower. 10th, Black mulberry ripe; gathered ripe turnip seed and cabbage seed ; grubs and caterpil- lars disappear in our field, 12th, French beans fit toeat. 18th, Rye and wheat fit to reap-
»
A HOURS. Fa 5. 3. 9, | WINDS. z JUNE. 5. 3. (9. WINDS - 1799. Days. leur. Bar. | Prs. [sre | In. | State of the weather. |} Days. |TH. | Bar. | Prs. |Srr.| Ly. | State of the weather. | ml see | \ eee | 08 29 79 Clear. 71 29 88 Clear. Satur. | 87 29 82 |W 1 Clear. Sun. 91. 29 88 |SE 1 Clear. 1 |78 29 8 |W 1 Clear. 16 78 29 88 |Clear. 69 29 bo Clear. 72 29 89 Clear. Sunday; 87 29 85 Clear. Mon... | 91. 29 90 |SE a Clear. 2 79 29 85 Clear. arg 80 29 89 Clear. 74 29 85 % Clear. 71 29 91 Hazy. Mon 87 29 841ISE Clear. Tues... | 92 29 90 |S W 1 Light clouds. 3 72 29 83 Clear. 18 |78 29 89 |S W 1 Light clouds. 76 29 83 Clear. 73) 29°92 Hazy. Tues. | 892 29 83 INE 1 Clear. Wed. | 91 29 91/SE 1 Light clouds. 4 67 29 82 |NE 1 Clear. 19 |79 29 90ISW 1 Clear. “69-29 83 | Clear. 70 29 93 Hazy. Wed. | 92 29 83 E 1 Clear. Thurs. | 92. 29 92 |S E Light clouds. 5 82. 29 82 | Clear. 20 |79 2991 1S W 1 Dull star light. 72 29°83 | Clear. ; 69 29 94. Light clouds. Thur. | 92 ~29 82)W 1 Clear. Friday | 92.29 94 Cloudy and rain. 6 80 29 80 Clear. 21 65 29 93° SE 3 0.82|Rain, thundergust. 72°29 81 Clear. 70. 29° 97 Light clouds. Friday | 88 29 81 |N 2 Clr. somedrops ofrain|} Satur. |.92 29 97 Light clouds. 7 | 79 29.81) Clear. 22 |75 2997 'SE 1 0.10)Rain. 70. 29 81 |N 2 Clear. 71. 29 98 |SE Cloudy. Satur. | 87 29°81 \N 2 Clear. Sun. 89 29 98 |SE 1 Cloudy. 8 76 29 81 |W Very clear. 33 |65 29 98|SE Cloudy. 73 29 80 Very clear. 73, 29 98 |SE Cloudy. Sunday| 87 29 80 |S W Very clear. Mon. | 87 29 98 |SE 1 Clouds & sunshine. 9 70 29 80 |W Very clear. 24 189 99 97|SE Cloudy. 70. 29 80 Very clear. 76 29 96/SE 2 Clouds. Mon. | 89 29 90 |S W 1 Very clear. Tues, |90 29 96|SE 2 Flying clouds. 10 | 73 29 94 )W 1 Very clear. 25 77 29 96|SE Cloudy. 68 29 96 Light clouds. 73 29 98'S Clear. Tues. | 84 30 02)S 0.10/Light rain. Wed. |80 2999795 _—_ 2 Drizzly. 11 | 79 30 00 Clonds. 26 |77 29 96|S 1 Clear. 3 30.00 |SE 1 Cloudy. 77. 29 98|S Clear. Wed. | 90 29 96/SE 2 Cloudy. Thurs. | 87 29 97 |S 1 Clouds & fine rain. 12 | 76 29 94 Clear. 27 |76 29 96|SW Clear. 72° 29.94: Light grey clouds. 79° 29 98 |S W Clear. Thurs.| 91 29 90 |SE Light grey clouds, Friday | 85 29 97 |S W 9 Rain. 13 | 76 29 87 |S W Clear. 28 | 74 29 96 |S W 0.71)Rain. 69 29 86 Clear. 73 29 98|S W Clear. Friday | 88 29 83 SE Grey clouds. Satur. | 86 29 97 |S 1 Rain. 14 i) 29 80_ NE Clear. 29 76 29 96|S 1 0.21)Rain. 72 29°82 Rain. 76 29 98|SE Clear. Satur. | 92 29 85 |E 3 0.12)Rain. Sunday} 86 29 97 |SE 2 Rain. 15 | 77 29 88 Clear, 30 |75 29 96'SE Rain. LL LLLLLLLLL LLL LLL LLL LLL LL TT REMARKS.
HOURS.
MADE IN THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY.
ips
10th, Tender Indian corn fit for use ; also, earliest peaches just beginning to ripen. 12th, Cotton in blossom,
16 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
HOURS.
4z. 3. 9, 1799.
WINDS. WINDS.
“NIVU
| JULY. |
aces)
Days. [r=-| Bar. State of the weather.
IPs: srx| In. [state of the weather. hee [T. | Bar. | Prs. iste In.
70 29 98 |S 1 Cloudy. | 73 29 84 Clear, Mon. | 86 29 97 |S E 1 ICloudy. Wed. | 89 29 8&3 |SE 1 Clouds & sunshine. 1 77 29. 96 0.22 Rain. | 17 74 29 82jS W Clear & tine. 73: QUIS E) - _)..)|Glands: I 72 29 84 Fine. Tues. | 89 29 95°1S E 1 -0.02)Rain. Thurs. }.89 29 83 |SE 1 Clear. 2 74 29 95 |ISW Clouds. 18 73 29 821S W Fine 73°29) 95. Clouds. Fine Wed. | 89 29 94 |S 1 Clouds Some clouds 2 74 29 93 Clouds Clear & fine 74 29 94, Clouds Clear & fine Thur. | 90 29 93 |S E A Clouds Some clouds 4 73 29 92 Clouds, Very fine. 70° 2900 SS yg Cloudeatoe nn meal ] Very hue Friday | 84 29 87 |SE 1 1.65}Rain. Very fine 5 70 29 86 Cloudy Very fine 73 29 85 Cloudy. Very tine. Satur. | 87 29 84 |SE 1 Cloudy. Very fine. 6 80 29 83 0.01) Rain. Very fine. 70 29 82 Cloudy. Clear. Sun. 88 29 81 Small rain. Clear. he 78 29 81 Cloudy. c Clear. 75 -29 80 Cloudy. 71 29 79 ji Clear. Mon. | 89 29 80 |E 1 Cloudy. Wed. | 89 29 80 |NE al Cloudy. 8 80 29 79 0.10/Clear. 24 150 29 81 Cloudy. 73 27ND = 0.25|Cloudy. Ty | 72 29 84 i, Cloudy, Tues. | 86 29 80 /E Cloudy. ard 90 29 88 |INE 1 Clear. 9 77 29 82 Cloudy. 25 | 80 29 90 Clear. 74-20neae Uy oe a Gloudy: 70 29 94 |S Clear. Wed. | 90 29 83 |E 0.10}Cloudy. Friday | 912 29 97 Fine. 10 | 76 29 84 |E Clear. 26 | $8 29 91 Fine. “73 29 85 Clear. 76 29 95 Clear. Thur. | 89 29 86/E Cloudy. Satur..| 92 29 92 |S Clear. 11 | 77 29 86 Cloudy. 27 82 29 91 |s Clear. 73 29 86|E Clear. iS 29892 Clear Friday | 90£ 29 87 INE 1 Cloudy: Sunday] 914 29 91 Clear. 12 | 83 29 86 |S W 1 Clear. 28 2 2991 Clear.
75 29 86 ; Cloudy. "75 29°93 Some clouds Satur. | 89 29 85 |SE 0.10/Cloudy & rain. Mon. | 914 29 92 Cleudy. 13 | 73 29 84 |S W Clear. 29 73 -29 91 Clear. “76 29 86 Clear. 74° 29 93 Cloudy Sun. "| 894 29 85 |SE 1 Clouds & sunshine. Tues. | 92 29 92 0.12|Rain. 14 | 72 29 84 |S W Clear. 30. | 73 29 92 | Clear 75 29 85 Fine. 74 29 94 Clear. Mon. | 90 29 84 |SE 1 Clouds & sunshine. Wed. | 89 29 92 Clear. 15 73 29 83 |S W Very clear. 31 73 29 90 Fine 74 29 84 Clear & fine. Tues. | 87 29 83 |SE 1 0.15|/A shower. 1GiLii7a» -2ON82S Wes Tine.
REMARKS.
Cotton pods as large as a walnut, on the 15th.
MADE IN THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. 17
LETTS SS SY TS SS YR ET SEI ER SR ET EO HOURS. | HOURS. is we 41.3. 9. 45.3. 9. : hia
AUGUST. WINDs.
bol WINDS. if =
Prs. sta In. |State of the weather. ||Days. [t. | Bar. | Pins: Stn In. [State of the weather.
Days. |r=.| Bar.
72 29 90 Clear. 75 29 81 Clear. 87 29 88 ISE 1 Fine. Satur. | 84 29 80 |W Thin clouds. 78 29 86 | Fine. 17 73 29 79 IN 1 Clear. 76 29 86 |S W Light clouds. 69 29°79 Cloudy. 85 29 85 |ISE 1 0.03/Light shower. Sunday| 84 29 78 Cloudy. 75 29 85 |E Cloudy. 18 72% 29 77 Clear. 70 29 85 65 29 78|NE Very fine. 86 99 85 1E 1 Mon. | 814 29 78 INE 3 0.05/Thundergust & rain. 73 29 86 |NE 2 1.77|Rain. 19 69 29 78 Clear. 72 29 86 Clear. 65 29 78 JE Rain §3 29 86 |W Cloudy Tues. | 79 29.77 |E 1 Rain 75 29 84 Clear. 20 68 29 77 |E 0.40/Rain 71 29 86 Cloudy, 65 29 82 |E Cloudy. 88 29 8 |INW Clear. Wed. | 75 29 80 |E 1 Cloudy. 73 29 87 Clear. 21 | 72 2979 |E Cloudy. “69 29 89 Clear. 66 29 80 |E Cloudy 874 29 89 IN W Clear. Thurs.} 82 29 82|SE 1 Cloudy, drops of rain. 73 29 88 Clear. 22 2 29 83 Cloudy. 68 29 88 Clear. 68 29 85 Cloudy. 90 29 90 IN Clear. Friday | 83 99 87 |SE 1 Cloudy, drops of rain. 78 29 91 |S W Clear. 23 74 29 88 Cloudy. 71 29 92 Clear. 72 29 99 |S 1 Cl, a st. wth heavy. ra. 89 29 92 |S 0.02|Some clouds & rain. |}Satur. | 86 29 96 |S 1 0.77|Clear. 72 2992 |S W Cloudy. 24. 72 29 98 Clear. 69 29 94 ]S Cloudy. 68 29 97 |S Clear. 86 29 93 1S 2 0.72|Rain. Sunday] 86 99 96 IN W Some clouds. 75 29 921S W Cloudy. 25 | 76 29 95 Clear. 70 29 90 JS Cloudy. 69 29 9] INE Clear. 87 29 90/S 1 Cloudy. Mon. 87 29 88 |E 1 Clear. 79 29 90 |S W Cloudy. 26 | 79 29 87 |S 1 Clear. 72 29 90 Cloudy. 72 29 88 |E Clear. 89 29 89 |S 1 0.05/Cloudy & rain. Tues. | 89 99 g7 |SE 0.01|A small shower. 82 29 89 |S W Cloudy. 27 79 29 86 Clear. 7599 89 Cloudy. i 7929 87 IE 0.03|Rain. 85 29 89 |S W 1 Cloudy. Wed. | 84 29 88 /E 1 Cloudy. 80 29 89 |ISW Cloudy. 28 | 79 29 89 |s Cloudy. 76 29 89 Gisidyye , -§|\Geelers OOS Tule Foggy. 88 29 88 |ISW 0.01|Fine rain. Thurs.| 87 29 91 |E 1 Cloudy. 76 29 88 |S W Clear. 29 |77 99 91 |s Cloudy. 70 29 86 Cloudy. 75 29 91 |E Cloudy. 90 29 85 SE Clear. Friday | 87 29 92 |E 1 Cloudy. 795 29 85 Clear. 30 | 78 29 91 |E Cloudy. 73 29 84 Clear 73 29 90 |E Cloud z y: 89 29 83 |S W Some clouds. Satur. | 87 29 90 |E . {Cloudy 79 29 82 Clear. 31 | 80 29 90 Cloudy.
76 29 82 Thin clouds. 89 29 81
‘Thin clouds. 82 29 81
Clear. Pn a oe ee ae
REMARKS.
31st. Picked cotton. D
18
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
Days. | vu. | Bar. | Pins. Ste.
Sunday
Wed.
Thurs. 5
Friday 6
Satur. 7
Sunday 8
Mon.- 9
Tues. 10
Wed. 11
Thurs. 12
Friday 13
Satur. 14
Sunday 15
HOURS.
42.3. 9.
WiNDS.
mn z SEPTEMBER. 2
In.
HOURS.
4%. 3. 9.
State of the weather.||Days. |r. | Ban. | Prs. (Sux.
1799.
Te |s State of the weather.
73° 29°95 | 1 ‘Phin white clouds. 72. 29 85 |B \Cloudy, drops of rain. 90 29 94 ISE 1 Some white clouds. |{{Mon. | 78 29 79 'E 0.5 3)Bain. 81 29 92 |S i Clear. 16 75 29784 Cloudy. 75 29 91 |E Cloudy. (75 2977 |\E Cloudy. 6&7 29 90 |B Cloudy Tues. | 80 29 76 |E 1 |\Cloudy & rain. 79 29 90 |S Clear. aly 74 29 75 \E 0.20 Rain. 75 29 88 Some clouds. 72 29 75 |E Rain. 86 29 87 |SE 0.53 Rain. Wed. | 70 2975 |NW 2 Clear. 77 29 86 |S Cloudy 18 | 65 29 78 |INW Clear. 75 29°85 |S Cloudy & fox.” 55 29 84|NW 1 Clear. 87 29 80 |SE 1 |Cloudy & thunder. Thurs.| 712 29 84 |INW 1 Clear. 78 29 79 |S ‘Clear. 19 | 66 29 84 |N_ _|Cloudy & damp. 76 29 79 |E \Clear. 62 29 8 INE Cloudy. 83 29 78 |SE 1 /Some clouds. Friday | 84 29 83 INW 1 Clear. 76 29 78 |S W Some clouds. 20 | 66 29 82 Clear. 73.29 78 |N W |Some clouds, 60 29 80 |N W Clear. 87 29 72 |INW 1 iClear. Satur. | 81 29 83 |W 1 Clear. 79 299 77 IN W Clear. 21 | 74 29 85 INW Clear. 729977, |N W iGlearniren tira id 70 29 85 |W Clear. 86 99 77 |S W 1 Cloudy. Sunday] 83 29 84 |W 1 Clear. 79 99 77 INW Clear. 22 | 75 29 82 Cloudy. eee a | |_ er I ee 72 29 80 Clear, 72 29 80 |E Cloudy & dark. 86 29 81 |W Clear. Mon. | 76 29 74 |E 2 Rain. 77 99 89 Clear. 23 | 75 29 70 |W 1.31)\Rain. 7009 SS Clear. 70 29 63 |W 1 33|/Rain during the night 90 29 85 IS W Clear. Tues. | 79. 29 65 |W 1 Cloudy.
78 29 87 Clear. 24 | 70 29 66 Cloudy & sunshine. —— “ZO "OO 20 _ 72 29 87 Clear. 69 29 68 jE Cloudy & sunshine.
90 2988 |SW 1 Clear, Wed. | 78 29 70 }S 1 Cloudy. 79 29 89 Clear. 25 | 70 29 72 |S W Cloudy. sunshine. 72% 29 87 |B Clear. 69 29 4)W Cloudy. 87 299 85 ISE 1 0,16/A little rain. Thurs.| 75 29 76 |W 1 Cloudy. 79 29 83 |IN Clear. 26 | 72 29 80 |W Cloudy. 75.29 86 IE Thin c'ouds. 66 29 85 IN Very clear. 85 29 87 |E 1 Cloudy. Friday] 83 29 89 |N 1 Very fine. 77 29 87 |r Cloudy, 27° | 72 29 88 IN Very clear. 73 29 85 |E 1 Cloudy, 61 29 93 |N Very fine. 84 29 84 IE 1 Cloudy Satur. | 81 29 92 |N 1 Very fine. 75 29 83 |E 0.33|Rain. 28 | 71 29 90|N Very fine. 73 29 S41E Cloudy, 62 29 90 |N Very fine. 82 29 84 |E 1 Cloudy Sunday| 83 29 90 |N 1 Very fine. 73 29 841E 0.42|/Rain. 29 72 29 89 |IN Very fine. 70 29 85 |E 0.03/Rain last night, cl up. 64 29 88 IN [Very fine. 83 29 85 |E 1 0.015|Cloudy, some rain; Mon. | 84 29 87 |NE 1 Very fine. 74EZ 29 85 |E Cloudy. 80 | 73 29 86 |E Very fine.
REMARKS.
2d. Cotton haryest commences.
MADE IN THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. 19
ee ee ee ee ee ee ——————————
HOURS. | 2 | HOURS 2 sa eR 4 ‘a . 43.3. 9. WLNDS. 5 | OCTOBER. 42.3. 9. WINDS 5 Davs[P'x- | Bar. | Prs. |Strr.| In. [state of the weather. ||Days. |TH. | Bar. | Paes |sxn| In. |State of the weather. 69 29 86 |S: E 1 Clear, some white cl. | 49 29 92(N W Clear. Tues. | 85 29 85 |S 1 Many white clouds. |} Thurs.| 72 29 89 |N 1 Clear, 1 73 29 81 A little hazy. 17 56 29 87 |N Light clouds. 69 29 80 |W 1 Grey clouds. 47 29 85 |N Light clouds. Wed. | 83 29 80 |SE Grey clouds. Friday | 70 29 85|INW 1 Light clouds, 2 74 29 77/SE 1 0.50}Rain. 18 62 29 84 |IN Ww Clear. Wi, 29:78 |S ; Cloudy, Ge 60 29 82 |W Light clouds. 3 Thurs.| 82 29 80 |S 2 Cloudy. Satur. | 76 29 82 |W 1 Clear. 3 75 29 82 |S Cloudy, 19 69 29 83 |S Light clouds, 71 29 87 |NE 1 Cloudy, “66 29 84 is 1 Foggy. Friday | 81 29 87 |N E 1 Clear. Sunday] 75 29 84 |W 1 Clear, 4 | 742 29 86 IN 1 Clear. 20 | 64 29 85 INW Clear, 2 29 88 IN Clear. 55 29 94 IN W 1 Clear, Satur. | 81 29 89 |N 1 Cloudy. Xion. | 80 29 94 IN W Fine. 5 69 29 93 |N 2 Cloudy. 21 65 29 94 |N Fine. 68 290 INE Cloudy, 60 29 94! 1 Fine, Sunday) 82 29 88 |NE 1 Cloudy. Tues 82 29 94/5 2 Fine. 6 69 2977 Cloudy, 22 65 29 94 /E Fine. 68 29 85 |E 1 Cloudy. 55 29994 |E Fine, Mon. | 82 00 OOJE 2 Cloudy. Wed. | 82 29 94/5 2 Clear. 7 69 00 00 Cloudy. 23 65 29 96 |S Clear. 68 29 82 |E Cloudy. 68 29 99 |S 1 A little cloudy, Tues. | 82 29 79 |S 1 Cloudy, a litt. shower.|} Thurs.| 81 29 99 ISE 1 Cloudy. 8 69 29 76|SE 1 111}Rain. 24 | 73.30 00/IS W Cloudy, E Cloudy ; 66 SO O1 Cloudy, sun at interv. Wed. N 2 0.10/Rain. Friday | 80 29 95 INW:E 1 Dim star light. 9 N - |Cloudy. 25 | 71 29 94 Clear. N Cloudy 61 29 90 INW Clear, Thurs. NE 2 Cloudy Satur. | 76 29 86|NE Some light clouds, 10 NE Cloudy, 26 | 63 29 8 INE 1 Dim star light. NNE Cloudy. 47 29 84 Blue fog. Friday | 62 NNE 1 Clearing up. Sunday] 66 29 83 |NE 2 Clear & dry. 11 E Cloudy. 27 | 56 2982 Blue fog, dry. 51 29 80 Overcast. 45 29 88 INE 1 Clear. Satur. | 77 29 80 Lt. clds. with sunsh. |} Mon. | 67 29 85 INE Clear. 12 | 70 29 79 Hazy. 28 | 52 29 86 Fine, 63 29 79 Cloudy, 45 29 99 INE Fine. Sunday] 75 29 78 Cloudy. Tues. |71 2999 INE 1 Clear. 13. | 70 29 78 Clouds with moonsh, 29 | 56 3005 |N-E Blue fog, “60 29 79 |W Cloudy, damp & cold, 49 SO 11 |NE Clear, Mon. | 67 29 80 |W Cloudy. Wed, | 68 30 08 INE 1 Clear. 14 | 56 29 85 IN W Clearing up. 50 | 50 3007 INE Clear. 65 29 88 |N W Clear, 45 30 06 INE Clear, Tues. | 77 29 88 |N W Clear. Thurs.| 67 30 00 |INE 1 JA few clouds. 15 | 60 29 90 |N W Clear, 31 | 50 2998 INE Clear. 54. 29 90 |N W Clear Wed. | 75 29 90 IN W Clear. 16 | 65 29 90 |NW Serene
REMARKS.
10th. Cabbages begin to head; and green peas in season,
20 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
cial i ah DA a a a ie a
HOURS. 2 HOURS. Fd | 5. 3. 9, | WENDSs. = NOVEMBER. 5g 'a 9: WINDS. 5 | 1799. Days. |Tu. | Bar. | Prs. [sre | In. | State of the weather. || Days. |Tu. | Bar. Prs. |sox. In. | State of the weather. | 46 29 97|NE Grey clouds, 56 30 03 Clear. Friday | 66 29 96 JE 1 Sunshine. Satur. | 78 30 01 |S W 1 Some clouds. 1 60 29 95 /E Duskish. 16 67 30 00 Some clouds. [66 9994/SE ~~—~«{Cloudy. 65 29 98 |S Some clouds. Satur. | 74 29 93 /S E 1 Dull heavy atmosph. ||Sun. 76 29 86 |S 2 Cloudy. 2 66 29.92 |E Duskish, 17 71 29 86S 0.01)Rain. “60 29 96 |N Foggy, drops of rain. “45 30 07|SW:N 2 Driving grey clouds, Sunday] 63 29 97 |N 2 Cloudy foggy & damp ||Mon. | 53 30 07 |N Clearing up. 3 56 29 93 Duskish. 18 45 30 07 |N Clear. “45°29 82 Clear. 35. 30 12 |NW Very fine Mon. | 68 29 82 |IN W 1 Some clouds, Tues. | 57 30 10|INW 1 Fine. 4 57 29 83 IN W Duskish. 19 41 30 08 |W Fine. “54 29984 (NW. 1 (Cloudy. 31 30 07 |W Fine. Tues. | 73 29 86 INW Cloudy. Wed. | 57 30 07 |W 1 Some clouds, 5 52 29 87 INW Cloudy. 20 34 30 09 |W Cloudy. 64 29 89 INE 0.02|Cloudy, somerain. || 37. 30 09 |W Clear. Wed. | 65 29 90 INE 1 Sunshine. Thurs. | 65 30 09 |W a Light clouds. 6 | 63 29 90 INE Dark, 21 53 30 09 |W Clear. 61 29 90 IN W Clear. 42 30 07 |W Light clouds. Thurs. | 65 29 91 IN W 1 Clear. Friday | 68 30 04 |W Light clouds. 7 63 29 92 IN W Clear. 22 | 40 30 05 Clear. Si IN 30 00 |W iighedonda: (tae Friday | 64 29 89 |NW Clear. Satur. | 78 99 95 |W 1 Light clouds. 8 51 29 89 IN W Clear. 3 165 29 90 jE _ |Light grey clouds. 46 29 89 IN W Clear. 65 29 76|E 1 (0.12)Light rain. Satur. | 67 29 88 |N W 1 Clear. Sun. 69 29 76|E 1 Cloudy. 9 58 29 88 IN Clear. 24 56 29 78|SE 0.40/Rain. 45 29 88 |N W Clear. 42 30 00 |NE Clear. Sunday] 67 29 87|INW_ 1 Clear. Mon. | 54 30 00|NE Clear. 10 | 47 29 87 INW Clear. 25 48 30 05 Some clouds, 54 29 88 |NE Clear. 4. 3005|WNW Cloudy. Mon. | 65 29 88 |NE 1 Blue fog. Tues. | 55 30 00 |W Clear. 11 | 54 29 90 Fog. 26 | 41 29 99 Clear. 41 30 13 IN 1 Clear. 41 29 99 |W Clear. Tues. | 54 30 07 |N 1 Fine, Wed. | 51 29 99)}W 1 Clear. 12 | 40 30.07 | Clear. 27 |49 29 99 Clear. 31 30 00 |INW Very clear. 49 30 00 Clear. Wed. {60 29 98 |SE 1 Clear. Thurs. | 60 30 00 |N W Clear. 13 51 29 94 |SE 1 Clear. 28 | 38 30.00 |NW Clear. 46 29 99 |S W 1 Clear. 28 30 01 |N W Clear. Thurs.| 71 29 99 |S W Clear. Friday| 50 30 02|INW 1 Clear. 14 | 62 29 99 Clear. 29 | 34 3003|INW — Clear. 46 30 06 Veryclear. 26 30.05 IN W Clear. Friday | 72 30 06 |S W 1 Very clear. Satur. | 44 30 00 |NE 1 Cloudy.
15 | 59 3005 Very clear. 30 150 29 80 |E Cloudy.
THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY
MADE IN s 2P er re ae SEE REISE SERS SETS SSE ET HOURS. fd \ HOURS. rs my wINDs. te, DECEMBER. i bees WINDS. = 1799. a ey! Oe 2 5473: 9: zZ Days. [rx | Bar. | Prs. |Srn. fas. In. [State of the weather. | Days. | Tu. | Ban. | Prs. ste In. |State of the weather. 50 29 70 |E 1.12 Fine rain. 50 29°93 [N 0:72) Rain. Sun. 61 29 66 |E 1 |Rain. Tues. | 44 29 93 INE 1 Rain. 1 60 29 63 |E 1.72)Rain, 17 | °S7 29.92) |E Rain. 60 29 63 |E 0.02)Small rain. 37 629 83 |ISE 1 0.63)Rain. Mon. | 56 29 78 IN Cloudy Wed. | 42 29 84/SE 1 Cloudy. 2 55 29 78 |N Cloudy 18 42 29 & ISE Cloudy. 51 29 85 INE Cloudy 39° 29 85 |S E 1 Cloudy. Tues. | 63 29 85 INE 1 Cloudy, Thurs.| 43 29 86 |SE Cloudy. 3 50 29 82 INE Cloudy 19 | 42 29 88 |N Cloudy. ST) 29071: Cloudy. 39° 29 88 |N Cloudy & drizzly. Wed. | 65 29 71|INE Clouds & sunshine. ||Friday} 40 29 88 |N 1 0.11)Cloudy & rain. 4 56 29 71 |E Cloudy. 20 39 29 88 |IN Clearing up. 64 29 71 |E Cloudy. 37° 30 00 IN W Cloudy. Thur. | 71 29 68 |E 1 Cloudy. Satur. | 42 3000 |INW 1 Clearing up. 5 55 29 64 E 1 0.61}Rain 21 | 33 29 99 Some clouds, 49 29 74 |IN W 1 Clear 29 29 96 IN W Light clouds. Friday| 50 30 00|INW 1 Clear Sunday} 50 29 95 |SE Clouds & sun. 6 42 30 00 IN W Clear. 22 40 29 93 |SE 1 Clear. 32 3012 IN W Clear. 31 29 96 IN Clear. Satur. | 59 30 00 IN W Clear. Mon. | 44 30 00 |N 1 Clear. its 45 30 00 IN W Clear. 3 | 35 30.00 IN Clear. 35 30 00 IN Clear. 26 30 00 Clear. Sun. 55 29 88 INE Cloudy. Tues. | 53 30 00 1 Clear. 8 49 29 80INE Clear. 24 38 30 00 1 Clear. 38 29 76 |F Some clouds 254 30 16 Clear. Mon. | 68 29 76 |E Cloudy. Wed. | 55 30 00 1 Clear. 9 63 29 75/1SE loudy. 29 85) 87 29295; 1 Clear. 64 29 74 |s Cioudy. 47-29 90 Cloudy. Tues. | 74 29 73 |S 1 Cloudy Thurs. | 55 29 90 1 Some clouds. Z 10 TL. VQ90F2 SE Moon shine 26 47 29 90 Duskish. 43 29 72 |SE Cloudy. 48 29 86 Clouds & sunshine. Wed. | 40 29 80|sE Rain. Friday | 58 29 81 1 Cloudy. 11 1.37 29°80i|\s 1,24|Rain. 27 | 54 29 80 Rain. 33 2960 |INW 1 Snow diss. on the gr 59 29 84 | 0.61|Clearing up. Thur. | 37 29 70 INW 1 Cloudy, Satur. | 49 29 90 1 Clear. 12 | 32 29 80INW Clear. 28 | 45 29 95 Clear. é 26 29 85 IN W Clear. 37 29 97 IN W Clear. Friday| 51 2987 |INW 1 Clear. Sunday} 40 2998 INW => 1 Clear. 13 | 42 29 88 IN W Fine. 29 | 35 3000 IN W Clear. 29 3003 INW Very fine. 24 3011INW 1 Clear. Satur. | 58 30 03 INW 1 Fine. Mon. | 45 30 12 INW Clear. 14_ | 63 30 97 Fine. 30 | 28 3012|NW 1 Clear. 41 30 05 Clear. 26 3040 IN Clear. Sun. | 55 30 02 IN Cloudy. Tues. | 52 3000 INE 1 Clear. 1S | 45 30 00 Cloudy. 31 | 42 29 69 |E Cloudy. 46 29 95 IN Cloudy. Mon. | 66 29 93 IN 2 Cloudy. 16 | 65 29 92 IN Rain.
REMARKS.
27th. Observed the Missletoe in fruit.
E
te
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
HOURS. 2 HOURS. r Ri Hoey WINDS. : JANUARY. 6. 3. 9. | WINDS. 1800. Days. vu. Ba. | Prs, srr | In. |State of the weather.|| Days, Tx.| Bar. | Prs. [srx| I». |State of the weather. 44 29 60 |E i Rain. 35° 29 80 (NW Clearing up. Wed. | 48 29 70 jE 2 Rain. Friday | 46 29 85 |N W 1 Clear. 1 35 29 87 |E 1 0.30)Rain. 17 35. 29 87 IN W Clear. 26 29 84 IN Clear. 23 29 93 IN W Clear. Thurs.| 38 29 83 |NE 1 Clear. Satur. | 53 29 93 IN W Clear, 2 31 _29 81 SE Hazy. 18 389 29 93 |N Clear. . 214 29 81 |N W jClear. 28 29 94 |IN W Clear. Friday | 46 29 83 |N W 1 Clear. Sunday] 61 29 95 IN W i Clear. 3 3629 84 Clear. 19 51 29 96 |N . IClear. 50 29 90 IN W 1 Clear. 34 29°96 Clear. Satur. | 55 29 95 IN W 1 Clear. Mon. } 64 29 96 |NE 1 Some clouds, 4 39 30 00 IN W Clear. 20 54 29 96 INE Clear. 32. 29°97 IN W- Clear 34° 29°96 |i Some clouds. Sunday| 55 29 94iINW 1 Clear. Tues. | 57 29 95/5 1 Cloudy. 5 44 29 91 Clear. 21 46 29 94 E Star light. 33 29 90 [N Some clouds. 35 29 84 /E 0.05|Rain. Mon. | 66 29 80 |SE 1 Clouds & sun. Wed. | 60 29 80 |E 1 Cloudy. 6 53 29 74 |S W Clear, 22 | 57 29 80 |B Cloudy. 42 29 80 Clear. 36 29 74 |E 0.05/Rain. Tues. | 55 29 83|SW 1 A little cloudy. Thurs.| 58 29 74 |E 1 Cloudy & light rain. Ca 3029085 Cloudy. 23 55 29 74 |E 0.20|Rain. | 5 |W 1 Clearing up. 45 29 80 |NE 0.10/Rain. Wed. Clouds & sunshine. |} Friday| 46. 29 82 [N 1 Cloudy, 8 Clouds & sunshine. 24 | 40 29 84 |N 1 Cloudy. ri N Clouds & sunshine. 30 29 86 |N i Cloudy, Thurs. N 1 Clear. Satur. | 47 29 86 |N E Cloudy, 9 N Clear. 25 47 29 86 |NE Cloudy, 5 |N W Clear. 40 29 87 INE r Cloudy. Friday NW os 2 Very fine. Sunday} 54 29 83 |NE 1 Drizzly. 10 N Clear, 26 | 49 29 88 |NE 1 Drizzly. N W Clear. 45°29 92 |N 1 Cloudy, Satur. N W 1 Clear. Mon, | 48 29 99 IN 1 Cloudy. 11 NW Clear. 27 | 48 3007 |N 1 Clearing up. NW 1 Clear. 36 30 08 (N Clear. Sunday N W 1 Clear. Tues. | 52 3010 |N 1 Small clouds. 12 N Clear. 28 42 30 10\N 1 Clear: N W Clear, 33 30 12 IN W I Clear. Mon. NE 1 Clear. Wed, | 53 30 12 IN it Some clonds, 13 N Ciear. 29 | 45 30 13 |N 2 Cloudy & dark, E Clear. : 35 29 95 |NE Clear. Tues. 1oy Clear. Thurs.| 47 29 95 |INE 2 Clear. 14 E Clear. 3 41 29,95 |E 1 Cloudy & dark. SIE Clear. 29° 29 95 |N 1 Snow, Wed. a Clear. Friday | 324 29 95 IN E 2 Snow. 15 E . Clear. 31 82 2995 INE 1 Rain. 54 29 74 IE Cloudy Thurs.| 60 29 74 JE Rain. : 16 45 29 74 )E 0.62|Rain. HU eR SI NEE NSE IS I LA a a aT gen ee a
REMARKS.
31st. As the rain fell it froze, adhering to the branches of the trees in beautiful icicles, resembling some trees in blos- som: Many large limbs were broken down in the night and following day, by the weight of the ice.
RECAPITULATION. ns
| THERMOMETER. | BAROMETER. RAIN. ee DP oe 3 Ue | EAS K:
lay Q or = s = Q > a => &
2.8 coms) Pas oe. 8 2 Bp oe.) §
ae | oe | oe | 8 FS melo §
aa a e & |B 5
a ns DEG. | Dec. | Dec. |Incues.{Iwcnes. Incues.|/IncHES
So ne Tio hh EE Bebiuare 30 25 |.29 53 | 29 759] 9 195 March. 30 24 | 29.53 | 29 928] 3 g4 April sie, 29 51 | 29 772) 9 979 May pial ea 29 63 | 29 871] oO 91 June 30 02] 9 79 | 29 888] 95 g4 July. 29 98 | 29 78 ee DAS August. 29 99 | 29 77 | 29 857] 3 96 September. 29 95 | 29 63 | 29 a A 855 October. 85 44 652 } 30 11 | 29 76 | 99 5i0} 4 71
November. 78 26 545 | 30 13 | 29 76 | 29 26 0 55
December. 68 | ZA A6Z | 30 16 | 29 63 |» 970} 3-78
1800, January. 66 | 215 | 43% | 30 13 | 29 60 | 29 900) 130 TBP Gey pr ae cae (eR é
Whole year. | 92 Iv} | 632] 30 25 | 29 51 | 29 833] S9 770
ney petty ye ian. a
aie NB
No. III.
Description of a singular Phenomenon seen at Baton Rouge, by Willkam Dunbar, Esq. communicated by Thomas Jefferson, Pre- sident A. P. S.
Natcuez, June 30th, 1800. Read 16th January 1801.
A PHENOMENON wasscento pass Baton Rouge on the night of the 5th April 1800, of which the following is the best description I have been able to obtain.
It was first seen in the South West, and moved so rapidly, passing over the heads of the spectators, as to disappear in the North East in about a quarter of a minute.
It appeared to be of the size of a large house, 70 or 80 feet Jong and of a form nearly resembling Fig. 5. in Plate, rv.
It appeared to be about 200 yards above the surface of the earth, wholly luminous, but not emitting sparks; of a colour resembling the sun near the horizon ina cold frosty evening, which may be calledacrimson red. When passing right over the heads of the spectators, the light on the surface of the earth, was little short of the effect of sun-beams, though at the same time, looking another way, the stars were visible, which appears to be a confirmation of the opinion formed of its moderate eleva- tion. In passing, a considerable degree of heat was felt but no electric sensation. Immediately after it disappeared in the North East, a violent rushing noise was heard, as if the phe- nomenon was bearing down the forest before it, and in a few seconds a tremendous crash was heard similar to that of the largest piece of ordnance, causing a very sensible earthquake.
I have been informed, that search has been made in the place where the burning body fell, and that a considerable portion of the surface of the earth was found broken up, and every vegetable body burned or greatly scorched. I have not yet received answers to a number of queries I have sent on, which may perhaps bring to light more particulars,
Nore. The above communication was aS by an account of the first invention of the Telegraphe extracted from the works of Dr. Hook.
Mr. Dunbar was induced to forward this extract to the Society, as he supposed it had been less noticed than it deserved to be. But it was deemed unnecessary to print the Paper, as it may be
seen inthe works above mentioned, and is referred to by Dr. Birchin his history of the Royal So- ciety. Vol. 4th, page 299.
26 RULES FOR FINDING THE EQUATION FOR THE
No. IV.
A short and easy rule for finding the equation for the change of the sun’s declination when equal altitudes are used to regulate a clock or other time keeper. Communicated by Andrew Ellicott Esq.
Read January 16th, 1801. FOR THE FIRST PART.
FIND the Sun’s longitude, declination, and the change of declination for 24" at the time of the observation, like- wise find the proportional part of the change of declination for the half interval between the forenoon and afternoon ob- servations, then take the proportional logarithm answering to the change of declination forthe half interval, (increasing the index by 10,) from which take the log. cosecant of the horary angle; to the remainder add the log. cotangent of the latitude of the place of observation, and take out the minute and second from the P. Ls. answering to the sum (10 being deducted from the index) which converted into time will give the first part of the correction and will be deductive in North latitudes, when the sun’s longitude is 0, 1, 2, 9, 10, or 11, signs, and additive in the others; but the contrary in South latitudes.
FOR THE SECOND PART.
TO the P. L. of the change of the sun’s declination during the half interval, add the log. cotangent of the sun’s declination, from that sum deduct the log. cotangent of the horay angle.— Take out the minute and second from P. Ls. answering to the re- mainder, which turned into time will give the second part of the correction; this is common to all latitudes, and will be additive when the sun’s longitude is 0, 1, 2, 6, 7, or 8, signs, and deductive in the others.
CHANGE OF THE SUNS DECLINATION &C. ai
a
EXAMPLE.
Suppose the following equal altitudes were taken in latitude 39°.56'. N. when the sun’s longitude was 48, 15°.
A. M. 8. 32’ 20’—P./M, 3» 39" 94° UENO be ae Pa ae Le test aN AONE CTO es Ha Qe sOy sO NEW Bw ey Deduct forenoon’s observation.......... 8 32 20 | DP Orth WAM INEEHV AN? cine hac nceten seus esvsodersntde ss 3130),42 Add forenoon’s observation...........+6 8 32 20 Sun’s center on the meridian nearly 12.2 99
FOR THE CORRECTION.
The sun’s declination answering to 45 15° of his longitude is nearly 16° 21', and the change of declination at the same time about 16’ 55" in 24 hours, or 2’ 28” during the half in- terval.
THEN BY THE RULE,
Change of declination during
half interval 2’ 28” P. L. Wisea Horary angle 52° 30’ log. cosec.—10. 1005 1. 7626
Latitude 39° 56 log. cotan. +10. 0772
P. L. 1. 8398=9)36"=10" 24"in
time, being the first part of the equation, and additive by the rule,
28 RULES FOR FINDING THE EQUATION FOR THE
FOR THE SECOND PART.
Change of declination during the
half interval 2’ 28” P. L. 1. 8631 Sun’s declination 16° 21’ log cotan. +10. 5326 12. $957
Horary angle 52’ 30' log. cotan.— 9.8850 P. L.— 9. 5107=0 3 3"—=9" 12” in
time, being the second part of the equation, and deductive by the rule,
APPLICATION. Apparent time of the sun’s center on 102-220" the meridian by equal altitudes nearly First part of the equation +10" 24" Second OGicecsraaceaas Sp Pte +8. 12 eae —_—_—_—————— Sun’s centre on the meridian 12). .2. 30. 12k Se Sa ENOL’
Account of an extraordinary flight of meteors (commonly called shooting of stars) communicated by Andrew Ellicot, Esq. as ex- tracted from his Journal inavoyage from New-Orleans to Phila- delphia.
Read 16th January, 1801 “« NOVEMBER 12th 1799, about three o’clock, A. M. T was called up to see the shooting of the stars (as it is commonly called.) The phenomenon was grand and awful, the whole heavens appeared as if illuminated with sky-rockets, which dis- appeared only by the light of the sun after day break. The meteors, which at any one instant of time appeared as nume-
CHANGE OF THE SUN’S DECLINATION, &c. 29
rous as the stars, flew in all possible directions, except from the earth, toward which they all inclined more or less; and some of them descended perpendicularly over the vessel we were in, so that I was in constant expectation of their falling among us. My thermometer which had been at 86° of Farenheits scale for four days, tell to 56° about 4 o’clock A. M. and nearly at the same time the wind shifted from the South to the N. W. from whence it blew with great violence for three days without intermission. We were in latitude 25° N. and S. E. from Kay Largo, near the edge of the Gulph Stream.”
I have since been informed that the above phenomenon ex- tended over a large portion of the West India islands and as far North as Mary’s in latitude 30° 42' where it appeared as bril- liant as with us off Cape Florida.
No. VI.
Improved method of projecting and measuring plane Angles by Mr. Robert Patterson communicated by Mr. Andrew Ellicott.
Read 6th March, 1801. SIR,
THE laying down, and measuring of plane angles, con- stitute so great a part of practical geometry, that any attempt to render this operation more easy and acurate than by the line of chords, or any other method now in common use, will not, I presume, be deemed altogether unimportant.
The lines of chords on our common scales are in general very inaccurately divided, and even if we suppose the divisions ever so exact it will still be impracticable to take off the mea- sure of an angle to greater accuracy then a half or third of a degree at most ; as it is impossible to apply either the nonius or diagonal method of subdivision to a line of unequal parts.
But in the method that I am about to propose a line of equal parts only is used, and therefore the divisions and subdivisions may, by either of the aboye modes, be made as minute and ac- curate as can be desired..
30 IMPROVED METHOD OF PROJECTING
The radius of a circle of which the chord of any given arch shall contain just as many equal parts of tie radius as the arch contains degrees, is easily calculated. The one I have chosen is that of a circle of which the chord of an arch of 25 de- grees shall equal 25 parts. This radius is 57: very nearly. Now it will be found that of this circle the chord of any arch under 30 degrees will never vary more than .*, part of a unit from the number of degrees in that arch.
Hence to lay down an angle of any given number of de- grees and parts you have only ic take, with a pair of compasses, from any line of equal parts, 572, and with this radius describ- ing anarch, apply thereon, from the same line, the chord of the angles required, if not exceeding 30 degrees; (calling each part or equal division of the line a degree) and the two radii drawn from the center to the points of application on the arch, will contain the angle required. If the given angle exceeds 30 degrees, first apply the radius(which equals the chord of 60 de- grees) and then taking from the line of equal parts the chord of the difference between 60 degrees and the given angle, ap- ply it on the arch from 60 either forwards or backwards ac- cording as the given angle is greater or less than 60 degrees.
The measuring of an Yangle being only the reverse of the for- mer will consist in describing an arch round the angular point as a center with a radius equal 573, and then applying the chord of this arch comprehended between the two lines inclu- ding the angle, if not exceeding 30 degrees, to the same line of equal parts from which the “radius was taken. But if the angle exceeds 30 degrees you must first apply the radius, and then measure the aa of excess or defect above or below 60 as above.
Though the above method of projecting and measuring an- gles will never be liable to an error of more than five or six minutes of a degree, which in practice may be safely neglect- ed, yet even these small errors may, when thought necessary, be allowed for as follows—
From 6 degrees to 21
. more Fin 98 Li o fal the angle 5 minutes { Ma \
than it measures and if this allowance be made the error will scarce ever exceed one minute.
AND MEASURING PLANE ANGLES. iy
The diagonal scale of 20 parts to an inch will be of a very convenient size for the above purpose—On this the half inch is divided into 100 equal parts, each of which will correspond to 6 minutes.
But this method of subdividing lines of equal parts, though no doubt susceptible of great accuracy, is yet attended with in- conveniencies which it Gath be desirable to obviate—such lines occupy so much room on the scale, that but few of them can be inserted, and among such a multiplicity of crossing lines, the eye is liable to mistake one for another.
The following method which is only an application of the nonius division, is susceptible of even greater accuracy and minuteness than the diagonal-method, and yet free from all its iconveniencies.—Let each of the larger divisions of the line be subdivided into 10 equal parts, as the line of inches on the common scale; then if you would farther subdivide these, say
each into 10 equal parts, you must set off before the beginning of the line, a space equal to 11 of the smaller divisions, which divide into 10 equal parts, numbering them backwards 1, 2 3, &c. and then each of these divisions on the nonius will exceed one of the smaller divisions on the scale just ;4, part of the latter.
The manner of using this nonius in laying down or mea- suring lines is sufficiently obvious—Thus if you would take off with a pair of compasses 27°, you must extend from 6 on the nonius to 21 (27-6) on the scale, if you would take off 57 7, extend from 7 on the nonius to 50 on the scale &c. But a still more minute subdivision may be easily made by combining the nonius and diagonal methods together—thus if each of the lesser divisions, me on the scale and nonius were, by diagonals, subdivided into 10 equal parts, then each of the larger divisions would in fact be subdivided into 1000 equal parts, and yet none of the lines, even on the scale of 20 to an inch, would be less than .*, of an inch assunder. Such a degree of minute- ness can however seldom if ever be necessary, and theretore the use of the diagonal scale may be entirely dispensed with.
In Plate 111. Fig. 7. the nonius occupies a space equal to 13 of the smaller daescns on the scale, and is divided into 12.
$2 ON THE THEORY OF WINDS.
equal parts; and therefore, if this line be used as a line of chords, the nonius will divide the degree into 12 parts or 5
minutes. ria I am, with sincere respect,
your obliged friend
R. PATTERSON. ANDREW ELLICoTT Esq.
| ea nnn |
No. VII.
Sur La Théorie des Vents. Par M. Dupont de Nemours.
Read fuly 17, 1801.
Le Vent a trois causes: la dilatation de Vair par la chaleur, qui le chasse de l’endroit ot cette chaleur est ¢prouvée: la Con- densation de Yair par le froid, qui le rappelle vers le lieu ot le refroidissement se fait sentir; etla revulsion qui, lorsqu’un courant d’air s’est établi par une des deux causes précédentes, attire des parties environnantes une nouvelle colonne d’air a Ja place de celle qui a été mise en mouvement.
La rotation diurne de la terre produit toujours une dilatation de l'air, qui est successive dans tous les points du Globe ot le soleil paroit se lever et od il passe jusqu’a son midi: dilatation que Vechaufiement des terres entretient plus ou moins longtemps au dela de midi, selon la nature de cesterres. Et cette dilatation est toujours suivie d’une condensation que le soir et la nuit ra- ménent en chaque lieu jusqu’a la renaissance du nouveau jour,
C’est ce qui produit le Vent d’Est général, qui est plus sensi- ble dans la Zone ot la chaleur est plus développée.
La ligne de la plus grande chaleur se maintient depuis deux jusqu’a quatre degrés de latitude au nord de celle que trace le cours du soleil, en passant d’un Tropique a l'autre et sur l’Equateur, parceque le Pole et ’Hémisphere austral, entourés de Mers, ne sont pas si susceptibles d’échauffement que I’hémis- phere boréal ot il y a moins de mer que de terre,
ON THE THEORY OF WINDS. 338
Pendant PEté de l'hémisphére boréal, le vent d’Est alizé s’étend depuis sept jusqu’a douze degrés au nord de son Tropi- que; Et durant l’Eté de l’hémisphére austral, le méme vent n’excéde son Tropique, que d’environ quatre degrés; mais dans les deux hémispheres la rive du vent alizé varie toujours de VEté a lhiver.
Ainsi, au solstice d’Eté de l’hémisphére Septentrional, le vent alizé s’étend jusqu’ au trente cinquiéme ou au trente sixi¢me degré; tandis qu’au solstice d’hiver il atteint 4 peine le Tropique, et que c’est vers l’hemisphere austral qu’il s’¢léve alors au vingt huitieme degre.
Dans les Equinoxes, le vent alizé ne passe guére le Tropique du Cancer que de quatre degrés, et se tient en général au niveau de l'autre.
Le coup de vent de l’Equinoxe qui n’est violent qu’au dela des Tropiques, est l’eftet de la dilatation de l’air sur l’hémisphére ou le soleil passe, & de sa condensation sur celui qu il aban- donne.
Le vent alizé, partant dans les Equinoxes de 1’Equateur, dans les Solstices d’un ‘Tropique ou de |’autre, & dans leur in- tervalle de la transversale courbee que le cours du Soleil décrit de l’Equateur aux ‘Tropiques, prend dans toutes ces directions un développement spiral, lequel tient principalement au plan incliné, & toujours diminuant, que chaque hémisphere lui présente.
Sur les terres, le vent alizé se trouve contrarié dans sa course par mille obstacles quil intervertissent & paroissent quelque fois la dénaturer. Il reprend un point de départ lorsqu’il quitte chaque continent; et c’est de ce point qu’il’s étale en éventail spiral jus- qu’a ce qu'il arrive au Continent opposé.—C’est ce qui le rend plus resserré vers la cote occidentale. de l'Afrique qu’a la céte Orientale de l’Amérique, et ce qui le restreint encore a la céte Occidentale de Amérique pour l’€ployer du Japon alanouvelle Caledonie et au dessus.
Tous ces Vents géneraux ont des Remoux qui deviennent également generaux. Aucun fluide ne peut perdre un courant sans que ce courant ne presse les parties avoisinantes de sa rive & ne les oblige de former, pour lui céder la place, un contre courant en sens oppose.
G
34 ON THE THEORY OF THE WINDS.
Dans le vent général i 1'Est, le Refroidissement causé par le retour de la nuit aide beaucoup au Remou, en appellant sans cesse l’air de sa rive’d remplacer celui que la chaleur du jour a raréfié ct poussé en avant. Et néme quand il n’y auroit pas de refroidissement antérieur, le simple deplacement du fluide ameneroit la réwulsion qui, prise sur un air moins échauffe, causeroit elle méme aux leux que le vent chaud.a occupés un refroidissement postérieur; mais les deux causes, la condensa- tion & la révulsion se combinent & se fortifient reciproquement.
Ce sont elles qui, dans la Zone méme des Tropiques produi- sent la Brise du Soir. Elle est Nord Est au Nord du centre de la chaleur, et Sud-Est 4 son Sud; et ne pourroit avoir un autre cours. Elle est ’@manation du vent de Remou nord Ouest & sud-Oucst, et la voie naturelle de la révulsion par laquelle une partie de l’air de ce vent de remou s’en détache et se remet a la suite du vent alizé.
Vers le quarante cinquicme degré sud, au dela de l’influence du vent de Remou, commence a regner un vent de sud Est, appellé vers le nord par la douceur des climats tempérés & vers l'Ouest par la rotation terrestre. Ce vent, dont linverse, qui existe certainement sur l’autre hémisphere, ne peut s’y manifes- ter aux navigateurs pour des raisons qu’on appercevra plus bas, ce vent polaire du Sud se fait sentir plus loin lorsque le soleil est sur le Tropique du Cancer. Il est repoussé de plusieurs degrés pendant l’Eté austral. On voit de la comment la ligne calorisée qui serpente d’un Tropique a l’autre doit deplacer, et deplace avec le Vent alizx’, les vents de remou & ceux de révulsion qui en dérivent et méme lcs vents polaires.
C’est cette ondulation, ce retrait alternatif du vent alizé, du vent de remou, du vent polaire, qui les substitue ’'un A l’autre & qui produit les Moussons. Elles en suivent régulierement la marche dans |’ Atlantique, dans le grand Océan, dans la mer des Indes, entre la nouvelle Hollande, Madagascar et la pointe de l'Afrique au sud de Madagascar, comme aussi dans celle qui forme le golphe de Bengale, le Borie: Arabique, et qui s’étend jusqu’a deux degrés de latitude sud prés de Sumatra, et de trois degrés de la méme latitude pres de la cote de Mélinde.
Il est bien singulier qu’entre ces deux parties de la mer des {ndes ot la théorie générale est, ainsi que dans tout le reste du
ON THE THEORY OF WINDS. 35
monde, confirmée par le fait, il se trouve une Lande, d’environ dix degrés en latitude et soixante et dix en longitude, ot la mousson totalement différente paroisse déterminée par le Solstice, au lieu de l’étre comme a ses deux rives par |’équinoxe, et que ce soit précisement dans les mois ot le soleil agit sur cette bande avec plus de force, que le vent y quitte son cours naturel et devient Nord-Ouest.
La cause de cette unique anomalie dans le cours des vents sur toute la surface du globe est encore ignorée. On pourroit présumer qu’elle tient a quelque chaine de montagnes extré- mement hautes et tres escarpée en Afrique, qui presque per- pendiculairement frappée en cette Saison sur la plus part de ses plans par des vents fort élevés, tels qu’ils le sont naturelle- ment dans cette partie du monde, les repousse a peu pres contre leur propre direction. L
C’est bien en Afrique que doivent étre les plus hautes mon- tagnes de la terre. Elles y sont indispensables pour nourrir dans ce pays brdlant les énormes fleuves qui en arrosent une partie: le Nil, le Niger, la Zaire et les autres. Et si ces mon- tagnes sont assez ¢loignées de la Cote pour que l’échauffement des terres ct des’ sables ajodtant a l’ardeur de la Zone, y ait élévé le Vent alizé 4 une grande hauteur, et 4 une plus grande’ intensité, ce vent recontrant une muraille de glaciers ne peut qu’y tourbillonner avec une fureur qui vraisemblablement en lance une partie jusqu’aux Moluques dans cette extraordinaire mousson. Tout effet particulier ct local, doit avoir une cause locale et particulicre.
Nous verrons dans un autre mémoire comment celle que nous supposons ici doit, outre la fonte d’une énorme quantité de glaces, produire d’eftroyables pluies qui contribuent beaucoup aux débordements de tous les grands tleuves Africains.
Jusqu’a ce que cette mousson A/rico-Indique cit arrété nos regards, nous n’avions considéré les vents que tels que les mouve- ments diurne et annuel de la terre les produisent sur les mers libres, et les produiroient sur les terres méme si la surface en €toit aussi unie que celle des mers. Mais nous voici conduits a observer l’effet des montagnes qui repercutant le vent, des montagnes trés élevées et en grandes chaines qui lui opposent une vaste resistance, et celui des vallons ot il s’engoutire, qui
$6 ON THE THEORY OF WINDS.
dirigent son cours et en augmentent l’impetuosite comme des tuyaux de soufilet; Effects quelquefois affoiblis par celui des antiques Foréts qui parfilent le vent et amortissent son courroux. Le rebondissement est toujours en raison du choc. II est terri- ble dans les pays montueux: dans ceux surtout dont les augustes Pyramides s’clévent au dessus de la température ot les arbres peuvent croitre. Il prend une multitude de directions suivant les diverses faces que lui presentent la position et la configura- tion extrémement variées de ces montagnes, qui toutes renvoient la portion qu’elles ont recue du vent géneral d’Est et des vents de Remou d’OQuest, ou meme du vent polaire, par un angle de réflexion égal a l’angle d’incidence. Dans I’hémisphere boréal presque entierement terrestre, ces corps solides brisent sans cesse le vent général de Remou, et encore plus le vent polaire.
Le vent est quelque fois renvoyé d’un plan de montagne a un autre; il y a des ricochets. Et chacun de ces vents de reflet a, comme les vents généraux, son remou plus ou moins sensible.
Cette repercussion derecte ou bricollée, des vents généraux par lesmontagnes, etles remoux aux quels elle donne licu, produisent presque tous les vents particuliers, on en connoit fort peu qui aient d’autres causes.
En voici cependant une espece tres digne de remarque, et qui est due a la revulsion, a cette méme cause qui parmi les vents généraux fait naitre la brise du soir, et entretient constam- meut le vent polaire.
Ce vent local de révulsion a lieu dans les pays trés sabloneux et ot les rayons du Soleil dardent perpendiculairement.—Le sable de ces pays bridles contracte durant le jour une chaleur si grande et si durable que la nuit ne peut y rétablir |’équilibre. —Cette chaleur conservée ajodte le lendemain a celle que le jour ramene. Lair y est donc perpétucilement dans un état de dilatation et le vent ne pouvant prendre, qu’a une distance assez €loignée de ces sortes de foyers, sa direction horizontale, y pointe en €lévation.—Cela forme pour ainsi dire des cheminées ou lair des mers environnantes est continue:lement aspire.
C’est de la que resultent le petit vent qui, tout pres de la céte Occidentale de l’Atrique, porte a terre, et les Cadmes que l’on
ON THE THEORY OF WINDS. $7
trouve ensuite jusqu’a cent lieues et plus de cette méme Cote entre les Isles du Cap Verd et le Tropique du Capricorne.
Le vent diurne ne replonge sur la mer, et n’y repousse I’air de l'Est a l'Ouest qu’a cette distance du rivage.—Or, entre un vent qui conduit une portion de l’air dans une certaine direction et la raréfaction qui en fait revudser une autre portion en sens inverse, il s’établit absence de vent: il y a calme.—Deux vents opposés qui se heurtent ou qui se croisent font tempéte. Deux vents opposés dont la direction est parallele comme celle des vents de remou avec leur vent primitif, forment dans la ligne de leur collision des Tourbillons et des Trombes.—deux vents opposés qui se fuient, laissent dans leur intervalle ?ammodbilite.
Celle ci n’a que des inconvéniens pour les lieux et pour les hommes qui ont a patir sous son Sceptre de plomb, heureuse- ment qu’elle est rare dans le monde et n’y est jamais complette, les vents sont des bienfaits, les Tempétes qu’ils occasionnent sont trés utiles. Files reversent et distribuent sur la terre la ma- tiere électrique dont le mouvement de rotation du globe avoit chargé les nuages. _ Elles enrichissent les continens de celle que les vents généraux ont recueillie sur les mers. La réaction per- petuelle des vents particuliers contre les vents généraux et leurs combats entre eux memes étoient le meilleur moyen de répandre sur les lieux habités ce fluide vivifiant qui fait si fortement pousser les plantes* et qui donne aux animaux, a l'homme, l’énergie de |'ame et du corps.
Aucun des vents particuliers n’est uniforme, jamais ils ne soufflent ni exactement aux mémes places, ni avec la meme in- tensité. Il en cesse a chaque moment quelques uns. Ii en re- nait 4 chaque moment quelques autres. Deux grandes causes produisent cct effet.
_ Les variations qu’on a reconnues dans Vobliquité de l’Eclip- tique déplacent chaque année la ligne de la plus grande clia- leur.
Et chaque jour les points de départ de Ja chaleur, de meme que ceux de sa plus grande activité sont changes dans tous ics
* C’est une expérience commune qu’un seul coup de tonnerre fait mo toutes les lairues d’un jardin, &t iln’est personne qui ne soit 4 port< on éprouve de fatigue et de malaise dans le moment qui precede un Orage, Com forces et de vie quand!’orage a reverse surla terre l’air clectrique et oxigene,
nter de trois ou quatre pouc
38 ON THE THEORY OF WINDS.
lieux du globe par une autre Loi non moins admirable et plus accélerée de la généreuse nature. Cette belle et simple loi que les anciens avoient entrevue, dont NEwron a découvert et calcul€é le principe, et de laquelle d’Alembert a développél’en- chainement et les cons¢quences, fait que le temps qui s’écoule, depuis un Equinoxe de printemps ou d’Automne jusqu’a I’ Equi- noxe suivant de la méme saison, est de vingt minutes, vingt deux secondes plus court que le temps employé par la Terre a faire sa révolution dans son orbite. C’est ce qu’on appelle la Précession des Equinoves. Ona cru autrefois qu’elle embrassoit un Pé- riode de vingt six mille années pour ramener |’Equinoxe au méme point de l’Equateur. C’etoit une tres belle observation dans le temps oti elle a été faite, avec les mauvais instruments qu’on avoit alors. Etson exactitude doit ¢étonner, quand on voit que sur un si long espace de temps, l’erreur n’étoit que d’un cent guatrieme. Les meilleures machines et les observations plus sures des modernes ont conduit a savoir que ce Période n’est que d’environ Vingt cing mille Sept cent cinquante ans.
Mais il n’en résulte pas moins de ce beau et curieux phéno- mine que durant wingt cing mille Sept cent cinquante ans le Soleil n’a jamais son dever ni son midi a la méme place, et qu’il ne se trouve jamais dans le méme lieu a la méme heure d’un bon Chronomeire. 11 y a tous les jours pour chaque lieu une petite’ avance.
Ainsi l’ondulation de l’Ecliptique et la Précession des Equi- noxes, combinant leur influence, font que c’est perpétuellement sur des lieux différents, ades heures différentes, que le Soleil fait €prouvera l’air atmosphérique dela Terre l’impulsion donnée par son lever et par son midi; qu’il lance sa chaleur croissante; et sa plus grande chaleur; qu’il pousse avec elle le vent alizé, et que la spirale de celui ci détermine son Remou.
Le point de départ du vent alizé variant ainsi en chaque lieu chaque matin, et sa plus grande vivacité chaque midi, les faces immobiles des montagnes en sont nécessairement frappées cha- gue jour sous un angle different. Tous les vents particuliers de reflet direct, de ricochet, etde remou, changent donc inévitable- ment chaque jour leurs angles, leursdirectious, leurs croisemens. Iln’y apas un point de la Terre qui n’ait successivement et diversement part a la distribution et au renouvellement des dif- ferentes espéces d’airs et de tous les météores qui en resultent.
ON THE THEORY OF WINDS. 59
Iln’y a par conséquent pas une espece d’animal ou de plante qui n’en profite au moins alternativement.—
Quelques Savants ont paru écrire, ont dit plus ou moins séri- eusement, qu’on pourroit prévoir les varietes de ces vents, et celles des températures qui s’y trouvent liées, si l'on avoit pour chaque licu une suite d’observations météorologiques qui em- brassat tous les jours compris dans le Période de la Precession des Equiuoxes, et qu’alors, d’apres l’experience de ce qui se ser- oit passé a parcil jour dans le periode précédent, il deviendroit possible d’annoncer le temps qu’il feroit & le vent qui soufiler- oit chaque jour semblable du Période suivant en chaque lieu. Mais pour. réaliser une telle hypothese, il faudroit d’abord que les variations dans l’obliquité de |’Ecliptique accomplissent leur revolution pendant le méme temps que la precession des Equi- noxes;,.or cela n’est pas: leur marche est beaucoup plus lente. Et il faudroit encore que durant ce période de wngt cing mille sept cent cinquante ans, il n’y eit aucune montagne abimée, aucun Volcan fermé, ni éteint, aucun rivage de la mer avancé, ni reculé, aucune grande forét abattue.
Cependant nous savons que suivant des loix qui nous sont encore inconnues, la mer ne garde pas constamment le méme lit. Il nous est démontre par les couches de la moyenne et de la nouvelle terre, tantot litéorales, tantot formées au sein des eaux profondes, et se recouvrant l’une l’autre a plusieurs reprises, qu'elle a déja fait un grand nombre de fois le tour du glébe. Nous connoissons beaucoup d’autres mutations, les unes diés au travail de Ja nature, les autres a celui de ’homme,nous pou- vons ‘douc étre stirs qu’en raison méme des régles trés constan- tes qui dirigent sa course, le Vent, ses ravages, et ses avantages, qui sont infiniment plus grands, varieront toujours.
II ne faut point inférer de la que les observations météorologi- ques soient inutiles, ni diminuer le mérite des hommes estima- bles qui s’y livrent avec un zéle, une activité, une patience dignes d’éloges, elles servent a indiquer les rapports de l’atmos- phere avec les maladies régnantes, et quelque tois avec l’abon- dance ou la pénurie des récoltes. Elles éclairent la physiologie, leconomie domestique, et méme l'économie politique. Mais elles doivent laisser 4 l’almanach de Liege les prédictions sur la pluie, le beau temps, et les vents de l'année prochaine.
ree
No. VIII.
Extracis from a letter, from Wilkam Dunbar Esq. of the Natchez, to Thomas Jefferson, President of the Society.
Natcuez, Aug, 22,1801, Read December 18th, 1801.
BY the present occasion I have the honor of transmitting you a monthly recapitulation of meteorological observations for the year 1800; to which I have subjoined remarks calcu- lated to convey some idea of the nature of our climate.—I have also attended to a hint dropt in one of your letters respect- ing the Mississippi, by preparing a short account of that river, but my copyist having fallen sick, I am obliged to defer trans- mitting it until next post.
I have some time since received notices of fossil bones dis- covered to the west of the Mississippi, and lately an intelligent French gentleman, Commandant of the Apelousas, informs me, that at three different places of that country, bones have been found which are supposed to resemble those of the big- bone-lick near the Ohio, and at another place that he is well assured that in digging a well, a set of human teeth (la denture d’un homme) have been found at the depth of 30 or 35 feet. I have recommended to that gentleman to set on foot a diligent investigation of those objects and if practicable to transmit me specimens of the bones, particularly a jawbone with its included teeth as little mutilated as possible. Should I prove so fortu- nate as to acquire the possession of any object worthy the at- tention of the society I shall take an early opportunity of pre- senting it. Mr. Nolan has formerly given me some intimation of fossil bones of great magnitude being found in various parts of New Mexico.
Your observation of a lunar rain-bow is entirely new to me, but I have often observed a Phenomenon which seems to have been overlooked by Philosophers; it is slightly noticed in Brydone’s tour through Sicily and Malta Vol. 1. p. 356. 2d. =~
EXTRACTS FROM A LETTER, &c, 41.
Edit. London. This curious and beautiful phenomenon may be seen every fine summer’s evening in this and perhaps in ail other countries, where serenity is united to a cloudless sky. It is caused by the prismatic effect of the atmosphere upon the sun’s departing rays. Soon after sun-set a belt of a yellowish orange colour is seen to extend itself along the eastern horizon, this belt ascends in the same proportion as the sun descends, being about one degree in breadth; in contact with the first, appears a second belt below, of a dark blue colour, and about the,same breadth as the first, both belts being tolerably well de- fined and of a uniform colour throughout: when the double belt has risen a little above the horison, the azure sky may be seen below, and as the belts continue to ascend they become fainter, until at length the prismatic rays mecting with no va- pors sufficiently dense to reflect their colours, the whole pheno- menon dissolves into pale celestial light; the belts disappear at about 6 or 7°. of altitude. This phenomenon merits some attention; it exhibits as upon a skreen that species of light, which after a greater angular dispersion, arriving at the moon’s orbit, faintly illumines her disk during the time of a total eclipse.
It would seem to result from the above appearances, that if a prism were formed of atmospheric air, the solar ray would be separated thereby into two colours only, a yellow orange, and a blue: it is known to opticians that the compound colour of orange and yellow, and the colour which Newton calls indi- go, comprise within themselves the seven primitive colours, that is, united they ought to form white; we ought not therefore to reject this effect of atmospheric air, because dissimilar to the prismatic powers of such diaphanous bodies as are best known to us; modern experiments have shewn that retracting bodies possess very different dispersive powers; and when we reflect upon the heterogeneous nature of our atmosphere, composed of at least three permanently elastic fluids, with the adventi- tious mixture of perhaps a hundred others, subject from che- mical affinity to perpetual resolution and composition, disolving at all times a great proportion of aqueous fluid, and the whole pervaded by the electric fluid; shall we presume to doubt, that nature has it in her power to compose a refracting body,
H
42 EXTRACTS FROM A LETTER &c.
whose dispersive powers are equal with respect to the red, orange, yellow, and green making rays, and though greater with regard to the three remaining primitive colours yet perfect- ly equal among themselves.
WILLIAM DUNBAR.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT, A, P. S.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS,
MADE by William Dunbar, Esq, at the Forest, four miles east of the River Mississippi, in Lat. 31° 28' North, and in Long. 91° 80’ west of Greenwich, for the year 1800; with remarks on the state of the winds, weather, vegetation, &c. calculated to give some
idea of the climate of that country. Natcuez, Aug, 22,1801,
Read December 18th, 1801.
MONTHLY RECAPITULATION.
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. year, 1900.| 7¢|78|zZ5|z29|z8|z# Dee | D DEc. [ Dec. [ix INCHEs. |Ivonzs. ieosna cain January. 43% | 30 05 | 29 60 | 29 90 February. 425 30 10 | 29 52} 30 02 March 584 30 00 | 29 38 | 29 79 April. “a5 | 44 | oor 30 07} 29 65 "29 84 Bie. 72 | 29 95 | 29 62 | 29 76 fae 79x | 29 99 | 29 61 | 29 80 | July. 29 99 | 29 78 | 29 90 August. 82 P29 99 | 99 71. 29 86 September. 90 | 59 | 76x | 29 99° 29 71 "29 83. October. “66 | "30 29 "29 73 30 19° 040. November. 56 | 30 43. 29 91 "30 13 December. 7s | 12 | “ATE 30 30 | 29 74 "30 05 | 300) tw CE Oc
| [ 44 ]
REMARKS transcribed from the general daily Journal. JANUARY.
THIS month has been attended with more regular con- tinued cold than is usual in this climate, with a smaller pro- portion of rain, which fell in moderate quantities on 7 or 8 different days; on the 31st. we were presented with a beautiful appearance. As the rain and sleet fell, the branches of trees were enveloped in a thin sheet of ice, and from every minute protuberance or angle depended an elegant christalization, which altogether produced an enchanting effect, giving to the trees the appearance of the most resplendent blossoms. Many large limbs were broken down with the weight of the ice.
FEBRUARY.
2d. This morning the ground is covered with snow, and the trees beautifully spangled with ice. At 10 o’clock the snow begins to melt away, although the sun is yet veiled in clouds. The snow to the depth of two inches is speedily thawed, in exposed situations; but remains all day on dry grass, chips and other bad conductors of heat, to the north of buildings, trees &c. but no where on the bare ground.
3d. This morning the ground is white with snow, and the trees compleatly: glazed. One would suppose himself rather in Canada than in lat. 31°.—The sun peeps out, and a moment is granted to admire the most enchanting of pictures—The eye is dazzled with the prospect of myriads of gems, beauti- ful beyond imagination, with which the whole forest is deck- ed, reflecting a combination of the most vivid colours from the facets of the icy chrystalizations—but another moment, and all is dissolved. From the dreary depth of winter we emerge at once to the enjoyment of the delicious softness of a morning in May.
MARCH.
5th. Elm, Buckeye (horse-chesnut) and spice-wood begin to bud.
REMARKS TRANSCRIBED FROM 45
10th. Planted corn and rice.
12th. Dogwood displays its beautiful blossoms, as also the red-bud.
18th. Trees in general begin to shew their buds and _blos- soms, excepting the nut-bearing kinds, linden &c.—Planted cotton the 22d.
APRIL.
Continue to plant cotton daily. 7th. Good pasturage in the wood-land. ‘10th. Peas ripen—Hickory, Walnut and Chinquepin begin to bud.—11th. Abundance of pasture in the wood-land. 13th. Garden-peas gathered to eat. 15th. Roses blow. 25th. Wind- sor-beans and Artichokes ripe.—Strawberries ripe since the 12th.
MAY.
5th. Irish potatoes begin to be fit to gather. 10th. Black Mulberry ripe. Gathered ripe turnip and cabbage seed. 12th. French beans fit for use.—17th. Rye and wheat fit to reap— The present is one of the most delightful months of the year, being free from sudden storms, and agreeably temperate; it is generally one of the driest months, but the present is an ex- ception to that rule.
JUNE.
12th. Cotton begins to blossom and the weather becomes hotter than usual at this season. When the Thermometer is at 96°. under a gallery compleatly shaded, though exposed in some degree to the influence of reflection from the bare surface of the earth, if in such circumstances it be removed into a deep shade, under lofty trees, at 3 hours P. M. it will fall to 91 or 92°. If suspended to a tree exposed to the full influence of the sun-beams it rises quickly to 121°.—it perhaps might have risen higher, but being unwilling to risk the bursting of the Thermometer, as it is graduated only to 125°, I removed it without farther trial. In a cellar under the house, dug 42 feet into the ground, the Thermometer stood at 720.—15th. Tender Indian corn fit to use.
46 THE GENERAL DAILY JOURNAL.
JULY.
This month yields a good deal of rain,—it begins to be showery about the commencement of the month, sometimes before; had not the course of providence thus ordered it, the present and succeeding months would have become intolerable from heat, and a period would have been put to vegetation; but refreshing and cooling showers, which are almost periodi- cal at this season, falling daily in some one part or more of an extent of 20 or 30 square miles, render the mean temperature of these two months much lessthan might have been expected from that of the preceeding month of June, which is not un- frequently the hottest month of the year, though in the pre- sent it is inferior to both the succeeding months; but it is re- markable that much less rain fell than usual during the month of August, the natural consequence of which is an increase of temperature. I have anticipated the last observation res- pecting the succeeding month as having an immediate con- nection with the foregoing remarks.
AUGUST.
From the unusual heat of the season, the cotton harvest is found advanced ten days earlier than in former years, and a commencement was made on the 18th. to collect our valuable staple commodity. In the beginning of the season while the cotton is not yet abundant, a good labourer collects from 50 to 80 pounds in the seed, but as the crop advances to greater maturity and abundance, the task of able men and women may be estimated from 80 to 140lb. which yields one quarter clean cotton fit to be packed for market, when passed through the ginning mill. The harvesting season may continue from 3 to 4 months; from which may be formed some estimate of this very productive branch of agriculture.
SEPTEMBER.
This month is attended with a good deal of rain and intro- duces the powerful influence of a second spring season upon all vegetating bodies; the two grand agents, heat and moisture, being now found in that due degree most favourable to rapid
REMARKS TRANSCRIBED FROM 47
vegetation. Seeds and grain which have been committed to the soil, during the last and present month, start into life and their organic parts are developed with a vigour unknown to other climes. This is the propitious season for preparing and perfecting the productions of the kitchen-garden, which are to supply us with culinary herbs and roots, during the winter and spring season.
OCTOBER.
The present is the most agreeable month of the year; its temperature is mild and refreshing, occupying the due medium between the extremes of heat and cold. It generally sets in fair during the first week or 10 days of the month, which continues for 6, 7 or more weeks—Nothing can be more fa- vourable than this enchanting season for the restoration of the health of the valetudinarian, who may have suffered from the autumnal intermittent, which generally attacks strangers, soon after the river retires within its banks, about the end of June or beginning of July, and which by the way does not extend its influence beyond 4, 5 or 6 miles from the river swamps, tho’ probably when our forests, shall be cut down, this annual -visitant of our (otherwise) salubrious climate, will penetrate farther into the interior. The cotton planter too has cause to admire the dispensations of Providence, which facili- tate the collecting a most valuable crop, which by an opposite order of the seasons must be totally lost.
NOVEMBER.
The first half and sometimes the whole of this month con- tinues remarkably fine; the present has been particularly so, a few drops of rain having fallen only the first day: about the 92d. and 23d. a north-west wind caused the thermometer to sink below the freezing point, but it presently ascended again and the weather continued mild to the end of the month, the thermometer standing at mid-day from 60 to 70°.—The ewes begin to drop their lambs about the commencement of the month, and continue for three months.
48 _ GENERAL REMARKS, &c.
DECEMBER,
The winter now being set in, the weather becomes variable, and a considerable quantity of rain generally falls in the course of the month. This year upon the whole has yielded less rain than the year 1799 and the present month has produced less than the same month of the last year by 2.78 inches. This month has been particularly remarkable for a degree of cold hitherto unexampled in the history of this country—on the morning of the 12th. the thermometer was found sunken to +12°; on that day it did not rise above the freezing point, and next morning was at 17°—on that day it rose to 49°; and both before and after was up to 72°—Cows begin to calve about the commencement of the month and continue calving for $3 or 4 months. Mares are generally a month later in bringing their young.
GENERAL REMARKS respecting the winds, weather, Kc.
IT is with usa general remark, that of late years the sum- mers have become hotter and the winters colder than formerly. Orange trees and other tender exotics have suffered much more in the neighbourhood of New Orleans within these 4 or 5 years than before that period; the sugar cane also has been so much injured by the severity of the frosts of the two last winters, as greatly to discourage the planters, whose crops, in many instances, have fallen to one third or less of their expec- tations. In former years I have observed the mercury of the thermometer not to fall lower than 26 or 27°, but for a few years past, it has generally once or twice in the winter fallen as low as from 17 to 20°. and on the 12th. of December 1800 as above noticed it was found sunken to 12°. which has hitherto no parrallel in this climate, indicating a degree of cold which in any country would be considered considerable, and probably may never be again produced by natural means in Jat. 3122.
CLIMATE XC, NEAR THE MISSISSIPPI. 49
As this apparent alteration of climate nas been remarked only for a few years and cannot be traced up to any visible natural or artificial change of sufficient magnitude, it would be in vain to search for its physical cause. Doctor Williamson and others have endeavoured to show that clearing, draining and cultiva- tion, extended over the face of a continent, must produce the double effect of a relaxation of the rigours of winter, and an abatement of the heats of summer; the former is probably more evident than the latter, but admitting the demonstration to be conclusive, I would enquire whether a partial clearing extending 30 or 40 miles square, may not be expected to pro- duce a contrary effect by admitting with full liber ty, t the sun- beams upon, the discovered surface of the earth in summer, and promoting during winter a free circulation of cold nor- thern air.
The winds of this country are extremely variable in the winter season, seldom blowing above three days successively from the same point; the north west wind brings us the seve- rest cold. It may be considered as a general rule during winter, that all winds blowing from the east of the meridian bring rain, and those from the west dry weather; the east and eth east winds are most abundantly charged with moisture, as the opposite points are always the driest; ‘the north-east wind during this season is moist chilly and disagreeable, but seldom prevails for any length of time: the north-wind brings (though rarely) sleet or snow.—After 2, 3 or 4 days of damp cloudy or rainy weather, it suddenly dlcats up with a cold north-west wind, which blo «s frequently with great force during the first and sometimes part of the second day of the change, the nights being generally calm; after a like period of fair weather, of which the two first days are clear and freezing, and the other two fine mild and a agreeable with a morning’s hoar frost, it re-
volves again into the same circle of damp and rainy weather, This may be considered as the general revolution of the win- ter season, but with ma any exceptions. The frequent and ra- pid changes in the state of the weather, during the winter in this climate furnish an excellent opportunity ot verifying the vulgar opinion of the moon’s pretended influence at her con- Junctions, oppositions and quadratures; but truth compels me
I
50 DUNBAR’S REMARKS ON THE
to say (what probably may be said of many similar persua- sions) that after a continued and scrupulous attcntion to this object, T have not discovered any such regularity of coinci- dence, which might justify the reverence with which those traditional maxims are at this day received by all these whose minds are not expanded by the lights of philosophy.
With the month of February our spring season may be said to commence and southerly winds prevail, as if propitious na- ture was inclined to facilitate the operations of the husband- man, by carrying off the superabundant moisture with which the surface of the earth is drenched after the wiiter rains. This salutary effect is much more apparent on the flat lands of lower Louisiana than with us. Those regular gales are also peculiarly favourable im facilitating the ascent of the commer- cial boats, which at this season, with commencement of the an- nual inundation, perform their yearly voyage to. the Spanish settlements in. the higher parts of Louisiana.
As the spring and summer advance, the winds blow chiefly from between S$. E. and.$. W. with variations from all parts of the compass. During the hot season, the winds are trequently remarked to follow the progress of the sun, being found at N. E. or East in the morning and shitting round, die away in the evening at S..$. W.—The summer evenings are generally still until between § and 9: o’clock when a fine cool zephyr sets in from the West or S. W.—It has been said that in the lower parts of the territory near the Mississippi this refreshing nocturnal breeze blows from the East: hitherto correct obser- vations have not been sufficiently multiplied in various parts of the territory to furnish a satisfactory account of this object. The month of June and about one half of July compose the hottest season of the year. Daily refreshing showers of rain commence in July and continue through August, which diminish the excessive degree of heat that otherwise must prevail at this season. The weather continues showery through September, but in October it settles fine, and there is year! almost without exception 6 or 7 weeks of the most delightful season imaginable, the mean temperature being from 65 to 70°. with variable winds from all points of the compass.
CLIMATE &C, NEAR THE MISSISSIPPI. 51
Before the close of November we are reminded of the ap- proach of winter by a few cold mornings and evenings and sometimes nipping frosts, which exhibit their destructive power, first, in the vallies by killing tender plants, while those on the adjoining hills retain sometime longer their bloom and verdure. This effect is to be accounted for by the greater specific gravity of the condensed freezing air, which runs off on all sides from elevated situations into the nearest vallies, there forming a mass of great extent, while the hills are sup- plied with air less dense and warmer from a superior stratum of the atmosphere. The influence of this cause is so great at the first approaches of winter that a difference of 10°. of Farenheit’s scale has been noted at the short interval of 3 miles in the direction of East and West; one position overlooking the great valley of the Mississippi 30 miles wide, while the other was in the interior, environed by forests. On the morn- ing of the 13th, November 1799 the thermometer stoéd in the first situation at 42°. and in the latter at 329.
We are told that at Benares in the East Indies lat. 234°. ice is produced by natural agents artificially brought together, sufficient for the purposes of luxury. Large excavations are dug in an extensive plain, into which the condensed freezing air is collected in a considerable mass, but which probably might have formed upon the plain a stratum of a few inches only, and consequently must have been speedily mollified by the transpiration of the earth, without producing any effect; but being thus accumulated into a body of considerable mag- nitude it is found that in the stillness of a fine night, water contained in shallow unglazed vessels, placed upon a stratum of about a foot in thickness of some imperfect conductor of heat, such as the stalks of Maize &c. on the bottom of those excavations, is partially or totally converted into ice, according to the degree of temperature of the atmosphere, while per- haps the slightest hoar-frost is not perceptible on the natural surface—perfect calmness is essential to the success of this curious experiment: a moderate circulation of air counteracts the laws of specific gravity, and restores the equilibrium of the caloric in the adjacent strata of the atmosphere,
~
52 DUNBAR’S REMARKS ON THE
The North and N. W. wind blows often with some severity before the close of the month of November, shifting to the East of the meridian with fogs and some rain: the fogs being more remarkable in lower Louisiana and adjoining to the ere at valley of the Mississippi. The winter now sets in with? the month of December and its duration may be estimated at two months, although during its whole course, when the wind continues for some time at S. and S. W. we enjoy a very agreeable mild and some times warm temperature, the thermo- meter often rising to 75°. or more. Hence it follows that our winter climate depends altogether upon the course of the winds. South and S. W. winds involve us within a tropical atmosphere corrected however by the accessions of cold which we have received already from the North, and which produ- ces a most agreeable spring or mild summer temperature; the productions of the garden now vegetate with vigour and if long enough continued the fields assume a perdane hue—a mild fall and moderate winter some times permit us to gather from our gardens at Christmas, green peas and other summer productions. But when on the other hand the winds blow trom the N. W. and North we are at once plunged into the rigors of a Northern winter; hence it is that tender shrubs and plants are frequently destroyed here which might be expected to withstand a more Northern clime. The human body also - is extremely susceptible of the sudden transitions which natu- rally suggests the idea, that frequent pleuritic and inflammatory diseases fant be the natural attendants of our variable winter climate, but experience demonstrates the contrary. Probably the relaxation which the body undergoes during the extreme heats of summer diminishes the oxygenation of the blood and consequently renders it less susceptible of inflammation.
August and September are called the hurricane months, and I believe there never happens a hurricane of great extent and duration at any other season, and this seldom reaches much higher than New Orleans, sweeping along the sea coast. Storms, hurricanes, whirlwinds or tornados of small extent and very short duration, happen at any season and from all points of the compass. We ought perhaps to.except the months of May and October, least of all subject to sudden changes and which
CLIMATE &C, NEAR THE MISSISSIPPI. 53 upon the whole are the most agreeable months of the year. Sud- den gusts or storms of wind and rain generally proceed from N. or N. N. E. and their violence is only of a few minutes duration, although in that short time, it frequently happens that trees are torn up by the roots or snapt short off, houses stript of their covering, fences thrown down and crops greatly damaged and blown about in the air.—Since I have resided in this country, two or three hurricanes only, of great magni- tude, have ravaged New Orleans and its vicinity. Two of them burst forth in the months of August of the years 1779 and 1780; I was at New Orleans during the first of those two. More than half of the town was stript of its covering, many houses thrown down in town and country, no ship or vessel of any kind was to be seen on the river next morning. The river which at this season is low was forced over its banks, and the crops which were not yet collected, disappeared from the face of the earth. The forests for some leagues above and below New Qrleans assumed the dreary appearance of winter, the woods over large tracts were laid flat with the ground, and it became impossible to traverse the forests, but with immense labour on account of the multitude of logs, limbs and branches with which the earth was every were strewed within the ex- tent of the hurricane; which might be estimated at about 12 miles due North and South, New Orleans being in the centre of its passage. The partial hurricanes which frequently traverse this territory do not merit theyname and ought rather be called whirlwinds, which seldom last above 5 to 10 minutes, occu-
ying a narrow vein from 50 to 500 feet in width; whereas that which I witnessed at New Orleans was of some hours du- ration; it continued blowing from the East or S. E. tor two or three hours with undescribable impetuosity, after which suc- ceeded all at once a most profound and awful calm, so incon- ceivably terrific that the stoutest heart stood appaled and could not look upon it without feeling a secret horror, as if nature were preparing to resolve herself again into chaos. The body became totally unelastic and a disposition was felt to abandon one’self prostrate upon the ground as if despair alone at that moment, could find abode in the human mind, entirely dives- ted of all energy. How is this extraordinary effect to be ac-
54 DUNBAR’S REMARKS ON THE
counted for? It is generally believed by philosophers, that hurricanes and perhaps the gentlest zephyrs are connected with electrical phanomina, may we then be permitted to sup- pose that by the violent operation of natural agents (of which we can form no conception) the electric fluid has been in a manner abstracted from the central parts of the hurricane (which we may consider as a vortex) and a species of vacuum formed with respect to the electric fluid—hence that otherwise unaccountable relaxation and dejection of spirits, similar to (though infinitely exceeding) what has been observed of the influence of the sirocco wind in Naples and Sicily upon the human body and mind, no perceptible signs of electricity be- ing discoverable in the atmosphere during the time of its blowing.—Happily the wind was arrested but for a short time, by this horrid state of suspence, for in 5 or 6 minutes, perhaps less, the hurricane began to blow from the opposite point of the compass and very speedily regained a degree of fury and impetuosity equal if not superior to what it had before posses- sed. Floating bodies, which had been driven up the stream with vast rapidity against the natural course of the river, now descended with a velocity of which the astonished eye could form no estimate, it rather resembled the passage of a winged inhabitant of the air than that of a body born upon the more sluggish element of water. Vessels were left wpon dry land or dashed in pieces against the shores. An American armed ship being overset was precipitated into the ocean and never more heard of; the officers and,men were chiefly saved by leaping ashore, sometimes by the assistance of ratts and logs of timber, watching the opportunity of the vessel impinging against the bank as she darted from side to side of the river, hurled atong by the ungovernable fury of the torrent. From every information I could procure, I believe the center of the hurricane passed over the city of New Orleans, the general progress of its course being at that time from about N. E. to S. W. and as its first fury was feltin the direction of S. E. nearly, and ended about N. W. it is evident that the circular course of the vortex followed that of the sun’s apparent diurnal motion.—It is probable that if similar observations are made upon all hurricanes, tornados and whirlwinds they will be found
CLIMATE &C, NEAR THE MISSISSIPPI. 55
universally to consist of a vortex with a central spot in a state of profound calm, which spot will probably be greater or less according to the magnitude of the vortex.
No circumstance occurred to me which might justify the hypothesis of the celebrated Frankiin who supposed the center of a whirlwind or waterspout to be a true vacuum capable of elevating water to the h« Igiit of 30-or more feet.. It is by no means decided. that dose two phanomena are of the same species. Whirlwinds are always perpendicular to the horizon and are, I believe, never stationary: an intelligent frend of mine once saw (what he supposed to be ya waterspout descend from_a low cloud into the Mussissippi, it made a very consider- able angle with the perpendicular and iis interior extremity veined fixed to one spot during the whole time of its ap- pearance, the very gentle progress of the cloud seemed to prolong the spout, so “that at le ngth it separated into two parts, the inicrior division, which was by much the shortest, falling into the Mississippi, and the supcmor slowly ascending until it became united to the cloud.
No. X.
Absiract of a communication from Mr. Martin Duralde, relative to fossil bones, Xc. of the Country of Apelousas west of the Mississippi to. Mr. William Dunbar of the Natchez, and by him transmitted to the Society. Daied April 24th 1802.
Read Morch 4th, 1803,
THE Country of the Apelousas, although favoured by the goodness of the soil and the salubrity of the climate, is subjected to the disadvantage of not being furnished with springs sufficiently permanent to supply the wants of the in- habitants and their cattle; which renders wells necessary at any distance from the rivers. In digging of these wells, which are of considerable depth, bones-and other articles have been discovered, some of which are ennumerated as follows.
At the widow Moreau’s, a human scull, in a very decayed state, was found at the depth of 30 to 35 feet below the sur-
56 DURALDE’S COMMUNICATION
face of the ground. At Mr. Lewis Fontenot’s, other bones were found at the depth of 25 to 27 feet. Also at Mr. James Duprés’sat the depth of 18 feet; but in both these cases, they were so much decayed, as to render it impossible to distinguish, to what animal they belonged or even what bones they were. At Mr. James Lafleur’s, at the depth of 30 to 35 feet, was found a piece of an Indian bowl, made of burnt shells, and ba- ked after the Indian manner. M. Duralde in sinking a well in his cow-yard found sound oyster shells, lying im an horizon- tal direction, near to each other, at the depth of 22 fect. It was also said that M. Fuselier of the Alacapas found the horn of a Goat at the depth of 19 feet. Those of the above discoveries which M. Duralde was not witness to, were attes- ted to his satisfaction—and he supposes many others escaped the notice of the workmen and proprietors.
About the year 1760 or a little after, some person was led by chance to the margin of a small bay calied Carancro and observed there a large heap of bones; they were sound and of an enormous size. He was struck with the discovery and made mention of it; and as the news of it spread, the pub- lic curiosity was very much excited. Their length, their size, and «above all one or two teeth, which were amongst them, led the spectators to judge that this had been the entire skele- ton of an Elephant. This soon became the generally received opinion. They perfectly distinguished, the ribs, the verte- bre, the scapule, the tibia, the thigh bone (which was larger than a man’s thigh,) and lastly the hip bone, which had a very distinct cavity for the reception of the head of the thigh bone—M. Nerat the proprietor of the spot where they were found, a man of strict vAracity and residing near it, declared that there were bones enough to load two, or at least one very large cart; that he had taken, and durig ten years had made use of, the hollow of the hip bones, to press his indigo in, that as well as he can remember there was one of the haunch bones wanting, which forms apart of the eminence of the bason, and that notwithstanding, it was so heavy, that it requir- ed a very strong man to handie it.
Six years ago during the time of a great drought, Alexander Fontenot perceived, and took up from the bottom of a brook,
ON THE FOSSIL BONES, &Xc. 57
about five feet deep, an extraordinary tooth standing upright, being part above and part under ground. The great size of this, cand a remnant of ivory wield was found with it, indu- ced the belief, that it had belonged to an Elephant. It was already much decayed, and has disappeared from his yard, atter having been tossed about it, durmg three or four years. The place was again thoroughly examined by directions of M. Duralde, but salon making any further discovery.
Mr. John Teston, a man of integrity, declared that about 15 years ago he found the remains of an enormous jaw-bone in a brook on his plantation, weighing as he judged 25lb. He took it up, and shewed it to several persons, all of them un- fortunately of little knowledge or experience in these subjects; but, from a faint recollection of what had been discovered at Carancro, they supposed that it must have belonged to an Ele- phant. He pointed out to M. Duralde the place trom whence it was taken, but there only remained some small pieces of bone much scattered, none exceeding an inch in diameter, and totally insufficient.to lead the most intelligent observer to any important conclusion, These two brooks are separated from each other trom 750 to 900 Toises, and distant from Carancro about four or five leagues.
M. Duralde accompanies the above facts by the following observations.
These bones, which were supposed to be those of the Ele- phant, have been discovered, on the borders of brooks passing through Prairies, in a clay soil at the depth of a few feet; except those at Carancro, which were found heaped up on.a small point of sand, at the mouth of another brook of the same kind as those mentioned, and which may have been deposited there by the floods.
The inhabitants of this country think that the surface there- of has risen visibly; because these marshes which were im- passable to man and beast when they settled there, will at pre- sent allow a tree passage over them even on horseback at the end of summer and beginning of autumn. This fact is really so, and I believe there are two causes of the diminu- tion of water; the one is the evaporation occasioned by the sun, the other the travelling of the cattle; they wear the
K
58 DURALDE’S COMMUNICATION
road and make a dust, which the rains carry off to these places, by which the bottom becomes insensibly raised, when it dries, and is hardened by the going and coming of these animals. This, if I do not deceive myself, is the solution of the problem; my opinion arises from the inspection of certain low places, which appear most certainly to have been moras- ses formerly; for although they are now become firm and solid, yet we can still observe the places of all the tufts of reeds, with the intervals which have separated them, such as we find them in muddy marshes. Whatever may be the cause of this elevation, the nature of the soil warrants the opinion, that it has not been caused by alluvions.
There is also an appearance in this range of country, which is very common, but which continues to surprise me every time I observe it; namely, the circular form of certain marshes of different diameters upon the highest grounds. _ I have not ascertained the fact mathematically, but the eye so well attests their regularity, that it seems as if art could not have rendered them more perfect. These marshes are not deep, and most of them dry up in times of great drought, and the bottom deepens gradually from the circumference to the centre. I have never observed them without endeavour- ing to ascertain the cause of them; none other, equally satis« factory, has presented itself to my mind, than that they were cavities which have been thus excavated by some whirlpool, at the time the whole surface was covered by water. I cannot help avowing, .even at the risk of being accused of temerity, that the existence of these marshes, combined with the cir- cumstance of finding these bones at such extraordinary depths, and also with a tradition of the Alacapas (a neighbouring Indian tribe) has almost convinced my mind that such a state of things existed at some very distant period.
esos
ene
No. XI.
Observations made on a Lunar Eclipse at the Observatory in the City of Philadelphia on the 21st, of September 1801, by Mess. Patterson, and Ellicott.
Read Dec. 18th, 1801.
The beginning of the eclipse, that of total darkness, and the end of the eclipse, could not be observed on account of clouds; but the end of total darkness was observed as below.
End of total darkness as ay eed hs A observed by Mr. Patterson} 15 15 7 pparent time h , " >’ limb began to emerge by : atl5 13 33 : >’. limb emerged by HSE, ath>. 15 37 hap Ls
The telescopes made use of were both achromatic, and mag- nified about 70 times.
(ee
No. XII.
On the Hybernation of Swallows, by the late Colonel Antes. Com- municated by Dr. Barton. Read May 17th, 1802,
Philadelphia July 9th, 1801.
ABOUT 30 years ago, I was desired by Mr. Stettler, who lived in Frederick Township, (at the time in Philadelphia county,) to lay off a level for the purpose of leading the water of a spring upon a meadow.—The exact year I do not recol- lect, but am positive it was in the month of February.—I be- gan where the stream entered his ground, and before I had proceeded far I struck a hollow about a rod square which
60 “ANTES ON HYBERNATION OF SWALLOWS.
was filled with wet mud and leaves. The labourers followed my level, and dug the trench. On getting into the hollow or pond, I observed that they threw up the body of a swal- low. I took itup, muddy as it was, and having washed it in the water, I put it into my pocket. In a few hours I return- ed to the house of Mr. Stettler, took the swallow and placed it upon the wall of the stove, which was just warm. While we were taking some refreshments, we were surprised by the chirping of the bird, which soon afterwards was flying about the room, catching flies, and alighting from time to time upon the furniture. From the time of laying it on the stove, to the moment of its revival, was not more, I think, than about a quarter of an hour. Mr. Stettler kept the s.vallow in his house till the weather became warm, and the swallows began gene- rally to appear: he then gave it its liberty.
The stream, which was the object of my business with Mr. Stettler, was dry during the summer; but after a heavy rain during the winter, and often during the summer, it flow- ed over into the hollow, carrying into it the leaves and mud which I found there, but did not flow through it. It had been a very mild winter;—the swallow was buried perhaps a foot, for the trench was no deeper; but it was certainly buried below the frost. I did not observe in that place any other swallows, the trench was narrow, and was carried near the edge of the pond. I have many times since that period, seen the swallows turned up out of the mud early in the spring; although the particulars.of these instances, are not so clearly impressed upon my recollection. I have also often seen swal- lows, especially martins, creep under the roots of trees on the margin of creeks; 1 have then sought for them without suc- cess, and believe that they were retiring for the winter.
FREDERICK ANTES.
fy one)
No. XIII.
Astronomical observations made at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, chiefly with a view to ascertain the longitude of that borough, and as atest of the accuracy wit which the longitude may be found by lunar observation; in a letter from Andrew Ellicott to Robert
Patterson. Read January 21st, 1803.
Lancaster December 16th, 1802, DEAR SIR,
IF you think the following astronomical observations of sufficient importance, you have my permission to hand them to the Philosophical Society. In making them I had princi- pally two objects in view; first, the determination of the longi- tude of this borough; and secondly, the correction of the theory of the satellites of Jupiter, by increasing the number of obser- vations on their eclipses.—The latitude of the place of obser- vation is about 40° 2’ 39” north.
Noe 1801. The observed times, and distances, between the sun and moon’s nearest
Sy
Be PAC? Onn fa,
22) 125 ts, -) 120) 295 0 22 13 16: . . - 110: 28°20 Apparent time, ¢ 22 14 6... . 110 28 0 \add 15" forthe error of the sextant. 22:15 14... . - 110 27 30 2216 6... . 110 27 20 IAG 5380 e7-) - 110) 270 Means, 92 14 36 ..-. 110 97 52 ———— —_——
27th, The observed times, and distances between the sun and'moon’s nearest limbs.
ee fi Cay (hay? 293 19290:... 881110 93 2019.... 8811 0 Apparent time. J 23 21 10... . 88 10 40 \ 444154 for the error of the sextant. DSI AS ney sh Oo! 10520 93199) Vn Set 88'- 9/50 93 193) gia): 88 9°30
Means. 23 2118... . 88 10 25 eed
Sennen
62 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
28th, The observed times, and distances, between the sun and moon’s nearest limbs,
h rogr 0) ean,
. 91124..... 77 51 20 21 2 24. 77 50 40 Apparent time,< 213 13.--.--- 77 50 20 \ add 15” for the error of the sextant. DIV Sole yekak= 77 49 40 214 37.-.-.---; 77 49 20 21539 .-..-.- 77 49 0 Means. 213 31....-.- 77 50 3
December 11th, The observed times, and distances, between the sun and moon’s nearest limbs,
LR, Hal Oney
9 42/39... .- 80 29 20
243 245.2 +s 80 30 0
Q4411..:.-.- 80 30 40
Apparent time. < 2 4455.-.---- 80 30 50 >add 15for the error of the sextant.
: 245 34...-.--. 80 31 0
246.23 ....- 80 31 10
DAZ 31.2.4. a8 80 31 30
Means. 24457..... 80°30 3
12th, The observed times, and distances, between the sun and moon’s nearest limbs,
here ort" PiDS186) nee! e 92 48 20 NOG (Sim ae kewl 5 92 48 40 APOGI QIN RES 92 49 20 , 1 ess BE a aR 92 49 40 ” ; Apparent time, tigation. Ss 92 50 20 add 15" for the error of the sextant: DR 28-3. Be Ae 92 50 50 S842 ei 92 51 30 DSA SA atta te 92 52 0 x Means. {3139..... 9250 5
The observed times, anddistances, between the moon’s western limb, and Aldebaran (a Tauri,) east of her.
hye Wl orn 2 Os peel en talled 71 22 30 BeBe Ate cs, 71 22 @ GORDO AC er ali 71.220 Apparent time, < 6 29 56..... 71 21 30 Sadd 15” for the error of the sextant.
Onsledaesy -s20- 71 21 10
GISDIG eee 71 20 50 ne SS alge Shes) Bin era 71 20 20 Micans.) -.OpRON Ons Ses 71 21 29
24th, Immersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 12" 34! 97" mean time, or 12” 34’ 13” apparent time.—The planet and satellites well defined :—magnifying power of the telescope 100.
Jan. 5th, 1802. Immersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 10° 15‘ 6" mean time, or 10" 9! 10” apparent
time.—The night fine and clear,—the belts and satellites well defined :—magnifying power 100.
MADE AT LANCASTER. 63
25th, Immersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9" 5/ 7" mean time, or 8" 52! 19” apparent time.
Emersion of the 4th satellite of Jupiter, observed at 1 1" 39! 42" mean time, or 11* 19’ 53” apparent time. The night was remarkably fine,—the belts and satellites perfectly defined : —magnifying power 100:
February 6th, Immersion of the 2d -satellite of Jupiter, ob- served at 9° 51' 46” mean time, or 9» 37! 15” apparent time :— The night a little hazy :—magnifying power 100.
9th, The moon occulted a number of stars in the northern part of that cluster called the Pleiades: the occultations of the three largest were particularly attended to.—The immer- sons were all instantaneous; but the emersions could not be ob- served on account of the houses on the west side of the street. Not having either the places, or characters of the stars obser- ved, I have in Fig. $d, Plate ITI, laid down the relative posi- tions of the principal ones in. the cluster, as nearly as I could do it without the aid of any other instrument than my telescope, and numbered those that were occulted. .
hale ve h fs No. 1 immersed at 10 23 54 10 9 16) 2--do.-- 10 31 384 meantime, orat 1017 O4 apparent time. 38 --do-- 1053 2) 10 38 24
. In the diagram, A BCE represents the dark part of the moon’s disk, and A EC D the enlightened part. When the enlightened part was kept out of the field of the telescope, the limb of the dark part was sufficiently visible, and well defined; by which I was enabled, without fatiguing my eye, to trace the approach of the moon to the stars, and pay that close attention so very necessary at the instant of the occulta- tion. The star No. 1 is very small, and seldom visible with- out the aid of a glass. In each case the star appeared for a few seconds well defined on the edge of the moon’s disk.— Various theories have been devised to account for this singular phenomenon, but I am inclined to believe with La Lande, that
it is merely an optical illusion*. * Il arrive souvent dans les éclipses d’ étoiles ou de planettes par la lune, que i’astre éclipsé paroit
tout entier pendant quelques secondes sur le disque éclairé de la hme; on aattribué ce phénomene a atmosphere de la lune, et M. Euler enterprend de prouyer son existence par les éclipses de soleil
64 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
17th, About 9" 14’ 9” mean time, or 8" 59! 47” apparent time, the Ist satellite of Jupiter disappeared behind the body of the planet: Jupiter being too near the opposition for the eclipse to be visible. —Observations of this kind cannot be made with great accuracy.
March 10th, Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, obser- ved at 12" 26’ 10” mean time, or 12" 15! 41” apparent time: —night remarkably fine, magnifying power of the telescope 100.
16th, Immersion of the 4th satellite of Jupiter, observed at 12" 50! 1” mean time, or 12" 41' 13” apparent time :—the night clear, but the moon was so near to the planet that her superior light rendered the satellites less distinct; on which ac- count I suspect that at least 10” ought to be added to the time of the immersion, and which I have used in deducing the longitude from this observation: magnifying power 100.
YIst, Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 8h 2! 53” mean time, or 7°55‘ 32” apparent time:—the night fine,—magnifying power of the telescope 100.
28th, Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 6" 57! 57" mean time, or 6" 52’ 45” apparent time.
Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9°57! 21” mean time, or 9" 52/ 12” apparent time:—night remarkably fine: magnifying power 100.
April 4th, Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9° 34 57” mean time, or 9" 31’ 56” apparent time.
Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed at 11" 51/ 36” mean time, or 11° 48 36” apparent time.—Night uncom- monly clear: magnifying power 100.
20th, Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 10" 9’ 28” mear time, or 10° 10’ 40” apparent time :—night a little hazy, belts badly defined, magnifying power 100.
May 6th, Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 8° 27' 56” mean time, or 8" 31' 33” apparent time:—very
(Mén de Berlin 1748 p, 103.) M, de I’Isle l’attribuoit 4 la diffraction on 4 linfleétion des rayons qui rasent les bords de la lune (Mém, pour servir 4!’hist.de l’astron 1738, p. 249.) Ce phénomene, ob- servé par Grimaldi et par Newton (Opt. parte 3d.) servoit sur-touta M. de I’Isle pour expliquerles anneaux que l'on voit autour du soleil dans les éclipses totales; pour moi, je pense que c’est une simple illusion optique occasionée par Virradiation ou le dcbordement de lumiere.
: Astron, par La Lande Tom, 2d, art. 1991,
MADE AT LANCASTER. 65
hazy, on which account I have deducted 20” from the obser- ved time of the observation in deducing the longitude from it:—magnifying power 100.
The 2d satellite was expected to emerge about 56’ minutes . after the Ist: after looking for it at least 4 minutes beyond the calculated time, I discovered that it had emerged in contact with the Ist.
15th. Emersion of the 3d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9" 45’ 8” mean time, or 9" 49! 7” apparent time: night clear, —magnifying power of the telescope 100.
29th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 8° 40’ 4” mean time, or 8" 43‘ 74 apparent time:—night clear, magnifying power 100.
June 4th. In the evening, the moon occulted two small stars in (%) Cancer.
hfed hfd&#
ene bie wie a es <Q a 12 }mean time, or ae i 7 aa apparent time.
The last immersion took place so near to the extremity of the moon’s southern limb, that it did not appear probable the moon’s disk would extend 30” south of the star.—In each of these occultations, the stars appeared plainly defined on the edge of the moon’s disk some seconds before the occultations took place :—in the last case, the star, by being so near to the southern extremity of the moon, appeared to be in contact with her limb for nearly 10 seconds, and for an equal space of time defined on the edge of the disk.
5th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 10" 34/ 55” mean time, or 10" 36” 53” apparent time. The night clear, but the belts were scarcely visible, and the limb of the planet uncommonly tremulous: magnifying power 100.
21st. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 8" 52" 41” mean time, or 8"51/ 26” apparent time: the planet and satellites well defined, magnifying power 100.
July 14th. Emersion of the 1st satellite of Jupiter, abserved at 9" 54 22" mean time, or 9" 0! O” apparent time. The pla- net was so low and tremulous that the belts were not discern- ible:—magnifying power 100. This observation, 2s well as.
te
66
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
those of May 6th, and June 5th, are not to be considered as so accurate as some of the others.
Sep. 11th. Observation on the end of a lunar eclipse.
h «off
) began to leave the earth’s shadow at
) clear of the pe- numbra at
het bh 6 54 47 mean time, or 6 58 16 apparent time: do 57 15 mean time, or7 0 44 apparent time:
Longitude by the lunar distances..
hru Noy. 25th, 1801. The D fromthe © long... . 5 4 54 o7th, oS Satcnc: Apo 0: sc ee do. ...5 4 28 MAL fat criertolta hee a Fe Lo ee Os do. .5414 F
Deey eins vos leer aa he ae . 5 5 29 7 West from Greenwich. Zhe etc Rice eles (horn Cec c's -54 7 —The 2 from Aldebaran (q Taui)de, | . 5458 Meaa, 5 4 42
ae
Longitude west from Greenwich by the eclipses of the satel- lites of Jupiter, as deduced from the tables of Mr. Delambre, and the British nautical almanac.
Longitude by Longitude by the Delambre’s Tables, nautical almanac,
heu h’v« Dec. 24th, 1801. Immersion of the Ist ‘satellite... ... SS GR don Me een 5 5 39 Jan, Sth, 1802....do...... ZEEE Sa iy a cpl DA TD wo ee wie 54 48 19 ee ae CUR aig Bie Tstibaten tenets a cee ee oS 540 papel el eee 5 5 40 Emersion. .. « 4th sat......... 55 45 no 2 10 Feb. 6th, -SLIMINErSIONY ser. eG Sate eu viet rs) = 1D Aorta elke 5 5 48 ar. 19th, - wME Merion n> sts ea Sates oto ts eee 5517 -5448 16th, ~ Immersion... .: 4th sats... 25) 2 REIL ES 3 SAA ah Gy 21st, = MELIMEPSION.y «fe et Ste Babes aie toe atch NS FAB las ag 56 0 Pian, Cues pio eo ose! fetes 24a Tse) Pye a ch a ice Gee Gay ES aha Amc 5515 Gorges wir PRE’ Batecisy al tcl ace ete Ca Te a Mich Pies outs 5 5 52 April 4th Emersion of the 2d sat......... 5 Amo ce sete teat 5 5 32 GleReag i eo gt Sats /oy eo) wkste de <0 5: Sealer dens cates AS 2 SOR CL s\ire Nantes nistrs cle aigegie. & MP BERSACer mse ey k= Re tie tet oS sinh Oat woee 55 49 May 6th,...... GO. sge1 sere 1st sat. Cee ec. d i (AR ae eho» sti 5520 LEVI aya ke 9 GO sous. tars ROC RAL sak ee'e te Melis Oe anya tems Reis 5117 Othe vchale, sre do, Sst Sater: tote te we ede BR AsO vattebenctats 5518.
June Sth,...... el eee hen cic USP CR Slghyo a cub oun SMAT oe wane 55 9 a ESB Fre eis OG vette ts Uatteate:. (ois "ocr ite = Ss EE Renee) che 55 8 July 14th,...... Ch A oso S etisateteueemete teas 1S Ae Aeris «delet 5 4 39
Note. The observations made on the eclipses of the Ist satellite on May the 6th, June Sth. and July 14th, are to be considered as doubtful: —see the entries in the preceding journal on those
days.
MADE AT LANCASTER, 67
Longitude deduced from the lunar eclipse ef Sept. 11th.
If the time when the moon began toleave theearth’s shadow Yh 2 77 be taken forthe end of the eclipse, the longitude will be 5 6 44 West from If the time of the moon’s leaving the penumbrabe taken for Greenwich. the endof the eclipse, the longitude will be Rs 416 a Mean, 3350
By our maps, the borough of Lancaster appears to be about 4’ 29" in time, west from the city of Philadelphia, which ad- ded to 5" a" 37”, the longitude of the latter west from Green- wich, will give 5" 5‘ 6” for the difference of meridians be- tween the borough of Lancaster and the observatory of Green- wich; which differs but 24” in time from the mean of the six lunar observations, and only 59” in time from the widest of them. From this it is manifest, that very great dependance may be placed in the lunar observations, for the determination of the longitude. .
In determining the longitude from lunar observations, we have the advantage of increasing the number almost at plea- sure, and rendering them so numerous, that the mean of all the results shall be nearly as accurate as the lunar theory itself, which seldom errs so much as 30” of a degree, and generally much less.
By looking over the longitudes as deduced from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, it will be seen that the results from De- Jambre’s tables are much more uniform than those. from the nautical almanac, particularly of the Ist, $d, and 4th satellites; ‘with respect to the 2d, the nautical almanac appears to have the advantage; but it is to be remembered, that the observa- tions made at this place have been too few, and the period too short, to decide on a subject of such nicety: it is never- theless probable, that when the period is extended, and the number of observations increased on the eclipses of the 2d satellite, that Delambre’s tables will be found to be the most accurate.
If a mean of the longitudes deduced from the lunar obser- vations, the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellitesagreeably to Delam- bre’s tables, and the lunar eclipse be taken collectively, the longitude of Lancaster will appear to be 5" 5! 0”.6; and if
68 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
a mean of the eight good observations on the eclipses of the Ist satellite of Jupiter be taken, the longitude will be 5° 5'7".3 which exceeds the longitude as taken from our maps but 1”.3 and that of a mean of the whole collectively but 6".7. From which it appears, that the longitude may be considered to lie between 5° 5! .0."6, and 5° 5‘ 7”.3 west from Greenwich, without the possibility of a material error: I shall therefore for the present call it 5" 5! 4".
Observation on the going of the Clock. ~
The pendulum-rod of the clock is made of wood, as being the most convenient for transportation, and not so liable to ac- cidents as the gridiron-rod in removing the clock from one place to another, in which way it has heretofore generally been used.
It was formerly supposed that wood neither expanded, nor contracted, in the direction of the grain, with heat and cold; but this is not strictly true, though the alteration appears much less than from wet and dry. ~When the atmosphere continues for some time equally saturated with moisture, the clock has always been found to go very regularly, notwithstanding the greatand sudden changes we experience in the United States, from hot to cold, and from cold to hot. But the atmosphere being charged at different times, with different degrees of mois- ture, has a considerable effect, provided those changes from wet to dry, and the contrary, are of sufficient duration : for it re- quires several days’ continuance of a damp, or dry atmosphere, to produce any sensible effect. I have observed for several seasons, that when the weather became warm in the spring, the motion of the clock was accelerated; the contrary would have been the case, had the pendulum-rod consisted of one single bar of metal, because it would have expanded or lengthened, as the weather became warm; but from the mo- tion of the clock being accelerated, it is evident that the pen- dulum-rod must have contracted, and this was probably oc- casioned by the dry atmosphere, and drying winds, so preva- lent at that season of the year,-in this country.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE 69
It does not appear from the experience of several years, that the clock would vary more than 12 seconds per diem, with the extreme changes of winter and summer, and wet and dry in our climate; when a single rod of iron would produce a change of 22 seconds per diem, and one of brass 34. Hence a conclusion may be drawn, that wood (though far from being perfect) is preferable to a single rod, either of won, or of brass.
I am, with great esteem, your sincere friend, and humble servant,
ANDREW ELLICOTT.
No. XIV.
Notices of the Natural History of the northerly parts of Louisiana, in a letter from Dr. John Watkins to Dr. Barton.
Read Jan- Ist, 1803. St, Louis, Ilinois, Odtobr. 20th, 1802, Supposed latitude between 39° and 40%
DEAR SIR,
In the note which you gave me some time ago, relative to some of the animals, larger trees and shrubs, that are to be found on the west side of the Mississippi; you requested me, that as the questions were made without much regard to order, to trouble myself as little as possible about the arrange- ment of my answers. I shall therefore proceed, in the spirit of that request, and in the plainest manner, without regard to any particular arrangement, mention such of those ani- mals, trees, and shrubs, as are here to be met with; and state to you as nearly as I can the part of the country where they most abound.
The red fox (canis vulpes) is not known in this part of the country, or any where on this side the Mississippi, immediately:
710 NORTHERLY PARTS OF LOUISIANA.
in our latitude. North of 44 degrees however, and at the distance of seven or eight hundred miles west of the Missis- sippi, this animal is very common. ‘The beaver (castor fiber) is very common here, and has been observed in great num- bers as far west as the whites have penetrated; and agreeably to the accounts of the savages, this animal is found in great abundance in the mountains that divide the waters of the southern from those of the Atlantic ocean.
The buffaloe (bos americanus) is common in all this country, and is found in great abundance as far west as the country has been penetrated. During the winter they change their range, and ramble to a great distance in the south, returning again in the spring to their more northern residence. In these ram- bles they go together in immense droves, and the savages, by watching them in proper passages, destroy great numbers with little trouble and expense.
The elk (cervus* wapiti), the common deer (cervus virgi- nianus), the raccoon (ursus lotor), the panther (felis concolor), the ground hog (arctomys monax), the grey fox (canis virgi- nianus), the mink+, the flying squirrel (sciurus volucella), the ground squirrel (sciurus striatus), the grey squirrel (sciurus cinereus), and the black squirrel (sciurus niger), are all found in this country, and are common for many hundred miles to the west.
The opossum (didelphis opossun1) is common here; and agree- ably to the information of Mr. Choteau, a sensible well-infor- med man, this animal is to be met with as far west as three hundred and fifty leagues from hence, that is, following the © course of the Missouri, which is west one quarter of a degree to the north; and that after passing a large river, called la Riviere qui coule, the opossum disappears, and the Porcupine (hystrix dorsata), which is not to be seen about here, becomes common.
In mounting the Missouri, after passing the river qui coule, that is 350 leagues west of the Mississippi, the country assumes a different aspect. The river washes for several hundred miles -a barren ungrateful soil, destitute of timber. Nothing is to be
® Unknown to Linneus: I callit C. Wapiti. B.S, B. + Mustela Winingus wisi, B. S. B,
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE Uf
seen but extensive plains of what is called natural meadow, and here and there, upon the borders of the rivers and creeks, a few cotton wood (populus deltcide), hickory (juglans), and shrub oak (quercus). Here it is that the white bear (ursus arctos?) is found; to give you a just description of this animal would re- quire more knowledge of natural history than I possess. I shall therefore only repeat to you, in general, what the most intel- ligent and best informed traders and hunters have informed me upon thissubject. The white bear, as it is here called, is found of all colours from a brown to almost a perfect white; and, to use the hunters expression, differs as much in its colour as the different varieties of dogs. It is much taller and longer than the common bear; the belly is more lank, and the ab- domen drawn up like that of a horse kept for the course. It runs much swifter, and its head and claws are much larger, and longer in proportion than the common bear. It feeds principally upon animal food, and is considered by the sava- ges as their most dangerous enemy. It attacks universally; kills, and devours human flesh. It is not in the above men- tioned country alone that this animal is found; it is common much farther to the north and west, and occupies a wide and extensive range, upon all the waters that form the sources of. the Missouri.
I can verify, in part, the truth of the above account of the white bear, partitularly as:to its size and external appearance. My friend the Lieutenant Governor of the upper Louisiana and commandant of Saint Louis, Mr. Dehault Delassus, has now in his possession one of these bears of about six months old. Its colour is that of a pale orange approaching to white, with a streak of dark brown along the back, and on the outside of the thighs. It is taller and longer than common bears of its age, notwithstanding the manner in which it has been raised, and its head and claws are much larger. It has been constantly fed upon boiled indian corn, and pains have been taken to render it as docile and good natured as possible. It has not as yet shewn any symptoms of ferocity, but suffers its keeper to beat and handle it as he pleases. In general it exhibits, in its manners, nearly the same character with that of the com- mon bear. This cub, with another of a different family and
72, NORTHERLY PARTS OF LOUISIANA.
colour, was caught, when very young, by the Chayenne In- dians and presented to the Governor through some of their traders. These Indians inhabit the country upon the head waters of one of the principal branches of the Missouri, called la Fourche, and their residence cannot be less than 450, or 500 leagues west of the Mississippi. Mr. Delassus made a present not long sinse of one of these cubs, the smallest and darkest coloured, to my friend Mr. Wm. Harrison Governor of the In- diana territory, who informed me that he intended to present it to the President of the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. There you will no doubt have an opportunity of seeing it, and will be prepared to form a much more correct opinion, as to its proper place among the different tribes of bears, than can possibly be done from the imperfect account given by hunters. The buck eye (/Esculus flava), the pacan tree (juglans pe- can), black walnut (juglans nigra), our common species of hickory, the sugar maple (acer saccharum), the persimmon (diospyros virginiana), and the coffee tree (guilandina dioica), as it is called in Kentucky, are all common in this country, and are to be found as far west as 350 leagues from hence; that is until you arrive at la Riviere qui coule. The beech (fagus ferruginea), the chinquapin (fagus pumila), the chesnut (fagus castanea?) and the poplar with a tulip flower (lirioden- dron tulipifera), are none of them to be found in this part of the country or to the west of this, agreeably to the informa- tion of the best-informed traders and hunters. The poplar with a tulip flower however is found in abundance about one hundred miles to the south of this, and on the west side of the Mississippi. JOHN WATKINS.
[vey
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No. XV.
On two species of Sphex, inhabiting Virginia and Pennsylvania, and probably extending through the United States. By B. Henry Latrobe.
Read January 21st, 1803: Philadelphia January, 21st, 1803.
The two species of Sphex to which this memoir is confi- ned, are well known under the names, blue wasp, mason, and dirt-dauber. Among all the remarkable insects belonging to the order of hymenoptera of Linnzus, they appear to be most distinguished by their singular and cruel mode of providing for their young.
The two species are distinguished from each other in their manner of buiuding, and in the form of their bodies; but agree exactly in their mode of life, in the materials of which they build their cells, and the food provided by them for their off spring.
The first, No. I. Plate I. is probably the Sphex coerulea of : Linnzus, of which the following is the description :
Coerulea, alis fuscis: habitat in America septentrionali.
This sphex, is by far the most common of the two species the antennae are pointed and stand up when he is at work. His nose is furnished with a strong beak, with which he works sideways, leaving ridges on his cells which make them appear to be plaited; his thorax is thick, the abdomen petiolated. From the scutum attached to the petiole, is extended a strong hook, which is very serviceable to him in securing his prey. His sting is net very painful, and soon ceases to be troublesome. The wings which Linnzus describes as brown, play between a beautiful green, brown, and blue. The joints of the feet are yellow, the whole of the head, body, and legs are blue..
M
[4 ON TWO SPECIES OF SPHEX.
I have however seen some individuals which had yellow spots on the thorax, in front of the wings.
The other sphex, No. II. Plate I. (probably the Pennsylva- nica of Linnzus) differs from the former in many particulars of form and colour. Linnzeus’s description runs thus:
Nigra, abdomine petiolato atro, alis subviolaceis, | Habitat in Pennsylvania.
The specific differences are as follows:
The head is broad, the nose blunt and emarginate, his tho- rax is longer in proportion, the petiole of the abdomen very long, the hook is wanting, the abdomen conical and elegantly formed. The general colour is a dark blue approaching to black, but on the thorax are many yellow spots, and the legs, thighs, and feet are also spotted with yellow. His antennae are longer than in No. I. and he carries them less upright, and often curls them. No. IL. Fig. 2. is an enlarged view of his head.
The figures both of the coerulea and Pennsylvanica are ex- actly the size of the live insects, and an attempt is made to imi- tate accurately their manner when alighting on their cells.
The cells both of the S. coerulea and Pennsylvanica are built of clay collected in moist places; but their appearance, and mode of contruction is very different.
The S. coerulea chuses, in the open air, the south side of a rock, or of the trunk of a tree for his structure. He then seeks by the side of a stream for his materials, He scrapes the clay together with his feet, and working it into as large a round ball as he can well carry off, he begins by plaistering the stone or wood with athin coat. He spreads the clay with his head, uttering a shrill sound during his work. He then flies off for another lump, and by degrees forms the upper ridge of his cell. He afterwards adapts a second ridge to the first, working alternately on each side, frequently going into the tube thus formed, and making it perfectly smooth in the inside. In this manner he compleats a tube of 3 or 4 inches long, before any attempt is made to carry in provisions for the young brood.
.
ON TWO SPECIES OF SPHEX. 75
In the inside of houses, nothing furnishes both these species of sphex with a more convenient situation for their cells than the backs of picture frames; for they are fond of building in places which have a very moderate degree of light, and the back of a picture frame hanging against the wall has also the advantage of furnishing two sides of the cell. A hollow moulding of a pannel has also its strong temptations, or the internal angle of the frame of a table. In the wooden houses of Virginia they occupy all these situations in great numbers. I have seen the hollow space in the: front of the books in a library occupied by a whole tribe of the sphex coerulea, which thereby saved themselves much trouble, as they had only to close the space between the edges of the binding.
The sphex Pennsylvanica differs exceedingly from the coe- rulea in the construction of his cells. Instead of a series of long tubes divided into separate cells, the former builds separate horizontal apartments clese to each other. They are perfectly smooth internally, but roughly finished on the outside. See No. II. Fig. 3 & 4: of both these species of cells the figures give an exact representation, both as to size and form.
The food. provided by both species for their offspring is however exactly the same, namely sprders of every genus and species, chiefly however of those who do not fortify them- selves by extensive webs. ‘There isa common yellow spider which they collect in the greatest numbers. I have however observed both the Pennsylvanica and coerulea attack large spiders, in the midst of their webs and of the dead bodies of other insects which had fallen victims to them; especially in a remarkable instance: the sphex flew nimbly at the spider and stung him. He then retired to clean himself from the cobwebs. This he did in the manner of a fly, using his hind legs to wipe his wings, and his fore legs to his head. After several attacks the spider at last attempted to escape by letting himself down to the floor, by a thread. He then ran away, but his enemy followed him, and frequently stinging him attempted to carry him off: but the spider was too large and heavy; and though the sphex endeavoured to lighten his load by biting off the spider’s legs, he could not succeed while I observed him, which was for at least half an hour.
10 ON TWO SPECIES OF SPHEX.
The spiders thus collected, are not killed; life cnough seems to be still left to preserve them from putrefaction or drying. In all the cells which I have opened, .they were in a languid state capable of motion, but not of crawling along. Nothing more cruel than their condition can well be conceiv- ed. They are closely and indiscriminately packed together, waiting to be devoured piecemeal by the young worm, for whose support they are destined. See No. I 4, & No. II. 4.
Each of the cells of the sphex, Pennsylvanica being sepa- rately contrived to enclose a sufficient number of spiders, they are separately made. But the sphex coerulea, having formed a long tube, crams into it as many spiders as he judges suffi- cient, and encloses them, together with an egg, by a cross partition of clay. He then puts a new head to the next cell and having filled it, encloses it as the first. Thus he proceeds to the amount sometimes of 4 or 5 cells in one tube.
The egg appears to be soon hatched after deposition, though I found it impossible to ascertain the time between the closing of the cell and the escape of the young sphex.
No. I. Fig. 3 & 4, exhibit the exact state in which I found two ranges “of cells at Ripponlodge in Virginia. The cells were made at the back of a picture frame, from which I cut them carefully with a table knife. The figure shows the side next to the frame. Fig. 3, isan empty tube, ready to be di- vided into cells. Fig. 4 a, is the last filled cell of the other range. It is full of spiders, the worm having been just hatch- ed, "and eaten nothing. b. contains a worm more advanced which has consumed half his store. ¢. contaims another in a still greater progress to maturity, which has but little provision left. ‘Fig. 5, exhibits the worm, which after consuming all the stock oF spiders, is prepared to spin its involucrum. Fig. 6, represents the chrysalis, broken. The dots exhibit its full size.
In the first range’ of the cells, No. I. Fig. 2; and in No. II. Fig. 3, are seen the holes by which the young sphex escapes. No. II. Fig. 4, shews the inside of two ceils, carefully sepa- rated from - the board on which they were built.
ON TWO SPECIES OF SPHEX. eal
As I had always found the number of spiders in each cell unequal, but apparently regulated by their size, I opened a range of cells of the sphex Pennsylvanica, and having weigh- ing the contents I found the result as follows. See No. III. The lowest contained 19 spiders and a small worm,
which seemed lately hatched, and had eaten nothing.
See Fig. I.—The spiders weighed U ; Says 2 The next contaimed 17 spiders and one empty skin,
the worm, Fig. 2, weighed + ofa grain, the spiders 6 The third contained 19 very small spiders and a few
empty skins, weighing . ; i 1 5 The worm, Fig. 3, weighed c ‘ : The fourth contained only the empty skins of the spi-
ders. The worm, Fig. 4, seemed lean and weak,
he was just beginning to spin. I think he must have had a short allowance provided for him, or have been sick: he weighed : : 1 : Se The fifth contained an involucrum in which was a large grub not yet changed to a chrysalis. ‘Phe involu- crum and worm being heavier than the last, weigh-
ed : : : 2 : : : 3
The 6th and 7th cells were open at the point, the young sphex having escaped.
This examination proves that the sphex exercises a nice degree of judgment in the quantity of provision he lays up. For the cell No. 5. must have contained 22 or 23 spiders, and I have often counted only 6 or 7 in one, but they were of a large size. It also appears that the full-grown worm weighs about half as much as the food that reared him.
If it be further necessary to break the line which has for- merly been drawn between reason and instinct, the economy of the whole class of hymenoptera, and especially of the sphex, will contribute towards it, I will relate a singular in- stance of conduct in which instinct appears to be out of the question. ;
In order to examine one of these insects (the Pennsylvanica) at work, I raised a picture frame a little from the wall. In doing this, I injured several of his cells, for the dirt sticking
grains.
wl ble
+
78 ON TWO SPECIES OF SPHEX,
to the wall was torn off, and left holes in them, through
which the spiders and young worms were visible. I kept the
frame about an inch from the wall so as to see plainly behind
it. In a few moments the sphex returned, bringing with him
around lump of clay. He had just begun a new cell, but
seeing his former work disturbed, he ran rapidly over the
cells, in apparent doubt what to do, At last he put down
the clay on the margin of one of the holes, and began to
spread it with his nose, pushing it out before him with the
action of a hog which is rooting. While he did this he made
a shrill buzzing noise. _Having plaistered up the hole very
perfectly and neatly, he flew away. In 4 minutes he returned
with another lump of clay. He put it down at once by the
next hole, and stopped it in the same manner. He repeated this four times, and having finished his repairs, and satisfied himself by ranging over the cells several times, he flew for ano-
ther lump, with which he. proceeded to compleat his new
cell.
If reason. be ph ibited in the modification of conduct to unexpected circumstances, this surely was an instance of rea= soning. The sphex saw the unexpected dilapidation of his work : it had happened in his -absence: the clay he brought was for the new cell: seeing however, the injury done to his. work, he thoroughly repaired the old cells, instead of building new ones. i
———EE a
For some insteresting notices concerning the insects which are the subject of the preceeding paper, see a communica- tion by Mr. John Bartram, a member of this Society, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 43. No. 476, for the year 1745
“Tanner 1
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eta
No. XVI.
Memorandum concerning a new Vegetable Muscipula. By Dr. Barton.
Read February 18th, 1803. February, 16th, 1803,
The existence of an irritable principle in vegetables was denied by Haller, by Gaubius, and by Wolf, but has been completely demonstrated by the researches of many of the botanists. This principle is now found to pervade almost every part of the organized plant. It is particularly conspicuous in the stamens and ea or male and female organs of genera- tion, in vegetables. With respect to these organs, it Tyould indeed seem, that the irritability which they possess is almost entirely subservient to the function of generation.
In many vegetables, the irritable power is very remarkable,. and some facts would lead us to believe, that it is accompa- nied by the sense of perception. The wonderful faculty of the Dionza muscipula, one of the native plants of our coun- try, is now pretty well known to every person who is studious of the interesting subject of vegetable physiology. Each leaf of the Dionza is terminated by a glandular-like apparatus, which immediately closes upon, and retains, the insect that alights upon it. Something of the same kind has been dis- covered in different species of Drosera, or Sundew.
We are by no means acquainted with the extent of the irritable principle in vegetables. It will, doubtless, be found to pervade the vegetable’ structure much more generally than is now supposed. In particular, we may expect to discover instances of irritability in many vegetables, in which this attri- bute has not, hitherto, been observed. In the summer of 1801, I discovered a vegetable muscipula in the vicinity of Philadelphia. Having collected some branches, in flower, of the Asclepias syriaca, or Syrian Swallow-wort, well known in
80 MEMORANDUM CONCERNING A NEW
the United States by the names of Wild-cotjon, cotton-plant, &c*; with the view of making some expériments with the milky juice of this plant, I was not a little surprized {0 find, in the course of a few hours, a number of the common house- flies strongly attached to the flowers; being secured, some by their proboscis, and others by their legs: the greater number, however, by their legs. I, at first, imagined, that the flies were merely retained by the viscous juice of the flowers of this Asclepias: but I soon found, that this was not the case They were detained by the small valves of the flower, and I observed, that the irritability of the valves seemed to reside exclusively i in one particular spot, not larger than the pointot a common sized pin. Neither in. this spot nor in any other part of the valve, could I observe the least_vestige of a glutin- ous or viscous quality. I think it sufficiently evident, that the valve is endued with the irritable principle.
In the genus Asclepias, the valves which I have noticed, are ten in ~ number, being situated in pairs, so as to form fe little fovie, the structure and uses of which are not sufficiently. known to the botanists.
A considerable number of flies, not less perhaps than sixty or seventy, which alighted upon the flowers of my Asclepias, were detained in the manner I have mentioned, a few by their proboscis, the greater number, however, by their legs; and a very few by their proboscis, and one or more of the legs. Many of the flies, particularly the larger ones, were ena- bled, after some time, to disengage themselves trom their pri- son, without the loss of any of their limbs or organs, or any perceptible injury whatever. Many others effected their escape, not however, without the loss of one or more of their legs, or their proboscis. Not a few, after making long and repeated efforts to regain their liberty, perished in their vege~ table prisons.
* This is a very common plant in every part of the United States, that I have visited ; viz. from the latitude of 43 to that of $8. It isa vegetable of considerable importance; - and, accords ingly, it is cultivated, with much attention, in some parts of Europe. Paper, cloth, and other useful articles are made out of its stems, the silk-like matter in the follicles, &c, In Canada, a good brown sugar is procured from the nectar of the flowers, In the vicinity of Philadelphia, the plant flowers in June and July. :
VEGETABLE MUSCIPULA. $1
I cannot find, in any of the authors whom I have consulted, any mention of the curious property of the Asclepias syriaca, which I have described: and yet this isa very common vege- table, not only in America, but likewise in the old world. It is evident, however, from a passage in the Genera Plantarum of Mr. De Jussieu, that the fly-catching property of some species of Asclepias has been noticed, before me. In describ- ing the organa seruala of this family of plants, the learned French botanist has the following words: “* An potits circum- scripto sexu, non pro polline tantim, sed pro anthcris etiam habenda corpuscula quorum valvulas contrahunt distrahuntve cornua, vectium elasticorum more sepé muscicapa, non aliis nata laboribus.”” I may add, that the flowers of the Apocinum androsemifolium, a North-American vegetable, very nearly allied to the genus Asclepias, have been shown, by Dr. Darwin and other writers, to be endued with the property of catching insects.
It is a curious fact, which may be worth mentioning, in this place, that several of the Contorte, or Contorted plants, to which the genera Asclepias and Apocinum belong, prove de- structive to insects, in various ways. I shall not repeat. what I have already said, concerning the two genera, just mention- ed. It is a well-ascertained fact, that flies, mistaking it would seem (for instinct often errs) the peculiarly fetid flowers of the Stapelia variegata for putrid flesh, deposit their eggs upon the petals of this plant. As this is not a proper nidus for the eggs, the young ones, when hatched, soon perish. The common Rosebay, or Oleander (Nerium Oleander) is another of the Contorted plants. It has long been known, that this is a poi- sonous plant. But I do not know, that any person than my- self has observed, that this fine vegetable proves very destruc- tive to the common house-flies. These insects visit the Olean- der, in order to drink the fluid secreted in the tube of its flowers. The liquor soon intoxicates them, and very few of those which have gained admittance into the blossom, ever re- turn from it. So great is the number of flies destroyed, in the course of one season, by a single Oleander, that I have often thought it would be worth our while to pay more attention,
N
82 ON THE PROCESS OF CLAYING SUGAR.
than we yet do, to the cultivation of this vegetable; as, inde- pendently on its beauty, it is so well calculated to lessen the numbers of a most common and troublesome insect.
No. XVII.
On the Process of claying Sugar. By Jonathan Williams. Esq. Read March 4th, 1803,
The art of refining sugar consists of three operations; the first is clarification, so well known in Pharmacy, by the addition of a coagulable substance, and a gentle application of heat. The second is chrystalisation, that is, evaporating the superabundant water by a strong application of heat; the third is merely washing away the colouring mucus from the chrys- talised mass, by a gradual supply, and minute distribution of water. The last operation being alone the subject of this paper, it is needless to enter into a detail of the preceding ones, which are totally distinct from it.
The mould in common use is made in the shape of a cone, and perforated at its apex. It is placed in the fill-houSe in an inverted position, and filled from the coolers with the sugar partially granulated, but not sufficiently to separate the grains _ from the mucus; a great proportion being still held in solution by heat. In this state the mould remains all night, and in the morning is hauled up from the fill-house into a room above, where it is placed upon a pot, the apex of the cone entering the mouth of the pot. The sugar is now become cool, and forms a mass of grains and mucus; but care is taken to keep the room warm enough to prevent the too great inspissa- tion of the mucus. The surface of the sugar at the base of the cone is made level, and having shrunk in consequence of the first running of the mucus, there is sufficient space within the mould to hold a quantity of clay, made, by a proper mixture of water, into a semifluid state, ressembling
ON THE PROCESS OF CLAYING SUGAR, 83
thin paste. Part of the water, no doubt, will escape from the superior surface of the clay by evaporation; but by far the greater part will be distributed over the surface, and gradually descend through an immense number of interstices, forming little currents all over the mass of sugar; thus increasing the fluidity of the mucus, and favouring its descent towards the apex, where it issues in a single stream into the pot on which the mould stands. To give a more ready issue to the mucus at the apex, a perforation is previously made in the mass by a small spear, called a pricker.
At the end of several days this clay becomes a dry cake, being deprived of its water, in the manner above described: it is then removed, and fresh diluted clay being put into its place, the operation of washing the mucus from the chrystals recommences. This is repeated, till the loaf becomes sufiiciently white, when it is taken from the mould, by gently striking its edge against a block which causes the loaf to fall into the hand; being then dried in the stove, it becomes ready for con- sumption.
It is evident that the water contained in the clay on the base of the cone must, in descending to its apex, go on relatively increasing, in proportion to the diminishing surfaces (that is, inversely as the squares of the diameters) through which it pas- ses, till at last it all assembles at a point and is discharged through one hole. It is also evident, that these repeated operations of washing the mucus from the grains or chrystals of the sugar, dissolve and carry off a part of the sugar itself; it is accord- ingly found in practice, that by evaporating the water of the fluid that had fiitred through the mass, more sugar may be obtained, but the mucus will of course bear a large proportion to the grains; these sirups therefore are generally mixed with the next boiling, and so on, till they at last run from loaves of the lowest quality (called bastards) and finally become treacle or molasses, which will no longer granulate.
The mould which was at first full, will now contain a loaf of white sugar, the solid contents of which is not more than half of what it was originally.
Let Fig. 4. Plate III, represent the section of a mould, in the shape of those at present in use, filled with sugar; it is
84 ON THE PROCESS OF CLAYING SUGAR.
evident, by inspection, that only so much of the mucus of the of the mass as does not exceed in diameter that of the hole at the apex, can descend in a right line, yet every drop in the whole mass must issue from the same aperture.
Let us suppose this mass to be divided into any number of strata;—it is evident that each stratum not only suffers the wash- ing and consequent waste incident to itself, but must also be washed by the fluid issuing from all the strata above it. If then the water from the clay be just sufficient to wash the first stratum white, a further quantity must be added to whi- ten the second stratum, which has now beside its own, the colouring mucus of the first stratum increased in quantity by all the water that had been added; but this second supply of water must pass through the first stratum where it is not wan- ted, and here it must do the mischief of dissolving a part of the whitened sugar. The third stratum again has three times its own quantity, and thus the quantity of mucus accumulates in a series of proportionals, till the last stratum receives the colouring mucus of the whole mass, and all the water that had been added, if it be not betore entirely dissolved: It must too be considered, that as the currents of mucus are descending along the sides of the cone, the loaf will constantly sink, en- deavouring by its gravity always to keep in contact with the mould; and thus will be still more liable it to be dissolved by these currents.
If at the end of the operation, the loaf should be found only two. thirds of its original height, one third of the number of strata must have been entirely dissolved; and as the vacant part of the mould will be at the base of the cone, the deficient strata will be those of the largest diameter; which shows a real deficiency of mass, much greater than at first sight might be imagined. It must be considered also, that the sugar thus returned to its former liquid state, will require to be evaporated by the application of great heat (no evaporation going on in the pot, its mouth being closed by the mould) which will inevitably deepen its colour; so that every opera- tion of this sort makes the mucus darker and darker, til it becomes almost black, the known colour of molasses or treacle.
ON THE PROCESS OF CLAYING SUGAR. 85
If proof of the latter fact were requisite, we need only look at the juice of the cane, which is nearly colourless, and would doubtless yield white sugar in the first instance, if the neces- sary operation of boiling did not make it brown.
Let Fig. 5 represent a cylindrical mould of the same base, and one third of the altitude of the conical one, Fig. 4; we know that the solid contents of these masses would be equal. It is evident then that the same quantity of sugar in the cylindri- cal mould would contain but one third the number of horizon- tal strata with that in the conical one, and consequently that the proportional series of accumulating mucus would extend to only one third the number of terms in the latter, that it did in the former case. It is evident also that every descending current would describe aight line, save only the little varia- tions in passing round the chrystals; ali the horizontal strata therefore being equal in diameter, none could receive any fluid laterally, but all would be able to support an equal quantity of water without any additional cause of dissolution, except the proportional series of the descending fluid, which, as be- fore mentioned, would only extend to one third the number oft erms, and be unaffected with any increase from a constantly diminishing surface, as in the cone.
The plain consequence of this difference in the two masses is, that a greater quantity of undissolved sugar must be retained in the cylinder than in the cone, while the operation of whi- tening, that is of washing away the colouring mucus from the chrystals, is equally effected in both.
No attention is paid to the mere form of the loaf, because, as it is always broken into pieces before it can be used, the consumers would soon accommodate themselves. to any one generally adopted: and for all purposes of packing, the cylin- drical shape would be most convenient. But as it might be dif ficult to “ knock out” from the mould a cylindrical mass with- out breaking it, so much deviation from this shape might be adopted in practice, as would fuvour this operation; the frustum of a cone therefore as Fig. 6, Plate ILI, nearly resembling the shape of a common flower pot, is recommended. Let the smaller diameter of this mould be its bottom, to be perforated
‘
86 ON THE PROCESS OF CLAYING SUGAR.
with as many holes as the matter of which the mould is made will admit without breaking. Let a piece of leather or other flexible substance be prepared, somewhat larger than the bot- tom of the mould; let there be as many points or small spikes through this leather as there are holes in the mould, and so fixed that each point being within its corresponding hole when the mould is set, may be withdrawn when it is ready to be hauled up in the morning, by merely lifting the mould from it; the operator’s feet being on the edges of the leather to keep it down. The mass then would be ready pricked, and this operation would be saved.
Instead of a pot, let this mould be placed ever a deep dish like the bottom of a flower pot; 3 or 4 small knobs at the bottom of the mould, near the edge, would be sufficient to keep it above the mucus that would run into the dish, and leave a free circulation of air over the surface: by this means the evaporation of water from the mucus would be spontaneously going on while it is collecting, and instead of thin sirup to be boiled over again, a thick mass would be found already in part granulated.
To ascertain the reality of the improvement here proposed, the following experiment has been made.
Two moulds were prepared; one such as is in common use, with but one issue for the sirup, the other with many issues - as above described. Equal quantities of sugar from the cool- ers were put into each, and both went through a like process in every respect. After being under clay the usual time the sugar was taken out and weighed.
The loaf of the first mould weighed six pounds two ounces, that of the second weighed seven pounds fourteen ounces, making a difference of twenty eight ounces in ninety eight; that is a saving (without any additional labour) of nearly twenty eight per cent. To this saving add the spontaneous evaporation from the surface of an open dish, which it is presumed would lessen the quantity of fluid, that would require another boiling, at least one half. The latter part of the experiment was not tried for want of convenient apparatus.
NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c. 87
As the quantities of sugar in the moulds were determined by equal dips of a ladle only, there may have been some in- accuracy; but if the result in practice should give a saving of twenty per cent. or even less, the manufacturer will be amply repaid for changing the form of his moulds; especially as the decrease by breakage might be supplied by the new form, and thus eventually occasion very little additional expense.
ns
No. XVIII.
An Account of some newly discovered Islands and Shoals, in the Indian Seas. By Mr, Thomas, an Officer on board the Ameri- can Slup Ganges.
Read April Ist, 1803. SHIP GANGES, Fes. 15, 1802.
AT 6 P. M. passed between two islands, lying W b N and EbS, per compass, which we supposed to be Egmont and Edgecomb islands, as seen by captain Carteret in the Swallow.
Alter running 25 leagues N b E+E, passed by nine small islands entirely covered with wood, lying ina NW and SE direction; in length about 15 leagues. These islands were not seen by captain Carteret, nor are they laid down in the charts which we had, either of Robertson or Dalrymple, nor in any chart I have since seen. Being a breast of the norther- most at noon, had a very good meridian altitude ;—which made us in latitude 9° 44'S. From distances of moon and stars east and west of her, taken 14 hours after leaving the land, I should lay them down in longitude 166° 43’ E. They are of a middling height, may be seen at the distance of 8 or 10 leagues, and have no dangerous rocks or shoals in their vicinity: having run so close in with the shore as to see the natives on the beech, and thew huts, with the naked eye,
Egmont Island is very erroneously laid down by captain Carteret, in 11° 00'S. & 164° 50’ E. From my observations,
88 NEWLY DISCOVERED ISLANDS, &c.
which I had a good opportunity of making, and which may I presume be considered as tolerably correct, I should lay it down in 10° 50'S. and 166° 10'E.
marRcH 3d, 1802.
At 8 A. M. made several small low islands, distant about 6 or 7 miles: they are very dangerously situate, being level with the water, and if it were not for a few cocoa-nut trees growing on them, it would be impossible to see them 3 leagues off, on the clearest day. They lie ina N W andS E direc- tion, about 7 leagues long; and are entirely surrounded with rocks. A reef extends from the N W part into the sea about 6 miles, over which the sea breaks very high: there are but very few dry spots on the whole of them; they consist of white sand and coral. I make the northern extreme to lie in 9° 55’ N. and the southern in 9° 38’ N. Longitude of the middle of the shoal, from observations of sun and moon, 161° 26’ E,
SEPTEMBER 7th, 1802.
At midnight made a shoal not twice the ship’s length off, and steering right for it; immediately wore, and stood to the N W till day light; then stood to the S E, in order to survey the shoal. At 9 A. M. made the S W part, distant about $ miles, and run along the N E part of it at the distance of one mile, or a mile and a half: it runs about N E and S W 16 or 18 miles in length, and about 14 in breadth; the N E part is the broadest, and on this part was the only dry spot I could see from the mast head. Some large drift-wood ly- ing on it, had much the appearance of black rocks.
It is a very dangerous shoal, and can not be seen until you are very near it. From good observed distances of the sun and moon, which I had the same afternoon, and good meri- dian altitudes that day and the day after, when in sight of the shoal, I have been able to ascertain its situation with tolerable correctness viz:
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES. 89
Q , °o 7
The S W. extreme, Lat. 2 52 N. Long. 131 07 E. The N N. extreme, Lat. $3 06 N. Long. 131 23 -E.
These are all in the usual course to and from China, of ships going round New Holland, and returning by the eastern pas- sage.
No. XIX.
FIRST Report of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, to the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia; in answer to the en- gury of the Society of Rotterdam, “Whether any, and what “improvements have been made in the construction of Steam- « Engines in America 2”
Philadelphia, 20th May, 1803. Gentlemen,
THE Report due from me to the Society, in consequence of the enquiry made by the Society of Rotterdam, as to the improvements made in America, in the construction of steam- engines, would have been laid before you at a much earlier period, had it not been my wish to submit several American alterations in the construction of steam-engines, which pro- mised to be very valuable improvements, to the test of expe- tience: and this delay has not been without its use; for it has been discovered that some of our innovations, the theory of which appeared to be very pertect, have proved extremely deficient in practical utility.
In this first report I will therefore confine myself to such im- provements as have had a fair trial, in engines actually at work.
Steam-engines, on the old construction, were introduced in
America above 40 years ago. Two, I believe, were put up in
New-England before the revolutionary war; and one, (which
I have seen) at the copper-mine on the river Passaick, in
New-Jersey, known by the name of the Schuyler-mine. AU
oO
90 IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.
the principal parts of these engines were imported from En- gland. With the Schuyler-mine engine, Mr. Hornblower, the uncle of the younger Hornblower, who is well known as a skillful and cue! engine-builder, and whose calculations on the power of steam are “extremely useful, came to America. He put up the engine, which at different times has been at work during the last thirty years, and which, notwithstanding its imperfect construction, and the faulty boring of its cylinder, effectually drained the mine.
During the general lassitude of mechanical exertion which succeeded the American revolution, the utility of steam-en- gines appears to have been forgotten; but the subject after- wards started into very general notice, in a form in which it could not possibly be attended with much success. A sort of mania began to prevail, which indeed has not yet entirely sub- sided, for impelling boats by steam-engines.—Dr. Franklin pro- posed to force forward the boat by the immediate action of steam upon the water. (Sec his Works). Many attempts to simplify the working of the engine, and more to employ a means of dispensing with the Bean, in converting the Librato- ry into a rotatory motion, were made. For a shert time a passage-boat, rowed by a steam-engine, was established be- tween Bordentown and Philadelphia: but it was soon laid aside. The best and most powerful steam-engine which has been em- ployed for this purpose, excepting perhaps one constructed by Dr. Kinsey, with the performance of which I am not sufh- ciently acquainted, belonged to a few gentlemen of New-York. It was made to act, by way of experiment, upon oars, upon paddies, and upon flutter wheels. Nothing in the success of any of these experiments appeared to be a “sufficient compen- sation for the expense, and the extreme inconvenience of the steam-engine in the vessel.
There are indeed general objections to the use of the steam- engine for umpelling boats, from which no particular mode of application can be tree. These are: Ist, The weight of the engine and of the fewel. 2d, The large space it occupies. 3d, The tendency of its action to rack the vessel and render it leaky, 4th, The expense of maintenance. 5th, The irre-
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES. 91
gularity of its motion, and the motion of the water in the boiler and cistern, and of the fuel-vessel in rough water. 6th, The difficulty arising from the lability of the paddles or oars to break, if light; and trom the weight, if made strong. Nor have I ever heard of an instance, verified by other testimony than that of the inventor, of a speedy and agreeable voyage having been performed in a steam-boat of any construction. I am well aware, that there are still many very respectable and ingenious men, who consider the application of the steam-en- gine to the purpose of navigation, as highly important, and as very practicable, especially on the rapid waters of the Mis- sissippi; and who would teel themselves almost offended at the expression of an opposite opinion. And perhaps some of the objections against it may be obviated. That founded on the ex- pense and weight of the fuel may not, for some years, exist on the Mississippi, where there is a redundance of wood on the banks: but the cutting and loading will be almost as great an evil,
I have said thus much on the engines which have been con- structed among us for the purpose of navigating boats, because many modes of working and constructing them have been adopted which are not used in Europe. Not one of them, however, appears to have sufficient merit te render it worthy of description and imitation; nor will I, unless by your further desire, occupy your attention with them.
The only engines of any considerable powers which, as far as I know, are now at work in America, are the following. Ist, At New-York, belonging to the Manhattan Water-Com- pany, for the supply of the city with water. 2d, One at New-York, belonging to Mr. Roosevelt, employed to saw timber. 3d, Two at Philadelphia, belonging to the corpora- tion of the city, for the supply of the city with water; one of which also drives a rolling and slitting mill. 4th, One at Boston, of which I have been only generally informed, em- ployed in some manufacture. In my second report, I will notice the improvements made by the very ingenious Dr. Kin- sey, who has erected, at New-York, an engine upon a new principle which is intended to be used in the supply of that city with water; should it on experiment, be found to answer
92 IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.
the intended purpose. He has made other improvements in the construction of steam-engines, of which I shall also give you some account. Nor ought I to omit the mention of a small engine, erected by Mr. Oliver Evans, as an experiment, with which he grinds Plaister of Paris, nor of the steam-wheel of Mr. Briggs. } fl
Ist. The Manhattan company’s engine at New-York, is up- on the principle of Bolton and Watt's double engines, without any variation, It has two boilers; one a wooden one, upon the construction of those first put up in Philadelphia, the other of sheet iron, on Bolton & Watt’s construction. The fly-wheel is driven by a sun and planet motion, and the shaft works three small pumps with common cranks.
2d. Mr. Roosewelt’s engine has all the improvements which have been made by the joint ingenuity of Messrs. Smallman & Staudinger, with the assistance of the capital and intelligence of Mr. Roosewelt; and which have also been adopted to the engines, belonging to the water-works at Philadelphia.
Sd. The engines at Philadelphia, independently of these improvements, act also upon a pump, the principal of which, though not new, has never before, I believe, been used upon a large scale; and which is worthy of being particularly de- scribed.
I shall now proceed to describe these innovations, for expe- rience does not permit me as yet to call them all wnprovemenits, although I have no doubt, but that they will furnish hints of use to bring the steam-engine to greater perfection.
Ist. THE WOODEN BOILER.
Wooden boilers have been applied in America to the pur- pose of distilling for many years. Mr. Anderson, whose im- provements in that art are well known, appears to have first introduced them in America. But it was found that the mash had a very injurious effect upon the solidity of the wood: for while the outside retained the appearance of soundness, and the inside that of a burnt, but hard surface, the body of the plank was entirely decayed. It was however still to be tried,
IMPROVEMENTS IN.STEAM ENGINES, 93
whether simple water and steam, would have the same effect; and upon the hint of Chancellor Livingston, our present Am- bassador in France, Messrs. Roosevelt Smallman and Haudin- ger contrived the wooden boiler, which has been used for all the engines in New York and Philadelphia; and not without its great, though only temporary, advantages. The construc- tion of the wooden boiler, will be best understood, by refer- ence to the plan and section of the new boiler of the engine in Center-square, Philadelphia, which is by far the best of those which have been made. It is in fact only a wooden chest containing the water, in which a furnace is contrived, of which the flues wind several times through the water, before they discharge themselves into the chimney.
In the plan and section, Plate I, Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, A is the fur- nace, B BB, are upright cylinders, called heaters, among which the fire passes, heating the water within them, and which, at the same time, support the roof the fire-bed, or lower passage of the flame to the flues. C, is the take-up, or passage from the fire-bed to the flues. D the upper flue through which the fire passes from the take-up to the register E, when it enters into the chimney.
This boiler differs from the others, in the addition of the upright cylinders of the fire-bed, and in the elliptical form of its flues. The merits of this boiler are—that as the wood, in which the water is contained, is a very slow conductor of heat, a great saving of fuel is thereby effected; especially, as an op- portunity is afforded, by means of the cylindrical heaters and of the length of the flue, to expose a very large surface of iron contaming water to the action of the fire. An idea of of this saving may be formed, by the quantity of coal consu- med by the engine in Center-square, which is a double steam-engine, the diameter of whose cylinder is 32 inches. The power of this engine is calculated to answer the future, as well as to supply the present wants of the city; it is there- fore kept irregularly at work, filling, alternately, the clevated reservoir, and stopping during the time which is occupied by the discharge of the water into the city. It may, however, be fairly rated to go at the rate of 12 strokes, of 6 feet, per
94 IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.
minute, for 16 hours in 24, during which time it consumes from 25 to 33 bushels of Virginia coals of the best sort. Of the amount of the saving, I cannot venture to make an esti- mate; on account of the great variety of coal with which we are supplied, much of which is of a very indifferent quality. That there is a great saving 1s certain; and while the wooden boilers continue stream-tight, (for that part which contains the water gives no trouble) they-are certainly equal, if not superior, to every other. The wood, however, which is above the water, and is acted upon by the steam, seems to loose its solidity in the course of time; and steam-leaks arise in the joints, and wherever a bolt passes through. The joint- leaks may for a considerable time, be easily stopped, by screw- ing up the bolts that hold the planks together; but it 1s not.so easy to cure the bolt-leaks; tor the bolt, when screwed up, bends the top or the sides inwards, and forces new leaks, either along the corners, or at some other bolt-hole. I do not, however, believe, that every thing has as yet been done, which could be done, to obviate these defects. A conical wooden boiler hooped would not be subject to some of them: such a one has been applied by Mr. Oliver Evans to his small steam- engine. During two years, which have elapsed since the boilers of the public engines have been erected, much has been done to improve them. Whether the last boiler will prove as perfect in its wood-work, as it is in its furnaces and flues, is still to be ascertained by experience. At present nothing can work better.
I will only mention one other-circumstance, the knowledge of which may prevent similar mischief.—In the first boiler erected in Philadelphia, oak timber was used to support the sides, bottom, and top.of the boilers, the plank of which was white pine, 4 inches thick. In less than a year it was discov- ered, that the substance of the pine plank, to the depth of an inch, was entirely destroyed by the acid of the oak, Means were then used to prevent its further action, by the interven- tion of putty and pasteboard; and in most cases by substitut- ing pine timbers in the room of those of oak.
=)
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES. 95 CAST-IRON BOILER.
Within the last few months, a cast-iron boiler has been put up, at the lower engine, which hitherto exceeds the expec- tion, I had formed of the facility with which steam is raised and supported by it. The engine is a double steam-engine, of 40 inches cylinder, and 6 feet stroke. The boiler has straight sides, and semicircular ends; it is 17 feet long, and 8 feet wide at the bottom; and nineteen feet long, and 10 feet wide at the height of 5 feet 7 inches. At this height, it is covered by a vault; which, in its transverse section, is semicircular; and. in its longitudinal section exhibits half of its plan. The bot- tom is concave every way; rising one foot in the center. The fire-place is 6 feet long, and at an average 4 feet wide; and is under one extreme end of the bottom. The fire-bed is arched, parallel with the bottom, leaving.a space of one foot high, for the passage of the flame. At the end opposite to. the fire-place, the flame descends along the bottom of the boiler, and, passing under an arch of fire-bricks, which pro- tects the flanch of the bottom, strikes the side of the boiler at its extreme end. Here it enters a flat elliptical flue, which, passing into the boiler, follows its form, returning again and. coming out near the place at. which it entered. The entering part of the flue is separated trom the returning flue, by a par- tition of fire-bricks. The flue, on coming out of the boiler, turns short round, and is carried round the whole boiler until it enters the chimney; as will be more clearly shewn by refer- ring to Plate II. Fig. 5,6, 7; the same letters on each figure refer- ring to the same things. Fig. 5. C, a horizontal section of the boiler, through the center of the flues.. Fig. 6. B, a transverse section of boiler at the fire-grate. Fig. 7.. A, a longitudinal sec- tion. Fig. 6, 7. D, the fire-bed. K,a bridge-wall nine inches thick, over which the fire passes to the passage E, under the bottom of the boiler, being parallel both ways with the same. Fig. 7. L an arch of fire-bricks to support and protect the flanch from being melted by the heat. Fig. 6, 7. The fire passes from D, through the passage E, under the arch L, Fig. 7, to the take- up E, Fig. 5, 7, where it enters the upper flue G, Fig. 5, 6, 7,
96 IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.
which passes through the boiler. H, the flue round the outside of the boiler, wherein the fire is carried until it enters the chimney at I, Fig. 5. The whole boiler is tied together inter- nally by numerous braces, Fig. 10, which are forked and bol- ted together upon the flanches, and are indispensable to pre- vent the boiler from bursting. The flanches and joints of the castings are represented Fig. 6, 7.
The boiler is composed of 70 plates of iron, cast with flanches, and bolted together, so that the flanch and bolts are within the water of the boiler wherever the flame touches it; otherwise they would be burned off in a few days. The pieces are so contrived as to be of only {2 different patterns. This boiler consumed 50 bushels of coal, and 1 a cord of wood, while rolling iron 12 hours, at 20 strokes per minute, and pumping water 6 hours, at 12 strokes per minute.
I will only further observe, that this boiler requires a very active fire-man; and it is my opinion, that if it were 3 feet longer, a more moderate fire would raise the same stcam and consume less fuel. The permanence of this boiler renders it very superior to the wooden one; and the difference of the consumption of fuel in each, in proportion to the size of the engine, is not great.
The further improvement of the engine itself consists in a new application of an improved construction of the air-pump. T will first remark, that by the air-pump of Bolton and Watt, the condenser is only once emptied, of its water of conden- sation and of the air produced, in every stroke. The supe- riority of our air-pump consists in its evacuating the conden- ser twice at every stroke, thereby creating a much _ better vacuum, and of course adding considerably to the power of our engine in proportion to the diameter of its cylinder with- out encreasing friction. The drawing, Plate II, Fig. 8, will best explain the construction of this pump.
A, is the pump-barrel. B, the piston which is solid. C, the condenser. D, a pipe of connection between the condenser and the lower chamber of the air-pump. E, a pipe of con- nection with the upper chamber of the air-pump. F, valves opening towards the air-pump. G, discharging-valves into
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES. 97
two hot-wells. The head of hot-water suffered to remain on these valves must be moderate, or they will refuse to open; for it must be remarked, that great part of the contents of the air-pump is an elastic gaz, which suffers compression and is not expelled, if the weight on the valve be too great. The action of this air-pump is evident from the drawing. The expulsion of the contents of each chamber creates a vacuum in the other, which draws in the contents of the condenser; and thus they act equally and alternately, agreeing in their operation with the alternate condensation of the steam in the opposite chambers of the cylinder. Experience proves this to be a real improvement.
The principle which has been applied to the construction of the air-pump, is that upon which the main pump of our water-works is constructed. A section of this pump is an- nexed which perfectly explaus it.
This pump has so many ¢ advantages that, had the corpora- tion of 1800 permitted its disadvantages, (of which I shall presently speak,) to be remedied by the means then ideas I have no doubt, but that I might now recommend its general adoption, wherever a double steam-engine is used for pum ping. The drawing in Plate I, Fig. 9, will explain its construction; A the working barrel. B the piston. C the feed-pipe. D the rising main p.pe. F the valves which supply the working barrel. G discharging valves in the ascending pipe. H the air- eel The valve E, in the rising pipe, and the air-vessel H, are notad- ded to our pumps. The want of one or other of them, has these disadvantages: as long as the engine makes only {1 or 12 strokes per minute, no inconvenience whatever is perceived in the work- ing of the pumps. But in the engine in the center-square, which raises the water in an 18 inch pipe 51 feet, and which has less re- dundant power than that on Schuylkill, the attempt to work faster than 12 strokes per minute is vain; and, as it appears to me, from two causes: Ist, whenever the piston is at its ut- most ascent or descent, and makes a momentary stop, the whole column of water follows the shutting valve, acquiring momentum as it falls. The range of our valves is 16 inches, the column therefore descends » at an average 8 inches. It
P
98 IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES.
weighs near 3 tons, and to open the opposite valve against the momentum of such a column, gives the engine a shock that seems to endanger every part of it. In endeavouring to work with its full power at a speed of 20 strokes a minute, this shock is so severe, as to occasion a very perceptible stop in the return of the stroke, during which the water of condensation mounts into the cylinder. Two methods were proposed to remedy this inconvenience, which amounts to a perfect use- lessness of more than 4 of our power. Ist, to place a large plug-valve E, Fig. 9, in the rising pipe close to the pump, having as much water-way through its seat at a very small rise, as the whole pipe. This valve would shut instantane- ously at the end of the stroke, catching the falling column of water, and nothing would oppose its immediate return. 2d, to place an air-vessel so as to act on the whole column. By this means the fall of the water would be entirely prevented.
I regret that though this apparatus was provided, and could easily have been put up, in the course of a few days, circum- stances prohibited the trial of them, and that I can only sub- mit them as projects.—Could this pump be used with the same speed as the single pump, one half of the power of every double pumping engine, which works a single pump, would be saved; for the beam would need no counterpoise, and all the expense and friction of a second pump, where two are employed to balance each other, would be avoided.
I hope shortly to deliver you a second report on_ this subject,—and am with true respect yours.
Hi Moy te A B. HENRY LATROBE.
=
Since the above was read in the Society I have constructed another and much larger iron boiler on this plan, the former having fully answered my expectation. In the new boiler I have passed the fire through a second flue above the other, which is immersed in the steam only, from which I promise myself great advantage. B. H. L.
The wooden boiler above described was planned and the erection of it commenced in July, 1801. The cast-iron boiler was projected in the latter end of January 1803.
TNT TALITY
TA Ng
QUINT
E
poirot
fn 89-4]
No., XX.
Account of tie fusion of Strontites, and volatilization of Platinum, and also of a new arrangement of apparatus. Communicated by Robert Hare, jaar. menber of the Society.
Read June 17th, 1803.
IT is known, I believe, to some of the members of the Philosophical Society, that a memoir on the supply and ap- plication of the blowpipe, which I had presented to the Che- mical Society, was published in the commencement of last summer*., ‘Phis memoir contains a description of a machine, termed an hydrostatic blowpipe, calculated to confine or propel the gases, for the production of heat, or other purposes; also an account of some experiments, in which by a concentra- tion of caloric, till then unattained, substances were fused, which had been before deemed infusible. It was mentioned that alumine, silex, and barytes, were found susceptible of rapid fusion, and that the fusion of lime and magnesia, though extremely difficult, was yet, in a few instances partially attain- ed. Platinum was described, as not only susceptible of fu- sion, but even of volatilization,
Being induced, last winter, to reinstate the apparatus, by which these experiments were performed, I was enabled to confirm my judgment of the volatilization of platinum, by the observation of Drs. Woodhouse and Seybert; for in the presence of these skilful Chemists, I completely dissipated some small globules of this metal, of about the tenth of an inch in diameter. In fact, I found platinum to be equally susceptible of rapid volatilization, whether exposed in its na- tive granular form, or in that of globules, obtained trom the orange coloured precipitate of the nitro-muriatic solution, by the muriate of ammoniac. :
* Republished in the 14th yolume of Tillock’s Philosophical Magazine, and also in the an- nales de Chimie yol, 45.
100 FUSION OF STRONTITES
About the same time, I discovered Strontites to be a fusible substance; for, having obtained a portion of this earth pure, from a specimen of the carbonat of strontites of Argyleshire in Scotland, I exposed it on charcoal to the flame of the com- pound blowpipe, after the manner described in my memoir above alluded to*. It became fused into a blackish semivitri- ous mass, in shape somewhat semiglobular.
In the performance of these and other experiments, I was associated with Mr. Benjamin Silliman, a gentleman of science and ingenuity, who had a short time before been elected Pro- fessor of Chemistry and Natural History, in Yale College, Con- necticut.
In the course of our operations, having occasion for large quantities of the gases, we became desirous of avoiding the inconvenience of lading water in and out of the pneumatic tub, as’ this fluid rose or fell, in consequence of the filling or emptying of large air-holders and jars. This induced us to design an apparatus wherein this evil was avoided, and in which the pneumatic tub and hydrostatic blowpipe were united. This apparatus has since been executed by Mr. Silli- man, in the laboratory of Yale College: and, as it proves to be convenient in operations requiring large quantities of the gases, I think it not improper to lay a drawing and descrip- tion of it before the society. The drawing differs a little from the original, in the arrangement of parts, where alteration is obviously advantageous.
As the apparatus to be described, is little else than an union of the hydrostatic blowpipe, and pneumatic tub, it will of
* In that memoir I ventured to distinguish this flame by the word gaseous: This appellation has been objected to, as not sufficiently distinétive—an obje@ion since rendered valid, by the discovery of the gaseous oxide of carbon, which had been confounded with hydrogen ; and also by the consideration, that it does not distinguish between the flame of the hydrogen and oxy- gen gases when perfeéily pure, and when contaminated by other substances held in a state of solution or mixture,
Certainly the term gaseous is equally applicable to the flame of the gaseous oxide, and to that of hydrogen gas; but it is equally certain that it was in direct opposition to the theory now al- most universally received, that the editors of the New-York Medical Repository, declared all flame to be essentially gaseous: for it is well known that, with an exception for the combustion of the permanently elastic fluids mentioned above, flame is not ignited gas, but ignited vapour. However, as the term was badly chosen, I have written in the place of it, flame of the com- pound blowpipe, the propriety of which will appear from an inspection of the see N by means of which the flame is supported, (See plate III. Fig. 2.)
AND VOLATILIZATION OF PLATINUM. 101
course be easily understood by every one, who is acquainted with those machines. The pneumatic tub is necessarily fa- miliar to every chemist; and for an explanation of the hy- drostatic blowpipe, I beg leave to refer to my memoir before mentioned.
There is a transparent representation of the apparatus at Fig. 1, Plate, ILI. It consists of an oblong tub A, contain- ing two chests B, C, which are open at bottom, and complete- ly air-tight every where else. One of these chests B, is dou- ble the size of the other; and is divided by the air-tight par- tition K K, into two compartments. Thus three air-cells are formed, one by the smaller chest C, and two by the larger one B. ‘These last mentioned cells communicate with the open air by means of cocks and pipes a, b, The other cell com- municates with the air by means of the cock c.—At D,E, F, three circular bellows may be observed, each furnished with a suction-pipe, and pipe of emission. The suction-pipes may be observed at de, f g, h i, severally entering their respective bellows; and the pipes of emission may be seen at k 1, m n, o p, each issuing from the bottom of the bellows to which it ap- pertains. The orifices of the pipes of emission k, m, p, under the air-cells, and those of the suction-pipes within the bellows, at e, g, 1, are furnished with valves opening upwards. The bodies of the bellows consist of hose-leather sewed water- tight, and distended by iron rings. They are nailed to the bottom of the tub, and to circular pieces of wood, which constitute the tops of the bellows. These tops are loaded with several pounds of lead, which keeps them depressed, when they are not elevated by means of the handles and rods. The table is affixed to the tub, by means of hooks and staples, so that it may be removed at pleasure.
At GHI, HI, pipes of delivery may be observed. These are furnished -with cocks at H H, and conical mouths at I I. which last, are calculated for the insertion of an adjutage, for the purposes of an ordinary blow-pipe; or for the reception of the compound blowpipe at Fig. 2.
In order to prepare this apparatus for use, let the cock of the aiz-cell behind the partition K K, be closed, and let all
Log FUSION OF STRONTITES
the rest be open. Then let as much water be poured into the tub, as will rise half an inch above the surface of the chests, and fill all the jars of the apparatus. The two air-cells whose cocks remained open, will now be filled with water, because the air had liberty to pass out of them: but the air- cell behind the partition K K, will remain empty of water, because, as its cock was closed, the air was confined, and the entrance of the water thereby prevented. The air-cell thus unoccupied by water, for the sake of distinction, I term the regulator; the propriety of which will be seen presently.
In operating with the common pneumatic tub, as the large jars and air-holders become filled with gas, it is necessary to lade out of the tub, the water displaced from them, as it would otherwise rise so high, as to overflow; and to float, and overturn the jars, no longer holding water. But in this new apparatus, this inconvenience is avoided, by al- lowing an escape of air from the regulator, adequate to the descent of water from the jars. For as this air, is necessa- rily subjected to hydrostatic pressure ; it will escape if the cock a be opened, and a proportionate quantity of water, will subside into the regulator. When the jars and _ air- holders, are again filled with water, there would be a defici- ency of this fluid, were not that which had been allowed to subside into the regulator, again expelled therefrom, by the action of the bellows at D. By the extension of these bellows, which is effected by means of their handle and rod, the valve of the pipe of emission atk, shuts; that of the suction-pipe at e, opens, and the air enters the bellows. The hand being removed from the handle, the lead on the top of the bellows depresses them; and the air within being com- pressed, shuts the valve of the suction-pipe, opens that of the pipe of emission at k, and enters the regulator, from which it expels a quantity of water equal to the bulk which the bellows gained by extension: and as all this is repeated at every stroke of the handle, it follows, that the water which had been allowed to subside into the regulator, may be quickly expelled therefrom.
AND VOLATILIZATION OF PLATINUM. 105
The air-cell formed in front of the partition K K, and that constituted by the smaller chest C, are used to contain factitious air; especially to confine sufficient quantities of the hydrogen and oxygen gases, for the production of intense heat, or the composition of water. As the contamination of hy- drogen gas with atmospheric or pure air, might be attended with dangerous consequences, the air-cell constituted by the chest C, should be employed for this gas; as its separate situation, renders it secure from this danger. In order to prepare these cells for the reception of the gases, all the atmos- pheric air should be allowed to pass out, so that they may be completely filled with water. When they are to be filled with gas, the syphons ss, annexed to the hoses tt, inserted into the suction-pipes at d h, must be passed into the jars; and the bellows E, F, must be extended. The air of the jars will be drawn into the bellows, and from thence be expelled into the air-cells, from which it will displace an equal bulk of water. But, lest the expulsion of the water from the cells should cause it to rise too high in the tub, and to overflow; a correspondent depression should be effected in the mean- fime, by the escape of air from the regulator.
Gas may also be made to pass into the cells immediately from the retort, bottle, or matrass made use of in obtaining it without the intervention of the bellows, for if an elastic fluid be geuerated in the matrass at q, it must of necessity pass thro’ the syphon inserted therein, and enter the air-cell at r.
It must be obvious, that as long as the chests are covered with water, any gases contained in the air-cells, will be subjected to hydrostatic pressure, and that of course when the cocks H H, are open, they will be propelled through the pipes of delivery, and pass out through any adjutages, inserted into their conical mouths at I, I.
If the upper parts of the chests C, D, E, F, be made of thick plank, they may be used as shelves to suppert the jars; as the thickness of the plank, will alone depress the aériform fluid contained in the cells, sufficiently below the surface of the watcr, to afford the necessary pressure. Butif from any cause, the pressure be not great enough, the chests should be depres-
104 FUSION OF STRONTITES, Ac.
sed until it becomes so; and the tub should be furnished with shelves at the usual height, to support the jars. Having sub- jected the gas in the cells to sufficient pressure, the velocity of efflux must be re ‘gulated by opening the cocks more orvless. For this sia the perforations in the keys should be narrow and oblong; so as to admit of a gradual increase, or diminu- tion, of the ocihe of gas emitted.
The compound blowpipe represented by Fig. 2, consists of two common brass blowpipes whose points are made to meet in a perforation in the conical frustum of\silver a. Now if the orifices b, c, of these pipes, be inserted imto themouths I, I, of the pipes of delivery, it is obvious, that on open- ing the cocks H, H, any gases contained in the cells from whence these pipes issue, will be forced through them by the pressure of the water in the tub, and wili meet im a point within the frustum. When the hydrogen and oxygen gases are thus made to meet, and are ignited, that intense heat is produced, by means of which I was enabled to accomplish the fusions, mentioned in a former part of this paper. But all this is fully explained in my memou, to which I have so frequentiy re- ferred, in the course of this communication.
It seems not improper to subjoin, that when the frustum of the compound blowpipe a, Fig. ¥, is inserted into a receiver, and a supply of the hydrogen and oxygen gases is supported by means of the hydrostatic blowpipe, or the apparatus described in this paper, very convenient means are atiorded of recom- posing water—an operation of so much importance to modern chemical theory, that it can never become obsolete, or un- interesting to the cultivators of science. The advantage of the method consists in this, that the gases mix in the frus- tum before they become ignited, and must enter into the re- ceiver in a state of combustion. This therefore is not depen- dent on the quantity of azot, or other noxious gas collected in the vessel; and as the burning gases may be made to enter under the pressure of a considerable column of water, the im- pure air, collected during the process, may be forced out through a tube into a mercurial apparatus; the operation may continue as long as desired, and the proceeds may be examin-
PNEUMATIC COCK, 105
ed with the greatest accuracy. Mr. Silliman in recomposing water by means of this instrument, in a manner nearly similar to that which I have pointed out, found it extremely conveni- ent and satisfactory.
No. XXI.
AN account of a Cock with two perforations, contrived to obviate the necessity of a vent-peg, in tapping air-tight casks. By Ro- bert Hare, jun.
GENTLEMEN,
CONSIDERED merely as an item added to the list of philosophical contrivances the subject of the present commu- nication. would without ‘doubt, be too unimportant to merit a place in a volume of your transactions: but I submit it with deference to the yadgment of the society, whether as an ad- dition, though a small one, to the comfort and convenience of society at large, it may not obtain a place, to which in any other light it can have no pretensions.
It is well known that an air-tight cask is usually tapped by means of two apertures, one in the upper part for the admis- sion of air, the other below for the emission of the fluid; or, in other words, by means of a vent-peg and cock. This me- thod would not be very objectionable, were the vent-peg al- ways firmly replaced ‘as soon as the admission of air becomes no longer necessary ; but this is seldom attended to, and the consequence is the frequent sourness or vapidity of vinous liquors. The quantity of liquor annually spoiled by the omis- sion of vent-pegs must be immense; and must be particularly great in those families where tapsters are too numerous to be responsible tor neglect.
To obviate these evils, arising fron the necessity of a vent- peg, I have contrived a cock. Fig. 1. Plate 1V. with two
Q
106 PNEUMATIC COCK.
perforations, A B C. D E F. which are opened or shut by turning the key, in the same manner as the single perfora- tion of the common cock. When this newly invented in- strument, which for the sake of distinction may be termed a pneumatic cock, is inserted into an air-tight cask containing a fluid, and the key properly adjusted, the air enters at the upper perforation, and the fluid passes out at the lower one, with a velocity proportionate to the depth of the delivering orifice of the cock at F, below the point C, at which the air enters the cask. It may be worthy of observation, that as long as there is a sufficient quantity of fluid in the cask, to cover the orifices C, D, of the pneumatic cock, the velocity of its efflux will be always equable, not being dependent on the height of the fluid in the cask, but invariably propor- tionate to the depth of the point F, at which the fluid is emit- ted from the cock, below the point C, at which the air enters the cask. Hence if it be desired to augment the velocity of efflux, it may be effected by encreasing the length of the nozzle F.—For if a line be supposed to be drawn from the ori- fice C of the upper perforation, to the surface G of the fluid in the cask, and another be imagined to be let fall from the sur- face of the fluid, to D the orifice of the lower perforation, and from thence to be extended through the lower perforation to the nozzle of the cock at F, these lines may be considered as marking out the courses of two unequal columns of the fluid acting on each other as if contained within the legs of a syphon. Consequently the shorter column will be displaced by the longer one, with a velocity proportionate to the excess of the perpendicular depth of the latter, which is obviously the same with the perpendicular depth of the nozzle F, below C, the point at which the air enters the cask. But the velocity with which the-longer column G, D, E, F, displaces the shorter column C, G, or with which it enables the air to dis- place it, and with which it is itself thereby enabled to descend through the lower perforation to the point of emission, must evidently be the same with the velocity of efflux. Of course this last must be in proportion, to the excess of the perpendicu- lar depth of the longer column, which is the same with the depth of F, below C,
PNEUMATIC COCK. 107
The cock is of a bended form, that the key may be situated below the receiving orifice D, so that on opening the cock, the fluid may run into the nozzle with sufficient rapidity to fill its full bore; which is essential to the principle of the instru- ment. For the same reason the bore of the nozzle tapers a little from the key at E, towards the orifice at F.
As the fixed air generated within air-tight casks containing vinous liquors; sometimes more than counteracts the pressure of the atmosphere, and forces these fluids through every aperture which may be made for them; it is in such cases necessary while the cock remains open, to close the orifice A, of the up- per perforation with the thumb, which may be done with great facility, while the fingers are employed in holding the key.
That the structure of the cock may be compleatly under- stood, Fig. 2, affords a separate view of the key, and of those parts of the upper and lower perforations, which lie within it.
Fig. 3, is a representation of a cock executed in wood, on the same principle with that above described. The dotted lines A B C, D E F, represents the tracks of the upper and lower perforations, of which the latter comes out through the key. This is made unusually long in order to depress the de- livering orifice, and thereby increase the velocity of efflux. The lower perforation is considerably inclined below the hori- zontal line, in order that on opening the cock the fluid may run into the key with rapidity sufficient to fill the bore full.
This as before observed being essential to the action of the pneumatic cock, Fig. 4, isa separate view of the wooden key, with the parts: of the perforations which lie within it.
108 NEW SPECIES OF
(eee
No. XXII.
Some account of a New Species of North American Lizard. By Dr, Barton.
Read, April 15th, 1803.
THE species of Lizard of which I propose to give the Philosophical Society some account, and of which I have the satisfaction of showing them not only a good drawing but also. a living specimen, was found at the distance of a few miles from the city of Philadelphia, about eight weeks ago. It is six inches and eight tenths of an inch in length from the end of the nose to the extremity of the tail. The nose is very blunt, the head forming nearly an oval. The whole body is re- markably smooth, somewhat glutinous to the touch, and of a dirty purplish colour, a good deal similar to that of our fox- grape. The whole under side of the body, the legs, the tail, &c. is of a livid purplish colour, and very abundantly besprink- led over with blueish white spots of different sizes, but all of them very minute. The upper part of the body is beauti- fully marked with a number of spots of a fine yellow colour. These spots are very irregularly distributed over the animal. The most anterior of them are adjacent to the right eye. There are no corresponding spots in the immediate vicinity of the left eye. Some of the spots are nearly round, others are irre- gularly oval. They are entirely confined to the upper part and to the sides of the body of the animal, including the legs. The largest of these spots is about the eighth of an inch in diameter.
A very minute description of the animal does not seem ne- cessary, as the drawing in Plate IV. Fig. 6. will convey a much better idea of it than the most finished description. In addition to what I have already said, I shall therefore only observe, that the mouth is very large, being more than half the length of the head; that the legs and feet are very small for the bulk of the animal; that the fore-feet are furnished with four toes, and the
NORTH AMERICAN LIZARD. 109
hind feet with five toes; all of which are unarmed or destitute of nails. The toes are marked transversely with blackish lines. The tail is not round, but considerably compressed sideways.
This species of lizard is unnoticed by Linnzeus, Gmelin, La Cépede, Shaw, or any other of the later writers (so far as I know) on the class of amphibia. It may, from merely attend- ing to the description, be mistaken for the Lacerta punctata of Linneus, from which, however, it differs in several essential respects. ‘The genera!-ground colour of the two animals is very different: that of the punctata is brown (corpus fuscum, ) while that of this lacerta is a dirty purple or violet. The throat, the sides and the belly of the punctata are of a dull yellow, while the underside of this lacerta are a livid purplish. If these were the only differences, I should not urge the difference of species, for colour is known to be a very variable feature of ani- mals, though I believe not xemarkably so in the tribe of lizards. The two animals are spotted, but the spots of the lacerta punc- tata are white: those of this species a fine yellow. It would appear from Catesby’s figure and description of the lacerta punctata, that the spots of this species are confined to the back and tail; there being a double row upon the back and a single one upon the tail. In my lacerta, the yellow spots are found upon the head and legs as well as upon the back and tail, and they are very irregularly distributed. Catesby makes no men- tion of any small ash-coloured spots, of which there is a great number upon the belly and sides of my lacerta. Lastly, the tail of the lacerta punctata is round (cauda teres), whereas the tail of the animal which L describe is manifestly compressed. Upon the whole, I do not hesitate to conclude, that the lacerta punctata and my lacerta are two distinct species. Believing this to be the case, I should be glad to be able to give an appropriate specific name to thenew species. Icannot, at present, think of a better than one derived from the prevailing colour of the animal, a colour inclining to violetor purplish. I beg leave, therefore, to name it Lacerta subviolacea, and would thus describe it for the benefit of systematic writers, who often prefer a short des- cription (ever liable, where the species of a family are nume- _ rous, to mislead) to one more minute and extensive :
110 NEW SPECIES OF
Lacerta subviolacea: cauda compressa, mediocri; corpore subviolaceo, glabro, viscido, poroso; maculis flavis cinereisque vario; palmis tetradactylis, plantis pentadactylis, omnibus mu- ticis.
The Lacerta subviolacea belongs to that section of the fami- ly of lizards, which are designated by the name of Salaman- ders (Salamandre*.) Its natural position in the system will be near to the Lacerta Salamandra, to which, in several respects, it is closely allied. Like that species, it emits trom different parts of its body, but particularly from the upper part of its ‘tail, a milk-like fluid, which escapes from the animal in globules or drops of different sizes. This fluid is extremely glutinous, or adhesive. It does not seem to be of a gummous nature, for it is insoluble in water, but appears to be rapidly dissolved by alcohol. The emission of this fluid seems to be a voluntary act; for when it is irritated, the animal discharges it in large quantities.
I was desirous of knowing the effects of this fluid upon the system. With this view, I have made a few experiments, which are as yet too incomplete to be fully depended upon. The following experiments, however, have been made with care. Having pressed out from the tail of the animal, a small por- tion of the white fluid, I applied it to my tongue. It com- municated almost instantaneously, the impression of a powerful astringent, but was succeeded, in a very short time, by a sense of causticity, and a taste very similar to that of the muriate of mercury, or corrosive sublimate. This last impression, notwith- standing repeated washings of the mouth, remained upon the tongue the greater part of a day. It occasioned a plentiful discharge of saliva from the mouth. Some of my pupils and other gentlemen repeated the experiment, and with simi- dar effects.
The peculiar taste, and particularly the salivation, occasioned by this North-American lizard, induce me to believe, that there is more foundation than many physicians have imagined, for the reports of the Spanish and other physicians, concerning
®«* Salamandre, corpore nudo, pedibus muticis, palmis tetradactylis,” Gmelin.
NORTH AMERICAN LIZARD. 111
the salivating property of certain species of lizards, and for believing, that such lizards, eaten raw, as they are directed to be, may have been found really useful, in the treatment of siphylis, and other diseases. On this curious subject, in addi- tion to what is to be met with in different foreign publications, I received some interesting information from my learned and amiable friend, the late Mr. Jultus Von Rohr, when he was in Philadelphia, in the year 1793. The facts communicated to me by that gentleman, have left me no room to doubt, that the uncooked flesh of some species of lizards in South- America and in the West-Indies, induce a genuine salivation, of some continuance, and which has been found beneficial in lepra, and other diseases, particularly those of a cutaneous nature. -
Tam sorry, that my account of this species of lizard is thus ne- cessarily defective. Though the animal has been in my pos- session for several weeks, I have not been able to make many observations of consequence concerning it. It appears to be an harmless animal, unless, which is highly probable, it may sometimes prove injurious by emitting the white fluid which I have mentioned. Though it has been much irritated by me, it has never shown a disposition to bite. It seems extremely unwilling to meet the light or heat of the day. When it is removed from the wet moss, in which I have kept it, it soon betakes itself to the same habitation, and nearly conceals itself by drawing the moss about it. I am not certain, that it has eaten any thing since it came into my possession. I have, however, repeatedly given it worms and other animals. I believe it to be a water lizard, as it is so fond of affecting the wet moss. Besides, when I put it into a bason of water, it swarm with great rapidity and ease.
I weighed this animal at different times. On the 24th of March, I found the weight to be 342 grains. In somewhat less than an hour after, it weighed only 324 grains, having lost eighteen grains. It had been recently taken out of the water. Its greatest weight wasthat which I have first montioned*., Tt is a well-ascertained fact, however, that the weight of many
* Or five drams, and forty-two grains,
112 NEW SPECIES OF LIZARD.
of the amphibia, particularly the frogs and lizards, is very various at different times, even in the course of the same day or hour. This difference of weight is often entirely indepen- dent on any aliment, whether solid or fluid, being taken into the stomach, and must be ascribed to the absorption of water.
Philadelphia, April15th, 1803.
| a
POSTSCRIPT.
I believe all the smaller species of lizards, as well those which have a rougher, as those with a smoother skin, shed their coats annually. I think every species sheds its skin at least once every year. Perhaps, some species cast their coats twice a year, and some facts lead me to believe, that different individuals of the same species vary not a little in this respect. The same irregularity is observable in the rattle-snake (Crotalus horridus), as I know from my own-observations.
After the preceeding paper ‘was read to the Society, I had an opportunity of marking the progress of the desquamation or shedding of the skin of the lacerta subviolacea. On the 27th of April, it was first observed, that this process had com- menced. The first appearance of the change was on the tail. At 12 0’clock, the skin began to loosen on the side of the thorax. At 4 o0’clock it extended from -the thorax to the tail, where it had commenced.
28th. This morning, the skin entirely peeled off the tail and the abdomen, and was scattered about in shrivelled por- tions. At 40’clock in-the afternoon, the skin of the feet was drawn off entire, having the appearance of a glove.
29th. This morning, the animal had entirely lost its skin.
eee | I have now reason to believe, that the lizard never ate any
thing during the whole of the time it continued in my pos- session.
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No. XXIII
Continuation of Astronomical Observations, made at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania. In a letter from Andrew Ellicott, Esq. to R. Patterson.
Read O&. 7th, 1803.
Lancaster O&. 1st, 1803. DEAR SIR,
I now forward a continuation of my astronomical obser- vations, made at this place: they would have been more nu- merous had the weather permitted. The season has been re- markably unfavourable for such pursuits.
The results of the observations on the solar eclipse of the 21st of February, the occultations the 30th of March, 27th of May, and 23d of September last, I have not as yet had time to make out:—the duties of my office admitting of but little leisure for scientific enquiries.—But to the obser- vations.
Feb. 21st, 1803. Observations on the beginning of a solar eclipse.
The day was cloudy till about half an hour before the be- ginning of the eclipse; on which account I had made no preparations to observe it—A few minutes before the time cal- culated for the beginning, I directed the telescope to the sun; the lower limb was very tremulous, and indented in many places by a waving, serpentine motion, which will frequently be observed when the sun is near the horizon :—these indents, combined with other causes, produced an uncertainty of a: few seconds, (though probably not more than 10 or 12) in the beginning, which I observed at 5" 4’ 57” mean time, or 4° 50! 57" apparent time.
B
114 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
23d. Took the pendulum with the wooden rod from m clock, and substituted a grid-iron one, which I had that day completed.
March Ist. Immersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, ob- served at 8" 31’ 13” mean time, or 8? 18/ 31” apparent time. -The planet tremulous, and the belts indistinct: —magnifying power 100. At 9 o’clock in the evening the thermometer stood at 6°.
11th. Immersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 10" 43’ 35” mean time, or 10" 35’ 18" apparent time:—night remarkably fine:—magnifying power 100.
19th. Immersion of the $d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9" 18’ 39” mean time, or 9" 10! 38” apparent time.—The evening hazy; on -which account, I think, that at least 30” ought to be added to the observed time of the immersion; which I shall therefore do in comparing the result of this observation with those of the other satellites:—magnifying power 100.
29th. Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 7° 48! 16” mean time, or 7" 434 18” apparent time:—the planet and satellites well defined, and very steady :—magni- tying power 100.
30th. Observations on the occultation of * 2 by the moon.
hé da Lan paea?
aes Fh aa ee c 8 20 29 . . Emersion at 9 45 14 ¢ mean time, or $5 40 36 ¢ #Pparent time.
The above time of the emersion may possibly be 5 or 6 seconds too late;—not having my attention directed to the pre- cise spot where the moon’s limb left the star; but, when I discovered it, the light of the star and the moon’s limb appear- ed to be nearly in contact. It is however to be observed, that when the emersions happen on the moon’s enlightened limb, the observations may generally be considered doubtful, a few seconds*,
* Lorsque la lune a passé l’opposition, sa partie orientale est éclaireé, sa partie occidentale est
obscure ; ainsi les immersions se font dans la partie éclaireé, et les émersions se font dans la partie obsure ; ¢’ est-a-dire, 4 gauche, dans une lunette astronomique—Je crois que ce sont la les seules.
MADE AT LANCASTER. 115
Apr il 5th. Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 10" 23! 29" mean time, or 10" 20! 41” apparent time:— night very clear and the belts distinct:—magnifying power 100.
9th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9" 9' 59" mean time, or 9° 8! 20" apparent time:—night clear, and belts distinct:—magnifying power 100.
22d. Immersion of the 4th satellite of Jupiter, observed at 12h 41“ 19” mean time, or 12° 42’ 54” apparent time. At the time this observation was made, the night was very. serene and clear:—four belts were distinctly defined on the body of the planet: —magnifying power 100.
Emersion of the above satellite was observed at 145 52! 34! mean time, or 142 54/ 10” apparent time.—The night had become a little hazy, and the belts were scarcely discernable. —The satellite appeared for a few seconds, and then became in- visible for more than a minute. From the state of the atmos- phere, and the slow manner in which the satellite acquired its light, owing to its oblique way through the shadow of Jupiter, it is my opinion, that at least 2 minutes should be deducted from the observed time of the emersion; which deduction I shall accordingly use in making out the result of the observa- tion.
May 2d. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9 21’ 34” mean time, or 95 24/ 46” apparent time:— night clear, and belts distinct:—magnifying power 100,
9th. Emersion of the 4th satellite of Jupiter, observed at Sn 39! 28” mean time, or 84 43! 17” apparent time.—The planet and satellites were well defined, and the observation one of the most satisfactory I have made at this place :—magnify- ing power 100.
Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 11h 15/ 46” mean time, or 11° 19! 35” apparent time. This eve- ning I began to pay attention to the decrease of Saturn’s
ring.
émersions dont on puisse étre bien assuré; car quand I’ etoile sort de la partie é claireé dela lune, sa lumiere, trop foible par rapport a celle de la lune, ne se distingue pas facilement au premier in-
stant del émersion. Astronomie parla Lande art. 1990.
116 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
11th. Saturn’s ring well defined; the ansz are evidently di- minishing :—two satellites visible.
14th. Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 125 41/ 54” mean time, or 12h 45’ 52" apparent time :—night clear:—magnifying power 100.
16th. Saturn’s ring well defined:—the ansz not perceptibly diminished since the 11th.
27th. Occultation of a star, supposed to be ¢ Leonis (%) observed at 8* 17 53" mean time, or 8" 21‘ 10” apparent time. t
Saturn’s ring well defined :—the ansz decreasing, and appear more luminous towards their extremities than near the body of Jupiter: two satellites very distinct.
June 6th. The night very clear and fine; Saturn’s ring was particularly attended to: the ansz appeared more luminous and sparkling toward their extremities, than near the body of the planet:—three satellites were visible.
9th. Saturn’s ring yet visible :—the ansze were distinct during the twilight, but faint afterwards.
13th. Immersion of the 3d satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9h 7! 56” mean time, or 94 8! 25" apparent time:—the planet and satellites tolerably distinct:—magnifying power 100.
15th. Saturn’s ring decreasing: the ansz were scarcely de- scernable after the end of twilight.
17th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, observed at 9b 45’ 43” mean time, or 9" 45’ 21” apparent time.—The night clear, and the planet and satellites well defined: —mag- nifying power 100.
Saturn’s ring very faint:—the ansz were invisible after the end of twilight.
18th. Saturn’s ring more faint than last evening: the ansz disappeared before the end of twilight.
21st. Saturn’s ring almost invisible:—the ansz would fre- quently disappear for whole minutes, and then become visible for a few minutes more.
22d. The ring of Saturn has almost disappeared: the western’ ansa only visible, and that for but a few seconds at a time.
MADE AT LANCASTER. 117
23d. The ring of Saturn invisible, though I looked for it with both telescopes* during the twilight, and half an hour after. By the theory of Mr. Sejour, the disappearance of the ring ought to have taken place on the 28th-+; and, perhaps, with better telescopes, that would have been the case; for much depends upon the goodness of those instruments, and the state of the atmosphere at the time of making the obscr- vations. —With Mr. Herschel’s large telescope there is no real disappearance. It is likewise possible, that the difference be- tween the disappearance as resulting from the theory, and ob- servation, may, in part, be owing to asmall retrogade motion in the nodes of the ring.
Sept. 23d. The moon occulted a star at 8° 45’ 51” mean time, or 8" 51! 28” apparent time. The star is in the con- stellation of Sagittarius (g), and supposed to be the one num- bered 712 in Mayer's catalogue:—it is of the 6th magnitude: the star appeared to remain well defined 4 or 5 seconds on the moon’s limb, but the disappearance was instantaneous.
I shall now, after a preliminary observation, proceed to state the results of the foregoing observations on the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, as deduced both from Mr. Delambre’s tables, and the British nautical almanac.—As a standard of comparison I shall consider the correct longitude of Lancas- ter to be 55 5’ 4” west, from the observatory at Greenwich; and which I am persuaded will not be found many seconds erroneous}.
‘Long. by Delambre’s tables. Long. by the naut, almanac. ee fei, evened, 1803, March 1st. Immer. Ist sat, Joe) SOR Ges, OME Sastre hare as has SES 58 TOO reat a he Ue eal ICR Baal LOO/PLEAt ane Neekin se lat oie 54 Ath glmmersodisats wp SOPATAG) pie goh stan fry aes yeti 5 6 28 too'small...... Sir i Wy Bes tOOwEreAts\e-w-ieer ee Oe
* One of thema Reflector with a magnifying power of 300.
+ Essai sur les phénomenes relatifs aux disparitions périodiques de l’ anneau de Saturn. Par M. Dionis Du Scour. Pages 165 & 166,
} Nore, Agreeably to the tables of Mr. Delambre, the longitude of Lancaster, by a mean of the five observations on the eclipses of the 1st satellite of Jupiter, appears to be 5h 5’ 10” west from Greenwich ; which exceeds the assumed standard 6”:—And if a mean of all the determina- tions, agreeably to the same tables, be taken collectively, the longitude will be 5h 5/ 4! west from Greenwich, which agrees exactly with the assumed standard.
118 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS h/ hat 19th. Immer. Sd sat. CPO 28S Gach Ul Cece Jovem ee nanan coh cae ys 5 13 55 too great.©. 07 ou ABees| tes TOOIETE Ren eneileiee sous ako ob 29th. Emer. 2d sat. By es ech ate een ong ee cae 5 5 42 COO, Preaty lr eieee oie IN helene Loolpredta. vate rode hel sts ons 38 April Sth. Emer. 2d sat. SWE 2 dine Oity cs Rac udetrenot ses odie 5 5 40 LOO Pecat woes ene es Ey elit 8 foopreats ies eye eet ee hey see 36 9th. Emer. 1st sat. DLOLE Aumot eae: odel uty owen leaner Matar deans 5 5 40 toovexeat.| ern. =) ES Fs 6b KOOMP TEAL Peller as teks Lond, «/ieiim © 36 22d, Immer. 4th sat*. pik PAA. Ce owns Be Op 6 eaoNCpOnCucy ouaue 4 44 30 too small. sik SOs ativay ade.” COO SSE AM Lar cheese ed iat rota 20 34 do. Emer. do, cagA GI ast eate! steBi-thegl of fh «igs ail atoll 516755, too small. . . By Rae Tes icp ROO} PEC Es iar) cele te ara Lb yea! May 2d. Emer. Ist sat, Chea) ore at Sea Cd oto 'e Gio 553 tadismall: <<... 9. OP yas elie LOOSETCAt ae fore whe see nati 3 9th. Emer. 4th sat. SR ORCOM Ss) een ad laike tel ea taitaa med ed eel ta 5 11 23 too great. Le 2 ey Seon gs COO(RTCAL Ps. ate Nove siete 6 19 do. 1st sat, DLO MLOMMemee Met cmaw of ae stt dFeys fer stem tay 564 * toojeteate:! satel UUs pal LOGIE TER ey ae toh ates 10 14th. Emer. 2d sat. te Darin Ir ase pop sea a hous Don 0, oe 553 too great... . =. BY Sa ee too great... 6. ee. we 34 June 13th. Immer. Sd sat. ea Mares PEAS « SisS Pa > ok. these ae ry ey en f too small....:.. 2427 SS Sues 0 LO hAnc! Kaen ott, one 7 37 17th. Emer. 1st sat. DRI sie Wotan Ls (qe eS die tide bidhe 5 5 58 tOolpteAteet) = cy suet oD] Patel TCO Teak Me taredtelcan aa Panis 54
On the 23d of February the pendulum with a wooden rod was taken from the clock and replaced by a grid-iron one; but, owing to the unfavourable situation of the clock, I did
not expect to derive any material advantage from the change;
in this however I have been agreeably disappointed; the ex- treme variations from the mean rate of going for the whole year, will not amount to 2 seconds, notwithstanding the con-
* The theory of the 4th satellite of Jupiter is a subject of peculiar nicety, and has required great labour to bring it to.its present degree of perfection; for which-we are principally indebted to the genius, and industry of Mr. Delambre. An error so small in the inclination of the orbit of this planet, or in the place of the nodes, as to be scarcely distinguished from the unavoidable errors of observation, when the satellite passes through the center of Jupiter’s shadow, will become very considerable as itis leaving it at either pole ; because, those errors increase nearly in the ratio of _ the squares of the satellite’s distances from the center of the shadow. From the immersion, and emersion of April 22d, to which this note refers, it appears, that the inclination of the orbit of this satellite, is either stated too small in the theory used by the computers of the British nautical alma- nac, oris subject te changes not yet introduced into these tables.
MADE AT LANCASTER. 119
stant jaring of the building by the shutting of the doors be- longing to it. I am, Sir, with great esteem, your friend and humble servant, ANDREW ELLICOTT.
Mr. Robert Patterson, V._P. of the A; P. S.
No. XXIV.
Observations and Experiments relating to equivocal, or spontaneous, Generation. By J. Priestley, L. L. D. F. R. S.
Read, Noy. 18th, 1803.
THERE is nothing in modern philosophy that appears to me so extraordinary, as the revival of what has long been con- sidered as the exploded doctrine of egivocal, or, as Dr. Darwin calls it, spontaneous generation* ; by which is meant the produc- tion of organized bodies from substances that have no organi- zation, as plants and animals from no pre-existing germs of the same kinds, plants without seeds, and animals without sexual intercourse.
The germ of an organized body, the seed of a plant, or the embrio of an animal, in its first discoverable state, is now
* Thus the tall oak, the giant of the wood,
Which bears Britannia’s thunders on the flood;
The whale, unmeasured monster of the main,
The lordly lion, monarch of the plain,
The eagle soaring in the realms of air,
Whose eye undazzled drinks the solar glare,
Imperious man, who rules the bestial crowd,
Of language, reason, and reflection proud, -
With brow erect who scorns this earthly sod,
And styles himself the image of his God;
Arose from rudiments of form and sense;
An embrion point, or microscopic ens!!! Temple of Nature.
120 ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION.
found to be the future plant or animal in miniature, contain- ing every thing essential to it when full grown, only requiring to have the several organs enlarged, and the interstices filled with extraneous eaieges matter. When the external form undergoes the greatest change, as from’an aquatic insect to a flying gnat, a caterpillar to a crysualis, a crysalis toa butterfly, or a tadpole to a frog, there is nothing mew in the organization; all the parts of the enat,, the butterfly, and the frog, having really existed, though not appearing to the common observer in the forms in which they are first seen. In like manner, every thing essential to the oak is found in the acorn.
It is now, however, maintained that bodies as exquisitely organized as any that we are acquainted with (for this is true of the smallest insect,- as well ‘as of the largest-animal) arise, without the interposition of a creative power, from substances that have no organization at all, from mere bruce matter—earth, water, or mucilage, in a certain degree of heat.. Sometimes the term organic particles is made use of, as the origin of the plants and animals that are said to be produced this way; but as it is without meaning, the germs of those specific plants and animals which are said to come from them, and a great variety of these organized bodies are said to arise from the same organic particles, the case is not materially different. Still, compleiely organized bodies, of specific kinds, are maintain- ed to be produced trom substances that could not have any na- tural connexion with them, or particular relation to them. And this I assert is nothing less than the production of an effect without any adequate cause. If the organic particle, from which an oak is produced be not precisely an acorn, the production of it from any thing else is as much a miracle, and out of the course of nature, asif it had come from a bean, or a pea, or absolutely from nothing at all; and if miracles be denied, (as they are, I believe, by all the advocates for this doctrine of equivocal generation,) these plants and animals, completely organized as they are found to be, as well adopted to their destined places and uses in the general system as the largest plants and animals, have no intelligent cause whatever, which is unquestionably atheism, For if one part of the sys-
>?
ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. 121
tem of nature does not require an intelligent cause, neither does any other part, or the whole.
As Dr. Darwin presses my observations on the green matter, on which I formerly made some experiments, as producing dephlogisticated air by the influence of light, into the service of his hypothesis; I have this last summer given some attention to them, and have diversified them with that view; and from these it will appear that they are far from serving his purpose; since none of this green matter, which he does not doubt ,to be a vegetable, though of the smallest kind, is produced in any water, though ever so proper for it, unless its surface has been more or less exposed to the atmosphere, from. which, consequently, the invisible seeds of this vegetable may come.
He says (Temple of Nature, notes p. 4.) “ not only mi- “ croscopic animals appear to be produced by a spontaneous «« vital process, and these quickly improve by solitary genera- «‘ tion, like the buds of trees, or like the polypus and aphis, « but there is one vegetable body. which appears to be produ- « ced by a spontancous vital process, and is believed to be « propagated and enlarged in so short a time by solitary gene- “ ration, as to become ‘Visible to the naked eye. I mean the «« ereen vegetable matter first attended to by Dr. Priestley, and « called by him conferva fontinals. The proots that this material “« is a vegetable are from its giving up so much oxygen when exposed to the sun shine, as it grows in water, and from its “ green colour.”
“ D. Ingenhouz asserts that by filling a bottle with well- water, and inverting it immediately into a bason of well- «‘ water, this green vegetable is formed in great quantity; and he believes that the water itself, or some substance con- tained in the water, is converted into this kind of vegetation which then quickly propagates itself.”
« Mr. Girtanner asserts that this green vegetable matter is “* not produced by water and heat alone, but requires the sun’s light tor this purpose, as he observed by many experiments, and thinks it arises from decomposing water deprived of “<a part of its oxygen; and he laughs at Dr. Priestley for be-
« lieving that the seeds of this conferva, and the parents of
S)
122 ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION,
“ microscopic animals, exist universally in the atmosphere, and « penetrate the sides of glass jars.” Philosophical Magazine for May 1800.
He further says, p. 9, “‘The green vegetable matter of Dr.. «« Priestley, which is universally produced in stagnant water, « and the mucor, or mouldiness, which is seen on the surface “ of all putrid vegetable and animal matter, have probably no parents, but a spontaneous origin from the congress of the decomposing organic articles, and afterwards propagate «< themselves.””
Let us now compare this language with that of mature in my experiments. On the first of July I placed in the open air several vessels containing pump-water, two of them covered with olive oil, one in a phial with a ground glass stopper,. one with a loose tin cover, and the rest with the surface of the water exposed to the atmosphere; and having found (as may be seen in the account of my former experiments on this green matter) that it was produced with the great- est facility, and in the greatest abundance, when a small quantity of vegetable matter, especially thin slices of raw pota- toes, was put into the water, I put equal quantities, viz. twenty grains of potatoe, into each of the larger vessels and ten into. each of the smaller. Into two very large decanters, the mouths of which were narrow, I put fifty grains of the same, one of them, having oil on its surface, and the other none. At the same time having filled a large phial with the same water, I inverted it in a vessel of mercury.
In about a week the wide mouthed open vessel began to have green matter, and the large decanter with the narrow mouth had the same appearance in three weeks. On the first of August the vessel which had a loose tin cover, coming about half an inch below its edge, had a slight tinge of green, and on the first of September the phial with the ground glass stopper (but which, appeared by some of the water escaping, not to fit exactly) began to have green matter. But none of the vessels that were covered with oil, or that which had its mouth inverted in mercury, had any green matter at all on the 12th of September; when, having waited as I thought long enough, I put an end to the experiment.
ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. 123
Here we see that the wider was the mouth of the vessel, the sooner did the green matter appear in it; but that in time the germ (or whatever it may be called that produced it) found its way through thesmallest apertures, and were ascended into the vessel with the tin cover before it could descend into it ; but that when all access to the water was precluded by a cover- ing of oil, or a quantity of mercury, no green matter was produced. These experiments, therefore, are far from fa- vouring the doctrine of spontaneous generation, but are per- fectly agreeable to the supposition that the seeds of this small vegetable float in the air, and insinuate themselves into water of a kind proper for their growth, through the smallest aper- tures.
Among the experimental facts, as Dr. Darwin calls them, in the support of his hypothesis, he says, p. 3. “that one or “« more of four persons, whom he names, put some boiling ** veal broth into a phial previously heated in the fire, and “* sealing it up hermetically, or with wax, observed it to be “* replete with animalcules in three or four days.” But he should have said which of these four persons made the expe- fiment, and have referred to the passage in their writings in which it is mentioned. Otherwise no judgment can be formed of its accuracy. And why did not the Doctor repeat the ex- periment himself, since it is so easily done ? Besides, we know that even the heat of boiling water will not destroy some kinds of insects, and probably much less the eggs, or embryo’s, of them.
He adds (ib.) that “ to suppose the eggs of former micro- *€ scopic animais to float in the atmosphere, and pass through *« the sealed glass phial, is so contrary to apparent nature, as “* to be totally incredible.” But who does, or would suppose this. That various animalcules, as well as the seeds of various plants, invisible to us, do float in the atmosphere, is unques- tionable; but that they pass through glass I never heard betore, though in a preceeding paragraph it 1s ascribed to myself. He adds, “ as the latter are viviparous, it is equally absurd to sup- «* pose that their parents float universally in the atmosphere, to « lay their young in paste, or vinegar.” To me, however,
124 ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION,
this does not appear to be at all zmpossible ; and it is observation of facts, and not conjecture, that must determine the question of probability.
“ Some other fungi” he says p. 9. “ as those growing in close wine vaults, or others which arise from decaying trees, ** or rotten timber, may perhaps be owing to a similar sponta- “* neous production, and not previously exist as pertect or ganic “ beings in the juices of the wood, as some have supposed. “« Inthe same manner it would seem that the common escu- « Jent mushroom is produced from horse dung at any time, and in any place, as is the common practice of many gar- “ deners.” This requires no particular answer. Decaying trees &c. may afford a proper nidus for the seeds of vegetables that are invisible to us; and that any of them previously exist in the juices of the tree, was I believe, never supposed. The horse dung also may afford a proper nidus for the seeds of the mushroom. Besides these are only random observations, and the facts have never been investigated in an accurate philoso- phical manner.
It is said by many, that the different kinds of worms which are found in animal bodies have their origin there, and from no worms of the same kinds, but from the unorganized mat- ter of which our food consists. But according to later obser- vations, most of these very worms have been found out of the body, and therefore there is nothing improbable in the suppo- sition of the seminal matter from which they came having been conveyed into the body in the food, &c. and if some of them have been found out of the body, the rest may in time be found out of it also. It is, besides, unworthy of philoso- phers to draw important conclusions from mere ignorance.
Having recited these facts, and supposed facts, 1 shall con- sider distinctly all that Dr. Darwin has advanced by way of argument in defence of the system that he has espoused.
He supposes, what no person will deny, that “ dead orga- “ nic matter, or that which had contributed to the growth of “ vegetable and animal bodies, may by chemical attra caine, « in the organs of plants and animals, contribute to the nou- “ rishment of other plants and animals.” But he adds, p. 6.
ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. 125
« the same particles of organic matter may form spontancous microscopic animals, or microscopic vegetables, by chemi- cal dissolutions, and new combinations of organic matter, “« in watery fluids with sufficient moisture.”
But these microscopic vegetables and animals, there is every
reason to think, have as complete and exquisite an organic structure as the larger plants and animals, and have as evident marks of design in their organization, and therefore could not have been formed by any decomposition or composition of such dead matter, whether called organic or not, without the interposition of an intelligent author. Besides, these microsco- pic vegetables and animals are infinitely various, and therefore could never arise from the same dead materials, in the same circumstances, by the mere application of warmth and mois- ture. Each of these vegetables and animals must, according to the analogy of nature, have proceeded from an organized germ, containing all the necessary parts of the future plant or animal, as well as the largest trees and animals, though their minuteness elude our search, and though the manner in which their seeds or germs are conveyed from place to place be unknown to us. But the attention that is given to this subject by ingenious naturalists is continually dis- covering a greater analogy between these microscopic vege- tables, and animals and those of the largest kinds. This ar- gument from the production of minute plants and animals has no force but from our ignorance. *« It is as difficult,” he says, p. 7. ‘* to understand the at- traction of the parts of coutchouk, and other kinds of at- traction, as the spontaneous production of a fibre from de- composing animal or vegetable substances, which contracts in a similar manner, and this constitutes the primordia of “ life.” But admitting that the power by which a fibre con- tracts to be not more difficult to comprehend than other con- tractions, and that fibres are the primordia of life, whence comes the regular arrangement of these fibres, and the various system of vessels formed by them, for the purposes of nutrition, the propagation of the species, &c. in the complex structure of these minute animals. There is nothing like that in the coutchouk, or any other substance that is not an animal.
126 ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION.
Microscopic vegetables and animals remaining without any visible sign of life months and years is no proof that they were capable of deriving their origin from dead unorganized matter. While their organization is not destroyed, the motions which indicate life may be restored by proper degrees of heat and moisture; but this is not materially different from the case of frogs and other animals, which discover no sign of lite, a great part of the winter, and revive with the warmth of spring.
That any thing composing an animal or vegetable should, after affording nutriment to other animals, attain some kind of organization, or even vitality, may be admitted; because the digestive powers of animals may not be able to destroy their organization, or vitality. But if it remain uninjured, and be afterwards revived, it cannot be any thing besides the very same organization that it had before. So birds teed upon seeds, which yet retain so much of their org:nization, and life, as to be able to produce the plants from which they came, but never any of a different kind. Beyond this no analogy in Nature Can Carry us.
“ These microscopic organic bodies,” he says, p. 8. “ are ** multiplied and enlarged by solitary re-production, without “ sexual intercourse, till they acquire greater perfection, or new properties. Liewenhook observed in rain-water which had stood a few days, the smallest scarcely visible animal- cules and in a few days more he observed others eight times as large.” But this proves nothmg more than an in- crease in bulk, and no change of a small animal into a larger of a different kind, which the argument requires. If it was the same animal that assumed a new form, in a more advanced state, it is no more than the case of a tadpole and a frog, or a caterpillar and butterfly. That several insects are multiplied without sexual intercourse is no proof of spontaneous generation. Plants are several ways produced without seeds; and according to Dr. Darwin’s observations, this mode of animal re-production has its limits. For that after a certain number of such gene- rations the last discover the properties of sex, and then produce others by sexual intercourse, so that it is probable, that if at
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ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. 127
that time they could be kept from sexual intercourse the re- production would cease.
Dr. Darwin, and all other advocates for spontaneous gene- ration, speaks of some animals as simple and others as complete, some as wnperfect and others as perfect; whereas, as far as we can discover, all animals, even the most minute that have been examined, appear to be as perfect, and to have a structure as wonderfully complicated, as the largest, though on account of their minuteness, we cannot det them to so much ad- vantage. Their organs are equally adapted to their situations and occasions; and Pwhat is more, they have as great a degree of intelligence (which they discover by the methods of seeking ’ their fad avoiding, or contending with their enemies) as the largest animals: besides, it is never pretended that any large species of animals, though called imperfect, as crabs and oysters, &c. are ever produced by spontaneous generation.
The larger kinds of the more perfect animals Dr, Darwin
does not pretend to have ever been “ produced immediately * in this mode of spontancous generation ;” but he supposes, what is even more improbable, viz. that “ vegetables and ani- “ mals improve by re-production; so that spontaneous vitality “ (p. 1.) is only to be looked for in the simplest organic be- ings, as im the smallest miscroscopic animalcules, which per- petually perhaps however enlarge themselves by re-produc- “ tion; and that the larger and more complicated animals “« have acquired their present perfection .by succesive genera- tions, during an uncounted series of ages.” By this he ae have meant to insinuate, for it is not clearly expressed (perhaps to avoid the ridicule of it) that lions, horses, and others, which he considers as more complicated animals, though they are not more so than flies and other insects, may have arisen from animals of different kinds, in the lowest state of or ganization, in fact, that they were once nothing more than microscopic animalcules.
But this is far trom being analogous to any thing that we observe in the course of nature. We see no plants or animals, though ever so simple, growing to more than a certain size, and producing their like, and never any others organized in a
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128 ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION.
different manner. Is it at all probable that lions, horses or ele- phants, were ever any other than they now are? Were the
originally microscopic? And if they come to be what they now are by successive generations, why does not the change and improvement go on? Do we ever see any small animal be- come a larger of a different kind? Do any mice become rats, rats become dogs, or wolves, wasps become hornets, &c. and yet this is precisely the analogy that the hypothesis requires.
In order to obviate the prejudice against this doctrine of - spontaneous production, as favouring atheism, Dr. Darwin says of the objectors, p. 1. “ They do not recollect that “God created all things which exist, and that these have «« been from the beginning in-a perpetual state of improve- ““ ment, which appears from the globe itself, as well as from « the animals and vegetables which possess it. And lastly, « that there is more dignity in our idea of the Supreme «* Author of all things, when we conceive Him to be the “cause of causes, than the cause simply of the events which we see, if there can be any difference in infinity of << power.” ;
The Supreme Being is, no doubt, the cause of all causes; but these causes have a regular connexion, which we are able to trace; and if any thing be produced in any different man- ner, we say it is not according to the course of nature, but a miracle. The world is, no doubt, in a state of improvement; but notwithstanding this, we see no change in the vegetable or animal systems, nor does the history of the most remote times favour the hypothesis. The plants and animals descri- bed in the book of Job are the same that they are now, and so are the dogs, asses, and lions &c. of Homer.
Vegetables and animals do not by any improvement, natural or artificial, change into one another, or into vegetables and animals of other species. It is, therefore, contrary to analogy, or the established course of nature, that they should db ae If miracles; which imply an omnipotent and designing power (and which to the generality of mankind are the most stri- king proofs of the existence of such a power, and a power distinct from the visible parts of nature, the laws of which
66
ON EQUIVOCAL GENERATION. 129
it counteracts) be denied, all changes that take place contrary to the observed analogy of nature must be events without a cause; and if one such event can take place, any others might, and consequently the whole system might have had no supe- rior designing cause; and if there be any such thing as atheism, this is certainly it.
Dr. Darwin speaks of his organic particles as possessed of certain appetencies, or powers of attraction. But whence came these powers, or any others, such as those of electricity, mag- netism, &c.? These powers discover as much wisdom, by their adaptation to each other, and their use in the general system, as the organic bodies which he supposes them to form ; so that the supposition of these powers, which must have been impart- ed ab extra, only removes the difficulty he wishes to get quit of one step farther, and there it is left in as much force as ever. There are still marks of design, and therefore the necessity of a designing cause.
No. XXV.
Observations on the Discovery of Nitre, in common Salt, which had been frequently mized with Snow, in a Letter to Dr. Wistar, from J, Priestley, L. L. D. FL RS.
Read, December 2, 1803. DEAR SIR,
WHEN I had the pleasure of seeing you at Northumber- land, I mentioned a fact which I had just observed, but which appeared to me so extraordinary, that I wished you not to speak of it till I had more completely ascertained it. It was the conversion of a quantity of common salt into nitre. But having seen, in the last AZedical Repository, an observation of Dr. Mitchell’s, which throws some light upon it, I think it best upon the whole to acquaint experimentalists in general with all that I know of the matter; that, as the experiments must be made in the winter, they may take advantage of that which is now approaching.
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130 NITRE DISCOVERED IN
In the winter of 1799 I made those experiments on the production of air from the freezing of water, an account of which is published in the 5th Vol. of the Transactions of the Philo- sophical Society of Philadelphia, p. 36; And having made use of the same salt, mixed with snow, in every experiment, always evaporating the mixture till the salt was recovered dry, I collected the salt when I had done with it, and putit into a glass bottle, with a label expressing what it was, and what use had been made of it.
This quantity of common salt having been frequently dis- solved, and evaporated in an iron vessel, remained till the 26th of last October; when, having occasion to make a large quan- tity of marine acid, and this salt appearing to be of little value, I put to it an equal weight of acid of vitriol and about twice the quantity of water, and began the distillation in the usual way. But I was soon surprized to observe that red vapours rose from it, first filling the retort, and then the adopter, &c. and when the process was finished, returning to the retort, ex- actly as in the process for making spirit of nitre.
Not doubting, from this appearance, but that the produce was the nitrous acid (though having used much water, the acid was of course weak, and nearly colourless) I immediately dissolved copper in it, and found that it yielded as pure nitrous air as any that I had ever procured in the same way.
Examining the salt separately, I observed that when it was thrown upon hot coals, whether those portions of it that were white, or those that were brown from a mixture of the calx of iron, it burned exactly like nitre; so that from this appear- ance, I should have concluded that it had been wholly so. But that it contained some marine salt, and that the acid pro- cured from it had a mixture of the marine acid, could not well be doubted ; and this appeared to be the case both by the acid becoming turbid by a mixture of the solution of silver in nitrous acid, and by its dissolving gold with the application of heat, so that it wasa weak aqua regia.
This conversion of common salt into nitre appeared so ex- traordinary, that I first thought there must have been some mistake in the dabel, though few persons I believe are more
COMMON SALT MIXED WITH SNOW. 131
careful in that respect than myself. But I never had any ni- tre of that appearance, and least of all any that had in it a mixture of common salt; so that I could not doubt but that this was the same salt that I had used before for the pur- pose above mentioned. ‘That this change must have come from the snow with which it had been dissolved, could not be doubted; and therefore I resolved to repeat the experiment with the next that should fall, but seeing that Dr. Mitchell had procured an acid from hail stones, 1 was instantly deter- mined to excite other persons to repeat the experiment as well as myself, having now more confidence in my own,
What was the acid that Dr. Mitchell procured he did not ascertain, mine was unquestionably the nitrous, and it must have displaced that of the common salt by a superior affinity to its base. This acid must be exceedingly volatile; for I could not produce the same effect by repeated solutions and evaporations of the same kind of salt in snow water of long standing, a quantity of which I have always had, to use occasionally in- stead of distilled water.
The manner in which nitrous acid may be formed in the atmosphere is easily explained on my hypothesis of the com- position of thatacid; since I have always procured it by the de-composition of dephlogisticated and inflammable air, to- gether with a small mixture of marine acid (which must there- fore be formed from some of the same elements) as Mr. Cav- endish procured it by the de-composition of dephlogisticated air, both of us using electric sparks.
Now it is probable that, although most kinds of air, even those that have no chemical affinity, will remain diffused through each other, without any sensible separation, after be- ing mixed together, yet in the upper regions of the atmos- phere, above that of the winds, there may be a redundancy of inflammable air, which 1s so much lighter than any other kind of air, as Mr. Kirwan and others suppose, and that there is a proportion of dephlogisticated air, in the same region can- not be doubted. In this region there are many electrical ap- pearances, as the aurora borealis, falling stars, &c. and in the lower parts of it thunder and lightening; and by these means,
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the two kinds of air may be de-composed, and a highly de- phlogisticated nitrous acid, as mine always was, procured.— This, being formed, will, of course attach itself to any snow or hail that may be forming in the same region at the same time, and by this means We brought down eo the earth; con- firming, in this unexpected manner, the vulgar opinion of nitre being contained in snow. Wishing that a fact of so ex- traordinary a nature, and which has probably more import- ant consequences that I can foresee, may be farther investi- gated by your presenting this communication to the Philoso- phical Society. Iam, Dear Sir,
Your’s sincerely, &c.
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY.
Northumberland, Nov. 2ist, 1803.
Dr. C. Wistar, one of the Ve IP. of the “Al PAS,
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No. XXVI.
A Letter on the supposed Fortifications of the Western Country, from Bishop Madison of Virginia to Dr. Barton.
Read Dec. 16th, 1803. DEAR SIR,
HAVING lately visited that beautiful river, the Kanha- wa, and aconsiderable part of the country, within its neigh- bourhood, an opportunity was afforded of examining with at- tention some of those remarkable phzenomena, which there present themselves, and which have been so much the subject of conversation, and of literary discussion. ‘To remove error of whatever kind, is, in effect, to promote the progress of intelligence; with this view, I will endeavour to prove to you, that my journey has enabled me to strike one, at least, trom
THE WESTERN COUNTRY. uss
that long catalogue, which so often tortures human mge- nuity.
You have often heard of those remarkable fortifications with which the western country abounds; and you know also, how much it has puzzled some of our literati, who sup- posed themscives, no doubt, most profound in historical, geo- graphical and philosophical lore, to give a satisfactory account of such surprising monuments of military labour and art. Some have called to their aid the bold and indefatigable Ferdinand Soto; others, the fabulous Welch Prince of the 12th, century; and all have made a thousand conjectures, as lifeless as either Soto, or the Prince. Had _ they first examined into the fact, and endeavoured to settle this most essential pre-requisite, they would soon have seen, that the inquiry might be very easily terminated; and, that what had so greatly excited the admira- tion of tie curious, existed only in their own imaginations. No one was more impressed, than myself with the general opinion, that there did exist regular and extensive fortifications, of great antiquity, in many parts of that vast country, which is watered by the various tributary streams of the Ohio, and the Mississippi. The first specimen which I beheld, was examined with an are dent curiosity, and with a full conviction, that it was the work of a people, skilled in the means of military defence. The appearance is imposing; the mind seems to acquiesce in the current opinion, and more disposed to join in a fruitless admi- ration, than to question ‘he reality of those fortifications. But, as my observations were extended, and new specimens daily presented themselves, the delusion vanished; I became con- vinced, that those works were not fortifications, and never had the smallest relation to military defence. The reasons upon which this conviction, so contrary to that which has been generally received, was founded, I shall now submit to your consideration. Only, let me first observe, that those supposed fortifications differ as to area and form. Some are found upon the banks of rivers, presenting a semi-ellipse, the greater axis running along the banks: others are nearly circular, re- mote from water, and small; their diameters seldom exceedin forty or filty yards, .The first of these species is the largest;,
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their longer axis, at a mean rate, may be estimated at 250 yards; their shorter, at 200 or 220. It is said, and I believe upon good authority, that some have been found large enough to comprehend 50 acres, and even more. Some are also reported to be square; but I did not see any of that form. I shall confine myself to those which I have seen, and which are to be met with in the low grounds of the rivers Kanhawa, Elk, and Guyandot, or their adjacent uplands; though I am persuaded, the conclusion which I undertake to establish will be applicable to all those works, which have been dignified with the appellation of fortifications, in whatever part of the western country they may be found; since, from the informa- tion which I have obtained, there are certain striking features in which they all agree, and which indicate one common origin and destination.
1. Those works were not designed for fortifications, because many of them have the ditch within the enclosure, and be- cause, the earth thrown up, or the supposed parapet, wants the elevation necessary for a defensive work. — Both these cir- cumstances occur, without exception, so far as my observa- tions went, in all those which present an entire, or nearly a regular circle. The imaginary breast-work induces a belief, that it never exceeded four or five feet in height. At present, the bank seldom rises more than three feet above the plain; and it is well known, that in ground which does not wash, a bank of earth, thrown up in usual way, will lose very little of its height, in a century, or twenty centuries; one fourth for depression would be more than a sufficient allowance. But, we will not rest our argument upon what may, perhaps, be deemed a disputable point. The ditch, even at this day, af- fords, a certain criterion by which me may judge of the origi- nal elevation of the bank. Its width seldom exceeds four feet, at its margin; its depth is little more than two feet. Such a ditch, making every allowance for the operation of those causes, which tend continually to diminish its depth, whilst some of them are at the same time, increasing its width, could not have yeilded more earth, than would form a bank of the elevation mentioned, If the width, now, be not greater than
THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 135
that ascribed, we may be assured, that, originally it was a very trifling fosse. But you will naturally ask; are there not some found which present a different aspect, and which evidence more laborious efforis? no, on the contrary, it is remarkable, that the kind of which I am now writing have as constant a similarity to each other, as those rude edifices, or cabins, which our first settlers rear. The description of one will an- swer for all; there is no anomaly, except, now and then, in the diameter of the circle; and here, the variation will only amount to a few yards.
Permit me now to ask, whether the military art does not necessarily require, that the ditch should be erteror; and, whe- ther, among any people advanced to such a degree of im- provement in the arts, as to attempt defensive works by throw- ing up earth, a single instance can be adduced in which the ditch has not an exterior position. Again, can we believe, that a work, having a bank or a ditch, not higher or deeper than I have mentioned, could be intended as a fortification? The moment which gave birth to the idea of a defensive work would also shew, that it must, in its execution, be rendered adequate to the end contemplated. It is scarcely worth while to go back to Livy or Polybius, upon this occasion. But they both inform us, “ that the Romans, in the early period of their wartare, dug trenches, which were, at least, eight feet broad by six deep; that they were often twelve feet in breadth; some- times, fifteen or twenty; that, of the earth dug out of the fosse, and thrown up on the side of the camp, they formed the parapet, or breast-work; and to make it more firm, mingled with it turf, cut in a certain size and form. Upon the brow of the parapet, palisades were also planted, firmly fixed and close- ly connected.” The form of the fortification was always square. System appears to have been the tutelar Deity of the Romans. They always proceeded upon one plan. As to the form, indeed there appears to be no reason why that should not vary, not only among different nations; but with the same nation, as different situations might require. The Greeks generally preferred the round figure; but with them, the nature of places decided the question as to form, In
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other respects, the decision must be made according to fixed and unalterable principles. The same reasons which determi- ned every particular as to height, depth, and position of the earth thrown up, among the Romans, would equally deter- mine the conduct of any other nation. What defence requi- red; what would oppose a sufficient obstacle to human agility, was the point to be decided; and this point would be decided in nearly the same manner by every people unacquainted with gun-powder. The decision would not admit of such fosses and parapets as we find dispersed over the western country. Man in this new world, has lost no portion of his former agi- lity. '
2dly. Because, near to most of these imaginary fortifica- tions and I think I may say, near to every one, which is formed upon the plan first mentioned, in a direct line with the gate- way, you will find a mound, of an easy ascent, and from 10 to 20 feet in height. These mounds effectually command the - whole enclosure. There is not a missil weapon, which would not, from the height and distance of the mound, fall within the fortification; nor would they fall in vain. But, to rear a fortification, and then build acastle or mound without, at the distance of 40 or 50 yards, which would give to an enemy the entire command of such a Fortification, would be as lit- tle recommended by an Esquimaux, as by a Bonaparte. The truth is, no such blunder has been committed ; there is no such discordancy of means to be here found. On the contrary, we may trace a perfect harmony of parts. Those mounds are, universally cemeteries. Wherever they have been opened, we find human bones, and Indian relicks. They have grown up gradually, as death robbed a family of its relatives, ora tribe of its warriors. Alternate strata of bones and earth, mingled with stones and Indian relicks, establish this position. And hence it is, that we find near the summit of those mounds articles of European manufacture, such as the tomahawk and knite; but never are they seen at any depthin the mound. Besides, it is well known, that among many of the Indian tribes, the bones of the deceased are annually collected and deposited in one place; that funeral rites are then solemnized with the warmest
THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 137
expressions of love and friendship; and that this untutored race urged by the feelings of nature, consign to the bosom of the earth, along with the remains of chev deceased relatives and friends, food, weapons of war, and often those articles which they possessed and most highly valued, when alive. This cu- stom has reared beyond doubt, those numerous mounds. Thus instead of having any relation to military arrangements, or in- volving the absurdity before mentioned, they furnish, on the contrary, strong evidence, that the enclosures themselves were not destined for defensive works; because, reared asthese mounds have been by small, but successive annual increments, they plainly evince that the enclosures, which are so near to them, have been, not the temporary stations of a retiring or weaken- ed army, but the fixed habitation of a family, and a long line of descendants.
That these mounds, or repositories of the dead, sometimes also, called barrows, were formed by deposition of bones and earth, at different periods, is now rendered certain by the per- fect examination to which one of them, situated on the Rivanna, was subjected by the author of the Notes on Virginia. His pe- netrating genius seldom touches a subject without throwing upon it new light; upon this he has shown all that can be de- sired. The manner in which the barrow was opened, afford- ed an opportunity of viewing its interior with accuracy. “ Ap- pearances, says he, certainly indicate that it has derived both origin and growth from the accustomary collection of bones, and deposition of them together; that the first collection had been deposited on the common surface of the earth, a few stones put over it and then a covering of earth; that the second had been laid on this, had covered more or less of it in propor- tion to the number of bones, and was then also covered with earth, and soon. The following are the particular circumstances which give it this aspect. 1. ‘The number of bones. 2. Their confused position. 3. Their being in different strata. 4. The strata in one part having no correspondence with those in another.
The different states of decay in these strata, which seem to in- dicate a difference in the time of inhumation. 6. The existence ofinfant bones among them.” p.178. First Paris Ed. The
U
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number of bones in this barrow, or mound, which was only 40 feet in diameter at the base, and above 12 in height, au- thorized the conjecture that it contained a thousand skeletons. Now, as all those numerous mounds, or barrows have the most obvious similarity, we may conclude, that what is true of one of them, is, ceteris paribus, applicable to all. The only differ- ence consists in:their dimensions. I visited one, situated on the low grounds of the Kanhawa, which might be almost cal- led the pyramid of the west. Its base measured 140 yards in circumterence; its altitude is very nearly 40 feet. It resem- bles a truncated cone; upon the top there isa jevel of 12 or 13 feet in diameter. A tall oak, of two feet and a half in diame- ter, which had grown on the top, and had long looked down upon the humbler forresters below, had experienced a revoluti- onary breeze, which swept it from its majestic station, appa- rently, above 6 or 7 years before my visit. Within a few miles of this, stands another, which is said to be higher. No marks of excavation, near the mound, are to be seen. On the con- trary, it is probable, from the examination which was made, that the earth composing the mound was brought from some distance; it is also highly probable, that this was done at differ- ent periods, for we cannot believe, that savages would submit to the patient exertion of labour requisite to accomplish such a work, at any one undertaking. Near to this large one are several upon a much smaller scale. But, if that upon the Rivanna, which was so accurately examined, contained the bones of a thousand persons, this upon the Kanhawa would contain forty times that number, estimating their capacities as cones. But who will believe, that war has ever been glutted with so many Indian victims by any one battle? The probability seems to be, that those mounds, formed upon so large a scale, were national burying places; especially as they are not connected with any particular enclosure; whilst those upon a smaller scale, and which are immediately connected with such a work, were the repositories of those, who had there once enjoyed a fixed habi- tation. But whether this conjecture be admitted or not, the in- ference, from what has been said under this head, that those enclosures could not be designed as fortifications, will, I think, be obvious to every one.
THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 139
Sdly. Because those supposed fortifications, not unfrequent- ly lie at the very bottom of a hill, from which stones might be rolled in thousands into every part of them, to the no small annoyance, we may readily conceive, of the besieged.
4thly. Because, in those works which are remote from a river, or a creek, you find no certain indications of a well; and
et that water is a very necessary article to a besieged army, will be acknowledged on all hands.
5thly. Because those works are so numerous, that, supposing them to be fortifications, we must believe every inch of that very extensive country in which they are tound had been most va- liantly and obstinately disputed. For, upon the Kanhawa, to the extent of 80 or an 100 miles, and also upon many of the rivers which empty their waters into it, there is scarcely a square mile in which you will not meet with several. Indeed they are as thick, and as irregularly dispersed, as you have seen the habitations of farmers, or planters, in a rich and well settled country, but, notwithstanding their frequency, you no where see such advantageous positions selected, as the nature of the ground, and other circumstances would immediately have recommend- ed to the rudest engineer, either for the purpose of opposing inroads, or of giving protection to an army which was too weak to withstand an invading enemy. The union of Elk and Kan- hawa rivers affords a point of defence which could not have escaped the attention of any people; and yet we find no forti- fication at this place, but many dispersed through the low grounds in its vicinity.
I could add many other reasons; I might observe that some are upon so small a scale, whilst others are upon one so large, as equally to oppose the idea of their being places of defence. If one of 40 or 50 yards in diameter should be deemed too small for a defensive work, what shall we say to that whose outline embraces 50, or even an 100 acres?) What tribe of Indians would furnish men sufficient to defend such a breast- work in all its points? But I believe the reasons assigned, when collectively taken, will be deemed conclusive; or, as abun- dantly establishing a perfect conviction, that these western en- closures were not designed for fortifications, This was my ob-
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ject. What was the real design of them may be left to future inquiry. It is true, that we want here a compass to guide us, and are left to find our way through this night of time, in the best manner we can. I have already said, that those enclo- sures carried along with them strong evidence of their being fixed habitations. If so, then they were designed merely as lines of demarkation, shewing the particular spot, or portion of ground, which a family wished to appropriate; and indeed, they may be considered as exemplars of the manner in which land limits would be ascertained, previous to that period, when geometry begins to point out a mode more worthy of intelligent beings. Thisrude mode might, ina sequel of years, have intro- duced a geometry among the Aborigines of America. Though they had not a Nile to obliterate land marks, still the desire of saving labour would produce in one case, what anxiety to pre- serve property did in the other. If the same mode has not been continued, it has arisen from the means, which Euro- pean or American art has supplied, of accomplishing the same end with much more facility.
The people inhabiting this country must have been nume- rous. The frequency of their burying places is a proof. The traveller finds them in every direction, and often, many in every mile. Under a mild climate, a people will always mul- tiply in proportion to the quantity of food, which they can procure. Here, the waters contain fish in considerable abun- dance, some weighing not lessthan 60 or 80 pounds. Not far distant are those extensive and fertile plains, which were crowded with wild animals. The mildness of the climate is also remarkable. It appears to equal that of Richmond or Williamsburg; though the huge range of mountains which attend the Allegheny have not yet disappeared, and though the latitude of the place where Elk and Kanhawa rivers meet, according to an observation which I made with an imperfect instrument, is 38° ¥!. All these circumstances were highly favorable to population; and also to permanent residence. Another circumstance, the face of the country, or locality, would serve to prevent this increase of population from diffusing itself on every side, and consequently would condense a tribe:
THE WESTERN COUNTRY. 141
for the Kanhawa and its tributary streams are hemmed in by high and craggy hills, often approaching to mountains, and beyond which, to a considerable extent, the country in general is fit only for the habitation of wild beasts. ‘
It is true, that on the N. W. side of the Ohio, there are works, which seem to claim higher pretensions, to the rank as- signed them. ‘They present more elevated parapets, deeper ditches, with other indications of military art. Perhaps, how- ever, when more accurately examined, in all their aspects, they will be found to be only the habitation of a chief of some powerful tribe. The love of distinction prevails with no less force in the savage, than the civilized breast. M‘Kinzie, in his unadorned narratives, mentions frequently the habitation of the chief or king, as much larger, and even as commodi- ous, when compared with those of inferior rank. In latitudes so high as those which he traversed with heroic perseverance, necessity compelled the savage to contrive more warm and durable habitations; but the same principle which would give marks of distinction to the residence of the chiettain in one climate, would produce the same effect in any other, though they might assume different appearances. Besides, it might not be improper to recollect in an examination of those works, that the French began to build forts in the Miamis, and Illinois country, as early as the year 1680; and that they were after- wards systematically continued until the loss of Canada.
I cannot conclude this letter, already, I fear, too long, with- out mentioning another curious specimen of Indian labour, and of their progress in one of the arts. This specimen is found within four miles of the place whose latitude I endea- voured to take, and within two of what are improperly called Burning Springs, upon a rock of hard freestone, which lies slo- ping to the south, touching the margin of the river, and pre- sents a flat surface of above 12 feet in length and 9 in breadth, with a plane side to the east uf 8 or 9 feet in thickness.
Upon the upper surface of this rock, and also upon the side, we see the outlines of several figures, cut without relief, ex- cept in one instance, and somewhat larger than the life. The depth of the outline may be half an inch; its width three
142 SUPPOSED FORTIFICATIONS, &c.
quarters, nearly, in some places. In one line ascending from the part of the rock nearest the river, there is a Tortoise; a spread Eagle, executed with great expression, particularly the head, to which is given a shallow relief; and a child, the outline of which is very well drawn. In a parallel line, there are other figures; but among them that of a woman only can be traced. These are very indistinct. Upon the side of the rock, there are two awkward figures, which particularly caught my attention. One is that of a man, with his arms uplifted, and hands spread out, as if engaged in prayer. His head is made to terminate in a point; or rather, he has the appear- ance of something upon the head, of a triangular or conical form: near to him is another similar figure, suspended by a cord fastened to his heels. I recollected the story, which Fa- ther Hennepin relates of one of the missionaries from Canada who was treated in a somewhat similar manner; but whether this piece of seemingly historical sculpture has reference to such an event, can be only matter of conjecture. A Turkey badly executed, with a few other figures may also be seen. The labour and the perseverance requisite to cut those rude figures in a rock so hard, that steel appeared to make but lit- tle impression upon it, must have been great; much more so, than making of enclosures in a loose and fertile soil.
Yours, &c.
JAMES MADISON. B. S. Barton, M. D. one of the V."P. of the Ai P.'S.
fin -v UASa wh ——— No. XXVII.
Supplement to the account of the Dipus Americanus, nthe IV. Vol. of the Transactions of the Society. See No. XII.
Read Dec. 16th, 1803.
IN the 4th volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, I have given an account of a new species of Dipus, or Jerboa. When that paper was presented to the society, I was not able to say, with absolute confidence, though I thought it highly probable, that the animal which I described was one of the lethargic species of Glires, or those species which pass the winter-season in a torpid state. I have now completely satisfied myself, that the Dipus Americanus does go into the torpid state, in the neighbourhood of Phila- delphia. '
In the month of August, 1796, one of these little animals was brought to me from the vicinity of this city. It was put into a large glass jar, where I was so fortunate as to preserve it for near four months. Though it made many efforts to escape from its confinement, it seemed, upon the whole, pretty well reconciled to it. It continued active, and both ate and drank abundantly. I fed it upon bread, the grain of Indian corn (Zea Mays), and the berries of the Prinos verticillatus, sometimes called black-alder.
On or about the 22d, of November, it passed into the tor- pid state. It is curious to. observe, that at the time it became torpid, the weather was unusually mild for the season of the year, and moreover the animal was kept in a warm room, in which there was a large fire the greater part of the day and night. I sometimes roused it from its torpid state; at other times it came spontaneously out of it. During the intervals of its waking, it both ate and drank. It was frequently most active, while the weather was extremely cold in December: but when I placed the jar upon a thick cake of ice, in the
144 ON THE TORPIDITY OF JERBOAS.
open air, its movements or activity seemed wholy directed to the making of a comfortable habitation out of the hay with which I supplied it. It was sufficiently evident, however, that the cold was not the only cause of its torpid state. It was finally killed by the application of too greata degree of heat to it, whilst in its torpor.
During its torpor, it commonly laid with its head between its hind legs, with the claws or feet of these closely applied to the head. Its respiration could always be perceived, but was very slow.
The fact of the torpidity of this little animal is known to the gardeners and others near the city. They call it the *‘ seven-sleepers,” and assert, that it is frequently found in the earth, at the lower extremity of the horse-radish, and other perpendicular roots. Does it use these as a measure of the distance to which it shall go in the earth, to avoid the influence of the frost?
I have said, that the Dipus Americanus becomes torpid in the neighbourhood of this city. But this, I believe, is not always the case. During the winter-season, this little animal and another species, which I call Dipus mellivorus, take pos- session of the hives of bees, in which they form for themselves, a warm and comfortable habitation, having ingeniously scoop- ed away some wax. The materials of its nest are fine dry grass, down or feathers, and old rags. It lives upon the ho- ney, and seems to grow very fat upon it. I believe two indi- viduals, a male and a female, commonly inhabit one hive. They sometimes devour the greater part of the honey of a hive.
The circumstance just mentioned is not altogether uninter- esting. It plainly proves what I have, Jong since, asserted, that the torpid state of animals is altogether “ an accidental — circumstance,” and by no means constitutes a specific charac- ter. The same species becomes torpid in one country and not in another. Nay, different individuals of the same species be- come torpid, or continue awake, in the same neighbourhood, and even on the same farm.
BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON.
[ Ms J
————————
No. XXVIII.
Hints on the Etymology of certain English words, and on their affinity to words in the languages of different European, Asiatic, and American (Indian) nations, in a letter from Dr. Barton to Dr. Thomas Beddoes.
Read O&. 21st, 1803. DEAR SIR,
YOU were pleased to observe, that you take much interest in my inquiries concerning Indian dialects. It is partly on this account, but much more from the attention which it is well known you have devoted to the subject of etymology and language, that I trouble you with this letter.
In the course of my inquiries into the languages of the Americans, I have discovered many instances of affinity be- tween the words of Asiatic and American nations, and those of the English. These affinities are sometimes very striking. Of themselves, they have, I think, some value: but when they are taken in connection with innumerable other facts, they seem to establish this important point, which I have not a doubt will, ultimately, be the opinion of all philosophers, either that all the existing nations of the earth are specifically the same, or (for I do not positively contend, with Blumenbach and Camper, that all mankind constitute but one species), that the ancestors of all the present races of men, were once much more intimately associated together than they are at present.
In adducing the words (or rather a small portion of them) to which I have alluded, I do not deem it necessary to be very methodical. I shall distribute them inte three heads, viz. nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
SEcTION I.
1. Tinder. “ Any thing eminently inflammable placed to catch fire.” Dr. Johnson derives this word from the Saxon. x
146 ON THE ETYMOLOGY, &c.
In the language of the Irish, Zvmne, and in the Erse of Scot- land, Tene, is fire. The Welsh, the Cornwallians, and the people of Little-Brittany, call it Zan. These are all of the Celtic stock. Other Celts of the old world call it Ten, and Dar. Several of the North-American tribes unite the two last mentioned words into one. Thus the Delawares, or Lenne- Lennape, call fire, Tendeu, Tindey, Tindai, Tacnda, and Twen- daigh: the Pampticoughs, Zinda, and the Sankikani (as early as 1633) Tinteywe-—In the language of the Nanticokes (a North-American tribe), Tind is fire. This is precisely the English verb, to kindle, to set on fire. ¢
2, Peat or Turf. Of this well known substance, so. com- mon in the northern parts of the old and new world, where it is used as fuel, Johnson has not attempted to give us the de- rivation. But I find, that the Naudowessies, or Sioux-Indians, of North-America, call fire Peta.
N. B. The language of this great tribe abounds in Finnic words.
3. Morass, a fen, bog, or moor. According to Johnson, from the French Marais. Perhaps, however, this word may be better traced to the Permian word for the sea, AZorae, or to the Gipsey-word Moros, the sea.
4. Map, a geographical picture. From Mappa, Low-Latin. Johnson. Several of the Asiatic tribes call the earth, A/a. Such are the Permians, above mentioned, different tribes of Vogoulitchi, or Vouguls, who inhabit the Oural-mountains. The Gipsey name (or rather one of their names) is Poo, or Pu. Does it not seem, that the Latin Mappa and the English map, are composed of the Aa and the Poo, which I have mention- ed? But what is remarkable, the Chilese of South-America actually call the earth Mapu.
5, Walley, a low ground, a hollow between hills. Vallee, French; Vallis, WLatin-—The Kartalini, one of the nations of Mount-Caucasus, call a valley, Velee: the Miamis, of North- America, Walaich-kach-ki-kai.
6. Star. One of the luminous bodies of the heavens. The Persian and Bucharian word is Stara: the Aganske, Sturee. The Osetti call it Stela, which is very similar to the Latin.
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH WORDS. 147
7. Cascade, a cataract, awater-fall. From the French Cas- cade, and the Italian, Cascata.—In_ the language ef the Chee- rakee-Indians of North-America, rain is Kasca.
8. Storm, a tempest. This word scems properly enough re- ferred to the Welsh, the Saxon, the Dutch, and the Italian. In the language of the Tchiochonski, Finlanders, or Original Finns, inhabiting the borders of the Gulph of Finland, the word is Sterma.—It may be worth observing in this place, that the Tchiochonski also call a storm, Sea, which may have some relation to the English word Sea.
9. Pond, asmall pool or lake of water. Supposed to be the same as pound, Saxon, to shut up.” Johnson. Paane is water in the language of the people of Bengal and Decan.
10. Cot, Cottage. From the Saxon and the Welsh. In the language of the Carelians and the Olonetzi, two Finnic nati- ons, Kodee isa house: in that of the Laplanders, Kote; in that of the Esthonians, Aodda, and in the dialects of three tribes: of Ostiaks, Aat, or Kaut.
11. Door, the gate of a house. From the Saxon, Dora, and the Erse, Dorris. Johnson. In the language of the Celts of Little-Britany, and in that of the Welsh, it is Dor. In the Persian and Bucharian, Dar, or Daur.
12. Court, a pallace, hall or chamber, &c. Cour, French,
’ Koert, Dutch; Curtis, Low Latin. Johnson. In the dialects of the Zhiryané and the Permians, it is Karta. Both these nations are evidently of the Finnic stock.
13. Kennel, a cot for dogs. Chenil, French. Johnson. In the language of the Albanians, residing in Dalmatia, and in some of the islands of the Greek-Archepelago, Ken is a dog.
14. Puppy; a whelp. Poupee, French. Johnson. In the language of the Kottowi, a nation living on the Jenisea in Siberia, Pup is a child. Papoos and Pappooz are the words for a child, in the dialects of the Piankashaws and Narragan- setts of North-America.
15. Cat, a quadruped. Katz, Teuton. Chat, French. Johnson. Why not the Saxon? at. Kéto, ina dialect of the Lesghis. Avafe in that of one of the Vougul tribes. Katoo inthe Armenianand Immeretian. Kee(a and Xata in the lan-
148° ON THE ETYMOLOGY, &Xc.:
guage of the Kartalini. Kot in that.of a tribe of the Toungu- sians. Other affinities might be pointed out.
16. Cur, a dog. From the Dutch Korre. Johnson. The Tchiochonski and. the Carelians call a dog, Koeera, and the Olonetzi, another Finnic tribe, Aoeero: the Cheerake-Indians, Keera.
17. Nap, slumber, a short sleep. From the Saxon to sleep. Johnson. Naap is sleep in the language of the Ingushevtzi and Tooschetti, who dwell on Mount-Caucasus.. Nippa-loo in the language of the Sawannoo, or Shawnese. In the language of the Nanticokes, another American tribe, Nép-paan is to sleep.
18. Mucus, snot, &c. Evidently from the Latin Mucus. But in the language of the inhabitants of Tamul, A/ooka, and in that of the Varugdsians MJookoo* is the nose. The Mala- bar word is Moko.
19, Pen, a quill, or feather. This is most naturally refer- red to the Latin, Penna. <A tribe of .Ostiaks call it Poon. I cannot help observing, in this place, that a tribe of Koriaks, and the Tchouktchi or Tchuktschi, call a bird Galla. I need not remind you of the affinity of this word to the Latin Gallus, and Galla.
20. Egg. Johnson refers this to the Saxon and the Erse, It isremarkable, that the Lumpocolli, living between the rivers Jenisea and Obe, call an egg, Eg!
21. Custard, akind of sweetmeat. From-the Welsh, Cws- turd. Johnson. ‘The Katahba, or Catauba Indians:of North- America, call bread Koostauh and Coostaw. It is a fact, that there are many Celtic words in the language of this (now al- most extinct) American tribe. They call the earth Janno and Mannooh (evidently Celtic), which may, perhaps, serve to illus- trate a passage in the Germania of Tacitus. ‘ Celebrant (Ger- mani) ‘¢ carminibus antiquis (quod unum apud illos memorize «et annalium genus est) Jwstonem deum terra editum, et fili- “um Mannum, originem gentis conditoresque. Manno tris fi- “ lios assignant,” &c. &c.>- Tuetsch or Tuets is the earth in the dialect of three tribes of Semoyads. Twe is the Chilese word),
* This is a Malabar dialect.
+ C. Cornelii Taciti de Situ, Moribus, et Populis Germaniz Libellus,
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH WORDS. 149
292. Salt. Gothick, Saxon, Latin, French. This word, with inconsiderable variation, is preserved among many nations of the old world. Thus, the Tchiochonski call it, Soola, Sola, and Sudla: the Esthonians, Sool: the Olonetzi, Soloo: the Per- mians and a tribe of the Ostiaks, Sod: the Morduini and the Mokshan, Sal: a tribe of the Vouguls, Sal. One tribe of the Semoyads call it See.
25. Mattock, a kind of toothed instrument to pull up weeds. Matiuk, Saxon. Johnson. In the language of the Mahic- cans, a North-American tribe, Matook, Aetooque, and Mah- tahhun signify wood. <Jditic, Metic, MMeteek are either trees or wood in the dialect of the Chippewas. The Algonkin words are the same.
24, Harrow, an instrument of agriculture. Charrowe, French, and Harcke, a rake, German. Johnson. It is easy to make a much nearer approach to the original of the word than the great English Lexicographer has made. This instrument is called Hara in the language of the Tchiochonski, and Harau in that of the Cornwallians.
25. Mall, a kind of beater or: hammer, a stroke or blow. Malleus, Latin. Johnson.. A/al is one of the words for an axe in the language of the Laplanders.
26. Cade, a barrel. Cadus, Latin. Johnson.—Johnson: seems not to have known, that the Celtic word is Kad*. This is also the name in the language of one tribe of the Vouguls; and in Hebrew.-
27. Canister, a small basket, &c. Canistrum, Latin. John- son.—The Seneca-Indians of North-America call a cup, Ka- nista,
28. Pear, afruit. Poire, French, Pyrum, Latin. Johnson. In the Hebrew, Peree, and in the Syrian, Peero, is truit.
29. Oak, atree. Ac, Ac, Saxon.—Johnson. I am quite contented with this; but I must observe that the Lumpocolli. (the very tribe who have the English word Egg) call this tree, Oksi, or Ok. Oaks is the name of the Elm among the Tus- caroras and Oneidas.
30. Bark, the rind or covering of a tree. Barck, Danish, Johnson.—Barka is one of the Gipsey words.
* Cad is any kind of liquor in the Cornish language. Borlase.
150 ON THE ETYMOLOGY, Ac.
31. Book, a volume. Boc, Saxon, “supposed from bec, a beach, because they wrote on beechen boards; as liber, in Latin, from the rind of a tree.” Johnson. In the language of the Curdi, or people of Curdistan,- Pak, is the leaf of a tree. We find this word among the Americans. Thus, the Delaware name for a leaf (folium) is Wuni-pak, or Wunee-pauk : the Mahiccan word, Waunee-pockq. Here there can be no doubt about the affinity of the Asiatic and American words: for a part of the American is Pak, which is identically the same as the Curdistan word*. Amongthe Americans, as well as the Asiatics (and I suppose most other nations), we find numerous instances of the change of P into B, and of B into P. Thus, the Pottawatameh, who speak a dialect of the Delaware, call a leaf Tago-btc. And thus, you see, that the Saxon word, Boc, with very little variation, is preserved in America. Iam not afraid, that you will deem this a “risible absurdity,” or that you will say what Johnson says of Skinner, ‘“ how easy it is to « play the fool, under a shew of literature and deep researches.” I am of opinion, that etymology (though it has often been _ abused) is susceptible, in innumerable instances, of the greatest certainty. The very word which I have mentioned above, Wunee-pauk, is a proof of this. About the latter division of the word, we cannot but be satisfied : but what are we to make ef the former part, or Wunee? Hitherto, I have not been able to discover that this is the name for a leaf in the language of any tribe or nation of the old world. But, Vaunoo is the trunk or stem of a vegetable in the language of a tribe of Semoyads.
32. Cap, the garment that covers the head. Cap, Welsh; Cappe, Sax. Cappe, Germ. Cappe, Fr. Cappa, Ital. Capa, Span. Kappe, Danish and Dutch; caput, a head, Latin.—Johnson. To this very satisfactory history of the word, permit me to add, that Kupa is acap in the dialect of the Kubeshanians, who in- habit Mount-Caucasus.
33, Under this first head of nouns, I shall add only one other word: and this is not an English one. In the Scottish dia- lect, Bearnis achild. This word, I think, isSaxon. It isalso
* See my New Views of the origin of the tribes and nations of America. Comparative Vocabularies. p. 75, 76. Philadelphia: 1798.
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH: WORDS. 151
Barn in the language of the Icelanders, in the dialect of the ancient Daciais; and in Swedish. Thus much has been ob- served by others. It is a curious circumstance, that Birna is a pregnant woman in the language of the Jolofs, one of the blackest of all the Atrican nations. I have found Asiatic words in this language, and one or two South-American words*.
SECTION 2.
1. Dank, damp, humid, moist, wet. Skinner derives this from the German éuncken, to dip something into water, &c. Dan is water in the language of the people of New-Guinea, and Don in the languages of the Osetti and Dugori, on Caucasus. The Wyandots, or Hurons of North-America, call a river Yan-Dank-keh, and Yan-Daun-kee-ah. The two Asiatic na- tions, just mentioned, likewise call a river, Don.—The En-
lish words, Tank, a large cistern, or bason, and Tankard, a veseel to hold water, are unquestionably of Asiatic original. The word Tank is used in India at this very day. There is a river in Pennsylvania, the Indian name of which is Tunk- hanna.
2. Naval, belonging to ships. The Kartalini, whom I have already mentioned, and among whom we have found a spe- cimen of an English word, call a ship or vessel, Navee.
3. Murky, dark, cloudy, wanting light. From the Danish Morck, Johnson. Merkot is night in the Susdalien dialect. +
4. Democratical. I think it has escaped the notice of the English Dictionary-makers, that Demo is the name for men, or people (amines, populus) in the language of the old Persians. I find a great number of English, French, and American (Indian) words in this old language, which Sir William Jones has shown to be Sanscrit. Philosophers will ultimately repose in the belief, that Asia “has been the principal foundery of the human kind ;” and Iran, or Persia, will be considered as
* See New Views, &c. Preliminary Discourse, p. 73.
+ “ Susdaliensis dialectus variis graecis barbarisque verbis a mercaturam in Thracia facientibus “ corrupta, ita fere ad Rusicam linguam se habet, uti ludaeo-Germanica ad Germanicam.” Pallas,
1562 ON THE ‘ETYMOLOGY, &c.
one of the cradles from which the species took their. departure, ‘to’ people the various regions of the earth.
5. Peaked, sharp, acuminated. ‘I do not find this* word (which is much in-use among my countrymen) in Johnson, who, however, gives-us the substantive Peak, and the verb to ‘Peak. ‘You will observe, that Johnson is not satisfied with his own account of the verb. ‘ We say (these are his words) a “‘ withered man has a sharp face; Falstaff dying, is said to have “a nose as sharp as a pen: from this observation, a sickly man ‘‘is said to peak or grow acuminated, from pique.” We say (in the United-States) of a person whose face is contracted by sickness, he looks peaked.
Paka in the language of the Indians of Moultan residing at Astrachan, and Pukeetoo in that of the Andieskie. residing on Mount-Caucasus, signify sharp.
6. Sharp, keen, piercing, not obtuse, &c. From the Saxon and the Dutch.—Johnson. You may smile, but I will ven- ture to inform you, that Scharp is an axe or hatchet, in the lan- guage of a tribe of the Vouguls. ke
7. Tiny; little, small, puny. Tint, Tynd, Danish.— John- son, who says it isa burlesque word. Why so? Teena, or Tina, signifies small, or little in the dialects of two tribes of the Lesghintzi, or Lesghis, who inhabit Mount-Caucasus. The dialects of the Lesghis are arranged by Professor Pallas imme- diately before the Tchiochonski and other Finnic languages. There are many Lesghis words, nearly pure, in the languages of the Americans. -
8. Big, large, proud, swelling, great in spirit, lofty, brave. “« This word (Johnson observes).is of uncertain or unknown etymology.” Both Junius and Skinner have endeavoured to ar- rive at some certainty on the subject. But their researches, in this instance, have been extremely futile. I tread on ticklish ground. In the language of the Toungusians who inhabit the eastern coast of the sea of Baikal, Biga is God. In the dialect of other Toungusians, and in the language of the Tschapogirri, who in- habit the eastern bank of the river Jenisea, the word is Buga. The word, Bog, which signifies God in the language of the Russians, Poles, and other Slavonic nations, is nearly allied
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH WORDS. 155
to our English word. Pallas says Big is corrupt Russian (ma- larossica.) It isa fact, thatin the languages of many rude na- tions, the same word not unfrequently signifies both God and large, great, or mighty. This is remarkably the case among the American Indians. In the languages of different tribes, the same word not unfrequently means God, and great. Nay, more than this: it is easy to adduce instances of the same word being used in Asia for God, and in America for great. I shall mention a single instance. Certain tribes inhabiting the pe- ninsula of Kamtschatka call God, MNootcha: now, Kutche, and Kitchi, are very prevailing words, among the Americans, for great or powerful. And _ it is remarkable, that they often use it as an epithet for God: thus, Kztchi-Manitou, &c. the Great-Spirit, in the language of the Chippewas, &c.
SECTION 3.
1. To Chirp, to make a chearful noise. ‘ This, says John- son, seems apparently corrupted from cheer-up.” This is cer- tainly a forced derivation. I think he would have been bet- ter pleased with the one I am to offer. In the language of the Ostiaks, of Narim, Churp is a bird. The Ch is to be sounded like the Chi of the Greeks and the Ch of the Ger- mans. I consider all the Ostiaks as having a Finnic original. Unquestionably, a very great number of English words are Finnic, as are also perhaps a still greater number in the langua- ges of the North-American tribes.
2. To Bouse, to drink lavishly ; to tope. Buysen, Dutch. Johnson. This word and the adjective Bousy are to be met with among very old English writers. Spencer speaks of the « Bousing can.” The word is evidently of Asiatic original. Perhaps, it may be referred to the Asiatic word Boo, water, from whence I suppose the American words, Bee, Beeh, Beh, wa- ter. But I can furnish you with something much less equi- vocal. According to Mr. Bruce, the Abyssinians make from a species of millet, an intoxicating drink, which they call Bousa. Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, tells us, as early as 1436, that the Tartars whom he visited, drink a kind of beer
Y¥
154 ON THE ETYMOLOGY, &c.
called Bossa. And Dr. Forster informs us, that “at this present “ime they have in Russia an inebriating liquor, prepared * from millet, which is called Busa, and is very heady.’”’*
3. To Tope, to drink hard; to drink to excess. Toper, a drunkard. * Topf, German, an earthen pot; Toppen, Dutch; to be mad. Skinner prefers the latter etymology.” Johnson. Iam tar from being satisfied with this, and I think something more satistactory may be offered. In the language of the Gipsies, Tepaoo is to drink. You are not ignorant that the language of these vagrants has a most evident and “intimate affinity with that of the nations of Hindustan.
4. To butcher; to kill, The Mandshuri, or Manshour— Tartars, call death Bootschere, or Buichere. It may not be amiss. to observe, in this place, that fort is death in the language of the people of Bengal. How nearly similar is this to the Celtic words, AWar, Mor, Mart; the Latin Mors; the Italian Morte ; the French, Mor, &c.!!
5. To Ram, to drive with violence, as with a battering ram. I find nothing satisfactory relative to the etymology of this word, in our English dictionaries. After attending to the fol- lowing, I hope you will not think I am forcing the subject. In the language of the Tchiokonski, Ramo, and in that of the Esthoniangs “(both of whom I have often mentioned) Ramm and ammo are the words tor our English force and. strength (Vis, Robur). Rammo is also the Lsthonian word tor power ( Poteniia ).
As I know not what value you may attach to the preceding mite to extend our knowledge of the original of English words, I shall not, at present, troubie you with any more of a similar kind. Permit me, however, to make a tew observations, which seem to arise naturally enough out of this investigation.
Many English words do, unquestionably, exist among certain Asiatic nations, and even among the Indian nations ab Ame-
rica. As it is difficult, at first sight, to give a very satisfactory
*- History of the Voyages and Discoveries made in the North, &c. p. 172, 173. Dublin Edi- tion, 1786. Busa is also mentioned by Professor Pallas. He says, the inhabitants of Crim— Tarcary brew this ‘ intoxicating,” « ill tasted and very ‘strong beer from” Millet, or Tari. See Travels through the Southern Provinces of the Kussian Empire, in the years 1793, and 1794, Vol. IL. p. 360, 388, &c, English translation, London: 1803.
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH WORDS. 155
explanation of this fact, superficial inquirers (of whom there is always a large number, particularly in the crowd of those who have written upon the origin of mankind) immediately conclude, either that the affiniues are entirely accidental, or that they are owing to the commercial intercourse which, at present, subsists between the inhabitants of different parts of the earth. That such affinities are accidental, I am sure that no man in his sober senses, will dare to assert. That they are not to be accounted tor from the commercial intercourse which at present subsists between different nations is equally certain. The difficulties which encumber this important subject will vanish, when we extend our inquiries beyond the limited ho- rizon of a few hundred years; and when we sufler ourselves to be relieved from the numerous prejudices, which form as it were our pillow in the cradle. The books of Moses inform us, that mankind were created in Asia. Ever since I have bu- sied myself, and I may add, rendered myself happy, with in- quiries into the languages of the Americans, I have ceased to entertain any doubts of the accuracy of the scripture story, so far as regards the Asiatic origin of men, and their dispersion from a common centre. These two great facts, which consti- tute corner-stones in the history of the species, are supported by the more modern history of nations; and I am persuaded will bear the strictest scrutiny of every research of humanity. The original of nations may, in many instances, be dcter- mined solely by an attention to the languages of mankind. Had the books of Moses perished; had no memorials concerning them escaped the numerous revolutions of our globe; had no traditions concerning the origin of the species Bech transmitted to us, the researches of philosophers, through the medium of language (such is the pure certainty of science!) would have conducted them to the great historical truth, that Asia has been the cradle of the world. But history much more recent than that of the Jewish lawgiver, kindly comes to our assistance. Thus, not to mention Gthee instances, the Saxon chronicle deduces the first inhabitants of Britain from Armenia. Now, it is a fact, that we find some English words in the language of the Arme- Nians, and in the language ot the Kartalini and other Cau-
156 ON THE ETYMOLOGY, &c.
casian tribes, to which the Armenian is allied. Thus it is easy to conceive, how many Asiatic words (a much greater number than is generally supposed ) are still preserved 1 in Britain. They were brought into Britain by the Asiatic colonies; they are still preserved, ona will be preserved for a long time, notwithstand- ing the various admixtures of nations; hearse languages are the most unperishable of all medals. ‘They are as immortal as the human race.
The Asiatic origin of the Greeks and the Latins has never been called in question. There are many Latin words in the English language. Some of these, I have no doubt, were in- troduced by the Romans when they conquered and colonized the island. Buta much greater number, I suspect, are derived by the ancient inhabitants of Britain from the same tree which supplied the Romans with its fruit. An attention to the follow- ing circumstances will render this not a little probable.
We find Latin words among many of the rude and other na- tions of Asia, who are not known to have had any communi- cation with the Romans. Some instances of this kind I have painted out in a former part of this letter. But we find Latin words among the Indians of America: and I think there in no good foundation for suspecting, that the Romans had ever visi- ted, much less planted colonies in, America. I will give an instance or two. In the language of the Delawares, Pane is bread. This is almost pure Latin. It is actually pure Italian, Neapolitan, and Spanish. But whence, it has been asked, did the Americans derive this word? Doubtless, from the same tree which, planted in the soil of Asia, has spread its branches, or diffused its fruit, to every region of the earth. In the lan- guage of the Curdes, of Curdistan, Pan isbread. This language is nearly allied to the Persian. Thunberg informs us, that the Japanese verb to bake bread is Panzjakv. Now, I have shown, that there are many Curde and Japanese words in the different dialects of America. The same Delawares call a dog, JZé-hanne, which is nearly Latin, but more nearly still Italian and Nea- politan. In this instance, also, we can trace the word to Asia, for different tribes of Semoyads call a dog, Kanang, Kanak, and donak; and the Karassini call it Aannakh.
OF CERTAIN ENGLISH WORDS. L574
It is unnecessary to adduce other instances of this kind.— Many more might be adduced, and will be mentioned in the Second Part of my New Views, which is preparing tor the press. If those which I have mentioned should be deemed of any 1m- portance to you, I shall, in a future letter, communicate ano- ther collection. I am well aware, that these inquiries are re- mote from our immediate professional pursuits; but they are not remote from our inquiries as naturalists. The study of the phy- sical history, that is of the figure, complexion, &c., of man- kind, shouid go hand in hand with a comparison of the lan- guages of the earth. The most finished Anthropologia, such an one as Pallas could give us, will be constructed, in a consider- able degree, upon the affinities of languages.
I am, Dear Sir, with much respect, Your Friend, &c. BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON. MED Sth aReaS)
Philadelphia, October 20th, 1803.
Thomas Beddoes, \
| —______—}
POSTSCRIPT.
You will observe, that the preceding words in the langua- ges of the Americans are written in two different kinds of let- ters, viz. Roman and Italic. ‘The former, which are fewest in number, were all collected by myself: the latter are either taken trom printed books or have been collected tor me by my friends, in different parts of the United-states. Most of the words in the Asiatic and other languages, are taken trom the Vocabularia Comparauva ot Protessor Pallas. It is much to be regretted, that this very important work has not been
158 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS
completed. I have seen the First and Second parts, which were printed at Petersburgh, in 1786, and 1789. Neither the African nor American languages have any place in these vo- lumes. My own labours have now put me in possession of good specimens of at least one hundred American dialects, and several African ones. ‘These may, at some future period, be offered to the public, as a supplement to the work begun by Catherine and Pallas.
SSS SSS No. XXIX.
Astronomical Observations made by Jose Joaquin de Ferrer, chiefly jor the Purpose of determining the Geographical Position of vari- ous Places in the United States, and other Parts of North America. Communicated by the Author.
Translated from the Spanish, and read at different times.
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS
ON THE ATLANTIC BORDER OF THE UNITED STATES.
Latitudes. Longitudes W. of Greenwich.
rw Se / Oi ltt Gape blatterasiy emer) tlle i-te ey fs) lien e tn elPehinjeel ts tate 7+ 35°14 30 75 3815 § Cape Henlopen light-house.......-.....-... } 38 47 16 75 10 03 § Cape May. ..--.-... Diol a 8\uc) Gd moa ait, o4 TS kc _t 38 56 46 74 56 54 § Germantown market-house. ....-.+..+.521..-- * 40 02 29 Coast to the North of Cape-May.............. #39) 39 00 74 16 35 § 1 (Cr a eet Geer Ploy aowala Sap Leek Sens torpor $ 39 52 40 74 12 15 § Udrih cede teenies co. genet eee: eine ».. + $40 07 30 74 12 15 § iijehlandse ye geuee tte aause > Nee eat eieden ee mel chlo eect 74 07 24 § TSA NO pwelseSCib | o.g19 5. Odd O54 cen Bor ¢ 41 17 07 73 453 § Town of Gilford. Unis ef. el st= lain = Py CU CoL oe eM neal + 41 18 16 72 51 00 § (Falcon) Falkland-Island. .....---...+----- f 41 14 50 72 50 15 § New-London, Light-house. .....--.-...-.---> ¢ 41 21 08 72 12 15 Light-house, on the Easternmost point of Long-Island. . + 41 04 30 71 53 3 E. Hampton, in Long-Island....-....-.-.-+.-- + 41 00 00 72 15 50 § Rocky Wiayzini idemp) . fo 225 ls oq: int eis (2s + 40 28 00 73 12 55 § Battery at New-York. ...-..-.-...2++.--4- * 40 42 06 74 07 45
+ Latitude obseryed at sea, at some distance from the parallel, and calculated from a course of 4 or 5 hours from the time of observing.
¢ Latitude observed at sea, upon which dependence may be placed, and not differing 4 of a minute from the true lat. y
* Longitude determined by astronomical observations; by the emersions of the first satellite of Jupiter compared with the corresponding ones made in Europe, and by the occultation of stars by the moon’s disk.
§ Longitude as referred to New-York, by a chronometer of Arnold.
F BY J. J. DE FERRER. 159
ON THE RIVERS OHIO AND MISSISSIPPI.
THESE Latitudes, which were ascertained in the months of May and June 1801, were observed with a circle of reflection, and an artificial horizon of Mercury; and the Longitudes by the assistance of two chronometers; one made by Arnold No. 396, the other by Earnshaw No. 306 suspended in gimbols. Their going was carefully observed at Pittsburgh and at New-Orleans, and from the regularity observed in their going, reliance is to be placed on the exactness of the difference of meridians.
ON THE OHIO. Latitude. Long. (in time)
W. of Greenwich. rs) , 7 bh , uM
Pittsburgh. . ... St NU eR aE oui alre a niccesa ls pela sie tte -- . 40 26 15 5 19 53 Pad ETE SEALY Seay iy igh AAD hele ga AE en bk lg Eid 38 51 54 Byer }si ei) (EANGCNES 7 ohm od Gon 6 aioe Ss Dies erodo a bo oaks 38 49 12 5 28 41 RoritarlOts. in: e)i-h is} oe cr ss olechgel chis ousayin’ arid coms tetetel aameeale ae 38 25 00 5 29 16 MOGIOLDMIVORD on cose bcd cS ok ok of es at onto tote ok Mest oh wl oh Mek ot lel lotr 38 43 28 5 “31 54 SWIC WV MLE eyed ea his bro d gir attae ow chinl Gili uct eR DAGD ‘el lel] eF iene eh 38 35 00 5 33 00 WMamcHestern hls rai. site heel) osx ore elated atl at lg Nel ustiete Aare 58 37 00 5 3405 Cincinnati (Fort Washington). --....-.-......-. 89 05 54 5 37 50 UL, quisyalles 2 pave Peon A OR eee PE ome ee re hs 38 15 48 5 42 39 Falls of Louisville, (2S mMANSWE OL LE. sce eee so ey a fehl 37 17 14 Blue Rivent weyyys or te lets so ee Obed al cadens lace selec, poem 38.11 00 5 44 53 Green Riverac techs Oe ek eee cell ete succe Ue Mohs Sybstous 37 52 42 5 49 42 MP iamiond lelantder cee ete chieoel eed eke peentel tener ra aes 38 14 16 5 49 28 Wishes! Rivest ia fapapte sired sti auratocthelvalee! olacble koe oF uranic’ 37 49 15 5 52 02 GERMANS ACS eer beN els ccciche veuetiels vehe ns bon 0s sive oiere nls 37 13 00 5 5431 Wilkinson illest ett a Jee Bch Oat GO .aee Gidea © 37 15 00 5 55 40 Confluence of the Riyers Ohio and Mississippi. ........ 37 00 20 5 56 24 ON THE MISSISSIPPI.
o ’ » h , u Sancueslarid a(arena)ssmevelcn an icp! eres leh cite <b tet enon» 36 27 28 5 57 40 ERATE CTC. hos JA PObeKOSOS8 O60, OSCE OIE ISHOUBED Neus Ieiics nas 36 34 30 5. 58 03 Be ey gL SeE EAI se cu au 5 a. €hanvelsbetween. two, lelandss cis ssp cis) ceevey oneeuereyone) oe 33 58 00 6 435 CHESS Aacey GLEN SS NS eI Pa a ek 33 04 30 6 457 Eslandae eels Ree re AL Ee ec Ley et ein saree aman 32 36.22 6 414 Confluence of the Rivers Yazoo and Mississippi... .... . 32 28 00 6 412 WralhiutePiilless nem os ee ee ets Ee Liane eT sitar £2 32 24 37 6 349 Grand) Gonlresm segs a cea Peed eke eRe Jer Poe ore 32 04 30 6 427 INatcheztecece te ttiemes < cerca ecto esol ts sien et enone . 31 33 48 6 5 54 parish, Eimstsoeme yey sce ctr ch een een cee hat Po ee rel ote 31 00 00 6 643 RedRavers eaters cbc. oN eta es SO RER GY Cees Ae . 31 01 15 Ge aod Hoint/Coupeen(ist Cipreh jess ae spa ter eel eh avehci=| Slanel. 380 45 00 6 5 56 False River. eG es: can wads) 24 ey ROREe Ts Ae eens aaa 30 42 00 Gi. 5553 The Yellow Cliffs (escapardo). Bia San © aia ce sy COLAO) OO 6 524 Northern point of the last Island, .... 3 CAOACLOE Chay rae 30 36 00 si. 66:93 Wew ‘Orleasas + chs aie hie shal edeyiateive lel Wis) ela loiints MEceeo ORT ou 6 038 NOUN VViest Basse eet Fel cl ste aie lelishelenel sretetearsl aceite os OONOO Ly ers
160 — ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
Occultation of 0 in Sagittarius, by the disk of the Moon, observed by J. J. de Ferrer, in Veracruz, August 25, 1795, with an iibonalic Telescope of Dolland 2* “feet lone.
hea Hey, Ow Immersion in apparent time, 9 $2 55, andin meantime.......... 9 34 31. 4 Veracruzewestotibaris:.. cpacueuchensnsmuresatels « parir mets aeE mean sae 6 33 42. 8 Immersion in mean time at Paris........-.....-. ote 5 he 16 8 14.2
°o , “
Right ascension of the sun at the time. ..............0.6--- 154 46 10 bo Seed LU RARECEGO Oly go 0 d/a,d o dod ovoloma sole on cy 988. 6, 217 2
SICATINS, 12.Sicdeclination® athens cheese Stk enfin tebe SP 22 118
Apparent obliquity ofthe ecliptic. -. 42 5----.8s 2... ew ow 23 27 51 spied iGireahiGlarh GA ideo a bo al 0 a Glo Ob Bolg Gokey ate 282 08 9.5 ODapittaris 36 icenide. cf, Sam eny b oke eee hui eae cee 0 53 28. 5
Proportion of equatorial and polar diameters of the earth...334: 333 Ona u fy O22
Correct latitude of Veracruz........== [19 11 53—6 23] 19 33 Woparithmic radiusiat Vieracruzs «ois pce) sis) clctelis)is) lee) at stone - - » 9,999 859 Equatorial horizontal parallax of the (---...---+--.+.. Gripe bee. 55 50. 2 “"
Apparent diameter of the (—S inflection... .........2.--2-..-2- 30 47. 8 Parallax longitudes a yan eernas esa- pen eee East eee eee ode 16 56. 5 Parallaxmmilatitide aire eee eey aan edie ney stay elect nee een eae 34 38. 2 S. latitude of the moon by the theory of Laplace.............. 1 30 13. 6
On the 25th & 26th-August, the moon was observed in the Royal obser- vatory of Greenwich, and comparing these observations with the theory , of Laplace, there results the following error in the theory.
“ n” On the 25th, inlong: =X 0. 8 inlat. =x 6. 5 26th —1. 6 <7 9 It results from these elements, that the true latitude of the moon at the Moment Off IMIMersION “Was fai. vases Hard ve cols te peas sn Vo el tire aeehrre aa cale 1 30 20. 5 Difference of the apparent latitudes between the, ( & o Sagit....... 213.8 True conjunction in Paris according te the Greenwich observations in sete i WEATELITIOS, ution care te ne UG Reni nsec vege keipewe) ete aah a eee 16 ig 58. 9 Conjunction at Veracruz, by the immersion. .-.....,..--+--- 9 31 16. 1 Longitude of Veracruz, W. Of (Pansy eee reneke ceca i és 6 33 42.8
There was no corresponding observation made in Europe, but as on that and the following day, the transit of the moon over the meridian was pareeeed in the Royal observatory at Greenwich, I was enabled to correct the error in the lunar tables, and found the longitude of Veracruz to be (as above)
6" 33! 42". 8 west of mane Citizen Mechain made the lon- gitude, from the same observations, 6° 33! 54”. 9. This dif- ference, although very small, might happen, if he was unac- quainted with a remark published by the Rev. Nevil Maske- lyne: That the transits of the stars were observed by his assistant D. K. and that of the moon by Maskelyne himself, who after
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 161
comparing the different observations, ascertained that his as- sistant had contracted the erroneous habit of marking down the transits, half a second after they had happened, trom which it became necessary to subtract 0”. 5 of time, from the transits of the stars. If I had omitted this correction, my re- sult would have been similar to that of Citizen Mechain.
The present observation has this advantage, that the star pas- sed but 2’, 13” from the apparent centre of the moon, so that if there had been an uncertainty of 10” in difference of lati- tude, there could only be one of 3” in the difference of me- ridians.
Observations of the Eclipse of the Sun on the 2\st February 1803, made in the City of Havanna and at Lancaster in Pennsylvania,
U2 S:
IN the Havanna the beginning of the eclipse could not be observed on account of the clouds; at 4". 18’. 30”. when the solar disk became clear, the indenture (cuerda) was perceptible. The distance of the horns, was observed alternately, with an excellent Heliometer of Dolland, by Don Antonio de Robre- do, and by Don Jose Joaquin de Ferrer.
Apparent times. Distance of the Horns. h , “ , u 424 47 15" (25) 4 26 41 17 06 4 29 12 18 59. 2
Least distance of the Limbs.
Dy Ve u 5 16 45 0 53.2 oO U “ Latitude of the Havanna by Ferrer.......--.6.0.- 23 09 07 De? u Longitude W. of Greenwich by the same... ...-..---. 5 29 16 Beginning of the eclipse in Lancafer, as observed by Mr. A. Ellicott. te) -f) amend, Apparent time = 4 50 57 ° , u Latitude of Lancaster. ..........-++-- 40 02 39 : Longitude W. of Greenwich... ..... nah OS OSG kere Sie
Elements calculated by the theory of Laplace, at. 9 25 mean time in Paris. Z
162 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
s 0 , ”
Longitude of the € reckoned from the eaten ae -li 2 19 24.2 South Latitude of the€ . . . 30. 5 Horizontal parallax in Paris. . - . . 2... . 61 03.2 Horizontal semi-diameter of the € 16 41.5 Relative Horary motion. . . = (37 46 7-2 30 Opes a): So) SS Horary motion in Latitude northerly. . - ‘ 3 29.4 Longitude of the © by the tables of Lalambre.. . | . 1102 20 47. 6 Horizontal semi-diameter of the@ . . . . .. . 16 11. 4 Horizontal parallax of the® . . ; 8. 6 Difference of Polar & Equatorial Diameters. 1- 334th. h Cae
Conjunction in Paris by the tables, in meantime, 9 27 22 in apparent time9 13 21 ”
; . at Lancaster. = — 10 09 Merhecal Does. ee Havanna. 7 26
From these elements are derived the following results. /
h 7
Conjunction at Lancaster, cee time. 3 59 45 at the Havanna. 3185 208
Lancaster East of the Havanna. . ~- 0 24 37 Havanna west of Greenwich. ? EY E529, IG: Longitude of Lancaster west of Gecenwich. sje oI ROA ao
If we suppose the eclipse to have commenced at Lancaster 12” earlier, which Mr. Ellicott suspected, in this case the dif- ference of meridians between the Havanna and Lancaster will be 24". 25%. and it would result that Lancaster was west of Greenwich 5", 04’. 51,”; differing from my result only 12”, which is as near as can be expected; for as this determination depends upon the exactness of the theory of the moon, it can- not be relied on within 30” of time.
These observations may be very important to compare with others of the same eclipse, which may have been made in other observatories.
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Without the boundary of the United States.
COAST OF CARACAS. Latitude North. Long. W. of Greenwich. oO oe ae
u
La Guaira (whark)*. oo. “37 2. Jeg nyse a=) 10) 36 40 67 00 08 Caracas (town-house). Sees aos | 3 ce OMA Oa 66 57 18 C. Codera. . . eg ue re aia 66 01 44 New-Barcelona (Market- Place). see OF OC i 64 46 23
I. Blanca (S. W. point). . . «apa ager. | Po oaih P00) 64 40 22
_ GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 163
WINDWARD ISLANDS.
Latitude North. Long. W. of Greenwich.
° id u ° s u" Sabaghiphestipart.—. 1% (cee) tee ie wie Fe 183 St. Martins, highest part . . . . . . . . 18 O4 28 3 06 27 Isle of Dogs, the westermost. . . . . . - 18 19 00 63 22. 15 St/Dhomascthe port. $2 88 oo. te - 1 18920830 64 57 06 Sta. Cruz, (the capital). © ..- . = |. . 17% 44 08 64 42 2
ISLAND OF PORTO-RICO.
° / u o f ” City of St. John, the capital,*. « - . . . . 18 29 10 66 07 48 N. W. point of the island. . .- ee Cece Te he 67 06 10 Watering place of St, Carlos (town). Bo Se 0) 67 07 22 Little I. Desecheo. . . SU Nac gee lO” 23: HAB 67 27 48
ISLAND OF ST. DOMINGO,
0: Pew eid wit) eiSamaros ) a hare nee en ew Kis! Ret eo LO. CU. 69 08 34 Aleavela, svOck- Gh ae eel + <4 So) ele & 9 he Oy LL
Wavazaid, middlesiastis.) fae iis? Seo TS, QA az
ISLAND OF CUBA.
° T " ° , ” G@ eeiGrnizaegs esas ee eae ee. lo, Ay 816 77 44 00€ Picovde arquigOra, ii of anseae ca we nalsg Sk Bel. COLL OL, 76 Sl 30€ Criucnoser. Bliss Mie Fees come ete. et. 20069710 74 10 45 C. May Zig ia VINCE io Po Te ina 74 07 15 Prater Widasseee neat ee Besar ent. wo OL. OA Oo 75 33 45 GCayos(ikey) Verde. "<9 a). perae ote Pee en rn oe) LOT FOO 77 36 45 Caghter 5 Ses mee oh es ee ei as ee, Ed Ae 77 41 08 deMLoboss Meee ee test ete BRD QA SO Ui Bess) Guiancho. . . “ey bpcctace gee wastau OO) 78 O01 15 Cayo Sta. Maria (the northermost). ogee MeO, 12) OO 78 53 03 Matanzas (city). . . . aD ot ait ee LIRA VPS 81 36 05 Gastler SEs SCVCKINO sm. mre wr cy ile wis ast sie. s\ tts Boeo) Oy 54. St ses Thin ERVen Fig 5. soiee Wind Buleh Ana ac te A Sewn ss mY ae Si) SSS) 15 Panta.deiGuanosy \;)\!'.)) ¢ ). Seer eee 23), (09, 27. 81 40 00 Pan de Matanzas. . . ee eee eit Foo s (Ol aoe 81 41 41 Moro Castle, Havanna*. eihe ete aes 9 ean OF OO! OF 82 19 10 Mill (Cerro) of Guaijabon. . . . . . . . . 22 47 46 83 21 06
BAHAMA CANAL,
° / u“ ° / “
DN in) anes OM Reem in te se cel ste tus) ) SAM 7 mer) 80 35 26
Cayo Lea oie pane Sol ieee ial ies Sarsoitag 80 33 36 Coast of Florida. . . 27 10 OO 80 05 45 Double headed Shot, N. w. point. (los rogues) 23° 59 44 80 23 3 In 10 fathom water onthe bank. . 24 38 15 79 O07 15 The Northermost of fresh water sae est le Solas e na 7908), 21 Great Isaac. «. . Ne ot. At ae eo Oe 30 eo) OS) ak Little Isaac (eastermost). Se ide nt a E y e 78 46 15 Memory Roc : 5 FieGe BANS 26 56 00 79 03 27.
164 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
BAHAMA ISLANDS.
Latitude North. Long. W. of Greenwich. ° rf #
° r “ 1, Abacos N. Ey point, <2) Cire ik bes ego) Oe 77 00 21 Rocky point inthesame. . . ... - . ... 26 17 20 77 03 25 Hole in the Wall (or Rock) ....... ... ..25 50 19 7 15 45 New Providence (Nassau). . +. 4,25 04 33 77 22 06 The Northwestermost of the I. of Beny. « «sa 20) 901749 78 QO1 38 The Eastermost. Idem. . .. . Ol beet eee ee Ue) 7 41 15 9 fathom water, white SAU) viel thst vier be. ve CO As OU 78 14 45 Qe dove ha. ly A ety CRE. TES epOR' 247 GO 78 39 45 3). Hele ie ao LR al RA ie bia | BSW ane es AAT IME S) 78 51 45 PTs AS CS SP er let Ut Nase ca ls iyi te Orit ae Ce ata 0) 78 58 45 TO Gh yw ee a A a ee Wheres ean ee: Weed TE) 19, OF As
GULF OF MEXICO.
° ’ uw ° 4 “ Campeche (great Squats): Abs WO a tore tale eee 2) 90 30 37 New Veracruz.* . gore he Jah SRY Seer eel O Pe eo, 96 04 20 Mount Orizaba (pico) Whig b Cab Ose by oh rs mc wou Oe LaLa 97 09 20 Bernal Grande. . ALCRRCH te oe) eo LO ome 96 21 05 Gallega Bay, the north part. SUR OES SPSS e eS Bel 20 96 03 42 Tamiagua (city)... . Sale NSRP SPC Oat ae EES) Barra of New Santander. . SP ate On Oe LS 98 O07 43 Lake of St. Fernando (6 la Carbovera). Sub ew yee 30.) OO 97 59 00 Opening, supposed Rio Bravo. . . Shs gin er N10) O77 26.573) Point in the coast... AA RR EASY «46, 00 97 35 00
Nores.—* Longitude determined by observation. (, Longitude determined by lunar distances. The remainder of the Longitudes are ascertained by chronometers.
The correctness of Latitudes may be fully depended upon.
Height of some Mountains in New Spain, compared with the height of that in Teneriffe.
French Toises. Height of the Peak of Orizaba,* above the level of the sea. . . 2795
New Spai OL THEN OILERS UE CHOLE. Mah taste cule fan loue eae snr liee nels 2185. 7 SWS Pee ofthe Mown ok, xalapay Ut. jhe tae deat eh iate tee 698 FON Ha eo tavaLL ed ea Nose IDystccge Sees ghgn a Viet ON Air cro ena alloy S * See Geographical Positions, in this page. Height of the Peak in the Azores according to J. J. De F. . 1238 T im according to Don Vizente Tofino. 1260 XIGRUMEs 0 Me <<, wcccacerve staat movcecadcagebaonsestnes Brigadier of the Spanish Marine. 2
Mean height 1249 Toises.
JOSE JOAQUIN DE FERRER.
INO. NOES
Description of the river Mississippi and its Delta, with that of the adjacent parts of Louisiana. By Wilkam Dunbar, of the Nat- chez, communicated by the Author, a Member of the Society;
through the President. Read April 6th, 1804.
THE multiplicity of the rivers which are tributary to the Mississippi, extending themselves over an immense tract which comprehends nearly 20°. in lat. and 30°. in long. must render this river, at all seasons, one of the most considerable on the globe. The annual inundation, being supplied from so great a variety of climates, must naturally be expected to be of long duration; and may generally be estimated at nearly half the year; beginning (com. annis) to rise in January, and fall in June; the two extremes being frequently extended by the early autumnal and winter rains in the southern latitudes, and by the protraction of the northern winters, which retards the dissolution of the immense accumulations of snow in those cold regions. At the landing of the Natchez (380 miles from the mouth of the river) the perpendicular ascent of the waters of the Mississippi, from the lowest ebb to the highest inunda- tion, may be estimated at 50 feet. At Baton Rouge (200 miles distant) it was found to be 30 feet; at New-Orleans ($0 miles above the mouth) it is about 12 feck and at the mouth of the river, scarcely any perceptible change is observed, except- ing by a stronger current charged aes earthy matter rolling into the ocean “during the season of the inundation; at which time, all the lakes aa communications with the sea are re- plenished with the waters of the inundation, and the ocean itself is often repelled to such a degree, that fresh water has been drawn up, out of sight of land. ‘This great difference in the perpendicular rise of the waters of the inundation is to be accounted for from the prodigious number of natural canals issuing from the Mississippi, and those immense siiceis of water,
166 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
often unbounded by a single horizon, flowing over the banks never to return, and imundating vast tracts of country which owe their existence to the creative power of this grand river, and which finally discharge themselves into the Mexican Gulph by an infinite number of mouths, many of which are, in apparent magnitude, equal to the Mississippi itself; the space embraced by the Delta of this river on the sea coast being, from information, not less than 3° of longitude.
Table of the mean altitude of the waters of the Mississippi at Natchez, from the lowest ebb to the highest elevation.
Days. Alt. feet. Days. Alt. feet. amuagy iee6 Danser ecenkes. 25° Ie Falywan se, Less: PE 45 AGIHERIGHD S500 M5 SEM cies te OOOO Ba LUG 154 OMe inmate ey esc Febraary... 0 Ws...scsceveen 35 || August...... Bite 20 Agannaesoaecdaes 152i. hath sett AO fi sek he cates ae eke treueec ee eet March...... Vuodétccgarae 45 || September.. L.......0.08-. 7 Uaahtaemdticchins DD s.uitck dneehtseO MUM ieee ate le ded shh hehe okaehnle alae April iic.0. Nj toee eetee 48 || October...... Be eae fe) SG slab Lbgitutedtons. | Bz Iie, 8), Joh SAS, . tater @) Maye. igecaes Pas ee se 49. } November.) Vike 5 Bie adeisawebiodit 5s tac eet BOVAN, FAN eo catawe | ee ARES 10 June neds Ry eee 50)1) Decemberh:, | 453) (0200 15 eeneee nie LDU cd abedevre AO clits oagcdvemvaesases Maki spiet he 20
It is not to be understood that the rise and fall of the Mis- sissippi, in any one year, ever arrives to the extent of the above table; it is found that years of least elevations will generally be those of greatest depressions. The table is calculated only to convey some idea of the extremes which have been noted in aseries of years, and of the general progress of the inunda- tion both in its advancement and retreat.
By information from the inhabitants of the island of New- Orleans, about 25 leagues above the capital, in the year 1774, it appears that the Mississippi had overflowed its banks yearly for three years preceding, by which they had lost their crops, and
AND ITS DELTA. 167
which caused great astonishment, because from the commence- ment of their settlements, which exceeded 20 years, they had rarely ever seen the Mississippi surmount the level of its banks, and that an embankment, called by the french name of levée, was required only in very few places. Since that period, from year to year, the river has continued to rise higher and higher, which has obliged the inhabitants of Lower Louisiana to pro- long and reinforce their levées; in so much that embankments of 5 or 6 feet perpendicular are now required, where as many inches were formerly sufficient. This increasing ascent of the inundation may be naturally accounted for by the gradual ex- tension of the levées on both sides of the river, which became each succeeding year more necessary for the defence of the new settlements against the encroachments of this great river. Those establishments are now extended on either bank to the distance of 60 leagues above the capital; it is not therefore won- derful that high banks in the lower parts of Louisiana should be required to receive and confine a body of water which for- merly escaped over a great extent, now occupied by the em- bankments. In spite of this mode of reasoning, which appears to be sufficiently satisfactory, the Mississippi has ceased to rise to its usual height for these* three years past; the defect at Natchez has not been less than from 8 to 12 feet, and proportionably in the lower country. Many are the conjectures which have been formed to account for this unexpected great change. Some of the old inhabitants say that the Mississippi has returned to its ancient level, while others pretend (ludicrously enough) that the Missouri has found a new passage into the western Pa- cific Ocean. It does not appear, that we can assign any phy- sical cause why the Mississippi should have certain periods of years in respect to its inundations; nor have observations been made for a sufficient length of time to establish the fact. The late period of great inundations, which have fallen chiefly under my observations, has been about 27 years, not much short of a cycle of the sun; but whether the imundations of this great river are subject to the influence of any regular cause, must be left to the investigation of future philosophers, profoundiy skilled in the laws of meteorology.
* This account was commenced in 1800.
168 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
The waters of the Mississippi are not, at any time, perfectly transparent: during the absence of the inundation, they are not much troubled, presenting a slight milky appearance, which is attributed to the Missouri; but during the time of the inun- dation, all the rivers which discharge their superabundant waters into the Mississippi are more or less charged with terrene matter, and during the decline of the inundation, the turbidness is some- times so great that a glass filled with its water appears to depo- sit, in a few minutes, a sediment equal to one eighth of its bulk; this extreme impurity is not to be attributed entirely to the im- mediate effect of the Missouri, but principally to the falling in of the mud banks, either newly formed beneath the influence of the current of the river; or undermined by its rapidity, perpetually changing its bed, by enlarging the concavity of its bends, and projecting its points or head lands: this operation has a natural tendency to lengthen the circuitous course of the river; but the effect is amply compensated by its own progress; for the enlargement of the bends frequently brings them so near each other, that the weight of the waters bursts at once through the solid soil, forming in a few days a new bed capable of con- veying the whole waters of this mighty river, and shortening thereby its course many leagues. ‘The disruption which took place at Point Coupée, cut off ten leagues, and within this territory the cut-off at the Homochito has thrown to the east of the Mississippi an island of seven leagues in circuit, and at the Yazooz a similar effect has been produced on the west side by the formation of an island of five léagues in circumference. Those islands are now both converted into peninsulas, by the formation of new land across one of the mouths of the old channel, while the other is partially kept open by the discharge of the (comparatively) small rivers of the Yazooz and Homo- chito; the former of those, nevertheless, 1 is not inferior im magni- tude to that great commercial river the Thames. The conse- quence of those disruptions, is the formation of lakes, which, in process of time, may be far removed trom the actual chan- nel of the river, and in effect are now found to be scattered in all situations over the immense valley of the Mississippi.
When those lakes are first approached, they present so per- fect a resemblance of the Mississippi, with regard to breadth,
AND ITS DELTA. 169
the appearance of the banks, and the natural serpentine form of its Course, wat many persons have been deceived thereby, and recognized their error only by the discovery of the stagnant state of the water, the appearance on its borders of the Nym- phzea Nelumbo, and other aquatic plants; no person therefore doubts that those lakes have all, in their turn, served to convey the waters of this father of rivers, and now during the season of the inundation still flow with a full current, contributing their aid to the evacuation of the waters of a thousand rivers which precipitate themselves into the valley of the Mississippi. When we take a survey of this valley, upwards of 30 miles wide opposite to the Natchez, diverging very obtusely as we ap- proach the sea-coast, where it is perhaps not less than 3° in Jong. and that in no part of it do we discover any other soil than such as is now daily deposited by the waters of the Missis- Sippi, it is impossible not to believe that this valley has, in the beginning, been a branch or inlet of the ocean, which recei- ved into its bosom this great river, similar to the River de-la- Plata, the Gulph of St. Laurence, Delaware bay, and many others not remarkable for the alluvial properties of their rivers. . When, on the other hand, we contemplate the effects of the cre- ative power of the Mississippi, which has filled up this prodigious space with soil, more or less solid, and which must at Natchez exceed 100 feet perpendicular above the level of the sea, sloping ‘gradually like an immense glacis to the coast of the bay of Mexico, where nevertheless it does not terminate, but shelving off by continual accumulation frequently embarrasses vessels out of sight of land, along the coast, to the west of the Missis- sippi; I say when we survey this immense work performed by the hand of nature, we cannot accord with the opinions of cer- tain visionary philosophers, who have been pleased to amusc themselves with the pretended infantile state of our continent, compared to their trans-atlantic world; but, on the contrary, we must grant to it an incalculable antiquity. When the inunda- tion is at its height, the whole valley is replenished with water every where in motion, making its progress towards the ocean; so that at that season the river may be said to be 30 miles or more in breadth at Natchez; the waters which pass over the Aa
170 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
west bank of the main channel never return; on the easf, 2 chain of high land, which at many points is washed by the river, meandering along its valley, compels its waters to rejoin the primitive stream; but from Baton Rouge, the high land which has hitherto held a southerly course, diverges suddenly to south east, and is no more visited by the grand channel of the Mississippi; all the waters which escape to the eastward between Baton Rouge and Manshac (15 miles) are collected by the Iberville, which, passing through a breach in the high land of about 60 yards wide, delivers its contents to the river Amit, which empties itself into lake Maurepas, communicating with the ocean by the intervention of the more considerable lake Pontchartrain: the high land is continued in a very narrow tongue or promontory, in a south easterly direction, along the island of New-Orleans, which is disruptured in many places, thereby venting the waters of the inundation into the lakes, which otherwise would be collected into an oblong bason, for- med by the high land on the one hand, and the bank of the river on the other—one half of the island of New-Orleans would have thereby become so completely inundated as to be uninhabitable.
The perpendicular height of the high lands above the level of the inundation is from 200 to 300 feet at Natchez; at Baton Rouge it does not exceed 25, and on the island of New-Or- leans it declines so rapidly as frequently to be lost under the accumulations of soil deposited by the waters of the inunda- tion. In the sides of a canal from New-Orleans to the river St. John’s, communicating with lake Pontchartrain, I discovered the continuation of the high land cut through to the breadth of little more than 20 feet.
To a stranger, the first view of the Mississippi conveys not that idea of grandeur, which he may have pictured to him- self: his first judgment will rest upon the appearance of its breadth, in which respect it is inferior to many rivers of much less note. Its principal channel is rarely a mile in width any where below the Ohio, unless where its stream is divided by islands or shallows; it is not unfrequently less than half a mile. The magnitude of this river is not to be computed by its width,
AND ITS DELTA. 171
but by its depth; in which it is perhaps equal to any on the globe; but is so contracted at the place of its entrance into the ocean, as to be there less in width than it is found to be at a
thousand miles from its mouth; the cause of this peculiarity is, — perhaps, not difficult to develope. The natural effect of rivers is to encrease continually the depth and breadth of their beds, by the perpetual abrasion of their waters; such must be the con- sequence with regard to all rivers which do not supply by allu- vionasufficient quantity of matter tocounteract this effect. Cer- tain rivers, which in the upper part of their course pass through fertile regions, whose rich and tender soil is easily broken down and carried away by the impetuosity of the current, not only supply this deficiency, but discharge such inconceiv- able quantities of earthy matter, as to fill up, in a great measure, those spacious bays and channels, scooped out by the hand of nature, in order to facilitate the mingling of their waters with those of the ocean; in such circumstances the breadth of the river will always be in proportion to the mean quantity of water discharged during the time it flows within its banks; for it is to be remarked, that during the time of the inundation the common channel of the river is in some measure lost in the immensity of waters, which flow over its banks in all di- rections; the bottom and sides of the channel, during this time, suffer no abrasion, but, on the contrary, from the diminu- tion of the velocity of the inferior currents, gain rapidly upon the breadth of the river: the moment the current of the river is confined within its proper banks, it begins to exert its do- minion over its own channel, and fashions its bed by the mo- mentum of its waters, attacking sometimes one side, sometimes the other, according as the main filament of the stream is de- flected from shore to shore; by which means large portions of the newly-created soil are preserved, while in other situations the more compact earth is undermined and borne into the ocean, and thus an equilibrium is restored between the channel and its included waters; hence it comes to pass that rivers which run through alluvial countries are much narrower in proportion to the quantity of their waters, than those whose courses are over rocks, gravel or sand; but on the other hand their depths
¥72 ‘ OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
are great, and they are consequently better fitted for the pur- poses of navigation. The Mississippi is supposed to be naviga- ble (pursuing the western branch or Missouri) $000 miles at least from the ocean. Those who have studied the theory of rivers inform us, that the stability of the bed of a river de- pends upon a due equilibrium between the velocity of the current and the tenacity of those matters which compose its bottom and sides: the velocity of rivers is greatest at the sur- face, gradually diminishing downwards; hence when the bot- tom is composed of maticr of the most yiclding nature, the channel will continue to deepen until the velocity at bottom is almost nothing, and the depth of the water will be regulated by those circumstances: the bottom of the bed of the Missis- sippi, within the alluvial country, being composed of the finest sand and lightest earth extremely comminuted, it is not surprising that its depth should be comparatively great; its soundings have (it is believed) never been taken with minute attention, but from New-Orleans to the mouth of the river, its depth is said to be from 50 to 70 fathoms, under the thread of the current, which follows the concave shore; diminishing gradually towards the elbows, where there are frequently con- siderable shallows. The sudden effect of the diminution of the’ velocity of water is no where more remarkable than at the mouth of this river, for the rolling torrent no sooner arrives at the ocean, than, finding its bed indefinitely enlarged, it spreads on all hands; the thread of the current diverges into an infi- nite number of filaments like radii from a center; the velocity: of the mass of water rapidly diminishes until, no longer able to propel the matter hitherto suspended and swept along by the swiftness of the stream, it is deposited 1 form of a crescent, opposing to the mouth of the river, a bar with from 12 to 20 feet water. The current being less, immediately to the right and left, than in front, of the mouth of the river, the deposi- tion and accumulation of matter will consequently proceed more rapidly on either side, and the velocity of the current being increased by the contraction of the channel, the bar will be protruded further into the ocean; hence it appears why the mouths of all aliuvial rivers terminate im a promontory pro-
AND ITS DELTA. 173
jecting more or less into the ocean; this last mentioned opera- tion of nature points out the method of improving the naviga- tion of the entrance of the Mississippi, which may be eftected at no very considerable expense by carrying out a pier on each side of the principal branch, composed of piles, so far as may be found sufficient to procure the desired depth; the bar will thereby be thrown into deeper water, and in_ process of time will accumulate and ascend to its former height, which will demand a new prolongation of the piers. Every small rivulet passing through lower Louisiana is a miniature of the Mississippi; what may be performed upon a small scale in respect to the latter, will certainly succeed (by well directed efiorts) on the former.—The river St, John’s, 60 to 80 feet wide, entering lake Pontchartrain to the north of New-Orleans, was found frequently so choaked up and impeded by a bar across its mouth, that canoes could sometimes with difficulty enter; sloops and batteaux’ being obliged at such times to re- main in the lake exposed to danger; the government directed two very simple piers, each composed of a double row of round rough piles, to be carried from the shore across the bar, and although the piers were pervious to the water, yet so much velocity was acquired, that the bar was very speedily swept off, and the river has always since remained navigable for small sloops and schooners, which proceed up to the city by the river and canal of Carondelet.
The depth of the river diminishes considerably as we advance upwards; probably owing to the increased tenacity of the mat- ter forming its bed; at Natchez, when the waters are low, it is about 12 fathoms, and there are situations below the Ohio, where the ordinary boats have been embarrassed to find a pas- sage both upwards and downwards; a moderate fresh never- theless renders the Mississippi navigable up to the falls of St. Anthony, about 2000 miles from its mouth. The breadth of the river appears to be upon the increase upwards, in propor- tion as we get above the alluvial country, as high as the Mis- souri,, notwithstanding the loss of a number of principal rivers which flow in below; in latitude 42°, it 1s said to be halfa
174 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
mile in breadth, which probably equals its mean breadth from Yazooz to its mouth.
The margin of the river is the highest land to be found in the valley of the Mississippi.—As the river overflows its banks, the waters immediately begin to deposit their grossest particles, which are chiefly sand and black marl, and in their progress backwards this deposition is continued until at length, a mat- ter is deposited so highly levigated that, upon the retiring of the waters, it assumes a compactness and solidity resembling pitch : when the river by disruption alters its course, and new accumu- lations of slime sand and marl are laid upon this very compact earth, a false belief might be induced that this solid soil is not the offspring of the river, but the original parent earth coeval with the Mississippi itself, upon which this great river had af- terwards deposited the rich spoils of the northern regions, borne down by its mighty tide; this compact soil I have found at the depth of from 10 to 30 feet; and in other situations no appear- ance is to be seen of any other than the common soil formed of the mud of theriver. The soil near the river is sandy, par- ticularly that which has been lately formed; from a quarter to half a mile from the margin of the river the sand is less appa- rent, and it loses its name of ‘ terre sablonneuse,’ acquiring that of ‘ terre grasse,’ being the richest black marl, with a moderate admixture of sand; at greater distances, and frequently at some depth under the last mentioned soils, is found the above men- tioned compact earth, called glaise (potters earth); it is no doubt eminently adapted to the use of the potter, though hi- therto not much applied to the manufacture of earthen ware. Upon all lands long subject to culture and defended from the inundation, although near to the margin, the appearance of sand is almost lost, but it is evident from the friability of the soil, and the facility with which itis cultivated, that a large por- tion still remains intimately mixed with it, whereas the terre grasse (unmixed or pure marl) yields with difficulty to the plow; it exhibits proofs of the richest marl, a slight shower * causing it to crumble into powder after being turned up; yetas our climate is exposed to sudden and violent talls of rain with
AND ITS DELTA. 175
subsequent hot sun-shine, it frequently becomes so firm and un- yielding, after the crop has been planted, that no mode of cultivation can be conveniently applied, but barely scratch- ing the surface with the hoe; yet this became with the French indigo planters a favourite sale although less productive, it is more easily kept clear of weeds, the “compacted soil refusing a passage to their tender fibrous roots, while the vigorous tap- root of the indigo plant conquers the obstinacy of “the subja- cent stratum. Frou the river bank a natural glacis is formed, whose declivity at New-Orleans may be at ane rate of 6 or 8 inches in 100 feet, to the distance of 6 or 700 toises, diminish- ing, after which the descent becomes almost imperceptible, and is gradually lost in swamps, marshes and lakes, which finally communicate with the sea.
This peculiar structure of the lands formed by the operation of the great river itself, has pointed out to the ingenuity of man, a simple and natural mode of defending his plantation against the encroachments of the inundation: he commences by torm- ing an embankment near the margin of the river, elevated above the highest waters and of sufficient strength to resist their pressure; he is now protected from the direct influx of the Missis- sippi, but the transudation from the river is so considerable, that his plantation would be no better than a quag-mire; he is there- fore under the necessity of establishing a regular system of ditches crossing each other at right angles, by which the soil is com- pletely drained and placed in the most favorable situation to dis- play the wonders of its inexhaustible fertility. —Within the Mis- sissippi territory a vast body of alluvial land exists, but the scheme of draining by cross ditches would produce here no beneficial effect, because the waters find no means of escaping in the rear, but being hemmed in by the high land, would at length ac- cumulate so as to produce an immense bason, bordered by the embankment on one hand, and by the high land on the other: although no successful attempt is likely to be made in our day, yet posterity will reclaim those lands: when the industry of a full population, shall have stamped an intrinsic value upon the soil of our country, the ingenuity of man will discover a reme- dy; probably the steam engine so highly improved of late years
176 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
will be called in to accomplish this object. Its application in Holland to the draining of the Haerlem meer, and even for the reduction of the Zuyder-Zee, which the late war, it appears, has indeed suspended, leaves but little doubt of its full efficacy for a purpose of inferior magnitude. Lands susceptible of cultivation donot uponan average extend to three quarters of a mile from the river, although in some places they may reach to two miles, but in other situations do not exceed one quarter of a mile: there is no doubt that a scrupulous attention to the perfection of the em- bankments will every where augment the quantity of cultivable land; and we hazard nothing in predicting that at some future day, the productive surface of lower Louisiana will be multiplied ten fold: a rich and enterprising population, conducted by a wise and patriotic government, will pierce, with navigable canals, this alluvial country in all directions: grand issues will be pro- vided to conduct to the ocean the supertluous waters which now drown, for three months of the year, nine tenths of the country; the whole surface of the land will then be reclaimed and become fit for the habitation of man; the richest harvests will be col- lected from a soil of the most exuberant fertility, which per- haps no time can exhaust: should however vegetation at length seem to advance with a sluggish pace, the planter has his reme- dy at hand, he may call in the aid of the elements; let the waters of a single inundation flow over his field, and it will re- ceive a manure which 20 years cultivation cannot absorb. Re- servoirs might be formed, as in ancient Egypt, to retain a por- tion of the waters of the inundation, but this happy climate does not require such precaution; the season of the inundation furnishes less rain than at other times, but it is so ordered by the course of nature, that about the time the waters retire, retresh- ing showers fall almost daily throughout lower Louisiana, which continue to invigorate the crops until the approach to the har- vest season.
The inundation takes place during the season that the crops are under cultivation, and in the precise time when re- quired for perfecting the culture of rice, which is therefore most conveniently placed in the rear of the plantation; nor is the in- undation necessary for any other species of crops, but on the
AND ITS DELTA. 177
contrary is often extremely injurious by its excess; the embank- ments are frequently ruptured, and che crops of many planta- tions are totally lost; the lives of the inhabitants are sometimes in danger from the disruption of their levées in the night-time ; this however is but a rare case. The planters possess great expe- rimental knowledge in the art of arresting the progress of this devastation, and even entirely shutting up the breach which has been made by the torrent of the Mississippi. They begin their operations at some distance from the extremities of the breach at sound parts of the embankment, and, advancing in form of a crescent towards the margin of the river, where they know the land to be most elevated, they are often enabled to shut out the river by this process, the greater part of the work being thus carried on in water comparatively still; whereas every inch of the breach is acted upon by a furious torrent, be- coming every instant deeper and wider. A very great breach happened during Governor Miro’s administration about three leagues above New-Orleans; an immense body of water advan- ced on its rear and threatened to drown the city; the people were discouraged.—The Governor called out all the assistance which could be spared from town and country and placed him- self in the row of common labourers, transferring his sod from hand to hand, to those who, trom their superior knowledge in this species of hydraulic architecture, were employed in con- structing the provisional embankment: they did not succeed in completely shutting up the breach, but the quantity of over- flowing water was reduced to one quarter, and the extremities of the new levée were fortified until the retiring of the waters; vast quantities of fish were precipitated upon the land, which corrupted and filled the air with a pestilential stench. The town was unusually sickly that season.
The Mississippi is already celebrated on account of the salubri- ty of its waters; in which respect, no doubt, it rivais the Nile. It seems to be admitted (perhaps without due investigation) that it possesses properties favorable to the mutipiication of the hu- man spccies, by promoting fecundity; lis provabiy more ccrtain that the use of its waters contributes to banisi: sevoral disorders commu in other countnes: the gout wouid be unknown were
B b
178 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
it not introduced by strangers; and instances of the stone and gravel are extremely rare. The Creoles who drink this water are a comely race, both male and female, of middle stature, and handsome persons; the males are ingenious, active, bold and enterprising; fond of hunting and other laborious amusements, and capable of enduring great fatigue: the gracefulness and beauty of the ladies are universally acknowleged.
The water of the Mississippi is drunk in great purity by the first class of French planters, and inhabitants of New-Orleans; it is suffered to deposit by repose (in large earthen jars containing a hundred or more gallons) its sediment and feculencies; the ‘precipitation is some times accelerated by bruised peach stones and kernels. Volney says that in Egypt bruised bitter almonds are applied to the same purpose; certainly the process of the Chinese is much neater by means of allum. The inhabitants ge- nerally employ two jars, in order that one may be filled while the other is in use, by which means they always drink the purest water: those who are long in the habit of drinking the Missis- sippi water, cannot immediately reconcile themselves to the taste of any other.
When the river is low and the current extremely gentle, the water possesses but a very slight degree of turbidness; the cur- rent is however at all times sufficiently strong to roll an immense body of water into the ocean, in which respect the diminutive Nile cannot bear a comparison; the waters of the latter being frequently in a state of *corruption immediately before the com- mencement of the inundation; the Nile becomes also shallow in many places, whereas a ship of the line might find, at all times, sufficient water 6 or 700 miles up the Mississippi, were the im- pediment on the bar removed.
There is a very striking difference in the momentum of the waters of the two rivers at their entrance into the sea; that of the Mississippi is at all times sufficient to preserve 17 feet of water upon the bar of the principal branch, whereas the mouths of the great branches of the Nile are so choaked up with mud and sand, that small coasting vessels can scarcely enter, and this is practicable only through a very narrow winding channel,
* Volney.
AND ITS DELTA. 179
which resembles very much the entrance into many of the crecks, which to the westward of the Mississippi serve to dis- embogue the waters of the inundation.
The Mississippi has its Delta as well as the Nile, but that of the former is much more extensive than that of the latter; if we sup- pose the apex of the Delta of Egypt to be at Grand Cairo, near which the high land diverges considerably to the east, its lati- tude from south to north will be nearly a degree and a half; aiid its base, along the sea coast, about two degrees: 1f we admit the Deita of the Mississippi to commence only at Natchez (although there is an immense body of alluvial land above) op- posite to which the high lands on the west of the valley open to the right with a rapid divergence, its latitude will be not less than two degrees and a half, and its longitude, on the coast, about three degrees; hence it results that the superficial con- tent of the Mississippi Delta is to that of the Nile as 5 to 2, which may be adopted as the proportional magnitude of fhe two rivers, though there is reason to believe that our Nile pours into the ocean a much greater proportion of water than what we have stated, and that the Delta of the Mississippi would have been much more extensive, were it not placed in the tract of a perpetual vortex formed by an immense current in the sea, oc- casioned by the tropical east winds forcing the ocean against the oblique coast of America, which produces a continual flux between the main land and island of Cuba, giving birth to the well known gulph stream; but a great body of this current, rushing on with unpetuosity in a direct line northerly, impin- ges against the west coast of East Florida, and is there detlected and dashed along the coasts of East and West Florida, Louisiana and Mexico; and by the promontory of Yucatan is thrown again into the main current, thus constituting a permanent vortex, which sweeps along a great proportion of the spoils of the Mississippi, as fast as they are projected into the ocean: in confirmation of this position it may be remarked that the bay of Campcechy, so favourably situated torthe reception and reten- tion or aiiuvial matters, is exceedingly embarrassed with shoals of sand and mud; so thit vessels of moderate burthen can scarce- ly get within 2 muics of any part of the coast; this evil is upon
180 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
the encrease, and can only be attributed to the operation of the current, taking up every moveable matter along our coast, and depositing it in every bay or creek in contact with the cir- cumference of the vortex: there are no alluvial rivers flowing into the bay of Campechy; but the Rio del Norte, and one or two others of less note, contribute no doubt to the production of this effect, by throwing their mite into the ocean.
Pursuing our parallel of the two rivers, we shall find that the Mississippi as well as the Nile, proceeds to the ocean by two permanent branches, that to the west breaks off, about two or three miles below the Red River, and bears the Indian name of Chafalaya, or river of the Apelousas: there is every appearance that this branch may have anciently been a continuation of the great Red river; the quantity of water delivered by the one and received by the other being nearly equal, and the general ap- pearance of the banks and common breadth of the channels being very similar. The Chafalaya is dangerous for boats under the conduct of unskilful pilots descending the Mississippi; the velocity of the stream passing laterally out of the Mississippi, oc- casions an attraction (if the term may be admissible) of all float- ing bodies at a considerable distance from the shore; if the un- wary or ignorant voyager falls within the sphere of this attraction, and his boat be not sufficiently manned to enable him to escape, by taking an oblique course out of this unexpected suction, he is precipitated into the western branch; heavy boats connot re- gain the Mississippi; the lightest must be well manned to stem the extreme rapidity of the current; the perpetual rising of the bank and bed of the great river from the influence of the inun- dation, is probably the cause of so precipitate a descent into the smaller river. The Chafalaya was formerly, but is not now na- vigable into the country of the Apelousas and Alacapas; the inconceivable quantity of drift tmber which went down, had formed many islands, which so contracted the different chan- nels, that at length they have been entirely shut up, (not to the passage of water, but) to the passage ot every kind of craft; there is said to be at this time a floating bridge upon the Chafa- laya, ten leagues along the course of the river, and continually accumulating by the cause which produced it: some parts of it
AND ITS DELTA. 18!
are so compact as to have an appearance of solidity; and ve- getation has made considerable progress thereon.* The Cha- falaya in its progress through the Delta collects many other in- ferior streams, and before its junction with the ocean becomes, in certain situations, a mile in width; it is said to have nine or ten feet water on its bar; it is probably superior to the Phatmetic branch of the Nile, but is not equal to one tenth part of the Mis- sissippi. The mouth of the Chatalaya is probably distant from the principal mouth of the Mississippi nearly 150 miles, and is now unnoticed; at some future period its river will be crowded with vessels and boats transporting the rich harvests of its ever- productive soil. There are many other inlets along the coast of the Delta which flow with fresh water during the inundation, and admit the waters of the ocean at other seasons: those have all got their bars, and are, as before observed, miniatures of the Mississippi; a small tide of about three feet perpendicular faci- litates the passage of those bars for small craft, some of them are seen above water while the tide is out; the remedy for the removal of those bars has already been noticed: our posterity will see those inlets or bayous converted by the hand of industry into extensive navigable canals, penetrating in all directions this tract of inexhaustible fertility, which will become the garden of the United States.
Sugar having become of late a staple commodity of the lower country, it cannot be uninteresting to enquire how far, in its present state, it is susceptible of that culture. The following short statement is derived from the practical experience of the planters. It is now admitted that the sugar cane does not arrive (regularly) to full maturity beyond 75 miles above New-Orleans, following the sinuosities of the river; and this corresponds with a line drawn westerly along the sea coast of Pensacola and Mo- bille, crossing the island of New-Orleans: below the city the lands decline so rapidly that, beyond 15 miles, the soil isso much imbrued in the waters of the Mississippi, as to be totally unfit for the culture of the cane; within those limits, the most expe-
* Note. A certain extent of the Red River is in this situation ; the water is heard gurgling under foot, being completely concealed by astraium of timber upon which there is soil sufficient to sup- port plants, and even trees of moderate size.
182 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
rienced planters admit that one quarter of the cultivated lands of any considerable plantation may be planted in cane, one quar- ter left for pasture, and the remaining half employed for pro- visions &c. and a reserve for change of crops. One Parisian arpent, of 180 feetsquare, may be expected to produce, on an average, 1 hhd. (12 cwt.) of sugar, and fifty gallons of rum.
From the above data, admitting that both sides of the river are planted for ninety miles in extent, and about three quarters of a mile in depth, it will result that the annual product may a- mount, in round numbers, to twenty five thousand hhds. of sugar, with twelve thousand puncheons of rum. — Enterprising young planters say, that one third, or even one half of the ara- ble land might be planted in cane; it may also be remarked, that a regular supply of provisions from above, at a moderate price, would enable the planter to give his attention to a greater body of land cultivated in cane: several of the departing bran- ches of the Mississippi furnish strips of land along thei mar- gins within the sugar latitude; there is also a portion of the Alacapas, parallel to the sea coast, favorable for this culture ;. every circumstance being therefore taken into view, we may admit that in the,existing state of the lower country, double the quantities of sugar and rum above mentioned may be pro- duced, although hitherto the annual product has only been about 5000 hhds. of sugar.
When the immense regions watered by the tributary streams of the Mississippi, particularly those extending to the sources of the Missouri, shall be opened up and cultivated by the per- severing labor of man, our winters will be enchained in the north, anda milder climate will extend itself over the whole of the Delta; and as it lies under the same parallels of latitude, so will its productions be similar to those of the Delta of Egypt: and if we extend our views to a future period, when the wa- ters of this great river shall be completely under the control of man, by a regular system of canals and embankments, such as probabiy existed ji in Egypt during its best days under its ancient kings, some idea may be formed of the inestimable value of a country, which most happily for itself and for the United Staics, How Constitutes a very precious portion of the union,
AND ITS DELTA. 183
It has already been said that the tides on the coast rise about three feet perpendicular, but they are not lunar tides; another cause must be sought: the bay of Mexico being a species of Mediterranean sea, surrounded by the continent and a close chain of islands, is notsensibly susceptible of: the gravitating pow- er of the sun and moon; the tides take place only once AG twenty four hours, and nearly at the same hours in the morning they depend altogether upon the winds, which, during the es gular summer season, blow in upon the land all day; and in the night, it is either calm, or there isa small returning land breeze: the sea breeze commences in the morning about nine or ten o’clock, and ceases in the evening about sun set; the wa- ters having acquired a momentum from the action of the wind continue to rise until about day break, when itis high water; a tide depending upon such a cause must be subject to frequent anomalies: in the winter, as may be expected from this theory, the tides are extremely irregular, being governed by the va- riable winds of that uncertain season.
This small tide produces an effect upon the Mississippi; have noted at New-Orleans (during the absence of the inun- dation) a rise of fourteen inches, about sun rise; and at Man- shac from 6 to 8 inches;this ascent of the waters of the Mis- sissippi is produced merely by aswell or wave; the current at the same time continually issuing from the channel into the ocean; this tide requires a considerable time to make its pro- gress upwards against the current: those who have perused Condainine’s account of his voyage down the Maragnon are acquainted with every thing that can be said upon this curi- ous subject. The great Newton has observed, that the. tides which take place nearly at the same time at London-bridge, and at the mouth of the Thames, are not the’same; but that at the bridge is the same which happened twelve hours before at the Nore.
It is probable that any tide coming up to Ne Oneme4 is the same which arrived three days before at the mouth ofthe river, consequently the distance from New-Orleans to the nrouth of the river is divided by the tides into three parts; (i. e.)" one tide at each extremity, and two others making their progress
134 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
upwards. This statement is only conjectural, founded upon p-obable circumstances, having been unable to procure a suf+ ficient number of accurate observations to be made at diifcr- ent points.
When the river is very low, the velocity of the stream is scarcely a mile per hour at Natchez, and much slower at New- Orleans, probably not above hait a mile; but during the time of the inundation from 4 to 5 miles.—iIt is asserted that the current is swifter during the night than the day; this perhaps might be accounted for by saying, that there is generally a breeze by day blowing up the river, which opposes the current and dams up the water to a certain degree; and that the night being generally still, the water descends with accelerated velo- city; but another fact is not so easily accounted for, viz. that saw-mills, which are constructed upon canals leading from the Mississippi, perform more work (ceteris paribus) in the night than in the day, the number of strokes of the saw being found greater in a given time.—The encrease of the specific gravity of water by the coldness of the night will be of no avail in the solution of this question, because the weight and velocity of water in a lateral canal cannot thereby be encreased. We cannot suppose that the evaporation during the day produces a sensible effect in diminishing the quantity of water, because the water thus diminished in the course of the day arrives at the mill during the night. Is it not rather owing to the pertect stillness of the night, that the machine performs its office with- out any unnecessary agitation or friction, which in the day is greatly promoted by the vivifying influence of the sun, cau- sing a more rapid circulation of the atmosphere, and exciting to motion every body on the suriace of the earth, whether ani- mate or inanimate? It is known to mariners that tne relative cessation of motion on board a vessel under sail, contributes greatly to the rapidity of her movement. This phenomenon merits a more perfect solution.
Although the velocity ot tie water has been said to be from one to five miles per hour, yet this is to be understood of wiat may be called the thread of the current, it being considerably less along the shores, and very frequent counter-currents or ed-
AND ITS DELTA. 185
dies of great extent are found in favorable situations, which greatly facilitate the ascending navigation of the river; but as the current is continually detlected from shore to shore, boats are at many points unable to stem the force of the current, and are under the necessity of crossing frequently to get as far as possible out of the main current.
No abrasion takes place at the bottom of the channel of the Mississippi (in Lower Louisiana), an equilibrium has long since been established; it is believed rather that its bed is on the rise: as the margin of the river rises by the influence of every inun- dation which passes over it, it is thought that the bottom must rise also; but this effect must depend altogether upon the pro- trusion of the cradle of the river into the ocean, by which means the extremity of the inclined plane which the river has carved out for the conveyance of its waters, being prolonged horizon- tally, the waters within the channel must acquire a new eleva- tion, placing themselves parallel to their former position, and the bed of the river will rise proportionably so far only as the alluvial bottom extends; and thus there will be a low but pro- gressive rise of the margin and bed of the river, which is per- fectly agreeable to Eeeevaion.
The ime tae of land is surprisingly quick in certain situati- ons; the moment the waters lose their great.velocity, they begin to deposit their contents; the most favorable position is on either side of the main channel, where the current is nearly but not absolutely destroyed : as for example, when the river suddenly makes a breach or cut-off from bend to bend, leaving a circle of several leagues of the former bed with little or no current, the waters immediately begin to block up the.two entrances, leaving the interior in form of a lake: in 5 years the soil will be tole- rably firm, nearly of equal height with the adjoining lands, and covered with forests of willow and cotton-weod (probably popu- lus deltoides*) 50 feet high; some parts of the old channels were perhaps not less than a hundred feet deep: this wonderful crea- tive power of the Mississippi may, by the ingenuity of man, be applied to the accomplishment of grand objects: by proper em- bankments, and a regular supply and discharge of the waters of
ele * Of Bartram.
186 OF THE MISSISSIPPI,
the Mississippi, the surface of the earth may be raised to a great height, tar above the generat level of the inundation: travellers inform us that the towns and villages of the Delta of the Nile are built upon elevated situations, which are so many islands during the season of the inundation. How shall we account for the for- mation of those islands? we have no reason to believe that they pre-existed in the Delta, and they could not be formed by the - natural agency of the inundation; the accumulation of earth by mere labor for the formation of so many islands would have been an Herculean task; it is therefore more rational to suppose that the ingenuity of the aborigines ofancient Egypt, directed by the example of nature herself, pursued the more simple and ta- cile mode of elevating the site of their habitations in the manner above described.
We shall conclude the above imperfect sketch by observing, that it is the result of occasional observation tor a ‘series of years, and of scattered information collected from various sources, pro- bably often uncertain, from a cause which is unfortunately too general; viz. the extreme inattention of persons, even of some education, to the most curious phenomena passing daily under their review.
Circumstances did not favor the investigation of several points of curious enquiry. It would be desirable to ascertain the obliquity of the inclined plane by which the Mississippi conveys: its waters to the ocean, both at the surface and at the bottom of the river, and at various distances from its mouth; as also the respective velocities of the water in those positions, at low and high water. The difference of the velocities of the water at and under the surface, was turned to account by an ingeni- ous master of a vessel, who, finding himself detained in his de- scent by a calm, dropt his anchor ten or a dozen fathom below the surface, by which his vessel was so much retarded in the stream as to enable him to steer sufficiently to keep clear of the shore. This hint might perhaps be improved to advantage: a much more perfect instrument than an anchor may | be invented for the purpose of holding the inferior current, and in situations similar to the Gult-stream, a vessel may thereby be enabled to escape an enemy.
a
AND ITS DELTA. 187
A Chart of the alluvial country is a desideratum, with which it is to be hoped the curious will in due time be obliged, under the present enlightened government: a correct sketch of the va- rious reservoirs and canals which this great river has formed for the reception and disemboguement of its immense volume of waters, will become the basis of the vast improvements which at a future day will be made upon this inestimable portion of
the United States. WILLIAM DUNBAR.
Natcuez, January 1, 1804.
E
1687 3
No. XXXI.
MONTHLY and annual Results of Meteorological Observations made by William Dunbar, Esq. at the Forest, 4 Miles East of the River Mississippi, in Latitude 31°. 28%. North, and Lon- gitude 91°. 30%. West of Greenwich. Communicated by the
Author. ; Read, April 6th, 1804. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. RAIN. qo a Q e a 5 YEAR, 1901. [2 2]/28 zal & aa | 38 aon Deg,|Deg. Deg.|Deg.|Inches. finches, inches |Iches. Inches. January. 77 | 25 51 | 52 130 30]29 74/30 06] 0 56] 2 82 February. 79 | 27 | 57 52 30 15/29 01;29 93| 0 54] 4 81 March. 38" Ea “61 | 50 30 08)29 74/29 Si] 0 34| 3 20 April. 89 " 62) 50 [30 10] 29 65|29 88|~0 4a| 4 85 May. prs > 72 | 45% 30 00/29 76] 29 89| 0 24] 0 95 | June. “98 | 68 | 82 | 30 (30 00/29 77/29 92|"0 23] 0 50 July. 96 | 65 380 3130 00 [29 8329 60| 0 17| 4 83 August. 92 | 70 ie “79_| 22 /30 00/29 75/29 92| 0 25) 3 12 September. | 92 | 61_ a “31 |30 60|29 74|29 92) 0 26] 5 68 O&tober. 85 | 4a = 76 | 41 [30 08|29°7630 97 | 0 32] 3 22 November. 77 | 30 | 55 | 27 (30 25/29 74 [2974 30 OF 04} 051] 5 85 December. 73 | 24| 49 | 48 [30 25/29 46/30 30] 0 79] 5 67, Whole year. | 98 | 24 | 663| 74 {30 25|29 46/30 028| 0 79|45 50, YEAR, 1802.
‘ 2 |>eg.,eg.|Deg. [Deg Inches finches, Inches. Inches, Inches. | i
January. 79 | 27 | 55 | 52 130 25) 29 63) 30 00) 0 62( 5 23 __February. 78 | 24 Ela eal 30 22 |29 71 |30 36] 0 Si} 4 79 metas ESS BE Ewe ee Ed ee
April 88 | 52 71 |'36}30-18| 99 71130 08
May Thermom. broken. | 30 04] 29 61 |29 62, 7
June 93] 62 | 65 | 31 30 0429 75 [29 90] 0
July 93 | 66 | 78s 27/30 00| 29 76130 56 4 | 9 98°
August. os er} 78 {30 30 06 | 99 79 |99 92-0 a7 | 6 52
September. "98 | 45 | 76 | 53 | 30 07 | 29 79 29 93] October. | 90 [52] 657) 58 | 30 90/2979 99 85 | 0 a
November. 80 | 28 | 53. 52 | 30 19|29 76 2098] 0 4a] 4.
December. 70 26 | 47 | 44] 30 25/29 75 3000 | 0 50, . 6 07" Whole year. | 98 | 24 | 59 | 74 |30 25 |29 G1 30 01
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 189
THERMOMETER, THERMOMETER,
within. without. arf pect sae 9) | A) aks] ce Wa eS Z| = 4 YEAR, 1803. | @.3 Ee eee a Bl eaepes|se| § g : as o joy Slog Sloe 5S] og | oR J aS] as 0g § =o Co =a Via Nia eo | so fs = oe aie ule “ [mele oe Salle SLE * Deg [Deg |Deg Deg. Deg. [Deg. Deg |Deg. Inches. Inches [Inches |Inches. Inches. January. i “| 78 | 26) 47 | 52 [30 27/29 79 (30 02) 0 48) 2 00
February. 28 | Ti} 29 73 0 54
March.. 36 | 29 65 3| 051] 1.99
2: 15;
April. 2 | 42 R 29 71-| 2 0 36] 3 70
May. ; 48 29 59 0 54
June. | 65 3 29 63 | < 0 41 July. 70 | 82 | 20 | 95 | 68 | 29 71 2| 0 34
August. 91 | 72 | 81 | 19 | 94 29 70 2) 0.35
——|—— | ——__ —
September. 90 | 64 | 77 | 26 | 94 | 62 | < 29:73 0 30} 4 01
October. : 4 |. 29 71 0.32] 3 37
November. | 0 40} 5 41
December. : 0 59) 4 45
Whole year. ‘ y 0 79 |37 56
REMARKS.
1803, June 30th, at74 P.M. The sun being just set, a beautiful rain-bow was painted in the heavens forming a compleat semi-circle, excepting a small portion near the horizon which was imperfect ; the external bow was very distinct: the inner bow, which was very vivid in the upper parts, struck the view with an unusual appearance, and, when inspected minutely, two other bows were distinctly seen, within the principal bow, concentric with it, and in contact with each other; (i. e.) where the purple of the first ended the red of the second commenced, and so of the second and third; a dim ruddy appearance was seen within the third bow, which might have been taken for the rudiments of a fourth. The second bow was only about half the breadth oF its principal, and the vividness of its colours was diminished in the same proportion. The third was of the same breadth with the second, but its brightness was reduced to half that of the other. These bows appeared to diminish in brightness, and to present appearances analogous to the images of a candle reflected from the double surfaces of a plate mirror. As the rain-bow is a re- flector by which we can find the place of the sun, we must conclude from this phenomenon, that the horizontal refraction of the atmosphere had produced two images of the sun, above and in contact with the real sun, in the same order in which the bows were visible in the opposite side of the hemisphere.
1803, December 23d, at 5th. P. M. A very beautiful and very bright halo was seen around the moon; the prismatic colours were very distinct—red within, yellowish in the middle, and blue without.
ee yc
On Monday, February 6th, 1804.
At Northumberland, Pennsylvania, which had of late years been the place of his residence—died,
The Rev. JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, L. L. D. F. R. S.
—s_te—
He was chosen a Member of “The American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia” on the 22d January, 1785.
—
AT A STATED MEETING, Feb. 17, 1804. It was resolved unanimously,
THAT a member of the Society be appointed to deli- ver an Eulogium on the death of their late eminent Associate, Joseph Priestley, and that a special meeting of the Society be held on the 24th inst. at 6 P. M. for the purpose of electing the member who shall deliver it.
AT A SPECIAL MEETING, FEB. 24, 1804.
Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society, was chosen to deliver the Eulogium, as directed by the resolve of the 17th instant.
END OF PART FIRST,
+
&
Bay “onary ied 2 a
ay
District of Pennsylvania. TO WIT:
(L.S.) BE If REMEMBERED, That on the first day of July, in the thirty third year of the Independence of the Uni- ted States of America, A. D. 1809,
C. & A. Conrad and Company, of said district have deposited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit:
“ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at “ Philadelphia, for promoting useful Knowledge. Vou. V1.”
In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, intituled “An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by secu- ring the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,” And also to the act entitled, ‘“‘An Act supplementary to an act entitled ““An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and pro- prietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned,”’ and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints.
D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District Court of Pennsylvania.
HD WCRDISO MONS.
She \Llowing, ave the Doures adopted \or the qovern- ament o\, ommattees im the choree o\ ayers \er jwiblicata on.
Sv. Bhar the grounds o\ the CGommitter > + elrovee o\, ayers \or rhe We, should, always Ke oo he amportance ov semgularity o\ he subrects, or co the advantageous MANNY o\ Wwealing, thom, without C6 Wwretemdung, Yo answer, or to make the Sccredy, an- 6b swovable, \er the covtanby o\ rhe \acts, ov Wroprrcty coh the TLAIONUNGD » contained im the several harers 66 no wblished, wick must stall vest on the eveddt 66 oy ywiqment oh, ve respecte author.
Secondly. 6 Shat nether the Sceray, mov the 66 foonvmardlee o\ rhe Wer, do ever we eu onion Say a body, When ay oer vhey, THUAN Wwhlioh, <6 oy when amy subject o\ Jove ov Nature that comes G6 Lelove them.”
LIST
OF THE
OFFICERS
OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, FOR THE YEAR 1809.
Parron. Stmon SnyDER, Governor of the State of PENNSYLVANIA. PresiDENT. Thomas Jefferson.
Robert Patterson. Vicr-PRESIDENTS. | soa Wistar.
Benjamin Smith Barton.
Thomas C. James.
Thomas T. Hewson.
Nathaniel Chapman. Mahlon Dickerson.
SECRETARIES ssssccsoeee
( William White. Peter S. Duponceau.
| Jonathan Williams. William Short. John M’ Dowell.
: Zaccheus Collins. COUNCELLORS vesssenes 5 Jonathan B, Smith. Nicholas Collin. Andrew Ellicott. Benjamin Rush. William Tilghman. (James Woodhouse. (lately deceased.)
Charles W. Peale.
CURATORS srasecceseseres ] Bote Hare Jun. John R. Smith.
LIBRARIAN and John Vaughan. TREASURER.
(eo)
LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, ELECTED SINCE JANUARY, 1804.
Members resident in the United States.
William Short, Virginia.
Joseph Willard, D. D. late Pres. of Hav. Coll. Mass. (since deceased.)
Zaccheus Collins, Philadelphia.
John Maclean, M. D. Professor of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry in the College of New-Jersey.
Edward Miller, M. D. New-York. °
Rev. John Prince, Salem, Massachusetts.
Captain William Jones, Philadelphia.
Charles Smith, Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Samuel Webber, President of Havard College, Massachusetts.
Samuel Moore, Philadelphia.
¥. Adrian Vanderkemp, State of New-York.
Benjamin Silliman, Professor of Chemistry and Natural History, Yale Col- lege, Connecticut.
William Tilghman, Chief Justice of Pennsylvania.
Bushrod Washington, Mount Vernon, Virginia.
Joseph Cloud, Philadelphia.
Rey. Samuel B. Wiley, Philadelphia.
William Dubourg, D. D. President of St. Mary’s College, Baltimore.
Joseph Sansom, Philadelphia.
Samuel F. Conover, M. D. Philadelphia.
Mahlon Dickerson, Philadelphia.
Irene Dupont de Nemours, Wilmington, Delaware.
Nathaniel Chapman, M. D. Philadelphia.
John M’Dowell, Provost of the University of Pennsylvania.
Ferdinand R. Hassler, Math. Prof. at the U. S. Milit. Acad. West Point.
George Izard, Pennsylvania.
James Gibson, Philadelphia.
Archibald Bruce, M. D. Prof. of Mineralogy in the University of N. York.
Edward Penington, Philadelphia.
Horace Binney, ditto.
Rey. William Staughton, D. D. ditto.
Robert Fulton, New-York.
LIST OFe AMERICAN MEMBERS. XXili
Silvain Godon, Philadelphia.
George William Featherstonhaugh, Duanesborough, New-York. Rey. D. B. Warden, State of New-York.
Robert M. Patterson, M. D. Philadelphia.
Thomas Moore, Maryland.
James Winthrop, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Nathaniel Bowditch, Salem, Massachusetts.
Joel Barlow, District of Columbia.
Foreign Members.
The Prince de la Paz, of the Kingdom of Spain.
Don Pedro Ceyallos, ditto.
Don Antonio Josef de Cayanilles, ditto. (since deceased.)
Edward Jenner, M. D. London.
William Hawes, M. D. London. (since deceased.)
Baron Alexander de Humboldt, of Berlin.
Destut Tracy, Paris.
Olaf Swartz, Professor of the Bergian Institute of Horticulture in Sweden.
Martinus Van Marum, M. D. Secretary to the. Batavian Society of Scien- ces, at Haarlem.
Francisco de Borja G. Stockler, Secretary of the Royal Academy of Sci- ences, Lisbon.
Adrian Giles Camper, Anatomist, Friesland, Holland.
John Eric Forstrom, St. Bartholomews.
Charles Philibert de Lasteyrie, Paris.
Ross Cuthbert, of Lower Canada.
F. Andre Michaux, M. D. Paris.
CONDITIONS OF THE
EXTRA MAGELLANIC-PREMIUM.
M. DE MAGELLAN haying fixed at ten Guineas, the sum to be an- nually disposed of as a Premium, according to the strict terms of the dona- tion, and the Magellanic Fund having been so managed as to produce an annual surplus, the Society, with a view to promote as far as may be in their power the liberal intentions of the donor, have determined that the above surplus shall be disposed of under the following
REGULATIONS.
1. The surplus Magellanic-Premium may be awarded at such stated meeting of the Society, as shall be agreed to, at a previous stated meeting, due notice being given thereof to the members.
XXIV EXTRA MAGELLANIC-PREMIUM.
2. Every communication which shall have been offered with a view to the Magellanic-Premium, and to which the same shall not have been award- ed, shall (except such as the Society shall not think at all worthy of notice) be again taken into consideration, with a view to the awarding-of the surplus premium ; and if such communication shall, at such meeting, be thought within the general view of the donation, and to be sufficiently valuable to deserve a public reward, a surplus premium may be awarded to the author thereof. ;
3. The surplus premium shall consist of a gold medal, of the value of not less than twenty dollars, nor more than forty-five dollars, engraved with a similar device to that of the original premium, except that it shall contain the words “ Extra Magellanic-Premium,” or at the option of the success- ful candidate, the value of such medal in money, accompanied with a Di- ploma on parchment, with the seal of the Society.
4. All the rules and regulations concerning the application for the award- ing of the original Magellanic-Premium, shall be adhered to in the case of the surplus premium, in so far as they are not hereby modified or derogated from; unless, in very special cases, for the rewarding of some essentially useful discovery or improvement, two thirds of the members of the Society present at a meeting, appointed for the awarding of the surplus Magellanic- Premium, shall, by their votes, taken by ballot or otherwise, direct.
5. The Society shall propose and publish, as often as they think proper, such a number of subjects as they think fit, to which they shall call the at- tention of the candidates for the original and surplus Magellanic-Premiums, and invite their communications thereon, informing them at the same time, that although communications on such subjects will be acceptable to the So- ciety, yet they shall not entitle their authors to a preference over more me- ritorious communications on other subjects, equally within the strict or ge- neral view (as the case may be) of the Magellanic donation.
6. The surplus-premium will not be exclusively applied to-actual inven- tions or improvements, but will also be extended to such valuable commu- nications, within the general view of the donation, as may lead to useful - discoveries, inventions or improvements.
The Society have thought proper at present to propose the following subjects:
1. The best experimental essay on native American permanent dyes or pigments, accompanied by specimens.
2. The best means of navigating our rapid rivers against the stream.
3. The best essay on the general natural history of the ranges of Ameri- can mountains in the country east of the river Mississippi.
4. The best essay on the natural history and chemical qualities of the hot and warm springs of the United States, or of any one of them.
{ xxv }
DONATIONS
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Rogers (Wm.—D. D.) Primitiz Orientales, vol. 2, 3, Fort William College, 1803, 4.—An Account of the Institution.—Some of the Theses in the Oriental Languages, with transl.—Gospel of S. Matthew in the Mahratta language.—Bengalee Hymn Book. —Catechism, and several short religious Tracts in Bengalee.
Rose (Robert, M. D.) Guida perle antichita de Pozzuoli, di G. D’ Ancora, Napoli, 1792, 8vo.
Rosseter (Captain John) Tables of Logarithms, by Michael Taylor, London, 1792, fol.
-——Instructions concerning Arnold’s Time-keepers.—Seaman’s Va-
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Roxborough (William, M. D.) Grammar of the Sungskrit language by Rev. Wm. Carey, Serampore, Missionary Press, 1806, 4to.
Rush (Benjamin, M. D.) His Medical Inquiries and Observations, 2d edition, Philad. 1805, 4 vol. 8vo.
St. George (Henry) Statistical Observations relative to the County of Kilkenny, Ireland, in 1800, 1, Dublin, 1802, 8vo.
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Alcoran of Mahomet, from the French Translation of Du Bas London, 1649, 4to.
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Vaughan (John) Atlas Homanianus Germaniz Spec. Noremb. 1755.
—New and complete System of Geography, by John Payne, New- York edition, 1800, 4 vol. 8vo.
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——Promotion des Sciences utiles &c. par C. Lippi, Paris, 1806.
——12 Gravures des Vases Ceramographiques, vulgairement ap-
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Wayne (C. P.) Life of Washington, by John Marshall, Philadelphia, 1804—7, 5 vol. 8vo.
Webber (Samuel, A. M.) Mathematicks, compiled by him for Ha- vard College, Cambridge, Boston, 1801, 2 vol. 8vo.
Williams (Col. Jonathan) The Complete Farmer, Lond, 1793, fol.
——rTheory and Practice of Gardening, translated from the French,
by John James, London, 1712, 4to.—Essay on the Military * constitution of Nations, 1808.—Extracts from the U. States Military Philos. Society, 1806,—His Transl. of Kosciusko’s Horse- Artillery, for the use of the U. S.—N. York, 1808. Wilson (Bird) The Works of his late Father, James Wilson, Judge - of the Supreme Court of the U,. States, Phil. 1804, 3 vol. 8yo.
Wistar (Caspar, M. D.) Received by him from Peter Dobell of Can- ton; Vocabulario de la Lengua Talaga, por Fr. Domingo de los Santos, Manilla, 1794, fol. 2
——Compendio de la Arte de la Lengua Talaga, por Don F. Gas-
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_ Tabulas, 1792—Gotha, 1804, 4to.
x} DONATIONS FOR THE LIBRARY.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. , INAUGURAL DISSERTATIONS.
Yor the degree of Doctor in Medicine, presented by the Authors. or the Professors of that Institution. Philad. 8vo. Archer (J. Md.) On the Carbonates of Lime, Magnesia & Pot. 1804. Ailee (E. A. Pa.) On the influence of Music on Diseases, 1804. Barton (W. P. C. Pa.) On the Properties of Nit. Ox. Gas, 1808. Bloodgood Seat N. Y.) On Hemoptysis, 1806. Brown (Rich. Va.) On the use of Physiognomy in medicine, 1807. Brochenbrough (Austin, Va.) On two native Laurus, 1804, Bryarly (Wakeman, Md.) On Lupulus com. or common Hop. 1805. Burwell (Lewis, Va.) On Digitalis Purpurea or Fox Glove, 1805. Claiborne (D. J. Wa.) On the Medical use of Artificial Drains, 1806. Camp (John H. Va.) On the use of Mercury in Fevers, 1804, Champneys (Benjamin, N. J.) On the Dysentery, 1805. Cleaver (Isaac, Pa.) On Cataract, 1805. Creager (Lewis, Md.) On the Dysentery, 1806. Cocke (John, Ga.} On Jaundice, 1805. Cocke (James, Va.) On Inflammation in Wounds, 1804. Cocke (C.—Va.) On the Identity of Gout and Rheumatism, 1806. Cooke (J. E.—Va.) On the Inflam. Bilious Fever in 1804, in Va. 1805. Cunningham (R. M. Penn.) On ditto at Lancaster, 1805. Daingerfield (Henry P. Va.) On Cutaneous Absorption, 1805. Darlington (W. Pa.)}On the mut. Influ. of Habits & Diseases, 1804. Drayton (Charles, S. C.) On the Inversion of the Uterus, 1809. De Butts (Elisha, Md.) On the Eye, and on Vision, 1805. ~ Dewees (W. P. Pa.) On lessening the Pains of Parturition, 1806, Douglas (John, Va.) On Mercury, 1805. Doyley (Daniel, S. C.) On the Vesicule Seminales, 1806. Dudley (B. W. Ky.) On the Med. Topog. of Lexington, 1806. Evans (George, S. C.) On the Rheumatic state of Fever, 1805. Ewell (Thomas, Va.) On the Stomach and Secretion, 1805. Ffirth (Stubbins, N. J.) On non.Contagion in Fevers, 1804. Floyd flohn, By ) On the Med. prop. of the Magnolia, 1806.
Gray (H. M. Va.) On Cynanche Trachealis or Croup, 1805.' Green (E. -. SNe: ) On the structure of the Lumbricus Terr. 1806. Gibbons (W. Pa.) On Hypochondriasis, 1805. ‘
Grifhth (Elijah, Pa.) On Ophthalmia, 1804.
Hall (Richard W.—Md.) On Medical Electricity, 1806.
Hart (John, N. C.) On Sensation and Motion, 1806.
Hartshorne (J.—Va.) On the effect of air, on living animals, 1805. Hopkins (John, Va.) On Dysentery, 1804.
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Howard (W. Va.) On the hydropic state of fever, 1805.
Jackson (Samuel, Pa.) On suspended animation, 1808.
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Kiapp (Joseph, N. Y.) On cutaneous absorption, 1805.
Legare (D.—S. C.) On the use of tobacco fumes in cases of suspend. ed animation, 1805.
“M’Call (2. L.—Ga.) On the mutual subserviency of different parts of the body, 1806. :
M’Farlane (J. H. Pa.) On angina pectoris, 1806.
Madison (James C. Va.) On the medical properties of iron, 1805.
Matthews (S. Va.) On the effect of music in diseases, 1806.
Miller (P. Pa.) On lessening the pains of parturition, 1804. -
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Massey (R. D.—Mass.) On cutaneous absorption, 1809.
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Rush (John, Pa.) On the causes and prevention of sudden death, 1804.
Rush (James, Pa.) An inquiry into the use of the omentum, 1809.
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FOR THE CABINET. From the Asiatic Society, The skeleton of an elephant. : FROM INDIVIDUALS.
Brown (Samuel, M: D.) Specimens of earth and saltpetre rock, from a cave in Kentucky.—A cranium, tooth, and other: bones found in that cave.—Bones of the head of a new animal,—Pure native saltpetre.—Gold and silver ore from Mexico.
Barton (Wm.) An engraved portrait of Leonard Euler.
: d
’
ve
‘ Xult DONATIONS FOR THE CABINET.
Carey (Mathew) Materials from which she compiled the maps of his edition of Guthrie’s Geography. 43
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Davis (Dr.) A Chinese compass.
Davy (John) Minerals and shells from Ava.
Dearborn (Benjamin) A machine to compute interest.
Dewitt (Simeon) A painting by E. Ames of the solar eclipse, 1806, when central near Albany.
Durouchail (P.) Model of Homer’s head, from a bust found in Egypt.
Proofs of engravings in wood, executed by him.
Ferrer (J. J.) Silver ores and other minerals from Mexico.
Fothergill (Anthony, M. D.} Specimens of—Otaheitian cloth.—Bri- tish paper of cheap materials. — Minerals and earths, collected in the U. S.—Indian ornaments found near the Lehigh. ;
Godon (S.) Minerals illustrating his Memoir, page 319, also, other minerals collected in the United States, &c.
Haines (Engraver) Engraved portraits of Professors Rush & Barton.
Hamilton (Talbot) Model of a Life Buoy, of his inven.—Mediallion of Franklin cast in iron.—Mag. iron ore.— Various nat. pigments.
Hassler (F. R.) A model of the glaciers of Swisserland.—Horns of the Chamois.—Models of chrystals; system of Romé de Lisle.
Hembell (Wm.) Native sulphat of Magnesia, from Virginia.
Hewson (T. T.—M. D.) Preparation of the eyes of a goose, exhi- biting. the membrane of aqueous humor.
Hulings (Wm. E.) Marine shells from the mountains of Pennsylv.
James (T. C.—M. D.) Anengraved portrait of Richard Price, D. D.
Jefferson (Thomas, President of the Society) 150 Roman bronze coins, from the reign of Augustus to that of Theodosius, a space of 400 years, sent to him by Weenweck, Sec’y. to the R. S. of Heraldry in Denmark, and by him to the Society.
—— A horned lizard in a dormant state from Upper Louisiana.
——A Sonde de Mer, invented by Luiscius, Holland, 1805.
Disinfecting apparatus of Guyton de Morveau,
A skeleton head of the Maryland marmot, or aretomys-monax of Linnzeus, found in a cave, in Virginia.
Kinloch (Cleland) Marine shells from the high hills of Santee, S.C.
Latimer (James) Gold and silver ore from South America.
Lewis (Capt. M.) Specimens of plants, earths, seeds, and minerals, collected by him in his expedition from St. Louis up the Mis- souri to the Western Ocean, and back, 1804, 5, 6.
Livingston (Robert R.) Volcanic minerals from Italy.
Maclure (Wm.) A col. of minerals made in Europe & the U. States.
DONATIONS FOR THE CABINET, xii
Mease (James, M. D.) Specimens of lead ore from Perkiomen and of minerals from Ireland, collected by Donald Stuart, who collects for the Dublin Society.
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Newell (Capt. Andrew) Some rare shells and corals from Sumatra
Partridge (Wm.) Specimens of copper ore from Perkiomen.
Peyrouse (M.) An Indian earthen vase from Upper Louisiana.
Pichon (L. A.) Disinfecting apparatus of Guyton de Morveau.
Rogers (Maurice) Specimen of crude platina.
Ross (Charles) Lava from the Isle of Ascension,
Rivardi (Major) An Indian hatchet.
Rose (Robert, M. D.) Minerals, coralines &c. from Niagara &c. and coal from seven counties of Pennsylvania.
Sansom (Joseph) Two silver medals of Washington, one as Pres. of the U. States, one as Commander in Chief. Engraved by Reich.
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Smith (R. Sec. of the Navy of the U.S.) A bronze medal of Comm. Preble. The die engraved by Reich, by order of Government.
Traquair (A.) Two large specimens of slate from the Penn. quarry.
Tanner (Benj.) An engraved portrait of the R. R. Bishop White.
Tarascon (L. A.) The lower jaw bone of the Mammoth.
Vaughan (John) Specimens of native gold from Cabarrus county, North Carolina, purer than the standard of the United States.
Specimens of gypsum from Nova Scotia and France.
Woodhouse (James, M. D. Late Professor of Chem. in the Univ. of Penn.) By Will,—His collection of minerals.
Worthington (Thomas) Vitrified substance from an ancient Indian fort.—Chilicothe.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
There are deposited in the Cabinet of the Society, by Mr. John Vaughan, and by him purchased trom Mr. F. R. Hassler (Mathematical Professor at the U, S. Military College, West Point, and a member of the Society.)
1. Exact copies of two French toises, made of small bars of iron. They have been compared with those sent by M. Lalande to Mr. Bird of Lon- don, on the occasion of the measurement of a degree in Maryland, by Ma- son and Dixon.
2. A toise of Canivet bearing the inscription “Toise de France étalonée le 26 Oct. 1768 a 16° de thermometre de Reaumur. On the back of this toise is marked the double length of a pendulum near the equator.
3. An exact French Metre. It bears the general mark of the Committee of Weights and Measures; being examined by them.
4. A French Kylogramme, also examined by the Committee.
\Liv WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, &Cc.
5. A Standard Troy pound, carefully compared &c.
These deposits are accompanied by a memoir, stating in detail the resulx of a number of comparative experiments, to ascertain their accuracy, toge- ther With the following books relative to the same subjects, also deposited by M. Vaughan in the Library oi the Society.
La figure de Ja terre déterminée par des observations faites au Cercle Polaire, par M. de Maupertuis, Paris, 1738, 8vo.
Idem, par des observations de M. M. Bouger & de la Condamine aux en- virons de Pequateur, par M. Bouger, Paris 1749, 4to.
Degré du méridien entre Paris & Amiens, determiné par la mesure de M. Picard, &c. Paris, 1740, 8vo.
Mesure des trois premiers degrés du méridien dans l’hemisphere austral, par M. de la Condamine, Paris, 1751, 4to.
La méridienne de ’Observ. Roy. de Paris, verifiée par M. Cassini de Thi-
“ery, Paris, 1744, 4to.
Observations astronomiques & physiques faites, pour determiner la figure de la terre, par Don Geo. Juan & Don A. de Ulloa, Amst. 1842, 4to.
Voyage astron.-~& geograph. dans ?Etat de lEglise, par les P. P. Maire & BoscoVich, Paris, 1770, 4to. ;
Journal dun voyage au Nord. 1736, 7, par M. Outhier: Paris, 1744, 4to. Relation de deux voyages en Allemagne par rapport a la figure de la terre &c. par M. Cassini de Thiery, Paris, 1763, 4to. : Rapport fait a Inst. Nat. de France sur la mesure de la méridienne de
France, avec le discours prononcé, lors de la presentation des etalons pro-
totypes du métre & du Kilogramme, Paris, Van. 7, 4to.
Method proposed for determining the relative situation of the R. Observ. of Greenwich & Paris, with observations on the magnitude and figure of the earth, by Major General Wm. Roy, London, 1787, 4to.
Translation into French by M. De Prony, of the methods of measuring the Base at Hounslow Heath by. Major General Wm. Roy, Paris 1787, 4to.
An account of the trig. operations employed to determine the difference of the Observ. of Greenwich and Paris, by Maj. Gen. Wm. Roy, 1790, 4to.
Operations faites en France, 1787, pour la jonction des observatoires de Pa- ris & de Greenwich, par Cassini, Mechain, & le Gendre, Paris, 1789, 4to.
Le systéme des nouvelles mesures de la France mis a la portée de tout le. monde, par Aubry, 5me ed. Paris, Pan. 7, 8vo. ;
Beschreibung der Ausmessungs—methode, welche bey den Danischen geo- graphischen Karten angewendet worden, mit Kupfern, von Thomas Bugge, Dresden, 1787, 4to.
Schriften-Maasse und Gewichte betreffend, der Helvetischen Regierung yorgelegt, 1801, 8yo.
Report of Thomas Jefferson, when Secretary of State, to Congress ; on the subject of establishing a uniformity in the weights, measures and coins of the United States, New-York, 1790, 8vo.
The above may be considered as. valuable data, whenever the Go- ~vernment of our country shall undertake the necessary task of establish- ing a general standard of weights and measures for the United States.
rc!
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, &c.
m4 VOL. VI, PART II.
No. XXXII. (eee enema Appendix to a Memoir on the Mississippi, No. XXX. of the 1st part of this Volume.—By William Dunbar, of the Natchez,
communicated by the Author, through the President of the Society.
Read October sth, 1804.
ALTHOUGH the memoir was not intended to convey opinions upon the theory of rivers, yet as it contains observa- tions and remarks, which are at variance with the doctrines delivered to us by several of the most eminent mathematicians of Europe, it may seem that a short apology is necessary.
This subject has been treated by mathematicians of the first order in Italy, France and Germany, but more especially the former; and generally such partial views only have been ta- ken of the subject, as have furnished them with the amuse- ment of an elegant application of calculus. The theorems of Guglielmini have been held in the highest estimation, and, per- haps unfortunately for the progress of science, prevail too ge- nerally at this day, The theory of spouting fluids issuing from
A
192 APPENDIX TO A MEMOIR
orifices with velocities in the ratio of the square-roots of the respective columns, has been applied without modification to every motion of water. Mariotie, Varignon and Guglielmini have made it the basis of complete systems of hydraulicks. Varignon has composed many analytical memoirs upon this theory; and Gravesande, Musschenbroek and Belidor deliver no other principles: Guglielmini has {in addition to this theory) introduced something not very intelligible on the energy of deep waters, which he considers as the cause that rivers are not stagnant at their mouths, where there is, as he supposes, no declivity of surface.
Theories formed by ingenious men, without any regard to experiment, have too frequently led their authors into absurdi- ties, and it is surprising that a theory so contrary to fact in the most familiar and obvious circumstances, should have met with so much attention: to defend it must involve its advocates in an inextricable dilemma: it results from this theory, that at one foot under the surface of the most sluggish stream, there ex- ists a Current at the rate of 8 feet per second (54 miles per hour) exceeding that at the surface; so extraordinary a case must have been long since familiar to boatmen, but it is well known that if a person on board of a boat floating down the stream, thrust his hand and arm at full length under the surface, he will find the water (relatively) as still asa mill-pond; it cannot be supposed that river-navigators would have so long neglected to take advantage of so favorable a circumstance; oars and sails would have ceased to be necessary for descending great rivers; the velocity (from theory) at the small depth only of about 16 feet below the surface, exceeding that at the surface 32 feet per second, if we permit a drag of proper construction to sink to that depth, connected with a vessel, she would be drawn along with a velocity, exceeding that at the surface about 22 miles per hour, Again, however minute the velocity may be at the surface, that at the bottom of a deep river would be im- mensely great: what shall we think of that of the gulf stream? or even of the Mississippi, where the depth is supposed to be 50 fathoms, and which would produce 140 feet per second, little short of one hundred miles per hour? now as it is known that
ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 19$
a velocity of 3 inches per second will just begin to work upon clay, and that of 3 feet will sweep along shivery angular stones of the size of an egg, and as according to our theory, the evil ought to be perpetually upon the encrease, in as much as the velocity augments with the depth, it must have resulted that by such incredible velocities as are deducible from the theory, the bowels of the earth must have been long since torn up, and this globe have been no longer a iit habitation for man: a system so pregnant with consequences contradictory to the order and regularity which are the result of the laws of nature, must be abandoned. Without the aid of philosophy it must have been remarked by every common observer, that the most furious torrent (directed into a new channel) after breaking up and tearing every thing before it, does at length fashion its own bed, in respect to breadth and depth, so as to be perfectly adapted to the momentum of its waters; it is no longer a furi- ous torrent, but a mild placid stream. Nature aims continu- ally at an equilibrium; in rivers which have for a course of ages occupied the same channel, the accelerations and resist- ances are so perfectly counterpoised, that a complete equability of current takes place for a great extent (i. e.) so far as the re- gimen of the river has established itself; abrasion at the bot- tom of the river ceases; this can only be the consequence of reduced velocity, contrary to our theory, which demands ve- locity encreasing with the square-root of the depth. Mathe- maticians and engineers who have calculated upon so false a theory have been most egregiously disappointed in their ex- pectations; a canal was projected to supply the city of Edin- burg with water, the celebrated M‘Laurin calculated the quan- tity it ought to deliver, and the no less celebrated Desaguliers who was to conduct the enterprise, and whose theoretick prin- ciples were somewhat corrected by experimental knowledge, reduced to nearly one half the calculation of the former; the ‘ work was executed to the satisfaction of both, and the result was, that the actual quantity of water delivered was 3, of that calculated by M‘Laurin and + of that of Desaguliers.
The great improver of the Steam-Engine, Mr. Watt, in- forms us, that a canal of 18 feet wide at the surface, 7 fect
194 APPENDIX TO A MEMOIR
at bottom and 4 feet deep, runs with a velocity of 17 inches per second at the surface, 10 atthe bottom, and 14 in the mid- dle; according to the theory, the velocity at bottom ought to have been 16+17 or 33 inches in place of 10, abating the effect of friction upon the bottom of the canal.
A very few persons have thrown light on this subject by some valuable experiments, none have been more successful than the Chevalier Buat: aided by St. Honore, a young offi- cer of Engineers, he has adapted analytical forms of expres- sion conformable to the operations of nature. Buat measured velocities at the surface and bottom of canals and rivers, and has discovered the following laws. “ In small velocities there ‘‘is great disproportion between the surface and bottom; and ‘“‘in very great velocities, the ratio approaches to equality; in «« general the following rule will solve the problem: ‘lake unity “‘ from the square-root of the superficial velocity per second ** expressed in inches, the square of the remainder is the veloci- “ty at bottom.” Thus a velocity of one inch at the surface will give no sensible velocity at bottom, but a velocity of 56 inches at the surface, will give 25 inches at bottom; Watt’s canal corre- sponds with this law, and it is probable that the law holds good in all artificial canals and rivers of moderate depth; but in great and deep rivers, whose regimen is established, there is great reason to believe that the velocities at bottom are much less than would result from Buat’s rule, because as has already been observed, thatso far from abrasion taking effect at the bot- tom of such rivers, they are actually rising by a slow progress, which is regulated by the protrusion of the cradle of the river into the ocean. Many more arguments from fact might be drawn in opposition to this theory; I shall only observe that it is known to fishermen, that the migration of fishes is perform- ed near the bottom of rivers against the stream, and in descend- ing they almost float upon the surface; a curious account of the latter is given by Bartram in his account of St. John’s river, in East Florida.
We shall now endeavour to shew that the theory is unphilo-
~sophical and contrary to hydrostatical laws,
ON THE MISSISSIPPI, 195
Let A B (Plate V. Fig. 1.) represent the longitudinal section of a river flowing with uniform velocity trom surface to bottom, and let us enquire what change ought to take place in the ve- locity at different depths, caused by the pressure of the fluid: Let us suppose a wall C D, forming a complete transverse sec- tion of the river, and moving uniformly with the current from A, to B, and that the whole inferior part B, is instantaneously removed; if now orifices be made in the wall at 1, and 2, the wa- ter will flow out in the direction of the stream, with velocities in the ratio of the square-roots of the columns above the respec- tive orifices; upon this partial view of the subject, the theorists have built their system. Again, supposing all things to remain as before, the portion of the river B, being replaced, let us now suppose the superior portion A, to be removed, while the wall moves on uniformly with the current and portion B, if now the same orifices 1, and 2, be opened, the water will flow out with the same velocities as before, but in contrary direc- tions, against the course of the river; hence it appears that the simple pressure of the water is equally disposed to produce in- ferior currents in any direction, the instant the equilibrium is destroyed; but it is certainly very unphilosophical to assert that the column 3, 4, will produce an increased current in the di- rection of the stream, while it is opposed by a column of equal pressure 1, 2: it cannot be asserted that any inequality of pres- sure, arising trom the gentle declivity ot the surface of large rivers, can produce any sensible effect; for should it be said that the pressing and opposing columns are not to be measur- ed in contiguity to each other, but that the opposing column will be null, in consideration that a point is to be found on the surface of any river, upon the same level with any given depth higher up the stream; we reply, that this effect is totally de- stroyed by other concomitant circumstances. Great rivers whose regimen is long established flow with a very gentle declivity, perhaps 1 in some Cases not more than 2 inches per mile, but let it be supposed one foot; according to the theory the velocity of an inferior current ab, (Fig. 2.) at the depth of 16 feetac, ought to be 32 feet per second, because at the point b, 16 miles be- low c, there is no opposing column: this is certainly the most
196 APPENDIX TO A MEMOIR
favourable view in which the theory can be presented, but will not avail its advocates; for it cannot be shewn that the vis iner- tie of 16 miles of fluid can be overcome by a pressure of 16 feet, with the energy required by the theory; on the contra- ry, it is shewn by the experiments of M. Couplet at Versailles, that water conveyed in a smooth horizontal tube of 18 inches diameter and 43,200 inches in length, from a reservoir 12 feet high, issued with a velocity of less than 40 inches per second, (i. e.) less than ¢ of the velocity deduced from the theory; hence we see that the vis inertize of 43,200 inches of horizon- tal water combined with the friction of a tube 18 French inches in diameter, destroys % of the velocity which the theory calls for; and if we should concede (what the theorist cannot de- mand) that of those 3, 4 are occasioned by the friction of so large a tube, and only % left for the vis inertia of the water, and that it be allowed that every succeeding 43,200 inches destroy + of the respective remaining velocities, we shall find that at the end of the 16 miles, the velocity of the issuing fluid will be less than 4 inch per second. Were we to suppose a horizontal pressure at a, derived froma head of water ef, proportioned to the column f e, it is yet inconceivable that this should produce a continued velocity in the direction a b; water like all other bo- dies, when in a state of compression, will escape on the side of the least resistance, and in place of producing a current in the direction a b, against the vis inertiz of 16 miles of fluid, will escape by the shortest passage to the surface, and bubble up at d, where it will form an elevation and encrease_ the superficial velocity. Were we disposed to suppress these ar- guments, and concede to the theorists the doctrine they have endeavoured to establish, the consequence would be equally ruinous of their system: let us therefore suppose that a current is produced from a, to b, with a velocity of 32 feet per second greater than at c; by, a parity of reasoning it will at g be 64 fect greater than at c, and so in continuation gaining at the rate of 2 teet per second every mile; hence ariver running one hun- dred miles, after it had gained the depth of 16 feet would run with a superficial velocity of more than 200 feet per second: had we assumed the depth of one foot only in the place of 16,
ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 197
it will be found from the above mode of reasoning, that the superficial velocity gained would be at the rate of 8 feet per mile: it is unnecessary to advance any thing further against a theory capable of yielding results so contradictory among them- selves, and so totally at variance with fact and observations. From what has been said we may conclude that the natural movement of fluids depends solely upon the declivity of the surface; the obstructions arising from friction, adhesion and vicidity, being greatest at the bottom and sides, the velocity of the current will consequently be greatest at the surface and in the middle of the channel where there is no deflecting cause. Buat observes, we may be assured that the central filament of water running through an inclined cylindric glass tube flows with the greatest velocity, it being known that however smooth and polished the interior surface of the tube may be, the retard- ations trom friction are very considerable; if we suppose the superior half of the cylinder to be removed with its included water, the relative velocities of the inferior half will continue the same, and he sees no reason to doubt that all rivers and ca- nals move upon the same principles. We shall consider this object in another point of view, leading to the same conclusion. Let the solid A B, (Fig. 3.) of indefinite length, be divi- ded into a number of very thin and polished lamin, and placed upon the inclined plane B C, with such declivity as that the solid may just begin to move by the power of gravity down the inclined plane from B, towards D, when the lamina 1, shall have gotten into the position I, the lamina 2, possessing a greater facility of motion over 1, than this Jast has over the inclined plane, will have also made one step over 1, and will be found in the position II; in like mariner, the lamina 3, will at the same instant move over the lamina 2, and make one step beyond it and will be found in the position III, and so of all the other superior laminz which will be found respectively in the situations represented in the figure. Water being composed of parts possessing extreme mobility, it is not unreasonable to conclude that its motion along an inclined plane, will be some- what analagous to that of polished laminz, but as fluids press laterally as well as perpendicularly, there must be correspond-
198 ON THE MISSISSIPPI.
ing retardations at the sides as well as at the bottoms of rivers and canals.
The energy of deep rivers which has been insisted upon by Guglielmini is not entitled to much notice: we must however admit that water, like solid gravitating bodies descending along an inclined plane, will acquire velocity until the accelerations and resistances are in equilibrio, but from its extreme mobility is more liable to lose it: a globe of solid matter rolling along a horizontal plane loses its motion instantaneously on its falling to’ pieces; it is not therefore astonishing that water, divisible into the minutest parts, descending into every cavity and deflected by the smallest obstacles, should be speedily deprived of its velocity. As a small body impinging with great velocity upon a large mass may communicate no sensible velocity to the compound, so in like manner, a descending torrent being received into a more capacious bed is totally disarmed of its fury and moves on with a new velocity proportioned to the new declivity.
Deep rivers moving with a certain velocity and meeting with obstacles will exert the energy spoken of by Guglielmini, that is, like all other heavy bodies in motion, they will endeavour to persevere in the right line of their last motion, and the wa- ters will accumulate against the object, having a tendency to rise to the height of a reservoir, which would produce the actual velocity of the current: thus if M. Pitot’s tube A B, (Fig. 4,) be set with its horizontal orifice B, against the current, the water will ascend to C, a height proportioned to the velo- city of the current at B; that is, the column C D, pressing above an orifice in any reservoir would produce a velocity in the spouting fluid equal to that of the river at B: this instru- ment may be commodiously used for ascertaining the velocity of currents where great accuracy is not required, and in low velocities; the tube might be graduated so as to give the velo- city by inspection: it may also be used to determine the dif- ference of superficial and inferior currents. Were the theory true which we oppose, a remarkable effect would be seen in Pitot’s tube; the water ought to rise in the tube to a height above the surface of the river, equal to the depth at which it is plunged below the surface, and if the tube be rendered station-
ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 199
ary the water will rise still higher by an additional height cor- responding to the superficial velocity: thus Pitot’s tube placed at the depth of 16 feet in a river whose superficial velocity is 8 feet per second, would raise the water to the height of 17 feet above the surface of the river, and orifices being made in the side of the vertical tube, the water would flow out with various veloci- ties depending on the position of the respective orifices. Whata discovery this for raising of water without machinery!! how- ever absurd this result may appear, it is fairly deducible from the theory.
Ina any great river, water flowing in the direction 1, 2, 3, (Fig. 5.) and impinging against the bank at 3, will there accumulate and rise higher than at 4 (which is always lower than at 2,) if the velocity of the current be 8 feet per second, it will havea tendency to rise one foot, but from the unconfined state of the water, a considerable abatement will take place; the water ac- cumulated at 3, is the cause of all eddies; it falls off in all di- rections from the thread of the current, producing always an accelerated current in the direction 3, 5; an eddy will be formed from 3 to 4 and a portion of the flood passing over to 6, not unfrequently causes a smaller eddy from 6 to 7; in favoring situations the eddy from 3 to 4, appears sometimes to rival the strength and velocity of the principal stream: dange- rous whirlpools are frequently produced in the situation w, oc- casioned by the counter currents; such a one exists at the grand gulf in the Mississippi, and in many other situations: we have seen one of about 5 feet diameter and 3 feet deep; all floating bodies passing within a certain distance of the vortex are at. tracted by it, and if not too large and buoyant, are precipitat- ed to the bottom of -the rive rising at the distance of 50, 100 or more yards from the place of descent: this imaginary energy of deep rivers, the result only of the descending fluid will nevertheless be extinguished as soon as the declivity of the surface is lost; rivers running a long course through an alluvial country, without the influx of auxiliary streams, are liable to stagnate before their junction with the ocean; the Nile isa re- markable example of this kind: and even the Mississippi, al- though we have. said in general that it rolls a great body of
B
200 APPENDIX TO A MEMOIR
water into the ocean, yet there has been at least one very ex- traordinary season, when the waters were sunken so uncom- monly low, that there was no sensible current some distance within the mouth of the river. I have lately procured the following curious information from an intelligent *Gentleman of New Orleans who writes as follows, |‘ In the beginning of «« November 1800, when there was hardly any perceptible cur- erent in the Mississippi, I set off from the upper gate of the «‘ city, in company with the master of a vessel, and sounded «« the river at every three or four boats length until we landed «sat the opposite shore: the depth of water increased pretty re- «gularly, viz. 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19 and 20 fathoms, the « greatest depth was found about 120 yards from the shore. «« This operation was accurately performed, and as the river ri- ««ses about 12 feet at this place, the depth at high water will «be 22 fathoms. A gentleman informed me that his father, ««who was chief pilot in the time of the French, has often said « thata little way below the English Turn there was 50 fathoms, «and about the upper Plaquemine 60 fathoms. A respectable ‘inhabitant living six leagues below New Orleans, informed «©me that during the above mentioned low state of the river, «¢the water was there found so brackish, that recourse was had to the wells for drinking water, and that abundance of por- ** poises, shark, and other sea fish were seen still higher up the “river. Many people thought the water brackish opposite to ‘the town. It had a greenish appearance, and when taken “ up was very clear; and although I did not think it brackish, “‘T found it vapid and, disagreeable.”” From the above curi- ous relation it appears, that the waters of one of the greatest rivers on the globe were so completely dissipated that ail cur- rent ceased 20 leagues above its mouth, nay the waters of the ocean flowed in-(as into the Mediterranean) in order to restore the general level of waters. During the same period at Natchez, 380 miles from the mouth, the river owed with a regular though very gentle current, (perhaps + mile per hour) and a depth of 10 or 12 fathoms under the principal filament. What became of this great body of water? evaporation from
* William E, Hulings Esq. late Vice-Conful at New Orleans,
ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 201
the limited surface of the river is insufficient to account for so great a dissipation, but we know that the spongy texture of the alluvial soil is remarkably pervious to the waters of the river: from the flat and humid surface of the Delta, a perpe- tual evaporation exists, the lateral pressure of the waters of the fiver must supply the waste by exhalation, and this immense expence of fresh water, is to be accounted for by filtration and evaporation.
No. XXXIII.
Demonstration of a Geometrical Theorem; by Joseph Clay Esq. of Philadelphia.
Read July 20th, 1804.
THE following proposition was mentioned to me, some years since, as one which had been proposed by Mr. Simpson some time before his death. I do not know that any demonstration has hitherto been published.
From the angles at the base of any triangle, let two right lines be drawn cutting each other in any point within the iri- angle, and cutting the sides of the triangle, the segments of the sides and of the lines so drawn will form a trapezium; draw and bisect the diagonals, the right line joining the points of bisection, will, if produced, bisect the base of the triangle.
In the triangle ABC, (Fig. 6, Plate V.) draw CD, BE, cut- ting each other in F, and the sides of the triangle E and D. Draw AF and DE, and bisect them in Gand H; draw GH, which if produced, will bisect the base of the triangle in K, making BK equal to KC.
Through F, draw LFM, NFO, parallel to AB and AC cut- ting the sides in M and O and the base in L and N: now be- cause of the similar triangles, as CF is to CD so is FL to BD and LM to AB. ‘Therefore by alternation as FL is to LM so is BD to AB. But as FL isto LM so is FNto CM; Therefore as BD is to AB so is FN to CM and the rectangle under BD, CM is equal to the rectangle under AB, FN. Again, as BF
902 GEOMETRICAL THEOREM
is to BEso is BO to AB and so is FN to CE; therefore as BO isto AB, sois FN to CE; and the rectangle under BO, CE is equal to the rectangle under AB, FN. But the rectangle un- der BD, CM isalso equal to the rectangle under AB, FN, it is therefore equal to the rectangle under BO, CE. Therefore as BD is to CE, soisBOto CM. Through H draw HI, HP, parallel to AB and AC. Then because EH is equal to HD, and HI is parallel to BD, BE is bisected in I, and HI is one half of BD. In the same manner CD is bisected in P, and PH is one half of CE. Bisect BC in K and draw KP, and KT which produce to Sand T. Then because CK is equal to _ KB, and CP is equal to PD, KP is parallel to BD and equal to one half of BD, and in the same manner KI is parallel to CE and equal to one half of CE; and K, P, H, Lisa parallelogram. And CS is equal to AS, and BT to AT. Through G draw VG parallel to AC, and produce VG to X, cutting CD in X, KS in W, and HI produced in Z: draw XY parallel to AB. Then because AG is equal to GF and VG is parallel to AC, and con- sequently to OF, AV isequal to VO; But AT is equal to BF, therefore BO which is equal to the difference between twice . AT and twice AV, is equal to twice TV. Because AG is equal to GF and GX is parallel to AC, FX is equal to CX, and because XY is parallel to AB and consequently to FM, CY is one half of CM; but CS is equal to SA. And AM which is equal to the difference between twice CS and twice CY is equal to twice SY. Because GA is equal to FG and GX is parallel to AC, GX is equal to one half of AC, it is therefore equal to CS. WX is parallel to SY, and SW to XY, there- fore SWXY is a parallelogram and SY is equal to WX, GW is therefore equal to CY, and CM is equal to twice GW; and because KW is parallel to TV and VW to KT, KTVW isa parallelogram and KW is equal to TV, and BO is equal to twice KW. But as BD is to CEso is BO toCM, that is as twice KP is to twice PH so istwice KW totwice GW, soas KP is to PH so is KW to GW, and therefore as KP is to the diflerence be- tween KW and KP, so is WZ which is equal to PH to the dif ference between GW and WZ, that isas KP isto HZ which is equal to PW so is PH to ZG, Join GH and HK; now the tri-
DEMONSTRATED. 203
angles GZH, HPK, have equal angles, GZH and HPk, be- cause GZ is parallel to HP and ZH to KW, and the sides ZH, ZG, KP, PH which are about the equal angles proportional, therefore the remaining angles HGZ, GHZ of the triangle GZH are equal to the remaining angles PHK, PKH of the trian- gle HPK, each to each which are opposite to the homologous sides, so the angle HGZ is equal to the angle PHK and the angle GHZ is equal to the angle PKH. The angle ZHP is equal to the angle IIPK, because ZH is parallel to PK and PH falls upon them; and the three angles GHZ, ZHP, and PHK ta- ken together are equal to the three angles HKP, HPK, and PHK taken together, that is to two right angles. So to the point H in the right line ZH are drawn two right lines KH and GH on opposite sides, making the two angles KHZ and GHZ taken together equal to two right angles; therefore the two right lines form one straight line; But BC is bisected in K by construction, and the right line GHK drawn through G and H bisects BC. Therefore in the triangle ABC, CD and BE being drawn, cutting each other in F, and the sides of the triangle in D and E, and the diagonals AF DE of the trapezium ADFE being drawn and bisected in G and H, the right line
No. XXXIV.
An Account and descriptionof a TEMPORARY RUDDER, invented by Captain Wilham Mug ford, of Salem, (Massachusetts) and Jor which the Society awarded to him a Gold Medal, from the Exvira-Magelta®t fund.
Motto. Nil desperandum—cras iterabimus equor. Read November 16th 1804.
THE Ship Ulysses of Salem (Massachusetts) under the com mand of Captain William Mugford, sailed from that port or the 2d day of January 1804, bound to Marseilles. On the
204 DESCRIPTION OF
5th of that month being in Latitude 41 Longitude 65 from the meridian of London, she experienced a heavy gale of wind, and while running 8 and 9 knots, a large sea struck her stern and carried away the rudder at the waters edge, when the ves- sel immediately broached to, The main-mast was sprung and the hull lay exposed to every sea. In this unfortunate situation, Capt. Mugford was reduced to the necessity of steering the ship with cables over the quarters for upwards of twenty days, making however the best of his way towards the western Is- lands and Madeira. The weather during all this time was ex- tremely boisterous, and the ship much. exposed to the Sea. It was during this interval that Capt. Mugtord planned and executed his temporary rudder. This rudder is made of a spare top-mast and other spars well lashed and secured together, and fastened to a false stern-post by eye-bolts serving as braces, and crowbars and other substitutes for pintles.. The false post is also firmly secured to the old stern-post by the guys and old rudder braces which are tennoned into it, tiller ropes are fixed to each end of an old iron tiller; or for want of it, an iron anchor- stock, ora piece of scantling, or a spar is fixed across the rud- der and supported with rope-braces, so that the vessel is steered in the usual manner with the wheel:—and in order to keep this rudder steady in its place, while fixing it, a cannon or some other sufficient weight is fastened to the bottom of it,
Capt. Mugford (after observing that great difficulty would be avoided in the construction, if the master of every vessel, was in possession of the measure of the rudder and the precise distance of the gudgeons,) informs us that he found it to answer every purpose which could beexpected from a temporary rudder, that his vessel was found to steer by it with the greatest ease, and that he sailed with it during fifty days, at the end of which time _ he arrived in safety at the port of his destination.
The drawing of the rudder, the following description of it, and the remarks subjoined, were furnished to the society by Capt. William Jones, one of their associates, from the model of the rudder sent by the Inventor and deposited in the cabinet of the Society.
MUGFORD’S TEMPORARY RUDDER. | 268 MUGFORD'S TEMPORARY RUDDER.
A, (Plate V. Fig. 7.) Is the main stern-post from which the original rudder has been torn
B, Isthe false stern-post made of a spare top-mast sided so as to fit the main stern-post, with mortices to receive the braces h h h, or the fragments thereof which remain upon the post.
C, Is the temporary rudder made of the (residue of the) top- mast and the sprit sail yard, studding sail booms, or any spars that can be spared with the least inconvenience—They are cut to the proper length and partially sided and firmly bolted or treenailed together. The sides are then flatted a little with the adze and boards nailed across and wooldings of rope bind the whole together as represented in the figure.
DD DD, Represent the spars of which the rudder is con- structed.
E, Is a small spar or piece of plank fitted on each side of the false post to lead the guys clear and prevent their chafing; they are also bolted through trom side to side and rivetted to secure the false post from splitting, or if bolts are not to be had lashings are substituted as represented in the figure.
F F, Are stout flat cleats well nailed or bolted on each side of the false post under the spars E, and embrace the main post. Their use is to sustain the false post against a lateral shock.
G, Isa yoke made of an iron tiller, or other sufficient substi- tute, firmly fitted through the after part of the rudder near the surface of the water.
H WH, Are the temporary braces and pintles—They are formed of eye bolts drawn out of the gun carriages or from the various parts of the hull, masts, or caps, and driven into the false post and rudder alternately so that the eyes just meet each other; some of those in the post, below those in the rudder, and others above, in order to confine the rudder from rising—The pintles are made of crowbars, a kedge anchor-stock, or the long stout bolts out of the windlass bits.
hhh, Are the old rudder braces or the fragments thereof re- maining on the post.
I, Is the profile of the stern of the ship.
206 DESCRIPTION OF
K K, Are guys, the bites of which are well served and lashed to the after part of the false post, and lead separately (or combined as represented in the figure) to the fore and after parts of the main chains.
LL, Are knots worked on the guys to preserve them from chafing against the bottom and quarters,
M, Isa rope the bite of which is lashed to the after part of the rudder below the yoke, and also to the extremities of the yoke, and from thence led through blocks attached to the end of aspar projecting over each quarter to the wheel by which the ship is steered.
N, Is a slip rope rove through a hole in the heel of the rud- der and both ends passed up through the rudder case to the head of the false post and made fast.
O, Is a grommet (travelling on the slip rope) to which a gun or kedge anchor or any sufficient weight is attached, in or- der to sink the rudder until it is hung and secured.
P, Is.a hauling line attached to the grommet, and by which the weight i is lowered down and hauled up. When the rudder is secured in its place, the weight is removed, and the slip rope unrove.
Q, are the rudder pendents to save the rudder in case of acci- dent.
R,. Is the lower deck.
S, Is the quarter deck.
T, Is the quarter rail.
7, Thearch board of the Stern.
REMARKS.
The merit of this invention is to be tested by a just comparison with the best substitute hitherto known, which is undoubtedly that of Capt, Pakenham’s excellent invention, an account and description of which may be found in the 7th volume of the Transactions of the London Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and commerce.
The difference consists in Captain Mugford’s new and inge- nious contrivance of a false stern. post, to’ which his rudder is
MUGFORD’S TEMPORARY RUDDER. 207
secured by eye bolts serving as braces, and crow-bars or other substitutes as pintles, on which it works with as much ease and effect as the original rudder. The false post is also firmly se- cured to the main post by the guys, and the old rudder braces which are tenoned into it. -
Captain Pakenham’s rudder depends entirely upon the very slight hold which the cap has on the post, and does not appear to be sufficiently secured to resist a sudden lateral shock; it is however very simple in its construction, and requires, perhaps, less labor and fewer materials (particularly of iron) than Capt. Mugtord’s, and has the advantage of steering upon deck with a common tiller im the usual way.
Capt. Mugford’s rudder must work with much less friction, and consequently will require less power, as the axis on which it moves is only an inch and a half in diameter, whereas that of Capt. Pakenham’s is the diameter of the top-mast; say 10 or 12 inches.
- Upon the whole, as the construction of Capt. Mugford’s rudder requires only the skill and materials which are usually to be found on ship board, and as it appears to be better secur- ed, and works with more case than Capt. Pakehham’s, it may (without derogating from the merit of the latter) be justly con- sidered asa valuable and useful invention.
Capt. Mugtford’s rudder is susceptible of a very simple and important improvement, viz. If the archboard of the stern V was cut off, and the after part of the rudder case taken down, the stock of the rudder might be continued to the upper deck, and steer with the tiller in the usual way. Capt. Mugford’s mode of steering is exceptionable, as the yoke is at the surface of the water, and the wheel ropes leading from the yoke to the spar, broad upon the quarter; the angle which the rope makes with the yoke when the rudder is hard over, is so ob- tuse as greatly to diminish the effort of the power; and more- over the rudder is necessarily so broad at the surface of the wa- ter, as to expose a dangerous resistance to the action of the sea.
It is also to be observed, that few merchant ships under 350 ton’s burthen have either wheel or iron tiller, It the rudder was continued to the deck, the breadth might be diminished
c
208 DESCRIPTION OF &c.
at the surface of the water and enlarged at the heel, which would increase its effect and render. it less liable to injury.
In the drawing, the cleats F F, are added to the side of the false post, and overlapping the main post, which will give it great additional security. Some minor alterations are also made, viz. In the drawing the four guys1111, (which are separate in the model) are combined into two K K, leading through a thimble or clinch; the reason is, that a more equal tension can be obtain- ed of two ropes than of four, and that when combined they lead in a fairer direction under the buttock of the ship. °
Indeed the number of guys are superfluous, the lower one would be amply sufficient, as the upper end of the post can be made very secure. Captain Pakenham has but a single guy leading from the cap on each side.
The drawing represents a mode of applying and removing the weight to sink the rudder, by which the whole can be re- moved with more ease when the rudder is secured.
When the rudder is fixed, the only apprehension is, the guys chafing off. There is however on board every ship a complete remedy viz. - Take two of the topmast back stay chain plates and one of the bolts, and bolt them to the heel of the false stern ° post, one on each side; to these hook the top-blocks and mouse the hooks well; then reeve the guys through the blocks, and take both parts to the fore part of the main chains: by this means the guys may be overhauled through the blocks and ex- amined at pleasure, keeping them always well taught and veer- ing away one part as you haul in upon the other. These re- marks are the more diffuse as the subject is considered impor- tant, and is still susceptible of great improvement.
Captain Mugford was some days before he could hang his rudder, owing to bad weather.
The man will deserve well who shall invent a simple substi- tute for a rudder that can be made and applied immediately im any weather; and it need not be despaired of, if men of inge- nuity, without waiting for the calamity, would only try expe- riments while their ships are in a sound state.
:.: 2ODwr:} (a=yG EE No. XXXV.
Facts and Observations relative t0 THE BEAVER of North-America. Collected by Mr. John Heckewelder, in answer to Queries pro= posed by Professor Barton.—Communicated to the Society by Professor Barton.
Read November 16th, 1804.
I. PEMAHOLEND, a famous Beaver-Trapper, an aged and much respected Delaware-Indian, and a friend of mine, gives the following account.
The Beavers build their dams for the safety of themselves and their young; and in order toconvey food to their houses. They are very particular in chusing the ground or situation _ upon which they intend to build. They always, in the first place, carefully examine, whether there be near them a suf- ficiency of trees and shrubs, especially Aspin, Sassafras, and Shellbark-Hickery near at hand, so that they need not venture too far out, to cut them: for the barks of these trees are their principal foods.
They carefully examine the run or brook; whether it be per- manent, or does not dry up in the summer season, and whe- ther there be a sufficient quantity of water to extend or enlarge the dam, if occasion should require it.
Having surveyed the ground well, and chosen the time when the waters are neither too high nor too low, they cut down bushes, and drag and lay them in a line for the foundation, which, at this time, has the appearance of a brush-fence. They sometimes make one or more offsets, altering their course as they think best, both for the security of the dam, and to give them advantages.
The foundation being finished, they cut down small trees, from six to twelve, and even fifteen inches, in diameter; and these they cut up into blocks, of three, four, five, and some- times six feet in length. These blocks they draw by their teeth, walking backwards, to the brush foundation, and place, in a sloping direction, every -block, with one end on the brush,
210 SKETCH OF THE NATURAL
and the other end on the ground, on the inside of the dam. In order that the blocks may not be suddenly removed or car- ried off (by a fresh) before the dam be finished, they bind them together with brush, as they lay them down, so that the blocks are, in a manner, interwoven in the brush.
Satisfied, that the work so far, is good, they cut roots, small brush (rushes and long grass, if at hand,) and by means of mud or clay, fill up, and daub over, all holes or places, through which the water has a passage: so that when it is finished, it has the appearance of having been made by the hands of man.
They chuse a proper depth of water where they build their houses; both for safety and for an easy conveyance of food. The houses are built of brush, roots and mud (or clay), welk covered, and secured against the rain, by being rounded off at the top. Their apartments are perfectly dry, being above high- water mark. The inside is daubed very smooth. Their beds are made of shavings, which they draw from wood, with their teeth, and resemble the finest shavings that have been carefully drawn with a drawing knife. One house will contain from eight to nine beavers, young and old together. They have se- veral passages into their apartments. There are sometimes as many as eight houses in one dam; yet every family is by itself.
They never work at broad-day. In the mornings and even- ings they do all their work, both in building, repairing; en- larging the dam, and also in cutting down trees, and digging roots, for provision. They eat no fish, nor make use of any animal food whatever. The bark of Aspin (and another spe- cies of Aspin), the bark of the Sheilbark-Hickery, the Sassa- fras entire, and occasionally the bark of the Willow, consti- tute their principal food, in the winter season. In the spring and summer, they feed on a certain root, which has an agree- able smell.
The Beaver is avery cleanly animal, and cannot bear any thing dirty, or any thing that has a disagreeable smell, about them. Sassafras-bark, nutmeg and Fennel-seed, soaked in rum, or any other sweet or well-scented article, make the bess bait for catching them.
HISTORY OF THE BEAVER. ot1
In general, they have but two young ones at a litter: but there are instances of old beavers having three, and even four, young ones at a time. A single pair or couple undertake the building of a dam, and when their offspring become too nu- merous to dwell together in one house, they build for them- selves. They drag all by their teeth, and roll none. They take every advantage of the water they can, in conveying ma- terials, food, &c. a hey are always on guard.
They suckle their young sometimes sitting, and sometimes lying down, much in the manner of a cat. They are extreme- ly fond of their young.
II. SAMUEL, an aged Indian of the Nanticok tribe, brought up neart he sea-shore, i in Maryland, and formerly a distinguish- ed trapper of beavers, says,
The beavers build their houses for the sake of breeding, for their preservation, and for obtaining food. Their food is prin- cipally Aspin-bark, Sassafras, the bark of Willows, and the root of the Water-Lilly. They eat no fish, nor feed on any flesh what- ever.’ They do not like to go far from the water, for their food; and, therefore, they dam up grounds, with a number of Aspin-trees thereon, which may serve them for many years.
They never work in the day-time, but do all their work, in the evenings and mornings. They work together, and keep a watch. In a large dam, there are sometimes eight or nine houses. These houses are very dry, and clean in the inside, They extend their dams, as they find it necessary. In Mary- land, there was formerly one dam, which by means of frequent enlargement, extended nine miles. They sometimes cut trees eighteen inches in diameter.
They trequently sit upon their hams, while suckling their young, which stand before them, holding the pap or tit, with their hands (fore-legs), They copulate in the fall, and, in ge- neral, have but two young ones at a time: yet sometimes an old beaver has three, and even four, ata time. They are much attached to their young. Are very cleanly.
The beaver is a very cunning animal, so that it requires art and ingenuity to deceive and catch them. They possess great bodily strength; drag all by their teeth, walking backwards.
212 (SKETCH OF THE BEAVER,
They view their works with great attention, and know how to apply every piece of wood, brush, or root, in the best manner, and for the security of the dam. They wash themselves, after their labour is over.
III. Account of the beaver by a French trader (at Detroit), who has spent a number of years among the Chippeewas, far to the North of Detroit, and is said to understand beaver-trapping asewell asany Indian. Recommended by John Aikin, Esq. as a person of credit. Answers to my queries.
Self-preservation, breeding, wintering, and the greater faci- lity of obtaining their food, are their principal motives for building their dams. Here they live secure, and can pass the winter comfortably, having previously well provided themselves with the necessary food, such as the barks of trees, roots, &c.
In building their dams, they make use of all kinds of sticks, logs, and rubbish, some of which are laid crossways, others in a position nearly upright, butsomewhatleaning. For stopping up holes or breaches, they make use of roots and clay or mud; and they are always careful to keep their dams in good order, never delaying a necessary repair.
Their houses are from nine to twelve feet in diameter. Se- veral couple live together in one house; and there are from one to ten houses in one dam. From two to ten beavers have been seen working together. When at work, they keep a watch, who will sometimes ascend to the height of ten or twelve feet; but on the approach of an enemy, or even on only supposed danger, instantly descends, when all the labourers retire to their houses. The female works the same as the male.
They are very fond of their young, which they suckle much in the manner that the cat does. They frequently lean their backs against a tree, while suckling their young ones. In ge- neral, they have but two young at a litter; but old beavers are known to have had three and even four young at one litter. I know but one kind of beaver,
( 213)
No. XXXVI.
Memoir on the Occultation of Aldebaran by the moon on the 21st of October 1793. By Jose Joaquin de Ferrer.
Read November 16th 1804, OBSERVATIONS ON THIS OCCULTATION. Apparent Time. Ga aes 2
In the Capital of Porto-Rico by Don Cosmede Churruca, §Immersion. 12 30 33 76
Captain of a Ship inthe RoyalNavy. . . . 3 Emersion. 12 57 55 80
in the Observatory of Ferrol by Don means a ie Lien: Im. . . 180340 0
tenantin the Navy. . . . . . arte Em. aude ia Me BS 2
In Figueras by Mr. Mechain. . . - - - + + = « Em. - " 990017 6
Sowers 33 09 2
In the Observatory of Gotha. Lan ia a f 0 7
eS Re 53. 0
In Paris at the Naval Observatory. ad rive 1 te 38 0
Tx Berlin: sags bya « fastins peein ido Ris) hdus Dieta iete aie bh Amiskes OHNO LAGE a0)
WomViaccenless: 4. ee eae ate st im tie et Mey. AO 1004s .S
EnsDantzickts sg) Gaines Be Ye ogee Sigil eh Bie ae at. 20514). 32t40 From these observations results the longitude of aera 2 33 oe 4 Porto-Rico west of Paris according to Triesne Rien 433 58 6
According to the statement of Mr. Lalande in the Connois- sance des Temps for the year 8, Triesnecker has, contrary to the opinion of this astronomer, diminished the horizontal as uh the moon given, in the third Edition of his Astro- nomy, 6°; but this variation cannot produce so great a differ- ence. As the position of Porto-Rico is very interesting to geographers, 1 have proposed to calculate all the observations, to examine the elements, and point out the dependence to be placed on these results.
I had formerly calculated these observations, supposing the proportion between the polar and equatorial diameters of the earth to be as 229 : 230 conformably to the theory of Newton, and the horizontal parallax in Paris = 57’ 44” 8. Since that period this proportion has been ascertained to be as $33 : 334. The constant parallax of the equator 57’ 1”, from which the parallax at Paris = 57’ 36” 8, for the moment of the con-
214 OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN
junction.—It follows then from the first elements that the Jon- gitude of Porto-Rico West of Paris=4° 33’ 26” 6, and the difference of latitudes in conjunction 22’ 58”,—It is to be re- marked that calculating from the different elements, there re- sulted an increase in the difference of meridians between Porto- Rico and Paris viz:
\
bhew From the difference between 1-230 and 1-334 for the figure of the earth. +08 3 From the differences of parailaxes between 57’ 44°" 8, and 57’ 36” 8. +171 Longitude ef Porto-Rico by the first elements 4 33 266 Longitude of Porto-Rico West of Paris corrected. 4 33 520
These results inclined me, at the moment, to believe that the longitude determined by Triesnecker was nearer the truth than any of the others, I immediately began a careful inves- tigation, making use of the best elements astronomy has as yet afforded. '
In consideration of the great influence of the parallax and oblate figure of the earth, upon the longitude of Porto-Rico, we may infer the great importance of repeating this kind of observations, for if we can once with accuracy determine the difference of meridians, we can then determine the proportion of the earth’s axes, with more certainty than by the Geodesical method; or supposing this proportion known, the lunar pa- rallax could then be determined,
, a The horizontal equatorial parallax agreeably to Mayer. =57 11 4 Th 42 é Lalande. 57 05 0 ese results are on the supposition of the difference Bur 57 01 0 of the axes of the earth being 1-300. L Ins 56 57 3
The parallax which I have adopted is that of Burg, who deduced it from observations of a great number of solar eclip- ses and occultations of stars.
The inflection of the moon I have deduced from the same observations. It will not be amiss to observe, that comparing the conjunctions deduced from immersions and emersions, oF immersions with immersions, they give the difference of me- ridians, so that the doubt which may exist as to the quantity of inflection, cannot be suchas to affect the result. To determine the difference of latitudes at the conjunction, I have made use of the observations at Gotha and Porto-Rico.
BY THE MOON. 215
La
It is to be remarked that at Porto-Rico the apparent center of the? Immer. 13 56 38
meon passed to the North of Aldebaran supposing 2% of inflection.§ Emer. 15 49 18 Immer. 10 55 35
At Gotha to the South of Aldebaran. : 3 - Emer. 12 20 35 Difference of Latitude at conjunction Porto-Rico.= 29. 55’9 Sy 99 57 3 with 2” inflection. Gotha 22 58 z oa 0 G «Rico. 22 5 Supposing 1” of inflection Yeoma 22 rhs 1 22 57 5
It appears therefore that the center of the moon having pass- ed at such a distance from Aldebaran and in different quarters, the errors proceeding from the semidiameter of the moon, or quantities of inflections, have contrary signs, that.is if we sup- pose 1” more in the inflection, we diminish the ‘difference of latitudes at conjunction by the observations 1 in Porto-Rico 1” 1 and augment it by those of Gotha 1” 6, consequently we de- tennaine! at the same time both elements, which is reduced to the following question: To find the horizontal semidiameter of the moon at the moment of the conjunction; by applying the corrections of the horary variations and the corresponding in- crease of altitude, there results the same difference of latitude at conjunction, by the observations at both places. By apply- ing the calculation we find the inflection of the horizontal se- midiameter of the moon=1” O, and the difference of latitudes 22" 57" 0. At Figueras and Ferrol the apparent centers of the
In its Immersion. Emersion.
Moon and Aldebaran pass Ferrol. 2’ 1” 0 3’ 47” Figueras. 2 28 O 2 47 These observations after having detained the difference of latitudes at conjunction, are the most proper to determine the quantity of inflection. By applying the ealiwdaton to the observations of Ferrol, there results the inflection of the semidiameter of the moon. 0” 9 Applied to the observations of Figueras. . . 0 5 To those of Porto-Rico and Gotha. Py) eb TO
Mean inflection. . . O 8
‘ According to Lalande, the inflection increases the semidia-
meter of the moon 2”; Mr. Du Sejour, after having calculated
the observations of Mr Short on the Solar eclipse of Ist April D
916 OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN
1764, says that an inflection of 1” 8 and a diminution of the se- midiameter of the moon of 1” 5 agreed with some of the observa- tions, but he could come to no final conclusion upon this point. To determine the quantity of the inflection it is necessary to know precisely the following data, viz. the precise diameter of the moon, the beginning ava end of the occultation, the true difference of latitude, the parallaxes in longitude and latitude, and the horary motions of the two bodies.
Let us suppose the diameter observed to be less than that cal- culated by the tables 0” 8, as inthe present case, and that in other respects the elements that have been made use of are cor- rect, we cannot on that account suppose it to be the effect of the irradiation, it being certain that the doubt respecting the lunar diameter, measured by different astronomers, is much greater than the above difference.
The diameter of the sun has been frequently the object of the attention of astronomers, and although it is much more ea- sily determined than that of the moon, there is notwithstand- ing, a great difference in the various determinations.
The Apogee diameter of the Sun by, Picard. in Feet 4% 0 outon. — 31310
‘ Louville. 1724 31330
Gentil, Lemonnier and La Caille 1750 31345
Bradley. — 31305
Lalande. 1764 a 310
Maskelyne, —— 31 29 0
Short. — 31280
If we confine Ourselves even to the determination of Lalande, Maskelyne, Bradley, and Short we find a difference from 2” to 3” and there is reason to believe that the uncertainty of the diameter of the moon is much greater, consequently we may well doubt whether the diminution of 1” or 2” resulting from the observations of the moon by eclipses of the sun and occultations, is the effect of the irradiation or of an error in the diameter represented in tables,
Remark on the elements of -the tables.
I have calculated the place of Aldebaran taking the right ascension from the catalogue of Maskelyne and the declination ©
BY THE MOON, 217
of Piazzi; and the place of the moon from the theory of La- place. The horizontal parallax of the moon, from the state- ments of the tables of Lalande, in the third edition of his astronomy, I have diminished 3” 1, conformably to the deter- mination of Burg as mentioned above.
I have also taken care to calculate the horary motions cor- responding to the intervals between the immersions and emer- sions, and between the true conjunction and the moments of the immersions and emersions, the variation of the parallax, semidiameter, equation of time and all the other elements, which are subject to variation.
Elements of the Occultation of Aldebaran by the moon.
October 21st, 1793.
higrritte Conjunction in Paris by the tables, Mean timett)) ssialt Ai mupeghei Oop 8 ‘ Apparent time. A ot) 16 Obw29) io Apparent obliquity of theecliptic. . A : : ; : «, .23927 48, 0 Apparent longitude of Aldebaran. .« : : : . : . 665433 4 Southern latitude of Aldebaran. . Ay i a 9 A . 5 28 49 O Southern latitude of the moon. A 5 A 5 - 5 05 58 27 Horary motion of the longitude of the moon. . ° ; ° 33 50 15 Horary diminution, of the horary motion in longitude. . ° 2 66 Horary motion of the moon in north latitude. : ° s . . ae Horary increase of horary motion in latitude. a : 7 ° 177
Proportion of the axes of the earth, as 333: 334 vies Horizontal parallax of the moon at Paris. S ° . ° ‘ 57 36 80 Polar horizontal parallax. . : A . q 57 32 30 Horary variation of the parallax decreasing. ° : . . ° 2 30 Horizontal semidiameter of the moon. . C ° . 15 45 0 Horary diminution of the semidiameter of the moon. . x 5 A 0 63 Latitude of Aldebaran.——Latitude of themoon. . . ° . 22 50 73 Right ascension of the sun. = 5 . 5 - 207 13 54 0 Horary motion of the right ascension ‘of the sun, . ° “ 2 2 23 0 Equation of time. i : . . . —15 27 0 Horary augmentation of the equation of time. . . 0 34 Horary motion of the moon between the immersion and emersion at Paris. 33 46 7 Do. between the immersion and the true con junction. : : . 33 49 1 Do. between the true conjunction and the emersion. : . 33 47 9 Paris. immersion and emersion. OFeg Horary motion in latitude between t immersion and true conjunction, 8 4 true conjunction and emersion. 9 3 Horary motion at Porto-Rico between the immersion and emersion. : aolac? 2 immersion and true conjunction. 33.51 5 true conjunction and emersion. 33.50 8 Porto-Rico. immersion and emersion. 6 4 Horary motion in latitude between immersion and true conjunction, 6 9 true conjunction and emersion. des
216 OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN
Application of the calculation of the observation at Gotha.
Latitude—Vertical angle—50° 47° 41” 49. Logarithm of the radius=9,999217L
Radius at the Pole 9,9986978 Immersion. Emersion. Cy ai a) ong H=Altitude of the nonagesime 56 34 06 54 01 40 N=Distance of the € from the nonages. 58 23 10 65 06 30 N-{-Parallax in longitude 59 04 34 65 49 10 L Latitude of the moon by the tables 3c SOUS 5 05 44 2 Horizontal polar parallax 57 30 24 57 28 70 Sine horizontal polar parallax. 4 - 8,22340388 . ge BSP 882282080 Logarithmic radius at Gotha. i a Logarithmic radius at the Pole. ata 4 : . ‘ 0,0005193 Co-arithmetical cosine latitude of the moon. 0,0017209 F " 5 0,0017200 Sine altitude of the nonagesime. k és 9,9214490 . = 5 9,9081105 Sine (N + parallax in longitude) i . 9,9334117 ‘ F : 9,9601182 P=Sine parallax inlong. = 41° rg 79 = 8,0805047 Sine P. sei 59” 22 8,0936710 Cosine latitude of the moon, A 9,9982791 4 ‘a P, 9,9982800 Co-ar: sine N, A 3 % = ; 0,0697644 A * ,. . 0,0423423 Constant logarithm. ‘ : ‘ ‘ 8,1485482 . ° ° 8,1542933 Cotangent H. ; 9,8196570 : A ; 9,8608182 Cosine latitude apparent of the moon 5° 39'50" 9,9978740 , 0° 41:17 9,9978563 ee Sine Q=31" 47” 71. : - < é 7,9660792 Sine Q=33' 49" 55 7,9929678 Constantlogarithm. . . , .- 981485482 . . + . 8,1349933 Cosine (N44 P.) : 9,7152204 . 5 . . 9,6183552 Cosine apparent latitude of the moon. . 9,9978740 : » s : 9,997 8563 Tangent the true latitude of the moon. . 8,9505967 ty 4 - « 8,9504777 Sine Q’=2’ 13” 86. i. ‘ 5 2 6,8122393 Sine Q’. 1° 43° 61. Aare ieee. Parallax in latitude=Q--Q=34 O01 57. Parallax in latitude=Q + Q’=35, = 16 Parallax in longitude 41 22 79. Parallax in boners 42 39 22 Difference of apparent latitudes in the interval. : : LIEW Difference of apparent longitudes do. . 21 21 9 Y—=mean apparent latitude of the moon = latitude of Aldebnaasig = 5° 34 40 Apparent inclination of theorbit 3° 48° 51 arc or chord 1277” 76 oe ae : I. 15’ 48" 38 Apparent semidiameter—2 inflection E. 15 46 33 ° 4 a Angles of conjunction. : . SF aa a = We have the distances of the apparent conjunction. — a ao fe Difference of apparent latitudes. ~ ag a = True conjunction in apparent time = 18h 40’ 06” 1 Latitude of the D by the table attheimm. =5° 5° 50° 80 attheem.= 5° 4 44” 20 Parallaxes in latitude. ‘ 3 a4 Ahye 5% $35 33 16 (a) Apparent latitude of the Dby thetables 5 39 52 37 % at 17 36 Difference of latitudes observed. —10 55 35 _—12 20 35 Lat. of the D in the region of the star. 5 28 57 02 5 98 57 O01 J.atitude of Aldebaran. 5 28 49 00 5 28 49 00
—
Hgror'of ‘the tablés —0 00 08 a2 —0 00 08 OL
. ames ~— Occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon, = «———S—SC«SW0 Whe so fice page ag
. 3 - - = . * ’ —~
‘ Observed in the Capital of Porto-Rico and different places of Europe : October 21st, 1793.
GOTHA. , PARIS MARINE OBSERVATORY FIGUERAS. FERROL. | - PORTO-RIgO. _ Teer wAuseritae) ae ere Immersion. Emersion. | Immersion. Emersion. Immersion. Emersion, Immersion. | Emersion. | Immersion. Emersion, immersion. } Immersion. Fatnieennis “ag \ ae eg a LG ho oe e .aae "i a a a er eae a aa Es Ga eae Gone aa RE ee eo oo oS
19 33 09 1] 201320 7] 1853 28 0| 19 45 36 18 59 27 7 | 2000 17 6| 18 03 40 19 09 59 12 30 33 7 | 12 57 55 8 — 3335 5 - 18 — 229 5 42 13 4-4 33 52 18 59 33 6 | 19 39 45 2 18 53 26 2|19 45 34 2] 18 56 58 2] 19 57 48 1) 18 45 53 19 52 12 17 04.25 7) 17 5147 8 — 15 27 28 15 27 55 15 27 27 15 27 56 15 27 26° 15 27 59 15 27 21 15 27 60 15 26 66 15 26 83 50°47 49 rs 48 40 51 42 05 44 43 19 12% 18 22 34 9,9992171 9,9992649 ‘ 9,9994141 9,9993861 9,9998700 13h49 04 1] 134910 4)134902 5/13 4911 4/13 4903 7] 13 4913 2} 13 4902 2/13 4911 2) 13 4846 2] 13 48 50 2 67°24 27 80 | 67 47 05 25 | 67 21 01 10 | 67 50 22 0 | 67 23 00 8 | 67 57 15 4] 67 1645 2 | 67 5405 5| 6619 32 0 | 66 34 58 8 * § 05 50 80) 5 05 4420} 50551 7] 50543 1] 505 5090} 505 40 86} 5 05 5250} 5054170) 50605 47} 506 2 54 57 30 30 57 28 70 57 30 4 57 28 3 57 30 4 57 28 0 57 30.7 57 28 6 57 34 6 57 33 6 15 44 44 15 44 02 15 44 52 15 43 99 15 44 48 15 43 87 15 44 60 15-43 92 15 45 66 15 45 35 56 34 06 54 01 40 60 41 50 57 46 16 66 40 57 62 53 28 68 02 30 64 55 30 85 47 41 87 49 52 58 23 11 65 06 30 52 11 20 61 08 18 55 26 32 66 38 35 44 27 48 56 34 10 27 40 49 21 44 48 41 27 79 42 39 22 40 11 24 43 05 73 44 07 12 47 30 22 37 59 35 44 02 96 27 15 41 21 47 60 34 O1 57 35 33 16 31 02 07 32 49 43 25 33 25 28 02 70 25 05 16 27 O1 65 8 52 32 7 02 44 |. 15 49 38 15 47 33 15 5113] +» 15 48 49 15 50 90 15 47 38 15 53 41 15 50 03 15 58 56 15 59 66 18:40 06 1) 18 40 06 1] 1806.38 7 | 18 06 38 7 | 18 09 05 18 09 05 17 24 21 4)°17 2421 4/13 32 41 8] 13 3241 8
19 46 17 19 10 04 5 | 20 14 32 — 4409 0} — 1208 O |—1 05 15 19 02 08 18 57 56 5| 190917 0 15 27 28 15 27 26. 15 27 29 52 21 32 43 07 33 541118 6 9,9991825 9,9993900 9,99914297 13 49 04 5] 13 4904 0/13 4905 6 67 25 59 0 | 67 23 33 7 | 67 29 53 5 505 5015 | 5 05 58 87} 505 49 24 57 30 13 57 30 53. 57:29 9} 15 44 41 15 44 48 15 44 28 54 20 20 65 06 50 50 54 20 ~ 59 55 35 57 08 05 63 42 35 40 54 73 4425 60 40 26 33 35 41 62 26 49 62) 38 03 93 15 48 82} 15 50 50 15 47 59
Apparent times observed.
Long. from Paris eee observy.) Apparent times in Paris
Equation of time.
Latitude ——Vertical angle. Logarithm of the earth’s radius.
The sun’s right ascension.
Moon’s longitude by the tables. Moon’s latitude.
Moon’s polar horizontal parallax. Moon’s Bcieaneal semidiameter. Altitude of nonagesime.
Moon’s true distance from the nonag. Parallax in longitude.
Parallax in latitude. =~
Apparent semidiameter—1~ inflection Conjunction, apparent time.
True diff. of lat. at conjunction. 22 67.1 23 00 4 22 57 99 22 S7 7 $i ppd Conjunct. by the immersion’s Allowing 22° 57’ dfeenced inflect. = 1’’= 18h 40° 05” 5 18h 06’ 33” 0 18h 09’ 05” 17h 24’ 21” 4 13h 32° 41° 3 18h50 42 5|18h18 4% 2) 19h11 47 | of latitude at conjunction and) inflect. = om 18 40 03 1 18 06 30 8 18 09 03 17 2419 4 13.32) 37 7 18 50 39 4}18 1839 4[ 19 11 41 “+ On, fe Us Mean conjunction by the immersion and emersion at Paris.—- Conjunction by the immersion’s allowing 22’ 57” difference of latitude at Latitude of Gotha. : : 50 57 46 ; Be. conjunction and inflection. = 1” inflection 2” Paris marine observatory. 48 51 04 Conjunction observed in Gotha—diff long.—true conjunction in Paris.=18 06 30 6 , ie —_ Figueras. cept eee te 42 do U0 : Do. do. in Paris— diff. long. = - c do. 18 06 36 9 pe: ne oe Ferrol. f . ° 43 29 30 Do. do. in Figueras. - 5 : 5 do; 18:06:35 > By the immersion of Gotha.” . 18 06 30 0 18 06 27 6 Porto-Rico, . : : 18 28 45 —— ' do. Paris. : 18 06 31 3 18 06 29 Berlin, . . 5 : 52 31 30 Mean conjunction, apparent time in the national observatory of Paris 18 06 34 3 do. Figueras. . 18 06 35 5 18 06 33 5 Marseilles, . . . 43 17 49 , Gotha. 22 57 10 do. Berlin. i 18 06 33 5 18 06 30 4 Dantzick. A . ; 54 21 05 ‘ Paris. 23 00 40 do. ‘i Marseilles. . 18 06 33 2 18 0631 4 / Difference of latitude at conjunction.¢ Figueras. 22 57 99 do. Dantzick. °. 18 06 32 0 18 06 26 1 , Ferrol. 22 57 70 __ ——_ Porto-Rico. 22 57 00 Mean conjunction in apparent time = 18 06 32 5 18 06 29 7
—_ ee eee
Mean. 22 58 O By observations of Gothaand Porto-Rico. = 22’ 57” 0
BY THE MOON, 219
Difference of latitudes at the coeggagaan . . 5 F » 22’ 50” 73 Error of tables. : ‘ : : 5 . + 8 01 Difference of latitudes at ‘conjunction. . ae 22058) 74
Supposing the inflection = 1’ the difference of jatitudes at the conjunction would
have been 22° 57” 1 Supposing 22° 57” for difference of latitude at the canjacienors we have an error
in the tables in latitude ri 3 . ° — 6” 27 Apparent latitude by the tables. (ap. DP: 218) : : 5 . 5 39 52 37 Apparent latitude corrected. 5 39 46 10 Aldebaran, 5 5 ‘ 5 28 49 00 Difference of apparent latitude at the immersion. : : 10 57 10
With 22’ 57” difference of latitude at conjunction there results 10° 57” ©) for difference of apparent latitude at the immersion, and aEpUSES
2° of inflection we have true conjunction. : 18h 40’ 03” 1
1” of inflection do. do : . : . 18 40 05 5
Note. The altitudes and longitudes of the nonagesime have been calculated with the latitude diminished by the vertical an- gle corresponding to 333 : 334, for the proportion of the axes: I have omitted the forms which I made use of, and have only given the calculation of the parallaxes to shew the method I have used, which is the same with that of Cagnoli.—See his treatise of trigonometry, printed in Paris, page 411—427.
Determination of the difference of latitudes at the conjunction.
Tt will appear by the annexed table of the occultation, as ob- served in the capital of Porto-Rico and different places in Eu- rope, that the mean difference of latitudes at conjunction, (supposing 1” of inflection) is 22’ 58” OO.
The emersion at Paris was observed rather late, as appears by a comparison of the observations, and consequently cannot be much confided in; the observations at Figueras and Ferrol are not the most proper in order to determine the latitudes at con- junction, because the center of the moon passed near to the star, we shall therefore confine ourselves to those of Gotha and Porto-Rico, which give 22’ 57” O without risk of an error of 1”,
If we diminish the horizontal polar parallax of the ¢ by 4” according to the theory of Laplace, there would have resulted a difference of latitudes at conjunction by the observations at Porto-Rico and Gotha=22’ 56”,
E
220
OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN
Determination of the longitude of Porto-Rico west of Paris.
Conjunctions at Paris resulting from three suppositions.
1. By the immersions and emersions at Paris, Gotha and Figueras, reduced to the national observatory. _
2, Supposing 22’ 57” difference oé latitude at the conjunction, and making use of the immersions with 1” of inflection.
5
3. Making use of the same difference of latitude at the con-
. . wi) . . junction with 2” inflection.
Conjunction at Paris by observations.
By Wh b Yee eer g BL op-
At Gotha. 18 06 30 6 18 06 30 0 18 06 27 6
Paris. 18 06 36 9 18 06 313 18 06 29 0
Figueras. 18 06 35 5 18 06 35 5 18 06 33 3
Berlin. al 18 06 33 5 18 06 50 4
Marseilles. . 18 06 33 2 18 06 31 4
Dantzick. 18 06 32 0 18 06 26 1
€onjunction on three hypotheses, 18 06 34 3 18 06 32 5 18 06 29 7 Same at Porto-Rico. 13 32 41 8 13 32 41 3 13, 32.37, 7 Longitude of Porto-Rico on 433 525 4 33 512 A 33 520
the three hypotheses. ba eee, Mean longitude of Porto-Rico. 4 33 519
Supposing 22’ 57” difference of latitudes at conjunction and 1” of inflection we have the longitude of Paris by the immersions.
Conjunction at the national observatory, apparent time,
by the mean of the observations at Paris, Gotha, Figu- — 18h 06’ 32° 5
eras, Berlin, Marseilles and Dantzick.
i ek a Gotha east of Paris. . : 3 ‘ 5 5 33 33 0 Figueras. . : ; - é - c . 232 5 Ferrol west. . 7 i © . = : : 42 110 Berlin east... 4 s 3 C : 0 . 44 10 0 Marseilles. . ; . 2 ° C : & 12 08 7 4 Dantzick. ; . 4 3 , 105 1435 Porto-Rico west. . : - : . ’ 4 33 51 2
If we suppose the proportion of the difference of the earth axes 1-300, it diminishes the difference of meridians between Porto-Rico and Paris . . . . . w= 2” 65
1” diminution of the parallax,. . . . . 2 14
1” more in the horary motion of longitude. 4 3 70
BY THE MOON. 221
If we suppose the polar horizontal parallax. diminished 4”, conformably to Laplace’s theory, it would increase the longi- tude of Porto-Rico by 8” 5 of time: in this case the longitude of Porto-Rico would be (=4° 33’ 51” 248” 5)=4" 33’ 59” 7 According to) ‘Erresnecker. 4 one <b) 5s goes 4 0
The variations in the elements, have no sensible influence on the difference of meridians between the observations in Europe.—So that we may consider the above results to have as much accuracy as the observations can possibly be suscep- tible of.
SSS No. XXXVII.
The geographical position of sundry places in North’ America and in. the West Indies, calculated from astronomical observations: By Jose Joaquin de Ferrer.
Read at sundry times, 1805.
OCCULTATION OF JUPITER BY THE MOON.
January 15th, 1799.
a ee time.
Observations. rou At New-Orleans Immersion of the center of Jupiter. - 5 45 46 5 by Mr. Andrew Ellicott. Emersion of the center. 5 P . 7 06 20 0
At the royal observatory of the Island of Leon by Don > Immersion of the Ist limb. ; : - 1329438 Julian Ortiz Canelas.
At the national observatory a 3 iS Paris by Mr. Mechain. Immersion of the center. : 5 er toro) 1275
Elements by the tables at 13h 00’ 00’ mean time or 12h 49° 50° 1 apparent time at Paris.
° 4 “
(Longitude reckoned from the sPparsne ey e ¢ 46 26 3 Latitude. S. : ‘ 34 26 7 Equatorial horizontal parallax. ; : cS ; 55 04 0 Moon’s 4 Horizontal diameter—3” inflection. 3 : y 30 00 0 Horary motion in longitude. 5 : 2 30 27 7 Horary motion in latitude northerly. 0 ‘ 5 2411 UHorary augmentation of parallax, 14
°o Pie.
Geocentric longitude. . : : C . ‘ 46 24 46
Geocentric latitude. : . ° 5 57 16 Jupiter’s < Horary motion in longitude direct. z C , 2 40 Horizontal parallax. 5 1 87 Semidiameter. 20 SS
Proportion of the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth 334: 333.
222 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,
New-Orleans. Islandof Leon. Paris. Im. of center./Em. of center. Im. 2d limb. \Im. of center, 7 Rit 7, le a ee aT or Te Bt ca ny an cee
Apparent time of the observations, | 5 45 46 5 | 7 06 20 13 29 43 8 | 13 50 12 5 Longitude west from Paris, 6 10 16 6 10 16 34 08 0 00 00 0 Apparent time at Paris, 11 56 02 5 | 13 16 36 14 03 51 8 | 13 50 12 5 Latitude—Vertical angle, 29 48 34 36 18 00 48 40 01 Parallax in longitude, 11 18 6 3 543 51 34 0 46 01 0 Parallax in latitude, 18 02 5 12 26 7 18 41 0 29 42 4 Apparent inclination of the orbit for New-Osleans, TOREAS O14 Conjunction at New-Orleans, apparent time, 6, 37 53 1 Difference of latitudes at the conjunction, 22 11 4 Idem by the tables, 22 43 9 Correction of the tables, — SP ok)
Y Nob aed
Conjunction at Paris, by the observation on the Island of Leon apparent time, 12 47 42 2
Do. by the observation of Mr. Mechain, 12 47 35 8 Mean 12 47 39 0
At New-Orleans, 6 37 53 0
Longitude of New-Orleans West from Paris. e 6 09 46 0
Table of the results of longitude by the lunar distance observed cwith
a circular reflector.
Capital of Porto-Rico.
Apparent Apparent distances of € from Long. W. time. © and stars. » from Paris. 1796 Rw, 0 5.7 ee, Were. January 30 | 20 20 41 | D and © nearest limb. | 93 29 52 4 32 53 31 | 20 48 15 - S 6 : 82 32 12 4 33 00 February 2 | 23 22 02 . : . 3 59 5010} 483 15 if 20) 2321 A é r . 49 39 36 4 33 18 4} 0 20 36 «~~ | 48 42 36] 4 33 47 12 | 22 48 28 - e 58 38 42 |' 4 33 06 23 3 29 5 5 58 4618 | 433 14 14 3 44 06 . 73 38 15 4 33 47 15} 438 0 5 C cC 87 09 18 | 4 34 32 16 | 0 57 34 : . 4 98 5402 | 4 33 42 March 2h P2Eayr SL é : é 5 70 14 20} 4 32 44 21 27 31 Fy : ‘ 5 70 11 40 4 32 39 3} 21 11 14 4 ‘ : 4 59 642| 4 33 11 21 20 14 : . > 59 4 40 4 32 35 4 | 22 58 18 : ‘ : 47 1418] 4 33 22 11 | 22 48 48 P F 40 56 54} 4 33 02 13] 22 59 39 . A 67 36 45 | 4 33 32 23 08 02 3 : 67 41 22] 4 33 09 14 | 23 41 33 : 811145] 4 34 08 23 51 19 . 5 8117 42| 4 3417 j Mean. 4 33 21 4 Correction of the Epochs, + 350 Longitude of Porto-Rico West from Paris; 4 33 56
BY J. J. DE FERRER, 225
Table of the results of longitude continued.
New Veracruz.
Apparent Apparent distances of € from Long. W.
time. © and stars. from Paris.
1792 heen aM, ie Ohm ae Baan Scptembr. 21 | 016 2/@© and€ nearest limbs. } 66 55 45 | 6 32 54 0 38 48 : A c 67 545] 6 32 0
28 | 10 56 24 |g aquile & C nearest limb] 57 56 45 | 6 32 47
| 11 05 44 : : > : 57 59 15 | 6 32 47
October 2 11 40 52] a Wand € nearest limb.| 19 50 58] 6 33 38 | 11 54 28 5 : < 19 45 56] 635 43
3 | 12°00 25 O é c cs 6 54 07 6 33 51
| 12 17 56 ‘ : . 6 47 34 6 35 42
4) 11 42 26 | g yand € remote limb. 5 28 00] 6 33 44
| 11 54 53 3 F 3 2 5 383 16] 6 33 57
9 | 23 6 57 | © and € nearest limbs. } 61 13 00 6 33 47
23 40 57 é ° ' E 61 145] 6 33 32
11 | 22 17 09 : : i F 38 38 00] 6 32 44
12 0 31 19 t . 5 ji 37 57 16 6 33 51
0 43 14 : 5 n . 87 53 22 | 6 33 35
19) 3 to 12 s : ; 0 50 48 39 | 6 33 09
3 46 02 5 . ; . 50 48 04} 6 33 05
November 4 | 21 11 14 5 3 5 5 104 545] 6 32 46 21 23 54 3 6 4 ; 104 1° 8) 6 32 57
5 | 21 44 02 5 - A c 93 026] 6 32 08
21 53°23 : 4 : A 92 56 54] 6 32 42
18 3 13 41 e ° : * 59 49 40 6 33 07
3 24.23 5 . c p 59 53 10} 6 32 57
21 2 46 29 ‘ : : . 99 16 37 6 32 45
2 Sao: 5 5 7 2 99 20 45 6 32 40
December 17 | 3 50 55 : q ; F 545245 | 6335 4 Mean. 33 09
Correction of the Epochs, i “fuse Longitude of Veracruz west from Paris, 6 33 43
The preceding Table contains observations of distances of the moon from the sun and stars in Vera Cruz and Porto-Rico, and the number of observations being equal on the east and west of the moon, the errors of them must be very nearly des- troyed.
The longitudes are deduced by a comparison: with the nau- tical almanac; and to the mean of the results I have added the corrections which are found in the tables, arising from the fol- lowing considerations.
The tables of Mason which have been used for the calcula- tions of the moon in the nautical almanac, suppose the epoch of the mean longitude of the moon in 1750 6* 08° 22 21”
The secular motion, 10 07 53 35 F
224 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,
From a comparison with the new tables, the following cor- rections arise.
Correction of epochsin 1750 —413” 0 Idem of the secular equation. = 54 96
Coefficient of Mr. Laplace=15” sin (C’s apog. +. 2 long, &—3 ©’s apog-)
To determine the error of the solar tables, I have calculated various observations of the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne correspond- ing to the epochs of observations in the said tables,
I have further applied the equation XVIII of the lunar ta- bles, of which no use is made in the calculations of the nauti- cal almanac. The result of all the corrections, I have reduc- ed to time, to apply it to the mean of the results of longitude as I have mentioned above.
Difference of longitude between Paris and Veracruz.
Veracruz, apparent time. h..4@>* 1795, Aug. 8. Emer. I Sat. of 2f 8 53 45 2 14 Il. 8 57 29 8f/ difference of longitudes, ph ' “ Oct,” 9 I, 8 03 00 8\ by the comparison ofthe $6 33 32 @ 10 II. 5 58 55 5\ observations in Europe. 25 I. 6 26 321 By 26 series of €’s distances (page 223) 6 33 48 0
By the occultation of o Sagittarius by the C( page 160, Vol. VI, part L. ) 6 33 42 8
Longitude of Veracruz west from Paris. 5 é = = . 6 33 40 9
Veracruz and Havanna.
& 8 Aug. 8.1795 Em. 1 Sat of 2f observed at Havanna by Don Coane Churruca. 9 48 50 : : 8
cd Observed by me at Veracruz. <i} DNs 53 45 2 Difference of longitudes. . . . : . 05505 5 Difference of longitudes by the cronometer. ‘ . . 535 02 5 Veracruz west from Havanna. Mean. 0 55 04
Capital of Porte-Rico and Earth.
Be Fw
By 20 series of €’s distances (page 222) - + 433 56
By 4 series of C’s distances compared with the observations of the t 4 33 42 Rey. Nevil Maskelyne at Greenwich, on Jan. and Feb. 1796.
By the occultation of a y by the €. Oct. 21, 1793. (page 220) 4 33 52
Porto-Rico west from Paris. Mean. 4 33°50
BY J. J. DE FERRER. 225
Havanna and Paris.
Mean time. hse Jannary 26. 1800. Emer. of I Sat. of 2f observed at Havanna, A 6 36 30 Vivier, : 12 24 20 5 47 50 Vivier east from Paris. . > : 4 4 : = A 9 24 Havanna west from Paris. ; . : Bee : 5 38 26 Veracruz west from Paris. - 6 33 40 9 = Hayanna east from Veracruz, - 55 04 0 Havanna west from Paris. > fe < e 5 38 369 Porto-Rico west from Paris. : rf 4 33 50 Havanna west from Porto-Rico 1 4 44 by the Cronometer. Havanna west from Paris. - 4 5 hie ‘ . : 5 38 34
Mean. 5 38 323
Natchez and Paris.
hos New-Orleans west from Paris by the occultation of Jupiter by the vies (P- +44) 6 09 46 Natchez west from New-Orleans by the Cronometer. = 5 16 Natchez west from Paris. ; . 7 ; ‘ ~ i : . 6 15 02
Occultation of the I Satellite of Jupiter by the moon, observed at New-Orleans by Mr. Andrew Ellicott, and at the Royal Obser- vatory of the Island of Leon by Don Julian Ortiz de Canelas, on the 15th of January, 1799.
I have sent to the American Philosophical Society the re- sult of this occultation, which was observed the same day in the island of Leon and at New-Orleans. This determination ' besides being very exact, has appeared to me to merit atten- tion, was it for no other reason than that it appears to be the ‘first time that the longitude has been deduced from such an observation; at least I have not had any knowledge of its having been done before.
New-Orleans. Island of Leon. Immersion. ; Emersion. } Immersion. b Viel h rw how ” Apparent time. : : 5 41 40 7 02 34 13125 3. Longitude west of Paris. 6 9 56 6 4 56 34 8 Apparent time at Paris. 11 51 36 13 12 30 13 59 43 Distance of the € from the nonagesime. 13°07 53 3°20 12 83°26 57 Altitudes of the nonagesime. 71 23 50 77 26 30 70. 24 10 Horiz. parallax. of the € corresponding to the lat.—horiz. parallax of the 1 Sat, p28 t $5100 72.00,0 Parallax in longitude. 12 00 4 310 4 31 33 4 Parallax in latitude. 18 20 3 12 40 5 18 30 8 Apparent semidiameter of the C—inflection. 15 13 4 15 140 15 01 0
Distance of the 3 Satellite from Jupiter. 7* 09° 5” 75 20° 32°
226 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,
‘
heu ResuLT.—Conjunction in New-Orleans. : 6 34 541 Difference of the latitudes at the conjunction. . - 22 01 2 By the tables. 5 22 36 0 ' Sum of the errors. 34 8 ees Difference of apparent latitudes at the moment of immersion in the island of Leon. =7 24 8 Errors of the tables according to the observations at New-Orleans. —348 Difference of the apparent latitudes at the immersion. 6 50 0 BY C7 Ew, Conjunction in the Island of Leon, 12 10 39 Idem. New-Orleans. 6 34 54 W. of Paris. Greenwich. h ‘ a h * “ Difference of Meridians. 5 35 45 6 09 53 6 0 33 Result by the occultation of 2£ 5 35 48 6 09 56 6 0 36
Note, The horizontal parallax of the moon in this calcula- tion, as also in the calculation of Jupiter, supposes the con- stant equatorial 57’ O1” 0.
Ratio of the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth as 3340: 333.
The parallax of I Sat,=horiz. parallax of Jupiter=1” 9
Horary motion of the moon at New-Orleans+horary geo- ” centric motion of I Sat. of Jupiter=30’ 37” 6.
At the Island of Leon 30’ 37” 7—horary motion of the Satellite during the observations, which was retrogade.
Inclination of the orbit of I Satellite. 3° TS Sa.
Position of the node idem. 10: I4° 30
Passage of Mercury over the disk of the Sun, May 7th, 1799. Calculated by Jose Joaquin de Ferrer.
The principal object of this memoir, is to determine the longi- tude of Miller’s Place on the river Coenecuch (Am. Phil. Trans, Vol. V. p, 197.) by the Egress of Mercury observed by Mr. An- drew Ellicott, Commissioner on the part of the United States to fix the line which should divide them trom the Possessions of Spain.
The position of this point is interesting to Geography and Navigation, from its vicinity to Pensacola and the head of the river Perdido, According to the map of Mr. Lafon, which has this point laid down, Pensacola is 28” of time east of AZz/- ler’s Place, and the river Perdido 46” of time west of JAZiller’s Place. I have calculated fitteen observations of ingress and thir-
BY J. J. DE FERRER. 227
teen of egress observed in Europe, and comparing each of these observations with the mean determination for Paris, it appears that the greatest error in longitude has twice been at 8” of time. The errors of the mean of the observations of the time of the ingress and egress, seems to be within 3”, may be seen in the table. Mr. Ellicott’s observation appears worthy of the utmost confidence and he says that the exte- rior contact is within the limits of half a second. By the European observations it will be seen, that the time employed by the diameter of Mercury in the egress = 3’ 02”, 1 and ac- cording to Mr. Ellicott’s observations = 3’ 05”, 5 which proves that both contacts were well observed: taking the mean, the’un- certainty appears to be 1” 7 and, all circumstances considered, the error of longitude can scarcely equal 6” of time.
From the new tables of Mr. Lalande.
. be Conjunction in the ecliptic. : A ie : : 1 04 36 ©’s true longitude from the mean equinox. ‘ : 5 - 46 5417 3 B’s Helioncentric latitude. . - S. 5 47 470 Oy s aberration =——19" 80.; nutation = 6 %’s aberration in longitude. —=-- 6 85; aberrationin latitude —=— 3 28 ’s horary motion, 2 . 144 926 © and & relative geocentric horary motion inthe interval 2 235 996 between the ingress and egress. a 3’s horary motion in latitude. . : 4S 607 and §’s relative horary motion between the i ingress and 235 866 the time of the conjunction. ei ——— between the egress and the conjunction. 235 984 3 ’s horizontal parallax—@’s horizontal parallax: atthe time of the i ingress 7 089 do. do. egress, 7 109 Equation of time at the ingress. . = . < . + —3 43 0 do. . egress. Ra Cots eet Ay id Mine vir ache eG, Zdiameterof thesun. . : 2 . A ‘ 5 reals ol &
Observations made in Europe, May 7th, Vi99. Mean time Limb. Ingressof 3 Egress of 3 Déby hee
5 ety Mr.deLambre. Paris. $ 3 35h 008 a4aoss¢ 3002 3.009 Me. Mechain Pacis) 9/9! "") Sig's 7 oan fe a 2590 Me Mésie S Paw, SS SO aa of 3100 3080 Island of Leon. 5 3 20 46°06 are cz ¢ Marseilles. 5 , 2132 11 ApG.28
G
228
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,
Limb. Ingress of § Egress of 3 hos sR
> ~ 8 ~ 3
9 Q Mirepoix. § Pee hak ost 246- 250 - 1 22 00 28 5.22) 17 Berlin. 4 8 05 a6 Pea 30¢ 3 18 3 13 1 2204036 5 25 20 2 9 peu 5 2 2207176 5284 nts ares 3/21 Bremen. Sit fodia ona = ae 2057 De aioe aye teOvOSn Se Hamburg. ) 2 21 50 02 2 I> 22 (0212 SEISNS Dresden. ) 2 92 05 12 5 96 34¢ 3 00 2 OM GRAS yes eh ae 5 31 16 Messersdoff. { avaatiatay Raia 3 08 Gotha. : a oa “H Sees 3 08 Lilienthal. 3 iar tear eae 2539 Madrid. 2 20 56 00 0 Dantzick. - Laie Sele Wie 5 43 18 Breslaw. § : 22 15 15 4 a te - 2 016 Mean 3 03 7 3 04 0 Mean of the best observations. . Del Won O2 ee Time of the passage of the £ diameter of toh Sabah sl By the mean result of three observations for the meridian of Paris, ht! the Ingress reduced to the center of the earth was. < . 5 21 17 41 the Egress. ° = : £ : E ° . F " 4 41 18 Duration... . ° @ 23 37 Semidiameter of the ©=950" G=10° 28° 187 ° Ud uw 1—Appt. latitude of % for the center of the earth at the Ingress= 173 44 by observ Ve ditto ditto ne = 495 84 ditto. E—Elongation at the Ingress. 5 . . * Bocas 934 034 ditto. E/= ditto Egress. ; : t a 810 226 ditto. | ©=Inclination of the orbit at the Ingress. 2 5 - - =10 27 55 ‘= ditto 5 . Egress. - - : : - =10 28 40 h=Horary relative motion at the Ingress. ~« . ~ ae 235 818 n— ditto: : -- Egress: - 4 : = 236 026 3600 ,- 3600 a7 gas BIB a= “236 026 P—Parallax in longitude. Q= ditto latitude. a =Coeflicient of the Parallax inlongitude at the Ingress. 7 ditto. latitude Ingress. = ditto. longitude Egress. i ditto. latitude Egress. E
eee =15,807: 7) SE ebiltanipe “a re ith Si PN
— a= 29554 i- E=l; tang. GQ a Be - KE’ , pe ed id E’/+1 a oO x (= = a’ == 8,3865 a E—I’ tang. 6’ *
Ingress for the center of the earth=apparent Ingress—15,8072 P—2,9354 Q. Egress. - ditto. . apparent Egress —13,7041 P-+8,3865 Q.
229
. DE FERRER.
J
BY J
' dh f V
ae 'Y Paris. 0 7 0 hy ae Pari I. |+1,716 |4-4,730 |—O 41 0 |Mess & Delambre ¢] 21 17 58) 4 41 19 0 Oj 2117 58) 44119} — 91/9 wa E. |—5,584 |43,216 |41 43 5 |Messier. 21.17 41] 4 41.34 0 0/2117 41| 44134) + 515 Tilandofie ie +3,266 |+4,000 |—1 03 4 |Mechain. 2117 39 | 4 41 35 0 0} 2117 389} 441 35) 4+ 515 Stand or™6on VE, |—5,805 |4-1,687 |4+1 33 7 | Island of Leon | 20 43 31] 4 07 03 | +434 08 | 2117 39| 4 41 11 341517 Marseilles I. |+-1,987 |4-4,167 |—0 43 6 | Marseilles. 21 29 56| 453 41 | —12 08 | 2117 48] 4 41 33 12 16] 8 E. |—5,990 |4-2,649 |41 44 3 | Mirapoix, 2115 49 | 4 39 27 1 51] 2117 40} 4 4118 150) 1 Berlin I. {40,750 |4.4,700 |— 25 6 | Berlin. 22 01 41 | 5 25 42 44.10 | 2117 31] 4 41 32 44 10] 0 : E. |—5,550 |-13,855 |4+-1 49 1 | Naples. 22 05 05 | 5 28 48 47 26 | 3117 39 | 4 41 22 47 2511 NIA COLE I. {42,235 |4+4,370 |— 501] Bremen. 21 43 37 | 5 07 15 25 51 | 2117 46] 4 41 24 25 5443 pees E. |—5,820 |2,540 |4+1 41 0 | Dresden. 22 03 15 | 5 26 54 45 27 | 2117 48| 4 41 27 45 32 | 5 Brenien I. |-+1,002 |+-4,890 |—0 29 8 | Breslaw. 22 16 22} 54009]. 58 51) 2117 31} 4 41 18 58 44 | 7 E, |—5,527 |4.3,762 |--1 47 7 | Hamburg. 21 48 02 | 5 11 57 30 $2 | 2117 30] 4 41 25 30 33 | 1 Brcelaw, I. |+-0,654 }4.4,500 |—O 23 2 | Madrid. ,20 53 33 24 09 | 21 17 42 24.04) 5 5 E. |—5,574 |4.3,732 |4+1 45 9 | Gotha. 21 51 14 - 33.35 | 21 17 39 33 37 | 2 Naples I, |+1,542 |+3,620 |—0 35 2 Lilienthal. 21 43 46 26 16 | 21 17 30 26 09 | 7 Mio E. |—6,337 |+.2,540 41 48 1 | Dantzick. 5 46 38] 1 05 15 44123} 1 513) 2 Dresden I. |-+-0,830 |4-4,600 |—0 26 6 | Messersdoff. 22 10 40 | 5 34 38 53 07 ; E. |—5,700 |-43,670 |41 48 5 HS he Tabur I. |+1,000 |--4,880 —0 29 4 Mean. . . . . ’ . e 2117 40] 4 41 25 B- E. |—5,527 |-43,762 |41 47 3 — — Messersdof, $2: |+0:770 |4.4/500 —0 26 0 Mean of the best observations. eae 21 17 37 | 4 41 27 ae se. —5,740 | 43,640 |+1 48 5 Madrid. I. |4-2,730 |-4,249 |—0 55 6 Gotha. I. |41,006 (44,327 |—0 29 3 Lilienthal. I. 1,002 44,860 |—0 29 8 Dantzick. H, [2s/5a1 T4047 41 49 3 NOTE. P=parallax in longitude. Q —parallax in latitnde, L’=Longitudes resulting from the observations of the ingress and d h — Reduction to the center of the earth in time. egress, supposing they happened in Paris 21h 17° 37” and 4h 41° 27° as I=Ingress of the center of Mercury corresponding to the center of | appears from the best observations. a earth. d L=Difference of longitudes of the columns L and L’ or errors of the =Egress.
observations in longitudes, supposing the longitudes in the cgtuma L to L=Longitudes from the meridian of Paris, from the best authorities. | be exact.
V and E’—Ingress and Egress for the meridian of Paris, reduced to the - center of the earth,
230 GEOGRAPHICAL, POSITIONS,
Egress of Mercury by Mr. Andrew Ellicott, at Millers Place,
Coenecuch River.
° ’ nn Latitude. 3 : 7 30 49 33 Corrected latitude supposing the ratio of the polar 2 30 40 98 and equatorial diameters of the earth==333 : 534 z ‘ Interior contact 6th of May, 1799. Mean time. 22 41 19 ; Exterior contact. Certain to Z second. A 0 A c . 22 44.04 56 (4) Mean=to the egress of the center of 3. ; B : 22 42 51 7 Longitude from Paris by an approximated calculation. : 5 5 58 30 Mean time in Paris May 7th. DRE ete nee ug cee eee (a) Magnifying pow er 200 Dot 4g. Equation of time==—3° 44” @'sright ascension 2 58 19 Horizontal parallax of § jase zontal peallng of the O= (al ea ¢ P= Parallax in longitude. . . . + 1 316 Q= Parallax in latitude. . . . . + 2 268 he ANZ u ” } le ae Egress reduced to the center of the earth—=22 42 51 7—13, 7041 eulbieg 3865 Q=22 42 52 7 Egress ditto. : observed in Paris. . . 4 41 270 Longitude of Miller’s Place west from Paris. C 2 © A 5 58 34 3 Pensacola 28” time east from Miller’s Place. Rio Perdido 46 do. west from Miller’s Place. ; Lee ner 2 v tei? +O. 6-H Pensacola west from Paris={5 58 34 3—28)=5 58 06 latitude 30 24 00 Source of Rio Perdido. =(5 58 34 3446)—5 59 20 2 : 30 42 00 Miller’s Place. . 4 5 + Ste! LSB tS4nS,. cs é 30 49 33 : h {i uo °o , “a Pensacola west from Greenwich. C ° 54846 = 87 11 30 Rio Perdido. . . 4 4 55000 = 87 30 00 Miller’s Place. > 2 4 . ° 549 143= 87 18 30
Determination of the tabular error in latitude, by observa- tions of distances of limbs, observed at the observatory of the Island of Leon with a heliometre and reduced to the diameter of the sun 31’ 43” 6. The observations published in the nau- tical almanac of the Island of Leon are made before and after the apparent conjunctions.—It is to be observed, that the distance stated 1" 38’ 16” involves without doubt an error of the press, of 20”, which is easily noticed by a comparison with the other distances. To compare the observations with the Tables, I have calculated the following table of the parallaxes of lon- gitude and latitude.
BY J. J. DE FERRER. 231
Appt. time in the
Island of Leon. Par. in Long. Par. in Lat. hb ‘ ” wy” ” 22 00 00 2 02 +3 29 23 00 00 to 74 275 00 00 00 —O0 66 “1-2 27 1 00 00 —211 +1 90 2 00 00 . —3 49 1 67 3 00 00 —4 70 +1 58 4 00 00 —5 67 +1 66 ) ee AS A 2 h Ls Mean of three series of of observations ; apparent time a 23 44 09 2 07 25 Eqn. of time=—3’ 44” diff. of mer. 34’ 08~ mean time in Paris. 00 14 33 2 03 41 Distance of the centers of © & 8 by the mean of three observs. 625000 8 44 3 Parallax in longitude - : r . 6 —0 27 —3 62 Parallax in latitude : . . 5 J . +2 40 +1 66 Latitudes by the tables 5 ‘ 5 : 3 - 35 07 82 6 51 56 Difference of apparent longitudes. - ° ‘ . 566 80 Idem. latitudes : : + 103 40 Inclination of the apparent orbit=10° 20’ 19°” y Chord - : 576 155
Angle of conjunction at 23h 44’ 09° — 52° 05’ 48” Apparent conjunction for the center of the earth in mean time.
hyws#
In the Island of Leon 5 t 0 40 38
In the Ecliptic 6 6 3 - 0°33 52 Corresponds at Paris to : P 1 08 00 Correction of the tables in latitude + oem 6 4
These observations are more proper to determine the latitude than the conjunction, on account of being very near the ap- parent conjunction.
Four series of observations (the most to be depended upon) made in the Island of Leon, give the following mean results.
LOTS a Be? a .
0 33 52 Conjunetion in the Ecliptic. ee : Mean. 0 34 02
0 34 02 Longitude 0 34 08
Conjunction in the ecliptic for Paris by the observation of distances. 1 08 10
= 6” 4 Error of the tables in latitude = ct 6 Mean =— 6” 3 —6 0 Mr. Messier found the nearest distance of the centers : . = $ 45” and the diameter of the @ : ° = 15 56 The distances of the limbs should have been observed i - . 10 11 oof , ” (Sia 2 Distance of the limbs — Se 10 08 31 % Diameter of the © : = 15 51 80 Apparent distance of the limbs 5 - = 54345
H
232 GEOGRAPHICAL .POSITIONS.
At Berlin the observed nearest distance, corrected from the influence E of refraction and parallax, was q F 3 & 40” 38 (Mem. of the R. Academy of Berlin.)
By the above data we find the following error of the ta- bles in latitude.
By the observation of Mr. Messier z 2 : - — 5 77 Idem. at Berlin. y . 5 - —S5 77 Idem. in the Island of Leon. BS A - —6 30
Meanerror. —5 8
Determination of the diameters of the Sun and Mercury, conjunc- tion in the Eclipuc and error of the tables in longitude.
hes
. . «2117 37 Egress. 4 41 27
Ingress at Paris for the center of the earth, from the mean of the observations most to be depended abate
Duration. 7 23 50
Difference of apparent elongations =. = 1745” 18 Apparent latitude of Mercury by the tables at the i ingress 179 3k Correction in latitude . . : — 5 8 Apparent latitude of & 173 51 o Ff « Inclination of the orbit : : : . Rid ys 10 «(28 18 Chord me : é C . . 1774 643 Hence nearest distance of the centers é 4 ¥; 4 = 5 40 4 Angle of conjunction at the ingress. 5 c 5 m7 28 52 % Diameter of the sun resulting from ahve s 3 15 50 34 oes of the @) at the time _ 9,9971062 Apogee—dis.aice of “ne ©) Apogee diameter of the ©, resulting therefrom 5 == 31’ 287 0 ‘Time employed by the diameter of Mercury in the ingress and caress =o OL e Logarithmic distance of Mercury at the conjunction. = 9,74550 Hence the diam. of % reduced to the mean distance of the earth from the @=6% 2988 Apparent elongation at the ingress : = 934 416 Aberration of the @—aberration of ¥ = 26 662 Elongation in the ecliptic A Ai Grote tsk ei er Conjunction in the ecliptic; mean time of Paris 3 - -. lh 08' 327 Geocentric latitude of Mercury, corrected from aberration > — 5 44 5§ Correcrion of the tables to the longitude of Mercury 15 59 supposing the longitude of the © to be exact. i et
Longitude of the © from the mean equinox at the (ake = 116 54,967 = Heliocentric longitude of Mercury ’ . : 7 16 54 267
( 233 )
No. XXXVIII.
Continuation of the Astronomical Observations made at Lancaster,
in Pennsylvania, by Mr. Andrew Eltcott. Read October 18th, 1805.
a Note:—The eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites were all observed with an achromatic telescope magnifying about 100 times.
1804. March 11th. Immersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter observed at 1z" 9’ 11” mean time, night clear.
May \3th. Emersion of the 1st satellite of Jupiter observed at 8° $0’ 20” mean time, night clear,
20th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed .at 10° 25’ 14” mean time, night clear; but from the proximity of the moon to the planet, it is probable that the emersion was observed 9 or 10 seconds too late.
29d. Emersion of the $d satellite of Jupiter observed at 9" 45’ 50” mean time, night clear.
June 5th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed at 8° 43’ 1”, mean time, a Little hazy.
28th, Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed at 8° 56° 5” mean time, a little hazy.
July 4th. Emersion of the 3d satellite of Jupiter observed at 9* 37’ 56” mean time, a little hazy.
1805, January 14th. Observations ona lunar eclipse.
>’s limb began to be obscured at 13" 45’ 42”
Ipdented at)... 5: 4. acvepens +e. 137,48) 3/0 %S Mean fime.
Totally eclipsed at . . . . 14 44 48
The end of the eclipse, and of total darkness. could not be observed on account of a snow storm.
April 30th. Immersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observ- ed at 10° 54’ 23” mean time, night clear.
June ist. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed at 9" 37’ 19” mean time, night clear.
2d. Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter observed at 9° 19’ 3” mean time, night clear.
26th. Observations on the beginning of a solar eclipse.
The afternoon was remarkably clear and serene, but the sun being low, his limb was very tremulous, though not so much so
234 ASTRONOMICAL’ OBSERVATIONS,
as to occasion an error of more than 5 or 6 seconds.—My eye was directed to the precise spot where the eclipse began, which was observed at 6" 45° 48” mean time, or 6" 43’ 26” appa- rent time.
The beginning of this eclipse was observed by Mr. Patterson in Philadelphia, at 6% 47’ 40%" apparent time.
The longitude of Lancaster by the above eclipse appears to: be 5° 4° 19” west from Greenwich, which is 47” less than I have stated it from the result of a considerable number of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and some lunar distances. —The longitude of the city of Philadelphia, by the same eclipse as observed by Mr. Patterson, appears to be 4" 59’ 33” west from Greenwich; which is about I’ 4” less than it has been settled by a great number of corresponding observations made there, and at the royal observatory of Greenwich. ‘This difference, no doubt principally arises trom the imperfection of the lunar theory, and probably much the greater part of it from the er- rors in the moon’s latitude.
July 4ih. Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter observed at 8" 55'* 4” mean time, night clear.
loth. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed at S* 9’ GO” mean time, twilight very sirong.
iith, Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter observed at 11" 29’ 38” mean time, night clear.
17th. Emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter observed. at 10° 4’ 16” mean time, night clear.
26th. Emersion of the 3d° satellite of Jupiter observed at 8° 29’ 39” mean time, tight very strong.
August 2d. Emersion of the Ist ufeitite of Jupiter observed at 8" 23’ 9” mean time, wilight very strong.
2d. Immersion of the 3d “satellite of Jupiter observed at 10" 5’ 5” mean time, night clear.
9th. Emersion of the Ist salellite of Jupiter observed at 10° 18’ 20” mean time, a Little hazy.
September Gth, Emersion of the 2d satellite of Jupiter ob-
served at 8" 18’ 9” mean time, very clear, but the planet tre- mulous.
* The person who noted the time, had some doubts whether this should not be 54°.
MADE BY MR. ELLICOTT. 255
7th. Emersion of the $d satellite of Jupiter observed at s" 23’ 15” mean time, very clear,
By Mr. Delambre’s tables, the longitude of Lancaster as deduced trom each of the foregoing observations on the eclip-
ses of Jupiter’s satellites will stand as follows. Longitude West from Greenwich.
1804. March 11th. Immersion of the 2d satellite May~ 13th. Emersion of the Ist ditto.
20th. ditto. Ist ditto. 15 22d ditto. 3d ditto. 9 June 5th. ditto. Ist ditto. 20 28th. ditto. Ist ditto. ia July 4th. ditto. 3d__ ditto. 0)
1805. April 30th. Immersion of the Ist ditto. June Ist. Emersion of the Ist ditto.
tree Rr aor rnnranra4enrnrnnnnrnn es SaanarbarabPbananaanno . ao (7)
2d. ditto. 2d_—s ditto. 51 July . 4th. ditto. 2d_—sés ditto. 10th. ditto. Ist ditto. 55 11th. ditto. 2d_—s ditto. ur 17th. ditto. Ist ditto. 45 26th. ditto. 8d__ ditto. 34 Aug. 2d. ditto. Ist ditto. 53 do. Immersion of the 3d _ ditto. 54 9th. Emersion of the Ist ditto. 50 Sep. 6th. — ditto. 2d_— ditto. 22 7th. ditto. 3d__ ditto. 42 No. XXXIX.
A Description of a Cave on Crooked creek, with Remarks and Ob- servations on Nitre and Gun-Powder, by Samuel Brown, M. D. of Lexington, Kentucky.
Read February 7th, 1806. THERE are few works on Natural History or Chemistry
which do not contain some facts or opinions concerning the formation and properties of nitre. To recapitulate these facts,
236 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE.
or to state the various theories to which they have given rise, would bea task very different from that which I have underta- ken; which is merely to communicate a short account of some of the most remarkable caverns and rocks trom which that salt is obtained in Kentucky; and to offer some conjectures re- lative to the causes of the imperfection of the gun-powder ma- nufactured in the United States.
The quality of the nitre procured from the earth in calcare- ous caverns, is universally believed to be different from that which is found in the sand rocks. I have not been able to as- certain, with any degree of precision, the quantity annually manufactured in this State, nor the number of caverns which are known to contain it. I have however visited several of the most remarkable of them and from the best information I could procure I have formed the following estimate.
The great cave on Crooked creek, i of Nitre, a branch of Rock castle, supposed to contain - - 1000000
Scott’s cave, two miles distant from the great cave 200000
Davis’s cave, six miles distant from the great cave 50000
Two other caves, withim a mile of the great cave 20000
A cave on Rough creek, a‘branch of Green river 10000
Besides these, which I have had an opportunity of examin- ing, I have heard of many others in various parts of the State; some of which are esteemed very rich in nitre, and are said to be of great extent.
The great cave on Crooked creek in Madison county, is situat- ed about 60 miles south east of Lexington. It has two mouths which are 646 yards distant from each other, and about 150 yards from a large creek, which winds round the hill through which the cave affords a commodious passage for horses and waggons. The general level of the floor of the cave 1s 80 feet - above the creek. The average height of the arch is ten feet, though in many places it mses to fitty or sixty. The breadth of the passage is generally about forty feet, in some parts it is seventy or eighty teet. The floor has the appearance of a large public road, which has been much frequented. The ceiling is in most places smooth, with but few incrustations or stalac- tites. In some of the chambers however there are appearances
DESCRIPTION OF A WITRE CAVE, 23%
ef Gothic rudeness and irregularity which are truly sublime. When these vast chambers are sutficiently illuminated by the torches and lamps of the workmen, they present scenes so un- common and so romantic, that the most stupid beholder can- not contemplate them without expressions of the greatest asto- nishment. During the winter season the etiect of these scenes is greatly increased by a stream ot water which issuing trom a small opening in the arch of the cave, about twenty tect above the floor and falling into a bason, occasions a noise which in these calm regions can be heard at great distance, and echoing from arch to arch, fills the mind with the idea of some migh- ty cataract*.
The temperature of this cave, during the last winter (the coldest we have had tor several years) was generally 52° of F. sometinies the mercury rose as high as 57° but never sunk to the treezing point, when the thermometer was placed at any considerable distance within the cave. In one chamber how- ever, the heat was frequently so great as to be disagreeable. Abvut sixty paces from the south entrance, a passage leading from the main avenue conducts you to this chamber, which is nearly circular and about twenty feet in diameter. The arch over this part of the main avenue and that over the passage feading to the warm chamber, are equally elevated. But the ceiling of the chamber is twenty or thirty feet higher. As you approach the chamber, the floor gradually rises until it ascends above the level of the arch of the passage. As soon as you ascend above that level, you perceive the air uncommonly warm, even when the temperature of the passage is near the freezing point. The air which fills the main avenue in sum- mer and autumn is forced into this chamber, whenever the ex- ternal atmospheric air becomes so much condensed by cold as \ * This cave was discovered about eiget years ago by a Mr. Baker. He entered it by the north. mouth, but proceeded only a small distance into it, on the succeeding day he brought his wife and two or three of their children to explore it, he carried atorchand his wife asupply of pine. After they had advanced within hearing of this torrent 400 or 500 yards from the north mouth, the only one then known, he dropped his torch and it wascompletely extinguished. During two daysand twe nights this miserable family wandered in total darkness, without provisions and without water, though sometimes within hearing of a cataract which they durst not approach, at length Mrs. Baker in attempting to support herself on arock, perceived that it was wet, she conjectured that this was
caused by the mud which they had brought in on their feet, Baker immediately ascended the rock, and saw the light of day,. :
938 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE,
to rush into the mouth of the cave; and whenever during the winter, any portion of air in the main avenue, where the pas- sage leads off, is accidentally heated by fires, or by carrying torches or lamps through the cave, as this heated air cannot escape by the mouth of the cave (for the arch descends to- wards the mouth) it ascends into this chamber, and rises to the ceiling, where it must remain until the external air and that in the passage and avenue acquire a higher temperature than the air in the chamber. This chamber then is constructed pre- cisely upon the principles of the Russian vapour bath, so mi- nutely described by count Rumford.
During the winter season, the walls and floor of this cave re- main perfectly dry; but in summer, innumerable drops of water collect upon the rocks and trickle down upon the floor which sometimes becomes as moist as a bed of mortar. This is particularly the case during very hot weather when the at- mosphere is loaded with vapours. I collected a quantity of the liquid condensed upon the rocks, and found that it possess- ed the same properties with the liquor obtained by lixiviating the earth on the floor of the cave. It would appear from this fact, that the nitric acid is formed in the cave and is conden- sed upon the rocks, the lime of which it dissolves. But in what manner this nitric acid is formed, I confess myself whol- ly ignorant, as there are no substances in a state of putrefaction within the cave which could yield the requisite supply of ni- trogene gas. It is to be remarked, that the whole of the wa- ter condensed upon the rocks, does not taste of the nitrate of lime. A great part of it is quite insipid, although dropping upon earth which is rich in nitre, and many parts of the cavern have been found so completely filled with clay, that it is not casy to conjecture how it was possible for atmospheric air to reach them, and this clay too, is strongly impregnated with nitrate of lime. The depth of the earth on the floor of this cave has never yet been ascertained. In some places the work- men have dug down fifteen feet and the earth even at that depth still contains nitre. Itiscommonly supposed that through- out the cave, every bushel of earth contains at least one pound of nitre. In many places it will yield more than two pounds
DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE. 239
to the bushel. Formerly the earth was taken out of the cave and lixiviated near the stream, at present hoppers are erected in the cave, and the earth after lixiviation, 1s left to be impreg- nated again with nitrate of lime; but what length of time will be requisite to saturate it, has not yet been ascertained.
The workmen have different modes of forming an opinion with regard to the quantity of nitre with which the earth may be impregnated. They generally trust to their taste; but it is always considered as a proof of the presence of nitre, when the impression made on the dust by the hand or foot, is in a very short time effaced. Where the nitre is very abundant the impression made to-day, will be scarcely visible to-morrow. Where there is a great deal of sand mixed with the dust, it is commonly believed that a small quantity of pot-ash will suf- fice for the saturation of the acid.
The method of making saltpetre usually practised in Ken-
ucky, is as follows.
The earth is dug and carried to hoppers of a very simple construction, which contain about fifty bushels, cold water is poured on it from time to time, and in a day or two a solution of the salts runs mto troughs placed beneath the hoppers. The lixiviation is continued as long as any strength remains in the earth. The liquor is then put into iron kettles, and heated to ebullition; it is afterwards thrown upon a hopper containing wood ashes, through which it is suffered to filtrate. As the alkaline part of the ashes is discharged before the nitrate passes through, the first runnings of this hopper are thrown back; and alter some time, the clear solution of nitrate of pot-ash runs out, mixed with a white curd, which settles at the bottom of the trough. This clear liquor is boiled to the point of crys- tallization, then settled for a short time and put into troughs to crystallize, where it remains twenty-four hours, the crystals are then taken out, and the mother-water thrown upon the ash- hopper, with the next running of the nitrate of lime. When the quantity of the nitrate of lime is too great for the portion of ashes employed, the workmen say their saltpetre is in the “¢ grease” and that they do not obtain a due quantity of nitre. If there has been too great a proportion of ashes employed,
: .
240 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE.
they say it is in the “Jey,” and when it is left to settle previous to crystallization, a large quantity of salt will be deposited in the settling troughs, which they call “cubic salis,.” These salts are again thrown upon the ash-hoppers and are supposed to assist in precipitating the lime from the nitrate of lime, and in the opinion of the workmen, are changed into pure saltpe- tre. They consider this salt as nitre Adlled, as they express it, by the excessive strength of the ley. To make 100 pounds of good saltpetre at the great cave, eighteen bushels of oak ashes are necessary; ten of elm, or two of ashes made by burning the dry wood in hollow trees. In the discovery of the value of this latter kind of ashes, the philosophers and chemists of Europe have been anticipated by the saltpetre-makers of Ken- tucky.* The earth in some caves does not require half this quantity of ashes to precipitate the impure salts.
When wood ashes cannot be readily obtained near the caves, the liquor which runs from the earth in the hoppers is boiled down to the point of crystallization, and suffered to be- come solid by cooling. In this form, which is called “ thick stuff,’ it is transported to a part of the country, where ashes can be procured, dissolved in ley sufficiently strong to precipi- tate the lime, settled in troughs and then boiled down and crystal- lized. This thick stuff is extremely liable to deliquesce in warm moist weather, and is therefore commonly melted down and put into casks before it is carried from the caves. Horned cat- tle are very fond of it, and a small portion of it is almost in- stantly fatal to them. Those who have had frequent opportu- nities of seeing cattle perish in this way, remark that the blood when drawn from their veins, is of a very black colour, and flows with great difficulty. A substance possessing such active properties, might deserve the attention of experimental physi- cians, and may possibly merit a share of that praise which has been so liberally and perhaps so injudiciously bestowed upon the nitrate of pot-ash.
After these observations on the calcareous nitre beds in Ken- tucky, and the modes commonly employed for obtaining that salt, I shall mention some of the most remarkable circumstan-
* See Vol, X. p. 330 Philosophical Magazine,
DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE. 24)
ces which have come to my knowledge, relative to the rock ore or sand rocks which yield nitre supposed to possess pecu- liar qualities.
These sand rocks are generally situated at the head of a ra- vine or narrow valley, lead up a steep hill or mountain: as-_ cending the streamlets which run through these valleys, the banks close in upon you and become perpendicular. The rocks are frequently from sixty to one hundred feet in height, and jutting aver their bases, which rest on a calcareous stratum, often form a shelter large enough to secure a thousand men from the iclemencies of the weather. During the winter season a small rill is precipitated from the top of these rocks, and in summer water generally issues from between the silicious and calcareous strata. These sand rocks which probably once formed a com- plete upper stratum, have been for ages exposed to the destruc- tive operations of rains and frosts, and as they crumble off are carried by torrents into the plains and rivers beneath. The summits of all the hills in the vicinity of Rock castle, Licking and Sandy are still covered by masses of these rocks, which from their beauty and variety of figure, might at a small dis- tance be mistaken for the ruins of Gothic cathedrals or Baronial castles. Vast blocks of them have rolled down into the valleys, at a period of time so remote, that they are now covered by trees of a luxuriant growth. These rocks when broken per- pendicularly, present a surface consisting of strata so irregular, with regard to their position, and so different in colour and in the size of the particles of sand, that it is impossible to doubt of their Neptunian origin. The minute inspection of them never fails of awakening in the mind the recollection of the shore of some vast lake, where the rage of the winds and the waves has piled up hills of sand, which time consolidates into rock.
Several years ago the saltpetre-makers discovered that the sand and rubbish sheltered from rains by these rocks contained a rich impregnation of nitre, and that only a small portion of ashes was necessary for its purification. They soon after found that the sand rock itself tasted strongly of saltpetre, and immediately commenced the new method of working.
249 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE.
After blowing off large blocks of the rock, they break them into small pieces with hammers, and throw them into kettles containing boiling water; as soon as the rock falls into sand by the action of the hot water upon it, they put it into hoppers and wash out all the nitre by frequent additions of cold water, this solution is boiled down and crystallized without any mixture of ashes or pot-ash. Sometimes when the mother-water has been very often added to fresh solutions of the nitre, they find it ne- cessary to use a very small quantity of ashes.
I have been informed by a Mr. Fowler, ‘that he and his as- sociates have made saltpetre at twenty-eight different rock hou- ses or caverns, from which they have obtained about 100000 pounds of nitre, all these are situated on the north side of Ken- tucky river, within seventy miles of Lexington. He remarks that he has never seen a rock facing the north or west, which was very rich in nitre. He has always desisted from working a rock when it failed to yield him ten pounds to the bushel of sand. He has often obtained twenty or thirty pounds per bush- el. He assured me that he once discovered a mass of very pure nitre, which was found to weigh 1600 pounds. Mr. Foley, another saltpetre-maker, found one containing 100 pounds; another mass was found on Rock castle, which report says weighed 500 pounds. I have now in my possession a solid mass of native nitrate of pot-ash of singular purity, which weighs three pounds, it is more than four inches in thickness, and is only a small portion of a block of nitre found last sum- mer on Licking river, I have likewise a number of smaller specimens, which I myself procured from the different caves which I visited some weeks ago. These are generally found between the rocks which have fallen from the cliff, or the cre- vices of those rocks which still remain in their primitive situa- tion. The rocks which contain the greatest quantity of nitre are extremely difficult to bore, and are generally tinged with a brownish or yellow ocre colour. Sometimes they contain an oxide like manganese, and sometimes great quantities of iron ore, which resembles the bark of the scaly bark hickory, sur- rounded by a finely powdered brown oxide. Atsome of these rock houses three hands can make one hundred pounds of good
DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE. 248
nitre daily, but forty pounds may be considered as the average product of the labour of three men at those works which I had an opportunity of visiting.
The workmen being badly provided with tools and appara- tus, desert a rock whenever its size or hardness renders it diffi- cult for them to manage it, and go in quest of a new establish- ment, Several caves and rocks which these strolling chemists have deserted, still contain many thousand pounds of nitre. These men are continually searching for masses of pure nitre, or rich veins of ore, by which much of their time is unprofita- bly dissipated. Still howeversmost of our saltpetre-makers find it their interest to work the sand rock rather than the calcareous caverns, which last yield a mixture of nitrate of pot-ash and nitrate of lime. The rock saltpetre is greatly preferred by our merchants and powder-makers, and commands a higher price.
‘Mr. Barrow, in his travels through the southern parts of the continent of Africa, discovered native nitre, which is probably sunilar to the rock saltpetre of Kentucky. But Bowles, Dillon and Townshend assure us that those districts in Spain, which afford nitre most abundantly, contain neither chalk, limestone, gypsum, nor any other calcareous substance. The nitrate of pot-ash is obtained there by filtrating a certain kind of black mould which will continue for ages to yield annual supplies of it, together with muriate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate and sulphate of lime. Here then appears to be such a relation existing between the different saline substances, both acids and alkalies, that the causes which produce one of them, owing to some yet undiscovered circumstance, regularly pro- duce all the rest. According to these authors the same mould will continue forever to yield these salts annually. This obser- vation if correct, would induce us to believe, that both acids and alkalies are wholly formed from atmospheric air and not from the soil; as the soil would certainly be exhausted if any considerable portion of it entered into the composition of either the acids or alkalies, and would soon lose its power of attract- ing from the air the other constituent principles of the salts. Both in Spain and India, we are informed, that the mould which for fifty years in succession has yielded nitre, still con-
BA 4 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE.
tinues to afford it in undiminished quantities. But how shall we reconcile this fact with that before related concerning the production of nitre in the cavities of calcareous mountains which are, in many instances, so closely filled up with clay, that the air can have no access, from which every ray of solar light is excluded, and where the temperature can never exceed 57° of Fahrenheit? Is it absolutely certain, that nitre formed by natural processes so very dissimilar, possesses no properties necessarily resulting from the circumstances attendant on its formation? That all the nitrates of pot-ash with which we are acquainted, have certain properties in which they agree, is un- questionable, but the same may be said of lime and barytes, of soda and pot-ash, and many other substances, which in the early ages of chemical science, were probably identified. Hoffman, long ago proved, that nitrate of pot-ash afforded an alkali very different from that of wood ashes or salt of tartar. The observations of so distinguished a philosopher deserve much attention, and his experiments if repeated by modern chemists could scarcely fail of affording important results: that the sand rock saltpetre differs from that procured from the cal- careous caverns, in the form of the crystal, in hardness and dryness, is known to all who deal in that article, and every powder-maker affirms that it makes better gun-powder. Whe- ther this superiority is owing merely to its greater purity or exemption from an admixture of nitrate of lime, or whether the constituent acid and alkali are modified in some unknown manner, is yet altogether problematical. Chaptal, Thouverel, Guyton, and indeed most of the modern chemists, suppose, that pot-ash is a compound of lime and hydrogen, and that lime itself is formed of carbon, azote and hydrogen, and con- sequently that pot-ash consists of hydrogen, carbon and azote. Mr. Guyton thinks that soda is composed of magnesia and hy- drogen, and that magnesia is a compound of lime and azote, and therefore, that soda is made up of hydrogen, carbon and azote. He is then of opinion that pot-ash, soda, lime and magnesia are nothing more than varied forms and proportions of the same constituent ingredients, differing from each other in the quantities and forces of attraction. This opimion de-
DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE. 245
rives great probability from an experiment of Bishop Watson, by which it would appear, that soda was actually converted into pot-ash. It is likewise corroborated by the apparent con- version of lime and soda into pot-ash in our calcareous caverns, and by the change of what the workmen call cubic salts, into nitrate of pot-ash. Thouverel affirms that he witnessed the real conversion of washed chalk into pot-ash, in his experi- ments on nitrous vapours, and Chaptal observed the same phe- nomenon when exposing chalk to the vapours of putrid bul- lock’s blood. Now as the nitric acid combines readily with lime, soda and magnesia, as well as with pot-ash, it may be easily conceived, that it still retains its affinity for those substan- ces, in every form which they may assume, whilst changing into each other, and that the “term quid” formed by the union of nitric acid and lime in the intermediate stage between lime and pot-ash, may possess properties very different from ni- trate of lime or nitrate of pot-ash.. The same may be remark- ed with regard to soda and magnesia. Here every chemist will recollect the ingenious observations of Dr. Mitchel, con- cerning nitric acid and the essential differences between that substance and septic acid at the moment of its formation. No person can doubt of the possibility of charging nitrogene with different portions of oxegen. ‘The explosive efficient pro- perty of nitre may depend on a certain dose of this principle. But even admitting that pot-ash and nitric acid never vary in their nature, it may still be contended, that powder-makers have no means of ascertaining what proportion of acid and alkali that ‘nitre ought to contain, which would form the best gun-powder. And whilst this is confessed, it surely can avail us little, to be very scrupulous in the adjustment of the propor- tions of the nitre to the charcoal and sulphur. The consumers of pot-ash, in every part of the world have remarked varieties in the quality of the salt, for which no particular cause can be assigned. It is very much to be regretted, that a regular series of experiments has never been instituted, to discover what kind of ashes would yield an alkali most proper for the for- mation of nitre. Charcoal should be examined with a similar view. Mr, Coleman has published experiments and remarks
246 DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE.
on this subject, (Philosophical Magazine, V. IX. p. 355.) which appear to me very interesting. By his mode of distilling wood in iron cylinders, he deprives it completely, of all the volatile oil, hydrogenous gas and pyroligneous acid. The charcoal prepared in this way, possesses uniformly the same properties, and by the employment of it, the powder now used in the British ordnance, is increased in strength one third.
The gun-powder manufactured in the United States, is said to be defective, from a disposition either to effloresce or de- liquesce. The salts most liable to effloresee are such as have soda for their base. In many of our saltpetre caves, small quantities of the sulphate of soda have been discovered, which tor want of sufficient care or skill in refining, are suffered to remain with the nitre. The disposition to efflorescence ap- pears to be directly opposite to that of deliquescence; as in the one case, the air has a stronger affinity tor the water of combination of the salt than that which exists in the salt for the water; in the other case the salt attracts moisture from its combination with air.. It would seem then, that, as the air is capable of depriving the sulphate of soda of its water of combination, and as nitrate of lime attracts moisture from the surrounding air, it is possible, that a mixture of these two salts may be so made with nitrate of pot-ash, that the nitrate of lime may deprive the sulphate of soda of its water of combi- nation, and in consequence of this addition of water, deli- quescence may ensue, even when the atmospheric air and moisture are excluded. if Count Rumford is correct in sup- posing that the explosive force of gun-powder depends not upon the evolution of permanently elastic fluids or gases; but upon the almost instantaneous conversion of the water of com- bination existing in the powder, into steam by the caloric re- sulting from its inflamnyation; this explosive force may be di- minished for want of that water which might have escaped by efflorescence, or on account of the slow combustion of the pow- der consequent on deliquescence.
A concern for the glory and defence of our country should prompt such of our chemists as have talents and leisure to in- vestigate this interesting subject. In 1776, at the request of
DESCRIPTION OF A NITRE CAVE. 947
M. Turgot, the celebrated M. Lavoisier was appointed super- intendant of the French national powder works, and with what success he executed the duties of his important commission the history of their subsequent naval campaigns have sufficiently evinced. The efforts of European chemists, seem to have been principally directed to the removal of the marine salt which the nitre of Spain and India contains in great quantities. In the nitre of Kentucky, I have never detected a particle of that salt, and I am confident, that if any is found in it, the pro- portion must be very inconsiderable indeed. The rock salt- petre Iam persuaded, would, with very little refinement, make gun-powder capable of retaining its efficient properties during the longest voyages, as I have never discovered, in that species of nitre, the smallest tendency either to deliquescence or efflo- rescence.
It will be observed, that I have not in this paper, hazarded any opinion with regard to the formation of nitre in our sand rocks. I freely contess that I have no theory on that subject which is satisfactory to my own mind, I am even disposed to suspect, that our greatest chemists have still much to learn with regard to this salt, so valuable in time of peace, so indispensa- ble in time of war.
No. XL,
An Essay on the vermilion colour of the blood, and on the different colours of the metallic oxides, with an application of these prin- ciples to the arts. By Samuel F. Conover M. D.
Read June 20th, 1806,
On the Vermilion colour of the blood.
THESE subjects have excited the attention of some of the most eminent philosophers of the last and present century, though little progress was made in the explanation of these phe- nomena, previously to the institution of the pnewmatic philo- sophy, when truth burst forth upon mankind, dispelled the
ie
948 ON THE COLOUR OF THE BLOOD.
errors of former ages, and rendered plain and easy the path to the temple of science. —The ancient philosophers, seem to have entertained very incorrect ideas of the cause of the ved colour of the blood, and I believe it was very little understood, before the celebrated Priestley Lavoisier and Scheele discovered ozigi- nous gas, or vital air; since that memorable period, many and various have been the opinions adopted on the vermilion colour of the blood, and each one has had its votaries.
It has been proved by a variety of experiments made by these eminent chemists, that atmospheric air, is a mixture of oxigene and azotic gases, in the proportion of twenty-five parts of the former, and seventy-five parts of the latter. Priestley, Cigna, Hewson, Thouvenel and Beccaria, have made many experiments on the blood, and have all united in the opi- nion that its vermilion colour, should be attributed to the ab- sorption of oxigene, by the blood, in its passage through the lungs during respiration. This doctrine sanctioned by such imposing names, influenced fora long-time, physiologists and chemists to adopt it as the only true philosophy, which had ever been promulgated. The great Darwin, whose imagina- tion was too transcendant to be imprisoned within the bounds of ordinary men, instituted a new theory of the vermilion co- lour of the blood, partly founded upon the foregoing princi- ples, which nevertheless is infinitely more fancitul than phi- losophical; for he observes, ‘ that during respiration, the blood imbibes the vital part of the air, called oxigene, through the membranes of the lungs; and that hence respiration may be aptly compared to a slow combustion.—As in combustion the oxigene of the atmosphere unites with some phlogistic or in- flammable body, and forms an acid (as in the production of the vitriolic acid from sulphur, or carbonic acid from charcoal) giving out at the same time a quantity of the matter of heat, so in respiration, the oxigene of the air unites with the phlo- gistic part of the blood, and probably produces phosphoric or animal acid, changing the colour of the blood from a dark to a bright red.”
Chaptal in his treatise on the blood, remarks that “ the co- lour of the blood has been attributed to iron; that the blood
ON THE COLOUR OF THE BLOOD. 249
does not become coloured without the concourse of air, and that as ovigene alone is absorbed in respiration, it appears that the co- Jour is owing to iron calcined by the pure air, and reduced to the state of a red oxide.” This evidently, is advancing one step further towards the truth than the foregoing doctrines, ne- vertheless he has stopped short of explaining the true phlieno- menon, for it is very manifest that he has endeavoured to prove in all his experiments, that oxigene gas is nothing but oxigene and caloric. But, by the experiments of Mr. Berthollet, it ap- pears, that “oxigene and light have great affinity, that light is susceptible of combining with it, and that it contributes along with caloric to change it into the state of gas.” Mr, Fourcroy in his general system of chemistry, and particularly on the co- louring part ef the blood, has offered the following theory. He says “it must be observed that there are two phosphates of this metal,” alluding to iron, “the one white-grey, fre- quently of a pearly brilliancy, insoluble in water, soluble in the acids; and the other red, more or less brown, and less so- luble in the acids; this is phosphate with excess of oxide of iron, and the other is saturated with its acid.” “The white phosphate of iron is decomposed only in a partial manner by the caustic alkalis, which take from it only a part of its acid, and leave the salt with an excess of thisbase. It is in this state of phosphate supersaturated with iron, a state maintained by the presence ‘of the soda, that this metal is dissolved in the blood, and in particulaf in its serum. The blood of all ani- mais, when it is red, is coloured by the phosphate of iron,” How far this theory corresponds with the laws of the affinities, and the experiments of eminent chemists, the following ob- servations will shew. If the phosphorus in the blood~ has a greater attraction for the oxigene taken in during respiration than the iron, the phosphoric acid must consequently first take place, before the phosphate of iron can be produced. If we take for granted that the phosphoric acid is produced in the blood, the soda with which the blood abounds, having a greater affinity to phosphoric acid, than what iron has, the phosphate of soda must be the necessary result, and the iron would con- sequently be left free. For the experiments of Mr. Lavoi-
250 ON THE COLOUR OF THE BLOOD,
sier, and his tables of combinations of the phosphoric acids with salifiable bases in the order of affinity, clearly prove, the doctrine of Fourcroy to be highly chimerical.—Also Chap- tal remarks “ that phosphorus precipitates some metallic oxides from their solution in the metallic state; phosphoric acid is tormed in this operation, which proves that the oxigene quits ithe metal to unite with the phosphorus,” and that ‘ phospho- ric acid acts only on a small number of metallic substances.” These arguments are sufficient to refute the theory of Mr. Fourcroy, without the assistance of any additional ones.
Mr. Davy, who has contributed much to the stock of che- mical knowledge, denies that vital air is decomposed in respi- ration, and endeavours to maintain, that the disengaged car- bonic acid and water, are constituent principles of venous blood, which are displaced by the vital air; for which the ve- nous blood has a greater elective attraction, than for its con- stituent elements, water and carbonic acid.—He also denies the existence of caloric altogether, and says that oxigene gas con- sists of oxigene and light, which he has denominated phos- oxigene; from which he infers that in the process of respiration, the phos-oxigene combines with the venous blood in the lungs, and disengages the carbonic acid and aqueous gas from it, and further, that the vermilion colour of the blood, is pro- duced by phos-oxigene combining with it in its intire state.— If it were a fact, that phos-oxigene combined with the blood in its intire state, the blood instead of assuming the vermilion colour, would in consequence of absorbing all the rays of light, take on the appearance of absolute blackness.— Hence his method of resolving the phenomenon of the red colour of the blood is inadmissible.
Mr Joseph Trent, who graduated in the University of Penn- sylvania, A. D. 1800, observes that “light is a constituent of oxigene gas, and that it is to the disengagement and operation of this substance in respiration, that some of its phenomena ought, in part, to be attributed, more especially the vermilion colour of pulmonary blood.”—I have endeavoured to give a fair and judicious exposition of the different doctrines on the vermilion colour of the blood, and shall now proceed to offer
ON THE COLOUR OF THE BLOOD. 251
for the consideration of this learned Society, my observations and arguments in favour of a new theory, predicated on the Newtonian and pneumatic philosophy, in explaining the sub- jects of this Essay.
From the experiments which I have made on light, and from those detailed by the great Newton and other celebrated philoso- phers, on which we may rely, itappears, that ight is a mixture of seven different coloured rays, of different retrangibilities and re- flexibilities, and that we are indebted to the sun for all the light we enjoy; that heat is a simple elementary body, and a necessary constituent of this planet; that oxigene gas is a compound of light, heat, and oxigene, and that oxigene is held in its gaseous state by the means of caloric; all of which have been proved by numerous experiments made by Berthollet, Davy*, and other eminent chemists, which being conceded, renders it un- necessary to detail them here.—It has also been proved beyond the possibility of doubt, by the experiments of the most re- spectable chemists, that the blood contains éron.—Hence when atmospheric air is taken into the lungs, the oxigene gas is ab- sorbed by the blood in its passage through the lungs during respiration, and from the great affinity of oxigene to the iron in the blood, it unites with that metal, and the red ray, a con- stituent of oxigene gas (the most difficult of refrangibility) is absorbed at the same time by the iron and becomes fixed, which constitutes the red oxide of iron, and illustrates in a philoso- phical manner, the beautiful phenomenon of the yermilion co- lour of the blood; while the heatis set at liberty, and the other six constituent rays of light, either become fixed in the other parts of the blood, or are carried off in a latent state, by expi- ration; for it isan established principle in optics, ‘that some rays enter into the combination of bodies, while others are reflected, and this in proportion to the greater or less affinity of the se- veral rays with these bodies.”
According to the experiments of Mr. Davy, on the com- position of the nitrous oxide gas, and its comparative influence
_.* With the exception that Mr. Davy makes to the existence of caloric altogether—The first evidence of the existence of matter, is that, it has motion, all the experiments on heat, prove its momicntum, and consequently it has attached to it all the propertics of matter.
159 ON THE COLOUR OF THE BLOOD.
‘on the venous blood of animals, exposed to it, compared with the effects produced on similar quantities of blood exposed to atmospheric air; and also the effects produced on the blood of ani- mals who have breathed the nitrous oxide gas,. compared with the blood of those who have breathed atmospheric air, support in a very conclusive manner the doctrine I have adopted toexplain the red colour of the blood. —For he observes that ‘nitrous oxide gas,’ is composed of oxigene 37 parts, and nitrogene 63 parts,— “ existing perhaps in the most intimate union which those sub- stances are capable of assuming; for it is unalterable by those bodies which dre.capable of attracting oxigene from nitrous gas, and nitrous acid at common temperatures.”**—He exposed two vials of venous blood, one to the nitrous oxide, and the other to atmospheric air, and found that the coagulum of the blood ex- posed to the nitrous oxide, was rendered darker and more pur- ‘pie, than the biood exposed to atmospheric air—Also blood drawn trom two animals, one who had breathed the nitrous oxide, and the other atmospheric air, and he found that the blood of the two animals assumed different colours, corres- ponding with the blood exposed to the two different gases, mentioned in the above experiment.—Hence the inference is, that the affinity between the oxigene and the nitrogene of the nitrous oxide, is much stronger than the atfinity between the oxigene and the nitrogene of the atmospheric air; that the temperature of the blood, together with the attraction of the iron therein, being insufhicient to disengage much oxigene from the nitrous oxide, consequently less heat is evolved trom the partial decomposition of the nitrous oxide, than from _at- mospheric air in the process of respiration, therefore the iron in the blood is only oxided in an inferior degree, which ac- counts for the fixation of the violet coloured ray, (the easiest of refrangibility) and resolves the phenomenon of the purple colour, the blood assumes from the effects of the autrous oxde. —‘ Likewise the blood altered by nitrous oxide gas, is capable of being again rendered vermilion by exposure to common aif, gr to oxigene gas,”
* Sce Davy’s Chemical Researches,
OM THE cCouoUuR &c. oF THE METALLIC OXIDES. 25%
On the different colours of the metallic oxides, with an application of these principles to the Arts.
I shall now proceed to offer for your further consideration a few remarks on the different colours of the metallic oxides, with an application of these principles to the Arts—When metals are oxided by means of heat, “they are converted into earthy-like powders of different colours and properties.” ‘The exigene- gas during calcination is absorbed by the metal, and the oxigene and the light, (constituents of oxigene gas) become fixed in the oxide according to the degree of heat employed ; for the oxide assumes the violet coloured ray first, and by in- creasing the temperature, the violet colour is thrown off, in consequence of its being the weakest, or the most refrangible ray: in like manner some oxides assume in rotation the difterent co- lours, according to their respective refrangibilities, and they are dissipated in that ratio to the increase ot heat: the red ray, the strongest and the most difficult of refrangibility, requires still a higher temperature than the other six constituent colours of light, and from its greater affinity to oxigene than the other rays of light, it is not so easily driven off, hence the red ray becomes fixed in the oxide, which constitutes its 1ed colour, while the heat and the other six constituents of light are set at liberty : even this red ray may be.driven off by increasing the heat, and then the red oxide is converted into white.—Accord- ing to the experiments of Macquer, he oxided gold with a burning. glass, more powerful than that of Tschirnhausen, and remarked that the oxide assumed the violet colour.—If it were possible to increase the temperature sufficient to. produce the red oxide of gold, it appears reasonable to infer that all the intermediate coloured oxides of this metal, might be made, provided the heat could be applied in that proportion or degree to the different refrangibilities of the various colours. ‘This doctrine is eminently supported, by the process employed to make vermilion.—If we take four ounces of sublimed sulphur and fuse it inan unglazed earthen pot, and to this add one pound of mercury, and let.it be mixed with the sulphur by stiring or agitation.— When these substances have combined to a certain
¢
954 ON THE CoLouR Xc. OF THE METALLIC OXIDES.
degree, the mixture spontaneously takes ‘fire, and is suffered to burn about a minute. The flame is then smothered, and the residue pulverised, which forms a wiolet powder. This powder being sublimed, affords a sublimate of alivid red colour, which when powdered, exhibits a fine red colour, known by the name of vermilton.”—Here it is very obvious, that the high degree of heat, necessary to produce this sublimate, dissipated the violet colour, in consequence of its great refrangibility, and fixed the red ray in the oxide, which constitutes the vermilon colour.—To these I could add: numberless facts, on the different coloured oxides of the different metais, im support of the doc- trine which I have adopted,. “ but no more causes are necessary than are sufficient to explain the phenomena.”—Hence this exposition most elegantly proves and illustrates the doctrine of Sir Isaac Newton, on the seven different rays of light, and their difterent refrangibilities and retlexibilities.
It must now appear very evident, that a knowledge of these principles, and an application of them to the arts, would ina very great degree assist the manufacturers, and particularly those who work in porcelain, china, glass, and in all kinds of pot- tery, to burn in, and fix the different colours, according to their different refrangibilities.—That is to say, the degree of heat which would be necessary to fix permanently the red colour, would be a temperature so high, as to burn out and dissipate, all the other colours, provided all the seven coloured oxides, were made from the same metal, and painted on a piece of porcelain; therefore to avoid an error of this kind, the manu- tacturer would be obliged to burn in the red colour first, second- ly the orange, thirdly the yellow, fourthly the green, fifthly the blue, sixthly the indigo, and seventhly and lastly, the violet co- Jour; for by an attempt to burn in and fix the violet colour first, and afterwards to burn in the red, before the latter could be accomplished, the former would be dissipated.—Therefore it is necessary to know that the degree of heat sufficient to — produce the violet coloured oxide of gold, would be of so high a temperature as to drive off all colour from the red oxide of lead, and convert it into a white litharge: hence when several colours are to be fixed in, or burnt on porcelain” at the same
ON THE cCoLouR &c. OF THE METALLIC OXIDES. 255
time, the different coloured oxides from the different metals should be selected, which would all bear the same degree of heat.—Say 1300 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, conse- quently no two oxides of different colours from the same metal would answer, therefore a knowledge of these principles and their application, would enable the manufacturer to adorn and beautify his wares, and to bring to greater pertection the dif- ferent branches of the arts.
No. XLI.
Observations of the eclipse of the sun, June 16th, 1806; made ai _Lancasier, by Andrew Ellicott Esquire, Read August 15th, 1806. Lancaster, August Ist, 1806. DEAR SIR,
THE following observations, which I request the favour of you to hand to the Philosophical Society, were made at this place on the solar eclipse of the 16th of June last.
The morning was cloudy till about 9 o’clock, when the sun became visible through thin flying clouds: a short time before the beginning of the eclipse, the clouds were so far dissipated, that the limb of the sun was very distinct, and well defined. At 9° 33’ 8” A.-M. apparent time, the eclipse began; the first impression’ made by the moon was at the point expected, and to which my eye was constantly directed.—The end of the eclipse was at 0" 18’ 56”°P. M. apparent time.—A few minutes after the eclipse began, the clouds increased so much as to prevent any measures between the points of the cusps or horns being taken till 10" 44° 25”, when the following series commenced.
nt
256 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
Distance between the Value of the Apparent time. points of the cusps Micrometer in by the Micrometer. sexagesimals. ~
horow ee) 10 44 25 - 4 A 58 8 d A : 31 32 2 10 45 20 ° : ° 58 8 ’ ‘ 3 31 32 2 ; 10 46 3 ‘ 3 ‘ 58 5 ; ; 31 30 2 1 . 10 46 52 : : 57 48 A : : ol 25 7 2 ., 10 47 37 3 r - S87 34 ° z | 31 166 3. 104811 - . 2 57 5 4 : 2 30 57 7 4 104836 —tj F 56 48 : ; 3 30 49 9 6) 10 49 16 . . . 56 23 . > . 30 36 & 6 10 49 53 > E - 56 8 F : : 30 27 1 4 10 50 24 : F A 55 49 - “ite 30 21 3 8 10 50 49 . . 4 55 37 P - 4 30 13 5 9 . 10 5118 4 . 55 23 ° A 3 30 44 10 . 10 51 46 5 - - 55 12 ; - = 29 57 2 a AOroe 20 : ° . 35.4 . 29 520 225) (97 (20:53) 0 ‘ : - S# 48 f : 5 29 48 1 10 55 27 . A A 53 48 - F ° 29 15 6 12. 10 57 16 : 5 - 55 23 A : 30 44 AT iy AOL S/ pe, 5 ° 7 55 38 a . 5 50 14 4 10 . 10 58 31 . - ; 56 2 5 : 30 23 3 Sy ly 0% 42 : ° ; 56 33 : 30 43 4 8°. 11 0 30 : - : 56 45 30 50 2 7 . It 047 = ‘ ; 57 8 30 59 7 6). abba 2Z . . 57:15 31 42 D7. the oe - é : 57 25 : 5 31108 4 . 11-222 5 : fs 57 33 “ . 31149 SMe A297, 5 C 57 37 5 ° 51 18 5 2. 34 57 45 é 5 31 23 8 1. 11, 4.27, 57 48 5 31 25 7. 11 455 58 6 ? : : 31 309 11 5 30 2 : 58 8 3 ; wc) Shy32-2 AT 6°27 . = 58 8 : 31 32 2
The irregular decrease and increase’of the distances between the points of the cusps, is greater than would arise in, so ex- cellent a micrometer from the small imperfections inseparable from such observations. These irregularities were principally oceasioned by the uneven surface of the moon, particularly that part, which formed the southern cusp or horn.—The northern cusp was well defined, and finely terminated, but the southern one was sometimes obtuse, at others terminated by a parallel thread of light, which disappeared from one end to the other, at the same time; and frequently one or two lumi- nous points of the sun’s limb, were observed to be completely detached from the point of the cusp.—The most remarkable of these phenomena was observed between 10° 52’, and LO* 55’. To give some idea of this appearance, let the circle A B C D Fig. 2d, Pl. VI. represent the periphery of the sun’s disk, and EBFD that of the moon’s: the line EAFC a vertical, supposed to
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 257
pass through the centre of the sun:—then B will represent the point of the southern cusp. At about 10° 53’ the point of the cusp appeared as in Fig. 3, the thread of light, a b, disappear- ed from one end to the other, at the same instant, the point of the cusp then appeared as in Fig. 4.—In a very short time the thread of light which connected b with the body of the cusp disappeared, and left b visible for a number of seconds, after it was detached from the other visible part of the sun. The cusp then appeared very obtuse, as represented in Fig. 5 which was observed by those who were using the most indif- ferent glasses.
Those detached luminous points of the sun’s limb, seemed to retain their brilliancy, til the instant of their disappearance, which it would appear should not have been the case, if the moon was surrounded with an atmosphere:—those points par- ticularly, which were formed by depressions in the moon's limb, would have had their splendor somewhat diminished, by the density of the atmosphere, if one existed :—but nothing of the kind was observed.
The sun’s diameter was found by a great number of obser- vations, made both on the day of the eclipse, and the day pre- ceding, to be 58,5, divisions of the micrometer:—the deno- minator of the fractional part of a division being constantly 50 the numerators only are entered in the observations,— When the first measures were taken, a line joining the points of the cusps passed nearly through the centre of the sun:—in that situation it will easily be seen that the distances must re- main for a few minutes so nearly the same, that but little ad- vantage can be drawn from the observations; on this account I have only made out the results of twelve observations on each side of the measure, taken at 10° 55’ 27”, which turns out accidentally to be, not only the middle observation, but the shortest observed distance between the points of the cusps:— the first and three last observations, are therefore omitted in the calculations. These observations may be so varied, as to fur- nish a great number of results, because any two, however ta- ken, on different sides of the apparent conjunction, may be considered almost equivalent to the observation of an eclipse,
258 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
and the calculation made upon the same principles, only using the distance of the centres, instead of the sum of the semidi- ameters.—Those which I used, are marked numerically in the margin, en each side of the nearest observed distance between the points of the cusps:—the corresponding numbers answer to the two observations for which a particular calculation was made.—This arrangement furnished me with twelve separate determinations, from the mean of which it appeared, that up- on the supposition of the longitude of Lancaster being 5 5’ 6” and the latitnde 40° 2’ 36” the moon’s longitude as deduced from Mason’s tables will be 1’ 1” too great, and the latitude 11” too small :—But by the eclipse, independently of the mea- sures taken by the micrometer, the moon’s longitude by the tables will be 52” too great, and her latitude 3” too small.— H, however, the tables should be found correct, at the royal observatory of Greenwich, by the observation of the same eclipse, or other methods, the longitude of Lancaster must be reduced about 1’ $3” in time, by the beginning and end of the eclipse, and still more by the measures taken with the micrometer.— Itis probable that the error is partly in the tables, and partly in the assumed longitude of Lancaster.
By the beginning and end of the eclipse, the true conjunc- tion under the meridian of Lancaster, was at 11° 15’ 31” A. M, apparent time; and by the measures taken with the microme- teriatlt® 15 4r7rt,
In making the calculations I have allowed 5” for inflexion, and irradiation, and diminished the altitude of the pole 14° 38”, and the moons horizontal parallax 6” on account of the sphe- - roidal figure of the earth.
Iam, dear sir, with great esteem, your friend and humble servant, ANDREW ELLICOTT.
Robert Patterson Esq. VAR or the ASPs?
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806, 259 From the same to the sames*
Read September 19th, 1806. Lancaster, August 16th, 1806.
Three days ago, I received a letter from my friend, Mr. Dunbar, at Natchez, containing his observations on the solar- eclipse of the 16th of June last: they are as below.
*« Beginning Bh 5’ 19” 2 , ae « End a 10 38 48 A. M. Apparent time.
In deducing the latitude and longitude of the moon, from the above observations, I have diminished the sum of the semi- diameters of the sun, and moon 5”, for the effect of irradiation and inflexion:—the altitude of the pole 13’, and the horizon- tal parallax of the moon 4” on account of the spheroidal figure of the earth.
| the beginnin, : z 10h 15’ 21” By S the an ng the conjunction was at 10 15 20 ¢ Mean. 10 15 205 The conjunction at Philadelphia by your observations. . . - 1120175 Difference of meridians. . E 5 3 5 . ° 1 4570 Whilst residing at Natchez, some years ago, I settled the difference of meridians between that place and Philadelphia, from my obser-¢ = 1 5 3 vations at 16° 15’ 46’* Fd difference only ‘ - 0 06 Let us now take the longitude of Philadelphia, (as long settled) 5037 for a given point ‘ : 3 : i Ars Add the difference of meridians between Philadelphia and Natchez. Pepe ie. 7 4 Longitude of Natchez. . - : . R “ > 6 5 34 Conjunction at Philadelphia by your observations, ° . - al 20,17 Conjunction at Lancaster. : 5 : 5 : : = IL 15,31 Difference of meridians. 4 5 é - : B . O 4 46 Add longitude of Philadelphia. . ‘ : ° 3 oD MONT Longitude of Lancaster. . . . 5 2 . 5 35 23 This longitude exceeds that drawn from the measure of the turnpike 0017 road, and some of my former observations.
The difference of the meridians as above stated, agree so nearly with former determinations, that there can remain but little doubt, that the difference in longitude, between the pla+ -ces above mentioned, and Greenwich, as drawn from the late eclipse of the sun, and as heretofore settled, arises principally
* See Philosophical Transactions, Vol. IV. page 451.
260 OBSERVATIONS: OF THE ECLIPSE
from the imperfections of the lunar.tables, which appear to give the moon’s longitude at the time of the eclipse at least 1’ too much: the error in latitude at the same time is almost in- sensible.
lag
No. XLII,
Observations of the eclipse of the sun, June 1 pit 1806: made ai the Forest, near Natchez:—Latitude 31° 27 48” N. and sup- posed Longitude about 6" 5’ 25” to PAO W. of Greenwich, by William Dunbar Esq.
Read August 15th, 1806,
‘IN these observations, an excellent clock with a gridiron pendulum was used, made by J. Bullock of London; a port- able chronometer served occasionally as a companion to the clock, which last was frequently regulated and corrected, by equal altitudes of the sun, taken by a circle of reflection.
» April 28th, 1806, astronomical time. With a six-feet Gregorian reflecting telescope, power 100, observed an occul- tation of e leonis by the moon, as follows:
> e & Immersion at 8* 49’ 102”, per clock. The emer- sion was not seen; the star was at some distance from the moon’s limb, before it was noticed, which was ascribed to the extreme brightness of the moon, then nearly on the meridian.
The following new and short formula was used, for finding the equation of equal altitudes, viz. To the logarithmic co- sine of the latitude, add the sine of the half-interval, in de- grees, and the arith. comp. of the cosine (or secant) of the altitude; the sum, rejecting tens from the index, is the sine of an angle: take out the corresponding cotangent, to which add the arith. comp. of the cosine (or secant) of the sun’s declination, and the logarithm of the declination, gain- ed or lost during the half-interval, reduced to seconds of time; the sum, rejecting tens from the index, is the logarithm. of the correction or equation of equal altitudes, in seconds of
- OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 261
time; additive when the sun is receding from the elevated pole, and vice versa.
Note, when the index in the last result turns out to rhe 8 or 9, which can happen only when the sun is very near the solstices;
the equation must then be considered as a fraction.
Mi ne Ast. Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. M. Double altitude P. M.
h i ” on hoe W At 8 38 S13 92) dili35.4 Fates S\-20 353 42 424 83 57 30 16 234 50 32 87 15 42 8 35 57, 2 89 59 10 2 3 ; ‘ ms ao F Indexon 18’ 10” Contacts of the sun with his image for finding the index error. ¢ oft 45 30 -
A mean of the above gives apparent noon ae gic per Pca ‘at i 59 33 22
Equation of equal altitudes. - > - — 563 Apparent noon per clock corrected at. . ; ; of aE So 2759 Equation of time. A . . 5 Aaah SG EOFs Clock fast for mean time. ‘ ‘ : 2 30 84 June 2d. Equal altitudes of the sun’s low er limb.
A. M. ; Double altitude P. M. ay, @ on RPT eh,
At 8 36 46 88 20 at 3°19 294 Index on 18° 30” 41 273 : 90 20 14 484 off 44 45 51 144 94. 30 o.2 53 35 95 30 2 41
By these the clock was too fast for mean time 36” 4, and by a comparison with those of May the Ist, the clock loses at the rate of 3° 6 per day,.which correction being applied to the occultation of e leonis, we shall have the immersion at 8" 46° 30” 2 mean time, or 8" 49’ 11” 37. apparent time.
June 3d. Shortened the pendulum ot the clock, by put-
ting round the index of the bob,. one degree or division. June a Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. ‘A.
Double altitude P. M. hou = oO. boop At 8 38 74 89 at 319 13 Index on Le 35k 42 484 ; 91 14 194 off 45 33 45 9 92 11 584 47 30 93 9 39 49 504 94 ante? §2 114 95 4 56} 54 324 96 2 365 By these the clock was too fast for mean time. ws, . ; é 34°74 .11 June 9th. ‘Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. A. M, Double altitude . P.M. hoewe ° hf At 8 59 13 98 RUE 2-59 18} Index on 17, 50°" 9 1 334 99 56 574 of. 45.10 3 54 100 54 364 6 153 101 52 16.
By these the clock was fast for mean time. - 5 " 4 $27 75
262 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
| % June 11th, astrononiical time,,,with the reflector, power 100, observed an immersion of Jupiter's Ist satellite at 11" 18’ 162” per clock: clouds were passing, and a thin vapour over- spread the disk of Jupiter; itis conjectured that the true time
of the immersion nught have been,10/or 15 seconds Jater. June 12th. Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. A. M. Double altitude
Be) (7 tuee -) rr) uw At 9 847 me at 250 524 Indexon 18’_92” Ti 477 48 32 off 44 46
103
By thio the clock was fast for mean time 31” 58, and by a comparison with those of the 5th and 9th, the clock loses at the rate of 0” 368 per day, which correction being applied to the time per clock, of the immersion of Jupiter’s Ist satellite, we shall have for the moment of the immersion, 11" 17’ 44” 644 mean time. The longitude deduced from this observation would be 6" 5’ 41” 4; or 91° 25’ 21” West of Greenwich.
© June 15th, astronomical time. Prepared’ to observe the eclipse of the sun, which (from calculation) was expected to begin soon after 20°; at 19" got the telescopes prepared: found a great undulation upon the limb of the sun, seen through the six-feet reflector; the red colour of the image was offensive to the eye; I therefore gave the preference to the fine mild yellow image (most perfectly defined) of a 2% feet achromatic tele- scope, belonging to a set of astronomical circles, although the power did not exceed 40.
The moment of the expected impression approached, afd reflecting that this eclipse was to be seen all over Europe and North. America, which renders it a very important phenomenon for settling comparative longitudes, I conceived that all the
zealous astronomers of both worlds were then looking with me at the great luminary and centre of our system: I kept my eye riveted upon that point of the disk where the eclipse was to commence, with an anxiety known only to astronomers; . with the chronometer watch at my ear, I attended to the most doubt- ful appearances which my perturbation perhaps presented to the eye, and upon every alarm, began to count the beats of the watch, (five in two seconds) in order that 1 might not lose the very first instant of the impression, and I am confident that not one quarter of a second was lost, of the time when the impres-
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 263
sion was visible by my telescope. Dr. Maskelyne seems to be of opinion, that five seconds ought to be allowed for the time elapsed from the first contact until the impression becomes vi- sible in our telescopes. The atmosphere was remarkably fine and serene during the whole time of the eclipse, although the weather was extremely unfavourable for many days both be- fore and after. The limb of the sun was well defined, by a fine circular line, but that of the moon was irregularly indent- ed, more particularly when seen by the, reflector with a power of 200,
The result is as follows.
Visible commencement of the actipee per clock, at 20h 5° 59’ Dr. Maskelyne’s correction. : — 5 True commencement per clock A . . » 20 5 54 End of the eclipse per clock. 22 39 24 June 18th. Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. A. M. Double altitude P. M. Bee o hee soe At 8 48 23 93 at 3 13 40} Index on 17 10 50 433 94 i119 of 45 50 53.5 95 8 58 55 264 96 6 373 57 474 97 417 O20 a 98 1 56
By these the clock was fast for mean time 28” 19, and by a comparison with those of the 12th, the clock loses at the rate of 0” 565 per day, which correction being applied to the observed times of the eclipse per clock, the true results will be as follows.
On the astronomical 15th of June. Mean time. Apparent time. Beginning of the eclipse at... 204 5’ 24” 6 20h 5° 19” End of the eclipse. 5 22 38 54 67 22 38 47 72 iy Sth. Equal altitudes of the sun’s lower limb. Double altitude P. M. os on ” ° Or tit) At 8 57 26 95 at 3.11 144 Index error of the“ 59 47 96 8 54 morning. 13° 15” Beis 97 6 33 Index error of the 4 28 98 412 evening. 13° 30” 6 47 99 1 504 9 OR 100 cloudy 11 304 101 257 9% 13 503 102 54 484
By these the clock was fast for mean time 19” 85, and by a comparison with those of the 18th, the clock loses at the rate of 0” 49 per day. M
264 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
On the evening of the same day ® the astronomical 5th, with the retlecting telescope, power 100, observed an emersion of Jupiter’s 2d satellite at 9» 44’ 42” per clock; the above correction being applied, we shall have for the moment of the visible emersion, 9" 44° 22” 35, mean time. Clouds were passing and a vapour obscured, in some degree, the disk of the planet, similar to that of the 11th of June, though rather more dense, and it is thought probable, that the emersion was scen too late by 20 or 30 seconds: the longitude deduced without correction would be 6" 5’ 0” west of Greenwich.
® July 6th, astronomical time, observed with the reflector, power 100, an emersion of Jupiter’s first satellite, at 8" 12’ 24” per clock, and the correction for the rate of the clock being applied, the visible emersion took place at 8" 12’ 4” 81, mean time, the longitude deduced would be 6" 5’ 12” 19.—Now as the density of the vapour of this evening and that of the 11th of June are supposed to be equal, and that the one ob- servation was an immersion and the other an emersion of the same satellite, the imperfection of vision caused by the vapour or by the great and strong light of the planet, so near to the points of observation, would. produce errors in contrary direc- tions, the one advancing, the other retarding the moment of visible contact, a mean ot the two results will theretore proba- bly be near the truth.
Result of the immersion of the 11th of June. ; ; 3 . 6h 5 41% 4 Result of the emersion of the 6th of July. A ; 4 4 59 pO) (ale yw Mean longitude. Fae es - i ant A sheers é 6 5 26 8
No. XLIII.
Observations of the eclipse of the sun, June 16th, 1806, made at Kinderhook, in the State of New-York, by Jose Joaquin de Ferrer.
Read August 15th, 1806.
ACCORDING fo the latitudes and longitudes of the moon inserted in the French connoissance de temps, the conjunction
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 265
ought to have happened 4" 29’ 40” 8, mean time in Paris, latitude of the moon in conjunction 19’ 19" \N.
Latitude. of Albany 40° 42’ 38”, Longitude east of New- York, according to the chronometer, NON 63, in time = 58”, the maximum of the total obscurity ought to have taken place in latitude 42° 23’ on the bank of the North river.—The fol- lowing are the results of an approximated calculation.
: yaaa, Beginning of the eclipse in mean time. 9 49 00 ° Ditto of total obscurity. - 11 06 30 REPO en eaah ion = left of the inferior yertex, End of total obscurity. : . ’ PU 307 ee tedel inion End of the eclipse, §;. =» .« « 0 33 00 y
On the 8th of June I embarked in a packet for Kinderhook south landing, which is 15 geographic miles south of Albany on the bank of the river Hudson, to observe the eclipse, tak- ing for that purpose an excellent chronometer of Arnold, No. 63; a circle of reflection; and an achromatic telescope, con- structed by Troughton according to particular directions.
The circle of reflection is not a multiplier, it is 11 English inch- es diameter, graduated upon silver, with three indexes, which di- vide the circle into three equal parts, and sub-divide it to 10”; mounted on a pedestal, and the telescope magnifies 17 times. A complete, or double observation isa compound of two ob- servations, one direct, the other inverse, each observation has three readings, consequently the error of the divisions, in the double observations, is reduced to ¢, the eccentricity destroyed, as also the error of the index, coloured glasses, small speculum, and of almost the whole of the large one.
The telescope is 4+ feet in length, it has a triple object glass of 2,7. inches aperture, a terrestrial eye glass, and three astro. nomical ones No. J, 2, 3, and from the manner in which it is mounted, the zenith may be observed with as much exactness as any other elevation.
Rate of going of the chronometer in New-York. ,,
, 0 June 4th, slower than mean time. = 11 16 5 6th, Bae 5 + « 1117 O}mean dailyloss = 07’ 5 8th, Me sa as : oo) ET 18r5)
2M
266 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
On the 10th of June I arrived at Kinderhook south landing, the place where it was intended to observe the eclipse. By observations of meridian altitudes of the sun and stars, the la- titude of the place was ascertained as follows.
ow June 12th. By double altitudes inyerse and direct of ursa minor. ; 42 23 11 12th. ditto. r ditto. 4 Antares. - 42 23 18 13th. By one meridian altitude of ©, direct observation. - 42 22 54 13th. ditto. - ursa minor. B 42 23 00 14th. By double altitudes direct and j inverse, 50’ of time 42 22 53 before and after the meridian. : 2 i
Mean latitude. 42 23 03
Rate of going of the chronometer according to mean time, by corresponding altitudes of the sun.
Co 4 June 11th. Chronometer too slow. 4 - =12 09 9 - 12th. : hy ; ‘ : , F 12 08 4 14th. F f : : F : ‘ 12 06 2 Pdaily gain. =1” 18 15th. ° 7 < 5 3 ‘ é 12 05 0 16th. . c : C . - 12 04 0
Observation of the eclipse, 16th of June, 1806, with the achromatic telescope, 2,7.°. English inches aperture, triple ob- j ect glass No. 1, was used which magnifies 90 times. _ 9* 37’ 33” , (chronometer.) Beginning 45° from the lefti in- ferior vertex, in the very point on which the eye was fixed, the impression was so slight, that 4” elapsed before it was certain that it had commenced. 10" 55’ 58”, (chron.) First interior contact or tatal obscurity, certain to half'a second, 50° from the right su- perior vertex: 4” or 5” before the total obscurity, the remainder of the disk of the sun was reduced to a very short line, interrupt- edin many parts.—The-darkened glass with which this pheno- menon had been observed, was sufficiently clear to distinguish terrestrial objects. After this observation I laid aside the coloured glass, to observe the end of total darkness. I examined the moon duri ing two minutes, without observing one luminous pointin her disk. The disk had round it a ring or illuminated atmosphere, which was of a pearl colour, and projected 6° from the limb, the diameter of the ring was estimated at 45’. The darkness was not so great as was expected, and without doubt the light was greater than that of the full moon. From the extremity of the ring, many luminous rays were projected to more than 3 de-
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 267
grees distance.—The lunar disk was ill defined, very dark, forming a contrast with the luminous corona; with the tele- scope I distinguished some very slender columns of smoke, which: issued from the western part of the moon... The ring appeared concentric with. the sun, but the greatest light was in the very edge of the moon, and terminated confusedly at 6° distance. ~11" 00’ 20”, (chron.) . Observed the appearance of aribbon or border, similar to a very white cloud, con- centric with the sun, and which appeared to me to belong to its atmosphere, 90° to the left of the moon.
11".00' 28”, (chron.) Observed the illumination of various
points in the disk of the moon on the same side.
11" 00’ 30”, (chron.) The illumination of the moon was ve-
ry distinguishable, shewing the irregularities of its disk, the colour of a palish yellow.—In the moment of the sun’s re-appearance, the versed sine of the illuminated segment of the moon, was equal to + part of the apparent diameter of Ju- piter, observed in opposition with the same tube, - , 11" 00’ 34” 8, (chron.) End of total darkness, 90° on the left; the sun appeared as a very bright star of the _ third magnitude; at the call of the 35”, such was the intensity of the light that I abandoned the telescope, having received a vi- olent impression on the eye: from the appearance of the first ray, to the moment when it became insupportable to the eye, was so instantaneous, that I have estimated it at less than 3, of a-second. — It is to be remarked, that this observation was made without a darkened glass, with twbe No. 1, which magnifies 90 times, and is remarkably clear.
0" 21’ 38”, (chronometer.) End of the eclipse.
During the whole of the eclipse, the sky was very clear, not a single cloud was visible, and there was scarcely any wind. The sun was without a spot. A little dew fell during the dark- ness; five or six principal stars and planets were visible.
Mr. John Garnett (of New-Brunswick, New-Jersey,) who also observed the eclipse with an excellent telescope of Dolland, with a triple object glass, and 2,72, inches aperture, tube No.
7OoOo
1, of the same power as the one I used, was placed four or
268 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
five paces from the person who counted aloud the seconds of the chronometer. Mr Garnett, besides being a good astrono- mer, was much accustomed to the use of the telescope.—He directed his view to the 45° on the left of the inferior vertex, inversed vision, according to a previous calculation, and deter- mined the following phenomena.
Chronometer. h sow Commencement of the eclipse. : z P " ; 9 37 36 Total darkness. x 10 55 58 Illumination of the lunar disk, which he observed without a darkened glass 11 00 28 End of the eclipse. : 00 21 41
Owing to an. accident he did not observe the end of total darkness. Mr. Garnett is positive, that the end observed is correct to
a second, and that the impression was sensible to him three seconds previous.—We have then,
Chronometer. Mean time. Siderial time. here bit, ee h ¢ »# Commencement. 4 - 9 37 33 ‘ 9 49 37 i 3 2619 7 Total darkness. 4 2 10 55 58 A 11 08 02 . 4 44 57 5 End of ditto. 4 . - 1100 35 < 11 12 39 . 449 35 0 End of the eclipse. 3 P 21 41 33 45 : 6 10 548
The interior contacts were instantaneous, consequently they may be ascertained at least to half a second; the beginning to
less than 3”, and the end according to M. Garnett to 1”, June 16th. Equal altitudes of the sun.
A. M. P. M. M. ho’ # h/‘ow th ew Chronometer. tt AE OG Os tee te A 20104 Zhe ee REPO SEY ae G5 Se FUG OB Marre ss 4.4 WAN) he 1 N48 08195 7 20 441 « 415 242 : 11 48 04 15 7- 26,6693 34, 409 118 - 11 48 04 05 Z 30 22 0 . 4 05 44 3 11 48 03 15 737440 ~ . 3 58 24 7 11 48 04 35 A mean of these gives noon uncorrected . ° F 11 48 04 17 Equation of equal altitudes. : ny te bahay 8 _— 1 27 Apparent noon by the chronometer. : . - ’ 11 48 02 90 Equation of time. z t - C + i aa 6 98 Chronometer slower than mean time. g “ ‘ . 00 12 04 08 Chronometer. ©’s true altitude. hose o * @ yds ae lb} steele. ch eheds. Ss Agee. 30 53 54 7 20 44 10 : 5 . ° : “ A 32 17 18 %-26 56.305 is hte ol ite CotiieG cy mul eee tesa. 20,06 4 09 11 80 oP BR ES SN ER Te oe Me ear o 26 04 4 1117 10 * - < . . ‘ - 3 03 03 4.15 24 20 32 T7 1d Chronometer slower than mean time, by the © O's altitudes at noon. 12° 04°” 10 By the equal altitudes. : 5 “ 12 04: 08
Mean . . . : . ’ . a ete 12 04 09
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16,-1806. 269
_ The above altitudes of the sun are the result of direct and inverse observations, corrected for refraction and parallax. June 18th, we embarked ina packet for the house of. Chan- calle Levingston, which is on the bank of the river, and by two direct piicariiosis of meridian altitudes on the 19th and 20th, the latitude of said house appears to be 42° O4' 39”,
observations of altitudes of the sun 19th of June in the morning:
Chronometer slow with respect to mean time, by three series of omg. 3 lV 34° 8 By three series, 20th, ditto. } J : 3 ; TT) 33ene
June 21st, we embarked for New-York, and having put in- to Newburg on account of the wind, I observed the latitude from the Gate of that town, from a meridian altitude of the sun, and found it to be 41° 30’ 20”.
By four series of altitudes of the sun, taken in the afternoon of the 22d of June, the chronometer was slow with respect to mean time 0" 11’ 11” 50.
June 23d, we arrived at New-¥ork.—By observations of al- titudes of the sun in Partition street, the chronometer was as- certained to be slow with respect to mean time,
June 24th. . . 11’ 09” 8 July 4th... . 11 17 5
If we compare the absolute state of the chronometer from the day of departure to the 24th, when I returned to this city, it As appear that in 16 days the gain was = 9" 2, daily gain, = 23 =0" 571
Mean gain between the observations of New-York before our
departure, and the observations of Kinderhook. “sain Between Kinderhook and the observations at New-York on our return. 50 26
Long. in time.
OF s ” Latitude of New-York, Partition street. f 6 40 42 40 Longitude 00 Newburg. 0 - 5 41 30 20 East. House of Chancellor Levingston. - 42 04 39 East. 93 6 Kinderhook, S. landing, where the eclipse was observed 42 23 03 Bast. ; (51 3 Albany, Pomerat’s Hotel. Fi . ‘i 42 38.383 East. 58
The position of Albany I determined last year, in the month of August, with the same chronometer and circle of reflection, and its correctness is to be depended upon, as much as that of the other observations. The rate of going of the chronometer was, with a very slight difference, the same as it was found to
270 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
be this year; from the 4thof August, 1805, the day the chro- nometer was taken out of New-York for Albany, to the 15th that it was again examined, on my return to New-York, the daily gain was = 0” 54.
Elements calculated by the astronomical tables of Lalande, third edition.
16th of June 1806, 4h 29’ 40” 8 meantime in Paris.
o @ ” Longitude of the € apparent equinox. c : 84 44 311 Idem © idem. : 2 . 84 44 34 3 Northern latitude of the € or : . 19 24 0 Horizontal parallax for Paris. - ~ 60° 13” 4 Correction of the tables. “ : - — 45 Horizontal parallax for Paris. - Z 60 08 9 Horizontal parallax of the © 4 3 . 8 5 ‘ “a ‘Horary motion of the Cinlongitude. : 2 36 4192 in Lat. =3 22 86 The hour that precedes. ‘ 2 ‘ . 36 41 24 3 22 80 The hour that follows. ‘ . 36 42 60 3B 22.92 Horary increase of the horizontal parallax of the € : 1 16 Horizontal semidiameter of the € 16 26 96 Horary increase of the horizontal semidiameter of the € 0 26 Horizontal semidiameter of the © : é 3 15 46 08 Horary motion of the © a A x . - 2 23.16 Right ascension of the © , : Ti, sane OS a2 Horary variation in right ascension ‘of the fo) : < 10 4 Proportion of the axes of the earth 0 : 334 to 333 Latitude of Kinderhook—Verticalangle . . . =42° 12 47 - Relative horary motion between the commencement and conj. in Kinderhook 34 17 52 the end and conjunction > Z 384.19 62 1st interior contact and the conjunction. . 3418 54 2d interior contact and the conjunction. . 34 18 60 Apparent obliquity of the ecliptic. F 2-23 27 -56 The epoch of the lunar tables I have corrected according to the equations of De Burg, which in 1806. : ==1s 15° 07° 1174-4 11" 5— 1" 4 Mean anomaly. : é 2 3.25 37 27 +46 —1 4
To calculate the latitude, I have diminished the inclination of the lunar orbit, 6”, and have further applied the correc- tion =—6” sine long. «.
€’s Horizontal parallax for canlesnen (0 08’ 9—1” 2 on account of the spheroidal figure of the earth,) = 60° 10” 1
Difference of horizontal parallaxes of the of the © and € = 60’ 02” 6 2? hose bere herp herp. June 16, 1806. At Kinderhook 4 i south landing, mean time. 949-27 11/08 02 11,12°99 .. 0 33/45 Longitude West of Paris. 5 04 50 5 04 50 5 04 50 5 04 50 Mean time in Paris. : og OA 27 4 12 52 417 29 5 38 35 Right ascen. of the mid-heayen, 51 34 56 71 14 22 72 23 52 “92 43 42
Latitudes ofthe €by the tables. 2446 0 20 20 86 2005 27 =: 15 30 94
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1306. 273
o fn Cea Py, Ch a2 Oo. % . % Altitudes of the nonagesimal. 67 30 25 70 18 06 70 24 58 71 14 00 Longitudes of the nonagesimal. 60 05 00 79 20 39 76 14 50 92 08 02 Dist. of the € to the noma. Ee 41 18 +9 13°35 +8 2213. —6 41 21 Horizontal parallaxes of the a : —par. of the @ in Kinderhook.5 6 01 ¥ Ue SES 60.03 9 Parallaxes in longitude. » . +22 34 50 + 9 12 20 +8 2160 — 6 44 50 Parallaxes in latitude. —23 05 $ —20 13 7 —20 07,11 —19 23 95 Apparent latitudes of the € N. 140 5 N. Rel 5. 180 S$. 3 52 00 Inclination of the orbit in the interior contacts. 4 49 30 Chord. c i : ; b . 1 48 16 Apparent semidiameter of the 3 a i. € not corrected for inflection. 16 41 15 16 42 95 16 43 02 16 43 58
In Albany the eclipse was observed by Mr. Simeon de Witt,
r Be 0 we Beginning, apparenttime << . a a eee * 9 50 12 Ast interior contact 5 : . . : 3 . - 11 08 06 Qdi' =e dittoy, Se. <e ee Se? : op bt D2! SP Endof the eclipse. . Con he baer AP ae a 33 09 §
M. De Witt did not apply the correction of corresponding altitudes, on account of the variation in the sun’s declination, and in this case we have the observations as follows.
9h 50’ 13” 1 11 08 07 1
SD eh 2he55 ard:
33 09 1
The end of total darkness was observed by the naked eye, the other observations were made with a telescope which mag- nified 30 times.—It is observable that the end of total darkness was so instantaneous, (as is expressed in my account,) that the error made between the observations, made by the best tele- scope and the naked eye, could scarcely amount to half a second.
Latitude of Albany as stated in my observations, page 269, is 42° $8’ 382”.—Longitude east of New-York by chrono- meter No. 63 in time = 58” :
The beginning and end of the eclipse at Albany do not ap- pear to have been correctly ascertained, which it is easy to see by reference to calculation,
The interior contacts are to be depended upon.—It results therefore from the interior contacts at 11h 08’ 07’ 1 Parallax inlong. 9% 06” 9 Parallaxinlat. =90' 29” 8
a by WPM 2 Pe ie” ditto tS a ditto 20 22 6 Inclination of the apparent orbit <= 4° 30° 35” Chord = 1’ 53” 00
272. OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
In Lancaster it was observed by Mr. Andrew Ellicott.
Beginning in mean time. Qh 33’ 14” nd. . : : . : 0 19 02 Latitude of Lancaster—Vertical angle = t 39° 52! 27” , 4 of ; . : 26 13 0 Reid 4 - §21 43 5 Parallaxes of Longitude § 3 55 8 Parallaxes of Latitude = 16 542
In Philadelphia by Mr. Robert Patterson, corrected Lati- tude = 39° 46° 53” Beginning in apparent time : «) » 9h 39" 59° 0 End é 5 ‘ : °O0 25 48 9 Fy, * @& Parallaxes in Longitude = ugk e rhs Parallaxes in Latitude= ate a :
On the banks of Schuylkill, in the western part of the city by F. R. Hassler, west of the State House in time 7” Corrected Latitude ; : 39° 46’ 53” Beginning, apparent time : t : End 5 : . :
9b 39’ 48” 5
é : Q 25 48 9
: @ , 8 Parallaxes in Longitude = ges ie of Parallaxes in Latitude= $ re is
Mr. Dunbar, at his plantation latitude 31° 27’ 48", longi- tude 6" 14’ 50”, at 42 miles east of the river Mississippi, near the Natchez, 8 miles distance, 9” in time east from the fort of Natchez.
Sogn. e ay oe lt eae: The Telescope magnified 40 times.
Lal? L
Parallaxes in Longitude = Bre re 4 Parallaxes in Latitude= “i a :
By the observations of Kinderhook,
The latitude of the € in conjunction ; 4 2 . =19 35” § Inflection of the semidiameter of the € = 7 : r = —2 05 Ditto. < Fy . e © . . F 2 = —195
From these elements I have calculated the following table.
The longitude of Philadelphia I have supposed to be 5° 09" 57” west of Paris, and that of New-York 5" 05’ 25” 4. By the combination of different observations with these data, and. the differences of longitude resulting from the different obser- vations of the eclipse, I have determined the longitudes of Mr. Dunbar’s house near Natchez, and of Lancaster.—That of Albany I have determined from the mean result of the chro- nometer and eclipse.
The situation of the house of Chancellor Levingston and of Newburg are ascertained by the chronometer referred to Kin- derhook and New-York.
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806.
Kinderhook South landing.
Albany, observed by Mr. S. de Witt.
Philadelphia, by Robert Patterson Esq.
Bowdoin College by Rev. Dr. M‘Keen.
On the banks of Schuylkill, §
by Mr F. R. Hassler. Lancaster, by Andrew Ellicott, Esq.
At the Forest near Natchez
by William Dunbar, Esq. Williamsburg, by Rey. James Madison.
Commencement of the eclipse.
Total darkness. 5 End of total darkness. End of the eclipse, :
Total darkness. n End of total darkness.
. .
§ Commencement of the eclipse.
2End of the eclipse. .
$End of the eclipse. ‘
2 hop w Albany west from Paris. 50424 5 Latitude= Kinderhook south landing, 5 04 33 0 i : Chancellor Leyingston’s Place. 5 05 01 2 Fi “ Newburg. : ¢ F 5 05 22 8 3 ° New-York. ¢ : 5 05 24 8 q 3 Philadelphia. = ’ 5 09 56 5 é : Lancaster... c : - 514420 : 5 Forest near Natchez. 6 14 50 5 c a Williamsburg. ‘ : 517 043 : .
Bowdoin College, in th District of Maine.
Ole A EO
Commencement of the eclipse.
End of the eclipse. °
ey ee of the eclipse.
End of the eclipse. :
ee eee of the eclipse. End of the eclipse. 4
$End of the eclipse. ,
o ih msont/
42 38 38 42 23 03 42 04 39 41 30 20 40 42 40 39 57.02 40 02 36 31 27 48 37 15 50
43 52 00
Parallax
Mean time off Parallax Conjunction Observations.|in Longitude, in Latitude. in:mean time.
Dera 6 aT) Pec Sil Lay
9 49 37 + 22 34 5 | + 23 05 5] 11 95 40 9 Rion el 11 08 92 + 912 2} + 20 13 7 | 11 95 39 5 11 25.39 6 11 12 39 + 8 217} + 20 07 2] 11 25 39 5 sd 0 33 45 — 6445] + 19 229 | 11 25,38 1
11 08 137] + 9069] +2099 4| 11 95 48 0 ote 11 13 047) — 8 141] + 20 227 | 11 25 480
9 40 049) + 25 09 9 | + 21 16 9 | 11 20 22:0 11 20178 0 26148) — 5 224] + 16 533] 11 20 130
0 55 27 0] — 10 47 8 21 03 0 | 11 40 56 2
9 39 544] + 25115] + 31 16 6 | 11 20 13 0
025 562|— 5182] + 16 539 isg9 81g ¢BURO OF 0 933 140] + 2613 0 | + 21 43 5] 11 15 24 5 1 019020|— 3558 | + 16 542 1 13 29 3 $11 15 26 9 8 05 29 0 | + 42 419] + 19 44 6 | 10 15 21 9 10 15 21 10 38 55 0} +17 557 | + 10 08 2 | 10 15 21 9
015 06 8} — 11 13 08 2
3098}|+14079
Albany east from Kinderhook south landi 8 6° 7
bythe chronometerintime. . .
by the eclipse. . ; 2 - 8 5 z
Mean. : : ae oe ee SO Albany and New-York by the chronometer. é = 58” Kinderhook west from Albany. . . , ‘ (OM Kinderhook and New-York. A é 1, Be : 50 4 By the chronometer. ? é ; : : J » ROLES Kinderhook south landing and New-York. . . 50 8 Albanyand New-York, . . . |). - 58 4
B74 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
Fig. 1 in Plate VI,. represents the total eclipse, I shali on- ly remark, that the lummous ring round the moon, is exactly as it appeared in the middle of the eclipse, the illumination which is seen in the lunar disk, preceded 6” 8 the appearance of the first rays of the sun. Two minutes previous to the emersion, I had fixed my eye on the point from whence it was to proceed, and as the field of the telescope did not em- brace more than a third part of the disk, I could not observe whether or not the circumference of the ring was diminished on the opposite side.—In the part where the emersion took place, the ring was illuminated by degrees, and the atmos- phere was more dense and: brilliant near the edge of the moon. A little before the illumination of the lunar disk, I observed a zone to issue concentric with the sun, similar to the appear- ance of a cloud illuminated by the rays of the sun, and as it is represented in the figure, the versed sine of which was very nearly equal to that of the illuminated part of the moon.— We have seen that the radius of the luminous ring was 22! mi- nutes, the horizontal semidiameter of the moon deducting the inflection 16’ 23” 8, and the horizontal equatorial parallax at the time of conjunction =60' 15”, With these elements if we suppose the ring to be the visible atmosphere of the moon, it would follow, that the height of the lunar atmosphere, would be 348 geographical miles above its surface, which is fifty times more extensive than the atmosphere of the earth. It will moreover appear, that such an atmosphere cannot be- long to the moon, but must without any doubt belong to the sun.
Ifthe moon possessed such an atmosphere, it would be ma- nifested by a diminution of the duration of eclipses, and oc- cultations.—We have seen that the diminution of the semidia- meter of the moon resulting from the observations of this eclipse is 2” 5, by comparing it with various occultations which I have calculated, the inflection appears to be 2”, it may be the-effect of the irradiation of light, but supposing it even to be caused by the horizontal refraction of the moon, we know that the inflection is double the horizontal refraction. The horizontal terrestrial refraction, is nearly 33’, therefore the density of the
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 275
atmosphere of the earth, is 1980 times more than that of the moon.—We must conclude that so rare an atmosphere cannot cause any evaporation.
Some of the lunar mountains are 1% miles high, and we can clearly perceive them with a telescope, which magnifies 100 times, and it is constantly observed, that the spots and in- equalities of the superficies of the moon, are always seen in the same form, whence it follows, that there can be no cloud which covers even one mile in extent. Again, it has been ob- served that the edges of the moon emit more light than the centre, which is the very reverse of what happens in the sun, comets and planets, of which the centres are more luminous than the edges, on account of their being surrounded by at- mospheres.
It has appeared to me, that the cause of the illumination of the moon, as noticed above, is the irradiation of the solar disk, and this observation may serve to give an idea of the extension of the luminous corona of the sun. Suppose then that there is no density in the lunar atmosphere.—By the preceding cal- culations, the apparent relative inclination of the orbits between the interior contacts was 4° 49’ 30”, the duration of the total obscurity 4’ 37” and the relative apparent chord 1’ 48” 16,
Moreover, the illumination preceded the emersion 6” 8; we have therefore very nearly the irradiation of the semidiameter
1’ 48” 16 X 6” 8 A of the O = sa At uA) RG TTA is He Bye
—
No. XLIV.
Observations on the solar eclipse of June 16th, 1806, made at Bowdoin College in the District of Maine. Communicated by a member of this Society to Mr. John Vaughan.
Read March 6th, 1807.
YOU ask for the result of the observations made at Bow- doin College, (in the township of Brunswick and district of
876 OBSERVATIONS OF THE ECLIPSE
Maine,) on the subject of the solar eclipse, of June 16, 1806. I send it to you as I have received it from the respectable Pre- sident of that institution, the Rev. Dr. M‘Keen.
I shall begin by an extract from the letter of President M‘Keen.
Brunswick, August 22d, 1806.
** DEAR SIR,
“On several days previous to the solar eclipse of June 16th, «I paid particular attention to my clock, and by a great num- ‘ber of double altitudes ascertained the rate of its going. Pro- “fessor Cleaveland and Mr. Parker observed with me.
“We ie pera bepunins of the aga i + = ae Apparent time.
“As we had no micrometer fitted to either of of our tele- «scopes, we could not determine accurately, the quantity «eclipsed; but by receiving an image of the sun through a «reflecting telescope, upon a plane surface with twelve con- «centric circles drawn upon it, we were assured that it ex- «ceeded eleven digits. We did not find it easy to keep the “limb of the sun’s disk long in perfect coincidence with the ‘“‘arc of the greatest circle, and therefore could not measure it “with perfect accuracy. The Rev. Mr. Jenks, who assisted «‘me in this observation, thought it exceeded 114 digits; I «judged it to be somewhat less. It may be presumed there- “fore, that at the greatest obscuration, 114 digits, nearly, were * eclipsed.
“The latitude of the College is about 43° 53’ N; and its “longitude, as determined by an eclipse of the moon in Ja- “nuary, 1805, is 69° 50’ W. of Greenwich.
“Three or four stars, about the middle of the eclipse, were ‘easily seen with the naked eye.
‘Professors Abbot and Cleaveland noted a series of observa- “tions of the thermometer, barometer and hygrometer of Du- “luc, during the eclipse. The barometer did not appear to “beat all affected by it; the mercury in the thermometer fell “6 degrees and rose again, and the hygrometer varied from
.
OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 20
“59 to 57 and returned after the eclipse nearly to its former *€ position.”
I shall now proceed .to give you the supplementary remarks which have been furnished by Professor Cleaveland.
“Our large reflecting telescope has the magnifying power of “450. I used the shortest eye-glass and middle-sized specu- “lum, which, if I am correct, magnifies 360 times.
“The President used his own telescope, and left the ma- « nagement of the large one to myself.—Its magnifying pow- ‘er isso great, that fearing lest I should not discover the com- «mencement of the eclipse, I kept the telescope in a slow mo- «tion, ranging backwards and forwards in a small arc. The «telescope was’probably at one extremity of this arc, while «<the immersion actually took place, for at the moment when «it was actually discovered by the telescope belonging to the «equatorial, I moved my telescope, and found the shadow «must have been discoverable two seconds at least. I allowed «one second for the motion of the telescope, after the eclipse «« was seen by the observer with the equatorial, and the time «‘of the commencement was noted one second back accord- «ingly. This perfectly agreed with the observation of the ««emersion.—We had some one at the clock, counting seconds; «and the shadow was visible one second longer by the large «telescope, than by the other, which circumstance was con- «sidered confirmatory of the allowance of one second made at “the commencement.” So far the college observations extend.
I do not recollect to have heard of any accurate astronomi- cal observations, made in the United States to the north of Brunswick.
No. XLV.
On finding the longitude from the moon’s meridian altitude, by Wilkam Dunbar of Natchez.
Read August 15th, 1806.
THE usual mode of making the lunar observation for the purpose of ascertaining the longitude, requires the aid of a
278 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE FROM
chronometer or good watch, to a single observer, and as time- pieces of a delicate construction are liable to derangement, the discovery of a method, by which one observer without a know- ledge of the precise time, may be enabled to ascertain his lon- gitude, becomes a desideratum of value. '
There are two portions of time during each lunation, when the moon’s change of declination is sufficiently rapid to afford the means of solving this useful problem; those times are, when the moon is on or near the celestial equator, and may be ex- tended to four or five days at least, i. e. two before and two after the day on which the moon crosses the equator: the moon’s change of declination in the most favourable circumstances, exceeds 6 in twenty-four hours, or 15” in one minute of time and although this is scarcely half the moon’s motion in longi- tude, yet it is to be remembered, that this method is no other than a meridian altitude, which may be taken to a degree of precision, never to be attainéd in the usual manner of taking the moon’s distance from a star, and if the altitude be taken at land, with the aid of a mercurial horizon, the double angle will place this method on a footing of equality (nearly) with the usual mode, in respect to the moon’s change of place, other circumstances being in its favour. The accuracy of this me- thod, depends upon the correctness of the lunar meridian alti- tude, and the precision with which the latitude of the place of observation has been ascertained.
At sea, this method cannot always be used to advantage, on account of the ship’s change of place, which might ren- der the latitude doubtful to several minutes, and thereby affect the longitude an equal number of degrees.
The moon’s greatest altitude being taken, a correction be- comes necessary, because the greatest altitude is not on the meridian, but to the east or west, according as the moon is in- creasing or diminishing, by change of declination, her zenith distance, and which may be calculated as follows.—Having cleared the mo6n’s apparent altitude from the effects of refrac- tion and parallax, the difference between it and the co-latitude of the place of observation, will give the moon’s declination nearly, from which by even proportion may be found, the ap-
THE MOON'S MERIDIAN ALTITUDE, ¥v75
proximate time at Greenwich: for this: time find the rate of change of the moon’s declination for one minute of time, and also the difference between the moon’s meridian altitude, and its altitude one minute before or after, caused by the diurnal rotation of the earth, combined with the progress in right as- cension; those two effects may be considered (at small distances from the meridian) as operating in the same line, and in op- posite directions. | Put x, to represent the time from the meridi- an, when the moon’s altitude will be the same as when on the meridian, a, for the change in declination, and b, for the de- pression from the meridian in one minute of time; the first increases or diminishes in the direct, and the second (for small quantities) in the duplicate ratio of the times; hence we shall
have bx’ = ax, and therefore x = = 1, e. the time (in minutes)
from the meridian, when the change in declination will be equalized by the depression, will be found by dividing the change of declination by’ the depression for one minute of time; at half this distance m time from the meridian, the change in declination will ‘be double ‘the depression, and will be the
a’ maximum, or point of greatest altitude, therefore ai will re-
present the correction; i. e. the square of the rate of change of declination, divided by four times the depression for one minute of ‘time, will be the correction for the moon’s meridian altitude; which may be conveniently found by the following formula, expressed in logarithmic language.
RULE.
To twice the sine of 14 29” 5 add the arith. comp. of the sine (or cosecant) of 1’ and the logarithm of 120, the sum, abating 20 from the index, will produce the constant logarithm .8651414. To the constant logarithm add the cosine of the declination of the moon, the cosine of the latitude, and the arith. comp. of the cosine (or secant) of the altitude, the sum, rejecting tens from the index, will be the logarithm of four times the depression, which subtracted from twice the loga-
)
280 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE FROM
rithm of the rate of change of declination for one minute of time, the remainder will be the logarithm of the correction in seconds.
EXAMPLE.
Given the moon’s greatest altitude near the meridian, cor- rected from the effects of paral. and refraction, 45° 40’ 2059; the latitude of the place, 32° 29’ 25”, and therefore the moon’s declination (nearly) is 11° 50’ 14" 41.
Constant logarithm. : . ' 8651414 Change in declination for 1’ of time 12” 86
Decl. 11° 50’ 14” Al cosine., 9.9906648 Logarithm of ditto. E 5 - 1,1092412
‘ x 2
Lat. 32 29 25 cosine. 9.9260761 Square of change of decl. Log. 2.2184820
Alt. 45 40 20 59 cos.ar.co.. .1556719 4 times the depression. Log.—.9375542 ’
Log. of 4 times the depression. .9375542 Cor. for mer. alt. 19’ 096 Log. -1.2809278
The. correction being found by the foregoing formula, is to be subtracted from the greatest altitude, cleared of the effects of refraction and parallax, the remainder will be the true alti- tude of the moon, when she was on the meridian. The dif- ference between the corrected altitude of the moon’s centre on the meridian and the colatitude, will be the moon’s true decli- nation, when on the meridian: the time at Greenwich, when the moon had that declination, being found, and also the time of the moon’s transit over the meridian of Greenwich, take their difference, take also the difference of the increase of the A. R. of the » and © for the interval of time elapsed in passing the two meridians, which last difference being subtracted from the first difference, the remainder will be longitude in time.
In order to calculate with sufficient accuracy, the times cor- responding to the moon’s declination, and her transit over the meridian of Greenwich, it will be necessary to prepare four right ascensions and four declinations ot the moon to seconds, which in the nautical almanac, are set down to minutes only, by the aid of which, with the tables of second differences, we can find very correctly the times which are sought, and in re- gard to the moon’s declination, the effects of aberration and nutation should not be omitted, because an error of seconds in
THE. MOON’S MERIDIAN ALTITUDE. 28i
the calculated declination, might/produce an error of a like number of minutes of a degree.in the longitude; those effects though of less importance in the moon’s right ascension, may also be brought into calculation. ,
EXAMPLE I.
On the evening of the 10th of November, 1804, at Fort Miro, on the river Washita, took the apparent double altitude of the moon’s lower limb (greatest) near the meridian, 89° 17’ 20”, index error + 13’ 47” 5, the latitude of the place of ob- servation 32° 29’ 25”, Required the longitude.
° / wv Double altitude of D’s lower limb. . 89 17 20 Index error . 5 4 + 13 47 5 Rate of change of 3’s de- clination in 1° of time by % 2) 89 31 75 even propertion. a ISG 25 Apparent altitude of D’s lower limb. . 44 45 33 75 Correct by second dif- Effects of refraction and parallax. : + 39 8 36 ferences. : : —0 39 True altitude of 3’s lower limb. 5 . 45 24 42 11 True rate of change per 2’s semidiameter and augmentation. - + 15 38 48 minute at 12h 40° Green- : snide —_——__ wich time. : E 12 86 Altitude of D’s centre. : 3 - 45 40 20 59 Correction by formula. : ; : — 19 10 True altitude of D’s centre on meridian. 45 40 1 49 Colatitude. A 4 3 MS a Dla 30 oe OL >’s declination on the meridian. ; .. II 50 33 42 1 ene ey
Appt. time at Greenwich when the D had this declination by even proportion. 12 39 56 17 Correct by the equation of second difference. + 1 15 09
Apparent time at Greenwich when the D was on the meridian of Fort Miro. 12 41 11 26
ditto. at ditto. when the D was on the mer. of Greenwich interpolated. 6 22 39 22 Diff. of appt: time corrected by the equation of time —1” 74 gives mean time. 6 18 30 3 Difference of increase of A. R. of the Dand @ during the interval. . . —I1 41
Aad Longitude Of Fort Miro. gs) ace aeerss ails ira , - 6 6493
Comparison of the above with other results.
teed tah 2
Longitude deduced from a mean of six distances of the sun west of the moon. 6 5 59 ‘ a mean of three distances of « Arietis east of ditto. 6 7 40 Longitude. . . . . alunar eclipse 14th of Jan. 1805, (a fine observation.) 6 642 5
Mean longitude of Fort Miro, differing from the result by the meridian 6 64717 altitude, only 2” 13, or about 32” of a.degree. . f f
282 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE &c,
EXAMPLE II.
October 7th, 1805, atthe Forest plantation, latitude 31° 27° 48”, observed the apparent double altitude of the moon’s lower
limb (greatest) near the meridian, ae8° 1a!aar The index error being subtractive, add the lesser contact of
the sun with his image taken immediately after observation. 18
2)133 26 44
Lat. 31° 27° 48” . Apparent altitude of the D’scentre. 66 43 22 Golat, 58 32 12 . Parallax and refraction. : . + 22 41 75 True altitude of the D’s centre. » 67-6 73 75 Correction per formula. op MEE Po med 43°
fy . ——.
True alt. of D’s centre on the mer. 67 5 52 32
Colatitude. ‘ 3 y 48 32 12
>’s declination.when on the meridian. 8 33 40 32 24 a8 Appt. time at Greenwich when the Dhad this declination by even proportion 17 43 52 18 Correction by, the equation of second difference. ; — 2 12 47
Appt. time at Greenwich, when the D. was on the mer. of place of observation.. 17 41 39 71
Appt.timé corrected, when the D was on the meridian of Greenwich. . 11 24 18 15 Difference of apparenttime. . . . . E 617 21 56 Correct for the equation of time. id , 2 +4 39 Difference in mean time, of the D passing the two meridians. ° Sobihis 6.172595
Difference of A. R. of the 3 and ©, gained during the interval. te = —12 5
Longitude of the place of observation. : : : 4 C : : 6 5 20 95
Mr. Ellicott has made 30 calculations, on which he seems to rely for the longitude of the Natchez, (others were rejected,) his extreme results are 64 4° 27” to 6h 6° 41’, and a mean of the whole is 6 5° 49’, The position of the Forest plantation is about 2} miles east of Natchez, i. e. 9” in time, which being added to the above result, gives 6h §° 30’* for the longitude of Natehez, differing from the mean of Mr. Ellicott’s obseryations 19” or 4} miles. ’
An immersion of Jupiter’s 1st satellite was taken just before his opposition, and an emersion of the same soon after, and as they were probably both affected by the near vicinity of the light of Jupiter’s disk, but acting in contrary directions, a mean of the two results may be supposed near to the truth, subject to,
the correction which the,Greenwich calculations may require.
June 11th. By an immersion of Jupiter’s Ist satellite. : : 6h 5 41” 4 July 6th an emersion.of ditto. “ ° ‘ oe F 954) (Oh AKLS4)h9 Mean longitnde. 6 5 26 8
The mean differs only 5’ 8, nearly 1}mile from the result of the meridian altitude.
(cFIn the above method of finding the longitude, as a small error in the meridian altitude of the moon, will produce a considerable one in the longitude, a correction ought to be applied on account of the spheroidal figure of the earth... Eprr.
( 283 )
No. XLVI.
An account of ihe Freestone quarries on the Potomac and Rap- pahannoc rivers, by B, H. Latrobe.
Read February 10th, 1807.
ON the 19th of December, 1798, I presented to the American Philosophical Society, a memoir on the sand hills of Virginia, which the Society did me the honor to publish in the fourth volume of their Transactions, page 439.—It was my intention then, to have offered to the Society, a series of geological papers, the materials of which I had collected, and of which this memoir was the first. But my intention was delayed and partly defeated by the loss of a very large collec- tion of all the principal fossils, necessary to elucidate my ob- servations, in their passage by water, from Fredericksburg to Philadelphia. —This collection, intended for the American Phi- losophical Society, was made by the industry of my excellent friends, Mr. William Maclure now at Paris, of the late Dr. Scandella whose untimely death in 1798 science and _ friend- ship equally have to deplore, and of myself.—It consisted of specimens of loose and undecayed fossil shells, found on and near the surface, from the coast to the falls of the rivers of Vir- ginia, of the shell rocks of York river, of the clays with im- pressions of shells in every fracture, but which shew no re- maining evidence of any calcareous matter when subjected to chemical tests; of the exuviz of sea animals*, bones of fish- es, sharks’ teeth, marsh mud, fossil wood and coral rock, dug from the deep wells about Richmond, of the marles of Pa- munky and Mattapony, of all the strata of the coal mines on James’s river, of the varieties of the granite of Virginia, of the free stone of James's river and the Rappahannoc, with the vegetable petrefactions and coal belonging to it; and of a variety of miscellaneous fossils——My object in reciting
* Drawings of some of the exuvie accompanied my memoir, to which refer.—The bones of the foot there represented, are probably those ofasea tortoise. Vide Vol. lV. p. 444.
284 ON THE FREESTONE QUARRIES OF
this catalogue, is to encourage some member of the Society, who may read it, and whose opportunities of collection are better than my own, to remedy this loss.—All these specimens may be procured with very little trouble in Virginia.
The loss of this collection dispirited me, and the occupa- tions of a most laborious profession deprived me of time. Hav- ing now for some years waited in vain, for the leisure necessa- ry to reduce into something like system, the various notes I have made, I must content myself with giving to the Society, unconnected papers, which will contain the facts collectively, proving beyond doubt, that a line drawn along the falls of our. rivers, is the ancient line of our sea coast, from New-York to the south west; as it still is from New-York to the north east-. ward, and that the water of the ocean rose, perpendicularly, at least 120 feet higher along the ancient coast, than it rises along our present coast.—And lest this assertion should appear extravagant, I will here mention, somewhat out of place, that in the year 1796, I followed with a spirit level, in the neigh- bourhood of Richmond, the pebble stratum, which has all the external appearance of a sea beach, for more than five miles, and ° found it a perfect lével, elevated about 120 feet above the tide at Rockets.—The subject of my present communication, is imme- diately connected with the memoir on the sand hills of Virginia, Its object is, to give to the Society, an account of the freestone quarries on the Potomac and Rappahannoc, from the form- er of which, the freestone employed in the public buildings of the United States at Washington, is obtained.—The range of sand stone rocks ip which the quarries are situated, was, in fact, the ancient sea coast, bounded by sand hills like the pre- sent, and the description which I shall give of them, will, I be- lieve, remove all doubt on this subject.
On consulting the map of the middle states, it will found, that the river Potomac, at the confluence of the river Pisca- taway, in Maryland, a few miles above Mount Vernon, takes a remarkable turn to the south of west, and continues to run in a south westerly course, as far as the confluence of Acquia , creek, on the Virginia side, when it gradually turns to the east of south, and in the course of ten miles lower, pursues a north
THE POTOMAC AND RAPPAHANNOC. 985
easterly direction. At the point at which the Potomac again resumes its course eastward to the ocean, its distance from the river Rappahannoc does not exceed six milesin a straight line. High land separates these streams.—The navigation of the Potomac is much superior to that of the Rappahannoc, and very great advantages would accrue from their junction at this point; but the task of connecting them by a tunnel through this narrow ridge, must be reserved for wealth and population infinitely superior to that ef the present age.—From Piscataway to Potomac creek, the course of the river Potomac is paral- lel to that of the sea coast, and measuring along a line run- ning about S. 60° east*, the distance from the present coast will be about 120 miles.—The range of sand stone rock lies on the west side of the Potomac, beginning a few miles be- low the bend, and continues running in a direction parallel to its south western course, until the river again turns to the east- ward.—There it crosses under the ridge which separates the Potomac from the Rappahannoc, reaches and crosses the Rappahannoc, and appears to run out about two miles on the west side of this river.—I have not seen, or heard of its hay- ing been found further to the south west for 50 or 60 miles, but it is again found 12 miles above the foot of the falls of James’s river, in a situation much higher above the tide, than at the Potomac and Rappahannoc, a situation appa- rently inexplicable upon any supposition which applies to the sand rocks of these latter rivers; and yet, so exactly similar are these James’s river rocks, in all their geological character- istics, that it is impossible not to attribute their formation to the same process of nature. ‘The present state of these rocks is very irregular.—They make their appearance upon the slopes of the vallies and water courses, along the whole line which I have described, in large disrupted masses, or in regular ranges,
* The courses of north 40° east, and south 60° east, form a spherical angle, at which, with occasional, but never very great variation, the two principal planes of Rhomboidal crys- tallization, not only of our rocks of every description, granite, slate, marble, limestone, wacke, and of all those numerous and ambiguous genera of rocks, lying in character, be- tween a distinct granite on one side, and homogenous basaltes on the other, intersect each other, but which decide the position.—I had almost ventured to say the crystallization of the constituent parts of the globe, from the equator to the pole, and fromthe Mississippi at
least to the Atlantic. On inspection of any map of North America, especially if drawn om Mercator’s principle, this fact is evident to the eye.
286 ON THE FREESTONE QUARRIES OF
the external parts of which are generally weather-worn, flaky and broken. The most extensive ranges are found in elevated situations.—In the bottoms of vallies the masses that are found there, appear to have fallen or slided down into the water course, and the large masses that form the shore of Potomac and Rappahannoc, are evidently much below their original posi- tion.—On quarrying into the rock, the stone is found to be amorphous, often stratified with layers of clay or pebbles be- tween the strata, having also frequently upright joints or frac- tures, so regular as to look like planes of crystallization. The stone is however undoubtedly amorphous and aggregate, The sand stone is covered with a superstratum of alluvial materials, deposited to appearance, subsequent to the formation of the stone; assand, clay, graveland pebbles, large and small, round- ed by attrition out of many species of mountain stone. Along this superstratum is found the ancient pebble beach, mention- ed above, it forms the soil of the high land of: the country, is from ten to thirty feet deep, and where it is thinner along the edges and slopes of the vallies, it seems to have been washed away; for in considering the whole country, below the falls of our rivers, we must necessarily perceive, that, if the phrase may be admitted, it has no hills, but only vallies; that is, it was originally a plain, into which the vallies have been gullied by the drainage of water, on the receding and depression of the ocean from its former level of 120 feet above its present elevation. As I am not going to form any hypothesis, the dif- ficulty arising from the existence of the ancient pebble beach, at an eleyation considerably above the still more ancient sand beach, presents to me no difficulty in my opinion of the ori- gin of this sand stone.
The component parts of the stone are,
Sand, generally sharp, but often rounded by attrition, of variously sized grains, from very coarse to extremely fine.— This forms the mass and body of the stone:—in this sand is found a variety of extraneous matters.
Clay, in nodules, generally round, sometimes, but rarely, stratified as if deposited. The clay is white and remarkably pure. The clay holes are very troublesome to the stone cutter
THE POTOMAC AND RAPPAHANNOC. 287
and diminish the value of these quarries exceedingly, They are found from the size of a pea, to many inches in diameter.
Pebbles, large and small, of quartz, sand stone, granite, whin, rounded by attrition, and amorphous lumps of quartz.
Pyrites, or lumps of marsh mud mixed with sulphat or sulphuret of iron, efflorescing in the air. Often when one of these pyrites happens to be concealed near the surface of a wrought stone, so that the air and water may reach it, it swells and bursts the stone, thereby defacing the work. This ts ano- ther disadvantage in using it.
Nodules of tron ore in sand, these nodules dissolve in the air and water, and stain the stone disagreeably. In a spherical hole of the stone, I once found a nest of very beautitul paral- lelopipedal crystals, quite transparent. I had no opportunity of examining them chemically.
Wood, trom trunks and branches of trees of large size, to small twigs, either entirely carbonated, or the wood carbonat- ed and the bark in a fibrous state, so as to have the appearance of a net, and a considerable degree of tenacity; or the bark fibrous, and the wood in a state quite friable; or the wood re- placed by pyrites, which effloresce in the air* ; or in cavities, the sides of which have the impression of branches, in minute rami- fication, and are lined with a pellucid crust, probably calcareous spar. This latter evidence of the admixture of wood, is to be found chiefly near Fredericksburg.
Iron, appearing in stains, either of masses, or in dark fer- tTuginous spots and clouds; and clay, infused through the whole mass, with probably an infusion of lime, which appears to be the cement by which the sand’ particles are held together; for the acids indicate no existence of carbonate of lime, and I have not yet been able to submit the stone to any chemical exami- nation.
* [had a piece of this species of pyrites, in appearance the branch of atree, witha small twig-attached to it; about 3incheslong. and } of an inch diameter, very hard and heavy, I carried it in my pocket fora fortnight, and then threw it intoa small boxin my office, containing drawing instruments. It remained there for two years, but last summer during very damp and hot weather, it effloresced, and fell into powder, corroding and in juering my instruments exceedingly.
288 ON THE FREESTONE QUARRIES OF
Native allum, is found on the lower projecting surfaces of the rocks, where they are in wet situations, probably produced by the sulphur of the pyrites combining with the clay of aggre- gation.
The colour of the stone varies from white to a dark rusty tint. Herewith I present to the Society, two blocks, the one of the whitest, the other of the darkest tint. The dark block was, when cut, of a rusty brown, but wishing to weigh the stone in its driest state, I placed it on the plate ot an iron stove. In a quarter of an hour its colour was changed almost to black.
The degree of hardness is very various. When moderately hard, its feanrunee is rough and irregular, when very hard, con- cave and even, when breathed upon, it has a strong earthy, and’somewhat hepatic smell.
The specific gravity of the stone is as various as its colour and texture. The two blocks herewith presented, are very ac- curately four inches square and two inches thick.—They weigh as follows :—
The brown block 2% 6.699% Averd.
white block 2 3.96 ——.... difference 2.739%
54 of these blocks make a cube foot, theretore the difference of weight in one cube foot, between the white ane brown stone would be, 9% 3.49.02
The white block absorbed in 24 hours, of river water 6.25°2, or at the rate of upwards of 21% per cubic foot.
One of the most remarkable circumstances belonging to this stone, is the arrangement of the particles of sand of which it consists. In whatever direction a block is cut, the successive accumulations or strata, which may be easily distinguished by the different size of the grains, their colour, the admixture. with other substances, and their individual parallelism, appear not to lie in beds parallel to each other, but in masses bound- ed by wavy lines; or which are suddenly cut off by other masses, the lines of which wave in another direction; and this appearance is such, that many stones exhibit by the lines of their strata, a good representation of the wavy hills of the sand coast, as will be seen by reference to the plate in the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Society.
THE POTOMAC AND RAPPAHANNOC, 289
This mode of stratification appears to me to be an incon- testible proof, that the wind has been the agent of accumula- tions of the sand of which the stone consists, as it is now of the sand hills of our present coast. For if it could be suppos- ed, that the agitation of the surf, or of the whirls which occur in all water running through an interrupted course, could have caused this appearance, it would have occurred, as in cases where there is no doubt of aqueous deposition, that the stone would have separated more easily at the lines of stratification than elsewhere. But such is not the case in this stone, for it is as solid at the lines separating the strata as elsewhere.
As the difference of granulation is exceedingly various, often within a very small space, so is also the cohesion of the stone very uncertain. Often with the fairest prospect of a hard sound mass of rock, of great depth and thickness, the quarrier sud- denly strikes into a mere friable sand bani: Quarrying is therefore a lottery, in which the blanks are often more nume- rous than the prizes.
The quality of the stone, as a building material, is also in other respects various. Of the stone most even in its grain and texture, most pleasant to work, and of the most durable ap- pearance, a great part cracks and falls to pieces, on exposure to the sun and air, especially if rapidly dried, after being taken from the quarry. Sometimes contrary to all-expectation, the frost tears it to pieces. —All of it expands when wet, and con- tracts in drying. ‘This property it seems never to lose. When buried in the walls of a heavy building, it is controuled by the incumbent weight, but those blocks that are more at liberty, either at one or buth ends, are subject to this variation of size; and the joints of the work open and shut, according to the dryness or humidity of the weather. Window and door selles therefore, which are confined at both ends, and free in the middle, generally break, and the fissure opens and shuts alter- nately, to the amount, when open, of one tenth of an inch in a block of six feet.
Below the freestone is found, on Potomac, most frequently loose sand, sometimes a stratum of round gravel or pebbles,— seldom clay,—very often loose stone very full of carbonated
290 CN THE FREESTONE QUARRIES OF
wood:—on the Rappahannoc, loam, marsh mud, quicksand, clay and dry sand:—and near Mansfield below Fredericksburg, the largest mass of timber, which I have yet seen :—on James’s river, sand, gravel, loam. The wood mixed with the stone on James’s river, is, I think, less carbonated than on the Rap- pahannoc and Potomac.—tThe superstrata are generally, soft clay, loam, and tolerably pure clay, in a state of excessive compactness. On the level country, light loamy sand, and on the slopes of the vallies, the line of sea beach above mention- ed, often washed and spread over the declivity, often in heaps and ridges. But it will be observed by any traveller, that nei- _ther in the bottoms of vallies, out of the beds of the present rivers, nor on the tops of the levels, is gravel to be found. The superstrata however vary considerably, in one of Mess. Cook and Brent's quarries on Acquia, the following are the strata :— Moulder ition vives Gale vdialentien itis (vaste): Ofest Loam, | with some-gravel. ) 30 0...;.05 4 capeiad tlh Src Coarse, irregular, ill compacted, disrupted sandstone 5.0 Gravel, hard clay, lumps of coarse sandstone. . 10 0 Four strata of marsh mud, and four strata of excessively hard and pure clay, alternately, one 8 Oo foot thick each lying quite horizontally. —. Roasersandie 5 -fhs Hy ahs te eines oie <) pedis SAO
: ‘ 29. +
Very excellent and solid freeestone, containing fewer clay holes and less wood or iron than ordi- nary, 8 feet, and running out landwards to 2 feet.
Then sand of great depth.
The best quarry now in work, lies two miles S. W. from Acquia creek, and belongs to Mr. Robertson. _ Like all others, it is on the top of the slope of a valley, and the face shews as tollows:—
Moulds, ire ve.aelt ugh ee lies Hic oar en Al ahie
Clay, very hard, and some gravel. . . . . 2
Rough disrupted sandstone. . . - . ». « . 2
Ronse Sarid... 44. sre pets atts Bares state cael pute cee S.
Soundiand exeellent rocks tigate. | es} LO
oooo°o
POTOMAC AND RAPPAHANNOC. 291
Under the rock fine loose sand.
In this rock, which runs N. E. and S. W. there is no joint horizontal or perpendicular, and columns of any size, not ex- ceeding 15 feet diameter, might be got out of it, if they could afterwards be removed.—The largest blocks however which I have had taken out, do not exceed in weight four tons.
In working these quarries, the workmen having cut the face perpendicularly, first undermine the rock ;—an easy operation, the substratum being loose sand. If the block is intended to be 8 feet thick, they undermine it 5 feet, in a horizontal di- rection, in order that it may fall over when cut off. They then cut two perpendicular channels on each hand, Lit. 6in. wide, at the distance from each other of the length of their block, having then removed the earth and rubbish trom a ditch or channel along the top of the rock, they cut into the rock itself, a groove, and put in wedges along its whole length. These wedges are successively driven, the rock cracks very re- gularly from top to bottom, and it falls over, brought down partly by its own weight. Blocks have been thus quarried 40 feet long, 15 feet high, and 6 feet thick. The block which Was quarried at my last visit to the quarry, was of the tollow- ing dimensions :—
26 feet long, x 8 feet deep, x 14 feet high = 2912 feet, which at 15 feet to the ton, agreeably to the quarry rate, amounts fo near 200 tons.—These masses are then cut by wedges into the sizes required.
On referring to my memoir on thesand hills of cape Henry, it will be seen that the sand is blown up from the margin of the sea, inland;—that it soon forms a ridge or down of shifting sand, along the shore above high water mark, covering the old surface of the earth with all its vegetation, that in the course of no very great length of time, it accumulates into hills that destroy and swallow up forests in their progress; that its sur- face is constantly changing with the operation of the wind :— and that, therefore, this sand mass, must contain broken limbs and bodies of trees, iron in greater or less quantity, together with all kinds of extraneous matters, blown up from
292 ON THE FREESTONE QUARRIES OF
the ocean by storms, as clay and mud, mixed with sea watei when a tremendous and muddy surf is blown ashore througl. the air by violent winds. If we now suppose, that by any operation of nature whatever, these sand hills from a loose state were to become concrete, the rock thus formed, could not in any of its characters differ from that which now forms the freestone quarries of which I am speaking.
These considerations therefore irresistibly impress the belief that both masses are of the same origin.—The djgrupture of the ancient hills, is not difficult to account for, it Are suppose the ocean to have retired so much below its antient level, as appearances seem to prove, the sand hills would be undermined by the'water from below them, seeking the lower level of the sea, and washed to pieces by the torrents from above. Thus masses of stone, undermined and broken, would fall into the bottoms of the new’ vallies, and appear on the levels of the present rivers, while others would retain their original situation high above the new level of the seaa—Thus far, rational con- jecture will lead us, but further we cannot venture.—Who can answer the questions that then present themselves? If these concreted sand hills were once the ancient shore, rising above the level of the ancient ocean, at what xra was the gravel beach created at their summits? or the marine exuvize depo- sited far below their base, as well as upon the mountains rising thousands of feet above their tops? It is fortunate that the so- lution of these znigmas of nature are of no consequence what- ever to our happiness, or of use to our enjoyments.—But the pleasures of investigation, and of wonder, the offspring of ig- norance, are not without a charm, which often entices the mere speculative philosopher into researches that produce results beneficial to mankind.
I will here close my description of these sand rocks, and endeavour to find an early opportunity of transmitting to the Society some further remarks upon those of James’s river in particular, connected with that most singular and unaccountable region,—the coal region, of which I will only at present hint,
THE POTOMAC AND RAPPAHANNOC. 295
that it appears formerly to have been a spacious lagoon of the sea, of which these particular sand hills are the shore.
B. HENRY LATROBE, F. A. P. S.
Surveyor of the Public buildings of the U. States. Sa
No. XLVII.
Further Observations on the Eclipse of 16th June, 1806, being an Appendix to No. XLIII, page 264 of this Volume, by J. J. de Ferrer.
Read April 17th, 1807.
SINCE the Memoir was printed I have received the follow- ing observations.
At the Hydrographic Repository at Madrid, Don Philip Bauza lieutenant in the Royal Navy, observed the beginning of the eclipse at 4" 27’ 48” 6, and the end at 6" 09’ 07” 2 apparent time. Latitude of the Repository 40° 25’ 08”. Longitude west of Paris 24’ 08” intime. Magnifying power of the tele- scope 110.
At the Royal Observatory in the Island of Leon, Don J. M. de la Cuesta, lieutenant in the Royal Navy, observed the commencement 4° 18’ 42” 2 apparent time. The end was not observed on account of the clouds. Latitude of the ob- servatory 36° 27' 45”. Longitude west of Paris $4° 08”,— Magnifying power of the telescope 58.
I have re-calculated all the observations of page 273, mak- ing use of the new solilunar tables, published in Paris, 1806, by the Commissioners of longitude. They are as follows, for 4* 99’ 41”, mean time in Paris,
294 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE
ative Longitude of the ©’s apparent equinox. pote babes “ - 84 44 37 2 Idem. C 2’s é 3 - ; : : - c 84 44 47 8 North latitude of the D c - - erat: & ; . 0019193 Horary relative motion in longitude. cl - ; ; 34 18 5 Horary motion in latitude, south. 5 . : : : 3 23 6 Horizontal equatorial parallax of the 3. ee ee 5 C 60 15 8 Idem. f : ©. : 86 Horizontal semidiameter of the 2 6 rV: = Horary increase of the 2’s parallax. 110 Increase of the ’s horary movement. 1 41
The other elements are the same as those in page 270.
Comparing the commencement at Madrid, with the com- mencement at the island of Leon, it appears that the observa- tion at Madrid was delayed 7”.
* Combining the beginning at the island of Leon with the end observed in Madrid, supposing the sum of the apparent semidiameters diminished 4” 5 for the irradiation, we have the Conjunction in Paris mean time 4* 30’ 11” 6. Correction of tables in latitude of the moon=+10” 9.
In Boston, latitude 42° 21’ 13”, longitude west of Paris 4° 53’ 98”, it was observed by three persons with achromatic telescopes, which I shall distinguish by the numbers 1, 2, 3.
Beginning of End of the the Eclipse. Total obscurity. End of obscurity. Eclipse. bY 448 h «sf # hoff ° aa No. 1: 10 03 21 11 22 31 11 27 09 0 48 O01 Ze 10 03 21 11 22 31 11 27 09 0 48 59 3. 10 03 20 11 22 40 11 27 08 0 48 07
The state of the chronometer is not known, because no ob- servations were made to ascertain the time, and the only use that can be made of these observations, is to determine the er- ror of the tables in latitude, or, knowing this element, to deter- mine the difference of the semidiameter of thesun and moon.
I have again examined the corresponding altitudes observed
; by M. de Witt at Albany, and have determined that
hi Wy! The commencement of the total obscurity, mean time. " 3 11 08 14 6 End. : ‘ ditto. 5 . j 3 + EL 132 0505 Duration according to M. de Witt. F 4 51
Applying the calculation to the observations of Kinderhook, supposing the correction of the tables in latitude =+ 10" 9 as it results from the observations of Madrid and the island of Leon.
We have irradiation of the semidiameter of the 2. § A =— 3” 25 Idem. : : ; . ©.- : . oe 25
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806, 295
With these elements we have the conjunction
At Kinderhook, Mean time. BCs Ue
For the beginning of the eclipse. : : 11 25 40 9 Total obscurity. : . cere 2aNceO 7 ih 25’ 40” 7
End of total obscurity. 5 : - 1125 407
End of the eclipse. 2 11 25 40 5
In Albany with the same elements, conjunction i in mean time.
For the beens of total obscurity. : 1th 25’ 47” 2
End. ditto. 5 Bh A beeing
Comparing the beginning of the total obscurity at Kinder- hook with the beginning of the total obscurity at Albany, it results that Albany is east of Kinderhook. . . = 6" 5
By the chronometer, page 269. ; ine Ou 7
This determination appears to be correctly ascertained, and» to prove indubitably, that there was an error of about 10” in the end of total obscurity: it will not be improper to note that the interior contacts are instantaneous, and therefore the half second easily distinguishable —Therefore the error should be attributed, to taking one decimal for another, the same remark should be made on the Boston observations.
Indeed, on applying the calculation, it results that the num- ber 3, in place of taking 11" 22’ 30”, made a mistake and took 11" 22’ 40”, so that the duration of total obscurity No, 1, 2, appears to be the most likely to be correct.
Suppose the longitude of Boston 4" 53’ 28”, we have the chronometer slow to mean time 2’ 02”,
,
- Duration of total obscurity by epecvengne 1 and 2. : 43
In Albany. cs “ ; : . 3 Aen s
In Kinderhook. 4 In Boston the shortest distance from the centres.
TN. Albany. 1S. Kinderhook. 5 (exe
As the moon at Albany passed to the south of the centre of the sun, and in Kinderhook and Boston to the north of it, by combining the three observations, the result is as follows:
Correction of the tables in latitude. : “hae +10” 5 Irradiation of the C’s semidiameter. r 3 Ripe ey Irradiation of the ©’s semidiameter. : 4 tT 35
With the same elements we have the conjunction in Lancaster.
x For the beginning 114 15’ 25” 3 mean time. End, ~ 11 15-31. 9 ditto.
Q
296 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE
It appears that the commencement has been anticipated 6” ‘or 7’ by some error, let us see whether this doubt can be cleared up.
The solar eclipse of the 26th of June 1805 was observed by
Mr. Ellicott in Lancaster.
Beginning, apparenttime. ~. 6h 43’ 26”
Observed by myself in New-York. 6 50 10 d from whence diff. of mer. =9' 16”
Kinderhook east of New-York page Zogr es. 0 51 3
Kinderhook east of Lancaster. - : 10 07 3
Comparing the beginning at Lancaster, with the commencement. 10 14 6 observed at Kinderhook, June 16th, 1806.
Ditto the end at Lancaster with the end at Kinderhook. . -10 08 6 By this comparison it appears that the error is in the commencement at
Lancaster, and that the difference of the meridians of the two places is =10 08 6
At Mr. Dunbar’s habitation near 2 by the Commencement . . - 1015 22 7
Natchez, the conjunction —.---End. . 10 15 21 0
These results confirm the allowance of the irradiations of ihe semidiameters which I have adopted, it being very proba- ble that the beginning was delayed 2”.
M. De Lalande, member of the Board of longitude, has favor- ed me with an answer to the observations I communicated to him, it is dated Paris, 27th September, 1806, and states that he
had calculated my observations at Kinderhook, and that he found
hes The conjunction if mean time 4 - t - 3 11 25 39 65 In Paris by the observations of Europe. - : oun, Mey? « see S02, 65. Difference of meridians. : * 5 5 04 33 00
This result is the same with that established in page 273. ;
By the observations of Mr. Patterson we find The conjunction in mean time at Philadelphia. 7 v 20 17 0 Philadelphia west of Paris by the mean result of many observations. 3 09 56 5
Result, conjunction in Paris mean time. 430135 By the observations at Madrid and the island isi Leon. 4 30 116 By M. Lalande. 4 30 126
Conjunction mean result. . c . - 430126
Determination of the longitude of Natchez and New-Orteans. By comparison of the end observed in Kinderhook, withtheend observed h ‘ ”
at Mr. Dunbar’s house,—longitude west of Paris. 4 : J =6 14 515 The Fort of Natchez west. ; : ; y 9 Fort of Natchez west of Paris. 5 E P 615 005 New-Orleans west of Paris page 222. c = 6h 09’ 46” Fort of Natchez west of New-Orleans page 159= 5 16 ae eee % Fortof Natchez west of Paris. ~ Hh - 615020 Fort of Natchez west of Paris mean result. : 615 010
New-Orleans. ditto, : 4 5 5 6 09 45 0
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1806. 297
Table of the results of geographical positions which should be substituted for those in page 273,
Long. W. from Paris. Latitudes.
LRA of #
Bowdoin College. a 4 49 16 ; ‘ 43 52 00 Albany- - 5 04 25 ‘ 6 42 38 38 Kinderhook south landing. 5 04 32 + . 42 23 03 Chancellor Ravegstcn s place. 5 04°58 ss 4204 39
Newburg. . . 5 05°21 : M 41 30 20 - New-York. . . 5 05 23 . " 40 42 40 Philadelphia. 509057 : 5 39 57, 02 Lancaster. 5 14 41 4 : 40 02 36 Williamsburg. Sole04 oy ced 37 15 50 Fort at Natchez. : oO) Lor OL : : 31 33 48 New-Orleans.- : . - 6 09 45 3 : 29 57 30
Sum of errors of the longitudes of the moon and sun or correction to be’ subtracted from the new tables, supposing exact the longitude of the sun =—27" 5 North latitude of the moon in conjunction at 4h 30° 12’ 6=19° 2771 Correction of the Tables = + 10” 9
Investigation of the semidiameters of the sun and moon.
The horizontal seuiemr ier of sis >in gonjunction is by the tables 4 16° 26” 85 idem. 5 © A ia 15 46 04 Difference of the horizontal semidiameter by the tables 4 40 81 Supposing the correction of the tables in latitude of the moon. pa 10” 9 then Difference of the horizontal semidiameters in conjunction. For the observed duration of total obscurity at Kinderhook. ME OS ae For Albany, supposing the duration of total obscurity 4’ 41 . 38 85 For Boston, ditto ditto. 5 4 38 - 39 64 Mean difference of the horizontal semidiameter in conjunction. - 39 07
It is to be remarked that the difference of the semidiameters, resulting from the total eclipse is that of the lowest points of the moon’s surface, as, according to the statement, page 266, ‘« 4” or 5” before the total obscurity, the remainder of the disk “of the sun was reduced to a very short line, interrupted in “many parts.”
At this time the most prominent points of the lunar disk were projected on the sun; consequently, the duration of the total obscurity, had it not been for the concavities of the limb of the moon, would have been at Kinderhook 4’ 46” instead of 4° 37”, as it was observed. Supposing the duration of total ebscurity to have been 4’ 46”,
The difference of semidiameters would be spend < 1” 80 Differe ence by the above mean : : : 39. 07
Difference of semidiameters reckoned from the most prominent points of theD 40 87
298 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE
By the duration between the beginning and end of the eclipse, at Kinderhook
we find the sum of the horiz. semid. reduced to the time of the conjunc. $2° 08” 39 If we suppose that thetrue duration was greater than what was ob-
served, by 4 , which appears very probable, we shall have. . 32-09, “17 By the observ ation at Natchez, SUpBOs the bree 4 before 32 09 00
it was perceived by Mr. Dunbar. . . one
Sum of the horiz. semidiam.in conjunction by a mean of the observations. 32 09 08 Comparing these sums and differences of semidiameters with the tables we find the correction of the semidiameter of the 2. ‘ —l” Idem. i, 5 - e; 5 - ©. x enh,’ 8f3 The occultation of Spica Virginis, May 24th, 1801, was observed in all Europe, the observations most to be confided in and the most proper to determme the diameter of the moon
are the following.
hose : : Im. Mean time. G05 42 4 Ta a - At the National Observatory at Paris by M. Mechain. eae z 10, 16 37 2 sys Im. Mean time. 9 05 28 9 Military School. : : . . § Em % 10 16 24 2 b ¢ - 4 Im. Mean time: -. 849 16 2 Royal observatory. in the island of Leon. § Em. 929 01 9 Making use of the elements of the new tables, I find Conjunction in Paris (National Observatory) mean time = 10h 02° 477 7 Island of Leon (Royal Observatory) : ees: Seay dae) Difference of meridians. ; . - | 00. (34, "10! 7 Difference of latitudes in conjunction by the observations 5Y’ 19% § in the island of I,eon. F r Correction of the senifdiameters of the D by the observations of : M. Mechain, combined with the euierencs of latitudes observ- = 20 ed in the island of Leon. . 4 : By the observations in the Military School. . 5 . ° . _ 1 65
Mean correction. — 1 82
I have also calculated the annular eclipse, April Ist, 1764,
by the new tables, and have deduced
Correction of the semidiamerey of the D =— 1” 35 Idem. - A c : © —2 15
Recapitulation of the different results. Correction of the conor
©. By total eclipse 1806. CRE: : 0 Als EER aE. Se iglat oe
Annular eclipse 1764. . - os 2) 15 . ° be 36 Occultation of Spica Virginis above. : : : . . - & 82 Passage of Mercury page 232. : « 511-560 Mean correction. . 1 84 . : 1 70. Semidiameter of the © in apogee by the tables. ‘ . . 15° 45” 50 Correction by the above observations. . : * 1 84 Semidiameterof the © inapogee. - . ° . . 15 43 66
Therefore diameter of the © in apogee. . : . . 31 27 32
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1800. 299
Semidiameter corresponding to the constant lunar parallax of the tables. 15’ 33°7 69
Correction. - - 1 70 Constant semidiameter of the D d 5 “ 4 E 3 15/31) 99 Therefore constant diameter of the ; 31 03 98
From this statement, it will appear, that the semidiameter of the moon, ascertained in the occultations, may vary 2” on account of the irregularities of the disk of the moon; it may be further remarked, that the periodical variations of the pa- rallax of the moon, by the new tables, are those which Mayer found by his theory, and which differ from the coefficients determined by Laplace. According to the calculations of Mr. Burckhardt, the sum of the periodical differences of the two authors above mentioned, may, under very extra- ordinary circumstances, amount to 7”.—In this case the un- certainty of the semidiameter of the moon would be 1” 9.
In the explanation of these tables, it is maintained that M. Burg has diminished the diameter of the moon by 2”, but it is easy to see that the diameter of the moon by these tables, is the same as has been determined by M. De Lalande. For the proportion of the horizontal equatorial parallax of the moon, and the. horizontal diameter of the moon according to Burg, is 60: $2’ 45” 1.
According to De Lalande, the proportion between the hori- zontal parallax at Paris and the horizontal diameter of the moon, 60 : 32’ 46” 6, vide the tables of the third edition of his astronomy, printed 1. 1797, page 77.
According to Burg, the constant equatorial parallax. . : =a O10
De Lalande, for Paris. : “ -~ =56 58°73
And although the constant parallax of De Lalande referred to the equator differs nearly-4”, nevertheless, the constant se- midiameters are the same.
From the above data, the horizontal diameter of the moon corresponding to the constant parallax for Paris, will be,
32’ 46" 6x56’ 58” 3
according to De Lalande= a =31’ 07” 35 9! wr , Ww Burg. . EE 07” 39
which proves that the results are sensibly the same,
€, 3000's)
No. XLVIII.
Observations on the Eclipse of 16 June, 1806, made by Simeon De Witt Esq. of Albany, State of New-York, addressed _to Benjamin Rush M. D. to be by him communicated to the Ame- rican Philosophical Society.
Read May 1807. Albany, April 25th, 1807.
DEAR SIR,
WITH this I send you for the American Philosophical Society, a painting, intended to represent the central eclipse of the sun on the 16th of last June. It is executed by Mr. Ezra Ames, an eminent portrait painter of this place, and gives, I believe, as true a representation of that grand and _ beautiful phenomenon, as can be artificially expressed. The edge of the moon was strongly illuminated, and had the brilliancy of polished silver. No common colours could express this; I therefore directed it to be attempted as you will see, by a rais- ed silvered rim, which in a proper light, produces tolerably well, the intended eftect*.
As no verbal description can give any thing like a true idea of this sublime spectacle, with which man is so rarely grati- fied, I thought this painting would not be an unwelcome pre- sent to the Society, or an improper article to be preserved among its collection of subjects for philosophical speculation. But, in order to have a proper conception of what is intended to be re- presented, you must transfer your ideas to the heavens, and imagine, at the departure of the last ray of the sun, in its re- _ treat behind the moon, an awiul gloom immediately diffused over the face of nature; and round a dark circle, near the ze- nith, an immense radiated glory, like a new creation, ina mo- ment bursting on the sight, and for several minutes fixing the gaze of man in silent amazement.
* This painting is deposited in the Hall of the Society, and strongly resembles the drawing made by Mr. Ferrer, 15 miles below Albany, which is represented in Pl. VI. Fig. 1.
ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, JUNE 16, 1800. 301
The luminous circle on the edge of the moon, as well as the rays which were darted from her, were remarkably pale, and had that bluish tint, which distinguishes the colour of quick- silver from a dead white.
I attempted to make observations on the different stages of the eclipse, but for the want of a meridian, and glasses of sufficient powers, I am sorry I could not make them with the accuracy I wished. I however send them as they are,—they may possibly be of some use among the collections from other quarters. 1 have also taken some pains to ascertain the extent of the moon’s shadow, in a northerly and southerly direction. The best in- formation I have obtained is from Judge Thorn of the County of Washington, who assures me that the northern edge of the shadow passed nearly along the south bounds of Campbell’s patent in the town of Granville, which on. my map of the State, lies in latitude 43° 22’ and longitude 0* 45’ east of the meridian of New-York; and from Johannes Miller Esq. of the county of Orange, who determined the southern edge of the shadow in the town of Montgomery, to have crossed the road leading trom Ward’s bridge to Goshen, three miles and five chains, counted from the bridge. This will be in latitude of about 41° 30’ and longitude O° 14’ west from the meridian of New-York. The middle of a straight line between those two points, falls on Hudson’s river, in latitude 42° 26’ which is near the village of New-Baltimore, at which place, theretore, the centre of the shadow must have passed, that is about fifteen miles below this city.
The following observations on the eclipse of the sun, June 16th, 1806, were made in the city of Albany, in latitude 42° 38 42”, longitude 73° 47’ west from Greenwich. The latitude has been ascertained by a series of observations on stars near the zenith, chiefly @ Lyre and Capella, with a sector made forme by the late David Rittenhouse. The longitude I com- puted by taking 75° 09’ for Philadelphia, and deducting 1° 29’ for the difference between Philadelphia and Albany. This difference is deduced trom surveys connecting the two places. I regulated my clock by observations of equal altitudes of the sun, taken with one of Ramsden's best brass sextants, furnish-
502 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECLIPSE &c.
ed with a small telescope. Four of these observations were made on the 14th, one on the 16th, and three on the 17th, In observing the eclipse, I used the achromatic telescope of my sector already mentioned, its magnifying power is about 30. The commencement of total obscuration is mostly to be depended on. Before the re-appearance of the sun, I lost it out of the field of the telescope, and I unfortunately omitted to remove the dark glass; I therefore noted the end of total ob- scuration, only by the naked eye, and of course cannot so much depend onit. It is probably taken some seconds too late. The arrival and departure of the penumbra, were taken tolera- bly accurate. The air was uncommonly serene, and afforded the finest opportunity for observations.
Bo 7 Commencement of the eclipse, A. M. Apparent time. ‘ eaeaite 9 50 12 Commencement of total obscuration. J 5 , : 5 11 8 06 End of A 5 . ditto. , c . : A ‘ 6 ‘ 0 Weber d End of the eclipse. . : . Pe Baa se ; . 12 33 08 Duration of total obscuration. 4 hide ee ke is § 4 51
Duration of the eclipse. é - s fe C i “ - 2 2 42 56
I intended to have forwarded this last fall, as soon as I could get the painting done, but the navigation of our river being obstructed earlier than usual, my intentions were defeated.
Iam, with great regard Your obedient humble Servant, S. DE WITT. Doctor Benjamin Rush.
The following errata have been found in the communications of J. J. De Ferrer in this Volume. Page 163, line 31. Cayo Sta. Maria. Lat. for 23° 12’ 00’ read 22° 39° 24”
Eat last line, for Teneriffe, read In the Azores. 224, line 4. for Idem of the secular equation = 54” 96 read Idem of the secular motion =— 54 96 226, line 11. for 5h 35’ 48” read 5h 35’ 38” Jl.for6 09 56 read 6 O09 46
ll.for6 0 36 read 6 00 26 \ 298, line 48, for ara Xa=15,8072 read “eS %a=15,8072 228, line 51. for m1’ Saree oT ry % 1'=8,3865 read qn’ eS x2 =8,3865
232, line 32. for apparent elongation at the ingress 934416 read 934" 457 __
€ 308.) fn | No. XLIX.
Description and use of anew and simple Nautical Chart, for work- ing the different problems in Navigation; with examples of its application according to Mercator’s Sailing, and sailing by the Arc of a Great C Circle : with a demonstration of its principles: By John Garnett, of New Brunswick, New Jersey,
“ Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem, “ Qan que sunt oculis subjecta jidelibus, et que “ Tpse sibi tradit spectator.”
fF To the Author of this Communication an Extra-Magellanic Pre- mium oi a Gold medal was awarded by the Society.
Read August 25th, 1807,
THIS Chart is a partial projection of a portion of a spher- ical or spheroidal surface, containing in length the different de- grees of latitude, and in breadth as many of longitude as are tound necessary. ‘The parallels of latitude are projected into right lines, parallel and equidistant to each other, (the reason of which will plainly appear in the demonstration of the principle at the end;) and are divided into degrees of longitude by a scale of equal parts, according to the length of each degree at different latitudes, either in the sphere or spheroid, or by Ta- ble T of the Requisite Tables.“*—Through these divisions the different meridians are drawn or engraved, on both sides the Central Meridian, which is always a right line.-—Vide chart.
The Index (which is separate) contains all the courses in the quadrant of a circle, both in degrees, and quarter points, and also the distance sailed as far as necessary; in using it, the chief attention requisite is 40 piace the center C of the quadrant on that point in any given parallel of latitude, from which the distance sailed shall subtend nearly4+ an equal difference of longitude on each side the Central Meridian or middle line of
* Garnett’s Requisite Tables.
tlt is not necessary that it should be exactly so, as the beginning of the distance, or
Center C, had better be placed on an engraved meridian, so that the difference of longitude may be seen at one view atthe other extremity of the distances
R
304 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
the Chart, and that the given parallel of latitude shall cut the course on the Index, either in degrees or points of the com- pass; extending naturally towards the North or South as the course directs, but indifferently whether to the right or left, as either may occasionally represent the East or West (the difference of longitude being equal on either side,) so that the centre C of the Index must be placed on the right hand of the centre of the Chart, when the course is ¢owards the equator, and on the left hand when from it, as will readily appear in the practice.
The solutions of all the cases being on a more correct prin- ciple than the common method by middle latitude, will be found more accurate—particularly where the difference of latitude is great.
Should the distance exceed the extent of the Index, or the whole difference of longitude on the Chart, the work must be repeated from the last found Jatitude, until the difference of longitude and latitude corresponding to the whole distance is obtained.
The following examples of the different Cases of Sailing by this Chart, will make its use sufficiently easy.
CASE I.
Given the Latitudes and Longitudes of two places; to find the Course and Distance between them.
EXAMPLE.
Suppose the Latitudes of the two places to be 49° 10’ N. and 53° 20’ N, respectively, and tneir difference of Longitude 6° 10’; required the course and distance between them.
Ist. Lay the centre C’ of the Index on the meridian which is about half the given difference of longitude, or 3 degrees on the deft side of the Central Meridian, and in the parallel of lati- tude 49° 10’. r
2nd. Extend the distance line of the Index to the parallel of 53° 20’ of latitude, on the meridian of 3° 10’ diff. of long. at the mght side of the Central Meridian,—and the distance
e
NAVIGATION CHART, &Xc. 305
found on the Index will be 340 miles ;—and the course cross- ed by the parallel of latitude, will be’N. 42 3-4 degrees, ei- ther East or West; according as the latter place is Eastward or Westward of the tormer. Q. E. I.
N. B. When the differences of latitude and longitude are great, as it often happens in this Case, the course and distance may be found sufficiently accurate for practice on the general Chart of this projection. But in Great Circle Sailing the angles of position should be tound by Spherical Trigonometry.
CASE II.
Given one Latitude, Course and Distance, to find the ather Latitude, and difference of Longitude.
EXAMPLE.
A ship from latitude 52° 10’ N. and longitude 35° 6’ West, sails N. W. b. W. 229 miles; required the Jatitude and lon- gitude arrived at.
Ist. Lay the centre C of the Index (to the left side) on the parallel of latitude 50° 10’ and turn it about until the parallel passes through the 5 point course; then slide it on the paral- lel until the distance 229 miles subtends nearly an equal dif- ference of longitude on each side the Central Meridian; which will be found 2° 40’ on each side, or 5° 20’ diff. of longitude, when the distance will also reach the parallel of latitude 54° 17’; for the latitude arrived at. Q. E. I.
CASE III.
Given both Latitudes and the Course; to find the Distance, and Difference of Longitude,
EXAMPLE.
A ship sails N. E. b. E. from latitude 42° 25’ N. and lon- gitude 15° 6’ W. and then finds by observation she is in lati- tude 46° 20’ N,; required the distance, and present longitude.
306 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
N. B. If the distance extend beyond the Chart, which can seldom happen in practice, it will require two operations as in this instance. (Or it may be performed at once on the general Chart.)
Ist. Set the center C of the Index on the left side of the Cen- tral Meridian (because sailing from the Equator) to 2° 30’ diff. of longitude, and on the given parallel of latitude 42° 25’.
2nd, Extend the distance line on a 5 point course, to 2° 30’ diff. of longitude on the right hand of the Central Meridian, and the first latitude will be found 44° 48’ N. diff. of longitude 5° East; and distance 258 miles; which write down as under, for the first operation. Then set the Index C'to the last found latitude, and the distance line on a 5 point course will extend from 1° 40’ diff. longitude on each side, to the given latitude of 46° 20’, and measure 167 miles; which added as under to the first found distance and difference of longitude, gives the whole distance and difference of longitude.
‘Lat. sailed trom 42° 25’ longit. 15° 6’ W. course N. 5 pts. E.
To latit. 44 48 diff. long. 5 O E. distance 258 miles, To latit. 46 20 diff. long. 520 E. distance 167 miles.
Gives the required diff. longitude 8° 20’ E and dist, 425 miles. CASE IV.
Given the Latitudes of two Places, and the Distance between them to find the Course and Difference of Longitude.
EXAMPLE.
A ship from St. Alban’s Head, in latitude 50° 35° N. and longitude 2° 5’ W. sailed 171 miles upon a direct course be- tween the S. and W. and by observation is found to be in lati- tude 48° 26° N. required the course steered, and longitude come to?
Ist. Set the center C of the Index on the given parallel of latitude 50° 35’ (on the right hand, because sailing towards the Equator) and turn the distance line until the given distance 174
NAVIGATION CHART, Xe, 807
miles falls on the parallel of 48° 20’, evtended equally on each side the central ane; when the course will be found S. 41° W. and the difference of longitude 2° 50’... Q. E. I.
CASE V.
Given one Latitude, Course, and Difference of Longitude, to find the other Longitude, and distance.
EXAMPLE.
A ship from latitude 47° 30’ N. sails S. 51° W. and then finds her difference of longitude by observation to be 9° 40° W. required the distance run, and the latitude come to?
N. B. As this difference of longitude exceeds the extent of the chart; it requires, (unless performed by the general ~ Chart,) a double operation.
Ist. Set the index C on the given parallel of 47° 30’ at the vight hand of the Central Meridian, (sailing towards the Equa- tor) and the given course 51° will give the distance 264 miles, and latitude 44° 44’ at 5° difference of longitude; (2° 30’ on each side of the central meridian.)
2nd. Set the Index on the last found parallel of latitude 44° 44’, and to the same course; when the distance corresponding to 4° 40’ (the remainder of the difference of longitude) setting 2° 20’ on each side the central meridian, will give a farther distance of 265 miles, making the whole distance 529 miles, and the latitude come to 41° 57’. Q. E. I.
* CASE: V1,
Given one Latitude, Distance end Difference of Longitude, to find the other Latitude and Course.
EXAMPLE. A ship sails from the latitude of 50° 20’ N. between the
North and East, 300 miles, and finds by a chronometer her
* This is Dr. Halley’s celebrated problem, See Baron Masseres’ ‘‘Scriptores Loga-
rithmici.” vol 4th. It may be seen on the general chart, that this probleny will sometimes ad- mit of two answers.
508 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
difference of longitude to be 6° 0’ required the latitude arrived at, and the course the vessel has steered?
Ist, Place the Index to the given latitude, and on the deft hand on 3 degrees, (the half of the given difference of longi- tude) and extend the given distance $00 miles, to 3° differ- ence of longitude on the right hand; then the latitude arrived at will be found 538° 45’ N. and the course N. 47° E. Q. E. I.
CASE VII.
Given the Course, Distance, and Difference of Longitude, to find both Latitudes.
RULE.
Place the Index on any parallel of latitude to the required course, and if the given distance subtend a less difference of longitude that the given, (always making an equal difference of longitude on both sides the central meridian) move it upwards toa higher latitude, or if it subtend a greater difference of longi- tude, move it downwards to a lower latitude until the distance subtend the given difference of longitude, and the required latitudes will be found.
N. B. When the course is on the meridian, this case is in- determinate, and the nearer to the meridian, the less accurate will be the solution.
CASE VIH.
Given the Course, Difference of Latitude, and Difference of Longitude, to find both Latitudes.
This case is similar to case 7th. using the difference of lati- tude instead of the distance, which is always known when the course and difference of latitude are given.
N. B. This CASE like the LAST is also indeterminate when the course is on the meridian, and less accurate when near it.
NAVIGATION CHART, &c. 309 CASE. 1X;
Given the Distance, Difference of Latitude, and Difference of Longitude, to find the Course and both Latitudes
RULE.
Make the distance on the Index subtend the difference of latt- tude. N. or S. between any parallels of latitude, and the Course will be found; and if the difference of longitude on the Chart exceed that given, move the Index to a less latitude: or if it be too little, to a greater latitude, until the given differences of longitudes and latitudes are subtended by the given dist- ance; when both latitudes will be known. Q. E. I.
N. B. This case is indeterminate in the same circumstance, as are the cases 7 and 8, which are only given, to shew that every case can be readily solved by this Chart; but the three last cases can seldom be of use in practice.
To demonstrate the principles on which this Chart is con- structed, and to shew its application to Sailing by the Arc of « Great Circle.
‘Let A, B, be two places on the Chart, whose difference of longitude is equally divided by the central meridian E D which is the part of it be- tween the two latitudes; draw the line A B; and D F parallel to it; also the parallels of latitude E F, AD; then EF—=EB+AD; but EB and A D ; ky the construction of the Chart are = the cosines AD of their respective latitudes ¥ by half the difference of longitude between A and B; and therefore E F = half the sum. of the co- sines x by the difference of tongitude.
In the right angled triangle Bee ee tangent bn Dar: E D: radius. Or “half the sum of the cosines of the latitudes: tan- gent of the course :: difference of latitude: the difference of lngitude, which is a well known theorem in navigation; half the sum of the cosines of the two latitudes being generally* more accurate than the cosine of the middle latitude commonly used. Q. E. D.
) Yass ied
* The exceptions are of no consequence in practice. See Emerson’s Navigation, Page 71.
310 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
The principles of the Chart, together with the application to sailing by the Arc of « Great Circle, can also be deduced trom the following propositions.
PROPOSITION I.
The angle of convergence, or inclination of two meridians to
each other, at any given latitude, is = the difference of longitude x by the sine of the latitude.
Let P A, PB, be two meridians, on which let a, b, be two: places in the same latitude; draw the two tangents a T, 6 T, meeting the axis CPT in T, and ac, bc, perpendiculars to it; also cd, T d perpendiculars to a), and draw a rT, C to the center C; then will the angle a T 6 represent the inclination of the meridians P a, ’ P 6, to each other at the points @ and b. P
From the right angled trianglesadT,adce ¢4 and the similar triangles ac T, ac C.
a T:rad.:: ad: sine * inclination of merid. ri and rad.: ac:: sine (dca =) + diff. of lon. :ad. = c By composition. (@T:ac=)aC:Cc:: sine > B difference of longitude: sine = the inclination of meridians; that is, radius : sine of the latitude :: sine * difference of longitude : sine + the inclination of meridians. Or taking the arcs themselves for their sines, which is sufficiently accurate in small arcs, and agrees with the construction of the Chart; he angle of converg- ence of any two meridians at a given latitude, 1s = to the sine of the latitude x by the difference of longitude. Q. E. D.
REMARK.
If the meridians be considered as great circles of the sphere, and their inclination to the central meridian (or that which bisects the angle at the Pole) as the complement of the angle made by a great circle passing through them at any given lati- tude, then in the spher. triangle Pad we have rad.: cosine Pa:: tang. aP d: cotan. Pad; that is, rad.: sine of the latitude:: tangent of half the difference of longitude : tangent of the wnchnation
to the central meridian; which seems more correct. See the Table of the Inclination of Meridians, deduced from this Proposition.
NAVIGATION CHART, Ne. Sit
PROPOSITION II.
The ANGLE of Position at the middle longitude between two places is very nearly equal to the loxodromic angle or course between them; and differs at each place trom the loxodromic course, by the inclination of the meridian at each place to the central meridian.
Let a, b, be two places on the arc of a great circle, extended into a right line which is crossed by the central meridian Td, and the meridians T a, I 4, at their respective angles of position, then the angles a I d, d 1b will be the inclination of the meridians at @-and b, to the central meridian, respectively. Draw T ¢, dt perpendiculars to aT, ab, and draw a t; then because the loxodromic course, cuts the meridians at equal angles, the course near ae: a, may be considered as a portion of the logarithmic spiral ; by the known property of which, ¢ a, will be the radius of curvature at the point a, and »a@ perpendicular to ¢ a, its tang- ent, making the angle dan—=dt a=d VT a, (being on the same segment a d of the circle passing through a dt T;) and there- fore, the exterior angle T db is=T ad4(d T a=) dan—T an, the course; and the course must be parallel to ab wherever it cros- ses the central mendian T d, otherwise tt cannot make an angle with it=T an.
In the same manner I 6 m may be proved =dd1+d Ib =I da. Q. E. D.
SCHOLIUM.
From these propositions may be deduced an easy practical, method of Sailing by the Arc of a Great Circle, by means of a SPECIAL CHART, ona convenientscale, of the intended tract constructed in the following manner. (See theChart.) ;
Having calculated by spherical trigonometry, as in the fol- lowing example, the angles of position ba T, a6 1, the dis- tance a 6, and also the latitude of the pomt d at the middle longitude; draw on a sheet of paper from a moderate scale
s
312 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
the line a b equal to the distance; and cross it at the extremi- ties a, b, by ihe lines. aT, 6 1; forming the angles of position at those points 6a T, ab 1, continued on both sides of a 6. The latitude of the places aand b, being given, set off from the same scale of; equal parts, a sufficient number of degrees of latitudes on the lines @ T, and 6 1 produced so that some com- mon latitude shall be on both those lines, (as the latitude of 45° on the annexed speciad chart) and a perpendicular ad T, to the middle of two points of the common latitude on the lines aT, 6I will be the CENTRAL MERIDIAN, or that which passes through the middle longitude of the chart; and as the latitude of the\point d has been found, the degrees of latitude can also be marked on the line Td produced on both sides of ab. Then the parallels of latitude will be very nearly repre- sented by circles passing through the three points of each de- gree on the three lines. aT, d7, 61, produced on both sides of ab; and dividing the extreme parallels into as many parts as there are five degrees of longitude between the two places ; the several meridians can be drawn, shewing the angles of po- sition at every five degrees of longitude, and having the same appearance as on the globe. On this SPECIAL CHART the ship’s place can be marked, whenever a good observation of the latitude and longitude is taken, and a new direct course on a great circle to the intended port readily seen, with the angles of position;:and the course which will meet the same great circle, after sailing 5° of longitude, can be found from the Table in page 315, by adding half the inclination-of the me- ridians at 5 degrees difference of longitude, to the angle of po- sition; (the loxodromic course being always between the great circle, and the equator) or by taking as a course, the angle of position on the special chart at 2 + degrees of longitude farther onwards than the longitude of the ship; which course will serve for sailing the distance corresponding to 5° difference of longitude, (which distance can readily be found by the chart) after which the course must be altered either by adding the whole inclination of the meridians for 5° corresponding to the new latitude, or again taking the angle of position at 2} degrees of longitude farther on, as before, which method can be continued at plea- sure, : ;
Co
NAVIGATION CHART, &c. Si But whenever the ship is driven out of her intended course, or her latitude and longitude has been determined more cor- rectly by astronomical observations, the course must be again adjusted, either by drawing a new distance-line on the Special! Chart, which will shew the new angle of position to the in- tended port sufficiently correct, or calculated by case seven of Spherical Trigonometry, where two sides (the co-latitudes or polar distances of the two points) and the included angle (dif- terence of longitude) are given; as in the following example, which is also necessary to shew in what manner a Special Chart is constructed, being considered as part of a great circle, con- taining in length the distance of the two places, with a few contiguous degrees in breadth on each side, straightened into a plane superficies or parallelogram ; the meridians crossing the great circle at every five degrees of longitude, and shewing the different angles of position.
EXAMPLE.
,
Suppose it was intended to sail from the latitude of 40° N. and longitude 65° W. by the arc of a great circle, to the latitude of 49° 26’ N. and longitude of 5° W. making the nearest course to the Lizard from the above place; and to construct a Special chart in order to lay down the ships track. Required the angles of position, nearest distance, and the courses that will meet the great circle, at every five degrees difference of longi- tude?
To find the Angles of Position.
- < ol i . = G . ; : cout a Weeara iy Hy S (N. B. These two P. dists. must be from the same Pole:)
As} the sum of P. dists. (x) 45 17 log. sine 9.851622 | log.cos. 9.847327
: 3 the difference of ditto. 4 43 log. sine 8.915022 — log. cos. 9.998527 ; :: the diff.of longitude 30 0 log.cot- 0.238561 | log. cot. 0.238561 ‘
4 i 11 20 log. tang. 9.301961 —_log. tan. 0.389761 is the corresponding arcs 267 49 (take the supplement of hieif' 2 exceeds 90°.)
Sum of corresponding arcs 79 9—=Angle of Position atthe greater latitude, Difference of ditto 56 299=Angle of Position at the less latitude.
$14 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
To find the Distance,
As either angle of position ag rahe log. sine. 9.992166 : its opposite polar distance 50 0 log: sine. 9884254 :: the difference of longitude 60 0 log. sine. 9.937531 : nearest distance 42° 29’=2549 miles log. sine. 9.829619 To find the Latitude at the middle Longitude. Latitude 40° 0' nat.tang. | 0.839100 (N. B. Should no table of nat. tang. Latitude 49 26 nat. tang. 1.168095 be at hand, take the numbers tq, — the log. tangents,) ; Sum of natural tangents. 2.007195 Half sum of ditto. 1.003597 log. 0 001558
Half the diff. of longitude 30° subtr. log. cos. 9.937531
Gives the lat. at the middle long. or central mer, 49° 12’} tang. 0.064027
So that the angles of position Ta 6,16aare79 9 and 56° 29°
The distance a 6 : : . +> + 42 29=2549 miles
The latitude of d, at the middle longitude 49 12} From which data the Special Chart has been constructed accord- ing to the directions given in the Scholium, and the first course as far as 5° difference of longitude is found by adding 961° 36’, (half the angle of the inclination of the meridians in the lati- tude 40° by the Table in page 315) to the angle of position 56° 29’; making N. 58° 5’ E. tor the course from the longitude of 65° W. to 60° W. or if the course had been taken trom the angle of position in the special chart at the longitude ot 6z:° it would be the same, according to Prop. 2d. and perhaps this last is as simple a rule as can be given, for it appears to be a useless labour to calculate all the angles of position by Spheri- cal Trigonometry, as different accidents may make the ship occasionally deviate from the intended calculated track, and a Special Chart will always shew the courses to sufficient exact- ness, if the ship were even to deviate 5 degrees of latitude on either side of the first intended track or great circle,
_In the same manner a SPECIAL, CHART can be construct- ed for any other track, by means of which it is easy to sail from any part on the globe to any other, the shortest way possible, supposing there are no intervening obstructions, or local reasons for taking a different course; the Special Chart being an exten- sion of that part of the globe through which the track lies, all the bearings and distances are truly represented.
NAVIGATION CHART, &c, 315
Should any intelligent navigator be inclined to try this me- thod of sailing by the Navigation Chart or by the Arc of a great Circle, he will tind these directions sufficiently correct for prac- tice, always depending on ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVA- TIONS to correct his reckoning; and as the very great im- provements lately made and almost universally adopted in the astronomical part of navigation, seem to require some corres- ponding improvements in the other parts; this attempt, the au- thor hopes will be candidly examined.
The Loxodromic Chart from the latitude of 15° to 55° will serve where the distances greatly exceed the limits of the lesser charts, they being on a much larger scale—every 10 miles of the latter making a degree on the former, so that the same in- dex will serve, reckoning 10 degrees for every 100 miles; and all the problems solved by Mercator’s Chart, can be more rea- dily and simply solved by the general Loxodromic Chart.
The following table, shewing the inclination of the meridi- ans in minutes and tenths, corresponding to 5 degrees differ- ence of longitude for every degree of latitude, is readily con- structed by means of a Traverse table ; using the latitude as a course, and against 300’ (the minutes in 5°) as a distance, the inclination of the meridians, as under, will be found in the column of departure.
Table of the Inclination of Meridians in Minutes and Tenths, ai every Degree of Latitude for 5° Difference of Longitude.
; Lat. in. mer, Lat, in.mer. Lat. in.mer. Lat. in. mer. Lat. in.mer. Lat. in. mer;
' ° ’ ° ’ 9 , ° ’ °o ‘ ° t 1} 52|13] 67.5 126.8 | 37 | 180.5 226.4. 259.8 9] 10.5|14] 72.6 131.5 184.7 929.8 | 61 | 262.4 3) 15.7| 15] 77.6 136.2 188.8 233.1 264.9 4| 20.9] 16] 82.7 140.8 192.8 236.4. 267.3 5 | 261 | 17 |. 87.7 145.4 1968 239.6 269.6 6|314]18] 92.7 | 32} 1500 | 42 | 200.7 242.7 | 65 | 271.9 7|36.6|19]| 97.7 154.5 204.6 245.7 281.9 8 | 41.8 | 20 | 102.6 159.0 208.4 248.7 289.8 9 | 46.9 | 21 | 107.5 163.4 212.1 251.6 295.4 10 | 52.1 | 22 | 112.4 167.8 215.8 254 4 298.9 ! 11.} 57.2] 23 | 117.2 172.1 219.4 257.2 300.0 / 12 | 624 122.0 176.3 222.9
REMARK,
* It appears that a general chart on this projection has all the valuable pre- perties of Mercatar’s Chart ; the rhumb lines and distances being right lines;
~
$16 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S
én other respects it is superior, as equal surfaces on the globe are represent- ed by equal areas on the chart, and all distances are measured by the same scale of equal parts. It has also the advantage of shewing both the loxodro- mic course, and the angles of position (that is the angles made by the dif~ ferent meridians with the great circle passing through any two places :) the jirst being measured by the complement of the angle formed by the parallels of latitude and line of distance, the latter very nearly by the different meridians and line of distance ; dnd in the great simplicity of its construction it seems also to merit the preference. ’
The Chart might also be enlarged so as to give any required accuracy in the solutions ; but as no greater accuracy can be expected in any estimation of a ship’s course and dastance by the log-line and compass, (the chief de- pendence being on astronomical observations, for longitude as well as latitude ) zt would be useless. :
Mr. Emerson, in page 52 of his Geography, has also given this pro- jection, as usead for maps; but its properties, and great use in practical navigation, have not, I believe, been hitherto investigated.
Hla
*yuounsay
: | TABLE I, shewing the correction in minutes and tenths, to be added ; to the Middle Latitude, in Middle Latitude Sailing.
ArGuMENT- LESSER LATITUDE. OF as SPO Ser SOUS NO SOSA aa | 40° | 45° 1 50° | 55° | 60° | 65°
“LV'T jo
° ‘ ’ ’ , ’ ' ’ , ’ , ’ , , 1} 67] O08} O17 O11} 02 0.2) 0.1} 0.1] 0.1] O11} 0.2] 0.2] 02 2] 91} 18] O09} 0.7} 0.6 0.5) 0.5; 0.5} 05] 0.6] 0.7) 0.7) 09 31397 3S} 217 £67 Be PAP OLD © Lib Aad gas eh 2'0 4/185} 59] 3.6} 27] 23 2.0] 2.0) 2.0] 2.1] 24). .26] 30] 3.6 51233] 85} 54] 41} 3.5 31) 31] 3.2] 84] 3.7] 41] 48] 5.7 280)-11-5]|° 7.5] 5-8) 9.0 4.5) 4.5) 46] 491 541 60] 7.0] 84 329] 14.8] 9.9] 7.8) 68 61} 61) 63| 67] 7.4] 83] 9.7] 11.8 37.6} 18.2] 12.5] 10.0} 8.7 8.0} 80} 83] 88} 9.8] 11.0] 12.9] 15.8 42.3} 21.9] 15.4} 12.4] 11.0] 10.2] 10.0} 10.1: 10.5} 11.3] 12.5] 142} 16.6] 20.5
47.0} 25.7| 18.4| 15.1] 13.4] 196] 123] 125° 13.1] 14.1! 15.6] 17.7] 20.9} 26.0 31.8] 29:8} 21.7) 18.0| 16.1] 15.2| 14.9] 152, 16.0| 17. 25.9 | 324 56.7| 34.0} 25.2} 21.1} 19.0]°18.0| 17.8] 18.2; 19.1 31.5| 39.7 616] 383] 289] 24.4] 22.1] 21.1] 20.9] 214! 22.6 37.8| 48.1 66.6] 42.8] 32.7| 27.9] 25.4] 244] 24.4] 95.0! 26.4 45.0| 57.8 71.6| 473} 36.7| 31.6| 289| 27.9] 27.9| 288. 30.6 53.0] 68.8
72.0 | 59.5| 53.1] 5U.1} 49.3| 30-2] 52.7, 56.9 | 724A} 86.5 99.7 | 86.5} 79.81 77.2| 77.5| 80.3} 85.7} 94.1 1106.6 155.9 {131.2 |418.1 |212.1 |110.8 |113.4 |119.6 |129.9 [145.5 165.5 |154.9 1150.7 |152.2 [158.7 |170 5 198.9 206.8 1197.9 |197.0 |202.9 |215.7 |236.6
my —
5 (069.5 |253.1 [248.4 (259.7 |265.7 |288.4 | CONSTRUCTION,
NAVIGATION CHART, &c. 317
) (TABLE II, to calculate the exact difference between the new Lox- i
3 | odromic Chart and Mercator’s ; which in practice is nearly insen- eer sible. It also shews the error in taking the arithmetic mean of | =| the natural cosines of two latitudes for the cosine of the mean £8] parallel in Middle Latitude Sailing,
ye]
: |
ArGuMENT. LESSER LATITUDE. y 45° | 50° | 55° }-80° ] 65° |
OON STH Ol Lee [205 ] 25°77 30°
. ; 1| 81}.10} 1.1}, 06] 0:3) 02] 0.2 2/223/ 60] 32] 21] 14] 10] 07 3 | 33.0] 112] 66) 44] 31] 2.2] 15 4 | 440] 176] 108 14] RCH S53 26 5 | 55.0] 250] 158] 110} 79] 56]. 3.
6 | 66.1 | 32.7] 913] 150) 108) 77| 52 iO) 7 |.77.2| 409] 272] 193] 140] 100] 66
10 11099} 667} 465] 34.0] 248] 186] 113 Jo 16.6 |111.2 | B17 | 607| 444/304] 17.8)
20 |211.7 |154.7 |116 4] 87.0} 62.4] 40.4] 19.5 25 |259,4 1195.0 1148.2 |109.8 | 75.9] 44.1 Fr 20.4| 56.7| 99.4 30 [800 7 |230.5 [174.7 |1263 | 816) 3691~ 76 56.7 |118.7 337.4 |259 6 [193.7 |133.9 |_76.1 17.2 | 46.2 1187
367.0 {280.2 |202.9 |129.2 | 55.8] 23.6 112.5, 387.8 }290.1 199.0 |108.4' 13.3 | 92.8 The corrections on this side the black line 397.5 1286.4 |178,9 | 61 815/387 387 |205.6] . must be added to the greater latitude; those 393.2 |265.0 1133.9 4 89 175.8 |5410} of the left hand side must be subtracted.
370.8 {219.9 57.8 129.6 ore 730.6
351] 53.5 78.1 78.4 {117.0
20.0
2 Nat cos. mean parallel—nat. cos. les. lat-=nat. cos. of an angle A. ConstRuctre™) A—greater latitude=the correction of this table.
N. B. This correction 3% by the tangent of the greatest latitude X tangent.of half, ' the difference of longitude, isthe correction of the longitude found by the chart for any
' given course and distance.
USE OF THE PRECEDING TABLES,
| EXAMPLE I.
Required the Course and Distance between Cape Clear in Ireland, in latitude 51° 18’ N. and Island of St. Mary’s one of the Azores, in latitude 37° N. difference of latitude 14° 18’= $58 miles, and their difference of longitude being 15° 10’, or
910’. (See Robertson’ s Navig. prob. III. p. 156.) bi Middle Latitude 44° 9’ " ' Vcureeas to lat. 37° and aiff. of latits. 14° 18° about 26 from Table I.
Mean Parallel 44° 35° As difference of latitude 858’ logs 2.933487 log. A 2.933487
a
318 DESCRIPTION OF GARNETT’S NAVIGATION CHART, Ac.
: Diference of longitude 910° log. 2.959041 :; Cos. of mean parallel 44° 35’ log. cos. 9.852620
:Tan.of Course 37° 4’ log.tang. 9.878174 1.cos. B 9901967
A—B=distance - - 1074,6 miles log. 3.031520 which agrees with the solution by Meridional Parts, or logarithmic tangents ; but by the middle jatitude not corrected, the course would have been 37° 16° and distance 1078 miles.-
EXAMPLE II.
A ship from the latitude of 51° 18’ N. in longitude 22° 6 W. sailing on acourse between the S. and E. has made 564 miles of departure, and 786 miles difference of longitude. Required the latitude of the place arrived at? (See Robertson’s Navigation, prob. X. page 170.)
As difference of longitude _ 786° log 2.895423 ae
———— | Meanpar. X 2= 88 18 : Departure - of 564° log. 2.751279 || Subtract given lat. 51 18 :,Radiis + 9 - | = - 10.000000 |] ©
Lesser lat. (nearly) 37 0 : Cos. Mean Parallel 44° 9° log. cos. 9.855856 || Diff. of lat- (nearly) 14 18
As the approximate lesser latitude must be diminished by twice the correction in Ta- ble I to obtain the true lesser latitude, assume it 36° 10°, and difference of latitude 15° 8, the correction from Table I will then be 30°;—this subtracted
from 44° 9’ the mean parallel, leaves - 43° 39’ for the Middle Latitude.
From the double of which . = - 87 18
Subtract the greater latitude - - - 51 18
Leaves the true lesser latitude - = - 36 0 differing a whole degree from
the latitude found by the common method. ©
These examples sufficiently shew the great use of Table I, to correct the errors of mid- dle latitude sailing ; which by this means is made equally correct, and is more simple thar Mercator’s sailing by the table of meridional parts.
Table II is intended to make the Loxodromic Chart strictly accurate, although this correction in practice will be found insensible. It also shews the error of taking half the sum of the natural cosines for the cosine of the mean parallel, which has been recommend- ed in middle latitude sailing. ! -
This small correction of the Loxodromic Chart, by means of table II, will be easily un- derstood from the following
_EXAMPLE.
Suppose a ship to sail from the latitudeof 20° N. to the lati- tude of 45° N. ona course between the N. and E. and make 40° difference of longitude; required the course and distance. (See the Loxodromic Chart.)
By table II, the correction for 20° lesser latitude and 25° diff. of latitudes is—75+,9, which measure off to the parallel of 45° from the meridian of 20° (the half diff. of longitude} from a to 6 perpendicular to the parallel, so that a 6 = 75’,9; then draw the line c 4 from the parallel of 20° latitude to the parallel of 45°, making the half difference of longitude 20° on each side the central meridian (which is essential to the principle of the chart,) and it will be the correct course and distance. The line c d represents the course and distance on the without the tubular correction, which correction in all -practioal‘eases will be insensible. «
( 319 )
No. L.
Observations to serve for the Mineralogical Map of the State of Maryland. By M. Godon.
Read November 6th, 1807.
ALLUVION SOIL,
All the country which extends from Baltimore bay, to the right bank of Potomac river, where Washington city is situ- ate, is wholly alluvial. The soil which constitutes it is, in general, a quartzose sand, diversly coloured by iron. This sand very frequéntly contains mca; alwmmous earth also appears to exist in it, in a very small proportion. It is probably to the want of a sufficient quantity of clay in this alluvial ground, that the remarkable barrenness of the land which stretches on the line that I have occasionally travelled, must be attri- buted.
At some distance under the surface of the soil, a bed of quartzose white stones is frequently found. This bed is hori- zontally disposed, or appears to follow the inequality of the ground.
Immediately under this bed of flint, a stratum of a ferru- ginous sand-stone commonly occurs, the thickness whereof varies from six lines to one foot or more. This mineral, the only one which is found, or which can be expected to be found in this soil, deserves a particular examination, on account of its importance as it regardsthe geology of this loca- lity. It is most commonly compounded of quartzose grains ; sometimes of flakes of mica. Its tenacity at times is very great, but most frequently itis disunited with ease by the suoke of the hammer.
It sometimes includes concretions of a strongly ferruginous clay, analogous to those stones, which, though. a variety of iron ore, are vulgarly known by the name of cities, or eagle-stone. These concretions are almost always involved in thin con-
320 GODON’S MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c.
centric strata of oxydated iron, (hematites) which are sometimes shining. Federal Hill, near Baltimore, affords on its flanks numerous examples of this variety. When the grains of which this sand-stone is formed are of great tenuity, they take the appearance and characters of Tripoli, and probably may be employed for the same uses;* such is that found on a new road, which communicates with the Frederick road, two miles from Baltimore. ‘This last: variety very trequent- ly accompanies a small ‘bed of oxydated iron, which is cel- lular, sometimes two inches thick; but, most frequently, this iron forms only a thin pellicle, which exhibits the colours of the iris.
This sand-stone is found on the top of almost every hill that occurs on the road from Baltimore to Washington; it is easily observed in the places where the soil has been washed away by floods, or cut down for public roads.
Sometimes the bed of quartzose stones has been itself agluti nated by a ferruginous cement, and constitutes a sort of pud ding-stone. This pudding-stone is often found of the thickness of one or two feet.
The rocks of transport, which are found in this soil are, in general, the Amphibole rock, (grunstein of the Germans) a coarse quartz, and the variety of quartz designated by Werner, under the name of Hornstein.
Some fossil bodies are also found in thissoil, namely, some re- mains of shells, and particularly a deposit of fossil wood, which is observed in aravine ata little distance from Rock-Creek church. This wood lies immediately under the ferruginous sand-stone, in which it is sometimes, as it were, enveloped. It appears that the ligneous particles of this wood, have been wholly replaced by siliceous earth; the parts in which were interstices, as the bark for example, are covered with a multitude of small crys- tals of quartz, which belong to the variety prismed of Hauy.
All these sand-stones and ferruginous puddings, seem to have a common origin. When the limits of this stratum shall have been observed, and the space which it occupies shall have
* To polish metals and hard stones.
GODON’S MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c. $23
been traced, we shall perhaps have some light thrown on the circumstances which have produced it; and perhaps it will even be possible to form some hypothesis concerning the origin of this vast deposit of sand, which is observed through the space of 50 miles, in the direction from North-East to South-West,* and which appears to be much more extensively in the direc- tion from East to West.
Washington city is built on the alluvial land; but Rock- Creek, which separates this capital from George-town, appears to present the boundary line between the primitive and the alluvial soil.
PRIMITIVE SOIL.
The first rock which presents itself must be considered as a gneiss; its direction is nearly N. N. E. to S. S. W. Orinclining about 20 degrees to the East. The substances which compose it are quartz, felspar, mica, and very often tate. The mica and the talc have the grey colour of lead; but this last is sometimes distinguished by the green colour of the emerald, Besides those substances, the gneiss often contains the dodecahe- dral garnet, commonly in small crystals, but some are four or five lines in diameter, and sulphureted magnetic won crystallized in small cubes. This mineral sometimes exists so abundantly that every part of the rock is sensible to the magnet. Con- siderable veins of quartz run through the rock, without any constant direction; the veins of felspar are more rare. This gneiss crosses the Potomac river, and in the opposite bank of this river observes the same direction, the same inclination in the strata, and the same elements in their composition. This rock is generally split into tabular fragments, which are employed in the construction of the foundation of buildings, and in the lining of causeways.
Immediately after the gneiss, in going up the river, we find the Amphibolic. rock, (grunstein;) this rock is not uniform in its composition, most frequently it is an aggregate of Amphi- bol, (hornblende) and felspar, then it is nearly decomposed ;
* The primitive soil appears near Baltimore, and it is manifest in the yalley through which the Patapsco river flows.
322 GODON’S MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c.
but it appears to be only an intimate mixture of quartz, am- phibol, mica, and talc, wnich shows itself by its green colour. This rock often includes the sulphureted magnetic iron. The tint of this pyrites resembling that of copper pyrites, and light spots even of carbonate of copper, indicate that this mineral con- ceals a small proportion of copper. This rock, as the former, is crossed in several directions by veins of quartz, sometimes more than two feet thick. A distinct stratification is not ob- served in it; itis divided into polyhedral fragments.
In continuing up the Potomac, at a little distance from George-town, gneiss is again found, analogous in its nature to that already described. The inclination of these new strata, appears to be the same, but their direction somewhat nearer to that of the North and South. This gneiss shows some veins of white felspar, mixed with a mica of a greenish white, but the opaque white quartz, exists in numerous, and powerful veins. This quartz is sterile in metallic substances; some signs of o2vidu- lated iron only and ot magnetic pyrites are found in it. This quartz is sometimes accompanied by the chloritic talc, and pretty often includes the tourmaln in small acicular crystals. Sometimes the quartz presents a large surface covered with a crust of a fine black substance ; at first sight, this matter would be taken for manganese, but by attentive observation, it ap- pears to be nothing more than the substance of tourmalin itself, in a state of confused crystallization.
You go up tle Potomac river to the little falls, four miles above Washington, without finding any remarkable change in the constitution of the gneiss. This rock also crosses the river, and you may observe, on both the banks, the same disposition in the strata, and the same characters. The vegetable earth, which covers the tops of steep hills on the left side, is nothing but the gneiss itself in a state of decomposition, which is capa- ble of being turned up by the plough; and the fields are covered by numerous tragments of quartz, which have suffered no alteration.
The two beds of gneiss which are distinctly observed, on the right bank of Potomac river, and which are separated on this side by the Amphibolic rock, appear to be re-united on the left
GODON’S MINERALOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c. 323
bank. JI expected to find the grunstein again in this last, but I found only some fragments of this rock—an insufficient proof to justify an inference, that these rocks extend beyond the bed of the river.
We find, in the bed of the Potomac river, several fragments of rocks, which indicate a change in the constitution of the soil running along the upper part of the river: among these fragments is particularly distinguished an amygdaluid (wacke — of the Germans) of a dark colour, including globules of a substance sometimes white, sometimes of a fine rose- colour. In the centre of these globules, another substance of a fibrous texture, and of a fine green colour often occurs. This substance seems to be the epidote. These several substan- ces are disposed in the rock, in a very elegant manner.
Specimens of most of the minerals mentioned in_ this memoir, are deposited in the collection of the Philosophical So- ciety of Philadelphia.
No. LI.
Memoir on the origin and composition of the meteoric stones which fell from the Atmosphere, in the County of Fairfield, and State of Connecticut, on the 14th of December 1807; in a Letter, dated February \8th 1808, from Benjamin Silliman, Professor of Chemistry in Yale College, Connecticut, and Mr. James L. Kingsley, to Mr. John Vaughan, Librarian of the American Philosophical Society.
Read March 4th, 1808.
SIR,
We transmit, through you, to the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, a revised, corrected, and somewhat enlarged account of the meteor which lately appeared in this vici- nity. The substance of this account was first published in the Connecticut Herald, as public curiosity demanded an early statement of facts, Since that, the stone has been carefully
994 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
analysed, and the details of the analysis, forming a distinct paper, having never been published, are now transmitted to the society. The result of this analysis has been such as to confirm the general statement of the composition of the stone, which was published in the Herald, but without any of the details or the exact proportions. Under these cir- cumstances, our present communication will probably be consi- dered as sufficiently original, to merit the attenuon of the respectable body to whom it is transmitted. _
It may be well to repeat, that in the investigation of the facts, we spent several days, visited and carefully examined every place where the stones had been ascertained to have fallen, and several where it had been only suspected without any discovery; conversed with all the principal original wit- nesses, and obtained specimens of every stone.
We are Sir, respectfully, your very obedient servants. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, JAMES L. KINGSLEY.
On the 14th of December 1807, about half past 6 o’clock in the morning, a meteor was seen moving through the at- mosphere with great velocity, and was heard to explode over the town of, Weston, in Connecticut, about 25 mules West of New-Haven. Nathan Wheeler esq. of Weston, one of the justices of the court of common pleas for the county of Fair- field, a gentleman of great respectability and undoubted vera- city, who seems to have been entirely uninfluenced by fear, or imagination, was passing, at the tme, through an enclosure adjoining his house, and had an opportumity of witnessing the whole phenomenon. From him the account of the appear- ance, progress, and explosion of the meteor is principally derived.
The morning was somewhat cloudy. The clouds were dispersed in unequal masses; being in some places thick and opaque, and in others fleecy, and partially transparent. Nu-
OF A METEORIC STONE. $25
merous spots of unclouded sky were visible, and along the Northern part of the horizon, a space of 10 or 15 degrees was perfectly clear.
The attention of judge Wheeler was first drawn by a sud- den flash of light, which illuminated every object; looking up, he discovered in the North, a globe of fire, just then passing behind the first cloud, which obscured although it did not entirely hide the meteor.
In this situation, its appearance was distinct and well defined, like that of the sun seen through a mist. It rose from the North, and proceeded in a direction nearly perpendicular to the horizon, but inclining by a very small angle to the West, and deviating a little from the plane of a great circle, though in pretty large curves, sometimes on one side of the plane, and sometimes on the other, but never making an angle with it of more than four or five degrees. Its apparent diameter was about one half or two thirds the apparent diameter of the full moon.
Its progress was not so rapid as that of common meteors and shooting stars. When it passed behind the thinner clouds, it appeared brighter than before; and, when it passed the spots of clear sky, it flashed with a vivid light, yet not so intense as the lightning in a thunder-storm, but rather like what is commonly called heat-lighining. Where it was not too much obscured by thicks clouds, a waving conical train of paler light was seen to attend it, in length about 10 or 12 diameters of the body. In the clear sky a brisk scintillation was ob- served about the body of the meteor, like that of a burning fire-brand, carried against the wind.
It disappeared about 15 degrees short of the zenith, and about the same number of degrees West of the meridian. It did not vanish instantaneously, but grew pretty rapidly fainter and fainter, as a red hot cannon-ball would do, if cooling in the dark, only with much more rapidity. There was no pe- culiar smell in the atmosphere, nor were any luminous masses seen to separate from the body. The whole period between its first appearance and total extinction was estimated at about 30 seconds.
326 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
About 30 or 40 seconds after, three loud and distinct reports like those of a four-pounder near at hand, were heard. They succeeded each other with as much rapidity as was consistent with distinctness, and, all together, did not occupy three seconds. Then followed a rapid succession of reports less loud, and running into each other sv as to produce a continued rumbling, like that of a cannon-ball rolling over a floor, some- times louder, and at other times fainter: some compared it to the noise of a waggon, running rapidly down a long and stony hill; or, to a yolley of musquetry, protracted into what is Called in military language, a running fire. This noise con- tinued about as long as the body was in rising, and died away apparently in the direction trom which he meteor came. The accounts of others corresponded substantially with this. Time was differently estimated by different people. Some augmented the number of loud reports, and terror and imagi- nation seem, in various instances, to have magnified every cir- cumstance of the phenomenon.
The only observation which seemed of any importance be- yond this statement, was derived trom Mr. Elihu Staples, who said, that when the meteor disappeared, there were apparently three successive efforts or leaps of the fire-ball, which grew more dim at every throe, and disappeared with the last.
The meteor was seen East of the Connecticut, and West of Hudson river, as far South as New-York, and as far North as the county of Berkshire Massachusetts; and the explosion was heard, and a tremulous motion of the earth perceived, between 40 and 50 miles North ot Weston, and in other directions, We do not however pretend to give this as the extent of the appearance of the meteor; all that we affirm 1s, that we have not heard any thing beyond this statement.
From the various accounts which we: have Pnaen of the appearance of this body at different places, we are inclined to believe, the time between the disappearance and report as estimated by judge Wheeler to be too little, and that a minute is the least time which could have intervened. Taking this, therefore, for the time, and the apparent diameter of the body as only half that of the full moon, its real diameter could not be less than 300 feet.
OF A METEORIC STONE, 327
We now proceed to detail the consequences which .fol- lowed the explosion and apparent extinction of this lumi- nary.
We allude to the fall of a number’ of masses of stone in several places, within the town of Weston, and on the con- fines of adjoining towns*. The places which had been well ascertained, at the period of our investigation, were six. The most remote were about 9 or 10 mules distant trom each other, in a line differing little from the course of the meteor. It is therefore probable that the masses tell in this order—the most northerly first, and the most southerly last. We think we are able to point out three principal places where stones have fallen, corresponding with the three loud cannon-like reports, and with the three leaps of the meteor, observed by Mr. Staples. There were some circumstances common to all the cases. There. was in every instance, immediately after the explosions had ceased, a loud, whizzing or roaring noise in the air, observed at all the places, and so far as was ascer- tained, at the moment of the fall. It excited in some, the idea of a tornado; in others, of a large cannon-shot, in rapid motion, and it filled all with astonishment and apprehension of some impehding catastrophe. In every instance, immedi- ately after this, was beard a sudden and abrupt noise, like that of a ponderous body striking the ground in its fall. Except- ing two, all the stones which have been found were more or less broken. The most important circumstances of the parti- cular cases were as follows:
Ist. The most northerly fall was within the limits of the town of Huntingdon on the border of Weston, about 40 or 50 rods east of the great road leading from Bridgeport to New- town, in a cross-road, and contiguous to the house of Mr. Merwin Burr. Mr. Burr was standing in the road, in tront of his house, when the stone tell. The noise produced by its collision with a rock of granite, on which it struck, was very loud. Mr. Burr was within 50 feet, and searched immedi- ately for the body, but, it being still dark, he did not find it
* It may be necessary to remark that thé term town, is, in Connecticut, a territorial de-
signation, meaning a given extent of ground, (anciently 6 miles square) and has no necessary reference to a collection of houses.
U
328 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
till half an hour after. By the fall, some of it was reduced te powder, and the rest’ was broken into very small pieces, which were thrown around to the distance of 20 or 30 feet.
The rock was stained at the place of contact, with a deep lead-colour. The largest fragment which remained, did not exceed the size of a goose-egg, and. this, Mr. Burr found to be still warm to his hand. ‘There was reason to conclude, from all the circumstances, that this stone must have weighed from 20 to 25 pounds.
Mr. Burr had a strong impression that -another stone fell in an adjoining field, and it was confidently believed that a large mass had fallen into a neighbouring swamp; but neither of these had been found.
It is probable that the stone whose fall has now been de- scribed, together with any other masses which may have fallen at the same time, was thrown from the meteor at the first explo- sion.
2nd. The masses projected at the second explosion seem to have fallen principally at, and in the vicinity of Mr, William Prince’s in Weston, distant about five miles from Mr. Burr’s, in a southerly direction.
Mr. Prince and family were still in bed, when they heard the explosions, and immediately after, a noise like that ordinarily produced by the fall of a very heavy body to the ground. They formed various unsatisfactory conjec-- tures concerning the cause, nor, did even a fresh-made hole through the turf in the door-yard, about 25 feet from the house, lead to any conception of the cause. They had indeed formed a vague conjecture that the hole might have been made by lightning; but, would probably have paid no farther atten- tion to the circumstance, had they not heard, in the course of the day, that stones had fallen that morning, in other parts of the town. This induced them, towards evening, to search the hole in the yard, where they found a stone buried in the loose earth, which had fallen in upon it. It lay at the depth of two feet; the hole was about 12 inches in diameter, and as the earth was soft and nearly free from stones, the mass had sus- tained little injury, only a few small fragments having been
OF A METEORIC STONE. 329
detached by the shock. The weight of this stone was about thirty five pounds. From the descriptions which we haye heard, it must have been a noble specimen, and men of sci- ence will not cease to regret, that so rare a treasure should have been sacrificed to the dreams of avarice, and the violence of ignorant and impatient curiosity; for, it was immediately bro- ken in pieces with hammers, and, in the hands of unskilful pretenders, heated in the crucible and forge, with the vain hope of extracting from it silver and gold: all that remained unbroken of this mass, was a piece of 12 pounds weight, since purchased by Isaac Bronson Esq. of Greenfield, with the libe- ral view of presenting it to some public institution.
Six days after, another mass was discovered, halt a mile north west from Mr. Prince’s. The search was induced by the con- fident persuasion of the neighbours, that they heard it fall near the spot where it was actually found, buried in the earth, and weighing from 7 to 10 pounds. It was found by Gideon Hall and Isaac Fairchild. It was in small fragments, having fallen on a globular detached mass of gneiss rock, which it split in two, and by which it was itself shivered to pieces.
The same men informed us, that they suspected another stone had fallen in the vicinity, as the report had been distinct- ly heard, and could be referred to a particular region, somewhat to the east, Returning to the place, after an excursion of a few hours to another part of the town, we were gratified to find the conjecture verified, by the actual discovery of a mass of 13 pounds weight, which had fallen half a mile to the north east of Mr. Prince’s. Having fallen in a ploughed field, with- out coming into contact with a rock, it was broken only into two principal pieces, one of which, possessing all the characters of the stone in a remarkable degree, we purchased, for, it had now become an article of sale.
Two miles south east from Mr. Prince’s, at the foot of Tas- howa hill, a fifth mass fell. Its fall was distinctly heard by Mr. Ephraim Porter and his family, who live within 40 rods of the place, and in full view. They saw a smoke rise trom the spot as they did also from the hill, where they were positive that another stone struck, as they heard it distinctly. At the
2
530 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
time of the fall, having never heard of any such thing as stones descending from the atmusphere, they supposed. that lightning had struck the ground;. but, after three or four days, hearing of the stones which had fallen in their vicinity, they were in- duced to search, and the result was, the discovery of a mass of. stone in the road, at the place where they supposed the light- ning had struck. | It penetrated the ground to the depth of two. feet, in the deepest place; the hole was about 20 inches in diameter, and its margin was coloured blue, from the pow- der of the stone, struck: off in its fall. It was broken into frag-
ments of moderate size, and, from the best calculations might -
have weighed 20 or 25 pounds. The hole exhibited marks of violence, the turf being very much torn, and thrown about to some distance.
We searched several hours for the stone which was-heard to fall on the hill, but without success. Since that time, however, it hasbeen discovered. It is unbroken, and on a careful com- parison we find that it corresponds exactly, in appearance, with the other specimens, except that from its magnitude, some of the characteristic marks are more striking than in the smaller specimens, This stone weighs 36 1-2 pounds; it was found by a little boy of the name of Jennings, and was, a few days since, in the possession of his father, who was exhibiting it at New York, as a show, for money.
It is probable, that the five stones last described, were all pro- jected at the second explosion. :
3d. At the third explosion a mass of stone far exceeding the united weight of all which we have hitherto described, fell in a field belonging to Mr. Elijah Seeley, and within 30 rods of his house. Mr. Seeley’s is at the distance of about four miles south from Mr. Prince’s. Mr. Elihu Staples lives on the hill, at the bottom of which the body fell, and carefully observed the whole phenomenon.
After the explosion, a rending noise, like that of a whirlwind passed along to the east of his house, and immediately over his orchard, which is on the declivity of the hill. At the same in- stant, a streak of light passed over the orchard in a large curve and seemed to pierce the ground. | A shock was felt, and a re-
t
OF A METEORIC STONE. 533i
« port heard, like that of a heavy body falling to the ground; but, no conception being entertained of the real cause, (for no one inthis vicinity, with whom we conversed, appeared to have heard of the fall of stones from the skies) it was supposed that lightning had struck the ground. Some time alter the event, Mr. Seeley went into his field to look after his cattle. He found that some of them had leaped into the adjoining en- closure, and all exhibited strong indications of terror. Passing on, he was struck with surprise at seeing a spot of ground which he knew to have been recently turfed over, all torn up, and the earth looking fresh, as if from recent violence. Coming to the place he found a great mass of fragments of a strange looking stone, and immediately called for his wife, who was ‘second on the ground.
Here were exhibited the most striking proofs of violent colli- sion. A ridge of micaceous schistus, lying nearly even with the ground, and somewhat inclining like the hill, to the south east, was shivered to pieces to a certain extent, by the impulse of the stone, which thus received a still more oblique direction, and forced itself into the earth, to the depth of three feet, tear-
- ing ahole of 5 feet in length and 4 1-2 in breadth, and throw- ing masses of stone and earth to the distance of 50 and 100 ‘feet. Had there been no meteor, no explosions, and no wit- nesses of the light and shock, it would have been impossible for any one contemplating the scene, to doubt, that a large and heavy body had really fallen from the atmosphere, with tre- mendous momentum.
From the best information which we could obtain of the quan- tity of fragments of this last stone, compared with its specific gravity, we concluded that its weight could not have fallen much short of 200 pounds. All the stones, when first found, were friable, being easily broken between the fingers; this was especially the case where they had been buried in the moist earth, but by exposure to the air, they gradually hardened.
This stone was all in fragments, none of which exceeded the size of a man’s fist, and was rapidly dispersed by numerous visitors, who carried it away at pleasure. Indeed, we found it difficult to obtain a sufficient supply of specimens of the various
osu ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
stones, an object which was at length accomplished by impor- tunity and purchase.
We have been more particular in detailing the circumstan- ces which attended the fall of these bodies, and the views and conduct of those who first found them, that the proof of the facts might be the more complete and satisfactory.
The specimens obtained from all the different places are perfectly similar to each other. The most careless observer would instantly pronounce them portions of a common mass. Few of the specimens weigh one pound, most of them less than half a pound, and trom that to the fraction of an ounce.
The piece lately found on Tashowa hill, is the largest with which we are acquainted, Mr. Bronson’s is the next in size, The largest specimen in our possession weighs six pounds and is very perfect in its characteristic marks, Of smaller pieces we have a good collection They possess every variety of form which might be supposed to arise from fracture, with violent force. On many of them, and chiefly on the large specimens, may be distinctly perceived portions of the external part of the meteor. It is every where covered with a thin biack crust, destitute of splendor, and bounded by portions of the large ir- regular curve which seems to have inclosed the meteoric mass. This curve is far from being uniform. It is sometimes depress- ed with concavities, such as might be produced by pressing a soft, yielding substance. The surface of the crust feels harsh, like the prepared fish-skin or shagreen. It gives sparks with the steel. There are certain portions of the stone covered with the black crust, which appear not to have formed a part of the outside of the meteor, but to have received this coating in the interior part, in consequence of fissures or cracks, produced pro- bably by the intense heat to which the body seems to have been subjected. These portions are very uneven, being full of little protuberances. The specific gravity of the stone is 3.6, water being 1. The specific gravity of different pieces varies a little, this is the mean of three.
The colour of the mass of the stone is, in general, a dark ash, or more properly a leaden colour. It is interspersed with distinct masses, from. the size of a pin’s head to the diameter of one or
OF A METEORIC STONE. 333
two inches, which are almost white, resembling in many in- stances the crystals of felspar, in some varieties ot granite. The texture of the stone is granular and coarse, resembling some pieces of grit-stone. It cannot be broken by the fingers; but gives a rough and irregular fracture with the hammer, to which it readily yields. On inspecting the mass, five distinct kinds of matter may be perceived by the eye.
1. The stone is thickly interspersed with black or grey glo- bular masses, most of them spherical, but some are oblong. Some of them are of the size of a pigeon-shot, and even of a pea, but generally they are much smaller. They can be de- tached by any pointed iron instrument, and leave a concavity in the stone. ‘They are not attractable by the magnet, and can be broken by the hammer. If any of them appear to be affected by the magnet, it will be found to be owing to the ad- herence of a portion of metallic iron.
2. Masses of pyrites may be observed. Some of them are of a brilliant golden colour, and are readily distinguished by the eye. Some are reddish, and others whitish. The pyrites ap- pear most abundant in the light-coloured spots, where they ex- hibit very numerous and brilliant points, which are very con- spicuous through a lens.
3. The whole stone is interspersed with malleable iron, alloy- ed with nickel. These masses of malleable iron are very va- rious in size, from mere points to the diameter of an inch. They may be made very visible by drawing a file across the stone, when they become brilliant.
4. The lead-coloured mass, which cements these things toge- ther, has been described already, and constitutes by far the greater part of the stone. After being wet and exposed to the air, the stone becomes covered with numerous reddish spots, which do not appear in a fresh fracture, and arise manifestly from the rusting of the iron.
5. There are a few instances of matter dispersed irregularly through the stone, which for reasons that will appear in the analysis, are considered as intermediate between pyrites and malleable iron. They are sometimes in masses apparently erystalline, but usually irregular. They are black, commonly
354 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
destitute of splendor, and for the most part lic bedded in the stone, tho’ they sometimes appear like a glossy superficial coat- ing. They are sometimes attracted by the magnet, and some- times nof.
Finally, the stone has been analysed in the laboratory of this College, and appears to consist of the following ingredients.
Silex, iron, magnesia, nickel, sulphur.— ihe two first con- stitute by far the greater part of the stone, the third is in consi- derable proportion, but much less than either of the two first, the fourth is still less, and the sulphur exists in a smail but in- determinate quantity.
Most of the iron is in a metallic state; the whole stone at- tracts the magnet, and this instrument takes up a large propor- tion of it when pulverized. Portions of malleable iron may be separated so large, that they can be readily extended under the hammer.
It remains to be observed, that this account of the appear- ance of the stone accords exactly with the descriptions, now become numerous, of similar bodies which: have fallen in other countries, at various periods, and with specimens which one of us has. inspected, of stones that have fallen in India, Frarice and Scotland. The chemical analysis also proves that their composition is the same; and it is well known to mineralogists and chemists, that no such stones have been found among the productions of this globe. These considera- tions must, in connection with the testimony, place the credi- bility of the facts said to have recently occurred in Weston, beyond all controversy.
To account for events so singular, theories not less extraordi- nary have been invented. It 1s scarcely necessary to mention that theory which supposes them to be common masses of stone fused by lightning, or that which derives them from terrestrial volcanoes; both these hypotheses are now abandoned. Their at- mospheric formation, from gaseous ingredients, is a crude unphi- losophical conception, inconsistent with known chemical facts, and physically impossible.—Even the favourite notion of their lunar-volcanic origin, seems not to be reconcileable with the magnitude of these bodies, and is strongly opposed by a number of other facts.
OF A METEORIC STONE. $35
The late President Clap of this College, in his Theory of Meteors, supposes them to be terrestrial comets, revolving about the earth in the same manner asthe solar comets revolve about the sun. That, moving in very excentric orbits, when in peri- gee, they pass through the atmosphere, are highly electrified, and in consequence become luminous. As they approach their lower apside, their electricity is discharged, the body disappears, and a report is heard. This being admitted, it is not strange, that by the violence of the shock, portions of the meteor should be thrown to the earth, while the main body, not sensibly af- fected by so small a loss, continues to move on in its orbit, and, of course, ceases to be luminous. It is however, with much deference, that we submit this theory to the scientific world; although to us it appears to correspond with the analo- gy of the creation, and the least embarrassed with difficulties. Yet there are such numerous objections to this and every other hypothesis, that, until.we have more facts and better observa- tions, the phenomenon must be considered as in a great measure inexplicable. Two things however we consider as established :—
i. These bodies did not originate from this earth.
2. They have all come from a common source, but that source is unknown.
/
Chemical examination of the stones which fell at Weston (Connec- ticut) December 14th, 1807. By Benjamin Silliman, Professor of Chemistry, in Yale College.
The public are already in possession of ample details, con- cerning the fall of these bodies, and the phenomena which pre- ceded the event. I have made an attempt to ascertain their na- ture, by a series of experiments, the result of which is now communicated to the public. It will be necessary to make some observations, and to detail some experiments, upon each of the constituent parts of the stone.
I. Of the stone at large. II. Of the pyrites. III. Of the malleable iron. Pe
336 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
IV. Of the black, irregular masses. V. Of the crust. VI. Of the globular bodies.
I, Of the stone at large.
The account now to be given, supposes the reader acquaint- ed withthe statement which Mr. Kingsley and myself have already published, especially with the mineralogical description.
1. One hundred grains of the stone, taken without any pat- ticular reference to the various bodies, and, containing, pro- miscuously, portions of all of them, were pulverised in a por- phyry mortar. The malleable iron resisted the pestle, so that the mass could be reduced only to a coarse powder. It was then digested for 11 hours, with a moderate lamp-heat, in strong nitric acid, in a capsule of porcelain. Nitrous gas was disen- gaged, with the usual red tumes, and a light whitish matter appeared, dispersed through the solution, resembling gelatinous silex.
2. The clear fluid was decanted from the insoluble residu- um, all of which, except a small portion of the white floculent matter, had subsided; to separate this, the fluid was filtered, and exhibited a decidedly g greenish colour.
3. The solid residuum was heated over Argand’s lamp, till it was quite dry, and then triturated for an hour in mortars of porphyry and jasper. Asthe malleable iron had now been re- moved by the acid, the residuum was easily reduced to a fine powder, which had a brick red colour, and was digested again for an hour, with a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, some- what diluted, and then boiled for some time in the same fluid. This was decanted and filtered, and the residuum was washed, with water, till it came off tasteless; the washings were all fil- tered, and added to the two solutions, No. 2and 3. The en- tire fluid had now a light yellow colour, owing to the nitro- muriatic acid, present in excess.
4. The solid residuum, together with the solid matter arrest- ed by the filters, being ignited in a platinum crucible, became nearly white, and weighed 51,5 grains. It was fused with potash in a silver crucible, and the crucible with its contents
'
OF A METEORIC STONE. 337
immersed in water contained in a silver bason; the resulting fluid was decomposed by muriatic acid, and evaporation, and the precipitate, after ignition, in a platinum crucible, was white. There could now be no hesitation in pronouncing it to be silex; and the conclusion seemed sufficiently established, that more than half the stone consisted of this earth.
5. The entire solution was next examined, to discover what was the soluble part of the stone. Atter the superfluous acid Was saturated with ammonia, a voluminous red_ precipitate appeared, which was oxid of iron. ‘The fluid was filtered and heated on a sand-bath, to expel the excess of alkali, and,to precipitate any additional portion of oxid of iron, which it might have suspended; but none was obtained.
6. As much of the precipitate, as could be collected from the filter, being washed, dried, and ignited strongly in a platinum crucible, became of a dark brown colour, inclining to red, and weighed 32 grains. The filter which had beenaccurately weigh- ed before it was used, and after it had been thoroughly dried on a heated slab of Portland-stone, was tound to have gained six grains. The whole precipitate, was therefore estimated at 38 grains. The oxid of iron, thus obtained, was not in the high- eststate of oxidizement, for, itwas completely, although not pow- erfully, attractable by the magnet, by which the whole of it was actually transferred from a glass plate to a wine glass.
7. The fluid from which the oxid of iron had_ been preci- pitated, was now greenish, being precisely of the same colour as in No, 2. Carbonat of potash produced no precipitate ; but caustic potash threw down a voluminous, fleecy, white preci- pitate.: This being separated by the filter, dried, collected and moderately heated, became almost black; but, on being heated strongly in a platinum crucible, covered by an inverted cruci- ble of the same metal, it became white. It weighed 13 grains, It dissolved rapidly in sulphuric acid, and afforded, by evapo- ration, prismatic crystals, which had an acidulous, bitter taste, (the acidity was produced by a redundancy of the sulphuric acid.) It afforded a white precipitate, with caustic potash, suf- fered the aqueous fusion, and became a dry mass on a live coal. From all these indications it was concluded, that the 13
338 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
grains were magnesia. These crystals of sulphat of magnesia, had a very slight tinge of green, a circumstance which was doubtless connected with the dark appearance of the magnesia, when first heated. It shall be resumed presently. It should be observed, that in some of the experiments with sulphuric acid, on the supposed magnesia, a white matter, in small quan-. tity, remained undissolved at the bottom of the vessel. It could hardly be silex, and preliminary experiments led me to conclude that no lime was present. Was it accidental, or was there a small portion of alumine? This white matter, when heated with sulphuric acid, and sulphat of potash, did not af- ford crystals of alum, on evaporation. I have not yet had lei- sure, fully to decide this point, but, intend to resume it, The stone has a very slight argillaceous smell, when breathed upon. 8. The remaining solution still retained its greenish colour. Previous trials had decided that neither copper nor iron was pre- sent in the solution. | Nickel was therefore sought for, and the observation of Howard and Vauquelin, in their analyses of the stone of Benares, led me to expect it in triple combination. with the ammoniacal metal and muriat, which had been formed in the liquor by a previous step of the process.—According to the experience of Howard, I found the hydro-sulphuret and the prussiat of ammonia, the only agents among those which [ tri- ed, that would precipitate the nickel. The prussiat of ammo- nia gave a white precipitate, inclining to purple; the hidro- sulphuret of ammonia, a voluminous black precipitate. The hidro-sulphuret was used, and the precipitate was separated by the filter. The filter being dried, it was with great difficulty that about three fourths of a grain were collected. The portion adhering to the filter, was estimated at about a grain. That which had been collected was ignited, in a platinum crucible, and became green. It was, without doubt, the oxid of nickel, and, with every allowance for loss and other circumstances, the whole cannot be estimated at more than 1,5 grain. In this estimate is included a portion of nickel, adhering to the magnesia, whgn it was precipitated, which caused it to turn black, when first heated, gave the sulphat of magnesia for- med from it, a slightly greenish tinge, and whose existence
OF A METEORIC STONE. 339
is still farther proved, by the production of a black colour, when a solution of this salt was mixed with the hidro-sulphure: of ammonia.
9. The fluid from which the nickel had been precipitated was now of a yellow colour, unmixed with green. This must have resulted from the hidro-sulphuret of ammonia, and nothing could now be detected in the solution, except what had pro- ceeded from the various re-agentsemployed. There was, how- ever, one other constituent of the stone, of whose existence the eye furnished decisive evidence, of which no account has hi- therto been given, namely, the sulphur. As to the quantity of this, I can give only an estimate. Of the grounds of that estimate, together with the fruitless attempts which were made to collect the sulphur, I will speak presently, but, for the sake of concluding this head I will now add, that the sulphur was estimated at 1,. If this analysis be correct, then, the 100 grains which were examined, aftorded,
Sule xen sips dcoeredist betpeatates Gra Adress oSdsd Attractable brown oxid of iron, - - - -. - 38, Magnesia, -:- 6-0 =) =) tee Je em 13, Oxidiof nickel. = is )psyycepedicioenein ce OS S00 es i
105,
The excess, instead of the usual loss, proceeds manifestly from the oxidizement. of the iron, in a considerable, but un- known proportion. I must add, that the proportions of these ingredients vary in different parts of the stone, as is manifest to the eye, and will be immediately more fully evinced. In the analyses of others, should there be found some difference of proportion, it will not necessarily indicate a contradiction. The ‘great point of the similarity of the stones to those which have fallen in other countries, and which have been analysed by Howard, Vauquelin, Klaproth, and Fourcroy, who have been my guides in this investigation, will now, in all probability, be considered as sufficiently established. _ Had the daily avocations of a course of public lectures, allowed the necessary time, I should have attempted something like a complete analysis of
340 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
each of the constituent parts of the stone. If circumstances permit, this. may be still done, but in the mean time, a few ob- servations, perhaps of some utility, may be offered.
II. Of the Pyrites.
In the stones in our possession, very few masses of pyrites of any considerable size are to be found, and they are generally so friable, that it was only with great difficulty, and patience, that 20 grains could be collected trom 200 or 300 pieces. Their powder is blackish. I digested these 20 grains, tor 12 hours, in muriatic acid, somewhat diluted, hoping to separate the sul- phur, so as to collect it, as Mr. Howard had done. But in this I was disappointed. Only a very few minute portions of sul- phur appeared; they did not, as with Mr. Howard, float, but subsided among the earthy sediment, and only enough of them was collected to decide the existence of sulphur, by their burn- ing with the peculiar smell of that substance. During the so- lution, the smell of sulphureted hidrogen gas was emitted. As the stone, or, at least some parts of it, emits the smell of sul- phur, when heated, I attempted to procure the sulphur by sub- limation. A portion of the powdered stone was placed in a coated glass tube, the upper part of which was kept cold, while the coated part was ignited for an hour, but no sulphur was obtained.
I caused the gas which arose from the solution of the metal- lic part of the stone, in the sulphuric and muriatic acids, to pass into a solution of caustic potash. Only a small portion of the gas was absorbed; the potash became slightly hidro-sulphureted, since it precipitated the acitat of lead, black, and deposited a little sulphur, upon the addition of sulphuric acid. As I had already robbed the specimens of almost every tangible mass of pyrites, and injured them considerably by the extraction, I was compelled to relinquish the idea of obtaining the exact propor- tion of the sulphur. Mr Howard, in the analysis of the stone of Benares, states the sulphur at 2 parts in 14 of pyrites, or about 15 per ct. If we may suppose these pyrites to be of the same composition (and their physical properties correspond with Count Bournon’s description)we might deduce the proportion
OF A METEORIC STONE. 34] |
of sulphur from the proportion of pyrites in the stone; for, there is every reason to believe, that the sulphur exists in no other part of the stone, except the pyrites, and those masses which have proceeded from their decomposition. It is impossible, however, to separate the pyrites from the other parts of the stone, so as to estimate their proportion exactly, but, they evi- dently do not exceed one fifteenth of the whole stone. If therefore the sulphur be estimated at 1, it is probable the esti- mate will not be very erroneous.
The muriatic solution of the pyrites had a greenish colour; ammonia threw down the iron in a black precipitate, becoming rapidly red, when exposed to the air. The filtered fluid gave no traces of magnesia, when examined with caustic potash, but hidro-sulphuret of ammonia, gave an abundant precipitate of nickel. Hence these pyrites are composed of iron, nickel, and sulphur. Having saved the precipitates, I hope still to ob- tain the proportions of the two former.
III. The malleable Iron.
When the stone is pulverized, the magnet takes up, usually, more than 40,—I have taken up even 50, but, once, only 23,. This is however, far from being all iron; there is much adher- ing earthy matter; some adhering pyrites, and, in short, all the principles of the stone adhere. A separate analysis of the at- tractable part gives us nothing different from the results already stated, except an increase in the proportion of metallic matter, and a diminution in that of the earthy principles. The malle- able iron contains nickel equally with that in the pyrites. On the other hand, a separate analysis of the unattractable part, presents no other diversity than a diminution of the metallic, and an increase of the earthy principles. I have separated a piece of malleable iron, so large, that by alternately heating and hammering, it was extended into a bar six tenths of an inch long, and one tenth thick :—another mass was hammered into a plate more than half an inch in diameter. The attracta- ble part of the stone dissolves rapidly in the strong acids; the muriatic and sulphuric, diluted, give abundance of hidrogen gas, partially sulphureted, and nitric acid gives copious fumes of
349 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
nitrous gas. In the same masses are found malleable iron, pyrites, and matter in an intermediate condition, intimately blended, and adhering to each other.
IV..The irregular black masses.
Some of these appear somewhat regular, like crystals of schorl, but, most of them are irregular. While examining them, I found, in some, appearances of pyrites, in a state of decomposition. This led to a suspicion, that these masses were merely pyrites, which, by the force of the heat, had been de- composed more or less completely. Accordingly, on separat- ing a good many portions of these bodies, some were found readily, others feebly, and others not at all attractable by the magnet. But, the latter, by being heated, for a few minutes with the blow pipe, became decidedly attractable. As a stand- ard of comparison, some golden coloured pyrites from Peru, were heated by the blow pipe, to expel the sulphur, and were made to pass through all the shades of colour, and degrees of magnetic attractability, corresponding with the various condi- tions of the black irregular masses. No doubt could now re- main that the conjecture concerning their nature was well founded. The glossy interior coating, mentioned in the mi- neralogical description, appeared to be of the same nature and to approach nearly to the condition of malleable iron.
V. The Crust.
The black external crust adheres so closely to the earthy matter within, that it is not easy to separate it. Indeed it ap- peared scarcely worth while to subject it to a separate analysis, since the blow pipe sufficiently indicates the difference between it, and the rest of the stone. For, on heating any small portion of the stone, with the most intense flame that a blow pipe can give, it becomes covered with a black crust, similar to that of the stone. The only point then in which the crust differs from the rest of the stone is, ¢hat it has been changed by strong ignition, having suffered a sort of vitrification, and its metallic parts a partial oxidizement; I say partial, for when detached it is at- tractable by the magnet, and the file discovers points of malle- able iron.
oO
OF A METEORIC STONE. 34 VI. The globular Bodies.
These appear to be merely portions of the stone, embracing probably all its principles, which have been melted by intense heat, and being surrounded by solid matter, have become more or less globular, like the globules of metal which appear dis- persed through a flux in a crucible, after an operation with a very high degree of heat, upon a very refractory metal. The globular bodies in this stone, although not attractable by the magnet, readily become so by being heated with the blow pipe. Is the iron in them too highly oxidized, to admit of attraction, and, are they partially reduced by ignition on charcoal? Fi- nally, is there not reason to conclude, that these meteoric stones, originally presented nothing distinguishable by the eye, except pyrites and the enveloping earthy matrix, that by the operation of heat, the irregular black masses have been produced, by a partial decomposition of the pyrites, that by a still more intense heat in certain parts, the pyrites have been altogether decom- posed, and malleable iron produced, that the crust is produced by a mere oxigenizement and vitrification, that the difference of colour in the earthy part, is owing to the unequal operation of heat, the pyrites being left, in some places, especially in the white spots, almost wholly undecomposed, and that the globu- lar bodies have been formed by a complete fusion of certain portions, by intense ingition?
Yale College, January 14th, 1808.
POSTSCRIPT.
February 22, 1808.
In Nicholson’s Journal for October, 1806, (No. 61, p. 147,) is an abstract of a memoir, by A. Saugier, taken from the 58th volume of the Annals of Chemistry, in which the author as- serts the existence of a new principle in meteoric stones, viz. chrome. Before adverting to this subject it will be well to point out another assertion in M. Saugier’s memoir, which appears
¥
344 ACCOUNT AND DESCRIPTION
to have been erroneously expressed. After remarking that all chemists who have examined meteoric stones, “have obtained similar results” he enumerates the principles which have been discovered in them, and says they are, “ silex, ron, manganese, sulphur, nickel, with a few accidental traces of lime and alu- mine.’ It seems plain that manganese has here been careless- ly written instead of magnesia, for, neither Mr. Howard, nor any of the able chemists who succeeded him in the examina- tion of meteoric stones, before M. Saugier, ever found manga- nese, but constantly magnesia, and as magnesia is not mention- ed at all by this latter chemist, I think it plain, that mag- nesia is intended by him, where he writes manganese.
Dismissing this tor an inadvertency, we. will therefore return to chrome.
[ have carefully repeated and somewhat varied and extend- ed the experiments of Saugier on the discovery of chrome in meteoric stones.
1. A strong solution of caustic potash was boiled for an hour on a portion of the stone in powder, the fluid was filtered; it had a slightly yellowish colour.
2. Nitric acid was added, somewhat in excess, in order that the potash might all be saturated.
3. Nitrat of mercury, recently formed, without. heat, was added, but there was no precipitate whatever; at this stage of the process, Saugier threw down a red, orange coloured_preci- pitate, or chromate of mercury.
4, A small portion of the stone was now fused with pure potash, in a silver crucible, and maintained for some time in a red heat; every thing soluble was then taken up by water, the fluid was filtered, and had a green colour.
5. Nitric acid was added, a little in excess, and then nitrat of mercury, as before, but no precipitate ensued, these experi- ments were several times repeated, and with the same success.
6. Other portions of the fluid, resulting from the boiling of- potash upon the stone, and from its fusion upon it, and subse- quent solution, were now mixed with the nitrat of mercury, without the previous addition of nitric acid. A copious yel- law precipitate was thrown down, this was heated te ignition
OF A METEORIC STONE. $45
in a platinum crucible, the oxid of mercury was decomposed, and its elements expelled, and a small portion of a green oxid remained in the crucible. In several repetitions of the process this, invariably, occurred. I had been led to suspect that this was the oxid of nickel, because the alkaline solution, from which it had been obtained, gave a black precipitate, with the hidro-sulphuret of ammonia; accordingly, on fusing a portion of this oxid, with borax, under the blow-pipe, it produced a glass of a hyacinth red; the same fact took place with a por- tion of a substance, known to be the oxid of nickel, which was fused with borax, tor the sake of comparison. On fusing a portion of the chromat of lead, or Siberian red lead ore, with borax, and afterwards with vitreous phosphoric acid, glasses of an emerald green colour were produced.
Hence it was concluded, that the meteoric stones of Weston do not contain chrome, but that the green oxid obtained, was the oxid of nickel.
No: LILI.
Observations of the Comet which appeared in September 1807, in the Island of Cuba, by J. J. de Ferrer.
Read August 19th, 1808.
Mean time at the The observed long. The observed lat.
City of Havanna. of the Comet. of the Comet. h ow ° son °o , u 1807. Octr. 1 6 54 50 220 21 12 18 46 03 N. 18 6 54 42 : 234 3@ 58 37 41 11 Novr. 3 - 6 56 05 251.41 25 51 13 00 4 . 6 49 30 252.57 08 51 54 42 a 6 44 20 257 02 22 53 54 18 17 7 04 26 272 54 40 99 17 31 18 6 27 36 274 37 42 59 42 37 19 6 44 10 276 27 40 60 06 13 25 6 59 07 287 53 57 61 56 32 Decr. 1 7 26 00 299 55 31 62 51 30
The longitudes and latitudes of the preceding table, have been deduced from angular distances observed of Arcturus, Vega, Altair, «, g and» in the Swan, with the circle of re- flection, described in page 265 of this volume.
The observations from the 1st Octr. till the 7th Novr. were made in the city of Havanna, the others at the plantation of
346 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
Don Joseph de Cotilla, situated in latitude 22° 55’ 16” N. and 44,3, in time, E. of Havanna. a
The times of the observations were determined by a good chronometer, regulated by absolute and corresponding altitudes of the sun and stars, and the times observed at the plantation, are referred to the city of Havanna, by the difterence of meri- -dians.
To determine the place of the comet, many series of obser- vations were made with two or three of the above named stars, choosing those that made the most convenient triangles, and as the different observations could not be made at the same time, care has been taken, to refer all the distances observed, to the same instant, by means of the variation observed of the dis- ‘tances of the said stars from the comet.
The distances observed were freed from the effects of refrac- tion, corrected by reference to the state of the thermometer and barometer.
The places of the stars were taken from the Connoisance de temps, of Paris, 1806; allowance being made for the proper motion, precession of the equinox, an and aberration. Further, the latitudes and longitudes of the said table are the apparent, that is, affected by the nutation and aberration, The elements of the orbit of the comet were calculated from the first observations which I made in Havanna, that is, from Ist Octr. to 7th Novr., by Don Francis Leamur, Lieutenant Col. of the Royal Corps of Engineers, and are the following :—
Passage through the perihelion, mean time at the city of Havanna, Septr. 18th 11> 58’ 59’
Longitude of the ascending node. ‘ : a.) 188 24°39 09" Inclination of the orbit. 5 - . 3 3, Gus 63 12 30 Place of the perihelion. : c : -9 00 45 O1 Perihelion distance, that of the sun being at = 2 0,6462128
After having concluded the observations, namely up to the ist December, I determined to calculate the elements of the parabolic orbit, by the combination of all the observations, and the following elements are the results.
Passage through the perihelion, mean time, at the city of Havanna, Septr. 18, 12h3 Yeoh i at Greenwich, - 18 06 40 Longitude of the ascending node from the. mean equinox==8s 26° 49° 19” Inclination of the orbit. . E ‘ 63 12 51 Place of the perihelion. : ‘ .9 00 51 35
Perihelion distance, that of the sun being tn : - 0,6462667.
BY J. J. DE FERRER. S47
Comparison of the observations with the results of the theory calculated by the above elements. .
The longitudes and latitudes observed and calanlatedi in the following table, are freed from nutation and aberration,
The two last columns shew the difference between the longi- tude and latitude, observed and calculated.
Mean time, |The observed|The observed] Calculated | Calculated |Diff. ;Diff. 1807. Hayanna. | Longitude. Latitude. Longitude. | Latitude. jlong.} lat.
-|——-
ee) ee ty wo 2 a8 COPS eye a, 0 > Wahiihh: 18 ts bya “lu
Ry, Octraca 6 54 50 220 21 14 | 18 46 32 N 220 21 37 | 18 46 30 N | —23} +08 18 6 54 42 234 37 06 | 87 41 36 2343619 | 87 42 15 +47) —39 Novr. 3 6 56 05 251 41 39 | 51 13 17 251 41 36 |} 51 12 55 3} +22 4 6 49 30 252 57°25 | 51°55 00 252 58 12:} 51°54 21 — 49) +39 7 6 44 20 257 02 42 | 53 54 33 257 02 25 | 53.55 O1 +17} —28 17 7 04 26 272 55 16 | 59 17 42 272 55 03 | 59°18 3 +13) —48 18 6 27 36 274 38 23 | 59 42 49 274 38 50 | 59 42 58 —27| —09 19 6 44 10 276 28 21 | 60 06 25 276 28 39 | 60 06 46 —18} —21 25 6 59 07 287 54 41 | 61 56 37 287 53 14] 61 56 51 —33) —14 Decr. J 7 26 00 299 56 18 | 62 51 30 299 56 44 1 62 51 22 —26) +08
Continuation of Astronomical Observations, made at the plantation of Don Joseph de Cotilla.
Determination of Latitude.
1807, Noyr.13 By 8 series of ©’s double altitudes, observed near the meridian, with a
circle of reflection. ©. - *. 22° 55 143”N; 17 ditto ©’s diameter. 22) Jo) tox 21 ditto ditto. : 22 55 O94
mean. 22° 55’ 13’’,5 N.
Novr.17 By 4 series of double altitudes of
the pole-star. . : . 22° 55°20 20 By 2 series of Fomalhat. . 22, 59 “17, . mean. 22 55°18, 5 Mean Latitude: ° : . : : 4 - 22 55 16
By astronomical observations, I have definite the bearing of the highest hill of Camoa, N. 13° 34° 10” W.
The hill of Camoa, from the city of Havanna, according to the survey which was made by the order of Government, was determined 29250. Varas of Castilla as iS geographical miles, bearing S. 45° E.
Latitude of Havanna, according to a eek number of obsery ations
made with the same circular reflector. 2 3 od 95° 08’ 30” Hill of Camoa S. 45 E. 13’,11 miles, difference of latitude - = 9 16 Latitude of the hill of Camoa. . 3 22.59 14 By direct observations on the hill, with the circular. ; 7ern22) 59°18
Mean latitude of the hill, : . : a 3 . 22 59 16
348 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
The combination of the two bearings, and the latitudes of the hill of Camoa and Havanna, gives the former E. of the city of Havanna 11’ 05”,2=44’,3 in time.
Observations made on a lunar eclipse, on the 14th Novr. 1807.
4 bos
The beginning of the eclipse, apparent time. A ‘ £3 752 12 beginning of immersion of Tycho. : . 14 15 52
end of immersion of Tycho, si : é - 1419 12
~ beginning of Mare humorum. ’ F . «~ 14 23 32 end of the eclipse. 7 : . : 15 58 42
Observation of apparent lunar distances, observed with the circle of reflection, at the plantation.—The distances in the fol- lowing table are the result of 4 series of direct and inverse ob- servations.
1807. {Appt. time! Appt. Dist. | Ther. haem Oe e Novr. 14) 8 01 12] a ¥ €’s remote limb. : : 19 06 40 653 8 26 51 ditto. ditto. ° < 18 57 52 15 37 40] a & C’s nearest limb. ig ’ 16 45 37 17 9 07 30 ditto. ditto. . F 20 51 04 66 9 24 40 ditto. ditto. . . «| 21 00 46 19 |} 20 31 20} © Cnearest limbs. . a se LS od Ocoee 72 21 17 28 ditto. : . E 117 50 13 Chl ei ER Pay) ditto. 4 A . 4 92 16 37 75 22 | 17 25 27} a tp C’s nearest limb. or gta 41 43 54 67 24 117 53 15 ditto. ditto. 7 . 12 37 06 65 22,01, 88-6) © Ses ; A ° 51 56 57 72 22°16 12 | ditto. 4 is c A 51 51 26 Decr. 2 | 22 57 34} ditto. 5 c : 4 52 58 33 77 25 23 09 | ditto. " : 6 = 53 09 295 AG 285874 20h edittoss . sapeea. weeded <aercate 53 22 46 Boor S04 | dition jake can eubee Re 58 42 143 4} 3 50 27 | ditto. ; : A : ¥ 66 14 574 | 74 4 11 51 | ditto. a. 5 . é P 66 19 55 Cd 1 51 48} ditto. , . E 4 6 : 99 05 41 74 2 11 58 | ditto. G , é s ° 99 12 32 6 14 33 | @’s and Atair nearest limb- 58 57 49 70 6 26 30 ditto. 4 ° 59 00 25 9 | 6 33 59 | €a@ & remote limb. é 47 53 01 69 15 | 7 04 51} €a ¥& remote limb. s .* 29 03 303 | 74 7 16:24 ditto. ditto. | 4 4 29 10 25 20 | 12 13 28 | Cand Regulus remote limb. 21 25 48 70 , 12:18 16 e ditto. ie eS 21 28 25 1808, 12 31 02 ditto- “ . 7 21 35 14 Jan. 11] 14 06 42] € a yw nearest limb. P ; 26 13 05 68 14 23 14 |- ditto, 4 : 4 ‘ 26 18 48 19 | 16 08 31 | € and Antaresnearest limb. ~. | 37 4455 | 55 16 23 02 ditto. ° t A 387 39 58 A) hl Be Es oS ons i s “ ; 61 55 05 71
21 45 24 ditto. ¥ : : 61 49 10
BY J.» J. DE FERRER. 349
January \1th, 1808. Occultation of » x by the moon.
Apparent time. 14h 46’ 11’’,4
Immersion on the dark limb. Mean time.’.. #11454 39,0
The disappearance was instantaneous—magnifying power of the telescope, 75.
January 27. By four series of double altitudes of Canopus, near the meridian, observed with the circular reflector, correct- ed by the horary angles, and refraction, the meridian altitude was determined. x " : ; 14° 28’ 53,5” By 4 series of similar observations on Sirius, 50 36 54,4
By 10 series of angular distances, observed with the circular reflector, and corrected for refraction, the mutual distance was determined 36° 17’ 19,4”.
The difference of right ascension in time, of the above stars == 6-059,5" ¢
By the distance observed, and the difference of right ascen-
sion results the difference of declination. 36° O08’ 00,4” The difference of meridional! altitudes =dif- ference of declinations. i i . 386 O8 00,9
Taking the latitude of the place as stated above 22° 55’ 16” and correcting the meridional altitudes observed, from nutation, aberration, and precession, we have the true, or mean declina- tions of the two stars on Ist January 1808.
Canopus. : : - 52° $5’ 34,9” Sirius. : - al i27 936.8
Comparing the observations of la Caille on 1750, and sup- posing the annual precession in longitude=50, 1” we have the proper motion of Canopus in declination in 58 years—o’ 10,1” ©
Sirius. : : 4 +1 02,0 Mean declination of Sirius, according to the Rev. Nevill Maly ne on the Ist of January, 1808. A ' ‘ 16°..27° 30° Connoisance de temps- : ; . - 16 27 38,6 By the observation with the cir cular refleetor. : : : : 16 27 36,8
Astronomical observations made at the city of Havanna. La- titude_of the place 23° 08’ 30”.
Occultations of stars by the moon, observed with an Achro- matic telescope—magnifying power 75.
April 5th, 1808. € 1 @ 95 onthe dark limb, apparent time. : : 11h 53’ 34” Play 2d, 374 of Mayer onthe dark limb. ditto. k P oe 9 OL, 49 3d, w Lion on the dark limb. ditto. ; : . 10 33-49
The immersions were instantaneous.
350 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
Observations made on a lunar eclipse at the city of Havanna, on the 9th of May, 1808 Same SES ANE power of the tele- scope 70.
IMMERSIONS. eed time. EMERSIONS, Meas time. UJ uu é “ Beginning of the Eclipse. : 12 22 29 | End of total darkness of the € 14 55 10 Beginning of Grimaldus. : 12 27 18 | End of Grimaldus. 5 15 01 50 End of ditto. = 2 toy 408 Beginning of Aristarcus. : 12 28 38 j End of ditto. : 12 30 08 | End of Aristarcus. F F - 15 05 45 Beginning of Mare humorum. 12 37 57 | Beginning of Tycho. ; : 15 14 14 ditto. of Copernicus. ; 12 39 37 | End of ditto. . ¢ 15 15 47 End of ditto 4 >: 12 40 57 | Center of Schikardus. : . 15 19,28 Beginning of Plato. : »| 12 43 57 End of do. : . 12 45 07 | End of Plato. ; : Lee) ee Beginning of Mare serenitat. 12 50 57 | Beginning of Mare serenitat. 15 28 29 Center o ditto. . - +12 55 16 } Center of ditto. p -, 15 33 07, Beginning of Tycho. : : 12 56 46 | End of . ditto. - » 15.37 57 End of ditto. 5 . 12 58 41 | End of Taruntius. 2 . 15 44 17 Beginning of Mare Crisium. 3 09 21 | Beginning of Mare crisium. . 15 46°46 End of ditto. -- , ~ 43°14 20 | End of ditto. 4 - 15 49 26 End of Langrenus. 5 5 3 18 00 Total darkness of the €. : 3 21 25 | The end of the eclipse. . - 15 54 36
The above observations of the lunar eclipse are very exact, excepting the beginning and the end of the eclipse, which are liable to the error of one and ahalf minute, on account of the strong penumbra.
Table of the results of the occultations of the stars by the moon.
Imm, » 11 € (Imm. lags ClIm. 347mayer| Imm. w Q € at plantation | Havanna. Havanna. Havanna. Jan. 11, 1808.) April 5, 1808./May 2, 1808.} May 3, 1808
hig fs 8 Lee ar) hy esiae ey
Mean time of immersions. : 14 54 32 11 56 07 8 58 14 10 31 26 Longitude west from Paris. . 5 38 06 5 38 50 5 38 50 5 38 50 Mean time at Paris. . 20 32 38 17 34 57 14 37 04 16 10 06 Apparent longitude of the stars, 94°07 55 | 130926 03,6] 124 45 10,5 | 138 52 00 Apparent latitude of the stars. 3 0448S] 529 345) 5 2048S) 5 3407S. Latitude Vertical angle. 22 47 52 23 01 13 Logarithmic radius of the earth. 9.9998036 9.9998000 Equatorial horiz. parallax of the C 57 23,8 58 24,5 57 15 58 05,3 Parallax in Longitude. ° —45 36,0 —41 35,9 —35 44,5 —38 52,3 Parallax in latitude. . +13 05,2] +29-17,9] +422 38,3] +31 16,2 Apparent difference of latitude be-
tween the moon and stars. 5 03 6 08,0 7 36,0 14 31 Conjunction mean time. Z 1Sn59 34 Havanna west from the plantation. 44,3 Conjunction in Hayanna by obsery.| 13 58 49,7] 11h09 37 8 18 11 9 34 82 At Paris by the new tables. 19 38 24,0} 16 48 51 13 57 11 15 13 40
—.
— ———
Hayanna west from Paris. § 39 34,8 5 39 14 5 39 00 5 39 08
co or ~
BY J. J. DE FERRER,
Results of observed lunar distances.
January 11th, 1808 January 19th, 1808. Cary Cay € & Antares. C& Antares
high eT Be hee sar cae gs
Apparent time of the observations.| 14 06 43 14 23 18 16 08 31 16 23 02 Apparent distances nearest limb. | 26°13 05 26°18 48,2) 37 44 45 37 39 55 Appt. | 43.03 40 | 392720 | 47 1820 | 48 37 00 Altitules ob calewlated tees 43 4931 | 40 1030 | 47 57 34_| 49 35 01,3 Appt. | 165140 | 1307 10 | 133330 | 16 13 20 Altitudes of the starsdo. 2-prie, | 16 48 41 | 13 63 20 | 13 29 41 | 16 10 09
Corrected distances. . 27 12 22,8] 27 21 06,4) 38 37 06,1) 38 29 02,8 Apparent longitude of the stars. 67 06 52,3 247 05 00,6 Apparent latitude of ditto. 5 28 47S. 4 32 30S.
True longitude of the moon by | obser- vations January 11th, 14h 15’ 00,5 4 5 35 04° 21° 02’’,7 bs Apparent time at the Plantation.
January 19th at 16 15’ 46”,5 apparent time. : 6 28 30 03,5 Havanna W from Paris. Longitude of the Plantation W. from Paris=5" 38’ 29” 7 44",5 3 = 5h 39’ 14 Ditto from the observation of 19th . 5 38 18, 5+44, 3 ogee Or SOROS
Solar eclipse of June 16th, 1806, in the city of Havanna.
Apparent time. Dist. of the horns. h ¢ ww ‘ 8 55 34,6 beginning of the eclipse 0 00,07) 8 57 20,2 a A 5 “ 3 6 12,9 8 59 22,0 . 4 p, - 8 51,6] Observed by Don Antonio de 9 02 08,6 “ . . 4 - 11 40,0 + Robredo, with a Heliometer 9 04 35,8 . 3 ; - - . 13 31,5] of Dollond. 9 07 44,0 ° . , ° Per LOR Ail 9 11 40,0 . ° . Lee AGSS
With the elements of page 270 of this Volume, I haye calculated Zs the conjunction, by the beginning, June 15th. : «= 22'50 58 By the first observation of distance : : ; ° : 22 51 03 By the second. 5 . . . A : . . 5 § 22 51 07 By the third. I . oi tone : ; =feie 22 51 04 Conjunction June 15th, Astronomical time. . : : . 22 51 03 Ditto. _in Paris, page 296, June 16th. coe ; : . 4 30 12
Havanna west from Paris. = , 4 : 5 . : 39 09
By the Solar Eclipse (page 162, ) observed in the city of Havanna,
and at Lancaster in Pennsylvania. U. S.
Havanna west from Lancaster 3 oops - Ob 24° 95’" Lancaster west from Paris (page 297.) aN Se Pi oo vo aan OP Ler ek
Havanna west from Paris. 4 . Z A : . - 5 39 06
$52 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS e
Longitude of avanna, by the observations compared with the
new tables published at Paris in 1806.
- , d ” anuary 11, 1808. RN A 5 39 34 Occultations of stars. April 5. - . . ° 5 39 14 May 2. . : ; - 5 39 00 ? May 3. . 3 . 5 39 08 1s € « & January 11. ; - - 539 14 Distances of moon. f a th yaaa 19... ; . § 3903 Solar eclipse, 1803. : . 2 : 5 : A 5 38 16 do. 1806. . 5 . : * -- 5 38 20 Moon’s eclipse, May 9, 1808. 5 - 4 5 38 51 5 38 355 By corresponding observations of solar oeapee February 21, 1805. é : . g - 3 39° 06 Ditto June 16, 1806. - 3 5 5 ‘ ¥ 5 39 09 5 39 07 Havanna inferred from mayest oe by the chrono- meter, No. 63. . : ' Pass for? gsi 7 Inferred from Veracruz, page 295. . : - : 5:38) 3 Ditto from Porto Rico, page 225. tae, + 5 38 34 —— 5 38 50 Hayanna west from Paris. Coe ae as a pedi tas 5 38 57
Passage of Venus over the disk of the Sun, June 3d, 1769.
Elements from Astronomical tables at ‘ + 10h 11° 47” mean time at Paris.
Longitude of the sun, apparent a 5 Tae LUMA
Right ascension ofthe sun... eh es tee) OS, LG
Horary motion in ©’s right ascension. . 2°34.
Relative horary motion in longitude - 3 3 57,40
Horary motion of Venus in latitude S, ‘ - 0 35,42
Inclination of the orbit. zg c 5 - 8 29 10,00
Apparent obliquity of the ecliptic . 3 - a" 28h eo
Radius vector of the earth. 3 . . 1,0151990 < Radius vector of Venus. rm : my . 0,7262650
©’s semidiameter. . a ae A 15’ 47",07
By a previous calculation of the observations of this: passage, I had determined the following elements:—
Sun’s parallax at the mean distance from the earth = 8762378
Apparent conjunction, mean time at Paris == 10h 11° 47°”
Apparent longitude of Venus. : : «= 1d 2h, 18,3
Duration of the passage between the interior contacts = 5h 41° 54’°,5 inmean time. or 5 41 52,1lin pe sur time.
Latitude of Venus at conjunction, north. . . . 10 15,94
The shortest distance of the centers. , 2 = 10 09,18
Difference of the semidiameters of © and Q. 2 : 15 15,89
Snm of the semidiameters. 16 13,27
Ditierence of Venus and sun’s parallaxes at the passage = = 21,352
BY J. J. DE FERRER. 553
TABLE I.
Reduction of the observations to the center of the earth.
Appt. time] Effect | Appt. time] Long. | Contacts at center of earth.
of the ob- of ofcon.cen-}. from |Appt. time at merid.of Paris petvatiiys. Parallax|ter of earth] Paris. il. | III. IV. 1, Dee, Tl Jeet bard Nero Bat. 2! dl) WM Do 7 Leb rae (3 Wish eae Petersburg. | III | 15 24 41 | —5 16 | 15 19 25 |—1 51 56 13 27 29 IV | 15 43.27 | —4 58 | 15 38 29 13 46 33 Cajaneburg. | II 9 20 45 | +6 44] 9 27 29 |—1 41 47 |7 45 48 IV | 15 32 27 | —4 36 | 15:27 51 13 46 10 Wardhus. II 9 34 10 | +6 27 | 9 40 37 |—1 55 OF |7 45 30 , III | 15 27:24 | —4 33 | 15 22 51 13/27 44 IV | 15 45 41 | —4 09 | 15 41 32 13 46 25 Batavia. III | 20 30 13 | —4 02 | 20 26 11 |--6 58 15 13 27 56 IV | 20 48 31 | —3 45 | 20 44 46 13 46 31 Gurief. III | 16 52 25 | —6 28 | 16 45 57 |3 18 24 13 27 33 BVS) Ao 06 | —6 06 | 17 05 00 13 46 36 Oremburg. | III | 17 05 06 | —6 12 | 16 58 24 |—3 30 58 13 27 56 IV | 17 23 24 | —5 53 | 17 17 3 13 46 33 Orsk. Ill | 17 18 26 | —6 09 | 17 12 17 |—S 44 43 13 27 34 IV | 17 36 57 | —5 52 } 17 31 05 \13 46 22 Pekin. III | 21 08 24 | —4 27 | 21 03 57 |~7 36 30 13 27 27 IV | 21 26 54 | —3 54 | 21 23 00 13 46 30
Mean results of the III and IV Contacts 13 27 39,9|16 46 27,5
In the calculation of this and the following tables, the paral- lax of the sun, at the mean distance of the earth 862378, and the difference of parallaxes at the passage =21”,352.
Note. The III contact at Petersburg was observed 13* 28’ 29” and I subtracted one minute of time, being probably an error committed in setting down the time of the clock.
TABLE I. Reduction of the-observation to ihe center of the earth.
Apparent Effect Appt.time at[ Appt. time of con.
time of of the center | Longitudes | at center of the observations.| parallax. |of the earth.| from Paris. | earth at Paris. fee oe} te: 1 We Ch EG bd AB ene 2 h yom Paris. IL 7 38 45 +7 03,1 7.45 48.1 Greenwich. T2925 +7 04,2 | 736 29:2 |+00 09 21 7 45 50,2 Kew. tigi Wg +7 04,2 7 35 21,2.) +. 10 24] .7 45 45,2 Oxford. 7 24 20 +7 02.0 Liglwes 1423 7 45 45 London. 7 29 16 +7 04,0 7 36 20 ake Var 7 45 37 Steckholm. 8 41 45 +6 56,0 8 48 42 states MINS 7 45 47 Upsal. 8 40 12 +6 57,4 8 47 09 — 1. O01 49 7 45 54,4 Mean. +7 01,6 Mean ° 7 45 49,5
B54 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
-
TABLE III. Apparent time Effect of Appt. time at the observations, parallax. center of the earth Rigs oe 7; # Leeder 7) il 1315923 +4 12,1 1 19 35,1 Fort Prince of Wales Il 7 00 47 +0 39,1 7 01 26,1 Iv 7 19 20 +0 49,5 7 20 09,5 UO ize -L0 20,3 0 17 47,3 St. Joseph. UI 5 54 50 44 47,9 5.59 37,9 IV 6 13 19 +4 46,0 6 18 05,0 ee Il . 21 44 04 Ess 3am 21 38 30,6 al ; ll | 3 14°08 +6 174 3 20 25,4 : z I 213 45 3.3 7 23 gi ouite ge § rr 2 31 28 3 54 2 35.22 , I= 2 26 12 +2 23,6 2 28 35,6 Gectee ese tat § Il 2 44 44,5 +2 37,6 2 47 29,1 Cambridge Il 2 47 30,0 +4 19,0 2 51 49,0 TABLE IV.
Difference of time between the interior and exterior contacts at the
center of the earth.
, “
Petersburg < . ; : c 19 04) Wardhus. . A ; ° F . 18 41 bs Batavia. A % 7 7 ‘ . d 18735 Oremburg ‘ : : : : . - 18 37 Gurief. 5 c : 5 x : . 19 03 p>Egress. Orsk. > 4 5 . c . - 18 48 Pekin. r : ; é : E; 19 03 Fort Prince of Wales. : < “ 6 18 42 St. FOseph. : 5 . , : . 18 27 Greenwich. ° 2 ‘ 4 a . 18 48
~Cape Francais. : : : ; . 18 are Ingress. Oxford. J - 3 . 5 A - 18 41
Mean. 4 . . 18 46,4
d h (Por
IV contact at Paris, center of the earth, Table I. 13 46 27,5 effect of parallax. Mean result of Table IV. : . : ; —18 46,4 III contact by the observations of IV contact. 3 13 27 41,1 -—4 54,1 By the mean of direct observations, Table I. d 13 27 39,9 —5 18,1 Mean result for the III contact. : 4 ; - 1S 27 40,5 —5 06,1 II contact by Table II. . E 4 c e . 45 49,5 +7 01,6 Total duration of the interior contacts (n) f “ 5 41 51,0 —12 07,7 By the observations of Wardhus. « 5b 42° 14,0 By ditto Cajaneburg. 3 41 35 5 ds ral § ee
Mean. . : (a) 5 41 52,9 —11 38,8 By the observations at Taity. . a : : 5 41 54,8 +11 50,8 By the observations at St. Joseph. ‘ . 5 41 50,6 + 4 27,6
By ditto - F.P. Wales, Sete cm 5 41 51,0 — 3 33,0
BY J. J. DE FERRER.
co Sr we
Results of sun’s parallar at the mean distance of the earth.
By the duration, at Taity and (n) 5
Taity and Wardhus. Taity and Cajaneburg.
St. Joseph and F, P. Wales.
St. Joseph and (a) =
Taity and F. P. Wales. = _
Mean result.
Taity and (a)
8,731) 8,516 § 8,645) 8,588
+ 8,600 - 8,620
8,628 8,623 ~ 8,616
8,615
Contacts at the center of the earth, for the meridian of Paris; allow-
ing the sun’s parallax at the mean distance of the earth=8",6 15.
I II Ill LV?
Contact.
.
Apparent time. . : .
Error of the duration of the observations at Wardhus.
,
Cajaneburg. (n) - Taity.
St. Joseph.
F. P. Wales.
Determination of the longitude of different places, from Paris, by the observation of the passage of Venus.
Le oes J 2 ; I exterior contact. 5 09 40,0 Philadelphia, by the on interior contact. 5 10 27,5 : I wes (0 ANB 9755 Cape Francais. Ul 4 . 458 ats Cambridge, N. Eng. II - Taity Ths. 10 07 17,9 aity. Ill 10 07 16,6 Il 7 28 01,6 St. Joseph. IIL 7 28 03.9% - Il 6 26 13,5 F.P. Wales. - - 3737 6 23 i53¢ inte. = 18 1 54 47,6 Wardhus. ill 1 55 09,9 ; Iv : 1 55 07,1 : Ir. 1 41 39,6 Cajaneburg. Iv 1 41 a36¢ Gurief III 3 18 15 urief. IV : 3 18 32 : lil 3 30 42 Oremburg. IV 3 31 03 i lll 3 44 35 Orsk. lV i 3 44 37 : Ill 6 58 30 Batavia. IV 6 58 18 “ Ill : 7 36 16 Pekin. . IV 2 Ee OOS R a 5 Petersburg. a ar i 32 ol } Ave
h ’
= § 10 03,7 W.
4 58 97,5 W. 4 54 00,5 W. 10 07 17,2 w.
7 28 02.8 w. 6 26 14,4 w.
155 01,5 E.
1 41 31,5 E. 3 18 23,5 E. 3 30 52,5 E. 3 44 36,0 F, 6 58 24,0 E. 7 36 24,5 E. 1 51 52,5 E.
356 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
Passage of Mercury over the disk of the Sun, Novr. 12th, 1782.
he Mapai I contact 9 34 50 : - 1 Op tba 9 40 00 Pah i Philadelphia. 3, , - 10 51 soe Mesa time. TVs ° 10 57 35 I - 2 2 58 04, Paris. eieaes II hz 2 04 30 } Apparent time. ones - - 417 40 Greenwich. ‘ Il . 2 54 42 Apparent time.
Cee, DT psoas. AO AIG Cambridge in New 9 yyy ¥ ; 11 23 06$ Apparent time.
England. wnt , 11 29 14
Difference of © and $’s semidiameters. . + 16’ 047,27
Difference of horizontal parallaxes. : . . 4, OL
Horary relative motion in ie : F - 3 53, 45
Horary motion of 8 in latitude, N. : - aly 9! Appt. conjunction at Paris, by the obsery. at Paris and Greenwich = 4h 4’ 09” Apparent conjunction, by obseryations at Philadelphia. . 22° 53 59 Apparent conjunction Cambridge. ng 23 10 16
Longitude of Philadelphia west from Paris. : 5h 10’ 10”
Cambridge west from Paris . 4 53-453
Passage of Mercury over the disk of the sun, Novr. 5th, 1787.
Observations. Apparent time hseru Paris, interior contact at the ingress. S . 1 19 00 Viviers. . : : . do. : a ; 1 28 32 Cadiz. z - do. 4 : : - 0 44 30 Marseilles. . cC do. . C AreSh 07 Montauban. : . do. A . 115 14 Vienna. A . a? do.stae : 5 ¢ 215 08 Prague. : . cendo. . : . 207 26 I | “ ; io ‘i + 20 08 00 : A Il . . . ° cSe rd 20 09 30 eee. au, i PRED . HED 800059 84 IV 5 2 - so abe - 101 14 I r c <4 . . c - 20 24 04 Cambridge in II - ‘. t . . 4 + 20 25 52 N. England. II ° : : Bice - 1 15 44 IV c : 3 eg : wd 30: Montevideo I. C i é : : ° 2 AS Aa Iv . 5 2 , 2 °16°54 Difference of the horizontal parallaxes. : = 4’",149 Horary relative motion in longitude between the i ingress and conj. 349,55 Between the egress and ge aia . > « 350,00 Horary motion in latitude, N : : a . : é 51,40 3 diameter of ©—1”,50 irradiation. . : 2 & sal ates Apparent conjunction at Paris, by the observations in Europe = 3 33 16 Philadelphia. : . . . - 22 23 22 Cambridge ° ° “ i Baler ate SPs) Montevideo. . ° . 23 39 O01 Longitude of Philadelphia west from Paris. 5 . . 5 09 54 Cambridge west from Paris. i - . - 4 53 40
Monteyideo west from Paris. ; - - 3 54 15
BY J. J. DE FERRER. 357
Annular eclipse, April 3d, 1791.
Elements from the Astronomical tables published at Paris, in the year 1806, by order of the Commissioners of longitude.
bh? oe 1791. April 3. Astronomical mean time at Paris. . “ 0 54 40 ©’s longitude from the apparent equinox. 5 : - 13°41 58 ©’s right ascension in time. “ : : : ° Oh 50 25 @’s semidiameter. . 3 : . : : ‘ 0°16 00,42 Equation of time. : Fi : . ° . - /+ 3 17,53 ©’s horary motion in longitude. ° b 5 5 . 5 2 27,59 Horary motion in ©’s right ascension in time * ; , : : 9,10 Horary diminution of the equation of time. 7 3 é 5 x 0,90 (’s longitude from the apparent uetios: : : . 3 13°41 37,8 €@’s north polar distance. _ - : : 89 15 05,9 €’s equatorial horizontal par allax. 5 ; : aides pabite Nbauiis 54 36,1 ©’s equatorial horizontal parallax. s : . . . ° 8,6 Apparent obliquity of the ecliptic. : “ . : eral > 23 27 53,0 Moon’s horary motion in longitude. : S : ‘ 4 . 30 12,97 Moon’s horary motion in latitude S. : : . ° ‘ . 2 46,72 Horary diminution of €’s horizontal parallax. . 00,75 Equation of 2d order of the €’s horary motion in longitude. . — 00,40 ditto ditto ditto in latitude. 5 + 00,11
Proportion of the equatorial horiz. paral. and the C’s horiz. diameter. 60:52 45,1 Proportion of the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth = 330 : 329
Observations made by the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne, at Greenwich.
Oh 18° 40°” Apparent time, beginning of the eclipse.
"1 445 51 Least distance of the limbs. 12° 52” 3 06 47 End of the eclipse. By the mean result of 8 obseryations, ©’s diameter was re 317. 574,0) hi Pam A ae rh Peet)
Apparent time of the observations at Greenwich. 0 18 40 1 44 51 3 06 47 Difference of € and © equatorial parallaxes. O 54 27,8 54 26,7 54 25,8 Parallax in longitude. &: - 7 : 4 —18 02,4 —29 07,0 —38 05,0 Parallax in latitude. C : —34 47,1 —30 18,6 —27 10,4 €’s apparent Reane tee ae inflexion. 3 15 02,2 15 01,0 14 59,0 ©’s semidiameter—2” irradiation. f = 15 58,4 15 58,4 15 58,4 Conjunction at Greenwich by the combination of the beginning and
the end of the eclipse. 5 5 apparent time. . ; A Oh 45° 167,5 Correction of latitude by the tables. 4 : 2 Z , : a 13 By the least distance of the limbs. : : : 5 obs . 13,6 Supposing the irradiation of the sun’s semidiameter ° = 1,8 The ©’s diameter was observed . 5 . 31’ 57,0 ¢ By the tables. c a . 32 00, 8
9% ao a ao The corrected distance of the Euan a Oe ee HO EOE. v4,
The double irradiation. . ry iS . : — 3,6 True distance of the limbs. +] &, é 12 49, 9
And the correction of moon’s latitude commenced fr om the effect of refraction =+-11",5 Conjunction at Paris =(0b 45° 16° *,9--9' 21”) =00b 54° 37755
Observations at the National Observatory of Paris.
Beginning of the eclipse, apparent time. ee : = 0h 36° 55,4, End of the eclipse. —- . : : : 3 20 52 0
358 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS . Conj. at Paris by the combination of the beginning and end gf the eclipse. Ob 54° 38,5 Correction of the C’s latitude by the new tables =+ 00 09 beginning, apparent time. 5 . : oy =" e210) 70 Palermo, se BH o : : ; f : ; 3 59°20, 4 Conjunction at Palcumb. . F a , fi 1. 18 45 Conjunction at Paris = 1h 38° 45”,5 44’ 06" = 0 54 39, 5 Correction of €’s latitude . 5 z =+ 11, 0 apparent time, beginning of the eclipse. ° 256230) Petersburg § end of the eclipse. ’ 5 21.26; By the combination of the beginning and end, conjunction in mean time =|} 2 46 37,6 Conjunction at Paris, meantime = (Qh 46 Bye 6—1h 51’ 56") = O 54 41, 6 Correction of the @’s latitude by the tables. : 4 2 =+ 10, 0 bh ’ wu uv By the observations of Greenwich, conj. at Paris=0 54 37,5 correction of @’s lat. =11,5 By ditto Paris. i O 54 38,5 F r E, + 9,0 By ditto Palermo. S 0 54 39,5 - a 3 +11 By ditto Petersburg. - O 54 41,0 a é : +10 Conjunction at Pari is, Mean time. . 0 54 39 . & +10,3 Correction of @’s longitude by the new tables. c - F =-+20,3 Observations at Cambridge, New England. L Wht dean) April 2 18 01 27 Apparent time, beginning of the eclipse 19 08 07 Annular formation. 19 12 56 Annular break. 20 28 26 End of the eclipse. Mies eace. Be 2, eat ety Apparent time of observation. —« 19 08 07 19 12 56 20 28 26 Moon’s latitude by tables +10%,3 N. AZ 21,7 47 08,4 3 38,7 @s equatorial horizontal ete 54 28,1 54 28,1 54 27,2 Parallax in longitude. 5 s . 21 46,4 21 34,6 16 36,1 Parallax in latitude. ‘ Om aes ae 47 28.6 47 18,3 43 52,6 Apparent latitude of the € Ss. . 00 06,9 00 09,9 00 13, Horizontal } diameters of the € ° 14 54,32 14 54,32 14 54,23 Augmentation of the C’s 3 diameter. : 4,00 ’ 4,27 7,22 €’s apparent semidiameters. e 14 58,32 14 58 59 15 01,45 ©’s semidiameter from the tables. 4 16 00,42 16 00,42 16 00,42 ee es and sum of semidiameters 1 02,10 1 01,83 $1 01,87 Hor ary relative motion in longitude between the formation of the annular and the time of the conjunction. . % b 4 f 27° 45",8 Between the end of the eclipse and the conjunction. h apy 45,2 Results : difference of semidiameter between the formation a the ; breaking of the annular, by observation. 3 A F 7 = 61,45 vg “,83 . : ° fs - By the Tables. —L ©? es ES . 61,96 Correction of the difference of semidiameters by the tables. 3 E é —00,51 Correction of the sum of semidiameters. a 2 — 4,40 Biot v Conjunction from the annular formation, mean time 20 00 40,8 annular breaking, A 20 00 40,8 end of the’eclipse. - 20 00 A0,8 Longitude west from Paris 4 s=dh 53/ 58,2
=) or ©
BY Je J. DE FERRER.
Observation in the City of Philadelphia.
hee
Formation of annulus, 18 46 11,5 Apparent time ;
Break of annulus. . - 18 50 28,5 Ci Observed by Mr. Rittenhouse
End of the eclipse. : 20 03 42 .
BY Cena Ri <4) ae Rie
Apparent time of the observation. - 18 46 11,5 18 50 28,5 20 03 42 @’s latitude by the tables-+10",3 N. 00 47 37,5 _ 00 47 25,5 44 01,9 Parallax in latitude. : 5 5 -— 47 07,1 46 59,3 43 58,5 Apparent latitude of the € + aN 245100) 3054 00 26,2 00 03,4 Parallax in longitude. . . : ° 24 35,3 24 28,3 20 35,4 C’s apparent semidiameter. ‘| . 14 57,35 14 57,56 15 00,74 Semidiameter of the sun. A : 4 16 00,42 16 00,42 16 00,42 Diff: and sum of € and ©’s semidiameters. 1 03,07 1 02,86 31 01,16
With the corrections—0”,5 for the difference of semidiameters and—4’’,4 for the sum of semidiameters, according to the results of the observations at Cambridge, we have the following results :—
Conj. by the formation of the annulus. Meantime. 19h 44° 37” By the breaking of the annulus. www CdD 4A S38 ‘ 19h 44° 37’,6 By the-end of the eclipse. 19 44 38
Longitude of Philadelphia west from Paris. . = 5 10 01,4
Observations at George Town, Maryland.
5 asi Talla Formation of annulus. 18 36.43 Apparent time) ~ Break of annulus. : 18 39 57 3 5 Rovserea by Andrew Ellicott. Esg: By the end of the eclipse. 19 52 21 7 3 : ’ w Conjunct. by the formation of annulus, meantime. 19 37 00 By the breaking of ditto. 5 - 19 37 00% 19h 36’ 58”,5 By the end of the eclipse. 5 19.36 53
Longitude of George Town west from Paris. 0 , -= 5 17 40,5
Note. I have subtracted 1’ of time from the formation and the breaking of the annulus, from the observations at Philadelphia, and added 1’ of time to the formation of the annulus at George Town, those errors having been discovered by the result of the observations.
By the combination of the observations of the annular eclipse of the sun, April 3, 1791, Ihave determined the corrections of the
Lradiation of the ©’s semidiameter =— 1’,70 inflex. of €’s semidiameter =—2”,00
Pave 298 (1806. Total eclipse of the @ — 1, 87 : Shan : . —1, 93
Pris 1764. Annular eclipseoftheQ@ —2,15 so. we, 885
Violuine 1801. Occultation of 2 MG). 4 4 4 ° - E * —1, 82 * “1799. Passage of 8 over the © —1, 50 3 , : 5
Mean correction of the irradiation : - —1, 80 + inflexion. a - 1, 75
Recapitulation of the results of longitudes of Philadelphia und Cam- bridge W. from Paris.
Philadelphia, Cambtidge.
: , 08h. aor 1769. Passage of Venus. , +. 4510 03,7 4 54 00,5 1782. Passage of Mercury. - 510 10 4 53 53,0 1789. Passage of Mercury. . . » 5 09 54 4 53 40 » 1791. ©’s annular eclipse. ° « 510 01,4 4 53 58,5 1806. Solar eclipse, page 297. . ..._ 5 09.57,0 ) i
: Mean results, . . 5 10 01,2 4 53°53 ~
Bb
( 360 )
No. ‘Lili:
Notes; with corrections, to be applied to the geographical situations inserted from page 158 to page 164, in the first part of the pre- sent volume of Transactions, by J. J. de Ferrer.
Read December 2d, 1808. ,
NOTE I.
THE Longitude of New York (page 297) deduced from the solar eclipse, observed at Kinderhook, and thence transfer- red. by chronometer, is to the west of Paris 5" 05’ 23”; and by observations of the solar eclipse the 26th of June 1805, at Lancaster and New York, the result gave the longitude of New York to the eastward of Lancaster (page 296) 9’ 16” in time.
hse. Lancaster west of Paris, (page 297) = 51441 Hence New York west of Paris =(5h 14° AY" a 16") = 505 25 By the mean result, New York 3 5 05 24 Greenwich west of Paris, “ . . 2 ° : Sy 2k New York west of Greenwich - . - AUF disertt bere Sh” Lie. 4 56 03=74° 00° 45” In page 158. : : > : : : . : : . 74 07 45 Correction of longitude to be applied to the places inpage 158... : —00 07 00
Thus from the twelve longitudes on the coast, north of Cape May, to New York, subtract 7’ 00” of degree; as the longi- tudes of those points were transferred by a chronometer from the longitude of New York,
«
Occultation of stars by the moon, pea ved at New York.
RGA ale 1805. May 2, Immersion of a star of the seventh magnitude in 11 : 10 24 25,5 July> 8. do. ‘A Ophiuchus . - : - Ee Pe 11 53 09,6 1806. April ‘26. do. d Geminorum. . 8 15 49,3 Septr. 28. do. a star of the sixth magnitude i in Ophiuchts 7 07 10,8
These immersions took place- on the dark limb of the moon, and were observed with an achromatic telescope which mag- nifies 120 times.
CORRECTIONS OF &c. 361
NOTE II.
The longitude of Natchez (page 159) west of Greenwich. : 6 05 54 By page 297 west of Paris 6h 15° 01” or west of Greenwich. . 6 05 40
Correction of the longitudes in page 159 : : > . - —0 00 14 All the longitudes being transferred from that of Natchez by chronometers, there must therefore be subtracted from each 14” of time. NOTE III.
Longitude of La Guira east of Natchez, by correspondent. observations of eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter. h./ @
See the observations of Mr. Ellicott Vol. V. page 189. 1 38 07
Natchez west of Paris, page 297. . - 615 01 4 36 54 Greenwich west of Paris . A RS Ms sho Aha ° 9 21 La Guira west of Paris. =. Bitte Mies : - 4 27 33 ‘And reduced to Greenwich. 3 are ° 66°53 15 ahh “4 In page 162. : 67 0 ae Soreer Hon 01537 : From that of La Guira subtract 6’ ‘537 of degree.
NOTE, IV.
To all the longitudes which follow from C. Bueno to Campe- che, pages 163 and 164,add 5’ 35” of degree, on account of their having been transferred from Havanna, by chronometers; in consequence of the results of the observations, from page 345 to page 357.
NOTE V.
The longitude of Veracruz, page 160, found by the occul- tation of o Sagittarius was 6" $3’ 42”,8. I have compared the corresponding observations with the new tables, and have also determined the position of the star from the best catalogues. The result gives,—
Longitude of Veracruz. 6" 33° 52’’,3 west of Paris, which Reduced to Greenwich is, 96°07 50 is In page 164... =. 96-04 20$ Corzection-=35-3--3p
Hence to all the longitudes trom Veracruz to the Bay (which should be called the shoals) of Gallega, page 164, add 3’ 30” of a degree, they haying been. transferred from Veracruz by triangles.
362 CORRECTION OF NOTE VI.
From all the longitudes on the Ohio and on the Mississippi (page 159) which are expressed in time, subtract 14” of time, or 3’ 30” of a degree, also from the longitudes from the Bar of Santander, to the point on the coast, subtract 3’ 30”. The whole having been transferred from Natchez by chronometers; from the longitude of which last place, a like deduction ot correction is made, as determined trom the last solar eclipse.
Solar eclipse, June 16th, 1806.
After the printing of Nos. XLIII and XLVI], in this Vol. I received the following observations,
Mean time Lee ee End of the eclipsé by Mr. Humbolt. . 6 39 40 Berlin. By M. M. Bode and Olbers. 6 39 40,5 By Mr. Tralles. . - 6 39 42 At Montauban, by Mr Duc la Chapelle, beginning: . F 4 49 53 (Beginning. : 418 42 Royal Observa- | Distance of horns. 8” 277,94 ; + 4 2110 tory in the The clear part of the sun in its s greatest Island of Leon. obscuration z 11’ 51°,81 Solar diameter obabkveas 3 ‘ 31 32, 06
In page 301, from aicommunication by Mr. Simeon De Witt, it appears that the total darkness was instantaneous, or, continued but a moment,
Inlatitude 43° 22° andlongitude east of New York. - ‘ 00° 45° 00”
Inlatitude 41 30 do. west of ditto. : - ° 00 14 00
These last observations are the most important to determine the latitude of the moon, and the difference of the semidiame- ters. It may also be noted that though the total darkness should. not have been instantaneous, ‘but even of a quarter of a minute’s continuance, yet this influence on the result would have been insensible, or not amounting to a single second.
The calculation being applied, it results, that the moment of total darkness was,—
Im latitude ~43° 22° and Jongitude 45” east of New-York at 11h 14’ 07” mean time.
In latitude 41 30 > longitude 14 west of |< do. 11, 07 17 ditto.
Correction of moon’s latitude by the new tables. . ase Correction of the difference of semidiameters by the tables =— 1,12
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONS. 363
The observation at Berlin is also very advantageous in ascer- taining the latitude of the moon; the north apparent latitude of the moon at the moment of the end of the eclipse, from the tables =30' 20”, and the sum of the semidiameters(—3”,9 in- flexion and irradiation)=32' 13”,3. .
The longitude of Berlin deduced from the comparison of many eclipses and occultations, I make 44’ 09”,5 east of Paris, which differs only half a second trom the Connoisance de temps.
The time of conjunction at Paris is known by other observations = 1 With these elements there is a correction in the latitude of the © =-++ 2,0 4 By the distance of centers observed at the Island of Leon at the greatest obscuration. “i . ; ‘ . 4 5 + 6,0 By the determination above. © +. 5 0. 4 we + 33 Mean correction to the latitude inthetables. . Ce ot, 3,8 Hence the latitude of the moon at the conjunction was 7 19 23,1 N Conjunction at Paris by the observations at Montauban and the Island of Leonat . r = : ah ylieey eee hy et 45330,, 10,8 By the mean result, page 296... ope se : 5 : - 4 30 12,6
The longitudes in page 297 are exact, because an error of 6” in the latinade of the mvon, has no influence on the results. The calculations being applied to the observations of Kinder- hook, with the correction of + 3”,8 of the latitude in the ta-
bles we have,
Irradiation of the semidiameter of the sun. ; 5 _ =—2",2 Inflexion of the semidiameter of the moon. : er 6
By the observations, where the total darkness was momen- tary, the same results are obtained, which only differ 00’,27 from the determinations in page 298.
- With the corrections of the tables, determined as above, I have determined the longitude of Havanna, by the observa- tions of this eclipse = 5" 39’ 02” west of Paris.
Note to page 275.
, ” G’" Qo" - oa < 17 Oo 1’ 48’7,16 X 6’°,8=2",6 read@= 48°°,16 % 6” ,8=—2”,6
In line 26, for @= eee 449 30 ar 37"
{ would not pretend to-give any importance to the supposi- tion that the illumination of the lunar disk, proceeds trom the irradiation of the sun, which undoubtedly is not very probable. Neither can it be attributed to the lunar atmosphere. The eye of the observer is affected by the double horizontal refraction
364 CORRECTION OF
of the moon, and in this case the solar disk would be visible to the observer, before it would illuminate the moon, by a quan- tity proportional to the product of the horizontal refraction of the moon, and the relative apparent motion of » and ©.
Appendix to the Memoir XXXVI, pege 213.
In the observations published at Berlin, are contained the observations of the occultation of y 8 the 21st of October, 1793, the same day when the occultation of Aldebaran took place. The combination of these observations appears to me to be very advantageous in determining the parallax of the moon.
Observations of the occultation of y ¥.
Immersions. Emersions. Mean time. Mean time. Lei ee, Bb ifaw. At Figueras by Mr. Mechain. . ’ 9 24 32 . . ° 10 28 47,5 At Milan. . : . 9 57-37 <= . . + 11 04 27,1 At Berlin. c Si gi fo) 29 19,3
Those of Aldebaran are inserted in page 213. By the comparison of 11 eclipses and occultations of stars,
‘oo I determined the longitude of Berlin east of Paris. : : = 44 09,5 Figueras, by two occultations and a solar eclipse. > é f 2 32,8 Milan, in the Connoisance de feraps of 1808. . . . 27;25,0 Marseilles. 5 . $ . 3 12 08,0 Gotha. : pis ° : . : : : : 33 35,5 Marine Obsery atory at Paris. : . oe : . 2,5
Comparing the degrees of a meridian measured at Quito, India, Swedenand France, I determined the ellipticity, or the proportion of the equatorial and polar diameters of the earth, to be $17: 316, which I have made use of in these observations.
Elements by the new tables published at Paris in 1806.
hea hose Conjunction at Paris of € withy ¥ =10 48 39,8 conjunction witha ¥ 17 51 06,0 Apparentslongitude of y ¥ 4 62°55 19,63 7-0 ak, Of) 88, 966,54 37525 Apparent latitude of 7 & < spay as 13,0 Ss. c - of ay 5 28 52,5 Latitude of € as per tables Ms Uo OG6 11 201924 03 : A 3 5 06 03,0 Horizontal equatorial parallaxofthe € 57 57,5. . + + . 57 42,6 ,. Morary motion of the C in longitude. 34 09,10 4 - 34 50,7 Horary motion of the € i in lat. towards South. 5,1 towards the North. ° 757
By the result in page 215 we have a difference of latitude at conjunction of Aldebaran 22’ 57” and the correction of the latitudes of the new tables=—7",5.
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONS. $65
Supposing the inflexion of the moon’s semidiameter==1”,5
Rid, a We have the conj. at Paris by the observ. at Figueras of imm. & em. . =10 48 38,5 By the observation at Milan of immersion and emersion. : : - 10 48 37,0 Mean conjunction of y % with € mean time at Paris. . A . 10 48 37,6 Conjunction of Aldebaran by immersion and emersion at Paris, 17 51 03.7 Os4
by the observations of M. Mechain at Figueras.
Conjunctions deduced from the immersion of both stars, re- duced to Paris with the inflexion=1”,5,
Conj.m.t. For+107 Conj.m,t. — Vor-+-10” at Paris in C’s paral. at Paris. in C’s par h uw a” h 4 u “
By observations at Figueras. 10 48 34,3 + 8,88 17 51 02,7 — 14,50 Berlin. 10 48 35,3 + 5,30 Milan. 10 48 33,3 + 7,52
Marseilles. 5 7 . r - - - 17 51 08,7 — 15,40
Gotha. . . vi . . - . 17 51 59,7. — 23,00
Paris. : 4 : : 4 : E - 17-51.02,8 — 1810
Mean. 10 48 34,3 + 7,23 17 51 02,2 — 17,75
By this comparison it appears that the greatest reliance is to be placed on the observations of M. Mechain, and_ if there should be the least error it cannot exceed half a second.
If the conjunctions calculated by the tables be compared with the conjunctions inferred from the immersions, there re-
sults, Correction of the longitude in the new lunar tables. 4 4 7 7 R =+2,50 Correction of the parallax in the tables. a; +0,70
Conj. by the new tables correcting the long. of the € by +2,5=10 48 34,8 1751 01,0 By the observations supposing a correction of the parallax
in the new tables of +0,7 5 . - : 10 48 34,8 17 51 01,0 Difference . - 00 00 00,0 00 00 00,0
It is to be observed that if use were made of the parallax in the Nautical Almanack, which supposes the constant equatorial 57 11”,0 that is, 10” more than the tables of Burg, the last results instead of coinciding, would have differed 24”,98 in time.
Second determination of the lunar parallax by the comparison of the two immersions observed by Mechain,
° 4 uv Diff. of elongation, by the new lunar tables during the interval of the twoimm. 5 17 03,25 Difference of longitudes of the stars. 4 3 7 ; . 3 59 17,62 Effect of the parallax. i 6 - 4 eeah x x 2 1 17 45,63 Sum of the elongation calculated by the parallax in the new tables. 117 44,24
Difference. - ; - ‘ 5 5 5 3 : : . 0 00 01,39
366 CORRECTION OF
The horizontal parallaxes at the immersion of both stars, corres- 57 55,72 From the ponding to the latitude of Figueras which have been used. ~ 257 35,85 Tables
The difference of apparent latitudes at the two immersions. a 5 >
Error which may be caused by 1’ of uncertainty in the conte 0,068
of latitudes, in the sum of the Pongo . . : 2 By the difference of elongations. wikelee, a) aE ADRES There results a correction of the parallax i in the tables. ‘ =+1,0 By the comb. of the imm. and em. of both stars observed at Figueras —0,3 By the first result. . . . . : 4 : : : c +0,7 Mean correction of the parallax. . par a bal aber es 2 ErS 3 +0,5
I have calculated the horizontal parallax of the moon in conjunction with Aldebaran by the periodical coefficients of Mr. La Place, supposing-the constant equatorial 57’ 01” and there results +0”,5 more than that deduced from the tables, which agrees with the last result.
Examination of the errors which may influence the result of the pa- rallax deduced from those observaiions.
The elements which have a direct influence, are the differ- ence of the longitudes of the two stars, and the ditierence of the longitudes of the moon during the interval of the two oc- cultations deduced from the tables. 1
Ihave calculated with all possible care the places of the moon corresponding to the moment of the two immersions observed at Figueras, by the new tables, and I think I have obtained all the accuracy of which the tables are susceptible.
I have calculated also by the tables of the third edition of Lalande, making use of the epochs of mean longitude, anoma- ly and supplement of the node of the new tables; and the dif- ference of longitudes during the interval of the two immersions, differ but one second. The differences of latitudes agree with the result of the tables of Burg.
I have compared the right ascensions of the different cata- logues and the Connoisance des temps for the year 1808, and have moreover calculated various observations made by Mr. Lalande, and the result which I have obtained, ascertains the difference of the longitudes of the two stars within the limits of 0”,8 and the latitudes within 1”.
GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATIONS. S67
The difference of latitudes at conjunction of « %, in page 215, appears to be within the limits of 1”; supposing the error in the ditterence of the longitudes of the moon—=0",5; of the stars 0”,8, and the influence of an error of 2” in the difference of the latitudes of the stars and the moon; the sum of the three errors, supposing it on one side, would influence the result of the horizontal parallax of the moon only 1”,0
If it should be supposed that the periodical coefficients of La Place represent the motion of the lunar parallax better than the coefficients of the tables of Burg; the constant equatorial will result (from the present observations)=57' 01”,0 and the constant equatorial of the new tables is the same.
The longitude of Porto-Rico, calculated by these elements, is the same as inserted in page 220.
Errata, on the table of apparent lunar distances, page 348.
Novr. 14. 15 37 40 «a y¥ €’s nearest limb. 16 45 37 readremotelimb. 16 45 37
i 9 07 30 do. do. 20 51 04 read remote limb, 21 50 58
9 24 40 do. do. 21 00 46 readremote limb. 21 00 46
Decr. 7. 6 14 33 A 5 4 : read . x 6 14 54 6 26 30 a : $ » read 4 3 6 26 51
Results of the observations in the table, page 348.
Appt. time Longitudes of Long. of the at the the € from Plantation Plantation. Observations, W. from Paria, hos « Simed Je cde Y rou 3807. Novr. 14. 8 01 12 : : 1 18 37 09,0 - 5 37 58 8 26 51 As 1 18 50 31,0 5 38 31 15 37 40 . 1 22 30 35,6 5 38 06 17. 9 16 05 . 2 26 50 15,3 . 5 37 56 22... AZ 25: 27 : 5 08 45 36,0 . 5 38 10 24 NZ 53°15 . 3 6 07 45 11,0 7 5 38 22 Decr. 7. 6 20 52 . é 11 26 07 43,0 5 38 53 hs 6 35 59 : 5 0 19 57 14,0 5 39 00 15. 7 10 37 : 3 05 07 45,5 3 37 538 20. 12 13 28 5 16 42 36,0 3 58 14 12 18 16 . 5 16 45 19,0 5 38 04 12°31 02 . 5 16 52 57,0 . 5 38 19 1808. Jan’y. 11. 14 15 00 3 04 21 03,0 . . 5 38 34 19 16 5 46 6 (28 30 03,0 . 5 38 18 Mean. : . 5 5 38 18,4 Havanna Weak from ‘the Plantation. 5 4 3 £ 44,3 Havyanna vest from) Paris. sii ie CE wu. 3 dei 5 39'02,7
cc
‘
368 CORRECTION OF &c. NOTE.
The distances of the moon have been corrected from the effects of refraction, parallax and the spheroidal figure of the earth. In calculating the refractions, allowances ya a been made for the state a the barometer and thermometer.—To de- duce the longitude of the moon, use has been made of the lon- gitudes of the stars lately determined by Maskelyne.
No. LIV.
Observations on the Comet of 1807—8. By William Dunbar.
Read November 18th, 1808.
THESE observations were made in latitude 31° 27’ 48” N. and 6" 5’ 50” nearly, west of Greenwich. The instrument principally used for taking distances was a circle of reflection by Troughton of London, graduated by the Vernier to ten se- conds of a degree, and firmly supported upon a pedestal, adapt- ed to every necessary movement; the observations were made with the most scrupulous care, and as the pedestal afforded every desirable facility, no observation was written down until it had been re-examined several times-by the separation and re- union of the images. The clock was regulated to mean time.
This comet was first seen here about the 20th of September 1807, and Seth Pease Esq. Surveyor of the Mississippi Ferrito- ry, began to make observations on it the 22d of the same month; and as I have the greatest reliance on the correctness of this gentleman (who is an excellent astronomer) I shall here give his observations which precede my own.
Observations by Seth Pease Esq.
h , Ld ° Uy ”
4807.-Sep. 22. Tuesday at 7 12 16 Comet northerly from Saturn 7 2115 7 34 17 ditto. below 2 Serpentis. 24 16 30
23. 7 20 00 ditto. north of Saturn. : 746 7
7 28 00 ditto. below 2 Serpentis. 22 41 15
24, 7 200 ditto. below « Serpentis. 21 12 30
7 13 00 ditto. north of Mars. s 19 33 30
25. 6 45 00 ditto. below e Lyre. : 69 50 25
6 55 00 ditto. north of Mars. r 20 25 15
COMET OF 1807—8. "369
This evening I observed an emersion of the Ist satellite of Jupiter, with a six feet Gregorian reflector, power 128, at 8» 27’ 58%” mean time; a fine observation; the sky was very serene: from the darting of the first ray from the satellite, it seemed a mere point of light for 15 seconds of time; perhaps with telescopes in general use the satellite might have remained invisible during those 15 seconds, which would affect the lon- gitude resulting from the observation; from the above, the lon- gitude deduced is 6" 5’ 55£” west of Greenwich.
The following are my own observations :—
1807, October 2d. The reflecting telescope, power 128, be- ing directed to the comet, shewed the nucleus and coma with tolerable distinctness; the idea produced in the mind of the observer, was that of a round body in combustion, which had produced so much smoke as to obscure the nucleus; the smoke seemed to be emitted in every direction; but, as if it met on one side with a gentle current of air, the smoke seemed to be re- pelled and bent round the nucleus, escaping on the. opposite side, in the direction of the tail. To the naked eye, the comet could not be seen earlier in the evening than a star of the se- cond or third magnitude, although its disk was considerably larg- er; with the telescope, the nucleus did not seem tobe much more than one third, certainly not one half of the planet Mars, which had been lately observed. ‘The Coma seemed to be at least ten times the magnitude of the nucleus; an imperfect measure was taken of the tail, which was about 63’ in length. The coma appeared to be, in a certain degree, illuminated from the nucle- us, and the whole was compared by many persons to a distant building on fire. This evening, the following observations were made:—
bh? Oo i
At 6 40 The comet from Jupiter 2 . 81 55 55
57 4 - below « Lyre. F 5 59 0 20
3d. At 6 33 5 . from Arcturus * - 20 40 35 6 52 , . from Jupiter. : c 81 17 15
7. 33 e » below a Lyre. . SMa "32 aan
4th. This evening there was an occultation of the planet Mars by the moon, at 7" 2’ 1” mean time: the moon was low, involved in the grosser horizontal atmosphere, and, apparently, almost touching the tops of the forest trees.
370 COMET OF 1807—8.
Dy Oy we Oy8 4 @
1807. Octr. 5. At 6389 0. Comet from Arcturus, A 20 52° 5 51 30 from # Lyre. 5 » 54 42 10
715 0 from ¢ Herculis. ‘ 31 32 55
10. AT Und0 from { Herculis. 5 24 59 20 13 0 from « Lyre. c - 47 53 40
12. At 6 13150 fromaLyre. - . 4520 7 48 0 from Jupiter. . 4 7611 8
14. At 634 0 from # Lyre. 5 - 42 47 20 53 0 from Jupiter. . eather: LoveQ
15. At 639 0 from a Lyre. 2 », 41 33°06
The comet was dim this evening, caused by a mist or smoke which obscured the lower parts of the atmosphere, and became invisible before any more observations could be taken.
16th. At 6h 570” CometfromaLyre. . 40° 17’ 10”
The atmosphere was again so misty, or rather smoky, that no more observations could be taken: the cause of the smoky state of the atmosphere at this season, in our country, is the setting fire to the dry grass of the immense prairies or savan- nahs, “and pine wood forests, in our neighbourhood ; the smell of the burning pine, and other resinous aromatick vegetable matters is sometimes very strong, although the conflagrations which occasion it, are not supposed to be nearerthan from 50 to 100 miles: dense clouds are frequently formed of the smoky vapour, from whence proceed violent tempests, with thunder and lightning, and torrents of rain of a brownish black colour.
De or #
17. At 641 0 Comet from 2 Lyre. . » 39 425 55 0 from Jupiter... 0 18 Dolo
18. At 6 52 30 B Herculis. 4 4 5 46 35 7 530 from « Coronz. 5 12 46 45
The apparent length of the comet’s tail was this evening about 2° 43’ 30”,
h¢« 4 Oi
1807. Octr. 23. © At 619 30 CometfromaLyre. . . 31 59 20 38 30 from 2 Corone : 14 26 50
51 30 from 6 Herculis. — . 0 47 55
24. At 6 26 30 from « Corone. ‘ 14 58.40
37 30 from « Lyre. - e $80 50 30
54 30 from @ Herculis. A 1 30 15
7 22 30 from Jupiter. Pm eg el)
Novr. 5, At 6 36 0 from « Lyrz. 5 - 17 38 50
49 Q from Jupiter. > - 67 49 10
COMET OF 1807-—8. ST1
The splendor and apparent magnitude of the comet visibly diminish; the nucleus seems reduced to little more than half its first observed magnitude.
Le at 0 Re 17. At 6420 Comet from a Lyre. 5 20 32 ColiceO from 2 Aquilz. 34 50 48 21. At 6 300 below 4 Lyre. 2 F-30520 6 45 0 below « Aquila. . 33 56 0
December 6th. Indisposition prevented observation for sonic time past. This evening being fine, I directed the reflecting tele- scope to the comet; the nucleus is now much diminished in appa- rent magnitude; I compared it with a star ofthe sixth magnitude in the Swan, which was within the field of view at the same time, their apparent diameters were nearly equal, but the comet is become so dim, as to be seen by the naked eye only in a pure atmosphere, with favourable circumstances: the weather being cold and damp, my state of health did not permit taking any distances: the coma is yet considerable, but the tail is no longer visible, one would be inclined to say, as the comet recedes from the sun, that the tail is called in (as it were) to add to the magnitude of the coma; for certainly the latter is but very little diminished in proportion to the nucleus.
In order to supply my own deficiencies, I shall here intro- duce the observations of Mr. Pease (on whose correctness I ‘place the greatest reliance) during the time my own were in- terrupted by ill health.
Observations by Mr. Pease.
hey 43, oF °o ‘ " 1807. Novr. 21. At 6 5135 Comet below @ Lyre. ° 129 3 58 20 from « Aquilz. . 33) 55; 20 22. At 6 47 15 from # Aquilz. 3 35 46 15 7 39 15 from « Cygni. . + 24:15 45 7 44.15 left of « Lyrx, below. 0 38 25 24, At 6 44 42 from ¢ Aquile. A 33 31 30 58 42 abovea Lyrz, . . 135 30 30. At 631 7 below # Cygni. 4 16 44 45 Riser 4 from # Aquila. 4 33 27 35 Decr. 16. At 6 44 32 below « Cygni. 3 2 44 45 49 32 to the right of y Cygni. 5 18 45. 18. At 7 11 38 to the right of y Cygni. 6 7 45 27 38 below#Cygni. . 1 16 30
19, At 6 22 O The Comet was to the right of 2 Cygni 51’
Sg COMET OF 1807—8.
bo apy, Lae §
1807. Decr, 22. At 647 OQ Comet above « Cygni. 2 23 15 59 0 from y Cygni. - 8 26 45
7 60 from € Cygni. . 12 43 45
24. At 6 47 44 from # Cygni. - 3 54 30
7 8 44 from Polaris. 42 46 30
30. At 730 0 from a Cygni. 8 21 20
31 0 from Polaris. 42 9 0
1808. Jany. 1. At 830 0 from Polaris. 41 56 30 539 0 from 2 Cygni. 9 50 30
The comet now became too obscure to make any observa- tions upon it, with the sextant, although Mr Pease has given two of the evening of the 22d of January, which he says are true only to five or six minutes, as follows,
92, about 7h Comet fromaCygni . . . 28° 18" from Polaris. 5 : . 40 SL
The observations which follow are extracted from my owu journal.
January 5th. The comet is no longer visible to the naked eye; though having pointed the telescope to its calculated place, I discovered it a little to the S. E. of * 2 Cygni; but this star was not near enough in declination, to take the comparative position of the comet, with the micrometer of the reflecting tele- scope, in the manner pointed out by Dr. Maskelyne: however, as an approximation is often desirable, I directed to the comet and star, a very good small achromatic telescope, magnifying eleven times, and found that the two objects were distant from each other about two thirds of the diameter of the field of view of the telescope, and having placed the comet and star across the center of the field, and opening the left eye, I found that a line joining the star and comet, produced, would pass through » Pegasi; the angle of the field of view of the telescope having been ascertained to be 2° 18’ 26”, two thirds of which are 1° 32’ 18” the distance of the comet from » 2 Cygni in the direction » Pegasi; from whence a good approximation of the place of the comet may be deduced. Note, the starz 1 Cygni is marked in Wollaston’s catalogue, of the fourth magnitude and * 2 Cygni of the fifth magnitude, but 7 2 is now the larg- er; the stars ought, therefore, to change designations.
The nucleus of the comet is yet to be distinguished by the reflecting telescope, but as small as a star of the seventh mag-
COMET oF 1807—8. 379
nitude, seen by the naked eye; the coma scems diminished more than half of its appearance, on the 6th of December, and the nucleus is equally surrounded by it on all sides, without any trace of tail, and so faint as very much to resemble some of the nebula. |
» January 15th. Since the fifth instant the weather has been unfavourable for viewing the heavens; this evening is very se- rene and freezing; after a little search, I found the comet with the telescope, between two small stars in Lacertz, the position of the comet was again unfavourable for finding its relative place by the micrometer of the reflecting telescope, but having armed my small achromatic telescope with one of Cavallo’s pearl micrometers, I took the distance of the comet from two small stars, the angle at the comet being nearly aright one,.as follows: ,
At 7h 0’ €omet N. easterly from 5 Lacerte 1° 14’ 12” of the 4th—Sth magnitude;
- 7 5 Comet S. easterly from 4 Lacerte 1 24 48 of the 5th magnitude.
The uncertainty may be between one and two minutes.
In the great telescope, the comet is yet sufficiently conspi- cuous; the nucleus visible like a star of the eighth magnitude, in our purest atmosphere, and the coma but little changed since the 5th instant.
January 17th. The last evening was cloudy and rainy, but the weather cleared up mild this evening, which enabled me to direct the same instrument with the pearl micrometer to the place of the comet, which was very obscure, though I succeed- ed in making the following observations :
At 7 0’ Comet S. easterly from 7 Lacertz 2° 2’ 58’ of the 4th magnitude, 7 5 Comet N.easterly from 5 Lacerte 2 5 5.
The uncertainty may be the same as on the 15th.
February 25th. From the 17th of last month the weather continued long unfavourable, and I despaired of again seeing the comet; but thinking it of importance to get a view of it once more, in a more distant part of its orbit, I search- ed with great diligence and some anxicty, and atlength found an object which I had no doubt was the comet, situated be-
tween & Cassiope and o Cassiopea; but as the objects were «
374 COMET OF 1807—8.
now descending upon the tops of the forest trees, I had not time to complete my estimate of its place that evening, but marked particularly its position with regard to certain stars both in the field of the large telescope, and in the finder; the comet was not visible in the last, but its position was known by the intersection of the cross-wires, which coincided exactly with the center of the field of the telescope, reserving to myself the ascertainment of its place by the aid of those stars, in case the. comet could not be again discovered.
For many days the weather was extremely unfavourable, and when it cleared up, I discovered the stars which had been no- ted, both in the field of the great telescope, and in the finder, but the comet had removed, and though diligently searched for along its supposed path, was seen no more. I now looked out for some known star, which might pass over the field of view of the telescope after the place of the comet, so as to be enabled to determine their difference in R. A. and declination; but none was to be found which would pass in any convenient space of time, and the place of the comet being now very low in the evening, I was obliged to make haste to approximate in the best manner now in my power; hoping in the course of some months to examine the subject again, when the part of the heavens where the comet disappeared should be conveni- ently scen in the eastern portion of the hemisphere.
The place where the comet was last seen, is in the line join- ing the stars and o Cassiopez, and the difierence of the co- met’s place in R. A. from o Cassiopez was found, from obser- vation, to be 96 seconds in time; from whence we deduce the comet’s place on the 25th of February at 8” to have been 8° 7° 6” in R. A. and 48° 30’ 58” north declination. This is given only as an approximation.
C6 STi
No. ‘LV.
A Letter from Captain William Jones, of Philadelphia, to the Pre- sident of the Society, communicating sundry queries proposed by him to Wiliam Jones Esquire, Civil Engineer of Calcutta, rela- tive to the principles and practice of building in India, with his answers to the same.
Read June 17th, 1808. Philadelphia, June 17th, 1808. DEAR SIR,
WHEN in Calcutta,*I had the pleasure to become ac- quainted with Mr. William Jones, whose profession is that of a civil engineer, and who at the time was employed in con- structing a dry dock of great capacity, calculated to receive.a man of war when the water of the Ganges was at the lowest.
He is distinguished as a man of genius, of much philosophi- cal knowledge, and of great practical experience in all the branches connected with his profession, He regretted that the urgency of his pursuits precluded him from rendering his re- marks more perfect and comprehensive than the papers here- with enclosed; and proffered a correspondence with me on any subject which I might deem interesting.
Should the Society desire information, from that quarter, on any subject of philosophy, natural history, or the mechanic arts, I will cheerfully avail myself of his kind offer. i
You will perceive that Mr. Jones has said nothing relative to public roads—he did not consider the manner of construct- ing them in that country as applicMle to this.
I know not whether there is any thing in the communication { have to make, that will be new or interesting to the Society; if not, I trust the desire to be useful will constitute my claim to indulgence.
T amy, very respectfully, yours,
- WILLIAM JONES. pd
376 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
Copy of a letter from William Jones of Philadelphia, to Wilkam Jones Esquire, Civil Engineer, of Calcutta.
Calcutta, December 26th, 1807.
My DEAR SIR,
Your obliging assent to my solicitation for a memorandum of the manner of constructing a ¢errace roof in this country, and a desire to avail myself of such information relative to the arts of other countries, as may be useful in my own, prompts me to ask of you a brief communication of the principles and prac- tice of building in India, with such observations as your expe- rience may suggest.
I look for indulgence, in the liberality of sentiment and love of science and the arts, which general suffrage has attached to your character. A desire of individual information alone, could not have induced me to trespass on time and attention so assi- duously and usefully employed, but my intention is, to present your communication to the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, which will unite with its associate in a just sense of the obligation.
A knowledge of the composition of cements, and of the qua- lity and combination of materials employed in architecture in India, the excellence of which has been consummated by the lapse of ages, is an object of great interest in America. The structure of public roads is no less so: I am told there are some very excellent in India; any information on that subject, with a view to economy, durability, and a solidity impervious to intense frost, will be highly acceptable.
I beg leave to present a few queries connected with the ob- ject in contemplation.—They are suggested by the local cir- cumstance of climate and architecture in America,
Ist. What are the materials, and what is the quality of the cement, used in constructing the walls of buildings in India?
9d. Are the walls below "ihe surface, of the same materials?
Sd. What is the thickness of the exterior, as well as of the interior walls, in proportion to the elevation?
4th. What are the component parts of the plaister of the ex- terior and interior walls?
oo |
BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 37
5th. How, and of what materials, is the roof formed?
6th. What is the thickness of the terrace on the roof, the process of laying it, and the composition of the materials?
7th. What are the proportionate dimensions, and what is the selative strength ¢o oak timber, of the beams which sustain the roof?
Sth. Is the thickness of the walls deemed necessary to sus- tain the incumbent weight of the roof alone, or is it partly to resist heat—or is the extraordinary thickness in consequence of the fragile quality of the brick ?
9th. Do you think a roof so constructed capable of resisting the intensity of the frost in North America?
10th. Is a horizontal roof, so constructed, capable of sustain- ing any great additional weight, such as the superincumbent weight of snow, which, in America, is frequently three or four feet deep?
11th. How, and of what materials are the floors constructed: and what is the quality and thickness of the cement which forms the floor ?
12th. What is the proportionate elevation of the ceilings?
13th. What is the quality, and what are the componeni parts of the water cement, used in India, and of the celebrated cement and plaister used at Madrass? ;
14th. Is shell or stone lime preferred, and does the lime of India possess any intrinsic superiority over the shell or stone lime of Europe or America?
15th. Does sugar, molasses, or animal or vegetable oils, form a part of any of the cements used in India?
16th. I am told that the iron exclusively used in the fasten- ing of all ships built in India, (even that which secures the sheathing boards) is completely protected from the corrosive effects of the copper, by the coat of Chunam [lime and animal or vegetable oil thoroughly amalgamated ] one fourth of an inch thick, which is between the main plank and the sheathing boards, and also between the latter and the copper sheathing; and that the iron of coppered ships has been found in perfect preserva- tion after ten years’ service, Do these facts come within your knowledge? ;
378 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
i7th. Is the quantity of manual labour necessarily implied in any of the foregoing queries, such as to forbid the adoption of the practice in America, (where the command of that force is extremely limited and expensive) or can the difficulty be obviated, in any degree, by the employment of other agents? « I will not reiterate my apologies, but assure you of the sin- cere pleasure I shall derive from any occasion you may find to command my services. I am very respectfully and sincerely yours, f WILLIAM JONES. To WILLIAM JONES Esq. Seibpore, near Calcutta.
Answers to 17 Queries propounded by William Jones of Philadelphia, to William Jones Esq. Civil Engineer, of Calcutta.
Ist. Buildings in Bengal are generally constructed of bricks, formerly nine inches, but now eleven inches in length ;—the additional size saves the cement, which is dearer than bricks.
The cement is made of two parts brick dust, one part sand, and one part stone lime—brick dust, alone, would be preterred, but sand being cheaper is used. The mortar is mixed in the com- mon way, but the bricks are laid like what the masons call grouted work, which is done by laying the outward courses first, and then fillmg up the middle space with bricks, small and large, swimming in water and cement, so that no crevice remains open.
Arches, columns, &c. are made with cement, two parts brick dust and one part lime, ail sifted fine. The bricks are dipped in water separately as they are laid, for which purpose a vessel of water is placed between every two workmen.
2d. The walls below the surface are of the same materials as those above, but some people, regardless of the expense, lay one course, just above the floor, in lime and oil, the whole thickness of the wall, and afterwards continue the building in the com- mon way—this forever prevents damp from rising.
—
BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 379
3d. The interior as well as the exterior walls are all of the same thickness, because our houses sink altogether about six inches, or more, and the partition walls in a terrace roof have to sustain their share of the weight with the outer ones. We build the lower story two feet six inches, the second two feet, and the third one foot six inches thick; but you may build your first story two feet, the second one foot nine inches, and the third one foot six inches thick; as you may use bond timber, from which we are precluded by the ravages of the white ant.
4th. The exterior plaistering is made of three parts washed sand, and one of stone lime, laid on in the common way, but rubbed with a small bit of wood until it sets—the joints are first well opened with a bit of crooked iron. a.
The inside work is done the same way, and with the same materials, and when dry, coated with shell lime. The shells are cleaned before they are burnt, and when taken from the kiln, the whole are cleaned and picked from the dust (which is a dirty lamina, that falls off in the calcmation) and put into a trough, where they are triturated and slacked with a little water, and when mixed to a thick consistence, deposited in earthen jars, or other vessels, for use.
When to be used, a bed of sand or clay is made on the ground, hollow inthe middle, and covered with coarse cloth. The lime is strained through a fine cloth that is placed about two or three feet above the bed.—It is mixed with clean water, in order to pass the fine parts in solution through the strainer— the coarse 1s rejected. It must lie three or four days on this bed to cool, before it is used, or the work will crack. It is mix- ed with a sufficient proportion of milk that has undergone a fermentation by éeven, so that the whole is in a curd, without any whey. Oi this material the quantity is ascertained by mixing a little and plaistering on a tile.—In fine work, the white of eggs is used in large quantities, and im some cases a small quan- tity of calcined agate, pulverised—but this kind of work will never answer in your country, as the labour is very expensive. It is the work of many days after the plaisiér is on, to rub and wipe it; otherwise it would crack on the surface, and so long as a crack appears, the rubbing must be continued.
$89 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
- The wall will sweat for several days; but the water must be constantly wiped off with fine, clean cloths, or the whole work will turn red. A wall finished in this way may be washed with soapand water; but when the plaister breaks, it is not easy to mend it without the patch being visible. Stucco walls will answer much better in America, and would be used here if we had the plaister.
5th. The roof is formed by simply laying beams of wood from wall to wall, in the shortest direction, three feet from cen- tre to centre. Upon these beams are laid transverse pieces of wood, three by two inches thick, to support the tiles or bricks. We use twelve inch tiles, and lay the transverse pieces of wood so that the tiles join in the middle. Our tiles are one and a half inches thick, and are laid in two courses, well bedded. The up- per course must break or cover the joints of the lower, thus,
Lh
The roof is then ready to receive the terrace. The transverse pieces of wood are not nailed, but the spaces between are fill- ed up with mortar and bits of brick tile &c. so that they can- not shift.
6th. The terrace is six inches thick, when finished, at the middle, and about four inches at the outer walls, independent of the tiles and wood. Wherever it is determined to deliver the water, there must be gentle descents towards those places com- ing to a narrow focus at the spout. The composition is broken brick, the pieces about four cubic inches, or just as it happens to break; they must not be too small, or the terrace will be li- able to crack.
Take the broken bits, dust and all, as they lie for use—measure the whole and count the number of measures of any kind—spread itone foot or thicker, on the ground—level and water it well, turning it over at the same time. This deprives the brick of its over absorbent power.
For every three measures of broken brick, you must use one of the same measure of good stone lime, giving only one third ata time, watering and turning it every day for four days;
BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 381
the three first days you divide the lime, giving a part each day with a little shell lime mixed with water.—It is now ready to be carried up to the roof, where it is to be expeditiously spread in the shape you want it, and the beating business commences. On a small roof you must employ at least fifty people, women and children will answer, with a few bricklayers, constantly, to see that the materials are laying right. They must all sit down on any thing you find convenient, and continue beating sharply and hard for three days, with a piece of wood about three by two inches thick, and sixteen inches long, handle and all, shaped. thus,
The substance must be constantly wetted, taking care that the lime be not washed out. Atthe end of three days, the hard beating must be abated (as the work is beginning to set) and the watering diminished.
For two days more, the beating must be only alittle constant patting, very light, but the fourth day, all the rough face must be filled up with bits of brick, not more than half a cubic inch in size, with the fine dust sifted out; this last must be well mix- ed with lime, one third its quantity, and rubbed with plenty - of water all over the terrace, and a little shell lime added; while this is thin and soft, the beating must be constant, but very light, merely paddling in it with the beaters; as it becomes dry, the beating may be increased to a tolerable sharp blow, constantly filling up every inequality. The sixth day, the surface must be covered with fine brick dust and lime, as before, and the padd- ling or gentle beating recommenced, adding a little of the juice of the sugar cane, or you may use molasses. At nine days end it ought to be finished, but you had better, in your climate, continue it thirteen days, as patience in this case will afterwards reward you. If it should: rai often it will make the business more’ tedious, and if the rain be heavy you must cover the work with something, or the lime will be washed out. When the beaters rebound from the terrace as if they struck stone, and
the sound is clear, you may conclude it is done.
382 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
Keep a few people for five or six days, rubbing the surface with water, lime and molasses mixed, so Jong as a crack ap- pears, and afterwards rub the whole over with any common oil. It is difficult to describe this process, but a little experience will point out what is necessary.
7th. The annexed table of the gravity and strength of wood will inform you.
Result of experiments made on the weight and strength of timber used in Bengal.
The pieces on which the experiments were made, were each square prisms, twenty-four inches long, and one inch on the side; the distance between the props of support was twenty-two inches, and the weight was suspended from the center of the piece.
, Weight of Weight suspended Names of the wood each piece. when it broke. Oz. OZ. Teak.) iy eed steph nae Te of Tissoo, 0-0 =< 12h - = 25 = 4595 @FSauliot se So ee TG a a 585 1DE ‘S.) Assum, like Saul. © 192 - -) = = 539 9 AfSoondry. - - - 152- ~ = ~ 593 9 Napaul Fir. - - 95 - - - - 3889 O ‘2 (Baltic red Fir* 10 - - - - 346 9 5 Es ea white Fir+ 7 - «© = - Q14 13 * Very dense and full of rosin. + In general use.
N. B. A quantity of pure water, of the same bulk with one of the above pieces of wood would weigh 13% ounces. Hence they would all float in water except the Soondry.
You must not use knotty or curled wood for your beams, and all beams must be rounded or cambered upwards, in the pro- portion of two inches to twenty feet, as the terrace will bring them down a little.
In a twenty-two feet space, Saul beams, ten by seven or eight inches, are quite sufficient, placed at three feet from centre to centre.
i
BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 383
We remove beams when rotten without injury to the terrace. , The wall-hold is generally six inches less than the thickness of the wall.
8th. In the thickness of the wall, resistance to heat is not
considered. Strength is alone considered. We cannot, as I re- marked before, use any bond timber or ties of any kind on account of the destructive vermin.
The bricks contain much: sand, salt, alkali, and other fusible matter, and will vitrify before they are well burnt.
You have seen many walls thicker than the dimensions I have given, but those are built with brick and mud, and having no cement require to be thicker.
9th. If you begin your work early, so that it will be com- pletely dry, it will resist any frost, but if any moisture remain within, the frost will rend the work.
10th. Add a little strength to your timber, make the para- pet low, take care before a thaw to throw off the snow, keep the spouts open, and it will sustain double (or more) the weight you mention.
11th. The floors the same as the roof, but a little lighter, and not so much cove.
12th. Stick to the common and ancient rules of architecture in all cases; but doors and windows, make them much larger.
13th. Water cement is made of brick dust, lime, and the juice of the sugar cane. The Madrass plaister is as I before de- scribed ours.
14th. Stone lime is cheap and used for common purposes, shell lime is dear and only used with fine work ; I believe it is no better than your own.
15th. No further than I have before described.
16th. These facts do come within my knowledge, and are true. It forms a crust impervious to water, and must protect any thing it covers. When dry, it will keep a ship afloat after her caulking is perished and loose,
Much oil is saved in making this article by bestowing coe on the beating and mixing of ite
17th. Where manual labour is an objection I have stated it.
Ee
(. 384.)
Sa SS 3 Nov cy.
Observations on the foregoing communications, by B. Henry La- trobe, Surveyor of the public buildings of the United States, and one of the Committee to whom it was referred by the Society.
Copying the English standard, the bricks of the United States are very generally made 84 inches long, 4% inches broad, and 2* inches thick; so that in the wall with the joint, they shall take up nine inches in length, and half as much, viz, 42, in breadth; but the various degrees in which different sorts of clay shrink in drying and burning, occasion here, as well as every where else, variety in the size of the bricks; and I have scarcely ever known bricks, from two different kilns in the same city to work correctly together. The cupidity of the brick-makers contributes also to the diminution of the size of bricks in Philadelphia; a wall two bricks thick seldom mea- sures, with the joint, more than 17 inches; a brick-and-half wall, barely 13 inches, and 5 courses in heighth, with the joints, measure one foot.—This gradual diminution in the size of bricks is rather encouraged, than counteracted, by the interest of the bricklayers :—for, as it is the general practice for indivi- duals, as well as public bodies, to find all their materials, and to pay the mechanic only for the labour, and as it is a very gene- ral practice to pay the bricklayer by the 1000 bricks, accord- img tot he brick-maker’s account; or to count them on the out- side of the wall, where they all pass for whole bricks and lie closest, it follows that in a given mass of wall, the small bricks, upon the whole, tell better than the large ones; and in both cases, especially the first, the bricklayer is not interested against admitting small bricks to be made.
On the other hand, the brick-maker in burning his bricks as well as in selling them by count, 1s benefitted; for small bricks can be burned at less expense of fuel than large bricks, and are less liable to warp and break. Iam of opinion that great advantages would result from making our bricks larger than
ON BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 385
the usual standard; not only in the saving of labour, but of mortar, which here, as in India, is the most expensive part of the wall. The width of a brick should not be greater, than that a man can very easily and conveniently grasp it; and although Mr. William Jones has not given information as to the width of the Calcutta brick, (which is of more importance to the workman than its length) I am of opinion that the best possible size of a brick is the following,
11 inches long as in Tastatgh 52. wide when burned. 9* thick. j ;
Such a brick would add 2+ inches to our single brick walls, and in most cases permit them to take-the place of walls now built of 1£ bricks. A brick-and-half wall, in the fronts of our middling houses, would give room for the window-dressings and shutters; and, in a two-brick wall, there would be no necessity of making thicker the walls of our best houses for this purpose. This is not the place to enter into further details. Practical builders can easily investigate the results from such a change im the size of our bricks; but it will be difficult to be effected, while the astonishing increase of our buildings gives to the brick- makers such an influence over all our building operations.
1 Use of brick dust in mortar.
In his answer to the 8th Query, Mr. William Jones has the following remark :
The bricks contain much sand, salt, alkali, and other fusible mat- ter, and will vitrify before they are well burned.
We might then consider the brick dust, made by pound- ing the bricks of Calcutta, as so much sharp sand, and as hay- ing lost that contractility which clay unvitrified by the admix- ture of vitrescible substances, and unhardened by fire, universally possesses. In this state, it might be an unobjectionable ingredient in cement in America. But as it is evident from the process of laying on the chunam internally, and also from the beating required upon the materials of their terraces, that their brick dust is not generally in this hardened state, when mixed with
386 LATROBES OBSERVATIONS
the mortar, but that, it continues to contract, and to requiré forcible compression by beating or rubbing until it is quite dry, it becomes, on more than one account, a very noxious as well as a very inconvenient ingredient in all. cements, to be used; where there is frost; and where labour is dear.
I should be obliged, to write a voluminous treatise on, this subject, were I to submit to you all that my experience, as well as my reasonings suggest, to counteract the prejudice in favour of the use of brick dust in cements north and south of the tro- pics. Its utility beyond the reach of frost, I need not examine. It would be useless to establish or to refute it in our region of severe winter. I will therefore only endeavour to comprize, in as small a compass as possible, what may be useful to our own citizens. )
_ Belidor, Blondel, Sturm, Smeaton, Higgins, Adams, and many other French, German, English and _ Italian writers have all recommended brick dust.in some cement or other. I have none of their works at hand, so as to refer to their receipts or their experiments, and no doubt their cements have possessed all the qualities ascribed to them, when the brick dust has been pre- pared of well burned bricks, I have also seen brick dust em- ployed by engineers and architects whom. I have personally known, and have employed it myself; but I do not recollect a single instance of the cement in which it has been used hay- ing resisted the effect of moisture and frost. Natural argillaceous stones are more apt to be forced to pieces by frost than any others.* Bricks not sufficiently burned are always destroyed by frost. The effects of frost on the natural clay of the earth is well known,—it renders our roads almost impassable in spring, Itseems therefore, to plain sense, a conclusive argument against the use of this material in cements, that wherever we see it pre- sent in any natural or artificial production, its dissolution by frost is certain.
* The freestone of Acquia, however, appears to be sand cemented by an alluminous (ar- sillaceous) infusion. Some of it is dissolved by the frost, but the best stone resists it most perfectly. Water oozing through this stone covers the face of the rock with allum. I have not been able to detect in this sand stone any particle of calcareous matter. Its smell when
moist is strongly earthy. See my memoir in the Philosphical Transactions, on this stone. page 283 of this Volume.
ON BUILDINGS IN INDIA, 387
it however the clay be harderied by being converted into a vitrified, or otherwise solid brick, then indeed it ceases to be under the dominion of frost, and is at all events, I should sup- pose, as good as so much sand. It remains to be enquired by chemical investigation, whether some affinity between clay, thus hardened, and lime does not exist, which expelling in their union their caloric, combines the two substances more intimately and in a smaller compass, than that of lime mixed with sand ; and, of course, gives to the compound more hardness, and permanent continuity. Ifsuch affinity does exist, which I will not deny, such brick dust is so far superior in quality, as an ingre- dient of cements, to sand. But it is, I think, far counterbalanced by its other quality of infinite contractibility and expansion. Clay, in its purest state, is used in Wedgewood’s pyrometer, on account of this very quality, which it appears never to lose; and from thence arises the perfection of this most useful instrument. When the cement, of which brick dust is an ingredient, is laid on in a moist state, it occupies in some cases (for I have last year had much unpleasant experience of the fact in the floors laid in Deniroth’s cement at Washington) 4 more space than when dry. On a wall exposed to heat, or upon a timber floor accessible, and at first pervious to the air, there appears to be a limit to the contraction of the cement. But in a heavy vaulted building, like the Capitol of the United States, at least, the moisture of which evaporates slowly, I would reject brick dust altogether as an ingredient of any kind of cement, either for mosaic floors, terraces, or facings. Full justice appeared to be done by the contractor and patentee, in beating his floors both as to time and labour, but after a year’s drying they have cracked into innumerable fissures.
From what I have said, it will be evident, that I consider brick dust as an ingredient in cements, inapplicable to our cli- mate and of course useless.
Good clean washed sand, and stone lime, in the proportion of three of sand and one of lime, up to six to one, according to the size of the particles of sand, and the goodness of the lime, is.a ce- ment that will never fail, if well mixed and worked, and laid on as soon as possible after being mixed. The lime in slack-
388 LATROBES OBSERVATIONS
ing should be perfectly drowned in water, and the fluid strained and run into a pit, from whence, after remaining if necessary during a whole winter, or more, it may be cut out hot, as smooth as custard, and capable of receiving a very great pro- portion of sand without becoming harsh and brittle. All sub- stances containing a quantity of carbon combined with oxy- gen, are highly useful ingredients; such as shim-milk, whey, molasses, skimmings of sugar pans, sugar, vinegar, beer, wine lees, all sorts of washings of breweries, distilleries, and sugar houses. These substances, by giving their carbon to the lime, convert the cement into a calcareous sand stone in a more expeditious manner, than by any process dependent upon at- traction from the atmosphere. But though blood, oils, and curds have been recommended, the animal or vegetable mucilage they contain is injurious to their durability. The celebrated cement of Adams, of which oil was a considerable ingredient, after standing with every appearance of permanence for some years, began then to fail, and actions being brought against him by Lord Stanhope (Mahon) and others upon his warran- tee, this artist, so deservedly considered as one of the brightest ornaments of the English school, was ruined in fortune, by the damages awarded against him.
Betore I close my remarks on this cement, I will add, that all cements of every kind acquire the quality of hardening in proportion to the working and beating they get, and no remark can be more just than that of Mr. Jones, that “the patience bestowed will amply reward you.”
2. and 3. Use of Timber in Walls.
In all professions, there are prejudices of practice, which become national. That of filling their walls with what they- call bond timbers is one of those practices, which every English architect receives by inheritance. The white ants have been serviceable to architecture in expelling it from Bengal.
A piece of timber bedded in a wall can be of service, only for the following uses :
1. If it be laid under the joists or timbers of a floor, it serves to spread the weight equally along the wall; or if undef the
ON BUILDINGS IN INDIA. 389
end of a girder, to give to the girder a broad base or bearing upon the wall.
2. To tie the wall together lengthwise, in order to prevent its spreading at the top.
When the foundation is equal, it is evident that bond tim- bers become useless, excepting in the first case.—But it has been customary in England to put them regularly into the walls, from the bottom to the top, at the distance of several feet asun- der; taking care that one piece shall be laid so as to receive the skirting, another the surbase, &c.—A specimen of this practice might have been seen in the north wing of the Capitol, in which the bond timber had a considerable share in the failure of the work, and inthe necessity of a thorough rebuilding of the interior.
Bond timbers do injury by the following means: A piece of timber laid along the wall, takes up in its whole length the place of solid materials. Itis laid in wet mortar; and the work above, as the moisture descends, keeps it wet forsome time. It swells. It is on three sides inaccessible to the air. At last it dries with the wall and shrinks. If the timber occupies less than half the thick- ness of the wall, the Wall will not follow it, the outer part being the - heaviest, but the timber occupying less space than before} be- comes loose. In heavy buildings, being moist and excluded . from the air for a long time, it will probably be rotten before that time. The plaistering that covers it will crack. In fact, if it ever was useful, it ceases entirely to be so.
To prevent these timbers from moving outwards as they get loose, they have some times been made thicker within the wall than on their exterior side, sometimes they have been tied in by short cross pieces. But all this does not remove the evil.
As to the convenience of bond timbers for fastening on the: the dressings—the same end may be much better accomplished by driving in very dry oak plugs, after the building is finished and dry.
If however the foundation be unequal, it is evident that the tendency of one part of the wall to sink into a soft place while the rest is supported by a harder part of the foundation can only be resisted by timber strong enough to hold up the wall
390 LATROBES OBSERVATIONS
that is over it. This is very inadequately done by timbers is at distances from each other only on the inside of the work. Where there is such a foundation, it is infinitely better to com- bine the strength of all these timbers, and, laying them in the trench, to cover them well from the access of air, and build the wall upon them. But piling is always the best thing that can be done even if no very hard bottom can be reached.— Bond timbers ought never to be depended on.
I have already extended my remarks to a length which I did not intend or foresee—and yet I cannot avoid adding to them what I think necessary to meet the inclination, supported by our Italian prejudices, which the very clear and able man- ner in which Mr. Jones has described the Hindoo method of constructing terraces might excite, to make further experiments on the construction of flat roofs for our American houses,
In crowded cities, where the court yards are generally small and buried from the light and air by tall houses, terraces on the roofs are almost necessary, for the view and enjoyment of the heavens, and for many domestic purposes. But they are every where, excepting beyond the region of frost, the most difficult and precarious part of the construction of the house. Lead, copper, sheet-iron, tarred and sanded paper, calcareous cements, all have been tried, all have had temporary success, all have produced permanent inconvenience. The range of the expansion and contraction of lead, together with the range through 100 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, to which our climate is subject, renders lead an improper metal for the pur- pose of a terrace, It is liable to be torn to pieces by its own motion.—Copper is very expensive, and is soon corroded by verdigrease. Iron requires constant painting, is sooner corroded by rust, but is otherwise the most convenient material and the cheapest.—Sand, tar, and paper, succeed better to the north- eastward, than in the middle and southern. States, but is not easily or securely to be connected with gutters, and is a dirty sort of covering.—Calcareous cements have in no instance as yet suc- ceeded, and the smallest crack, admitting water in winter. during the frost, is fatal to them.
ON BUILDINGS IN INDIA. SO
Fortunately, we have no rational use for flat roofs. Our cities are roomy, and our habits and their population will for many centuries keep them so. Our houses are low and our yards airy. I cannot conceive a single argument in favour either of the beauty or utility of terrace roofs in our country. Those that have them scarcely ever use them. The cold in winter and the heat in summer drive us from them, A beautiful prospect may justify the partial use of them, in particular situ- ations, but neither architectural beauty, nor the general wants of our wintry climate call for their introduction.—To the south- ward beyond the reach of frost, however, the information con- tained in this paper may be highly useful.
No. LVII.
A general method of finding the roots of numeral equations to any degree of exactness; with the application of Logarithms to shorten the operation: by John Garnett of New Brunswick N. Jersey.
Read January 20th, 1809.
Suppose an equation, ax--bx’-+-cx3-+dx4++-ex5 Ke. = y, to find x. RULE.
Find, by trial, any near root as x.’ =
Then, by substitution, ax’ bx’?-+-cx’/3-dx/4+ex/5 Kc. == Vv
Multiply each term by the index of the power of x’, and divide by x’.
Let the products, a-2bx’ + 3cx/2+-4dx3/-+-Sex4, &c.=— A.
Multiply each term by the power of x’, and divide by 2x’.
Let the products, b+-3cx’+6dx/2+4-10ex’3, &c. = B.
Multiply each term by the power of x’, and divide by 3x’.
Let the products, c-+4dx’+10ex’z, &c. = C.
Multiply each term again by its power of x’, and divide by 4x’. Let the products, d+-Sex’, &c.==D; and soon, continually, until all the powers of x/ are destroyed ; so thate, &c.—=E.
Then will Ax’ +Bx/’2 +Cx//3 +Dx//4 +Ex’’5 &c. = vy-y’, be a New Equation whose roots will all be less by x’, and the value, v—v’, less by v’ than the roots of the original equation. And if the roots and value of this new equation be diminished in the same manner, by another near root, as x’’’, and so on, continually, the root and yalue may become less than any assignable quantity, and the sum of all the near roots will be equal to x, the root of the original equation.
Ff
392 RESOLUTION OF
This rule will be found virtually the same as that given by Newton, Raphson, Jones, Simpson &c. and, if applied to the extraction of simple powers, will be found the same _ precisely as the one usually given in common arithmetic, thus for
EXAMPLE I.
Let x3==| 99252847
4 x’==400 - - - - 64000000 |== x/3 x’ =400 By the Rule, y—y’ 35252847 | Resolvend. divisor ———— | New Equation x’’= 60 Sx’2 = 480000=A 28800000 480000 xx!’ sx) = 1200 = B 4320000 +1200 xx’/* 1 = 1=C 216000 +1x% x/3=y—y- By the Rule, 33336000} Subtrahend. 01916847 | Resolyend Ly divisor New equation x//’=3 rea hg i Sek ern 1904400 = 634800 xx/” = eiletunaees = Hei Sais 12420= 1380 x x///2 c = 1. oa aii seis
1916847 Subtrahend. Whence x=x’-+x/’-+-x’” = 463, the required Root.
This form will serve for all numeral equations, and with nearly the same labour; as for
EXAMPLE II.
Sx3-42s2-5x =v = | 249935792 near root x°=400 v= __ | 192318000 | = 3x’34-2x'4—5x’
By the Rule, v—v’ = 49917792 | Resolvend.
divisor ————--| New equation x” = 30 9x24 4x'’—5= 1441595 = A 43247850 | = 1441595 x x!’ 9x/4+2 => 3602 = B 3241800 | = + 3602 x x//% lc $1000) SS Six’ yy! mh 46570650 | Subtrahend, 3347142 | Resolyend. By the Rule, x// =2 divisor New Equation. Oxo + 7204 x" + 1441595 = 1665815 3331630 | 1665815 x x!” x + 3602 = 3872 15488 | + 3872 x x/’z 3 = 3 24 +3 x x/38 = yyy”
3347142 | Subtrahend.
Hence, == x! + x” + x!” = 432. 000000
NUMERAL EQUATIONS. $93
By dividing the original equation by x—432 = 0, the other roots may be found, but in this case they are imaginary. But, instead of thus approximating to a root by single figures, we can (after the root has been sufficiently diminished) find, by a Table of Logarithms, as many places of figures at one operation, as there are places of figures in the logarithms; as in the following
EXAMPLE III.
Suppose x3— 2x = 5. near Root x’ = 2 then x/° —23/= 4 By the Rule, —_— divisor. Resolyend 1 Sx’ —2= 10 3x! 6 near Root x =,09
1 1
gives 10x -++ 6x’? 4 x/’3 = 0,949329 Subtrahend.
Resolvend 0,050671 = y.
This being now sufficiently reduced we proceed thus ;—
By the Rule, New Equation. 3x//2 +12 x” + 10 = 11,1043 (A) eae yee 11,1043s/" + 6,27x//2 4 x/3==,050671 = V and by 3x + 6 = 6,27 = B Vv B 2 = 2 pe reversion of series, x//== — — — V#-+&e; A A3 Then, by logarithms, ;V = ,050674 Log. ]v| 8.704760 A = 11,1048 Log- Ja] 1.045492 y—a | ==,00456319 Log. |} 7.659268 A V d—a = |q2 c} 6.613776 6,27 = |B b| 0.797268 B = boc+d— aes ae . 5.070312 Vv B a ee oor 300455143. whence x == 2.09455145 A A3
And if ,004551 be put for x’, in the above new equa- tion, the value and root would be again reduced, so that we should obtain x’” — ,0000004815424, and consequently the root x == 2,0945514815424, true to the last figure.
=—
( 394 )
No. Vite
On the best angles for the sails of a windmill. By John Garnett of New Brunswick, N. Jersey.
Read January 30th, 1809.
The angle of weather, or that angle which the section of the vane, at a given distance from ie centre of motion, makes with the plane of its motion, will depend on its proportionate velocity to that of the wind ; some mean velocity of which is generally assumed, to which ‘the interior mechanism of the mill is adapted ; supposing this at 12+ feet per second, which would be called a fresh gale, the Dutch mills, with the sails of 30 feet radius, make about 13 revolutions per minute ; in this case, the extremity of the vane moves with nearly three times the velo- city of the wind, and consequently, at 10 feet distance with the same velocity as the wind; at 20 feet with twice the ve- locity, being in a direct proportion to the distance from the centre.
As different angles of weather have been given by several writers, as Parent, De Moivre, Maclaurin and Simpson, Smea- ton &c. and lately by Mr. Hall Gower, which have been copied in the modern treatises on mechanics, as Gregory, Grey &c. where errors may be of considerable consequence, I will endeavour to shew the true principles, and give a very simple construction which will give the angle of weather on either hypothesis.
Let the line WV represent the wind’s direction and velo- city ; SV, the direction and velocity of any section of the vane whose angle of weather is required; then WS will be the rela- dive direction and velocity of the wind to that part of the sail; and the angle WSV, will be the “mit of the angle of weather; for, at this angle, the wind’s relative direction being parallel to WS, can have no effect, and at any greater angle the vane would be a back sail; the angle of weather therefore must be less than WSV ; suppose it CSV; then WSC will be the relative angle of incidence of the wind on the plane SC; from W draw WC per- pendicular to the plane SC, and from C draw CM perpendicular
ON THE SAILS OF WINDMILLS. 895
to WV; then WC will be the relative velocity and proporti- onate force with which the wind strikes the vane perpendicu- lar to its plane, which force being resolved into two forces WC and cC, the first perpendicular to the plane of motion and therefore of no effect, the last parallel to it and therefore re- presents the effective force of every particle of wind to turn the vane, when the force perpendicular to the plane is CW ; now let any other angles of weather as VSB, VSA, be taken, then will WSB, WSA be the relative angles of incidence; BW, AW the relative velocity and proportionate force perpendicular to the plane of the sail; and Bb, Aa the effective forces to turn the vanes SB, SA; whence it appears that these forces are or- dinates to the chord WV, and if the force of the wind on the vane were in the simple ratio of its relative velocity, or the num- ber of impinging particles were invariable, as is the case in un- dershot water wheels, as observed by Mr. Waring, in the third volume of the Philosophical Transactions; then the greatest force would be SB, where the angle of weather VSB equally di- vides the angle of limit WSV, which agrees with the theorem given by Maclaurin and Simpson, on the above supposition, which to distinguish we may call “ Waring’s hypothesis.” But if the force be as the square of the relative velocity ; describe a semicircle on SW, and with the radius SD describe the arc D RE cutting the plane SC in R from which draw RF, RG per- pendicular to SW, SV. Then the proportionate force on any ish Sal point C perpendicular to the plane SS will be ; or (since R RF’ wv? ; and’as WC: cC or'SR: SN? RF? RF°xRG RG:: (the force perpendicular to SC,)
F, SN are halves of CW, WV,)
SN? SN?XSR the whole effective force on each point of the plane SC, which is the same as given by Maclaurin and Simpson, and agrees with their hypothesis.
But the same breadth of sail inclined to different angles of weather will not intercept an equal current of wind ; the rela- tive current being the parallelogram WZCP to the plane CS,
396 ON THE SAIL
the particles intercepted will be as CP; or Rp on the plane S RIF°xRG R, so that Rpx
will represent the force on the plane SN?xSR SR
SR, but SN: SD (= SR):: RF: Rp = RFx therefore
SN RF°xRG
the whole effective force on the section SR will be
SNS which by Simpson’s fluxions vol. 2, Prob. 5 page 503, will be a maximum when MN = 4 SN. But if the whole effective force according to Maclaurin and Simpson be as RF?x RG, (SR and SN being constant) the maximum will then be when MN +=SN.
But supposing the angle of weather known for every pro- portionate velocity of the sail to the wind, it still remains to be determined what that proportion ought to be at the extremity of the sail, as was justly observed by Mr. Smeaton; who, in put- ting Maclaurin’s theory to the test of experiment, assumed it as two to one, but he found that by increasing the angle of weather three and six degrees, the effect or product was still increasing, although by increasing the angles of weather at every part equally they became no longer the angles of Maclaurin; to have made it decisive he should also have taken it as one and an half to one ; and as one to one, the forces from the theory continually increasing, as these ratios diminish. Mr. Smeaton also appears to have made an error by estimating the mean velocity of the wind from the distance of the axis of his rotary machine from the centre of his sails; the force being as the squares of the velocities, the mean should have been taken at a greater dis- tance; if this error be corrected, his conclusion that the extre- mity of the sail should move with 2,7 times the velocity of the wind, will probably be altered to less than double, and from theory a slower motion of the sails appears to be highly ad- vantageous.
The angle of weather on either of these hypotheses is very easily laid down by the following construction, from whence ‘some useful conclusions may be drawn.
OF WINDMILLS, 897
Let WV tfepresent the direction and velocity of the wind ; SV, SV’ &c. that of the sail at those distances from the centre of motion, and perpendicular to WV; draw the parallel TW’, also NB’ in the middle and MC’ either at + the distance be- tween N and S, according to Maclaurin’s, or at + the distance, by the last hypothesis. Then to find the angle of weather cor- responding to any velocity or distance TW, draw SW, on which describe a semicircle SVBW, and draw SC, SB, to where it meets the parallels MC’, NB; then will CSV, be the angle of weather ac- cording to Maclaurin, if at + distance; oraccording to the last hy- pothesis, if MC’ be at 4 the distance between N and §; and BSV, equal to half the angle of limit WSYV, will be the angle of weather according to Waring, if any constant portion of wind could be intercepted ; and for Mr. Hall Gower’s hypothesis, take TW’, as the whole length of the vane, and assuming any angle at the extremity as most advantageous, suppose TW’H = 10 de- grees, then any other line drawn from H, to any other distance on TW’, will shew the corresponding angle of weather ; but this principle will be found evidently erroneous.
The calculation of the different angles of weather is also much easier from this construction, than from Maclaurin’s theorem for that purpose ; for taking WV = 1, as the winds velocity ; then the sails’ velocity TW is = contangent of the angle of limit = twice the angle of weather according to Waring; and either + or 4 the sine of the angle of limit SN, will give the sine of the arc BC, which arc subtracted from the angle of limit (BW =) BV will give the arc VC =twice the angle of weather ac- cording to either of the two hypotheses.—By this method, the following table is calculated shewing the different angles of weather, and the effective force of the wind to turn the sail ; but it must be understood that the proportionate velocity of the extreme part of the sail to the wind can be assumed at pleasure, if the interior mechanism be adapted to it; the greater the an- gle of weather the less will be the sails’ velocity, but the force greater; and also, on either hypothesis, if the same angle of wea- ther be assumed at the extremity, the difference of all the other angles would in practice be imperceptible, until we approach towards the centre, where they approximate to either 30°, 35° 16’, 45° or 90°; the last, evidently erroneous,
398 ON THE SAILS
Maclaurin.
Waring. Gower
EFFECTIVE FORCE.
RF3XR GS N3
Bol iy doles : ssl 2 len!) 2 ia tiie sil | oo} be pp ae pe sro) f | aa | ee 3 S 7, Za I pewhaed el jog pd 22] 4 | Sa )52° oe 2s a = al an ANGLES OF WEATHER. rs) 7 ~ Oo 7 ° °o 0} 30 0} 35 16| 45 0} 90 0 53248 25| 24 20] 28 33/ 38 59] 63 26 2 “| 2300 50] 18 26] 23 4| 31 43} 45 0] 18 0',1563 75| 14 46] 18 50| 26 34] 33 41 |,1190 100] 12 10] 15 41] 22 30] 26 34) 19 0; ,0950 125| 10 14] 13 15] 19 20] 21 48 | 0786 150| 8 48] 11 31| 16 51| 18 26118 0 ,0668 175| 7 42) 9 46] 14 53] 15 57 |,0581 200] 6 48} 9° 0} 13 15] 14 2116 0:,0511 250] 5 33] 7 21) 10 54] 11 18] 12 30,0414 300} 4 40] 6 12} 9 13} 9 281 7 |,0346
33142 52238 ,1488 51128 50897 50758 50629 50556 30479 30388 30325
52500 | ,0000 51674 | 0152 51067 | ,0305 50781 | 0460 ,0607 | 0503 ,0492 | ,0371 30413 | ,0338 30356 | ,0306 | ,0311 | 0275 ,0250 | ,0229
30208 | ,0197
OF WINDMILLS. 399 REMARKS.
Ist. The most material consequence to be derived from the above table is the great diminution of the effective force of the wind, as the velocity of the sail increases; which shews, that the sail-cloth should be placed’ a$ near the centre as pos- sible, only observing that the wind must have a free escapement ; for a square foot of sail, moving with half the velocity of the Wind, appears to: have three times the effective power as when moving with double the wind’s velocity; or the power of the lever when time is considered must be out of the calculation ; this also agrees with Mr. Smeaton’s experiments, who found, that by enlarging the breadth of his sails, he gained more than by increasing the radius. Probably the extremity of the sail should not exceed the velocity of the wind; and as this will increase the angle of weather, the wind will havea more free escapement, and its reflections be less liable to impede the following sail: the angle of reflection is easily seen from the relative angle of incidence, DSR.
Qdly. That Mr. Hall Gower’s hypothesis is highly disad- vantageous; for by approximating to 90° at the centre it has the least power, where it should have the most.
$dly. It appears evident from theory, and all Mr. Smeaton’s experiments, that the greater the angle of weather the slower will be the motion; therefore if by any simple contrivance the angles of weather could be occasionally altered, it would be the best mode of making the revolutions more uniform, and even of stopping them altogether: I am now making an experiment at large on this method.
4thly. Although the forces appear greatest in the first co- lumn, from taking RF?>xRG-+SN? as the measure, yet if the
RE?XRG measure had been taken ——-—— according to Maclaurin, SN2xSR then the second column had shewn the greatest forces, and the third column, if Bb was the true measure—but on no hy- pothesis could Gower have any competition.
N. B. RE*xRG is a maximum when WCxcC isa maximum, and RF?XRG is a maximum, when cWXcC is a maxium— the first when We is = of Wy, the last when We is © of Wv; the greatest right-angled triangle in the segment VBW.
es
( 400 )
No. LVIII.
Eviract froma paper on the Meteoric Stones, written by F. R. Hass- ler Esq. Mathematical. Professor in the Miltary School at West Point.
Read June 17th, 1808.
THE first thing to be considered on the supposition that these bodies are projected from the moon, is, whether the pow- er exerted by any lunar volcano can be sufficient to throw a heavy body beyond the sphere of its predominant attraction, and of course enter that of the earth. This may be made a subject of calculation on the following principles.
Heavenly bodies exercise an attractive power in the direct ratio of their masses, and inverse ratio of the squares of their dis- tances. Let A, M, and D, represent the attraction, mass, and distance of the earth; a, m, d, those of the moon; then the
Mm whole force exerted by the two bodies will be A : a ::—:—, D* dé
A body placed in circumstances most favourable to the hy- pothesis would of course be between the two bodies, and in a right line with the centers of both; and in order to be merely suspended in equilibrio between them, the two first terms of this proportion must be equal to each other, and the two last
M m must also be equal, that is, ———. Di? di;
Now, taking M tobe, in round numbers, equal to 70m, and
Ded equal to the distance of the moon trom the earth—=D, the
70m m equation transformed becomes =—, from which d is Dd) as D found==————; but D—60xthe radius of the earth, which is, 14+“70
in round numbers, equal to the mean distance of the moon ;
ON METEORIC STONES. 401
D 60 rad. earth therefore + = 6,406 x, the radius: of the 1+”70 9.366
earth; and multiplying by 3.67, the ratio of the radius of the earth to that of the moon, d=25.5xradius of the moon, which diminished by one radius of the moon, leaves 22% times the radius of the moon, or 24310.4 miles for the distance to which a heavy body must be thrown by some internal power of the moon, in order toremain suspended between the moon and earth.
According to the ratio of the quantity of matter in the moon and earth, and the observed rate ot falling of a heavy body at the surface of the earth in the first second of time, the rate of falling at the surface of the moon is equal to 3.018 feet. Now, let g=this rate+3,.018, s=the distance to which the body must be thrown=24310.4 miles; V=the initial velocity, or the ve- locity which the body must have at leaving the surface of the moon, then V=2¥ gs=39364.3 feet, or about 74 miles per second, or more than ten times the velocity of the moon in its orbit. Can we believe that there exists in the moon any internal power, capable of producing this effect? When we consider how small the attraction of gravitation is at the moon, would not the existence of such a projectile force prove in the lapse of ages, destructive to that body? And when centuries, and even thousands of years have passed away without any diminution of its magnitude, are we not irresistibly led to deny that there is in the moon any power of projecting a part of itself beyond the sphere of its own attraction?
No. LIX.
Extract of a letter from a member of the Society, relative to the great cold in January, 1807, at the town of Hallowell, in the district of Maine, Massachusetts, Head of tide-water on Kenne- beck River, Communicated by John Vaughan,
Hallowell, January 29, 1807, THE cold here on the night of the 22d—23d, brought the
4.02 GREAT COLD IN MAINE.
thermometer, for a short time, to 33° (Fahrenheit) below the zero; and again, on the 26th—27th, fcr a much longer time, But the sky, on the. last occasion, became cloudy at 3 A. M. and stopped short our career, or I should have frozen quick- silver by a natural process, for the first time in the United States, ‘and for the first time any where in so lowa latitude as 44° 16’ by the side of tide waters; that is, at the level of the sea. Quick- silver, by Mr. Hutchins’ experiments at. Hudson’s Bay, as ex- plained by Mr. Cavendish, and confirmed by various others, freezes at-—3 82°; and I had the thermometerat—36° or—37° on the surface of the snow; consequently, had darkness continued without clouds, by day break I should have had.my requisite temperature at the surface of the snow, though I did not ex- pect more than—36 in the air. I had prepared diminutive cups of fine writing paper, of a size to hold each a globule of quick- silver; and tools were ready cooled to strike, in order to obtain a proof of malleability.—In all this cold weather our female invalids were riding about the country, and our stages and town patroles (of which in my turn I am one) by night. On the two coldest nights, I sat up with my son, and wore neither hat, nor gloves, nor great coat, nor boots. I observed with three thermometers made by Blunt, the king’s instrument-maker in London, a fourth by Jones, and a fifth by an Englishman (who supplies some Italians at Boston) and which proved my third best instrument. At mid-day on the 26th we had a violent wind, with the thermometer 7° below the zero; against which our ladies rode, without inconvenience, in a sleigh ; other thermometers in the neighbourhood, including one by Adams, corroborated the above. This winter, till lately, has not differed from any common cold winter in Europe.
No. LX.
Statement of Deaths, with the diseases and ages, in the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, from the 2d of January 1807, to the Istof January 1809. Communicated by the Board of Health.
From the 2d of January 1807 to the \st of January 1808.
Gwe ws ~
Sg ee ae SPS ae ae eS ae iS s = Sa SSE Se SS eve DISEASES. SFes8 ss se sssssgi &
Soe es SS FF FH SSES §
Hse eB e 6 ade See a ABSCESS, 2 . sin 20° OSes 10> 24 OR Da O'Org Pip Regine Apoplexy, . 5 : SeGROw OO Ors. 23 uo Guia bees A () Piper! Aphthz or Thrush, 2 20) 20) 0¥°0' "0" ©08 ORF OO" 2 Asthma, i : ; 5 CIPPTOE > es Geis IEE Ri rae Wess ies a Fag ft 16 Atrophy, . . . . i het CO ee I ies aaah Vers bes Ut a 25 Burns, - i . Sto 18 (070-707-260) 2 Oak Owe 1 6 Cachexy, - F; Cede 0 2 D2) et eee 6 0 3 Cancer, 4 c Grete Os 20 OO mel Dette Ede 1 9 Casualties, ‘ =, SIO OO USD ae Oee Tia 9 Gok Dit Catarrh, e 5 a Tie) OOO) Us Ott wel 1 1 7 Cholera, , 5 TSE 2720 0! 0 MO? 080) 0 2-189 Cholic, . 5 . s Si OOO Os SA Aig. 102 8 242k Compression of the Brain, Oe OO 520) OT A OO 16) 0 1 Consumption of the Lungs, - 6 3 6 21 51 86 54:23 17 6 2 31 306 Convulsions, : . : Lop Peep OY 9p Uo SP 2 Sa ALA 0) as lps 3 8 127% Contusion, : 00810) 1 20 FOTO 00 1 3 Curved Spine, . B00 0 10 ck: Oy ONO. 0) 2 I Debility, * 7 Le 20) 20 2020) FO re Tats 0 5 Decay, ° 3 b Jo Aeoum Some PO uit 55: tn Ol cai 4.72 4 St Diabetes, 5 . OOO 0820) SOL ROS Ort cd 0 1 Diarrhoea, 3 4 42 21483) MOE eB ere Or 7 25. on E SF LNIS Dropsy, 5 : a pe Fa 1a | OD (oy aOR Peer. 2 7 4 54 Dropsy of the Brain, ; BT Ws go Does) 20" 40) 24 A026, 0 48 Dropsy in the Chest, 4 Be EA oO De DSi ole iA 1 90 Drowned, A F Oe. Opa a0) ol S20) 0.6 16> 36 Dislocations, . 2 OOO US 20) 50 a0) "0) 10° 10 0 1 Drunkenness, . ‘ OS OMG SS OD. 3 eds) od - 6 14 Dysentery, . 46) 90 oa ae 2 TOS dhe td 6 670 Dyspepsia, : On Or 0esD W200 sO 0:5 OO 1 1 2 Epilepsy, . . E00 ele St 20) 20" 50.70 2 3 Erysipelas, : : OO Uke pe OrsOus 0.0 3 Fever, : . c OPENS a 22 OP CTO ints acto ah 36 Fever, Intermittent, . Pee prt) aah 1D) a) ee Oh ic 240) -O 4 Remittent, - * Dy eed Le | th ND A oD ote 7 2. +20 Bilious, ‘ 4 TOM OY See Dhaest Leas Orgy Malignant Bilious, CipeBa Di (2 Nasa LPs MES RC TENG OC) 1 3 Hectic, : LON ae aS Sf" 0) 0.00 4 Nervous, . ea, OO ie en: DORE 10 Putrid, F Ls GLO On0* <0" 16) 402 2008 1 Carried forward, 418 5337 54 94155128 86 594323 80 106, 1266 ©
DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA. 1807.
404
TOTAL.
Ages unknown.
OAH FR NH SOOORMAKRKADD TsO Ca OR TaN Gagne
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From 80 to 90. From 70 to 80. From 6) to 70. From 50 to 60. From 40 to 50. From 80 to 40. From 20 to 30. From 10 to 20.
From 5 to 10, From 2 to 5.
Under 2 years.
DISEASES.
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BSN ee eee ee OO OY SS TOO DO OLD
14121 65 79 144236172139 88 79 60 11
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sone ore oes ete peat . z ee 2 ne or oe a ° . os . 3) o Cie) 3 r= | ae og:s r=} a a 4 1 et “i . oie exes F ea ayer Bs dhrenionske A. . g BS Se Storg 'R Cie ba 5 Seo a 8 ome os 5 688 2 ams Osea OME pea ahe als baie Sagmes Col a Ce ale By pe hae | & Fame oN et ud ine & Gi olp er Oo Orbos 5) Mom OOS et pilin las is) ge Od a et a he Had PCH ake Spo eke ageesoh Goke SBOE OR ea a g fbbsseslers SEeMEP SBSH e eae puso eeeso eee Ss k o oR Bt eis aso as au.o 6 ao on = asgS&za ad Sct ese BoaUaH oOo aaa g mer 30 a 2°32 2 t SEgeconk Va HO — vozraa oo (ons) ope as sag Rv se oa SeQUuOmmaaia Sedo O me RADRAARHEEDPA
DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA. 1807.
Deaths in each Month, of the foregoing period.
.
Adults. Children. Total.
January, . 92 58 150 February, oi WA 45 118 March, e 109 45 154 April, : 111 46 157 May, x 90 43 133 June, : : - 9:1 68 159 July, - 101 136 237 August, 117 151 268 September, 140 97 237 October, 8 = ekO8' 54 162 November, 5 101 54 155 December, 71 44, 15 Total * . 1204 841 2045 SS SE
40
From the 2d of January 1808 to the 1st of January 1809.
DISEASES.
Abortion, 5 = Abscess, : Angina Pectoris,
Aneurism, és ° Anthrax, 5 E Apoplexy, 2 . Asthma,
Atrophy or Marasmus, Burns, A 3 5 Cancer, - A Casualties, A - Catarrh, . Cachexy, :
Caries of the Spine, Chlorosis, A A Constipation, : Cholera Morbus, Cholic,
Consumption of the Lungs,
Convulsions, S 3 Contusion, . : Debility, . 5 Decay, 2 . : Diabetes, f 3 Diarrhea, . 5 Dropsy, . : Dropsy of the Brain, Dropsy in the Chest, Drowned,
Carried for wart
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293140 75 34 431101;
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0 0 0 0 0 1 1
ORBCCOOMm Op 408 Mo4y
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1808.
DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA.
406
TOTAL.
Ages unknown.
ive] Ve) mn
~~ al AQ INA 6d eben Sr teak Saale pmo s oc) eo tM SS Ber ah a _) mo ,
BOSTHROSSIPSOSRNSSSSSOANSSSORASCONARRONGSGONNSCSHONnSOHONHKSO SONtooSOCOnHONNC
From 100 to twcesesessessscessooecsescosoocos eesesssessessooonrsescosooseoescsecoso oooocoecpecocso
Prom 90 to 100. From 80 to 90.
From 70 to 80. From 60 to 70. From 50 to 60, From 40 to 50. From 30 to 40 From 20 to 30. From 10 to 20. From 5 to 10, From 2 to 5. From 1 to 2.
Under 1 year.
DISEASES.
mooocecsssooosoeeocosecoocoo sooecooeoeoeoscoeosescooHcoScSoOoOCSoOSoOSSoS ocoocoececoec|cosd Noocoosensosoooosesosso Ss SO SS OOMA'S VSO O'S S''S'O'S'S 1S CISiSio ooocoeceocosco
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BOS She et SS 69 OS NUNC COINS rel Ort SROMNMANMNONMOMNOWOOCHHODONHON Sm Cou mNooCCSCSCSoSS
Be SNS C9 tO SISA COSI DCPS CY rt} Sore CRAG Fe 9 SNCF SS PEO O O11; OUST Sy on) nm
BF PE 1, OS OY OCR GN 69 CORD rh rt OO SNC 08 ort al eS OOS SF OGD 10 OS SNS C2 OS Seoenceoenscoooonw
OP nega shen ORT SP GN OSS COH STOUR IS rit VSO SCS SMOOCSCSCSSCoONMOoTOOSOOCHN eocencoooscoor
BOMORSSSOSSOONNMNSSSSOSOMIONFNSSOSSOMMNSSSOSNSSSOSNSS Scoroooooonon
HOS 00 OARS Oh SND OS a ST ISS) a: Se SI Lg GID a ae ery Me sree GN SOOM CON OHH ON
Se Se ee eS EO ED SAS SEO SI OTS BGS ESCO SH TIS Sr She Oh Sa oil O Oia Ors SeoonanFoooWmon al 5
ROSSHSOSOSNROAROSCONSOSS HOMNIDMNDOSHONHMMONOONONOCONHM OOH OMOK oN e ri RN nm aR mw ay nN
n * a y . of eB og Ser mo . a . : “ase : Ber ge S + O.s Sew ; ac : caves = "B 7, ra : a . Aono: Se) a ‘ ; 7 Pa als) 5 : faa] . . . e 5 ts OTH & - - . . re . 2 . 2 iy « -~ San . . 2 =| ae?) ® i=} rae EI : : aks : Ca -Tpgs. Ce . . . . 5 R nm s Lore) & aD . . rd sed s = a2 . i" ; Re wae Ss or) oe aa re . U s > . oOo, 29 oH Sienna . = ' 4 3 BoE. Behm ail GC .aea URE. Ps o i : wera ot uae . a ae tnlaie tea &n . ear“ ace ioe ee a a aS eh -E Anas Wage eG pe : a re. ° ae eo Be ee hs See aie af 4 ‘ ie . ic Sa ee eer Bonet 3) ny . ° 22 f 2 i iar ein . ord <r aee Ee . S 2 in * oe ae G aa Gh oh ~ 80° oa Be his By ts 9 moms ff oP Bb’ Ce ata Roe Sef gh asl Are oo "3 = eS | HS © nn a 2.0 R25 oF ry to So e ° ss ir « =| oO a =) rs} spo 9 of obo Ba a (3) aOus AGS! Pe! is 2 >) 3S a ~ fe) 3 SES Po sad a hE SOS of ay 3 Sem a 9. Sorin NO one A Ak , o gy Brosh abana g Be Soya o fo - oe os Btn oman ene atria aig 2 1 ORO RC RR Rete a Bode es Leven fa Hess est Ese es kad ee ss 2 04 wend 4 wy avon om Sr a Use BO ROW 10'S si aut aQADV°UmM ANS g Ben BM on a5) : a S| 4a Sap ee | 1 = OF o a2 n° wo eeog ci td . Hes og ou were So = — a fe On os aes os hy ny oeo'a Om Oo S ERaYoxr m3 SS a os ae qi" oir) a Hines OY SFono on = Hema raw BOHRA BOD HeodoUYoesaqkv sags r=] 3 vas9.2 a F- a cg = = oO ie} Sons cs A AARAde eee BOO mmns SEAS SOORMROMMAG AARAGHRE DP ESA
01,2274
ct lord ~
> (se)
583 284167 98 95 212219186128 98 61
TOTAL,
DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA. 1808. 407
Deaths in each Month, of the foregoing period.
Adults. Child. Adults. Child. January, . : 91 AS July, : . 111 263 February, : “28 50 August, =) by 09, 188 March, . 3 91 63 September, Pet) 97 April, “ : - 96 73 October, 5 - 71 83 May, - . . 81 98 November, ye tal 71 June, : . eae 132 December, . 59 62 527 A461 519 764 ToTate2271
The foregoing Statements were drawn up with as much accuracy as possible, from the Returns given to the Board, from Physicians and others. Any suggestions, for future im- proyements, will be thankfully received.
By reference to the Census taken by order of Congress, we find the population of the City and Liberties of Philadelphia, and that part of the county connected with the preceding Bills of Mortality, to have been as follows :
Census. City. Suburbs. County Total. 1790 28522 13998 3657 46177 1800 41299 26641 4201 72141
A new Census will be taken in 1810.—The present popu- lation may be safely estimated at 100000, or upwards. The population of the State of Pennsylvania, by the same Census, appears to have kept pace with that of the City &c, BU2QO.1 34343730. 1800,...602373
Loyal OP.
An Account of Experiments made on Palladium, found in combi- nation with pure Gold. By Joseph Cloud, an Officer in the sees of the United States.
Read June 23d, 1809.
NOTWITHSTANDING the numerous experiments that have been made by several eminent chemists, on a metallic substance, discovered by Doctor Wollaston, in combination with crude platinum, and by him called palladium; there still re-
Hh
408 CLOUD, ON PALLADIUM FOUND IN GOLD.
mains much doubt with respect to the existence of such a sim- ple substance. Professor Murray, one of the latest writers on chemistry, in speaking of palladium, and other metals found in combination with crude platinum, says; ‘It is not impossi- ble that they may be alloys of others; or that the peculiar pro- perties which they appear to exhibit, may arise from combina- tions which analysis has not detected. The peculiarity of their association in one natural production, while there are no traces of them in any other, perhaps lends force to this supposition.” It has been my fortune, however, to obtain it from a different source; which enables me to point out some of its characters, that will throw such light on the subject, as to remove all doubts respecting the existence of this simple metal.
On the 15th of May, 1807, a deposit of gold bullion, from Brazil, in South America, was made at the Mint of the United States, weighing 797 ounces, 4 dwts., gross, equal to 819 oz. 11 dwts. 11 grs. standard. It was composed of about 120 small ingots, differing in weight; each of them was stamped on one side with the arms of Portugal, and the inscription of ‘ Rio das Mortes.” The other side was stamped with a globe. They were also marked with their respective qualities. Among them were two or three ingots, so remarkably different in colour from any of the common native alloys of gold, that I was induced to reserve one, weighing 3 ounces, 11 dwts. 12 grains, for exa- mination, and which was subjected to the following experi- ments.
Experiment Ist. A portion of the reserved bar was examined for silver, by solution in the nitro-muriatic acid; but no trace of that metal was indicated.
Exp. 2d. 24 carats of this bar were combined with 48 carats of fine silver, and cupeled with pure lead, tor the purpose of destroying any of the base metals that might be in combina- tion; but there was no loss of weight produced: consequently, there were none of the easily-oxidable metals in the compound.
Exp. 3d. The pure metals from experiment 2d were redu- ced to a thin lamina by rollers, and subjected to the action of pure nitric acid: the silver, together with the native alloy of the gold, were dissolved by the acid, which was tnged of a
CLOUD, ON PALLADIUM FOUND IN GOLD, 409
high brownish-red colour. The metals remaining undissolved, alter being well washed with pure water, and ignited, weighed 22 carats 14 grain; and had every appearance of pure gold.
Exp. 4th. fhe metals remaining undissolved in the last ex- periment, were submitted to the action of nitro-muriatic acid. The whole was dissolved, except a small portion of silver that had escaped the action of the nitric acid: the solution was tested for platinum, by muriate of ammoniac and other re- agents, without any indications of the presence of that metal. The gold was precipitated, and found to have been pure to 35% Part. ; :
Exp. 5th. To the metallic solution from experiment $d, I added some pure muriatic acid, until the silver was precipitat- ed, and the acid was in considerable excess: there was no pre- cipitation of the colouring matter of the solution, which. still retained its red colour, and did not appear to have undergone any change by the precipitation of the silver.
By these preliminary experiments I discovered, that the al- loy was a compound of gold, and a metal that would resist the cupel, and was soluble in the nitric and nitro-muriatic acids, I therefore adopted the following mode of analysis, as the easiest, and at the same time a satisfactory evidence of the existence of a metal possessing the properties of palladium; by which name I shall call it in future.
Process Ist. The whole ingot was combined with double its weight of fine silver, and cupeled with a quantity of lead, equal to the weight of the compound.
Pro. 2d. The cupeled metals were reduced to thin plates, and submitted to the action of boiling nitric acid, until the sil- ver and palladium were dissolved. The solution, which was of a high brownish-red colour, was decanted, and the residual gold washed with pure water, which was added to the decant- ed solution.
Pro. 3d. Pure muriatic acid was added to the metallic solu- tion of process 2d, unul no further precipitation took place, and the acid was in excess. The silver being completely pre- cipitated, the fluid, which retained its red colour, was decanted; and the precipitate washed with pure water: the washings were
410 CLOUD, ON PALLADIUM FOUND IN GOLD,
added to the decanted fluid, now holding nothing but palla- dium in solution.
Pro. 4th. A saturated solution of pure pot-ash (carbonate of pot-ash did not succeed so well, part of the palladium being held in solution by the carbonic acid) was added to the me- tallic solution from process $d, until the whole of the palladi- um was thrown down in form of a floculent orange-coloured precipitate. The precipitate was collected on a filtre;—was well washed with pure water, and dried.
Pro. 5th. A portion of the precipitate from the last process was put into a crucible, without addition, and subjected to a heat of about 60° of Wedgewood; and thus, a metallic button of palladium was obtained.
Pro. 6th. Another portion of the precipitate from process 4th was combined with black flux, and submitted to a degree of heat equal to that excited in process 5th, and similar results were obtained.
Having thus obtained a metal, which I supposed to be pal- ladium, from a source heretofore unknown; in order still far- ther to satisfy myself, I separated that metal from crude plati- num, and subjected them both to a number of comparative experiments, with prussiate of mercury, recent muriate of tin, and other re-agents, without discovering the least shade of dif- ference.
Palladium is of a greyish-white colour; so closely resembling that of, platinum, that they cannot be distinguished by their complexion. It is malleable, and very ductile; so that by the rolling-mill it can be reduced into thin plates. In hardness it is nearly equal to wrought iron. Its specific gravity, at 64° ‘Fahrenheit, is 11,4,. It may be alloyed with a number of the metals. With gold, silver, and platinum, it forms ductile alloys, and very much debases the colour of the two former.
It would be useless here to go into a further detail of the characters and properties of palladium, as Dr. Wollaston and Mr, Chenevix have fully explained them, in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1803-4 and 5. It is enough for me to have shown, I trust satisfactorily, that palladium has a real existence; that it is one of the pure or
CLOUD, ON PALLADIUM FOUND IN GOLD. 41}
inoxidable metals; and, in this respect, on a par with gold, sil- ver, and platinum; and that it has been found’ in a native combination with gold; without the presence of. platinum, or any other metal.
Gold has never been found pure in nature; it has hitherto always been found alloyed with silver or copper; mostly a combination of both, and frequently other metals. The gold which was the subject of my experiments, appears to have been alloyed with palladium only; if any of the other known metals had been present, except silver and platinum, they would have been indicated by preliminary experiment 2d.—Silver would have been discovered by experiment Ist; and platinum by experiment 4th. It is self-evident, that this alloy was native ; for no man would have been at the trouble and expense to purify the gold and separate the palladium from platinum, the only source from whence palladium had been heretofore obtain- ed; and where it exists only (agreeably to Doctor Wollaston’s experiments, confirmed by my own,) in the proportion of one half of one per cent., merely for the purpose of combining them with an intention of fraud; as none of the metals injures the colour of goldso much, and renders it so suspicious as palladium; and which would necessarily lead to.a detection of the imposi- tion. If fraud therefore had been intended, platinum would have answered the purpose much better; as it is not separated from gold by the usual process of assaying.
No. LXII.
Observations on the Geology of the United States, explanatory of a Geological Map. By Wiliam Maclure.
Read January 20th, 1809.
NECESSITY dictates the adoption of some system, so far as respects the classification and arrangement of names the Wernerian appears to be the most suitable, First, Because it is the most perfect and extensive in its general outlines, and
412 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
secondly, The nature and relative situation of the minerals in the United States, whilst they are certainly the most extensive of any field yet examined, may perhaps be found to be the most correct elucidation of the general exactitude of that theory, as respects the relative position of the different series of rocks.
Without entering into any investigation of the origin or first formation of the various substances, the following nomenclature will be used.
Class 1st. Primitive Rocks.
1. Granite, 8. Porphyry, 2. Gneiss, 9. Sienite, 3. Mica slate, 10. Topaz-Rock, 4. Clay slate, 11. Quartz-Rock, 5. Primitive Limestone, 12. Primitive Flinty-Slate, 6. Primitive Trap, 13. Primitive Gypsum, 7. Serpentine, 14, White-Stone. Class 2d. Transition Rocks. 1. Transition Limestone, 4, Transition Flinty-Slate, 2. Transition Trap, 5. Transition Gypsum.
3. Grey Wacke. Class 3d. Fletz or Secondary Rocks.
1. Old Red Sandstone or Ist 7. Third Floetz-Sandstone,
Sandstone Formation, 8. Rock-Salt Formation, ‘2, First or Oldest Floetz-Lime- 9. Chalk Formation, stone, 10. Floetz-Trap Formation, 3. First or Oldest Floetz-Gyp- 11. Independent Coal Forma- sum, tion, 4, 2d or Variegated Sandstone, 12. Newest Floetz-Trap Forma- 5. 2d Floetz-Gypsum, tion. 6. 2d Floetz-Limestone, Class 4th. Alluvial Rocks. 1. Peat, 5. Nagel fluh, 2. Sand and gravel, 6. Calc-tuff, 3. Loam, 7, Calc-sinter.
4, Bog iron ore,
OF THE UNITED STATES. 413
To the east of Hudson’s river, the primitive class prevails, both in the mountains and the low lands, decreasing gradually as it proceeds south; it is bounded on the side of the ocean by the vast tracts of alluvial formation which skirt the great gra- nite ridge, while it serves as a foundation to that immense su- perstructure of transition and secondary rocks, forming the great chain of mountains that occupy the interior of the con- tinent to the westward.
The primitive to the eastward of Hudson’s river constitutes the highest mountains, while the little transition and secondary that is found, occupies the low grounds. To the south of the Delaware, the primitive is the first rock, after the alluvial for- mation of the ocean, the lowest step of the stair, that mounts gradually through the different formations to the top of the Alleghanys.
To the eastward of the State of New-York, the stratification runs nearly north and south, and generally dips to the east, looking up to the White Hills, the most elevated ground; in New-York State, and to the southward and westward, the stra- tification runs nearly N. E. and S. W. and still dips generally to the east. All the rivers east of the Delaware, run nearly north and south, following the stratification, while the southern rivers incline to the S. E. and N. W. direction.
Throughout the greatest part of the eastern and northern States, the sea washes the foot of the primitive rock; commen- ces the deposition of that extensive alluvial formation at Long- Island, increasing in breadth to the south, forming a great part of both the Carolinas and Georgia, and almost the whole of the two Floridas and Lower Louisiana. The coincidence of the Gulf-stream, with all its attendant eddies, depositions, &c. &c. rolling along this whole extent, from the Gulf of Mexico to Nantucket, may create speculative ideas on the origin of this vast alluvial formation, while the constant supply of caloric,* brought by that sweeping current from the tropics, may per- haps account for the sudden and great change in the tempera- ture of the climate, within the reach of the Atlantic.
* About 100 miles S. E. of Nantucket, in the month of September, Fahrenheit’s thermo- meter in the sea stood at 78°, while the air was only 66, and the sea in soundings 61,
4] 4 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
- The great distance occupied by the same, or similar sub- stances, in the direction of the stratification, must strike the ob- server; as in the primitive rocks, the beds of primitive limestone and Dolomite (containing in some places crystallized felspar and tremolite) which are found alternating with Gneiss, for ten miles between Dover, State of New-York, and Kent, State of Connecticut, appear forty miles north, at Stockbridge, Con- necticut, and eighty miles south, between Singsing and Kings- bridge, New-York; where, after crossing the Hudson river and dipping under the trap and sandstone formation in New-Jersey, they most probably re-appear in the marble quarries, distant from twelve to fourteen miles N. W. of Philadelphia,—a range of nearly 300 miles.
There is a bed of magnetic iron ore, from eight to twelve feet thick, wrought in Franconia, near the White Hills, New- Hampshire; a similar bed in the direction of the stratification, six miles N. E. of Phillipstown, on the Hudson river; and still following the direction of the stratification, the same ore occu- pies a bed of nearly the same thickness at Ringwood, Mount- Pleasant, and Suckasunny, in New-Jersey, losing itselt as it ap- proaches the end of the primitive ridge, near Blackwater,—a range of nearly 300 miles.
Instances of the same occur in the transition and secondary rocks; as the Blue ridge from the Hudson river to Dan river, consists of rocks of much the same nature, and included in the same formation.
That no volcanic productions have yet been found east of the Mississippi, is not the least of the many prominent features of dis- tinction between the geology of this country and that of Europe,” and may perhaps be the reason why the Wernerian. system, so nearly accords with the general structure and stratification of this continent.
It is scarce necessary to observe, that the country must be considered of the nature of the fist rock that is found in place, even should that rock be covered with thirty or forty feet of sand or gravel, on the banks of rivers, or in valleys; for ex- ample, the city of Philadelphia stands on primitive rock, though at the Centre-square, thirty or forty feet of sand and
OF THE UNITED STATES. 415
gravel must be penetrated, before the Gneiss rock, which as- certains the formation, is found.
Beginning at the bay of Penobscot (to the northward and eastward of which most probably the primitive descends through a gradual transition to the secondary, and thus into the Inde- pendent coal formation, found in such abundance in Nova Scotia;) and proceeding south, the sea coast is primitive to Bos- ton, where the transition covers it as far as Rhode-Island.
ALLUVIAL FORMATION,
On the south east side of Long-Island the alluvial begins, occupying more than the half of that island; its western and northern boundaries are marked by a line passing near Amboy, Trenton, Philadelphia, Baltumore, Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmong, and Petersburg in Virginia, a little to the westward of Halifax, Smithfield, Aversborough and Parker’s Ford on Pe- . dee river, in North Carolina, west of Cambden near Columbia, Augusta on the Savannah river, Rocky Landing on the Oco- nee river, Fort Hawkins*on the Oakmulgee river, Hawkins- town on Flint river, and running west, a little southerly, across the Chatahouchee, Alabama and Tombigby rivers, it joins the great alluvial bason of the Mississippi a little below the Natchez.
The ocean marks the eastern and southern limits of this ex- . tensive alluvial formation, above the level of which it rises con- siderably in the southern States, and falls to near the level of the sea, as it approaches the north.
Tide water in all the rivers from the Mississippi to the Roan- oke stops at a distance from thirty to one hundred and twenty miles short of the western limits of the alluvial; from the Ap- pomatox to the Delaware, the tide penetrates through the allu- vial, and is only stopped by the primitive ridge.
The Hudson is the only river in the United States where the tide passes through the alluvial, primitive, transition, and into the secondary, in all the northern and eastern rivers, the tide runs a small distance into the primitive formation.
Through the whole of this alluvial formation, considerable deposits of shells are found; and a bank of shell limestone be-
ii
416 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
ginning in North Carolina, and running parallel to, and within the distance of from twenty to thirty miles of the edge of the primitive through South Carolina, Georgia, and part of the Mississippit Territory; in some places this bank is sott, with a large proportion of clay, in others, hard, with a sufficiency of the calcareous matter to be burned for lime, large ficlds of the same formation are found near’ cape Florida, and extending some distance along the coast of the bay of Mexico; in some situ- ations, the calcareous matter of the shells has been washed away, and a deposit of silicious flint has taken their place, forming a porous flinty rock, which is used with advantage for mill-stones.
Considerable deposits of bog iron ore, occupying the lower situations, and many of the more elevated and dividing ridges between the rivers are crowned with a sandstone and pudding- stone, the cement of which is bog iron ore.
Quantities of ochre, from bright yellow to dark brown are found in abundance in this formation, in flat horizontal beds al- ternating with other earths in some places;‘in others in kidney form masses from the size of an egg to that of a man’s head, in form resembling much the flint found trequently in chalk . formations,
PRIMITIVE FORMATION.
The south east limit of the great primitive formation is co-— vered by the north western boundary of the alluvial forma- — tion from the Alabama river in the Mississippi Territory, (near which it is succeeded by the transition and secondary forma- tions) to the east end of Long-Island, with two small excep- tions; the first near Augusta on the Savannah river, and near Cambden in South Carolina, where a stratum of transition clay- slate intervenes, and from Trenton to Amboy, where the oldest sandstone formation covers the primitiye along the edge of the alluvial.
From Rhode-Island (the greatest part of which is transition rock) to Boston, the primitive touches a transition formation, which most probably extends to the eastward, until it meets the aliuvial along the sea coast by Elizabeth island, cape Cod
OF THE UNITED STATES. ALF
&c. &c. the eastern edge of the primitive from Boston to the bay of Penobscot is bounded by the ocean.
The north western boundary of this extensive range is mark- ed by a line running to the eastward of lake Champlain, twen- ty or thirty miles westward of Connecticut river, to the west- ward of Stockbridge, twelve miles east of Poukepsy, skirting the high lands, then crossing the Hudson river at Philipstown, by Sparta about ten or fifteen miles east of Eastown, on the Dela- ware, three miles east of Reading on the Schuylkill, and a lit- tle west of Middletown on the Susquchannah, where it joins the blue ridge, and continues along it to Magotty Gap; from thence to four miles east of the lead mines at Austinville, and following a south western direction, by the stoney and iron mountains, six miles S. E. of the warm springs in Buncomb county, North Carolina, to the eastward of Hightown on the Cousee river, and a little to the westward of the Talapousee river, it meets the alluvial near the Alabama river, which runs into the bay of Mexico at Mobile.
In general the strata of this primitive rock run from a north and south to a north east and south west direction, and dip al- most universally to the south east at an angle of more than 45 degrees from the horizon; the highest elevation is towards the north western limits, which gradually descends to the south east ‘where it is covered by the alluvial, and the greatest mass, as well as the highest mountains, are found towards the northern and southern extremities of the north western boundaries. ©
The outline of the mountains of this formation is generally circular waving, in detached masses, with rounded flat tops, as the white hills to the north, or comecally waving in small pyramidal tops, as the peaks of Oiter, and the ranges of hills to the south; (has the climate any agency in the forms of the northern and southern mountains!) thew height does not ap- pear to exceed six thousand feet above the level of the sea, except perhaps the white hills, it is even probable that those mountains are not much higher.
Within the limits prescribed to this primitive formation, there is a range of secondary, extending with some intervals trom the Connecticut to the Rappahannock rivers, in width generally
418 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
from fifteen to twenty five miles, bounded on the north east from Connecticut river to New-Haven, by the sea, where it ends, to recommence on the south side of Hudson river; from Elizabeth town to Trenton, it touches the alluvial. From a lit- tle above Morrisville on the Delaware to Norristown, Maytown on the Susquehannah, passing three miles west of York, Han- over, and one mile west of Fredericktown, it is bounded by, or rather appears to cover a tongue of transition, which occu- pies progressively a diminishing width as far south as Dan river.
This secondary formation is interrupted atter it passes Fre- dericktown, but begins again petween Monocasy and Seneca creeks, the north eastern boundary crossing the Potomac, by the west of Centerville, touches the primitive: near the Rap- pahannock, where it finishes. On the north west side it 1s bound- ed by the primitive, from some distance to the westward of Hartford, passing near Woodbury, and recommencing south of _ the Hudson, passing by Morristown, Germantown, &c. to the Delaware; after which it continues along the transition, by the east side of Reading, Grub’s mines, Middletown, Fairfield, to near the Potomac, and recommencing at Noland’s ferry, runs along the edge of the transition to the westward of Leesburg, Haymarket &c. to near the Rappahannock.
All this secondary appears to be the oldest red sandstone for- mation, though in some places about Leesburg, Reading &c. the red sandstone only serves as cement to a pudding, tormed of limestone of transition, and other transition rock pebbles, with some quartz pebbles. Large beds of greenstone trap and wacke of different kinds, cover in many places this sandstone formation, and form the small hills, or long ridges which occur. so frequently in it.
The stratification in most places runs from an east and west to a north east and south west course, and dips generally to the N. W. at an angle most frequently under 45 degrees from the horizon, covering both the primitive and transition formations, at every place where their junction could be examined; and in some places, such.as the east side of the Hudson (where the action of the ater had worn away the sandstone) the smooth Water-worn primitive was covered with large rolled masses of
‘OF THE UNITED STATES. 419
greenstone trap to a considerable distance, the hardness and so- lidity of which had most probably survived the destruction of their sandstone foundation; may not similar derangements be one of the causes of the broken and unconnected state of this formation?
Prehnite and zeolite are found in the trap of this formation ; considerable deposits of magneic iron ore at Grubb’s mines are en- veloped, and have their circular layers intersected by green- stone trap, on a ridge of which this extensive cluster of iron ore appears to be placed.
Grey copper ore has been found in the red sandstone forma- tion near Hartford and Washington in Connecticut; at Scheuy- ler’s mines in Jersey, copper pyrites and native copper have been found. The metallic veins on Perkiomen creek, containing copper pyrites, blende, and galena, are in the same formation ; running nearly north and south, across the east and west direc- tion of the red sandstone; a small bed from an half to three inches thick of brown or tile copper ore is interspersed and tol- lows the circular form of the iron beds at Grubb’s mines.
Besides:the sandstone formation, there is included within the described limits of the primitive, a bed of transition rocks, run- ning nearly §. W. from the Delaware, to the Yadkin river, dipping generally to the south east 45 degrees or more trom the horizon; its width is from two to fifteen miles, and runs from the west of Morrisville, to the east of Norristown, passes Lancaster, York, Hanover, Fredericktown, Bull run mountain, Milton, foot of Pig river, Martinsville, and finishes near Mount Pilot, between the Delaware and Rappahannock; it is partially covered by the red sandstone formation, and 1s in the shape of a long wedge, the thick end, touching the Delaware, and the sharp end, terminating at the Yadkin.
This range consists of beds of blue, grey, red and white smal] grained transition limestone, alternating with beds of grey wacke and grey wacke-state; with granular quartzose rocks, and a great variety of transition rocks, not described or named in any trea- tise yet published; much of this limestone is intimately mixed with grey wacke-slate, other portions of it contain so great a quantity of small grained sand, as to resemble Dolomute, and
420 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
perhaps might with propriety be called the transition Dolomite, in many places veins and irregular masses of silex, variously coloured (mostly black) run through it, and considerable beds of fine grained white marble, fit for the statuary, occur.
Limestone spar runs in veins and detached masses, through the whole of this formation, both it, and the grey wacke- slate contain quantities of cubic pyrites; galena has likewise been found near Lancaster, and many veins of the sulphate - of barytes traverse this formation, which runs about 25 to $0 miles south east, and nearly parallel to the great transition for- mation. A similar formation, about fifteen miles long, and two to three miles wide, occurs on the north fork of the Catabaw river, running along Linville and John’s mountains, near tothe ~ Blue ridge; a bed of transition rock, commencing on Green pond mountain, Jersey, runs through Suckasunny plains, in- creasing in width as the primitive range decreases, until it joins the great transition formation between Easton and Reading.— On the west side of this partial transition formation, from the Potomac to the Cataba, between it and the great western tran- sition range, a series of primitive rocks intervenes, something different from the common primitive, having the structure of gneiss; with little mica, the scales of which are detached and not contiguous; much elspar, rather granular than Crystallized ; mica-slate, with small quantities of scaly mica; clay-slate, rather soft and without lustre, the whole having a dull earthy fracture, and gritty texture, partaking of transiuon and primitive, but not properly belonging to either; this rock is always found on the edge of the primitive, before you come upon the transition, but no where in such quantities as in this range; there are ma- ny varieties of it, so that it imitates almost every species of the common primitive rocks, but differing from them, by having a dull earthy fracture, gritty texture, and little or no cfystalli- zation.
About ten or twelve miles west of Richmond, in Virginia, there is an independent coal formation, twenty to twenty five miles long, and about ten miles wide, it appears to be not far distant from the range of the red sandstone formation, it is situated in an oblong bason accompanied by whitish /reestone, slaty clay, Kc.
OF THE UNITED STATES, 42}
with vegetable impressions, as well as most of the other attendants of that formation; this bason lays upon, and is surrounded by primitive rocks, It is more than probable that within the limits of so large a mass of primitive, more partial formations of se- condary rocks may be found.
A great variety of mineral substances is found in this pri- mitive formation, such as garnets in the granite, trom the size of a pin head to the head of a child; staurotede; andalusite; epi- dute in great abundance; ¢remolite; all the varieties of magnesian rocks; emerald, touching graphic granite and disseminated in the grante of a large extent of country; adularia; tourmaline; horn= blende; sulphate of barytes; arragonite &c.
From the number already found, in proportion to the little research that has as yet been employed, there is every reason to suppose, that in so great an extent of crystalline formation, almost every mineral which has been discovered in similar si- tuations on the ancient continents, will be found on this.
The metallic substances which are found in this primitive, are generally extensive like the formation. J/ron pyrites run through vast fields, principally of gneiss, and muca-slate; magne= tic iron ore forms vast beds, from ten to twelve feet. thick, generally in a hornblende rock, occupying the higher elevations, as at Franconia, high lands ot New-York; the Jerseys; Yellow and Iron mountain, in the west of North Carolina, &c. &c. Biack, brown, and red hermaitc iron ores are found in Connec- ticut and New-York, &c. Crystals of octahedral iron ore are dis- seminated in granite (some of which have polarity, as at Bruns- wick) and in many varieties of the magnesian genus; black lead exists in beds from six to twelve feet wide, traversing the States ot New-York, Jersey, Virginia, Carolina, &c. Nawve and grey copper ore occur near Stanardsville and Nicholson’s Gap, disse- munated in a hornblende and epidote rock, bordering on the tran- sition; molybdena is found at Brunswick, Maine; Chester, Penn- sylvania; Virginia; North Carolina, &c. drsencal pyrites have been discovered in large quantities in the district of Maine; rutile, and menachanie exist in a large bed, on the edge of the primitive near Sparta, in Jersey, having a large grained marble, with menachanie and negrine imbeded in it on one side,
422 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
and hornblende rock on the other; this bed contains - likewise large quantities of blende; detached pieces of gold have been found in the beds of some small streams in North Carolina and other places, apparently in a guar/z' rock. Manganese has been found in New-York, North Carolina, &c. Near the confines of the red sandstone and primitive formations, a white ore of Co- balt has been worked above Middletown on the Connecticut river, and it is said near Morristown in New-Jersey.
The general nature of metallic repositories in this formation appears to be in beds, disseminated or lying in masses; when in beds (as the magnetic iron ore, and black lead) or disseminated as the zon pyrites, octahedral iron ore, Molybdena, &c. they oc- cur at intervals through the whole range of the formation; veins to any great extent have not yet been found in this for- mation. ;
TRANSITION FORMATION.
This extensive field of transition rocks, is limited on the S. E. side from a little to the eastward of lake Champlain, to near the river Alabama, by the N. W. boundary prescribed to the primitive rocks; on the N. W. side it touches the S. E. edge of the great secondary formations, in a line,, that passes consi- derably to the westward of the dividing ridge, in Georgia, North Carolina, and part of Virginia, and runs near it in the northern parts of that State, and, to the eastward of it in the States of Pennsylvania and New-York.
This line of demarkation runs between the Alabama and Tombigby rivers, to the westward of the north fork of the Hol- stein river, until it joins the Alleghany mountains near the sul- phur springs, along that dividing ridge to Bedford county in Pennsylvania, and from thence N. E. to the east side of the Catskill mountains on Hudson’s river. This line of separation of the transition and secondary formations, is not so regularly and distinctly traced as in the other formations, many large valleys are formed of horizontal secondary limestone, full of shells, while the ridges on each side consist of transition rocks, &c. the two formations interlock, and are mixed in many
OF THE UNITED STATES. 423
places, so as to require much time and attention to reduce them to their regular and proper limits. It is however probable, that to the N. W. of the line here described, little or no tran- sition will be found, although to the S. E. of it, partial forma- tions of secondary may occur. . '
The breadth of this transition formation is generally from 20 to 40 miles, and the stratification runs from a north and south to a north east and south west direction, dipping gene- rally to the N. W. at an angle in most places, under 45 de- grees from the horizon. On the edge of the primitive ; it, in some places, deviates from this general rule, and dips for a short distance to the south east. The most elevated ground is on the confines of North Carolina, and Georgia, along the S. E. limits to Maggotty Gap, descending towards the N. W. until it meets the secondary; from Maggotty Gap, north easterly, the highest | ground is on the north west side, sloping gradually towards the primitive, which ranges along its south east boundary.
The outline of the mountains of this formation, is almost a straight line, with few interruptions, bounding long parallel ridges of nearly the same height, declining gently towards the ~ side, where the stratification dips from the horizon, and more precipitous on the opposite side, where the edge of the strata comes to the surface.
This formation is composed of a small-grained transition limestone, -of all the shades of colour from white to dark blue, and in some places it is red, intimately mixed with grains of grey wacke slate, also of lime spar in veins, and disseminated ; siliceous flinty veins and irregular masses, in many places there is an intimate mixture of small sand, so as to put on the ap- pearance of dolomite, this is in beds from 50 to 5000 feet in width; it alternates with grey wacke, and grey wacke slate, a sili- ceous aggregate, having particles of a light blue colour, from the size of a pin head to that of an egg, disseminated, in some places in a cement of a slaty texture, and in others in a quartz cement; a fine sandstone cemented with quartz in large masses, often of a slaty structure, with small detached scales of mica intervening, and a great variety of other rocks, not descri- bed or named by any author, which trom their composition and situation cannot be classed but with the transition.
Kk
D4 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY
The limestone, grey wacke, and grey wacke slate, gerierally oc- cupy the vallies; the quartzose aggregates, the ridges; amongst which is that called the millstone grit; this must not be con- founded with another rock, likewise denominated the milistone grit, which is a small graned granite, with much quartz, found in the primitive formation; there are many and extensive caves in the limestone of this formation, where the bones of many animals are found, as well as the remains of marine insects and shells. }
Beds of coal-blende, accompanied by alum slate and black chalk, have been discovered in this formation on Rhode Island; the Leheigh and Susquehannah rivers; (a large body of alum slate which occurs on Jackson’s river in Virginia is perhaps only a part of a similar formation;) powerful veins of the sulphate of barytes cross it, in many places it is granular, as that near Fin- castle; or slaty,-as in Buncomb county, North Carolina.
Tron and lead have as yet been the principal metals found in this formation; the dead in the form of galena, in clusters, or what the Germans call stock-werck, as at the lead mines on New - river, Wythe county, Virginia; the von is disseminated in the form of pyrites; hematitic and magnetic iron ores, and conside- rable quantities of the sparry iron ore occur in beds and they are likewise disseminated in the limestone.
SECONDARY FORMATION.
The south east limit of this extensive formation is bounded by the irregular border of the transition, from between the Ala- bama and Tombigby rivers, to the Catskill mountains. On the north west side it follows the shore of the great lakes, and lo- ses itself in the alluvial of the great bason of the Mississippi, oc- cupying a surface from 200 to 500 miles in breadth.
Its greatest elevation is on the south east boundary, from which it falls down, almost imperceptibly, to the north west and mingles with the alluvial of the Mississippi, having an out- line of mountain, straight and regular, bounding long and pa- rallel ranges of a gradually diminishing height as they approach the N. W. limits. An almost horizontal stratification, or the stra-
OF THE UNITED STATES, 425
ta waving with the inequalities of the surface, distinguishes this from the two preceding formations.
Immense beds of secondary limestone, of all the shades from light blue to black, intercepted in some places by extensive tracts ‘of sandstone and other secondary aggregates, appear to constitute the foundation of this formation, on which reposes that great and valuable formation, called by Werner the inde- pendent coal formation, extending trom the head waters of the Ohio, with some interruptions, all the way to the waters of the Tombigby, accompanied by its several usual attendants, slaty clay and freestone with vegetable impressions &c. but zn no instance that I have seen or heard of, is it covered or does it al- fernate with any rock resembling basalt, or indeed any of those called the newest flwtz trap formation.
Along the S. E. boundary, not far from the transition, a rock- satt and gypsum formation has been found; on the north fork of Holstein not far from Abington, and on the same line south west from that in Green county and Pidgeon river, State of Tennessee, it is said considerable quantities of gypsum have been discovered; from which, and the numerous salt licks and salt springs which are found in the same range, as far north as lake Oneida, it is probable, that this formation is on the same great scale, which is common to all the other formations on this con- tinent: at least rational analogy supports the supposition, and we may hope one day to find, in abundance, those two most useful substances, which are generally found mixed or near each other in all countries that have been carefully examined.
The metallic substances which have been already found in this formation, are iron pyrites, disseminated, both in the coal and limestone; iron ores, consisting principally of brown, sparry and clay iron stone, in beds; galena, whether in veins or beds is not ascertained. The large deposits of galena at St. Louis on the Mississippi, have been described as detached pieces, found co- vered by the alluvial of the river, of course not in place; all the large specimens which I have seen, were roiled masses, this rather confirms the opinion, that they were not found in their original places.
«
496 OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOLOGY.
On the great Kanawa river, near the mouth of Elk river,. there is a large mass of black (I suppose vegetable) earth, so soft, as to be penetrated by a pole from 10 to 15 feet deep; out of the hole thus made, a stream of hydrogene gas frequently issues, which will burn for some time. In the vicinity of this place .there are constant streams of that gas, which it is said when once lighted will burn for weeks, a careful examination of this place, would probably throw some light on the formation of coal‘and other combustible substances, found in great abundance in this formation.
From near Kingston on lake Ontario, to some distance below Quebec (as far as I cam recollect, not having my note-book here) it is principally primitive; and from all the information T could collect, that great mass of continent, lying to the north of the 46th degree of Jatitude, for a considerable distance to the west, consists mostly of the same formation; from which it is probable, that on this continent, as well asin Europe and Asia, the northern regions are principally occupied by the ae formation.
The foregoing observations are the result of many former excursions in the United States, and a knowledge lately acqui- red by crossing the dividing*line of the principal formations, in 15 or 20 different places, from the Hudson to Flint river; as well as from the information of intelligent men, whose situ- ation and experience, make the nature of the place near which they live familiar to them; nor has the information that could be acquired from specimens, when the locality was accurately marked, been neglected, nor the remarks of judicious travellers.
Notwithstanding the various sources of information, much of the accuracy of the outlines of separation between the for- mations, must depend on rational analogy; for instance, be- tween Maggotty and Rockfish Gaps, a distance of upwards of sixty miles, [ found in six different places which were exa- mined, that the summit of the blue ridge divided the primitive and transition formations: I of course concluded, that in pla- ces where I had not. examined (or which from their nature could not be examined) the blue ridge from Maggotty Gap to Rockfish Gap, was the boundary of the two formations,
-
OF THE UNITED STATES. 424
The map of the United States on which those divisions are delineated, though I believe the best yet published, is exceed- ingly defective in the situation and range of mountains, cour- ses and windings of rivers &c. but as the specimens which I collected every half mile, as well as the boundaries of the dif- ferent formations, are from the positive situations of the differ- ent places, the relative arrangement of the map cannot change them, but must become more exact, as the geographical part is made more accurate.
In adopting the nomenclature of Werner, Ido not mean to enter into the origin or first creation of the different substances, or into the nature and properties of the agents which may have subsequently modified or changed the appearance and form of those substances; I am equally ignorant of the relative pe- riods of time in which those modifications or changes may have taken place; such speculations are beyond my range, and pass the limits of my inquiries. - All that I mean by a formation, is a mass of substances (whether adhesive, as rocks; or separate, as sand and gravel;) uniform and similar in their structure and relative position, occupying extensive ranges, with few or no interpolations of the rocks belonging to another series, class, or formation; and even where such partial mixtures apparently take place, a careful examination will seldom fail to explain the phenomenon without shaking the general principle, or making it a serious exception to the rule.
In the account of the metals and minerals, it is not intended to give a list of the number, extent and riches of the metallic and mineral repositories; the nature ot the ore or mineral, with a description of its relative position, in regard to the surround- ing substances, is the principal object of geology, which cannot be understood by microscopic investigation, or the minute ana- lysis of isolated rocks and detached masses; this would be like the portrait painter dwelling on the accidental pimple of a fine face: the geologist must endeavour to seize the great and pro- minent outlines of nature; he should acquaint himself with her general laws, rather than study her accidental deviations, or magnify the number and extent of the supposed exceptions,
428 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
which most frequently cease to be so when judiciously exa- mined.
Should this hasty and imperfect sketch, call forth the atten- tion of those possessed of more talents and industry for the ac- curate investigation of this interesting subject, the views of the writer will be fully accomplished.
No. LXIITI.
Astronomical Observations made at the Havanna by J. J. de Ferrer, and commumecated by him to the Society.
Latitude of the Havanna. : z 3 4 23° 08’ 24/7 N.
1809. April 3d, Emersion of Saturn from the ©.
*ppete oe time. , u Emersion of the ring of Saturn. . . «- 121 22 44,5 very exact Exterior contact or total emersion of the planet. 11 23 49.0 Idem. Een gobo Total emersion of the ring. F . - 11 24 19,0 Idem.
April 29. Eclipse € Emersion of Tycho, beginning. : . 8 14 15
end, ° 8 14 59
End of the Eclipse. : 2 : . - 8 35 25
April 29, Occultation of 1a, and 2a & €. Immersion la + illuminated limb. Fs § .-11 06 25,8 Immersion 2a 4 illuminated limb. + + 11,13 21,06 Observations very exact. Emersion 2a & obscure limb. 4 5 12 31 51,8
June 23. Occultation of la and 2a 2 €. Immersion, obscure limb la .. 4 C é 7 42 40,8 very exact. Immersion, obscure limb 2a». .« r - .+ 7 51 52,8 very exact. (cloud. Emersion, illuminated limb, 2a ».. ‘ 9 18 32,0 may be 6” less on acct. ofa
June 28. Occultation of 8 Capricorn €. Immersion, illuminated limb, C€. 5 é 15 41 20,4 very exact. Emersion, obscure limb, €. . + E : 16 54 53,5 very exact. 4 The times mentioned are apparent.—Magnifying power of the Telescope 100 —The accuracy of the abo¥e observations may be depended on.
x
{tA model and description of a machine for steering a vessel of any Surden, with ease and perfect safety to the steersman, has been laid before the Society, for which an Extra Magellanic-premium oj a gold medal of the value of twenty dollars was awarded by the Society to the inventor, Mr. James Humphreys oj Philadelphia. But the communication, which cannot be well understood without a plate, came too late to be conveniently inserted in the pre- sent volume. Et shall, however, appear in the next.
END OF. VOL. VI.
cC The map referred to in page 127, is that published by Brad- | Jey, a reduction Srom which was intended to he engraved for this Vo- | - Jume. Owing to the absence of the author of the memoir, a drawing of | Lewis was used which was compiled from materials prior to those used by Bradley—in which the mountains are more erroneously (aid down,
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GENERAL INDEX. TO THE FIFTH AND SIXTH VOLUMES.
The Roman numerals signify the volume, and the figures, the page.
A
ABSORPTION of air by water, V, 21.—effects of pressure on, 24.—of fix- ed air, see Ar, fred.
Acid, marine, action of its vapour, V, 3, 7.
—— nitrous, action of its vapour on charcoal, V, 4.—on animal fibres.—on phosphorus, 5.—experiments on phlogisticated and dephlogisticated, 11.—how formed in the atmosphere, VI, 131.
—— septic, contained in sea-water, V, 141.
Acids, on, See Priestley. ;
Advertisement, of the Am. Phil. Soc. V, iii. VI, iv.
4itites or eag'le-stone, found in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 319.
Agaricus, poisonous effects of some species of, V, 62.
Agitation. See Air.
Air, absorption of by water,V, 21.—effects of pressure on the absorption of, 24.—effects of agitation on the same, 25.—generated by the freezing of water, 36.—exposed to heat in metallic tubes, 42.—transmission of through the substance of some. metallic tubes, 44.
——/ixed, absorption of by iron-filings with sulphur, V, 12.
nitrous, readily absorbed by water, V, 23.
—phlogisticated, experiments on, V, 46.—method of obtaining, 50.
——phosphoric, not always inflammable by the admission of atmospheric, air, V, 9.
—vitriolic acid, water impregnated with produces sulphur, V, 8.
——different kinds of, purity or impurity of, V, 9.—proportion of latent heat in, 10.—transposition of, 14.
Albany, State of New-York, longitude of, VI, 297.—latitude 297.
Aldebaran, occultation of by the moon, VI, 213.
Alkali, caustic fixed, action of its vapour, V, 3.—pounded glass dissolved in
a solution of, 8.
volatile, gives ablue colour to the solution of copper, V, 6.
Alkaline matter, contained in sea-water, V, 141.
Allison, Burgiss, D. D. his description of a newly invented globe time-piece, V, 82.—description of the pendant planetarium, 87.
x
2 INDEX.
Alluvial soil, in the state of Maryland, VI, 319.—extent of, inthe U.S. 415,
American antiquities. See Antiquities.
American Philosophical Society, rules of V, iii.—officers, V, xii. VI, v, xxi. —Members, V, xiii. VI, vi, xxii.—circular letter to, relative to the state of their own country, V, ix.—donations received, V, xiv. VI, ix, xxv.
Amphibolic rock, found transported in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 320.
! —in the primitive soil of the same state, 321.
Amygdaloid rock, found in the bed of the Potomac river, VI, 322.
Analysis, of the fuids ejected before the commencement of the black vo- miting in yellow fever, V, 120.—of the black vomit itself, 121,
Andromeda mariana, deleterious effects oi, V, 61.
Angles, improyed method of projecting and measuring plane, VI, 29.
Angles of the sails of a wind-mill. See Wind-mill.
Antes, Colonel, on the hybernation o! swallows, VI, 59.
Apocinum androsemifolium, i irritability of the flowers of, VI, 81.
Apparatus, astronomical. See Instruments.
chemical, account of anew arrangement of, VI, 99.
Appendix to Vol. V, 325.
Aqua regia, experiments relating to, V, 11.
Asclepias Syriaca, irritability of the flowers of, VI, 79.
Astronomical observations. See Dunbar, Dewitt, Ellicott, Ferrer & Patterson.
Atmosphere, evening phenomenon in, VI, 41.—excessive cold of, in the dis- trict of Maine, VI, 401.
Azalea nudifiora, deleterious qualities of, V, 64.
B
Barton, Dr. Benj. Smith, on the poisonous honey of N. America, V, 51.— his memorandum concerning a new vegetable muscipula, VI, 79.—his account of a new species of N. A. lizard, 108.—his supplement to the account of the Dipus Americanus, 143.—his letter to Dr. Beddoes on the etymology of certain English words, 145.—appointed by the A. P. S. to deliver a eulogium on Joseph Priestley, 190.
Baton-Rouge, description of a singular phenomenon seen at, VI, 25.
Baudry, des Lozieres, his memoir on animal cotton, or the sect fly-car- rier, V, 150.
Bear, white, of the Mississippi, account of, VI, 71.
Beaver, very common in Louisiana, VI, 70.
of N. America, facts and observations relative thereto, by Mr. John
Heckewelder, VI, 209.
Bees, whether injured by quaffing the nectar of poisonous flowers, V, 57.— abounding in some parts of N. imeneay 58.—care necessary in the management of, 69.
Bengal. See Building.
Bismuth, action of the vapour of spirit ae nitre on, V, 2.
Blood, different theories on the cause of the vermilion colour of, VI, 248, —theory he Dr. Conover, 251.
Sones, fossil, found near the Mississippi, VI, 40.—-communication concern- ing them, 55.
INDEX... Ri
Bowdoin college, district of Maine, longitude of, VI, 273, 297.—latitude ol, 273, 297.—observations nyade there on the solar eclipse of June 16th, 1806, 275.
Bricks, on those usedin the U. States, VI, 384.
Brick-dust, use of in mortar, VI, 385.
Brown, Samuel, M. D. his description of a nitrous cave on Crooked Creek, Ky. with remarks and observations on gun-powder and nitre, VI, 235.
Buffaloes, very abundant in Louisiana, VI, 70.
Building in India, on the principles and practice of, VI, 376.—materials used for, 378.—thickness of the walls, 379.— exterior and interior plaistering, 379.—shell lime, how made and used, 379.—manner of constructing the roof, 380.—manner of constructing the terrace, 380.—result of ex- . periments made on the weight and strength of timber used, 382.—va- rious observations, 384.
Bull, Colonel, his notes concerning a vegetable found under ground, V, 160.
Boundary of the U. S. and His Catholic Majesty, astronomical and thermo- metrical observations made on, V,.203 to 311.—first point fixed, 209. Thompson’s Creek, 217.—lat. 228.—1long. 271.—Mobile river, 229.— long. 244.—lat. 242.—riverCoenecuch, 244.—lat. 247.—Chattahocha or Apalachicola river, 249.—long. 255.—lat. 256, 258.—Flint river, 259. long. 271.—lat. 272.—Point Peter to determine St. Mary’s, 276.—long. 284.—lat. 285.—Amelia island, 287.—Cumberland island, 287.—St. Mary’s, 287.—lat. 296 to 300.—long. 310.
Gc
Carbonic acid gas. See Air, fixed.
Cathrall, Dr. Isaac, his memoir on the analysis of black vomit, V, 117.
Cave, nitrous, description of one on Crooked creek in Kentucky, VI, 236. —its temperature, 237.—vapours condensed upon its sides, 238.—na- ture of the earth, 238.—signs by which to judge of the quantity of nitre contained in the earth, 239.
Cement. See Mortar.
Charcoal, action of the vapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 2.—-of marine acid, 3.—experiments made with in the nitrous acid, 4.—other experiments on, 34.
—of bones, action of the vapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 2.
Chart, nauticat. See Nautical chart.
Chattahocha, astronomical observations made near the mouth of, V, 199.— longitude, 202.—latitude, 199.
Chrome, not contained in the meteoric stones of Weston, Conn. VI, 345.
Cincinnati, geographical position of, VI, 159.—See also Antiquities.
Cinder, finery, experiments on, V, 34. _
Circular. See Committee. 5
Clay, Foseph, M. A. P. S. his observations on the figure of the earth, V, 312. —his demonstration of a geometrical theorem, VI, 201.
Climate, on that of the Mississippi territory, VI, 9—23.—general remarks on the same, 48--55.—See also Mississippi territory and Dunbar.
Cloud, Foseph, an officer in the mint of the U,_S. his account of experiments made on palladium, VI, 407—411.
A INDEX.
Clupea, tyrannus, description of, V, 7%
Cock, account of one with two perfordtions, contrived to obviate the neces- sities of a vent-peg in tapping air-tight tasks, VI, 105.
Cold, excessive, observed at Hallowell, in the district of Maine, in January, 1807, VI, 401.
Colour, of solution of copper in volatile alkali, V, 6.
of the blood, opinions of physiologists and chemists concerning the ver-
milion, VI, 248,—250.—opinion of Dr. Conover, 251.
Colours, on ‘the different, of the metallic oxides, 253.
Comet, observations on that which appeared in Septr. 1807, by J. J. Ferrer, VI, 345,—on the same, by W. Dunbar, 368.
Commissioner s, for determining the boundaries between the U. S. and the Floridas, V, 203.—Spanish commissioners returned, 216,
Committee, appointed by the A. P. S. for collecting information respecting the state of this country, V, ix.—circular letter of the committee, ix.
Committees, of the A. P. S. rules adopted for the choice of papers for pub- lication, VI, iv.
Conover, Samucl FMD, his essay on the vermilion colour of the blood, and on the different colours of metallic oxides, with an application of these principles to the arts, VI, 247.
Contents, of, V, xxi.—VI, xxi, ‘ach
Contorte, Bestoactive to eco VI, 81.
Copper, action of the vapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 3.—of marine acid, 3. —colouring of its solution in volatile alkali, 6
Cotton, animal, description of the insect ice Aah it, V, 150.
wild. See Asclepias syriaca.
Coulter, Thomas, Esq. his description of a method of cultivating peach-trees with a view to prevent their premature decay, V, 327. Country, state of. See Committee.
D .
Darwins theory of spontaneous generation refuted, VI, 119,—129.
Datura stramonium, poisonous properties of, V, 57.
Deaths, statement of, with the diseases and ages in the city and. liberties of Philadelphia from Jan. 1807 to Jan. 1809, VI, 403.
Dephlogisticated and inflammable air not exploding i in red: heat, V, 42.
De Witt, Simeon, Esq. of Albany, N. Y. his observations on the eclipse of
2 June 16th, 1806, VI, 300.
Diameter of the sun, VI, 216.
Digester. See Papin.
Dipus Americanus, supplement to the account of, Vi, 143.
Doctrine of phlogiston, V, 28.
Dunbar, William, Esq. of Mississippi territory), one of the commissioners for determining’ the boundary line between the U. S. and the-Floridas, 'V, 203.—his report on the point of departure, 215, 216.—declined acting further, 217. ,
--<his paper on the language of signs among certain North American In- dians, VI, 1.—meteorological observations made near the Missis-
INDEX. | 5
sippi in the year 1799, 9.—his description of a singular pheno- menon seen at. Baton Rouge, 25.—extract of a letter from him to Mr. Jefferson, noticing fossil bones, 40.—meteorological observations made near the Mississippi, during 1800, 43.—description of the river Mississippi and its delta, 165.—monthly and annual results of mete- orological observations made near the Mississippi during the years 1801, 1802 and 1803, 188.—appendix to the memoir on the Mis- sissippi, 191.—observations made on the eclipse of the sun, June 16th 1806, at Natchez, 260.—on finding the longitude from the moon’s me- ridian altitude, 277.—observations on the comet of 1807—8, 368.
Dupont, Mr. sur les végétaux les polypes & les insects V, 104.—sur la theorie des vents, VI, 32. :
Duralde, Martin, his communication relative to fossil bones in the country of Apelousas &c. VI, 55.
E
Eclipse, annular, observed April 3d, 1791, VI, 357. lunar, observations made on, at Philad. by R. Patterson, and A. Elli cott, Sep. 21st, 1801, VI, 59.—on that of Nov. 14th, 1807, in the city of Havannah, by J. J. de Ferrer, 348.—on that of May 9th, 1808, by the same, 350. of the sun, observations made on that of Feb. 21st, 1803, at the city of Havannah, and at Lan. Penn. VI, 161.—on that of June 16th, 1806, made at Lan. by A. Ellicott, 255.—on the same at Natchez, by W. Dunbar, 260.—at Kinderhook, State of New-York, by J. J. de Ferrer and J. Garnett, 264, 293, 351, 362, at Albany state of New-York, by Sim. De Witt, 271, 300.—in Philad. by R. Patterson, 272.—on the banks of Schuylkill, by F. R. Hassler, 262.—near Natchez, by W. Dunbar, 272.—at Bowdoin College, Maine, by Dr. M’Keen, 275. Egmont’s, island, position of, VI, 87. Elhicott, Andrew, his astronomical and thermometrical observations made at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, from the year 1796 to 1799, V, 162, 171.—similar observations made at Nachez, 172— 190.—at the city of New-Orleans, 191—197.—on the boundary be- tween the U.S. and his catholic majesty, 203—311.—observations on the transit of Mercury, made at Miller’s place on the Coenecuch river, 197.—lunar observations made near the mouth of Chat- tahocha, 199.—his short and easy method for finding the equations for the change of the sun’s declination &c. VI, 26.—his account of an extraordinary flight of meteors, 28.—his observations made on a lunar eclipse at Philad. 59.—his astronomical observations made at Lan. 61, continued, 113, and 233.—his observations of the eclipse of the sun, on the 2ist, of Feb. 1803, 161.—his observations of the oc- cultation of the I satellite of Jupiter, by the moon, 225.—his obser- vations on the eclipse of the sun June 16th, 1806, made at Lan. 255. Elis, fohn, of New-fersey, his account of a method of preventing the premature decay of peach-trees, V, 325.
6 z INDEX. =
Ephoron Leukon or white fly of Passaick river, memoir on this insect, V, 71.
Equations numeral, method of finding the root of, VI, 391.
Erica, deleterious qualities of the honey gathered from the different species of, V, 35.
Etymology, of certain English words, VI, 145.
Lixperiments, see Priestley.
F
Falls, of the rivers of the U. S. considered as the antient boundary-line of the Atlantic ocean, VI, 284.
Felspar, contained in the gneiss of Maryland, VI, 321.—found in several places in the primitive rocks of the U. S. 414.
Ferrer, Fose Foaquin de, his observations on the eclipse of Jupiter’s satel- lites at Laguira, V, 189.—his astronomical observations for determin- ing the geographical position of various places in the U. S. and other parts of N. A. VI, 158.—his observations of the occultation of o in sagittarius by the disk of the moon, &c. 160.—his observations of the eclipse of the sun on Feb. 2ist, 1803, 161.—his paper on geographical positions without the boundary oi the U. S. 162.—his determination of the height of some mountains in New Spain, 164.— his memoir on the occultation, of Aldebaran by the moon &c. 213, his. geographical positions of sundry places in N. A. and im the West Indies, 221.—his calculations on the passage of Mercury over the disk of the sun, 226.—his observations made on the eclipse of the sun, June 16th, 1806, 264, 293, 351, 362.—his observations on the comet of 1807—8, 345.—his continuation of astronomical observations &c. 347.—his notes and corrections to be applied to the geographical positions inserted from, 158 to 164, 360.
Fibre, animal, experiments made with the nitrous acid, V, 5.
igure of the earth, observations on, V, 312. “
Fire place, descriptions of some improvements in, V, 320.
Floridas, see Boundary. : .
Fluids, analysis of those ejected before the black vomiting in yellow fever, V, 120. $i
Fly Carrier, account of this insect, V, 150.
Fortifications, on the supposed of the western country, VAIS IS82.
Fossils, found in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 320.
Frazer, $ohn, his description of a stopper for the openings by which the sewers of cities receive the water of their drains, V, 148.
Freestone quarries, account of those on the Potomac and Rappahannoc rivers, VI, 283.—situations and. directions thereof, 285.—nature of the stone, 286.—component parts, 286.—colour, 288.—hardness, 288.—specific
» gravity, 288.—mode of stratification, 288.—cause of this stratification explained, 289.—difference of cohesion, 289.—quality of the stone asa building material, 289.—substrata, 289, and superstrata, 290.—best quar- ries now in work, 290.—manner of working the quarries, 291.—hypo- thesis on the formation of, 291.
Fuel, see. Peale.
INDEX.
=
G
Garnett, Fohn of New-Brunswick state of New=Fersey, his description and use of a new nautical chart, for working the different problems in navi- gation &c. VI, 303.—his method of finding the roots of numeral equations &c. 391.—his paper on the best angles tor the sails of a wind-mill, 394. ;
Gas, see Air.
Generation, observations and experiments relating to equivocal or sponta- neous, VI, 119.
Geographical positions, on the Atlantic border of the U. S. VI, 158.—in the rivers Ohio and Mississippi, 159.—without the boundary of the U. S. 162.—of sundry plans in N. A. and the West-Indies, 221 to 225.— notes and corrections to those inserted from, 158 to 164, 360.
Geology, on that of the U. S. VI, 411.
Geometrical Theorem, demonstration of one by J. Clay, VI, 201.
Glass, pounded, dissolved in a solution of caustic alkali, V, 8.
Globe, time piece, description of, V, 83. i
Gneiss, forms part of the primitive soil of Maryland, VI, 321—322.
in the states of New-York and Connecticut, 414.
Godon Mr. his observations to serve for a mineralogical map of the state of Maryland, VI, 319.
Gold, in aqua regia, experiments on, V, 11.—alloyed with palladium, VI, 411.
Guglielmi, his theory on the velocity of rivers at their bottom refuted, VI, 192 & seq.
Gulf-stream, importance of the knowledge of its course ‘in navigation, V, 92.
Gunpowder, detects of that manufactured in the U. S. VI, 246.
H
Hare, Robert Funr. his account of the fusion of strontites and volatilisa- tion of platinum, and also of a new arrangement of his apparatus, VI, 99.—his account of a cock with two perforations contrived to ob- viate the necessity of a vent-peg in tapping air-tight casks, 105.
Hassler, F. R. Esq. professor in the military school at West-point, extract from his paper on the meteoric stones, VI, 400.
Havannah, longitude of, VI, 225, 352.
Heat, latent, proportion of in different kinds of air, V, 10.—action of on air in metallic tubes, 42.
Hematites, found in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 320.
Hemlock, poisonous qualities of the honey gathered from the flowers of, V, 62. .
Honey, deleterious, on some kinds of, V, 51.—signs by which to distinguish it, 53.—manner of rendering it innocent, 56.—treatment of persons la- bouring under the injurious effects of, 56.—cause of its poisonous qualities, 58.—collected from kalmia angustifolia and latifolia, 59.— from kalmia hirsuta, 61.—‘rom andromeda mariana, 61.—‘rom rhodo- dendron maximum, 63.—from azalea nudiflora, 64.—‘rom datura stra- monium, 64.—noticed by Pliny, 65.—by Xenophon, 67.—by Tour- nefort, 67.—by Virgil, 68.—by Martyn, 68.
Hornstein, found in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 320.
8 INDEX.
Hechewelder, John, his observations and facts relative to the beaver of N. A. VI, 209. i ae
India, see Building. .
Indian tumulus, account of articles found in one, V, 74.
Indians, North American, language of signs used among, VI, 1. seq.
Insects, observations on, V, 1.
Instruments, made use of in measuring the boundary line between the U. 5S. and the Floridas, V, 204.
Foness Captain William of Philad. his.letter to the President of the Society, communicating sundry queries proposed by him to William Jones Esq. civil engineer of Calcutta, relative to the principles and practice of building in India, with his answer to the same, VI, 375.
Iron, action of the vapours of caustic fixed alkali on, V, 3. found in the
alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 319.—in the gneiss of the same state,
521 ,°399.0:
magnetic, where found in the U. S. VI, 414.
malleable, experiments on that contained in meteoric stones, 341.
Tron rust, experiments on, V, 32. ~
turnings, action of the vapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 1.
Islands and shoals, account of some newly discovered in the Indian seas, VI, 87.
Fupiter, occultation of by the moon, VI, 221.
Fupiter’s satellites, eclipses of, observed by J. J. de Ferrer, V, 189.—by A. Ellicott, V, 163, 165, 170, 178, 179, 180, 182, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 213, 214, 215.
——occultation of the first observed by A. Ellicott and Ortiz, VI, 225.
K
Kalmia, deleterious qualities of different species of, V, 59, 60, 61.
Kinderhook, state of N. Y. longitude of, VI, 297.—latitude, ibid.
Kingsley, Fames L. his and Professor Silliman’s memoir, on the meteoric stones which fell from the atmosphere, in the state of Connecticut &c. VI, 323.
L
Lancaster, Penn. astronomical observations made at, VI, 61, 113.—latitude
of, 297.—longitude, 297. Language of signs, on that used among the Indians, VI, 1. Latitude, of Albany, VI, 265, 269, 297. Bowdoin College district of Maine, VI, 273, 297. ——the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio, V, 169. ——Kinderhook, state of New-York, VI, 269, 297. Lancaster Penn. VI, 297. : Natchez Mississippi territory, V, 190.—VI, 297. ——Newburg, state of New-York, VI, 269, 297. —=— New-Orleans, V, 195.—VI, 269, 297.
INDEX. +]
Latitude, of New-York, VI, 269, 297.
Philadelphia, VI, 297,
——Point Peter, near the mouth of St. Mary’ s.river, V, 287.
—— Williamsburg, VI, 297.
first:point in the boundary between the U.S. and the Floridas, V, 209.
how to, be found at sea, see Nautical Chart.
Latrobe, Benj. Henry F. A. P. S. his paper on the Clupea Tyrannus and Oniscus Pregustator, V, 77.—his memoir on two species of Sphex, inhabiting Virginia and Penn. &c. VI, 73.—his first report to the So- ciety in answer to the inquiry of the society of Rotterdam: whether any, and what improvements have been made in the construction of steam-engines in America? 89.—his account of the freestone-quar- ries on the Potomac and Rappahannoc rivers, 283.
Lead, action of the vapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 2.
Fone experiments on, V, 30.—contaimed in sea-water, 141.
of shells, how made and used. in India, VI, 379.
Lizard, account of a new species of N. American, VI, 108.
Logarithms, how to be applied for finding the roots of numeral equations. VI, 391.
Longitude, of Albany, VI, 265, 271, 297.
Bowdoin College, district of Maine, VI, 297.
the confluence of Mississippi and Ohio, V, 171.
Havannah, VI, 225, 352.
——kKinderhook, state of New-York, VI 270, 297.
Laguira, VI, 361.
Lancaster Penn. VI, 297.
Natchez, Mississippi territory, V, 189, VI, 225, 297, 361.
Newburg, N. York, VI, 297.
New-Orleans, V, 197, VI, 222, 297. *
New-York, VI, 297, 360.
——Philadelphia, VI, 297, 359.
——Point Peter near the mouth of St. Mary’s river, V, 284.
——Porto Rico, VI, 213, 214, 220, 221, 222.
Vera Cruz, VI, 223, 224, 361.
——Williamsburg, VI, 297.
several places by the observ ation of the passage of Venus, VI, 355.
how found from the moon’s meridian altitude, VI, 277.
how found at sea, see Nautical Chart. ,
Louisiana, notices of the natural history of the northerly st of, VI, 69.
Lunar observations, made at the mouth of Chattahocha, V, 199.
A
M
I? Keen, Rev. Dr. President of Bowdoin College, Maine, his letter on the solar eclipse, June 16th, 1806, VI, 276. Maclure, W. Esq. his observations on the geology of the U.S. Ma ee of a geological map, VI, 411. Madison, Bishop, on the supposed fortifications of the western country, VI, 132. Magellanic prize regulations, V, v, V1, viie awarded, VI, 203, 303, 428. . bh
10 INDEX.
Magnesia, contained in sea-water, V, 141.—in meteoric stones, VI, 339.
Marine acid, action of its vapour, V, 3, 7.
Marshes, on the circular form of, in the country of Apelousas, VI, 58.
Maryland, mineralogical observations on the state of, VI, 319.
Mercury, passage of, over the disk of the sun, VI, 356,
Metals, theory of oxidation of centrated, V, 33.
Meteors, account of an extraordinary flight of, VI, 28.
Meteoric stones, on the origin and composition of those which fell from the atmosphere at Weston, state of Connecticut, VI, $24.—appearance and progress of the meteor, 324, 325, 326.—its extent 326.—diameter of the body, 326.—consequences of the explosion, 327.—circumstances attending the first explosion, 327.—circumstances attending the second explosion, 328, 329, 330.—third explosion, 330.—description of the specimens found, 332.—distinct kinds of matter visible to the eye, 333. —chemical analysis of, 334.—hypothesis of President Clapp on, 335.— experiments on the stone at large, 336.—on the pyrites, 340.—on the malleable iron, 341.—on the irregular black masses, 342.—on the ex- ternal crust, 342.—on the globular bodies, 343.—paper on the meteoric stones, by F. R. Hassler Esq. 400.
Meteorological observations, made near the Mississippi for 1799, VI, 9—23, 43—55, 188.
Method, for finding the equation for the change of the sun’s declination &c. VI, 26.—of projecting and measuring plane angles, 29.
Mica, found in the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 319.—contained in the gneiss of the same state, 321. i
Mineralogical nomenclature, according to Werner’s system, VI, 412.
observations, on the state of Maryland, VI, 319.
———_———. on the U.S. in general, see Maclure.
. Miscellaneous experiments, on Phlogiston, V, 28.
Mississippi, periodical inundations of, VI, 165, 166, 167.—highest perpen-
dicular ascent from the lowest ebb, 165.—width of its principal chan-
nel below the Ohio, 170.—depth from New-Orleans to its mouth, 172.
—depth at Natchez, 172.—depth below the Ohio, 173.—utility of its
inundations for the culture of rice, 176.—excess of inundation how
injurious, 177.— prudential exertions against the excess of inundation, 177.—salubrity of its water, 177, 178.—comparison between the Nile and this river, 178—181.—elevation of tides and their progress up
the river, 183.—velocity of its stream, 184.—changes of its bed, 185.
—additional observations on its depth and velocity, 200, & seq.
Territory, Latitude N. 31° 28’ Longitude 91° 30’.—meteorological
observations made there, and account of the progressive vegetation
during every month of the year 1799, VI, 11.—monthly recapitulation of meteorological observations during 1800, 43.—budding, blooming, fructification of trees and plants, 44—48.—times when domestic ani- mals bring forth their young, 47, 48.—general state of the weaiher in all the months in the year, 44—48.—general account of the climate, 48—55.—monthly and annual results of meteorological observations
made there for the years 1801, 1802, 1803; 188.
Mitchell Samuel L. his observations on the soda, magnesia and lime con- tained in the water of the ocean, &c. V, 139.
INDEX. 11
M sah ut dephlogisticated and inflammable air not exploding in red heat,
V,
iron “flings and sulphur absorbs fixed air, V, 12.
Moon, see Eclipse,
Mortar, what kind of, used in India, VI, 379, 380, 383.—use of brick-dust iis. 285, & seq.
Mug ford, Capt. Wiliam of Salem, his account and description of a tempo- rary rudder invented by himself, VI, 203.
Muriate of soda, exceedingly rare in its pure state, V, 143.
Muscipula, vegetable, memorandum concerning a new, VI, 79.
Musk, impurity of the air confined with, V, 10.
N
Natchez, astronomical and thermometrical observations made at, V, 172— 190.—longitude of, V, sa VI, 159, 225, 297, 361.—latitude, V, 190, VI, 297.
Nautical Chart, description and use of a new and simple one for working the different problems in navigation &c. VI, 303.
Navigation, use of the thermometer in, V, 90.
New-Orleans, astronomical and thermometrical observations made at, V, 191—197.—longitude of, V, 196, 197, VI, 159, 222, 297.—latitude V, 196; VI, 159, 297.
New-York, Jongitude “of, VI, 297, 360.—latitude, VI, 269, 297.
Nickel, oxide of, contained in meteoric stones, VI, 339.
Nitre, found in common salt when frequently mixed with snow, VI, 129.
obtained from several caves in Kentucky, VI, 236.—from sand works, 241.—quantity contained in the rock ore, 242.
vapours of spirit of, observations and experiments on, V, 2.
Nitrate af potash, see Saltpetre.
Nitric acid, various combinations of, VI, 245.
Nitrous acid, how found in the atmosphere, VI, 131.
Nitrous air, see Air.
oO Observations, meteorological, made near the Mississippi for 1799, VI, 9 Occultation, of o in sagittarius by the disk of the moon, VI, 160. é by the moon, VI, 369.—of different stars by the moon, 360, 361. Vide Ortis. Occultations, table of the results of three of the stars by the moon, 350. Officers, of the Society, V, xii.—for 1804, VI, v.—for 1809, xxi. Ohio, geographical positions of various places on, VI, 159. Oleander, Nerium, destructive to insects, VI, 81. Oniscus pregustator, description of, V, 77. Ortiz, Don Fulian de Canelas, his ‘observations of the occultation of the I satellite of Jupiter by the moon, VI, 225, 226. Oxidation, of metals centrated, V, 33. Oxigen, none in finery cinders, Vv; 33,—little in flowers of zinc, 34.
i2 INDEX. Pp
Palladium, experiments made on, VI, 407.—characters of, 410.
Papin’s digéster, experiment made with, V, 8.
Patterson, Robert, his method of projecting and measuring plane angles VI, 29.—his observations on a lunar eclipse, 59. ;
Peach trees, method of preventing the premature decay of, V, 325.—me- thod of cultivating them, 327.
Peale, C. W. his description of some improvements in the common fire-
place, V, 320. : :
Phenomenon, description of one seen at Baton Rouge, VI, 25.—another, 41.
Philadelphia, longitude of, VI, 297.—latitude, 297.—statement of deaths, with the diseases and ages in, from 1807 to 1809, 403.
_ Phlogisticated air. See Air.
Phlogiston, doctrine of, V, 28.
Phosphoric air, not always inflammable by the admission of atmospheric air, V, 9.
Phosphorus, experiments made with, in the nitrous acid, V, 5.
Planetarium, pendant, description of, V, 87.
Platina, account of the volatilisation of, VI, 99.
Platina in aqua regia, experiments on, V, 11.
Plumbago, experiments on, V, 28.
Poisonous honey, account of, V, 51.
Polypes. See Dupont.
Porto-Rico, longitude of, VI, 213, 220.
Potash, constituent parts of, VI, 244.
Precipitate per se, experiments on, V, 29.
Premium, conditions of the Magellanic, V, v.—VI, vii.
Pressure, effects of, in the absorption of air by water, V, 24.
Priestley, Dr. foseph, his experiments on the transmission of acids and other liquors in the form of vapours, over several substances in a hot earthen tube, V, 1.—experiments relating to the change of place in different kinds of air, &c. 14.—-experiments relating to the absorption of air by water, 21.—miscellaneous experiments relating to the doc- trine of phlogiston, 28.—experiments on the production of air by the freezing of water, 36.—experiments on air exposed to heat in metallic tubes, 42.—observations and experiments relating to equivocal or spon- taneous generation, VI, 119.—observations on the discovery of -nitre im common salt which had been frequently mixed with snow, 129.— proceedings of the Society on his death, 190.
Primitive soil of the state of Maryland, VI, 321.—extent of, in the United. States, 443.
Pyrites, experiments on those found in meteoric stones, VI, 340.
Phosphorus, how made, V, 12.—experiments on, 29.
Q
Quarries. See Freestone. Z Quartz, contained in the gneiss of Maryland, VI, 322. Suartzose sand, constitutes the alluvial soil of Maryland, VI, 319.
INDEX. 13
Quicklime, experiments relative to. the weight it acquires by exposure to the air, V, 12. R
Rhododendron, poisonous effects of several species of, V, 63- Roofs, how constructed in India, VI, 380. Rosebay. See Oleander.
Ss
Sagittarius, occultation of o in, VI, 160.
Sailing. See Nautical chart.
Sails. See Wind-mill.
Saltpetre, method of making it in Kentucky, VI, 239.—how obtained in Spain, 243.
Satellites, vide Fupiter.
Sea-water, wherefore unfit for washing clothes, V, 144.—how to be render- ed fit for washing, 146.
Septic acid, in sea-water, V, 141.
Sewers of cities, description of a stopper for them, V, 148. _
Shoals, account of some newly discovered in the Indian seas, VI, 87.
Signs, on the language of, used by some North American Indians, VI, 1.
Silex, contained in meteoric stones, VI, 339.
Silliman, Benj. Professor of Chemistry in Yale College, Conn. his and Mr. Kingsley’s memoir on the origin and composition of the meteoric stones which fell from the atmosphere at Weston, state of Connecticut, &c. VI, 323.—his chemical examination of the stones, 335.
Soda, contained in sea-water, V, 141.— is the basis of all hard soap, 145.
Soil, alluvial, of the state of Maryland, VI, 319.
primitive, of the state of Maryland, VI, 321.
Spanish America, boundary line between it and the United States, measu- red by A. Ellicott, V, 203.
Sphex, on two species of, inhabiting Virginia and Pennsylvania, VI, 73.
Spirit of nitre. See Nitre.
Stars, shooting, account of, VI, 28.
Steam-engine, report on the improvements made in their construction in America, VI, 89.
Stopper, description of one for drains, in the sewers of cities, V, 148.
Strickland, William, his paper on the use of the thermometer in navigation, V, 90.
Strontites, account of the fusion of, VI, 99.
Sugar, on the process of claying, WI, 82.—on the cultivation of, in Loui- siana, 181.
Sulphur, produced by heating water impregnated with vitriolic acid air, V, 8,—contained in meteoric stones, VI, 339. ‘
Sun, diameter of, VI, 216, 232.
——eclipse of. See Eclipse.
Swallows, on the hybernation of, VI, 59.
14 INDEX. T
Talc, contained in the gneiss of Maryland, VI, 321.
chloritic, in the primitive soil of Maryland, 322.
Terraces, how constructed in India, VI, 380.—in the United States, 390.
Thermometer, use of in navigation, V, 90.—mode of suspending and pro-
_ per situation of, VI, 10.
Thermometrical observations, made at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, V, 163.—made in measuring the boundary line between the United States and the Floridas, 203.—made during a voyage from England to America, 96.
Thomas, officer on board the American ship Ganges, his account of some new- ly discovered islands and shoals, VI, 87.
Timber, experiments made on the weight and strength of that used in Ben-~ gal, VI, 382.—use of in walls, 383.
Time-piece, in the form of a globe, described, V, 82.
Tin, action of the yapour of spirit of nitre on, V, 2.
Tourmaline, found in the primitive soil of Maryland, V1, 322.
Transit, of Mercury, May, 1799, observed by A. Ellicott, V, 197.
Tripoli, a sort of clay, found in Maryland, VI, 320.
Tumulus, articles found in an Indian, V, 74.
Turner, George, his memoir on certain articles found in an Indian tumulus at Cincinnati, V, 74.
U
United States, boundary between, and the Floridas, determined by astrono- mical observations, V, 203.—See also Maclure.
Vv
Vapour. See Priestley.
Vaughan, John, his communication of observations made at. Bowdoin Col- lege, on the solar eclipse of 1806, VI, 275.—letter addressed to him by professor Silliman and Mr. Kingsley, on the meteoric stones, 323. —extract of a letter relative to the great cold inJanuary, 1807, at Hallowell, Maine, 401.
Vegetables. See Dupont.
Velocity, on the comparative, of rivers at their bottom and their surface, VI, 194.
- Venus, passage of, over the disk of the sun, VI, 352.
Vera Cruz, New, longitude of, VI, 223, 361.
Volcanic productions, no where found to the east of the Mississippi, VI, 414.
Vomit, black, in the yellow fever, description of, V, 117.—appearance of, in 1797, 119.—fluids ejected before the commencement of, 120.—analysis of, 121.—effects of on the living system, 128.—opinions of authors concerning, 132.—considered by Dr. Cathrall as an altered secretion from the bile, 136.
INDEX. 15 WwW
TVaills,how constructed in India, VI, 378.—use of timber in, 388.
Washing, how to render sea-water fit for, V, 145.
Water, absorption of different kinds of air by, V,22.—experiments on, 32.
—air produced by the freezing of, 36.
of the ocean. See Mitchell.
Watkins, Dr. ohn, his notices of the natural history of the northern parts of Louisiana, VI, 69.
Weather, in the Mississippi territory. See Mississippz territory.
Williams, Fonathan, Esq. his paper on the process of claying sugar, VI, 82.
Wilhkamsburg,longitude of, VI, 297.—latitude, 297.
Williamson, Dr. his paper on the ephoron leukon, or white fly of Passaick river, V, 71.
i Aili on the best angles for the sails of, VI, 394.
Vinds, on the theory of, VI, 32.—in the Mississipi territory. See Misszs-
sippi territory.
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