If is I:t:t:fi3.;i:;;',::j:=5j2ji='!:rii:..,. • !i|::!,s::iJ;,f|i;i; !:,::?■. . : :: I' • wnmaasamanB IGibrarg lmm>rsUg of putHburgtj Darlington Aiemorial Library CClafla %Qj..\ Soak T^Qt WS ¥• I TRANSACTIONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, AT PHILADELPHIA; PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. VOL. I.— NEW SERIES. PHILADELPHIA : PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY A. SMALL, NO. 112. CHESNUT STREET, [Two doors below the Post-Office.] 1818. $8?- ■*>> ® Gk \V < 4 \ District of Pennsylvania, to wit : BE IT REMEMBERED, Tliat on the fourth day of February, in the forty-second year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1818, Abraham Small of the said district hath deposited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: " Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge. — Vol. I. — JVew Series." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, intituled, •< An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned." — And also to the Act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, f An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Au- thors and Proprietors of sucli copies during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. ADVERTISEMENT. OF the six volumes of Transactions heretofore published by the American Philosophical Society, some being out of print, they have Resolved, That the present Volume shall be the First of a New Series. The following are the Rules adopted for tlie government of Committees in the choice of papers for publication. First. — " That the grounds of the Committee's choice of '; papers for the press, should always be the importance or sin- " gularity of the subjects, or the advantageous manner of treat- '; ing them, without pretending to answer, or to make the " Society answerable, for the certainty of the facts, or pro- •■ priety of the reasonings, contained i?i the several papers so " published, which must still rest on the credit or judgment of " their respective authors. Secondly. — " That neither Hie Society nor the Committee of •'• the press, do ever give their opinion as a body, upon any " paper they may publish, or upon any subject of Art or Nature " that comes before them." LIST OF THE OFFICERS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, FOR THE YEAR 1818. Patron. WM. FINDLAY, Governor of the State of Pennsyivania. President. Caspar Wistar. Vice-Presidents. Secretaries. Councehors, elected for three years. In 1816. In 1817. In 1818. Treasurer and Librarian. r Robert Patterson. -j William Tilghman. (.Peter S. Du Ponceau. ("Thomas C. James. J Robert M. Patterson. ! John S. Dorsey. LW. P. C. Barton. ["William White. J Horace Binney. j John Sergeant. LWilliam Rawle. rThomas Cooper. J James Gibson. j N. Chapman. L.S. Colhoun. rThomas Jefferson. J William Maclure. j Nicholas Collin. LWilliam Meredith. John Vaudian. LIST OF THE MEMBER* OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, Elected since the publication of the 6th vol. O. Series, of their Transactions. AMERICAN MEMBERS. William Johnson, Charleston, S. C. Judge of the Sup. Court of U. S. David Hosack, M. D. Prof. Theo. & Pract. Med. Col. Coll. N. York. J. H. Brinton, Philadelphia. Rev. William Bentley, Salem, Mass. George Gibbs, New York. John Davis, Sec. Am. Acad. Boston. Charles J. Wistar, Philadelphia. Robert Walsh, do. Benjamin Allen, D. D. of the state of N. York. Robert Adrain, Prof. Math. Col. Coll. N. York. Alexander Wilson, Philadelphia, Ornithologist (since dead). George Pollok, do. Benjamin R. Morgan, do. John Sergeant, do. Nicholas Biddle, do. W. P. C. Barton, M. D. do. William Meredith, do. Charles Chauncey, do. Reuben Haines, do. William Hembell, jr. do. John Syng Dorsey, M. D. do. Prof. Mat. Med. Univ. Penn. John E. Hall, do. James Cutbush, M. D. do. N. S. Allison, M. D. Burlington, N. J. (since dead). Rev. Frederick Beasly, Provost of the Univ. of Penn. John G. Biddle. Philadelphia. Rev. James P. Wilson, 1). D. Philadelphia. Joseph Gardiner Swift, Brig. Gen. U. S. A. and Chief of the corps of Eng. Thomas Gilpin, Philadelphia. 1). \\ it Clinton. President of the N. Y. Philos. and Lit. Soc. John Gummere, of Burlington, N. Jersey. Rev. James Gray, I). D. Philadelphia* Samuel Colhoun, M. D. do. John M. Scott, do. Joseph Uartshornc, M. D. do. LIST OF MEMBERS. VU Joseph Parish, M. D. Philadelphia. Joseph Hopkinson, do. Charles W. Hare, do. Joseph P. Norris, do. Gerhard Troost, M. D. Maryland. Joseph Reed, Philadelphia. Rev. Abiel Holmes, D. D. Cambridge, Mass. Isaiah Thomas, President Antiq. Soc. Worcester, Mass. Jared Mansfield, Prof. Nat. Phil. West Point. William Meade, M. D. Philadelphia. John C. Otto, M. D. do. Richard Rush, Minist. from U. S. to the Court of G. Britain, Charles Fenton Mercer, Virginia. William Gaston, N. Carolina. Owen Nulty, Philadelphia. Thomas Say, do. Thomas Nuttall, do: Rev. Lewis Schweidnitz, N. Carolina. Rev. II. Steinhaur, Bethlehem, Penns. FOREIGN MEMBERS. Humphrey Davy, F. R. S. London. John Hayton, M. D. F. R. S. do. John Mason Good, F. R. S. do. A. Vauquelin, Prof, de la Chimie des Arts au Jard. des Plantes, Paris. Jose Correa da Serra, F. R. S. &c. &c. and Min. of H. M. F. M. of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves, to the U. States. Andrew John Rezius, Prof. Nat. Hist. &r. Lund, in Sweden. Constant Dumeril, Prof. Zoology, in the Jard. des Plantes, Paris. Charles Alexander Lesueur, Paris, now in Philadelphia. Carlo Botta, Paris. J. C. Delametrie, Paris, (since dead). J. P. F. Deleuze, Secret, de la Soc. des Ann. du Museum, &c. Paris. Edward Troughton, F. R. S. London. J. Peter Frank, M. D. Counsellor of State, &c. Vienna. Joseph Baron Sonnenfels, do. do. Joseph Hammer, member of various societies, do. Johann Severin Vater, D. D. Prof, and Roy. Librarian, Koenigsb. Prussia* Frederick Adelung, Counsellor of State, &c. St. Petersburg!]. Conditions of the Magellanic Premium. MR. JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN, of London, having some time ago offered as a donation, to the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for promoting useful knowledge, the sum of two hundred gui- neas, to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in premiums, to be adjudged by the Society, to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to navigation, astronomy, or natural philosophy (mere natural history excepted); and the Society having accepted of the above donation, hereby publish the conditions, prescribed by the donor, and agreed to by the Society, upon which the said annual premiums will be awarded. 1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention, or improvement, ad- dressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society, free of postage or other charges ; and shall distinguish his performance by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together with his disco- very, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter contain- ing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the real name.. and place of residence of the author. 2. Persons of any nation, sect, or denomination whatever, shall be admit- ted as candidates for this premium. 3. No discovery, invention, or improvement shall be entitled to this pre- mium, which hath been already published, or for which the author hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere. 4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention, or improve- ment, either in the English, French, German or Latin language. 5. All such communications shall be publicly read, or exhibited to the So- ciety at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the day of adjudication ; and shall at all times be open to the inspection of such members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home with him the communi- cation, description, or model, except the officer to whom it shall be entrust- ed ; nor shall such officer part with the same out of his custody, without a special order of the Society for that purpose. 6. The Society having previously referred the several communications from candidates for the premium then depending, to the consideration of the twelve councellors and other officers of the Society, and having received their report thereon, shall, at one of their stated meetings in the month of December, annually, after the expiration of this current year, (of the time and place, together with the particular occasion of which meeting, due notice shall he previously given, by public advertisement) proceed to final adjudica- tion of the said premium : and after due consideration had, a vote shall first be taken on this question, viz. "Whether any of the communications then under inspection be worthy of the proposed premium. If this question be determined in the negative, the whole business shall be deferred till another MAGELLANIC PREMIUM. IX year: but if in the affirmative, the Society shall proceed to determine by bal- Int, given by the members at large, the discovery, invention, or improve- ment, most useful and worthy; and that discovery, invention, or improve- ment, which shall be found to have a majority of concurring votes in its favour shall be successful, and then, and not till then, the sealed letter ac- companying the crowned performance shall be opened, and the name of the author pronounced as the person entitled to the said premium. 7. No member of the Society who is a candidate for the premium then de- pending, or who hath not previously declared to the Society, either by word or writing, that he has considered and weighed, according to the best of his judgment, the comparative merits of the several claims then under conside- ration, shall sit in judgment, or give his vote in awarding the said premium. 8. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their transactions, or in both. 9. The unsnccessful performances shall remain under consideration, and their authors be considered as candidates for the premium, for five years next succeeding the time of their presentment; except such performances as their authors may, in the mean time, think fit to withdraw. And the Society shall annually publish an abstract of the titles, object or subject matter of the com- munications so under consideration ; such only excepted as the Society shall think not worthy of public notice. 10. The letters containing the names of authors whose performances shall be rejected, or which shall be found unsuccessful after a trial of five years, shall be burnt before the Society, without breaking the seals. 11. In case there should be a failure, in any year, of any communication worthy of the proposed premium, there shall then be two premiums to be awarded the next year. But no accumulation of premiums shall entitle the author to more than one premium for any one discovery, invention, or im- provement. 12. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold, of the value of ten guineas; on one side thereof shall be neatly engraved a short Latin motto suited to the occasion, together with the words : The pre- mium of John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London, established in the year 1786; and on the other side of the plate shall be engraved these words: Awarded by the A. P. S. for the discovery of A. D. And the Seal of the Society shall be annexed to the medal by a riband passing through a small hole at the lower edge thereof. Conditions of the Surplus or Extra-Magellanic Premium. M. DE MAGELLAN having fixed at ten guineas, the sum to be an- nually disposed of as a premium, according to the strict terms of the dona- tion, and the Magellanic fund having been so managed as to produce an an- X MAGELLANIC PREMIUM. nual surplus, the Society, with a view to promote as far as may be in their power the liberal intentions of the donor, on the 19th of October, 1804, (alter giving legal notice to the members), Resolved, That the Surplus Fund arising from the Magellanic Dona- tion, that is, the interest accruing therefrom over and above the ten guineas a year, be employed in the first instance, according to the strict conditions of the donation, if a sufficient number of deserving candidates shall have ap- plied for the. same; otherwise that such surplus, or so much thereof as can- not be applied as above, be awarded by the Society (at such times, and un- der such regulations, as they shall adopt) to the authors of useful inventions or improvements on any subjects, within the general view of the Magellanic Donation, and that the Premium thus to be awarded shall be expressly de- clared to be from the surplus of the Magellanic Fund. Regulations respecting the Surplus Magellanic Premium. 1. The Surplus Magellanic Premium may be awarded at such stated meeting of the Society as shall be agreed to, at a previous stated meeting, due notice being given thereof to its Members. 2. Every communication which shall have been offered with a view to the Magellanic Premium and to which the same shall not have been awarded, shall, (except such as the Society shall not think at all worthy of notice) be again taken into consideration with a view to the awarding of the Surplus Premium, and if such communication shall, at such meeting be thought within the general view of the Donation and to be sufficiently valuable to deserve a public reward, a Surplus Premium may be awarded to the author thereof. 3. The Surplus Premium shall consist of a gold medal of the value of not less than twenty dollars nor more than forty-five dollars, engraved with a similar device to that of the original Premium, except that it shall contain the words " Extra Magellanic Premium," or at the option of the successful candidate the value of such Medal in money accompanied with a diploma oji parchment, with the seal of the Society. ■*. All the rules and regulations concerning the application for the award- ing the original Magellanic Premium shall be adhered to in the case of the Surplus Premium, in so far as they are not hereby modified, or derogated from ; unless in very special cases for the rewarding of some essentially useful discovery or improvement, two-thirds of the Members of the Society present at a meeting appointed for the awarding of the Surplus Magellanic Premium, shall, by their votes, taken by ballot or otherwise, direct. 5. The Society shall propose and publish as often as they think proper such a number of subjects as they shall think fit, to which they shall call the attention of the candidates for the original and Surplus Magellanic Pre- miums, and invite their communications thereon; informing them at the same time that although communications on such subjects will be acceptable to the Society, yet they shall not entitle their authors to a preference over REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL, & ' C xi more meritorious communications on other subjects, equally within the strict or general view (as the case may be) of the Magellanic Donation. 6. Your committee are further of opinion that the Surplus Premium ought not to be exclusively applied to actual inventions or improvements, but may also extend to such valuable communications within the general view of the donation, as may lead to useful discoveries, inventions or improvements, and that they therefore recommend that the resolution of the 19th October be altered accordingly. This recommendation was acceded to. Philadelphia, 5 th Dec. 1814. Report of the Historical and Literary Committee to the Ameri- can Philosophical Society. — Read, 9th Jan. 1818. IN obedience to the orders of the Society, the Committee of History, Mo- ral Science, and General Literature, have the honour to report the progress that they have made towards the attainment of the objects of their Institu- tion. It is now upwards of two years since this Committee or Class was added to the six* of which the Society was originally composed. Until that time, the Physical and Mathematical Sciences had been the almost exclusive sub- jects of our labours. It was then thought that the sphere of our exertions might be usefully enlarged by turning our attention to those sciences which may be called " moral," in contradistinction to those which have the mate- rial world for their object. Among the various branches of knowledge which this circle embraces, the History of America in general, and of Pennsylvania in particular, was pointed out to your committee by a special resolution of the Society, as an object claiming their immediate regard. The humble, but useful task, was committed to us, of collecting as many as possible of the public and private documents scattered in various hands through the union, with leave to pub- lish, from time to time, such selections from them as might, in our opinion, be interesting to the public, and of use to the future historian. Your com- mittee, considering these intimations of the Society in the light of express directions, lost no time in taking measures to comply with their wishes. They were no sooner organised,f than they published an appeal to their * Those Committees or Classes are : 1st. Ot Geography, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Astronomy. 2d. Of Medicine and Anatomy. 3d. Of Natural History and Chemistry. 4th. Of Trade and Commerce. 5th. Of Mechanics and Architecture. 6th. Of Husbandry and American Improvements, f The organization of this committee is simple- Their only officers at present are a Chair- man, a Corresponding Secretary, and a Recording Secretary. Sub-committees are appointed only on special occasions as they arise. Xll REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL fellow citizens, a copy of which is subjoined,* soliciting the communication of papers of the above description, and offering the archives of the Society as a safe repository where they might be deposited for the public benefit and the advantage of posterity. Your committee, however, soon found that they had little to expect from this general call, and were satisfied that they must relinquish their object, unless they had recourse to more efficient means. * LITERARY NOTICE, published by the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, on the 15th of August, 1815, and referred to in the preceding report. The American Philosophical Society, being desirous of extending the sphere of its use- fulness, and calling into action the talents of those of its members, whose pursuits have been more particularly directed to the moral branches of science, has lately added to the number of its standing committees, a committee for history, moral science, and general litera- ture. The number of persons composing this committee is indefinite ; every member of the Society has a right to enrol himself within it. Many of our associates having evinced a de- sire to participate in its labours, the committee has organised itself, appointed its officers, and is now sedulously engaged in promoting the objects of its institution. Among those, the means of obtaining a correct historical and statistical knowledge of our country have ap- peared to them not the least deserving of their immediate attention. Sensible of the emi- nent usefulness of the exertions of the societies established in some of the states, for a simi- lar purpose, and particularly in Massachusetts and New York, they are anxious to concur in their patriotic pursuits, and, with that view, have already collected and rescued from obli- vion several interesting documents illustrative of the history of the United States and of Pennsylvania. These will be given to the public in due time, either at large, or by extracts, in the trans- actions which the committee is authorised by the society to publish under its own responsi- bility. Meanwhile, they think it their duty to solicit the aid of men of information through* out the Union ; but more particularly in Pennsylvania, and those of the other states where no analogous establishments have been formed. The historical memoirs of individuals, public documents, scarce pamphlets, manuscript notes, public and private letters from eminent men, and from men of knowledge and observation ; in short, every thing which may be considered as interesting to this country, in an historical, statistical, geographical, or topographical point of view, will be thankfully received, either as a gift to be deposited among the archives of the Philosophical Society, or as a loan, to be returned, after a certain time, to the owner. Communications of interesting facts, known to individuals by their own observation, tradi- tion, or otherwise, are also respectfully solicited. To their fellow citizens of Pennsylvania, the committee particularly address themselves. Many interesting points of the history of our own state remain to be elucidated. Many im- portant details are yet to be collected respecting the aboriginal Indians, the emigrations from various countries which have so largely contributed to the increase of our population, the history and peculiar tenets and rules of discipline of the different religious sects that are established among us. Information respecting these and other matters connected with the history of this state, and particularly every thing relating to our venerable patriarch and founder, William Penn, and his first associates; their history in Europe and in this country; their political opinions and views of civil government and policy, and the foundations which were laid by them for the prosperity and happiness which we enjoy, will be received with peculiar gratitude- Our views, however, are not limited by the bounds of any particular state, this appeal is made to the citizens of the United States at large, and we confidently expect, that those members of the American Philosophical Society, who reside in different parts of the Union, remote from the city of Philadelphia, will zealously co-operate in promoting the objects of the committee, who will be happy to see their names inscribed on their roll, and will inscribe them whenever requested. All communications are to be addressed to the Chairman, or either of the Secretaries. WM. T1LGUMAN, Chairman. PBTEBS. DU PONCEAU, Corresponding Secretary JOHN VAUGHAN, Recording Secretary. Philadelphia, 14th August, 1815. AND LITERARY COMMITTEE. Xlll Your committee, therefore, after mature deliberation, determined on tak- ing a more direct method to obtain the desired aid. They opened an exten- sive correspondence with individuals, not only in Pennsylvania, but in other parts of the United States, selecting those in preference whom tliey thought the most likely to second their views. Although a great number of their applications produced no result, yet they are happy to state that, upon the whole, they have been more successful than they had anticipated, and that they have reason to expect that this system will be productive of still greater advantages in future. The genuine friends of literature and science, those in whom the love of knowledge is a predominant passion, and who have sufficient leisure to de- vote a considerable part of their time to its acquisition and advancement, are not very common in any country. It cannot, therefore, be a matter of astonishment, that they should not yet be very numerous in these states, where society has so many calls for the exertions of its members in the more indispensable employments of human life. Your committee, however, have great pleasure in being able to assure the society, that they have found a con- siderable number of their fellow citizens, able and willing to aid in the pro- motion of their objects, and from whom they have, in fact, derived very important assistance. Among those enlightened and truly patriotic citizens, they beg leave, in the first place, to name the late President of this Society, Thomas Jeffer- son. From the first establishment of this committee, he was pleased to honour us with his valuable correspondence, and has spared no exertions to forward the objects of our institution. To him we are indebted for many important MSS. documents, calculated to throw light on the history of our country, on the customs, manners, and languages of the Indian nations, and various other interesting national subjects. He has lately directed to be placed in our hands several as yet unedited MSS. volumes of scientific notes and observations by Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, made in the course of their journey to the Pacific Ocean. The names of the authors of these vo- lumes sufficiently vouch for the interest of the matter which they contain. Next to this venerable patron of science, your committee find themselves in duty bound to mention as one of their most zealous as well as useful friends and supporters, Doctor George Logan, of Stenton. He has open- ed to them the treasures of his family archives, which contain a great num- ber of interesting documents relating to the early periods of the colony of Pennsylvania. Among these, not the least valuable, is the familiar corres- pondence which was carried on for many years between our illustrious foun- der, William Penn. Hannah Penn, his interesting wife, and James Logan, the Doctor's grandfather, who, it is well known, was the proprietor's con- fidential friend and secretary. A lady of the Doctor's family, eminently qualified for the task, has undertaken to arrange those letters in a regular order, and has already communicated to your committee the first MS. vo- lume of the collection, which she has enriched with notes and with introduc- tory matter of much interest. The remainder is in a course of preparation, and when the whole collection is thus completed, it will (if your committee caii obtain her permission to publish it) exhibit in a more satisfactory manner than has yet been done, the private character, manners, and habits of the * D XIV REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL legislator of Pennsylvania, as well as the political line of conduct which he pursued in his government. It will also make us more intimately acquainted with his faithful friend and counsellor, James Logan, of whose classical turn of mind and literary attainments, the library which bears his name, aud which he generously gave to the city of Philadelphia, affords sufficient testimony. Nor should your committee omit paying the tribute of their thanks to our worthy associate, the Rev. John Heckewelder, of Bethlehem. The in- timate knowledge which this respectable missionary is known to possess of the languages and manners of various Indian nations, among whom he resided more than forty years, pointed him out to us as a person from whom much interesting information could be obtained, nor were our hopes deceived. In answer to the enquiries of your committee, he laid open the stores of his knowledge, and his correspondence gives us a clear insight into that won- derful organization which distinguishes the languages of the aborigines of this country from all the other idioms* of the known world. Through his means your committee obtained the communication of a MS. Grammar of that of the Lenni-Lenape or Delaware Indians, written in German, by the late Rev. David Zeisberger, well known as the author of a copious, vocabulary of the same language. This is the most complete Grammar that we have ever seen of any one of those languages which are called barbarous. It gives a full, and we believe, an accurate view of those comprehensive grammatical forms which appear to prevail with little variation among the aboriginal natives of America, from Greenland to Cape Horn, and shews how little the world has yet advanced in that science which is proudly called Universal Grammar. Through the same means, we are promised the com- munication of an excellent Dictionary, by the same author, of the Iroquois language, explained in German, which 4s in the library of the Moravian Brethren at Bethlehem. Your Committee have procured a translation of Mr. Zeisberger's Grammar into English,! and will endeavour to do the same with the Dictionary when received. Mr. Heckewelder, at the request of your committee, is now engaged in committing to writing the observations which he made in the cause of a long life on the manners and customs of the Indians. To him and Mr. Jefferson we are also indebted for a considerable number of vocabularies of the lan- guages of various Indian nations, particularly of those of the southern tribes, hitherto but little known, of which your committee intend to make a proper use in due time. Mr. Redmond Conyngham, a member of the legislature of this state, has testified his zeal for the advancement of knowledge, by procuring for your committee with much labour and some expense, from the office of the Secre- tary of State at Harrisburg, copies and extracts of the most interesting re- cords of the executive branch of the government, anterior to the period of the American revolution, which will be of great use to the future historian of this commonwealth. Your committee would have to trespass too long on the attention of the * Except, perhaps, the language of the Biscayans or Basques, which professor Vater con- ceives to be formed on the same model with those of the aborigines of America, f See the Catalogue of Donations at the end of this book, letter D. p. 440. AND LITERARY COMMITTEE. XV Society, were they to attempt to do justice to all those who have contributed their liberal aid to the promotion of their endeavours ; they cannot, however, avoid mentioning our associates, Messrs. William Rawle and Joseph P. Noreis, from whom they have received several curious and interesting MSS. documents relative to the early history of this state. From John D. Coxe, Joseph Reed, and James Robertson, Esqs. and the Rev. Dr. Wm. Rogers, all of this city, they have to acknowledge the receipt of a great many scarce books and pamphlets, which are indispensably necessary for a correct knowledge of the history of that period. Mr. Wm. Graham, of Chester, has presented us with a complete set of the Journals of the general assembly of Pennsylvania, from the first settlement of the colony down to the revolution, now become \ery scarce. The numerous donations of historical and statistical works which, within the last two years, have been made to the Society, at- test the exertions of your committee, and the zeal and liberality of its friends. Your committee are continuing to pursue the same course with unabated ardour. They are gradually extending their correspondence, indulging and soliciting the utmost freedom of literary intercourse, by which means as they increase their own stock of knowledge, they hope to contribute to keeping up that laudable spirit of enquiry and research, which the observing eye cannot but perceive to be increasing in our country. Your committee are well aware that they are sowing seeds which cannot be expected to produce immediate fruits. Yet they cannot resist the pleasing hope that in consequence of their unremitted exertions, from the bosom of this Society may arise future historians, and other literary characters, who will one day do honour to the land that gave them birth. To facilitate the labours of such men, your committee intend to avail themselves of the permission which the Society has given them, of publish- ing, from time to time, under their own responsibility, selections from the materials which they have on hand, and may hereafter obtain. The praise ef zeal and industry is all to which they can aspire; it will be the task of genius to prove hereafter to the world that their labours have not been en- tirely useless. With this flattering expectation, they feel supported and encouraged to go on with the performance of the duty assigned to them. All which is respectfully submitted. By order of the Committee, WM. TILGHMAN, Chairman, PHILADELPHIA OBSERVATORY. THE following ordinance of the Select and Common Councils of the City of Philadelphia, granting a large and elegant public building, in the Centre Square of this City, as an Astronomical Observatory, was passed in consequence of a memorial on the subject, presented by the American Philo- sophical Society. This building is situated in the centre of a circular area of 520 feet in diameter, at the intersection of Market and Broad Streets, the first running east and west, 100 feet in width; the second north and south, 113 feet in breadth, so that the view towards the four cardinal points is not intercepted. It is erected on a ground plan of 00 feet square, on which is a basement story 21 feet in height, having porticos on the east and west fronts; from this basement, as a pedestal, rises a circular building or rotunda, 40 feet in diameter and 59 feet in height, pierced with sixteen windows and sur- mounted by a dome. This building was originally constructed to contain machinery for the introduction of water into the City, but late arrangements adopted for this purpose, have rendered this application of it unnecessary. It was designed by Mr. Latrobe, and built entirely of Pennsylvania marble. It is believed that it may be made very suitable for the object for which it is now appropriated, and the Society are at present occupied in making the necessary arrangements for this effect. AN ORDINANCE Granting to the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for pro- moting Useful Knowledge, the use of certain parts of the Centre Engine House, for an Astronomical Observatory. Sect. I. BE it ordained and enacted by the Citizens of Philadelphia, in Select and Common Councils assembled, That the City Commissioners shall, from and immediately after the passing of this ordinance, demise and let to the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for promot- ing useful knowledge, for and during the term of seven years from the exe- cution of the said lease, for the yearly sum or rent of one dollar, to be paid at the expiration of each and every year, the herein after-mentioned parts of the building at the Centre Square, known by the name of the Centre Engine House, to be used by the Society as an Astronomical Observatory ; that is to say, the south-east and north-west rooms in the basement story, together with the use of the passage between the said rooms ; so much of the circu- lar part of the said building as is above the basement story, and the roof of the said story. PHILADELPHIA OBSERVATORY. XVU Sect. II. Be it further ordained and enacted, That in order that the be- fore-mentioned parts of the said building may be rendered suitable for the purposes aforesaid, it shall and may be lawful to and for the said American Philosophical Society, at the proper cost and charge of the same, to make and cause to be made the herein after described alterations in the parts of the said building, to be so as aforesaid demised and let to the said Society • that is to say, they may remove and take away any part, or the whole of the arch forming the ceiling of the south-west room in the basement story of the said building, and make and construct in the said room a stairway, leading to the roof of the said story; also to make, construct, and build upon the said roof, a flat terrace roof; provided, the same shall not be raised higher than the top of the lowest part of the parapet wall, as the same now is ;' and also to make, form and construct in the circular part of the said building a floor, which shall be upon a level, or as nearly so as may be, with the be- lore-mentiuned terraco roof. Provided always, That the said alterations, or any of them, shall not in any manner whatever change the present external appearance of the said Centre Engine House ; and also, that the demised parts of the same shall, during the term for which they shall be in the occupancy of the said Society be kept and maintained in repair at the proper cost and charge of said Enacted into an Ordinance at the city of Philadelphia, this twenty-sixth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seven- teen. JAMES S. SMITH, President of the Common Council. ROBERT WALN, President of the Select Council. JOHN C. IOWBEB, Clerk of the Common Council. Hall of the Society, 9th Jan. 1818. AT a meeting of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadel phia, for promoting useful knowledge, this day specially convened, it was Resolved, That the Society feel a high sense of the liberality of the Citv Councils in the grant which they have made of the building in the Centre Square for an Astronomical Observatory, and that the president, Caspar Wistar, be directed to present to the Councils the sincere acknowledgments ol the Society for the aid which they have thus afforded to the advancement ot science. True extract from the minutes. R. M. PATTERSON, Secretary, OBITUARY NOTICE. SINCE the publication of the last volume of Transactions, the Society lias had the misfortune to lose several of its most valuable members. Our two vice-presidents, Dr. Benjamin S. Barton, and Gen. Jonathan Wil- liams, died within a short time of each other. The former by his extensive Botanical knowledge, and his various Philosophical and Philological writ- ings, widely spread among foreigners the literary reputation of this country. The talents of the latter, though not unnoticed abroad, were best known to bis fellow-citizens, to whom his virtues had peculiarly endeared him. In the death of Dr. Benjamin Rush, humanity has suffered a loss, as well as this Society, and our country. The memory of this eminent physi- cian will be preserved as long as science and genius are held in honour among us. Robert Fulton and Robert R. Livingston have also left us for a better world. Who can calculate the benefits that will result to mankind from the successful application of the powers of steam to the navigation of rivers, lakes, and seas, for which we are indebted to the genius of the one, and the patriotic enterprise of the other? Already the most distant parts of our extensive territory are brought into contact, as it were, with each other; and in this happy effort of talent and perseverance, we see an additional bond to the union of these states. The mournful list is not yet closed. Other eminent men whom we were proud to number among our associates, claim the tribute of our sorrow. The reader lias already anticipated the names of those great lawyers and statesmen, Thomas M'Kean and Alexander James Dallas. To them we must add Ramsay, the Historian of the United States, and Dunbar, the self-taught Astronomer of the woods, whose communications have so often enriched our volumes, and reflected credit on the Society. We have also to regret the loss of Wilson, the American Ornithologist ,• the Botanist Muh- lenberg; Lewis, the successful explorer of the vast tract of country that lies between us and the Pacific Ocean; Barlow, who first attempted to tune the American lyre to heroic sounds; Kuhn, the pupil of Linneus, who ranked so high among the eminent physicians of this city ; and Miller, of New York, no less famed for his medical knowledge. Nor must we omit to pay due respect 10 the memory of our learned and amiable associate Du Pont de Nemours, who at the close of a long life left a country which he honoured, to end his da\s in the bosom of his Ame- rican friends and of this Society, for which he always felt and expressed a peculiar predilection. Not the allurements of his native home, nor the dis- tinguished honours lavished upon him by his discerning sovereign, could shake his firm resolve to live and die among us. He has left us his ashes, the memory of his worth, and the care of his honourable fame. OBITUARY NOTICE. XIX If a strong attachment to our country, evidenced by the most unequivocal acts, has entitled Du Pont de Nemours to be classed among our American associates, may we not justly pay the same tribute of respect to the memory of the learned Professor C. D. Ebeling, of Hamburg, who made America the almost exclusive subject of his interesting labours? At a great expense, and by means of an extensive and unremitted correspondence with literary characters and others in this country, he procured the largest and most valuable collection, perhaps, that exists in the world, of documents relating to American affairs, and by that means was enabled to compose and publish his Geography of the United States, of whicli he has left us only seven volumes, containing the description of the states from New Hampshire to Virginia, inclusive. He had provided materials for describing in the same manner the southern and western states, and had in contemplation to revise the whole work when death arrested his labours. His memory justly de- serves to be held by us in grateful remembrance. By this summary notice it is only intended to recal to our minds the me- mory of the great and good men whose loss we deplore, and to point them out as examples worthy of imitation. Since the above was sent to the press, the Society had to lament the loss of their venerable president, Dr. Caspar Wistar, who died on Thursday the 22d of January, of a severe attack of typhus fever. Dr. Wistar was elected a member of the Society in 1787'; was chosen a vice-president in 1795; and, on the 2d of January, 1815, was raised to the presidential chair, in the room of Thomas Jefferson, who had declined a re- election. The Society, desirous of testifying their deep sense of the loss which they have sustained in the death of their late president, and of paying a deserved tribute to his talents and virtues, have resolved, that a Funeral Oration be pronounced in honour of his memory, and have appointed William Tilgh- man, chief justice of the state and one of their vice-presidents, to perform this melancholy duty. CONTENTS OF VOL. I.— NEW SERIES. Page. RULES for the government of Committees in the choice of papers for publication. ... iy List of the Officers of the Society for the year 1818. . • v List of the Members of the Society elected since the publication of Vol. VI. Old Series of their Transactions. . . v' Conditions of the Magellanic premium. . • viu Conditions of the Surplus Magellanic premium. . . ix Report of the Historical and Literary Committee to the Society. . xi Ordinance respecting the Philadelphia Observatory. . xvi Obituary Notice. .... xviii No. I. On the Geology of the United States of North America, with remarks on the probable effects that may be produced by the decomposition of the different classes of Rocks, on the nature and fertility of Soils: applied to the diffe- rent States of the Union agreeably to the accompanying geological map. By William Maclure, with two copperplates. . • 1 No. If. Astronomical observations made at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, communicat- ed by A. Ellicott. . . • 93 No. nr. Abstracts of Calculations to ascertain the longitude of the Capitol in the City of Washington, from Greenwich Obsei-vatory, Ehigland. By Wm. Lambert. 103 No. IV. Investigation of the Figure of the Eaith, and of the Gravity in different latitudes. By Robert Adrain. . . 119 N». V. Memoir on Leaden Cartridges. By William Jones. . 137 No. VI. Tables of the Altitudes of Mountains in the states of New Fork, New Hamp- shire, and Vermont, calculated from barometrical and thermometrical ob- servations. By A. Partridge, capt. of the corps of engineers, U. S. A. 147 XXII CONTENTS. No. VIT. Page. Oji the Population and Tumuli of the Aborigines of North America. In a letter from H. H. Brackenridge to Thomas Jefferson. . 151 No. VIII. An Account of some experiments made on Crude Platinum, and a new pro- cess for separating Palladium and Rhodium from that metal. By Joseph Cloud, assayer of the mint, U. S. • . 161 No. IX. An Attempt to ascertain the fusing temperature of metals. By Joseph Cloud. 167 No. X. An Inquiry into the Causes why the metals in a solid state appears to be specifically lighter than they are in a state of fusion. By Joseph Cloud. 170 No. XI. Observations and Conjectures on the formation and nature of the soil of Kentucky. By J. Correa da Serra. . . 174 No. XII. An easy solution of a useful problem in Arithmetic. By James Austin. 181 No. XIII. On the Geological formation of the Natural Bridge of Virginia. By Fran- cis William Gilmer. . . . 187 No. XIV. Analysis of the Blue Iron Earth of New Jersey. By Thomas Cooper. 193 No. XV. On Vanishing fractions. By J. Mansfield, Prof. Milit. Acad. W. Point. 200 No. XVI. An Account of Pyrometrical Experiments made at Newark, New Jersey, in April, 1817. By F. R. Hassler, with a plate. . 210 No. XVII. English Phonology; or an Essay towards an analysis and description of the component sounds of the English language. By P. S. Du Ponceau. 228 No. XVIIL On Fossil Reliquia of unknown Vegetables in the Coal strata. By the Rev. Henry Steinhauer, with four plates. . . 265 No. XIX. . An Account of a large Wen, successfully extirpated, by John Syng Dorscy, M. D. with a plate, . . . 29S CONTENTS. XX111 No. XX. Page. An Account of an improvement made on the differential Thermometer of Mr. Leslie. By Elisha De Butts, M. D. Plate. . 301 No. XXI. Description of a rolling draw-gate, as applied to water-mills. Invent- ed and communicated by Nathan Sellers. Plate. . 307 No. XXII. Description of an Indian Fort in the neighbourhood of Lexington, Ken- tucky. By Charles W. Short, M. D. Plate. . 310 No. XXIII. Description of an improved Piston for Steam Engines, without hemp packing. By P. A. Browne. Plate. . . 313 No. XXIV. On Bleaching. By Thomas Cooper. Plate. . . 317 No. XXV. Description and use of a simple Appendage to the reflecting Sector, which is rendered capable of measuring all possible altitudes on land, by Reflec- tion from an artificial Horizon. By Robert Patterson. Plate. 325 No. XXVI. Description and use of a very simple Instrument for setting up Sun-dials, and for many other useful purposes. By Robert Patterson. . 333 No. XXVII. Observations made at an early period on the Climate of the country about the River Delaware, collected from the records of the Swedish colony. By Nicholas Collin, Rector of the Swedes church, Philadelphia. 340 No. XXVIII. Research concerning the mean diameter of the Earth. By Robert Adrain. 353 No. XXIX. An improvement in the common Sldp-Pump. By Robert Patterson. (See No. XXXVI.) ... 367 No. XXX. Observations on those Processes of the Ethmoid Bone, which originally form the Sphenoidal Sinuses. By C. Wistar, M. D. Plate. 371 No. XXXI. An Account of Two Heads found in the Morass, called the Big Bone Lick, and presented to the Society, by Mr. Jefferson. By Caspar Wistar, M. D. With two plates. . . . 375 XXIV CONTENTS. No. XXXII. Page. An Account of a Case of Disease, in -which one side of the Thorax was at rest, while the other performed the motion of Respiration in the usual way. By Caspar Wistar, M. D. . . 381 No. XXXIII. Descriptions of several species of Chondropterigious Fishes, of North Ame- rica, with their varieties. By C. A. Le Sueur. . 383 No. XXXIV. Investigation of a Theorem, proposed by Dr. Rittenhouse, respecting the Summation of the several Powers of the Sines; with its Application to the Problem of a Pendulum vibrating in circular Arcs. By Owen Nulty. 395 No. XXXV. A Monograph of North American insects, of the gemts Cicindela. By Tho- mas Say. .... 401 No. XXXVI. Description and Rationale of the operation of a Simple Apparatus, which may serve as a Substitute for the Ship-Pump, and which will require no manual labour xvhutever ; being a Supplement to the paper, No. XXIX. on that subject. By Robert Patterson. . . 427 No. XXXVII. Abstracts and Results from eight Annual Statements (1809 to 1816), pub- lished by the Board of Health, of the Deaths, with the diseases, ages, $-0. in the City and Liberties of Philadelphia. By John Yaughan. 430 Donations for the Library. . . . 435 Maps, Plans, and Engravings. . . 451 Donations for the Cabinet. . • L 452 XXIV CONTENTS. No. XXXH. Page. An Account of a Case of Disease, in which one side of the Thorax was at rest, while the other performed the motion of Respiration in the usual way. By Caspar Wistar, M. D. . . 381 No. XXXIII. Descriptions of several species of Chondropterigious Fishes, of North Ame- rica, with their varieties. By C. A. Le Sueur. . 383 No. XXXIV. Investigation of a Theorem, proposed by Dr. Rittenhouse, respecting the Summation of the several Powers of the Sines; with its Application to the Problem of a Pendulum vibrating in circular Arcs. By Owen Nulty. 395 No. XXXV. A Monograph of North American insects, of the genus Cicindela. By Tho- mas Say. .... 401 No. XXXVI. Description and Rationale of the operation of a Simple Apparatus, which may serve as a Substitute for the Ship-Pump, and which will require no manual tabour whatever ; being a Supplement to the paper, No. XXIX. on that subject. By Robert Patterson. . . 427 No. XXXVII. Abstracts and Results from eight Annual Statements (1809 to 1816), pub- lished by the Board of Health, of the Deaths, with the diseases, ages, Sfc. in the City and Liberties of Philadelphia. By John Vaughan. 430 Donations for the Library. . . . 435 Maps, Plans, and Engravings. . . 451 Donations for tlte Cabinet. . • t_ 452 ''■', ""■" Hj | TRANSACTIONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. NEW SERIES. No. I. Observations on the Geology of the United States of North America ; with Remarks on the probable Effects that may be produced by the Decomposition of the different Classes of Rocks on the Nature and Fertility of Soils: applied to the different States of the Union, agreeably to the accompanying geological Map. With two Copper Plates. By William Maclure. — Read May iGth, 1817.* PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. ALL inquiry into the nature and properties of rocks, or the relative situations they occupy on the surface of the earth, has been much neglected. It is only since a few years that * Report.— The committee to whom has been referred Mr. Marlure's Observations on the Geology of the United States, beg leave to report: They are fully aware that a former edition of this gentleman's observa- tions on the geology of our country, has already been published in the last volume of the memoirs of this Society. Since that period, Mr. Maclure has visited a great portion of Europe as a geologist, and has also travelled over some parts of the United States expressly to re-examine and correct his ac- A 2 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. it has been thought worth the attention of either the learned or unlearned ; and even now, a great proportion of both, treat such investigations with contempt as beneath then notice. The Germans were amongst the first who began to make accurate observations in this branch of science. Werner re- duced the nomenclature to some regular form, and founded his system on the relative situations of the different classes of rocks. Although subject to all the errors inseparable from systems founded upon a speculative theory of origin, the sys- tem of Werner is still the best and most comprehensive that has yet been formed. Why mankind should have so long neglected to acquire knowledge so usefid to the progress of civilization — why the substances over which he has been daily stumbling, and with- out whose aid he could not exercise any one art or profession, should be the last to occupy Ms attention — is one of those pro- blems, perhaps oidy to be solved by an analysis of the nature and origin of the power of the few, over the many. The science of Geology, until lately, has been confined to speculative theories on the origin and formation of the earth. Whether they have made any progress toward the discovery of that hidden mystery, or whether the last theory is nearer the truth than the first, is difficult to decide; for wc have no data, no scale by which we can measure their relative merits. Each new theory is ushered in, by its author attempting to re- fute all former theories ; but it is still doubtful whether suc- cess will repay the labour of so many men of brilliant imagi- nations, who have exerted their talents to make the discovery count of the geology of those portions of the country. The former memoir has accordingly received many additions and improvements which hardly admit of being published separately. Under these circumstances, the com- mittee are of opinion that the memoir in its present form, is highly deserv- ing of being inserted in the Society's volume, as a deliberate, well consider- ed account of the geology of the United States, corrected by eight years additional observation and reflection, since the former edition ; and they re- commend its insertion accordingly. May ZZd, 1817. CASPAR WISTAR. THOMAS COOPER. ZACCHEUS COLLINS. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3 of the earth's origin. Meanwhile, the useful application of the substances found on the earth's surface, to arts, manufactures and science, has been rapidly progressing in proportion to the increase of positive knowledge ; following in this respect, du- ring great part of the last fifty years, the usual steps of ra- tional civilization. In all speculations on the origin, or agents that have pro- duced the changes on this globe, it is probable that we ought to keep within the boundaries of the probable effects resulting from the regular operations of the great laws of nature which our experience and observation has brought within the sphere of our knowledge. When we overleap those limits, and sup- pose a total change in nature's laws, we embark on the sea of uncertainty, where one conjecture is perhaps as probable as another; for none of them can have any support, or derive any authority from the practical facts wherewith our expe- rience has brought us acquainted. The equator has been supposed to have been once where the poles are now, to ac- count for the bones of the animals now living near the tropics being found in the higher latitudes ; yet without any change either in the poles or equator, it is certainly not impossible but even probable, that these animals, before their tyrant man obstructed their passage, might migrate to the north during nearly three months of the summer; and might bave a suffi- cient quantity of heat, and a much greater abundance of nou- rishing vegetable food, than the torrid zone coidd afford them at that season. There does not appear to be any tiling either in the climate or food that could prevent the elephants, rhinoceroses, #jc. from following the spring into the north, and arriving in the summer even to the latitude of 50 or 60 degrees, and retiring to the warmer climates on the approach of the winter ; on the contrary, it would appear to be the natural course of things, and what I believe our buffaloes in the uninhabited parts of our continent still continue to do ; that is, to migrate in vast droves from south to north, and from north to south, in search of their food, according to the season. 2 4 ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. The birds and the fish continue their migrations, passing by roads out of the reach of man ; the natural cliange of place which their wants require, has not been barred and obstructed by the united power and industry of the lords of the creation.* To specify the many practical advantages arising from the knowledge of the nature and relative positions of the rocks which cover the surface of the earth, woidd require volumes. Here, it is only proposed to mention a few, which almost every man, during some period of his life, may find the ne- cessity of resorting to. First, from the knowledge of the relative situation of rocks and from an accurate investigation of the usual succession of one species of rocks to another, we are guided in our search for coal, gypsum, salt, limestone, millstones, grindstones, whet- stones, #)C ; as well as the probable places where to look for all kinds of metallic veins and repositories : for example, coals have not been found under any species of primitive rocks ; of course, we should not look for them in that class, and if when digging for coal, we should come to the primitive rocks, we should desist. Coals have not been found in any profitable quantities under any considerable bed of limestone, £)C §c. Wolfram accompanies tin in the greatest part of the tin mines ; of course the appearance of wolfram is a sign, that most pro- bably tin may be found in the vicinity, 65c. Great sums of money have been lost in the United States, and in other coun- tries, by digging for substances among classes of rocks, which have never been found to contain them elsewhere; and of course the probability was against their being found in that class of rocks here. * Until lately we have restricted nature to two modes of acting-; by fire, and by water: now, it is found, that she can change and metallize rocks in the dry way, without any solution or fluidity; and the galvanic pile may be formed in the stratifications of a mountain, as well as in a chemist's labora- tory. These are two other modes wherein we must now allow her to change and modify the surface of this earth? and who can say how many more means yet unknown, she may possess; each of which, when found out by accurate and impartial observation, must make a change in former theo- ries. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 5 A knowledge of the nature and properties of rocks, and the results of their decomposition, enables us to judge of their hardness, easy or difficult decomposition, their component parts, mode of splitting, 6jc. by which we judge of their fit- ness for house buildings, roofing, road making, burning for lime, china or pottery, brick making, glass making, hearths for forges and furnaces, #jc. We likewise know, by previous experience, the nature and richness of any metallic ore that may be found, and can calculate from the expense of procu- ring any ascertained quantity, whether the mine will pay for the working. Tt Is thus we may avoid the losses of digging for species of ore, such as pyrites, that is worth little or no- thing ; as well as expending money in working a mine that was not rich enough to pay the labour. Much money might be saved by this kind of knowledge, in road making, where it frequently happens that a rock, such as limestone, slate, ser- pentine, §c. which would not perhaps last three months, is taken in preference to a quartz or hornblende rock, that would wear one or two years. Expense is often incurred by making and burning bricks, that are useless from the clay containing too great a quantity of calcareous matter ; or of burning lime when the stone attempted to be burned contains too little of calcareous, and too much of argillaceous or other foreign matter, which prevents it being reduced to quicklime; all which, the proper application of a small quantity of acid might prevent. It may be objected, that there are professional men who will give advice on these subjects, on better terms than we can acquire ourselves the necessary knowledge ; but it is sometimes the case with all kinds of counsellors, that they are more interested in the profits of the process, than in the profits of the result : and when it is considered, that less than half the time necessary to give a smattering of any of the dead languages at our academies, would be more than sufficient to give our youth a complete knowledge of the common and useful applications of earths and rocks, we may reasonably hope that ere long some portion of time will be appropriated 6 ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. in our colleges and universities, to studies of undisputed uti- lity ; and that a knowledge of substances, their properties and their uses, will be permitted in some degree to encroach on the study of mere words. The time seems fast approaching when what is called learning will not in all cases be deemed, as it has been in too many, synonymous with knowledge. The greatest part of the first and second sections of these observations was published in the sixth volume of the Philo- sophical Transactions, at Philadelpliia, with the geological map. This was afterwards translated into French, and pub- lished in the Journal de Physique, for February, 1813, accom- panied also by a geological map ; since which we are indebt- ed to the active attention of Dr. S. L. MitchilL* for the only correction that has since been made, which consists in ex- tending the alluvial over the whole of the east end of Long island, whereas we had supposed that the alluvial of the northern skirts of the island had rested on primitive. During an excursion last summer, an opportunity was afforded of as- certaining and extending the limits of the transition in the states of Pennsylvania and New York, as well as the bounda- ries of the great primitive formation, north of the Mohawk; and fixing the limits of the transition on Lake Champlain and in the state of Vermont with more precision. The third and fourth sections, are an attempt to apply Geo- logy to agriculture, in showing the probable effects the decom- position of the different classes of rocks may have on the nature and fertility of soils. It is the result of many observa- tions made in Europe and America, and may perhaps be found more useful in the United States than in Europe, as more of the land is in a state of nature, not yet changed by the indus- try of man. * Dr. Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, vol. i. ON THE GEOLOGY- OF THE UNITED STATES. CONTENTS. SECTION I. General Remarks on the Method of pursuing Geological Re- searches, with a few Observations on the different Chains of European Mountains, compared with those of the United States of America. SECTION II. Observations on the Geology of the United States of America, in Explanation of the geological Map. SECTION in. Hints on the Decomposition of Rocks, with an Inquiry into the probable Effects they may produce on the Nature and Ferti- lity of Soils. SECTION IV. The probable Effects, which the Decomposition of the various Classes of Rocks may have on the Nature and Fertility of the Soils of the different States of North America, in refe- rence to the accompanying geological Map. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. SECTION I. General Remarks on the Method of pursuing Geological Re- searches, with a few Observations on the different Chains of European Mountains, compared with those of the United States of America. The examination of the different substances which cover the exterior of the globe, may be commenced and pursued in two ways, both leading to the same point, though by opposite roads. The first, beginning by an accurate investigation of a small portion of the surface, describing exactly the different rocks, with their immense variety of arrangement in the po- sition of their component parts, detailing the changes acciden- tal or natural constantly occurring in their relative situation, and endeavouring to reduce the whole into some regular se- ries of arrangement. This method necessitates the reunion of a great number of those portions, before any correct gene- ral ideas can be formed. The second, beginning with the great outlines, traces the limits which divide the principal classes of rocks, aud their relative situations and extents ; leaving the examination of the vast variety, contained in each class, to be regulated by the general principles previously acquired. The method founded on accurate observation, though limit- ed in extent, would appear to be the best, and confirmed by the practice of acquiring all the other sciences ; and yet on a further examination, there are serious objections arising from the difficulty of the execution, on account of the great variety and imperceptible shades of gradation from one kind of rock to another ; wliich would render the nomenclature extensive and intricate, necessitating long and voluminous descriptions, conveying imperfect ideas, that rather fatigue than instinct: for example, it would require a volume to describe all the varieties of rocks found in a range of forty leagues of the pri- ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 9 mitive formation; and in two leagues, either to the right or left of the same range, the changes would fill another volume. In tracing the outlines of the different formations in most countries, there is less confusion and embarrassing description necessary ; the limits once ascertained, a few pages define the boundaries, and explain the relative situations to the compre- hension of every reader. For example : in the north of Eu- rope, Norway is primitive with a few exceptions, the greatest part of which is the basin surrounding Christiania, which is transition. Sweden is primitive, except the southern part in Scania, and part of the coast of the Categat, with some of the borders of the great lakes, which are secondary. Both sides of the gulf of Bothnia to the North cape, and from thence through Finland to St. Petersburg are primitive. From St. Petersburg to the secondary limestone of the Crimea is allu- vial, except in three places, a narrow bed of chalk at Sewsk, twelve posts south-west of Tula, between Bogouslaw and Cor- soun, eight posts south of Kiew, and from Elisabethgrad four posts to Wodinaria, where the primitive appears in the beds of the rivers. The secondary limestone of the Crimea is suc- ceeded by the transition, about one and a half league south of Simphiropol, and the whole range of mountains along the Black sea on the south side of the Crimea is transition. The south side of the Baltic is an extensive alluvial forma- tion, bounded in Poland by the secondary limestone at the foot of the Carpathian mountains, in Silesia and Saxony by the edge of the secondary limestone that covers the foot of the Bohemian mountains, and so along the Thuringwald and Hartz to the North sea. Between these mountains and the Baltic, is one continued plain of alluvial with few or no ex- ceptions, the exact limits of which would be easily ascertain- ed, and still more easily described, to the understanding of every one ; even the omission of some exceptions would not materially affect the utility, as they would be rectified by the next observer. Another inconvenience seems to arise out of the method of examining minutely a small portion, or part of one range B 10 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. of mountains, and that is the formation of a system winch, though according exactly with the structure of the country examined, is too often in contradiction with the nature and formation of most others ; tending in very many cases to per- plex the reader, and throw the whole into discredit. In the present state of geological knowledge, an accurate definition of the rocks, commonly found united in great and extensive masses, with the limits of separation between them and rocks of the other great classes or formations, might perhaps be the plainest and most certain mode of increasing our knowledge, correcting the errors of the vast number of old, and throwing more light on the formation of new systems. The short period of time that mankind seem to have been capable of correct observation, and the minute segment of the immense circle of nature's operations, that has revolved du- ring the comparatively short period, renders all speculations on the origin of the crust of the earth mere conjectures, founded on distant and obscure analogy. Were it possible to separate this metaphysical part from the collection and clas- sification of facts, the truth and accuracy of observation would be much augmented, and the progress of knowledge much more certain and uniform ; but the pleasure of indulging die imagination is so superior to that derived from the labour and drudgery of observation — the self-love of mankind is so flattered by the intoxicating idea of acting a part in the crea- tion— that we can scarcely expect to find any great collection of facts, untinged by the false colouring of systems. The peculiar structure of the continent of North America, by the extended continuity of the immense masses of rocks of the same formation or class, with the uniform structure and regularity of their uninterrupted stratification, forces the ob- server's attention to the limits which separate the great and principal classes ; on the tracing of which, he finds so much order and regularity, that the bare collection of the facts par- take somewhat of the delusion of theory. The prominent feature of the eastern side of the continent of North America, is an extended range of mountains, run- ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 11 liing nearly north-east and south-west from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi, the most elevated parts as well as the greatest mass of which consists of primitive as far south as the Hudson river, decreasing in height and breadth as it tra- verses the state of New Jersey. The primitive occupies but a small part of the lower country, where it passes through the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland, where the highest part of the range of mountains to the west consists of transi- tion, with some intervening vallies of secondary. In Virginia, the primitive increases in breadth, and proportionally in height, occupying the greatest mass, as well as the most elevated points of the range of mountains in the states of North Caro- lina and Georgia, where it takes a more westerly direction. Though this primitive formation contains all the variety of primitive rocks found in the mountains of Europe, yet neither their relative situation in the order of succession, or their re- lative heights in the range of mountains, correspond with what has been observed in Europe. The order of succession from the clay state to the granite, as well as the gradual di- minishing height of the strata, from die granite through, the gneiss, mica slate, hornblende rocks, down to the clay slate, is so often inverted and mixed, as to render the arrangement of any regular series impracticable. No secondary limestone has been found on the south-east side of the primitive, nor any series of other secondary rocks, except some partial beds of the old red sandstone formation, which partly cover its lower edge; in this, it seems to re- semble some of the European chains, such as the Carpathian, Bohemian, Saxon, Tyrolian and Alpine or Swiss mountains ; all of which, though covered with very extensive secondary limestone formations on their north and west flanks, have little secondary limestone on their southern and eastern sides. The old red sandstone above mentioned, covers partially the lower levels of the primitive, from twelve miles south of Connecticut river to near the Rappahannock, a range of near- ly four hundred miles ; and though often interrupted, yet re- tains through the whole distance that uniform feature of re- 2 13 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. semblance so remarkable in the other formations of this con- tinent. The same nature of sandstone strata is observable, running in nearly the same direction, partially covered with wacke and greenstone-trap, and containing the same metallic substances. The above uniformity is equally observable in the great alluvial formation which covers the south-east edge of the primitive, from Long island to the gulf of Mexico, con- sisting of sand, gravel, 65c. with marsh and sea mud or clay, containing both vegetable and animal remains, found from thirty to forty feet below the surface. Along the north-west edge of the primitive, commences the transition formation, occupying, after the primitive, some of the highest mountains in the range, and appears to be both higher and wider to the west in the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and part of Virginia, where die primitive is least extended, and lowest in height. It contains all the varieties of rocks found in the same formation in Europe, as the moun- tains in the Crimea, £jc. and resembles in this the chain of the Carpathian, Bohemian and Saxon mountains, which have all a very considerable transition formation, succeeding die se- condary limestone on then- northern sides. Anthracite has been found in different places of tiiis formation, and has not yet been discovered in any of the other formations in North America. The necessity of such a class or division of rocks as the transition, has been doubted by some, nor is it now generally used in the soutii of Europe ; but such rocks are found, and in very considerable quantities, in almost every country that has been examined. There are only two classes, the primi- tive or secondary, in which they can be placed. They are excluded from the primitive, by containing pebbles, evidently rounded by attrition when in an insulated state, and by the remains of organic substances being found, though rarely, in them ; and yet many of the variety of transition rocks, such as the grey wacke slate, and quartzose aggregates, are hardly distinguishable from primitive slate and quartz when fresh : ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 13 it is only in a state of decomposition, that the grain of the transition rocks appears, and facilitates the discrimination. If they are placed with the secondary, they would form another division in the class, already rather confusedly di- vided; as their hardness, the glossy, slaty, and almost chrys- talline structure of the cement of a great proportion of the transition aggregates, would exclude them from any division, as yet defined, of the other secondary rocks. Besides the ob- jections arising out of their individual structure, the nature of their stratification removes them still further from the secon- dary, and makes them approach still nearer to the primitive. They are found regularly stratified, generally dipping at an angle above twenty and not exceeding forty -five degrees from the horizon; whereas, the secondary rocks are either hori- zontal or undulating with the inequalities of the surface. A bed of grey wacke, or grey wacke slate and transition lime- stone, inns south-west from the Potomac to near the Yad- kin river, a distance of two hundred miles, from one to five miles in breadth, having the primitive formation on each side, dipping the same as the primitive, though at a less angle, the strata running in the same direction ; and from its relative si- tuation, dip, ^nd stratification, bearing no characters of the secondary, not having been yet found alternating with secon- dary rocks, it cannot be classed with them, without destroy- ing all order and introducing confusion. To class it with the primitive, would be making the primitive include not only ag- gregates composed of pieces of different kinds of rocks round- ed by attrition, but also limestone with a dull fracture, coloured by organic or other combustible matter, which it loses by being burnt. It would perhaps add to the precision of the classifi- cation, if this class was augmented by placing some of the por- phyritic and other rocks in it, which are more of an earthy than chrystalline fracture, but which at present are considered as primitive. It might have been as well if, when giving names to the different classes of rocks, all reference to the relative period of their origin or formation had been avoided; and in place 14 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. of primitive and secondary, some other names had been adopt- ed, taken from the most prominent feature or general proper- ty of the class of rocks intended to be designated, such as perhaps chrystalline in place of primitive — deposition or hori- zontal hi place of secondary, &jc ; but as those old names are in general use, and consecrated by time and long habit, it is more than probable that the present state of our knowledge does not authorise us to change them. The adoption of new names, on account of some new property discovered in the substance is the cause of much complication and inconve- nience already ; and if adopted as a precedent in future, will create a confused accumulation of terms calculated to retard the progress of the science. When we change the names given to defined substances, by those who went before us, what right have we to suppose, that posterity will respect our own nomenclature? On the north-west side of the transition formation, along the whole range of mountains, lays the great secondary for- mation, wliich, for the extent of the surface it covers and the uniformity of its deposition, is equal in magnitude and impor- tance, if not superior, to any yet known: there is no doubt of its extending to the borders of the great lakes to the north, and some hundred miles beyond the Mississippi to the west. We have indeed every reason to believe, from what is already known, that the limits of tliis great basin to the west, is not far distant from the foot of the Stony mountains; and to the north, that it reaches beyond Lake Superior, giving an area ex- tending from east to west from Fort Ann, near Lake Cham- plain, to near the foot of the Stony mountains, of about fifteen hundred miles, and from south to north from the Natchez to the upper side of the great lakes, about twelve hundred miles. This extensive basin is filled with most of the species of rocks, attending the secondary formation elsewhere, nor is their continuity interrupted on the east side of the Mississippi by the interposition of any other formation except the alluvial deposits on the banks of the large rivers. The foundation of most of the level countries is generally limestone, and the ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 15 hills or ridges in some places consist of sandstone : a kind of dark coloured slaty clay, containing vegetable impressions, with a little mixture of carbon, frequently alternates with all the strata of this formation, the whole of which is nearly ho- rizontal. The highest mountains are on the external bor- ders of the basin, gradually diminishing in height towards its centre. Two divisions of the secondary formation common in Eu- rope have not yet been discovered in this — the chalk forma- tion, and what Werner calls the newest floetz-trap formation. The limestone generally found in this basin is of a bluish co- lour, running through all the shades to a dingy black, having an even, rather earthy fracture, and sometimes a schistose structure. The flints found in the secondary limestone in Ame- rica, are generally black, resembling the Lydian stone, and in all kind of irregular forms and branches intimately mixed with the limestone. The limestone, wliich often follows the chalk formation in countries where chalk has been found, is gene- rally of a white, running into a drab or light-brown colour, a smooth, compact, conchoidal, almost resembling the flinty frac- ture ; having in some parts of the stratum rounded nodules of flint, interspersed apparently without order; the flints in some places light coloured, in others dark; and some of the no- dules whitish on the outer edge, and blackish towards the centre. A very extensive and regular formation of the above men- tioned kind of limestone, succeeds the chalk in Europe, and covers the transition formation on the north side of the mountains of the Crimea; holds the same relative situation along the north side of the transition on the Carpathian moun- tains ; continuing through Silesia and Bavaria along the Bohe- mian mountains to Ratisbon; from thence up the Danube, to Schaffhausen on the Rliine ; and follows the north-west side of the Jura, across the Rhone to the Mediterranean: the lime- stone during this long course, is similar, botli in colour and sructure ; and in some places on the banks of the Danube, is in a schistose form. It is this kind of limestone wherewith 16 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. they make the plates which afford such exact impressions of writings and designs at Munich ; its compact, homogenous structure, without any grain, renders it capable of receiving almost a metallic polish. The absence of the newest floetz-trap formation (wliich par- tially and irregularly covers all other formations, thereby breaking the continuity of the other strata) with the effect of the violent convulsions and earthquakes, so frequent in the vicinity of this disputed formation, may be one cause why the prosecution of geological researches is so much more easy in North America than in Europe. A second cause producing much more universal and extensive effects, may perhaps be found in the difference of the number and magnitude of the accidents and changes that have been effected in the stratifi- cations of the different classes of rocks on the European conti- nent, since their original formation; by the effects of water, during the immensity of time, partially washing away the su- perincumbent strata, most liable to decomposition, and leav- ing the more hard and durable parts of the same stratifica- tion in their original positions ; or by the long and continual action of rivers wearing deep beds, and exposing to view the subordinate strata, giving to the whole the present appearance of va confused and interrupted stratifications, though it might have been uniform and regular in its original state. Rivers likewise, by undermining, throw immense masses out of their places, and create a disorder and confusion, not easily unra- velled. A third cause of the facility of geological observations on this continent, may arise from the whole continent east of the Mississippi following the arrangement of our great chain of mountains. This chain commences at the St. Lawrence river, and appears to be a spur from the great mass of primitive, which occupies all the northern parts of the continent, runs a south-westerly course to the borders of Florida, is covered by the alluvial, and bounded by the sea on the east side; on the west side it is covered with a considerable transition forma- tion, wliich is followed by a still more extensive secondary ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 17 formation, all of which run in a regular line of continuity. Eu- rope, on the contrary, is formed of five or six chains of moun- tains, all following different laws of stratification, and fre- quently interrupting each other ; which increases the difficulty of arranging them in groups, and augments the apparent con- fusion. The rivers in North America have not generally cut so deep into the different strata, either in the mountains, or du- ring their course through the level country, as materially to derange the stratification; nor do we find those immense and inaccessible precipices, which renders the prosecution of geological researches almost impossible. Broken, detached masses of one formation, covering the tops of mountains, with their sides or foundation composed of different classes of rocks, seldom occurs; and where any irregularity or appa- rent confusion takes place, the vicinity generally admits of a sufficient examination of the surrounding strata, so as to ac- count for the accident without affecting the general arrange- ment. The stratification of the great chains of mountains in Eu- rope is so cut up and deranged by the action of water, wear- ing deep vallies, surrounded by inaccessible precipices, that at every step some unaccountable difficulty occurs ; the stratifi- cation is irregular and contradictory, the constant alternation of different formations baffles all the research whicli the na- ture of the place will permit of: if persevering industry, by accurate and minute investigation, should reduce to some or- der one part of the chain, another part of the chain of moun- tains, changed by different series of accidents, cannot be re- duced to order by the same rules; and the observer may perhaps find, that he has not been acquiring the knowledge of the natural structure and arrangement of the original stra- tification, but only an imperfect idea of some accidental changes. It is probable in such cases, that it would be better to begin with taking general and extensive views of the whole chain, endeavouring to find out the key to the original order of stratification, which would render it more easy to account 18 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. for the accidents which, when examined separately, appeared to be irreconcileable exceptions. The difference between the ranges of mountains in Europe and North America, appears to be much greater, as respects the accidental and subsequent changes, than in the original order and arrangement of their stratification, in the relative situation whereof they frequently agree. On the edge of the secondary, not far distant from the transition, have been found the most productive salt springs, yet discovered in North America, running nearly north-east from Pigeon's river in the state of Tennessee, to Lake Onondaga; the salt works at Abingdon, and many other salt springs, though not wrought, occur ; and in the same direction of the stratification, gypsum has been discovered. This situation of salt and gypsum, cor- responds with the situation of the salt mines at Cracovia in Poland, which, with some others in the same country, are found on the edge of the secondary, almost touching the great transition formation, which covers the north side of the Car- pathian mountains. The country round the Baltic, bounded by a line running easterly to the Hartz, through Silesia, along the Carpathian mountains to the Crimea, and north by St. Petersburgh, in- cluding Denmark, part of Russia, Prussia, Fiidand, Sweden and Norway, is similar to the east side of the river Mississippi in North America, inasmuch, as it contains littie or none of the basalt or newest floetz-trap formation ; and very few warm springs, in proportion to the surface, have been yet found in either of the countries above mentioned ; though on the south side of that line in Hungary and Bohemia, the floetz-trap for- mation and hot springs are frequent; and in crossing the stony mountains on the west side of North America, between the sources of the Missouri and Columbia river, two very hot springs were found by Captain Lewis: the same mountains likewise contain rocks of the newest floetz-trap formation. The shells and other remains of organized matter, have not yet been examined with that accuracy of discrimination neces- sary to form just conclusions. Those found on the south-east ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 19 side of the primitive are almost exclusively contained in the alluvial, in which considerable banks of shells, mostly bivalves, run parallel to the coast, imbedded frequently in a soft clay or mud resembling much that in which the living animal is now found on the sea shore, which makes the supposition probable, that they are of the same species. The shells found north-west of the primitive range, in the great secondary for- mation, are in great abundance, and consist of various species of Terebratulse, Encrinites, Madripores, Caryophillites, Am- monites, Retipores, Nummulites, £jc. most of which being washed out of the banks by the agitation of the water, are to be found in high preservation on the south side of Lake Erie. SECTION II. Observations on the Geology of the United States of America, in Explanation of the geological Map. Necessity dictates the adoption of some system, so far as respects the classification and arrangement of names. The Wernerian seems to be the most suitable, first, because it is the most perfect and extensive in its general outlines — and se- condly, the nature and relative situation of the minerals in the United States, whilst they are certainly the most extensive of any field yet examined, may perhaps be found the most cor- rect elucidation of the general accuracy of that theory, so far as respects the relative position of the different series of rocks. Without entering into any investigation of the origin, or first formation of the various substances, the following nomencla- ture will be used. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. CLASS /.- -Primitive Rocks. SIENA BROWN. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Granite, Gneiss, Mica Slate, Clay Slate, Primitive Limestone, Primitive Trap, Serpentine, 8. Porphyry, 9. Sienite, 10. Topaz-rock, 11. Quartz-rock, 12. Primitive Flinty -slate. 13. Primitive Gypsum, 14. White-stone. CLASS II. — Transition Rocks. CARMINE. 1. Transition Limestone, 2. Transition Trap, 3. Grey Wacke, 4. Transition Flinty-slate, 5. Transition Gypsum. CLASS III. — Flcetz or Secondary Rocks. LIGHT BLUE. (dark blue) l. Old Red Sand- 6. stone, or 1st Sandstone 7. Formation, 8. 2. First or Oldest Flcetz-lime- 9. stone, 10. 3. First or Oldest Flcetz-gyp- n. sum, 4. Sd or Variegated Sandstone, 12. 5. 2d Flcetz-gypsum, 2d Floetz-limestone, 3d Flcetz-sandstone, Rock-salt Formation, Chalk Formation, Flcetz-trap Formation, Independent Coal Forma- tion, Newest Flcetz-trap Forma- tion. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. SI CLASS IF.— Alluvial Rocks. YELLOW. 1. Peat, 5. Nagel-fluh, 2. Sand and Gravel, 6. Calc-tuff, 3. Loam, 7. Calc-sinter. 4. Bog Iron-ore, All the rock salt and gypsum hitherto found in the United States, has been traced westward of this line. To the east of Hudson's river, the primitive class prevails, both in the mountains and in the low lands, decreasing gra- dually as it proceeds south ; it is bounded on the side of the ocean by the vast tracts of alluvial formation which skirt the great granite ridge, while it, serves as a foundation to that im- mense superstructure of transition and secondary rocks form- ing the great chain of mountains that occupy the interior of the cTmtment to the westward. The primitive, to the eastward of Hudson's river, constitutes the highest mountains, while the little transition and secon- dary that is found, occupy the low grounds. To the south of the Delaware, the primitive is the first rock after the allu- vial formation of the ocean — the lowest step of the stair which gradually rises through the different formations to the top of the Alleghany. To the eastward of the state of New York, the stratification runs nearly north and south, and generally dips to the east, looking up to the White Hills, the most elevated ground. In New York state, and to the southward and westward, the stra- tification runs nearly north-east and south-west, and still dips to the east. All the rivers east of the Delaware run nearly north and south, following the stratification, while the southern rivers incline to the south-east and north-west directions. 22 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. Throughout the greatest part of the eastern and northern states, the sea washes the foot of the primitive rock ; the de- position of that extensive alluvial formation commences at Long island, increasing in breadth to the south, forming a great part of both the Carolinas and Georgia, and almost the whole of the two Floridas and lower Louisiana. The coin- cidence of the gidf stream, with all its attendant eddies, depo- sitions, £)C. rolling along this whole extent, from the gulf of Mexico to Nantucket, may create speculative ideas on the origin of this vast alluvial formation, while the constant sup- ply of caloric brought by that sweeping current from the tro- pics, may perhaps account for the sudden and great change in die temperature of the climate within the reach of the Adantic. The great distance occupied by the same or similar sub- stances in the direction of the stratification, must strike the observer; as in the primitive rocks, the beds of primitive lime- stone and dolomite, containing in some places chrystallized feldspar and tremolite, which are found alternating with gneiss, for ten miles between Dover, state of New York, and Kent, state of Connecticut, appear forty miles north at Stockbridge, Connecticut, and eighty miles south, between Singsing and Kingsbridge, New York; where, after crossing the Hudson river, and dipping under the trap and sandstone formation in New Jersey, they most probably reappear in the marble quar- ries distant from twelve to fourteen miles north-west of Phi- ladelphia— a range of nearly three hundred miles. There is a bed of magnetic iron ore, from eight to twelve feet tiiick, wrought in Franconia, near the White Hills, New Hampshire ; a similar lied in the direction of the stratification six miles north-east of Phillipstown on the Hudson river, and still following the direction of the stratification, the same ore occupies a bed nearly of the same thickness at Ringwood. Mount Pleasant and Suckasunny in New Jersey, losing itself as it approaches the end of the primitive ridge near Black- water; a range of nearly three hundred miles. Instances of the same, occur in the transition and secondary ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. S3 rocks ; as the Blue Ridge, from the Hudson river to the Dan river, consists of rocks of much the same nature and included in the same formation. That no volcanic productions have yet heen found east of the Mississippi, is not the least of the many prominent features of distinction between the geology of this country and that of Europe ; and may perhaps be the reason why the Wernerian system so nearly accords with the general structure and stra- tification of this continent. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the country must be considered of the nature of the first rock that is found in place, even should that rock be covered with thirty or forty feet of sand or gravel, on the banks of rivers or in vallies ; for example, the city of Philadelphia stands on primitive rock, though at the Centre Square, thirty or forty feet of sand and gravel must be penetrated, before the gneiss rock, which as- certains the formation, is found. ALLUVIAL CLASS. At the east end of Long island the alluvial begins, occupy- ing almost the whole of that island. Its north-western boun- dary is marked by a line passing near Amboy, Trenton, Phi- ladelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Petersburg in Virginia, a little to the westward of Hali- fax, Smithfield, Aversboro', and Parkersford on Pedee river, in North Carolina, west of Cambden, near Columbia, Augusta on the Savannah river, Rocky Landing on the Oconee river, Fort Hawkins on the Ockmulgee river, Hawkinstown on Flint river, and running west a little southerly across the Chata- houchee, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, it joins the great alluvial basin below the Natchez. The ocean marks the eastern and southern limits of this extensive alluvial formation ; above the level of which it rises considerably in the southern states, and falls to near the level of the sea, as it approaches the north. 24> ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. Tide water in all the rivers from the Mississippi to the Ro- anoke, ends at a distance from thirty to one hundred and twenty miles of the western limits of the alluvial: from the Roanoke to the Delaware, the tide penetrates through the al- luvial, and is only stopped by the primitive ridge. The Hud- son is the oidy river in the United States, where the tide passes through the alluvial, primitive transition, and into the secon- dary ; in all the northern and eastern rivers the tide runs a small distance into the primitive formation: here, as in the northern coasts of Europe, little or no alluvial is found on the primitive coast. Through the whole of this alluvial formation considerable deposits of shell sare found; also a bank of shell limestone beginning in North Carolina, parallel to, and within the dis- tance of from twenty to thirty miles of the edge of the primi- tive, through South Carolina, Georgia, and part of die Missis- sippi territory. In some places this bank is soft, with a large proportion of clay, in others hard, with a sufficiency of the calcareous matter to be burnt for lime: large fields of the same formation are found near cape Florida, and extending some distance along die coast of the bay of Mexico ; in some situations the calcareous matter of the shells has been washed away, and a deposit of siliceous flint, in which they were im- bedded, is left; forming a porous flinty rock, which is used with advantage for millstones. In the alluvial of the New Jersey, about ten to twenty feet under the surface, there is a kind of greenish blue marie, which they use as manure, in which they find shells, as the Ammonite, Belemnite, Ovulite, Cama, Ostrea, Terebratula, £>c. Most of these shells, are similar to those found in the lime- stone and grey wacke of the transition, and equally resemble those found in such abundance in the secondary horizontal limestone and sandstone; from which it would follow, that the different classes of rocks on the continent cannot be dis- tinguished by their shells, though the different strata of the same class may be discovered and known by the arrangement of the shells found in them. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 25 Considerable deposits of bog iron-ore occupy the lower si- tuations, and many of tire more elevated and dividing ridges between the rivers are crowned with a sandstone and pud- dingstone, the cement of which is bog iron-ore. Quantities of ochre, from bright yellow to dark brown, are found in abundance in this formation, in flat horizontal beds, alternating with other earths in some places, in others in kid- ney-form masses, from the size of an egg to that of a man's head; in form, resembling much the flint found frequently in chalk formations. So great "an extent of alluvial, formed at periods of time so distant, though at present and from all the examinations yet bestowed, it appears to be the same formation, may at some future period and by future observations, be found to contain rocks similar to those of the secondary class; for instance, the whole or part of the greenish blue marl with shells, found in Jersey, both the Carolinas, and Georgia, may in process of time become solid and compact, and would then under the denomination of shell limestone, enter into the secondary,, as well as many of the sandstones and puddings ; for a bank of sand or gravel, united by a filtration of water, which deposes either clay or limestone as a cement, cannot be different from a like formation in the secondary. Even the early deposi- tions of lime by the evaporation of lime water, such as at Ti- voli, near Rome, cannot in hand specimens be distinguished from compact limestone of the secondary class. It is pro- bable, that those immense masses of trees, accumulated on the banks of the Mississippi and other large rivers, may be covered by alluvial beds of sand and clay, which in process of time will consolidate into the coal measures of slate and sandstone, while the mass of wood will decompose into beds of coal, and become, under the denomination of the coal for- mation, secondary rocks. PRIMITIVE CLASS. The south-east limits of the great primitive formation are covered by the north-west boundary of the alluvial formation 26 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. from near the Alabama river, in the Mississippi territory, to Long island, with two small exceptions; the first near Au- gusta on the Savannah river, and near Cambden in South Ca- rolina, where a stratum of transition clay slate, (shist argdeux) intervenes; and from Trenton to Amboy, where the oldest red sandstone formation covers the primitive along the edge of the alluvial. From Rhode Island along the coast by cape Cod, to the bay of Penobscot, the eastern edge of the primi- tive is bounded by die ocean. The north-western boundary of this extensive range, is marked by a line running fifteen to twenty miles east of Lake Champlain, twelve miles east of Middlebury, state of Ver- mont, west of Bennington, twelve to fifteen miles east of Hud- son, along the westward of Stockbridge, twelve miles south- east of Poughkeepsie, skirting the high lands ; it crosses the Hudson river, at Philipstown, by Sparta, about ten or fifteen miles east of Easton on the Delaware, and terminates in a point a few miles north of Bethlehem, recovering fifteen miles west of Trenton ; on the south side of the river it passes about the same distance west of Philadelphia, eight miles east of Downingstown, ten miles east of York by Petersburg, crosses the Susquehannah, twenty-two miles west of Washington, and joins the Blue Ridge, along the top of which is the dividing line between the primitive and transition to Magotty Gap, from thence to four miles east of die lead mines at Austinville, and following a soutii-western direction, by die Stony and Iron mountains, six miles south-east of the warm springs in Bun- comb county, in North Carolina, to the eastward of Hightown on tlie Cousee river; and a little to the westward of the Ta- lapoosee river, it meets the alluvial near to the Alabama, which runs into the bay of Mexico. Besides this range, there is a great mass of primitive on the west side of Lake Champlain, having that lake and Lake George for a boundary on the east, joining the primitive in Canada to the north and north-west, and following a line from the Thousand islands in St. Lawrence, running nearly paral- lel to the Mohawk, until it meets Lake George as a south- ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 27 west limit. This primitive runs across the Mohawk at the Little Falls, and near to Johnstown on the Mohawk, where it is covered by limestone; it occupies all the mountainous country, between Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence, and Lake Ontario. In general, the strata of this primitive rock runs from a north and south to a north-east and south-west direction, and dips generally to the south-east at an angle of more than 45 degrees from the horizon ; the highest elevation is towards the north-western limits, which gradually descends to the south-east, where it is covered by the alluvial ; and the great- est mass as well as the highest mountains, are found towards the northern and southern extremities of the north-western boundaries. The outline of the mountains of this formation, generally consists of circular, waving, detached masses, with rounded flat tops, as the White Hills to the north ; or conically waving in small pyramidical tops, as the peaks of Otter, and the ranges of hills to the south. Has the climate any agency in the forms of the summits of the northern and southern moun- tains? Their height does not appear to exceed six thousand feet above the level of the sea, except perhaps the White Hills ; it is even probable that those mountains are not much higher. Within the limits prescribed to this primitive formation there is found the following exception, viz. Covering part of this primitive there is a transition formation, which occupies all Rhode Island (except a small part south of Newport) and runs from Rhode Island to Boston from ten to fifteen miles broad, and by the rounded transition pebbles, which cover part of the primitive, as well as the small patches left at Pem- broke township, and ten miles south-west of Newburyport, on the new turnpike, it is probable that at some former period this transition has covered the primitive considerably east of Boston, perhaps as far as cape Cod. There is also a range of secondary, extending with some intervals, from the Con- necticut to the Rappahannock rivers, in width generally from 3 28 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. fifteen to twenty -five miles; bounded on the north-east, at New Haven, by the sea, where it ends to recommence on the south side of Hudson river. From Elizabethtown to Trenton it touches the alluvial : from a little above Morrisville, on the Delaware, to Norristown, Maytown on the Susquehannah, passing three miles west of York, Hanover, and one mile west of Frederickstown : it is bounded, or rather appears to cover a tongue of transition, which occupies a progressively dimi- nishing width, as far south as the Yadkin river, at Pelot's Mount. This secondary formation is intercepted after it passes Fre- derickstown, but begins again between Monocasy and Seneca creeks, the north-eastern boundaries crossing the Potomac by the west of Cartersville, touches the primitive near the Rap- pahannock, where it finishes. On the north-west side, it is bounded by the primitive, from some distance to the west- ward of Hartford, passing near Woodbury, and recommencing south of the Hudson, passing by Morristown and German- town, ^c. to the Delaware ; after which it continues along the transition, by the east side of Reading, Grub's mines, Middle- town, Fairfield, to near the Potomac, and recommencing at Noland's ferry, runs along the edge of the transition to the westward of Leesburg, Haymarket, and the vicinity of the Rappahannock. All this secondary, appears to belong to the oldest red sandstone formation ;* though in some places about Leesburg, * The oldest red sandstone family or formation in most places in Europe where I have, seen it, such as on the south side of the Vosges, the south of the Alps, Tyrolian and Bohemian mountains, the south side of the Pyrenees, &c. consists of compact red sandstone, schistose red sandstone, and schis- tose blackish sandstone, coloured by carbon ; a bluish schistose sandstone, running into wacke, compact wacke, schistose wacke, blue compact conchoi- dal limestone, seldom thicker than from six inches to a foot, small strata of two or three inches thick of jet, a pudding with the red sandstone for cement, g'eenstone and hornblende trap in ridges, and salt and gypsum. It has thus been found in Europe as above stated. All the members of this family have been found alternating with each other in the United States, except the gyp- sum; and there appears little reason to doubt but that more accurate re- search will find this likewise. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 29 Reading, fyc. the red sandstone only serves as cement to a pudding formed of transition limestone, and other transition pebbles, with some quartz pebbles, large beds of greenstone trap and waeke of different kinds, which covers in many places this sandstone formation, and forms the small hills, or long ridges, that occur so frequently in it. The stratification in most places runs from an east and west to a north-east and south-west course, and dips generally to the north-west, at an angle most frequently under twenty-five degrees from the horizon, covering both the primitive and transition formation, at every place where their junction could be examined ; and in some places, such as on the east side of the Hudson (where the action of the water had worn away the sandstone) the smooth water-worn primitive, was covered with large rolled masses of greenstone trap, to a considerable distance ; the hardness and solidity of which, had most proba- bly survived the destruction of the sandstone formation. May not similar derangements be one of the causes of the broken and unconnected state of this formation? Prehnite and Zeolite are found in the trap of this formation ; and considerable deposits of magnetic iron ore at Grub's mines, are enveloped, and have their circular layers inter- sected by greenstone trap ; on a ridge of which, this extensive cluster of iron ore seems to be placed. Grey copper ore has been found in the red sandstone for- mation, near Hartford and Washington in Connecticut ; there are likewise mines in New Jersey, where copper pyrites and native copper have been found. The metallic veins at Per- kiomen creek, containing copper, pyrites, blend and galena, are in the same formation, running nearly north and south across the east and west direction of the red sandstone, and a small bed from a half to three inches thick, of brown or red copper ore is interspersed, and follows the circular form of the iron beds at Grub's mines. Besides this red sandstone formation, there is included within the described limits of the primitive, a bed of transition rocks, running nearly south-west from the Delaware to the 30 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. Yadkin river, dipping generally to die south-east, twenty -five or more degrees from the horizon; its width is from two to fifteen mdes, and it runs from the west of Morrisville to the east of Norristown, passes Lancaster, York, Hanover, Frede- rickstown, Bull-run mountain, Milton, foot of Pig river, Mar- tinsville, and finishes near Mount Pilot, on die Yadkin river. Between the Delaware and Rappahannock it is partially co- vered by the red sandstone formation, and is in the form of a long wedge, the thick end touching the Delaware and the sharp end terminating at the Yadkin river. This range consists of beds of blue, grey, red, and white small grained transition limestone, alternating with beds of grey wacke and grey wacke slate, quartzy granular rocks, and a great variety of transition rocks. Much of this limestone is intimately mixed with grey wacke slate, others containing so great a quantity of small grained sand as \* resemble the do- lomite, and in many places considerable beds of fine grained white marble, fit for the statuary, occur. Limespar runs in veins and detached masses through the whole of this limestone formation; and both it and the grey wacke slate contain quantities of the cubic pyrites. Galena has likewise been found near Lancaster, and many veins of the sulphat of barytes traverse this formation, which runs about twenty-five to thirty miles south-east, and nearly paral- lel to the great transition formation. A similar formation about fifteen miles long, and two to three miles wide, occurs on the north fork of Catawba river, running along Linnville and John's mountain near to the Blue Ridge ; and a bed of transition rock, commencing on Green- pond mountain, New Jersey, runs through Suckusanny plains, increasing in width as the primitive range decreases, joining the great transition formation between Easton and Reading. On the west side of this partial transition formation, from the Potomac to the Catawba, between it and die great western transition range, a series of primitive rocks intervenes, some- thing different from the common primitive, having the struc- ture of gneiss, with little mica, the scales detached and not ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 31 contiguous, or much feldspar, rather granular than chrystal- lized; mica slate, with small quantities of scaly mica; clay slate, rather soft and without lustre, the whole having a dull earthy fracture and gritty texture, partaking of transition and primitive, but not properly belonging to either. This rock is always found on the edge of the primitive, before you come upon the transition, but no where in such quantities as in this range. There is great variety in the appearance of this rock, an imitation of almost every species of the common primitive rocks, but differing from them by having a dull earthy frac- ture, gritty texture, and little or no chrystallization.* About ten or twelve miles west of Richmond, Virginia, there is an independent coal formation, twenty to twenty -five miles long, and about ten miles wide ; it would not be far distant from the range of the red sandstone formation had it conti- nued so far south ; it is situated in an oblong basin, having the whitish freestone, slaty clay, Sjc. with vegetable impressions, as well as most of the other attendants of that formation. This basin lays upon and is surrounded by primitive rocks. It is more than probable, that within the limits of so large a mass of primitive, other partial formations of secondary rocks may be found. Granite in large masses forms but a small part of this for- mation, and is found indifferently on the tops of mountains and in the plains ; it is both large and small grained, is mixed occasionally with hornblende and talc, and contains, as in Eu- rope, rounded masses of a rock consisting of hornblende and feldspar in small grains, disseminated through it ; it generally * This rlass of rocks differs from the primitive, in having a less brilliant and clirystalline fracture, but corresponds with it in the direction and almost vertical position of the stratification : it differs from the transition in not containing any of those aggregates, the component parts whereof have been evidently rounded by attrition, and in the circumstance of affording no re- mains of organic matter, though many of the species of schist, taken sepa- rately, have a great resemblance to some of the schistose rocks, included in the transition formation. In conformity to the Wernerian nomenclature, they are here classed with the primitive, as not coming properly under any description of rocks described as transition in that system. 33 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. divides vertically into rhomboids, and, except in some very small grained, there is no appearance of stratification, when found in low situations, as in the interior of South Carolina and Georgia. It is frequently so far decomposed as to have lost the adhesion of its particles, to the depth of tliirty or forty feet below the surface ; each chrystal is in its place, and looks like solid granite, while you may take it up in handfuls like sand and gravel. Gneiss extends perhaps over a. half of this formation, and includes in a great many places beds from three to three hun- dred feet thick, of a very large grained granite, which run in the same direction, and dip as the gneiss does ; it is in those beds generally where the emeralds, phosphate of lime, tour- maline, garnet, cymophane, octahedral iron ore, graphic gra- nite, &)C. &jc. are found. These beds are mixed, and alternate occasionally in the same gneiss, with the primitive limestone, the beds of hornblende and hornblende slate, serpentine, mag- netic iron ore, and feldspar rocks. In some places this gneiss contains so much mica, as to run into mica slate; in others, large nodules of quartz or feldspar; in others, hornblende takes the place of the mica; in short, I scarcely know any of the primitive rocks that may not occasionally be found in- cluded in the gneiss formation. It is therefore probable that geology must rest, more upon relative positions, than upon the constituent parts of rocks. For instance ; the hornblende rocks which cover the red sand- stone, are in many places so chrystalhne, as scarcely to be dis- tinguished in hand specimens from some of the hornblende rocks which alternate with the gneiss; it is the same with much of those small grained rocks of trappose forms, found in the primitive, compared with the transition trap or horn- blende rocks found in the transition ; though the latter alter- nate with transition slate, or what is called roofing-slate, in which the remains of organic matter have been found. The rounded globules of feldspar and hornblende found in the great masses of granite of the Alps, in Cornwall, and in this country, could not be distinguished, in hand specimens, ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 33 from the sienite of Werner, though the one is placed in the Wernerian system as the oldest, and the other among the newest, of the primitive rocks, all which proves the difficulty of establishing a line in the gradations of nature to place our artificial boundaries on; and indicates the necessity of first ascertaining the limits of the great divisions, before we at- tempt the specific and more minute, which would seem to require more accurate and extensive observations, than have as yet been made. There is a compact, rather dull fractured hornblende rock, generally found on the edge of the primitive, before meeting with the transition, which is in many places mixed with epi- dote, both compact and chrystalline ; as on the south side of Rhode Island, and along the Blue Ridge, in Virginia, §c. £yc. This rock resembles the rock found in the harbour of Pen- zance in Cornwall, and not unlike the rock of the Lizard in England. From its appearing here always on the edge of the primitive, it is probably one of the last members of that class. No gypsum has yet been found in the primitive of this coun- try; nor do I think it will be ascertained to have been in place, when alternating with the primitive in Europe, having exa- mined the gypsum near Mont St. Gothard, Mont Cenis, Coll de Tende, ^c. &>c. In the Alps I found it always in transi- tion, though in one or two places that transition had slid down from the top of a neighbouring mountain into a valley of pri- mitive rocks. Great varieties of mineral substances are found in the pri- mitive formation, such as garnets in the granite and mica slate, from the size of a pin's head to the head of a child, staurotide, andalusite, epidote in vast varieties and abundance, tremolite, all the varities of magnesian rocks, emerald, touch- ing graphic granite, and disseminated in the granite of a large extent of .country, adularia, tourmaline, hornblende, sulphat of barytes, arragonites, £jc. Sjc. From the number already found in proportion to the little research that has yet been employed, there is every reason to suppose, that in so great an extent of chrystalline formation. 34 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. almost every mineral discovered in similar situations on the ancient continent of Europe will be found on this. Metallic substances in the primitive, are generally exten- sive, like the formation itself. Iron pyrites runs through vast fields, principally of gneiss and mica slate ; magnetic iron ore, in powerful beds from ten to twelve feet thick, generally in a hornblende rock, occupies the highest elevations, as in Fran- conia, the Highlands of New York, the Jerseys, Yellow and Iron mountains in the west of North Carolina. A black brown bed of hematitic iron ore in Connecticut and New York states. Chrystals of octahedral iron ore, (some of which have po- larity) disseminated in granites, as at Brunswick, district of Maine, and in many varieties of the magnesian genus ; black lead in beds, from six to twelve' feet wide, traversing the states of New York, Jersey, Virginia, Carolina, fyc. ; native and grey copper ore, near Stanardsville, and Nicholson's Gap, Virgi- nia, disseminated in a hornblende and epidote rock, border- ing on the transition; molybdena at Brunswick (Maine), Ches- ter (Pennsylvania), Virginia, North Carolina, fyc; arsenical pyrites in large quantities in the district of Maine ; red oxyd of zinc and magnetic iron ore in a powerful bed on the edge of the primitive, near Sparta in New Jersey, having a large grained marble, with nigrin or silico-calcareous titanium im- bedded in it on one side, and hornblende rock on the other. This bed contains likewise large quantities of blende. Detach- ed pieces of gold have been found in the beds of some small streams in Cabarro county, North Carolina, and other places, apparently in a quartz rock. Manganese has been found in New York, North Carolina, £jc. £yc. Near the confines of the red sandstone and primitive formation, a white ore of cobalt has been wrought above Middletown on the Connecticut river, and found also, as is said, near Morristown in New Jersey. The general nature of metallic repositories in this forma- tion, appears to be in beds, disseminated, or in laying masses ; when in beds (as the magnetic iron ore and black lead) or disseminated (as the iron pyrites, octahedral iron ore, molyb- dena, #jc. fyc.) they occur at intervals through the whole range ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 35 of the formation. Veins to any great extent have not yet been discovered in this formation. TRANSITION CLASS. This extensive field of transition rocks is limited on the south-east side from a little to the eastward of Lake Cham- plain to near the river Alabama, by the north-west boundary prescribed to the primitive rocks. On the north-west side it touches the south-east edge of the great secondary formation, m a line that passes considerably to the westward of the ridge which divides the eastern and western waters in Georgia, North Carolina, and part of Virginia, and runs near it in the northern part of that state and in the states of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. This line of demarcation runs between the Alabama and Tombigbee river, to the westward of the north fork of the Holstein, till it joins the Alleghany mountains, near the sul- phur spring along that dividing ridge to Bedford county in Pennsylvania, and from thence north-east to Fort Ann, near Lake Champlain, and follows the east side of tbat lake to Ca- nada: the separation of the transition and secondary is not so regularly and distinctly traced as in the other formation ; many large vallies are formed of horizontal secondary limestone, full of shells, while the ridges on each side consist of transi- tion rocks. The two formations interlock and are mixed in many places, so as to require much time and attention to re- duce them to the regular and proper limits. It is however probable, that to the north-west of the line here described, little or no transition will be found, although to the south-east of it, partial formations of secondary may occur. The transition formation is generally broadest where the primitive is narrowest, and vice versa ; and runs from twenty to one hundred miles broad : the stratification runs from a north and south to a north-east and south-west direction, dip- ping generally to the north-west, at an angle in most places 36 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. under forty-five degrees from the horizon. On the edge of the primitive it deviates in some places from this general rule, and dips for a short distance to the south-east: the most elevated ground is on the confines x)f North Carolina and Georgia, along the south-east limits to Magotty Gap, descend- ing towards the north-west until it meets the secondary ; from Magotty Gap, north-easterly, the highest ground is on the north-west side, sloping gradually towards the primitive, which ranges along its south-eastern boundary. The outline of the mountains of this formation is almost a straight line, with few interruptions, bounding long parallel ridges of nearly the same height, declining gently towards the side, where the stratification dips from the horizon, and more precipitous on the opposite side, where the edge of the stra- tum breaks out to the day. This formation is composed of the following rocks; viz. a small grained transition limestone, of all the shades of colour from a white to a dark blue, and in some places intimately mixed with strata of grey wacke slate ; limespar in veins and disseminated ; in many places an intermixture of small grain- ed particles, so as to put on the appearance of a sandstone, with excess of lime cement. This occurs in beds from fifty to five thousand feet in width, alternating with grey wacke and grey wacke slate. Near the borders of the primitive is found a siliceous aggregate, having particles of a light blue colour, from the size of a pin's head to an egg, disseminated in some places in a cement of a slaty texture, and in others in a quartzose cement; a fine sandstone cemented with quartz in large masses, often of a slaty structure, with small detach- ed scales of mica intervening; a rock not far from die bor- ders of the primitive, partaking both of the porphyry and the grey wacke, having both feldspar chrystals and rounded peb- bles in it, with a cement of a kind of dull chlorite slate in ex- cess ; another, though rarer, with pebbles and feldspar chyrs- tals in a compact petrosiliceous cement, and a great variety of other rocks, which, from their composition and situation, cannot be classed but with the transition. ON THE GE01.0GY OP THE UNITED STATES. 37 The limestone, grey wacke, and grey wacke slate, generally occupy the vallies, and the quartzy aggregates the ridges ; amongst which is what is called the country burr stone or mill stone gritt, which must not be confounded with another rock, likewise denominated mill stone gritt, which is a small grained granite, with much quartz, found in the primitive for- mation. There are many and extensive caves in the lime- stone of this formation, where the bones of various animals are found. Beds of coalblende, or anthracite, accompanied by alum slate and black chalk, have been discovered in this formation, on Rhode Island, the Lehigh and Susquehannah rivers; and a large body of alum slate on Jackson's river, Virginia ; many powerful veins of the sulphate of barytes cross it in different places; granular, as that near Fincastle, or slaty, as that in Buncomb county, North Carolina. Iron and lead have as yet been the principal metals found in this formation; the lead in the form of galena, in clusters, or what the Germans call Stockwerk, as at the lead mines on New river, Wyeth county, Virginia; the iron disseminated in pyrites, hematitic and magnetic iron ; or in beds ; and consi- derable quantities of the sparry iron ore in beds, and dissemi- nated in the limestone. This class of rocks, occupying the space between the pri- mitive and secondary, is perhaps the first that ought to be studied and the limits fixed ; as a knowledge once acquired of what rocks are transition, there can be no difficulty in dis- tinguishing the secondary at one end and the primitive touch- ing the other. As nature in her imperceptible gradations from one species of rock to another, has not left any marked or distinct limits, on which to place the artifical boundaries of the different classes, it is not easy to fix with certainty the kind of rocks, at which the one class ought to begin, and the other finish ; and it is probable that a long series of exact observations will be necessary to determine with accuracy that line of sepa- ration. 38 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. It is probable, that between the secondary and transition class, the horizontal stratification of the secondary will consti- tute the strongest and best defined fine of separation; every stratum of rocks that is horizontal, or nearly so in its original situation, will be secondary ; and those which are found near it, not chrystalline or primitive, having a regular dip or decli- nation from the horizon, will naturally fall into the transition class. It is under this idea that the dark blue colour on the map has been used for the oldest red sandstone, while the light blue has been the mark of the secondary, because I have generally found the oldest red sandstone dipping or declining from the horizon at a regular angle though small; and at same time having few organic remains; which agrees with the general characters of the transition : whilst in relative po- sition on the sides of many of the range of mountains it as- sumes the place of the transition. The fine between the primitive and transition may perhaps be marked by the presence or absence of organic remains — or of aggregates of rounded particles, the result of former de- composition— in part, by the more or less chrystalline texture — and its approach towards deposition. SECONDARY CLASS. The south-east limit of this extensive formation is bound- ed by the irregular border of the transition, from between the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers to Foil Ann near Lake Chain- plain. On the north-west side it follows tbe shores of the great lakes, and loses itself in the alluvial of the great basin of the Mississippi ; occupying a surface from two hundred to five hundred miles in breadtb, and extending probably on the west side of the Mississippi to the foot of the Stony moun- tains. This horizontal limestone and slate, skirt Lake Champlain about Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and for some conside- rable distance down the east side of the lake ; seldom extend- ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 39 ing above half a mile from the edge of the water ; containing some shells and flints, as on Lake Erie, and appears to be the same formation as on Lake Erie. Its greatest elevation is on the south-east boundary, from which it falls down almost im- perceptibly to the north-west, and mingles with the alluvial of the Mississippi, having an outline of mountains, straight and regular. A boundary of long and parallel ranges of a gradually diminishing height as they approach to the north- west limits ; a stratification almost perfectly horizontal, waving with the inequalities of the surface, distinguishes this from the two preceding formations. Immense beds of secondary limestone, of all the shades from a light blue to a black, intercepted in some places by extensive tracts of sandstone and other secondary aggregates, appears to constitute the foundation of this formation, on which reposes the great and valuable coal formation, which extends from the head waters of the Ohio in Pennsylvania, with some interruption, all the way to the waters of the Tom- bigbee, accompanied by the usual attendants, slaty clay and freestone, with vegetable impressions, Sjc. ; but in no instance that I have seen or heard of, covered by, or alternating with any rock, resembling basalt; or indeed any of those called the newest floetz trap formation. The limestone of this formation contains irregular pieces in nodules and bands, of a kind of black flint (like what is called chert in England) scattered in all forms and directions, often resembling in colour the limestone, in which case it is with difficulty they can be distinguished; they abound on the banks of Lake Erie, on the banks of St. Lawrence, where it runs from Lake Erie, and generally through the whole stratifica- tion of limestone. Along the south-east boundaries not far from the transition, a rock salt and gypsum formation has been found. On the north fork of Holstein, not far from Abingdon, Virginia, and on the same line south-west from that, in Greene county and Pigeon river, state of Tennessee, it is said quantities of gyp- sum have been discovered; from which, and the quantities of 40 ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. salt licks and salt springs found in the same range, so far north as Lake Oneida, there is some probability that this for- mation is upon the same great scale that almost all the other formations have been found on this continent; at least ra- tional analogy supports the supposition; and we may hope one day to find an abundance of those two most useful sub- stances, which are generally found mixed or near each other in all countries that have hitherto been carefully examined. At Lewistown, ten miles below the falls of Niagara, the old red sandstone appears from under the limestone and other strata over which the falls roll; the same makes its appear- ance near the Salines in the Genesee country, which would give some probability to the conjecture, that the old red sand- stone is the foundation of all this horizontal formation, and may perhaps be attached to some series of rocks laying on the primitive, on the north side of the lake. Metallic substances, hitherto found in this formation, are iron pyrites, disseminated both in the coal and limestone; iron ores, consisting principally of brown, sparry and clay iron stone in beds; galena, but whether in beds or veins is not ascertained. The large deposits of galena at St. Louis on the Mississippi, have been described as detached pieces, found covered by the alluvial of the rivers, and of course, not in place. All the large specimens I have seen were rolled masses, which rather confirms the opinion, that they were not found in their original situation. On the Great Kanhawa, near the mouth of Elk river, there is a large mass of black (I suppose vegetable) earth, so soft as to be penetrated by a pole ten or twelve feet deep ; out of the hole so made, frequently issues a steam of hydrogen gas, which will burn for some time; and in the vicinity of this place there are constant streams of that gas, which, it is said, when once lighted will burn for several weeks. Query, if a careful examination of this place would not throw some light on the formation of coal and other combustible substances found in such abundance in this formation? ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 41 Large detached masses of granite are found laying on this formation from Harmony to Erie, and from thence by the Ge- nesee country to Fort Ann; though in many places no gra- nite of this kind is found in place nearer than two hundred miles at the falls of the Mohawk, or perhaps on the north side of the lakes. From near Kingston on Lake Ontario to some distance be- low Quebec, the country is principally primitive, and from all the information I could collect, that great mass of continent laying to the north of the 46th degree of latitude for a consi- derable distance to the west consists mostly of the same for- mation: from which it is probable, that on this continent, as well as in Europe and Asia, the northern regions are princi- pally occupied by the primitive formation. The foregoing observations are the results of many former excursions m the United States, and the knowledge lately acquired, by crossing the dividing line of the principal forma- tions in twenty-five or thirty different places, from the Hud- son to Flint river; as well as from intelligent men, whose situation and experience made the nature of the place, near which they lived, familiar to them ; nor has the information that could be acquired from specimens where the locality was accurately marked, or the remarks of judicious travellers, been neglected. Notwithstanding the various sources of information, much of the accuracy of the outlines of separation between the for- mations must depend on rational analogy; for instance, be- tween Magotty and Rock-fish Gaps, a distance of upwards of sixty miles, I found in six different places that were examined that the summit of the Blue Ridge divided the primitive and the transition formation. I concluded of course, that in places where I had not examined (or which from their lature could not be examined) that the Blue Ridge, from Magotty to Rock- fish Gap, was the boundary of the two formations. In adopting the nomenclature of Werner, I do not mean to enter into the origin or first formation of the different sub- stances, nor into the nature and properties of the agents that F 42 ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. may have subsequently modified and changed the appearance and form of those substances. I am equally ignorant of the relative periods of time, in which those modifications and changes may have taken place. These speculations are be- yond my range, and pass the limits of my inquiries. All that I mean by & formation, is, a mass of substances (whether ad- hesive, as rocks, or separated as sand and gravel) uniform and similar in their structure and relative position, occupying extensive ranges with few or no interruptions of the rocks be- longing to another series, class, or formation ; and when such partial mixture apparently takes place, a careful examination will seldom fail to explain the phenomenon, without injuring the general principle, or making it a serious exception to die rule. In the account of die metals and minerals, it is not intend- ed to give a list of the number, extent, and riches of the me- tallic and mineral repositories ; the nature of the ore or mine- ral, with a description of its relative position in regard to the surrounding substances, is the principal object of geology, which cannot be understood by microscopic investigations or the minute analysis of insulated rocks and detached masses; it would be like the portrait painter dwelling on the acciden- tal pimple of a fine face ; the geologist must endeavour to note the great and permanent outlines of nature, and get acquaint- ed with her general laws, rather than study her accidental de- viations, or magnify the number and extent of the supposed exceptions which must frequentiy cease to be such when ac- curately examined. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 43 SECTION III. Hints on the Decomposition of Rocks, with an Inquiry into the probable Effects they may produce on the Nature and Ferti- lity of Soils. Rocks in their natural hard and compact state afford little or no nourishment to vegetables; it is only in their state of decomposition and dissolution, that they become useful or ne- cessary to the growth of plants. The greatest part of the substances which constitute most soils, proceeding immediately from the decomposition of the rocks surrounding or laying under them, it follows of course that those soils must be materially affected by the nature and quality of those rocks: first, by the peculiar mode of their de- composition and dissolution into earth or liquids, and secondly by the nature and qualities of those earths and liquids in the formation of soils, and as food for vegetables. We shall now consider their mode of decomposition. 1st. — The mode of decomposition by dissolution in water, as limestone and gypsum. 2dly. — Rocks, which though not soluble in water, yet con- tain something which facilitates the solution of earths, as al- kalies, £jc. such as feldspar, mica, volcanic rocks, &jc. 3dly. — Rocks which decompose into small, minute parti- cles, such as argillaceous slate, hornblende, talc, and ser- pentine. 4thly. — Rocks which decompose only by trituration, such as flints, quartz, &jc. and those which contain siliceous matter as a component part of their aggregates, such as granite, gneiss, §c. It has been generally supposed that vegetables cannot ab- sorb any earth in a solid state, and that solution was necessary to render any substance fit for the food of plants. Those earths, therefore, that remain in a solid state, and are indis- soluble by the common fluids, most probably act only as a medium through which the plant may receive the proper pro. 2 44 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. portion of the two great causes of vegetable growth, heat and moisture ; two fluids, positively necessary for the support of vegetable as well as animal life, neither of which could exist without a certain quantity of heat and moisture. Tins is proved by the total sterility of the polar regions and the tops of high mountains from the deficiency of heat, and of the de- serts of Arabia, Africa, #>c. from the absence of moisture. Earths, as a medium through which the plants may be sup- plied with their necessary quantity of fluids, may act in va- rious ways; first, as a soil easily reduced by tillage into a moveable mass offering the least possible resistance to the roots of plants, when in search of their food, and at the same time facilitating the circulation of such fluids as are indispen- sible to their growth, as absorbents of heat and moisture. Earths as well as rocks, differ greatly in then capability of receiving more or less of those necessary fluids, because they vary in their property of retaining one or both of them, for a longer or shorter time. Earths as well as rocks may injure materially the fertility of the soil, by allowing one or both those fluids to filter through them, thereby depriving the plant of its necessary portion. In the same manner, rocks as a sub-stratum may be useful or beneficial to the plants which grow on the surface, by their greater or less capacity of retaining the necessary fluids, as Fabroni has shewn. It may be proper to mention here, that the effect either of rocks in their compact state as rocks, or in their decomposed state as earths, forming the soil, is the only subject of these hints or observations ; and that all artificial or accidental addi- tions of animal or vegetable matter in a decomposed state, must be considered as exceptions of the general results. Whe- ther these decompositions of vegetable or animal matter have been scattered over the surface by the annual fall of the leaves of the forest, and decay of animal or vegetable matter — or whether the floods of rivers have covered the lower ground with their fertilizing vegetable mud — or whether the industry and ingenuity of man has strewed it over the soil as manure ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 45 the results of all such additions must be considered as fo- reign to the present subject, excepting inasmuch as the pro- perties of the original soil may conduce to retain and prolong the advantages of this adventitious cause of fertility. When a farmer clears the land of die United States under the trees, he finds a stratum of black vegetable mould, more or less diick in proportion to the original properties of die sod, the time that the trees have been dropping their manure upon it, and the declivity which obstructs or facditates its washing away ; for tiiis mould is lighter than water, and runs off rapidly from the sides of Mis, and seldom or ever lays long on the steep descents of mountains. WJtile this bed of vegetable mould remains, the labour of the farmer is rewarded by rich and abundant crops ; for when he sows and reaps from such a sod, four or five years before he exhausts it, he not only expends as many years' natural productions, but he consumes as many hundred or perhaps thousand years' accumulation of natural manure, which would require a very long time for the common operations of pro- duction and decomposition to replace. It is therefore the peculiar interest of all farmers in Ame-, rica, to be sparing of this natural manure, and to make it last as long as they can, which may perhaps be best effected by preventing as much as possible its washing away with the rain,* a much greater proportion running off with the water than is consumed by the production of the vegetables raised eu it. * The quantum of vegetable mould in a soil has been considered as a cri- terion of its richness. To ascertain it, a chemist dries perfectly a given quan- tity and weighs it ; after which he exposes it to a red heat, and weighs the residue; the difference between the two weights is considered as the quantity of vegetable matter lost by combustion, and of course the measure in a great degree of its fertility. Where this vegetable mould is not more than three to four inches thick, perhaps ploughing it in like stable manure, by ploughing a little deeper might be one means of keeping it from washing; as this process would cover it with a part of the soil, which from its weight would not be so easily wash- ed away. 46 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. While tliis vegetable mould is in sufficient quantities on the surface, the lands are more or less fertile, independent of the nature of the earth on which it lays ; it is when that coat of manure is gone, and the land worn out by constant cropping,* that the soil shews its fertility, as depending on the nature of the rock of the country, and species of earth or loam, result- ing from their decomposition. It is at that time that the dif- ference between a granite and limestone soil appeal's, and where any one can see the effects, though few ever think of inquiring into the cause; yet it is evident that the washing and decomposition of a granite soil, can only afford sand mixed with a small proportion of sand or clay, from the mode in which the rocks divide in their process of decomposition ; and even this small quantity is liable to filter through the inter- stices left in the aggregates of gravel, by the form of their chrystalline particles. The limestone, on the contrary, by its easy solution and fa- cility of decomposition, furnishes to the exhausted soil, with every rain, a quantity of food, fitted by solution for vegetable absorption, as well as a great quantity of mould divided and triturated into impalpable powder, which forms an excellent pabulum through which the vegetable can receive the other fluids necessary for its growth. Meantime this mould forms a retentive base or soil, which prevents the filtration of the smaller particles, and even retains the water in its pores, so as to give it out by regular evaporation to the surface, when necessary for the increase and support of the plants that may be sown on the land. Beside the division of rocks into those which dissolve in and easily mix with water, as their mode of decomposing, and those which are insoluble in water, this last species of rocks * A great deal of the soil east of the Alleghany mountains does not pro- duce now much more than one half it did when first cleared, which is proba- bly one of the causes why the surplus produce of the United States for ex- portation is not now greater, if so great, as it was twenty years ago, though the quantity of land under culture, as well as the population that tills it, is almost double. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 4/ are divided by their mode of decomposition into chrystalline, and deposition rocks ; because when changing from the solid rock into earth or soil, they follow a different process which produces different effects. First, the chrystalline rocks are composed of an aggregation of chrystals of various substances interwoven and adhering together by the laws of attraction. Such rocks generally be- gin to decompose by a disunion of the different chrystals, and a destruction of their adhesion; then they fall into a mass of angular particles like a bed of gravel, and form a filter, through which all fluids pass more or less rapidly in proportion to the size of the chrystals $ after which, each chrystal, according to its nature, begins its decomposition by throwing off an ex- ceeding thin pellicle from its surface, and this continues sca- ling off until it is totally reduced; all those thin scales falling into the banks of angular particles, are generally washed by the water and filter through it; so that the residue consists of a mass of such substances as do not decompose easily but by trituration, and forms a granular bed of sand or gravel accord- ing to the size of the particles. Rocks of deposition, consisting of particles more or less, minute, arising from the decomposition of other rocks, when aggregated into a mass and fixed either by a cement or by juxtaposition, are subjected to laws of decomposition different from other rocks ; for when the adhesion of their particles is destroyed, they faU immediately into a state of earth more or less pervious to fluids, according to the nature of the par- ticles ; which being the result of a former decomposition are minute, and when pressed together by their own weight, form a mass which does not permit the fluids to pass in such quan- tities as to carry along with them the finest particles, and of course are not subject to wash away by filtration, like the re- mains of chrystalline rocks, though perhaps more easily car- ried off by the water from the steep sides of the hills. All rocks which divide in the trappose form into parallelo- pipeds, not by chrystalhzation, but by shrinking or retraction from the loss of heat or moisture, fall into considerable square 48 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. masses, and decompose by first losing their corners and ap- proaching the round form, constituting a part of the rounded pebbles found in our fields ; which are not rounded by attri- tion of water or any other cause of movement, but by the ge- neral mode of decomposition of homogeneous rocks. It may perhaps be considered as a general principle that the farther the agents of decomposition can penetrate into rocks, insoluble in water, the greater will be the quantity that they will decompose in a given time ; and the quicker that decomposition into minute particles is effected, the smaller will be the quantity washed away by the rains, and of course the necessary thickness of the soil for the production of ve- getables will accumulate more rapidly; this must depend on the hardness and compactness of the rock, and all rocks of the slaty or the schistose form must be more easily reduced into soil, that those in a solid mass. Rocks of easy decomposition into minute particles, accu- mulate a thickness of soil sufficient to prevent the filtration of any small particles that may be added to it, and form a bot- tom capable of holding what it obtains ; on the contrary, rocks which in the first stage of decomposition fall into granular pieces of an angular form, leaving spaces through which all minute particles (produced by the slow decomposition of hard or chrystalline rocks) can filter along with the water, form no bottom or foundation for the accumulation of soil fit for ve- getable production, but remain diy and steril; it is only on the lower ground of such countries that soil can accumulate. To the foregoing general principles of the decomposition of rocks, there will be many exceptions when compared with actual results, arising from local observation and experience; and those exceptions will be in proportion to our deficiency in the knowledge of the various modes of working which na- ture employs, and our ignorance of the variety and nature of the new mixtures and compounds formed by all changes re- sulting from a natural process. Great allowance must likewise be made for the action of water ; for example, a river rises in a secondary country, and ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 49 after traversing through limestone and other secondary rocks some hundreds of miles, it flows through a primitive country, carrying with it all the gravel and mud it has collected ; it fol- lows of course, that soils, formed of such depositions, though in a primitive country, must partake of the properties and fer- tility of a secondary soil, as the decomposition of limestone gravel, giving off a coat of decomposed limestone every year, will keep up the soil ; on the contrary, rivers running through secondary countries, after having long flowed over primitive, will carry along with them primitive sand and gravel that will partake of the properties of primitive soils, though formed in secondary countries. After examining some of the effects that would most pro- bably be produced on the soil, by the decomposition of the different classes of rocks, we shall endeavour to apply the principles to the soils of the United States, in reference to the accompanying map. The primitive, or chrystalline class, is not favourable to the forming of soil fit for vegetation. 1st. It has no remains either of vegetable or animal matter. 2dly. It is slow to decompose, and easily washed away. 3dly. It is generally situated on higher elevations, owing in sOme degree to its difficult and slow decomposition. 4thly. There is little or no calcareous earth in the primi- tive; the strata found occasionally in the gneiss, mica slate, £jc. are seldom more than from twenty to one hundred feet in thickness, and do not affect much the surrounding soils. 5thly. The particles of chrystals are so minute and so com- pactly placed by the laws of affinity, that they absorb little or no moisture. 6thly. For the same reason they are perhaps bad absorbers and still worse retainers of heat; which may be one cause why primitive soils are so cold. 7thly. They have no gypsum in them, and very little of any other rock, soluble in water. Stilly. They have no carbon or any species of coal in their 50 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. stratification, though coals are often found in the secondary basins they enclose. The first primitive rock is the granite, which is a granular aggregate of chrystals, decomposing into a gravelly mass: tliis rock proceeding slowly through the other stages of de- composition, is liable to run off through the filter, or wash down the declivity. Gneiss, from its fissile structure and additional quantity of mica, is of easier decomposition, not quite so easily washed, and forms a soil a tittle more argillaceous. Mica slate has still more argil in it, and decomposes more rapidly. Clay slate in general forms a tough strong soil, and retains the tittle it receives. The accidental beds of limestone, hornblende, and serpen- tine, found in the three last mentioned rocks, are so small and partial, as not to affect the general nature of the soil, though their almost perpendicular position brings the edges of all the stratifications of the above mentioned rocks to the sur- face, and thereby renders a mixture of their component parts almost a certain consequence of their decomposition. This is one advantage the primitive has in common with the tran- sitions, as it is more than probable that such a mixture would form a better soil than the decomposition of any one of the different strata, if isolated by being in a horizontal position ; for tliis would confine the formation of soil to the decomposi- tion of the uppermost stratum. The hornblende rocks, either compact or slaty, often have small particles of pyrites scattered through them, which has- tens decomposition into fine red mould, perhaps the best soil of all the primitive rocks. Serpentine, as well as the greatest part of the magnesian genus, though decomposing easily with a stiff clay, is never- theless unfriendly to vegetation; perhaps from the soil being so strong and adhesive as to prevent the vegetable roots from penetrating; in that case, sand might be a good manure, ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 51 Whether it is from the elevation in height, rigour of cli- mate, or from the various other defects before mentioned, it may be safely laid down as a general position, that the primi- tive is covered with a soil less productive than the other classes of rocks, and serves as a foundation for much of the steril re- gions of the north, as well as the burning sands of the deserts. The rivers of this class roll over precipices and rocky beds full of obstructions, scarcely admitting any continued naviga- tion. So, when the primitive touches the ocean, it forms what is called a bold shore with perpendicular precipices, deep water, and harbours free from banks, or any other obstruc- tions from the alluvial class. Abundance of fine springs of clear good water, more free from all the impurities of foreign substances than in any other of the classes, are found in this class of rocks; which at the same time are generally healthy and favourable to human existence. Quartz in small chyrstalline particles being a constituent part of this class, it is of course from the decomposition and minute trituration of this quartz by the action of currents of water or wind, that we obtain the greatest part of our siliceous sand. Great masses of rocks, in rolling, form an impalpable powder, but do not form sand. It is this class that may be supposed to furnish the materials for the formation of all the aggregates of the three following classes, except perhaps the limestone, and the remains of vegetable and animal matter. TRANSITION CLASS. The greatest part of the rocks of this class decompose into soils favourable to vegetation. 1st. They are composed of particles, previously the result of the decomposition of other rocks ; and are more easily and rapidly turned into soil. 2dly. They contain some remains of vegetable and animal matter. 52 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3dly. With a few exceptions of those that are near the pri- mitive, they consist either of limestone, or of rocks that have some quantity of lime in their composition. 4thly. They contain large beds of gypsum. Stilly. Being aggregates of minute rounded particles, they permit the absorption of heat ; and not being good conduc- tors, are useful in retaining it. 6tldy. They absorb moisture and retain it. 7thly. They are subject, though in a less degree, to one disadvantage attending the primitive, that is, they occupy high and broken countries. 8thly. This class holds considerable masses of anthracite, and other rocks containing carbon. The sandstone of the transition class, is difficult to decom- pose, and consisting for the most part of silex, makes a light gravelly soil ; the greatest part of the rolled pebbles in the alluvion of this class, are sandstone. Two kinds of aggregates are found in this class, one hav- ing a base of a greenish slate, with chrystals of feldspar and rolled pebbles, and another consisting of rounded masses of a light blue quartz, in a fibrous cement; both of these are near the primitive, and partake of its qualities, that is, decompose slowly into a sand or gravel. Grey wacke decomposes likewise into a sand or gravel : but the cement, consisting of clay and lime, forms a considerable part, and makes a tolerable soil. Grey wacke slate of all kinds, consisting of small rounded particles, imbedded in a considerable quantity of clay mixed with lime, and generally alternating with strata of limestone, from one inch to one hundred feet thick, decomposes into a fine loam, favourable for vegetation. Limestone, wliich is found in large and extensive fields in the transition class, is likewise favourable to the formation of a good soil; but is subject to the inconvenience of forming caves, and allowing much of the water which falls on the sur- face, to filter through, and form little streams under the sur- face, wlucli deprives the soil of its necessary moisture. This ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 53 is sometimes prevented by the alternation of the grey wacke slate, which stops the circulation and throws the water out to the surface. Hence it is probable, that the alternation of the grey wacke slate with the limestone, will form a more produc- tive soil, than when the limestone is in great masses and ex- tensive fields. This class generally covers the primitive, and is often found on the flanks of steep mountains, of course liable to wash, and leave the rocks bare of soil; but when it is found in low and level situations, it decomposes into a mould easily wrought and favourable to vegetation. Being in the vicinity of mountainous and broken countries, the rivers run through it rapidly; it is therefore unfavourable to navigation. The water is tolerable, but not so pure as^ that of the primi- tive class, holding often a small quantity of lime or salt in so- lution ; but it is much purer than the limestone water of the secondary class, the limestone of which dissolves in water more easily and in much greater quantities. This class, placed between the primitive and secondary, partakes of the properties of both. It has the advantage of consisting of rocks formed by the aggregation of particles the result of former decompositions, like the secondary; and resembles a little the primitive in its situation and constant declination from the horizon. This regular dip or declination from the horizon, throws the edges of all the strata on the surface, which gives to the soil formed by their decomposition the benefit of a mixture, which horizontal strata cannot pro- duce; for example, a country composed of transition slate, limestone and sandstone, alternating in strata of from one foot to one hundred feet thick, in a state of decomposition, forms a soil, which consists of a mixture of the component parts of all the three species of rocks. This will most probably be superior for vegetation to any soil formed entirely of the de- composed particles of any one of the rocks, as would be the case, if they were in a horizontal position; it is therefore pro- bable, that the nature of the soil is more varied, and does not 54 ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. continue for any great distance exactly similar, as is found in the extent of barren sand, found both in the secondary and alluvial, owing perhaps to their horizontal position. SECONDARY, OR HORIZONTAL CLASS. This class has many properties favourable to the growth of vegetables. 1st. It is horizontal, or nearly so; forms large level plains; and drops down by plates or embankments, seldom or never precipitous, like the two last classes. 2dly. It consists of aggregations of particles, the result of former decompositions ; soft and easily reduced into mould. 3dly. It contains the remains of vegetable and animal mat- ter in abundance. 4thly. It has much limestone strata, and rocks containing a considerable proportion of lime. 5thly. It contains large beds of gypsum and salt. 6thly. Coals are principally found in this class, as well as many compound rocks containing carbon. 7thly. Being aggregates of minute rounded particles, not so compact as the transition, they have more interstices for the reception and retention of heat. 8thly. For the same reason, they absorb and retain mois- ture. The oldest red sandstone is one of the principal members of this class, and partakes a little of the properties of the transition, in having a much greater proportion of cement, consisting of fine clay mixed with the oxyd of iron, and forms a good soil ; the other sandstones, united by the infiltration of water with a small proportion of cement, decompose into sand, and form a dry barren soil. Limestone, alternating with a slaty clay mixed with carbon, forms an excellent loam and good soil. Limestone by itself, in large fields, is likewise favourable to a good soil, when it does not run into caves and under-ground drainings, which deprives the surface of its necessary moisture. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED 9TATES. 55 Chalk decomposes into good soil, when level; but is apt to wash, and leave only a thin soil, when in hills or steep de- clivities. Sand and salt are perhaps the least favourable to vegetation of all the substances of this class ; and when joined together in a warm climate, form barren deserts. Where the salt water runs under the sand, and is stopped by some stratum from going further, it has a constant tendency to mount to the surface, either by capillary or some other attraction. Ar- rived at the surface, the water is evaporated, and the salt left on the sand, frequently preventing all vegetation, and at best producing coarse and bad grass. Gypsum has as yet only been found in the United States in this class, though in time it is possible that great quantities will be found, as in Europe, in the transition. The properties of gypsum as a manure, are too well known to the farmers of the United States, by an extensive and pro- fitable application, to require any elucidation. Why so small a quantity, as a bushel to the acre, should produce such as- tonishing fertility, has been a matter of controversy. Some are of opinion that it acts as a stimulant, others that it attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, #jc. ; but I should be rather inclined to think, that it owes its fertilizing power to its solu- bility in water, the same quantity of water dissolving more of this rock than any other. Vegetables cannot absorb any substance, unless it be in a state of complete solution ; but the quantity of earthy matter found in vegetables is exceedingly small ; it woidd therefore follow, that should that small quantity of earthy matter be pre- sented to the mouths of the vegetable absorbents in a com- plete state of solution, they would take up as much as was necessary for the future developement of the plant, and would only require afterwards the free access of the fluids of heat and moisture, which contribute so much to vegetable growth and production. Now this quantity of earthy substances, is fur- nished by the small quantity of the powdered gypsum thrown over the plant, which dissolving by the first rain or even dew, 56 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. carries what is necessaiy to the mouths of the absorbents, and m tliis manner supplies the plant with all the earthy particles necessary for its future growth. There are two negative proofs in favour of tliis supposi- tion ; first, that gypsum when burnt, loses the greatest part of its fertilizing powers, and at the same time is deprived of its property of easy solution ; whereas limestone, when burnt, is of easy solution in water, and forms good manure, but in its natural state is not so easily dissolved in water, nor is it near- ly so good for vegetable production ; in both cases their uti- lity as a manure appears in the direct ratio of their solubility in water. The same theory is confirmed by the limestone land, being more favourable to the growth of vegetables, than soils pro- duced by the decomposition of siliceous clay rocks ; and per- haps for the same reason, that is, the solubility of limestone, which, though a better manure when burned, because more soluble in water than in its natural state, yet even in its state of limestone rock, it is more soluble in water than those rocks composed of siliceous or argillaceous earths. It may perhaps be found that artificial composts, used as manure, derive part of their fertilizing qualities from the salt and alkalies they contain, having the properties of facilitating the dissolution of the different earths, and reducing them to a state of liquidity, capable of being absorbed by the vegetable as food, and of course accelerating its future growth. The doctrine of stimulants may perhaps be applied to ve- getable as well as animal fife ; but even in animals their com- mon food is the principal stimulant they take, and it is pro- bable that stimulant without nourishment is only applied in a diseased state, and when often applied to a healthy subject, will create a state of disease that will require a continuance of their irritating effects. The supposition, that the gypsum acts as the healthy sti- mulant of the food of animals, both as a stimulant and nou- rishment to the vegetable, is perhaps carrying the analogy of ON THE GEOLOGY QF THE UNITED STATES. 57 animal and vegetable life as far as our present knowledge of the nature of both will admit. As all substances used as manure for land, are bulky, and cannot bear the expense of land carnage any distance, the ad- vantage of an easy river navigation is inappreciable to agricul- tural pursuits ; this advantage is one of the most valuable at- tached to the secondary class of rocks, which from their horizontal position and small elevation, permit the rivers to run slowly over deep and unobstructed beds nearly from their sources to the ocean; so that all the small ramifications of the inferior streams can transport limestone, coal, gypsum, £jc. to the door of every farm house, and carry away his sur- plus produce to market on easy terms. This horizontal position, by allowing only one of the strata to appear, is the cause of large tracts of country being cover- ed with the same kind of soil, the result of the decomposition of the same kind of rocks. Nothing but lowering or raising the level to the full thickness of the strata can change it; which is unfortunate where a sandstone is at the surface, de- composing into vast regions of sand; which, if it had been mixed with the strata of slaty clay, that might perhaps be found under it, would form good soil. This class of rocks falls or rises by plateaus, with large fields of table land, in ge- neral having a soil very different from each other, because they are formed from the decomposition of rocks of a very different nature. Springs of water are of very different qualities in this class of rocks, depending on the nature of the strata through which they filter. Those which pass through sandstone, have the best chance of being purest ; slaty clay, and all those argilla- ceous rocks that accompany coals, are often saturated with the neutral salts of copperas or alum, the result of the de- composition of pyrites which they often contain, or of com- mon salt. The limestone of this class is so easily dissolved in water, that the greatest part of the water that traverses the limestone of it, is fully impregnated with lime, and deranges materially the bowels of strangers for the first day or two 58 ON THE GE0L.0GY OF THE UNITED STATES. that they drink it. This is so frequent a quality attending the limestone in a horizontal position, or secondary limestone, that it may perhaps be considered as one of the characteristic properties, by which to distinguish it from the limestone of the primitive or transition class. ALLUVIAL CLASS. This class consists of every thing that is washed from all the other classes and deposited in beds, either from the waves of the sea, or of lakes, the currents of rivers, of winds, 8jc. It possesses the advantage of being nearly level, and not subject to wash. When deposed by the action of rapid running rivers, it is generally sand and gravel and poor soil ; but where slow run- ning rivers overflow their banks, they for the most part leave a rich vegetable mould, making a fertile soil. The sea most usually agitated, leaves sand or gravel on its shores, which is likewise the case with the great lakes ; this seldom forms a good soil. In tliis class we find the greatest quantity of marshy soil, rich in vegetable production, but difficult to drain, on account of its low and unhealthy situation. Marie is one the best depositions for making good soil, and is generally found in alluvial situations by the sediment of rivers that have run through limestone countries. The gra- vel deposited by rivers, which run through a limestone coun- try, decomposes into good soil, and may be called a limestone soil ; but the depositions of sand and gravel, from rivers ran- ning through primitive countries, partake of the qualities of primitive rocks, and form but a dry, light soil. Extensive plains of sand are often found in the alluvial formed by the sea; these frequently change place by the wind, and form a series of small hills, covering in many places large tracts of low country, which it renders barren and unfit for production. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. .59 Inland navigation in this class is extensive and commodious, the rivers running slowly and smoothly over deep beds, ren- ders them navigable to near their sources. The navigation from the Caspian sea to the Baltic, by the Wolga and the Ne- va, carries boats upwards of one hundred tons burthen, with only one canal of about a mile long to join the two rivers, there being only four feet difference of level between them ; all which long navigation, is through alluvial for the greatest part of the distance. That junction of the waters of the Black sea and the Baltic, by river navigation across Poland, is like- wise through an alluvial country. The internal navigation of alluvial countries is generally good; but where the alluvial forms a sea coast, the harbours and bays are difficult and dan- gerous, obstructed with sand banks and shoals. From the nature of the aggregation of alluvial materials, they generally consist of a considerable mixture of different substances, yet from its horizontality, it sometimes contains ex- tensive tracts, covered with soil of the same or similar depo- sitions, being the result of the same causes, such as the sand thrown up by the action of the waves of the sea, £)C. The alluvial of small vallies, situated in broken and moun- tainous countries, has a much better chance of being rich and fertile than of large vallies in level countries; because in propor- tion to the extent of the surface, they receive the washings of a much greater extent of soil, than those large vallies in level countries can possibly receive from surfaces whose horizon- tal position prevents their washing. It is from this cause, that the few small vallies, found in primitive countries, are so rich, and form so great a contrast with the soil of the mountains. TRAP CLASS. This class, though exceedingly limited in extent, generally lays over all the others, and occupies the tops of hills. 1st. It is of difficult decomposition, being hard and adhe- sive, but faffing easily into trappose pieces. 00 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 2d. It is capable of absorbing and retaining moisture, re- sembling in a small degree lava, being full of very small in- terstices. 3d. It is equally capable of absorbing and retaining heat. 4th. Being a partial and scattered class, it is mixed, and covers all the rocks of the Other classes, and of course, in the formation of soil, partakes of their quality. The basalt of this class decomposes slowly, but forms a good soil, where it does not wash. The wacke and porphy- ries decompose into strong clay soil, capable of retaining the manure put into it, and in low situations form a tolerable soil. Tuffa, and other loose aggregates of this class, partake of the nature of volcanic rocks when decomposed, and form ex- cellent soils. VOLCANIC CLASS. This is a partial, irregular, and variegated class, and has many properties highly favourable to vegetation in its decom-. posed state. 1st. From its origin it generally occupies elevated situations. 2d. It contains from one-twentieth to one-tenth of alkali, which favours its decomposition, and perhaps its dissolution. 3d. Though hard, and often chiystalline, yet it is in some places full of pores, and in general has innumerable small in- terstices, which both absorb and retain moisture. 4th. For the above reason it both absorbs and retains heat. Lava, when compact and approaching the vitrified slate, is exceedingly slow of decomposition ; but when decomposed in low places, it forms a rich soil ; the fuller it is of pores, the more easily it decomposes, and of course makes the soil deeper and more productive. All kinds of volcanic ashes, with all kinds of tuffas, form fine rich mould, and in a short time equal in thickness the bed of ashes or tuffa ; the fertility of such a soil is inexhaustible. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 61 From the foregoing investigation it may perhaps be con- cluded, as a general result, that the oftener rocks have under- gone decomposition and trituration into minute particles, the more fit they are to produce and support vegetables; and the more frequently they have been moved from one place to another, by the agents of decomposition, the more plain and level is the situation they are left in : after every change, this may be traced from the primitive through the transition and secondary to the alluvial ; the surface of the decomposi- tion, after such change, becoming less steep and precipitous, approaching nearer and nearer to a level, fit for the recep- tion and retention of all matter, both fluid and solid, capable of assisting vegetable growth.* To the above general result, the trap and volcanic, or what some would call the old and new volcanic formations, are ex- ceptions as to situation ; being thrown from an opening in the surface, the matter ejected must accumulate round the mouth of the crater and its vicinity; and the oftener it is remitted and ejected, the higher will most probably be the mountains it forms, and of course less tit for the production of soil and situation favourable to the growth of plants ; this is one of the striking contrasts between the Neptunian operations and the volcanic, that are daily going on under our eyes ; rains and rivers wash down the mountains into the plains, while fire heaps up the plains into high and precipitous mountains. Considering that the action of fire is but partial, and the action of water constant and general, the prospect into futu- rity is consoling and cheerful; that the earth is every day moulding down into a form more capable of producing and * In aid of nature's operations to reduce the particles of earth to a state more fit for vegetable production, •omes the industry and ingenuity of man, by digging, ploughing, harrowing, and manuring; they much accelerate the progress of ameliorating the earth's surface, and thus accomplish in a few years of labour judiciously applied, what nature would require many centu- ries to effect by operations of her general laws. The perfection of all the arts, therefore, only prepares the means of a more rapid and certain progress towards perfection, and who can fix the li- mits where it shall stop ? 62 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. increasing vegetable matter, the food of animals, and conse- quently progressing towards a state of amelioration and accu- mulation of those materials, of which the moderate and ra- tional enjoyment constitutes great part of our comfort and happiness. On the surface of such an extensive and perpe- tual progression, let us hope that mankind will not, nay can- not, remain stationary. On looking back to the probable past, without going so far as to interfere with any of the present general laws of nature, it may occur, that before all this alluvial, secondary or tran- sition had been rolled about, pounded up and mixed by the rains and rivers, united with the various operations of vege- table and animal production, the state of this earth most pro- bably was different, when the first lichen began to accelerate the progress of decomposition on the surface of the first rock. SECTION rv. The probable Effects, which the Decomposition of the various Classes of Rocks may have on the Nature and Fertility of the Soils of the different States of North America, in refe- rence to the accompanying geological Map. It may be necessary again to say, that these observations are only adapted to the earthy part of soils, and are not appli- cable to soils where the operations of nature in covering the surface with the decomposition of vegetable and animal mat- ter, or the industry of man in putting manure, has mixed the soil with a considerable quantity of vegetable mould. Such soils are productive so long as the vegetable mould remains. The earth formed by the decomposition of the rocks, or the rocks in their original state, are only accessory to the produc- tion of this mould, in proportion to their quality of producing ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 63 a more or less quantity of vegetables, and their property of retaining the vegetable mould a greater or less period of time. Over the extended surfaces which one class of rocks co- vers, some considerable exceptions to general rules must be expected; such as remains, or partial patches of a different class of rocks, overlaying the general stratification, and pro- ducing effects on the soil, conformable to the properties of the class they belong to. An example of this on a large scale is to be found in the Redlands, which crosses Virginia in the direction of the Green mountains, and penetrates considera- bly into North Carolina. These lands, though resting in many places upon a primitive formation, differ from the generality of primitive soils; they contain little or no sand, fall into im- palpable powder, and I believe hold a small portion of lime; if there should be an extensive mass of hornblende rocks in- timately mixed with pyrites, the decomposition of such a mix- ture might perhaps produce a similar soil, but such a circum- stance rarely happens. It is therefore more probable, that this extensive bed is the remains of a transition formation, part of which still runs near it and under it, from the Dela- ware to the Yadkin. Although at present this formation is by no means so broad and extensive as the red soil, yet it might formerly have been competent to produce an alluvial of that extent. The red soil, and this narrow bed of transi- tion, running in the same direction and always together, though the red soil covers a much greater surface at present, renders the supposition the most probable that it is the decomposition of a bed of transition limestone and grey wacke, that former- ly covered a much greater surface than it may now do ; or it may be perhaps a continuation of the red sandstone, which begins at Connecticut river, and finishes near the Rappahan- nock, with some few interruptions ; or it may be a bed of al- luvial, transported from a great distance by the movement of waters that have long since ceased to act. As the transition strata accompany it through its whole course, the most ra- tional conjecture is, that it is the decomposition of a transition bed formerly more extensive than at present. In this manner 6-4 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. many partial beds of a different class form patches over a ge- neral formation, producing soils that to a superficial observer might become a great exception to the general principle, though when accurately examined, only tend to confirm and support the general rule. By reference to the accompanying geological map it will be seen, that the four New England states consist mostly of the primitive class of rocks, except in two places ; the one from the boundary line between Vermont and Massachusetts, on the Connecticut river, south of Middletown, and from thence to New Haven, in breadth from fifteen to twenty-five miles, composed of the oldest red sandstone formation. The second exception is the greatest part of Rhode Island, and from thence to Boston, where about fifteen miles broad of the primitive is covered by the transition class or forma- tion, and from the remains of a few patches of transition to the east and north-east of Boston, with the beds of transition pebbles found on the primitive. In that direction it is more than probable that the transition has extended, at some former period, much farther to the north-east. To the west the New England states, including the district of Maine, are bounded by a range of high and rugged moun- tains, where the vallies are very narrow, and surrounded by steep and rocky banks. Many of those vallies are fertile, being the repositories of the washings of a great surface of mountain; but the sides of the lulls and mountains are bare, and retain little or no soil. Where the mica slate, clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone prevail, the soil will most probably be more adhesive, accumulate quicker, and form a thicker bed. Where granite., gneiss, quartz, and other sili- ceous rocks prevail, the soil will most probably be light and thin. From the mountains to the westward the country declines gradually to the sea coast, where there are but few hills; yet the surface is rugged and broken, obstructed in many places by large blocks of rocks, cliiefly granite, heaped on the sur- face of a soil, rather sandy and light, which is tolerable the ON THE GEOL.OGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 65 first four or five years after it is cleared of wood, but would require manure afterwards to make it productive. A proper proportion of heat and moisture is requisite for the production of all plants, but the grasses require more es- pecially moisture. It would appear that the New England states are best fitted for a grazing country, and moisture be- comes more necessary for such a country, than for a wheal or Indian corn country. The clearing away the woods, fa- vours the accumulation of heat in the earth, but decreases the quantity of vapour, that in passing would be condensed into rain. It would therefore seem to be prudent in such coun- tries, not to clear more land than is positively necessary, and on no account to cut down the trees that crown the tops of the hills and mountains ; for by baring their tops, the summer temperature will be so much increased, that the clouds will pass over them without condensing, and the effects which are produced in the islands of the West Indies, by cutting away the woods, will take place on this continent, though not in so great a degree. Between Rhode Island and Boston, the transition will most probably be covered with a soil rather fertile, where the grey wacke schist and limestone prevail ; and only tolerable, where the grey wacke with large pebbles is found, but on the whole, better than the upland of any primitive soil. The oldest red sandstone on the Connecticut river, when level, which it generally is, ought to produce a good soil where it is covered with ridges of greenstone trap ; but a gradually thin soil, where the irregular declivities and trappose division of the rock, prevents the accumulation of earth sufficiently quick to form a permanent soil. The sea coast, is, agreeably to the general character of the primitive class, little obstructed by banks or shoals, and the harbours are open, large and commodious, of easy access, with plenty of water, and safe ; but the internal navigation by the rivers is exceedingly bad, full of rocks and rapids, diffi- cult to remove ; while the hard and adhesive nature of the rock, is a great hindrance to the cutting of canals. 66 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. Where the oldest red sandstone occupies the banks of the Connecticut river, from the frontiers of Vermont to below Middletown, the navigation is tolerable, approaching a little to the advantages generally attending that class of rocks ; but further up the river, in Vermont or New Hampshire, where the river runs over primitive rocks, the falls and rapids are both greater, and occur more frequently. Vermont lays to the westward of the New England states, and occupies part of that range of mountains, running north and south in the direction of the stratification, nearly twenty to thirty miles from Lake Champlain, and parallel to it. Two classes of rocks occupy the whole state ; the transition which extends along Lake Champlain, and is about twenty-five miles broad, where the primitive begins, and continues till it joins the frontiers of New England. In the transition, the soil will most probably be good, where the land is level and composed of grey wacke schist and lime- stone; the siliceous members of the transition class occupy- ing in general the mountains, will most probably be thin and sandy, though in level places the soil may be tolerable, owing to the declination from the horizon mixing the alternating strata. The primitive, which forms the east side of the state, is principally composed of mica and clay slate, wluch may form a compact and strong soil in the valleys; the sides of the mountains will most probably be thin and light soil, not suffi- i ciently thick to produce much vegetation. Through the whole of tliis state, as well as the New Eng- land states, the range of the mountains runs from north to south, and of course all the vallies of any consequence follow the same direction ; open to the north and north-west winds, they are equally exposed to the south and south-west, taking immediately the temperature of those two contrary currents of air. Vallies thus situated, are subject to have a very hot summer and cold winter, and also to the great evil of a vacil- lating spring and autumn, where heat and cold alternate so quickly, as to injure materially all vegetables, but more parti. ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 67 cularly those of foreign origin, which is the case with most of the plants that are cultivated in the United States. To the south-west of the Hudson river this inequality of climate is moderated a little by the chain of mountains, as well as the principal vallies, running south-east,* and conse- quently in some measure sheltered from the sudden changes produced by the north and north-west winds in spring and fall. All circulation of heavy and cumbersome articles, such as are used for manure, is exceedingly difficult in the interior of this state, as the rivers are full of falls and rapids ; but Lake Champlain facilitates considerably the exportation of their sur- plus produce ; they also have the advantage of the tide navi- gation of the Hudson, for taking their produce to market. The state of New York consists partly of alluvial, and part- ly of primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, and enjoys a tide navigation on the Hudson river, which penetrates through the whole classes. * The same difference of climate is observable between Italy and Spain. In Italy the chain of the Apennines runs nearly north and south, leaving a free passage to the northerly winds to carry their temperature into all the great vallies ; but in Spain the Sierra Novada, and many of the ranges of mountains, like the Pyrenees, run from east to west, and protect all to the south of them, from the sudden variations of climate, which frequently oc- curs in Italy during the winter. Nice, for the same reason, is considered to have the mildest winter of any place in the south of France, being under shelter of the Alps, which run towards the east on the north side, and screen the town from the northerly winds. Tokay produces what is called the finest wines in Europe, and is only a degree south of Poland, where there is no spe- cies of wine ; it owes this to the chain of the Carpathian mountains, running east and west, and protecting Hungary from the rigour of the north winds. Even the polar climate of the great plain of Tartary, may perhaps be owing to the ranges of mountains running towards the Frozen ocean, while the great valleys, through which the rivers Obi, Lena, Tenisey, &c. run their long rapid courses, may serve as conductors of the temperature of the poles to their sources, and the same chains of mountains, which by running east and west, protect Indostan from the northern blast, may equally prevent Tartary and Siberia from enjoying the vivifying influence of the southern breezes. It is probable, that much of the climate of all countries depends on the currents of air and water, and their direction is perhaps regulated by the mountains on shore, and the banks, and other obstructions at sea, as well as by periodical winds. 68 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. Long island forms the alluvial part of the state, and has all the advantages of being a low level country, which is gene- rally attached to this class. The west end of this island is partly made up of the alluvial, washed down by the Hudson from a transition and secondary country, and may be consi- dered as forming a soil favourable to vegetable production, where the action of the waves has not washed away the light- est and most productive part of it. The east end of the island, formed principally by the allu- vial of the sea, joined to a proportion of alluvial furnished by rivers, such as the Connecticut, that run through the primi- tive, is most probably light and sandy, with extensive beds of gravel, too poor to produce a sufficient growth of trees or plants to enrich the soil; but enjoying the advantages of an even surface, not liable to wash ; and likewise the moderate and equal climate of a low island, surrounded by the sea ; hence it is capable of being made productive in pasture lands, like all the islands on this coast, which are favourable to the breeding of sheep bearing fine wool. York island, and the Higldands, as far as Newbury and Phi- Uptown, on Hudson river to the north, and the boundaries of Connecticut to the east, is primitive. From the town to the commencement of the Highlands we find principally gneiss and granite, and of course it inclines towards a gravelly and thin soil ; the Highlands as well as the primitive which skirts the Connecticut border, contains much clay and mica slate, and will most probably form a stronger soil in the vallies. That mass of country north of the Mohawk, bounded by Lake Champlain to the east, and the river St. Lawrence to the north, is likewise primitive ; and from all appearance is a rough mountainous country, with some vallies of tolerable soil; but the mountains are most probably thin and poor, subject to the northern winds, and the rigorous changes of climate, which are the natural consequences. From Philiptown on the Hudson, to near Lake Champlam, is a strip of transition from fifteen to twenty-five miles wide on the east side of the Hudson, and extending on the west ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 69 side perhaps further; though in many places west of the Hud- son, on the tops of mountains and rising grounds, it is cover- ed by secondary, forming a constant alternation between tran- sition and secondary, which would require much accurate examination to designate; we have therefore coloured the whole as transition, which we consider the foundation. This valley, divided by the Hudson, ought to have a good soil, where it is level, consisting principally of grey wacke slate and limestone ; but is subject to the inconvenience of the Vermont vallies, in being open to the north, and liable to sud- den and great changes in the temperature. The advantage of a tide navigation, running almost the whole length, is all important to the progress of agriculture, by transporting, at an easy expense, the bulky articles necessary to improve the soil. The secondary of this state, runs along the Mohawk to Lake Ontario, and follows the borders of the lakes to the frontiers of Pennsylvania, skirting the transition to the south-east ; it is generally tolerable soil, the alluvial of the rivers being com- posed of depositions from the decomposed secondary; is in most places rich and fertile, as on the Mohawk, Sjc. The al- luvial of the lakes, in many places washed by the movement of the waters, is but thin and inclined to be sandy. How far the alluvial of the lakes extends to tire south depends on how far the lakes themselves have covered those countries for- merly ; which is uncertain. This secondary makes rather a small exception to the ge- neral rule of that class, possessing the properties of easy and safe navigation in the interior, owing to its small rivers run- ning principally into Lake Ontario, which is so considerably below the general level of the country, that the streams are rapid and often obstructed by the falls. The communication with the sea, either by the lake and the St. Lawrence, or by the Mohawk and Hudson rivers, is but slightly obstructed with rapids and rocks. From the western part it is probable that the communication through French creek, the Ohio, and down 70 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Mississippi to the gulf of Mexico, is perhaps the most easy and convenient passage to the sea. A canal from Lake Erie to the Mohawk has been project- ed. So great a distance, across all the vallies made by all the streams, winch run into the Lake Ontario, would make it an expensive undertaking; so much so, that it is probable the whole surplus produce that would pass through it would not pay one per cent, on the sum expended, in making it. The quantity of surplus produce to feed the idle, or to export to foreign countries, depends on the quantity consumed by the farmers and labourers at home. In this country, where they eat animal food, and every thing of the best kind, three times a day, the surplus produced by three or four labourers is not equal to the surplus produced by one labourer in countries where they eat nothing but brown bread and potatoes ; where the labourers are slaves ; where consumption is restricted to a few quarts of corn a week. In such places, the surplus pro- duce destined to feed their masters and for exportation, is considerable. If all the produce made by the slave states, and exported by them, or through the medium of the other states, could be deducted from the whole exports of the United States, the balance exported by the free labour states. would be much smaller than most people are aware of. While the labourer lives so well, and consumes such a great proportion of the produce of his labour, those statesmen and others who judge of the capability of this community to pay taxes, and feed the unproductive classes, from what takes place in Europe, will be much mistaken. No produce can possibly supply more to the non-productive class, than the surplus that remains to the farmer, after furnishing every thing his habits make necessary to feed himself and family ; where those habits are like those of the labourers in most parts of Europe, they can furnish four times more surplus, out of the same produce, than the labourer can here with his present habits. Jersey consists of alluvial along the sea coast, which runs along the east bank of the Delaware from Cape May to Tren- ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 71 ton ; and from thence to Elizabethtown it is bounded by the red sandstone. It is of course partly formed by the sea and partly by the depositions of the Hudson and Delaware rivers, wliich touch two sides of it; the part of this alluvial, formed by the above mentioned rivers, consisting of depositions wash- ed off the transition and secondary formations, is most proba- bly good soil; but the part of it thrown up by the waves of the sea, will be thin and sandy. Considerable depositions of bog-iron ore, are found in this alluvial, which may perhaps be owing to the vicinity of the old red sandstone, the iron oxyd of its cement furnishing the materials. So, the bog-iron ore is more abundant in the allu- vial of Maryland and the Jerseys, where the red sandstone is found in the neighbourhood, than in other states to the south. The oldest red sandstone extends from the edge of the al- luvial to the foot of the primitive mountains, and from the Hudson to the Delaware. Where the country is level, and consists of the red sandstone only, the soil is good ; where it is covered with the greenstone trap, it is generally thin soil and stony. To the north-west the primitive range occupies the fron- tier of the state, diminishing in breadth as it progresses to the south-west, and finishes in a point south of Bethlehem. This primitive is rugged and steril, where the mountains are steep and precipitous, or where the quartz and siliceous rocks pre- dominate. The slates, hornblende, and primitive limestone, where level, form a tolerable soil; it is likewise rich in fine magnetic iron ore, which has been wrought to advantage; but is deprived, like the greatest part of primitive ranges, of river navigation; a great hindrance to the progress of agriculture as well as manufactories, from which disadvantage the secon- dary and alluvial of this state, is in some measure free. Pennsylvania consists principally of transition and secon- dary, having the smallest quantity of the primitive class of any state east of the mountains, and most probably the greatest quantity of good land, in proportion to its surface, of any of the Atlantic states. 72 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. From the south-east boundary, to about twenty or twenty- five miles north-west, is included all the primitive of the state, which is light and indifferent, where thegneiss, granite or ser- pentine prevails ; the limestone or hornblende rocks may form a tolerable soil, as the country, though broken, is not hilly, and has nothing that can be called a mountain. The rivers Susquehannah, Schuylkill, Delaware, or any other inferior streams, where alluvial is formed, being the depositions from transition and secondary formations, will most probably pro- duce a rich soil. An extensive transition formation succeeds to the primitive and occupies nearly seventy miles in breadth to the top of the dividing ridge, between the western and the eastern waters, which forms the summit of the Alleghany mountains. In this place the transition is wider than in any other part of our range of mountains, and is only interrupted for about twenty or thirty miles, between Norristown and Reading, by being covered by the oldest red sandstone formation. The soil, through the whole of this tract, when level, is to- lerably good; where formed by the alluvial of the rivers, it is generally rich and fertile, but the quartzy and siliceous ag- gregates, which most frequently occupy the mountains, de- compose into a light sandy soil, though the vallies between those mountains are rich and productive. The river navigation of the primitive and transition of tins state is, agreeable to the general character of those classes, very indifferent, obstructed by a great many rapids and falls, liable to the freshets of mountain torrents, breaking through narrow and rocky passages, with all the extremes and incon- venience of too much or too little water, to remove wliich would require much labour and expense, which perhaps could only be repaid by the transportation of some very bulky ar- ticles, such as coal, gypsum, or limestone. It is a query whe- ther an expensive canal navigation can be repaid by the mere transportation of the surplus produce of the soil, or even of manufactories, except bulky coal. Limestone, iron and ma- OH THE GEOtOtiY OP THE UNITED STATES. ,3 nures, it is probable, support the greatest part of the expense of canals, even in England. From the top of the Alleghany mountains to Lake Erie, is part of the great secondary formation of the basin of the Mis- sissippi, and extends from the frontier of the state of New York to the limits of Ohio and state of Virginia ; this secon- dary formation may incline to be sandy on the hills, where the sandstone prevails; but the valley and river alluvial is rich and fertile. It loses little of the vegetable mould by washing, owing to its general horizontal position ; and the ac- cumulation of such vegetable manure is in proportion to the time the trees have been growing on the soil. It is probable that the alluvial made by the washing of the lake, may be thin and sandy, as well as the part that may have been at no very distant period the bottom of the lake ; and for that reason the trees may not have been long enough on the surface to accu- mulate a bed of vegetable decomposition of any great thick- ness ; in that case, though the earthy part of the soil may be good, the natural manure, dropped from the trees, may be thin and soon worn away. Both coal and limestone have been found in great abun- dance on the west side of the Alleghany mountains ; the coal they use with advantage as manure ; the slaty clay, which al- ternates so often with the limestone in this formation, con- tains carbon, which augments its productive quality when de- composed into soil. Though nearly fifteen hundred miles from the sea, it en- joys a river navigation, without any siliceous obstructions, the whole distance ; as the secondary extends to the bay of Mexi- co, and affords all the advantages of deep and slow running rivers (which is generally the character of this class of rocks) facilitating every kind of internal navigation. From the ease with which they navigate the small creeks and streams, every farmer may have a landing place near his plantation, and receive at small expense the limestone, plais- ter, or coals, necessary to agriculture and the other arts. Even where a canal is necessary in this class, the level situation K 74 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. and nature of the rocks, makes the accomplishment of it easier than in most of the other classes. There is no ridge of mountains on this side Lake Erie that can shelter the country from the north and north-west winds ; it is therefore probable that this part of the great basin is ex- posed to the sudden and great changes of temperature, pro- duced by the rapid currents of air from north to south, or from south to north; it is equally in the nature of such a si- tuation for the changes to be more rapid and more severe, in proportion as the land is cleared of wood. Prudence might perhaps dictate the leaving strips of wood from east to west, on purpose to protect as much as possible the useful plants from the effects of the rapid changes in the spring and fall. The state of Pennsylvania is perhaps the best cultivated of all the states in the union; that is, more of the farmers have dropped the ancient practice of wearing out one field, and going to clear away the trees of another, without adopting any system of manuring by plaister, or rotation of crops, so as to keep the lands once cleared continually in heart. Most of the Pennsylvania farmers, like the farmers in Europe, make, their fields better and richer in proportion to the time they have been in culture ; it is therefore partly to art and industry, and partly to nature, that we are indebted for the prosperous state of agriculture in this commonwealth. Delaware, the smallest state of the union, consists almost entirely of alluvial ; the part formed by the depositions of the Delaware, will most probably be good soil, while that made by the washings of the sea will be light and sandy. That small strip of primitive, which touches the Pennsylvania frontier, being low and level, is more or less covered with alluvial, and is likely to be tolerable soil. The tide water of the Delaware, and small rivers and creeks in the alluvial, furnishes this state with good internal navi- gation. Almost surrounded by tide water, this state has access to the sea at all points, and enjoys, from its being placed between the Delaware, the sea, and the Chesapeak, almost the mild- ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 75 ness of an insular situation, not so subject to extremes of heat and cold. Maryland has a great deal of alluvial, some primitive and transition, and very little secondary. The Chesapeak is the large inland bay, formed most probably by the ocean throw- ing up a bank of sand and gravel on the eastern shore ,- on the inside of which the great rivers, that now run into the bay, have been constantly heaping their depositions, consisting of the washings of a great transition and secondary country, which descend with the waters of the Susquehannah and Po- tomac, and the sediment of the Rappahannock and James rivers, consisting of transition and primitive deposition. It is therefore probable, that the alluvial of both sides of the Chesapeak, protected by the neck of land on the eastern shore from the washing of the waves of the sea, will be good soil generally, and approach nearer to the quality of river bottoms, than any alluvial open to the movements of the sea, and liable to be washed by it. The situation in which we now find it, after so long a practice of so ruinous a system of culture, constant cropping, and no manure, is a strong proof of the original good quality of the soil. Such is the nature of the alluvial in Maryland, occupying all the state south-east of a line drawn from Havre de Grace on the Susquehannah, passing through Baltimore to Washing- ton on the Potomac. For navigation, both internal and exter- nal, the alluvial of Maryland enjoys all the advantages attached to that class of rocks, in an easy and safe access to the sea by the Potomac and Chesapeak bay, and a free circulation of craft in the interior by means of all the small rivers and creeks, through which the tide mounts to the foot of the gra- nite ridge, that is, to the entrance upon the primitive. This primitive begins at the line where the alluvial ends, and continues towards the north-west, from twenty to twenty- five miles ; the country rugged but level ; in some places thin and poor, in others tolerable, as it approaches the old red sandstone ; a band of which, eight or ten miles wide, lays upon the outer edge before we come upon the transition ; this 2 76 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. band of red sandstone makes good soil, where the sandstone prevails, but rather thin and light soil, where the greenstone trap covers it. The west part of the state is a strip along the banks of the Potomac, of transition, which is most probably good soil. So great a proportion of this state laying upon tide water, inter- sected by the Chesapeak, and so many bays and creeks, will probably diminish the rigour of the winter, and modify the ex- tremes of heat and cold in the spring and fall. Virginia contains all the classes of rocks, and like Pennsyl- vania stretches considerably into the secondary basin of the Mississippi. The alluvial occupies all that part of the state situated on the south east side of a line drawn from Wash- ington through Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Petersburg, to the Roanoke, having the sea for its south-east boundary. On the northern part it is good soil, like the alluvial of Maryland, but towards the south it is partly made up of the alluvial of the ocean, and partly of the deposits brought down by the Rap- pahannock and James rivers, collected principally from pri- mitive countries, mostly of sand and gravel; of course, the probability is, that the soil towards North Carolina will be sandy and thin. Both the internal and external navigation is excellent; for the tide flows up all the small rivers and creeks to the limits of the alluvial or commencement of the primitive ; and the vast influx and reflux of the tide into the Chesapeak, sweeps the channels between the capes so clear of banks, as to afford water of sufficient depth for any ship ; which is rather con- trary to the general effects produced on alluvial coasts. The primitive succeeds to the alluvial, and runs north-west to the Blue Ridge, which it keeps as a boundary to Magotty Gap; from thence it proceeds south-west, and passes to the eastward of the lead mines at Austinville, and from thence towards the warm springs in North Carolina. The vallies in this, like all other primitive, are narrow, but generally rich and fertile. The upland, as far west as the South or Green moun- tains, is rather level, but broken ; the soil thin and light near ON THE GE0L0OY OF THE UNITED STATES. . 77 to the Green mountains ; ranging in the same direction, is the red soil, which crosses the state, seldom extending twenty miles in width, or much less than six to seven miles broad; frequently irregular and in patches, and is perhaps the best upland soil, independent of river bottoms, that is in the Atlan- tic states. This bed of red soil follows a narrow stratum of grey wacke slate and transition limestone, and in many places it covers the primitive at some distance from the limestone, yet it is more than probable, that it is the remains of a transition for- mation, which may have formerly covered the primitive to a greater extent. Westward of the red soil, the soil is thin as long as the Blue Ridge is the boundary, to Magotty Gap; but after the ridge is primitive, to the south of Magotty Gap, there is a con- siderable extent of gravel, covering the foot of the ridge, call- ed the gravel ridges, which being composed of rolled quartz, apparently the remains of a great field of clay slate, mixed with a great quantity of transition sandstone pebbles, the soil is barren and thin, producing no growth of wood sufficient to manure it. Those gravel ridges continue along the foot of the primitive mountains, through both North Carolina and Georgia. The navigation is indifferent, though below the ridge, from the level situation of the country, boats run upon James river. On the limits of the primitive begins the transition, which continues west of the top of the Alleghany, near the Sulphur springs ; from thence south-west to the eastward of Abing- don, passing about twenty -two miles west of the Painted rock on the frontiers of North Carolina and Tennessee. This is rather a broken, mountainous country, with extensive vallies of limestone and slate, which produces good fertile soil, while the mountains, consisting principally of sandstone and quartzy aggregates, make a thin, poor soil ; the navigation being bad, owing to the want of water near the sources of the rivers, and the obstructions of falls and rapids hinders equally internal circulation and external communication with a market: re- 78 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. sembling in this, the whole country which occupies the di- viding range between the eastern and western waters ; that is, to be further from a market than those lands situated either east or west on a navigable river. Between the limits of the transition and the river Ohio, is the secondary of this state, which enjoys the soil and advan- tages of the secondary of Pennsylvania, except as to the rivers that water it. The Great Kanhawa and other streams rise in a mountainous transition country, and may probably carry down and deposit masses of gravel, formed by the quartzy aggregates and sandstone, which frequently occupies the high lands in transition countries; whereas all the rivers in the Pennsylvania secondary, rise and run their whole course in the secondary, and are therefore more likely to make depo- sits, that are richer and more adapted to vegetable pro- duction. North Carolina consists principally of alluvial and primi- tive, divided by a line running to the west of Halifax and the east of Raleigh, passing by Aversboro' and Rockingham. To the east of this line, extending to the sea, runs the alluvial formation. From the circumstance of tliis alluvial being made by the washing of the waves of the sea, or accumulated by the depositions from rivers which have run their whole course through a primitive country, the probability is, that it will in many places be sandy and thin soil. That part of the coast bordering on Pimlico and Albemarle sounds, being protected by the sand banks and bars from the washing of the waves of the sea, may deposit a tolerable al- luvial, approaching in quality to that of the Chesapeak ; if the same bars and banks did not obstruct the draining of the low lands that surround those inlets, and render them too watery for the purpose of agriculture : though from the heat of the climate it is probable, when united to a sufficient moisture, the accumulation of vegetable productions will be rapid. From this increasing heat, as we go south, a considerable increase of vegetable production must accumulate in the low lands, where there is moisture ; and on the contrary, where ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 79 there is sand and no moisture, the sterility must be augment- ed, which will have the effect of rendering the poor lands, that are dry, less productive, and the low lands that have moisture, more rich and fertile; producing a much greater contrast between the rich and the poor soils, than takes place in the northern latitudes. Internal navigation is good, and all kinds of manures and bulky articles can circulate through the creeks and rivers at small expense; but the communication with the sea is ob- structed by sand banks and bars, which makes the export of their surplus to foreign countries, difficult and expensive. From the limits of the alluvial to within ten miles of the frontiers of the Tennessee, all is primitive. For some dis- tance westward, it is rather level, and covered with a coat of alluvial, which in some places forms a tolerable soil; the country afterwards becomes broken, with much granite and gneiss, forming a thin soil to the foot of the mountains, where the gravel ridges begin ; being steril and unproductive. The mountains are high and rugged, rather bare of soil ; the val- ues, as in all primitive, narrow, but fertile. It is in this state, that the whole mass of mountains begins to be primitive, as in New England ; they are therefore more steep and rocky, and the vallies fewer and narrower; they constitute the di- viding ridge, and the rivers which run to the westward pass through a considerable extent of primitive country, as well as those which drain the water off to the eastward. Navigation, both internal and external, is bad; the rivers are incumbered with falls and rapids. The strip of transition of about ten miles broad, which touches the frontiers of Ten- nessee, is a rough, mountainous country, consisting of the quartzy aggregates in the high lands, and of course their soils ; but the vallies, though confined and narrow, are fertile and productive. South Carolina is entirely formed of alluvial and primitive, divided by a line, running by Columbia to Savannah ; the al- luvial extending east from that line to the sea. This alluvial m formed by the washing of the sea and by the sediment of 80 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. rivers, which have their sources and run the greatest part of their course through primitive ; it is therefore probable, that the dry part of the alluvial will incline to be sandy and light soil. The river bottoms and low situations, where there is water, will be rich and fertile, from the heat and moisture ac- cumulating so rapidly the vegetable matter. It is likewise probable, that the remains of the madrepore rocks, which are equal to powdered limestone, may be brought by the currents from the south, and mixed with the sand on the sea islands, by which the nature of the soil woidd be materially changed for the better. The quantity of coral and madrepore rocks, that are forming on both sides of the gidf stream, where it passes the coast of Florida, gives probability to this con- jecture. The bed of blue marl, with shells, which crosses this state and Georgia, and extends even through the Floridas, will be likely to form a soil equal to limestone land; it is deposited by the sea, most probably in places protected by sand banks from the washing of the waves, and approaching to the allu- vial made by the rivers. Though the. tide of the rivers ceases to flow twenty or thirty miles below the primitive, yet the navigation for craft is good to the edge of the primitive rocks, and the communi- cation with the sea is tolerable by the means of bar har- bours. The primitive in this state, as North Carolina, is flat for some distance from the edge of the alluvial, and covered with a coat of earth, apparently the decomposition of hornblende and slate rocks, which makes a good soil, and becomes more rugged and broken as you proceed towards the mountains, which are high and steep, composed principally of gneiss and granite, and forming a thin soil, disposed to be gravelly ; but the vallies or river bottoms, though narrow, are rich and fer- tile, diminishing in extent and number, as you proceed higher up the mountains, where the rapidity of the rivers gives little lime or still water to form the deposition of any other but heavy substances, such as rolled rocks or gravel. ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 81 The navigation in this, like the other primitive countries, is bad; the rivers, obstructed with falls and shoals, are too rapid and uncertain. That part of the primitive which touches the alluvial, or the eastern and lowest edge, becomes flatter and more inclined to decomposition, as you proceed south on this and the two bordering states, at the junction of the primitive and alluvial ; the former is decomposed to a considerable thickness below the surface, though covered with a considerable depth of allu- vial; and above the junction where the primitive rocks ap- pear in all the rivers and water courses, the surface is flat, and overlaid by a considerable mass of earth, for many miles to the westward. It is therefore probable, that heat facilitates the decomposition of primitive rocks more than water, and that the result of the decomposition, that is, the soil it makes, is more favourable to the production of vegetable matter, inas- much as it decomposes more rapidly, and is not so liable to be washed during the operation. Georgia, like South Carolina, consists almost entirely of al- luvial and primitive ; divided by a line running from Augusta by Milledgeville, Fort Hawkins, and the agency on Flint river, to the south. East of that line, to the sea and frontiers of Florida, the soil is alluvial, formed by the rivers and the sea. Some of the rivers, such as the Savannah, run through primi- tive country, and form sandy, light soil. The Altamaha holds the greatest part of its course through alluvial country, and will most probably form richer and more productive depo- sitions. The sea may form alluvial of a superior quality, by being mixed with the broken remains of the madrepore rocks in the vicinity ; it is even probable, that the islands on the coast may have madrepore and coral rocks for their foundation, which in warm climates decomposes rapidly into very good soil. Wherever there is the command of water in this elimate, vegetable matter will accumulate, which makes all the low lands on the rivers rich and fertile, though the dry land may be poor and sandy. It is however probable, that the alluvial 82 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. above tide water, being level and not much washed, may be tolerable good soil. River navigation is good, and boats run up to the edge of the primitive, and coasters to the head of tide water, which is, in some of the rivers, nearly fifty miles below the primitive ridge ; the communication with the sea by bar harbours is not difficult. To the north, a little westerly of the limits of the alluvial, is the primitive formation, level, and covered with earth of tolerable quality; for some distance towards the mountains, this plateau of level country, decreases in width the further you go west, finishing in a rough, broken country. To the north it consists principally of gneiss and granite ; as you ap- proach the mountains, which are high, the soil is rather thin and poor, but the vallies between them are rich and fertile, though narrow. A small angle of this state crosses the mountains, and touches at a point the river Tennessee ; this is in part transi- tion, and the rest secondary, which corresponds in quality with the same classes of rocks in North Carolina, and the state of Tennessee. The part of this state, which lays upon the declivity of the Alleghany mountains, sheltered to the south from the norther- ly winds, and open to the mild temperature of the south and south-west breezes, ought to be, and indeed is, one of the most moderate climates of the United States ; in a great measure free from the sudden and violent changes of heat and cold, produced by the free circulation of those two opposite cur- rents of air from the north and south, bringing along with them the temperature of the opposite climates, from whence they come. It may likewise be considered as a climate more congenial to the growth of plants from the south of Europe, such as the vine and the olive, than any situation north of it in the United States. From the circumstance of the range of mountains approach- ing nearer and parallel to the sea, the rivers are shorter, and run their whole course in nearly the same latitude, which ren- ders the floods less dangerous and more under the command ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 83 of dykes and barriers, than they are in the western country, where the whole basin of the Mississippi is drained by one river, and the melting of the snows in the north inundates and ravages the plains in the south, with a force and weight of water, difficult to be controlled by the limited exertions of man, and perhaps not to be accomplished by a thin and scat- tered population. The foregoing short description includes the whole Atlan- tic states ; that is, all the states which consist of a variety of all the different classes of rocks in a geological point of view; the application of the properties whereof to agriculture, in modifying the nature and fertility of soils, is rather mixed and complicated. The rest of the United States, round by the lakes, and we have reason to believe, even as far west as the foot of the Stony mountains, consist of two classes of rocks, the secondary, and the alluvial made up of the washings of the secondary ; these two classes possess properties the most favourable to the production of vegetables, first, in situation; tending always towards the level and even surface, and se- condly, in component parts ; being made up of particles ground and worn by repeated friction into minute powder, mixed and triturated so as to produce earths and soils best calculated for the growth of plants. In this vast extent of country therefore, the different nature and fertility of soils does not depend as much on any differ- ence in the quality of the rocks whereof the soils are formed in a geological point of view, for they are nearly the same, but chiefly on the difference of climate, and relative situations as to height, the regular or irregular supply of heat and mois- ture depending on the constancy or uncertainty of the agents that furnish them, including the various effects produced by the freshets and inundations of the rivers, with the nature of the rocks at their sources, and through which they may have run for some distance. The division, called the Mississippi territory, extends from the confines of Georgia to the limits of Louisiana and the river Mississippi; and from north to south from the frontiers of Ten- ia 84 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. nessee to Florida, and the gulf of Mexico. This division is composed of secondary, and the alluvial made up of the de- composition of secondary rocks; both classes of rocks con- tain the materials necessary to the formation of good loam, and will most probably make good soils. That part of this district, which lays on the declivity of the hills towards the south, protected from the north wind and open to the south, will most probably enjoy an equal and mo- derate climate ; and like the part of Georgia in a similar si- tuation, it will be favourable to the production of the vine and the olive. Where it touches the river Mississippi, it will par- take of the river alluvial, and the inconveniences of its floods and marshes ; and that part bordering on Tennessee, will most probably be similar in soil, produce and climate, to the coast of the great basin which it joins. Bounded on the west, north, and east side by navigable rivers, and drained by three other rivers that communicate immediately with the gulf of Mexico, this district ought to en- joy a good navigation, both internal and external, wliile it is in some measure free from the inundations and uncertainty of the rivers of long course; those rivers which have run through it, are of a size capable of being controlled by the industry of man, and at no season subject to the inconvenience of great periodical floods, or the obstruction of ice towards their sources, which is more or less the case with those rivers that rise in northern latitudes. From the gradual declivity of the ground, and from the rivers which run through the country, rising in a rather ele- vated situation at no great distance, the springs of water will most probably be abundant, and the water tolerable ; the east part of the territory, with the western part of the state of Georgia, are the only body of lands in the United States, which lays on a southern coast, open to the influence of the southern breezes, and sheltered from the sudden changes which ac- company the northerly winds on this continent. It may there- fore be reasonably inferred, that the climate is one of the most moderate in the United States, or at least that part which has ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 85 been as yet settled; and that the range of the thermometer is not so extensive, nor the extremes of heat and cold so great as in those places exposed to the influence of the north- erly winds. It is equally probable, that the portion immediately south of the highest part of the termination of the Alleghany mountains will be the best protected from the influence of the north wind, and of course the most temperate climate, though the soil may be less productive from its proximity to the primitive. The head waters of the Tennessee river, rising in a moun- tainous country, consisting of primitive and transition rocks, and running a considerable distance through them, will be apt to bring down considerable quantities of sand and gravel, composed of quartz, and sandstone of transition pebbles ; of course, the state of Tennessee may contain a greater quantity of gravel ridges or sand beds, than the other states in this great basin ; but the state of Kentucky, made up of the allu- vial that descends the Ohio, collected from a coal, grey wacke, and limestone country, will most probably be rich and fer- tile ; the same causes will produce the same effects, with a little allowance for difference of climate, in the states of Oliio, Indiana, and Illinois. The Michigan and North Western ter- ritory, being still further north, and having more of their allu- vial originating from the washing of the lakes, will require still a greater deduction from their fertility and productive- ness. The whole basin consists of secondary, or alluvial re- sulting from secondary decompositions ; and therefore has the best chance of a good natural soil, wlule its level situation, not liable to be washed, insures it all the benefits of an accu- mulation of vegetable mould, from the fall of the leaves, de- cayed grass, and other vegetable decompositions. There are a great many detached masses of granite and sienite, scattered over the surface of that part of the basin, which lays to the north of the Ohio river, but runs to the south ; from which it is probable, that they have come from the north, perhaps from the primitive mountains, north of the great lakes : if so, the movement of waters must have been 86 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. at some former periods different from what they are now; and those waters (in place of depositing the decomposition of secondary, as all the rivers rising near the lakes do now) most probably brought with them, along with those masses of primitive rocks, the remains of primitive mountains, and may have left more sand and gravel on the northern parts than is to be found in the south. West of the Mississippi, the whole passes under the name of the Missouri territory, and near the sea it is called Loui- siana. The whole of this territory, to near the foot of the Stony mountains, appears to be secondary; but what is die nature of the Stony mountains, or how much of the alluvial brought down from them by the large rivers (which have been the principal agents in filling up the west side of the basin) may be the washings of primitive mountains, is uncer- tain. The tops of the Stony mountains are covered to a con- siderable extent with perpetual snows and pendent glaciers ; a proof that they are vastly higher than the Alleghany moun- tains ; of course, the numberless streams and torrents, which descend their flanks, roll with much more violence and rapi- dity a far greater quantity of water from the melting of the snows, than can be expected to descend from mountains of the height of the Alleghany. It is therefore reasonable to sup- pose, that they will deposit at the foot of the Stony moun- tains, and for some considerable distance, a much greater quantity of sand and gravel than the streams from the west side of the Alleghany. This sand and gravel, when dried up by a southern sun, may form extensive basins, deprived of water; they will be- come deserts, while the banks of rivers or moist places may make tolerable soil. These causes may render the soil of the western part of this extensive basin unequal, and vibrating between very poor and tolerably rich. Rivers, which rise on the mountains and run over such a vast extent of country, carrying all their waters and deposits towards one common centre, and all joining the sea by one common outlet, are generally liable to periodical inundations, ON THE GEOLOGY OP THE UNITED STATES. 87 and bring down with them a great body of water accompanied with a great deal of sediment or alluvial. This alluvial is ge- nerally first deposited on the bed and banks of those rivers, raising them very much above the level of the surrounding country, and giving the rivers the appearance of running upon a ridge, which is the cause why the surrounding country is liable to be flooded to a great distance by the first inundation ; the draining of which, after the rivers subside, is very much impeded by the circumstance of the bed and banks of the rivers being on a higher level, and preventing the water from running off, forming large lakes and marshes, until the heat dries them up, to experience again the same drowning as at the first periodical inundation. When the weight of waters that roll down in such rivers is so great as to be out of the con- troul of the labour of man, it is attended with great inconve- nience and uncertainty to the farmer, and by rendering pro- perty precarious, becomes one of the greatest hindrances that can be put in the way of improvement; but this is fortunately limited in the basin of the Mississippi, to the lower part of the largest rivers, and even they, like the Nile, may perhaps be brought hereafter under the controul of persevering industry. Though this basin is highest on the west, north, and east side, and declines gradually to the south side of the great northern lakes, there is no range of mountains or any basin sufficiently elevated, tu protect it against the northerly winds, which range through the whole without obstruction, and carry with them the sudden changes of temperature, common to the north winds on this continent. It is not improbable, that the frequency of those north winds may be limited by the south wind being forced up the basin by the constant effects of the trade wind, filling the bay of Mexico, and the range of moun- tains at the bottom of the bay turning the current to the north; still, there is a change of the opposite winds, and a sudden transition from cold to heat. This transition of temperature may certainly become every day less injurious, both to men and vegetables, in proportion as they become habituated to the climate, and acquire new 88 ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. habits better fitted for their situation; for it is probable, that we have not been struggling long enough with the inequali- ties of the climate, to have lost our European habits ; which being forced on us by an order of things quite different, does not suit this country. Most of the vegetables, fruit, Sjc. which we cultivate, have likewise their European habits, which they have not yet had time enough to change. On examining both the geographical and geological maps of the United States, it will appear, that they are divided into two distinct and separate parts, differing materially from each other in their relative situation and means of communication with the rest of the globe, as well as in their interior circula- tion and communication within their own territory. The na- tional line of separation between those two great territories, is that range of mountains, called the Alleghany ; which from the poorness of the soil, and the difficulty of getting to market, will most probably be the last part of the continent thickly inhabited. On the west side of tliis ridge is the vast basin of the Mis- sissippi; geologically composed of similar substances, enjoy- ing the advantage of all climates from the 29th to the 45th degree of latitude, having the command of the tropical pro- ductions as well as those of the north, circulated through its most distant extremities by the immense ramifications of one great navigable river, communicating with the ocean only at one point; navigable with some danger and difficulty by mer- chant ships, but inaccessible to large ships of war. On the Atlantic side of the ridge, they enjoy nearly the same variety of climate and production ; but for the medium of communication, from north to south, they depend on the sea, which is accessible at all points, both to merchant ships and ships of war. The inhabitant west of the mountains is forced by situation to consider the internal navigation as the cause of his riches, independence and happiness; but having only one leading sea port, the foreign commerce will most propably be consi- dered of secondary moment, and be given up to those who ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. 89 can do it cheapest. At the same time, confident of his strength, and having only one point to defend, it is difficult for his rulers to persuade him of the necessity either for a fleet or an army ; so that both his situation and interest force him to be at peace with all the world. It is not the same with the inhabitant on the shore of the Atlantic. Placed on an extensive coast, accessible at all points to the depredations of a superior fleet, he is easily persuaded by his rulers to keep up a fleet and an army to protect commerce, £50. tending doubtless to involve us in all the wars of Europe, at the enormous expense it must always cost a government such as this. Taxes follow in propor- tion. The inhabitants of the west pay their proportion of these taxes without the same feeling or interest. The breach widens by the natural gravitation of interest arising out of si- tuation; and nothing can long keep them together but the utmost prudence and economy in the federal rulers, by avoid- ing war and every cause of expense. On this earth, or in the page of history, it is probable no place can be found of the same extent, so well calculated to perpetuate a free and equal representative government, as the basin of the Mississippi, both from its physical advan- tages and the political constitutions on which the state of society is bottomed. By enjoying the different productions of a variety of cli- mates through a rapid and easy circulation to the extremi- ties of the country, by means of rivers, secured against the depredations of any foreign enemy, they set out with advan- tages, which thousands of years of labour have not been able to obtain for other nations. That territory, being inclosed within a chain of mountains, or lakes, together with the comparative weakness of their neighbours, guarantees the inhabitants against the least ap- prehension of invasion, while their having only one bad har- bour, unfit for ships of war, takes away the ability of invading by sea the property of others — removes in a great measure the temptation of war — and deprives the rulers even of an M yO ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. excuse of keeping either a fleet or army establishment, which hitherto have always produced the ruin of free and equal re- presentative governments. Bottomed on a free and equal representation of men, they will most probably be governed by the majority; not tike the greatest part of the Atlantic states, which are founded on a representation of property, and liable to be governed by the few or the minority. Monopoly of property ensures monopoly of power, and the means of perpetuating it, as is proven by the experience of all other nations. They will most probably be divided into twenty or thirty free and in- dependent representative governments, which will guarantee them against any sudden usurpation. But as all the nations in the old world who possessed any share of equal represen- tation, have been deprived of it by the intrigues of their rulers, experience forbids the placing great confidence in the continuance of equal representation, even on this favourite spot, though we may be allowed to indulge in the hope, that it will long be governed by the positive majority, and remain a place of refuge to oppressed humanity. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. [on the geologt of the v. states.] This Plate contains five sections of the United States, from the sea shore to the great secondary basin of the Mississippi, with the comparative ele- vation of the range of mountains called in general the Alleghany. The scale of height on the margin is divided into ten parts; the first five is two hundred feet each, to give some apparent height to the small hills and low country; the upper half of the scale is equally divided into five, and is one thousand feet, each division; making the whole scale six thousand feet. It is not meant that the highest part of the ridge shall be found exactly where the line passes, but that the highest part id' the ridge in the vicinity of that line, shall most probably be found of the height marked by the scale in the section. The colours correspond with those on the map; that is, the Siena for the rock, red for the transition, the blue for the secondary, and the yellow for the alluvial, &c. The Catskill mountains are here represented as transition, though in many places west of the Hudson the transition is found only on the lower yO ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES. excuse of keeping either a fleet or army establishment, which hitherto have always produced the ruin of free and equal re- presentative governments. Bottomed on a free and equal representation of men, they will most probably be governed by the majority ; not like the greatest part of the Atlantic states, which are founded on a representation of property, and liable to be governed by the few or the minority. Monopoly of property ensures monopoly of power, and the means of perpetuating it, as is proven by the experience of all other nations. They will most probably be divided into twenty or thirty free and in- dependent representative governments, which will guarantee them against any sudden usurpation. But as all the nations in the old world who possessed any share of equal represen- tation, have been deprived of it by the intrigues of their rulers, experience forbids the placing great confidence in the continuance of equal representation, even on this favourite spot, though we may be allowed to indulge in the hope, that it will long be governed by the positive majority, and remain a place of refuge to oppressed humanity. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. [on the geology or the r. states.] This Plate contains five sections of the United States, from the sea shore to the great secondary basin of the Mississippi, with the comparative ele- vation of the range of mountains called in general the Alleghany. The scale of height on the margin is divided into ten parts; the first five is two hundred feet each, to give some apparent height to the small hills and low country; the upper half of the scale is equally divided into five, and is one thousand feet, each division; making the whole scale six thousand feet. It is not meant that the highest part of the ridge shall he found exactly where the line passes, hut that the highest part of the ridge in the vicinity of that line, shall must probably be found of the height marked by the scale in the section. The colours correspond with those on the map; that is, the Siena for the rock, red for the transition, the blue for the secondary, and the yellow for the alluvial, &r. The Catskill mountains are here represented as transition, though in many places west of the Hudson the transition is found only on the lower No. II. Astronomical Observations, &c. communicated by Andrew Ellicott, Esq. — Read Nov. lQth, 1810. Lancaster, Nov. 14th, 1810. I BELIEVE none of the following observations have as yet been communicated to the Philosophical Society. Observations on the Eclipse of the Moon, Jan. Uh, 1806. The beginning of the eclipse could not be observed, the Moon being covered by clouds. The end was observed as follows: Moon's limb visible through the penumbra at 8h 15' 0"7 . Moon's limb clear of the penumbra at - 8 17 12 j Apparent time. Observatio?is on the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites. 1806 July 5th Emersion of the 3d Satellite observed at 7h 53' 17'"1 Do. do. 2d do. 10 44 7 Aug. 5th do. 1st do. 11 21 15 6th do. 2d do. 10 20 18 VMean time, 21st do. 1st do. 9 40 42 Sept. 6th do. 1st do. 8 0 44 13th do. 1st do. 9 56 21 J 1807 July 31st at 9h 53' 18" the 2d Satellite of Jupiter was observed emerging from behind the body of the planet, but was not completely emerged till 9h 57' 37". Jupiter was so near the opposition, that neither the im- mersion into, nor emersion out of, the shadow could be observed. Sept. 15th Immersion of the 3d Satellite observed at 8h 33' 13"^ Emersion do. do. 12 7 12 Oct. 11th do. 1st do. 7 48 59 VMean time. 1810 Oct. 30th Immersion 2d do. 10 57 22 f Nov. 6th do. 1st do. 8 40 16 J 94 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 8jC. Observations made at Lancaster on the Comet of 1807. The first sight I had of this Comet, was on the evening of the 22d of September; but being severely indisposed, I was not able to make any observations on it till the 5th of October. The observations were all made with a small sextant of six inches radius, graduated by Ramsden, and are communicated more as a curiosity, to show what degree of confidence may be placed in an instrument of that size and construction, than from their positive accuracy and utility. rA.R. of the Comet - 228° 10' 26" October 5th— 6h 55', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - . 83 22 31 Comet from Arcturus, and a. Lyrx. \ Long. - 7s 13 42 8 LLat. N. - . 23 36 40 /-A. R. of the Comet - 229° 11' 14" October 6th— 6h 42', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 82 26 47 Comet from Arcturus, and a. Lyric. J Long.' - 7s 14 27 51 LLat. N. 24 47 26 r A. R. of the Comet - 230° 11' 33" October 7th— 6h 39', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 81 30 57 Comet from Arcturus, and « Lyrx. J Long. ■ 7s 15 13 36 LLat. N. - 25 57 59 of the Comet - 231° 14' 25" October 8th— 6h 49', by the distance of the 1 N. polar dist. • 80 37 42 Comet from Arcturus, and a. Lyrx. 1 Long. - 7s 16 3 27 r\. R- of t : J N. polar i J Long. LLat. N. j-A.R. ol J N. polai 1 Long. LLat. N. 27 6 -A. R. of the Comet - 233° 17' 29" October 10th— 6h 44', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 78 52 39 Comet from Arcturus, and t Lyrx. J Long. - 7s 17 42 34 29 21 1 f A. R. of the Comet - 234° 17' 15' October 11th— 6h 51', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 77 58 38 Comet from Arcturus, and a. Lyrx. j Long. - 7s 18 30 41 LLat. N. - 30 29 6 /-A. R. of the Comet - 236° 16' 22" October 13th— 6h 38', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 76 17 54 Comet from Arcturus, and a Lyrx. J Long. - 7s 20 10 35 L Lat. N. - 32 36 54 r A. R. of the Comet - 237° 16' 44" October 14th— 6h 29', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 75 30 15 Comet from Arcturus, and a Lyrx. J Long. - 7s 21 3 16 LLat.N. - 33 38 9 ASTRONOMICAL, OBSERVATIONS, fyc. 95 rX R. of distance of the J N polar Coro. Borealis. 1 Long. L Lat. N. . of the Comet - 237° 17' 24" Same day, at 6h 42', by the distance of the J N polar dist. - 75 30 22 Comet from a Lyre, and a Coro. Borealis. ] Long. - 7s 21 4 1 33 38 12 The above two observations, being on different stars, agree as nearly as could reasonably be expected, considering the size of the sextant. -A. R. of the Comet - 247° 2' 35" October 24th — 6h 41', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 67 53 30 Comet from a Lyrx, and a Coro. Borealis. J Long. - 8s 0 6 45 43 31 0 »-A. it. oi me ui e of the J N. polar dist. \realis. J Long. I Lat. N. r A.R. of t of the J N. polar < ealis. J Long. I Lat. N. r\. R o! : J N. polai 1 Long. I Lat. N. -A.R. of the Comet - 248° 56' 31" October 26th— 6h 37', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 66 35 32 Comet from a Lyrx, and a Coro. Borealis. J Long. - 8s 2 16 34 44 52 43 -A. R of the Comet - 253° 59/ 9" October 31st— 7h 2', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 63 20 49 Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. J Long. - 8s 7 58 23 48 53 47 This observation is marked " doubtful " in my journal. 7"| - A. R. of the Comet - 254° 57' ' 47" November 1st — 6h 28', by the distance of the ) N polar dist. - 62 42 32 Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. J Long. - 8s 9 7 49 49 40 16 /-A. K. 01 :of the J N polai 1 Long. LLat. N. ck. R. & -6h 33', by the distance of the J N. pola t Lyra, and a Aquilx. \ Long. I Lat. N. rA. R. of the Comet - 261° 6' 26" November 7th— 6h 33', by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 59 11 22 Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. \ Long. - 8s 16 59 9 53 52 12 of J I R of the Comet - 267° 25' 58" November 13th— 6h 23', by the distance of J N. polar dist - 56 2 59 the Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilt. J Long. ■ 8s 26 2 44 lLat.N. . 57 24 0 r A. R. of the Comet - 272° 54' 38" November 18th — 6h 15', by the distance of J N. polar dist. - 53 42 49 the Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. J Long. . 9s 4 38 52 LLat.N. - 59 37 51 rA.R. of the Comet - 273° 57' 1" November 19th— 6h 3', by the distance of J N. polar dist. - 53 17 29 the Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. 1 Long. - 9s 6 20 36 LLat.N. - 60 0 38 r A. R. of the Comet - 276° 10' 37" November 21st— 6h 28', by the distance of J N. polar dist- - 52 26 52 the Comet from a Lyrx, and a Aquilx. \ Long. - 9s 10 4 11 I Lat. N - 60 47 54 96 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, £$C. r\ R. o 'J N. polai 1 Loup. I Lat N. -A. R. of the Comet - 276° 9' 41" Same day, and same time, by the distance of J N. polar dist. - 52 26 6 the Comet from a. Lyra, and a Cygni. J Long. - 9s 10 3 47 60 48 44 /-A. R. of the Comet - 276° 10' 22" Same day, and same time, by the distance of J V polar dist. - 52 27 0 tile Cumet from * Aquilte, and a Cygni. J Long. - 9s 10 3 45 LLat.N. - 60 47 47 These three observations of the 21st of November, made on different stars, are reduced to the same time : the distances were all taken between 6h 18' and 6h 36': the greatest differ- ence is in the latitude, which amounts to but 57". r A. R. of the Comet - 277° 16' 58' November 22d— 6h 15', by the distance of J N. polar dist. - 52 4 0 the Comet from a Lyra, and a Cygni. 1 Long1. - 9s 11 56 51 LLat. N. - 61 5 34 .-A. R. of the Comet - 277*16' 40" Same day, same time, by the distance of the \ N. polar dist. - 52 3 34 Comet from a Lyra, and a. Aquila. ] Long-. - 9s 1 1 55 51 61 6 3 /-A. R. o : J N. pola ] L°nfT- I Lat. N. /-A. R ot tne uc ice of the J N. polar dist. i. J Long. LLat.N. -A. R of the Comet - 277° 16' 32" Same day, same time, by the distance of the ] N. polar dist. - 52 3 12 Comet from a. Aquila, and * Cygni. J Long. - 9s 11 55 42 61 6 20 These three observations of the 22d, on different stars, are reduced to the same time, as in the foregoing case: the dis- tances were all taken between 6h l' and 6h 29': the greatest difference is in the longitude, which amounts to 1' 9". November 24th — 61i 11', by the distance of the Comet from a Lyra, and a Aquila. Same day, same time, by the distance of the Comet from & Lyra, and a Cygni. Same day, same time, hy the distance of the Comet from a Cygni, and a. Aquila. These three observations on different stars, are reduced to the same time, as in the preceding cases : the distances were A. R. of the Comet 279° 30' 6" N polar dist. 51 16 48 Long. 9s 15 44 58 Lat. N. 61 39 47 A. R. of the Comet 279° 30' 0V N. polar dist. 51 15 57 Long. 9s 15 44 44 Lat. N. 61 40 37 A. R. of the Comet 279° 30' 24" N. polar dist. 51 16 38 Lone;. 9s 15 45 12 Lat.'N. 61 39 55 ASTRONOMICAL, OBSERVATIONS, SjC. 97 all taken between 5h 58' and 6h 24': the greatest difference is in the N. polar dist. which is but 51". r A. R. of the Comet - 286° 23' 27" November 30th— 6h 44', by the distance of J N. polar dist. - 49 9 10 the Comet from * Jquilx, and a. Cygni. J Long. - 9s 27 46 27 LLat. N. - 62 44 10 f-A. R of the Comet - 286° 22' 31" Same day, same time, by the distance of the J N. polar dist. - 49 9 24 Comet from ng. - 9s 27 45 48 iLat. N. - 62 44 7 The greatest difference between these two observations of the 30th, is in the right ascensions, and amounts to 56 ". -A. R. of the Comet - 289° 48' 16" December 3d — OU IT. by the distance of the J N polar dist. - 48 12 15 Comet from * Aquilx, and « Cygni. \ Long. - 10s 3 44 46 62 57 16 »- A. K. ot the J N polar di: 1 Long-. LLat. N. r A. R o : J N. pola 1 Long. LLat.'N. R of the Comet - 289° 47' 46" Same day, same time, by the distance of the J N. polar dist. • 48 12 16 Comet from « Lyrx, and « Aquilx, J Long. - 10s 3 43 58 62 57 58 The greatest difference between the results of the observa- tions of this day, on different stars, is in the longitudes, and amounts to 48". The observations on the comet were continued till the evening of the 10th of December; but the meeting of the le- gislature about that time occasioned so much hurry in the public offices, that the last observations, which were entered on loose papers, were mislaid, and probably lost, for want of time to record them. Without feeling much partiality in favour of my own obser- vations, I am induced to believe the foregoing may generally be depended upon, as coming within one minute of the truth ; which is as near as could be reasonably expected from the size of the instrument I was under the necessity of using. Various opinions have been suggested respecting the tails of comets ; some of them are too absurd to merit attention, and others, though not reasonable, it might be difficult to re- N 98 ASTRONOMICAL. OBSERVATIONS, t$C. fute for want of the necessary data. It is a subject on which we are confined to conjecture ; but were I to venture an opi- nion, it would be, that comets are surrounded by a very rare, and luminous atmosphere, and that the tails are produced by the progressive motion of the fight, emitted from the sun, propelling this luminous and rare atmosphere, (if it may be so called,) in a direction nearly opposite to the sun. When the comet is very distant from the sun, the effect of his light becomes less, and the attraction of the nucleus diminishes the length of the tail, which probably disappears entirely in the higher parts of the orbit, when the nucleus will be equally surrounded by this luminous and rare matter, as our earth is by its atmosphere ; the higher and more rare parts of which I suspect are affected in the same manner, though in an infi- nitely less .degree. Again, if the comets depended wholly on the sun for light, the nucleus of some of them, from their situation with respect to the sun and earth, ought to have ap- peared almost dichotomized ; which I believe has never been observed. The nucleus of the comet of 1807, in the whole progress of my observations, appeared perfecdy round. Note. — All the calculations respecting the right ascension and north polar distance of the comet, were gone over twice, at different times; those of the latitude and longitude, but once, as they are deduced from the others, and may be exa- mined at any time by those who have inclination and leisure. Lancaster, Nov. 25th, 1S10. [Read Nov. 28th, 1810.] I HERE inclose the formula, which I have used for many years, for calculating the parallax in latitude, and longitude. It is that of Dr. Maskelyne, somewhat abridged, by which the writing of three logs., with a little addition, is dispensed with. I do not think this important problem can be reduced to a shorter or more simple form. I have likewise inclosed an example, with some remarks, being one of the operations for ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 6j*C. 99 calculating the beginning of the eclipse of the Sun on the 17th of next September: the operation was gone through in 2% minutes with Taylor's logarithms: the example includes all the work and all the figures. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, in the margin, shew the logs, which are repeated, by which means they may be more readily compared to prevent mistakes: moreover, when the figures are entered in the margin of the operation, there will be no occasion to write down a number, or angle which is repeated, but merely the log. In my prac- tice, I never write down a recurring number, or angle, but merely designate it by a marginal figure. So that in the ori- ginal work of the inclosed example, nothing appeared on the left side of the logs, but the marginal figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and the signs +, there being no signs — , in the formula. I am sorry to trouble you with trifles, but have at present nothing else to send. My observations on the Comet of 1807, 1 have had inclosed and sealed up for some time, but have been disappointed in forwarding them till the present opportunity. Formula for calculating the Parallax in Latitude and Longitude. Call the Moon's horizontal parallax, h; the altitude of the nonagesimal degree, H; the Moon's true latitude, L; the Moon's distance from the nonagesimal degree, n; the paral- lax in longitude, P; the parallax in latitude, Q; and the Moon's apparent latitude, I. 100 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, SjC. (1) + log. A (2) -+- s. H reserve c. s. of H (j) -j- co. ar. c. s. L Sura + + + + + + + + + + c. call A S. 71 = P nearly. sum A S. H-f P = P sufficiently c (1) (3) A C.S. H c. s. 1 = Q nearly, reserve the s. of? = 1st part of Q. (1) (-') A 8. H s. ; s. n + i P = 2d part of Q. Note. — The 2d part of Q must be added to the 1st part, when the Moon's distance from the north pole of the ecliptic, and from the nonagesimal degree are of a different affection, and taken from it when of the same affection. In eclipses of the Sun it will be too small to need attention. Moon's horizontal parallax from the Sun corrected 3236" (/*), altitude of the nonagesimal degree 53° 45' 51" (H), Moon's true latitude 32' 54" N. (L), Moon's distance from the nonagesimal degree 11° 8' 41" (n), Moon's apparent lati- tude (/). Then, ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, SjC 101 log. 3 510008S (2) -f s. H 53° 45' 51" - 9 9066533 reserve c. s. H 9.7716685 (3) -j- co. ar. c. s. L 0 32' 54" 0.000U199 n = 11° 8' 41" Sum call A - 3.4166817 P nearly = 8 24.5 + s. n 11° 8' 41" - 9 2862046 11 17 5.5 Moon's ap. di st. = 504".5 = 8' 24".5 - 2.7028863 = P nearly. from nonag. deg. Sum A - - 3.4166817 -f s. n + P 11° 17' 5".5 9 2915620 = P 510" 7 = 8' 30".7 2 7082437 = P sufficiently correct. Moon's true lat. N. 0° 32' 54" (1) + A 3236" - 3 5100085 — P nearly - 31 52.7 (3) -f c- s- H 53* 45' 5l" " 9.7716685 Moon's ap. lat. (I) 1 13 = 1912" 8 + 31' 52".7 3 2816770 = Q nearly. — -f c. s I 1' 1".3 - 10 .0000000 reserve the s. I. 6.4770907 (4) = 1912" 8 = 31' 52".7 3.2816770 = 1st part of Q. n = 11° 8' 41" (1) + h 3236" - 3.51O0U85 $ P = 4 15.3 (2) -f s H 53° 4S' 51" 9.9066533 (4) +s.!0 1'l"3 - 6.4770907 n + i P 11 12 59.3 + s. n + i P 11° 12' 59".3 9.2889562 = 0".15 - 9.1827087 = 2d part of Q. 1st part of Q 31' 52".7 C Parallax in long. 8' 30"7 Id part of Q .15 4 Do. in lat. 31 52.5 31 52.55 = Q. Note 1. — When the apparent latitude of the Moon is small, the subsequent part of the operation will have but little effect on Q nearly, or the first value of Q, as may be seen by this ex- ample ; because the c. s. of the apparent latitude of the Moon being nearly equal to radius, does not sensibly change the va- lue of Q nearly. The 2d part of Q may always be omitted in eclipses of the Sun. When the sum of the four logs, of the 2d part of Q fall short of 30.0000000, the 2d part will be the decimal of a second, as in the above example. Note 2. — P nearly, and Q nearly, differing a little from P Q, the lirst are to be considered as approximations. No. III. Abstracts of Calculations to ascertain the Longitude of the Ca- pitol, in the City of Washington, from Greenwich Obser- vatory, in England. By William Lambert. — Read July 18th, 1817. January Slst, 1793. Occupation of * Tauri (Aldebaran) observed by Andrew Elli- cott, Esq. supposed to have been at the Capitol, in the eity of Washington. Latitude of the place of observation stated at 38° 52' 40" North. Latitude of the place, reduced (320 to 319) - 3S° 42' 9".51 N. Longitude assumed for the calculation - 76 46 0 0 W. Immersion, at 7h 55' 49".507 D -hit „-«„■„...»•»,» Emersion/at 9 25 215o j ?• M. apparent t.me. By Be La Lande's Tables. Star's mean right ascension 66° 0' 57". 64 Mean declination N. 16° 4' 47"-47 Nutation - - — 0 2.87 Nutation - — 0 9.10 Aberration - + 0 11.84 Aberration -f 0 0.27 Bight ascension - 66 1 6 61 Declination N. 16 4 38.64 Obliquity of the ecliptic, January 21st, 1793 23° 27' 48".32 Star's longitude, by computation - 66 53 59.50 latitude, south - - 5 28 54. 0 Moon's Longitude at Greenwich {Naut. Aim.). 1793. Jan. 20. Midnight 53° 46' 59" A , ,0 ,„, ,,„ . 21. Noon 59 59 34 B T ° l~ ft " , — 3' 14" a 2 , „«,.- Midnight 66 8 56 C T ° Zi \ " J — 2 50 A 2 T i\ ? i . 0"o4 22. Noon 72 15 26 D+° °J, c, } — 2 26 c2 + ^ " J Midnight 78 19 31 E + ° * 3 a l 104 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Moon's Latitude, South. 170: .Jan. 20. Midnight 4° 46' 21. Noon 4 56 Midnight 5 4 22. Noon 5 8 Midnight 5 8 59 «± 24 <; ± T6 n f 38 E + — 3' 31" a 2 — 3 33 4 2 + 0 + 5"o4 ify the Immersion. Apparent time of the immersion 7h 55' 49". 50 Estimated longitude, West, 5 7 4. Corresponding time at Greenwich 13 2 53.50 Eight ascension of the meridian, from beginning of ty Do. do. from beginning of VJ Altitude of the nonagesimal Longitude of ihe nonagesimal, from beginning of "V Moon's true longitude (Naut. Aim.) true latitude, South, true d stance from he nonagesimal (West) equatorial horizontal parallax horizontal parallax reduced (320 to 319) parallax in longitude apparent distance from the nonagesimal (West) parallax in latitude apparent latitude, South, augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude inflexion of light semidiameter, corrected Difference of apparent latitude, * south of 3 's center 118° 57' 22".50 Sun's R. A. 304 52 19 03 63 49 4153 153 49 4153 72 51 3614 68 53 14.05 66 41 2.33 5 4 52.75 2 12 11.72 0 55 7.78 0 55 3.71 0 2 3.74 2 14 15.46 0 21 791 5 26 0 66 tude 0 15 15.26 — 0 2.98 0 15 12.28 0 2 53.34 To find the Diffei*ence of Longitude between the Moon's Limb,, at the Point of Occultation, and the Moon's Center. Moon's semidiameter, corrected Difference of apparent latitude Sum, Diff. 912"28 173.34 1085.62 738.94 Arith. comp. cosine Moon'3 apparent latitude Diff. J 's longitude - -] 14' 59".70 = 899". 70 log. 3.0356778 log. 2.8686092 2)5.9042870 2-9.521435 0.0019558 log. 2 9540993 LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITY. 105 Star's longitude, Parallax in longitude, ... True longitude D's limb, at the point of occultation, Difference of longitude. True longitude of 5 's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of the immersion ai Washington, Longitude, in time, found by the immersion, Equal to 66° S3' 59".50 + 23 .74, 66 56 3 24 — 14 59 70 66 41 3 54, 13b 7 2' 55 55 49 .86 .50 5 7 6 36 76° 46 35 .40 By the Emersion. Apparent time of emersion 9h 25' 21".50 Estimated longitude, West, 5 7 4 . Corresponding time at Greenwich 14 32 25 .50 Right ascension of the meridian, from beginning of Of Do. do. from beginning of 'VS Altitude of the nonagesimal Longitude of the nonagesimal, from beginning of lY> Moon's true longitude (Naut. Aim.) true latitude, South, true distance from the nonagesimal (West) equatorial horizontal parallax horizontal parallax reduced (320 to 319) parallax in longitude apparent distance from the nonagesimal (West) parallax in latitude apparent latitude, South, augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude inflexion of light semidiameter, corrected Difference of apparent latitude, if. south of J) 's center 141° 20' 22".50 Sun's R. A. 304 56 14 .29 . 86 16 36 .79 . 176 16 36 .79 74 43 18 .57 - 86 59 19 .53 ■ 67 26 43 .90 • 5 5 30 .86 . 19 32 35 .63 -■ 0 55 6 .04 ■ 0 55 1 .97 . 0 18 5 .56 . 19 50 41 .19 - 0 19 8 .96 ■ 5 24 39 .82 ude 0 15 14 .09 - — 0 2 .98 • 0 15 11 .11 - 0 4 14 .18 Moon's semidiameter, corrected Difference of apparent latitude Arith. comp. cosine Moon's apparent latitude Sum, Diff. 911" 11 254 .18 1165 .29 656 .93 log. 3.0664340 log. 2.8175191 2)5.8839531 2.9419765 5 0.0019406.6 Diff. J 's longitude 14' 38".85 = 878". 85 log. 2.9439172 106 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Star's longitude, Parallax in longitude, ... True longitude of 3) 's limb, at the point of occultation Difference of Moon's longitude, - - - True longitude, Moon's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of emersion at Washington, Longitude, in lime, found by the emersion, Equal to By the immersion, Mean result — Longitude found by occultation of January 21st, 1793, 66° 53' 59'' .50 + 18 5 56 67 12 5 06 + 14 38 .85 or 26 43 91 14h 32' 25' '52 9 25 21 50 5 7 4 .02 76° 46 0 .30 76 46 35 .40 rfi 46 17 .85 October 20th, 1804. Occultation of » Pleiadum (Alcyone,) by the Moon, observed by Messrs. Abraham Bradley and Seth Pease, North 75° W. one mile 7-lOths (estimated) from the Capitol. Difference of longitude, — 1' 49".75. Latitude of the place of observation, estimated, Do. do. reduced (320 to 319) Longitude assumed for the calculation Time of immersing by watch, Watch too fast, Apparent time of immersion, Time of emersion, by watch, Watch too fast, Apparent time of emersion, 9h 30' 7 2" 32 8 9 22 29 .2 ll)h 24' 7 40' 32 .8 10 17 7 .2 38° 53' 30".00 N. 38 42 59 .44 76 56 51 — W. By De La Lande's Tables. Star's mean right ascension Nutation Aberration Right ascension 53° 58' 33".80 -f- 0 14 .96 + 0 18 .77 53 59 7 .53 Obliquity of the ecliptic, October 20th, 1804, Star's longitude, by computation latitude, north, do. Declination N. 23° 29' 35".20 Nutation +08 .10 Aberration -f ° 3 .48 Declination N. 23° 27' 54",25 57 16 37 44 4 2 1 16 LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITV. 107 Moon's Longitude at Greenwich (Naut. Aim.). 1804. Oct. 19. Midnight 39° 44' 37" A . 19. Midnight 39" 44' 37" A , _<> 3,, &t aX 20. Noon 47 18 43 B+ °* % . , — 0'57"a2 V11v-, Midnight 54 51 52 C ± ' ,, , * \ - 2 8 4 2 1 " a, °„+6."a4 21. Noon 62 22 53 D + I iL J ' } -3 13 c 2 - '* Midnight 69 50 41 E T 7 * *° Moon's Latitude, North. 1804. Oct. 19. Midnight 4° 56' 34" A „, .„,, t 20. Noon 4 47 45 B— ° ™ ~s' la2j.ft'lR"n- M.dnight 4 33 55 C ~ ]i 52 *,-4 4362+"" ^ + 9"«4 15 22 D — i° 3Ai c, 1 — 4 16c3 + U "" * "* 21- Noon Midnight 3 52 33 E — 22 49 d 1 By the Immersion. 9h 22' 29" .2 5 7 47 .4 Apparent time of immersion, Estimated longitude, West, Corresponding time at Greenwich, 14 30 16 .6 Sun's R. A. Right ascension of the meridian, from beginning of <¥>, Do. do. from beginning of VJ, Altitude of the nonagesimal, Longitude of the nonagesimal, from beginning of 'V, Moon's true longitude, (Naut. Aim.), true latitude, North, do. true distrnce from the nonagesimal, (East,) equatorial horizontal parallax, horizontal parallax, reduced (320 to 319), parallax in longitude apparent distance from nonagesimal, (East), put-all .x in latitude, - - - apparent latitude, North, ... augmented semidiameter arising from apparent altitude, inflexion of light, ... semidiamettr, corrected, Difference of apparent latitude, H/l north of ~]> 's center, = 140° 37' 18" .00 205 31 17 .37 346 8 35 .37 76 8 35 37 49 35 51 .28 5 51 6 .63 56 26 12 .93 4 30 25 .30 50 35 6 .30 1 1 3 .33 1 0 58 .82 0 36 17 .78 51 11 24 .08 0 37 26 .94 3 52 58 .36 0 16 47 .78 0 2 .98 0 16 44 .80 0 9 2 .80 Moon's semidiameter corrected, Difference of apparent latitude, Sum, Diff. 1004". 80 542 80 1547 60 462 — Arith. comp. cosine Moon's apparent latitude, Difference J 's longitude, - - 14' 7" 57 = log. 3.1896587 log. 2.6646420 2)5 8543007 2.92715035 0.0009981.5 log. 2.9281484 108 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Star's longitude, Parallax in longitude, . - - True longitude ]) 's limb, at the point of occultation. Difference J 's longitude, - ' True longitude Moon's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of immersion at Washington, Longitude, in time, by the immersion, 57° 16' 37".44 — 36 17 78 Equal to 56 40 14 19 7 66 57 56 26 12 U9 9 30' 22 IS 29 .26 :o 5 7 46 06 76 56 30 90 By the Emersion. 10h 17' 7".2 5 7 47 4 Apparent time of emersion, Estimated longitude, West, Corresponding time at Greenwich, 15 24 54 6 = 154° 16' 48".06 Sun's E. A. 205 33 26 53 Eight ascension of the meridian, from beginning of , Do. do. from beginning of yj> Altitude of the nonagesimal, Longitude of the nonagesimal, from beginning of "f, Moon's true longitudr, (Naut. Aim.), true latitude, North, - true distance from nonagesimal, (East), equatorial horizontal parallax, horizontal parallax, reduced, (320 to 319) parallax in longitude, apparent distance from nonagesimal, (East), parallax in latitude, - - apparent latitude, North, augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude, inflexion of light> semidiameter, corrected, ... Difference of apparent latitude, ^ north of J) 's center, 359 .50 14 53 89 50 14 53 54 55 35 78 17 34 3 38 57 0 29 46 4 29 6 04 29 26 26 08 1 1 2 72 1 0 58 21 0 32 9 36 39 30 35 44 0 32 18 54 3 56 47 50 0 16 50 15 0 2 98 0 16 47 17 0 5 13 66 Moon's semidiameter corrected, Difference of apparent latitude, 1007".17 313 66 1320 83 693 51 Arith. comp. cosine ]) 's apparent latitude, Difference } 's longitude, - 15' 59".36 = 959 ".36 log. 3 1208469 log. 28410527 2)5.96'.«996 2.9809498 00010311 log. 29819809 LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITY. 109 Star's longitude, ... Parallax in longitude, ... True longitude J 's limb, at the point of occultation, Difference of 3> 's longitude, ... True longitude J 's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of the emersion at Washington, Longitude, in time, found by the emersion, Equal to By the immer Mean result — Longitude of the place of observation, Difference of longitude to the Capitol, Longitude of the Capitol, by occultation of Oct. 20th, 1804, - 76 54 26 97 Annular Eclipse of the Sun, on the 17th September, 18 11, observed by Seth Pease, Esq. and others. North 71° W. one mile 3-8ths from the Capitol. Difference of longi- tude, — 1' 26 ".89. Latitude of the place of observation, (estimated) - 38° 53' 25".00 N. Do. do. reduced, (320 to 319) . 38 42 54' 43 Longitude assumed for calculation of the external contacts, 77 0 0 0 57° 16' 32 37'' 9 '.44 36 56 + 44 15 28 59 08 36 5r 0 27 44 1.5li 10 24/ 17 51' 7 ■.37 20 5 7 44 17 76" 76 56' 56 2 30 55 90 76 56 1 16 49 72 75 Beginning of the eclipse, at - Oh 22' 9"-\ Annulus formed, at - - 2 2 6 ( P M. broken, at - - 2 6 53 f Apparent time- End of the Eclipse, at - - 3 36 53 J Obliquity of the ecliptic, September 17th, 1811, . . 23° 27' 42".70 Moon's Longitude at Greenwich (Navi. Aim.). 1811. Sept. 16. Noon 158° 44' 5" A . 0 „, „ M.dnight 164 37 32 B J * " * 4 1 + °' 22" a24-0' 17' a 3 17. Noon 170 31 21 C+* f f b\ + 0 39 A 2+° ?, a,\-V'ai M.dnight 176 25 49 D + * *J \% C.\ + Q 55 c2+° 16 *3 18 Noon 182 21 12 E + i M ^ "' Moon's Distance from the North Pole of the Ecliptic. 1811. Sept. 16 Noon 90° 47' 30" A , , ,_,, Midnight 90 14 54 B — ^ j° f\ _ 0' 11" a 2 , „, 1arl „ 17 Nooi, 89 42 7 C ~ ^ f 41 g i2 + 0 19'ao „o4 Midnight 89 9 28 D-32 f. c.\ + 0 28 c2 + Q 20 b3 18. Noon 88 37 17 E — Ji l a 110 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Difference of Sun and Moon's Longitudes. 1811. Sept. 16. Noon 346° 3' OA , ,0,., Q . Midnight 351 27 9B+, f. „* a, \ + 0' 22 «2 ., ,„ , 17. Noon 356 51 40 C J * ,*°'6 +0 38J2+ „ , °S + 1" a 4 Midnight 2 16 49DT< ok < , +0 55c2+U " ° * 18. Noon6 7 42 5.3 E + 5 26 4 - 184 18 3 45 Moon's true longitude, - 174 3 9 19 true latitude, north ascending, - 3 37 26 30 true distance from the nonagesimal, (West) - 10 14 54 26 horizontal parallax, reduced (320 to 319) 0 54 5 79 horizontal parallax from the Sun, 0 53 57 09 parallax in longitude, - 0 6 53 04 apparent distance from the nonagesimal, (West) 10 21 47 30 apparent longitude, 173 56 16 15 parallax in latitude, 0 38 2 19 apparent latitude, South, 0 0 35 B9 augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude. 0 14 55 49 LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITY. 113 No allowance is made in the calculation by the internal contacts, for irradiation of the Sun's, or inflexion of the Moon's, light. Sun's semidiameter, Moon's augmented do. 975".25 895 49 Diff. 61 76 Moon's apparent latitude, 35 89 Sum, Diff. 97 65 25 87 Arith. comp. cosine Moon's apparent latitude, Difference Moon's longitude, = 0' 50".26 Sun's longitude, - - - Parallax in longitude, ... Difference J) 's longitude, ... True longitude J) 's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of formation of annulus at Washington, Longitude, in time, by first internal contact, log. 1.9896722 log. 1.4127964 2)3.4024686 1.7012343 0.0000000 log. 17012343 173° 57' 12".42 + 6 53 04 — 0 50 26 Equal to 174 3 15 20 7h 2 10' 2 36" 6 .91 5 8 30 91 77° r 43" 65 Second internal Contact. Annulus broken at, Estimated longitude, West, Corresponding time at Greenwich, 2h 6' 53".00 5 8 18 79 31° 43' 15".00 7 15 11 79 Sun's R. A. 174 27 10 92 Right ascension of the meridian, from beginning of "V, Do. do. from beginning of VJ, Sun's longitude, - semidiameter, ... horizontal parallax, - - Altitude of the nonagesimal, ... Longitude of ihe nonagesimal, from beginning of "/>, Moon's true longitude, ... true latitude, north ascending, true distance from the nonagesimal, (West) horizontal parallax, reduced (320 to 319) horizontal parallax from the Sun, parallax in longitude, ... apparent distance from the nonagesimal, (West) apparent longitude, ... parallax in latitude, apparent latitude, South, augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude. 206 10 23 92 63 49 34 08 173 57 24 11 0 15 57 25 0 0 8 70 44 42 9 15 185 26 28 61 174 5 30 51 0 37 39 31 11 20 58 10 0 54 5 81 0 53 57 11 0 7 33 02 11 28 31 12 173 57 57 49 0 38 21 24 0 0 41 93 0 14 55 17 114. CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Sun's semidiameter, Moon's augmented do. Moon's apparent latitude, • 957" 895 .25 17 Diff. 62 41 (J 8 93 Sum, Diff. 104 20 01 15 Arith. comp. cosine Moon's apparent latitude. Difference J) 's longitude, - - (f 45".78 Sun's longitude, - ... Pai alias in longitude, - - Difference J) 'a longitude, - ■ True longitude J) 's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of breaking annulus at Washington, Longitude, in time, by 2d internal contact, Equal to By 1st internal contact, 1st external do. 2d external do. Mean result— Longitude of the place of observation, Difference of longitude to the Capitol, - - - Longitude of the Capitol, by solar eclipse, January 12th, 1813. log. 2.01707*1 log. 1.3042751 2)3.3213502 log. 1.6606751 0.0000000 1 6606751 173° + + 57' 24".ll 7 33 02 0 45 .78 174 5 42 91 7h 2 15' 37".39 6 53 — 5 8 44 39 77° 77 77 77 11' 5".85 7 43 65 1 5 25 7 28 35 77 6 50 77 1 26 89 77 5 23 88 Occupation of ? Taurus, by the Moon. Immersion only, ob- served with sufficient accuracy, by Messrs. Abraham Brad- ley and Seth Pease. North 75° W. one mile 7-lOths (es- timated) from the Capitol — difference of longitude — 1' 49".75. Latitude of the place of observation, estimated, Do. do. reduced (320 to 319) Longitude assumed for the calculation 38° 53' 50".00 N. 38 42 59 .44 76 57 30 — W. LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITY. 115 By De La Lande's Tables. Star's mean right ascension Nutation Aberration Right ascension 62° 17' 24".H Mean Declination N. 15° 10' 5".82 — 0 10 .34 Nutation - — 0 8 .62 -f- 0 13 .56 Aberration -f- 0 0 .93 62 17 27 .36 Declination N. Obliquity of the ecliptic, January 12th, 1813, Star's longitude, by computation latitude, south, do. IS 9 58 13 23° 27' 43' '.50 63 11 18 .25 5 45 6 .07 Moon's Longitude at Greenwich {Kant. Aim.). 1813. Jan. 11. Noon 41° 38' 21" A . „ ,., .„ , Midnight 48 48 25 B+I In ,„ ? , 4- 55" a 2 12. Noon* 55 59 24 C +? »» * \ \% 25 b 2 ~ ™ " « _ 6". «4 Midnight 63 10 48 D + \ \\ \% c. J - 11 c 2 ~ 36 * 3 13. Noon 70 22 01 E + ' " 1J " X 30" a I Moon's Latitude, South. 1813." Jan. 11. Noon 5° 9' 49" A Midnight 5 13 5 B + 12. Noon 5 11 27 C Midnight 5 4 55 D 13. Noon 4 53 36 E '— 1 i- 6 ' — 11 16" al ., ...,# 0 38 * X _ 4 54 A 9 + ° a ° J- Y> a- 19 dl * *' c" — 8 39 5 5 46 7 49 50 10 54 39 Time of immersion by watch, Watch too fast, Apparent time of immersion, Estimated longitude, West, Corresponding time at Greenwich, Right ascension of the meridian, from the beginning of , Do- do. from beginning of >3, Altitude of the nonagesimal Longitude of the nonagesimal, from beginning of f>, Moon's true longitude. (Naut. Aim.), true latitude, south, true distance from the nonagesimal, (East) equatorial horizontal parallax, horizontal parallax, reduced, (320 to 319) parallax in longitude, apparent distance from nonagesimal, (East) parallax in latitude, apparent latitude, South, augmented semidiameter, arising from apparent altitude, inflexion of light, semidiameter, corrected, Bifference of apparent latitude, ■% south of ]) 's center, 86° 42' 15".00 Sun's R. A. 294 15 30 95 . 20 57 45 95 . 110 57 45 95 62 26 37 89 . 34 43 50 50 62 31 38 54 ■ 5 5 42 58 . 27 47 48 04 ■ 0 59 28 91 - 0 59 24 51 0 2+ 59 84 - 28 12 47 88 0 31 54 57 . 5 37 37 15 le, 0 16 26 55 . 0 0 2 98 . 0 16 23 57 -- 0 7 28 92 116 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN THE Moon's semidiameter, corrected Difference of apparent latitude Arith. comp. cosine Moon's apparent latitude Diff. 5 's longitude 983" 57 448 92 t Sum, 1432 49 Diff. 534 65 log. 3.1560916 log. 2.728U696 2)5.8841612 2.9420806 0.0020978 ' 39"38 = 879" .38 log. 2.9441784 Star's longitude, Parallax in longitude, True longitude 5 's limb, at the point of occultation, Difference of longitude, True longitude of J 's center, by calculation, Apparent time at Greenwich, when the Moon had that longitude, Apparent time of the immersion at Washington, Longitude, in time, found by the immersion, Equal to Difference of longitude from the place of observation to the Capitol, Longitude of the Capitol, 63° 11' — 24 IS' 59 .25 84 62 46 — 14 18 39 41 62 31 J9 03 lOh 54' 5 46 3&> 49 .82 5 7 50 82 76° 57' — 1 4J' 49 30 75 76 55 52 55 Results. By the occultation of January 21st, 1793, of October 20th, 1804, Solar eclipse, Sept- 17th, 1811, occultation of January 12th, 1813, Mean result, Equal to 5h 7' 42".02, in time. 76° 46' 17,'.85 76 54 26 97 77 5 23 88 76 55 52 55 76 55 30 31 LONGITUDE OF WASHINGTON CITV. 117 City of Washington, July 4th, 1817. Sir, It was my intention to have sent you the above abstracts of astronomical calculations, some time ago, for the use of the American Philosopliical Society. Relying on your can- dour, and knowledge of the subject, I flatter myself, that the work submitted to your inspection, will be estimated accord- ing to its real value. The ratio of 320 to 319, of the equa- torial to the polar diameter of the earth, has been used, as a proportion supposed (if not actually found) to be more accu- rate than that of 334 to 333, or 230 to 229. The Moon's positions, at noon and midnight, in longitude and latitude, as given in the British Nautical Almanacs, have been considered as strictly correct, as well as the apparent times of the phe- nomena: and as no corresponding observations at Greenwich could be resorted to, the errors in the lunar tables are not known. It will be recollected, that M. Burg's improved tables were not used at Greenwich, until the year 1813, so that, in the preceding years, the errors of the tables might considerably affect the latitude of a place as far distant as the city of Washington. Whether these, or any arising from the apparent times, have produced a variance of 19 minutes of longitude between the results of the first and third observa- tions, I am at a loss to discover; but if a mean of both be taken, it will be found not to deviate much from the results of the others, as shewn by the following statement: Result, January 21st, 1793 - 76° 46' 17". 85 Do. September 17th, 1811 77 5 23 .86 Mean result - 76 55 50. 86 agreeing very nearly with the last, and differing 1' 23"| of longitude from the third observation. 118 CALCULATIONS TO ASCERTAIN, £$C. I need not remark to you that occupations and solar eclipses afford the best means to ascertain the longitude of a place with precision ; and although that of the Capitol in Washing- ton, from Greenwich, may not yet have been correctly deter- mined, for want of a greater number of observations, it is be- lieved, that the mean result herewith furnished, is a near approximation to the truth. I am, very respectfully, Your most obedient servant, WILLIAM LAMBERT. Robert Patterson, Esq. A Vice President of the Am. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia. No. IV. Investigation of the Figure of the Earth, and of the Gravity in different Latitudes. By Robert Adrain. — Read October 7th, IS 17. Having in the year 1808 discovered a general method of resolving several useful problems, by ascertaining the highest degree of probability where certainty cannot be found ; I shall here apply that method to the determination of the earth's elhpticity, and of the gravity on its surface ; by means of the observed lengths of pendulums vibrating seconds in different latitudes. The lengths adopted in this investigation are those made use of by La Place in the third book of his incomparable work, the Mecanique Celeste: they are disposed in the fol- lowing table with the corresponding latitudes in French de- grees, the length of the pendulum at Paris being denoted by unity. 120 INVESTIGATION OF THE TABLE Of the Observed Lengths of Pendulums vibrating Seconds in- different Latitudes. LATITUDES. LENGTHS 0° 00' 0.99669 10 61 0.99689 13 25 0.99710 20 00 0.99745 20 50 0.99728 37 69 0.99877 48 44 0.99950 53 57 0.99987 54 26 1.00000 56 63 1.00006 57 22 1.00018 64 72 1.00074 66 60 l.ooioi 74 22 1.00137 74 53 1.00148 The first two of these measures were determined by Bou- giier, die one on the equator in Peru, the other at Portobello ; the third was determined by Gentil at Pondicherry ; the fourth was determined from that of London, by a comparison of the oscillations of an invariable pendulum, transported from Lon- don to Jamaica by Campbell ; the fifth was determined by Bouguer at Little Guave in the West Indies ; the sixtii by La Caille at the Cape of Good Hope ; the seventh by Durquier at Toulouse ; the eighth by Liesgamg at Vienna in Austria ; the ninth at Paris, by Bouguer ; the tenth at Gotha, by Zacli ; the eleventh was deduced from that of Paris by the difference FIGURE OP THE EARTH, #JC. lgl of the oscillations of an invariable pendulum transported from London to Paris ; the twelfth and fourteenth were deduced in the same manner from that of Paris by the observations of Mallet, at Petersburg and Ponoi ; the thirteenth was in like manner deduced from that of Paris, by Griscow, at Arensburg; finally, the fifteenth was determined according to the same process by the French Academicians who measured a degree of the meridian in Lapland. Now it has been demonstrated, on the principles of hydro- statics, by several eminent mathematicians, and particularly by Clairaut in his treatise on the figure of the earth, and by La Place in his Mecanique Celeste, that the augmentation of gravity in proceeding from the equator to the pole is as the square of the sine of the latitude ; supposing the centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the earth on its axis to be very small in comparison to the gravity, that the several el- liptical strata of the earth vary in density and eUipticity ac- cording to any function of the distance from the centre, and that the superficial parts of the earth are fluid, so as to obey the compound gravity, or the joint action of the attraction, and the centrifugal force. And, as the length of the simple pendulum vibrating in a second, or in any given time, is di- rectly as the gravity, therefore the length of the pendulum follows the same law with the gravity, in passing from the equator to the pole, and the preceding table may be consi- dered as a table of the observed gravities in different lati- tudes. Let x be the unknown length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at die equator, y an unknown but fixed co-efficient, a any latitude, and r the length of the pendulum in latitude * ; then agreeably to the law of gravity just stated, we have the following equation, r=zX + y sin2 *, in which when x and y are found we shall have the value of r, or the measure of gravity, in every latitude. But it is cer- tain that whatever constant numbers we substitute for x and y, we cannot deduce such values for r as are exactly coinci- p 12& INVESTIGATION OF THE dent with those given in the foregoing table according to ob- servation : though the discrepancies are not considerable, and may justly be ascribed to the inevitable errors of experiment, in conjunction perhaps with a small deviation, in the constitu- tion of the earth, from the conditions that have been specified as the basis of the forementioned physical investigations of Clairaut and La Place. Since therefore it is impossible to reconcile completely the physical theory with the observations ; all that can be done is to determine such values for x and y as will cause the formula x+y sin2 * to accord best with the numbers in the table. This is effected by a rule published by the writer of this article in the Analyst, in 1 808 ; and which applied to the present research requires us to discover such values for x and y as will render the sum of the squares of the differences be- tween the several numbers of the table and the corresponding values of x + ym? *• the least possible. Now r, r', r", #jc. be the lengths of the pendulums, as given in the table, corresponding to the several latitudes *-, a', a", £jc. then will the several differences between the function xxy sin2 * and the value r, r\ r", £jc. be x+y sin2 * — :*, x+y sin2 a' — r', &c. and the squares of those differences will be (x+y sin2 * — r)2, (x+y sin2 *' — r'f, &c. of wliich squares the sum is ~i..(x+y sin2*)2, where s is the characteristic of integrals to finite differences, so that the last expression denotes the sum of the squares of all the differences as far as the table extends wluch contains the values of *, *', #jc. and r, ?•', r", ^c. which in the present case is to 15 terms ; and therefore, according to the rule pre- scribed, we are to make l..(x+y sin2* — r)2 = min. To obtain the minimum, we must, as usual, make the flux- ion of the expression = 0, which produces the equation 1. 1 S>(x+y sin2*) x (x+y sin2* — r) \ =0. FIGURE OF THE EARTH, $JC. 123 This equation may be written in the following manner, 2. 2x(x+ysin*>, — r) + 2.2 y sin2* (x+ys'm2>.' — i*); and since x and y are independent, the co-efficients of x and y must be separately = 0, therefore, 2 (z+y sin2 ?, — r) = 0 ; and 2 (x sin2 *+y sin4 * — r sin2 a) = 0. Let n = 15 = the number of observations, and the last two equations manifestly become nx+y. 2 sin2 * — 1r = 0 a?.2sin *+y. 2 sin4 a — 2r sin2 * = 0. The former of these shows us that the sum of all the er- rors is equal to nothing ; and the latter that when each error is multiplied by the square of the sine of the corresponding latitude, the sum of the products is equal to nothing. It remains to compute the values of the four series 2 r, 2 sin2 a, 2 sin4 a, and 2 sin2 *.r, and then x and y will be found by the usual rules for simple equations. TABLE I. TABLE II. TABLE III. Values of r, r', &c. Log. sines of K, >.', &c. Log. (sin.**), &c- .99669 — infinity. — infinity. .99689 9.2198229 8.4396458 .99710 9.3151957 8.6303914 .99745 9.4899824 8.9799648 .99728 9.5003421 9.0006842 .99877 9.7466726 9.4033452 .99950 9.8385777 9.6771554 .99987 9.8725218 9.7450436 1.00000 9.8766829 9.7533658 1.00006 9.8902999 9.7805998 1.00018 9.8935323 9.7870646 1.00074 9.9295895 9.8591790 1.00101 9.9372677 9.8745354 1.00137 9.9633730 9.9267460 1.00148 9.9642734 9.9285468 £'-14.98839 124 INVESTIGATION OF THE TABLE IV. Log. sin.* a, &c. — infinity. 6.8792916 7.2607828 7.9599296 8.0013684 8.9866904 9.35*3108 9.4900872 9.5067316 9 5611996 9.5741292 9-7183580 9-7490708 9.8534920 9.8570936 TABLE V. Log. r, r't &c. -1.9985601 -1.9986472 -1.9987387 -1.9988911 -1.9988171 -1.9994655 -1.9997828 -1.9999435 0.0000000 0.0000261 0.0000782 0.0003213 0.0004384 00005946 0.0006123 TABLE VI. Log. r sin 2 \, &c. — infinity. .4382930 .6291-301 .9788559 .9995013 .4928107 .6769382 .7449871 .7533658 .7806259 .7871428 .8595003 .8749738 .9273406 .9291891 TABLE VII. TABLE VIII. TABLE IX. Values of sin 2 \, &c. Values of sin.-* x, &c. Valuesof r sni.2 Kt &c .0000000 .0000000 .0000000 .0275198 .0007573 .0274342 .0426964 .0018229 .0425726 .0954915 .0091186 .0952480 .1001577 .0100316 .0998852 .3114191 .0969818 .3110361 .4755053 .2261053 .4752675 .5559601 .3090916 .5558878 .5667164 .3211675 .5667164 .6033924 .3640823 .6034286 .6124415 .3750846 .6125518 .7230678 .5228270 .7236028 .7490924 .5611395 .7+98490 .8447846 .7136610 .8459420 .8482948 .7196040 .8195504 6.5565398 4.2314750 6.5589724 FIGURE OP THE EARTH, ^C. 135 Table I. contains merely the lengths of the pendulums vi- brating seconds according to observation in fifteen different latitudes ; Table II. gives the logarithmic sines of those lati- tudes according to Callet's Tables of centesimal degrees Table III. is formed by doubling the numbers in Table II. Table IV. is formed by doubling the numbers of Table III. Table V. contains the common logarithms of the numbers in Table I. ; Table VI. is formed by adding the corresponding numbers in Tables III. and V. ; and Tables VII. VIII. and IX. are the natural numbers belonging to the logarithms in Tables III. IV. and VI. The values of 2 r, 2 sin2 a, 2 sin4 a, jr sin2 a, are the sums of the numbers in Tables I. VII. VIII. and IX. and are set down at the bottom of those Tables ; we have therefore 2 r = 14. 98839 ; 2 sin* a = 6.5565398 ; £ sin4 x= 4. 2314750 ; 2 r sin2 a = 6.5589724. Our two equations nx+yl sin2 a — ?,.r = 0, xl, sin2 a + yz sin4 a — s.r sin2 a = 0, will now become 15a:+6.5565398 y — 14.98839 = 0, 6.5565398 x + 4.2314750 y — 6.5589724 = 0 ; which, divided by the co-efficients of x, produce x + .437102(55 y — .9992260 = 0, X + .64538234 y — 1.0003710 = 0 ; whence by subtraction .20827969 y — .0011450 = 0, consequently y — .00549741, and x = .96582307- Thus the expression for the length of the pendulum in the lat. a is .99682307 + .00549741 ain 2a. Or we may divide by the first term, and the length just stated will become .99682307(1 + .00551493 sin2 a) ; and therefore, if the length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at the equator, be denoted by unity, the length of a pen- 126 INVESTIGATION OF THE dulum vibrating seconds in the latitude a will be expressed by 1 +.005515 sin2 a: And thus the comparative gravity is known for every lati- tude. We may also express the gravity without the squares of sines as follows. Since, by trigonometry, sin2 a = i — | cos. a*, therefore by substitution we have 1 + .005515 sin2 a - 1.003757+65 — 002757*65 cos. 2* ; and the latter number of this equation may be reduced to the form 1.002757465.(1 — .00275 cos 2a). If therefore we denote the gravity at the equator by g, and the gravity in latitude a by y, we shall have the two following expressions for y ; y = g.(l + .005515 sin2 a), y = gx 1.002757(1 — 00275 cos 2a). Or if the gravity in latitude 45° be denoted by G, we shall have the gravity y in latitude a expressed by y = G (1 — 00275 cos. 2a). In fact, the whole investigation and computation were con- ducted by the method of double arcs, and the result was found precisely the same with that just exhibited : and though the calculation by double arcs is equally easy with the method given above, I shall not detain the reader with it, but proceed to compare the gravities expressed by the function .99682307 + .00549741 sin2 a, with the gravities as given by the numbers in Table I. For this purpose we must add the logarithm of .00549741, which is 7-7401581 to each of the numbers in Table III. and the sums will be the logarithms of all the values of .00549741 sin' a. These logarithms are set down in Table X. following. Table XI. contains the natural numbers belonging to the log- arithms in Table X.; and Table XII. shows the values of x + y sin2 a, being formed by adding .9968231 to each of the numbers in Table XI. FIGURE OF THE EARTH, fy'C. 127 TABLE X. Log. of .00549. &c.sin2x — infinity. 6.1798039 6.3705195 6.7201229 6.7408123 7.2335033 7.41/3135 7.4852017 7.4935239 7.5207579 7.52,-2227 7.5993371 7.6146935 7.6669041 7.6687049 TABLE XI. Values of .00549741 sin2 \, .0000000 .0001513 .0002347 .0005249 .0015506 •0016120 .0026640 .0030563 .0031155 .0033171 0033668 0039750 .0041181 .0046441 .0046634 TABLE XII. Values of x+y sin2 *■ .99682 .99697 .99706 .99735 .99737 .99853 .99944 .99988 .99994 1.00014 1.00019 1.00080 1.00094 1.00147 1.00149 TABLE XIII. Errors. — 13 — 8 + 4 + 10 — 9 + 24 + 6 — 1 + - 6 — 8 — 1 — 6 + 7 — 10 — i Table XIII. is formed by subtracting the numbers in Table XII. from those corresponding in Table. I.; and shows the error of each observation with its proper sign ; those errors marked with the sign plus indicate that the observed lengths of r, r', £jc. are too great, and those with the sign minus the contrary. The greater error + 24 belongs to the observation made by La Caille at the Cape of Good Hope. The equation j^g (1+.005515 sin- a) is applicable only to places at the level of the sea. When the place of observation is elevated above the level of the sea, the gravity will be dif- ferent according to the altitude, and may be investigated as follows. Let R = the mean radius of the earth in feet, h = the height of the place of observation above the level of the sea in feet, and y' = the gravity at the height h : then, by the general law of gravitation, we have (R + hy-.R-.-.y.y, 128 INVESTIGATION OF THE R2 * whence y' = y x TD — tt — yx yR + hY ' h' and by division y' =. y x (1 — jy- &c.) in which we have retained only two terms as all that are necessary. The mean diameter of the earth taken as a sphere is very nearly 7920 English miles ; let us therefore assume R= 3960 miles = 20908800 feet, and 2 we have -= = .000000957, and therefore R y' =. y x (1 — .0000000937/0 5 but y =gx (1 + .005915 sin2 A), therefore, by the multiplication of the two equations, and di- vision by y, we have y'=g. (1 + .005515 sin2 a — .0000000957/0, which equation shows the gravity y in any latitude, and at any altitude, in terms of the altitude, and gravity at the equa- tor. If we place the standard of gravity in latitude 45° of the nonagesimal division, we shall have y' = G. (1 — .00275 cos2a — .0000000957/0- Now put p — the length of the pendulum to seconds at the equator, P in latitude 45°, it = that in latitude a, all at the level of the sea, and w' at the altitude h ; then we have jr' = p.( 1 + .005515 sin 2a — . 0000000957ft), and ff' = iJ.(l — .00275 cos2 a— .0500000957/0- In these equations p and P are constant quantities, and may be found from the observed value of ""', that is, from the observed length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in any latitude a, and at any height h ; for when ar', a and h are given, we have by division p = 7t'. (1 — .005515 siir a + .0000000957/0 P = tt'.(1 + .00275 COS2 A + .0000000957/0 : and thus we obtain an universal standard of measure p or P. If, however, the observation with the pendulum be made in one temperature, and its length be used as a measure in another temperature, it will be necessary to make another correction. Let the length *' be observed at the temperature t in de- grees of any thermometer, and let *" be the length of the FIGURE OF THE EARTH, 6,'C. 129 same pendulum when applied as a measure in the tempera- ture t' ; also let m = the measure of the change in the length unity of the pendulum for one degree of the thermometer, according to observation. Then will m(t' — t) be the aug- mentation of the length unity, for the augmentation V — t of temperature, and therefore which equation being multiplied by each of the two preceding equations exhibiting the value of t', we have ■a" = p.{l + .005515 Sin" a — .0000000957/* + m(t' — t)] and n"=P.\ 1 — .00275 cos2 a — .0000000957/* + m(t! — 1)\. From these two equations we obtain by division p == ir".[l — .005515 sin2 A + .0000000957/* — m(t' — 1)\. andP=w".;[i + .00275 cos2a + .0000000957/* — m(i — 1)\. It is easy to understand in what manner a universal stan- dard of measure may be obtained by help of the preceding calculations : for the length w' is given directly by experiment, and this length -*' becomes *" by the change of temperature t — if ; and having the length *" we derive p or P from it by the last two equations, which lengths p and P are invariable, and will therefore serve as universal standards of linear mea- sure. If the pendulum be of iron and t, f, be taken from Fahren- heit's scale, we shall have the multiplier m= .0000064 near- ly, and in this case the two preceding equations became ^ = tt". £ 1 + . 0055 1 5 sin 2 * + . 0000000957^ ~ 0000064(t ' — f)l IJ = it". £ l + .00275 cos2 a + .0000000957/i — 000006l(f — t)\. From the equation y = g(i + .005515 sin3*), we may also deduce the figure of the earth by help of the following theo- rem, derived from the principles of hydrostatic equilibrium. If from 5 halves of the ratio of the centrifugal force at the equator to the attraction at the same place, we subtract the co-efficient of sin2 a, the remainder will be the ellipticity of the earth, or the excess of the equatorial semidiameter above the semiaxis taken as unity. R 130 INVESTIGATION OF THlJ When the attraction of the earth at the equator is denoted by unity, the centrifugal force at the same place is known to l 5 1 be , and therefore we have — x = .00865, 389 2 389 ' from which subtracting .005515 we have the elhpticity = .003135, which is equal to ; and therefore the greatest and least radii of the earth are in the ratio of 320 to 319. This ratio is very different from that belonging to a fluid spheroid of uniform density ; and can be accounted for on physical prin- ciples, only by admitting an increase of density, in proceed- ing from the surface of the earth to its centre. In the preceding investigation, I have used the same data with La Place, who solves tins problem of the figure of the earth, and the variation of gravity, by a very different method in the third book of his Mecanique Celeste. His method is exceedingly ingenious, and is built on principles which appear to me to be reasonable and satisfactory :* but notwithstanding all this, it is certain that his results are inconsistent with those assigned above. By ray calculation y = g. (1 + .005515 sin2 *), By La Place, y = g. (1 + .00569 sin2 a). 1 1 The elhpticity by my rule is — , and he finds — -. This F J J J 319 336 difference in the results of the two calculations is not owing to any great discordancy in the principles of the two methods ; for they give results nearly coincident, when properly con- ' ducted ; but to two errors committed by La Place in the cal- culation of the problem. The first of these errors consists in assigning a wrong number for the square of the sine of the latitude of Gotha where one of the observations was made. * The principles adopted by La Place are the same with those given before by Boscnvicli in his notes on the celebrated poem of Stay, viz. 1. the sum of all the errors with their proper signs must be equal to nothing: % and their sum with the same sign must be a minimum. FIGURE OP THE EARTH, £$C. 13 1 The latitude of Gotha as given by La Place is 56° 63'; and for the square of the sine of this latitude he has taken 0.57624< instead of the correct number 0.60339. This error, had he not committed another, would have led him to the ellipticity 1 — - ; but by the omission of the divisor Z, answering to x in the preceding investigation, he subtracts from the quantity ,00865 a number doubly wrong, and finds the ellipticity to be l i , or, as he has it . As his results are thus rendered 336 335.78 of no value, I shall therefore exhibit an accurate calculation of the earth's ellipticity, and of the gravity at its surface, in different latitudes, according to this method of La Place. The data used by La Place being the same with those given in the beginning of this Essay, as well as in Tables I. and II. need not be repeated: we commence therefore with the as- sumption of the formula z+y sin2 4, which, in the notation of La Place, expresses the length of the pendulum to seconds in latitude 4, according to the physical theory : and Z, «/, are the unknown but fixed quantities which are to be determined. Then, having previously calculated the numerical values of sin2 4, that is, of die squares of the sines of all the latitudes, we are to subtract from the several numbers in Table I. the corresponding values of the formula z + y sin2 + ; and calling the remainders x^l\ x&\ x^3\ fijc. we have the following 132 INVESTIGATION OF THE TABLE. 0.29*569 -*- #.0,00000 = a?(l) 0.99639 -2-#.0,02752 = aK2) 0.99710-x; -#.0,01270 = a?(3) 0.99715 - 2 - #.0,09519 = a?W 0.99728-a-?/.0.100l6 = ^5) 0.99877-*- #.0.31 J 42 — .r^6) 0.99950 -z -'#.0,17551 = a?W) 0.99987 - z - #.0,55596 = art8) 1.00000-2 -#. 0,56672 = a?(9) 1 .00006 - 2 -#.0.60339 = o?(10) 1.000l8-s5-#.0,6l2*4 = 1'r(11) 1.00074-2;-#.0.72307 = ^(12) 1.00101 -z -#.0,7*909 = a?(13) i. 00 137 -z- #.0,81+78 = aKu> 1. 00118-% -#.0,81829 = a?<15> Now add together the absolute terms nf all these equations, which terms are merely the numbers in Table I. and the sum is 11.98839 which divided by 15, the number of observations gives .99923. Again, adding together all the co-efficients of y in the same equations, the sum is 6.55651, which di- vided by 15, gives us the quotient = .43710 ; and therefore, according to the rule prescribed by La Place, the relation of z and y is determined by the equation .99923 — Z — ?/.0,13710 = 0. Now let this last equation be taken from each in the pre* ceding table, and we shall have the following FIGURE OP THE EARTH, §C. 133 TABLE. — ,00254 + #.0,43710 = X^ — ,00234 + #.0,40958 = XV) — ,00213 + #.0,39440 = #(3) — ,00178 + #.0,34161 = xW — ,00195 + #.0,33694 = xW — ,00046 + #.0,12568 = X&) + ,00027 — #.0,03841 = xW + ,00064 — #.0,11886 = X& + ,00077 — #.0,12962 = af& + ,00083 — #.0,16629 = xW + ,00095 — #.0,17534 = xW + ,00151 — #.0,28597 = XW + ,00178 — #.0,31199 = XW + ,00214 — #.0,40768 = X^V + ,00225 — #.0,41 1 1 9 = #(15) The next operation consists in dividing the first term of each of these equations by the corresponding co-efficient of # ; and the several quotients being set down according to their magnitude, will form the following 134 INVESTIGATION OF THE TABLE. ,0070294 ,0059404 ,0058110 ,0057874 ,0057132 ,0057053 ,0054719 ,0054185 ,0054006 ,0053845 ,0052803 ,0052494 ,0052106 ,0049913 ,0036601 Of this table the sum is ,0820537, And the half sum = ,0410268. But the sum of the first six numbers = ,0359867, And the sum of the first seven = ,0414586. Since therefore the 7th term in this table, viz. 0054719 is that which changes the aggregate from being less than the half sum to being greater, we are, according to the rule of La Place, to take this term .0054719 as the value of y, there- fore y=. 005471 9. Again, since we found before that .99923 — z — #.0,43710 = 0, therefore by substituting the known value of y, we find z = .9 96 84; and thus the formula expressing the length of the pendulum in latitude 4 is .99684. + .0054719 sin H. FIGURE OP THE EARTH, 3jC 135 If we divide by the first term, we have the following ex- pression for the length of the pendulum, .99684 (1 + .00549 sin2 i) : but if we denote the length at the equator by p, and that in latitude 4 by jr, we shall have ir = p. (1 + .00549 sin24 ). But * =p. (1 + .005514 sin* a), according to the former investigation, and therefore in this case the rules are nearly equivalent. We may also determine the ellipticity from the equation »■ =p.(i + .00549 sin3^ ), as was done in the former investigation. 5 1 Thus, from — x — = .00865 2 289 Subtract .00549, and the remainder .00316 is the ellipticity = — ^— : so * 316^ 1 1 that the two rules give — and for the ellipticities, and ° 319 316j therefore approach very near to each other, in determining the figure of the earth. / No. V. Memoir on Leaden Cartridges. By William Jones. — Read March 15, 1811. THE awful catalogue of disasters, produced by the acci- dental explosion of gun powder, particularly on board ships of war, has been the subject of serious contemplation, and of earnest solicitude, for the discovery of an adequate re- medy. Naval and military history is replete with instances of the destruction of ships of war, and of military magazines, by accidents arising from the exposed and defective manner in which gun powder is kept ; and particularly from the loose and combustible nature of the common paper cartridge: also of men killed and maimed in the act of reloading cannon, in consequence of the burning remnant of the paper cartridge, remaining in the chamber of the gun alter the discharge. Naval expeditions of the utmost importance are said to have failed, from the defective quality of the powder ; dama- ged either by accident, or impaired by long exposure to the saline atmosphere, in the confined apartments on shipboard ; and it is equally susceptible of injury from the humidity of a military magazine ; as, in both cases, it is kept in casks, acces- sible to the action of the air. The magazine of a ship of war, is a place that can be ap- proached but with the greatest caution ; and even under the s 138 MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. highest state of discipline and vigilance, frequent and fatal accidents occur. Impressed with the importance of the subject, I conceived the idea of substituting lead for paper ; and in the year 1805, when at Canton in China, I caused to be made one hundred cartridges of thin sheet lead, with a portion of tin, to give it more tenacity. — One half were of six, and the other of four, pounder calibre ; I have yet remaining between 80 and 90. — The whole cost five dollars ; but if the order had been for a considerable quantity, the price would doubtless have been much reduced. On my passage that year in the ship Ploughboy, from Can- ton to Philadelphia, I took an opportunity to make a fair ex- periment, and fired six rounds from a four pounder in quick succession, by instantly inserting the charge without spunging ; and then upon cleaning out the gun, I found oidy a small portion of lead, nearly of the size and form of mustard seed shot, and in quantity only sufficient to cover a surface of an inch square. The lead cartridge may be perforated with as much ease as paper ; and as it is not necessary to ram home the charge, or prime the gun, until intended to be used, it may remain at all times in the gun, ready for service, without injury from wet or damp. When ships of war take fire by any casualty, unless it can be instantly subdued, it becomes absolutely necessary to de- luge the magazine; for which purpose there is usually a stop- cock through the bottom of the ship : thus the whole of the powder on board may be rendered totally unfit for service, and of course the ship utterly defenceless. Whereas, if en- closed in lead, the powder would not sustain the least injury from the inundation. The whole of the powder for a ship of war, may be filled in a perfect state, in the laboratory on shore ; and the aper- ture in the end of the cartridge, being closed with a cap of lead, secured by a cement of white lead, or other proper substance, will be impervious to moisture ; and thus the pow- MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. 139 der may be preserved unimpaired in the state in which it was filled, for any length of time — an advantage of the utmost importance to the success of an enterprise. The cartridges should be packed in cases, with cylindrical compartments fitted to the size of the several calibres ; or with some soft substance to preserve them from injury or deformity ; hence the necessity and the danger of filling the cartridges on board, in time of action, will be superseded. If it shall be deemed necessary tu have some larger pack- ages of powder for ordinary or casual uses, the casks con- taining it, should be lined with thin lead, in the manner of a tea chest, and closed, like the cartridges, until required for use. I tliink cases preferable to casks: their cubical form will occupy less space in proportion to their contents than casks ; and about 50 pounds weight in each case, can be handled by one man with convenience. As leaden cartridges will preserve their form better when full than empty, and will occupy only the same space, the whole of the ammunition should be filled in the laboratory, and the contents of each case distinctly marked with the number, calibre, and nature of the charges, whether full or reduced. The increase of expense in substituting lead for paper car- tridges, will be comparatively trifling, and will be amply re- munerated, by the preservation of the quality, and saving in quantity, of the powder. For I believe when slups of war return from a cruize, their powder is generally sent to be remanufactured. The preceding remarks are applied principally to naval service ; but I conceive them to be equally applicable to many military purposes, particularly magazines, and even to field service, when rapid firing is necessary ; for the charge may be instantly inserted without danger, as there is no necessity to spunge the gun, except when it may be necessary to cleanse or cool it. i40 MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. We often hear of partizan detachments being frustrated in the object of their enterprise, by long exposure to heavy rains, or by fording deep streams, and thus damaging their powder. Why may not the cartridges of the infantry as well as the artillery, be formed of lead, for particular ob- jects ?* The musket cartridge may be made as thin as paper, so that neither weight nor expense, can form an objection; and, when to be used, me end can be opened with the teeth, with as much facility as a paper cartridge. The two cartridges now exhibited, contain a charge for a four pounder; and although they are of the size of a cylin- drical powder measure for one pound weight, they are each made to contain nearly a pound and a quarter of powder, by gently striking the bottom on a table when filling, which serves the better to distend and support the sides of the car- tridge. One of them had a small neck about one-fifth of an inch high, and is closely corked and sealed with a cement of resin gum-mastic, and red lead ; the other had merely a circular aperture closed with a cork, and over that a cap of lead, ce- mented with white lead — they have both been completely immersed in water during the preceding forty-eight hours. It is practicable to solder the cap ; but, on trying the experiment, I found the degree of heat necessary to fuse solder, to ap- proach so near to the ignition of gunpowder, that I think it would be found too hazardous in common practice. It was my intention to have made this communication long since ; but it has been delayed by the pressure of other pur- suits, and partly by neglect. In the interval, I have occasion- ally conversed with several philosophical, naval, and military gentlemen, on this subject, who have all corroborated my views of the utility and importance of the object, and have * Observe tbe iliffi' ulties (bat Pike and ot.ber travellers have experienced, from the effect of humidity upon their powder. MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. 14<1 urged the communication which is now submitted with de- ference and respect to the American Pliilosophical Society, by WM. JONES. Philadelphia, March 15th, 1811. This Memoir being referred to Messrs. Robert Patterson, T. Matlack and Joseph Cloud, to report thereon to the society : the author made a further communication on the subject to the committee, which, together with their report, was directed to be printed. Philadelphia, March 22, 1811. Dear Sir, As the only legitimate end of philosophical investigation is the discovery of truth, and as the truth can only be ascer- tained by a careful examination of facts, as they are deve- loped in the progress of experiment, I deem it necessary to state to you, that after the exhibition of my leaden cartridges, (which had been immersed in water 48 horn's) one of which was opened, and a part of the gun powder poured out per- fectly dry, in the presence of the society at its last meeting — I emptied both the cartridges, and, contrary to my expectation, a part of the powder appeared in lumps slightly adhesive, but apparently dry. My first impressions were that a small de- gree of humidity must have penetrated through some imper- ceptible crevice, or that the low temperature of the water in which they had been immersed, had condensed the air within, and produced a slight degree of deliquescence, and conse- quent adhesion of the grains of powder: but, upon a more strict examination, I found the powder perfectly dry, and the interior of the cartridge equally so ; not a grain of powder adhering to the corners, or the appearance of the least humid- 142 MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. ity — then recollecting that I had packed the powder very hard, in order to distend and support the sides of the cartridge, it occurred to me that this must have been the cause of the ad- hesion. In order to satisfy myself on this head, I returned the powder into the cartridge, and packed it hard as before. Two days afterwards, I emptied it again, and found the pow- der in lumps slightly adhesive, exactly in the state first de- scribed; so that I am entirely satisfied that not the least moisture had passed through the cartridge, but that the pow- der and the interior of the cartridge were as perfectly dry after the immersion as before. When the cartridges are filled and the caps cemented and dry, I would recommend a good coat of paint, in order to prevent oxidation, as well as to fill up any imperceptible cre- vice or defect in the cartridge. It is easy, however, to prove the soundness of the cartridge, by blowing in it to ascertain whether or not it is air tight. I am of opinion, that very thin tin plate cartridges may be made to answer the same purpose, (in the absence of lead, which I think much preferable) provided they were well pro- tected by a coat or two of paint, as tin will oxidate much sooner than lead. Thin tin plate may readily be perforated by a slight stroke with a steel-pointed pricker. I am very respectfully, Yours, WM. JONES. Messrs. Patterson, Cloud and Matlack, Committee on Leaden Cartridges. MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. 143 The Committee to whom was referred the Memoir on Cannon Cartridges, REPORT, That the Committee have attentively considered the Memoir on Cannon Cartridges, presented to the society by Captain William Jones of this city, and are of opinion, that the expe- riments made by him fully demonstrate the utility of sheet- lead cartridges. The security they will afford, against the danger from latent fire, so frequently retained by the cartridges now in use, and the time saved in scooping and spunging the cannon, which will be altogether unnecessary, are evidently of very great importance in the land service ; and, in addition to those ad- vantages, that of securing gun powder at sea, from the destruc- tive effects of moisture, extending even to the case of inun- dation of the powder-room, sometimes indispensibly necessary for the preservation of the ship ; they consider as being in the sea-service inestimable. Your Committee are therefore of opinion, that the communication is well worthy of a place in the transactions of the soeiety. And as practical improvements of this kind belong to the nation : your Committee therefore recommend, That the secretary of the society be directed to transmit to the secre- tary of the navy and the secretary at war of the United States, a copy of Captain Jones's Memoir. This, they conceive, ought not to be delayed, as sheet-lead of a size suitable for cannon cartridges not being in common use, time will be required for the necessary preparations for rolling it of that size. For a supply of an article of such importance in na- tional defence, we ought not to depend on foreign nations ; and the readiness with which this can be manufactured within ourselves, at an expense, it is believed, that will not exceed the cost of flannel, or even paper cartridges, renders that dependence altogether unnecessary. How far the use of sheet 144 MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. lead cartridges may, in some cases, be applied to musquetry, will of course present itself for consideration to the board of war of the United States ; — and possibly that board may take into consideration the utdity of preserving the Avhole stock of powder in their magazines in sheet-lead ; either in cases or boxes lined with it. R. PATTERSON,} T. MATLACK, V Committee. JOS. CLOUD, 3 Copies of the Memoir and of the Report were transmitted as directed to the Secretary of War, from whom the following letter was received. War Department, April 27th, 1811. John Vanghan, Esq. Librarian Am. Phil. Society. Your letter of the llth inst. inclosing a memoir on the advantages of using sheet-lead for cartridges instead of paper or flannel, has been received. The attention of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society, to a subject so interesting as that of the preservation of powder, is equally honourable to them, and promising of usefulness to the public ; and is observed (with suitable acknowledgments) by this department, to which it is peculiarly important. Boxes or casks for keeping powder, lined with lead, are unquestionably applicable to all magazines constructed within or under walls of earth or masonry, or others, exposed to dampness or moisture ; the introduction and use of leaden cartridges, however, must depend on further experience. On the suggestion of an officer, a common tea-chest made of wood, and lined as usual with lead, was filled with powder. MEMOIR ON LEADEN CARTRIDGES. 145 The top, or mouth of the chest, was covered with pieces of board. It was buried in the earth in the month of November, 1809, where it remained until the month of May, 1810, when it was taken up. The powder was perfectly dry, excepting round the edges of the mouth, where it had been covered with the boards. Respectfully, Sir, Your obdt. servant, W. EUSTIS. No. VI. Tables of the Altitudes of Mountains in the States of New York, New Hampshire, and Vermont, calculated from Barometri- trical and Thermometrical Observations, by A. Partridge, Captain of the Corps of Engineers of the United States. Communicated by Col. Jonatlian Williams. — Read Febru- ary, 1812. TABLE I. Feet. Altitude of the Roundtop above high water of Hud- son's River, - - 3566 of the High Peak, - - 3486 of the Highest of the Turnpike, - 2273 of the Roundtop of the base of the range of} Mountains, - -5 9 * of the High Peak above the same, - 2831 of the highest part of the Turnpike above } the same, - 3 Base of the Mountains above the River, 655 of the Roundtop above its base, - 1550 of the High Peak above its base, - 1470 Whole Altitude of the High Falls, - - 310 Altitude of the first Fall, - - 190 of the second Fall, - - 120 148 ALTITUDES OP THE MOUNTAINS OF TABLE II. Altitudes of the highest Mountains at and near West Point, State of New York. Names of the Mountains and Elevations. Altitudes in Feet above Hudson's River. Anthony's Nose, . 877 Sugar Loaf, - 812 Fort Putnam, - 561 West Point Plane, - 176 Bull Hill, . 1391 Breakneck Hill, First Peak next the River, - 939 Second Peak, - 1113 Crow's Nest, . 1330 Butter Hill, - 1433 Old Beacon, - 1379 New Beacon, - 1486 NEW YORK, NEW HAMPSHIRE, AND VERMONT. 149 TABLE III. Altitudes of the most elevated parts of the White Hills, in the State of New Hampshire. Names of the Peaks. Altitude in Feet. Above the Sea. Above their Bases. Mount Washington, First Peak South of do. (Adams) 6234 5328 4464 3558 Second do. do. (Jefferson) Third do. do. (Madison) Fourth do. do. (Franklin) Fifth do. do. 5058 4866 4711 4356 3288 3096 2941 2586 Base of the Mountains, 1770 Note.< — « The great distance at which these mountains are visible, and " the apparent length of their ascent, have led to estimates of their height «< considerably exceeding the probable truth. The Rev. Dr. Cutler, who " twice visited them, and took barometrical observations, computes the height " in round numbers, at 10,000 feet above the level of the sea." " Mr. Bow- " ditch has published in the transactions of the American Academy, (Vol. " iii. p. 326). a logarithmic calculation founded on the barometer, as obser- «« ved by Dr. Cutler and Professor Peck, in 1804, which gives them an ele- " vation of 7055." See Account of the White Mountains of New Hamp- shire, published in the New England Journal of Med. and Surg, for Oct. 1816. 150 ALTITUDES OF THE MOUNTAINS, #JC TABLE IV. Altitude of Ellington Peak, said to be the highest part of the Green Mountains, in the State of Vermont. Feet. Altitude above the Sea, - 3679 above its base, - 2807 of the base above the Sea, 872 No. VII. On the Population and Tumuli of the Aborigines of North America. In a Letter from H. H. Brackenridge, Esq. to Thomas Jefferson. — Read Oct. l, 1813. Baton Rouge, July 25, 1813. Sir, From a knowledge that research into the history of the primitive inhabitants of America, is one of your favourite amusements, I take the liberty of making this communication. My attention to the subject, was first awakened on reading, when a boy, the observations contained in the " Notes on Virginia," and it has become, with me, a favourite theme of speculation. I often visited the mound, and other remains of Indian antiquity in the neighbourhood of Pittsburgh, my native town, attracted by a pleasing interest, of which I scarcely knew the cause, and afterwards read, and heard with delight, what- ever related to these monuments of the first, or rather earlier, inhabitants of my native country. Since the year 1810 (with- out previously intending it) I have visited almost every thing of this kind, worthy of note on the Ohio and Mississippi ; and from examination and reflection, something like hypothesis, has taken the place of the vague wanderings of fancy. The following is a sketch of the result of those observations. I. Throughout, what is denominated by Volney, the valley of the Mississippi, there exist the traces of a population far 152 ON THE OBIGIN AND TUMULI OP THE beyond what this extensive and fertile portion of the continent, is supposed to have possessed : greater, perhaps, than could be supported of the present white inhabitants, even with the careful agriculture practised in the most popidous parts of Europe. The reason of this, is to be found in the peculiar manners of the inhabitants by whom it was formerly occupied; like those of Mexico, then* agriculture had for its only object their own sustenance ; no surplus was demanded for com- merce with foreign nations, and no part of the soil, susceptible of culture, was devoted to pasturage ; yet, extensive forests filled with Avild animals would still remain. The aggregate population of the country might be less, but that of particular districts much greater. We must, in this way, account for the astonishing population of the vale of Mexico, when first known to the Spaniards ; perhaps equal to any district of the same extent of climate.* The astonishing population of Owyhee, and Otaheite, must be accounted for in the same way. There are certainly many districts on the Ohio and Mississippi equally favourable to a numerous population. When I contemplated the beauty and fertility of those spots, I could scarcely believe it possible, that they should never have supported a numerous population ; such a fact woidd form an exception to what has usually occurred, in every other part of the globe. II. In the valley of the Mississippi, there are discovered the traces of two distinct races of people, or periods of popula- tion, one much more ancient than the other. The traces of the last are the most numerous, but mark a population less advanced in civilization ; in fact, they belong to the same race that existed in the country when the French and English effect- ed their settlements on this part of the continent : but since the intercourse of these people with the whites, and their asto- nishing diminution in numbers, many of their customs have fallen into disuse. It is not more than a hundred and twenty years, since the character of the population, which left the traces of the second period, underwent a change. The ap- * See Humboldt, Vol. II. page 127. ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 153 pearances of fortifications, of which so much has been said, and which have been attributed to a colony of Welch, are nothing more than the traces of pallisadoed towns or villages. The first travellers mention this custom of surrounding their towns with pallisades ; the earth was thrown up a few feet, and pickets placed on the top. I have seen old volumes in which they are represented in the engravings.* The Arikara and Mandan villages are still fortified in this way. The traces of these are astonishingly numerous in the western country ; I should not exaggerate if I were to say that jive thousand might be found. Some of them inclose more than an hundred acres. From some cause or other (and we know that there are enough which might suffice to effect it) the population had been astonishingly diminished immediately before we became acquainted with them ; and yet Charlevoix mentions a town of the Mascutin tribe (at present incorporated with the Kick- apoos) containing a thousand families ! The barrows, or gen- eral receptacles of the dead, such as examined by yourself, may be classed with the pallisadoed towns, though they are much more numerous ; they are, in fact, to be found in almost every cornfield in the western country. The tumuli or mounds, are often met with, where there is no appearance of pallisadoed villages or fortifications, or of barrows. III. The first and more ancient period, is marked by those extraordinary tumuli or mounds. I have reason to believe that their antiquity is very great. The oldest Indians have no tra- dition as to their authors, or the purposes for which they were originally intended ; yet they were formerly, I might almost say instinctively, in the habit of using them for one of the purposes for which they were at first designed, to wh\ as places of defence. The old chief Du Coin, told Mr. Rice Jones that the mounds in the American bottom had been fortified by the Kaskaskias in their wars with the Iroquois. An old * Those are to be seen in many old volumes in the present library of Congress, which contains Mie most valuable collection of Books on America to be found in any part of the world. tr 154 ON THE POPULATION AND TUMULI OF THE work by Lafitau, a Jesuit, which I met with at New Orleans, contains a curious plate in which one of these mounds forti- fied by pallisades on the top, and large beams extending to the bottom, is assaulted by enemies. These tumuli as well as the fortifications, are to be found at the junction of all the considerable rivers, in the most eligible positions for towns, and in the most extensive bodies of fertile land. Their num- ber exceeds perhaps three thousand; the smallest not less than twenty feet in height, and one hundred in diameter at the base. Their great number, and the astonishing size of some of them, may be regarded as furnishing, with other circumstances, evi- dence of their antiquity. I have been sometimes induced to think that at the period when those mounds were construct- ed, there existed on the Mississippi, a population as nume- rous as that which once animated the borders of the Nile, or of the Euphrates, or of Mexico and Peru. IV. The most numerous, as well as the most considerable of these remains, are found precisely in the part of the country where the traces of a numerous population might be looked for, to wit, from the mouth of the Ohio (on the east side of the Mississippi) to the Illinois river, and on the west side from the St. Francis to the Missouri. I am perfectly satisfied that cities similar to those of ancient Mexico, of several hundred thousand souls, have existed in this part of the country. Nearly opposite St. Louis there are the traces of two such cities, in the distance of five miles, on the bank of the Cohokia, which crosses the American bottom at this place.* There are not less than one hundred mounds, in two different groups ; one of the mounds falls little short of the Egyptian pyramid My- cerius. When I examined it in 1811, I was astonished that this stupendous monument of antiquity should have been unno- ticed by any traveller: I afterwards published an account in the newspapers at St. Louis, detailing its dimensions, descri- bing its form, position, Sjc. but this, which I thought might * See the Chapter on the Antiquities of the Valley of the Mississippi, in the « Views of Louisiana," by the author of this Memoir, p. 181. Pitts- burg edition, 1814. ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 155 almost be considered a discovery, attracted no notice : and yet I stated it to be eight hundred paces in circumference (the exact size of the pyramid of Asychis) and one hundred feet in height. The mounds at Grave Creek and Marietta are of the second or third class. The mounds at St. Louis, at New Madrid, and at the commencement of Black River, are all larger than those of Marietta. The following is an enumera- tion of the most considerable mounds on the Mississippi and on the Ohio ; the greater part I examined myself with such attention as the short time I had to spare would permit. 1. At Great Creek, below Wheeling. 2. At Pittsburgh. . 3. At Marietta. 4. At Cincinnati. 5. At New Madrid — one of them 350 feet diameter at the base. 6. Bois Brulie bottom, fifteen miles below St. Genevieve. 7. At St. Genevieve. 8. Mouth of the Marameck. 9. St. Louis — one with two stages, another with three. 10. Mouth of the Missouri. 1 1 . On the Cohokia river — in two groups. 12. Twenty miles below — two groups also, but the mounds of a smaller size — on the back of a lake, formerly the bed of the river. 13. Near Washington (M. T.) 146 feet in height. 14. At Baton Rouge, and on the bayou Manchac — one of the mounds near the lake is chiefly composed of shells — the inhabitants have taken away great quantities of these for the purpose of making lime. 1 5. The mound on Black River, of two stages, with a group around it. At each of these places there are groups of mounds ; and at each there probably once existed a city. On the other con- siderable rivers which are tributary to the Ohio and Missis- sippi, in Kentucky, Tennessee, state of Ohio, Indiana Territo- ry, &jc. they are equally numerous. But the principal city 156 ON THE POPULATION AND TUMULI OF THE and center of population was between the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois. I have been informed that in the plains between the Arkansa and St. Francis, they are numerous and some very large. They resemble the Teocalli, in these impor- tant features, l. In their positions the cardinal points are ob- served widi considerable accuracy. 2. The larger mounds have several stages. 3. In every group there are two mounds much larger than the others. 4. The smaller mounds are placed around symmetrically. A closer examination would show a resemblance in other particulars. It is doubted by Humboldt whether advantage had not been taken of some natural rise, in the formation of the pyramid of Cholula ; with respect to the mound of Cohokia, there can be no doubt, for it stands in the midst of alluvium, and there is no natural hill nearer than two miles.* Such are the appearances of antiquity in the western coun- try, which I consider as furnishing proof of an ancient and numerous population. The resemblance to those of New Spain would render probable the existence of the same arts and customs ; perhaps of an intercourse. The distance from the large mound on Red River, to the nearest in New Spain, is not so great but that they might be considered as existing in the same country. From the description of the Adoratorios^ as they are called, it appears highly probable that the mounds on the Mississippi were destined for the same purposes. Solis tells us, that every considerable place had a number of them, upon which a kind of tower was erected, and which gave rise to the belief of those who first visited the coast of New Spain, that they had seen cities with numerous steeples ;f from which circumstance they bestowed upon it the name of their native country. The four * See tlie account of tlie Teocalli of New Spain, by Humboldt, pages 16, 41, 44, 123, 170, &c. vol. II. New York edition, 1811. f Mr. Robertson, who is disposed to lessen every thing American, and to treat witli contempt unworthy of a philosopher, all their acts and advance- ment in civilization, attributes this to the imaginations of the Spaniards, in- flamed with tlie spirit of Quixotic adventure. ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 157 great cities to which the general name of Mexico was given, contained two thousand of these Adoratorios or Teocalli ; at the first glance, this vast population, equal perhaps to London or Paris, appeared to be crowned with innumerable towers and steeples. Architecture was perhaps too much in its infancy to enable them to build to any great height, a mound was there- fore raised, and a building erected on the top. It was in this way the temple of Belus at Babylon was erected, and the Egyptian pyramids of the second class, which are solid, and probably the most ancient. Besides being places of adoration, the Teocalli also served as fortresses ; they were usually the last places, to which the inhabitants of the cities conquered by Cortez, resorted, after having been driven from every other quarter. They were enabled from the position, form, and the tower on the top, to defend themselves in these situations to great advantage. Placed from the bottom to the top of the mount, by gradations above each other, they appeared (as Solis in his animated style expresses it) to constitute " a living hill ;" and at first, judging only from the experience of their own wars, they fancied themselves unassailable. From the oldest book extant, the bible, we see exemplified in numerous instances, the natural predilection for resorting to high-places, for the purpose of worship ; this prevailed amongst all nations, and probably the first edifice dedicated to the Deity was an elevation of earth, the next step was the placing a temple on it, and finally churches and mosques were built with steeples. This having prevailed in all countries, may be considered as the dictate of nature. The most ancient temples of the Greeks were erected on artificial, or natural elevations of earth ; at the present day, almost every part of Europe and Asia, exhibits these remains of tumuli, the rudest, though perhaps the most lasting of human works.* The mausoleum generally holds the next place to the temple ; and, what is remarkable, all nations in their wars have made the last * See Appendix to Volney's View of America, Clark's Travels in Ame- rica, &c. 158 ON THE POPULATION AND TUMULI OF THE stand in the edifices consecrated to their gods, and near to the tombs of their ancestors. The Adoratorios of New Spain, like all works of the kind, answered the three purposes, of the temple, the fortress, and the mausoleum. Can we enter- tain a doubt but that this was also the case with those of the Mississippi ? The antiquity of these mounds is certainly very great; this is not inferred from the growth of trees, which prove an an- tiquity of a few centuries, but from this simple reflection ; a people capable of works requiring so much labour, must be numerous, and if numerous, somewhat advanced in the arts ; we might therefore look for works of stone or brick, the traces of which would remain for at least eight or ten centuries. The great mound of Cohokia, is evidently constructed with as much regularity as any of the Teocalli of New Spain, and was doubt- less chased with brick or stone, and crowned with buildings ; but of these no traces remain. Near the mound at St. Louis, there are a few decaying stones, but which may have been casually brought there. The pyramid of Papantla, in the northern part of the Intendency of Vera Cruz, unknown to the first conquerors, and discovered a few years ago, was still partly cased with bricks. We might be warranted in consider- ing the mounds of the Mississippi more ancient than the Teo- calli : a fact worthy of notice, although the stages are still plain in some of them, the gradations or steps have disap- peared, in the course of time the rains having washed them off. The pieces of obsidian or flint, are found in great quan- tities near them, as is the case with the Teocalli. Some might be startled if I should say that the mound of Cohokia is as ancient as those of Egypt ! The Mexicans possessed but im- perfect traditions of the construction of their Teocalli ; their traditions attribute them to the Toultees, or to the Olmees, who probably migrated from the Mississippi. Who will pretend to speak with certainty as to the antiquity of America — the races of men who have flourished and dis- appeared— of the thousand revolutions, wliich, like other parts of the globe, it has undergone ? The pliilosophers of Europe, ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 159 with a narrowness and selfishness of mind, have endeavoured to depreciate every tiling which relates to it. They have called it the New World, as though its formation was posterior to the rest of the habitable globe. A few facts suffice to repel this idea : — the antiquity of her mountains, the remains of vol- canoes, the alluvial tracts, the wearing away of cataracts, #jc. and the number of primitive languages, greater perhaps than in all the rest of the world besides. The use of letters, and the discovery of the mariner's com- pass, the invention of gunpowder and of printing, have pro- duced incalculable changes in the old world. I question much whether before those periods, comparatively recent, there existed, or could exist, nations more civilised than the Mexi- cans, or Peruvians. In morals, the Greeks and Romans, in their most enlightened days, were not superior to the Mexi- cans. We are told that these people sacrificed human beings to their gods ! did not the Romans sacrifice their unfortunate prisoners to their depraved and wicked pleasures, compelling them to kill each other? Was the sacrifice of Ephigenia, to obtain a favorable wind, an act of less barbarity than the sacrifices by the Mexicans of their prisoners on the altar of their gods ? The Peruvians were exempt from these crimes — perhaps the mildest and most innocent people that ever lived, and in the arts as much advanced as were the ancient Persians or Egyptians ; and not only in the arts, but even in the sciences. Was ever any work of the old world superior to the two roads from Quito to Cusco ? Pardon me, sir, for troubling you with this long, and per- haps tiresome letter, dictated probably by the vanity of per- sonally communicating my crude theories to one who holds so distinguished a place in that temple of science which be- longs to every age and every country. With sentiments of the highest respect, I am, Sir, Your most obedient, Humble servant, H. M. BRACKENRIDGE. No. VIII. An Account of some Experiments made on Crude Platinum, and a New Process for separating Palladium and Rhodium from that Metal. By Joseph Cloud. — Read November sd, 1809. NATIVE Platinum, as we receive it from South America, is a heterogeneous compound, generally mixed with a con- siderable quantity of ferruginous sand, very sensibly attracted by the magnet ; such, at least, was the specimen, — the subject of my experiments. In order, therefore, to free it as much as possible from the ferruginous mixture, I used the magnet as long as any thing could be separated by that means. Hav- ing thus far freed it from extraneous matter, it was submitted to the following treatment. Process 1st. The crude Platinum was subjected to the ac- tion of boiling in nitro-muriatic acid (composed of an equal quantity, by measure, of the nitric and muriatic acids) until no further action took place. The acid, now holding Plati- num, Palladium, Rhodium, Iron, and perhaps some other metals in solution, was decanted from the undissolved resi- due ; which, according to Mr. Tenant, contains iridium and osmium. Process 2d. To the solution from process 1st, I added a saturated solution of muriate of ammonia in boiling water, until no further precipitation of platinum took place 5 taking 1(52 EXPERIMENTS ON CRUDE PLATINUM, &JC. care to separate the fluid from the precipitate as soon as pos- sible, to prevent the precipitates of palladium and rhodium from mixing with the platinum ; these metals being also pre- cipitated by muriate of ammonia, although not with so much facility as the platinum. The precipitate was well washed with pure water, and the washings added to the decanted fluid. Process 3d. The last precipitate, being an ammoniaco- muriate of platinum, was heated to ignition, for the purpose of separating the muriate of ammonia, and was again dis- solved in the nitro-muriatic acid, and precipitated in the same way, and with the same precaution observed in the last pro- cess. I now had a beautiful orange-coloured precipitate ; which, on being heated to a white heat in a crucible, adhered together, was perfecdy metallic, and very brilliant ; and when fused by united streams of oxygen and hydrogen gas, it was very malleable and ductile ; so that by means of rollers it was reduced into extremely thin plates : its specific gravity, in distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit, by a balance sensible to -n?^ part of a grain, was 23.543. Process 4th. The acids and washings from process 2d and 3d, still holding a portion of platinum, and all the metals that were combined with it (except the osmium and iridium) in solution, were mixed together ; and the platinum, palladium, rhodium, and perhaps small portions of other metals, were precipitated in a metallic form, by plates of zinc. — The pre- cipitate was washed and dried. Process 5th. The precipitate from the last process was combined with four times its weight of fine silver, and coupe-lied with a sufficient quantity of lead, for the purpose of destroy- ing any of the base metals that were thrown down by the zinc. I had now a compound of silver, platinum, palladium, rho- dium, and perhaps a small portion of gold. Process 6th. The metals from process 5th, were reduced to thin plates, and submitted to the action of boiling nitric acid, until the silver and palladium were dissolved, and the acid ceased to operate : the solution was decanted, and the remaining metals were well washed, to free them from the EXPERIMENTS ON CRUDE PLATINUM, fyc. 163 solution of silver. — This is a necessary precaution, for if any of it were suffered to remain, it would form a muriate of silver in the subsequent process, and impede its operations. Process 7th. To the solutions and washings from the last process, I added pure muriatic acid to excess, and the silver was thrown down in form of muriate of silver. The acid, holding now nothing but palladium in solution, was decanted ; the precipitate washed, and the washings added to the de- canted fluid. From this the palladium may be precipitated, either by pure pot-ash, or prussiate of mercury, and the pre- cipitate fused with borax. By the above processes, pure duc- tile palladium was obtained ; its specific gravity in river water at 64° Fahrenheit, was li.-j^. Process 8th. The undissolved metals from process 6th, being platinum, rhodium, and perhaps gold, were subjected to the action of nitro-muriatic acid, assisted by heat, until no further solution could be obtained. The platinum, and gold if any was present, were dissolved ; and the rhodium remained in the form of a black powder. The solution was decanted, and the powder washed ; which, on being heated to a white heat, assumed a metallic brilliancy, and was completely fused by the hydro-pneumatic blow pipe, at about 160° of Wedge- wood. Its specific gravity £1.8. The rhodium thus obtained, very much resembles cast iron in colour ; and, tike it, is rigid and friable under the hammer, it is not acted on, either by the nitric or nitro-muriatic acids. As the principal object of this memoir is to communicate a new method of obtaining rhodium from its native combination, for a fuller account of the characters and properties of this metal, the reader is referred to the Transactions of the Royal Philosophical Society of London for 1804, page 428. Process 9th. The platinum and gold may be obtained from the last solution, through the agency of muriate of ammonia, and sidphate of iron. It is an extraordinary fact, first discovered by Dr. Wollas- ton, and fully confirmed by my experiments, that rhodium in an uncombined state, and in some of its combinations with 2 164 EXPERIMENTS ON CRUDE PLATINUM, SjC. other metals, is insoluble in the nitric and nitro-muriatic acids. It is particularly remarkable, that it should be soluble in its native combination with crude platinum, and become insoluble in the artificial compound produced by process 5th. These phenomena may probably be accounted for by suppos- ing that the platinum, palladium and rhodium, in a state of nature, were in perfect chemical combination ; the effect of reciprocal attraction. That is, the different metals were united together so intimately by chemical affinity, that each integral particle consisted of tbe same, principles, combined in the same relative proportions, as in the general mass, united by the force of aggregation : the platinum and palladium being dissolved by the nitro-muriatic acid in process 1st, the force of aggre- gation, and the chemical attraction of the integrals are both destroyed; and the rhodium, which perhaps did not form more than T£T part of each integral ; becomes so extremely divided, that it is rendered susceptible of being oxidated, and dissolved by that agent. There are numerous examples in chemistry, in which ag- gregation in bodies is so powerful that they are not sensibly acted on by others, even in the fluid state ; though the combi- nations of them are affected when the aggregation of the solid is destroyed : the native oxide of tin resists the action of any acid. This apparent insolubility is owing to its strong aggre- gation ; when this is overcome by mechanical operations, it becomes soluble. The ruby, the sapphire, and the adaman- tine spar, from the strength of aggregation, are scarcely af- fected by any chemical agent ; but if their cohesion be de- stroyed, they are then acted on. Hence the mechanical operations of trituration, levigation, and granulation, are of importance in facilitating chemical action; partly by dimi- nishing aggregation, and partly by increasing the surface on which action is exerted. In the artificial compound of process 5th, the metals were in the state of imperfect chemical combination ; the integrant and constituent particles of the compound were substances differing in their nature from each other, and from the general EXPERIMENTS ON CRUDE PLATINUM, £jC. 165 mass ; which was composed by their being united by the force of aggregation, and presenting distinct surfaces to the action of their respective solvents. This appears evidently to be the case in a combination of gold and silver, and platinum and silver; for all compounds of these metals are soluble by alternate treatment with the nitric and nitro-muriatic acids. — If two parts of silver, intimately mixed with one part of gold, and reduced to a thin plate, be subjected to the action of dilute nitric acid, the silver will be dissolved without altering the form of the plate, other than rendering it extremely porous ; cavities having been formed in the plate corresponding to each integral of the silver that was in the compound: Consequently, the silver and palladium would be taken up by the nitric acid in process 6th, and the platinum and gold by the nitro-mu- riatic in process 8th, without a solution of the rhodium taking place ; its integral aggregation being superior to the chemical action of the acids. How nature forms the immense varity of compounds which we are unable to imitate by art, and how far I have succeeded in illustrating these phenomena, I must leave for others to decide : as a humble labourer in the science of Analytical Che- mistry, I have with much diffidence submitted these theories to the public eye, from a hope that they will draw forth a better explanation from some abler hand. m. No. IX. An Attempt to ascertain the Fusing Temperature of Metals. By Joseph Cloud. — Read May 20th, 1814. THE fusing or melting temperature of the different metals has long excited the attention of philosophers, and many unsuccessful attempts had been made to ascertain that point, when, at length, the ingenious Mr. Wedgewood invent- ed a pyrometer, which appeared to be sufficienfly accurate to indicate the comparative fusibility of such metals as came within its range. To this instrument, however, there are several objections. 1st. As to the accuracy of its zero stated to be equal to 10771° of Fahrenheit, and that each degree of the former is equal to 130° of the latter. 2d. Mr. Wedge- wood found, from experience, that the pyrometrical pieces were liable to suffer variable contractions, at the same tem- perature, from circumstances in their preparation, apparently minute. And another source of error, not easily avoided, is, that natural clays, taken from the same bed or stratum, and apparently of similar qualities, differ considerably in the con- tractions they suffer. 3d. Experiments with the pyrometer pieces seem to lead to the inference, that their contraction is, in some degree, proportioned to the quantity or duration, and not simply to the intenacity of the heat applied. Having noticed the present state of our knowledge on this branch of science, I shall endeavour to point out a method for ascer- 168 AN ATTEMPT TO ASCERTAIN THE taining the fusing temperatures of the metals in a way less liable to error. The dilatation observable in the fusion of metals is a proof that the particles are separated, and kept at a distance from each other, by the interposition of caloric between their inte- grants, sufficient to overcome their attraction of cohesion, and their vis inertia. And when certain degrees of temperature are excited, they lose their solidity and become fluid. From these general laws of fusion, it necesssary follows, that the melting heat of a metal will be governed both by its attrac- tion of cohesion, and vis inertia ; and that the comparative fusibility of the metals will be in the compound ratio of their comparative attraction of cohesion, and specific gravity.* In order to illustrate this position, I have availed myself of Mr. Guyton Marveau's experiments on the attraction of cohesion of the metals, by which he found that wires of 0.787 of a line in diameter required the following forces to tear them asun- der. Iron, 549,250lbs. copper, 302.278lbs. platinum, 274.320 lbs. silver, I87.l37lbs. gold, I50.753lbs. zinc, I09,540lbs. tin, 34.630lbs. lead, 27.62 libs. I shall also make use of the specific gravities as stated by chemical authors. — Iron, 7-788, copper, 8,667; platinum, 23.543; silver, 10.510; gold, 19.361; zinc, 6.861 ; tin, 7.299 ; lead, 11.352. Now, as it has been ascertained that, in the fusion of tin, 442° of Fahrenheit's scale are required to overcome the combined powers of 34.630 attraction of cohesion, and 7-299 of vis inertia (spec, grav.) I have taken them as a standard to find the melting temperature of the other metals, by the following proportions. If 34.630 multiplied by 7.299 require 442°, what will 150.735 multiplied by 19.361 (the attraction of cohesion and specific gravity of gold) require? The answer will be 5103° degrees of Fahrenheit, the fusing point of gold. * As the tendency in bodies to be at rest, and consequently the force re- quired to put them into motion, depends upon their weight, their specific gravity furnishes us with an easy and correct method of ascertaining their comparative vis inerticr. FUSING TEMPERATURE OF METALS. 169 By proceeding, as in the above example, with the other metals, we shall obtain the following results as their fusing temperature — platinum, 11293° — iron, 7480° — copper, 4581° — silver, 3439° — zinc, 1314° — lead, 548°.3. This last turns out to be the precise temperature at which Sir Isaac Newton found lead to melt. — If the above results are reduced to Wedgewood's scale, they will be found to differ but little from the fusibility given by chemists, of such metals as come within the lower range of that scale. The only two in which there is much difference are platinum and iron, this may probably arise from the circumstance of the contraction of Wedgewood's pyrometer pieces being governed by the quantity and not merely by the intensity of the heat applied ; these refractory metals necessarily requiring a longer continuation of it, before a sufficient degree can be excited to effect their fusion. — Chemical writers state platinum to melt at 170° of Wedge- wood, equal to 23177*° of Fahrenheit; and iron at 158° of Wedge wood, equal to 21617^° degrees of Fahrenheit; from which it would appear, that the difference in their fusibility is but 1560° of Fahrenheit. This trifling disparity can hardly be accounted for, when we consider that the fusion of iron is completely within the range of a common melting furnace, and that platinum can only be fused, even in small quantities, by means of a powerful lens, a combination of oxygen and hydrogen gases, or by combustion urged by a stream of pure oxygen gas. — Again, gold is stated to fuse at 32° of Wedge- wood, equal to 52371° of Fahrenheit, which is 16380° of Fahrenheit below the fusing temperature of iron ; now, here is a difference that cannot be correct ; and the most common observer, at all acquainted with the fusion of metals, must be convinced of the error. — Palladium is stated to fuse at 160° of Wedgewood, equal to 218771° of Fahrenheit ; which is 260° of Fahrenheit above the fusing point of iron ; to this error I can testify, from frequently fusing that metal in a common air- furnace ; but as I have not had an opportunity of ascertain- ing its attraction of cohesion, I am unable to calculate its pre- cise fusing temperature ; which, however, appears to be greater than that of gold, but far less than that of iron. No. X. An Inquiry into the Causes why the Metals in a Solid State appear* to be Specifically lighter than they are in the State of Fusion. By Joseph Cloud. — Read July 15th, 1814. AN opinion has universally prevailed among chemists and metallurgists, that cast iron, in the state of fusion, occu- pies less volume, and is consequently denser, than it is in the solid state. This inference has arisen out of what has been considered an anomalous circumstance, that unfused iron will float on the surface of that metal in the fluid state. This, how- ever, is not peculiar to iron ; for, although it may have escaped the notice of others, experience authorises me to assert, that the same law appears to govern the other metals, under the same circumstances. This singular fact would naturally lead to such a conclusion ; for, what better evidence can be looked for, in the laws of gravity, to establish the superior density of a fluid, than that of supporting the solid on its surface ? but this paradoxical phenomenon appears to be irreconcileable with the laws of expansion and fusion. — Caloric, whose particles mu- tually repel each other, and the attraction of cohesion, are antagonist forces ; the action of one always opposing resist- ance to, and diminishing that of the other. Expansion arises from the excess of energy, in the repulsive power of the calo- ric, over the force of cohesion, inherent in the ultimate inte- grals of the metal ; and thereby increasing the distance, and INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE OF METALS. 171 diminishing the attraction of cohesion between them, until they are in a situation to move independently of each other ; and thus constitute fusion. At this period, however, the at- traction of cohesion is not completely destroyed; as an increased temperature and expansion are required to produce evaporation. To prove that the energy of attraction is not destroyed : — 1st. If we place a small quantity of metal, in the state of fusion, on a plane surface, it will assume the spheri- cal form ; and, if two of these globules are made to approach, they will attract each other, and form one sphere. 2d. If a glass plate be laid on a globule of mercury, the globule, not- withstanding the pressure applied to it, endeavours to preserve its spherical form ; if we gradually charge the plate with weights, the globule will be depressed and become thinner and thinner ; but if we again remove the weights from the plate, the mercury will instantly recover its former figure, and push up the glass before it. From these facts it ap- pears, 1st. That the metals, in a state of fusion, are not mere inert fluids, as they could not assume the globular form unless a real reciprocal attraction among their particles existed. The 2d proves that the attraction is not only superior to gravitation, but that it also overcomes an external force. It is a practical fact, well known to every iron founder, that, in order to procure a casting of certain dimensions, it is ne- cessary to have patterns and moulds, from l-8th to 3-l6ths of an inch to the foot, larger than the casting is intended to be ; and that spherical castings, such as cannon balls, will be 1-6 6th of their diameter less than the moulds in which they were cast. The reverse of this would take place if it were true that iron, in the state of fluidity, occupied less space than the solid metal: for the fluid, when first cast into the mould, must necessarily fill its whole cavity ; and its expansion in cooling would produce a casting of larger size than the pattern and mould. The sharpness of iron castings has also been advanced as an evidence in support of the superior density of the fused metal. This circumstance, however, appears more probably to depend upon the fusibility of the metals; iron 2 172 INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE OF METALS. being the most infusible of the metals used for that pur- pose, it will necessarily produce the sharpest castings. For, when melted iron is poured into a mould, it runs like other fluids into all the interstices of the mould, wluch being at a lower temperature than that of the metal, the heat is con- ducted off from the external particles of the metal, by the first impression, and the surface is reduced to a state of solid- ity under the pressure of the superincumbent fluid before any change of temperature or contraction takes place in the cen- tre ;* in this way a shell of solid metal will be formed cor- responding to the most minute impressions or figures of the mould, and although a subsequent contraction of the whole mass takes place, and the figures on the casting are diminished in size, they lose nothing of their sharpness and perfection. Having briefly noticed the laws of expansion and fusion, and a few practical facts connected with iron founding, in which I flatter myself that I have satisfactorily shown the prevailing opinion respecting the superior density of the fused metal to be, if not erroneous, at least very doubtful, I shall now endea- vour to account for the buoyancy of the unfused metals, from the laws governing the metals in the state of fusion. 1st. The attraction of cohesion existing among the particles of the fused metals. 2d. The radiant caloric escaping in a strong ascending current from all pans of the melted mass, its levity naturallv giving it that tendency, and from its meeting least resistance in that direction. These co-operating powers will oppose the gravitation of the unfused metal, with a force suf- ficient to overcome its superior density, and support it on the surface of the fluid till it has nearly acquired the same tem- perature. This effect will necessarily be the most remarka- bly produced in the case of iron, in consequence of the in- tense degree of heat required to fuse it. The truth of this * As Hie cooling process continues to go on from the surface to the cen- tre, and the loss of temperature increases the attraction of cohesion, the particles of the metal will he drawn from the. centre toward the surface; hence we fiud the centre to be hollow, or honeycomb, unless this effect ie prevented by what the founders call a sinking head. INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE OP METALS. 173 hypothesis is rendered more probable by the remarkable cir- cumstance (noticed by Mr. Mushet) that the solid metal, notwithstanding its expansion by the increased temperature, sinks in the fluid when it arrives nearly at the fusing point, and previous to its passing into that state. This singular fact, however inconsistent it may appear, is, nevertheless, recon- cileable with the laws of cohesion, repulsion, and gravity. The metals, in a state of fusion, do not operate as mere con- ductors of heat, but their particles, being considerably sepa- rated, like all other fluids, permit the caloric to pass in an uninterrupted current between them, without being subjected to the tardy and progressive conducting powers of the solid metaL The heat thus passing through the fluid metal, with increased facility, and striking the under surface of the unfused metal, will become subjected to the conducting powers there- of, and consequently be retarded in its progress : a strong current of ascending caloric will then continue to oppose the superior gravity of the unfused metal, and keep it buoyant until it arrives nearly at the melting heat, when it becomes so much expanded that the caloric is not entirely subjected to the conducting power of the metal ; for, in proportion to the in- creased expansion, so will the passage of the caloric be facili- tated, and its action on the unfused metal diminished until it ceases to oppose a sufficient force, co-operating with the at- traction of cohesion, to prevent the unfused metal from sink- ing by its sup rior density.* * Or, assuming what is no doubt generally the case, that the bottom part of a melting-pot is hotter than the upper part, and especially when a piece of solid, and comparatively cold, metal, is placed on the surface, a current in the particles of the melted metal will, on hydrostatic principles, take place, from the bottom upwards ; and thus, from their mechanical impetus, will contribute to prevent the unfused metal from sinkiog. From a similar cause, if in a vessel of boiling water, a solid body of somewhat superior spe- cific gravity, be laid on the surface, it will not sink, but remain buoyant, as long as the water boils. No. XI. Observations and Conjectures on the Formation and Nature of the Soil of Kentucky. By J. Correct de Serra. — Read, April 81, 1815. THE surprising fertility of that part of the state of Ken- tucky commonly called the Elkhorn Tract, and of many of the adjoining tracts in several directions, particularly to the south west, is so generally known in America, that I may, without inconvenience, forego the details of the extraordinary luxuriance of vegetation, and richness of crops that take place in it. The following observations and conjectures are only directed to attempt an explanation of the causes of the won- derful fertility of that soil, and I leave to books of travels and to statistical writers the care of mentioning the instances or appreciating the amount of its uncommon productiveness. It is well known that the country to the west of the Alleg- hanies, is of a different and more recent formation than that of the countries situated to the east of this long ridge of mountains. Granitic or amphibolic rocks, primitive lime- stone, disposed in broken strata with an obliquity from 40 to 50 degrees from the horizon, are the chief components of the country on the east of the Alleghanies. Their disposition and combinations abundantly show that this part of the world, is among those which have claims to a formation of very ancient date, and that they have been worked and shaped by one or more posterior revolutions, into their present appearance. ON THE SOIL OP KENTUCKY. 175 The country to the west of the AUeghanies, is, on the con- trary, all formed of horizontal strata ; whether the stones that form its several parts be siliceous, argillaceous or calcareous. Certainly the formation of that country, is posterior to the revolutions that have overturned every where the strata of the materials which form the country to the east of the Al- leghanies. If this western country had been coeval, nothing could have saved its strata from partaking of the same catas- trophes, and being dislocated in the same manner. These western strata contain imbedded in them an immense quan- tity of marine shells, and other organised bodies belonging both to the animal and vegetable kingdom. The vegetable remains in particular, are in such astonishing abundance, that they form thick strata of coals extending in some parts to hundreds of miles, keeping always nearly the same level, as it is particularly ascertained of that stratum of excellent coals which is now worked at Coal Hill, opposite to Pittsburgh, on the other side of the Monongahela. It is clear from these phenomena, that the soil of all this basin contained between the foot of the Andes, the high- lands to the north of the lakes, and the AUeghanies, has not only been formed after these last mountains, but also at an epoch when the organised bodies were already in existence ; and moreover, that the precipitation and deposition of the materials which have filled this space, have been calmly and quietly worked by nature as in a sheltered harbour, where the turmoils of the primitive ocean had little effect. But though all this region is in the same predicament as to its original formation, still there are strong appearances of a part of it having been left by the ocean after the other, and of its being comparatively of a more recent epoch. The materials that form it, are very probably the last, and, in some respects, incomplete operation of the sea before its total re- treat, as the following considerations seem to indicate. Almost every part of the country to the north of the Ohio, the western parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia, the eastern part of Kentucky, and as far as my information goes, all the 176 OBSERVATIONS AND CONJECTURES East Tennessee, are formed, it is true, of horizontal strata, but compact enough, mixed in many parts with argillaceous slate, and the strata of limestone are sometimes interrupted with other strata of siliceous stones. The calcareous them- selves are almost always but sparingly provided with fossil remains of shells. These stony strata are generally covered by many others of argillas, sand, and of gravel and rolled pebbles. Above these, is the vegetable soil commonly of a good quality, but in the same proportions as it is found in other fertile countries, and nearly of the same nature as in the good parts of Pennsylvania. All this region is high, composed of lulls commonly steep, with narrow tops, intermixed with valleys of different breadth, but generally flat, wide, and filled with alluvial soil, which the currents of water have taken from higher grounds and depo- sited there ; consequently of a superior fertility to the upland. The horizontal position of the strata, has in some places un- dergone a partial and slight alteration, and over all the surface of this region, particularly in the state of Ohio, are not unfre- quently found considerable insulated fragments of stones, of more primitive formations, such as siliceous, puddingstones, £)'c. and if I am not mistaken, granitellos, and porphyrinic stones, carried from their original distant situations by the currents of the ocean, when covering these spaces. Far different from this is the nature and aspect of the coun- try, the extraordinary fertility of which is the subject of this paper. The whole of this tract is of a lower level than the preceding, a great presumption this, of its more modern for- mation, because the lowest parts of the terrestrial surface have naturally been the latest relinquished by the sea. No diversity of stones is found here, but every where a pure, soft, carbonate of lime, which is generally about the surface of a tender tex- ture, disposed in very thin horizontal strata, not commonly thicker than the sheets of argillaceous scliists. It does not acquire compactness but at a certain depth, and even then it appears of the most tine homogeneous texture, as may be observed in all the blocks of Kentucky marble. In all its ON THE SOIL OF KENTUCKY. 177 states this calcareous stone is filled with marine shells, amongst which the genus terebratula seems the more predominant. The horizontality of the strata is most striking. Above this carbonate of lime, scarce any earth, sand or gravel appears ; but a thick bed of soft black saponaceous, but not adherent, loam, from three to sixteen feet in depth, which is the seat of the most amazing vegetation. The aspect of the country, is very different from that of the preceding region. It is not a flat plain, but one strongly undulated, the tops of the high lands are wide extended, the furrows of the water courses very narrow, nowhere accompa- nied by any thing like flat vallies or bottoms. Contrary to what happens almost any where else, the wide extended tops of the hills are endowed with an unbounded fertility, and this diminishes on their sides in proportion as you descend to the water courses. This simplicity of structure, this homogenity of composition, together with the lower level of this region, afford strong presumption that all this tract has undergone still less revolutions than the rest of the western lands, and that the deposition of the materials that form it, was one of the last operations of the power of the ocean before it left this western continent wholly uncovered. The almost immediate superposition of this very thick body of fine vegetable soil on the tender layers of carbonate of lime, is a phenomenon not easily explained in the ordinary ways. We must remember that the productive soil of every country is composed of the friable detritus of the stony materials of which the country is formed ; almost always covered by a light stratum of mould, proceeding from the rotten remains of vege- tables, which, in the process of ages had covered its suiface. This detritus of the stony materials of each country, partakes of the nature of the rocks from which it is taken, and contains the chemical principles of the earths which entered into the composition of these stones. Hence the different nature and fertility of soils. A constant observation has shewn that argilla- ceous and calcareous earths, but chiefly the last, were the most propitious to vegetable production, and mixed with the decom- 178 OBSERVATIONS AND CONJECTURES posed materials of organised bodies, constituted by their seve- ral proportions the basis of strong vegetation. The superior stratum of vegetable mould, is in all countries generally thin, and if we reflect on the nature of vegetables, and of their nutrition and decomposition, it is easily perceived that it cannot be otherwise. Gases and water constitute by far the greatest part of the aliments of plants, and into the same principles they are easily dissolved. If we find this vegetable mould apparently plentiful in a decayed or rottening tree, successive evaporation of moisture and developement of gases daily reduce its bulk, and the remains of a gigantic tree left to the decomposing process, must in a series of years be re- duced to a few ounces of perceptible matter, still liable to fur- ther gaseous decomposition. The quantity of organic decom- posed matters remaining in the soil is small indeed, and on examination almost every where this superior layer of mould is not simply vegetable matter, but the result of the decom- position of vegetables incorporated and combined with the earth of the stratum immediately under it. One exception only exists to this universal rule. The bottom of rivers where the annual inundations quietly deposit a sediment of the more soluble parts of earth, which, in their course they iiave detached from their original stations, in the long lapse of ages treasure a thick mass of fat loam, washed from a wide extended suiface of soil. But the country, of which we speak, has nothing common with these river bot- toms, the highest parts of it are the most fertile, and thick- ness of loam and fertility both diminish in proportion as the surface is lower. Let us now remember the unbounded deposits of fossil vege- tables which are found in this western region, the coal stratum of Pittsburgh for instance, extending for hundreds of miles. Let us also reflect on the difference of the alterations which vegeta- ble bodies undergo when decomposing, if imbedded between stony strata of a ponderous solid nature, or only covered by light permeable strata of earth, or under a column of water. How ON THE SOIL OF KENTUCKY. 179 different are these operations from their decomposition in the atmosphere ! In the first case the pressure of a solid stratum, the heat of a fermentation which cannot work but on itself, where no principle is lost, but all of them form new combina- tions, reduce the decomposed vegetables to the state of coals. In the second case, when decomposed under water, or under light materials, strata are formed of fossil half rotten wood, imbedded in rotten leaves, and when this mass is exposed to the action of the atmosphere, it is soon converted into a black, soft, saponaceous matter, not unlike the loam of Kentucky. Such subterraneous and submarine forests of vast extension are more common than is generally supposed. The Atlantic states of America, in their alluvial parts, offer in the digging of wells abun- dant reasons to believe that like deposits are contained under their soil. In Europe they have been observed in several parts. I have had the pleasure myself of making known, in the Phi- losophical Transactions, that the eastern part of England contained, at the depth of sixteen feet, a subterraneous and submarine forest, the remains of which could be traced from near the mouth of the Humber to Peterborough, a distance of about an hundred miles. If such a deposit is not covered by any other substance, it is clear that if left dry by the retreat of the water, it must be- come such another soil as that of the Elkhorn Tract, to a depth proportionate to the quantity of rotten vegetables. In resuming these facts, great reasons I believe exist, for more than suspecting that the soil of this part of Kentucky is but a bed of vegetables, the deposit of which has been the last operation of the waters before their final recess, and which not being covered by any other heavy material, have been left to rot and dissolve themselves into mould of a depth proportionate to their vast quantity. Only thus can we explain the depth of the Kentucky mould, because no forests growing on the spot coidd ever have produced it, as they do not pro- duce it in other countries where they have vegetated from the creation. The soft fossil shells, and tender carbonate of lime, on which this mould lies, and with which, no doubt, it is mixed 2 180 OBSERVATIONS AND CONJECTURES, £$C in some proportion, afford the happiest combination that na- ture presents to improve fertility. The calcareous earth is the only one that water can nearly perfectly dissolve, and with it the animal principles which the fossil shells contain. The theory and practice of manures offers nothing superior to such combination. From all the preceding considerations, I am disposed to conclude that the soil of the millions of acres which constitute the Elkhorn Tract, and its ramifications, is the produce of the decomposition of an immense deposit of vegetables, which the ocean had left uncovered by any other deposition. Such natu- rally, would have been the soil of all that large portion of coun- try, where the coals are found at a constant depth in West Penn- sylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio, if the vegetable depot had not been covered by the heavy materials which form the few superincumbent strata. No. XII. An easy Solution of a useful Problem in Arithmetic. By James Austin. — Read November 3, 1815. THE committee to whom were referred the papers from Mr. James Austin, of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania, rela- tive to an easy solution of a useful problem in arithmetic, recommend that the following abstract of the same be pub- lished in the transactions of the society. — [Adopted."] IN casting up the contents of a survey or inclosure of land, from the course and distance of its several boundary lines, as well as in many other parts of practical mathematics, it becomes a necessary problem — " To find the sum or differ- ence of the products of any number of given factors." The following process, it is presumed, exhibits a very easy and expeditious solution of this problem, by simple addi- tion:— 1. You ride out nine columns, or vertical spaces, which you number, at the head, l, 2, 3, ^c. 2. In those columns, you write down, in succession, the several multipliers, each under the digits of its multiplicand at the top of the columns ; observing to set the units figure of each multiplier in such place of the column, as the figure at the top occupies in its multiplicand. 182 AN EASY SOLUTION OP A 3. You add up the numbers in column 9, and set down the sum : to this sum you add the numbers in column 8, and set down the sum, under the former : to this last sum you add the numbers in column 7, and so on, with all the other columns. 4. You add together the nine sums before found, and their sum will be that of the products required. This process will be better understood from the following examples. EXAMPLE I. Let it be required to find the Sum of the Products of the fol- lowing Factoi\ viz. 342 x 756 301 X 127 89 X 1834 120 x 97 551 x 37.4 6.8 x 16.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SO 100 89001 3010 5310 890 89 55.1 3420 342 8900 6.8 34200 301 120 551 1200 .68 6b 1200.68 1200.68 36372.68 45621.48 49041.48 49185.58 50075.58 58595.58 177763.58 Sum of products = 469057.32 VSErCt. PROBLEM IN ARITHMETIC. 183 EXAMPLE n. Let it be required to find the Difference of the Products of the following Factors, viz. 42X72 35 X 19 73X81 122 X 25 34 x 14 56 x 18 13 X 14.3 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 350 42 122 420 730 35 73 1220 340 1.3 34 56 35 560 13 709 130 1129 1129 1251 1204 1202.7 2464.7 1857.7 Diff. of products == 10982.1 184 AN EASY SOLUTION OF A EXAMPLE III. (Taken from Gibson's Surveying.) Let it be required to find the Area of an Enclosure, of which the Meridian Distances (or Multipliers) and Differences of Latitude are as follows, viz. 235.3 X 14.2 N 302.6 X 38.6 N 368.7 x 117.7 S. 228.7 X 15.5 S. 166.6 x 36.0 N. 120.5 x 4.9 S. 37.2 X 27.8 N 46. x 61.5N 113.4 X 51.7 N. 181.5 X 11.0 S. 217.0 X 41.6 S. 194.1 X 38.8 S. 1 2 z 4 5 6 7 8 9 490 155 1550 49 4160 11770 38.8 .49 1.1 1177 3^68 3.6 36 360 61.5 11.77 1.55 41.6 27.8 492.76 506.96 1127.13 5460.25 6921.63 16208.63 117.7 15.5 110 388 11 1.42 142 3860 278 51.7 615 5.17 388 1100 416 14.2 631.2 586.12 3.88 3880 1420 38.6 2.78 1863.12 1864.71 3600 517 5170 1903.51 13663.51 19587.51 25488.39 30745.16 66086.07 30745.16 2)35340.95 Area in per. = 17670.45 USEFUL, PROBLEM IN ARITHMETIC. 185 EXPLANATORY REMARKS. 1. In Example I. the first multiplier, 342, is set down in the columns, three times ; viz. under 6, 5, and 7, the digits of its multiplicand ; the units figure, 2, in the units' place of column 6, in the tens' place of column 5, and in the hundreds' place of column 7 ; and so of all the other multipliers, re- spectively. 2. The sum of the multipliers in column 9 amounts to 1200.68. This sum added to the multipliers in column 8, (0) gives the same number ; and this again added to the multi- pliers in column 7, amounts to 36372.68 ; and in the same manner the remaining sums are found, as in the example. 3. From the above process it is evident, that the sum of the numbers in column 9 is taken 9 times ; [multiplied by 9] that in column 8, 8 times ; that in column 7, 7 times, £jc. and the aggregate of those sums is evidently the sum of the products required. 4. In Example II. where the difference of the products of given factors is to be found, the multipliers of the products to be subtracted, are placed under a line separating them from the other multipliers ; and in adding up the numbers in the respective columns, the co-arithmetical (as it may be called) of the subtrahends are taken ; i. e. what the right hand sig- nificant figures want of 10, and what all the others, respec- tively, want of 9 ; subtracting l from the next vertical line of figures on the left of each subtrahend. This mode of adding and subtracting at the same time, is frequently practised in trigonometry, and readily demonstrated. 5. In Example III. instead of taking the co-ar. of the sub- trahends, which, in some cases, is a little embarrassing, the respective sums of the north and of the south products are found separately, and then their difference taken. This ope- ration, though a few more figures are employed, is, however, much more simple, and requires no more time, but perhaps Jess, than when the co-ar. is used. A a 186 AN EASY SOLUTION, £$C. 6. Almost in all cases, especially where the number of pro- ducts is considerable, the above method, by simple addition, has greatly the advantage over the common method by mul- tiplication, both in respect to facility and expedition ; as will be evident to any one who will make the comparison. R. PATTERSON. F. R. HASSLER. S. COLHOUN. No. XIII. On the Geological Formation of the Natural Bridge of Vir- ginia. By Francis William Gilmer. — Read February 16, 1816. IT is chiefly to Mr. Jefferson that naturalists are indebted for their knowledge of this beautiful and uncommon accident in the structure of mountains. The description which our dis- tinguished philosopher has given of it in his l^otes on Vir- ginia, not only excited the curiosity of the learned, but induced the French general Marquis of Chatelux, to have an exact draught of it made by one of his engineers ; from which both Europe and America were supplied with plates, which have justified the admiration excited by the description of Mr. Jefferson. This object is not only singular in its structure, but, in a high degree, picturesque and romantic. And though Mr. Jef- ferson, with whom I had the pleasure of visiting it in the autumn of 1815, thinks it has lost some of its embellishments in 50 years of invasion upoii the trees which crowned its borders, and overhung its sides, it still retains enough of its beauty and grandeur to vindicate all the pretensions which such fortunate patronage could give it. The bridge is situated on Cedar Creek, a small stream in the county of Rockbridge. The channel of this creek is, for some distance both above and below the bridge, a deep, narrow 188 ON THE GEOLOGICAL, FORMATION ravine, with almost perpendicular sides of rock, disposed in unequal, horizontal strata. The fissures between these strata are sometimes so large as to give growth to Kalmia, Thuia, Abies, and many mosses and lichens, whose perpetual verdure is agreeably contrasted with the blue limestone. The hills about the bridge are covered with the ordinary forest trees of this part of Virginia. Tilia, Cercis, Thuia, Abies, Lirioden- dron, Fagus, and many species of Quercus. In the aspect of the country there is nothing peculiarly beautiful or striking. You follow the road which lies on a transverse ridge of hills, crossing the ravine by the bridge, until you are near the object of your philosophical pilgrimage, without observing any in- dication of its approach. It is not until you are very near, that you perceive a deep cleft in the earth ; — you rush to its side, impatient to examine so unexpected a phenomenon. The curiosity of most persons, however, is overcome by fear, before they reach the margin of the precipice ; they either abandon the enterprise, or timidly accomplish it by resting on a tree or rock, while they peep into the chasm which yawns beneath. While standing on the brink of this awful object, I had an opportunity of taking its height with a chord, more accurately than some others, who have made it much beyond what it really is, from the principles of a fallacious calcula- tion. Feet. The height of the lower surface of the arch above } _ the water is about 5 The thickness of the arch varies from a much great er extent to The height of the upper surface or top of the arch, *200 Such is the effect of the great elevation of the arch, that though more than 30 feet thick, it possesses all the tightness and elegance of Ionic proportions. It only wants a curvature * It has been said to be as much a9 270 feet. Mr. Jefferson found its latitude to be north, 37°, 42', 44". 33 OF THE NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA. 189 rather more regular, to give it the graceful symmetry of the most beautiful works of art. After the curiosity is satisfied, the mind passes from the contemplation of an object, so wonderful in its structure, and vast in its dimensions, to con- sider the operations of nature which could produce so extra- ordinary a phenomenon. Theories have already been attempted for explaining the formation of the Natural Bridge. As they were generally formed in the age of the mechanical philosophy, before geo- logy or even chemistry had become sciences, we need not wonder to find the solutions they offered, very insufficient. Mr. Jefferson's hypothesis rested entirely upon the supposi- tion, that some sudden and violent convulsion of nature, tore away one part of the hill from the other, and left the bridge remaining over the chasm. This, however, is referring to an agent whose existence even is unknown, and in explaining one phenomenon, involves us in greater difficulties by requir- ing an explanation of a still greater one ; — unless this sudden convulsion be supposed to have been an earthquake, in which case the indications of its existence would have been nume- rous, and not a few solitary ones. Besides, there are no cor- responding salliant and receding angles, which would have been a circumstance necessarily attending this violent emo- tion and severance of one part of the hill from the other. And why should the bridge remain, more than any other part of the surface, across the ravine ? This hypothesis then, however ingenious it be, when we consider the age of science in which it appeared, must be rejected as contradicting a rule which is necessary to impart to fiction some degree of veri-similitude : " Nee Deus intersit nisi dignus vindice nodus." It contradicts, also, that beautiful and valuable rule laid down by Newton, " that it is unphilosophical to assign more causes for the natural appearance of things than are both true, and sufficient to account for the phenomena." The certainty of 190 ON THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION the existence of a cause is an inquiry which must always pre- cede the admission of any effect from it. In the present state of geology, the phenomenon does not require us to resort to the operation of unknown, or even of doubtful agents. And instead of its being the effect of a sudden convulsion, or an extraordinary deviation from the ordinary laws of nature, it will be found to have been pro- duced by the very slow operation of causes which have al- ways, and must ever continue, to act in the same manner. To make this manifest, let us consider the situation of the bridge. That the place at which it stands is the highest point of a transverse ridge of hills, with a narrow base, which crosses the ravine at that spot. The country about the bridge, like all that which is west of the mountains, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, is calcareous.* The strata of rock, which at different places make different angles with the horizon, are here parallel to it. This rock is soluble in water to such a degree, as to be found in solution with all the waters of the country, and is so soft as to yield not only to its chemical agency, but also to its mechanical attrition. Here, as in cal- careous countries generally, there are frequent and large fissures in the earth, which are sometimes conduits for subterraneous streams, called ' sinking rivers,' ' sinking creeks,' £jc. of which there are several in the western parts of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is probable, then, that the water of Cedar Creek originally found a subterrane- ous passage beneath the arch of the present bridge, then only the continuation of the transverse ridge of lulls. The stream has gradually widened, and deepened this ravine to its present situation. Fragments of its sides also yielding to the expan- sion and contraction of heat and cold, tumbled down even above the height of the water. Or, if there was no subterra- * Tlierc have also been round near the sea similar arches, formed by the chemical and mechanical action of its waters. There is both the figure and description of one, in Capt. Cooke's Voyages, which was found in New Zealand, and there is something of the same kind in the Island of Jersey, as we learn from the Memoirs of the English Geological Society. OP THE NATURAL BRIDGE OP VIRGINIA. 191 neous outlet, the waters opposed by the hill flowed back, and formed a lake, whose contact dissolved the resistance where it was least, wore away the channel through which it now flows, and left the earth standing above its surface. I incline, however, rather to the first hypothesis, because the ravine has the appearance, from its narrow banks, of having been the channel of a stream in all time, and had it been the bed of a lake, the continued action of the water would have widened it into a basin. The stone and earth composing the arch of the bridge, remained there and no where else ; because, the lull being of rock, the depth of rock was greatest above the surface of the water where the hill was highest, and this part being very thick, and the strata horizontal, the arch was strong enough to rest on such a base. The same circumstances having concurred, the same phe- nomenon has been produced in Scott county, lately a part of Washington county, in Virginia. There is, over Stock Creek, a branch of Clinch River, a bridge, whose height is estimated at 300 feet, with a thicker arch ; whose formation, in every material respect, resembles that of its more celebra- ted rival of Rockbridge. Indeed, the numerous subterraneous caverns which are found in this range of country, and which were formed in the original crystallization of the rock, only require a section of their ends to be taken away to become natural bridges, and these ends remain, only because their arches are thick enough to support the superincumbent weight. This, however, may, in the endless flow of time, cease to be the case, and caves may become bridges, and bridges cease to ex- ist. If it be difficult to carry our minds so far forward as to embrace such great changes, produced by causes operating so slowly, we may assist their operation by recollecting a still more prodigious effect of the same agent. At Reizi in Swit- zerland, a few years since, an entire mountain was excavated by a stream, part of it fell down, and inundated the neigh- bouring country by obstructing the waters of the river. 192 ON THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION, 6jC. Indeed, the very process by which the natural bridge was formed, is still visibly going on; the water, which is acci- dentally thrown entirely on the western side, is excavating the rock, and widening the channel, which, after a long lapse of time, may become too wide to support the arch, and this wonder of our country will disappear — indicating, in all its mutations, the uniformity of the operations of nature, showing as well by its decay as by its present situation, an effect, dif- ferent only in degree, of the same undeviating power. No. XIV. Analysis of the Blue Iron Earth of New Jersey. By Thomas Cooper, M. D. — Read May 3, 18 16. THIS earth is found in many places of New Jersey, not usually of a blue colour when dug up, but acquiring that colour after being exposed to the air. I do not enter into any geo- logical details, because I have reason to believe this part of the subject will occupy the attention of a member of tills so- ciety, better qualified, from local knowledge, to treat it than I am. I offer to the Society the following experiments, because I think the nature of the substance has been mistaken. External Characters. 1st. It has a moderately deep smalt-blue colour, neither verging toward copper-red, like indigo and Prussian blue ; nor toward green, like mountain blue, and blue fluor. 2d. Its appearance to the eye is earthy. 3d. When breathed upon, it gives out a slight earthy odour. 4th. It is moderately hard : when scratched by the point or edge of a common penknife, the streak is bluish and dusty, from the knife penetrating the substance of the stone ; but when scratched by the back of the knife, or by the nail, the streak is greyish-white and shining. Bb 194 ANALYSIS OF THE 5th. It breaks with a fracture somewhat conchoidal. 6th. It adheres to the tongue with some force. 7th. When a drop of oil is poured on it, the colour becomes black, or of a deep blue, approaching to black: so that it pro- mises to be useful as a pigment. 8th. Its specific gravity is 2,5338. 9th. It absorbs 35 per cent, of water on immersion in that fluid. Its Habitudes when exposed to Heat. 10th. Before the blow-pipe, whether supported by char- coal, or on the bottom of a crucible, it becomes of a brown colour, and then melts into a shining greyish globule, not attractable by the magnet, unless this treatment with charcoal be continued. llth. When this stone in powder is distilled at a low red heat for an hour in close vessels, with a pneumatic appara- tus, no gas is collected, except the common air expelled by rarefaction from the containing vessel ; moisture arises, which by means of a cold atmosphere, is condensed into pure water, exhibiting no chemical qualities on dropping a drop of it into muriate of baryta, or diluted tincture of galls. The powder thus distilled, loses from 23 to 24 per cent, when the distilla- tion has been urged. 12th. On calcining 100 grains in a full red heat for an hour, 80 to 81 grains of a bright brown powder are procured, con- sisting (as will be seen) partly of the brown-red oxyde of iron, and partly of alumina. 13th. This calcined brown powder, when treated in a cru- cible with charcoal, or when made into a paste with wax, and burnt three several times, ) ielded 48 grains of iron, by means of a magnet ; and there were left behind, six and a half grains of a powder not acted upon by the magnet. This last, being dissolved in sulphuric acid, diluted, and precipitated by car- bonate of ammonia, possessed the common characters of alumina. BLUE IRON EARTH OF NEW JERSEY. 195 14th. When fused in small proportion with potash, for the purpose of discovering the presence of manganese, the trace of green colour was too slight to indicate any appreciable quantity of that substance. Its Habitudes with Solvents. 15th. This stone does not dissolve perceptibly in pure rain water at the common temperature of the atmosphere ; nor does the water in which it has been infused, exhibit any colour when tested by galls, or triple prussiate of potass : nor does it afford any precipitate by carbonat of potass. 1 6th. The sulphuric, the nitric, and the muriatic acids, dropt on this stone, excite no effervescence, they are diffused on it, and sink into it. 17th. It is not easily dissolved in sulphuric acid, without the aid of moderate heat. I used the top of the common ten- plate stove, of about 150° of Fahrenheit; but with heat, and after some hours digestion, it becomes a white mass with tliis acid; which mass is soluble entirely in boiling water, pro- ducing a clear solution ; there is no effervescence during the solution. 18th. Having dissolved 50 grains of the stone in sulphuric acid, and diluted the solution with hot water, I added a fil- tered solution of triple prussiat of potass, made in the common way, by digesting carbonat of potass on Prussian blue, till the latter no longer became discoloured. On continuing to add this while any precipitate appeared, I obtained a quantity of the most intense and beautiful Prussian blue, which, when cal- cined in a full red heat for an hour, yielded forty grains of red oxyd. The remaining liquor, after filtration, and precipitation by carbonat of ammonia, afforded a precipitate which, when carefully filtered, and moderately dried, weighed about 4 1-3 grains : it was alumina. It weighed less in proportion than the alumina of experiment 1 3, in consequence of not being so much dried. The quantity thus obtained, of iron and alumina. 196 ANALYSIS OP THE is probably not quite accurate, owing to the iron contained in the triple prussiat : but very near the truth. 1 9th. This stone when powdered, dissolves in nitric acid in the warm atmosphere of a summer's day, after 10 or 12 hours digestion, without residuum. 20th. This nitric solution, was evaporated to perfect dry- ness; the powdered residuum was digested in fresh nitric acid, which was again evaporated to dryness. A third portion of the same acid was now poured on the brown-red powder, and digested on it: about l-ioth was dissolved, as appeared on drying and weighing the residuum. The solution mode- rately diluted and filtered, exhibited but very slight shades of colour with tincture of galls and solution of triple prussiat of potass, so that but a trace of iron was taken up, as was ori- ginally presumed and intended. The digestion in nitric acid, and driving it oft* by heat, being meant for the purpose of oxyding the iron beyond the point of solubility in that acid. The last portion of nitric acid therefore, took up nothing but the earths. These being precipitated by carbonat of ammo- nia, afforded about nine per cent, of earth, when dried at the heat of 1 50 Fahrenheit, and consisted entirely of alumina. 2 1st. Muriatic acid dissolves this stone by heat. The solu- tion is of a brownish-yellow colour. It leaves no residuum. 22d. Oxalic acid and oxalat of ammonia, occasion no pre- cipitate from any of these solutions : hence there is no trace of any of the alkaline earths. Experimeiits to discover the Presence of Puissic Acid in this Stone. 23d. Carbonat of potass digested on the powdered stone, takes away the colour, but does not dissolve the substance. The solution of carbonat of potass so digested on the stone in fine powder, being filtered, produced no blue precipitate when poured into a solution of sulphat of iron. 24th. A piece of this stone suspended for many hours in a solution of sulphat of iron, diffused no trace of blue colour. BLUE IRON EARTH OP NEW JERSEY. 197 either when immersed dry, or moistened with an alkaline solution. 25th. The following experiment was suggested and made for me by Mr. Cloud, who appears to have investigated the properties of palladium more fully than any other chemist. The nitro-muriat of palladium, and the nitro-muriat of gold, are not precipitated by the chromat of potass, but they are precipitated by the prussiats. When the red oxyd of mercury is triturated with Prussian blue, and boiled with water for half an hour, a prussiat of mercury is formed, which occasions a fawn-coloured precipitate, when added even in a very minute portion to the nitro-muriat of palladium : this precipitate is a prussiat of palladium. Red oxyd of mercury was mixed with the blue earth in fine powder, and water being added to the mixture, was boiled in a sand-bath for more than half an hour, and constantly stirred during the time : when cool, the liquor was filtered and dropped into a nitro-muriatic solu- tion of palladium, but no precipitate appeared. Experiments to ascertain the Presence of Phosphoric Acid. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. When the native green phosphat of lead, is melted before the flame of the blow-pipe on charcoal, it chrystallizes on cooling into a polyhedral garnet-like kind of chrystallized mass ; so does the artificial phosphat of lead, made by adding phosphat of soda to nitrat or acetat of lead ; in which case the phosphat of lead precipitates in a dense white powder, speedily and distinctly. These remarks have been made by Klaproth, in his Analysis of the Phosphated Lead Ores. When nitrat of lead, or acetat of lead, are added to any solution containing phosphoric acid, the solution of lead is instantly decomposed, and a phosphat of lead is formed. Thus, when phosphat of iron made either directly by solution in phosphoric acid, or by precipitation by phosphate of soda, is dissolved even in small quantity in the nitric acid, this solu- 198 ANALYSIS OF THE tion is immediately precipitated by any solution of lead : these facts were previously ascertained. Moreover, solutions of iron in phosphoric acid, were made both directly and by double decomposition, as by precipitating a solution of sulphat of iron by phosphat of soda. The phos- phat of iron in both cases, when dried moderately, assumes a slight bluish tinge by exposure to the atmosphere ; which may have led to the supposition of this blue stone being phos- phat of iron. These previous experiments were made to ascertain the colour of artificial phosphat of iron. With these facts in view, a solution of the blue iron earth (or stone) was made in pure nitric acid, freed from muriatic acid by nitrat of silver, and from sulphuric acid by nitrat of baryta : precautions which were afterwards found unnecessary for this particular purpose, the common nitric acid of com- merce answering sufficiently well. This nitrated solution of the substance under analysis, was mixed gradually with nitrat of lead, and subsequently in a distinct experiment with acetat of lead. In neither case, was there any precipitate produced, as might have been expected to take place, had even a trace of phosphoric acid, combined or uncombined, existed in tliis nitric solution. Again, a considerable quantity of the substance in powder, dried, but not discoloured, was rubbed up with about l-ioth of its weight of lamp-black: in another experiment with 1-1 Oth of sulphur; in a third experiment with l-ioth of a a mixture of lamp-black and sulphur. The mixed powder was put into bottle-shaped crucibles, having clay stoppers, with a glass tube of about l-l6th of an inch diameter, passing through the stopper. The clay was burned to fit the aperture, and during the experiments the stoppers were also well luted and attended to. — The mixtures were exposed to a gradual heat for half an hour, to dissipate the hygrometrical moisture, if any should remain. The stoppers constantly examined: the heat was gradually increased to a full red. at the close of an hour: during this time a lighted paper was very fre- quently applied to the orifice of the glass tubes whence the BLUE IRON EARTH OF NEW JERSEY. 19y vapours from the blue earth issued, but there was no trace of any thing inflammable to be discovered. Nor was any, the slightest phosphorescence discovered, on dropping the pow- dered stone on red hot charcoal. Hence I conclude, 1st. That the hard blue earth of New Jersey is probably the same substance with the blue earth of Jamison and Wer- ner, the fer azure of Hauy, and the fer phosphate of Brochant and Brogniart; but it seems to differ somewhat from the smalt-blue fossil of the Vorau, analysed by Klaproth. 2d. That this blue earth of New Jersey, contains neither prussic or phosphoric acid. 3d. That it consists of sub-oxyd of iron, intimately united with about l-10th of the earth of alum, and 24 per cent, of water, probably in chemical union. 4th. That it contains no perceptible quantity of silica, lime, magnesia, or the other earths. 5th. That its colour may be of vegetable origin, but I cannot venture any probable surmise concerning it. The chrystallized earth of New Jersey, consisting of olive green chrystals, upon a bluish green earthy stone, is very similar in its geological and chemical characters, to the blue earth just described ; but as I propose a more perfect analysis of these chrystals than I have yet made, I shall say no more about them at present. THOMAS COOPER. No. XV. On Vanishing Fractions. By Jared Mansfield, Professor of the Military Academy at Washington. — Read, May 17th, 1816. THE numerical value of an algebraic expression, is not to be estimated, in all cases, from the value of the terms winch compose it, independently or separately considered; or from the coalesced value of any part of them, but from the joint effect of the whole. For sometimes one or more of the terms vanish, or become infinite 5 and, therefore, as these are non-entities, or inconceivable by our understanding, we may hastily conclude the whole to be impossible, or not suscepti- ble of management: whereas, by some contrary operation implied in the general expression, the evanescence, or infinity, may be destroyed. This is more particularly the case with those functions of a variable quantity, denominated Vanishing Fractions. The principles necessary for a developement and right understanding of this subject, are analogous to those employed in explaining the first elements of algebra, in re- spect to the use of the negative sign. As the abstract con- sideration of negative quantities lead to absurdity and erro- neous conclusion, so does that of quantities which are supposed to be nothing, infinite, or more than infinite. In order to clear this subject of its difficulties, it may he well to observe, generally, that algebraic expressions, or func- ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. 301 tions of any quantity are a combination of ratios, either arith- metical, or geometrical. The effect of these on the function, does not depend on the absolute magnitude of the terms, but on their relative, or comparative value ; for no variation of ratio arises from the variation of the magnitudes of quantities compared, under the same circumstances and considerations : thus the ratio of the diagonal of a square to its side, or of the diameter of a circle to the circumference, is the same, what- ever the magnitude of those figures may be. Indeed the rea- sonings of mathematics consist altogether in the investigations of relative magnitude, or of relations generally, in which the consideration of absolute magnitude is excluded, and is only re- sorted to as a unit, or standard of numerical computation. When a ratio is formed by a comparison, either arithmeti- cal or geometrical, of two equal quantities, the function is not affected by it, whether they be supposed finite, infinite, or nothing. This inference is drawn, not from any consideration of quantities infinitely great or infinitely small, but rather from the reverse, viz. that in all possible states of their existence, there cannot, by hypothesis, be any ratio of inequality; there cannot, therefore, be any effect produced by such a ratio, in any state of the existence of the terms, and it is the same when they become non-entities. This argument might be stated logically, according to the reductio ad absurdum. Again, whatever the magnitude of the terms compared may be, if their ratio, or the relative value of one to the other, be great, or little, the function will be proportionally increased or dimi- nished ; but this, as has been already observed, must be esti- mated from the aggregate effect of all the ratios included in the function. If there be some ratios of majority, and some of minority, these, like positive and negative quantities in algebra, have contrary effects, and where there is such a combination, the negative, or even impossible quantities by themselves, are not therefore to be considered as impossible in their effects on one another. A negative quantity, or an impossible expression in algebra by itself, is unmanageable, and not susceptible of C c 202 ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. ratiocination ; but in composition with others of the same kind, it may be rendered possible, or made to vanish. Thus the value of x + v^a, or of s/^a, in itself is imposssible, and inconceivable by our understandings, but that of x+s/^axv^a = x — a, is a pure algebraic quantity, or function of x, whose effect is simple and obvious. So likewise x va — b, when b is greater than a, is an impossible function of x, but that of x :. in the same circumstance of b, is assignable, being; equal to x ; or in the ratio of 1 to Va — 6, the numerator, what- ever its value may be, is destroyed, by an equal and contrary ratio in the denominator, or of va — b to l, or — — x =1. 1 Va— b In order, therefore, to estimate the true value of any func- tion, we must resolve it into all the ratios of which it is com- posed, and if any of them be impossible by themselves, before we conclude, that the whole is such, we must ascertain, whe- ther, as in common algebra, the impossibles may not destroy one another, so as to produce altogether no effect in the func- tion. This will be best illustrated by examples, and from them may be derived all those rules, which have been considered not merely as mysterious, but absurd. It is obvious, that an arithmetical ratio of equality as in the simple function of x, x—i—g — fr, when a=b, produces no effect, or that its value is x— i— o=x : Let x-,, be another function of x, involving the geometrical ratio .-, this also, when it is a ratio of equality, or a=b, will produce no effect, although it be expounded by l, unity in a geometrical, being equivalent to 0 in an arithmetical ratio ; for 7 involves two other ratios, viz. that of 1 : a and b: 1, which, when a=b, are reciprocals ; or as much as unity is increased by one, it is diminished by the other, and therefore their compounded value is unity. If the ratio of 1 to a, be infinitely great in the antecedent, or a ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. SOS be nothing, this is an infinite ratio of minority in the conse- quent, which by itself, would cause axx to become nothing; l l also the other ratio, the reciprocal of the former, (- or - ) by itself, would cause x to be infinitely great, and by estima- ting the ratios thus separately, we find them vanishing or infi- nite, and of course out of the limits of our faculties. It is from such a process, that the unskilful have found difficulties, which they charge to the mysterious nature of the subject, and the unintelligible doctrine of mathematicians concerning infinities. Let now this quantity x, which has been put out of existence by bad management, be restored to its function, and remain unmolested, until the balance of powers, which is to establish its weight and consequence, be ascertained. 1 The first ratio, viz. that of 1 to 0 is - , the second is its reci- procal or , and these compounded make- = 1, "and, therefore, the true value of x-, in the circumstance of - being =-, is 0 x-=xxi=x. 0 The argument in words is this ; the first ratio is an infinite ratio of minority in the consequent, the other is an infinite ratio of majority in the same. These two compounded, con- stitute a ratio of equality, wliich is numerically expressed by a unit. From the preceding observations, one of the results of mathematics on this subject may be derived, viz. that nothing divided by nothing is equal to unity; or, that unity is a mean proportional between nothing and infinity; also, that x infinite _ x infinite When compounded expressions are found in the numera- tor and denominator of the fraction, there are oftentimes ratios 204 ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. included in it, which do not so readdy appear, and its true value, in consequence, is liable to be mistaken in the circum- stance of one or more of the ratios vanishing. Functions of this kind are those, which have received the appropriate deno- mination of Vanishing Fractions. (I x Let t be such a fraction, it is evident from what has b—y been before observed, that if the numerator and denominator were equal, then, one being a direct and the other a reciprocal, and equal ratio, these two would destroy one another's effect, and the result would be equal to unity ; but in the circumstance, when x=a, and y=b, it will be a:b:-.x-.y, and by alternation and division, a — x : b — y ::x:y::a:b, whence there are found three ratios, besides the arithmeticals a — x a x and b — y, in the expression r — -, viz. 1 : a — x, b — y : 1, and and this last b — y compared with the former, a—x, or that of b: a. The two former combined are equal to l, and all con- joined equal lx-. Hence it appears, that the ratio of a — x to b — y does not vanish, because the coalesced values of those quantities vanish ; for that ratio is, in that case, the ratio of the terms a : b, or x : y, and it is only one of the ratios, viz. the arithmetical a — x, or b — y, which really vanishes. Again, let t — - = 7 be multiplied by a+x, or increased by another At x2 a a ratio, as l : a+x, and we shall have -. = - x a+x=- x 2a, b — y b b the true value of the fraction when x=a, and b=y. If a=b, , ,, , a2 — x1 a — x — and x=y, the expression becomes = x a+x = 2a, a — x a — x d2 x x3 a3—— xs . when vanisliing. Also, , or — , in the same cir- ° a — x a — x l x* i x3 cumstance = 3a, and if a = 1, then = 2, - — — = 3, &c. ' l — x l — x } ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. 205 From which, it is manifest, that the geometrical ratio of l^** to 1 x' is real and determinate, though the arithmetical ratios, or the coalesced values of the terms of those quantities vanish, or = o. Moreover, those quantities have a determinate ratio, when they are negative in their combined values, or in effect f gf 1 X less than nothing: for when in the fraction = =ix ° l — x l — x l+x; the value of x is greater than 1, l—x is negative, and the value of the* fraction is ixT+x, or greater than before when vanishing. Suppose x=2, then lxf+~r=3, fyc. The value, ± xl therefore, of the fraction , increases as a; increases; when l — x 1 a—0, it is equal to - or l, when x=i, it is equal to 2, when it exceeds l, or the coalesced terms of numerator and deno- minator are negative, it exceeds 2, and increases continually as x increases. This being the case, viz. the law being esta- <£ x2 blished, that the value of the fraction — — , increases from l — x unity as x increases from notlung, and so continues to* increase; it would be a contradiction to this law, that when x=i, or had a real and determinate value, the fraction should be equal to nothing, or have no assignable value. The illusion, which has prevailed on this subject, arises from the idea of the impossibility of any geometrical ratio existing between two or more terms of an arithmetical series, which taken together are equal to nothing, and other similar terms of such a series ; whereas, it can be shown that the for- mer ratio does not depend on the aggregate of the arithmetical ratios ; for the terms themselves do not vanish with their differences, and are therefore susceptible of a comparison with the other terms, and this constitutes the geometrical ratio. This will be evident from the following example. Let , be another fraction, of winch the numerator is the 2r — x equation of the circle, where r is radius, x the abscissa, and 306 ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. V2rx—x2 an ordinate ; when x=2r, or the abscissa = the diam- eter, the aggregate or coalesced value of the numerator 2vx— #2=4r2 — 4?'2=0, or the ordinate vanishes, when the ab- scissa is equal to the diameter, which is also evident from the construction of the circle. Also the denominator 2r — x, or the difference between the diameter and abscissa = 0. Now, though the arithmeticals 2rx — x\ 2r — x, vanish, their geo- metrical ratio is not affected by the evanescence ; for the ratio of the first terms, viz. 2r : 2rx, is that of l to x, and that of the second, or — x : — xl is the same, whence by composition 2rx — a? 2r — x T„ 2r — x : 2rx — x : : 1 : x, or = x x = 1 xx = 2r. II 2r — x 2r — x wliile the radius of the circle remains the same, we suppose ,, 2rx — x2 2rii — if n , ,.n x=v, then = — - — — =2r, and 2r—x (me evanescent J 2v — x 2y — y v versed sine) : 2rx— x1 the square of half the chord) : : 2y—y (another evanescent versed sine) : 2ry—if (the square of one half its corresponding chord) ; whence the versed sines when vanishing are as the squares of their chords. It is from such considerations of the different ratios, which obtain among functions when vanishing, or when their aggre- gate value is nothing, that the different degrees of curvature of any curve, or the comparison of curvatures of different curves is susceptible of determination ; and as on this depend the higher geometry, and the laws of centripetal forces, it may be proper to illustrate this doctrine by other examples. Let a be to b, in any ratio of minority, or majority, then -xax—x'—y\ is an equation of the ellipsis, in which the squares of the ordinates have the same value as in the circle, but, in- creased or diminished in the ratio of a to b, and while this is finite, the whole becomes equal to nothing in the same cir- cumstance as before, when ax-^x^-y denoted a circle. But if a, which represents the diameter, becomes infinitely great b box b , , „ , a , b „ -Xax— x1= — - — -x=bx=y ; because -=i, and -=0. It «=0. ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. 207 a , bax , &.,.»'./, tlien -=1, and — =to; -# =£ infinitely great =«/"; or since adding or subtracting a finite quantity to or from an infinite quantity, has no effect, af=y>, whence x and y are equal straight lines infinitely extended. If a be finite, and x inde- finitely small in comparison of a, in that circumstance, we shall have bx=y*, which is the same equation as before, viz. that of a parabola, whose parameter is b : from which it ap- pears, that an ellipsis and parabola having equal parameters, have their nascent ordinates, or nascent arcs equal, or their curvature is equal, and that this is proportional to their para- meters. If b—a, or the parameter be made equal to the diame- ter, -xax-^a?=y* becomes the equation of the circle, and x being indefinitely small, it will be ax=y*, the same as before in the ellipsis and parabola ; which shows that a circle whose diameter is equal to the parameter of either of those curves, has the same curvature, or becomes the osculatory circle. In the general expression for the ellipsis ax—x'=y*, when a= the transverse axis, is infinite or nothing, the ordinate is finite or nothing, but when a=b, or the expression becomes ax^x* =y2, which is the equation of the circle; then, when the dia- meter «, is infinite or nothing, the ordinate is infinite or nothing, whatever x, or the abscissa may be. Whence the ordinates corresponding with any finite abscissa in an infinite ellipsis or parabola are finite, but in an infinite circle they are infinite, or the curve becomes a straight line or nothing. Let x, or the abscissa of the curve, from first being = 0, become negative, or pass from affirmation to negation, which in geomety implies, that it passes to the other side, from whence it commenced its existence ; the equation of the curve will then become -ax+x*=y*. This exceeds the equation of a the parabola ax=y* by x*, and that of the ellipsis falls short a* much ; from winch it is obvious, that the curve is an hy- 208 ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. perbola, whose ordinates fall on the other side of the diame- ter of the circle, with which it is compared. As the expression Q. tt2 ax+x2, is less than the square of the binomial +x, by - the 2 4 locus of the latter, which is a straight line, will exceed that of a2 the curve, always by the same quantity — ; whence, if ia+x* a2 ^ =z%, then z2 — y2=—, or z+yxz—y=:-, and in the general ex- pression, this difference becomes z2 — ?/2 = -x — =— , which, r ' J a 4 4' ' putting c=l the conjugate diameter, becomes z% — y*=c2. For Vba= conjugate diameter, and = — — = c squared ; or square of half the conjugate equals the difference of the squares of the ordinates z and y. As this difference is always equal to a finite quantity, the curve will always approach, but can never coincide with that right line. This, therefore, is an asymp- tote to the curve. The equation of the curve being transformed from the axis to the asymptote, if instead of the difference of two variable quantities, z and y, we substitute that of one of them, and a given quantity, we shall arrive at the general equation of the hyperbola, by lines parallel to both the asymptotes ; there- fore, putting the ratio of r — u : r equal to that of z — y : c, and that of r : r+x equal to that of c : z+y, it will be r — u :T::r: r+a. Tins expression is that of a secant of an arc, of which r is the radius, and u the abscissa. If to the latter the secant of a quadrant be applied ordinately, the curve becomes a figure of secants. Moreover, r~ u, being reciprocally as r+x, their rectangle will always be a given quantity =?*% whereof the two sides are lines drawn parallel to the asymptotes from any points of the curve. As this distance never becomes equal to nothing, r r+x or die ratio of and — — , never becomes infinite, the hv- r — u r ' ON VANISHING FRACTIONS. 209 perbolic space, comprehended between the curve asymptote, will continue to increase ad infinitum, but the increase of the area will be uniform, being that of an arithmetical progression, or the reciprocals of two equal ratios ; for — n:r::r:x, and ru+xu=rx — ux=l. But while these spaces are in arithmeti- cal, ;, or — — , are in geometrical progression, consequent- ly the former are the logarithms of the latter, or of the natu- ral number r+x, and they are of the Napierian kind, when the comparison of x and u is made the same with the quan- tity r. But the most important application of these principles, is to the metaphysics, or fundamental principles of fluxions, or the science of differentials. This, however, cannot be comprised in the compass of the present paper, but is intended for the subject of another. Dd No. XVI. An Account of Pyrometric Experiments, made at Newark, New Jersey, in April, 1817. By F. R. Hassler. — Read, June 29th, 1817. THE object of these experiments was to determine the expansion of four iron bars, each two metres in length, and the difference between their expansion and that of brass. These iron bars are intended to be put end to end, and clamped together in this situation, so as to form one continued bar of eight metres long, fitted in a wooden box, to serve, with certain other apparatus, for the measurement of the base lines in a survey of the coast of the United States, ordered by the government. The determination of their exact expansion is necessary, in order to reduce the different temperatures observed in the measurement of the bases, to one temperature adopted as a standard ; and, in order to compare the length of these bars to the English standard, it is likewise necessary to determine the difference between their expansion and that of brass ; the English standard, belonging to the collection of instruments made for the survey of the coast, being a brass scale, of 85 inches long, 2 1-3 inches broad, and half an inch thick, inlaid with silver to receive the divisions, which are tenths of inches over the whole length. It is one of the finest and most accu- AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS, SjC. Sll rate pieces of workmanship of the celebrated artist, Mr. Edward Troughton, of London.* The four iron bars used in the following experiments made together a length of 315,04 English inches, at the tempera- ture of about 50° Fahrenheit; they are 1,1 inch broad, and 0,38 of an inch thick. To obtain the comparison of their expansion with that of brass, under exactly equal circumstances, I procured the thick- est brass wire I could obtain, which was 0,37 of an inch in diameter, and had a length of it straitened, as long as the four bars together. No piece being long enough to make the whole required length, three pieces were jointed and pinned together, overlapping about % 1-2 inches, as shown in Fig. I., and sol- dered over the joint, so as to form one single piece of the required length. The expansion of this length of metal, from the freezing to the boiling point of the thermometer, is out of the reach of any microscopic arrangement ; and large enough to allow us to substitute immediate observation for the multiplying appa- ratus often made use of; since it would give above 1-3 of an inch in the iron, and above 1-2 an inch in the brass, which, as far as I know, is the greatest quantity of expansion as yet submitted to accurate experiment. To obtain the extent of temperature from freezing to boil- ing, I chose a season when almost every night brought the temperature of the air near to freezing, so that to obtain the boiling point was the only requisite to be fulfilled by the in- tended pyrometric arrangement. I had seen Mr. Troughton, in his pyrometric experiments, use the spirit level upon a lever, resting with one end on its axis, and adjusted at the other by a micrometer screw, so as to measure the increased expansion. Having several spirit * It may be observed here, that the French standards were always a cer- tain unit of length in iron, and the English standards always a brass scale of inches, on which a mean result is taken, for any length desired. To say more of this belongs to the account of the comparison I have made of these two standards. 212 AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS, ievels of eight inches long, ground and adjusted by him, and having also the late Mr. Bird's own leveltryer, with a steel micrometer screw, (which Mr. Troughton had made me a present of,) I availed myself of these means to construct a pyrometer, with the accuracy of which I could be satisfied ; making use of a brass beam compass with a brass screw, to construct a similar instrument, by adding a crossbar at one end of it, and otherwise suiting it to my purpose. The first, with the steel screw, was used for the iron bars, and the se- cond, with the brass screw, for the brass wire. The head plate of the screw of Bird's leveltryer is divided into 240 parts, each of which indicates an angular movement of one second of a degree, in the arm of the instrument, which is about seventeen inches long. I divided a similar plate into the same number of parts, for the brass screw of the new leveltryer. To determine accurately the absolute value of the revolu- tions of both screws of these leveltryers, I made one of the pieces cut off from the bars, of near half an inch long, per- fectly parallel in two opposite planes, by the same means as the bars themselves had been standarded, and measured its length under the microscope of the brass standard scale above mentioned. This piece was found to be = 0,504543 of an inch. Placing the leveltryer upon an iron plate perfectly even, and adjusting the levels, both on the plate alone, and when this piece was laid under the micrometer screw, I found its value in revolutions and seconds, (which the subdivisions are intended to represent, and which I shall call them hereafter.) Under the steel screw of Bird's level- tryer, - - - =26r+3",1=6243",1. Under the brass screw of the new level- tryer, - - - =23R+203.1=5723",1. Tins gives the followmg values for one revolution of the two screws : For the steel screw, 1r=0.0 1939581 81 ?D 155 ecimal parts of an inch. MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 213 From this I constructed Table I., for the reduction of the observed revolutions and seconds into parts of English inches. To make the pyrometric experiments with this apparatus, the following arrangements were made. On the outside of the north wall of the house, an iron bracket was driven into the wall, about five feet from the ground. Upon a cast iron plate, laid on this bracket, a box 2 1-2 inches square on the inside, and of the length of the four bars, was placed vertically, reacliing along the wall up to the third story, and fastened to brackets in the wall in various places, without allowing it to touch the wall. On the ground, and about two feet from one side of the box, a large pot was walled up, in a close oven, to serve as a boiler. The wooden cover of this pot, shutting close, had in its middle a wooden canal or chimney, by which the steam was led into the box, as seen in the lower part of Fig. II. The draught or chimney of the oven was on the opposite side. In the bottom of the box, on the cast iron plate, was laid a flat piece of ground iron, to give the same level and smooth resting place, both to the bars and the brass wire. The iron bars and the brass wire were set perpendicularly upon this plate, and held in that position by brass wires, b, b, $jc. Fig. II. and III., driven horizontally in the side of the box opposite the cover, about four in each bar's length, and so long that they reached to the cover in b', b', £jc. Other smaller brass wires were laid across these, in the following order : — nearest to the side of the box was one small cross wire, then came the brass wire under experiment, then again a small cross wire, then the bars, then the brass pins lightly bound together by thin copper wire. This arrangement, as seen in Fig. VI., formed five intervals between each part, admitted free passage to the steam all round the bars and the wire, hindered the latter from bend- ing by its own weight, prevented their rubbing against the box, or one against the other, and held both perpendicular in their place, and yet so loosely, that when lifted between the wires. 214 AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS, they would return again to their exact place ; so that their expansion and contraction were perfectly free. To prevent the iron bars from sliding at their joining places, and at the same time to preserve their ends from rust, which must be the consequence of their exposure to the steam, sheet tin boxes, c, c, of about five inches long, were made to fit the bars exactly, were oiled a little inside, and, when the bars were set upon one another, were slided over the joints. Fig. II. and III. represent a section of the lower and upper part of the apparatus, through the breadth of the bars and the wire, the whole of it being too long to be represented on a proper scale, and uniform through the whole length, within the size of a common sheet of paper. Fig. V. is a horizontal section of the top, on which the measuring screws rest ; and an intermediate section, through a set of supporting pins, is represented in Fig. VI. Four thermometers were put in the box ; one at the top, showing the boiling point just at the upper end of the bars, one about two feet from the bottom, and two at about equal intermediate distances, showing themselves through glasses fitted like windows, in the side /, f, as in Fig. VI. The temperature being raised in the box by means of the steam from the boiler, which was driven up through the whole extent of the box, the upper ends of the bars and the wire were naturally raised by their expansion, and sunk again by their cooling down to the temperature of the atmosphere. To measure this expansion by means of the levels above mentioned, they were placed as shown at the top of Fig. III.; Fig. IV. presents a horizontal view of them : t, t, are two iron brackets driven fast into the wall, to receive the resting pins or screws, rf, d, d, d, at the ends of the cross bars of the level- tryers ; e, e, e, e, are the supporting Y's of the levels L, L ; s, s, the screws measuring the expansion on the indices, i, i, by a horizontal stroke, to count them, being made at every two revolutions, reading from the highest division downwards ; the subdivisions were read on the divided top plates, g, gf by their coincidence with a vertical line on these indices. MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 315 The steel micrometer screw rested on the top of the iron bars immediately ; but as the wire would not afford a secure rest for the brass screw of its level, and as its divided plate would also have interfered with that of the other screw, a clamp, h, was screwed on the wire, presenting a short brass plate at the distance of about one inch at the side of the wire, to rest this screw upon ; the upper plane of this plate being at the height of the bars, so as to give nearly an equal length to the iron and the brass engaged in the experiment. See Fig. III. and V. To admit a free passage to the steam, so as not to condense it in the box, the top was left open, except a covering of thin muslin round the screws, to prevent the immediate con- tact of the metal under experiment with the external air. A screen was placed at x, x, to hinder the steam from reaching the levels, and to make it ascend vertically from the box. To make the observations thus outside of the house, at the third story, I hung a scaffolding out from the two windows on each side of the apparatus, held at some distance from the wall by butting pieces so as never to touch any part of the box or apparatus, by which means I could walk easily all round it. First Experiment. . The second of April, the arrangement being ready, fire was made under the boiler, and the water made to boil as much as practicable ; but the arrangement being new, and the day cold, the thermometers could not be brought to the boiling point. All that could be obtained, was to bring them to be for some time steady at the following temperatures, reading them in order, from below, upwards. Thermometers. 12 3 4 ? Mean. 180°. — 181°. 179°. 5 180°,0. 4 ~> ft. 79°. $ 1! 316 AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS, The second thermometer could not be read for want of a fourth assistant. The levels being adjusted in this temperature, by means of the measuring screws, the indications of the micrometer heads were read as follows : On the Iron. On the Brass. 26R + 58". 34R + 315". In this situation the whole apparatus was left, the boding ceased, and the muslin on the top, and the steam chimney below, removed to let the whole cool. The 3d of April, at half past 5 o'clock in the morning, the standing of the micrometer heads being verified, and every thing found in order, the levels were again adjusted, and the following readings made on the thermometers and the micro- meter heads. Thermometers. 12 3 4 } Mean. 39,5 36,0 36,3 38,3 3 37,5. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 42R + 20. 47R + 106". At half past 6 o'clock, returned to the apparatus, adjusted the levels again, and made the following readings. Thermometers. 13 3 4 ? Mean. 39,2 — 36,5 36,3 5 37,33. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 42R + 38"3. 47R+H4'. The day being cold, I could not expect to raise the heat in the box to the temperature of boiling water. I concluded, TTROMETER II. 12 % :/r. MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 217 therefore, to make only an intermediate observation, at the time I should find the thermometers the most equal. About 7 o'clock in the evening, I made the following obser- vations. Thermometers. 1 2 3 4 } Mean. 52°,0 52°,0 51°,7 53°,0 5 52,2. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 4lR + 42",5. 45R + 91". Though I had at the outset doubts upon the admissibility of making observations in the intermediate steps of the rising and falling of the temperature, I still tried it ; but found that no coincidence of the thermometers above and below could be obtained, near enough to allow a mean to be taken, except when the temperature in the box was either at the highest degree I could bring it to, or cooled down to the temperature of the surrounding air. To procure this equality of temperature is the principal difficulty in this kind of experiments : For the sensibility of the levels to the expansion and con- traction of the iron and brass, is so great, that a change of temperature was often observed in them, before it was ob- servable on the thermometers. A high wind rising with the night, I was obliged to take in the levels for fear of their being blown down and broken. Second Experiment. The 4th of April, at half past 5 in the morning, the tempe- rature of the air being about 32°, I set the levels again in their places, adjusted them, and made the following observa- tions. Thermometers, l 2 3 4 ~) Mean. 36°,0 33°,5 32°,7 32°, 5 33,5. E e 218 AN ACCOUNT OF PVROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 42r + 98",5. 48r + 125,"0. The sun shining on the apparatus, and the day heing fair, circumstances seemed favourable for obtaining the tempera- ture of the boding point. About 8 o'clock, fire was made under the boiler, and the windows for the thermometers shaded from the sun; and, about half past in, the follow- ing heights of thermometers and corresponding readings of the micrometers were obtained, at a constant temperature. Thermometers. 1 2 3 4? Mean 212°,5 211°, 211°, 208°, 5 210°,6. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 22R + 83". SOr+179". The temperature now falling, the fire was raised a second time, and a second reading was made, under circumstances which I found equally trust-worthy, as follows. Thermometers. 12 3 * ? Mean. 212° 2H°,5 212° 209° 5211°,1- Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 22R + 25". 20R + 111". The boiling being now discontinued, the muslin removed from the top, and the apparatus otherwise left perfectly quiet to cool down to the temperature of the air, at about 8 o'clock in the evening, I adjusted the levels, and observed as fol- lows. Thermometers, 12 3 4 1 Mean. 45° 42°,5 44°,8 44°,3 544°,15. MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 219 Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 41r + 106",5. 46r+203". The apparatus was now again left in the same position, until next morning. April 5th, at half past 5 o'clock, every tiling being found in good order, I adjusted the levels, and made the following readings. Thermometers. 1 2 3 1 ) Mean. 35° 32° 32° 32° 5 32°,75- Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. ■42R+118". 48R + 112". Then the leveltryer on the iron was removed to clean the screw from rust, and oil it. Third Experiment. At 6 o'clock, the arrangement was again mounted, and the levels adjusted, to begin the third set of experiments ; and the following readings were made. Thermometers. 12 3* ^Mean. 34°,5 33°,0 33°,0 32°,5 $ 33%25. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 42r + 170", 5. 48r + 152". The boiler being heated, the temperature was raised to the highest about 10 o'clock, and was steady, so that the following readings were made. Thermometers. 1 2 3 * ? Mean. 213° 213° 213° 209° j 212°. 320 AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 21R+238". 20r + 62",5 The apparatus was again left quiet, to cool down. At 7 o'clock in the evening, the following readings were made, after adjusting the levels. Thermometers. 1 2 3 4 ~) Mean. 47° — 45° 41° 5 45°,3. Micrometers. On the Iron. On the Brass. 40R + 191". 46r + 77",5- To bring the various observations of these three experi- ments under a comprehensive view, I have collected them together in Table II., at the end. The first thing now to be determined, is the length of metal so engaged in these experiments as to influence the standing of the levels. Besides the length of the bars or the brass wire, an addition is to be made for the length of the micrometer screws of each level, engaged below the bar of the leveltryer. Then it will be necessary also to add the thickness of the supporting pieces, as they partook, in every case, of the changes of temperature, like the bars. Though these were iron. I think, on account of their smallncss, they may, without any alteration, be added to the length of the brass and the iron equally. By these additions, the whole will count from the resting place in the wall, to the bar carrying the level, which also rested on the wall. The lena^hs to be used in calculating the results, from the foregoing observations, will be as follows : MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 221 For the Iron. For the Brass. Inches. Indies. Brass wire = 315,1 Screw engaged = 1,0 Plate and Support = 1,4 Four Bars = 315,04 Screw engaged = 1,1 Plate and Support = 1,4 Sura, =317,54 Sum, =317,5 To calculate the resulting proportional expansion, for one degree of Fahrenheit's scale, from the foregoing observations, they must be combined together in each experiment, by taking the resulting expansion from the highest degree of heat to any one of the lower degrees. The quantity of expansion observed, resulting from this comparison of the readings of the micrometer screws, and the reduction of their value by Table I., must be divided by the number of degrees of variation of the temperature, and this must again be divided by the length of the metal under experiment, expressed in the same unit of length as the expansion. The result will be the proportional expansion of the metal, for one degree of Fahrenheit, in a decimal frac- tion, which may be applied by simple multiplication to any length, and any degree of change of temperature. This calculation is made by the following extremely simple formula for logarithms. Log. P = log. E -f Comp. log. D + Comp. log. L. where P = proportional expansion. E = expansion actually observed. D = degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. L = length of metal under experiment. So that, for instance, the example of the calculation of the first observation, and result of Table III., at the end, will stand thus : For the Iron. Log. E = log. 0,3072620 = 9,4875088 Com. log. L = C. log. 317.54 =7,4982016 Com. log. D = C. log. 142,5 = 7,8*61851 Log. P = log. 0,00000679040 = 4,8318955 AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS, For the Brass. Log. E = log. 0,4770313 = 9,6785441 Com. log. L = C. log. 317,5 = 7-4983563 Com. log. D = C. log. 143,5 = 7,8461851 Log. P = log. 0,0000105435 = 5,0339855 The details of these combinations of the experiments, and their results, are brought under an easy comprehensive view in Table III., which will be sufficiently explained by the head- ing of the columns. This table exhibits the agreement of the different results, and the general resulting mean, by taking each observation separately, through the whole of the three experiments. If the mean result of each experiment is taken as one, and the mean of these three results as the final result, the results will be as follows. First Experiment. For the Iron. 0,00000679040 679554 713833 For the Brass. 0,0000105435 5443 6808 0,00000690808 Second 0,00000693034 698387 701039 693491 707357 698333 0,0000105895 Experiment. 0,0000104536 5383 4535 4101 5380 4636 0,00000698433 0,0000104735 MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 223 Third Experiment. For the Tron. For the Brass. 0,00000707918 0,0000105770 689014 4187 Mean 0,00000698466 0,00001019785 Taking a mean of these three results, will present each experiment as one individual result, and give the following general means. For Iron = 0,00000695892 For Brass = 0,0000105199 Difference = 0,00000356098 It will be observed, that the two latter experiments give almost an identical mean, from individual results, which also agree very well ; that in the first experiment the single results differ more from one another, than in the two latter, and that their mean also differs considerably more than the two others. Tins first experiment might therefore be rejected if desired ; and tins I should be inclined to do, because it was the first ever made with the apparatus, when it was new, and its use not familiar, and therefore the results not so trust-worthy. The mean of the two last, would then stand as follows, by taking each experiment for one result. For Iron = 0,00000698444 For Brass =0,0000104851 Difference = 0,00000350066 The single observations of the two last experiments might also be added, to take a general mean, and so a result some- what different be obtained. To leave it optional with any person who might wish to make use of these results, to which mean he will give the preference, I will set these different means here together. The difference between them is however only a few units 224< AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETIUC EXPERIMENTS, $JC in the 8th decimal, wtiich I think witliin the limits of accuracy obtainable in this kind of experiments. Mean Results of Proportional Expansion, for 1° Fahrenheit. For Iron. For Brass. Difference. General Mean = 0.000006963535 0,00001050903 0,000003545495 Mean ot three experiments = U,0u000695892 0,00001i:5199 0,00000356098 Mean of two last do. = 0 000U0698444 0,0000104851 0,00000350066 Mean of the single observa-") tion of the two last expe- £ = 0,00000698433 0,0000104789 0,00000349454 riments j I intended to pursue these experiments further, in the same manner, and to put liar-brass, glass-tubes, iron- wire, fy*c. under experiment ; but the season calling me to the field operations for the survey of the coast, I have postponed them until next winter, when, if circumstances should be favourable, I propose to enter, with greater detail, upon more varied and multiplied results. F. R. HASSLER. Newark, New Jersey, June 11, 1817- MADE AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 385 TABLE I. For the Reduction of the Screw Values into Inches. For the Iron. For the Brass. Number. Revolutions. Seconds. Number. Revolutions. Seconds. 1 3 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 0,01 939581 1 0,000080816 1 0,03879163 0,000161633 0,05818743! 0,000313118 0,07758331| 0,000333361 0,09697905 0,000101080 0,11637496 0,000484896 0,13577067 0,000565713 0,15516648| 0,000646538 0, 17456339J 0,000737344 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0,03115815 0,04331630 0,06317445 0,08463360 0,10579075 0,13694890 0,14810705 0,16936530 0,19043335 0,000088159 0,000176318 0,000364477 0,000353636 0,000440795 0,000538954 0,000617113 0,000705373 0,000793431 TABLE II. Experi- ment. Thermometers. Micrometers. Number. 1 3 3 4 Mean. On the Iron- On the Brass. 1st 180 * « 26K + 42 + 58" 20 34»+ 315" 17 + 106 39,5 36 36,2 38,3 37,5 39 36,8 36,3 37,3 42 + 28,2 47 + 114 53 53 51,7 53 52,2 41 + 42,5 45 + 91 2d. 36 33,5 33,7 32 33,5 42 + 98,5 48 + 135 313 311,5 212 209 211,1 23 + 25 30+111 313,5 311 211 208 210,6 33 -f 83 30 + 179 45 12,5 44,8 14,3 44,15 41 + 106,5 46 + 203 35 33 32 32 32,"5 43 + 118 48 + 112 3d. 34,5 33 33 32,5 33,25 43 + 170,5 48 + 152 313 313 213 209 212 21 + 338 20 + 62,5 47 45 44 45,3 40 + 191 46 + 77,5 236 AN ACCOUNT OP PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS. w 1-3 PQ C3 £ 2 SO _ iflnOKOW^HO^ON o-^oejeccN^ooci^cc Tj--*go»ni>)vi^-.c^"Ot^« u■^^n^o•'#tOT$>Tj<^o-#*J">■^J■ II ooooooooooo o !« o s s 111 o»^«D0C^h,N.*n'*^,« BQ COc^Ol^CNN.COOJtOCO^ ^roCCOiCMfNCN--"^ ONCOKiOO!^(NVinTJi V rt w - NNCONnojiOCODOH - c c* NSCOCOmtJlM^CTiOV) O C--£ •* rj- •«* *o *o *n *o vi *ri to *o O oooo'oo oodoc? 8 1 c -- ■- o> «rt d^coomotI'co waio SiCTiCOCNOO^CO^aO^Cft t>.NHO^OiOtJ>O^OCO ■DtON^^NiONtON^O O rt C D- O X o B £« 3 O ii-s o — 'fljiH y: co Oi o 'n h ^ lO -^ CO O O^ T? to CIO M 0(NCOlD*OH^on--itN C'lCTitO— ' CO ^ K- —« t}* 00 h» K KOi O) i/l O O "1 "5 h Ti- OOCOC07>KC^Ka>0'0 $H c1 C'i °i c1 c1 ^*1 c^ ^ ^ ^ ^ b o to v° o P o o" © o cTo o .* C* Wj *fl «5 *« V) U"> 0-l»-«iO D. C'lCTVliHrtTJ'tTi'niNii' E £ "- 33COCOC5n-HH-H^n^ -- ph fH (N^KN W C^ ■ES -O mm tr S.S E « w u uE 1 r-l C* CO s s AN ACCOUNT OF PYROMETRIC EXPERIMENTS. 227 NOTE ON THE PRECEDING ARTICLE. By Dr. Patterson. An excellent work on Natural Philosophy, by Biot, received in this country since the communication of the preceding paper, contains an account of a series of experiments, made on the same subject, by Lavoisier and Laplace, in 1782, and which have not before been given to the public. According to these experiments, the expansion of iron, from the freezing to the boiling point, is 0,00122045 of its length, and that of brass 0,00188971. From these data, we readily calculate the following comparative statement. Proportional Expansion for 1° Fahrenheit. For Iron. For Brass. According to Lavoisier and Laplace, 0,00000678. 0,000010498. According to Mr. Hassler, 0,00000696. 0,000010*98. Difference, 0,00000018. 0,000000011. . The correspondence of these results, obtained indepen- dently of each other, and by methods entirely different, must be considered as very satisfactory. No. XVII. English Phonology; or, An Essay towards an Analysis and Description of the component sounds of the English Lan- guage. By Peter S. Duponceau. — Read, May 24, fine, force. 2. Byfe, in strife. 3. By/, in o/, sco/. 4. By gA, in rough, tough. 3. Two gutturals, go and coss. GO is represented 1 . By g, in God. 2. By gg, in stagger, swagger. 3. By g/j, in Ghent (proper name.) 4. By gu, in guile. 5. By gue, in rogue. COSS is represented 1. By c, in caW, constant, coward. 2. By cc, in occur, occasion. 3. By ck, in JfeA:, s/fe&. 4. By eke, in Locfce (proper name.) 5. By ch, in chord. ENGLISH PHONOLOGY. 361 6. By k, in sink, wink. 7. By ke, in make, take. 8. By que,* in oblique, risque. These two organics have a hard and a soft sound, the former of which takes place when they immediately precede broad or open vocals, as in call, God, and the latter when they precede acute ones as in gain, king. 4. Four Unguals, zhim, shal, zed, and sin. ZHIM is always in English represented by the letter S, as in measure, treasure, occasion, vision. SHAL is generally represented by sh, as in she, wish, dash, £jc. It is also represented by c, as in vicious ; by s, as in sure, sugar; by sc, as in conscious; by ss, as in Russian, Prus- sian^ and by t, as in mention, friction, oration. Also by ch, in chaise, and in the proper name Charlotte. ZED is represented by z, as in size, zeal; by zz, as in dizzy, and by s, as in ease. SIN is represented by c, as in certain, civil; by s, as in sore, sir, sweet; by sc, as in science; by sch, as in schism, and by ss, as in hiss, miss. * As in the English language the e mute joined to a consonant, does not alter its sound, I do not think it necessary to instance further its combina- tions, which are known to take place with all organic characters, and may be added to the examples given. f Pronounced Rush-yan, Prush-yan, and not Rush-an, Prush-an. 262 ENGLISH PHONOLOGY. 5. Three linguo-palatals, lamed, ro, nim. LAMED is represented by /, as in lamb, line, long, or by 11, as in all, fall, still. RO is represented by r, as in ring, round, Rome, or by rr, as in horror, terror. In foreign words and technical terms of foreign derivation it is sometimes represented by rh, as in Rhine, Rhodes, rhomboid, and sometimes by rrh, as in catarrh. NIM is represented by n, as in now, nun, next, or by nn, as in manner, banner. 6. Four linguo-dentals, as delta, tar, thick, thence. DELTA is represented by d or dd, as in do, die, mode, add, ad- dition; and in a few instances by th, as in burthen, murther. better spelt according to Walker, burden, murder. TAR is represented by t, or tt, as in title, tone, matter, butter, and in a few proper names by th, as in Thomas, Thames. THICK and THENCE are always represented by th, the for- mer as in throne, thunder, the latter as in soothe, bathe, rather, further. 7. Two vocals, yes and tear. YES is always represented by y, as in yoke, yield, your. WAR is always represented by to, as in wake, west, wind, wood. These two sounds belong alike to the class of vocals and to that of organics, as they may be employed in eithrr way. It seems therefore proper that they should have different ENGLISH PHONOLOGY. 2C3 names and different signs to represent their vocal and organic characters. In the German language the vowel i when em- ployed as a consonant is represented by j, and called jod, pronounced yod. Thus they write Ja, Jeder, Jemand, and nol la, Ieder, Iemand. For the same reason we make use of y and not of i or e, in yes, yard, young. V. ASPIRATIONS. I have nothing to add to what I have already said on this subject. Thus I have attempted a brief analysis of the various sounds which enter into the composition of the English language. Conceiving it necessary to distinguish them by proper names, I have given them the first that have occurred, taking care only that they should be so different as not to be easily confounded with each other. Names are of very little consequence ; if this analysis should be approved of, and this plan thought worthy of being pursued, it will be easy to invent and apply to the different sounds new denominations in which a greater re- gard may be paid to euphony and other necessary circum- stances than I have thought it worth while to do in this essay, which I present, as I have already observed, as a mere sketch. Neither have I thought it necessary at present to affix signs or characters to the different sounds. This may easily be done when this or a better analysis shall have received the sanction of the learned. I would merely recommend that the written alphabet should neither be composed of the charac- ters in common use nor of entire new signs. A Phonological 264 ENGLISH PHONOLOGY. Alphabet ought, in my opinion, to be sucli as to be easily dis- tinguished from the common one, and at the same time not difficult to be understood or retained in the memory. There- fore I would propose to take the Greek alphabet as the basis, with the addition of characters borrowed from other lan- guages, particularly the Russian, which in the form of the letters present the greatest analogy with the Hellenic. As this alphabet woidd only be used for purposes of demonstra- tion and comparison, in pronouncing dictionaries and other philological works, there would be no need of various forms of characters, such as our capital and small letters, our Ro- man and Ralic. The small Greek alphabet with suitable additions and variations would be sufficient. This is, how- ever, a point of minor importance; the great object to be sought after is a clear and correct analysis and description of the sounds; when that is once obtained, proper names and signs may easily be affixed to them, and will, in a manner, follow of course. No. XVIII. On Fossil Reliquia of unknown Vegetables in the Coal Strata. By the Rev. Henry Steinhauer. FOSSIL reliquia of the vegetable kingdom may be conve- niently arranged under the four classes of fossil wood (Lithox- ylon), fossil fruits (Lithocarpi), fossil leaves (Lithophylli), perhaps also fossil flowers, if such really occur, as has been asserted at Oeningen, and indeterminate reliquia.* The two * If a fossil rcliquium present the form of a fructification or flower, it may he looked upon as determinate, for these parts of the plant contain a distinctive character different from similar parts in other species or at least genera; and are constant to their figure and appearance in every individual of the same species. The impressions of leaves exhibiting their organization are in like manner generally perfectly distinctive, as they determine the spe- cies in most instances, and though the genus is not ascertained from them in the Linnean system, yet there is reason to believe that if our knowledge were sufficiently extensive, detailed and precise, we should find the charac- teristics of every natural genus, or at any rate of every natural family in the leaf as well as in the parts of fructification. The texture of wood, where this is perfectly discernible in a specimen, satisfactorily establishes identity of species, as we are well able to distinguish between the different kinds of wood in general use, and would, were our observations properly applied, be equally able to discover a difference between that of any two trees in the vegetable kingdom. Bn^ this does not seem to be the case where we have only external form, for then is the vegetable itself no longer impregnated, bitiiiuenized, or petrified, but a mere representation in which distinctive characteristics may be altogether wanting. We are therefore left to grope our way among a multitude of specimens, classing together such as are simi- LI 2(36 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. latter of these divisions belong almost exclusively to the car- boniferous strata, though a solitary instance of a fossil fern in the white Lias, one of the lower floetz strata has come to our knowledge, while the two former are sufficiently abundant in many other strata, but very rarely occur in these. Mr. Mar- tin figures some pericarpial remains, which appear to place the matter beyond doubt, that they are found in the coal Sand- stone, but we have never been fortunate enough to meet with any, though often deceived by accounts of such, which upon examination proved to be mere fortuitous configurations of argillaceous iron ore. Fossil wood, that is, such as preserves the appearance of its original texture, and not merely the external shape, is also certainly of very rare occurrence in the coal strata, though carbon evidently originating from ve- getable matter is extremely frequent. The fossil leaves which have been found in the class of strata or formation just men- tioned, are well known to be closely analogous to the family, though different from the recent species of filices, with some few species of verticillate plants, which have been perhaps too precipitately referred to the genera Rubia and Galium. Their variety and extreme elegance early attracted the atten- tion of naturalists. Scheuchzer paid considerable attention to them as appears from his Herbarium Diluvianum, which also serves as an index to his predecessors, and the subject is judi- ciously resumed by Mr. Parkinson in the first volume of his Organic Remains. Woodward, in his catalogue enumerates several specimens belonging to this division. Luid has a chap- ter on the subject and figures a few, and from him we learn that Dr. Richardson, of Bierly Hall, in Yorkshire, took con- siderable pains to investigate these reliquia, so abundant in the immediate neighbourhood of his residence. It is to be Iar, tracing gradations, seeking for analogues and at last often separating what belongs together, and joining incongruities. In surh a labyrinth, to err is excusable, for rare indeed is that combination of talent for observation to see every thing, ingenuity of reason to see nothing in vain, and candour of mind to advance no hypothesis but what is supported by arguments found- ed on observation, which alone can afford a clue to cxtrioate the wanderer. ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. 267 regretted that we are not in possession of his entire observa- tions, it appearing from the little which is before the public, that he was possessed of considerable ability; there is how- ever reason to apprehend that neither his collection nor his manuscripts are any longer in existence. The most recent work on the subject that has come to our knowledge is " Von Schlottheim ueber die Pflanzen abdruecke." Such as choose to pursue the subject farther, will probably be interested in knowing that though the nodules of iron-stone generally represent only a fragment of a leaf, yet specimens of argillaceous iron ore are found, but generally thrown into the heap as undeserving notice, exhibiting very perfect indi- cations of the stems of these plants, which are the more valuable as in the impressions on coal Slate, £jc. this part is much defaced by pressure. It is also worth observing, that filicites do sometimes occur on the coarse grained grit below the coal beds, in which case, at least in the specimens which we have seen, the substituted matter has been a yellow oxyd of iron, displaying the texture of the leaf very perfectly, where- as, in the nodules of iron-stone, the impression is generally tinged with carbon, attended by pyrites, and not unfrequently by Bitumen and minute crystals of cubic sulphuret of lead. It is much to be wished that this interesting part of orycto- logy and botany, for which a considerable quantity of crude materials have already been collected, might soon be treated by some naturalist of competent abilities with the scientific precision of which it is both capable and deserving. The class of reliquia to which this paper is devoted, may be defined to consist of such impressions, casts or petrefactions in the coal strata, as do not belong to the animal kingdom, yet dis- cover no traces of organisation analogous to that of wood, fruits or leaves now known to exist. They are in fact the paradoxes of mineral botany ; the hope to unriddle them seems still at a considerable distance, yet every additional observation draws the circle within which the solution lies, closer, and may thus in some degree facilitate the disclosure of the mysterious se- cret by the hand of future genius. To attempt a classification S 268 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. farther than by arranging them under the vegetable kingdom, would at present be more liable to lead to error than likely to answer any beneficial purpose. The discrimination of the different species and a correct detail of the peculiarities be- longing to each, as far as they have met the eye of the writer, is all that is here aimed at. Sp. I. Phytolithus verrucosus. Plate IV. fig. 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Martin, Petrifieata Derbiensia, Plate 11, IS and 13*. — Parkinson, Organic Remains, Vol. I. Plate III. fig. 1. The fossil which has received this name from the ingenious author of the Petrifieata Derbiensia, is by far the most com- mon, and perhaps the most remarkable of this class. Wood- ward seems already to have collected numerous specimens, notwithstanding their bulk and comparative unsightliness ; (Catalogue of English Fossils, Vol. I. part 2, p. 104. Vol. II. p. 59, £)*c.) and Mr. Parkinson has exercised considerable though fruitless ingenuity, in elucidating them. It might ap- pear presumptuous, after the labours of men of such distin- guished abilities, to obtrude to public notice, any further remarks, had not these authors left abundant room for obser- vation, which place of abode and inclination have enabled the writer to pursue during a series of several years. Within this period we have collected several hundred specimens, worked many from the bed of clay in which they were im- bedded, and examined in quarries, on coalpit hills, among heaps of stone by the road side, and in various other situa- tions, several thousand. The geological situation of this fossil is well known to be the coal strata, in almost all which, as far as the writer is enabled to judge, it is found. Its geo- graphical habitats in these strata may be partly collected from the works already quoted, the specimens more immediately examined were found in the neighbourhood of Fulneck near ON FOSSIL RELIQTJIA. 269 Leeds, or in the space included by the towns of Leeds, Otley, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersiield and Wakefield;* but have * This district is in fact the northern termination of the great continu- ous coal field of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and through its whole extent is thickly beset with coalpits and quarries. I regret my inability to give a precise account of the various beds which occur, but those between Leeds and Bradford appear to be such as are immediately incumbent upon the grit ; they consist, of an alternation of yellow clay shale in various degrees of induration; argillaceous sandstone; the pale blue shale, or slate clay, accompanying the iron-stone ami coal, which falls away on exposure to the air into stiff clay ; the true black coal shale which on exposure shivers with- out becoming plastick ; and coal, both the conchoidal and the brittle rhomboid- al burning with flame. The argillaceous sandstone is very generally worked for building and mending the roads; a great number of the subsequent ob- servations were made in these quarries, particularly in a very extensive one in the township of Pudsey which has been worked foe above half a cen- tury, and furnishes many thousand tons of building stone, paving stone, and sandstone slate, annually. The bed of stone is of considerable thick- ness, probably above 40 feet. The upper stratum is a soft scaly sandstone which crumbles to fine sand on exposure to the air, and is frequently tinged yellow in various gradations by an impregnation of iron, it contains nume- rous indistinct impressions of vegetables in coaly matter, and has nodules which become apparent on the decay of the softer substances, consisting of a sandstone strongly impregnated with calcareous matter, so that the frac- ture in some directions appears sparry, and the mass effervesces with acids. I never saw traces of fossils in these nodules, which are a foot and upwards in diameter. Beneath this stratum lies what is called by the workmen the rag, a grey sandstone possessing the properties of a freestone in cleaving, but of no great value on account of its softness, the numerous clayey blotches and black coaly spots which occur in it, and want of durability when exposed to the atmospheric influence. It contains numerous, and at times, very perfect fossil remains, also round bubbles sometimes empty, sometimes filled with ferrugineous sand. Under this the layers of wall stone, here called stone (which separates into laminae of two and a half or three inches and upwards, but not readily into thinner) the paving stone or flags, and the slate, differing in being more or less perfectly stratified, succeed. Mica is very abundant in small particles, particularly on the surfaces of the laminae. The stone is not got by blasting, but by clearing away the upper surface of a bed, and then applying wedges, and by taking advantage of the cracks which part the strata vertically into huge masses called posts by the work- men. In these parts of the stratum, fossils are seldom if ever found, it seeming as if the process of nature, which occasioned the laminated texture and rendered the mass so much more homogeneous and hard than the upper beds, entirely destroyed every trace of organised matter. It sometimes, but rarely happens, that the sides of the posts are united by calcareous spar, 370 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. also found it on the top of Ingleborough, in the coal strata of Northumberland ; abundantly in Derbyshire ; at Dudley, in and in one quarry the fissures were filled up by a fibrous deposition resem- bling sattin spar which bad evidently exuded from the opposite sides, crys- talisrd in spirulse, and by accumulating, at last filled up the cavity. In these beds of stone, the state of the siliceous and argillaceous matter, of which they principally consist is singularly different from what obtains in the grits ami some of the fine sandstone. In the grit it is well known that the quartz appears in various sized rounded pebbles, cemented together by what is generally esteemed an argillaceous cement ; in some of the fine sand- stones it seems to be in the crystallised form, and to cohere by mere ap- proximation of the particles. The grit wears down to round sand and gra- vel, and the sandstone mentioned to sharp sand. But the argillaceous sand- stone of the coal strata, turns to a dust in which we believe it is impossible to distinguish the argil and silica. Is it not therefore probable that they exist in these beds in a state of chemical combination, and not mechanical mixture, as seems to have been hitherto supposed, and that the apparent sandy texture is owing to the crystalline formation of the particles ? If this be admissible, the cement of the grindstones will also probably be found to Consist of this micargillite substance, for which at all events, we stand in need of a distinct name, sandstone being highly improper, as it neither looks like sand, nor can be reduced to sand by any known process. Siliceous clay seems more suited to its nature, but we venture on no innovations. The principal quarries of this species of stone, and which have fur- nished us with specimens are, besides Pudsey quarries, those at Stanningly producing a fine grained real sandstone; at Bramley, near Farnley, and several other places. The iron stone in these strata, consists in general of a combination of argil and the nxyd of iron, in various proportions. It is generally found in no- dules imbedded in shale, differing in size, form, colour and attendant fossils. The colour indeed changes very obviously on exposure to the oxygen of the air. Besides the fossils mentioned below, these nodules produce a conside- rable number of filicites, and some verticillate fossils, and two or three spe- cies of fossil My i li and Myse. Within the cavities of these shells, sulphuret of zinc, and crystals of quarz tolerably regular and transparent are occasionally found. The iron- stone has been dug, particularly on Wibsey Low, and Upper Moor, and north westward towards Bradford, in which places there is a great succession of beds. Sometimes, particularly in the neighbourhood of coal seams, the iron is combined with sulphur in the form of pyrites, (the brasses of the colliers} which occasionally forms the substance of organic remains. Among the number of coal shales there is one which distinguishes itself by many peculiarities, and particularly by the fossils which it contains, on which account we shull endeavour to describe it. though it has not fur- nished any vegetable reliquia as far as we have been able to discover. The ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. 271 Shropshire, and in the neighbourhood of Bristol. With re- spect to mineralogical constituent matter, it seems always to coincide with that of the stratum in which it is imbedded, with a slight modification of density. It is most abundant in the fine grained siliceous stone, provincially called Calliard and Gannister, and in some of the coal Binds, or Crowstones, which have probably received this appellation from spots of bitumen or coal attached to these petrifactions. It is rather less fre- quent in the beds of scaly clay, or clay mixed with siliceous sand and mica ; very common but completely compressed in the coal shales or bituminous slate clay ; of occasional occur- rence in the argillaceous iron stone ; not rare in the common grit, and upper thick beds of argillaceo-micaceous sandstone or rag, and sometimes, though rarely, discoverable in the coal itself. Mr. White Watson, of Bakewell, had also in his col- lection which we examined, a specimen in the Derbyshire Toadstone or Trap, and we have also noticed it in the limestone behind the Bristol hot wells, at its junction with the sand- stone. So immense, however, is the number of relics, that, when the eye has been accustomed to catch their appearance, it is scarcely possible to walk a furlong in the districts where they are at home, without meeting them in one shape or ano- places where it has heen met with in seeking coal are ahout two miles north of Halifax on the Bradford road, and I believe, to a considerable distance to the east of this spot ; at Idle, north of Bradford, and thence in an easterly direction to Coalhill near Stanningly, on the river Air. When first dug it is very similar to the common black coalshale, but on being exposed to the air, swells, the laminae being forced asunder by small crystals of selenite, which seem to be formed during the process of decomposition, by an union of the sulphuric acid and the calcareous earth with which it abounds. At Idle the bed contains a thin layer of long narrow crystals of selenite, which have an elegant appearance on the black ground. This bed of shale contains besides, nodules resembling those of ironstone, of hard black limestone, suffi- ciently abundant in some places to be used for lime, but generally attended by pyrites, and insteail of the usual fresh water shells, we here meet with the Anomia Pecten, ihe Nautilus Listeri, an Orthoceratite, and probably some other marine productions in considerable abundance, indeed so much so, that the shale is sometimes quite covered with their impressions. The importance of the fact of a marine stratum interposed amidst a succession which is only attributable to fresh water, must immediately strike the geologist. 372 ON FOSSIL RELIQTIIA. ther. The most perfect form in which this fossil occurs, is that of a cylinder more or less compressed, and generally flatter on one side than the other, (Plate IV. fig. 1 and 3.) Not unfrequently the flattened side turns in so as to form a groove. The surface is marked in quincuncial order with pustules, or rather depressed areola;, with a rising in the mid- dle, in the centre of which rising, a minute speck is often observable.* From different modes and degrees of compres- sion, and probably from different states of the original vege- table, these areolae assume very different appearances, some- times running into indistinct rimae, like the bark of an aged willow, sometimes as in the shale impressions, exhibiting little more than a neat sketch of the concentric circles. (Fig. 4, 5, 6.) Mr. Martin suspected that these pustules were the marks of the attachment of the peduncules of leaves, and Tab. XII.* represents a specimen in which he thought that he had disco- vered the reliquia of the leaves themselves. We have exa- mined the specimen whence the drawing, which is extreme- ly correct, was made, but are convinced that Mr. Martin was misled by an accidental compression, in describing these leaves as being flat. Numerous specimens in gannister, in which the lateral compression of the trunk is generally trifling, place the assertion beyond a doubt, that the fibrous processes, acini, spines, or whatever else they may be called, are cylindrical, and small fragments of these cylinders shew distinctly a central line (pith ?) coinciding with the point in the centre of the pustule. Convinced of the existence of fliese fibres, we were soon able to detect their remains, forming considerable masses of stone, particularly of coal Bind on Wibsey Slack, and at Lower Wyke, where their contorted figure imitates the figures of Serpulfe, but it excited much surprise on examining the projecting ends of some trunks "which lay horizontally in a bed of clay, extending along the southern bank of the rivulet which separates the townships * Mr. Martin terms these spots verruca^ but whether they will strictly admit of the appellation seems doubtful. ON FOSSIL, UELIQUIA. ■ &78 of Pudsey and Tong, and wliich is exposed by slips in seve- ral places, to find traces of these fibres proceeding from the central cylinder, in rays through the stratum in every direction to the distance of above twenty feet. Repeated observations, and the concurrent conviction of unprejudiced persons made attentive to the phenomenon, compelled the belief that they originally belonged to the trunks in question, and consequent- ly that the vegetable grew in its present horizontal position, at a time that the stratum was in a state capable of supporting its vegetation, and shot out its fibres in every direction through the then yielding mud. For if it grew erect, even admit- ting the fibres to have been as rigid as the firmest spines with which we are acquainted, it woidd be difficult to devise means gentle enough to bring it into a recumbent posture without deranging their position. This supposition gains strength from the circumstance that they are found lying in all direc- tions across one another, and not directed towards any par- ticular point of the compass. The flattened and sometimes grooved form of one side of the cylinder has already been noticed. Woodward already observed, that along this side there generally, or at least fre- quently, ran an included cylinder, which at one extremity of the specimen would approach the outside so as almost to leave the trunk, while at the other it seemed nearly central. A reference to his Catalogue, Vol. I. part 2, p. 104, to Mr. Par- kinson's Organic Remains, Vol. I. p. 437, and to Martin's Petrificata Derbiensia, 1. c. will show how much this included cylinder has embarrassed those who have considered it with a view to the vegetable organ to which it owes its origin. In the specimens in Calliard which have suffered little compres- sion, but which are seldom above a few inches in length, this bodv is generally nearly central ; perhaps in no instance per- fectly lateral. In the specimens in clay, from one of which we were able to detach upwards of six feet, the flattened or grooved side is invariably downward, and consequently the included cylinder in the position which it would assume if it had sub- sided at one end, while the other was supported, or which Mm 274 ON FOSSIL REL.IQUIA. would be the result of its sinking through a medium of nearly the same specific gravity with itself, provided it was at one end rather denser'than at the other. It must be observed, that this included body appears to have suffered various degrees of compression, being sometimes cylindrical, which was evi- dently its original form, and sometimes almost entirely flat- tened ; in the coal shale we were never able to detect a trace of its existence. Besides these indications of organisation, we have met with several specimens which, on being longitudinally split, disco- vered marks of perforations or fibres, more or less parallel with the axis of the cylinder, and in some degree resembling the perforations of Terebellae in the fossil wood of Highgate and some other places. Whether these configurations be owing to the organisation of the original vegetable, or to some process which it underwent during its decay, seems impossi- ble to determine ; the specimens examined afforded no op- portunity of discovering a connexion between these tubes and either the internal cylinders, or the external surface. Among the vast number of specimens examined, only one was detected, which appeared to terminate, closing from a thickness of three inches to an obtuse point. We have given a figure of it, Plate IV. fig. 3. Two instances also came to our knowledge, of branched specimens, in which the trunk divided into two nearly equal branches. So rare an occur- rence of this circumstance would however, rather induce the supposition that the original was properly simple, and that these were only exceptions or monstrosities. The size of different specimens varies greatly, but we have seen none under two inches in diameter ; the general size is three or four, and some occur, but with very indistinct traces of the pustules, even 12 inches across. From the above it appears rational to suppose, that the ori- ginal was a cylindrical trunk or root growing in a direction nearly horizontal, in the soft mud at the bottom of fresh wa- ter lakes or seas, without branches, but sending out fibres from all sides. That it was furnished in the centre with a pith of ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA- 275 a structure different from the surrounding wood or cellular substance, more dense and distinct at the older end of the plant, and more similar to the external substance towards the termination which continued to shoot. And perhaps, that besides this central pith, there were longitudinal fibres pro- ceeding through the plant like those in the roots of Pteris aquilina. With respect to any stem arising from it, if a root, or foliage belonging to it, if a creeping trunk, we have hardly ground for a supposition. If these points be assumed as ascertained, the manner in which the reliquia were formed is easily accounted for. An- nual decay, or an accumulation of incumbent mud having deprived the trunk of the vegetating principle, the clay would be condensed by superior pressure around the dead plant so as to form a species of matrix ; if this took place so rapidly that the mould had obtained a considerable degree of con- sistency before the texture of the vegetable was destroyed by putrefaction, the reliquium was cylindrical ; if, on the con- trary, the new formed stratum continued to subside, while the decomposition was going on, it became flattened, and the inferior part might even be raised up towards the yielding substance in the inside, so as to produce the groove or creest, as Woodward calls it, on the under side, in the same manner as the floor in coal works is apt to rise where the measures are soft, and the roof and sides have been secured. While the principal mass of the plant was reduced to a soft state, and gradually carried away or assimilated with mineral in- filtrated matter, the central pith being unsupported, would sink towards the under side, and this the more sensibly where its texture was most distinct, while its anterior extremity would probably go into putrefaction with, and be lost in the more tender part of the plant. The mineral matter intro- duced would now form an envelope round the pith, where this resisted decomposition for a sufficient length of time, and when it was ultimately removed, if the surrounding mass was still sufficiently pervious, be also filled with argillaceous mat- ter, or, if it was too much indurated, be left empty, which is S 571) ON FOSSIL RELIQtTIA. the case occasionally. The epidermis or external integument of the vegetable, appears to have resisted decomposition the longest, as in many cases it has been preserved from putrefac- tion in the maimer necessary to change it into coal ; its place more frequently, however, is occupied by a ferru- gineous micaceous film. It therefore appears, that the ori- ginal plants must have undergone a destruction by putrefac- tion, and the vacuities thus occasioned been very rapidly filled with mineral matter. This is evident from the reliquium in its present state exhibiting no minute traces of organisation, nor any signs of bitumcnized vegetable matter so frequent in siliceous and opaline wood, except in the epidermis, and from the close similarity which this substance bears with that of the surrounding stratum ; whereas in shells, fy'c. which have evidently undergone a very gradual lapidifying process, there is generally a very perceptible difference between the matter substituted and the surrounding mass. Several conclusions interesting to the science of geology, will readily be drawn. The formation of these strata from the deposit of water is clearly ascertained, also that the ar- gillaceous strata in question must have been when originally deposited of nearly the same thickness as they now are, as appears from the undisturbed position of the vegetables of which they were once the bed, and are now the tomb. On the other hand, the shale of coal or slate clay appears to have originated from a great number of successive depositions, which must have been of a very diluted consistence, when vegetation became extinct in the plants of which they now bear the impressions. All these strata must be supposed to have been successively at no great depth from the surface of the water resting upon them, that these plants might be sup- plied with air ; and the situation in which they are found pre- cludes the possibility of any motion of that sea sufficiently violent to disturb the bottom. The general diffusion of tills and several of ihe following species, strongly suggests the belief that all the coal strata through which they arc dis- persed, owe their existence to a similar origin. ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. Sp. II. Phylolithus sulcatus, Plate V. Fig. 1 fy 2. Martin Petrif. Derb. Plates 8. 25. 26. — Parkinson, Organic Remains, Vol. I. Plate III. Fig. 3. — Luid, Lithophyllacion Brit. Tab. V. Fig. 184. 6. — Scheuchzer, Herb. Diluv. Tab. IV. Fig. l. — Volkammer, Sites, subterr. Tab. VII. Fig. 7. Tab. VIII. Fig. 6. Mr. Martin has described and figured this species under the names of Phytolithus sulciculmis and striaticulmis. The cha- racters distinguishing these two varieties appear too vague, and too many intermediate gradations exist, to permit us to constitute two distinct species, and we are induced to depart from his names, as it is by no means ascertained that the original was, strictly speaking, a culmus. Mr. Parkinson, Mr. Luid and Scheuchzer's specimens were very imperfect. Its geographical habitat corresponds with that of the former spe- cies, but its geological situation appears rather to vary. We have found it in sandstone (argillaceous, the thick laminated upper bed of the quarry, called rag) and in ironstone abun- dantly, also not unfrequently in the coal shale, but have never been able to detect it in the coal, nor in the argillaceous beds which produce the former species so abundantly. Indeed, if it had existed in the latter, it is hardly possible that it could have escaped our notice ; it seems also to be wholly absent from the Calliard. It must certainly be ranked among the fossils of more frequent occurrence, but as with the whole class, so with this species, fragments and traces are far more abundant than perfect specimens. On account of the pecu- liarity of its structure, very minute portions are recognised among the numerous specks of coaly impressions abounding in the rag, the greater part of which can be referred to no 578 ON FOSSIL, RELIQUIA. particular species, but it is more usual to find tolerably per- fect specimens in iron stone. The most perfect form in which we have met with it, is that of a gently tapering cone, ending in a somewhat obtuse point, divided into joints, and longitudinally striated, each stria having at the joint a protuberance indicating a fibre or leaf in the original. In a single specimen in standstone, repre- sented in Plate V. fig. S, traces of the whorls of leaves or fibres were very distinct, but only towards the termination of the plant. Da Costa mentions a specimen with a large bul- bous root, but we have never been fortunate enough to meet with any tiling to which that name was applicable. The size, joints and strife of this vegetable, to judge by its reliquia, must have been liable to the greatest variety, if we do not suppose that under a single name we in fact comprise a whole family of plants. The cylindrical or nearly cylindri- cal part of the trunk varies from one quarter of an inch in diameter to six or more inches, besides the accidental varieties from compression ; the joints are sometimes at the distance of less than half a diameter, at others two or three diameters asunder ; sometimes, they grow gradually closer and closer towards the end, at others a short joint is placed between two long ones. Some specimens are finely striated, others wide- ly ribbed, and a few occur in which the projecting part between each sulcus has a finer line impressed along its course, so as to divide it in two. We have not met with more than about a dozen terminations, almost every one of which differs con- siderably from the other, but three in iron stone had the re- markable coincidence of being curved as if the original had withered, and the end been bent down by the weight of the leaves attached to it. If this was the case, we must suppose the prototype to have been of a very succulent nature. We have no grounds to imagine, that we ever detected this plant in the situation in which it originally grew, as was the case with the former, nor have we been able to discover any traces of internal organisation. ON FOSSIL KEUQTJrA. 279 The original seems to have vegetated in an upright posi- tion, with a reeded, jointed trunk, surrounded at every joint towards the top with a whorl of leaves ; from the manner in which its fragments are found, it appears either to have been hollow or to have had a brittle and probably elastic outer coat, which in many instances is converted into coal. The traces of the insertion of the peduncules of the leaves into the joints, is most visible in the ironstone specimens, (Plate V. fig. l.) though we never could find any marks of the leaves them- selves in that matrix. Frequently single joints are found, and called by the ironstone diggers, cork stones ; often, however, several occur united, which break not across the joints, but in a sloping direction, owing to the texture of the stone. It is remarkable that cubic crystals of Galena (sulphuret of lead) are often discernible upon the ironstone in these reliquia, but never to our knowledge pyrites or sulphuret of zinc, which occasionally present themselves in the cavities of shells in the same strata. We may safely assert that this species was not subaquatic, as, if this had been the case, we could hardly have failed to find it along with the former, whose reliquia are in so undis- turbed a state. Persons acquainted with the appearances of tropical vege- tation have informed us, that some of the thicker specimens resemble the young shoots of the Surinam bamboo, when first appearing above ground. 280 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. Sp. III. Phytolithus cancellatus. Plate VI. Fig. 3, 3, 4, 5, 6. Martin, Petrif. Berb. Plates 13. 50. — Sowerby, British Mine- ralogy, Plates 39, 40, 385. — Da Costa, in Phil. Trans. — Parkinson, Organic Remains, Vol. I. Plate I. Fig. 6. Plate II. Fig. 4. — Volkmann, Silesia Subterr. Tab. Fill. Fig. 10, 11, 12, 13. This remarkable fossil appears to have been very gene- rally confounded with others, some of which will be men- tioned below, and which resemble it in exhibiting a cancel- lated appearance. Mr. Parkinson united with it a fossil of a very distinct nature, Org. Rem. Vol. I. Plate IX, fig. 1. and Mr. Martin, though he points out Mr. P.'s error, is himself led into a mistake when he identifies it with the impression, Tab. 14. The fact is, that there are not less than six (probably more) fossils of vegetable origin, occasionally occurring in the coal strata, all which, under certain circumstances, present a reti- culated surface, and seem on this account to have been desig- nated squamata schemata, hy Dr. Richardson, (Luid. p. ill.) Blumenbach in his Handbuch, terms them paradoxical fossils, and notices their having been found in the Grisons, and in Scotland. All of them are found in the argillaceous ironstone, and some in the coal shale, but the species in question appeal's very frequently in the argillaceous sandstone, and occasion- ally in the coal.* The imperfect state of the various speci- mens render it almost impossible to give a description from any one, such as shew the habitus of the plant, being gene- rally deficient in the marking ; and such as have the marks in the highest perfection, generally displaying only a part of the cylinder. From the former we learn, that the original had a cylindrical trunk dividing not unfrequently into blanches, * A specimen of this kind evidently gave rise to the story (afterwards retracted) of a fish found in coal. Parkinson* Vol. 111. p. 250. ON FOSSIL, RELIQUIA. 381 but not strictly dichotomising; was probably furnished with a cylindrical pith or central body which resisted putrefaction longer than the surrounding substance, and had its surface di- vided into rhomboidal projections the interstices between wliich form a kind of net work or lattice work, the longer diameter of the rhombs being parallel with the axis of the cylinder. From the fragments wliich exhibit the markings of these rhombs in the most distinct manner, we become ac- quainted with three distinct species of configuration, apparent- ly arising from the epidermis, the inner bark, and the wood of the prototype ; and which for convenience (though the supposition is still open to more close enquiry) we shall dis- tinguish by the names of epidermal, cortical and ligneous.* In the epidermal appearance the rhombs are divided by lines forming a net work, so that the rhombs are quite approximate ; these lines are not right lines, but waved in a manner which, as Mr. Parkinson observes, is extremely difficult to express by drawing, and which eludes description. From an examina- tion of very perfect specimens belonging to this class, the marks upon the separate rhombs are found to be the follow- ing : the upper angle, for about one third of the vertical dia- meter, is elevated and rather rough with a depression in the centre. The lower side of this elevated triangle runs out in the middle in a ridge towards the lower corner of the rhomb ; in the sinus formed by this ridge, and the lower ridge of the triangular elevation, there appears on each side an oval cica- trix, Plate VI. fig. 3. Or thus : From the lower corner of the rhomb, a ridge runs in the direction of the longer diameter. When it has got some- what beyond the centre, it divides into two arcs which go off towards the upper side of the rhomb. The space included between these arcs and the upper corner is elevated and rough, and has in the middle a depression, and in the sinus of the * We prp.siime that ligneous may signify belonging to wood, as well as made of wood. Nn 282 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. arches, where they leave the central ridge there is on each side an oval cicatrix. The configuration resembles that on the scales of the cones of some species of pine pretty closely at first sight, but seems much more analogous to those on some of the Cacti, as the cones of pines have neither the depres- sion nor the cicatrices which in the Cacti might be occasioned by the aculei with which they are armed. In the cortical appearance the lines between the rhombs are of some breadth, the ridge appears broader and less de- fined, and forms with the contracted superior elevation only one protuberance, in which the two cicatrices are perhaps never visible, and the central depression assumes the figure of a squamula. Mr. Martin's Plate XTV. seems to have been taken from a specimen of this kind ; but it must be remarked that neither this nor the preceding class of appearances are often as distinct as described, the former being generally com- pletely flattened so as to lose its relief, though it still retains traces of the various figures, and the latter degenerating into a mere central protuberance. Plate VI. fig. 4 and 5, represent the matrix and cast of part of a fine specimen of the cortical impression in sandstone. The ligneous appearance differs extremely from the two former, and only close observation enables us positively to assert that it originates from the same plant. The cancellated appearance is here entirely lost, the surface is slightly striated with a scarcely perceptible rising under the central ridge, and a minute but distinct raised dot in the place of the depression in the epidermis. It has all the appearance of the peeled stem of a plant which had been furnished with small branches or spines in quincuncial order. Plate VI. fig. 6. is part of a large specimen in ironstone, which was thickly enveloped with bituminous matter, the outer coat of which, and the matrix, exliibited the epidermal ap- pearance. From these three appearances, variously modified, the dif- ferent aspects of this protean fossil may be explained. It frequently happens, that the cast and impression are from different integuments, the space separating them being occu- ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. 283 pied by carbonised or bitumenised vegetable matter. Thus in the most perfect specimen of the ligneous appearance which we have met with, and from which our figure is sketched, the impression was the epidermal ; at other times the impression is epidermal and the cast cortical, and again not unfrequently both cast and impression epidermal, cortical or ligneous. The manner of accounting for these varieties is obvious, it only requires us to suppose the cast and the impression, or matrix, to have been formed, while part of these integuments were still in their natural state, which being thus inclosed was, after- wards, changed into bitumen or coal. The appearance of some specimens seems strongly to sug- gest the idea that the bark was furnished or composed of strong longitudinal fibres, and almost all betray a tendency to be striated in a vertical direction. The few specimens which exhibit traces of a pith, inform us that it also was very finely striated in a longitudinal direc- tion, but afford no further information respecting the internal organisation of the original. With respect to the singular, extremely beautiful, and regu- lar markings of this fossil, their cause, use and nature appear to have been hitherto but little elucidated; from repeated and numerous observations we were led to believe that they could be no other than the cicatrices left by the fall of leaves or stipulse, somewhat resembling those which may be observed on the stalk of the cultivated variety of the cab- bage, or on pulling off the footstalks of the leaves of the ISymphsea from the root ; with the difference that in the fos- sil these cicatrices are arranged close together, and that they are elongated in a direction parallel to the trunk. If this be supposed, the depression in the epidermal appearance, corres- ponding with the minute protuberance in the ligneous, proba- bly indicated the woody fibre running along the midrib of the leaf from the wood of the trunk ; the rough projection would be the part to which the vessels forming the upper plate of the leaf would be attached, the cicatrices on either side of the central ridge would mark the progress of air or sap vessels 2 284 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. to the under plate of the leaf from the hark ; and the spaces around or beside them, the attachment of two bundles of pa- renchyma abutting against the lower part of the petiole as is usually the case, and afterwards expanding so as to form the under surface of the leaf. This solution still appears sufficiently natural, but a close examination of some of the genus Cactus, but particularly the Cerei, as hinted above, incline me to think that we shall ulti- mately find a pretty close analogue among them, in which a fibre or leaf will correspond with the upper depression, and a couple of aculei with the lower cicatrices. This will obviate the difficulty of supposing a plant so thickly beset with the petioles of leaves as to be totally covered by them ; at the same time we must acknowledge that the manner in which our fossil sends off its branches, is wholly dissimilar to any of the Cacti we know. The impressions of this vegetable in the different substances before mentioned, are often extremely beautiful, from the highly finished relief with which they are ornamented, those in shale are. also of a neatness surpassing the most elegant productions of the graver, nor are those in the coarser ma- trix of argillaceous sandstone unsightly, being generally very perfectly marked by coal. The impressions in sandstone are generally much more perfect than the casts themselves, few of which exhibit the markings very distinctly. The varieties of form and size in which these fossils occur, are very numerous. Those which exhibit the whole circum- ference of the cylinder* are generally about two and a half or three inches in diameter, and we have not seen a detached specimen above a foot or fifteen inches in length. Impres- sions considerably longer not unfrequently occur among the rubbish of stone quarries, but we could never obtain the entire * The compressed cylindrical specimens of vegetable fossils are seldom (we believe never) equally distinct all round, one side being generally more or less obliterated, and not unfrequently lost in the matrix, which is easily explained, if the substance was in a horizontal position when the petrcfac- t.ivc process took place. ON FOSSIL RELIQTJIA. 285 casts. The flattened impressions in the coal shale are often considerably larger, one found at Shelf, near Bradford, con- taining near three square feet of surface. The size of the markings or rhombs also differ greatly ; in some specimens in ironstone, they are scarcely one quarter in length, in others above an inch, and in one indistinct specimen in sandstone, a rhomb might be traced above three inches long. The uncertainty involving this fossil is greatly increased by the scarceness of good cylindrical specimens, and the great varieties of shape which the fragments assume, perfectly flattened, compressed or beset in almost every direction, so that it is difficult to conceive how they could possibly origi- nate from a cylindrical trunk ; to which may be added, that the markings of the rhombs are always much more perfect in these fragments. It may also be deserving of notice that the quantity of coaly matter attending these remains is, generally speaking, much greater than in the two former species, and sometimes forms a hard durable coat, though more frequently it crumbles away on being rubbed. This species does not occur in the clay beds with the Phytolithus verrucosus, nor have we discovered it in Cal- liard ; the specimens above alluded to in coal were no more than a trace of the rhomboidal configurations in a white matter, resembling a drawing with white lead on the surface of the coal. 286 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. Sp. III. Phytolithus parmatus, Plate VI. Fig. l. and Plate VII. Fig. 1. Grew. Mm. Tab. VII. 274>? ( Scheuchzer, Herb. Diliiv. p. 119 J With the exception of Grew, whose name is introduced only on the authority of Scheuchzer, this fossil appears to have escaped the notice of all former writers on petrifactions to whose works we have ever had access. It is possible that parts of it may have been mistaken for fragments of the last species, but the more complete specimens (and the best we have been able to obtain are very far from being as complete as those of the former reliquia) possess characters so striking- ly singular as to distinguish them immediately from the whole class. The specimens which we have obtained have all been from the iron works at Low Moor and Shelf, both near Brad- ford ; and the mass either the argillaceous ironstone, or the Coal shale. We never have detected a trace in any other stratum, which probably would have been the case had it existed in them, though it certainly must have been a vege- table of much rarer occurrence, or much less capable of the petrefactive process than either of the former. The specimens we have seen do not authorise us to assert that it is ever found in a cylindrical form, as they all present only an extended surface. However, such specimens of the former species are by far the most common, and yet its more perfect shape is undoubtedly cylindrical, this circumstance by no means implies that the reliquium in question may not have owed its origin to a vegetable that was also cylindrical. The surface of this fossil presents an appearance in some degree resembling the last species, being also reticulated ; but even these reticulations, on close examination, are wholly different ; they are formed by projecting decussated lines, which thus include rhomboidal spaces, bearing none of the ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. 387 marks so interesting in the Phyt. cancellatus ; but simple de- pressions. They also differ very perceptibly in being less than is generally the case in middle sized specimens of the latter. But the most remarkable and inexplicable part of the or- ganisation of this fossil consists in a series of circular or oval scutellse or shields, placed close to each other in a right line across the surface. The various specimens hitherto met with having been merely fragments, and the difficulty of finding any tiling analagous to these scutellfe in the vegetables of the present creation, render it unwarrantable to apply any appel- lation to them as gemmae, buds, flowers, Sjc. which might lead to the conclusion, that their origin was ascertained ; we are hitherto quite in the dark with respect to their nature, and could only offer the vaguest suppositions, notwithstanding con- siderable diligence was bestowed in the search after circum- stances which might throw light upon them. It therefore only remains to describe them such as they appear, and to endea- vour to reconcile their various appearances by the simplest conjectures we can form. Three distinct kinds of appearances of this fossil have come under our notice, two of which from a degree of resemblance with appearances of the last species we may call the epider- mal and ligneous. The third is widely different from any thing we have met with among these fossils, but easily account- ed for by supposing projecting spines or fibres cut transversely at a distance from the vegetable, and leaving traces of their section on a plate of shale. The epidermal appearance is that usually met with, in which the parmse are surrounded by a raised margin ; the included disk swells towards the central umbo or boss in curiously dis- posed rugse, and the boss is generally more or less excavated in the centre. These configurations on the surface of the shields vary in almost every specimen, yet so that it is not difficult to trace their analogy, and the identity of the differ- ent marks. The raised margin is constant, and there is always a tendencv of the other lines and protuberances towards the centre, not in the direction of the radii, but in a manner slight- 288 ON FOSSIL RELIQLIA. ly resembling the figures on the back of an engine-turned watch-case, produced by describing several circles, whose centres are situate in the circumference of another circle round the middle of the plate. But the protuberances sometimes appear oidy as lines of projecting points, at others like continued ridges, and again as ridges indented into a series of projections, which are so placed as to give part of the disc a reticulated appearance ; a precise idea, however, of the arrangement of these marks can hardly be formed but from an attentive examination of the specimens themselves, or their representations, when it will be found that notwithstand- ing their variety they are regulated by that law of order so universal in organised nature, which, while admitting infinite modifications, retains inviolate the characteristic principle. Plate VII. fig. 1. represents the largest and one of the most perfect specimens that we have met with. The specimen is in argillaceous iron ore from Shelf. The series of parmse is generally bounded on each side by a rather indistinct ridge, beyond which the surface has the rec- ticulated appearance at first described. The general shape of the parmse does not much vary, ex- cept becoming oval from lateral compression, but the size is not constant, and it is remarkable, that while those in iron- stone exceed two inches in diameter, those in the shale sel- dom arrive at one. Perhaps the consistence of the original was different at different stages of its growth, and conse- quently better suited for preservation in one medium at one time, and in another at a different. To determine the number of parmse which form a series, or how the series ends, is out of our power ; we have observed six or seven in some specimens, but they were apparently equal in size, and there was no reason visible why the row should be nearer its termination at one end than another. The total appearance of the fossil lias a curious resemblance to that of some of the Jungermanijc preparing for fructification when highly magnified. ON FOSSIt, RELIQUIA. 289 Of the ligneous appearance we have hitherto met with a single instance, but it is a comparatively perfect specimen, and very well defined, so that notwithstanding the wide dif- ference of aspect, we do not hesitate to refer it to the same original. Plate VI. fig. l. exhibits a representation of the con- cave part or matrix of this specimen. The reticidated appearance is here wholly wanting ; the surface has an appearance more resembling the bark of the beech, apparently indicating an organisation, the fibres of which are at right angles to the series of parmae. The rugae of the parmae are almost wholly obliterated, but the umbo is more decidedly and neatly marked. It forms a distinct flat- tened conical protuberance slightly furrowed and excavated at the apex. The margin continues distinct and raised. But the most singular circumstance attending this appearance of the fossil is, that no traces of organisation are visible which do not seem to be continued in the epidermal covering. Parallel with the series of parmae, and at no great distance from it, there is a narrow groove alternately shallower and deeper, from which at distinct intervals there appear to have issued minute fibres, if the cicatrices left will warrant the supposi- tion. It must also be remarked, that this groove is to be traced only on one side of the fossil, but that it is again repeated at some distance. The specimen in question is in ironstone, but of the size of those usually found in shale, and the surface is not flat, but curved in a direction perpendicular to the row of parmae. The third appearance alluded to above, consists merely of an elegant arrangement of minute points, issuing in curved lines from a centre, which we have once or twice met with in shale. The manner in which they are placed, seems sufficiently to indicate that it belongs to this species, and we should be apt to infer from this mode of appearance that in the original, fibres rose perpendicularly to the surface of what has fur- nished our fossils, from the protuberances on the parmae, transverse sections of which gave rise to the impressions in question. Oo 290 ON FOSSIL RELIQTJIA. The idea has suggested itself that the configurations on the parmae bear some resemblance to the arrangement of the fibres in the leaves of plants while still twisted together in the bud, as they appear on a transverse section, but the central umbo forbids our supposing them to have originated from mere buds, a circumstance indeed which their very position renders improbable. The fact seems to be, that we have no sufficient data to form any competent idea of the prototype. The quantity of coaly matter accompanying this petrefac- tion, seems fully equal to that in the former species. The above four species form by far the greater part of the fossil reliquia belonging to indeterminate vegetables occurring in the coal strata, which we have had an opportunity of exa- mining. We have formed the description of them, not from solitary detached specimens, but, unless where the contrary is mentioned, from the observation of numbers, and can there- fore lay them down with some degree of confidence. In the course of our enquiries it may be naturally supposed that various other specimens of different fossils fell into our hands, some of these possessed characters distinguishing them de- cidedly as particular species, but want of number prevents our tracing the boundaries within which their varieties may range ; of the more remarkable of these we shall add a catalogue with such observations as we are enabled to make. Other frag- ments seemed apparently different from any of these spe- cies, but from our limited acquaintance with the varieties of the latter, or their imperfect state, would not warrant any de- cisive conclusion ; and again, some of the species described by Da Costa, Mr. Parkinson and others have hitherto eluded our research, or are wholly wanting in the strata we had an opportunity of examining. Confident that it has not been the result of unwillingness to learn, we shall as little hesitate to ON FOSSIL REl.IQ.tJIA. 391 acknowledge our ignorance as to communicate our expe. rience. Sp. V. Phytolithus reticulatus. This species may perhaps ultimately prove to be the same with that last described, either in a different state, or from a different part of the plant. It is not altogether uncommon in the ironstone, and probably gives rise to some of the cancel- lated configurations on the coal shale. Its appearance is much like the reticulated part of the Ph. parmatus, but from our being uncertain which is matrix and winch cast in the spe- cimens we have obtained, we are at a loss whether to describe it as divided into rhomboidal cavities by projecting lines or as studded with protuberances, the interstices of which form a netted appearance. The former seems more probable from the circumstance that in what we esteem the most perfect species of this fossil the projecting lines seem in some de- gree to proceed from a ridge or midrib running across the surface. Some specimens which we have seen are singularly bent, as if the articulations of the closed fist had been pressed into the substance, while soft. All that we have hitherto met with have been in the black argillaceous ironstone, and had a coating of bituminous mat- ter of considerable thickness and tenacity. They were from Low Moor and Shelf. Sp. VI. Phytolithus Martini'. On plate 14, of Mr. Martin's Petrif. Derb. fig. 2. there is a fragment of a rather large reticulated impression in an iron- stone nodule ; this we suspect, though not without much doubt and hesitation, to belong to a curious fossil, coinciding with 292 ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. the three former species in the cancellated surface, and which may perhaps be a variety or young specimen of Phyt. cancel- latus ; should it prove to be distinct, which we are inclined to think it is, we wish to distinguish it by the name of that diligent and accurate naturalist. We have never, as far as we know and can recollect, been able to meet with the cast, though we have found seve- ral specimens of the matrix of this fossil in the brown argilla- ceous ironstone. The most perfect of these, shews distinctly that the original resembled the branch of a tree about an inch in diameter, nearly cylindrical and nearly straight, dividing into two in a mode apparently resembling the smaller branches of the Pinus picea. The surface appears to have been deeply and very distinctly cancellated, but as far as we can dis- cover, without the central depression and cicatrices of Phyto- lithus cancellatus. The rhombs are also different in shape, the longer diameter being transverse, instead of parallel, with the axis of the cylinder. We cannot positively ascertain whether this matrix was left hollow, or whether (which is more probable) the substance of the vegetable was substitu- ted by pyrites, which had fallen out before it came into our hands, but it shev s the form of the original very completely, the whole circumference of the cylinders of both branches being complete for some length.* * This species seems to bear a superficial resemblance to that which Mr. Parkinson describes anil figures. Org. Rem. Vol. I. p. 427, and PI. IX. fig. 1. and which led him into error with respect to the origin of the Phyto- litlius cancellatus. We have frequently met with his fossil in nodules of ironstone, the place of the original vegetable being generally substituted by pyrites; impressions of it, or what we take to be such, also occur in the coal shale, but to an attentive observer, in possession of good specimens, there is little danger of confounding it with any of our species. The surface of Mr. Parkinson's fossil is evidently scaly, analogous to the cone of Finns abies, the matrix generally insinuating itself beneath the projecting scales, so that parts are inevitably broken off in detaching the pyrites, which pro- duces indeed a reticulated appearance, but by no means as perfect as in our species; in Phyt. Martini, the termination has not yet been met with, hut it is probably very different from that of Mr. Parkinson, and it is hardly likely that its cast would present the radiated fibrous arrangements, visible ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. Sp. VII. Phytolithus transroersus. Plate V. Fig. 3. This very simple but perfectly distinct fossil seems hitherto to have escaped the notice of naturalists. We have obtained tolerably perfect specimens in sandstone, and have traced it in the ironstone. It appears to be a simple cylindrical trunk transversely closely striated, without any traces of leaves or fibres. All the specimens which we have found were considerably compressed, the longest about six inches long, and not quite a half inch broad, (in its flattened state) the broadest less than an inch in diameter. They were all equally thick at both ends, nor was there any indication whereby a guess could be formed, which was the upper and which the lower extremity, or whether it belonged to a horizontal creep- ing root. The general appearance was much like that of a very large earthworm. From the fineness of the striae or annuli, and these probably being only superficial, it is not unlikely that some of the indistinct cylindrical fossils, and other fragments discernible in the upper beds of argillaceous sandstone, may belong to this species. Sp. VIII. Phytolithus Dawso?ii, Plate I. Fig. 7. From the kindness of Jos. Dawson, Esq. of Royd's Hall, near Bradford, one of the proprietors of the extensive iron works at Low Moor, I received a specimen exhibiting on one side a cast, and on the other an impression, in bitumen or coal, of a fossil which is evidently very distinct from any of the preceding. in the latter. The latter is very decidedly the petrefaction of some part of fructification, if not the cone of a Pinus, which analogy prevents us suppo- sing of the former on account of its being branched. We therefore think ourselves justified in omitting Mr. P.'s fossil in this catalogue, and including ours under the head of indeterminable species of vegetable fossils. 394 ON FOSS1X, RELiqUIA. This fossil is longitudinally divided by pretty deep sulci into ribs of considerable breadth, winch have been beset with fibres or leaves placed, so that the cicatrices or marks where the fibres left the wood in each rib alternate with those on the adjoining. It seems natural to suppose that the original was an upright cylindrical trunk, with foliage arranged in this manner, but the solitary specimen does not furnish us with means to determine how many series of leaves there were in the circumference, much less what their former texture may have been. The impression in coal has considerably larger ribs than the other, and lies on the under side of the thin plate forming the specimen in a different direction from the other. The substance appears to be the grey argillaceous coal shale. In the possession of Mr. Salt, of Sheffield, was a fossil, allied to the former ; it was a compressed cylinder, and very perfect on one side ; the leaves were inserted in the manner above described, beneath each of the cicatrices was a slight protuberance, and the whole was faintly transversely striated. It was not divided into ribs by sidci like the preceding, though the marks of the petioles gave it a somewhat striped appear- ance. Sp. IX. Phytolithus notatus. Plate VII. Fig. 3. This species, which seems to be intermediate between Phy- tolithus Dawsoni, and Phytolithus tessellatus, we obtained from the coalpits of Dunkerton, Somersetshire. The mass is slate clay, invested on both sides with bitumenous matter, bearing longitudinal series of cicatrices, of a rounded pentagonal form, with a central mark ; the series separated by very dis- tinct sulci. Where the bituminous matter is removed, the slate clay itself exhibits a fibrous surface, no traces of the cicatrices, but under the central mark a projecting point. The latter appearance we suppose to be the ligneous, and ON FOSSIL RELIQUIA. 395 that on the bitumen the epidermal impression. Parkinson, Org. Rem. Vol. I. Plate V. fig. 8, represents a somewhat simi- lar fossil. The original of Phytolithus notatus must have been of considerable size, our specimen being seventeen inches long, and above nine broad, though imperfect on one edge 5 and the cicatrices do not sensibly vary in magnitude. Sp. X. Phytolithus tessellatus, Plate VII. Fig. 2. The solitary specimen here represented is ironstone from Shelf. Like the two former it is marked by longitudinal sulci, dividing it into ribs, which are again crossed by transverse separations, giving it a tessellated appearance. Besides these species which may be looked upon as ascer- tained, though from a comparatively small number of speci- mens there are some which still involve considerable doubt. We shall only notice two. Of the first only a single decided specimen came to our view ; its form was cylindrical, slightly bent, the surface in a very faint degree striated, but the whole surrounded by an unusual quantity of coaly matter. It is remarkable that the fossil itself was scarcely at all compress- ed, while the coal was very much so, presenting the appear- ance of a continued fin along either side. The specimen assists in elucidating a circumstance very frequently attending those petrefactions, in which part of the original vegetable matter is transformed into coal. In such fossils the cast is sometimes very neat and complete, as in the present instance, while the matrix on the contrary is very indistinct, at other times the cast is very obscure, while the matrix exhibits all the markings very neatly.* From these observations it would appear, that sometimes the cast set or hardened before the * This is very generally the rase with the impressions and casts of Phytolithus canrellatus, in the argillaceous sandstone rag, and often occa- sions grievous disappointments in collecting. 296 ON FOSSFL RELiqUIA. matrix, sometimes the matrix before the cast, and that one or the other continued soft, after the vegetable matter had undergone that degree of liquefaction which must evidently have taken place before it was converted into the coaly sub- stance which we now find. When on the contrary the vegeta- ble matter assisted decomposition till both the cast and the matrix had become fixed, both must exhibit equally perfect traces of the original form, which is sometimes the case. It seems also impossible from the above, to imagine the opera- tion of fire to have had any share in effecting any of these changes. The second indistinct class of fossils which obtains very generally and exclusively in the sandstone, consists of broad stripes of carbonaceous matter pervading the rock, and leav- ing on the surface of the stone an impression resembling a leaf. They may perhaps, be owing to the remains of some cylindrical trunk, but from this never being found perfect, (except the last mentioned specimen be of this nature) and from their great size, this is hardly probable. We have found them above four feet in length, and eight broad, and bent into various portions of cylinders, indeed in some quarries there is scarcely a stone of the rag which does not contain a frag- ment. If they be supposed to be leaves, they are certainly very different from those linear leaves, whose impressions are not uncommon in the coal shale. Thus far we have in some measure succeeded in unravel- ling the intricacies occasioned by these mysterious relics of a former creation. But still the numberless stains in the sand- stones, the blotches which appear in splitting them, and the perforations and cavities which occur among them, are suffi- cient proofs that we are acquainted with oidy a small part of the vegetable riches of that world. To patient investigation, and the concurrence of favourable circumstances, we leave their consideration, with a wish that the few hints put down may encourage others to take up the subject — and proceed. Rg.i. Enpd by l.HOl £n0*byI.MU PLATE VJ. I J JEngf byJJBl / PLATE VII. ON FOSSIL RELIQTTIA. 397 REFERENCE TO THE PLATES. Plate IV. fig. 1 and 2. Upper and under sides of Phytolithus verrucosus. fig. 3. Termination of Pliyt. verrucosus. fig. 4, 5 and 6. Different appearances of the areolae on Ph. ver- rucosus. fig. 7. Phytolithus Dawsonk Plate V. fig. 1. Termination of Phytolithus sulcatus. in ironstone. fig. 2. Termination of Ph. sulcatus with part of the matrix exhi- biting the whorls of |ea»es, in sandstone, fig. 3. Phytolithus transversus, in sandstone. Plate VI. fig. 1. Ligneous impression of Phytolithus parmatus, being the concave matrix in ironstone. fig. 2. Fragment of Phytolithus cancellatus, the epidermal impres- sion exhibited by the conrave matrix in ironstone. fig. 3. Single rhomb of a very perfect specimen of Ph. cancellatus, in ironstone. fig. 4 and 5. Fragments of the cortical impression, both matrix and cast of Phyt. cancellatus, in sandstone. fig. 6. Ligneous impression of Ph. cancellatus, in ironstone. Plate VII. fig. 1. Kpidermal impression of Phytolithus parmatus in iron- stone, fig. 2. Phytolithus tessellatus, in ironstone, fig. 3. Phytolithus notatus, in slate clay. Pp No. XIX. Account of a Large Wen, successfully extirpated by John Syng Dorsey, M. D. — Read, 1817. THE paper which I have the honour of presenting to the Society, contains the history of a steatomatous tumour, of very unusual magnitude, successfully extirpated. The patient, Julia "Richards, a negro woman, from Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, was aged about forty -five years, and enjoyed good health ; she was corpulent, but active, until her exer- tions were restrained by the incumbrance of her tumour. She stated that it had been first noticed about eighteen years before I saw her; — that it had grown gradually, and had never been painful. When she applied to me, her attitude in walk- ing resembled that of a woman carrying a large and heavy sack. On examination, I found the tumour arising at the upper part of the back, extending equally on both sides, and although pendulous from its weight, yet the root of it was very large. The annexed engraving, (Plate VIII.) represents it better than it can be described ; — the dimensions were as follow. Circumference at' the neck or narrowest part of the tumour, two feet ten inches. ACCOUNT OF A LARGE WEN. 299 Circumference at the thickest part, vertically, three feet nine inches. Circumference horizontally, three feet one inch and a half. The circumference of the waist after the wen was removed, was two feet nine and a half inches, so that the narrowest part of the tumour was thicker than the patient's body. The surface of the tumour was tolerably regular, but very large and numerous veins were seen in various parts of it. The patient was admitted into the Pennsylvania Hospital, and on the 22d of February, 1815, I proceeded to remove the tumour. Having previously administered an opiate, i placed her (at the suggestion of Dr. Physick,) on her face upon the table, fifteen minutes before commencing the ope- ration, and directed assistants to elevate the tumour in such a manner as to empty it as completely as possible of blood, and I was greatly delighted to perceive the change in the size of the superficial veins, which resulted from this simple ex- pedient, many of them contracted and could not be per- ceived. The operation was commenced by external incisions cal- culated to preserve skin enough to cover the surface left by the removal of the tumour, and this skin being dissected and turned back, which was the most tedious part of the operation, the tumour by large and rapid incisions, was detached from its base and removed. It adhered to some of the spinous processes of the vertebra;, and to the muscles and tendons near the spine. The operation occupied twenty-one minutes ; and the loss of blood was very trifling. — The skin was found to adapt itself very well to the denuded parts, and was secured by strips of adhesive plaster, compresses and ban- dages. The greater part of the sore united by the first intention ; no unpleasant symptoms occurred, and the patient was discharged cured, on the 15th April. She is at this time, and has been ever since the operation, perfectly well. 300 ACCOUNT OP A LARGE WEN. The tumour was found to weigh twenty-five pounds, but when filled with blood, was probably much heavier. The tumour of Eleanor Fitzgerald, described by Mr. John Bell; and that of a negro woman, published in the Medical Repository of New York, (Vol. III. New Series) were of enormous magnitude, but adherent by small bases. The basis in the present instance was very great, and I am not aware that so large a tumour has been ever before extirpated. Remarks. — The most important practical precept derived from this case, is the influence of position on the circulation of the blood. I once attended an operation on a tumour of comparatively small size, seated on the back, the extirpation of which was found impracticable, in consequence of bleeding from the superficial veins. In the treatment of hemorrhagy from blood vessels in the extremities, and on certain local inflammations, an elevated position is often found of great importance. I have seen a bleeding from an artery in an aneurismal arm, in which circumstances precluded the use of a ligature or tourniquet, effectually arrested by an elevated posture, the hand being constantly kept in a vertical position. These remarks, although somewhat digressive, are in my opinion of too much importance to be omitted. The practice of employing position to empty blood-vessels for surgical purposes, in the case alluded to, and others, so far as I know, originated with Dr. Physick, and my own experience has af- forded numerous proofs of its value, and convinced me that it has been too much neglected by surgeons. No. XX. An Account of an Improvement made on the Differential Ther- mometer of Mr. Leslie. By Elisha De Butts, M. D. Com- municated by Dr. B. S. Barton, one of the Vice Presidents of the Society. — Read, June, 1814. THE results to which the European philosophers were directed by their investigations upon the nature and propaga- tion of heat, have been sufficiently important to attract the attention of every person engaged in the pursuit of natural science. The mystery which involved the connexion that existed between heat and light, has been to a certain degree removed by the observations and experiments of Lambert, De Saussure, Scheele, Pictet, and Herschell, which have shewn that the rays of heat can be separated from those of light by refraction, and by plane diaphanous bodies. When a sun-beam was compelled to pass through a prism, the rays of heat occupied a space nearly distinct from that occupied by the primary colours, and upon further examination, the greatest quantity of heat was found to occupy a portion of surface one inch and a half beyond the illuminated spectrum of component rays; but as these experiments made it sufficient- ly evident, that a very close analogy subsisted between the character of the laws which govern the actions of heat and light, it became particularly desirable to have an accurate 302 IMPROVEMENT ON THE view of some feature in the one or the other sufficiently pro- minent to mark the distinction, and to guide our conceptions. This has been accomplished by Mr. John Leslie. The patient research and the mathematical precision, with which he conducted a long and troublesome series of experi- ments, constituting in the aggregate a system of knowledge of much immediate practical utility, entitle him to a place in the highest rank among the cultivators of this branch of natural philosophy. The principal instrument which he made use of, and to which he was indebted for his most important results, was the Differential Thermometer, for an account of which, with his method of using it, I must beg leave to refer to his book. As I was extremely desirous to repeat his experiments, and to pursue the subject, I made every exertion to procure a Differential Thermometer, but from the extreme delicacy of the instrument, and the difficulty of uniting the tubes as directed by Mr. Leslie, I could not obtain one, even from the best artists, possessing a sufficient degree of accuracy. My mirrors, made with great precision in Paris, were therefore almost useless. This difficulty was, however, soon removed by a new form of the Differential Thermometer, which I was by a variety of expedients led to adopt ; and as it appears to me to possess some advantages superior to that of Mr. Les- lie, I have taken the liberty to present one to the Society. The principal advantage which appears to me to be derived from this form of the Differential Thermometer, is the faci- lity with which it may be made. To render this more evi- dent, it will be necessary to call the attention of the Society to the description of the Differential Thermometer as invent- ed by Mr. Leslie. — " Two glass tubes of unequal lengths, each terminating in a hollow ball, and having their bores somewhat widened at the other ends, a small portion of sulphuric acid tinged with carmine, being introduced into the ball of the longer tube, are joined together by the flame of the blow- pipe, and afterwards bent into nearly the shape of the letter U, the one flexure being made just below the joining, where DIFFERENTIAL, THERMOMETER. 303 the small cavity facilitates the adjustment of the instrument ; which, by a little dexterity, is performed by forcing with the heat of the hand a few minute globules of air from the one ball into the other. The balls are blown as equal as the eye can judge, and from 4-lOths to 7-lOths of an inch in diame- meter. The tubes are such as are drawn for mercurial ther- mometers, oidy with wider bores ; that of the short one, and to which the scale is affixed, must have an exact calibre of a fiftieth or sixtieth of an inch ; the bore of the long tube need not be so regular, but should be visibly larger as the coloured liquor will then move quicker under any impression. Each leg of the instrument is from three to six inches in height, and the balls are from two to four inches apart. The lower por- tion of the syphon is cemented at its middle to a slender wooden pillar inserted into a round or square bottom, and such that the balls stand on a level with the centre of the speculum. A moment's attention to the construction of this in- strument will satisfy us that it is affected only by the difference of heat in the corresponding balls, and is calculated to mea- sure such differences with peculiar nicety. As long as the balls are of the same temperature, whatever this may be, the air contained in the one will have the same elasticity as that in the other, and consequently the intercluded coloured liquor, being thus pressed equally in opposite directions, must re- main stationary. But if, for instance, the ball which holds a portion of the liquor be warmer than the other, the superior elasticity of the confined air will drive it forwards, and make it rise in the opposite branch above the zero, to an elevation proportional to the excess of elasticity or of heat."* The difficulty of procuring the above instrument arising from the great dexterity necessary in uniting the tubes by the flame of the blow-pipe, and the difficulty of carrying it to a distance in consequence of its shape and delicacy of construc- tion, induced me to endeavour to discover some expedient by which I should be in possession of a thermometer, acting * Leslie's Inquiry, p. 9. 304 IMPROVEMENT ON THE according to the principles which governed Mr. Leslie's, but more portable and less difficult of acquisition. Having pro- cured, in the summer of 1811, all the apparatus necessary for the experiments upon radiant heat, except the Differen- tial Thermometer of Mr. Leslie, I attempted to make one capable of answering my purpose, by immersing the open termination of a common thermometer tube, blown at the other end into a ball of 7-10ths of an inch in diameter, into concentrated sulphuric acid, tinged with carmine,* contained in an ounce phial; and by luting the mouth of the phial to exclude the external air, and introducing into the tube in the usual way a little of the acid, I had an instrument which appeared capable of assisting my observations; but I soon perceived that it laboured under an imperfection incompatible with the accu- racy required in a series of experiments so delicate as those in which I was engaged. I remarked that when I removed the instrument from a room of a given temperature to a room the temperature of which was higher, a sudden depression of the fluid occurred, although after a few minutes had elapsed, it resumed its former position, and when the instru- ment during an experiment was placed with the ball in the focus of one of the mirrors, a depression of the fluid occurred to a greater degree than the quantity of radiant heat in the focus would have produced. It also appeared frequently to have lost in a great measure its sensibility ; or the fluid was not depressed to the degree which from previous observa- tion I was convinced it should have been. I at length found that these irregularities were connected with accidental changes in the atmospheric temperature, by which the air in the ball was sooner affected, from the extreme thinness of the glass, than the air contained in the phial, the glass of which was comparatively very thick. The imperfect conducting power of glass with relation to heat, by free communication, and the proof given by Mr. * The ordinary tliormometriral fluids will not answer the purpose. Spirit of wine is totally inadmissible. — Leslie on Heat, p. 410. DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER. 305 Leslie, in his Seventh Experiment, p. 30, that its character is similar with relation to radiating heat, rendered the method of removing the imperfection of my instrument sufficiently obvious. It was only necessary to equalise the . opposition made to the passage of heat to and from the upper and low- er portions of included air, and as it would improve the beauty of the instrument, and increase the facility of inclosing it in a tube or case, I determined to have the quantities of air above and below as nearly as possible, equal. I therefore procured a glass tube closed at one end, in the middle of which I caused a ball to be blown almost as thin as the com- mon thermometer-ball. Into this, concentrated sulphuric acid tinged with carmine, was poured, until the fluid stood at the point C. (Plate IX. fig. 1.) A thermometric tube with a ball also blown very thin, and an inch in diameter, open at its other end, was introduced into the glass containing the acid, until its open termination had passed about l-10th of an inch below the surface of the acid on the point b. The stem of the thermometer was made sufficiently large to be embraced closely by all that portion of the lower glass above the ball. The instrument was placed upon its stand, as in the figure, and white lead in oil was laid on with a camel-hair pen- cil in repeated coats, at the point a, until there was no longer any connexion between the external and inclosed air. When the cement was perfectly dry, the upper ball was heated as usual, by which a small portion of air was thrown into the lower ball, and upon removing the heating cause, the acid of course rose to the required height in the tube. The scale was adapted to it by first marking the distance of the part of the tube at which the fluid stood, from the part at which the glasses were cemented ; then, determining the temperature of the atmosphere by a common thermometer, the lower ball of the instrument was plunged into water as- certained to be 10° of Fahrenheit colder. This produced a determinate depression of the fluid in the tube, which in this thermometer happened to be exactly at the point of junction. The space between the above two points was divided into 100 Qq 306 IMPROVEMENT IN THE, fy'C. parts or degrees, 10 degrees upon this scale indicating of course one degree of Fahrenheit. The instrument was then ready for use, and I had the gratification of rinding it free from any imperfection calculated to mislead during the progress of experimental observation. The capability which it possesses of being applied to fluids, when we wish to detect very minute variations of temperature, is in many cases of considerable importance, as for example, in certain chemical combinations, in which the quantity of heat evolved upon mixing fluids, cannot be appreciated by the common thermometer. In experimenting upon that part of the subject of radiant heat, which by a strange confusion of ideas has been termed radiating cold, by placing the lower ball of the instrument in the focus of the mirror, the quantity of heat lost by radiation will be indicated by the depression of the coloured acid. To those persons who have considered attentively, the Pho- tometrical experiments of Mr. Leslie, the easy application of this instrument to a similar purpose will be evident, by making the upper ball of black glass, or by adapting a metallic ball to the top of the tube, and it may perhaps be considered as a more convenient form than Mr. Leslie's, from the facility of inclosing it in a glass tube or case, which is essential to an accurate Photometrical result.* Having made use of the instrument presented to the society now more than three years, and finding that during that time, it was honoured with the approbation of my scientific friends to whom I had an opportunity of showing it, I have taken the liberty of presenting to the society the above short descrip- tion of it. ELISHA DE 1.UTTS. * Leslie's Inquiry into the Nature of Heat, p. 423. No. XXI. Description of a Rolling Draw-Gate, as applied to Water. Mills. Invented and Communicated by Nathan Sellers. — Bead, April 19, 1811. BEING part owner of a saw-mill, working under a head and fall of about eighteen feet, by double geers, and finding the expense of repairs very considerable, it was agreed by the owners to remove the complex works, £>id to substitute the common flutter-wheel, which being more simple, would be less expensive and troublesome. This they intended to do, in the usual way, by bringing the water to the wheel by an open shoot placed nearly perpendicular under a head of about three feet; the gate or draw to be flat in the bot- tom of the head. But, as the power of the mill would be increased by extending a close head down to the wheel, I was very desirous that this should be done ; and the only ob- jection to it was the difficulty of starting the gate under so heavy a press of water — say about 14 feet. To remove or obviate this difficulty, was the subject of my frequent thoughts, and as the persevering labours of the human mind, to effect useful purposes, seldom fail, the following principle or me- thod occurred, was adopted, and answered my utmost expec- tation. 2 308 ROLLING DRAW-GATE. .The method will be best explained by a miniature model, which I have made, and herewith send to the Philosophical Society, at the request of one of their members. A drawing of this model is exhibited in Plate IX. fig. 2. I call this invention a rolling draw-gate. It consists of a roller, (which I recommend to be made of cast iron,) five or six inches diameter, well turned, with a gudgeon of about three inches long, and three inches diame- ter, at each end, and at one end a square of four or five inches extended beyond the gudgeon, to fit a lever on, for turning the roller when fixed in the head. As much of this roller as the length of the buckets in the water wheel, was cast but half a roller, b, so as to leave a flat side as broad as the diameter of the cylinder. The cylinder b, is to be fixed be- tween the sides of the descending trunk or head, a, conducting the water down to the wheel, with its flat side towards the back of the trunk, and with its whole cylindrical ends and gudgeons let into the side planks, and the square-ended one passing through to receive the lever by which the roller is to be worked. When thus fixed, and when the flat side of the roller is parallel with the back of the descending trunk, it will leave an aperture of nearly half its diameter, for the water to pass. Then, by turning the roller so that the lower edge of the flat part approaches the back of the trunk, the aperture is lessened, and by turning it still further, the aperture is closed, by the said lower edge impinging on the back of the trunk in an angle of 40 or 45 degrees. Then to shut the bottom of the trunk so as to prevent the water from running on the other side, or behind the roller, a plank is fitted in grooves cut in the side planks of the trunk, and kcy'd so as to fit nicely on the cylindrical part of the roller, which, in turning, slides close in contact Avith the grooved edge of this bottom plank. The front plank- ing of the descending trunk fits nicely on this bottom plank, which is kept up tight by keys underneath in the grooves cut in the side planks to receive the bottom plank. Being thus constructed, by turning the cylinder by means of the lever affixed to it, the aperture may be nicely regulated to the state ROLLING DRAW-GATE. 309 ©f the water or weight of the work — and this under a very great press of head, because it falls on the flat part of the cylinder equally on each side of the centre of motion, and has therefore as much tendency to shut the aperture as to prevent its being opened. The society are at liberty to retain the model and use it as they see proper. Should any person wish to apply it, I have no objection, and if any advantage results from its application, it will give me pleasure. NATHAN SELLERS. Philadelphia, April 11, 1811. No. XXII. Description of an Indian Fort in the neighbourhood of Lexing- ton, Kentucky, by C. W. Short, M. D. Communicated by Mr. John Vaughan, Oct. 4, 1816. Lexington, Aug. 31, 1816. Sir, Shortly before I left Philadelphia, my attention was drawn by Mr. Correa (who by one month's residence in my coun- try, learnt more about it than I had during my whole life) to an ancient work in the neighbourhood of this place, which I have but just had it in my power to visit, and the follow- ing sketch is the result of a slight survey I made of it. Knowing your curiosity on these subjects, I send it to you hoping it may not be uninteresting to vou. C. W. SHORT. Mr. John Vaughan, Philadelphia. DESCRIPTION OF AN INDIAN FORT. 314 Description of the Work and Explanation of the Figure. (See Plate IX. Fig. 3.) aaaa. The wall, 14,000 yards in circumference, made of earth raised from a ditch on each side — the ditch being gene- rally deeper on the exterior. The wall for the greater part of its course seems to run on an elevated piece of ground ; at h, however, it is overlooked by an eminence rising immediately from the bottom of the exterior ditch, to the height of six or eight feet more than the wall ; this eminence has every ap- pearance of being the work of nature. Atf on the contrary, the line runs on the side of a hill, sloping exteriorly. The wall is here formed of earth thrown from the outer side only, and its summit is on a level with the inner ground. — c c c are small gate-ways, opening towards the south, and are about six feet wide — d is another, ten feet, and e the main gate-way, fifteen feet wide. The wall in its circuit is broken in several places by ravines: those marked g gg, appear to have existed when the wall was formed, for it may be perceived descending to the bottom and rising from it. These ravines, when swelled by rains, empty their waters in different directions. The smaller hollows marked h h, have all the appearances of more recent formation, and seem to have washed away the wall in making a passage to the chief ravine g. At i i, there are two singular pits or excavations made on the top of the wall, about two feet deep, at present, and four or five in cir- cumference. At these places the wall is evidently widened. The wall, in its highest part, (between the gate d and the ra- vine g,) is about ten feet from the bottom of the exterior ditch; its average height may be said to be five. A small part of the ar^a from j to k has been in cultivation, and here the wall is almost obliterated by the plough ; however it may be traced by the difference in the colour of the soil, the line of the wall being marked by a yellow clay. The thickness of the wall at the base may be eight or ten feet. The figure formed by it 313 DESCRIPTION OF AN INDIAN FORT. is an irregular oval, its longest diameter being 500, and its transverse 400 yards long, comprehending an area of very uneven ground, the centre of which is perhaps higher than any in its vicinity ; this is proved by the ravines, which make off in every direction from it. Nothing particular is perceived in walking through it, except about the centre a small mound or nodule two or three feet high, and a number of pits or depressions of the form of fallen-in graves. The whole ground is covered with timber of a large size, and of the usual growth in the neighbourhood — sugar maple, black walnut, white ash, hickory and beech. Those on the top of the wall and in the ditch, appear of an equal age and size with the others. There is no living water in the bounds of the lines, nor have any singular reliques been discovered about them. No. XXIII. Description of an Improved Piston for Steam Engines, with- out Hemp Packing. By P. A. Browne, Esq. — Read, Nov. 1816. To the President, &c. of the Am. Phil. Society. Gentlemen, I TAKE the liberty of communicating to your respecta- ble body an improvement I have latelv made in mechanics. It consists of a Piston which operates without any packing, being perfectly air-tight, and requiring much less power than any hitherto used. From the following description and the drawing which ac- companies this letter, the principle will be perfectly under- stood ; and the model which I send to be viewed by the so- ciety, will show that it is capable of being reduced to prac- tice. The foot of the piston rod (Plate IX. fig. 5. a.) which gradu- ally widens at the bottom, passes into and fits upon a flat cir- cular piece (b. fig. 6.) the size of the cylinder (which has the shoulder or shoulders hereafter described) and with the circu- lar plate hereafter described, keeps the parts of the piston next described, in their places. Rr 314 DESCRIPTION OF AN IMPROVED PISTON. Between the above piece and the circular plate hereafter described are three* or more segments or pieces of brassf or other metallic substance, or other substance (A. fig. 6.) of the thickness required by the power of the engine,t the outer extremities of the whole of which, when placed together, will form a circle equal in size to the cylinder ; the shape of the inner parts of these pieces differs according to their number, but must always be such as to admit between them the wedge of the triangular form next described. Between each of these segments or pieces, and exactly filling the interstices between them is a wedge of a triangular form of the same material (B. fig. 5, 6.) the base of each of which triangular wedges rests upon or against a circular spring (c. fig. 5, 6.) or spiral or other springs^ fixed, if circular, around, and if spiral, against the sides of the piston rod. Over these is another circular plate (d. fig. 5.) of the size of the cylinder, through a hole in the centre of * The segments are said to be three or more, because there may not be less than three, but they may be increased to any number. For small pis- tons, say for engines not exceeding in power that of two horses, and mode- rate sized pumps, three pieces are best calculated, and it is beliexed that scarcely any power will require more than eight. f The segment or pieces, and the triangular wedges, may be of brass or other metallic or other substance. It is believed that brass, from its known durability when liable to friction, is preferable to any other metallic sub- stance, they may however be composed of steel or any other metal, or even of wood or other substances. \ The thickness of the segments or pieces, and of course the wedges, must be regulated by the power of the engine ; it must be sufficient to ex- clude the air, and not so thick as to create unnecessary friction. It is be- lieved that for a power less than four horses, it need not exceed one inch, for a power greater, and not exceeding twelve horses, one and a half inch; and two inches thick, will answer for any larger power now in use. § There may be one circular spring encompassing the piston rod, and acting equally against the base or end of each wedge, which is preferable ; or there may be as many spiral or other springs, of equal force, as there are wedges, each acting on a wedge. Two things must be carefully attended to, 1st. That the spring or springs, (if more than one) act equally on each wedge, so that the pressure of the piston on the cylinder may be uniform, and 2dly. That the spring or springs have just sufficient force to make the cylinder air tight, and yet not enough unnecessarily to increase the friction. DESCRIPTION OF AN IMPROVED PISTON. 31-6 which the piston rod passes. This plate rests upon a shoul- der (e. fig. 5.) or shoulders, permanent on the lower piece first above described, and projecting from the piston rod. This piece is confined down to its place on the shoulder or shoulders, by a clamp, (/. fig. 5.) or other fastening, and a nut (g, fig. 5.) or nuts, which screw on the piston rod. By means of the circular pieces, kept asunder by the shoul- der or sboulders, the segments, wedges and spring or springs, are gently confined so as to be prevented from rising or fall- ing from their places, but the spring or springs are allowed to expand, and the wedges are thereby constantly and equally pressed in a direction from the piston rod against the seg- ments, and they against the cylinder, in such a manner as to make it completely air-tigbt, but at the same time so as to create very little friction as the piston moves up and down. The advantages of this piston over any hitherto known, are great and obvious. It is more simple, and of course cheaper than any metallic piston hitherto invented. It is less liable to get out of repair than any piston now in use ; it ratber improves by use, for as the friction gradually wears away the segments, so also does it the angles of the wedges, ani the whole becomes perfectly smooth, while the exact circular form is preserved unimpaired. It saves the power of the engine by diminishing the fric- tion. It is well known that the common packing, in order to be air-tight, is required to be large and compact, and a very large proportion of the force of the engine is employed in overcoming its resistance. This piston is more uniform in its pressure, and presents a much smaller surface for friction, being at the same time equally air-tight. It is confidently believed that the power required to drive a steam engine of a three horse power, with the common hemp packing, would drive one of a four horse power with this piston. It will also be found to possess essential advantages in pumps of all sorts, especially those for hot liquor, which is 316 DESCRIPTION OP AN IMPROVED PISTON. so destructive to hemp packing, but which will not in the least injure the metallic piston above described,* * It has been objected to this piston that it will not be air-tight ; the objection however has, it is presumed, been obviated by the use of Dr. Cart- wright's metallic piston, which is metal against metal, and which is never- theless found to operate successfully. Dr. Cartwright's piston is composed of eight radii of a circle or wedges each propelled by a separate spring placed between the piston-rod and wedge, is more complicated, and conse- quently more liable to get out of repair than this piston, which is perfectly simple and not liable to accidents. It might also be added that the pressure of a number of springs cannot be so uniform as that of one spring, which is all that is used in this improvement. No. XXIV. On Bleaching. By Thomas Cooper, Esq. — Read, June 20, 1817. THE discovery of Scheele, that muriatic acid distilled over manganese, had, among other peculiar properties, that of destroying vegetable colours, was afterwards applied by Berthollet to the improvement of the common processes of bleaching. Sometime about the year 1788, a meeting of the manufac- turers of Manchester was called, to consider of the proposals of a Mr. Bonneuil or Bonjour, I now forget which, who offer- ed to communicate a new mode of bleaching on receiving a reward for the discovery. Mr. Henry, Mr. Charles Taylor, (afterwards Dr. Taylor, Secretary to the Society of Arts at the Adelphi,) myself, and Mr. Jos. Baker, undertook to consider the subject and report. We met at Mr. Taylor's house, and having little doubt of the process being connected with the discoveries of Scheele, we distilled common muriatic acid over manganese, and found of course its effect of destroying most vegetable colours. Considering that manganese was dirty, and the residuum worthless, I proposed using red lead in lieu of manganese, and we distilled the common muriatic acid over red lead, with equal effect. Some small portion of the muriat of lead, however, appeared by the result of our experiments to come over, and injure the whiteness of the cloth. I proposed to 318 BLEACHING. obviate this, by using the common ingredients of murintic acid, viz. common salt and oil of vitriol, on the supposition that a combination would be formed between the oil of vitriol and the lead, insoluble and incapable of sublimation. This proposal was subjected by us in common to experiment, and appeared to succeed. The applicant for a reward on making the discovery, not finding the manufacturers of Manchester willing to close with his proposal, applied in London for a patent, which I was directed to oppose. The argument took place before the master of the rolls, Macdonald ; Graham for the patent right, and myself in opposition; and the patent was relinquished. Mr. Graham's client was so mortified at his ignorance of a question which it was extremely difficult to render familiar to a gentleman of the bar, that he left the room, and I heard no more of him. On my return to Manchester, my friend and neighbour, Mr. Joseph Baker, the owner of some oil of vitriol works, near Worsley, a few miles from Manchester, wrote me a note, in- forming me that he had made a great improvement on my proposal of manufacturing the bleaching liquor from red lead instead of manganese. He had added some muriatic acid to red lead in a common wine decanter, and stopping it tight with the stopper, he found the decanter strong enough to confine the effervescent liquor and vapour. Without making this known, we tried the process on a large scale of about 100 gallons, with perfect success. Mr. Tenant soon after took out his patent for distilling the bleaching liquor with oil of vitriol, common salt and manga- nese ; Mr. Rupp also, of Manchester, published his method, which, as to proportions, was much better than Mr. Tenant's. The best proportions appear to me to be three common salt, two oil of vitriol, one and a half manganese. The manganese was at that time imported from the neighbourhood of Exeter, at the rate of ninety shillings sterling, the ton. Mr. Baker's process was so much superior, superceding at once all the use of retorts, distillery apparatus, fuel, receivers, alkali, lime, and almost all attendance, that 1 engaged with BLEACHING. 319 him in the firm of Baker £5 Co., as bleachers. For three or four years, we bleached about 1800 callicoes a week, beside muslins, muslinets, and goods of every other description. The oxymuriatic acid will not alone produce a white colour ; we used it as a finish at the close of the process of bleaching, with excellent effect and perfect safety. Indeed it superceded entirely the necessity of laying the goods down on the grass. The whole quantity daily wanted, was daily made by one of the partners ; at first, without, and during the last year, with, the assistance of one confidential person. It was always used so weak, that no injury could arise to the cloth, and excepting in some accidental cases, attributable to the usual process of vitriolic souring, as well as to the bleaching liquor, no damage did occur. I know not that the process has been used since I left Manchester in the year 1793. No one knew of it, or did use it before that period, excepting Joseph Baker 3j Co.* Five and twenty years interval since we were in the habit of using it, will justify the present publication, as the firm was dis- solved about the year 1793, and the business discontinued. But from no considerations whatever arising either from the want of success or want of profit in the practice of this mode of bleaching ; which I consider at present, as so superior in all respects to any other known to me as now in use, that injuring no one, I may venture to publish it for the considera- tion of those who may have occasion hereafter to bleach with the oxymuriatic acid or its combinations. Three or four large cylindrical wooden vessels or barrels, (See Plate IX. fig. 7.) about five feet by four feet, made of oak, with staves 2 1-2 inches thick, (having a plug-hole on the top to admit a large funnel, through which the ingredients were poured in. and at the bottom of one of the ends a plug through which the liquor was let out) were supported on a strong frame or trestle in the middle room of a building ap- * Mr. II 11I me, who as a blear her occupied the same grounds that Baker and Co. occupied a mile from Bolr<>n, and where he carried on the business of a bleacher, so lately as 1816, informs me he never heard of this process. 320 BLEACHING. propriated for the purpose. They rested on the frame, by gudgeons projecting from the end. The ends were strength- ened by two strong cross plates of iron, to which the gudgeons were attached, and also a handle at one end to turn them round. Into each of these, 75lbs. of common salt, 40lbs. of oil of vitriol, and from 35 to 30lbs. of red lead were put, through the funnel. Then, the vessels were filled about three fourths with water. The plug on the top drove in, with a bit of cloth to tighten it : one man turned each vessel round for about ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. The liquor was then completely made, and left to settle. It was not stronger than to admit a wine glass full to be drank without much difficul- ty. The barrels were thus filled in the upper room through a hole in the floor ; into which room no one entered but the person who poured in the ingredients. The barrels were turned round by a man in the middle room ; they reached of course nearly up to the ceiling or the under part of the room above, where they were filled. They were permitted to stand an hour, if not wanted sooner, and then let off into the cmrs containing the goods to be bleached, down a pipe, which per- mitted the bleaching liquor to go down to the bottom of the cuir first, and then to rise up through the goods, previously deprived of moisture by being run through the squeezers.* The cuirs were covered by a close cover ; the contents of one vessel was let off at a time, and the person who opened the plug and fixed the pipes, retired immediately to avoid the smell of the acid. The acid liquor was permitted to stay on the goods for twenty minutes after it had lost all odour of oxymuriatic acid, and had acquired the smell, taste and cha- racter of common muriatic acid : at this period, it emitted no offensive odour whatever. * The common squeezers were cylinders made of any hard white wood. The squeezers for finishing the finer kind of goods, heskle hollow copper eylinders with heaters withinside, were of the best kind of white paper, closely pressed and compacted by means of strong screws at the ends, and then accurately turned in a lathe. BLEACHING. 331 These machines, wherein the liquor was made, would ad- mit of being changed six or eight times a day if necessary, so that some thousand gallons might be daily manufactured with ease by one man. We had no fuel, no furnaces, no retorts, no luting, no vessels capable of fracture, no alkali to neutralize the liquor, no series of wooden receivers ; all of which constitute the apparatus actually in use at the present day ! Half a dozen men, could have supplied the whole of the bleaching liquor necessary for the whole manufacture of the place at that time. The sulphat of lead could be reduced by the common methods ; we usually sold it. The liquor was too weak and diluted to act injuriously on the goods : being weaker than the usual sourings with oil of vitriol and water. Tbe spent liquor was thrown away, but I think might- have been saved with profit. The goods were very carefully washed at the dash wheel, after the process. The plate accompanying this paper, (Plate IX. Fig. 7.) shews the barrel in which the ingredients were put; the frame or trestle, the funnel, inserted from the room above, (which is not a necessary but a convenient distribution of the appara- tus) the covered cuir (pronounced keer,) containing the goods to be exposed to the action of the acid, the pipe going to the bottom, so that the oxymuriatic vapour should not be unne- cessarily dissipated in the air; and the pipes fitting in to each other, when the liquor is required to be emptied from the barrels. The other parts of the plate, fig. 8, 9, relate to the method now usually employed for the first part of the bleaching pro- cess, in France and in England. I have already said that no good, merchantable, white, can be made even on cotton, much less on linen goods, by means of the oxymuriatic acid alone. The goods must first be soaked for four and twenty hours, to soften the loose dirt, grease, Sjc. ; this soaking should be Ss 322 BLEACHING. stopped, and the goods taken out, when air-bubbles appear in the tub, for that is the sign of incipient fermentation, which would rot the cloth. The goods are then to be taken out, and very well dashed ; then squeezed and put into a tub, or cuir, to be percolated with an alkaline liquor. The old pro- cess was this : to a cuir containing about 350 calicoes weigh- ing from ten to eleven pounds each, about seventy pounds of potash was taken : this was dissolved in a cast iron boiler placed even with the ground, or nearly so, with a fire under- neath it. The potash being dissolved, a man with a ladle and long handle, poured the boiling hot solution on top of the cloth ; the liquor percolated through the cloth (this is termed bowking) — ran out by a pipe at the bottom, into the boiler ; so that for twelve hours, there was a constant current of boiling hot solution of potash, percolating through the mass of cloth 5 the man distributing it as evenly as he could. The cloth being taken out next morning, was dashed, squeezed, and again placed in a cuir, and in like manner bowked (bucked, from a bucking tub) that is, percolated with solution of alkali for twelve hours, in the proportion of thirty-five pounds of pearl ash to S50 pieces ; dashed and squeezed as before. The pieces then undergo a souring in dilute sulphuric acid. Then dashed, squeezed, and a third time submitted to the same process of bowking with about fifteen pounds of pearl ash, and about five pounds of white soap : the next morning the pieces are taken out and dashed ; and after being well squeezed, are submitted to the opera- tion of the oxymuriatic bleaching liquor. Then dashed, dried, and made up. If necessary the oxymuriatic souring is repeated. The expense of manual labour was afterwards superseded, by pumping the liquor out of the iron boiler, and discharging it on the surface of the mass of cloth in the cuir : but this method, though a saving of labour, was still very expensive, from the wear and tear of the pump-gear. The modern me- thod is as follows. (See fig. 3 and 9.). An iron boiler is BLEACHING. 328 employed, having a flange, or hollow rim on the outside, in which an iron or wooden tub or cuir, without a bottom, can be let in or fixed: this by tight packing can be made steam tight. On the inside of this iron boiler, there are three or four projecting knobs, on which an iron grate rests, so as to be moveable: which when placed upon its sup- ports or knobs, within side the boiler, serves as a bottom to the cuir. The quantity of ashes and water required, being put into the boiler, the grate is let down, and a pipe fixed in the middle of it reaching to within three or four inches of the bottom of the boiler, and at top, higher by an inch or two than the cloth. The cloth is arranged within side the cuir, resting on this moveable grate, and surrounding the pipe in the center ; and is piled up to within five or six inches of the top rim of the cuir. A fire is made below the boiler, which is not more than one half or two-thirds full of liquor. The compact mass of cloth on the grating, scarcely permits any steam to pass through it : the heated steam thus confined, becomes highly elastic, presses upon the surface of the li- quor, and forces it up the pipe to the top, where it escapes in a jet, which by means of a tin cover against which it is thrown, is evenly distributed over the surface of the cloth, percolates through it, and escapes through the grating of the moveable bottom that supports the cloth, into the boiler. The cloth by this means is exposed to a much greater degree of heat than in the old process, for the expansive force of the steam must be raised so as to force the liquor up the pipe, from near the bottom of the boiler below, to the surface of the mass of cloth above. Hence not near so much alkali is necessary in this method of steaming as in the old one, for it acts much more powerfully. To a cuir of cast iron that will hold about six hundred callicoes, they do not now use more than half a hundred weight of potash, in the first bowking: and the goods are prepared for the bleaching liquor in two bowkings, with an intermediate souring of 324* BLEACHING. any dilute sulphuric acid, instead of three bowkings as be- fore. When the cloth is taken out, the grate is also taken out, with its pipe in the center ; water is poured in, and the boiler washed out, the washings being discharged by the waste pipe and cock below. This method of bleaching, I understand, is introduced on a small scale into very many private houses in France, and no doubt with good effect. No. XXV. Description and Use of a Simple Appendage to the Reflecting Sector, by which it is rendered capable of measuring all possible Altitudes, on Land, by Reflection from an Artifi- cial Horizon. By Robert Patterson. — Read, September 19, 1817. SINCE the discovery of the reflecting sector, various at- tempts have been made to extend the limits of its capacity in measuring angles. This becomes especially necessary in taking altitudes on land, by means of an artificial horizon, or reflecting horizontal surface ; since, in this case, the altitude measured is, from the construction of the instrument, but one half of that pointed out by the index on the limb : thus, an octant will not measure an altitude of more than 45°, a sex- tant, not one of more than 60°, a quintant, not one of more than 72° ; and beyond this, the limits of the sector has seldom if ever, been extended. It is, indeed, perfectly obvious, that no instrument of this kind can, bv .means of a reflecting hori- zontal surface, measure an altitude of 90°; for, then, the in- cident ray and the reflected ray must coincide, and both pass through the eye of the observer — which is evidently impossi- ble. Nay, when the altitude exceeds 75°, the head of the observer will, almost unavoidably, intercept the incident ray, in its passage to the reflecting surface. Besides, the field of 326 APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING SECTOR. view, from the obliquity of the index speculum, will then become too much contracted to afford an easy observation. No improvement, therefore, in the construction of this in- strument, can ever be expected to answer the purpose of measuring all possible altitudes by means of a common arti- ficial horizon : but with the aid of the following very simple appendage, this purpose will be completely answered, even by the common octant. The whole apparatus, to be used with the reflecting sector, consists of three parts. 1. An artificial horizon, or horizontal reflecting glass plane, with its adjusting screws. 2. A spirit-level. 3. A reflecting inclined plane. The two first parts of tliis apparatus, as well as the manner of adjusting them, are well known, and, therefore, need not here be described. Plate IX. fig. 4, represents a side view of the reflecting inclined plane, nearly of its natural size. It is composed of 1. A triangular frame of cast brass ABC. The thickness of the frame is about l-4th of an inch, its breadth about 1 3-10ths, and the lengths of the sides AB, BC, each about 2 inches: so that the bases AB, BC, may be nearly of the same dimensions with the face of the index speculum of a reflecting sector. 2. A plate of ground glass, cemented on the plane A C with black sealing-wax, or any other black cement, the polish being previously taken off the lower surface, to prevent a double image : — a c represents the edge of this glass. The inclina- tion of the reflecting surface a c to the base A B, [angle A] should be made about 35°, and to the base A C, [angle C] about 45°. The quantity of these angles must, however, be accurately determined ; and this may be done by either of the following methods. APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING SECTOR. 337 METHOD FIRST. 1. Make a reflecting sector [octant or sextant] fast in a vice, or in any other convenient way, with its plane perpendicular to the horizon, and the speculum of the index, when tlus points to o on the limb, nearly horizontally. 2. Lay a thin, flat piece of board, metal, or glass, on the face or frame of the index speculum, and on this place the spirit-level, extending in the direction of the index ; then gently move the index up or down the graduated limb, till the air-bubble of the spirit-level settles under the central mark on the tube ; and note the degree, minute, and part, to which the index then points. 3. Under the spirit-level introduce the reflecting inclined plane, resting on its base A B, and its angle A pointing to the limb of the instrument. 4. Move the index up the limb, till the air-bubble of the spirit-level again settles under the central mark on the tube ; noting, as before, the degree, minute, and part, to which the index now points. 5. Take the difference between this arch and that to which the index pointed when horizontal, if both on the same side of the o, but their sum, if on opposite sides ; and the half of this sum or difference will be the quantity of the angle A. In a similar manner, laying the inclined plane on its base B C, may be found the quantity of the angle C. In this way, by repeated trials, and taking a mean, you may, with a sensible spirit-level, find the angles of the inclined plane with great accuracy ; and these angles, it is evident, can never afterwards be subject to any variation. The above method was suggested to me by Mr. F. R. Hass- ler, some years ago, when preparing an apparatus of this kind for Mr. Jefferson. 328 APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING SECTOR. METHOD SECOND. 1. Let the index error of your reflecting sector be as- certained, by measuring the apparent diameter of the sun on each side of the o, and taking a mean, as it is commonly done. 2. Place the inclined plane with its base A B on the face of die index speculum, the angle A pointing to the limb of the instrument, and, in this position, make it fast to the specu- lum, by means of a spring-clamp of wire, sheet brass, or the like. 3. With your eye at the eye-hole, or telescope of the instru- ment, defended by a shade or coloured glass, look through the transparent part of the horizon-glass, directly at the body of the sun, and, moving forward the index, proceed as in finding the index error ;* noting the degree, minute, and part, on the limb to which the index points, at the apparent coinci- dence of centers ; then, this arch, allowing for the index error, previously found, will be double the angle A of the in- clined plane. 4. In a similar manner, by placing the inclined plane with its base B C on the index speculum, and angle C pointing to the limb of the instrument, you may find the quantity of the angle C. Instead of the sun, you may make use of any well-defined, illuminated, object on land ; as the top of a chimney, the ridge of the roof a house, or the like ; in which case, no shade will be necessary to defend the eye, and the mean of a number of observations will perhaps be equally accurate with that obtain- ed from an observation of the sun.f * If (he reflected image of the sun should appear at one side of that seen by direct vision, then, by giving the inclined plane a small angular motion on its base, you may adjust this side-error by bringing the two images into apparent coincidence. i If a light shade be placed behind the horizon-glass, then, the image of a terrestrial object, if moderately illuminated, will be seen by reflection from APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING SECTOR. 3*9 Directions for the use of the above apparatus, in measuring all possible altitudes of the sun, by means of a reflecting sector. The sector being adjusted, or its index error ascertained ; the artificial horizon placed in the sun, and, by means of the spirit-level and adjusting screws, brought to a true level in all directions — then JCASE I. When the altitude is not less than 10°,* and does not ex- ceed the limits of the instrument, viz. 45° for the octant, and 60° for the sextant, it may be found, in the usual Avay, by re- flection from the artificial horizon. When the altitude is less than 10°. 1. On the artificial horizon, place the reflecting inclined plane on its base AB, with its angle A directly towards the sun. 2. Measure the altitude above the plane A C ; and then from this altitude subtracting the angle A of the plane, the remain- der will be the altitude above the horizon. In this position of the plane, any depression of an object not more than 25° below the horizon, and, by the octant, any altitude not exceeding 10°, or, by the sextant, not exceeding 25°, may be measured. tiie transparent part of the horizon-glass, and thus the apparent coincidence or contact will be more accurately observed. * When the sun is less than 10 deg. above the reflecting plane, the field of view will be too much contracted; but this circumstance, by the above apparatus, may always be avoided. Tt 330 APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING SECTO*. CASE III. When the altitude exceeds the limits of the instrument. 1 . On the artificial horizon, place the inclined plane on its hase A B, with its angle A directly opposite to the sun. 2. Measure the altitude above the plane A C, and then to this altitude adding the angle A of the plane, the sum will be the altitude above the horizon. In this position of the plane, any altitude from 45° to 80°, may be measured by the octant, and any altitude whatever above 45°, by the sextant. CASE IV. When the altitude exceeds 80°, and the octant is used. 1. On the artificial horizon, place the inclined plane on. its base B C, with its angle C directly opposite to the sun. 2. Measure the altitude above the plane A C, and then to this altitude adding the angle C of the plane, the sum will be the altitude above the horizon. REMARKS. I. The sun's image reflected from the artificial horizon, when not silvered, will appear nearly of the same degree of brightness with that, after two reflections, from the specula of the instrument — a circumstance of some importance in mak- ing accurate observations. II. In taking a meridian altitude of the sun, it will be neces- sary to turn round the reflecting inclined plane, (when this is used) according to the change of sun's azimuth, so that the end farthest from the observer may point directly towards the sun. If the inclined plane be turned gently backwards and APPBNDACiE TO THE REFLECTING SECTOB. 331 forwards with one hand, (the instrument being held by the other) while making the observation, then, the two images of the sun will appear alternately to recede from and approach each other, and thus the apparent contact of the limbs will be accurately observed as they pass each other. III. By means of this inclined plane, the common octant may have its range extended to that of the sextant, or even to that of the quintant, thus — Attach this inclined plane to the* index speculum resting on its base AB, with the angle A upwards ; then, the reflecting surface of the inclined plane may be considered as the index speculum ; and, with this, any angle or altitude, measured in the usual way, will be equal to that pointed out by the index on the limb, increased by the quantity of the angle A of the inclined plane. IV. By the aid of this inclined plane, the horizon glass of the octant for the back observation, may be very accurately ad- justed, or the index error ascertained thus : — 1 . Attach the inclined plane, by means of the spring-clamp, with its base B C resting on the back part of the index specu- lum frame, and the angle C downwards. 2. Move forward the index on the hmb till it points to double the complement of the angle C of the inclined plane. 3. With your eye at the eye-hole, look through the trans- parent part of the back horizon glass, directly at the sun, and moving the lever of this glass, bring the reflected image to coincide with that seen by direct vision — and then this glass is adjusted. Any small error of adjustment may be found afterwards, by taking a mean of the two contacts of limbs, as in adjusting for the fore observation. Any error in the parallelism of the face of the index spe- culum, to the back part of its frame, may be very accurately ascertained thus : — 1. Make the sector fast in a vice, ^c. as directed in the first method of finding the angles of the inclined plane. 2. Lay a piece of index speculum glass on the face, of the index speculum, and on this place the spirit-level, in the di- rection of the index. 333 APPENDAGE TO THE REFLECTING 9ECTOR. 3. By moving the index, bring the air-bubble to settle under the central mark on the tube, and note the degree, minute, and part, to which the index then points. 4. Place the same piece of glass, or any other plane surface, on the back part of the speculum frame, projecting a little be- yond its outer edge. 5. On this projecting part place the spirit-level, touching the edge of the frame, and, moving the index, if necessary, bring the air-bubble again to settle under the central mark on the tube, noting, as before, the degree, minute, and part, to which the index now points ; then half the difference between this and the former arch will be the error in the parallelism of the face and back part of the index speculum ; for which proper allowance must be made in the above adjustment of the back horizon glass. V. The altitude of the moon, or of a bright star, or of any terrestrial object, sufficiently illuminated, may, it is obvious, be taken in the same manner as that of the sun. In this case, however, if the reflecting inclined plane were of silvered glass, the observation might, no doubt, be made with greater ease and accuracy. Jfy.2. PLATE IX. Fuj . 2. JZj.6. Fii?.S. 2 ., tL. Fiff ■ and Eric Bjork, who arrived in 1697, found only an imper- fect remnant. They formed a list of all the families, noting the names and ages of the members. The whole number of persons was about eleven hundred. This, compared with the original stock, which, though not on record, might be conjectured from the known number of vessels that had brought them, proved a considerable increase. Not a few among them were aged ; and families generally had many children. This was a very probable effect of a healthy cli- mate, and good morals. The testimony of William Penn confirms this : — " As they are people proper and strong of body, so they have fine children, and almost every house full ; rare to find one of them without three or four boys, and as many girls ; some six, seven, and eight sons. And I must do them that right ; I see few young men more sober and laborious." History of Pennsylvania, by Robert Proud, Vol. I. p. 261. The Swedes had, besides the church on Tinnicitm, a lesser one on Crane-pomt, not far from Christiana fort, on the other side of the creek, erected in 1666. A blockhouse, raised for defence, on the Delaware, in (the present) Southwark, was also fitted for public worship in 1676. All three were decayed, and otherwise incompetent. By the laudable zeal of these clergymen, the Christiana church was finished in 1699. and that at Philadelphia in 1700. Bjork became rector of the first, and Ri/dman of this. The people in Jersey contributed to the building of these, and worshipped in them for a while. ABOUT THE UIVEB DELAWARE. 349 The church on Racoon Creek was erected in 1704. A small chapel was added in 1717, fourteen miles below it. The two rirst mentioned are still extant, but in lieu of the others, new ones have been built. The respective parochial records give the following information until the end of 1744. Among the persons numbered in 1697 were about sixty natives of Sweden, who arrived while it owned the colony. In the course of thirty years, almost all died. They were, generally, above seventy ; several near or past eighty ; some nearer ninety ; and some beyond that age : a woman, for a long time a widow, was ninety -two : one man was an hun- dred ; and his widow, who survived seven years, was ninety- seven. A man, the last of these Swedes, died 1742, aged ninety-seven. Among the offspring of the colonists deceased by this time, some were beyond seventy, or near eighty ; but not many had passed sixty. Some of the living were between seventy and eighty. A couple had been married sixty-three years : the wife died eighty-eight years old, 1744. A man aged ninety- seven, died 1740 : but it is not certain whether he was born here or in Sweden. Old people died, very generally in December, January, and February. Many children also died in those months, but a greater proportion between the latter part of June and the middle of October. The first part of summer was commonly the most healthy to all ages. Pleurisy was frequently mortal, especially in 1728, (to a great number in Penn's Neck, a part of the Jersey Parish.) The small-pox frequently killed children, and" in- some years also youth and grown persons : many from the beginning of Mav, 1716, until February, 1717; and from the beginning of March until the last of December, 1731. Some years the number of deaths was much increased, without any disease prevailing. Probably the intemperance of the seasons was, partly, the cause. In the autumn of 1699, when the yellow fever was destruc- tive in Philadelphia, the Swedes in the country were also 350 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CLIMATE sickly, and several died ; but no mention is made of it, nor of any prevailing disease. Two brothers died, one of dysen- tery combined with fever. Intermittent fevers were common near the marshes, and often shortened life, although not immediately. Mortality of children was always great. The death of youth of both sexes, was not rare. Among the married, young women died often, but the middle aged commonly survived their husbands. Marriages were early and generally prolific. Younger widowers and widows were also commonly re-married. Popu- lation increased accordingly ; so that during this period, viz. from 1697 until 1744, the whole number of births and deaths were in the proportion of five and two. * * * * Stormy winds were frequent. Many cases of danger and drowning on the Delaware, and the creeks are mentioned. In March, 1701, when a corpse was carried from Jersey for burial at the Philadelphia church, three of the attendants were lost. Several persons were killed by strokes of lightning, at divers times. A man died by the bite of a rattle-snake in the middle of August, 1716, in a place then abounding with them. Rudman mentions a violent snow-storm in the last of De- cember, 1697. His successor Sandel has left several interesting notes, which I shall quote verbatim, alteiing the dates to the new style. " On Michaelmas day, the 10th of October, fell a heap of snow that laid twenty-four hours on the ground. Afterwards it became clear and very cold. The oldest people said that such had never before happened. On the 1 8th of the same in the evening, a hurricane arose which caused great damage. In Maryland and ^ Virginia, many vessels were cast away, several driven to sea, and no more heard of. Ten tobacco- houses belonging to one man were overturned. In Phila- delphia, the roof of a house was torn off. A great number ABOUT THE RIVER DELAWARE. -351 of large trees were blown down. This storm also took place in England, and was destructive. " In 1704, in the latter part of November and December, and in January, 1705, we had many, great, and lasting snow- storms. Few persons could remember such a severe winter. " The winter of 1708 was very cold. Many persons ob- served places frozen over, which never had been so before. It also continued very late ; the 5th of April, the cold with a piercing wind was so intense, that water thrown upon the ground at noon, immediately froze. " In June, July, and August, 1705, during six weeks, was a great deal of bad weather. " The beginning of 1714 was uncommonly warm. I saw a wild flower in the woods the 8th of February. The spring was also very mild. Some rye was in ear the 10th of April. " In May, 1715, a multitude of locusts came out of the ground every where, even on the solid roads. They were wholly covered with a shell, over the mouth, body and feet ; and it seemed very wonderful, that they could with this penetrate the hard earth. Having come out of the earth, they crept out of the shells, flew away, sat down on the trees, and made a peculiar noise until evening. Being spread over the country, in such numbers, the noise was so loud that the cowbells could scarcely be heard in the woods. They ripped the bark on the branches of the trees, and put maggots in the openings.* Many apprehended that the trees would wither in consequence of this, but no symptom of it was observed next year. Hogs and poultry fed on them. Even the Indians did eat them, especially on their first coming, broiling them a little. This made it probable that they were of the same kind with those that John the Baptist eat. They did not continue long, but died in the month of June. " This year was very fruitful. A bushel of wheat cost two shillings, or two shillings and three pence : a bushel of corn twenty-two pence : of rye twenty pence. There was also * Their eggs. 352 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CLIMATE plenty of apples: a barrel of cider cost, at first, only six shillings." * * * Eneberg, a clergyman of this church, remarks : 1732, in the latter part of November, ice made the river impassable : 1733 there was much snow in January. Rector J. Dylander wrote the following narrative of an earthquake : " 1737, December 17th, at ll o'clock at night an uncommon earthquake happened : the houses were shaken, the windows rattled, and the shock was more felt in the upper stories. Two hours before came a violent shower from SW. which lasted only half an hour. After this, the air cleared, and became veiy calm. But just as the town-clock struck 11, a breeze was heard in the west, which increased more and more, and was heard near the ground, until the house began to shake, so that persons in bed felt as if rocked to and fro, and those on the floor could hardly keep standing, and plates and glasses fell down in some houses. This lasted in some places one minute, and in others two ; but it went over the country with the same effect, so far as reports have come, on both sides of the river." P. Tranberg, rector of the Jersey church, writes in 1727. This was a hard winter that distressed the people and the minister. The two following years the parochial records have many funerals. The observations on the climate during the Swedish colony are the first that were made in this part of America. Records made after the arrival of William Penn, may be collected from different sources, and the whole would, if properly exa- mined and arranged, afford very interesting information. No. XXVIII. Research concerning the Mean Diameter of the Earth. By R. Adrain. — Read, Nov. 7, 18 17. THE figure of the earth approaches nearly to that of an oblate spheroid of revolution, the axis being to the equatorial diameter in the ratio of 320 to 321. When this figure is made use of in navigation, geography, Sjc. the calculations become much more abstruse and laborious than when we consider the earth simply as a sphere. In certain cases, where extreme accuracy is necessary, the oblate figure must be taken into account ; but in general, the globular figure will still be re- tained, as sufficiently accurate for most purposes, of great simplicity in theory, and of easy calculation in practice. But, if we substitute a sphere instead of the spheroid with which the figure of the earth very nearly coincides, we are by no means at liberty to choose the diameter of the sphere without restriction : we must select a sphere agreeing with the spheroid in as manv important circumstances as possible. Of these the following deserve particular attention. I. The sphere should be equal in magnitude to the sphe- roid. II. The mass of the sphere should be equal to that of the spheroid. Yy o54< RESEARCH CONCERNING THE III. The surface of the sphere should be equal to the sur- face of the spheroid. IV. The length of a degree of a great circle on the surface of the sphere should be a mean of all the degrees of great ellipses on the surface of the spheroid. V. The radius of the sphere should be a mean of all the radii of the spheroid. VI. The gravity on the surface of the sphere should be equal to the mean gravity on the surface of the spheroid. When the spheroid differs very little from a sphere, as in the present case, so that we may neglect, as inconsiderable, all the powers of the ellipticity above the first, we are led to a remarkable coincidence ; for all these conditions are ful- filled by one and the same sphere. The determination of this sphere is the object of the following calculations. PROBLEM I. To determine the radius of a sphere equal in magnitude to a given oblate spheroid of small ellipticity. SOLUTION. Let a and b be the greater and less semiaxes of the sphe- roid, r= the radius of the required sphere, and tt= the circum- ference of a circle to the diameter unity. By mensuration, the magnitude of the spheroid is —.a'b, and that of the sphere is — .r3 ; we have therefore — . r3= — . 1 3 3 3 (fb, consequently r3=(fb. It is evident, therefore, that the radius r is the first of two mean proportionals between a and b. MEAN DIAMETER OF THE EARTH. 355 When a and b are nearly in the ratio of equality, let b = a — c, and by substitution r^=a% — a2c, of which the cube root, retaining only the first power of c, is r=a e ; 2 t&a+b or which is the same thing, r=b+-e, or r= . o o According to these formulse r is the first of two arithmeti- cal means between a and b, and may be found by taking from the greater one third of the difference, or by adding to the less two-thirds of the same difference. When the less semiaxis b is denoted by unity, and the 2 greater by l+J, the ellipticity being . But s/i+%ta?=t+*a?, and therefore the differential of the surface becomes 27tdx(i+^+^xl), of which the integral beginning with x is When x=i we have half the surface =2t(1+— ), therefore, 4J the whole surface of the spheroid is 4^(1 +— ). -358 RESEARCH CONCERNING THE Again, the surface of a sphere to the radius r is 4^r», we 4s therefore the differential of the surfacfc is 2tt((Ia COS A-f Stf.rfA pos3a), of which the integral beginning with a is C 2 7 2ir < sin a+ C 3 j This expression when a=- becomes g7r(i+— ), and there- 3 3 fore the whole surface =4^(1-1.— ), which coincides exactly with the result of the preceding investigation. MEAN DIAMETER OF THE EARTH. 359 PROBLEM IV. To find a sphere, on which the degree of a great circle may be a mean of all the degrees of great ellipses of a given oblate spheroid of small ellipticity. SOLUTION. Since the degree is always proportional to the radius of curvature, it is obvious that the proposed problem is equiva- lent to the following: To find a sphere, of which the radius may be a mean of all the radii of curvature of the spheroid. The semiaxes of the spheroid being denoted by 1 and i+f, and the latitude by a ; let r be the radius of curvature of the meridian in latitude a, and r' the radius of curvature of the central ellipse at the point where it cuts the meridian at right angles in the same latitude. By comes and the differential calculus we have R=l-f- i+23.sin2A; which, by making a=- and then doubling, becomes S^2.?*3 for the measure of the sum of all the radii in the sphere. Lastly, when the radius of the sphere is a mean of all the radii of curvature of the spheroid, the two integrals found above must be equal; we have therefore, 8^\ri=8^\(i+2^), 2 whence r3=i+2J, and consequently ?,= i+-. PROBLEM VI. To find a sphere of which the nth power of the radius may be a mean of the ??th powers of all the radii of an oblate sphe- roid of small elhpticity. SOLUTION. The solid angle at the center of the spheroid, or the corres- ponding spherical surface to the radius unity, is the measure of the number of radii that can be drawn to the correspond- Z z 362 RESEARCH CONCERNING THE ing elementary particle of surface on the spheroid. This solid angle or spherical surface is expressed by Zn.d*. cos *, which, multiplied by f gives 2-*tn.d* cos * for the differential of the sum of ?rth powers of the radii in the spheroid. But since ?=i+ &>. COS A+W Sd\ COS 3A I . The integral of this, beginning with *, is r 1 ■ "5 2w 2 sin a+h«T (sin a sin 3a) C , which, when *=- becomes 2^ 3 1+-^- £ ; and the double of this, viz. 4t j h £ , is the sum in the case of the sphe- roid. Again, r being the radius of the sphere, we obtain by a similar method 4T.r" for the sum of the nth powers of the radii : and since, when r" is a mean of all the f the latter sum must be equal to the former; we have therefore 47ir"=4.7T. < l+-g- > , whence rn= n , and extracting the nth root, we have % 7 = 1-1- <*; the same result as in the preceding problems. In like manner we may find the radius of the sphere such that its rath power may be a mean of the /zth powers of all flie radii of curvature in the spheroid : and the result will be the same as before. PROBLEM VII. To find a sphere such that any function of its radius may be (>).^acosa, or which is the same thing, 27rdAcosA. , thedou- C 2 1 of which 4?r. j A+-B«f > is the measure of the sum of all the C o J similar functions of g in the spheroid. Again, let us denote the required radius r by l+a, and the differential of the sum in the sphere is 2-?rd*cos*. g whence a+bc=a+-b<5', and consequently a--$, and therefore 3 3 l+a=r=l+-3 as before. O By a method nearly similar, we may resolve the following problem. To find a sphere such that any function of its radius may be a mean of the similar functions of all the radii of curvature in the spheroid. Each of the last two problems comprehends the other, and all those in the preceding part of this paper, with many others which it is unnecessary to mention : we have therefore good reason to conclude that the mean diameter of the earth is truly determined by the formula r=a — — , or which amounts ca 2(lA-h to the same thing r=b+-(a — b), ovr= , or more simply 2 PROBLEM VIII. To determine the gravity which ought to be assigned to the earth's surface when taken as a sphere. SOLUTION. Let g and g be the gravities at the pole and equator of the terrestiial spheroid, and, by the theory of gravity on the sur- face of revolving spheroids, the gravity in latitude * is g'+(g — g') cos 2x, which, multiplied by the differential of the surface 2^f.(hcos a, gives %Tt(h COS a (1+2J COS 2a) . (g'+(g — g') COS 2a), or 2?r £ g'd* cos a+ (g — g'+2g'i).d* cos \] MEAN DIAMETER OP THE EARTH. 365 for the differential of the measure of the whole gravity on every part of the surface of the earth. This differential inte- grated so as to begin with > gives c 1 ~> which by taking *=-, and doubling the result, gives 4*. \g'+\(g— g+zg'*) I for the measure of the whole gravitation on the surface of the spheroid. This quantity divided by the whole surface of the sphe- roid, or of the sphere having an equal surface, viz. by 4*.(1+|0, 2 2S+S' the quotient g'+-(g — g'), or ■-, is the mean gravity re- quired. It is easy to perceive that this gravity also belongs to the latitude 35° 16' in which cos2*=-, as in the determination of the mean radius r. In this latitude 35° 16' in which the surface of the mean sphere cuts the surface of the terrestrial spheroid, the attrac- tion towards the sphere is equal to the attraction towards the spheroid, whether we suppose the densities of both to be uniform, or to vary according to the law adopted in the solu- tion of the second problem, when the powers of aydif /* aifdy /* aif&z /» ayndy (dz being = 7-1 — ^\i0 taken between the limits y=0 and y=a, will express the sums of the successive powers of the sines. Now, the first of these integrals is evidently =c — a(ai — tf)\, and the second, or its equal - 1^',^- d.y(a — y)± j=-. arc (sin=?/) — — (a7 — «/*)H-c'; therefore these expressions, taken between the limits y=0 and y=a, give the sums of the first and second powers of the sines =a* and— .arc (=90°), respec- RESPECTING THE POWERS OF THE SINES. 397 tively: the same as found by Dr. Rittenhouse. Again, the integrals affected with the third, fifth, seventh wth powers of y, when m is any odd integer whatever, may be immediately obtained by the rule for integrating binomials, and consequently the sums of the odd powers of the sines will be known. And, moreover, the integral affected with y* may be found by means of the integral affected with y\ al- ready found, and the integral affected with y6, by that affected with y\ and, in general, the integral affected with yi> by means of the integral affected with y<"'\ p being any even integer what- ever; and then, the sums of the even powers of the sines will also be known. We might then tabulate the results, both in this and the last case, and infer the law observed by Dr. Rit- tenhouse. But, as this mode of proceeding appears indirect and rather tedious, I think it preferable to find the integral J*(Szfy.^ hy means of the inte§rale/?S^4' n being any Wlf'&ll integer whatever. For this purpose, let -z-^- — ^r- , be decom- ydy posed into the factors ay'1'1 and 2_ ,^, and then, by virtue of the formula fxdz=xz—fzdx, we have and therefore, Taking these integrals between the limits y= o and y= a, which correspond to the extremities of the quadrantal arc, we have, after dividing by n, a?"dy _ («— l)a2 /» ayn'°Ay (o»— y*)* . n J (a*—f)i '■ /* ay * #98 INVESTIGATION OF A THEOREM or, the sum of any power « of the sines is constantly equal to tfi i)(f the fraction multiplied by the sum of the (n—2) power. I have now, as I believe, presented a complete solution of the problem relating to the sines, and confirmed the truth of the law observed by Dr. Rittenhouse. Another desideratum, however, still remains ; and that is, either to recover, if pos- sible. Dr. Rittenhouse 's original theorem, for determining the times of vibration, of a pendulum, in given arcs of a circle, or, at least, to show that a connexion may subsist' between a theorem fulfilling the same object, and that just exhibited for the summation of the several powers of the sines. I have attempted this, in the following research. Let the arc described by a pendulum, when it arrives at a vertical passing through the point of suspension, be denoted by A. Conceive A to be divided into two parts B and z, and suppose B described at the end of the time t. Put 2a= the versed sine of A, and x= that of z. Then, the element of the space described being equal to the velocity multiplied by the element of the time, and the velocity being evidendy equal to that acquired by falling through 2a — x ; that is =[2g(2a-x)y>, we have <\B, or d(A-z), or-dz=[2g(2a-x)ydti therefore, d/== — 7 vTo but, dz=7r— T-^-^r being the [2g(2a — a;)]*' \J2r — xjx^ ° radius of the arc described; therefore, — rdx ~ [2g{2a — x)x{2r — x)~]V Assume x=a — y; then {{2a — x)xy=(a2 — y")i, — dx=dy, and (%r — x)-i = (2v— a + y)~i = (2r—a)-i ( l + 2~jr^) = ,_>r , / v \ i3f v V 1.3.5/ y y 1.3.5 211 ( y y\ , -. -r I — — — 1 ; and, by substitu- a. 4. 6 (sn+i) V 2r— a J J' ' • tion, ^c. RESPECTING THE POWERS OF THE SINES. 399 yty i + V ■ ~ W Ur— «/ L(«2— tf)i~ 8(ar— a) (a2— */2) — -~ r, J-T-—T7; — . Hence, multiplying and divid- 2.4(2r — of (a2 — y*)i J ' * J ° ing by a, and integrating, we have 2t=^\_{j) \kJIZa) J- r /* Q(ty + *_ /*_^dI_ , _ 13 Aaydy 1_J (a2—y2)i 2(2r—a)J (a2—y2)i + 2.4(2r— a)2J {a2—tf)i + . Now, all the integrals, after the first, in this ex- pression, are obviously the same as those found in the pre- ceding investigation for the sums of the sines ; therefore, this expression may be said to depend on the theorem respecting the summation of the sines ; and thus the connexion of the problems in question is manifest. Again, let the preceding integrals be taken between the limits y — a and y = — a, which correspond to x=0 and x=2a, and we have 2t=- —) ( ) (arc=aT)+_— .— — .(arc=«w)+ a\g) \2r — a I L S.4(3r — a)2 2 v 1.3.5.7 1^3a4 _ 1.3.5.7.9.11 2.4.6.8(2r— flTT.4 '(arC~ 2.4."6T8.10.12(2?^ — af 1.3. 5. a6 J "I / 27- \i ^^76 — . (arc=a*) + J = , when A is put = (^r^J , 7i_\* Tj9 l2-3-^/ g \2 l2.3*.5.7.*fl / a \4 * ' g / L * + Ss. 4 Ur — a I g2. 42. 6 . 8 Ur — a / + l2.32.52. 7.9.11.^ / a \6 "I , t. ., -s — r— 5 ( ) + : or, denoting the 2. 42. 62. 8. 10. 12 Vsr — a) J & second term witliin the brackets by B; the third term by C; the fourth term by D; 6>c, and transforming, /r\T. 1.3. .4, a \2 5.7. B, a \2 9 . 11 . C (^ZI^) + ' an expression by which the times of vibra- tion may be determined, and which may, very probably, be 'the lost theorem alluded to by Dr. R5ttenhouse. 400 INVESTIGATION OF A THEOREM, &C. I consider it 3> 3.4y This elegant formula is entirely new to me. far supenor to the formula, * f — j l +(1)" — + I ;— — 1 — ^+ ( ' ' J — + , usually given for the same purpose by writers on mechanics. It converges with great rapidity? when a is small in respect to r ; and the following calculations show, that, even in the extreme case of 2a = r, or of the pen- dulum's moving from a horizontal position and describing a semicircle, the sum of six of its terms is more exact than the sum of fifteen terms of the formula just inserted, and con- tinued to the same number of decimal places. By the formula just investigated. &=:■*( — y\ 1.1547005 2* = By the ordinary formula . * ( — V 1.0000000 .0240562 .0014617 .0001116 .0000094 .0000008 = n (— Y (1.1803402), I rue to the sixth decimal place. + .1250000 + .0351562 + .0122070 + .0046729 + .0018924 + .0007950 + .0003427 + .0001506 + .0000671 + .0000302 •+ .0000138 + .0000063 + .0000030 + .0000014 ] = 7r(-V (1.1803386). Believe me, dear sir, with sincere respect and esteem, your obedient servant. OWEN NULTT. No. XXXV. A Monograph of North American insects, of the genus Cicin- dela. -By Thomas Say. — Read, 7 Nov. 1817. IT will perhaps be thought necessary, previous to en- tering into a technical detail of the characters of the genus Cicindela, and of the indigenous individuals which are com- prehended by it, that some account of the manners of this sprightly tribe should be'given, and of such circumstances, re- lating to them, as may serve to present them to the recollec- tion of the general observer. I shall accordingly proceed to state, that these insects usually frequent arid, denudated soils ; are very agile, run with greater celerity than the majority of the vast order to which they belong ; and rise upon the wing, almost with the facility of the common fly. They are always to be seen, during the warm season, in roads or pathways, open to the sun, where the earth is beaten firm and level. At the approach of the traveller, they fly up suddenly to the height of a few feet, pursuing then a horizontal course, and alighting again at a short distance in advance, as suddenly as they arose. The same individual may be roused again and again, but when he perceives himself the object of a par- ticular pursuit, lie evades the danger by a distant and cir- cuitous flight, usually directed towards his original station. It is worthy of observation, as a peculiarity common to the species, that when they alight, after having been driven from 3 E 402 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. their previous position, they usually perform an evolution in the air near the earth, so as to bring the head in the direction of the advancing danger, in order to be the more certainly warned of its too near approach. They lead a predatory life, and as it would appear, are well adapted to it, by their swiftness, and powerful weapons of attack. The beaten path, or open sandy plain, is preferred, that the operations of the insects may not be impeded by the stems and leaves of vegetables, through which, owing to their elongated feet, they pass with evident difficulty and embar- rassment. They prey voraciously upon the smaller and weaker insects, upon larvae and worms, preferring those whose bodies are furnished with a membranaceous cuticle, more readily permeable to their instrumenta cibaria. The same rapacity is observable in the larva, or imperfect stage of existence, of these insects, that we have occasion to remark in the parent ; but not having been endowed by nature with the same light and active frame of body, they are under the necessity of resorting to stratagem and ambuscade for the acquisition of the prey, which is denied to their sluggish gait. The remark is, I believe, generally correct, though liable to many signal exceptions, that carniverous animals display more cunning, industry, and intelligence, than those whose food is herbs, for the acquisition of which, fewer of the mental attri- butes are requisite ; we see throughout the animated creation, that the developement of these qualities, as well as of the cor- poreal functions, are in exact correspondence with their neces- sities ; and that where a portion of the one is withheld, an addi- tional proportion of the other is imparted. This larva has a very large head, elongated abdomen, and six short feet placed near the head ; when walking, the body rests upon the earth, and is dragged forward slowly by the feet. Notwithstanding these disadvantages they contrive means to administer plen- tifully to an appetite, sharpened by a rapid increase of size. A cylindrical hole is dug in the ground to a considerable depth, by means of the feet and mandibles, and the earth transported from it. on the concave surface of the head : this cell is en- MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 403 larged and deepened, as the inhabitant increases in size, so that its diameter is always nearly equal to that of the head. At the surface of the earth they lay in wait for their prey, nicely clos- ing the orifice of the hole by the depressed head, that the plain may appear uninterrupted ; when an incautious or unsuspect- ing insect approaches sufficiently near, it is seized by a sudden effort of the larva, and hurried to the bottom of the dwelling, to be devoured at leisure. These holes we sometimes remark, dug in a footpath ; they draw the eye by the motion of the inhabitant retreating from the surface, alarmed at the approach of danger. I shall now proceed to offer some remarks on the affinities of this genus, and endeavour to point out the differential traits, by which it may be distinguished from its congeners. Cicindela, according to Linnseus, included not only all the insects, which would at this day be referred to it, but many others, which, however closely allied by habit, are widely distinct in the formation of their oral organs. These were separated by the celebrated systematists, Fabricius and Latreille, into several new genera, to which well defined essential charac- ters have been affixed. These separations have been made upon the best possible grounds ; the convenience of the stu- dent, and the approximation to natural method. So circum- scribed, Cicindela presents a natural group, in which each in- dividual so perfectly corresponds with the others, as well in its internal organization and parts of the mouth, as in habit, or general form of the body, that the entomologist finds no diffi- culty in distinguishing it from insects of neighbouring genera, and referring it to its relative situation. Tire genera to which allusion is here made, as having affi- nity with the one under consideration, are principally Colliu- ris, Thelites, Megacephala, Manticora, Elaphrus, and Nothio- philus. In constructing the essential character, I have en- deavoured to ascertain such traits as will at once, invariably, distinguish Cicindela from all other known genera of the Pen- tamerous Coleoptera, and prevent the occurrence of error in the reference of species to it. In external form, Cicindela 2 404 MONOGRAPH OP NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. borders very closely upon the genera here enumerated, and in addition to evidence of frequent recurrence, furnishes us with ample proof, that if habit was the only character consulted in the formation of a system, animals of very different modes of life, and totally distinct in nature, would be blended together by artificial violence. Of the genera above mentioned, the two last are very distinct from Cicindela, by the inarticulated maxillary nail, and by a deep sinus on the inner edge of the anterior tibia, characters which at once approach them to the Carabi, notwithstanding the almost perfect similarity which Elaphrns bears to Cicindela in miniature, by the form and pro- portions of its body. The mentum or chin also of the former, is not divided as it is in the latter genus, and it is worthy of particular remark, that in Nothiophilus there exists the spine and recipient cavity of Elater. Colliuris is composed of two species, natives of the East Indies, and one of South America, distinguished by the cylindrically-conic thorax, more elongated body, and narrow, transverse mentum, which is widely emar- ginated, without a conspicuous inner division, but in other re- spects much resembling Cicindela. A genus has been lately formed by Mr. Latreille, under the name of Tfierates, for an insect of the South Sea Islands, which Fabricius had nam- ed C. labiata. This has a strikingly discrepant peculiarity in the form of the intermediate palpi, which are abbreviated into a spine-like process. Manticora includes two species, indigenous to the Cape of Good Hope, which resemble Cicin- dela by the form of the mentum, in which there is scarcely any difference ; the jaws also are similar, and the mandibles not unlike ; but a good distinctive character rests in the palpi, of which the posterior are larger than the intermediate ones ; the abdomen also is somewhat pedunculated, and em- braced each side by the elytra. The last proximate genus which I shall notice, is that of Megacephala, of which at least two species, the Carolina and Virginica, are natives of this country, and are principally found in the southern states. In this genus, as in those before adverted to, there is no difficul- ty in pointing out good and substantial characters, by which MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 405 it may be readily known ; the anterior palpi are elongated, and reflected, not equal to the intermediate ones, as in Cicindela ; the inner division of the mentum is much shorter and the front of the head convex. Having thus noted the differences existing between this genus and each of its neighbouring genera, I shall next pro- ceed to lay down its characters, distinguishing them into Essen- tial, Artificial and Natural, for the first of which the preceding remarks will furnish materials ; and finally, I shall endeavour to describe the species with such accuracy and detail, that they may be readily known. ORDER V.— COLEOPTERA. Section I. Pentamera. — Family I. Entomophaga. — Tribe I. ClCINDEEETJE. Genus Cicindela. Cicindela. Linn. Fabr. Latr. Buprestes. Geoff. Essential Character. Maxillae monodactyle. Mentum trifid, inner division scarcely shorter. Intermediate and posterior palpi subequal, filiform. Tibia simple. Artificial Character. Antennae, filiform. Clypeus shorter than the labrum. Maxillae with two very distinct palpi, of which the exterior one, is nearly equal to the labial palpi, penultimate joint of the latter hairy. 406 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. Mentum trifid, the divisions nearly equal in length. Feet slender, elongated. Anterior tibia without a sinus near the tip. Natural Character. BODY oblong, of a medium size, agile, winged, hairy, above depressed, and punctured. Head as large as the thorax, exserted, inclined, suboval. Vertex rugose, elevated each side upon the eyes, con- cave on the disk. Antennae filiform, eleven-jointed, shorter than the body, first joint dilated, attenuated at base, and inserted in the anterior canthus of the eye, with which and with the clypeus it is nearly in contact ; second joint very small, rounded, third cylindrical, longest, and with the next dilated at tip, succeeding ones subequal, or gradually decreasing in length, and furnished with a few rigid hairs at their tips, terminal one obtuse. Clypeus transverse, very short, contracted in the middle. Labrum coriaceous, very large, transverse, often den- tated, exserted, prominent. Mandibles advanced, prominent, attenuated and incurv- ed towards the tip, dentate within, a large compound tooth at the base, and about three other distinct ones nearer the tip. Maxillce corneus, recurved, linear, a little gibbous at the insertion of the palpi, deeply ciliate with rigid bristles within, and armed with a terminal, distinct, moveable, partly incurved nail. Palpi six, filiform ; anterior pair Particulate, first joint elongated, rectilinear, a little 'dilated at tip, almost attaining the apex of the maxilla, second joint linear, incurved over the point of the maxilla and attaining the termination of the nail. Intermediate palpi with the preceding, situate on the back of the maxillfe, quadriarticulate. first joint MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 407 abbreviated, attenuated at its insertion, second joint cylindric, elongated beyond the tip of the maxilla and equal to the two succeeding ones conjointly, third shorter than the terminal one, gradually dilated to the apex, fourth somewhat enlarged towards tbe extremity, truncate. Posterior, or Labial palpi pedunculated, approximate at base, nearly equal to the preceding pair, triarti- culate, first joint minute, attaining the tip of the in- ner division of the mentum, second elongated, cy- lindric, very hairy above, terminal one glabrous, half as long as the preceding, truncate at summit. Labium membranaceous, short, concealed behind the mentum. Mentum, corneous, transverse, somewhat concave, trifid, inner division conic, as long or nearly so as the lateral ones, and a little more advanced, lateral ones dilated, and rounded on the external margin, tip come, the separating sinuses admitting the free motion of the labial palpi. Eyes large, very prominent, reticulate, obovate, distant from the thorax. Trunk. Thorax subquadrate, length and breadth nearly equal, generally with an anterior and posterior im- pressed, transverse line connected by a dorsal, lon- gitudinal one giving to the disk a bilobate appearance. Scutel triangular, conspicuous, acutely margined. Pectus hairy, punctured or scabrous, brilliant, promi- nent between the anterior coxse, (sternum) about half as long as the coxse, concave at tip. Epigastrium usually hairy, punctured, brilliant. Elytra rigid, as long as the abdomen, depressed, incum- bent not deflected, rounded behind, wider than the thorax, humerus prominent, rounded before, suture and margin nearly parallel, disk punctured, granu- lated, granule exceedingly minute. 408 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. Wings, hyaline, with a few nerves ; cortal margin strong, stigma dilated, with three hyaline spots. Feet elongated, sub-compressed, slender, formed for running ; hind pair longest ; anterior pair shortest ; coxae of the four anterior ones conic-ovate, of the posterior pair minute and concealed; trochanters of the two anterior pairs subtriangular, of the poste- rior ones large, reniform and prominent; thighs nearly equal to the tibia, two anterior pahs, a little dilated near the base and attenuated towards the tip, hind pair linear ; tibiae slender, linear, not emargi- nate within, heel armed with two spines ; tarsi five- articulate, filiform, longer than the tibia, joints cylin- drical, first joint longest, second, third and fourth gradually decreasing in length, the latter not bilo- bate, terminal joint as long as the third and furnish- ed with two simple, incurved, acute nails ; first, se- cond and third joints of the anterior pairs in the male dilated, hairy beneath. Abdomen subcordate or subtriangular, of six distinct segments, five in the female ; tergum concave on the disk, with an elevated margin ; venter convex, first segment divided into two remote, almost trian- gular portions, forming the anterior lateral angles, second segment with two deep, rounded, sinuses near the middle for the reception of the third pair of coxse, separated by a subtriangular, obtuse por- tion of tire segment; third, fourth and fifth sub- equal, conspicuously falcate behind at the margin, rather diminishing in size, the last more rapidly narrowed in the male, the sixth segment with an obtuse sinus at the middle tip ; tail convex above, truncate beneath, with a deeply indented line near the tip in the female. LARVA. Body soft, cylindrical, elongated, whitish, with a double, erect, dorsal spine on the eighth segment ; MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 409 head coriaceous, coloured, depressed and concave above, beneath convex, much broader than the body, rounded, furnished with strong, prominent mandibles, short antennae, and two stemmata on each side ; first, second and third segments, each furnished beneath with a pair of scaly feet, the for- mer with a coriaceous disk ; tail simple. FOOD, insects, worms, §c. in the different stages of their ex- istence. SEASON, spring, summer, autumn. COLOUR, green, purplish or black, often varied with the two former, and exhibiting brilliant metallic tints, the elytra usually with abbreviated bands, lunules and spots of white or yellow. Obs. The sexes may be distinguished from each other by the three first anterior tarsal joints of the male being dilated, and hairy beneath the last segment of the body, with an ob- tuse sinus. The tarsi of the female are simple, the tail cana- liculate towards the tip. SPECIES. l. Cicindela * Vulgaris. C. obscure, on each elytron three whitish bands, two of which are curved, and the intermediate one refracted. Length more than three-fifths of an inch. Inhabits North America. DESCR. Head blackish or obscure cupreous, green at base above, front with cinereous hair ; antennce first, se- cond, third and fourth joints green, furnished with a few white hairs before, origin of the hairs in punctures, which are more obvious on the basal joint, remain- ing joints black, opaque ; labrum white, with three 3 F 410 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. black teeth at tip and four marginal punctures, one of which behind each of the lateral teeth, and one at each anterior angle ; mandibles white at the base, black within and at the tip ; palpi above green, be- neath purple, the second joint of the labiales white. Trunk. Thorax quadrate, inconspicuously narrowed be- liind, obscure cupreous, with distant hairs, submar- ginal impressed lines blue ; feet green ; thighs usual- ly brassy-red above ; elytra cupreous brown or black- ish obscure, with minute, irregular, green punctures ; suture and external edge cupreous, each elytron with an external lunule or curved line, originating on the humerus, sometimes interrupted on the margin and curved inwards towards the tip of the elytron, inter- mediate band refracted, at the centre of the elytron, in an obtuse angle, curved downwards, and termi- nating near the suture, posterior band, somewhat lunate, terminal. Abdomen. Tergum greenish blue, segment brownish or pale at tip 5 venter blue with a purple shade ; tail, and sinus of the male, purple. This species I have always been accustomed to refer to C. trifasciata, and it is not without considerable hesitation that I venture to give it a dislinct name. Mr. Melsheimer consider- ed it as trifasciata, and that name in his catalogue refers to the insect under consideration, it is also true, that it corres- ponds in every particular with the short description of that insect in the Syst. Nat. and also in the Syst. Eleut., but this circumstance alone, is not sufficient to warrant us in conclud- ing it to be the same, for in this instance as in very many others wherein brief descriptions are concerned, several dis- tinct species may be referred with equal propriety to the same trivial name. Olivier in his celebrated work, gives us a few additional characters of the trifasciata, the most import- ant of which " on voit line raie interrompue, le long de la su- ture, jusques vers le milieu," is with respect to our insect a MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 411 good discriminative character, in which this line or vitta, never has existence ; the size also as depicted by him, tab. 3, fig. 18, is not quite half an inch, whereas that of the vulgaris is full three-fifths. From these characters it must be evident that Olivier's trifasciata is a different insect from the one here described, and as he examined the various cabinets in which the insects described by Fabricius are preserved, I rely upon his knowledge of the Fabrician species, particularly as he gives the synonym of that author. Against the correctness of this decision it might be urged, that Fabricius, in his subse- quent work Syst. Eleut., does not refer to the above mention- ed figure, neither does he quote Olivier at all under his des- cription of trifasciata; but this objection, however plausible, will have no weight, when we know that he refers to this very figure, the 18th, of tab. 2, for the C punctulata, an insect with which it has no other than a generic affinity, and for which on comparison it could not be mistaken. 2. Cicindela *hirticollis. C. obscure cupreous, beneath blueish -green, trunk eacli side cupreous brilliant, hairy; elytra with two lunules, interme- diate refracted band, and outer margin, white. C. hirticoUis. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences. vol. I. No. 2, p. 20. Length rather more than half an inch. Inhabits Pennsylvania. DESCR. Head cupreous varied with green and blue, front with cinereous hair ; terminal joints of the antennas black, opaque ; labrum white, sinuate on the anterior edge, and furnished with a single tooth and eight submarginal punctures producing hairs ; mandibles white at the base, within dark green, tip black ; palpi white, terminal joints green. Trunk. Thorax with the submarginal lines blue, quad- rate not straitened behind ; elytra obscure, punctur- ed irregularly with green, punctures larger than in 412 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. the preceding species, more conspicuously serrate at the hind margin and mucronate at the inner tip ; anterior lunule originating on the humerus, con- tinued a short distance on the margin, and curved rather towards the base of the elytron, intermediate band divaricated on the margin, so as to attain the lunules, but is sometimes interrupted before the pos- terior, refracted in a somewhat acute angle at the centre of the elytron, thence recurved nearly paral- lel with the suture, and dilated at its termination ; posterior lunule terminal ; feet red-cupreous, hairy ; trochanters purple. Abdomen. Venter blue, segments tipped with brassy; tail purple. This insect does not appear to have been described except in the work to which the synonym refers ; it had been pre- viously overlooked, probably in consequence of its proximi- ty in point of colours and marking to the preceding species, which it generally accompanies ; but a small degree of scru- tiny will detect a sufficient number of discriminative cha- racters, to warrant us in constituting of this insect a distinct species ; in size its female is equal to the male of C. vul- garis, the punctures of the elytra are much larger, the inter- mediate band is so widely spread out upon the margin, as nearly to connect the anterior and posterior lunules, and the tip of the anterior lunule is curved towards the base of the elytra and not obliquely towards the tip, as in the preceding species ; a striking difference also is perceptible in the upper lip which in that insect is three-toothed, but in the C. hirticoUis it is one-toothed. Neither this nor the preceding species have been observed to vary in their colours or markings. 3. Cicindela unipunctata. C. dull cupreous, obscure, naked, base of the mandibles; la- bium and marginal dot on each elytron white. C. unipunctata, subpurpurascens. labio elytrorumquc puncto albis. Fab. Syst. Elent. pars l, p. 238. MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 413 C. unipunctata, violette, brillante en-dessous, obscure en-des- sus; elytres avec un point blanc. Oliv. Inst. 33, tab. B,Jfg. 27. Length nearly seven-tenths of an inch. Inhabits the southern states. DESCR. Head entirely rugose, neck above granulate ; clypens narrowed in the middle ; labrum much broader in the middle, white, edge brown, strongly three-tooth- ed before, of which the intermediate one is larger, margin with four punctures, of which two are at the lateral angles and the others at the base of the late- ral teeth ; mandibles white at base, tip black ; palpi green. Trunk reddish-purple on the sides ; thorax with the lines not deeply impressed or differently coloured, a little narrowed behind ; elytra with a slight shade of greenish-olive, convex, without a sutural angle or spine behind, irregularly punctured with green ; on the posterior half are some larger, scattered, im- pressed green dots, a few at the base and in an un- dulated line near the suture ; surface somewhat un- equal, a conspicuous indentation towards the base of each near the suture and an oblique, abbreviated, obscure one in the centre of the elytron near the marginal spot, which is subtriangular, white and placed on the middle of the margin ; a minute, ob- solete, white dot is situate at the posterior curve. Abdomen. Venter reddish-purple each side near the base ; tail black. Of this insect I have seen but a single specimen, for which I am indebted to Mr. J. Gilliams, who caught it in the state of Maryland. It is very possible that it may be a distinct species iVcm the C. unipunctata as the figure of that insect by Olivier above referred to, is rather smaller and of a somewhat differ- ent habit ; nevertheless as his description agrees very well 414 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. with our insect, I shall consider it as the same until those who have an opportunity of seeing the original may decide. 4. Cicindela sexguttata. C. greenish-blue polished, each elytron with three marginal white dots, the two first, nearly equal, the last transverse and terminal. C. 6 guttata, viridis, nitida, elytris punctis tribus, maginalibus albis. Fab. Syst.Eleut. t,p. 241. C. 6 guttata, D'un vert bleuatre brilliant ; elytres avec trois points blanchatres, sur le bord exterieur. Oliv.Ent.No. 33, pi. 2, jig. Zi, a. C. 6 guttata, Elle brille du plus beau verd-bleu. Le pattes sont bleues, les yeux blancs. Herbst. Arch. p. 149, pi. 27, fig. 17- Length of the male more than half an inch. Inhabits North America. J)ESCR. Head green, sometimes glossed with blue ; anten- na, four basal joints green, remainder black-brown ; labrum white, edged with brown, three triangular teeth before, and six marginal blackish punctures each of which latter furnishes a hair ; mandibles white above, tip black ; palpi green ; eyes brown. Trunk green, tinged beneath with blue, but without a cupreous tint, hairs remote and short ; feet green ; trochanters brassy ; intermediate tibia with more nu- merous short hairs near the tip behind ; elytra green, brilliant, behind the middle blueish-purple, which deepens towards the tip. punctures nume- rous, sometimes confluent, hind margin rounded, obscurely serrate, sutural margin net abbreviated nor mucronate at tip, each elytron marked by three marginal white dots, the first placed in the middle of the margin, one at the posterior curve, and the third transverse and terminal ; inferior page black- ish, marginal spots testaceous. MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 415 Abdomen. Venter blueish-green, segments margined, bronzed, edge and tail purple. Var. «. Elytra each with an additional spot, which is ful- vous or white, and generally inconspicuous, placed behind the middle triangularly with respect to the two anterior, marginal ones. Var. /3. Each elytron with a single marginal spot, the two posterior ones wanting. This insect is common in Pennsylvania, but not so frequent as either vulgaris or hirticollis. Its characters are strong and discriminative, so that our synonyms are free from doubt, al- though that of Herbst represents the eyes as white ; but this colour is, as in some of the Carabi and many other insects, only to be found in the dried specimen, and is by no means universal. The second variety was brought from the banks of the Missouri, above the confluence of the river Platte, by Mr. Thomas Nuttall. 5. Cicindela *dorsalis. C. bronzed, elytra white, each with two curved lines on the disk, suture, and curved branch near the base, green ; tail testaceous. C. dorsalis. Journal of the Academy of Natural Scie?ices, vol. 1,JP. 20. Length nearly three-fifths of an inch. Inhabits New Jersey. DESCR. Head bronzed, naked, edges green; antenncebrovm, basal joints green, the third hairy before ; labrum white, not emarginate at the anterior angles, broad before, and furnished with a single tooth, eight punc- tures very near the edge, of which six are equi- distant on each side of the tooth, the others re- mote ; clypeus almost obsolete above ; mandibles white above and beneath, tips and teeth within 416 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS, black-green, a very strong tooth beneath, near the tip of one mandible, the other simply a little angu- lated in that part ; palpi white, tip of the terminal joint of each blackish. Trunk, cupreous, covered each side by short, dense, prostrate, cinereous hair; thorax bronzed, varied with green, margin and longitudinal dorsal line, hairy; scutel green or bronze ; elytra white, with very mi- nute, irregular punctures, and a few larger ones on the anterior margin ; suture and a lunated branch near the scutel, curving on each elytron and abbre- viated behind, the middle of the base green, disk with two abbreviated green bracket-formed lines, of which one curves outwards and the other in- wards, respectively terminating at one end opposite the centre of the other. Abdomen. Venter bronzed, segments margined with purple, having dense, cinereous, prostrate hair each side ; tail and tip of the last abdominal segments testaceous. This very fine and beautiful species I discovered a few years ago on the sea beach of New Jersey. In several of the Cicin- delse there is a strong tooth on one of the mandibles near the tip, beneath, pointing downwards, which is very conspicuous in the present species ; these teeth are I believe never found on both mandibles, otherwise the mouth could not be proper- ly closed, accordingly the tip of the armed jaw is always be- neath the other in repose ; neither is the weapon confined to the right or left mandible, but is found upon either indiffer- ently, whilst upon the corresponding part of the other, is usually a very small angle. It must be remarked that tliis insect seems to approach a species described by Fabricius, as a native of the island of St. Thomas, and I here subjoin his definition, " C. viridi-aenea, elytris albis : sutura Junu- laque viridi-aeneis. Syst. Eleut." MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 417 6. Cicindela marginata. C. olivaceous, obscure, sometimes with cupreous reflections ; cheeks sides of the trunk and of the abdomen, with short dense hair, each elytron with a whiteish margin, two abbre- viate branches, an intermediate refracted one, and two dots at base. C. margi?iata, viridis, elytris punctis quinque, lunulaque apicis albis. Fabr. Syst. Eleut. l, p. 241. Length of the male more than half an inch. DESCR. Head greenish, olivaceous varied with purple, and edged with blue ; antennae purple at base, terminal joints brown; front with prostrate hair; labrum white, with several minute, obtuse teeth, in the male, with a single more prominent one, and about ten marginal punctures, lateral angles rounded; cheeks covered with dense hair ; palpi white, terminal joint of each black at the tip. Trunk on each side cupreous, concealed by short, cinere- ous hair ; thorax bronze or olivaceous, posterior im- pressed line green or reddish ; elytra olivaceous- obscure, or tinged with cupreous, margin pale, unit- ing the anterior and posterior lunules, the former with an accessary spot at the middle of the base, and a smaller one interrupted from its tip, the latter continued a short distance upon the sutural margin, intermediate band refracted in a very acute angle, at the centre of the elytron elongated, and dilated behind, terminating at the suture, in a transverse line drawn from the tip of the posterior lunule ; trochanters testaceous. Abdomen. Venter very hairy each side, segments bronz- ed and margined with purple; tail testaceous, of the female blackish-purple. 3 G 418 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. The markings of the elytra are in many specimens so far obsolete, as to be only distinguishable in a particular light ; and they are always less obvious, than those of vulgaris, hir- ticollis, &c. to the latter of which, this insect, in the distribu- tion of its bands and lunules, bears some resemblance. 7. Cicindela obscura. C. black, each elytron with two white marginal spots and a terminal lunule. C. obscura, nigra, elytris punctis duobus marginalibus, lunula- que apicis, alba. Fabr. Syst. Eleut.pars i, p. 238. Length nearly half an inch. Inhabits North America. DESCR. Head black, naked; antenna; brown at tip; clypeus large ; labrum white, three-toothed, not emarginate at the anterior angles, margin with about six punc- tures, of which one is placed each side of the larger, central tooth ; mandibles white on the exterior base above ; palpi piceous. Trunk black, immaculate ; elytra tinged with brown on the posterior half, punctures minute, not deeply im- pressed, two white marginal maculse, of which the anterior one is smaller, rounded, and placed near the humerus, the other large, triangular, situate in the middle of the margin, lunule terminal ; tarsi piceous. Abdomen black, naked, immaculate. Var. a. Labrum black or piceous, anterior marginal spot of the elytra wanting. Very distinct from any other species with which I am ac- quainted, for the variety I am indebted to Mr. J. Gilliams. who caught it in the state of Maryland. MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. 419 8. Cicindela purpurea. C. head, impressed lines of the thorax, and margin of the ely- tra, green, the latter with a central, reclivate. oblique, abbre- viated band, terminal line and intermediate dot, white. C. purpurea, purpurine en-dessus, d'un vert bleuatre en-des- sous ; elytres avec une band courte, et deux points blancs. Olivier's Inst. 33, t. 3, fig. 34. C. marginalis? thorace elytrisque cupreis; marginibus viridi- bus, elytris lunulis duabus albis. l?abr. Syst. Eleut. i,p. 240. Length of the male about three-fifths of an inch. Inhabits North America. DESCR. Head red-cupreous, hairy with green edges, and two distinct green lines between the eyes, originat- ing at the base of the antennae, and approximating towards the vertex ; antenna green at base, tip brown ; clypeus blue ; labrum white, three-toothed, edge black and with about eight marginal punctures ; mandibles black within and at tip ; palpi green. Trunk green, each side golden ; thorax with a cupreous disk ; elytra olivaceous-green to a brilliant cupreous- red, margin bright green, each with an oblique, recli- vate band near the middle, originating at the green margin, and terminating at a distance from the su- ture, a transverse Une at tip and an intermediate sub- marginal dot, white ; trochanters purple ; tibia hir- sute behind. Abdomen. Venter green, sides purple. Var. a. Elytra destitute of the intermediate dots. C. ramosa. Melsheimer's Catalogue, p. 46. Var. £. Head and thorax green ; elytra as in the preced- ing variety. Var. y. Head and thorax green ; elytra immaculate. s 420 MONOGRAPH OF NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS. Var. S. Black, opaque above, beneath polished ; labium, lines and spot of the elytra, as in the species ; cheeks and venter a little glossed with purple. C. tristis? nigra, elytris mucula media flava. Fabr. Syst. Eleut. l, p. 235. (Var.) This insect is subject to numerous varieties in colour and markings, but those above described are the most striking of any that have fallen under my observation ; the anterior band is sometimes obsolete towards the tip, so as to leave a very short perfectly transverse line attached to the margin. The variety «, is much more common in Pennsylvania than either of the others. It is probable that the marginalis of Fabricius will prove to be the same with this, but Olivier's designation, having the right of priority, will of course be adopted. The variety . No. XXXVI. Description and Rationale of the operation of a simple appa- ratus, which may serve as a substitute for the Ship Pump, and which will require no manual labour whatever; being a Supplement to the paper No. XXIX. on that subject. By Robert Patterson. — Read, Dec. 5, ±s±V- DESCRIPTION. THE apparatus for the purpose announced in the above title, consists of a long hose, made of pretty stiff leather, pass- ing through the stern of the vessel ; the inner end furnished with a copper ferrule, and having a valve opening inwards, is to be immersed under the surface of the water in the hold, and the outer end to fall into the water a-stern of the vessel. This end of the hose is to terminate in a piece of copper tube, of a convenient length, with three or more large holes pierced through its circumference, near the extremity ; and to be closed at the end by a moveable lid, projecting a small distance be- yond the circumference of the tube. This tube is to be intro- duced (the lid being removed for the purpose) into a broad metalic socket, (bell-metal or copper) from which project three or more diverging spiral tubes, opening into the socket; which must be ma le to turn freely, and with as little friction a*s possible, round the copper tube, and covering the holes S 428 DESCRIPTION OF A SUBSTITUTE perforated through it ; the lid being replaced, will prevent the socket from slipping off. Round the socket, and behind the projecting spiral tubes, are to be firmly fixed, obliquely, three or more copper vanes, resembling those of a vertical wind-mill. Along the surface of the copper tube, in which the hose ter- minates, may be fixed an oblong sheet of cork, projecting a small distance above the tube. This will answer two pur- poses, 1st, by its buoyancy, it will, when the vessel is in mo- tion, prevent the spiral tubes from sinking too much below the surface of the water ; and Sdly, it will counteract the tenden- cy which the friction of the socket, turned round by the ro- tary motion of the vanes striking against the water, will have to twist the leathern hose. That part of the hose which passing through, comes in contact with the stern of the vessel, may be made of a strong, curving, copper tube, by which it may be fastened to the ves- sel, and thus be prevented from being dragged out or twisted round by the action of the water. Into the upper bend of this part of the hose may be inserted a small diverging copper tube, through which, by means of a funnel, the huae may be filled with water, or the air which may there accumulate, suf- fered to escape, and may then be stopped with a cork. RATIONALE OF THE OPERATION. The hose being previously filled with water, and the vessel under way, the action of the water against the vanes attached to the socket, will, in ordinary circumstances, produce so great a centrifugal velocity in the outer extremities of the spiral tubes, as to overcome the external pressure of the water, and produce a current from the water in the hold, on the principles mentioned in the original paper, so long as it covers the inner extremity of the hose. If the motion of the vessel should cease, or become too slow to produce the ex- haustion of the water from the hold, then the valve at the inner extremity of the hose will be shut, and the hose remain FOR THE SHIP-PUMP. 429 full, till a favourable change of circumstances shall renew the operation. There is no doubt, that the above apparatus is susceptible of various modifications and improvements, which will readily occur to the practical navigator. A centrifugal pump is not a new idea — I remember to have seen one in Bucks county, above fifty years ago ; constructed by Joseph Ellicot, the father of our associate Andrew Ellicot, by which water was raised from a pretty deep well, for the purpose of irrigation, the rotary motion being communicated to the pump by a simple wind-mill. No. XXXVII. Abstract and Results from eight annual statements (1809 to 1816), published by the Board of Health, of the Deaths, with the diseases, ages, &c. in the City and Liberties of Philadel- phia. Communicated by John Vaughan. — Read, Jan. 9, 1817- GENERAL, ABSTRACT FOR EIGHT YEARS. DISEASES. 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1 Abortion Abscess Angina Pectoris • Aslhma Aneurism Anthrax Apoplexy Aptha Atrophy Burns Cachexy Cancer Caries of the Spine Casualties Catarrh Child Bed . Cholera Morbus . Cholic Cold Consumption of the Lungs Convulsions Chicken Pox Decay . Diarrhoea Diabetes Dislocation ■ Dlspepsia Dropsy of the Breast in the Brain Drowned Dy sentry Drunkenness Diseases in knee joint Debility Epilepsy Eruptions Erysipelas Fracture 3 10 1 12 3 1 31 0 11 12 0 • 9 1 19 13 1 153 8 2 311 170 206 10 0 305 183 1 95 18 12 1 16 10 5 240 11 0 369 162 1 86 35 0 0 0 75 35 47 33 48 0 9 17 3 157 5 0 339 177 1 50 20 0 0 0 49 15 50 28 24 4 2 45 4 0 0 13 1 0 29 0 18 6 0 8 2 9 6 4 178 5 0 216 166 0 54 31 0 0 0 42 18 38 16 69 2 42 3 1 2 3 6 0 5 4 0 25 3 35 12 2 14 19 6 127 5 0 274 174 0 46 25 0 0 0 35 29 40 21 66 5 1 48 7 0 4 2 7 3 0 50 1 29 14 4 9 3 16 21 7 94 18 0 347 180 0 63 33 0 0 0 53 19 65 34 17 46 9 90 5 9 434 167 0 39 33 0 1 10 60 9 79 19 1 282 u 168 91 15 83 14 116 140 36 1245 67 2 2596 1379 3 517 232 2 2 4 382 221 408 209 328 55 13 394 48 9 Carried forward, 1122 1184 1374 1078 992 1069 1199 1305 9323 DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA, FROM 1809 TO 1816. 431 DISEASES. 1809 1810 1184 1811 1374 1812 1078 1813 992 1814 1069 1815 1199 1816 1305 BroHght forwai d, 1122 9323 Fever 17 31 32 29 41 25 35 38 248 Intermittent 1 3 5 4 6 5 1 2 26 Remittent J- 52 17 14 21 12 12 20 22 170 Bilious 5 15 23 8 18 4 20 17 105 Nervous -) 7 11 4 5 13 8 6 54 Malignant C62 3 5 3 6 7 2 2 90 Typhus 5 39 43 36 102 94 84 78 476 Puerperal 4 12 4 4 2 1 3 24 54 Hectic 1 1 6 5 1 5 3 4 26 Scarlet 3 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 9 Inflammatory 3 5 4 6 1 6 5 4 34 Mortification and Gangren ; 13 18 23 17 10 17 12 23 133 Gout 3 1 4 2 3 2 4 7 29 Gravel 1 3 2 1 5 2 3 4 21 Hooping Cough 96 32 54 24 29 23 6 46 310 Hives . 33 49 40 20 34 22 20 30 248 Hernia 0 1 1 1 1 2 6 2 14 Hemorrhage 8 7 8 3 2 10 8 10 56 Hydrophobia 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 5 Hysteria 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Inflammation of the Brain 11 16 14 11 8 11 21 23 115 Lungs 34 12 10 4 12 6 9 19 106 Stomac u n 50 25 38 18 27 36 27 26 20 24 35 15 8 27 168 Bowels 28 236 Liver 12 20 26 14 18 24 21 22 156 Insanity 13 29 32 30 25 22 36 27 214 Jaundice 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 3 24 Lethargy 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 Locked Jaw 7 3 8 0 2 2 4 0 26 Measles 0 1 2 20 1 9 7 2 42 Murdered 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 4 Old Age 55 44 44 46 33 59 60 55 396 Overlaid 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Pleurisy 31 73 67 70 49 65 126 130 611 Palsey • 25 10 28 23 14 18 21 22 161 Rheumatism 4 6 9 7 4 8 12 6 56 Rickets 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 Rupture 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 5 Scrofula 10 10 16 6 8 13 19 11 93 Sore Throat 7 17 22 15 15 12 14 19 121 Small Pox, natural 95 33 113 0 0 0 0 97 339 Inoculated 6 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 11 Spina Bifida 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 Still Born . 120 139 137 142 66 96 97 94 891 Stranguary 0 0 O 0 3 1 1 1 6 Suicide 5 6 2 3 1 5 6 8 36 Sudden 14 44 55 32 19 22 36 34 256 Syphilis 11 11 6 5 1 4 7 8 53 Tabes Nephritica. 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 6 Teething 15 7 20 11 9 10 8 23 103 Thrush 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 Ulcers 4 2 10 3 1 6 4 2 32 Visceral Obstructions 5 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 5 Worms 13 15 12 10 8 4 11 12 85 Wounds 3 3 0 3 1 2 6 1 19 Unknown 27 31 39 11 7 8 20 36 179 Registered by Board of Ilealt h, 2004 2036 2386 1800 1632 1783 2040 2319 16000 In Public Ground, not Regis! ed by Board of Bealth, er-~) 359 659 354 1372 2159 2291 2137 TOTAL. 17372 432 DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA, FROM 1809 TO 1816. The following Abstracts are taken from the general one. l. Abstract of registered Deaths from 1811 to 1816 inclusive, (six years) with designation of the sexes. Males. Females. Children. Annual. Above 20 years. Under 20 years- Above 20 years Under 20 years Unknown. Totals. 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 719 505 521 540 763 703 562 419 308 373 371 450 525 417 322 425 490 585 433 381 388 289 284 399 147 78 93 156 132 182 2386 1800 1632 1783 2040 2319 Males 6234 Females 4938 Unknown 788 3751 2483 2764 2174 788 Total 11960 2. Abstract of the Ages of the registered Deaths for eight years. Under 1 year, 4106 30 to 40 2065 80 to 90 354 From 1 to 2 1244 40 to 50 1533 90 to 100 99 2 to 5 965 50 to 60 1060 100 to 110 16 5 to 10 580 60 to 70 797 110 to 120 2 10 to 20 680 70 to 80 573 Unknown 256 20 to 30 1670 . 9245 15273 16000 3. Abstract shewing the number of Deaths in each Month, for eight years, and whether above or under 20 years. Adults. Child. Total. Adults. Child. Total. January 661 508 1169 July 636 868 1507 February 629 462 1091 August 902 1176 2078 March 741 497 1238 September 889 709 1398 April 815 506 1321 October 730 574 1304 May 701 522 1223 November 665 538 1203 Above 20 8542 June 715 615 1330 7372 December 655 483 1138 8628 Under 20 Total 7458 16000 DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA, FROM 1809 TO 1816. 433 REMARKS. The statement for 1817 is not yet published. No yellow fever prevailed during the eight years referred to in these abstracts. From some misunderstanding between the local authorities relative to the public burying ground, the Health Officers could, during its three years continuance, only ascertain the numbers interred there, without a discrimination of disease, age, or sex, viz. for the years 1812, 359 — 1813, 659 — 1814, 354. These numbers amounting to 1372 are added to the General Abstract, and included in the calculation of the pro- portion the deaths bear to the population. The three ab- stracts formed from the general one will be little affected by the want of detail as to the 1372, as these may be presumed to bear the same proportions as the deaths of the same years actually registered in the Health Office and detailed in the Ge- neral Abtract. In 1810 the Census was taken by the general government and gave the following result, for those parts of the City and Liberties as use the burying grounds from which the returns are made to the Board of Health, and upon which the state- ments published by them are founded. City, 53722. Suburbs, 37460. Out-skirts, 3654. Tot. 94836. The suburbs and out-skirts are part of the County, the re- mainder of which has a population of 16374, possessing its own burying grounds, and not subject to the Health Office regulations. By the General Abstract the total deaths for eight years are 17372, or 2171 yearly, being twenty-three deaths for each thousand on the population of 1810 stated above, but may be rated at twenty-one and a half if we take into view that the po- pulation was increasing from 1810, and that the mean popula- tion of the term of eight years could not be less than 100,000. The Census for the same district, was, in 1790,46177 — in 1800, 72141 — in 1810, 94836 — and for 1820 will (at the same 3 I 434 DEATHS IN PHILADELPHIA, FROM 1809 TO 1816. ratio of increase) exceed 125,000; and we may safely esti- mate the population of the district for 1816, at 115,000. The deaths of that year were 2310, which shews a loss of one in fifty, or twenty in the thousand. It has been supposed, that the number of inhabitants in the City and Liberties, has rather been under-estimated in each Census, in consequence of a personal tax ; which has in many instances occasioned short returns to be made to the officers employed to take it. These abstracts and remarks are submitted to the Society as containing valuable facts, and have been thrown into the pre- sent form in order to facilitate the uso of them. DONATIONS Received by the American Philosophical Society, since the Pub- lication of Vol. VI. — Old Series. FOR THE LIBRARY. FROM SOVEREIGN PRINCES AND STATES. From His Majesty the King of the Netherlands. FLORA Batava. Figures dessinees, Sec. par J. Le Sepp Si fils, & description re- digee par J. Kops, livraisons 39, 40. Amsterd. 4to. The former livraisons (except the 34th which is wanting) were previously re- ceived from the Council of the Interior. From the State of Pennsylvania. 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